— as additional radiating elements . \n = = Half @-@ hourly station identification announcement = = \n WWV identifies itself twice each hour , at 0 and 30 minutes past the hour . The text of the identification is as follows : \n WWV accepts reception reports sent to the address mentioned in the station ID , and responds with QSL cards . \n = = Telephone service = = \n WWV 's time signal can also be accessed by telephone by calling + 1 ( 303 ) 499 @-@ 7111 ( Boulder , Colorado ) . An equivalent time service operated by the U.S. Naval Observatory can be accessed by calling + 1 ( 202 ) 762 @-@ 1401 ( Washington , D.C. ) . Telephone calls are limited to two minutes in length , and the signal is delayed by an average of 30 milliseconds . \n = Ba Cụt = \n Lê Quang Vinh ( 1923 – 13 July 1956 ) , popularly known as Ba Cụt ( \" Cụt \" in Vietnamese is \" severed \" which refers to the finger he had partially severed and ' Ba ' , the number three in Vietnamese , refers to his being the family 's second born child ) was a military commander of the Hòa Hảo religious sect , which operated from the Mekong Delta and controlled various parts of southern Vietnam during the 1940s and early 1950s . \n Ba Cụt and his forces fought the Vietnamese National Army ( VNA ) , the Việt Minh , and the Cao Đài religious movement from 1943 until his capture in 1956 . Known for his idiosyncrasies , he was regarded as an erratic and cruel leader who fought with little ideological purpose . His sobriquet came from the self @-@ amputation of his left index finger ( although it was erroneously reported that it was his middle or \" third cut finger \" ) . He later swore not to cut his hair until the communist Việt Minh were defeated . Ba Cụt frequently made alliances with various Vietnamese factions and the French . He invariably accepted the material support offered in return for his cooperation , and then broke the agreement — nevertheless , the French made deals with him on five occasions . The French position was weak because their military forces had been depleted by World War II , and they had great difficulty in re @-@ establishing control over French Indochina , which had been left with a power vacuum after the defeat of Japan . \n In mid @-@ 1955 , the tide turned against the various sects , as Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm of the State of Vietnam and his VNA began to consolidate their grip on the south . Ba Cụt and his allies were driven into the jungle , and their position was threatened by government offensives . After almost a year of fighting , Ba Cụt was captured . He was sentenced to death and publicly beheaded in Cần Thơ . \n = = Early life and background = = \n Ba Cụt was born circa 1923 in Long Xuyên , a regional town in the Mekong Delta , in the far south of Vietnam . He was orphaned at an early age and adopted by a local peasant family . Ba Cụt was illiterate and was known from childhood as a temperamental and fiery person . The family 's rice paddies were confiscated by a prominent landlord , the father of Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ . Ba Cụt 's bitter personal experience imbued him with a permanent and fanatical hatred towards landowners . Thơ rose to become a leading politician in the 1950s and played a key role in Ba Cụt 's eventual capture and execution . An aura of mystery surrounded Ba Cụt during his life , and foreign journalists incorrectly reported that he had severed his finger as part of a vow to defeat the French . As Ba Cụt became more fanatical in his religious beliefs and spent increasing time with local religious men , Ba Cụt 's father demanded that he work more in the family 's rice fields . A defiant Ba Cụt severed his index finger , which was necessary for work in the rice paddies . \n Vietnam was a tumultuous place during Ba Cụt 's youth , particularly in the Mekong Delta . In 1939 , Huỳnh Phú Sổ founded the Hòa Hảo religious movement , and within a year had gained more than 100 @,@ 000 followers . He drew adherents for two reasons : the prophecies he made about the outbreak of World War II and the conquest of South @-@ East Asia by Japan , which proved to be correct ; and his work as a mystical healer — his patients claimed to have been miraculously cured from all manner of serious illnesses after seeing him , when Western medicine had failed . Sổ 's cult @-@ like appeal greatly alarmed the French colonial authorities . During World War II , Imperial Japan invaded and seized control of Vietnam from France ; its defeat and withdrawal at the end of the war in 1945 left a power vacuum in the country . \n The Hòa Hảo formed their own army and administration during the war , and started a de facto state in their Mekong Delta stronghold . They came into conflict with the Cao Đài , another new religious movement , which also boasted a private army and controlled a nearby region of southern Vietnam around Tây Ninh . Meanwhile , in Saigon , the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate ruled much of the city through its gangster militia . These three southern forces vied for control of southern Vietnam with the main protagonists : the French , who were attempting to re @-@ establish colonial control across the entire nation ; and the communist @-@ dominated Việt Minh , who sought Vietnamese independence . \n At the time , the many groups vying for power — including their respective factions — engaged in alliances of convenience that were frequently broken . Historian David Elliott wrote : \" [ T ] he most important eventual cause of the French decline was the inherently unstable nature of the political alliances they had devised ... [ T ] he history of the French relations with the Hoa Hao sect is a telling illustration of the pitfalls of short @-@ term political deals between forces whose long @-@ term interests conflict . \" \n The Hòa Hảo initially engaged in large @-@ scale clashes with the Việt Minh in 1945 , but by mid @-@ 1946 the two groups had agreed to stop fighting each other and fight the French instead . However , in June 1946 , Sổ became estranged from his military leaders and started the Dân Xã ( Social Democratic Party ) . Because of his charisma , the Việt Minh saw Sổ as a threat and assassinated him , leaving the Hòa Hảo leaderless and causing Sổ 's military leaders to go their separate ways . The split caused an increase in violence as the various Hòa Hảo factions engaged in conflicts among themselves . \n = = Career = = \n Ba Cụt joined the Hòa Hảo militia when it was formed in 1943 – 44 , and became a commander within a year . He was feared by his enemies , and was described as \" a sort of lean Rasputin \" who claimed to be immortal . According to historian and writer Bernard Fall , \" The hapless farmers who were under the rule of the maniacal Ba Cut fared worse [ than those under other military leaders ] , for the latter [ Ba Cụt ] was given to fits of incredible cruelty and had no sense of public duty . \" American journalist Joseph Alsop described Ba Cụt as \" war @-@ drunk \" . Ba Cụt was famous for inventing a torture contraption that drilled a steel nail through the victim 's ear , a device he used to extort villagers and wealthy landlords to fund his forces . He was said to have \" arranged temporary marriages between his troops and village girls \" . He raised a large amount of funds for the Hòa Hảo and himself personally by charging traders and landlords high prices to stop pirates in the local area . The severed heads of the pirates were subsequently impaled on stakes and put on public display . \n In 1947 , he led his own faction of"},"length_category":{"kind":"string","value":"Very Long"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"wikitext-103-excerpt"}}},{"rowIdx":6896,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":" that half of the country should not have been yielded to the communists . \n In mid @-@ 1954 , General Nguyễn Văn Hinh , the head of the State of Vietnam 's VNA , announced that he did not respect the leadership of Prime Minister Diệm , and vowed to overthrow him . The coup never materialised and Hinh was forced into exile , but not before appointing Ba Cụt to the rank of colonel in the VNA in an attempt to undermine Diệm , as the Hòa Hảo warlord was openly contemptuous of the prime minister . In August , Ba Cụt and his 3 @,@ 000 men broke from the VNA and left their Thốt Nốt base for the jungle , and fought against those who had briefly been their comrades ; this put him at odds with most Hòa Hảo leaders , who accepted government payments to integrate their forces into the VNA . Operation Ecaille , the initial military offensive by the VNA against Ba Cụt was a failure , possibly because the details of the planned attack on his forces were leaked to him by Soái , a Hòa Hảo member of the National Defence Committee . \n During the transition period between the signing of the Geneva Accords and the planned reunification elections , South Vietnam remained in chaos as the VNA tried to subdue the remaining autonomous factions of the Hòa Hảo , Cao Đài , and Bình Xuyên militias . In early 1955 , during a battle with the Cao Đài forces of Trình Minh Thế , after a dispute over control of the That Son region , Ba Cụt was wounded in a disputed incident . Thế claimed to have tried initiating peace talks with Ba Cụt , but received no reply , so he decided to try to capture his rival . He sent some of his militant disciples to infiltrate Ba Cụt 's forces and try to capture the Hòa Hảo leader . When they located Ba Cụt and surrounded him , he refused to surrender but instead tried to shoot his way out . Ba Cụt was severely wounded by a bullet that penetrated his chest . It seemed that he would die , but a French Air Force helicopter flew in and airlifted him to a colonial hospital . He recovered but in the interim the fighting stopped . Another account claims the two military leaders had been on good terms and exchanging diplomatic missions , but that the skirmish was caused by one of Ba Cụt 's aides addressing the envoy in an abrasive and rude manner , and that the injuries were minor . Yet another account holds that the reaction by Thế 's envoy was premeditated and that the claim the firing was in response to rudeness was merely a cover for an assassination attempt . According to this theory , Thế , whose units were then being integrated into Diệm 's VNA , had given orders to target Ba Cụt . This was allegedly done on the orders of CIA agent Edward Lansdale , who was trying to help secure Diệm in power at the time . Lansdale has been accused of failing in an earlier attempt to bribe Ba Cụt to cease his activities . \n By this time , with France preparing to withdraw from Indochina , senior French officers had begun to undermine Diệm 's leadership and his attempts to stabilise South Vietnam . The VNA later implicated the French in the organisation of weapons air drops to Ba Cụt , prompting a protest from Diệm 's government . Diệm complained to a French general , alleging that Ba Cụt 's men were using French equipment that was of higher quality than that given to the VNA . The Hòa Hảo accused Diệm of treachery in his negotiations with various groups . They charged the prime minister with integrating Thế 's forces into the VNA in return for them being allowed to attack Ba Cụt with the aid of the VNA , and that this part of the deal had been kept secret . They warned that other Hòa Hảo leaders who had stopped fighting could join Ba Cụt , and appealed to Diệm 's U.S. sponsors . In response , Ba Cụt ambushed a VNA unit in Long Mỹ , killing three officers and injuring some thirty men . \n = = Last stand against Diệm = = \n In 1955 , Diệm tried to integrate the remaining Hòa Hảo armies into the VNA . Ba Cụt was one of four Hòa Hảo military leaders who refused the government offer on 23 April , and continued to operate autonomously . At one stage , the Cao Đài , Hòa Hảo and Bình Xuyên formed an alliance called the United Front , in an attempt to pressure Diệm into handing over power ; Ba Cụt was named senior military commander . However , this had little meaning as the various units were still autonomous of each other , and the United Front was more a showpiece than a means of facilitating coordinated action , and did not in any way strengthen any military threat to Diệm . The leaders were suspicious of one another and often sent subordinates to meetings . Initially , American and French representatives in Vietnam hoped that Diệm would take up a ceremonial role and allow the sect leaders — including Ba Cụt — to hold government positions . However , Diệm refused to share power and launched a sudden offensive against Ba Cụt in Thốt Nốt on 12 March , shelling the area heavily . The battle was inconclusive and both sides blamed the other for causing instability and disrupting the situation . Diệm then attacked the Bình Xuyên 's Saigon headquarters in late April , quickly crushing them . \n During the fighting , the Hòa Hảo attempted to help the Bình Xuyên by attacking towns and government forces in their Mekong Delta heartland . Ba Cụt 's men , who had also been angered by the recent arrest of some colleagues , blockaded the Mekong and Bassac rivers and laid siege to various towns , including Sa Đéc , Long Xuyên and Châu Đốc , stifling the regional economy . The Hòa Hảo shut down several important regional roads and stopped the flow of agricultural produce from the nation 's most fertile region into the capital , causing food prices to rise by 50 % , as meat and vegetables became scarce . Ba Cụt then attacked a battalion of VNA troops south of Sa Đéc . Soon after , they retreated to a Hòa Hảo citadel on the banks of the Bassac . After reinforcing their base , the Hòa Hảo proceeded to fire mortars across the water into the city of Cần Thơ , which stood on the opposite side of the river . During this period , the United Front publicly accused Diệm of trying to bribe Ba Cụt with 100 million piasters . \n With the Bình Xuyên vanquished , Diệm turned his attention to conquering the Hòa Hảo . As a result , a battle between government troops led by General Dương Văn Minh and Ba Cụt 's men commenced in Cần Thơ on 5 June . Five Hòa Hảo battalions surrendered immediately ; Ba Cụt and three remaining leaders had fled to the Cambodian border by the end of the month . The soldiers of the three other leaders eventually surrendered , but Ba Cụt 's men continued to the end , claiming loyalty to the Emperor Bảo Đại . Diệm responded by replacing the officers of Bảo Đại 's personal regiments with his own men and used the royal units to attack Ba Cụt 's rebels near Hà Tiên and Rạch Giá , outnumbering the Hòa Hảo by at least a factor of five . Knowing that they could not defeat the government in open conventional warfare , Ba Cụt 's forces destroyed their own bases so that the VNA could not use their abandoned resources , and retreated into the jungle . Ba Cụt 's 3 @,@ 000 men spent the rest of 1955 evading 20 @,@ 000 VNA troops who had been deployed to quell them . A bounty of one million piasters was put on the head of Ba Cụt , who scattered trails of money in the jungle , hoping to distract his pursuers , but to no avail . The communists claimed in a history written decades later that Ba Cụt had tried to forge an alliance with them , but that talks broke down a few months later . \n Despite his weak military situation , Ba Cụt sought to disrupt the staging of a fraudulent referendum that Diệm had scheduled to depose Bảo Đại as head of state . Ba Cụt distributed a pamphlet condemning Diệm as an American puppet , asserting that the prime minister was going to \" Catholicize \" the country ; the referendum was partly funded by the U.S. government and various Roman Catholic organisations . Diệm had strong support from American Roman Catholic politicians and the powerful Cardinal Francis Spellman and his elder brother , Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục , was Archbishop of Huế . Ba Cụt presciently noted that the referendum was a means \" for Diem to gather the people from all towns and force them to demonstrate one goal : to depose Bao Dai and proclaim the puppet Diem as the chief @-@ of @-@ state of Vietnam . \" On the day of the poll , Ba Cụt 's men prevented voting in the border regions which they controlled , and ventured out of the jungles to attack polling stations in Cần Thơ . Despite that disruption , Diệm was fraudulently credited with more than 90 % of support in Hòa Hảo @-@ controlled territory , and a near unanimous turnout was recorded in the area . These results were replicated across the nation , and Diệm deposed Bảo Đại . \n Eventually , Ba Cụt was surrounded , and sought to make a peace deal with the Diệm government to avoid being taken prisoner . Ba Cụt sent a message to Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ , the public official who oversaw the civilian side of the campaign against the Hòa Hảo , asking for negotiations so that his men could be integrated into mainstream society and the nation 's armed forces . Thơ agreed to meet Ba Cụt alone in the jungle , and despite fears that the meeting was a Hòa Hảo trap , he was not ambushed . However , Ba Cụt began asking for additional concessions and the meeting ended in a stalemate . According to historian Hue @-@ Tam Ho Tai , Ba Cụt 's lifelong antipathy towards Thơ 's family influenced his behaviour during his last stand . Ba Cụt was arrested by a patrol on 13 April 1956 , and his remaining forces were defeated in battle . \n = = Trial and execution = = \n Diệm 's government put Ba Cụt on trial . During the proceedings , Ba Cụt theatrically removed his shirt so that the public gallery could see how many scars he had suffered while fighting the communists . This , according to him , demonstrated his devotion to Vietnamese nationalism . He challenged any other man to show as many scars . However , the Diệmist judge was unimpressed . Ba Cụt was found guilty of multiple murders and sentenced to death . Diệm 's adviser , Colonel Edward Lansdale from the CIA , was one of many who protested against the decision . Lansdale felt that the execution would tarnish Diệm — who had proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam ( commonly known as South Vietnam ) and declared himself President — and antagonise Ba Cụt 's followers . Ngô Đình Nhu , Diệm 's younger brother and chief adviser , denied a reprieve as the army , particularly Minh , opposed any clemency . Some sections of the southern public , however , were sympathetic to Ba Cụt . \n Ba Cụt was publicly guillotined on 13 July 1956 , in Cần Thơ . His body was later diced into small pieces , which were then buried separately . Some followers , led by a deputy named Bảy Đớm , retreated to a small area beside the Cambodian border , where they vowed not to rest until Ba Cụt was avenged . Many of his followers later joined the Việt Cộng — the movement that succeeded the Việt Minh their leader had fought — and took up arms against Diệm . \n = Shore Line East = \n Shore Line East ( SLE ) is a commuter rail service which operates along the Northeast Corridor through southern Connecticut , US . A fully owned subsidiary of the Connecticut Department of Transportation ( ConnDOT ) , SLE provides service seven days a week along the Northeast Corridor from New London west to New Haven , with limited through service to Bridgeport and Stamford . Connecting service west of New Haven to New York City is available via Metro @-@ North Railroad 's New Haven Line . \n The service was introduced in 1990 as a temporary measure to reduce congestion during construction work on I @-@ 95 . However , it proved more popular than expected , and service was continued after construction ended despite criticisms that the line was too expensive to operate . The service has been continually upgraded since its inception with rebuilt stations and new rolling stock as well as extensions to New London in 1996 and to Stamford in 2001 . Around 1 @,@ 900 to 2 @,@ 100 riders use the service every weekday depending on the season . \n = = Current service = = \n Most weekday SLE trains run local westbound from New London or Old Saybrook to New Haven in the morning , with some nonstop eastbound service . This traffic pattern is reversed in the afternoon and evening rush . A handful operate through New Haven as far as Stamford . \n Most weekend SLE trains also run local westbound in the morning , then express in the afternoon , stopping only at Guilford and Westbrook between Old Saybrook and State Street . Eastbound service is reversed . This is because Branford , Madison , and Clinton only have platforms on the eastbound track , and thus switching is needed to platform a westbound train . \n Around half of SLE trains operate to and from New London Station . New London SLE multi @-@ ride pass holders are also allowed to board selected Northeast Regional trains , or Acela Express train # 2151 . There are plans to increase the service to New London , which is limited by U.S. Coast Guard requirements regarding the bridge crossing the Connecticut River . After years with just one or two trains to New London , additional New London round trips were added in 2010 and 2013 , and weekend service began in June 2013 . \n All trains that do not operate west of New Haven make a connection to a Metro @-@ North Railroad train at New Haven , for service to and from points in Connecticut , Westchester County , New York , and New York City . \n Although SLE service is funded by ConnDOT , it is operated under contract by Amtrak . Amtrak owns and controls the Northeast Corridor east of New Haven . West of New Haven , the New Haven Line is owned by ConnDOT and trains are dispatched by Metro @-@ North . \n During the OpSail and SailFest tall ship festivals at New London , extra Friday and weekend Shore Line East service is operated from New Haven to New London . During OpSail 2000 , through service operated from New Haven to Mystic – the only time Shore Line East service has run east of New London . \n = = Service history = = \n = = = Previous service = = = \n The section of the Northeast Corridor that Shore Line East operates on was once the New York @-@ Boston mainline of the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad . The section from New Haven to New London was built as the New Haven & New London Railroad . It was charted in 1848 , began construction in 1850 , and opened for service in July 1852 . The line was owned by the New York , Providence and Boston Railroad ( the \" Stonington Road \" ) from 1858 to 1862 , and by the Shore Line Railway from 1864 until it was acquired by the New York , New Haven , and Hartford Railroad ( the \" New Haven \" ) in 1870 . Crossing the Connecticut River required a ferry transfer until a drawbridge was built in 1870 . \n The line was referred to by the New Haven Railroad as the Shore Line , to distinguish it from the railroad 's Main Line from New Haven to Springfield , Massachusetts . In recognition of the large role played by the New Haven in the history and heritage of the state of Connecticut , ConnDOT paints SLE 's diesel @-@ powered locomotives in the New Haven 's orange and black style . New Haven Railroad colors and emblems have also been placed at several stations , particularly New Haven Union Station . \n The New Haven Railroad operated local service on the Shore Line up until its merger with Penn Central on January 1 , 1969 , when most commuter service east of New Haven was abandoned . Intercity service continued , but generally only stopped at New Haven , Old Saybrook , and New London . Penn Central continued to operate the Clamdigger , a single daily New London @-@ New Haven round trip with local stops , as well as a New London @-@ Boston round trip . Amtrak took over the Clamdigger along with most intercity passenger service , in May 1971 . In January 1972 , Amtrak discontinued the Clamdigger and Penn Central cut the New London @-@ Boston trip . \n In 1976 and 1977 , Amtrak operated the Clamdigger as a Providence @-@ New Haven round trip with limited local stops ; for three months in 1978 , it was revived with additional commuter @-@ based stops . It was replaced in April 1978 by the Beacon Hill , which stopped at New Haven , Branford , Madison , Old Saybrook , Niantic , New London , and Mystic en route to Providence and Boston . The Beacon Hill ( which served the Providence and Boston commuting markets rather than New Haven ) was discontinued in 1981 due to funding cuts , ending commuter rail service in Connecticut east of New Haven . \n = = = Initial service = = = \n In 1981 and 1986 , legislation was proposed to restore commuter service between New Haven and New London , as well as between New Haven and Hartford . A 1986 ConnDOT study analyzed congestion on Interstate 95 , which runs parallel to the line . The study showed that Old Saybrook was a better terminus for initial service , with an expected ridership of 420 riders in each direction daily . \n Based on the study , Governor O 'Neill ordered ConnDOT in October 1986 to initiate rail service on the corridor . It was established as a temporary service to newly reopened local stations between Union Station in New Haven and Old Saybrook , to alleviate traffic congestion that arose from scheduled construction work on I @-@ 95 . O 'Neill introduced a $ 50 million transportation program that included $ 900 @,@ 000 ( later reduced to $ 500 @,@ 000 ) for basic stations and $ 4 million to refurbish 12 Budd Rail Diesel Cars for rolling stock . The RDCs were found to be insufficient and two diesel trainsets were purchased from the defunct PATrain service in 1989 instead . \n A second study in 1989 indicated higher potential ridership of 700 to 1350 daily riders . The state bought Amtrak 's New Haven maintenance facility in May 1989 and signed a service contract with Amtrak in November . ( Metro @-@ North Railroad was not considered for several reasons , largely because Amtrak already owned the rail line east of New Haven ) . Construction of 5 intermediate stations was completed in April 1990 . \n Shore Line East service began on May 29 , 1990 , with four trains each direction during the morning and evening . The service carried the Clamdigger name during planning ; \" Shore Line East \" did not appear until shortly before service began . Shore Line East was threatened to be cut in 1991 by newly elected Governor Lowell Weicker , but it proved more popular than expected , and was effectively made permanent . A 1996 study found that Shore Line East captured 8 % of regional commuter trips and attracted a loyal ridership base . \n In 1995 and 1997 , then Gov. John Rowland proposed to replace Shore Line East and the Waterbury Branch with bus service , citing a high subsidy of $ 18 @.@ 70 per rider per trip , in order to decrease the unpopular gas tax . Lawmakers from the region called the proposals political and defended the line 's ability to reduce congestion and pollution , while opponents of the line called it an example of government waste . The Shore Line East Rider 's Association and other groups lobbied to save both services each time , and after public hearings a small fare increase was enacted in late 1997 instead . \n = = = Early expansions and criticisms = = = \n In July 1995 , Governor Rowland signed a bill ordering various studies , including one that analyzed extending service to New London as had been originally planned . Before the study was completed , ConnDOT unilaterally decided to implement New London service , which the report commended . On February 1 , 1996 , two round trips per weekday were extended to New London . At that point , ridership was up 18 % over 1991 numbers . \n In January 2001 , because of to changes in Amtrak rules , passengers were no longer allowed to cross tracks to access trains . New platforms were opened on the south side of the tracks at Branford and Westbrook at approximately the same locations . \n In December 2001 , a single morning rush @-@ hour round trip branded SLExpress was extended to Stamford , with a stop at Bridgeport plus eastbound @-@ only stops at Stratford and Milford . An evening eastbound trip was also extended to Stamford with only the Bridgeport intermediate stop . This trip was intended to allow commuters to reach employment centers in Bridgeport and Stamford without having to make a transfer at New Haven . On June 24 , 2002 , additional Stamford trains were added , for a total of two westbound and three eastbound trains . When West Haven opened in August 2013 , it was added to these trips as well . \n In 2003 , in order to add four additional Amtrak trips along the corridor , four of the then six round trips to New London were cut back to Old Saybrook . An agreement with the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection limits service over the Old Saybrook @-@ Old Lyme bridge in order to avoid inconveniencing recreational boaters . ConnDOT 's agreement with Amtrak allowed commuters with monthly passes to ride certain Amtrak trains instead . After criticism over the service cuts , in April 2008 ConnDOT began allowing commuters with multi @-@ ride passes to board the selected Amtrak trains as well . \n = = = Improved and increased service = = = \n When started in 1990 , Shore Line East was intended to be a temporary service . Except at Old Saybrook and New Haven , which were already served by Amtrak , the state constructed new stations – consisting of little more than bare wooden decks – for minimal cost . Since the service was started two months before the Americans with Disabilities Act was signed , the platforms were not built to be handicapped accessible . After a decade of service , with Shore Line East established as part of Connecticut 's transportation system , the state began to upgrade the service . The basic stations have been rebuilt with high @-@ level platforms to provide handicapped access and level boarding , parking lots have been expanded , and more trains have been added to the schedule . \n A completely new station was also added to the line for traffic mitigation as part of the reconstruction of the Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge . On June 7 , 2002 , State Street Station was opened in New Haven to provide better access to the downtown area than Union Station , which is half a mile away from the business district . \n The first station to be rebuilt was Old Saybrook , the busy eastern terminus of the line . The new high @-@ level island platform and pedestrian bridge opened on November 1 , 2002 . Old Saybrook had previous had only a single side platform serving a relatively small number of Amtrak trains ; the rebuilt has two platforms serving three tracks , to allow Amtrak trains in both directions to stop or pass even while a SLE train is at the station . \n Beginning on May 24 , 2004 , construction of new platforms began at Clinton , Guilford , and Branford . The rebuilt Clinton station opened on July 25 , 2005 , and the rebuilt Branford station opened on August 8 , 2005 ; both consist of a single high @-@ level platform on the south side of the tracks . The new Guilford station , which has platforms on both sides of the tracks ( connected by a pedestrian bridge ) to allow for greater operational flexibility , opened on November 28 , 2005 . Construction at Madison started on September 24 , 2007 , and finished with the opening of the rebuilt station platform on July 28 , 2008 . \n On October 8 , 2007 , reverse @-@ peak and more midday service were introduced , which officials hailed as the beginning of Shore Line East as a true bidirectional system . Several existing express trains also began to stop at Guilford . Since at least 2006 , advocates had been calling for the establishment of weekend Shore Line East service . A pilot of weekend service was run from November 17 , 2007 , to December 30 , 2007 , with six \" Shopper 's Special \" round trips from Old Saybrook to New Haven . The trains were scheduled to connect with similar Metro @-@ North specials at New Haven . Year @-@ round weekend service began on July 4 , 2008 , with 9 daily Old Saybrook – New Haven round trips on weekends . No weekend service was run to New London , but weekday service was increased as cross @-@ honoring of multiple @-@ ride and monthly tickets was added on two Amtrak trains . \n The major obstacle preventing full New London service is the bridge over the Connecticut River between Old Saybrook and Old Lyme . The drawbridge section is closed for a certain period of time to allow trains to pass , which prevents large boats from passing under . The Marine Trades Association opposes additional service , which would mandate more bridge closings . The 2003 agreement with Amtrak limited weekday traffic over the bridge to 2 SLE and 39 Amtrak trains until 2018 , although it was revised in 2010 and 2013 . Since 2003 , New London had been served by cross @-@ honored Amtrak trains plus one or two dedicated SLE roundtrips . \n On February 16 , 2010 , an additional round trip was extended to New London . Three more were extended on May 10 , 2010 . However , advocates for full service to New London said that Governor Rell failed to deliver on promises to New London , with one newspaper columnist writing that \" she seems incapable of standing up to the marine trades lobby \" regarding the bridge openings . \n In July 2012 , Governor Malloy announced that 5 weekend round trips would be extended to New London beginning in April 2013 . However , the extension was dependent on ongoing negotiations with the marine industry over mandated closings of the Old Saybrook – Old Lyme bridge . Two weekday midday trips were added in May 2013 , while weekend service began on June 1 , 2013 , after the application for additional bridge closings was approved by the state Department of Energy and Environmental Protection . By July , New London represented 26 % of weekend ridership . In December 2013 , the state announced that ridership was up 35 % for the year as a result of the increased service . From 2009 to 2014 , monthly New London ridership increased from less than 1 @,@ 000 monthly passengers to approximately 5 @,@ 000 , accounting for a significant fraction of ridership increases on Shore Line East during that period . \n Four of the five intermediate stations between Old Saybrook and New Haven were rebuilt with accessible platforms between 2004 and 2008 , but rebuilding at Westbrook was delayed due to environmental and cost issues . No site was available until Westbrook and ConnDOT traded the new station site on Norris Avenue for a highway garage site off Route 145 . The controversial land swap was begun in 2004 but was not finalized until 2006 , and town operations were not moved to the Route 145 site until September 2011 . Site clearing began in November 2011 , and ground was broken for the $ 14 @.@ 4 million station in January 2012 . A new station with a larger 210 @-@ space lot and platforms on both tracks opened on March 25 , 2014 , with full bidirectional service to the station beginning on May 11 . \n = = = Future = = = \n In a 2007 report , ConnDOT outlined plans to turn SLE into a full @-@ service bidirectional regional rail line , with full @-@ day service and all trains extended to New London . This involves incremental improvements , similar to those that have already been put into place . One of the first priorities is to add a second platform at all stations , which is mandated by the 2003 agreement with Amtrak . New London , Old Saybrook , Guilford , Westbrook , and stops from New Haven Union Station west all have multiple platforms , while State Street has an island platform serving two tracks with plans for a second platform . \n Branford is the first previously rebuilt station to be further renovated with a second platform . A $ 60 million bond in February 2011 included $ 16 @.@ 5 million for a second platform and pedestrian bridge at Branford , $ 7 @.@ 3 million for platform extensions at Guilford , and $ 11 million to add catenary wires to currently unwired sidings along the line . Construction on the new platform at Branford began in September 2013 , and the Guilford work is under way as well . As of September 2015 , the new platform and pedestrian bridge at Branford were officially scheduled to open on December 18 , 2015 , but have been delayed into 2016 as a result of the previous harsh winter and other issues . Bidding on a second platform and three @-@ level parking garage at Madison , planned since 2009 , was scheduled to begin in 2013 but did not occur . Per the agreement with Amtrak , a second platform is planned to be added to Clinton station . The project was originally planned to start in early 2012 , but has since been indefinitely delayed . \n Expansion of the original parking facilities is also necessary to meet demand at many stations , since many started with small lots suitable for just a few dozen cars . The rebuilt stations at Branford , Guilford , Madison , Clinton , and Westbrook have larger lots than the 1990 stations , and a second lot with 272 spaces opened at Branford in June 2011 . A 585 @-@ space , three @-@ level parking garage is eventually planned for Madison station . \n Although the route east of New Haven is electrified under Amtrak 's 60 Hz traction power system , Shore Line East currently operates entirely with diesel locomotives . Once the full order of M8 railcars are in service , and Amtrak tests and approves the M8s for usage east of New Haven , ConnDOT plans to use 24 to 32 cars for electric SLE service to reduce diesel emissions . The diesel trainsets will be moved to service on the Danbury or Waterbury branches , or to the planned Hartford Line from New Haven to Springfield . \n In April 2012 , state officials released a report detailing possible sites for an infill station in East Lyme . Four sites were analyzed – two near downtown Niantic and two at Rocky Neck State Park . Niantic had previously been a stop on the Clamdigger . As part of a bonding proposal made by Governor Malloy , $ 750 @,@ 000 would be allocated for a new station at Niantic . \n The possibility of extending service eastward has also been considered . Several special trains operated to Mystic during the 2000 OpSail festival , the only such service to date . In a 2001 report examining commuter rail for Rhode Island , RIDOT considered an extension of Shore Line East to Providence via Westerly ( effectively restoring the Clamdigger service ) . Ultimately , MBTA Commuter Rail service , which already ran to Providence as part of the Providence / Stoughton Line , was extended southward instead ( although only to Wickford Junction ) . However , both RIDOT and SLE have long @-@ term plans to extend their services to meet at Westerly . Extending SLE service would require negotiations with the US Coast Guard , the Marine Trades Association , and other stakeholders for increased use of the Thames River Bridge and the Mystic River bridge . As part of Governor Malloy 's thirty year transit plan , Shore Line East would be extended to Westerly at a cost of $ 200 million . On February 1 , 2016 , the Connecticut Public Transportation Commission issued a report recommending extension of Shore Line East rail service to Mystic and Westerly as soon as possible . \n = = Rolling stock = = \n In contrast to the electric multiple units used on Metro @-@ North 's New Haven Line , which are also purchased in part by the state of Connecticut , all SLE trains are diesel push @-@ pull trains . \n SLE runs diesel service because Amtrak had not yet electrified the Northeast Corridor between New Haven and Boston at the time service began . The original SLE service operated with 2 F @-@ 7s and 10 Pullman @-@ Standard coaches purchased from Pittsburgh 's PATrain for $ 1 @.@ 7 million . \n In 1991 , ConnDOT purchased 10 Bombardier Shoreliner III coaches , similar to ones already used on the Danbury Branch and Waterbury Branch , and leased three additional diesel locomotives : two EMD GP38s and one EMD GP9 . In 1994 Amtrak rebuilt 11 of ConnDOT 's surplus SPV @-@ 2000 diesel railcars into coaches , dubbed \" Constitution Liners . \" In 1996 , SLE took delivery of six refmanufactured GP40 @-@ 2H diesels to replace the entire motive power fleet . These were supplemented in 2005 with 8 GE P40DC Genesis diesels leased from Amtrak . ConnDOT purchased the P40DCs in 2008 . To augment capacity ConnDOT acquired 33 Mafersa coaches from the Virginia Railway Express in 2004 . These began entering service in 2006 , displacing the Shoreliners and Constitution Liners . \n ConnDOT plans call for the Kawasaki M8 to replace most or all of the locomotives and coaches currently in service on Shore Line East in 2018 . ConnDOT has proposed to use up to 32 M8 's in SLE service as far as Old Saybrook ; the diesel equipment will then be used on the Hartford Line and for New London service . Limited direct service from Grand Central Terminal to Old Saybrook may be added once the M8s are in service . \n ConnDOT acquired an additional four GE P40DC locomotives from New Jersey Transit in 2015 . Originally built for Amtrak , NJ Transit employed the locomotives on the short @-@ lived Atlantic City Express Service . \n = = = Roster = = = \n = = Station stops = = \n = National Football League Players Association = \n The National Football League Players Association , or NFLPA , is the labor organization representing the professional American football players in the National Football League ( NFL ) . The NFLPA , which has headquarters in Washington , D.C. , is led by president Eric Winston and executive director DeMaurice Smith . Founded in 1956 , the NFLPA was established to provide players with formal representation to negotiate compensation and the terms of a collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) . The NFLPA is a member of the AFL – CIO , the largest federation of unions in the United States . \n In the early years of the NFL , contractual negotiations took place between individual players and management ; team owners were reluctant to engage in collective bargaining . A series of strikes and lockouts have occurred throughout the union 's existence largely due to monetary and benefit disputes between the players and the owners . League rules that punished players for playing in rival football leagues resulted in litigation ; the success of such lawsuits impelled the NFL to negotiate some work rules and minimum payments with the NFLPA . However , the organization was not recognized by the NFL as the official bargaining agent for the players until 1968 , when a CBA was signed . The most recent CBA negotiations took place in 2011 . \n In addition to conducting labor negotiations , the NFLPA represents and protects the rights of the players ; the organization 's actions include filing grievances against player discipline that it deems too severe . The union also ensures that the terms of the collective bargaining agreement are adhered to by the league and the teams . It negotiates and monitors retirement and insurance benefits and enhances and defends the image of players and their profession . \n = = Early history = = \n The establishment of the National Football League in 1920 featured early franchises haphazardly formed and often saddled with financial difficulties , poor player talent and attendance rates . As the league expanded through the years , players were provided with no formal representation and received few , if any , benefits . In 1943 , Roy Zimmerman 's refusal to play an exhibition game without compensation resulted in his trade from the Washington Redskins to the Philadelphia Eagles . With the formation of the competing All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) in 1946 , NFL owners instituted a rule which banned a player for five years from NFL @-@ associated employment if he left the league to join the AAFC . \n Bill Radovich , an offensive lineman , was one player who \" jumped \" leagues ; he played for the Detroit Lions in 1945 and then joined the Los Angeles Dons of the AAFC after the team offered him a greater salary . Subsequently , Radovich was blacklisted by the NFL and was denied a tryout with the NFL @-@ affiliated San Francisco Seals baseball team of the Pacific Coast League . Unable to attain a job in either league , Radovich filed a lawsuit against the NFL in 1957 . In 1964 , Green Bay Packers Pro Bowl and All @-@ Pro center Jim Ringo approached head coach Vince Lombardi to negotiate a raise . Lombardi was angered by the presence of Ringo 's agent , and excused himself ; five minutes later he returned to inform the two that Ringo had been traded to the Philadelphia Eagles . The players grew tired of incidents such as these and complained to one another . One sore point was playing in training camp and preseason exhibition games without pay ; no contract payment was made until a player made a regular season roster . \n The NFLPA began when two players from the Cleveland Browns , Abe Gibron and Dante Lavelli , approached a lawyer and former Notre Dame football player , Creighton Miller , to help form an association to advocate for the players . Miller was initially reluctant but accepted in 1956 . He contacted Don Shula ( a Baltimore Colts player at the time ) , John Gordy of the Detroit Lions , Frank Gifford and Sam Huff of the New York Giants , and Norm Van Brocklin of the Los Angeles Rams to aid in the development of the association . Representatives of 11 of the 12 teams in the league at the time joined the association ; the Chicago Bears were the sole dissenter ; by November 1956 a majority of the players signed cards allowing the NFLPA to represent them . The first meeting took place at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in November where players decided on demands to be submitted to league commissioner Bert Bell . The new association 's initial agenda included a league @-@ wide minimum salary , plus a per diem when teams were on the road , that uniforms and equipment be paid for and maintained at the clubs ' expense , and continued payment of salaries when players were injured . The NFLPA hoped to meet with Bell during the owners ' meeting in January 1957 to discuss the demands ; however , no meeting took place . The owners , for their part , were not enthused by the concept of a player 's union and this sentiment was reflected when Miller , who served as an assistant coach with the Cleveland Browns , was removed from the team photo at the request of Paul Brown . Gibron , Lavelli , and Miller were instrumental in the founding of the union as they had become chagrined by Paul Brown 's staunch view that \" it was both just and necessary that management could cut , trade , bench , blackball and own in perpetuity anyone and everyone that it wanted \" . \n Miller continued to represent the NFLPA in their early days . Unable to win the owners ' attention by forming the union , the NFLPA threatened to bring an antitrust lawsuit against the league . The antitrust laws are meant to protect \" free and fair competition in the marketplace \" and prohibit practices that may give industries or businesses an unfair advantage over their competitors . That threat became much more credible when the United States Supreme Court ruled in Radovich v. National Football League , 352 U.S. 445 ( 1957 ) , that the NFL did not enjoy the same antitrust immunity that Major League Baseball did , meaning that players like Radovich had been wrongfully barred from finding new employment . Jarett Bell of USA Today noted in 2011 , the Radovich ruling \" set the foundation for a series of court battles that have continued to present times \" largely over disagreements in compensation . Rather than face another lawsuit , the owners agreed to a league minimum salary of $ 5 @,@ 000 , $ 50 for each exhibition game played , and medical and hospital coverage . Although most of the NFLPA 's requests were met , the owners did not enter into a collective bargaining agreement with the association or formally recognize it as the players ' exclusive bargaining representative , instead agreeing to change the standard player contract and alter governing documents to reflect the deal . \n From the inception of the NFLPA , its members were divided over whether it should act as a professional association or a union . Against the wishes of NFLPA presidents Pete Retzlaff and Bernie Parrish , Miller ran the association as a \" ' grievance committee ' \" rather than engaging in collective bargaining . The standard collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) is a contract between organized workers and management that determines the wages and hours worked by employees and can also determine the scope of one 's work and what benefits employees receive . The association continued to use the threat of antitrust litigation over the next few years as a lever to gain better benefits , including a pension plan and health insurance . In the 1960s the NFL also faced competition from the new American Football League ( AFL ) . NFL players viewed the new league as potential leverage for them to improve their contracts . The NFL tried to discourage this idea by changing the owner @-@ controlled pension plan to add a provision saying that a player would lose his pension if he went to another league . \n On January 14 , 1964 , players in the newer league formed the AFL Players Association , and elected linebacker Tom Addison of the Boston Patriots as president . Rather than working with the AFLPA , the NFLPA chose to remain apart and tried to block the merger between the two leagues in 1966 , though lack of funding prevented it from mounting a formal challenge . With the merger complete , the players could no longer use the leverage of being able to sign with an AFL team to attain more money . \n Parrish , upset with the ineffectiveness of the association , proposed forming a players ' union , that would be independent of the NFLPA , with the assistance of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters ( IBT ) . The IBT pushed for the NFLPA to join the trucking union . In early November 1967 , Parrish , with support from former Cleveland Browns player Jim Brown , began distributing union cards to form a Teamsters affiliate known as the American Federation of Pro Athletes . The NFLPA rejected the overture at its meeting in Hollywood , Florida , during the first week of January 1968 and declared itself an independent union . Although Parrish 's proposal was defeated , Miller left his position as counsel to the union . He was later replaced by two Chicago labor lawyers , Dan Schulman and Bernie Baum . \n = = Recognition and certification ( 1968 – 1983 ) = = \n Six months after the NFLPA declared itself an independent union , many players were dissatisfied with the lack of compensation teams provided and voted to strike on July 3 , 1968 after official discussions with the owners stalled . The owners countered by declaring a lockout . By July 14 , 1968 , the brief work stoppage came to an end . Although a CBA resulted , many players felt that the agreement did not net them as many benefits as they had hoped . The owners agreed to contribute about $ 1 @.@ 5 million to the pension fund with minimum salaries of $ 9 @,@ 000 for rookies , $ 10 @,@ 000 for veterans and $ 50 per exhibition game ; there was at yet no neutral arbitration for disputes . \n As the merger of the AFL and NFL became effective in 1970 , the unions agreed to meet for the first time in January of that year . The NFL players wanted Ed Meador — who was the president @-@ elect of the NFLPA prior to the merger — to become president of the newly combined association while the AFL players wanted Jack Kemp . The compromise was John Mackey of the Baltimore Colts , an NFL team before the merger , which was grouped with former AFL teams in the American Football Conference . The AFL players agreed to Mackey 's election on the condition that former AFL player Alan Miller would become general counsel . Though the NFL owners were open to recognizing the union , their representatives requested lawyers not be present during negotiations , something the players were unwilling to agree to . This prompted the players to petition the National Labor Relations Board ( NLRB ) for union certification . \n The players went on strike in July 1970 after the owners locked them out for a brief period . The strike lasted for two days ending with a new four year CBA which was reached after the owners threatened to cancel the season . Due to the new agreement , the union won the right for players to bargain through their own agents with the clubs , and minimum salaries were increased to $ 12 @,@ 500 for rookies and $ 13 @,@ 000 for veterans . Also , players ' pensions were improved and dental care was added to the players ' insurance plans . Players also gained the right to select representation on the league 's retirement board and the right to impartial arbitration for injury grievances . Following the 1970 agreement , many union representatives were released by their teams . Unfazed , the players were determined to create a stronger union through better communication . Attorney Ed Garvey was hired by the NFLPA in 1971 to act as their first executive director , and the NFLPA became officially certified as a union by the NLRB the same year . Headquarters were established in Washington , D.C. and a campaign was launched to help inform players of their rights . \n = = = 1974 strike = = = \n The NFLPA challenged the so @-@ called \" Rozelle Rule \" as a violation of federal antitrust laws in a lawsuit filed by president John Mackey and allied union leaders in 1971 . The rule , named after commissioner Pete Rozelle , allowed the commissioner to award compensation , which included players , to a team losing a free agent if both the signing team and the team the player was departing could not come to an agreement on compensation . This rule limited player movement , as few teams were willing to sign high @-@ profile free agents only to risk having their rosters raided . With the 1970 CBA agreement set to expire , the players went on strike on July 1 , 1974 . In addition to the \" Rozelle Rule \" , the players demanded the elimination of the option clause , impartial arbitration of disputes , elimination of the draft and waiver system and individual , rather than uniform contracts . \n The strike lasted until August 10 , 1974 when the players returned to training camp without a new CBA , instead choosing to pursue free agency through the Mackey lawsuit filed three years before . While the courts ruled in favor of the players in 1976 , the union found that making progress in bargaining was more difficult to achieve . The Rozelle Rule was invalidated by the court which found it constituted a refusal to deal and was therefore in violation of the Sherman Act as it deterred franchises from signing free agents . However , the change did not achieve true free agency as compensation remained tied to draft picks that were awarded based on the salary of the departing free agent and teams still maintained a right of first refusal . The NFL and NFLPA agreed to a new collective bargaining agreement in March 1977 that ran until 1982 . \n = = = 1982 strike = = = \n The 1982 NFL strike began on September 21 , 1982 , and lasted 57 days , ending on November 16 , 1982 . During this time , no NFL games were played . The strike occurred because the union demanded that a wage scale based on percentage of gross revenues be implemented . The NFLPA wanted the percentage to be 55 percent , and according to the Los Angeles Times , this demand \" dominated the negotiations . \" \n During the strike , the NFLPA promoted two \" AFC @-@ NFC ' all @-@ star ' games . \" One was held at RFK Stadium in Washington D.C. on October 17 , 1982 , and the second was held at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum a day later . One of the few stars who did play , future Hall of Fame running back John Riggins , explained \" I guess I 'll do just about anything for money . \" Despite a local TV blackout and ticket prices starting at six dollars , neither game drew well ; only 8 @,@ 760 fans attended in Washington , D.C. , and just 5 @,@ 331 attended in Los Angeles . With no NFL games to air , CBS replayed the previous Super Bowl and aired Division III football ; Pat Summerall and John Madden , for example , covered a game between Baldwin Wallace and Wittenberg . NBC acquired the rights to Canadian Football League games from ESPN , and aired them with NFL @-@ like production values ; the first four games it showed were all blowouts , however , with poor ratings , and the network gave up . \n The 1982 strike ended with a players ' revolt against their own union , as some members suggested that Garvey step down as executive director . As a result of the strike , the season schedule was reduced from 16 games to 9 and the playoffs expanded to 16 teams ( eight from each conference ) for a \" Super Bowl tournament . \" A new five @-@ year agreement was ratified , providing severance packages to players upon retirement , an increase in salaries and post @-@ season pay , and bonuses based on the number of years of experience in the league . Additionally , the NFLPA was allowed to receive copies of all player contracts . \n = = Gene Upshaw era ( 1983 – 2008 ) = = \n In 1983 , former Oakland Raider Gene Upshaw became the executive director of the NFLPA . During his tenure , he oversaw a player strike , several antitrust lawsuits , and the collective bargaining agreement of 1993 . \n The NFLPA went on strike for a month in 1987 upon the expiration of the 1982 CBA ; the league 's free @-@ agent policy was the major matter in dispute . This time , however , the strike only canceled one week of the season . For three weeks , the NFL staged games with hastily assembled replacement teams , made up principally of players cut during training camp and players left out of work from the closure of the United States Football League two years prior ( along with , to a lesser extent , the Montreal Alouettes , who had folded just three months prior to the strike ) . They were joined by a few veterans who crossed the picket lines , including New York Jets defensive end Mark Gastineau , Dallas Cowboys defensive tackle Randy White , San Francisco 49ers quarterback Joe Montana , New England Patriots quarterback Doug Flutie , and Seattle Seahawks wide receiver Steve Largent . \n Given the willingness of the players to cross the picket lines and networks to broadcast the replacement games , despite a 20 % drop in television viewership and even steeper drops in attendance , the union failed to achieve their demands . The strike ended on October 15 , 1987 , without a collective bargaining agreement in place . The union filed a new antitrust lawsuit on December 30 asking federal judge David Doty to overturn the league 's restricting free agent policies . \n On November 1 , 1989 , the Court of Appeals rejected the suit on the grounds that the owners were covered by the labor exemption from antitrust law . The union 's next tactic , in November 1989 , was to disclaim any interest in representing NFL players in collective bargaining and to reform itself as a professional organization . Having done that , individual players , led by Freeman McNeil of the New York Jets , brought a new antitrust action , challenging the NFL 's so @-@ called \" Plan B \" free agency , which gave teams a right of first refusal to sign a player , as an unlawful practice under the antitrust acts . \n The players ultimately prevailed after a jury trial on their claims . That verdict , the pendency of other antitrust cases and the threat of a class action lawsuit filed by Reggie White , then with the Philadelphia Eagles , on behalf of all NFL players caused the parties to settle the antitrust cases and to agree on a formula that permitted free agency . In return , the owners received a salary cap , albeit one tied to a formula based on the players ' share of total league revenues . The agreement also established a salary floor — minimum payrolls all teams were obliged to pay . The settlement was presented to and approved by Judge Doty , who had also heard the McNeil antitrust case in 1993 . Once the agreement was approved , the NFLPA reconstituted itself as a labor union and entered into a new collective bargaining agreement with the league . The NFLPA and the league extended the 1993 agreement five times . The final extension came in March 2006 when it was extended through the 2010 season after the NFL owners voted 30 – 2 to accept the NFLPA 's final proposal . \n = = DeMaurice Smith era ( 2009 – present ) = = \n Following the death of Gene Upshaw in 2008 , Richard Berthelsen was named interim executive director , serving from August 2008 until March 2009 . The NFLPA Board of Representatives elected DeMaurice Smith for a three @-@ year term as the executive director on March 16 , 2009 . Smith has been largely praised for his work ethic by the media , current and former players and colleagues as director and for making the union more professional despite the resentment of some players who found his leadership style to be too controlling . Smith 's contract was renewed for an additional three years in March 2012 . He was elected for a third term in March 2015 . The major issue of Smith 's tenure has been the 2011 lockout ; former offensive lineman Chester Pitts praised Smith for fiercely fighting for the players ' rights during negotiations . \n = = = 2011 lockout = = = \n In May 2008 , the owners decided to opt out of the 1993 arrangement , per the agreement with the players , with the termination to follow a year with no salary cap in 2010 . By the CBA 's expiration in March 2011 , the NFLPA and the NFL had not yet come to terms on a new agreement . The owners were expected to lock out the players upon termination of the agreement . However , the NFLPA filed papers to decertify as a union on March 11 , 2011 , and filed an antitrust suit to enjoin the lockout with lead plaintiffs quarterbacks Tom Brady , Peyton Manning , and Drew Brees . U.S. District Court judge Susan Richard Nelson granted the players ' request to end the owners ' lockout on April 25 . The league asked Nelson to stay the order while they appealed to the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals ; Nelson refused . On April 29 , the Eighth Circuit granted the league a temporary stay of Nelson 's ruling ; the league reinstated the lockout the same day . The Eighth Circuit vacated Nelson 's ruling on July 8 , affirming the legitimacy of the lockout . During the lockout , players were barred from using team facilities and contacting team coaches ; many organized their own workout regimens . \n The parties settled the lawsuit on July 25 , 2011 , and a majority of players signed union authorization cards . The NFL officially recognized the NFLPA 's status as the players ' collective bargaining representative on July 30 , 2011 . The NFL and NFLPA proceeded to negotiate terms for a new collective bargaining agreement , and the agreement became effective after ratification by the players August 4 , 2011 . Under the agreement , which runs through 2021 , revenue sharing , the most contentious issue during the lockout , was re @-@ designed so that the players must receive at least 47 % of all revenue in salary for the term of the agreement . Additionally , a limit was placed on the amount of money given to rookies . Fifty million dollars was set aside annually for medical research and approximately $ 1 billion would be set aside for retired player benefits over the life of the agreement . \n = = = Bountygate = = = \n The NFLPA , on behalf of Will Smith , Scott Fujita and Anthony Hargrove , three players suspended due to the Bountygate investigation by the NFL , filed a lawsuit against the league . The investigation found that New Orleans Saints players were allegedly paid bonuses for hits that injured opposing players . The players ' lawsuit claimed NFL commissioner Roger Goodell \" had violated the league 's labor agreement by showing he had pre @-@ determined the guilt of the players punished in the bounty probe before serving as the arbitrator for their June 18 appeal hearing \" . The suspensions were unanimously overturned by a three @-@ member appeals panel ; however , the ruling did not permanently void their suspensions . The NFL appointed former commissioner Paul Tagliabue to review the NFL 's sanctions against the players , which he overturned . \n = = = Activate = = = \n In April 2014 , the NFLPA partnered with opendorse to launch Activate , the first professional sports micro @-@ endorsement marketplace . The Activate platform allows for marketers to quickly find and contact athletes that best fit their endorsement campaigns . For athletes , Activate provides a monetary valuation of each player 's social media accounts that leads to an easier and more efficient negotiation process . \n = = = New drug policy = = = \n The league and the NFLPA approved updated substance abuse and performance @-@ enhancing substance policies in September 2014 . The regulations include human growth hormone testing and amended rules on DUIs and marijuana . Third @-@ party arbitration will handle appeals . The deal lifted suspensions for some players the week it was approved . The NFL began testing players for HGH the next month . \n = = Composition = = \n According to NFLPA 's Department of Labor records since 2006 , when membership classifications were first reported , around 60 % , or almost two thirds , of the union 's membership are classified as \" former players , \" and not eligible to vote in the union , \" because , as a matter of federal law , they cannot be members of the collective bargaining unit . \" The other , voting eligible , classifications are \" active players \" and \" associates . \" As of 2014 this accounts for 3 @,@ 130 \" former player \" members ( 59 % of total ) , 1 @,@ 959 \" active players \" ( 37 % ) , and 207 \" associate \" members ( 4 % ) . \n = = Leadership = = \n The current president of the NFLPA is Eric Winston and the executive director is DeMaurice Smith . As of 2014 , the executive committee consists of the following current and retired NFL players : Adam Vinatieri , Benjamin Watson , Brian Waters , Jay Feely , Lorenzo Alexander , Mark Herzlich , Matt Hasselbeck , Ryan Clark , Scott Wells and Zak DeOssie . Each NFL team also has a player representative , along with two to three alternate representatives . \n = Whinchat = \n The whinchat ( Saxicola rubetra ) is a small migratory passerine bird breeding in Europe and western Asia and wintering in central Africa . At one time considered to be in thrush family , Turdidae , it is now placed in the Old World flycatcher family , Muscicapidae . Both sexes have a strong supercilium , brownish upper parts mottled darker , a pale throat and breast , a pale buff to whitish belly , and a blackish tail with white bases to the outer tail feathers , but in the breeding season , the male has an orange @-@ buff throat and breast . \n The whinchat is a solitary species , favouring open grassy country with rough vegetation and scattered small shrubs . It perches in elevated locations ready to pounce on the insects and other small invertebrates that form its diet . The nest is built by the female on the ground in coarse vegetation , with a clutch of four to seven eggs being laid . The hen incubates the eggs for about thirteen days and then both parents feed the nestlings . Fledging takes place about eighteen days after hatching and the parents continue to feed the young for another fortnight . Moulting takes place in late summer before the migration southwards , and again on the wintering grounds in Africa before the migration northwards in spring . The whinchat is a common species with a wide range and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has classified it as being of \" least concern \" . \n = = Taxonomy and systematics = = \n This species represents a fairly basal divergence of the genus Saxicola . It retains the supercilium found in many Muscicapidae but lost in the more derived Saxicola species such as the European stonechat or African stonechat ( S. torquatus ) . \n As with other species of Saxicola , it was formerly considered a member of the thrush family ( Turdidae ) , but is now placed in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae . It , and similar thrush @-@ like Muscicapidae species , are often called chats . Its scientific name means \" small rock @-@ dweller \" , in reference to its habitat . Saxicola derives from Latin saxum ( \" rock \" ) + incola ( \" dwelling \" ) ; rubetra is a Latin term for a small bird . No subspecies are recognised . \n Very rarely , hybridisation occurs between the whinchat and the Siberian stonechat ( Saxicola maurus ) , with a case being reported in Finland in 1997 . It has also been reported to hybridise with the European stonechat in western and southern Europe . \n = = Description = = \n The whinchat is a short @-@ tailed bird , moving on the ground with small , rapid hops and frequently bobbing and flicking its wings and tail . It is similar in size to its relative the European robin ( Erithacus rubecula ) , being 12 to 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 5 in ) long and weighing 13 to 26 g ( 0 @.@ 46 to 0 @.@ 92 oz ) . Both sexes have brownish upperparts mottled darker , a buff throat and breast , a pale buff to whitish belly , and a blackish tail with white bases to the outer tail feathers . \n The male in breeding plumage has a blackish face mask almost encircled by a strong white supercilium and malar stripe , a bright orange @-@ buff throat and breast , and small white wing patches on the greater coverts and inner median coverts . The female is duller overall , in particular having browner face mask , pale buffy @-@ brown breast , and a buff supercilium and malar stripe , and smaller or no white wing patches . Males in immature and winter plumage are similar to females , except that adult males retain the white wing patches all year round . \n Though fairly similar to females and immatures of the European stonechat ( S. rubicola ) , the whinchat can readily be distinguished by its conspicuous supercilium and whiter belly , and also in western Europe , by being paler overall than the western European stonechat subspecies S. rubicola hibernans . It also differs structurally in being slightly slimmer and less ' dumpy ' , and having longer wingtips ( an adaptation to its long @-@ distance migration ) . It is more easily confused with female or immature Siberian stonechat ( S. maura ) , which ( also being a long @-@ distance migrant ) shares the longer wingtips ; however , Siberian stonechat can be distinguished by its conspicuous unmarked pale orange @-@ buff rump ( in whinchat , the rump is the same mottled brown colour as the back ) . \n Its main call is described as a hue @-@ tac @-@ tac , the ' tac ' softer and less grating than that of the European stonechat ; the call is used both for contact between birds and predator alarms . The male has a whistling , crackly but soft song used during the breeding season , consisting of a mixture of soft whistles , tacs and more grating sounds ; it is often mimetic , including phrases from the songs of at least 12 other assorted bird species . It sings from a fence , bush , tree or wire , or occasionally from the ground or in flight , between about April and July . On the wintering grounds , it often gives alarm calls but only occasionally sings , being most likely to do so at the end of winter , when starting spring migration . \n = = Distribution and habitat = = \n The whinchat is a migratory species breeding in Europe and western Asia from Ireland and northern Portugal east to the Ob River basin near Novosibirsk , and from northern Norway south to central Spain , central Italy , northern Greece , and the Caucasus Mountains . \n Birds arrive on the breeding grounds between the end of April and mid May , and depart between mid August and mid September ( odd birds lingering to October ) . They winter primarily in tropical sub @-@ Saharan Africa from Senegal east to Kenya and south to Zambia , arriving in western Africa at the start of the dry season in late September to November , and leaving between February and March . Small numbers also winter in northwestern Africa in Morocco , northern Algeria and Tunisia . Vagrants have reached northwest of the breeding range to Iceland , west on migration to the Canary Islands and Cape Verde , and south of the wintering range to northern South Africa . \n = = Behaviour and ecology = = \n The whinchat is a largely solitary bird though it may form small family groups in autumn . It favours rough low vegetation habitats such as open rough pasture or similar minimally cultivated grassland with scattered small shrubs such as hawthorn ( Crataegus monogyna ) , and bracken ( Pteridium aquilinum ) or heather ( Calluna vulgaris ) stands on rock @-@ strewn ground . It also commonly inhabits new and clear @-@ felled conifer plantations until the new tree crop is about five to six years old and a metre or two tall . It always needs at least a few perching points ( shrubs , tall weeds , or fence posts ) to scan from for food and for use as song posts . \n Breeding takes place in late April and May . The nest is built solely by the female , and is made of dried grasses and moss , and lined with hairs and fine bents . It is built on the ground , hidden in dense low vegetation , often at the foot of a bush . The female lays and incubates a clutch of four to seven eggs which hatch after eleven to fourteen days . Both parents bring food to the young which leave the nest ten to fourteen days later , while still too young to fly . The chicks fledge at seventeen to nineteen days after hatching and remain largely dependent on the parents for a further two weeks . Whinchats are short @-@ lived , typically only surviving two years , to a maximum recorded of just over five years in the wild ; breeding starts when birds are a year old . Predators include weasels , stoats , and small raptors such as the merlin and nest predators such as crows and magpies . Nests are also lost due to agricultural operations such as silage cutting ( the main factor in the species ' decline in western Europe ) or trampling by livestock , and are sometimes parasitised by the common cuckoo . \n Whinchats are insectivorous , feeding largely ( about 80 – 90 % ) on insects , but also consume a wide range of other invertebrates including spiders , small snails and worms . They also eat small amounts of fruit such as blackberries , primarily in autumn . The birds like to perch on elevated spots such as shrubs , from where they make sallies to catch insects , mostly taken off the ground , but also flying insects . While so perched , males in particular frequently flick their tail and sometimes their wings to show the white tail and wing flashes , for display or territorial communication signals to other whinchats . \n Adult whinchats have a single complex complete moult in late summer ( late July onward ) after breeding and mainly completed before southbound migration . Juveniles have a partial moult at the same time , growing new body feathering but retaining the flight feathers . All ages also have a partial moult in early spring on the wintering grounds before northbound migration . \n = = Status and conservation = = \n Fairly common across its wide range , the whinchat is classified as a species of \" least concern \" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Some populations are however in serious decline , particularly in the west of its range in Britain , Ireland , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Denmark , and Germany , primarily due to agricultural intensification . In Britain it is amber @-@ listed with an unfavourable conservation status ; it had all but disappeared from former lowland breeding areas in the south and east between surveys in 1968 – 72 and 1988 – 91 , remaining common only in upland areas of the north and west where low @-@ intensity livestock rearing is the main land use . There has been a similar decline in Ireland , where it is now classified as \" rare \" . \n = Thrud the Barbarian = \n Thrud the Barbarian is a comics character created by Carl Critchlow in 1981 . Although Thrud himself is a parody of Conan the Barbarian , particularly as depicted in the Arnold Schwarzenegger films , inspiration for the character 's adventures and adversaries has been drawn from several fantasy sources . \n During the 1980s , a Thrud comic strip was a regular and popular feature in the roleplay and wargame magazine White Dwarf with Thrud 's grotesque and comic antics forming a memorable part of the magazine 's golden age . In 2002 , continued interest in the character from role @-@ playing enthusiasts and a desire to be free to experiment with a new artistic style prompted Critchlow to self @-@ publish a series of award @-@ winning full @-@ length Thrud the Barbarian comics . \n Since October 2002 , Critchlow has continued to develop his new artistic style in several different 2000 AD stories , contributing to the success of Lobster Random in particular . While Critchlow 's use of muted palettes has been criticised , his style has received praise for being highly recognisable and unique . \n = = Appearances = = \n = = = Initial publications = = = \n The character of Thrud was created by the then 18 @-@ year @-@ old Critchlow in 1981 while he was at foundation art college . His graphic design tutor , Bryan Talbot , gave him the project of producing a comic strip . At the time , Critchlow was reading the Conan books by Robert E. Howard , and this inspired him to produce Thrud . The initial five @-@ page strip was published in comics fanzine Arken Sword . When Critchlow moved on to art college in Liverpool , Thrud made a further appearance in the comic Dead ' Ard , which Critchlow co @-@ authored with artist Euan Smith . Dead ' Ard also featured a strip titled The Black Currant , subsequently re @-@ published in the 26th and final issue of the Warrior comic anthology . The Black Currant would later appear as one of Thrud 's many enemies . \n = = = White Dwarf = = = \n On seeing an advertisement in White Dwarf magazine asking for cartoonists , Critchlow submitted some of his Thrud strips and was hired . Thrud the Barbarian became a monthly feature in White Dwarf between issue 45 in September 1983 and issue 105 in September 1988 . During this time , the black @-@ and @-@ white single @-@ page strip was voted \" Most popular feature \" for three consecutive years . \n In 1987 , a collection of Thrud strips was published in a Thrud the Barbarian Graffik Novel by Games Workshop . In addition to strips that had been printed in White Dwarf , this anthology included a re @-@ drawn version of the original Arken Sword strip and an origin story for Thrud . \n = = = Full @-@ length comic = = = \n Once the Thrud strip had run its course in White Dwarf , Critchlow worked on other comics including the Judge Dredd / Batman crossover story The Ultimate Riddle , first published in 1995 . His work on this story was fully painted , and while considered impressive was also criticised as being forced , confused and muddy . Critchlow was developing a new style based on line @-@ drawings with computer colouring , but having been pigeon @-@ holed as a painter did not believe that he would be able to interest anyone in this very different style . \n When attending gaming conventions , Critchlow found that he was often remembered for his work on Thrud and recognised that there was still an interest in the character . He therefore decided to create and self @-@ publish a full @-@ length Thrud the Barbarian comic as a way to get his new style noticed . A total of five Thrud the Barbarian comics were published : \n Carborundum Capers – June 2002 \n Ice ' n ' a Slice – January 2003 \n Lava Louts – June 2004 \n Thrud Rex ! – June 2005 \n Bungle in the Jungle – January 2007 \n Critchlow found that , by organising distribution through comic shops and a devoted Thrud website , he was able to break even financially . His new style was also noticed and received positive comments . \n The cover images for each of the first four comics were hand @-@ painted in contrast to the computer @-@ coloured line art used in the comic itself . For issue 5 , Critchlow also used his new style for the cover image . \n = = Fictional character biography = = \n An origin story for Thrud was printed in the Thrud the Barbarian Graffik Novel . The story tells of a group of mercenaries who , lost and searching for a pub , stumble across an abandoned baby in a deserted village . The mercenaries decide to raise the baby as one of their own , teaching him how to fight and drink beer . \n At the age of five , Thrud is sent to Crom the Destroyer Orthodox Pagan Infants School , where he towers above the teachers and his fellow students . When one of the children shoots him with a pea shooter , Thrud 's reaction is to kill and maim twenty @-@ seven pupils and three teachers , leading to his expulsion from the school . Choosing to return to the wilderness rather than his adoptive parents , Thrud lives alone until , one day , he stumbles across a hidden burial chamber . Finding a small helmet and a large axe , Thrud arms himself . Finding gold and gems , he decides to return to civilisation with his newfound wealth , quickly establishing himself a reputation as a violent warrior . \n Many years later , Thrud the Barbarian becomes Thrud the King , but finds the mundane duties of kingship tiresome without opportunities to fight . To put a halt to Thrud 's constant mutterings of , \" Kill ! Death ! Maim ! Mutilate ! Destroy ! \" , the wise men of his kingdom collect stories of heroism from around the land and read them to him long into the night . \n = = Characterisation = = \n Endowed with the strength of a rhinoceros , the speed of a jungle cat and the intelligence of a garden snail , Thrud is a one @-@ dimensional character who engages in mindless slaughter and strikes Frank Frazetta @-@ style poses while remaining ignorant of plot points . Depicted as an 8 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) barbarian with a hugely exaggerated , muscular physique and a very small head , and dressed in large furry boots and a loincloth , Thrud is a caricature of Arnold Schwarzenegger 's Conan the Barbarian . \n Thrud is also a heavy drinker , frequenting the The Hobbit 's Armpit tavern and regularly causing mayhem when he is unable to have his desired flavour of crisps . These and other annoyances often cause Thrud to invoke the author of the Conan the Barbarian books with the battle cry , \" By the sacred jockstrap of Robert E. Howard you 'll pay for this , Hellspawn ! \" \n = = Supporting characters = = \n = = = The Black Currant = = = \n First appearing in Dead ' Ard and Warrior , The Black Currant returned in a series of White Dwarf Thrud strips titled Thrud the Destroyer . In this story , The Black Currant is the leader of a horde of warriors who attack a small village , looting the homes , burning the women , raping the livestock and eating the babies . The Black Currant returned again in issue 3 of Critchlow 's self @-@ published Thrud the Barbarian comic as the leader of a group of bandits laying siege to a small town . The Black Currant is depicted in heavy black armour , wearing a helmet provided with a pair of exceedingly long , horizontally extending horns . \n = = = Carl Critchlow = = = \n Critchlow himself appears in a number of Thrud strips , occasionally as a narrator although more often as a drinking companion for Thrud . Critchlow depicts himself with lank hair and a large cap pulled down low over his eyes . \n = = = Croneman the Cimpletan = = = \n Croneman claims to be the mightiest barbarian of the northern tribes and honorary chief of the savage bezerkers of Nid . Known also as Amoron , the Wombat , he is a slayer , a reaver , a corsair , a usurper , and a conqueror . Depicted as resembling Schwarzenegger , he is also a bodybuilder with a very silly accent . On first meeting Croneman , Thrud slices him in half with a sword . When Croneman returns to join a group of mercenaries fighting The Black Currant in Thrud the Destroyer , he is depicted with a line of sutures running down the middle of his face and chest . \n = = = Lymara , the She Wildebeeste = = = \n Thrud first encounters Lymara when he sees her chasing away a wasp by waving a small cloth from her tower bedroom . Thinking her to be a damsel in distress , Thrud storms the tower , killing Lymara 's father , five brothers , two uncles , ten cousins and fiance in the process . Seeking revenge , Lymara attempts to poison Thrud with a bottle of Acme \" Mammoth Poison \" , but succeeds only in putting him to sleep as part of the The Three Tasks of Thrud series of strips . Subsequently , Lymara joins Thrud as one of the group of mercenaries brought in to fight The Black Currant in Thrud the Destroyer . In this latter series of strips , Lymara is depicted with oversized breasts barely covered by an off @-@ the @-@ shoulder leather bra . \n = = = To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa = = = \n To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa ( a name phonetically similar to that of British comedian Tommy Cooper ) is an evil necromancer who regularly crosses paths with Thrud and is depicted as a bald man wearing a large cloak . Thrud first encounters To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa in an early White Dwarf strip and is turned into a frog . Subsequently , in The Three Tasks of Thrud , To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa takes advantage of Thrud 's drugged state , following Lymara 's failed assassination attempt , to hypnotise him and force him to obtain three items necessary for a spell . \n In Thrud the Destroyer , To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa is revealed as being in service to The Black Currant and is providing him with an army of warriors drawn from throughout time , including daleks and Imperial stormtroopers . To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa also appears as the villain in issue 1 of the full @-@ length Thrud the Barbarian comic . \n = = Merchandise = = \n A range of Thrud merchandise has been produced since the character 's inception , including a Thrud t @-@ shirt and badge as well as a series of miniatures . Citadel Miniatures produced five different metal miniatures of Thrud , starting in 1984 with a \" White Dwarf Personality \" miniature . Three numbered limited edition miniatures followed consisting of \" LE12 , Thrud the Barbarian \" , in 1986 , \" LE19 , Thrud and Female Admirer \" in 1987 , and \" LE104 , Thrud scratching head \" . Thrud was also introduced as a Blood Bowl player and Jervis Johnson commissioned an appropriate miniature . Heresy Miniatures has also produced three Thrud miniatures , including a limited edition \" Strolling Thrud \" that sold out within three weeks of release . On 29 March 2007 , another limited edition of 1000 resin miniatures was released . \n = = Reception and awards = = \n Thrud the Barbarian was one of the best loved pieces in White Dwarf over the five years that the strip ran , being voted \" Most popular feature \" for three consecutive years during the magazine 's golden age . Long @-@ term fans of Thrud were excited and nostalgic to see him return in his own full @-@ length comic , but were concerned that the idea would not stretch to 24 pages . In reviewing issue 1 , Jez Higgins , writing on TRS2 , and Robert Clark of Strike to Stun , considered the comic a success that was more than one joke spread thin and which was not limited by the single page brevity of the original strip . Steven Maxwell of Bulletproof Comics , however , found that what worked well within the constraints of a single page seemed stretched when spun out over 24 . Issue 2 received similarly mixed reviews , with Clark criticising the comic for being much the same , with the same themes and joke as issue 1 while Glenn Carter of Comics Bulletin found it to be well written light reading with quite a few elements of humour . Overall , the comic was deemed a success , with even the more negative reviewers awarding it 6 out of 10 and looking forward to more issues . \n Although the writing received mixed reviews , the reception of the artwork was almost entirely positive . Higgins , recalling the heavy blacks and bold outlines of the original strip , found Critchlow 's new style to be much more open and expressive . Maxwell also praised Critchlow 's development as an artist , judging the comic to be beautifully drawn and coloured with a clear line style . Carter thought that the art was a little flat in places , but nevertheless praised it for being unique with a lot of character . \n Critchlow was also commended for the risky decision to write , draw and publish the comic himself . The comic was compared favourably with professional quality comics , with its lack of adverts viewed as an advantage over those offerings . The high production values were also praised , with the glossy cover and high quality paper used for the inner pages . \n In 2004 , Thrud the Barbarian won the Eagle Award for \" Favourite British Small Press Title \" . In 2006 Thrud was nominated for the \" Favourite Colour Comicbook – British \" Eagle Award , but lost out to 2000 AD . \n = = Legacy = = \n In October 2002 , four months after Thrud issue 1 was published , Critchlow returned to 2000AD using his new computer @-@ drawn style . His first story was the Judge Dredd , Out of the Undercity story written by John Wagner . The new style was initially well received by 2000AD Review and seen as a marked improvement over his previous fully painted style with clearer figures and atmospheric colouring . As the Undercity story developed , however , Critchlow was criticised for using too narrow a palette , with too many greys and blues , although this might have been as a result of the story being set underground . \n 2000AD Review 's criticism of Critchlow 's subdued colouring continued with the 2003 Lobster Random story , No Gain , No Pain . By the conclusion , however , Critchlow 's style was recognised as being truly unique and even the previously criticised blues and greys were seen to work well when used with other coloured elements . The artwork in two further Lobster Random stories , Tooth & Claw in October 2004 and The Agony & the Ecstasy in April 2006 was again very well received . Tooth & Claw was praised for its character designs while Critchlow 's style in The Agony & the Ecstasy was said to be easily recognisable , having \" volume , colour and verve \" . \n = Barry ( dog ) = \n Barry der Menschenretter ( 1800 – 1814 ) , also known as Barry , was a dog of a breed which was later called the St. Bernard that worked as a mountain rescue dog in Switzerland for the Great St Bernard Hospice . He predates the modern St. Bernard , and was lighter built than the modern breed . He has been described as the most famous St. Bernard , as he was credited with saving more than 40 lives during his lifetime , hence his byname \" Menschenretter \" meaning people rescuer in German . \n The legend surrounding him was that he was killed while attempting a rescue ; however , this is untrue . Barry retired to Bern , Switzerland and after his death his body was passed into the care of the Natural History Museum of Bern . His skin has been preserved through taxidermy although his skull was modified in 1923 to match the Saint Bernard of that time period . His story and name have been used in literary works , and a monument to him stands in the Cimetière des Chiens near Paris . At the hospice one dog has always been named Barry in his honor and since 2004 the Foundation Barry du Grand Saint Bernard has been set up to take over the responsibility for breeding dogs from the hospice . \n = = History = = \n The first mention in the Great St Bernard Hospice archives of a dog was in 1707 which simply said \" A dog was buried by us . \" The dogs are thought to have been introduced to the monastery as watchdogs at some point between 1660 and 1670 . Old skulls from the collection of the Natural History Museum of Bern show that at least two types of dog lived at the hospice . By 1800 , the year that Barry was born , it was known that a special kind of dog was being used for rescue work in the pass . This general variety of dog was known as a Küherhund , or cowherd 's dog . \n Measurements of his preserved body show that Barry was smaller than the modern Saint Bernard , weighing between 40 and 45 kilograms ( 88 and 99 lb ) whereas modern Bernards weigh between 80 and 130 kilograms ( 180 and 290 lb ) . His current mounted height is approximately 64 centimetres ( 25 in ) , but the living Barry would have been slightly smaller . \n During Barry 's career , he was credited with saving the lives of more than forty people , although this number has sometimes varied over the years . Barry 's most famous rescue was that of a young boy . He found the child asleep in a cavern of ice . After warming up the boy 's body sufficiently by licking him , he moved the boy about and onto his back and carried the child back to the hospice . The child survived and was returned to his parents , although other sources say that the boy 's mother died in the avalanche that trapped the boy . The Museum of Natural History in Bern disputes the legend , attributing it to Peter Scheitlin , an animal psychologist . \n The best of dogs , the best of animals is Barry . You used to leave the convent with a basket round your neck , into the storm , in the most insidious snow . Each and every day you examined the mountain searching for unfortunates buried under avalanches . You dug them out and brought them back to life by yourself and , when you couldn 't , you rushed back to the convent signalling the monks for help . You resurrected people . Your tenderness was so easy to communicate , that the boy you dug out had no fear to let you bring him , holding on to your back , to the Hospice . \n = = = Death = = = \n There is a plaque on a monument in the Cimetière des Chiens pet cemetery which states , \" Il sauva la vie à 40 personnes . Il fut tué par le 41ème \" : Barry saved the lives of forty people , but died while attempting to save his forty @-@ first . The story goes that news had come that a Swiss soldier was lost in the mountains . Barry was searching for the soldier and had picked up the scent , some forty @-@ eight hours old , and finally stopped before a large bank of ice . He dug until he reached the soldier , and then licked him as he was trained . The Swiss soldier awoke startled and mistook Barry for a wolf and fatally stabbed him with his bayonet . James Watson in his 1906 work The Dog Book attributed the rumour to fellow author Idstone , also known as Reverend Thomas Pearce . \n However , the legend of his death is untrue . After twelve years of service at the monastery , Barry was brought by a monk to Bern , Switzerland so that he could live out the rest of his life . He died at the age of 14 . His body passed into the hands of the Natural History Museum of Bern . A special exhibit was held in his honor at the museum to commemorate his 200th Anniversary . \n = = Legacy = = \n The Hospice has always maintained one St. Bernard named Barry in the original 's honor . During Barry 's lifetime , his breed did not have one specific name . By 1820 , six years after his death , Barry was specifically referred to as being an Alpine Mastiff , while there was also a breed called the Alpine Spaniel which was recorded around the same time period . The English called the breed \" sacred dogs \" , while the German Kynology proposed the name \" Alpendog \" in 1828 . Following his death and up until 1860 , the entire stock were called \" Barry hounds \" in the Canton of Bern after Barry himself . It was not until 1865 when the term \" St. Bernard \" was first used primarily for the breed . Under this name , the St. Bernard has been recognised since 1880 by the Swiss Kennel Club . \n Barry is described as the most famous St. Bernard by the Natural History Museum of Bern . Following his death , his skin was preserved by a taxidermist for the museum , while the rest of his body was buried . He was originally given a humble and meek pose , as the taxidermist felt that this would serve as a reminder of servitude to future generations . In 1923 , his body was refurbished by Georg Ruprecht , as his coat had become brittle and had broken into more than 20 pieces . During the restoration , his body was re @-@ posed and his skull shape was modified to match the shape of the St. Bernard of that time , in a compromise between Ruprecht and the Museum 's director . His original head shape was rather flat with a moderate stop , with the modification resulting in a larger head with a more pronounced stop . A barrel was added hanging from his collar , following the popularization of the myth of the monastery 's dogs using these during the rescues , which was originally introduced by Edwin Landseer 's work Alpine Mastiffs Reanimating a Distressed Traveller . The barrel was removed in 1978 by Professor Walter Huber , the director of the museum , although it has since been replaced . A monument to Barry is located opposite the entrance to the Cimetière des Chiens in Paris . \n In literary works , Samuel Rogers ' poem The Great Saint Bernard is sometimes referred to as Barry , The Great St. Bernard . Henry Bordeaux praised Barry 's work in his 1911 novel La Neige sur les pas . Walt Disney Productions made a telemovie entitled Barry of the Great St. Bernard in 1977 , and Barry 's story has been featured in children 's books such as Barry : The Bravest Saint Bernard published by Random House Books for Young Readers . \n Until September 2004 , 18 dogs still belonged to the hospice at any one time . The Foundation Barry du Grand Saint Bernard was established to create kennels in Martigny , a village further down the pass , to take over the breeding of St. Bernard puppies from the friars at Hospice . Around 20 puppies per year are born at the foundation . In 2009 , the St. Bernard Dog Museum was opened at the Foundation in Martigny and , to commemorate the occasion , Barry 's remains were lent from the museum in Bern . Each summer , the foundation leads dogs up the pass when it is open to the hospice , mainly for tourists , with rescue efforts on the pass now conducted by helicopters . \n = = = Specific = = = \n = = = General = = = \n = Smoke Gets in Your Eyes ( Mad Men ) = \n \" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes \" is the first episode of the first season of the American period drama television series Mad Men . It first aired on July 19 , 2007 , in the United States on AMC , and was written by creator Matthew Weiner and directed by Alan Taylor . \" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes \" was budgeted at US $ 3 million . Production for the episode took place in New York City and Los Angeles . \n Weiner conceived of the script in 2000 while working as a writer for the television sitcom Becker . Before writing the pilot episode , Weiner studied American literature and cinema of the 1950s and 1960s to get a perspective on American culture during that period . Weiner sent the script to The Sopranos creator David Chase , who recruited Weiner to work with him on The Sopranos . Weiner shelved the project for seven years to focus on Chase 's program ; interest for Mad Men did not surface until the conclusion of The Sopranos ' final season . \n According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode attained a rating of 1 @.@ 4 ( 1 @.@ 2 million households ) upon initial airing . \n = = Plot = = \n In 1960 New York City , Don Draper ( Jon Hamm ) , creative director for advertising agency Sterling Cooper , is facing a professional dilemma : how to sell cigarettes in spite of increased public awareness of their health risks . He seeks input from customers and his girlfriend Midge Daniels ( Rosemarie DeWitt ) , but is unable to find a solution . He rejects company research which suggests that some customers will be drawn to smoke despite the health risks because of a collective \" death wish . \" \n Meanwhile , Peggy Olson ( Elisabeth Moss ) begins a new career at Sterling Cooper as Don 's secretary . She finds herself overwhelmed by her new surroundings , and advice from office manager Joan Holloway ( Christina Hendricks ) proves more intimidating than helpful . A junior account executive named Pete Campbell ( Vincent Kartheiser ) makes crude comments about her appearance and clothing , causing Don to rebuke him . On her break , Peggy goes to a doctor 's office , where she gets a prescription for the pill . At the end of the day , she attempts to make a move on Don , but he rejects her advances . \n Don and Roger Sterling ( John Slattery ) meet with Rachel Menken ( Maggie Siff ) , owner of a large department store . Rachel , looking to attract wealthier customers , is disappointed by the agency 's suggestions of coupons to attract frugal housewives . The meeting becomes heated and both Rachel and Don leave angry with each other . A later meeting with executives from Lucky Strike tobacco company also appears to go badly , as Don still struggles to find a new approach to cigarette advertising . Pete suggests the \" death wish \" idea put forth by the company 's research , but the executives reject his idea . Just when it seems that the meeting is over , Don comes up with a new tagline — \" It 's toasted ! \" — and a strategy of ignoring the question of health risks while claiming that Lucky Strikes are uniquely prepared . The client is impressed , but Don rebukes Pete for using the rejected research . \n Don meets Rachel for dinner to make amends for the meeting . The two of them begin to bond , and she agrees to give Sterling Cooper another shot . Meanwhile , Pete and some of his co @-@ workers go to a gentlemen 's club to celebrate Pete 's impending wedding . There , a waitress rejects Pete 's advances . Dejected from this rejection and his professional problems , Pete arrives drunk at Peggy 's apartment , and she invites him in . Don takes a train to a large house in the suburbs , where he is greeted by his loving wife Betty ( January Jones ) , who he has made no mention of thus far in the episode . He checks on their two sleeping children as she watches admiringly from the doorway . \n = = Production = = \n = = = Conception = = = \n Creator Matthew Weiner conceived the script for \" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes \" in 2000 , while he was working as a writer for the sitcom Becker . The first draft of the episode was written as a spec script and was titled The Division . Two years later , Weiner sent the script to David Chase , the creator of The Sopranos , although Weiner 's agents insisted that he not proceed with his plans . Chase later recruited him upon first glance . \" It was what you ’ re always hoping to see , \" he recalled . \" It was lively and it had something new to say . Here was someone who had written a story about advertising in the 1960s , and was looking at recent American history through that prism . \" Weiner set the pilot script aside for the next seven years to focus on The Sopranos . Neither HBO nor Showtime expressed interest in the project until the commencement of The Sopranos ' final season . During that time , AMC began looking into the television market for new programming . \" The network was looking for distinction in launching its first original series , \" according to AMC Networks president Ed Carroll , \" and we took a bet that quality would win out over formulaic mass appeal . \" \n Prior to writing the pilot episode , Weiner studied American culture during the 1950s and 1960s , analyzing literary works such as The Feminine Mystique ( 1963 ) and Sex and the Single Girl ( 1962 ) while viewing such films as The Apartment ( 1960 ) and A Guide for the Married Man ( 1967 ) . He continued his endeavors when the series ' concept began to materialize , as he received a copy of the Richard Yates novel Revolutionary Road ( 1962 ) from the executives of AMC . Weiner discussed the look of Mad Men with production designer Bob Shaw and cinematographer Phil Abraham , whom Weiner had previously collaborated with in The Sopranos . Abraham wanted to establish a more genuine approach to portraying society in the 1960s , rather than \" simply referencing the period as seen in movies of that time . We wanted to be more genuine than that . Movies were an influence . \" In evoking historical accuracy of elements such as architecture and graphic design , Abraham sought inspiration from the buildings designed by the architecture firm Skidmore , Owings and Merrill . He said , \" We noticed that in all the Skidmore , Owings & Merrill designs of contemporary buildings , the ceiling — the overhead grid of lights — was a strong graphic element in all the office spaces . In one design we loved , the whole ceiling was like a lightbox . It was a time of high modernism , and we embraced the notion of presenting the world in that way . These were new work spaces — sleek , not stuffy . \" \n = = = Casting = = = \n Jon Hamm was cast as Don Draper , the central character of the series . Hamm , who was relatively unknown at the time , competed with 80 other actors in the auditioning process . Weiner proclaimed that Hamm accurately portrayed the character , saying that he was \" the only person who really had this great mix of empathy and masculinity and intelligence . Both Don and Jon have an inner life . So long as you have that kind of depth in a human being , people will root for him [ ... ] Jon walked out of the room and I said , ' That guy has lived . ' \" Hamm admitted that he felt that he had a considerable disadvantage compared to his peers , and initially believed Thomas Jane would acquire the role . \" I started , literally , on the very , very bottom , \" he iterated . \" I couldn 't have had less heat on me . Nobody knew who I was . The casting directors didn 't know who I was . I wasn 't on anybody 's lists . The funny thing was , I think they went to Thomas Jane for it , and they were told that Thomas Jane does not do television . \" Hamm went through seven auditions ; his last one took place at the Hotel Gansevoort in the Meatpacking District of New York City . \" When we were riding down on the elevator , the woman in charge of whatever the decision @-@ making process was told me , ' You got the job . ' \" \n John Slattery , who was later cast as Roger Sterling , originally auditioned to portray Don Draper . Slattery felt Don was the show 's biggest draw , and was disappointed upon hearing of his character 's sparse screen time . He recalled , \" I really did prepare the thing and went in and I worked hard on it and then read for Don and they actually gave me adjustments and I went and I did it again . And then they sort of said , ' Well , look , here ’ s the deal . We have a guy . The reason we asked you to come in and read for Draper is because we didn 't think that you ’ d come in a read for Roger because there wasn ’ t that much Roger in the script . ' \" During production of \" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes , \" Slattery admitted he was unsure of whether to continue working on Mad Men . \" I was on the fence a little bit , even while shooting it . And I think Matt finally was like , ' Look man , we ’ re not jerking you around here . We ’ re serious about this and I ’ ve really thought this out . I promise you this will be a great character and it will be a big part of the show . ' \" \n Producers of Mad Men approached January Jones to portray Betty Draper , Don 's wife and mother of their two children . Jones avouched that portraying the character would give the audience an opportunity to see a dark side of her nature . She initially auditioned for the role of Peggy Olson , which was later given to fellow cast member Elisabeth Moss . \" It got down between Elisabeth Moss and myself , and it was obviously more suited to her ,"},"length_category":{"kind":"string","value":"Very Long"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"wikitext-103-excerpt"}}},{"rowIdx":6897,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":" year , contested by both club and school crews . \n = Alan Julian = \n Alan John Julian ( born 11 March 1983 ) is a semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for National League club Bromley . \n Julian started his career at Brentford , progressing through the youth side and making his first @-@ team debut in 2002 . After failing to cement a place as Brentford 's number one goalkeeper , he left to join Stevenage Borough in February 2005 . Julian was a regular fixture in the side , helping the club win the FA Trophy in May 2007 . He left Stevenage to join Gillingham on a free transfer in May 2008 . Julian was released by Gillingham in May 2011 , having played 80 games for the club during his three @-@ year tenure . He spent a season at his former club , now called simply Stevenage , before being released in May 2012 , and subsequently joined Newport County a month later . He was released by the club in May 2013 , and subsequently joined Dartford on a free transfer . \n = = Club career = = \n = = = Early career = = = \n Julian joined Brentford aged nine , following a successful trial . He progressed through the various youth ranks and eventually signed his first professional contract in 2002 . He made his debut for the club in the Brentford 's 1 – 0 victory over Plymouth Argyle in the Football League Trophy on 12 November 2002 . During the match , Julian was \" forced into numerous good saves . His best stop came in the 21st minute when he managed to claw away a stinging drive from Hasney Aljofree , and moments later he also denied Blair Sturrock with a low block \" . He made a further three appearances during the 2002 – 03 season , keeping a clean sheet in a 1 – 0 win over Mansfield Town . At the end of the season , Julian signed a new contract with Brentford , keeping him contracted to the club until 2005 . Julian remained at Brentford during the club 's 2003 – 04 campaign , playing his first match of the season in a 4 – 0 away defeat to West Bromwich Albion . He made a total of 14 appearances for Brentford during the season . Julian left Brentford in February 2005 , claiming \" the time had come \" for him to experience first @-@ team football on a regular basis . \n = = = Stevenage Borough = = = \n He signed for Stevenage Borough on a free transfer on 4 February 2005 , making his debut in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 win over Scarborough . Julian kept seven clean sheets for Stevenage in 17 appearances during the second half of the club 's 2004 – 05 campaign , including in a 1 – 0 victory against Hereford United at Edgar Street in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final second leg – a win that meant Stevenage were one game away from reaching the Football League for the first time in their history . He played in the play @-@ off final against Carlisle United at the Britannia Stadium , which Stevenage lost 1 – 0 . He remained at Stevenage during the 2005 – 06 season , \" attracting interest from scouts \" as a result of Stevenage 's strong start to the season . Stevenage kept 12 clean sheets during the season , although failed to make the play @-@ offs following a 2 – 0 defeat at Forest Green Rovers , finishing sixth . Julian made 45 appearances for Stevenage during the campaign and was voted ' Supporters Association Player of the Year ' . \n At the end of the 2005 – 06 season , Graham Westley , the man that had brought Julian to Stevenage , left the club and was replaced by Mark Stimson . Stimson signed goalkeeper Danny Potter and stated that Potter would be the club 's first choice goalkeeper . Julian was subsequently an unused substitute for Stevenage 's first two games of the season . However , after Potter was sent @-@ off in Stevenage 's home game against Crawley Town , Julian made his first appearance of the season , coming on as a 63rd @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 2 defeat . Julian remained first choice goalkeeper from then onwards , making 53 appearances for the club during the 2006 – 07 season as Stevenage finished eighth in the Conference National . Eight of Julian 's appearances during the season came in the club 's successful FA Trophy campaign , keeping four clean sheets in the process . He also made a number vital saves in the club 's semi @-@ final second leg against Grays Athletic , which Stevenage went on to win by a 3 – 1 aggregate scoreline . Julian started in the Final , which Stevenage won 3 – 2 against Kidderminster Harriers at Wembley Stadium in front of a crowd of 53 @,@ 262 . The win meant that Julian was part of the first team to win a competitive final at the new stadium . \n Julian remained at Stevenage for a fourth consecutive season , starting in the club 's first game of the 2007 – 08 season , a 2 – 1 defeat at Crawley Town . He kept his first clean sheet of the season in Stevenage 's 3 – 0 home win against Weymouth . This served as the catalyst for a run of eight games without conceding a goal , equalling a Conference National record when they beat Farsley Celtic 4 – 0 at Broadhall Way . Julian went a total of 778 minutes without conceding a goal . After manager Mark Stimson left Stevenage to join Gillingham , Julian refused to sign a new contract , stating he wanted to \" keep his options open for the summer \" . As a result , he was transfer @-@ listed in January 2008 . Despite being on the transfer @-@ list , Julian remained first choice goalkeeper under new manager Peter Taylor until Stevenage 's 3 – 1 home defeat to Torquay United on 12 April 2008 , his final appearance of the season . He made 44 appearances during the 2007 – 08 season . During his three and a half @-@ year tenure at Stevenage , Julian made a total of 159 appearances in all competitions . \n = = = Gillingham = = = \n Julian joined Gillingham on a free transfer on 21 May 2008 , joining up with former Stevenage manager Mark Stimson . He made his debut for Gillingham in the club 's League Cup first round 1 – 0 home defeat against Colchester United on 12 August 2008 . Four days later , Julian made his first league start for Gillingham , playing the whole match in a 1 – 0 home loss to Luton Town . He did not make another first @-@ team appearance until November 2008 , when he kept a clean sheet in a 1 – 0 away win at Macclesfield Town . A week later , he kept another clean sheet as Gillingham beat Bury 1 – 0 at Gigg Lane in the FA Cup . After six weeks without a first @-@ team appearance , Julian played in Gillingham 's 2 – 0 away loss at Dagenham & Redbridge . His next first @-@ team appearance was five months later , playing in a 1 – 0 away victory at Rochdale , with Gillingham having already secured a play @-@ off place . It was Julian 's last appearance of the 2008 – 09 campaign as Gillingham secured promotion back to League One after a 1 – 0 play @-@ off Final win against Shrewsbury Town . He made six appearances during his first season with the club , keeping three clean sheets . \n Ahead of the 2009 – 10 campaign , manager Mark Stimson admitted he was undecided as to whether Julian or Simon Royce would start in the club 's opening fixture of the season . Julian ultimately started in the club 's 5 – 0 home win against Swindon Town on the first day of the season . After three straight defeats in the space of a week with Gillingham conceding seven goals , Julian was replaced by Royce ahead of the club 's League Cup game against Blackburn Rovers . After the game , Julian only featured twice in the space of four months , both appearances coming in Football League Trophy fixtures . Julian handed in a transfer request in November 2009 as a result of a lack of first @-@ team appearances . However , Gillingham received no offers for the player , with manager Mark Stimson saying \" I haven 't had a phone call . He 's been on the loan circuit for four to six weeks and I haven 't had a call . You don 't just say I 'm on the transfer list and six teams come in for you \" . He remained at Gillingham , and after appearing in Gillingham 's 2 – 1 away loss at Huddersfield Town in December 2009 , Julian remained as a first choice goalkeeper until the end of the season . The club went the whole season without an away victory , and were relegated back to League Two on the final day of the season following a 3 – 0 defeat to Wycombe Wanderers . Julian made 33 appearances during the 2009 – 10 season , keeping eight clean sheets . \n Under the new management of Andy Hessenthaler , Julian started the 2010 – 11 season as first choice goalkeeper , starting in the club 's first game of the season , a 1 – 1 draw with Cheltenham Town on 7 August 2010 . However , similarly to the 2009 – 10 season , Julian lost his first @-@ team place after a winless run at the start of the campaign . New signing Lance Cronin impressed in an away draw against Morecambe , and kept Julian out of the first @-@ team for five weeks . After Gillingham 's 7 – 4 away loss at Accrington Stanley , Julian regained his first @-@ team place , playing in a 2 – 1 home win against Stockport County on 9 October 2010 . Julian was part of the side that ended Gillingham 's 35 game winless away streak when they won 1 – 0 against Oxford United at the Kassam Stadium on 20 November 2010 , making a number of key saves during the game . He remained as first choice goalkeeper throughout the season as Gillingham finished in eighth position in League Two , narrowly missing out on a play @-@ off place after losing three out of their last four games . Julian made 41 appearances for Gillingham in all competitions during the 2010 – 11 season , keeping 12 clean sheets . Despite being the club 's first choice goalkeeper during the campaign , Julian was told that he no longer featured in the club 's plans , and was subsequently released on 11 May 2011 . He made 80 appearances in all competitions for Gillingham during the three years he spent at the club . \n = = = Return to Stevenage = = = \n In June 2011 , Julian re @-@ joined his former club , now renamed simply Stevenage , on a free transfer , three years after leaving the club . The move meant that Julian would be playing under the management of Graham Westley once more , who first brought Julian to Stevenage in 2005 – Westley said \" Alan sees the opportunity in the long term and we all know how much quality he will bring into the squad . He is a different type of character but another man that you would happily go into the trenches with \" . On signing for Stevenage , Julian said \" I had a great time at Stevenage before and coming back now and we are in League One , it is a dream come true \" . As a result of Chris Day dislocating his finger , Julian started in the club 's first game of the 2011 – 12 campaign , keeping a clean sheet in Stevenage 's 0 – 0 home draw against Exeter City . He played the first three games of the season , before first choice goalkeeper Chris Day returned from injury . Julian made just two further appearances during the campaign ; in a 2 – 2 draw with AFC Wimbledon in the Football League Trophy , and an appearance as a second @-@ half substitute in Stevenage 's 2 – 2 home draw against Huddersfield Town . He was released by Stevenage when his contract expired in May 2012 . \n = = = Newport County = = = \n In June 2012 , Julian joined Conference National side Newport County on a free transfer . In Newport 's first pre @-@ season game ahead of the 2012 – 13 season , away to Caldicot Town , Julian suffered a knee ligament injury . He subsequently missed the first three months of the season , before eventually making his first @-@ team debut for Newport on 17 November 2012 , in a 3 – 1 home defeat to Hyde . Julian went on to make eleven appearances during a campaign in which Newport would return to the Football League after a 25 @-@ year absence following the club 's 2 – 0 play @-@ off final victory over Wrexham in May 2013 . \n = = = Dartford = = = \n He was released by Newport at the end of the season , and subsequently signed for Dartford . On securing the signing of Julian , Dartford manager Tony Burman stated — \" After meeting Alan a couple of times , I was impressed with his professionalism and I am looking forward to having someone of his experience here at Dartford \" . Julian was voted Dartford 's player of the season for the 2013 – 14 season . \n = = = Sutton United = = = \n Following his departure from Dartford , Julian signed for Sutton United . However , following an injury in pre @-@ season , Julian found opportunities limited , before eventually making 14 league appearances . He eventually left the club along with fellow goalkeeper Tom Lovelock in January 2015 . \n = = = Bromley = = = \n Soon after , he joined Sutton 's league rivals Bromley . He made his debut for the club in a 2 – 1 away win over Basingstoke Town . \n = = International career = = \n Julian has played once for the Northern Ireland U21 side , playing in a 0 – 0 draw against Switzerland U21 in August 2004 . \n = = Honours = = \n Stevenage \n FA Trophy ( 1 ) : 2006 – 07 \n Newport County \n Conference National play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13 \n Individual \n Stevenage Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06 \n Dartford Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14 \n = = Career statistics = = \n As of 9th May 2016 . \n = = = International = = = \n = Raoul Wallenberg = \n Raoul Gustaf Wallenberg ( 4 August 1912 – disappeared 17 January 1945 ) was a Swedish architect , businessman , diplomat and humanitarian . He is widely celebrated for saving tens of thousands of Jews in Nazi @-@ occupied Hungary during the Holocaust from German Nazis and Hungarian Fascists during the later stages of World War II . While serving as Sweden 's special envoy in Budapest between July and December 1944 , Wallenberg issued protective passports and sheltered Jews in buildings designated as Swedish territory . \n On 17 January 1945 , during the Siege of Budapest by the Red Army , Wallenberg was detained by SMERSH on suspicion of espionage and subsequently disappeared . He was later reported to have died on 17 July 1947 while imprisoned by communist authorities and KGB secret police in the Lubyanka , the KGB headquarters and affiliated prison in Moscow . The motives behind Wallenberg 's arrest and imprisonment by the Soviet government , along with questions surrounding the circumstances of his death and his possible ties to US intelligence , remain mysterious and are the subject of continued speculation . \n Due to his courageous actions on behalf of the Hungarian Jews , Raoul Wallenberg has been the subject of numerous humanitarian honors in the decades following his presumed death . In 1981 , U.S. Congressman Tom Lantos , himself one of those saved by Wallenberg , sponsored a bill making Wallenberg an Honorary Citizen of the United States . He was the second person ever to receive this honor , after Winston Churchill ( and unlike Churchill , neither of his parents had been born in the United States ) . Wallenberg is also an honorary citizen of Canada , Hungary , Australia and Israel . Israel has also designated Wallenberg one of the Righteous Among the Nations . Monuments have been dedicated to him , and streets have been named after him throughout the world . A Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States was created in 1981 to \" perpetuate the humanitarian ideals and the nonviolent courage of Raoul Wallenberg . \" It gives the Raoul Wallenberg Award annually to recognize persons who carry out those goals . Postage stamps have been issued in his honour by Australia , Hungary , Sweden , Canada and the United States . On 26 July 2012 , he was awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress \" in recognition of his achievements and heroic actions during the Holocaust . \" \n = = Early life = = \n Wallenberg was born in 1912 in Lidingö , near Stockholm , where his maternal grandparents , professor Per Johan Wising and his wife Sophie Wising , had built a summer house in 1882 . His paternal grandfather , Gustaf Wallenberg , was a diplomat and envoy to Tokyo , Istanbul and Sofia . \n His parents , who married in 1911 , were Raoul Oscar Wallenberg ( 1888 – 1912 ) , a Swedish naval officer , and Maria \" Maj \" Sofia Wising ( 1891 – 1979 ) . His father died of cancer three months before he was born , and his maternal grandfather died of pneumonia three months after his birth . His mother and grandmother , now both suddenly widows , raised him together . In 1918 , his mother married Fredrik von Dardel ; they had a son , Guy von Dardel , and a daughter , Nina Lagergren . \n After high school and his compulsory eight months in the Swedish military , Wallenberg 's paternal grandfather sent him to study in Paris . He spent one year there , and then , in 1931 , he matriculated at the University of Michigan in the United States to study architecture . Although the Wallenberg family was rich , he worked at odd jobs in his free time and joined other young male students as a passenger rickshaw handler at Chicago 's Century of Progress . He used his vacations to explore the United States , with hitchhiking being his preferred method of travel . About his experiences , he wrote to his grandfather saying , \" When you travel like a hobo , everything ’ s different . You have to be on the alert the whole time . You ’ re in close contact with new people every day . Hitchhiking gives you training in diplomacy and tact . \" \n Wallenberg was aware of his one @-@ sixteenth Jewish ancestry , and proud of it . It came from his great @-@ great @-@ grandfather ( his maternal grandmother 's grandfather ) Michael Benedicks , who immigrated to Stockholm in 1780 . Professor Ingemar Hedenius ( one of the leading Swedish philosophers ) recalls a conversation with Raoul dating back to 1930 , when they were together in an army hospital during military service : \n We had many long and intimate conversations . He was full of ideas and plans for the future . Although I was a good deal older - you could choose when to do your service - I was enormously impressed by him . He was proud of his partial Jewish ancestry and , as I recall , must have exaggerated it somewhat . I remember him saying , ' A person like me , who is both a Wallenberg and half @-@ Jewish , can never be defeated ' . \n He graduated from university in 1935 , but upon his return to Sweden , he found his American degree did not qualify him to practice as an architect . Later that year , his grandfather arranged a job for him in Cape Town , South Africa , in the office of a Swedish company that sold construction material . After six months in South Africa , he took a new job at a branch office of the Holland Bank in Haifa . He returned to Sweden in 1936 and obtained a job in Stockholm with the help of his uncle and godfather , Jacob Wallenberg , at the Central European Trading Company , an export @-@ import company trading between Stockholm and central Europe , owned by Kálmán Lauer , a Hungarian Jew . \n = = World War II = = \n Beginning in 1938 , the Kingdom of Hungary , under the regency of Miklós Horthy , passed a series of anti @-@ Jewish measures modeled on the so @-@ called Nuremberg Race Laws enacted in Germany by the Nazis in 1935 . Like their German counterparts , the Hungarian laws focused heavily on restricting Jews from certain professions , reducing the number of Jews in government and public service jobs , and prohibiting intermarriage . Because of this , Wallenberg 's business associate , Kalman Lauer , found it increasingly difficult to travel to his native Hungary , which was moving still deeper into the German orbit , becoming a member of the Axis powers in November 1940 and later joining the German @-@ led invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 . Out of necessity Wallenberg became Lauer 's personal representative , traveling to Hungary to conduct business on Lauer 's behalf and also to look in on members of Lauer 's extended family who remained in Budapest . He soon learned to speak Hungarian , and from 1941 made increasingly frequent travels to Budapest . Within a year , Wallenberg was a joint owner and the International Director of the company . In this capacity Wallenberg also made several business trips to Germany and Occupied @-@ France during the early years of World War II . It was during these trips that Wallenberg was able to closely observe the Nazis ' bureaucratic and administrative methods , knowledge which would prove quite valuable to him later . \n Meanwhile , the situation in Hungary had begun to deteriorate as the tide of the war began to turn decisively against Germany and its allies . Following the catastrophic Axis defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad ( in which Hungarian troops fighting alongside German forces suffered a staggering 84 % casualty rate ) the regime of Miklos Horthy began secretly pursuing peace talks with the United States and the United Kingdom . Upon learning of Horthy 's duplicity , Adolf Hitler ordered the occupation of Hungary by German troops in March 1944 . The Wehrmacht quickly took control of the country and placed Horthy under house arrest . A pro @-@ German puppet government was installed in Budapest , with actual power resting with the German military governor , SS @-@ Brigadeführer Edmund Veesenmayer . With the Nazis now in control , the relative security from the Holocaust enjoyed by the Jews of Hungary came to an end . In April and May 1944 the Nazi regime and its accomplices began the mass deportation of Hungary 's Jews to extermination camps in Nazi @-@ occupied Poland . Under the personal leadership of SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann , who would later be tried and hanged in Israel for his major role in the implementation of the Nazis ' Final Solution , deportations took place at a rate of 12 @,@ 000 individuals per day . \n = = = Recruitment by the War Refugee Board = = = \n The persecution of the Jews in Hungary soon became well known abroad , unlike the full extent of the Holocaust . At the end of May 1944 , George Mantello publicized two important reports . One of the reports was probably Rabbi Chaim Michael Dov Weissmandl 's five @-@ page abridged version of the 33 @-@ page Auschwitz Protocols : both the Vrba – Wetzler report and Rosin @-@ Mordowicz report . The reports described in detail the operations of the Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau extermination camp . The second was a 6 @-@ page Hungarian report , that detailed the Ghettoization and deportation of 435 @,@ 000 already deported Hungarian Jews , updated to 19 June 1944 , town by town , to Auschwitz . The report 's publication resulted in Winston Churchill 's letter : \" There is no doubt that this persecution of Jews in Hungary and their expulsion from enemy territory is probably the greatest and most horrible crime ever committed in the whole history of the world .... \" \n Following the report 's publication , the administration of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt turned to the newly created War Refugee Board ( WRB ) established as a result of activism by the \" Bergson Group \" led by Hillel Kook and later by Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau , Jr and team in search of a solution to the humanitarian crisis in Hungary . In spring 1944 , President Roosevelt dispatched US Treasury Department official Iver C. Olsen to Stockholm as a representative of the WRB . Olsen was tasked specifically by the President with finding a way to aid the Hungarian Jews . This , however , was not the sole reason for Olsen being posted to Sweden . In addition to his duties with the WRB , Olsen was also secretly functioning as the chief of currency operations for the Stockholm branch of the Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) , the United States ' wartime espionage service . \n In search of someone willing and able to go to Budapest to organize a rescue program for the nation 's Jews , Olsen established contact with a relief committee composed of many prominent Swedish Jews led by the Swedish Chief Rabbi Marcus Ehrenpreis to locate an appropriate person to travel to Budapest under diplomatic cover and lead the rescue operation . One member of the committee was Wallenberg 's business associate Kalman Lauer . \n The committee 's first choice to lead the mission was Count Folke Bernadotte , the vice @-@ chairman of the Swedish Red Cross and a member of the Swedish Royal Family . When Bernadotte 's proposed appointment was rejected by the Hungarians , Lauer suggested Wallenberg as a potential replacement . Olsen was introduced to Wallenberg by Lauer in June 1944 and came away from the meeting impressed and , shortly thereafter , appointed Wallenberg to lead the mission . Olsen 's selection of Wallenberg was initially met with objections from some US officials who doubted his reliability , in light of existing commercial relationships between businesses owned by the Wallenberg family and the German government . These differences were eventually overcome and the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs agreed to the American request to assign Wallenberg to its legation in Budapest as part of an arrangement in which Wallenberg 's appointment was granted in exchange for a lessening of American diplomatic pressure on neutral Sweden to curtail their nation 's free @-@ trade policies toward Germany . \n = = Mission to Budapest = = \n When Wallenberg reached the Swedish legation in Budapest in July 1944 , the campaign against the Jews of Hungary had already been underway for several months . Between May and July 1944 , Eichmann and his associates had successfully deported over 400 @,@ 000 Jews by freight train . Of those deported all but 15 @,@ 000 were sent directly to the German Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau concentration camp in southern Poland . By the time of Wallenberg 's arrival there were only 230 @,@ 000 Jews remaining in Hungary . Together with fellow Swedish diplomat Per Anger , he issued \" protective passports \" ( German : Schutz @-@ Pass ) , which identified the bearers as Swedish subjects awaiting repatriation and thus prevented their deportation . Although not legal , these documents looked official and were generally accepted by German and Hungarian authorities , who sometimes were also bribed . The Swedish legation in Budapest also succeeded in negotiating with the German authorities so that the bearers of the protective passes would be treated as Swedish citizens and be exempt from having to wear the yellow badge required for Jews . \n With the money raised by the board , Wallenberg rented 32 buildings in Budapest and declared them to be extraterritorial , protected by diplomatic immunity . He put up signs such as \" The Swedish Library \" and \" The Swedish Research Institute \" on their doors and hung oversized Swedish flags on the front of the buildings to bolster the deception . The buildings eventually housed almost 10 @,@ 000 people . \n Sandor Ardai , one of the drivers working for Wallenberg , recounted what Wallenberg did when he intercepted a trainload of Jews about to leave for Auschwitz : \n .. he climbed up on the roof of the train and began handing in protective passes through the doors which were not yet sealed . He ignored orders from the Germans for him to get down , then the Arrow Cross men began shooting and shouting at him to go away . He ignored them and calmly continued handing out passports to the hands that were reaching out for them . I believe the Arrow Cross men deliberately aimed over his head , as not one shot hit him , which would have been impossible otherwise . I think this is what they did because they were so impressed by his courage . After Wallenberg had handed over the last of the passports he ordered all those who had one to leave the train and walk to the caravan of cars parked nearby , all marked in Swedish colours . I don 't remember exactly how many , but he saved dozens off that train , and the Germans and Arrow Cross were so dumbfounded they let him get away with it . \n At the height of the program , over 350 people were involved in the rescue of Jews . Sister Sára Salkaházi was caught sheltering Jewish women and was killed by members of the Arrow Cross Party . Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz also issued protective passports from the Swiss embassy in the spring of 1944 ; and Italian businessman Giorgio Perlasca posed as a Spanish diplomat and issued forged visas . Portuguese diplomats Sampaio Garrido and Carlos de Liz @-@ Texeira Branquinho rented houses and apartments to shelter and protect refugees from deportation and murder and issued safe conducts to approximately 1 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews . Berber Smit ( Barbara Hogg ) , the daughter of Lolle Smit ( 1892 – 1961 ) , director of N.V. Philips Budapest and a Dutch spy working for the British MI6 , also assisted Wallenberg . According to her son , she had a romance with him . Smit 's other daughter , Reinderdina Petronella ( 1922 – 1945 ) , died on 18 August 1945 in Bucharest . \n Wallenberg started sleeping in a different house each night , to guard against being captured or killed by Arrow Cross Party members or by Adolf Eichmann 's men . Two days before the Soviet Army occupied Budapest , Wallenberg negotiated with both Eichmann and Major @-@ General Gerhard Schmidthuber , the supreme commander of German forces in Hungary . Wallenberg bribed Arrow Cross Party member Pál Szalai to deliver a note in which Wallenberg persuaded the occupying Germans to prevent a Fascist plan to blow up the Budapest ghetto and kill an estimated 70 @,@ 000 Jews and cancel a final effort to organize a death march of the remaining Jews in Budapest by threatening to have them prosecuted for war crimes once the war was over . \n People saved by Wallenberg include biochemist Lars Ernster , who was housed in the Swedish embassy , and Tom Lantos , later a member of the United States House of Representatives , who lived in one of the Swedish protective houses . \n = = Disappearance = = \n On 29 October 1944 , elements of the 2nd Ukrainian Front under Marshal Rodion Malinovsky launched an offensive against Budapest and by late December the city had been successfully encircled by Soviet forces . Despite this the German commander of Budapest , SS Lieutenant General Karl Pfeffer @-@ Wildenbruch , refused all offers to surrender , setting in motion a protracted and bloody siege of Budapest . At the height of the fighting , on 17 January 1945 , Wallenberg was called to General Malinovsky 's headquarters in Debrecen to answer allegations that he was engaged in espionage . Wallenberg 's last recorded words were , \" I 'm going to Malinovsky 's ... whether as a guest or prisoner I do not know yet . \" Documents recovered in 1993 from previously secret Soviet military archives and published in the Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet show that an order for Wallenberg 's arrest was issued by Deputy Commissar for Defence ( and future Soviet Premier ) Nikolai Bulganin and transmitted to Malinovsky 's headquarters on the day of Wallenberg 's disappearance . In 2003 , a review of Soviet wartime correspondences indicated that Vilmos Böhm , a Hungarian politician who was also a Soviet intelligence agent , may have provided Wallenberg 's name to the SMERSH as a person to detain for possible involvement in espionage . \n Information about Wallenberg after his detention is mostly speculative ; there were many witnesses who claim to have met him during his imprisonment . Wallenberg was transported by train from Debrecen , through Romania , to Moscow . The Soviet authorities may have moved him to Moscow in the hope of exchanging him for defectors in Sweden . Vladimir Dekanozov notified the Swedish government on 16 January 1945 that Wallenberg was under the protection of Soviet authorities . On 21 January 1945 , Wallenberg was transferred to Lubyanka prison and held in cell 123 with fellow prisoner Gustav Richter , formerly a police attaché at the German embassy in Romania . Richter testified in Sweden in 1955 that Wallenberg was interrogated once for about an hour and a half , in early February 1945 . On 1 March 1945 , Richter was moved from his cell and never saw Wallenberg again . \n On 8 March 1945 , Soviet @-@ controlled Hungarian radio announced that Wallenberg and his driver had been murdered on their way to Debrecen , suggesting that they had been killed by the Arrow Cross Party or the Gestapo . Sweden 's foreign minister , Östen Undén , and its ambassador to the Soviet Union , Staffan Söderblom , wrongly assumed that they were dead . In April 1945 , W. Averell Harriman then of the U.S. State Department offered the Swedish government help in inquiring about Wallenberg ’ s fate , but the offer was declined . Söderblom met with Vyacheslav Molotov and Stalin in Moscow on 15 June 1946 . Söderblom , still believing Wallenberg to be dead , ignored talk of an exchange for Russian defectors in Sweden . \n = = = Death = = = \n On 6 February 1957 , the Soviet government released a document dated 17 July 1947 , which stated \" I report that the prisoner Wallenberg who is well @-@ known to you , died suddenly in his cell this night , probably as a result of a heart attack or heart failure . Pursuant to the instructions given by you that I personally have Wallenberg under my care , I request approval to make an autopsy with a view to establishing cause of death ... I have personally notified the minister and it has been ordered that the body be cremated without autopsy . \" The document was signed by Smoltsov , then the head of the Lubyanka prison infirmary , and addressed to Viktor Abakumov , the Soviet minister of state security . In 1989 , Wallenberg 's personal belongings were returned to his family , including his passport and cigarette case . Soviet officials said they found the materials when they were upgrading the shelves in a store room . \n In 1991 , Vyacheslav Nikonov was charged by the Russian government to investigate Wallenberg 's fate . He concluded that Wallenberg died in 1947 , executed while a prisoner in Lubyanka . He may have been a victim of the C @-@ 2 poison ( carbylamine @-@ choline @-@ chloride ) tested at the poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services . \n In Moscow in 2000 , Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev announced that Wallenberg had been executed in 1947 in Lubyanka prison . He claimed that Vladimir Kryuchkov , the former Soviet secret police chief , told him about the shooting in a private conversation . The statement did not explain why Wallenberg was killed or why the government had lied about it . General Pavel Sudoplatov claimed that Raoul Wallenberg died after being poisoned by Grigory Mairanovsky , a notorious NKVD assassin . In 2000 , Russian prosecutor Vladimir Ustinov signed a verdict posthumously rehabilitating Wallenberg and his driver , Langfelder , as \" victims of political repression \" . A number of files pertinent to Wallenberg were turned over to the chief rabbi of Russia by the Russian government in September 2007 . The items were slated to be housed at the Jewish Museum and Tolerance Center in Moscow , which opened in 2012 . \n = = = Disputes regarding his death = = = \n Several former prisoners have claimed to have seen Wallenberg after his reported death in 1947 . In February 1949 , former German Colonel Theodor von Dufving , a prisoner of war , provided evidentiary statements concerning Wallenberg . While in the transit camp in Kirov , en route to Vorkuta , Dufving encountered a prisoner with his own special guard and dressed in civilian clothes . The prisoner claimed that he was a Swedish diplomat and that he was there \" through a great error \" . \n Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal searched for Wallenberg and collected several testimonies . For example , British businessman Greville Wynne , who was imprisoned in the Lubyanka prison in 1962 for his connection to KGB defector Oleg Penkovsky , stated he talked to , but could not see the face of , a man who claimed to be a Swedish diplomat . Efim ( or Yefim ) Moshinsky claims to have seen Wallenberg on Wrangel Island in 1962 . An eyewitness asserted that she had seen Wallenberg in the 1960s in a Soviet prison . \n During a private conversation about the conditions of detention in Soviet prisons at a party reception in the mid @-@ 1970s , a KGB general is reported to have said that \" conditions could not be that harsh , given that in Lubyanka prison there is some foreign prisoner who had been there now for almost three decades . \" \n The last reported sightings of Wallenberg were by two independent witnesses who said they had evidence that he was in a prison in November 1987 . John Farkas was a resistance fighter during World War II and was the last man claiming to have seen Wallenberg alive . Farkas ' son has stated that there have been sightings of Wallenberg \" up into the 1980s in Russian prisons and psychiatric hospitals . \" \n Raoul Wallenberg 's half @-@ brother , Professor Guy von Dardel , a well @-@ known physicist , retired from CERN , was dedicated to finding out his half @-@ brother 's fate . He traveled to the Soviet Union about fifty times for discussions and research , including an examination of the Vladimir prison records . Over the years , Professor von Dardel had compiled a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ page archive of interviews , journal articles , letters , and other documents related to his quest . In 1991 , he initiated a Swedish @-@ Russian working group to search eleven separate military and government archives from the former Soviet Union for information about Wallenberg 's fate , but the group was not able to find conclusive information . Many , including Professor von Dardel and his daughters Louise and Marie , do not accept the various versions of Wallenberg 's death . They continue to request that the archives in Russia , Sweden and Hungary be opened to impartial researchers . \n In 2012 Russian lieutenant @-@ general Vasily Khristoforov , head of the registration branch of the Russian Federal Security Service said that the Wallenberg case is still open . He dismissed allegations of a continuing coverup ; referring to the legacy Soviet agency from which his department sprang , Khristoforov said : \" This is another state and a different special service . \" \n = = = Declared death in absentia = = = \n On 29 March 2016 , an announcement was made by the Swedish Tax Agency that a petition to have Wallenberg declared dead in absentia had been submitted . It stated that if he does not report to the Tax Agency before 14 October 2016 , he will be declared dead legally : \" Raoul Wallenberg kallas jämlikt 7 § ( 2005 : 130 ) om dödförklaring att senast den 14 oktober 2016 anmäla sig hos Skatteverket . \" \n = = Connection to US intelligence = = \n In May 1996 the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) released thousands of previously classified documents regarding Raoul Wallenberg , in response to requests filed under the Freedom of Information Act . The documents , along with an investigation conducted by the newsmagazine US News and World Report , appeared to confirm the long @-@ held suspicion that Wallenberg was an American intelligence asset during his time in Hungary . In addition to Wallenberg 's name appearing on a roster found in the National Archives which listed the names of operatives associated with the CIA 's wartime predecessor , the Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) , the documents also included a 1954 memo from an anonymous CIA source that identified a Hungarian @-@ exile living in Stockholm who , according to the author : \" assisted … in inserting Roul [ sic ] Wallenberg into Hungary during WWII as an agent of OSS . \" Another declassified memorandum written in 1990 by the curator of the CIA 's Historical Intelligence Collection William Henhoeffer , characterized the conclusion that Wallenberg was working for the OSS while in Budapest as being \" essentially correct \" . \n More telling was a communique sent on 7 November 1944 by the OSS , Secret Intelligence Branch in Bari , Italy which apparently acknowledged that Wallenberg was acting as an unofficial liaison between the OSS and the Hungarian Independence Movement ( MFM ) , an underground anti @-@ Nazi resistance organization . The OSS message notes Wallenberg 's contacts with Geza Soos , a high @-@ ranking MFM leader and further explains that Soos \" may only be contacted \" through the Swedish legation in Budapest , which was Wallenberg 's workplace and also served as the operational center for his attempts to aid the Hungarian Jews . The same message 's assertion that Wallenberg \" will know if he ( Soos ) is not in Budapest \" is also curious , in that by November 1944 Soos was in hiding and knowledge of his whereabouts would only have been available to individuals closely involved with the MFM . This conclusion is given further weight by additional evidence suggesting that communications from the MFM to US intelligence were transmitted first to Stockholm and then relayed to Washington via Iver C. Olsen , the American OSS operative who initially recruited Wallenberg to go to Budapest in June 1944 . \n This particular disclosure has given rise to speculation as to whether , in addition to his efforts to rescue the Hungarian Jews , Wallenberg may have also been pursuing a parallel clandestine mission aimed at politically destabilizing Hungary ’ s pro @-@ Nazi government on behalf of the OSS . This would also seem to add some credence to the potential explanation that it was his association with US intelligence that led to Wallenberg being targeted by Soviet authorities in January 1945 . Several other humanitarians who had helped refugees during World War II disappeared behind the Iron Curtain in the period 1949 / 50 , several years after Wallenberg ’ s disappearance . OSS ties may have been of interest to the Soviets , but are not a complete explanation because some of those detained , i.e. Hermann Field and Herta Field , had not worked for the OSS . All of these humanitarians , however , like Wallenberg , had interacted with a large number of anti @-@ fascist and socialist refugees during the War , and this experience was used in the Stalin regime ’ s factional politics and show trials . \n = = Family = = \n In 2009 , reporter Joshua Prager wrote an article in the Wall Street Journal profiling the long @-@ term toll that Raoul Wallenberg 's disappearance had on his family . His mother Maj and his stepfather Fredrik von Dardel spent the rest of their lives searching for their son . They both committed suicide by overdosing on pills two days apart in 1979 . Their daughter Nina Lagergren , Raoul 's half @-@ sister , attributed their suicide to their despair about never finding their son . Lagergren and Raoul 's half @-@ brother Guy von Dardel established organizations and worked to find their brother or confirmation of his death . At the request of their parents , they were to assume he was alive until the year 2000 . \n Nina 's daughter , Nane Maria Lagergren , married Kofi Annan , former secretary general of the United Nations , and is active in many humanitarian efforts . Another of Wallenberg 's nieces , Louise von Dardel , is the main activist in the family and dedicates much of her time to speaking about Wallenberg and lobbying various countries to help uncover information about her uncle . The extended Wallenberg family remains an influential part of Swedish society as major shareholders in banks and corporations including Saab and Scandinavian Airlines . \n = = Honours = = \n Wallenberg was nominated twice for the Nobel Peace Prize , in 1948 by more than 50 qualified nominators and in 1949 by a single nominator At the time , the prize could be awarded posthumously , but the concept of such awards was controversial . \n = = = Argentina = = = \n In Buenos Aires , there is a monument in honour of Wallenberg at a park . It is a replica of the London monument by Philip Jackson , was unveiled in 1998 and can be seen from the Figueroa Alcorta Avenue , in Recoleta neighbourhood . \n = = = Australia = = = \n In Melbourne , a small memorial in honour of Wallenberg stands at the Jewish Holocaust Museum and Research Centre ; a monument by the sculptor Karl Duldig dedicated to him is at Kew Junction on the corner of Princess Street and High Street , Kew ; and a tree and memorial seat are in Carlisle St at St Kilda Town Hall . The Australian Centre for Clinical Neuropharmacology in Melbourne adopted the name ' The Raoul Wallenberg Centre ' on the occasion of Raoul Wallenberg 's 89th birthday . In Sydney are a Raoul Wallenberg garden and sculpture in Woollahra , and a statue inside the Jewish Museum of Australia . Commemorative trees have been planted in front of the federal Parliament and in many other locations . \n Established in 1985 , Raoul Wallenberg Unit of B 'nai B 'rith in Melbourne , Australia , together with Max Stern & Co , a leading stamp dealer in Melbourne , and Australia Post , released a limited edition Raoul Wallenberg Stamp Sheet and Envelope Set to mark the Unit 's 25th anniversary in 2010 . The Stamp Sheet shows a photo of Raoul Wallenberg together with a brief outline of his life , a monument in honour of Raoul Wallenberg by artist , Karl Duldig , in the Raoul Wallenberg Garden at Kew Junction , Melbourne , and ten 60 cent Australia Post stamps with tabs of Raoul Wallenberg from early childhood to adult soldier . The Envelope has a transparent front to show the Stamp Sheet ; a Schutzpass is shown on the back accompanied by an explanation . \n To commemorate the Centenary Year , a limited number of the Raoul Wallenberg Stamp Sheet were stamped with a special Centenary cancellation . These are available from Raoul Wallenberg Unit of B 'nai B 'rith in Melbourne . \n Raoul Wallenberg Unit requested clergy around the world to speak about Raoul Wallenberg and his heroic deeds - ' One Person can Make a Difference ' - from their pulpits over the weekend 3 – 5 August 2012 which coincided with the date of his 100th birthday , 4 August 2012 . \n Raoul Wallenberg Reserve in the neighbourhood of Yokine in Perth was dedicated in honour of Raoul Wallenberg . The small park is located in close proximity to many of Perth 's Jewish institutions including a Jewish Day School , aged care facility , community centre , sports club and orthodox synagogue . \n Wallenberg was named Australia 's first honorary citizen in April 2013 , during his centenary year . Frank Vajda AM was saved by Wallenberg in 1944 from the pro @-@ Nazi Arrow Cross Party and campaigned for decades for him to be recognised with the award . A ceremony at Government House , Canberra , to mark the occasion was held on 6 May 2013 , and was attended by Governor @-@ General Quentin Bryce AC CVO , Prime Minister Julia Gillard , and Opposition Leader Tony Abbott . Vajda also attended the ceremony , as did the son of World War II resistance fighter John Farkas , who was the last person known to have seen Wallenberg alive . George Farkas described the award as \" recognition that some people can do unbelievable good in the face of reprehensible evil \" . \n A 70 cent Raoul Wallenberg postage stamp and associated philatelic items were released by Australia Post on 5 October 2015 , one of three to by honoured in this manner by Australia ; the other two are Mother Teresa and Nelson Mandela . \n = = = Austria = = = \n In the 22nd district of Vienna a street was named \" Raoul @-@ Wallenberg @-@ Gasse \" . \n = = = Canada = = = \n Wallenberg was made the first Honorary Citizen of Canada in 1985 ; and the government declared 17 January , the day he disappeared , as \" Raoul Wallenberg Day \" in Canada . \n Numerous memorials , parks , and monuments honouring Wallenberg can be found across Canada , including the Raoul Wallenberg Memorial in Queen Elizabeth Park in Vancouver , Raoul Wallenberg Corner in Calgary , Raoul Wallenberg Park in Saskatoon , Parc Raoul Wallenberg in Ottawa , Ontario , and a memorial behind Christ Church Cathedral in downtown Montreal , where a bust of Wallenberg and a caged metal box , styled as a barbed @-@ wire gate , stand beside each other . The main entrance to Earl Bales Park in Toronto , Ontario is named Raoul Wallenberg Road . \n On 17 January 2013 , which marked the 68th anniversary of Wallenberg 's arrest by Soviet troops , Canada released a postage stamp in honour of Wallenberg . \n In 2008 , the Tanenbaum Community Hebrew Academy of Toronto added \" Wallenberg \" to the name of the school , thus spawning the moniker , Tanebaum CHAT Wallenberg Campus . \n = = = Georgia = = = \n In the center of Batumi a street was named \" Raoul Wallenberg street \" . \n = = = Germany = = = \n Streets were named after Wallenberg in both East and West Germany . \n = = = Hungary = = = \n Budapest named Wallenberg as an honorary citizen in 2003 . Several sites honor him , including Raoul Wallenberg Memorial Park , which commemorates those who saved many of the city 's Jews from deportation to extermination camps , and the building that housed the Swedish Embassy in 1945 . \n In July 2012 , Hungary paid tribute to Raoul Wallenberg in a ceremony at Budapest 's Holocaust museum , marking 100 years since his birth . Zoltan Balog , minister for human resources and social affairs , said that \" evil must be rejected \" . \n = = = Israel = = = \n Israel granted Wallenberg honorary citizenship in 1986 and honored him at the Yad Vashem memorial as one of the Righteous Among the Nations . Other tributes to Wallenberg in Israel include at least five streets named after him . On Raoul Wallenberg Street in Tel Aviv , a statue identical to one in Budapest was installed in 2002 ( see below ) , made by the sculptor Imre Varga . \n = = = Peru = = = \n A memorial to his name was made in 2013 in the capital city of Lima . Taking the form of a park , it is situated on the coast of the San Miguel District . \n = = = Russia = = = \n A memorial to him stands in the courtyard of the Russian Rudomino Library of Foreign Languages in Moscow . In Saint Petersburg , the Institute of Special Pedagogy and Psychology bears Wallenberg 's name . \n = = = Sweden = = = \n In 2001 , a memorial was created in Stockholm to honor Wallenberg . It was unveiled by King Carl XVI Gustaf , at a ceremony attended by then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan and his wife Nane Maria Annan , Wallenberg 's niece At the unveiling , King Carl XVI Gustaf said Wallenberg is \" a great example to those of us who want to live as fellow humans \" . Kofi Annan praised him as \" an inspiration for all of us to act when we can and to have the courage to help those who are suffering and in need of help \" . The memorial 's design ( see photo ) has been considered inappropriate by some critics . \n A memorial to Wallenberg was installed in Gothenburg , near Hagakyrkan ( Haga Church ) . Kofi Annan attended the unveiling ceremony . \n = = = United Kingdom = = = \n A monument to Raoul Wallenberg by Scottish sculptor Philip Jackson is located at Great Cumberland Place in London 's Marble Arch district , outside the Western Marble Arch Synagogue . It was unveiled by Queen Elizabeth II in 1997 , in the presence of the President of Israel , Ezer Weizman , the Secretary General of the United Nations , Kofi Annan , and survivors of the Holocaust . A separate monument stands near the Welsh National War Memorial in Cathays Park , Cardiff . A bronze briefcase monument by Gustav Kraitz with the initials RW is located in the garden of the Beth Shalom Holocaust Centre near Laxton in Nottinghamshire . \n = = = United States = = = \n The US Congress made Wallenberg an Honorary Citizen of the United States in 1981 , the second person to be so honored , after Winston Churchill . In 1985 , the portion of 15th Street , SW in Washington , D.C. on which the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is located , was renamed Raoul Wallenberg Place by Act of Congress . \n In 1997 , the United States Postal Service issued a stamp in his honor . Representative Tom Lantos , one of those saved by Wallenberg 's actions , said : \" It is most appropriate that we honor [ him ] with a U.S. stamp . In this age devoid of heroes , Wallenberg is the archetype of a hero – one who risked his life day in and day out , to save the lives of tens of thousands of people he did not know whose religion he did not share . \" \n In Manhattan , a monument honoring him was installed on Raoul Wallenberg Walk , named in his honor , across from the headquarters of the United Nations . The Swedish consulate commissioned the piece , created by Swedish sculptor Gustav Kraitz . The sculpture , Hope , is a replica of Wallenberg ’ s briefcase , a sphere , five pillars of black granite , and paving stones ( setts ) which were formerly used on the streets of the Budapest ghetto . There is also Wallenberg Forest in Riverdale , Bronx , established in 1990 and named Wallenberg Forest in 1996 . \n Another memorial stands in front of the Art and Architecture building at the University of Michigan , where he received his architecture degree in 1935 . \n Places named after Wallenberg include Raoul Wallenberg Traditional High School in San Francisco , the PS 194 Raoul Wallenberg School in Brooklyn , New York , Raoul Wallenberg Avenue in Trenton , New Jersey , and Raoul Wallenberg Blvd in Charleston , South Carolina . \n Since 2005 , the International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation has campaigned to establish 5 October as Raoul Wallenberg Day throughout the United States , as this was the day Wallenberg was awarded Honorary U.S. Citizenship . By 2010 , Raoul Wallenberg Day was being observed by the states of Colorado , Connecticut , Illinois , Iowa , Maine , Maryland , Michigan , Nebraska , Nevada , New Jersey , New Mexico , West Virginia , and Wyoming . \n Wallenberg was posthumously awarded the Train Foundation 's Civil Courage Prize , which recognizes \" extraordinary heroes of conscience \" . \n On 26 July 2012 , Wallenberg was posthumously awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress \" in recognition of his achievements and heroic actions during the Holocaust \" . \n = = Awards in his name = = \n The Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States bestows the Raoul Wallenberg Award \" on individuals , organizations and communities that reflect Raoul Wallenberg 's humanitarian spirit , personal courage and nonviolent action in the face of enormous odds \" . \n The University of Michigan awards the Wallenberg Medal annually to outstanding humanitarians who embody the humanitarian values and commitment of its distinguished alumnus . The first Wallenberg Medal was presented in 1990 to Elie Wiesel . The twentieth Wallenberg Medal was awarded in October 2010 to Dr. Denis Mukwege . Recently , the University also established the \" Wallenberg Fellowship \" , which grants students $ 25 @,@ 000 to pursue humanitarian projects to better humanity . The University 's Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning also awards Wallenberg Scholarships to exceptional undergraduate students in their final Senior @-@ Year studio class , which is given to enable students to broaden their study of architecture to include work in distant locations , following Wallenberg 's Grandfather 's wish for him to be a \" citizen of the world \" . The projects which won the scholarship in recent years addressed Chinese relations , nuclear accident cleanup , and the recent thaw of US @-@ Cuban relations . The Scholarship gives out on average anywhere between $ 10 @,@ 000 to $ 20 @,@ 000 for travel @-@ related expenses . \n The Raoul Wallenberg Academy has created the Raoul Wallenberg Prize , financed by Sweden 's Ministry of Employment . In 2013 , the jury was chaired by Olle Wästberg , and the award was presented by Minister for Integration Erik Ullenhag . The winner of the 2013 Raoul Wallenberg Award was Siavosh Derakhti , who founded ' Young People against Antisemitism and Xenophobia ' , an organization dedicated to promoting collaboration and respect for all . \n = = Schools named after him = = \n = = = Argentina = = = \n Raoul Wallenberg Educational Center \n = = = Brazil = = = \n The Raoul Wallenberg Integral High School \n = = = Canada = = = \n The Anne & Max Tanenbaum Community Hebrew Academy of Toronto Wallenberg Campus \n Wallenberg Academy ( formerly Wagar High School ) , Montreal , Quebec . \n = = = Ecuador = = = \n Raoul Wallenberg Kindergarten & Primary School \n = = = Germany = = = \n Raoul @-@ Wallenberg Schule , Dorsten \n Raoul @-@ Wallenberg @-@ Oberschule , Berlin \n = = = Hungary = = = \n Raoul Wallenberg Humán Szakközépiskola és Gimnázium \n = = = Sweden = = = \n Raoul Wallenberg School Bromma \n Raoul Wallenberg Preschool Bromma \n Raoul Wallenberg Preschool Skövde \n Raoul Wallenberg School Uppsala \n Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law ( Lund University ) \n = = = Uruguay = = = \n Raoul Wallenberg Lyceum \n = = = United States = = = \n P.S. 194 Raoul Wallenberg School in Brooklyn , New York \n Raoul Wallenberg Traditional High School in San Francisco \n Raoul Wallenberg Avenue , Trenton , New Jersey . \n Raoul Wallenberg Playground , Washington Heights NYC \n = = = Venezuela = = = \n Raoul Wallenberg Pre @-@ School Educational Unit \n = = Films = = \n A number of films have been made of Wallenberg 's life , including the 1985 made @-@ for @-@ television movie Wallenberg : A Hero 's Story ( 1985 ) , starring Richard Chamberlain , the 1990 Swedish production Good Evening , Mr. Wallenberg , featuring Stellan Skarsgård , and various documentaries , such as Raoul Wallenberg : Buried Alive ( 1984 ) , the AFI Award winning Raoul Wallenberg , Between The Lines ( 1985 ) and Searching for Wallenberg ( 2003 ) . He also appears in the Spanish television series El ángel de Budapest and is played by Iván Fenyő . In 2006 , the film \" Raoul Wallenberg @-@ l 'ange de Budapest \" ( translated by Nigel Spencer as \" Raoul Wallenberg : the Angel of Budapest \" ) , featuring relatives and the Winnipeg lawyer still piloting inquiries into his case , was released in Canada and broadcast on the Bravo ! network . \n = = Art = = \n He is featured prominently in the work of esteemed painter and Holocaust survivor Alice Lok Cahana . Her father was saved by Wallenberg . \n = = Operas = = \n Wallenberg . Opera premiered at the Opernhaus Dortmund on 5 May 2001.Composer Erkki @-@ Sven Tüür , Libretto of Lutz Hübner \n Raoul . Opera premiered at the Theater Bremen on 21 February 2008.Composer Gershon Kingsley , Libretto of Michael Kunze \n = = Song = = \n Irish musician Andy Irvine wrote the song \" Raoul Wallenberg \" which features on his album Rude Awakening . \n = The Time Traveler 's Wife = \n The Time Traveler 's Wife is the debut novel of American author Audrey Niffenegger , published in 2003 . It is a love story about a man with a genetic disorder that causes him to time travel unpredictably , and about his wife , an artist , who has to cope with his frequent absences and dangerous experiences . Niffenegger , frustrated in love when she began the work , wrote the story as a metaphor for her failed relationships . The tale 's central relationship came to her suddenly and subsequently supplied the novel 's title . The novel , which has been classified as both science fiction and romance , examines issues of love , loss , and free will . In particular , it uses time travel to explore miscommunication and distance in relationships , while also investigating deeper existential questions . \n As a first @-@ time novelist , Niffenegger had trouble finding a literary agent . She eventually sent the novel to MacAdam / Cage unsolicited and , after an auction took place for the rights , Niffenegger selected them as her publishers . The book became a bestseller after an endorsement from author and family friend Scott Turow on The Today Show , and as of March 2009 had sold nearly 2 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States and the United Kingdom . Many reviewers were impressed with Niffenegger 's unique perspectives on time travel . Some praised her characterization of the couple , applauding their emotional depth ; others criticized her writing style as melodramatic and the plot as emotionally trite . The novel won the Exclusive Books Boeke Prize and a British Book Award . A film version was released in August 2009 . \n = = Plot summary = = \n Using alternating first @-@ person perspectives , the novel tells the stories of Henry DeTamble ( born 1963 ) , a librarian at the Newberry Library in Chicago , and his wife , Clare Anne Abshire ( born 1971 ) , an artist who makes paper sculptures . Henry has a rare genetic disorder , which comes to be known as Chrono @-@ Impairment , that causes him to involuntarily travel through time . When 20 @-@ year @-@ old Clare meets 28 @-@ year @-@ old Henry at the Newberry Library in 1991 at the opening of the novel , he has never seen her before , although she has known him most of her life . \n Henry begins time traveling at the age of five , jumping forward and backward relative to his own timeline . When he leaves , where he goes , or how long his trips will last are all beyond his control . His destinations are tied to his subconscious — he most often travels to places and times related to his own history . Certain stimuli such as stress can trigger Henry 's time traveling ; he often goes jogging to keep calm and remain in the present . He also searches out pharmaceuticals in the future that may be able to help control his time traveling . He also seeks the advice of a geneticist , Dr. Kendrick . Henry cannot take anything with him into the future or the past ; he always arrives naked and then struggles to find clothing , shelter , and food . He amasses a number of survival skills including lock @-@ picking , self @-@ defense , and pickpocketing . Much of this he learns from older versions of himself . \n Once their timelines converge \" naturally \" at the library — their first meeting in his chronology — Henry starts to travel to Clare 's childhood and adolescence in South Haven , Michigan , beginning in 1977 when she is six years old . On one of his early visits ( from her perspective ) , Henry gives her a list of the dates he will appear and she writes them in a diary so she will remember to provide him with clothes and food when he arrives . During another visit , he inadvertently reveals that they will be married in the future . Over time they develop a close relationship . At one point , Henry helps Clare frighten and humiliate a boy who abused her . Clare is last visited in her youth by Henry in 1989 , on her eighteenth birthday , during which they make love for the first time . They are then separated for two years until their meeting at the library . \n Clare and Henry marry , but Clare has trouble bringing a pregnancy to term because of the genetic anomaly Henry may presumably be passing on to the fetus . After six miscarriages , Henry wishes to save Clare further pain and has a vasectomy . However a version of Henry from the past visits Clare one night and they make love ; she subsequently gives birth to a daughter , Alba . Alba is diagnosed with Chrono @-@ Impairment as well but , unlike Henry , she has some control over her destinations when she time travels . Before she is born , Henry travels to the future and meets his ten @-@ year @-@ old daughter on a school field trip and learns that he dies when she is five years old . \n When he is 43 , during what is to be his last year of life , Henry time travels to a Chicago parking garage on a frigid winter night where he is unable to find shelter . As a result of the hypothermia and frostbite he suffers , his feet are amputated when he returns to the present . Henry and Clare both know that without the ability to escape when he time travels , Henry will certainly die within his next few jumps . On New Year 's Eve 2006 Henry time travels into the middle of the Michigan woods in 1984 and is accidentally shot by Clare 's brother , a scene foreshadowed earlier in the novel . Henry returns to the present and dies in Clare 's arms . \n Clare is devastated by Henry 's death . She later finds a letter from Henry asking her to \" stop waiting \" for him , but which describes a moment in her future when she will see him again . The last scene in the book takes place when Clare is 82 years old and Henry is 43 . She is waiting for Henry , as she has done most of her life . \n = = Composition and publication = = \n Niffenegger is an artist who teaches at the Center for Book and Paper Arts at Columbia College Chicago , where she prepares editions of handpainted books . She produced some of her earlier works in editions of ten copies , which were sold in art galleries . However , she decided that The Time Traveler 's Wife would have to be a novel : \" I got the idea for the title , and when I draw I have this big drawing table covered with brown paper , and I write ideas down on the paper . So I wrote down this title and after a while I started to think about it . I couldn 't think of a way to make it a picture book because still pictures don 't represent time very well , so I decided to write a novel . \" She was intrigued by the title because \" it immediately defined two people and their relationship to each other \" . Niffenegger said that its source was an epigraph to J. B. Priestley 's 1964 novel Man and Time : \" Clock time is our bank manager , tax collector , police inspector ; this inner time is our wife . \" Drawing her central theme from this image , she says , \" Henry is not only married to Clare ; he 's also married to time . \" Other authors whom Niffenegger has cited as influencing the book include Richard Powers , David Foster Wallace , Henry James , and Dorothy Sayers . \n She has said the story is a metaphor for her own failed love affairs and that \" I had kind of got the idea that there 's not going to be some fabulous perfect soulmate out there for me , so I 'll just make him up . \" She also drew on her parents ' marriage for inspiration — her father spent the bulk of each week traveling . Despite the story 's analogies to her own life , Niffenegger has forcefully stated that Clare is not a self @-@ portrait ; \" She 's radically different . I am much more willful and headstrong . ... I don 't think I could go through a lifetime waiting for someone to appear , no matter how fascinating he was . \" \n Niffenegger began writing the novel in 1997 ; the last scene , in which an aged Clare is waiting for Henry , was written first , because it is the story 's focal point . The narrative was originally structured thematically . Responding to comments from readers of early drafts of the manuscript , Niffenegger reorganized the narrative so that it largely followed Clare 's timeline . The work was finished in 2001 . With no history of commercial publication , Niffenegger had trouble finding interested literary agents — 25 rejected the manuscript . In 2002 , she sent it unsolicited to the small , San Francisco @-@ based publisher MacAdam / Cage , where it reached Anika Streitfeld . Streitfeld , who became Niffenegger 's editor , \" thought it was incredible . Right from the very beginning you feel like you are in capable hands , that this is someone who has a story to tell and who knows how to tell it . \" She gave it to David Poindexter , the founder of the publishing firm , \" who read it overnight and decided to buy the book \" . However , Niffenegger had acquired an agent by this time , and several publishing houses in New York City were interested in the novel . The manuscript was put up for auction and MacAdam / Cage bid US $ 100 @,@ 000 , by far the largest sum it had ever offered for a book . Although another publisher outbid them , Niffenegger selected MacAdam / Cage because they were so dedicated to her work . Also , Niffenegger explains that her \" own natural inclination is to go small . My background is in punk music — I 'd always pick the indie company over the giant corporation . \" \n = = Genre = = \n Reviewers have found The Time Traveler 's Wife difficult to classify generically : some categorize it as science fiction , others as a romance . Niffenegger herself is reluctant to label the novel , saying she \" never thought of it as science fiction , even though it has a science @-@ fiction premise \" . In Niffenegger 's view , the story is primarily about Henry and Clare 's relationship and the struggles they endure . She has said that she based Clare and Henry 's romance on the \" cerebral coupling \" of Dorothy Sayers 's characters Lord Peter Wimsey and Harriet Vane . \n Time travel stories to which the novel has been compared include Jack Finney 's Time and Again ( 1970 ) F.M. Busby 's short story \" If This Is Winnetka , You Must Be Judy \" and the film Somewhere in Time ( 1980 ) . Henry has been compared to Billy Pilgrim of Kurt Vonnegut 's Slaughterhouse @-@ Five ( 1969 ) . Science fiction writer Terence M. Green calls the novel a \" timeslip romance \" . The Time Traveler 's Wife is not as concerned with the paradoxes of time travel as is traditional science fiction . Instead , as critic Marc Mohan describes , the novel \" uses time travel as a metaphor to explain how two people can feel as if they 've known each other their entire lives \" . Robert Nathan 's Portrait of Jennie , as novel , or film , is another obvious comparison , although Jennie , as a ghost , travels time in one direction , not randomly . \n = = Themes = = \n Niffenegger identifies the themes of the novel as \" mutants , love , death , amputation , sex , and time \" . Reviewers have focused on love , loss , and time . As Charlie Lee @-@ Potter writes in The Independent , the novel is \" an elegy to love and loss \" . The love between Henry and Clare is expressed in a variety of ways , including through an analysis and history of the couple 's sex life . \n While much of the novel shows Henry and Clare falling in love , the end is darker and \" time travel becomes a means for representing arbitrariness , transience , [ and ] plain bad luck \" , according to The Boston Globe 's Judith Maas . As Andrew Billen argues in The Times , \" The book may even serve as a feminist analysis of marriage as a partnership in which only the male is conceded the privilege of absence . \" Several reviewers noted that time travel represents relationships in which couples cannot quite communicate with each other . Natasha Walter of The Guardian describes the story 's attention to \" the sense of slippage that you get in any relationship — that you could be living through a slightly different love story from the one your partner is experiencing . \" She points , for example , to the section of the book which describes the first time Clare and Henry make love . She is 18 and he is 41 , already married to her in his present . After this interlude , he returns to his own time and his own Clare , who says , \n Henry 's been gone for almost twenty @-@ four hours now , and as usual I 'm torn between thinking obsessively about when and where he might be and being pissed at him for not being here ... I hear Henry whistling as he comes up the path through the garden , into the studio . He stomps the snow off his boots and shrugs off his coat . He 's looking marvelous , really happy . My heart is racing and I take a wild guess : \" May 24 , 1989 ? \" \" Yes , oh , yes ! \" Henry scoops me up ... and swings me around . Now I 'm laughing , we 're both laughing . \n The novel raises questions about determinism and free will . For example , critic Dan Falk asks , \" Given that [ Henry 's ] journey has ' already happened , ' should he not simply be compelled to act precisely as he remembers seeing himself act ? ( Or perhaps he is compelled , and merely feels he has a choice ... ? ) . \" Although Henry seemingly cannot alter the future , the characters do not become \" cynical \" and , according to Lee @-@ Potter , the novel demonstrates that people can be changed through love . Walter notes that there is a \" quasi @-@ religious sense \" to the inevitability of Henry 's and Clare 's lives and deaths . Niffenegger , however , believes that the novel does not depict destiny but rather \" randomness and meaninglessness \" . \n = = Reception = = \n The hardback edition of The Time Traveler 's Wife was published in the United States in September 2003 by MacAdam / Cage and in the United Kingdom by Random House on 1 January 2004 . MacAdam / Cage initiated an \" extensive marketing drive \" , including advertising in The New York Times and The New Yorker and a promotional book tour by Niffenegger . As a result , the novel debuted at number nine on the New York Times bestseller list . After popular crime writer Scott Turow , whose wife is a friend of Niffenegger , endorsed it on The Today Show , the first print run of 15 @,@ 000 sold out and 100 @,@ 000 more copies were printed . In Britain , the book received a boost from its choice as a Richard & Judy book club recommendation — nearly 45 @,@ 000 copies were sold in one week . It was named the 2003 Amazon.com Book of the Year . A December 2003 article in The Observer reported that although \" a tiny minority of American reviewers \" felt that the novel was \" gimmicky \" , it was still \" a publishing sensation \" . At that point , the novel had been sold to publishers in 15 countries . As of March 2009 , it had sold almost 1 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States and 1 million in the United Kingdom . The success of The Time Traveler 's Wife prompted almost every major publishing firm to attempt to acquire Niffenegger 's second novel , Her Fearful Symmetry , which has been called \" one of the most eagerly sought @-@ after works in recent publishing history \" . It garnered her an advance of US $ 5 million from Scribner 's . \n Reviewers praised Niffenegger 's characterization of Henry and Clare , particularly their emotional depth . Michelle Griffin of The Age noted that although Henry \" is custom @-@ designed for the fantasy lives of bookish ladies \" , his flaws , particularly his \" violent , argumentative , depressive \" nature , make him a strong , well @-@ rounded character . Charles DeLint wrote in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction that one of Niffenegger 's \" greatest accomplishments \" in the novel was her ability to convey the emotional growth of Clare and Henry in character arcs while at the same time alternating their perspectives . Stephen Amidon of The Times , however , questioned the selfishness of the central characters . \n Most reviewers were impressed with the premise of the novel , but critical of its melodramatic style . While Griffin praised the plot and concept as \" clever \" , she complained that Niffenegger 's writing is usually \" pedestrian \" and the story at times contrived . Heidi Darroch of the National Post agreed , contending that the story has an excess of overwrought emotional moments \" which never quite add up to a fully developed plot \" . Writing in The Chicago Tribune , Carey Harrison praised the originality of the novel , specifically the intersection of child @-@ bearing and time travel . Despite appreciating the novel 's premise , Amidon complained that the implications of Henry 's time @-@ traveling were poorly thought out . For example , Henry has foreknowledge of the September 11 attacks but does nothing to try to prevent them . Instead , on 11 September 2001 , he gets up early \" to listen to the world being normal for a little while longer \" . Amidon also criticized the novel 's \" overall clumsiness \" , writing that Niffenegger is \" a ham @-@ fisted stylist , long @-@ winded and given to sudden eruptions of cliche \" . Miriam Shaviv agreed to an extent , writing in The Jerusalem Post , \" There are no original or even non @-@ cliched messages here . True love , Niffenegger seems to be telling us , is timeless , and can survive even the worst circumstances . ... And yet , the book is a page @-@ turner , delicately crafted and psychologically sound . \" The Library Journal described the novel as \" skillfully written with a blend of distinct characters and heartfelt emotions \" ; it recommended that public libraries purchase multiple copies of the book . \n = = Sequel = = \n On September 23 , 2013 it was announced that a sequel to the novel is in the works . The sequel will focus on Henry and Clare 's daughter Alba as an adult . She finds herself in love with two different men : Zach , a normal man , and Oliver , a musician and fellow time @-@ traveler . The first 25 pages are currently available with the purchase of The Time Traveler 's Wife eBook . In February 2014 , Niffenegger estimated that the book \" should be ready in 2018 or so \" . \n = = Awards and nominations = = \n = = Adaptations = = \n = = = Audio book = = = \n BBC Audio published an audio book of The Time Traveler 's Wife that was narrated by William Hope and Laurel Lefkow , described as \" feisty readers \" in one review . \n HighBridge also produced an unabridged version in 2003 , which is twelve hours long and narrated by Maggi @-@ Meg Reed and Christopher Burns ; their performance has been described as \" sincere and passionate \" . \n The 2006 Audible / HighBridge version is narrated by Fred Berman and Phoebe Strole and is 17 : 43 in length . \n Audible.co.uk produced an unabridged version in 2008 , also narrated by Hope and Lefkow . \n = = = Film = = = \n The film rights for The Time Traveler 's Wife were optioned by Brad Pitt 's production company Plan B Entertainment , in association with New Line Cinema , before the novel was even published . The adaptation was written by Bruce Joel Rubin and directed by Robert Schwentke , and stars Rachel McAdams and Eric Bana . Filming began in September 2007 and the movie was released by Warner Bros. on 14 August 2009 . When asked about the prospect of her novel being turned into a film , Niffenegger said , \" I 've got my little movie that runs in my head . And I 'm kind of afraid that will be changed or wiped out by what somebody else might do with it . And it is sort of thrilling and creepy , because now the characters have an existence apart from me . \" In general , the film received mixed @-@ to @-@ negative reviews . For example , The New York Times wrote that the film was an \" often ridiculous , awkward , unsatisfying and dour melodramatic adaptation \" . \n = Silba @-@ class landing ship @-@ minelayer = \n The Silba class ( sometimes the Cetina class ) is a class of three landing ships , also used as minelayers , built for the Yugoslav ( JRM ) and Croatian Navy ( HRM ) during the 1980s and 1990s . The ships were built at the Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata shipyard in Split with slight differences in armament configuration between the last two ships . By the time the Croatian War of Independence started , one ship was in service with the JRM while another was being completed . \n The one in JRM service was relocated to Montenegro where it would be commissioned with the Navy of the new FR Yugoslavia . The second ship that was captured unfinished was completed by Croatian forces and entered service with the HRM , followed by a third that was laid down by Croatia in 1993 . The two ships commissioned with the HRM remain in active service , providing assistance to civilian institutions aside from their regular military tasks . The fate of the first ship in the class remains unknown . \n = = Development and building = = \n The Silba class was developed by the Brodarski institut ( BI ) from Zagreb as a replacement for a large number of aging barge @-@ like landing craft based on German World War II designs ( Marinefährprahm and Siebel ) . All three ships were completed at the Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata ( BSO ) in Split , Croatia . The first one , Krk ( DBM @-@ 241 ) , was commissioned with the JRM sometime between 1986 and 1990 . The keel for the second ship that was to be named Rab ( DBM @-@ 242 ) was laid down in 1990 . As the Croatian War of Independence started , unfinished Rab was captured by Croatian forces . It was completed and launched as Cetina ( DBM @-@ 81 ) on 18 July 1992 . A third and final ship was launched on 17 September 1994 as Krka ( DBM @-@ 82 ) . \n = = Description = = \n These ferry @-@ like ships feature a roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off design with two loading ramps located on the bow and the stern . Measuring 49 @.@ 69 m ( 163 ft 0 in ) in length , they have a 10 @.@ 2 m ( 33 ft 6 in ) beam with a 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 ft 6 in ) draft . Propulsion consists of two 1 @,@ 140 kW ( 1 @,@ 530 hp ) Burmeister & Wain Alpha Diesel 10V 23L VO engines mounted on two shafts , enabling them a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 5 knots ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ; 14 @.@ 4 mph ) and a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Traveling at their cruise speed they have a range of 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 – 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 400 – 1 @,@ 600 mi ) with a 12 @-@ day endurance . The ships are manned by a crew of 32 . \n The Armament configuration differs between the first two ships and the last one ; DBM @-@ 241 and DBM @-@ 81 are armed with two AK @-@ 230 CIWS mounted on the sides , a single quadruple 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) M @-@ 75 gun on the stern and a single quadruple MTU @-@ 4 9K32M Strela @-@ 2M ( SA @-@ 7b \" Grail \" ) anti @-@ aircraft missile launcher . The interior , which features two mine rails , can be used to carry up to 152 different naval mines , six medium tanks or 300 troops with equipment , a total cargo capacity of 460 t ( 450 long tons ) . DBM @-@ 82 was completed with a different gun armament ; in place of the AK @-@ 230 , DBM @-@ 82 has two 20 mm M @-@ 71 guns on the sides and a single Bofors D70 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) gun on the bow . The ship was also completed as an auxiliary water carrier with a capacity of around 230 t ( 230 long tons ) of fresh water . The number of mines that DBM @-@ 82 can carry is a maximum of 114 . \n = = Ships = = \n = = Service history = = \n At the start of the Croatian War of Independence DBM @-@ 241 was relocated to Montenegro where it later entered service with the SR Yugoslav Navy . DBM @-@ 242 , now redesignated as DBM @-@ 81 was launched as Cetina and entered service with the Croatian Navy 19 February 1992 with Ivo Raffanelli in command . For the remainder of the war , Cetina was engaged in transporting troops and equipment along the coast , including supply runs for Croatian forces during Operation Maslenica in 1993 . The same year the ship participated in testing of the new MNS @-@ M90 naval mine . DBM @-@ 82 , the third and final ship of the class , was commissioned with the Croatian Navy on 9 March 1995 with Jerko Bošnjak in command . \n According to publications and news reports , DBM @-@ 241 was reported operational as late as 2005 . An article published in October 2012 reported that the Egyptian Navy bought DBM @-@ 241 a year earlier . Although the advance was paid , the official handover of the ship has not happened by the time the article was published . As of March 2014 , the official website of the Armed Forces of Montenegro does not list DBM @-@ 241 among its fleet and the ships status remains unknown . The two Silba @-@ class in Croatian hands continue to see service the Navy Flotilla performing traditional naval tasks as well as support missions for civilian institutions such water supply and transporting firefighters . \n In July 2006 Krka was damaged during an overhaul at the Šibenik Shipyard . While being lowered to the sea , the winch of the syncrolift pulled out of the concrete causing the ship to fall down , creating a hole in the hull and sinking the stern . Early reports of significant damage proved to be false and the ship was repaired soon after . Out of ten crew members that were on board at the time , only one sustained minor injuries . \n In 2015 , Krka and Cetina were tasked with transporting Croatian Army vehicles and personnel to Spain for the NATO \" Trident Juncture \" exercise . The ships departed the Lora Naval Base on 11 October 2015 , loaded with four Patria AMVs , two trucks , one motor vehicle and 14 soldiers scheduled to take part in the exercise . On 13 October they arrived in Catania where they rendezvoused with Andrija Mohorovičić deployed in support of Operation Triton . The two ships made another stop at Cagliari before continuing to Spain , arriving in Sagunto on 18 October after spending seven days at sea . The ships returned to the Lora Naval Base on 13 November , concluding their month long deployment during which they traversed a total of 2 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 000 kilometres ; 3 @,@ 100 miles ) . \n = Arthur Gould ( rugby union ) = \n Arthur Joseph \" Monkey \" Gould ( 10 October 1864 – 2 January 1919 ) was a Welsh international rugby union centre and fullback who was most associated as a club player with Newport Rugby Football Club . He won 27 caps for Wales , 18 as captain , and critics consider him the first superstar of Welsh rugby . A talented all @-@ round player and champion sprinter , Gould could side @-@ step and kick expertly with either foot . He never ceased practising to develop his fitness and skills , and on his death was described as \" the most accomplished player of his generation \" . \n Following the withdrawal of their regular fullback , Newport RFC first selected Gould in 1882 , when he was 18 . He was never dropped from the side thereafter and played regularly until he retired in 1898 . Gould played for Newport during their \" invincible \" season of 1891 – 92 , when they did not lose a match , and scored a record 37 tries in Newport 's 24 @-@ game 1893 – 94 season , a club record that still stands . Gould frequently travelled due to his job as a public contractor , and consequently turned out for a number of other sides during his career , including the clubs Richmond and London Welsh , and the county side Middlesex . \n Gould was first selected for Wales in 1885 when he played at fullback"},"length_category":{"kind":"string","value":"Very Long"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"wikitext-103-excerpt"}}},{"rowIdx":6898,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":" Captain ( United States ) on September 19 , 1864 for Winchester , Virginia . \n Major ( United States ) on March 13 , 1865 for gallantry . \n Lieutenant colonel ( United States ) on March 13 , 1865 for meritorious service during the Civil War . \n Colonel ( United States ) on October 18 , 1868 for Beaver Creek , Kansas during the Indian Wars . \n = = = = U.S. Volunteers = = = = \n Lieutenant colonel on October 1 , 1864 , 5th US Colored Cavalry ( USCC ) \n Colonel on November 2 , 1865 , 5th USCC \n Brigadier general on May 4 , 1898 , 1st Corps , 3rd Division \n = = = Known commands = = = \n Commanded the 5th US Colored Cavalry Regiment 1865 – 1866 \n Commanded Fort Davis in West Texas 1878 – 1879 . \n Fort Robinson , Nebraska 1887 \n Fort Myer , Virginia 1887 – 1891 \n Director of Cavalry School Application , Fort Riley , Kansas 1892 \n Appointed to revise cavalry tactics 1896 \n Commanded Fort Sam Houston , Texas 1897 – 1898 \n Command of 1st Corps and 3rd Division , then 4th Corps in the Spanish – American War 1898 \n Military Governor of the Province of Puerto Principe , now Camagüey Province , Cuba 1898 – 1899 . \n = = = Memberships and clubs = = = \n Member of the Loyal Legion \n Veteran of Foreign Wars \n Society , American Numismatic ( 1897 ) . The Society of the Army of the Potomac . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 . \n Society , American Numismatic ( 1897 ) . The Cavalry Society of the Armies of the United States . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 . \n Historical Society of Pennsylvania \n Academy of Natural Sciences \n \" Army and Navy Club ( Washington D.C. ) \" . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 . \n \" Rittenhouse Club ( Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) \" . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 . \n Union League of Philadelphia \n = Hurricane Erick ( 2013 ) = \n Hurricane Erick brought minor impact to the western coastline of Mexico in July 2013 . The fifth tropical cyclone and named storm , as well as the fourth hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Erick originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on June 18 . The wave tracked swiftly westward with little development , emerging into the eastern Pacific on July 1 . As a result of favorable environmental conditions , the wave developed into a tropical depression on July 4 , and further into Tropical Storm Erick at 0000 UTC on July 5 . Steered generally west @-@ northwest , Erick intensified into a Category 1 hurricane and reached its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) on July 6 . Its proximity to land and track over increasingly cooler waters caused the storm to deteriorate into a tropical storm the following day , though it remained at such intensity until degenerating into a remnant low early on July 9 . The remnant circulation dissipated a few hours later , southwest of Baja California Sur . \n In preparation for the cyclone , numerous tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued for various portions of the coastline of Mexico . Ports were closed and residents in low @-@ lying areas were asked to evacuate to higher grounds . In addition , shipping by means of boat was suspended . Though the center of Erick remained offshore , the outer bands of the system brought gusty winds and isolated heavy rainfall to Western Mexico . In Guerrero , minor flooding was reported in the cities of Acapulco and Puerto Marques . A river overflowed its banks in Nayarit , flooding several cities in the state . Numerous cars , streets , and homes were damaged by flooding . A woman died as she attempted to flee her house , while a man was killed after being swept away by the river . Hundreds of people were rescued by the Mexican military and Nayarit officials . Across Baja California Sur , the storm produced widespread precipitation , leading to flooding . \n = = Meteorological history = = \n On June 18 , a tropical wave emerged off the western coastline of Africa and into the eastern Atlantic . Tracking steadily westward , it maintained a small but organized area of convection — shower and thunderstorm activity — along its axis for the next several days . The wave crossed the Lesser Antilles on June 24 and Central America on June 29 , emerging into the eastern Pacific shortly thereafter . During the evening of July 1 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the system , noting that environmental conditions were expected to become favorable for slow development . The wave interacted with a larger area of low pressure on July 2 , leading to an increase in convective coverage and the formation of a broad low @-@ pressure area . Continuing slowly westward , the system acquired enough organization to be declared a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on July 4 , while centered 205 mi ( 330 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . Despite the initially exposed center of circulation , a byproduct of moderate wind shear , the depression soon began to organize as convective banding increased and gained more curvature . This led to the classification of Tropical Storm Erick at 0000 UTC on July 5 . \n Under the influence of a mid @-@ level ridge over the northwestern Caribbean Sea and an upper @-@ level ridge over the southwestern United States , the newly upgraded Erick tracked west @-@ northwest parallel to the coastline of Mexico . A central dense overcast formed by the daylight hours of July 5 , with tight banding noted on satellite . In addition , microwave imagery indicated the formative stages of an eyewall . Initially vertically decoupled , the storm became more vertically aligned throughout the following hours . A ragged eye became intermittently visible on satellite , and Erick was upgraded to Category 1 hurricane status at 0600 UTC , located approximately 105 mi ( 170 km ) west @-@ southwest of Lázaro Cárdenas , Mexico . In conjunction with satellite intensity estimates , it is estimated that Erick attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 983 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 03 inHg ) at 1200 UTC . Shortly thereafter , its proximity to the coastline of Mexico and track over increasingly cooler waters caused the storm to begin a weakening trend . At 1800 UTC on July 7 , Erick weakened to a tropical storm as its associated convective mass warmed and the eye deteriorated . Wind shear caused the center of circulation to become exposed on July 9 as the system passed just south of Baja California Sur , leading to degeneration into a remnant low @-@ pressure area at 0600 UTC . The remnant vortex persisted for a few more hours , before dissipating over cold sea surface temperatures at 0000 UTC on July 10 . \n = = Preparations and impact = = \n Following the system 's designation , a tropical storm watch was issued for the southwestern coastline of Mexico stretching from Acapulco to La Fortuna . By 0300 UTC on July 5 , the watch was extended from Acapulco to Manzanillo , while a tropical storm warning was issued from Lázaro Cárdenas to Manzanillo . Several hours later , the watch was discontinued for the coastline stretching from Acapulco to Lázaro Cárdenas and issued from La Fortuna to Cabo Corrientes . Meanwhile , the warning from Lázaro Cárdenas to Manzanillo was discontinued , with a new warning issued from Zihuatanejo to La Fortuna . All tropical storm watches in effect were discontinued by 0300 UTC the following morning , with the warning being extended from Zihuatanejo to Cabo Corrientes . After being upgraded to a hurricane , Erick prompted the issuance of hurricane watches stretching from Punta San Telmo to Cabo Corrientes . At 1500 UTC on July 6 , a tropical storm watch was issued from Santa Fe to La Paz , though this was upgraded to a warning several hours later . Following many other revisions , all tropical cyclone watches and warnings were discontinued after Erick degenerated into a remnant low early on July 9 . \n In preparation for the tropical cyclone , an \" orange \" alert was issued for southern Michoacán , southern Jalisco , and the entire state of Colima , while a \" yellow \" alert was posted for the rest of the Jalisco coastline . The ports of Acapulco , Zihuatanejo , and Manzanillio were closed . In fear of flash flooding , residents along low @-@ lying areas of Acapulco were urged to evacuate . Meanwhile , the government of Michoacán ordered the suspension of shipping by boat . \n Despite remaining offshore , the outer rainbands of the storm affected the southwestern coastline with gusty winds and heavy rainfall , with similar effects farther northwest . In Acapulco and Puerto Marques , the storm was responsible for minor flooding . Elsewhere across the state , damage was minor and mostly due to landslides . Along the coast of Colima , waves up to 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) were recorded . Although some flooding was reported across the state , damage was considered minor . \n Further north , Erick brought extensive flood damage to Nayarit . A 74 @-@ year @-@ old woman died while trying to escape her flooded house , while dozens of vehicles were damaged and several other streets and homes were flooded . One river overflowed its banks , affecting numerous cities . Officials in Nayarit attempted to rescue hundreds of people affected by Hurricane Erick , many of whom waited on streets to be rescued . Dozens of families were directly affected by the storm . Substantial amounts of debris piled up on streets . Residents reported severe economical losses , especially in Xalisco , where a disaster declaration was necessary . Offshore , a waterspout was reported . In Tepic , Governor Roberto Sandoval ordered a state of emergency . Although the core of the system remained offshore , a \" yellow \" alert was issued for Baja California Sur . Heavy rain was recorded over much of the peninsula , resulting in flooding . The ports of La Paz , Cabo San Lucas , and San Jose del Cabo were closed due to high waves . Additionally , a \" green \" alert was issued for Baja California . In all , two people were killed while two others were missing . About 5 @,@ 500 people were homeless in Xalisco . \n = Mesa Verde National Park = \n Mesa Verde National Park is a National Park and World Heritage Site located in Montezuma County , Colorado . It protects some of the best preserved Ancestral Puebloan archeological sites in the United States . \n Created by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 , it occupies 52 @,@ 485 acres ( 21 @,@ 240 ha ) near the Four Corners region of the American Southwest , and with more than 4 @,@ 300 sites , including 600 cliff dwellings , it is the largest archeological preserve in the US . Mesa Verde ( Spanish for \" green table \" ) is best known for structures such as Cliff Palace , thought to be the largest cliff dwelling in North America . \n Starting c . 7500 BCE , Mesa Verde was seasonally inhabited by a group of nomadic Paleo @-@ Indians known as the Foothills Mountain Complex . The variety of projectile points found in the region indicates they were influenced by surrounding areas , including the Great Basin , the San Juan Basin , and the Rio Grande Valley . Later , Archaic people established semi @-@ permanent rockshelters in and around the mesa . By 1000 BCE , the Basketmaker culture emerged from the local Archaic population , and by 750 CE the Ancestral Puebloans had developed from the Basketmaker culture . \n The Mesa Verdeans survived using a combination of hunting , gathering , and subsistence farming of crops such as corn , beans , and squash . They built the mesa 's first pueblos sometime after 650 , and by the end of the 12th century , they began to construct the massive cliff dwellings for which the park is best known . By 1285 , following a period of social and environmental instability driven by a series of severe and prolonged droughts , they abandoned the area and moved south to locations in Arizona and New Mexico , including Rio Chama , Pajarito Plateau , and Santa Fe . \n = = Inhabitants = = \n = = = Paleo @-@ Indians = = = \n The first occupants of the Mesa Verde region , which spans from southeastern Utah to northwestern New Mexico , were nomadic Paleo @-@ Indians who arrived in the area c . 9500 BCE . They followed herds of big game and camped near rivers and streams , many of which dried up as the glaciers that once covered parts of the San Juan Mountains receded . The earliest Paleo @-@ Indians were the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition , defined largely by the way in which they fashioned projectile points . Although they left evidence of their presence throughout the region , there is little indication that they lived in central Mesa Verde during this time . \n After 9600 BCE , the area 's environment grew warmer and drier , a change that brought to central Mesa Verde pine forests and the animals that thrive in them . Paleo @-@ Indians began inhabiting the mesa in increasing numbers c . 7500 , though it is unclear whether they were seasonal occupants or year @-@ round residents . Development of the atlatl during this period made it easier for them to hunt smaller game , a crucial advance at a time when most of the region 's big game had disappeared from the landscape . \n = = = Archaic = = = \n 6000 BCE marks the beginning of the Archaic period in North America . Archeologists differ as to the origin of the Mesa Verde Archaic population ; some believe they developed exclusively from local Paleo @-@ Indians , called the Foothills Mountain Complex , but others suggest that the variety of projectile points found in Mesa Verde indicates influence from surrounding areas , including the Great Basin , the San Juan Basin , and the Rio Grande Valley . The Archaic people probably developed locally , but were also influenced by contact , trade , and intermarriage with immigrants from these outlying areas . \n The early Archaic people living near Mesa Verde utilized the atlatl and harvested a wider variety of plants and animals than the Paleo @-@ Indians had , while retaining their primarily nomadic lifestyle . They inhabited the outlying areas of the Mesa Verde region , but also the mountains , mesa tops , and canyons , where they created rockshelters and rock art , and left evidence of animal processing and chert knapping . Environmental stability during the period drove population expansion and migration . Major warming and drying from 5000 to 2500 might have led middle Archaic people to seek the cooler climate of Mesa Verde , whose higher elevation brought increased snowpack that , when coupled with spring rains , provided relatively plentiful amounts of water . \n By the late Archaic , more people were living in semi @-@ permanent rockshelters that preserved perishable goods such as baskets , sandals , and mats . They started to make a variety of twig figurines that usually resembled sheep or deer . The late Archaic is marked by increased trade in exotic materials such as obsidian and turquoise . Marine shells and abalone from the Pacific coast made their way to Mesa Verde from Arizona , and the Archaic people worked them into necklaces and pendants . Rock art flourished , and people lived in rudimentary houses made of mud and wood . Their early attempts at plant domestication eventually developed into the sustained agriculture that marked the end of the Archaic period , c . 1000 . \n = = = Basketmaker culture = = = \n With the introduction of corn to the Mesa Verde region c . 1000 BCE and the trend away from nomadism toward permanent pithouse settlements , the Archaic Mesa Verdeans transitioned into what archeologists call the Basketmaker culture . Basketmaker II people are characterized by their combination of foraging and farming skills , use of the atlatl , and creation of finely woven baskets in the absence of earthen pottery . By 300 , corn had become the preeminent staple of the Basketmaker II people 's diet , which relied less and less on wild food sources and more on domesticated crops . \n In addition to the fine basketry for which they were named , Basketmaker II people fashioned a variety of household items from plant and animal materials , including sandals , robes , pouches , mats , and blankets . They also made clay pipes and gaming pieces . Basketmaker men were relatively short and muscular , averaging less than 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) tall . Their skeletal remains reveal signs of hard labor and extensive travel , including degenerative joint disease , healed fractures , and moderate anemia associated with iron deficiency . They buried their dead near or amongst their settlements , and often included luxury items as gifts , which might indicate differences in relative social status . Basketmaker II people are also known for their distinctive rock art , which can be found throughout Mesa Verde . They depicted animals and people , in both abstract and realistic forms , in single works and more elaborate panels . A common subject was the hunchbacked flute player that the Hopi call Kokopelli . \n By 500 , CE atlatls were being supplanted by the bow and arrow and baskets by pottery , marking the end of the Basketmaker II Era and the beginning of the Basketmaker III Era . Ceramic vessels were a major improvement over pitch @-@ lined baskets , gourds , and animal hide containers , which had been the primary water storage containers in the region . Pottery also protected seeds against mold , insects , and rodents . By 600 , Mesa Verdeans were using clay pots to cook soups and stews . Year @-@ round settlements first appear around this time . The population of the San Juan Basin increased markedly after 575 , when there were very few Basketmaker III sites in Mesa Verde ; by the early 7th century , there were many such sites in the mesa . For the next 150 years , villages typically consisted of small groups of one to three residences . The population of Mesa Verde c . 675 was approximately 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 people . \n Beans and new varieties of corn were introduced to the region c . 700 . By 775 , some settlements had grown to accommodate more than one hundred people ; the construction of large , above @-@ ground storage buildings began around this time . Basketmakers endeavored to store enough food for their family for one year , but also retained residential mobility so they could quickly relocate their dwellings in the event of resource depletion or consistently inadequate crop yields . By the end of the 8th century , the smaller hamlets , which were typically occupied for ten to forty years , had been supplanted by larger ones that saw continuous occupation for as many as two generations . Basketmaker III people established a tradition of holding large ceremonial gatherings near community pit structures . \n = = = Ancestral Puebloans = = = \n = = = = Pueblo I : 750 to 900 = = = = \n 750 marks the end of the Basketmaker III Era and the beginning of the Pueblo I period . The transition is characterized by major changes in the design and construction of buildings and the organization of household activities . Pueblo I people doubled their capacity for food storage from one year to two and built interconnected , year @-@ round residences called pueblos . Many household activities that had previously been reserved for subterranean pithouses were moved to these above @-@ ground dwellings . This altered the function of pithouses from all @-@ purpose spaces to ones used primarily for community ceremonies , although they continued to house large extended families , particularly during winter months . During the late 8th century , Mesa Verdeans began building square pit structures that archeologists call protokivas . They were typically 3 or 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 or 1 @.@ 22 m ) deep and 12 to 20 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide . \n The first pueblos appeared at Mesa Verde sometime after 650 ; by 850 more than half of Mesa Verdeans lived in them . As local populations grew , Puebloans found it difficult to survive on hunting , foraging , and gardening , which made them increasingly reliant on domesticated corn . This shift from semi @-@ nomadism to a \" sedentary and communal way of life changed ancestral Pueblo society forever \" . Within a generation the average number of households in these settlements grew from one to three to fifteen to twenty , with average populations of two hundred people . Population density increased dramatically , with as many as a dozen families occupying roughly the same space that had formerly housed two . This brought increased security against raids and encouraged greater cooperation amongst residents . It also facilitated trade and intermarriage between clans , and by the late 8th century , as Mesa Verde 's population was being augmented by settlers from the south , four distinct cultural groups occupied the same villages . \n Large Pueblo I settlements laid claim to the resources found within 15 to 30 square miles ( 39 to 78 km2 ) . They were typically organized in groups of at least three and spaced about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) apart . By 860 , there were approximately 8 @,@ 000 people living in Mesa Verde . Within the plazas of larger villages , the Pueblo I people dug massive pit structures of 800 square feet ( 74 m2 ) that became central gathering places . These structures represent early architectural expressions of what would eventually develop into the Pueblo II Era great houses of Chaco Canyon . Despite robust growth during the early and mid @-@ 9th century , unpredictable rainfall and periodic drought led to a dramatic reversal of settlement trends in the area . Many late Pueblo I villages were abandoned after less than forty years of occupation , and by 880 Mesa Verde 's population was in steady decline . The beginning of the 10th century saw widespread depopulation of the region , as people emigrated south of the San Juan River to Chaco Canyon in search of reliable rains for farming . As Mesa Verdeans migrated south , to where many of their ancestors had emigrated two hundred years before , the influence of Chaco Canyon grew , and by 950 Chaco had supplanted Mesa Verde as the region 's cultural center . \n = = = = Pueblo II : 900 to 1150 = = = = \n The Pueblo II Period is marked by the growth and outreach of communities centered around the great houses of Chaco Canyon . Despite their participation in the vast Chacoan system , Mesa Verdeans retained a distinct cultural identity while melding regional innovation with ancient tradition , inspiring further architectural advancements ; the 9th century Mesa Verdean pueblos influenced two hundred years of Chacoan great house construction . Droughts during the late 9th century rendered Mesa Verdean dry land farming unreliable , which led to their growing crops only near drainages for the next 150 years . Crop yields returned to healthy levels by the early 11th century . By 1050 the population of the area began to rebound ; as agricultural prosperity increased , people immigrated to Mesa Verde from the south . \n Mesa Verdean farmers increasingly relied on masonry reservoirs during the Pueblo II Era . During the 11th century , they built check dams and terraces near drainages and slopes in an effort to conserve soil and runoff . These fields offset the danger of crop failures in the larger dry land fields . By the mid @-@ 10th and early 11th centuries , protokivas had evolved into smaller circular structures called kivas , which were usually 12 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) across . These Mesa Verde @-@ style kivas included a feature from earlier times called a sipapu , which is a hole dug in the north of the chamber and symbolizes the Ancestral Puebloan 's place of emergence from the underworld . At this time , Mesa Verdeans began to move away from the post and mud jacal @-@ style buildings that marked the Pueblo I Period toward masonry construction , which had been utilized in the region as early as 700 , but was not widespread until the 11th and 12th centuries . \n The expansion of Chacoan influence in the Mesa Verde area left its most visible mark in the form of Chaco @-@ style masonry great houses that became the focal point of many Mesa Verdean villages after 1075 . Far View House , the largest of these , is considered a classic Chaco \" outlier , \" on which construction likely began between 1075 and 1125 , although some archaeologists argue that it was begun as early as 1020 . The era 's timber and earth unit pueblos were typically inhabited for about twenty years . During the early 12th century , the locus of regional control shifted away from Chaco to Aztec , New Mexico , in the southern Mesa Verde region . By 1150 , drought had once again stressed the region 's inhabitants , leading to a temporary cessation of great house construction at Mesa Verde . \n = = = = Pueblo III : 1150 to 1300 = = = = \n A severe drought from 1130 to 1180 led to rapid depopulation in many parts of the San Juan Basin , particularly at Chaco Canyon . As the extensive Chacoan system collapsed , people increasingly migrated to Mesa Verde , causing major population growth in the area . This led to much larger settlements of six to eight hundred people , which reduced mobility for Mesa Verdeans , who had in the past frequently relocated their dwellings and fields as part of their agriculture strategy . In order to sustain these larger populations , they dedicated more and more of their labor to farming . Population increases also led to expanded tree felling that reduced habitat for many wild plant and animal species that the Mesa Verdeans had relied on , further deepening their dependency on domesticated crops that were susceptible to drought @-@ related failure . \n The Chacoan system brought large quantities of imported goods to Mesa Verde during the late 11th and early 12th centuries , including pottery , shells , and turquoise , but by the late 12th century , as the system collapsed , the amount of goods imported by the mesa quickly declined , and Mesa Verde became isolated from the surrounding region . For approximately six hundred years , most Mesa Verdean farmers had lived in small , mesa @-@ top homesteads of one or two families . They were typically located near their fields and walking distance to sources of water . This practice continued into the mid- to late 12th century , but by the start of the 13th century they began living in canyon locations that were close to water sources and within walking distance of their fields . \n Mesa Verdean villages thrived during the mid @-@ Pueblo III Era , when architects constructed massive , multi @-@ story buildings , and artisans adorned pottery with increasingly elaborate designs . Structures built during this period have been described as \" among the world 's greatest archaeological treasures \" . Pueblo III masonry buildings were typically occupied for approximately fifty years , more than double the usable lifespan of the Pueblo II jacal structures . Others were continuously inhabited for two hundred years or more . Architectural innovations such as towers and multi @-@ walled structures also appear during the Pueblo III Era . Mesa Verde 's population remained fairly stable during the 12th century drought . At the start of the 13th century , approximately 22 @,@ 000 people lived there . The area saw moderate population increases during the following decades , and dramatic ones from 1225 to 1260 . Most of the people in the region lived in the plains west of the mesa at locations such as Yellow Jacket Pueblo , near Cortez , Colorado . Others colonized canyon rims and slopes in multi @-@ family structures that grew to unprecedented size as populations swelled . By 1260 , the majority of Mesa Verdeans lived in large pueblos that housed several families and more than one hundred people . \n The 13th century saw 69 years of below average rainfall in the Mesa Verde region , and after 1270 the area suffered from especially cold temperatures . Dendrochronology indicates that the last tree felled for construction on the mesa was cut in 1281 . There was a major decline in ceramic imports to the region during this time , but local production remained steady . Despite challenging conditions , the Puebloans continued to farm the area until a severely dry period from 1276 to 1299 ended seven hundred years of continuous human occupation at Mesa Verde . Archeologists refer to this period as the \" Great Drought \" . The last inhabitants of the mesa left the area c . 1285 . \n = = = = Warfare = = = = \n During the Pueblo III period ( 1150 to 1300 ) , Mesa Verdeans built numerous stone masonry towers that likely served as defensive structures . They often incorporated hidden tunnels connecting the towers to associated kivas . Warfare was conducted using the same tools the Mesa Verdeans used for hunting game , including bows and arrows , stone axes , and wooden clubs and spears . They also crafted hide and basket shields that were used only during battles . Periodic warfare occurred on the mesa throughout the 13th century . Civic leaders in the region likely attained power and prestige by distributing food during times of drought . This system probably broke down during the \" Great Drought \" , leading to intense warfare between competing clans . Increasing economic and social uncertainty during the century 's final decades led to widespread conflict . Evidence of partly burned villages and post @-@ mortem trauma has been uncovered , and the residents of one village appear to have been the victims of a site @-@ wide massacre . \n Evidence of violence and cannibalism has been documented in the central Mesa Verde region . While most of the violence , which peaked between 1275 and 1285 , is generally ascribed to in @-@ fighting amongst Mesa Verdeans , archeological evidence found at Sand Canyon Pueblo , in Canyons of the Ancients National Monument , suggests that violent interactions also occurred between Mesa Verdeans and people from outside the region . Evidence of the attacks was discovered by members of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center during the 1990s . The assaults , which also occurred at the national monument 's Castle Rock Pueblo , were dated to c . 1280 , and are considered to have effectively ended several centuries of Puebloan occupation at those sites . Many of the victims showed signs of skull fractures , and the uniformity of the injuries suggest that most were inflicted with a small stone axe . Others were scalped , dismembered , and cannibalized . The anthropophagy ( cannibalism ) might have been undertaken as a survival strategy during times of starvation . The archeological record indicates that , rather than being isolated to the Mesa Verde region , violent conflict was widespread in North America during the late 13th and early 14th centuries , and was likely exacerbated by global climate changes that negatively affected food supplies throughout the continent . \n = = = = Migration = = = = \n The Mesa Verde region saw unusually cold and dry conditions during the beginning of the 13th century . This might have driven emigration to Mesa Verde from less hospitable locations . The added population stressed the mesa 's environment , further straining an agricultural society that was suffering from drought . The region 's bimodal precipitation pattern , which brought rainfall during spring and summer and snowfall during autumn and winter , began to fail post @-@ 1250 . After 1260 , there was a rapid depopulation of Mesa Verde , as \" tens of thousands of people \" emigrated or died from starvation . Many smaller communities in the Four Corners region were also abandoned during this period . The Ancestral Puebloans had a long history of migration in the face of environmental instability , but the depopulation of Mesa Verde at the end of the 13th century was different in that the region was almost completely emptied , and no descendants returned to build permanent settlements . While drought , resource depletion , and overpopulation all contributed to instability during the last two centuries of Ancestral Puebloan occupation , their overdependence on maize crops is considered the \" fatal flaw \" of their subsistence strategy . \n The vacating Mesa Verdeans left almost no direct evidence of their migration , but they left behind household goods , including cooking utensils , tools , and clothing , which gave archeologists the impression that the emigration was haphazard or hurried . An estimated 20 @,@ 000 people lived in the region during the 13th century , but by the start of the 14th century the area was nearly uninhabited . Many emigrants relocated to southern Arizona and New Mexico . Although the rate of settlement is unclear , increases in sparsely populated areas , such as Rio Chama , Pajarito Plateau , and Santa Fe , correspond directly with the period of migration from Mesa Verde . Archeologists believe the Mesa Verdeans who settled in the areas near the Rio Grande , where Mesa Verde black @-@ on @-@ white pottery became widespread during the 14th century , were likely related to the households they joined and not unwelcome intruders . Archeologists view this migration as a continuation , versus a dissolution , of Ancestral Puebloan society and culture . Many others relocated to the banks of the Little Colorado River , in western New Mexico and eastern Arizona . While archeologists tend to focus on the \" push \" factors that drove the Mesa Verdeans away from the region , there were also several environmental \" pull factors \" , such as warmer temperatures , better farming conditions , plentiful timber , and bison herds , which incentivized relocation to the area near the Rio Grande . In addition to numerous settlements along the Rio Grande , contemporary descendants of the Mesa Verdeans live in pueblos at Acomo , Zuni , Jemez , and Laguna . \n = = = = Organization = = = = \n Although Chaco Canyon might have exerted regional control over Mesa Verde during the late 11th and early 12th centuries , most archeologists view the Mesa Verde region as a collection of smaller communities based on central sites and related outliers that were never fully integrated into a larger civic structure . Several ancient roads , averaging 15 to 45 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 7 m ) wide and lined with earthen berms , have been identified in the region . Most appear to connect communities and shrines ; others encircle great house sites . The extent of the network is unclear , but no roads have been discovered leading to the Chacoan Great North Road , or directly connecting Mesa Verde and Chacoan sites . \n Ancestral Puebloan shrines , called herraduras , have been identified near road segments in the region . Their purpose is unclear , but several C @-@ shaped herraduras have been excavated , and they are thought to have been \" directional shrines \" used to indicate the location of great houses . \n = = = = Architecture = = = = \n Mesa Verde is best known for a large number of well @-@ preserved cliff dwellings , houses built in alcoves , or rock overhangs along the canyon walls . The structures contained within these alcoves were mostly blocks of hard sandstone , held together and plastered with adobe mortar . Specific constructions had many similarities but were generally unique in form due to the individual topography of different alcoves along the canyon walls . In marked contrast to earlier constructions and villages on top of the mesas , the cliff dwellings of Mesa Verde reflected a region @-@ wide trend towards the aggregation of growing regional populations into close , highly defensible quarters during the 13th century . \n Pueblo buildings were built with stone , windows facing south , and in U , E and L shapes . The buildings were located more closely together and reflected deepening religious celebration . Towers were built near kivas and likely used for lookouts . Pottery became more versatile , including pitchers , ladles , bowls , jars and dishware for food and drink . White pottery with black designs emerged , the pigments coming from plants . Water management and conservation techniques , including the use of reservoirs and silt @-@ retaining dams , also emerged during this period . Styles for these sandstone / mortar constructions , both surface and cliff dwellings , included T @-@ shaped windows and doors . This has been taken by some archaeologists , including Stephen H. Lekson , as evidence of the continuing reach of the Chacoan system . Other researchers see these elements as part of a more generalized Puebloan style and / or spiritual significance , rather than evidence of a continuing specific elite socioeconomic system . \n While much of the construction in these sites is consistent with common Pueblo architectural forms , including kivas , towers , and pit @-@ houses , the space constrictions of these alcoves necessitated what seems to have been a far denser concentration of their populations . Mug House , a typical cliff dwelling of the period , was home to around 100 people who shared 94 small rooms and eight kivas built against each other and sharing many of their walls ; builders in these areas maximized space in any way they could , with no areas considered off @-@ limits to construction . \n = = = = Astronomy = = = = \n Mesa Verdeans used astronomical observations to plan their farming and religious ceremonies , drawing on both natural features in the landscape and masonry structures built for this purpose . Several great houses in the region were aligned to the cardinal directions , which positioned windows , doors , and walls along the path of the sun , whose rays would indicate the passing of seasons . Mesa Verde 's Sun Temple is thought to have been an astronomical observatory . \n The temple is D @-@ shaped , and its alignment is 10 @.@ 7 degrees off true east @-@ west . Its location and orientation indicate that its builders understood the cycles of both the sun and the moon . It is aligned to the major lunar standstill , which occurs once every 18 @.@ 6 years , and the sunset during the winter solstice , which can be viewed setting over the temple from a platform at the south end of Cliff Palace , across Fewkes Canyon . At the bottom of the canyon is the Sun Temple fire pit , which is illuminated by the first rays of the rising sun during the winter solstice . Sun Temple is one of the largest exclusively ceremonial structures ever built by the Ancestral Puebloans . \n = = = = Agriculture and water @-@ control systems = = = = \n Starting in the 6th century , the farmers living in central Mesa Verde cultivated corn , beans , squash , and gourds . The combination of corn and beans provided the Mesa Verdeans with the amino acids of a complete protein . When conditions were good , 3 or 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 or 1 @.@ 6 ha ) of land would provide enough food for a family of three or four individuals for one year , providing they supplemented with game and wild plants . As Mesa Verdeans increasingly relied on corn as a dietary staple , the success or failure of crop yields factored heavily into their lives . The mesa tilts slightly to the south , which increased its exposure to the sun . Before the introduction of pottery , foods were baked , roasted , and parched . Hot rocks dropped into containers could bring water to a brief boil , but because beans must be boiled for an hour or more their use was not widespread until after pottery had disseminated throughout the region . With the increased availability of ceramics after 600 , beans became much easier to cook . This provided a high quality protein that reduced reliance on hunting . It also aided corn cultivation , as legumes add much needed nutrients to soils they are grown in , which likely increased corn yields . \n The most Mesa Verdeans practiced dry farming , which relied on rain to water their crops , but others utilized runoff , springs , seeps , and natural collection pools . Starting in the 9th century , they dug and maintained reservoirs that caught runoff from summer showers and spring snowmelt ; some crops were watered by hand . Archeologists believe that prior to the 13th century , springs and other sources of water were considered shared public resources , but as Mesa Verdeans moved into increasingly larger pueblos built near or around water supplies control was privatized and limited to members of the surrounding community . \n Between 750 and 800 , Mesa Verdeans began constructing two large water containment structures in canyon bottoms – the Morefield and Box Elder reservoirs . Soon afterward , work began on two more : the Far View and Sagebrush reservoirs , which were approximately 90 feet ( 27 m ) across and constructed on the mesa top . The reservoirs lie on an east @-@ west line that runs for approximately 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , which suggests builders followed a centralized plan for the system . In 2004 , the American Society of Civil Engineers designated these four structures as National Civil Engineering Historic Landmarks . A 2014 geospatial analyses suggested that neither collection nor retention of water was possible in the Far View Reservoir . This interpretation views the structure as a ceremonial space with procession roads in an adaptation of Chacoan culture . \n = = = = Hunting and foraging = = = = \n Mesa Verdeans typically harvested local small game , but sometimes organized hunting parties that traveled long distances . Their main sources of animal protein came from mule deer and rabbits , but they occasionally hunted Bighorn sheep , antelope , and elk . They began to domesticate turkeys starting around 1000 , and by the 13th century consumption of the animal peaked , supplanting deer as the primary protein source at many sites . These domesticated turkeys consumed large amounts of corn , which further deepened reliance on the staple crop . Puebloans wove blankets from turkey feathers and rabbit fur , and made implements such as awls and needles from turkey and deer bones . Despite the availability of fish in the area 's rivers and streams , archeological evidence suggests that they were rarely eaten . \n Mesa Verdeans supplemented their diet by gathering the seeds and fruits of wild plants , searching large expanses of land while procuring these resources . Depending on the season , they collected piñon nuts and juniper berries , weedy goosefoot , pigweed , purslane , tomatillo , tansy mustard , globe mallow , sunflower seeds , and yucca , as well as various species of grass and cacti . Prickly pear fruits provided a rare source of natural sugar . Wild seeds were cooked and ground up into porridge . They used sagebrush and mountain mahogany , along with piñon and juniper , for firewood . They also smoked wild tobacco . Because the Ancestral Puebloans considered all material consumed and discarded by their communities as sacred , their midden piles were viewed with reverence . Starting during the Basketmaker III period , c . 700 , Mesa Verdeans often buried their dead in these mounds . \n = = = = Pottery = = = = \n Scholars are divided as to whether pottery was invented in the Four Corners region or introduced from the south . Specimens of shallow , unfired clay bowls found at Canyon de Chelly indicate the innovation might have been derived from using clay bowls to parch seeds . Repeated uses rendered these bowls hard and impervious to water , which might represent the first fired pottery in the region . An alternate theory suggests that pottery originated in the Mogollon Rim area to the south , where brown @-@ paste bowls were used during the first few centuries of the common era . Others believe pottery was introduced to Mesa Verde from Mexico , c . 300 CE . There is no evidence of ancient pottery markets in the region , but archeologists believe that local potters exchanged decorative wares between families . Cooking pots made with crushed igneous rock tempers from places like Ute Mountain were more resilient and desirable , and Puebloans from throughout the region traded for them . \n Neutron activation analysis indicates that much of the black @-@ on @-@ white pottery found at Mesa Verde was produced locally . Cretaceous clays from both the Dakota and Menefee Formations were used in black @-@ on @-@ white wares , and Mancos Formation clays for corrugated jars . Evidence that pottery of both types moved between several locations around the region suggests interaction between groups of ancient potters , or they might have shared a common source of raw materials . The Mesa Verde black @-@ on @-@ white pottery was produced at three locations : Sand Canyon , Castle Rock , and Mesa Verde . Archeological evidence indicates that nearly every household had at least one member who worked as a potter . Trench kilns were constructed away from pueblos and closer to sources of firewood . Their sizes vary , but the larger ones were up to 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long and thought to have been shared kilns that served several families . Designs were added to ceramic vessels with a Yucca @-@ leaf brush and paints made from iron , manganese , beeplant , and tansy mustard . \n Most of the pottery found in 9th century pueblos was sized for individuals or small families , but as communal ceremonialism expanded during the 13th century , many larger , feast – sized vessels were produced . Corrugated decorations appear on Mesa Verde grey wares after 700 , and by 1000 entire vessels were crafted in this way . The technique created a rough exterior surface that was easier to hold on to than regular grey wares , which were smooth . By the 11th century these corrugated vessels , which dissipated heat more efficiently than smoother ones , had largely replaced the older style , whose tendency to retain heat made them prone to boiling over . Corrugation likely developed as ancient potters attempted to mimic the visual properties of coiled basketry . Corrugated wares were made using clay from formations other than Menefee , which suggests that ancient potters selected different clays for different styles . Potters also selected clays and altered firing conditions to achieve specific colors . Under normal conditions , pots made of Mancos shale turned grey when fired , and those made of Morrison Formation clay turned white . Clays from southeastern Utah turned red when fired in a high @-@ oxygen environment . \n = = = = Rock art and murals = = = = \n Rock art is found throughout the Mesa Verde region , but its dispersion is uneven and periodic . Some locations have numerous examples ; others have none , and some periods saw prolific creation , while others saw little . Styles also vary over time . Examples are relatively rare on Mesa Verde proper , but abundant in the middle San Juan River area , which might indicate the river 's importance as a travel route and key source of water . Common motifs in the rock art of the region include , anthropomorphic figures in procession and during copulation or childbirth , handprints , animal and people tracks , wavy lines , spirals , concentric circles , animals , and hunting scenes . As the region 's population plummeted during the late 13th century , the subject of Mesa Verdean rock art increasingly shifted to depictions of shields , warriors , and battle scenes . Modern Hopi have interpreted the petroglyphs at Mesa Verde 's Petroglyph Point as depictions of various clans of people . \n Starting during the late Pueblo II period ( 1020 ) and continuing through Pueblo III ( 1300 ) , the Ancestral Puebloans of the Mesa Verde region created plaster murals in their great houses , particularly in their kivas . The murals contained both painted and inscribed images depicting animals , people , and designs used in textiles and pottery dating back as far as Basketmaker III , c . 500 . Others depict triangles and mounds thought to represent mountains and hills in the surrounding landscape . The murals were typically located on the face of the kiva bench and usually encircled the room . Geometric patterns that resemble symbols used in pottery and zigzag that represent stitches used in basket making are common motifs . The painted murals include the colors red , green , yellow , white , brown , and blue . The designs were still in use by the Hopi during the 15th and 16th centuries . \n = = Anthropogenic ecology , geography , and climate = = \n Anthropogenic ecology refers to the human impact on animals and plants in an ecosystem . A shift from medium and large game animals , such as deer , bighorn sheep , and antelope , to smaller ones like rabbits and turkey during the mid @-@ 10th to mid @-@ 13th centuries might indicate that Mesa Verdean subsistence hunting had dramatically altered faunal populations on the mesa . Analysis of pack rat midden indicates that , with the exception of invasive species such as tumbleweed and clover , the flora and fauna in the area have remained relatively consistent for the past 4 @,@ 000 years . \n Mesa Verde 's canyons were created by streams that eroded the hard sandstone that covers the area . This resulted in Mesa Verde National Park elevations ranging from about 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 572 feet ( 1 @,@ 829 to 2 @,@ 613 m ) , the highest elevation at Park Point . The terrain in the park is now a transition zone between the low desert plateaus and the Rocky Mountains . \n The region 's precipitation pattern is bimodal , meaning agriculture is sustained through snowfall during winter and autumn and rainfall during spring and summer . The climate is semi @-@ arid . Water for farming and consumption was provided by summer rains , winter snowfall , and seeps and springs in and near the Mesa Verde villages . At 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) , the middle mesa areas were typically ten degrees cooler than the mesa top , which reduced the amount of water needed for farming . The cliff dwellings were built to take advantage of solar energy . The angle of the sun in winter warmed the masonry of the cliff dwellings , warm breezes blew from the valley , and the air was ten to twenty degrees warmer in the canyon alcoves than on the top of the mesa . In the summer , with the sun high overhead , much of the village was protected from direct sunlight in the high cliff dwellings . \n = = Geology = = \n Although the area 's first Spanish explorers named the feature Mesa Verde , the term is a misnomer , as true mesas are almost perfectly flat . Because Mesa Verde is slanted to the south , the proper geological term is cuesta , not mesa . The park is made up of several smaller cuestas located between canyons . Mesa Verde 's slant contributed to the formation of the alcoves that have preserved the area 's cliff dwellings . \n In the late Cretaceous Period , the Mancos Shale was deposited on top of the Dakota Sandstone , which is the rock formation that can be found under much of Colorado . The beds of the Mancos Shale are \" fine @-@ grained sand @-@ stones , mudstones , and shales \" which accumulated in the deep water of the Cretaceous Sea . It has a high clay content which causes it to expand when wet leading to sliding of the terrain . On top of this shale , there are three formations in the Mesaverde group which reflect the changes in depositional environment in the area over time . The first is the Point Lookout Sandstone , which is named for the Point Lookout feature in the park ( elevation 8427 feet ) . This sandstone , which formed in the marine environment of shallow water when the Cretaceous sea was receding , is \" massive , fine @-@ grained , cross @-@ bedded , and very resistant \" , in its layers reflecting waves and currents that were present during the time of its formation . Its sediments are approximately 400 feet thick , and its upper layers feature fossiliferous invertebrates . \n Next is the Menefee Formation , the middle formation whose content features interbedded carbonaceous shales , siltstones , and sandstones . These were deposited in semi @-@ marine environments of brackish water , such as swamps and lagoons . Due to its depositional environment and the organic material in its composition , there are thin coal seams running through the Menefee Formation . At the top , this formation is intruded upon by the Cliff House Sandstone . \n The Cliff House Sandstone is the area 's youngest rock layer . It was formed after the Cretaceous sea had completely receded and as a result has a high sand content from beaches , dunes , etc. and from this receives its characteristic yellow tint to its canyon faces . Like the Point Lookout Sandstone , it is about 400 feet thick . It contains numerous fossil beds of different types of shells , fish teeth , and other invertebrate leftovers from the receded sea . The shale zones in this feature determine where alcoves formed where the Ancestral Puebloans constructed their dwellings . \n Continuing through the Cretaceous period and into the early Tertiary , there was uplifting in the area of the Colorado Plateau , the San Juan Mountains , and the La Plata Mountains , which led to the formation of the Mesa Verde pediment with the help of erosion . Small channels of water ran across this formation depositing gravel . Later in the tertiary , the last period of uplift and rock tilting towards the south caused these streams to cut rapidly into the rock removing loose sediment and forming the vast canyons seen today . This caused the isolation of the Mesa Verde pediment from surrounding rock . Today , since the climate is more arid , these erosional processes are slowed . \n = = Rediscovery = = \n Mexican @-@ Spanish missionaries and explorers Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante , seeking a route from Santa Fe to California , faithfully recorded their travels in 1776 . They reached Mesa Verde ( green plateau ) region , which they named after its high , tree @-@ covered plateaus , but they never got close enough , or into the needed angle , to see the ancient stone villages . They were the first white men to travel the route through much of the Colorado Plateau into Utah and back through Arizona to New Mexico . \n The Mesa Verde region has long been occupied by the Utes , and an 1868 treaty between them and the United States government recognized Ute ownership of all Colorado land west of the Continental Divide . After there had become an interest in land in western Colorado , a new treaty in 1873 left the Ute with a strip of land in southwestern Colorado between the border with New Mexico and 15 miles north . Most of Mesa Verde lies within this strip of land . The Ute wintered in the warm , deep canyons and found sanctuary there and the high plateaus of Mesa Verde . Believing the cliff dwellings to be sacred ancestral sites , they did not live in the ancient dwellings . \n Occasional trappers and prospectors visited , with one prospector , John Moss , making his observations known in 1873 . The following year , Moss led eminent photographer William Henry Jackson through Mancos Canyon , at the base of Mesa Verde . There , Jackson both photographed and publicized a typical stone cliff dwelling . Geologist William H. Holmes retraced Jackson 's route in 1875 . Reports by both Jackson and Holmes were included in the 1876 report of the Hayden Survey , one of the four federally financed efforts to explore the American West . These and other publications led to proposals to systematically study Southwestern archeological sites . \n In her quest to find Ancestral Puebloan settlements , Virginia McClurg , a journalist for the New York Daily Graphic , visited Mesa Verde in 1882 and 1885 . Her party rediscovered Echo Cliff House , Three Tier House , and Balcony House in 1885 ; these discoveries inspired her to protect the dwellings and artifacts . \n = = = The Wetherills = = = \n A family of cattle ranchers , the Wetherills , befriended members of the Ute tribe near their ranch southwest of Mancos , Colorado . With the Ute tribe 's approval , the Wetherills were allowed to bring cattle into the lower , warmer plateaus of the present Ute reservation during winter . Word of the Ancestral Puebloan great houses had spread , and Acowitz , a member of the Ute tribe , told the Wetherills of a special cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde : \" Deep in that canyon and near its head are many houses of the old people – the Ancient Ones . One of those houses , high , high in the rocks , is bigger than all the others . Utes never go there , it is a sacred place . \" On December 18 , 1888 , Richard Wetherill and cowboy Charlie Mason rediscovered Cliff Palace after spotting the ruins from the top of Mesa Verde . Wetherill gave the ruin its present @-@ day name . Richard Wetherill , family and friends explored the ruins and gathered artifacts , some of which they sold to the Historical Society of Colorado and much of which they kept . Among the people who stayed with the Wetherills and explored the cliff dwellings was mountaineer , photographer , and author Frederick H. Chapin , who visited the region during 1889 and 1890 . He described the landscape and ruins in an 1890 article and later in an 1892 book , The Land of the Cliff @-@ Dwellers , which he illustrated with hand @-@ drawn maps and personal photographs . \n = = = Gustaf Nordenskiöld = = = \n The Wetherills also hosted Gustaf Nordenskiöld , the son of polar explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld , in 1891 . Nordenskiöld was a trained mineralogist who introduced scientific methods to artifact collection , recorded locations , photographed extensively , diagrammed sites , and correlated what he observed with existing archeological literature as well as the home @-@ grown expertise of the Wetherills . He removed a lot of artifacts and sent them to Sweden , where they eventually went to the National Museum of Finland . Nordenskiöld published , in 1893 , The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde . When Nordenskiöld shipped the collection that he made of Mesa Verde artifacts , the event initiated concerns about the need to protect Mesa Verde land and its resources . \n = = National Park = = \n In 1889 , Goodman Point Pueblo became the first pre @-@ Columbian archeological site in the Mesa Verde region to gain federal protection . It was the first such site to be protected in the US . Virginia McClurg was diligent in her efforts between 1887 and 1906 to inform the United States and European community of the importance of protecting the important historical material and dwellings in Mesa Verde . Her efforts included enlisting support from 250 @,@ 000 women through the Federation of Women 's Clubs , writing and having published poems in popular magazines , giving speeches domestically and internationally , and forming the Colorado Cliff Dwellers Association . The Colorado Cliff Dwellers ' purpose was to protect the resources of Colorado cliff dwellings , reclaiming as much of the original artifacts as possible and sharing information about the people who dwelt there . A fellow activist for protection of Mesa Verde and prehistoric archeological sites included Lucy Peabody , who , located in Washington , D.C. , met with members of Congress to further the cause . Former Mesa Verde National Park superintendent Robert Heyder communicated his belief that the park might have been far more significant with the hundreds of artifacts taken by Nordenskiöld . \n By the end of the 19th century , it was clear that Mesa Verde needed protection from people in general who came to Mesa Verde and created or sold their own collection of artifacts . In a report to the Secretary of the Interior , Smithsonian Institution Ethnologist Jesse Walter Fewkes described vandalism at Mesa Verde 's Cliff Palace : \n Parties of \" curio seekers \" camped on the ruin for several winters , and it is reported that many hundred specimens there have been carried down the mesa and sold to private individuals . Some of these objects are now in museums , but many are forever lost to science . In order to secure this valuable archeological material , walls were broken down ... often simply to let light into the darker rooms ; floors were invariably opened and buried kivas mutilated . To facilitate this work and get rid of the dust , great openings were broken through the five walls which form the front of the ruin . Beams were used for firewood to so great an extent that not a single roof now remains . This work of destruction , added to that resulting from erosion due to rain , left Cliff Palace in a sad condition . \n Many artifacts from Mesa Verde are now located in museums and private collections in the USA and across the world . A representative selection of pottery vessels and other objects , for example , is now in the British Museum in London . In 1906 , President Theodore Roosevelt approved creation of the Mesa Verde National Park and the Federal Antiquities Act of 1906 . The park was an effort to \" preserve the works of man \" and was the first of its kind . The park was named with the Spanish term for green table because of its forests of juniper and piñon trees . \n = = = Excavation and protection = = = \n From 1908 to 1922 , Spruce Tree House , Cliff Palace , and Sun Temple ruins were stabilized . Most of the early efforts were led by Jesse Walter Fewkes . During the 1930s and 40s , Civilian Conservation Corps workers , starting in 1932 , played key roles in excavation efforts , building trails and roads , creating museum exhibits and constructing buildings at Mesa Verde . From 1958 to 1965 , Wetherill Mesa Archeological Project included archeological excavations , stabilization of sites , and surveys . With excavation and study of eleven Wetherill Mesa sites , it is considered the largest archeological effort in the US . The project oversaw the excavation of Long House and Mug House . \n In 1966 , as with all historical areas administered by the National Park Service , Mesa Verde was listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and in 1987 , the Mesa Verde Administrative District was listed on the register . It was designated a World Heritage Site in 1978 . In its 2015 travel awards , Sunset magazine named Mesa Verde National Park \" the best cultural attraction \" in the Western United States . \n = = = Services = = = \n The entrance to Mesa Verde National Park is on U.S. Route 160 , approximately 9 miles ( 14 km ) east of the community of Cortez and 7 miles ( 11 km ) west of Mancos , Colorado . The park covers 52 @,@ 485 acres ( 21 @,@ 240 ha ) It contains 4 @,@ 372 documented sites , including more than 600 cliff dwellings . It is the largest archeological preserve in the US . It protects some of the most important and best preserved archeological sites in the country . The park initiated the Archeological Site Conservation Program in 1995 . It analyses data pertaining to how sites are constructed and utilized . \n The Mesa Verde Visitor and Research Center is located just off of Highway 160 and is before the park entrance booths . The Visitor and Research Center opened in December 2012 . Chapin Mesa ( the most popular area ) is 20 miles ( 32 km ) beyond the visitor center . Mesa Verde National Park is an area of federal exclusive jurisdiction . Because of this all law enforcement , emergency medical service , and wildland / structural fire duties are conducted by federal National Park Service Law Enforcement Rangers . The Mesa Verde National Park Post Office has the ZIP code 81330 . Access to park facilities vary by season . Three of the cliff dwellings on Chapin Mesa are open to the public . The Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum is open all year . Spruce Tree House is also open all year , weather permitting . Balcony House , Long House and Cliff Palace require tour tickets for ranger @-@ guided tours . Many other dwellings are visible from the road but not open to tourists . The park offers hiking trails , a campground , and , during peak season , facilities for food , fuel , and lodging ; these are unavailable in the winter . \n = = = Wildfires and culturally modified trees = = = \n During the years 1996 to 2003 , the park suffered from several wildfires . The fires , many of which were started by lightning during times of drought , burned 28 @,@ 340 acres ( 11 @,@ 470 ha ) of forest , more than half the park . The fires also damaged many archeological sites and park buildings . They were named : Chapin V ( 1996 ) , Bircher and Pony ( 2000 ) , Long Mesa ( 2002 ) , and the Balcony House Complex fires ( 2003 ) , which were five fires that began on the same day . The Chapin V and Pony fires destroyed two rock art sites , and the Long Mesa fire nearly destroyed the museum – the first one ever built in the National Park System – and Spruce Tree House , the third largest cliff dwelling in the park . \n Prior to the fires of 1996 to 2003 , archeologists had surveyed approximately ninety percent of the park . Dense undergrowth and tree cover kept many ancient sites hidden from view , but after the Chapin V , Bircher and Pony fires , 593 previously undiscovered sites were revealed – most of them date to the Basketmaker III and Pueblo I periods . Also uncovered during the fires were extensive water containment features , including 1 @,@ 189 check dams , 344 terraces , and five reservoirs that date to the Pueblo II and III periods . In February 2008 , the Colorado Historical Society decided to invest a part of its $ 7 million budget into a culturally modified trees project in the National Park . \n = = = Ute Mountain Tribal Park = = = \n The Ute Mountain Tribal Park , adjoining Mesa Verde National Park to the east of the mountains , is approximately 125 @,@ 000 acres ( 51 @,@ 000 ha ) along the Mancos River . Hundreds of surface sites , cliff dwellings , petroglyphs , and wall paintings of Ancestral Puebloan and Ute cultures are preserved in the park . Native American Ute tour guides provide background information about the people , culture , and history of the park lands . National Geographic Traveler chose it as one of \" 80 World Destinations for Travel in the 21st Century \" , one of only nine places selected in the US . \n = = Key sites = = \n In addition to the cliff dwellings , Mesa Verde boasts a number of mesa @-@ top ruins . Examples open to public access include the Far View Complex and Cedar Tree Tower on Chapin Mesa , and Badger House Community , on Wetherill Mesa . \n = = = Balcony House = = = \n Balcony House is set on a high ledge facing east . Its 45 rooms and 2 kivas would have been cold during the winter . Visitors on ranger @-@ guided tours enter by climbing a 32 @-@ foot ladder and a crawling through a 12 @-@ foot tunnel . The exit , a series of toe @-@ holds in a cleft of the cliff , was believed to be the only entry and exit route for the cliff dwellers , which made the small village easy to defend and secure . One log was dated at 1278 , so it was likely built not long before the Mesa Verde people migrated out of the area . It was officially excavated in 1910 by Jesse Nusbaum , one of the first Superintendents of Mesa Verde National Park . Visitors can enter Balcony House through ranger @-@ guided tours . \n = = = Cliff Palace = = = \n This multi @-@ storied ruin , the best @-@ known cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde , is located in the largest alcove in the center of the Great Mesa . It was south- and southwest @-@ facing , providing greater warmth from the sun in the winter . Dating back more than 700 years , the dwelling is constructed of sandstone , wooden beams , and mortar . Many of the rooms were brightly painted . Cliff Palace was home to approximately 125 people , but was likely an important part of a larger community of sixty nearby pueblos , which housed a combined six hundred or more people . With 23 kivas and 150 rooms , Cliff Palace is the largest cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde National Park . \n = = = Long House = = = \n Located on the Wetherill Mesa , Long House is the second @-@ largest Mesa Verdean village ; approximately 150 people lived there . The location was excavated from 1959 through 1961 , as part of the Wetherhill Mesa Archeological Project . Long House was built c . 1200 ; it was occupied until 1280 . The cliff dwelling features 150 rooms , a kiva , a tower , and a central plaza . Its rooms are not clustered like typical cliff dwellings . Stones were used without shaping for fit and stability . Two overhead ledges contain storage space for grain . One ledge seems to include an overlook with small holes in the wall to see the rest of the village below . A spring is accessible within several hundred feet , and seeps are located in the rear of the village . \n = = = Mug , Oak Tree , Spruce Tree , and Square Tower houses = = = \n Mug House is located on Wetherill Mesa ; it contains 94 rooms , a large kiva , and a nearby reservoir . It received its name from four mugs the Charles Mason and the Wetherill brothers found strung together at the site . Oak Tree House and neighboring Fire Temple can be visited via a 2 @-@ hour ranger @-@ guided hike . Spruce Tree House is the third @-@ largest village , within several hundred feet of a spring , and had 130 rooms and eight kivas . It was constructed sometime between 1211 and 1278 . It is believed anywhere from 60 to 80 people lived there at one time . Because of its protective location , it is well preserved . The short trail to Spruce Tree House begins at the Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum . The Square Tower House is one of the stops on the Mesa Top Loop Road driving tour . The tower is the tallest structure in Mesa Verde . \n = Soedjatmoko = \n Soedjatmoko ( born Soedjatmoko Mangoendiningrat ; 10 January 1922 – 21 December 1989 ) , familiarly called Bung Koko , was an Indonesian intellectual and diplomat . Born to a noble father and mother in Sawahlunto , West Sumatra , after finishing his primary education , he went to Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) to study medicine ; in the city 's slums , he saw much poverty , which became an academic interest later in life . After being expelled from medical school by the Japanese in 1943 for his political activities , Soedjatmoko moved to Surakarta and practised medicine with his father . In 1947 , after Indonesia proclaimed its independence , Soedjatmoko and two other youths were deployed to Lake Success , New York , to represent Indonesia at the United Nations ( UN ) . They helped secure international recognition of the country 's sovereignty . \n After his work at the UN , Soedjatmoko attempted to study at Harvard 's Littauer Center for Public Administration ( now the John F. Kennedy School of Government ) ; however , he was forced to resign due to pressure from other work , including serving as Indonesia 's first chargé d 'affaires in London for three months as well as establishing the political desk at the Embassy of Indonesia in Washington , D.C. By 1952 he had returned to Indonesia , where he became involved in the socialist press and joined the Socialist Party of Indonesia . He was elected as a member of the Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia in 1955 , serving until 1959 ; he married Ratmini Gandasubrata in 1958 . However , as President Sukarno 's government became more authoritarian Soedjatmoko began to criticise the government . To avoid censorship , he spent two years as a guest lecturer at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York , and another three in self @-@ imposed unemployment in Indonesia . \n After Sukarno was replaced by Suharto , Soedjatmoko returned to public service . In 1966 he was sent as one of Indonesia 's representatives at the UN , and in 1968 he became Indonesia 's ambassador to the US ; during this time he received several honorary doctoral degrees . He also advised foreign minister Adam Malik . After returning to Indonesia in 1971 , Soedjatmoko held a position in several think tanks . After the Malari incident in January 1974 , Soedjatmoko was held for interrogation for two and a half weeks and accused of masterminding the event . Although eventually released , he could not leave Indonesia for two and a half years . In 1978 Soedjatmoko received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding , and in 1980 he was chosen as rector of the United Nations University in Tokyo . Two years after returning from Japan , Soedjatmoko died of cardiac arrest while teaching in Yogyakarta . \n = = Early life = = \n Soedjatmoko was born on 10 January 1922 in Sawahlunto , West Sumatra , with the name Soedjatmoko Mangoendiningrat . He was the eldest son of Saleh Mangoendiningrat , a Javanese physician of noble descent from Madiun , and Isnadikin , a Javanese housewife from Ponorogo ; the couple had three other children , as well as two adopted children . Soedjatmoko 's younger brother , Nugroho Wisnumurti , went on to work at the United Nations . When he was two years old , he and his family moved to the Netherlands after his father received a five @-@ year scholarship . After returning to Indonesia , Soedjatmoko continued his studies at an elementary school for European called ELS in Manado , North Sulawesi . \n Soedjatmoko later attended the Surabaya HBS ( secondary school ) and graduated in 1940 . The school introduced him to Latin and Greek , and one of his teachers introduced him to European art ; he later recalled that this introduction had allowed him to see Europeans as more than colonists . He then continued to medical school in Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) . Upon seeing the slums of Jakarta , he was drawn to the issue of poverty ; this later became an academic interest of his . However , during the Japanese occupation , in 1943 , he was expelled from the city due to his relationship with Sutan Sjahrir – who had married Soedjatmoko 's sister Siti Wahyunah – and participation in protests against the occupation . \n After his expulsion , Soedjatmoko moved to Surakarta and studied Western history and political literature , which led to an interest in socialism . Some figure that affected him besides Karl Marx were Ortega y Gasset and Jan Romein . While in Surakarta he also worked at his father 's hospital . After Indonesia proclaimed its independence , Soedjatmoko was asked to become Deputy Head of the Foreign Press Department in the Ministry of Information . In 1946 , at the request of Prime Minister Sjahrir , he and two friends established a Dutch @-@ language weekly , Het Inzicht ( Inside ) , as a counter to the Dutch @-@ sponsored Het Uίtzicht ( Outlook ) . The next year , they launched a socialist @-@ oriented journal , Siasat ( Tactics ) , which was published weekly . During this period Soedjatmoko dropped the name Mangoendiningrat , as it reminded him of the feudal aspects of Indonesian culture . \n = = Work in the US = = \n In 1947 , Sjahrir sent Soedjatmoko to New York as a member of the Indonesian Republic 's \" observer \" delegation to the United Nations ( UN ) . The delegation travelled to the United States via the Philippines after a two @-@ month stay in Singapore ; while in the Philippines , President Manuel Roxas guaranteed support of the nascent nation 's case at the United Nations . Soedjatmoko stayed in Lake Success , New York , the temporary location of the UN , and participated in debates over international recognition of the new country . Towards the end of his stay in New York , Soedjatmoko enrolled at Harvard 's Littauer Center ; as , at the time , he was still part of the UN delegation , he commuted between New York and Boston for seven months . After being released from the delegation , he spent most of a year at the Center ; for a period of three months , however , he was chargé d 'affaires – the nation 's first – at the Dutch East Indies desk of the Dutch embassy in London , serving in a temporary capacity while the Indonesian embassy was being established . \n In 1951 , Soedjatmoko moved to Washington D.C. to establish the political desk at the Indonesian embassy there ; he also became Alternate Permanent Representative of Indonesia at the UN . This busy schedule , demanding a commute between three cities , proved to be too much for him and he dropped out of the Littauer Center . In late 1951 , he resigned from his positions and went to Europe for nine months , seeking political inspiration . In Yugoslavia , he met Milovan Djilas , who impressed him greatly . \n = = Return to Indonesia = = \n Upon returning to Indonesia , Soedjatmoko once again became an editor of Siasat . In 1952 , he was one of the founders of Socialist Party daily Pedoman ( Guidance ) ; this was followed by a political journal , Konfrontasi ( Confrontation ) . He also helped to establish the Pembangunan publishing house , which he directed until 1961 . Soedjatmoko joined the Indonesian Socialist Party ( Partai Sosialis Indonesia , or PSI ) in 1955 , and was elected as a member of Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia in the 1955 elections until the dissolution of the assembly in 1959 . He served with the Indonesian delegation at the Bandung Conference in 1955 . Later the same year , he founded the Indonesian Institute of World Affairs and became its Secretary General for four years . Soedjatmoko married Ratmini Gandasubrata in 1958 . Together they had three daughters . \n Towards the end of the 1950s , Soedjatmoko and President Sukarno , with whom he had had a warm working relationship , had a falling out over the president 's increasingly authoritarian policies . In 1960 Soedjatmoko co @-@ founded and headed the Democratic League , which attempted to promote democracy in the country ; he also opposed Sukarno 's Guided Democracy policy . When the effort failed , Soedjatmoko went to the US and took a position as guest lecturer at Cornell University . When he returned to Indonesia in 1962 , he discovered that key members of the PSI had been arrested and the party banned ; both Siasat and Pedoman were closed . To avoid trouble with the government , Soedjatmoko voluntarily left himself unemployed until 1965 , when he became co @-@ editor of An Introduction to Indonesian Historiography . \n = = Ambassadorship and academic activities = = \n After the failed coup d 'état in 1965 and the replacement of Sukarno by Suharto , Soedjatmoko returned to public service . He served as vice @-@ chairman of the Indonesian delegation at the UN in 1966 , becoming the delegation 's adviser in 1967 . Also in 1967 , Soedjatmoko became adviser to foreign minister Adam Malik , as well as a member of the International Institute for Strategic Studies , a London @-@ based think tank ; the following year he became Indonesian ambassador to the United States , a position which he held until 1971 . During his time as ambassador , Soedjatmoko received honorary doctorates from several American universities , including Cedar Crest College in 1969 and Yale in 1970 . He also published another book , Southeast Asia Today and Tomorrow ( 1969 ) . \n Soedjatmoko returned to Indonesia in 1971 ; upon his return he became Special Adviser on Social and Cultural Affairs to the Chairman of the National Development Planning Agency . That same year , he became a board member of the London @-@ based International Institute for Environment and Development , a position which he held until 1976 ; he also joined the Club of Rome . In 1972 Soedjatmoko was selected to the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation , in which position he served 12 years ; also in 1972 he became a governor of the Asian Institute of Management , a position which he held for two years . The following year he became a governor of the International Development Research Center . In 1974 , based on falsified documents , he was accused of planning the Malari incident of January 1974 , in which students protested and eventually rioted during a state visit by Prime Minister of Japan Kakuei Tanaka . Held for interrogation for two and a half weeks , Soedjatmoko was not allowed to leave Indonesia for two and a half years for his suspected involvement . \n In 1978 Soedjatmoko received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding , often called Asia 's Nobel Prize . The citation read , in part : \n Encouraging both Asians and outsiders to look more carefully at the village folkways they would modernize , [ Sodjatmoko ] is fostering awareness of the human dimension essential to all development . [ ... ] [ H ] is writings have added consequentially to the body of international thinking on what can be done to meet one of the greatest challenges of our time ; how to make life more decent and satisfying for the poorest 40 percent in Southeastern and southern Asia . \n In response , Soedjatmoko said he felt \" humbled , because of [ his ] awareness that whatever small contribution [ he ] may have made is dwarfed by the magnitude of the problem of persistent poverty and human suffering in Asia , and by the realization of how much still remains to be done . \" \n = = Later life and death = = \n In 1980 Soedjatmoko moved to Tokyo , Japan . In September of that year he began service as the rector of the United Nations University , replacing James M. Hester ; he remained in that position until 1987 . In Japan he published two further books , The Primacy of Freedom in Development and Development and Freedom . He received the Asia Society Award in 1985 , and the Universities Field Staff International Award for Distinguished Service to the Advancement of International Understanding the following year . Soedjatmoko died of cardiac arrest on 21 December 1989 when he was lecturing at Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta . \n = Instinct ( Orphan Black ) = \n \" Instinct \" is the second episode of the first season of the Canadian science fiction television series Orphan Black . It first aired in Canada on Space and the United States on BBC America on 6 April 2013 . The episode was written by Graeme Manson and directed by John Fawcett . \n The plot follows Sarah Manning ( played by Tatiana Maslany ) as she continues to impersonate Beth Childs , a woman who looks identical to Sarah , in order to take Beth 's money after seeing her commit suicide . In the episode , Sarah deals with the aftermath of the death of another identical woman , Katja Obinger , and begins to discover more lookalikes . Maslany plays each of the identical women ; \" Instinct \" marked the first episode in which more than one of Maslany 's characters was present in a single shot , which necessitated specific planning and technology to film and edit these scenes . The episode received positive reviews from critics , who praised the episode 's plot development and Maslany 's performance . \n = = Plot = = \n After Katja is shot , Sarah flees in Beth 's car and receives a call from a woman on Beth 's phone . The woman , after hearing that Katja is dead , instructs Sarah to dispose of the body and retrieve Katja 's briefcase . While burying Katja 's body , Sarah finds a hotel key in her pocket and keeps it . She visits her foster brother Felix 's apartment and discovers that the $ 75 @,@ 000 she stole from Beth 's bank account has been taken by Beth 's detective partner Art . When she returns to Beth 's apartment she is surprised to find Beth 's boyfriend , Paul , who seems confused by Sarah 's demeanour but does not realise that she is not Beth . The next day , Sarah prepares to meet Art , and lies that the $ 75 @,@ 000 belongs to Paul , but Art says he will return the money only after the hearing Beth must attend about a suspicious shooting in which she was involved . \n Sarah disguises herself as Katja and gains entrance to her hotel room in order to find Katja 's briefcase . The room has been ransacked by the time she arrives but a hotel employee gives her the briefcase , which had been left with security . Inside the briefcase Sarah finds medical images , vials of blood , and evidence of more lookalikes , including a woman named Alison Hendrix , whose address is written on a note . Believing Alison to be the woman on the phone , Sarah drives to her address and follows her van to a soccer field , where she discovers that Alison is another of her lookalikes . Alison confronts Sarah , assuming that she is Beth , and refuses to believe Sarah when she explains that Beth killed herself , telling her to leave and wait for another call . \n At the police station , pretending to be Beth , Sarah manipulates the resident psychiatrist into approving her return to duty , but Art refuses to give Sarah the money until she is fully reinstated . She receives a call from Alison , who tells her to bring the briefcase to her house that night . When Sarah and Felix arrive at Alison 's house , Alison threatens them with a gun before relenting and introducing Sarah to another lookalike named Cosima . \n = = Production = = \n \" Instinct \" was filmed in a block with the series ' first episode , \" Natural Selection \" , under the direction of Orphan Black co @-@ creator John Fawcett . It was filmed in Canada , although it is never made clear where in North America the show takes place . The episode refers to the fictional suburb of Bailey Downs , where Alison is said to live , which is a homage to the setting of the 2000 Canadian horror film Ginger Snaps , which was directed by Fawcett . One of the filming locations used for the episode was the office used by the show 's writers , which served as Beth 's psychiatrist 's office . \n The episode featured one of the first scenes in which Maslany plays multiple characters interacting in the same shot . To construct the scene in which Sarah and Alison meet in the soccer field shed , Maslany and her stunt double Kathryn Alexandre first shot a master version of the scene using a Technodolly , a programmable camera crane that can memorise camera movements . Two versions of the scene were then re @-@ filmed without Alexandre , with Maslany playing each of the characters . To simulate Alison placing her hand on Sarah 's shoulder , a grip stand was used in the place of Sarah 's shoulder for Maslany to hold when playing Alison , and to simulate Sarah slapping Alison 's arm away , Maslany slapped the air when playing Sarah and reacted as if she had been hit when playing Alison . The final scene was created through digital compositing , whereby both versions of the scene — with Maslany playing both characters separately — are combined to produce a single shot . Maslany felt that , as one of her early attempts at sharing a scene with herself , she over @-@ thought the process : \" I think I was trying too hard to get it right . Nobody 's there when you 're shooting these things , so you overcompensate . \" \n = = Reception = = \n Overall , \" Instinct \" was well received by critics . Caroline Framke of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A – grade , writing that the series \" continues to walk a fine line with extraordinary subtlety and confidence \" . She gave particular praise to Maslany 's acting , saying that she \" handles every curveball , new character , and impersonation upon impersonation with extraordinary deftness \" . Tor.com 's Robert H. Bedford commended the way the different storylines were integrated and particularly enjoyed the interactions between Art and Sarah . Den of Geek critic Rob Kemp thought that the episode was well developed and felt that it stood out from \" the current crop of TV science fiction \" . He praised the serious nature of the episode as well as \" the effort that has gone into grounding the show into reality \" . Simon Cocks of CultBox gave \" Instinct \" 4 out of 5 stars , describing it as \" riveting television \" . He found Maslany 's performance \" incredible \" and \" effortless \" , and felt that her scenes with Art at the police station provided the strongest material . In a more mixed review for Twitch Film , Todd Brown opined that \" Instinct \" sometimes crossed \" the line between camp and believability \" . He praised the development of the story and the characters but felt that while Maslany 's acting was \" remarkably strong as both Sarah and Sarah @-@ Being @-@ Beth her performance as Alison ... feels a bit shrill \" . \n = Pilot ( The X @-@ Files ) = \n \" Pilot \" is the pilot episode of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode aired on September 10 , 1993 on the Fox network in the United States and Canada , and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Robert Mandel . As the pilot , it would set up the mythology storyline for the series . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 and was viewed by 7 @.@ 4 million households and 12 @.@ 0 million viewers . The episode itself was generally well received by fans and critics alike , which led to a growing cult following for the series before it hit the mainstream . \n The pilot introduced the two main characters , Fox Mulder and Dana Scully who were portrayed by David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson respectively . The episode also featured William B. Davis , Charles Cioffi and Zachary Ansley as the recurring characters of the Smoking Man , Scott Blevins and Billy Miles . The Smoking Man would go on to become the series ' signature antagonist , appearing in every season except the eighth . The episode follows FBI Special Agents Mulder and Scully on their first X @-@ File case together , investigating a string of deaths which Mulder believes to be alien experiments . \n Inspired by Kolchak : The Night Stalker , the series was conceived by Chris Carter in an attempt to \" scare people 's pants off \" . When creating the characters of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , Carter decided to play against established stereotypes , making the male character a believer and the female a skeptic , as the latter role had traditionally been a male one on television . Principal photography for \" Pilot \" took place over fourteen days during March 1993 ; using a budget of $ 2 million , the scenes were filmed in and around the Vancouver area . Vancouver would remain the area for production for the next five years , although production would move to Los Angeles from the beginning of the sixth season at the behest of David Duchovny . \n = = Plot = = \n In Bellefleur , Oregon , teenager Karen Swenson is seen fleeing through the forest . When she falls , a dark figure approaches , and they both become enveloped in light . Swenson 's body is later found by Bellefleur detectives , with two small marks on her back . \n Later , in Washington , D.C. , FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is summoned to a meeting with Division Chief Scott Blevins ( Charles Cioffi ) and a seemingly anonymous government official , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) . Scully is assigned to work with Special Agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) on the X @-@ Files , an obscure FBI section covering purportedly paranormal cases . Blevins has assigned Scully for the implicit purpose of using her scientific knowledge to discredit Mulder 's work , although Blevins never directly tells Scully this and is evasive when she asks if such is his intent . \n Scully introduces herself to her new partner , who shows her evidence from the Swenson case . He notes that she was the fourth member of her high school class to die under mysterious circumstances . Mulder also notes an unknown chemical compound found on Swenson 's body , as well as similarities between her death and others from across the country . Mulder believes that Swenson 's death is due to extraterrestrial activity . However , the skeptical Scully expresses disbelief in Mulder 's theory . \n When Mulder and Scully 's plane flies over Bellefleur , it encounters unexplained turbulence . As they drive in the woods near the town , the agents ' car radio malfunctions ; Mulder marks the spot of this event by spray @-@ painting an \" X \" onto the road . Mulder arranges for the exhumation of the third victim , Ray Soames , despite the protests of Dr. Jay Nemman , the county medical examiner . When Soames ' coffin is opened , a deformed body is found inside , which Scully concludes is not Soames , but an orangutan . However , she finds a metal implant in the body 's nasal cavity . \n Mulder and Scully visit the psychiatric hospital where Soames was committed before his death and meet two of Soames ' former classmates — the comatose Billy Miles ( Zachary Ansley ) ; and the wheelchair @-@ using Peggy O 'Dell . O 'Dell suffers from a nosebleed during the agents ' visit , and is seen to bear marks similar to Swenson 's . Outside the hospital , Mulder explains to Scully that he believes Miles , O 'Dell , and the victims to be alien abductees . \n That night , the agents investigate the forest ; Scully discovers strange ash on the ground , leading her to suspect cult activity . However , a local detective arrives and orders them to leave . Driving back to their motel , Mulder and Scully encounter a flash of light at the spot their car had malfunctioned earlier . When the car loses power , Mulder realizes that nine minutes disappeared after the flash , a phenomenon reported by alien abductees . \n At the motel , Mulder tells Scully that his sister Samantha vanished when he was twelve , which has driven his work in the paranormal . The agents receive an anonymous call telling them that O 'Dell was killed in traffic while on foot . They visit the scene , finding O 'Dell 's body and no wheelchair . They return to find the motel on fire and their evidence destroyed . Nemman 's daughter Theresa contacts the agents for help . She tells them that she has awakened in the middle of the woods several times , though her father and Detective Miles arrive and take her away . \n Mulder and Scully return to the cemetery to exhume the other victims only to find the graves already dug up and the coffins missing . Mulder realizes that Billy Miles is responsible for bringing the victims to the woods . Returning to the woods , they again encounter Detective Miles , but hear a scream and find Billy nearby with Theresa in his arms . There is a flash of light , and Billy and Theresa are recovered unharmed . \n Several months later , Miles is put under hypnosis . He recalls how he and his classmates were abducted in the forest as they celebrated their graduation ; they were subjected to tests by the aliens , and killed when the tests failed . Scully provides Blevins with the metal implant , the only remaining piece of evidence . However , she later learns from Mulder that Miles ' case files are missing . Meanwhile , The Smoking Man stores the implant away in a vast evidence room within the Pentagon . \n = = Production = = \n = = = Pre @-@ production = = = \n When conceiving the episode , Chris Carter wanted to \" scare people 's pants off \" . A noted influence on the episode 's conception was Kolchak : The Night Stalker , a series from the 1970s . This led to an idea of two agents investigating paranormal events . When creating the characters of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , Carter decided to play against established stereotypes , making the male character a believer and the female a skeptic , as the latter role had traditionally been a male one on television . \n When casting the actors for the two main parts , Carter had difficulties finding an actor for Scully . When he cast Gillian Anderson for the part , the network wanted to replace her . Carter believed they responded negatively towards the casting because \" she didn 't have the obvious qualities that network executives have come to associate with hit shows \" . Calling her a \" terrific actress \" , Carter reacted overall positively towards Anderson 's audition saying \" she came in and read the part with a seriousness and intensity that I knew the Scully character had to have and I knew [ ... ] she was the right person for the part \" . David Duchovny on the other hand , was met with more positive response from the network , Carter even saying he was an \" early favorite \" . William B. Davis , who made his first appearance as the recurring villain The Smoking Man in this episode , had originally auditioned for a larger part in the episode , saying \" I auditioned for the senior FBI agent who had three lines . I didn 't get that part — I got the part with no lines \" . \n = = = Filming = = = \n Principal photography for \" Pilot \" took place over fourteen days during March 1993 ; using a budget of $ 2 million . Filming of the episode took place in and around Vancouver , British Columbia . The series would use the area for production for the next five years , although production would move to Los Angeles from the beginning of the sixth season at the behest of David Duchovny . \n The scene set in the town 's graveyard was shot in Queen Elizabeth Park , marking the first time the location had been used to represent a graveyard ; the location would later be used for the same purpose in the fourth season episode \" Kaddish \" . The interior shots of the psychiatric hospital were filmed in a disused building owned by Riverview Hospital in Coquitlam , and marked the first time that the crew met with producer R. W. Goodwin . The episode 's final warehouse scene was filmed in a document warehouse belonging to the headquarters of the Canadian television network Knowledge . An office in the same building was also used for the boardroom meeting at the beginning of the episode . The scenes involving the Smoking Man required special permission to be filmed , in order to allow for actor William B. Davis to smoke in a public building . All of the interior shots of the FBI headquarters were filmed in the main newsroom of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , as the production crew found that the open plan offices they wished to represent no longer existed , having typically been converted into cubicles . However , it was found that working around the CBC 's broadcast schedule was too unwieldy , and later episodes of the series replicated the location on a sound stage . The forest scenes were shot on location in Lynn Valley , in the Lower Seymour Conservation Reserve — formerly known as the Seymour Demonstration Forest . The crew spent $ 9 @,@ 000 building wooden pathways for equipment , cast and crew to move easily through the area . Additional scenes were filmed at the headquarters for BC Hydro ; whilst Scully 's apartment was represented by a location used only in this episode and the third episode , \" Squeeze \" — use of this location was discontinued once it became apparent that most reverse angles would show a large car park across the street . \n Make @-@ up effects artist Toby Lindala was tasked with creating a prop which would allow actress Sarah Koskoff to simulate a nosebleed on @-@ camera , rather than through the use of off @-@ screen make @-@ up and editing tricks . However , during test shots , the prop 's tubing burst , causing the stage blood to begin dripping down Koskoff 's forehead , rather than from her nose . Gillian Anderson has expressed displeasure over the scene in which her character , Dana Scully , visits Fox Mulder in his motel room in her underwear to have him examine a suspicious wound which turns out to be insect bites . The actress felt that the scene was too gratuitous , saying \" there really wasn 't a reason for it . The bites could have been on my shoulder or something . \" However , Carter has explained that the scene was simply intended to highlight the platonic relationship between the two lead roles . \n = = = Post @-@ production = = = \n Post @-@ production work on the episode was finished by May 1993 , with the final version of the episode being assembled only three hours before its preview screening for the network 's executives . Stock footage of the exterior of the J. Edgar Hoover Building was added to the episode , although later episodes would film new exterior shots using Simon Fraser University as a stand @-@ in location . The climactic abduction scene featuring Billy Miles in a forest clearing featured a swirling vortex of leaves created using computer imagery by the series ' visual designer Mat Beck ; which Carter has described as being more complicated to achieve than the Normandy landings . \n = = = Deleted scenes = = = \n The original script gives more insight into Scully 's visit to Scott Blevins ' office . The scene that introduces Scully in the script is set just before her visit and takes place at the FBI Academy in Quantico , Virginia , where she teaches a small group of trainees about the physiology of homicide , specifically electrocution and death by cattle prod . Her attention is distracted by an agent who enters the room and hands her a note that reads , \" Your attendance is required in Washington at 1600 hrs. sharp \" . Scully checks her digital watch , which reads 1 : 03 . The majority , at the least , of this scene was actually filmed but the scene was omitted from the final version of the episode . The next scene is that in which Scully reports to the receptionist at FBI headquarters ; the script includes Scully showing her badge to the receptionist and dialogue for the role of the receptionist as she tells Scully , \" See Section Chief Blevins . Third floor , violent crime division . \" In the final version of the episode , Scully 's badge does not appear in any of the scenes and the receptionist does not speak . \n Two filmed scenes were cut from the final version of the episode . Both featured Tim Ransom as Scully 's boyfriend Ethan Minette . In the first , Minette and Scully meet , with Scully cancelling plans for a holiday the two had arranged , due to her assignment to the Oregon case . The second scene briefly shows Scully answering a telephone call from Mulder whilst asleep in bed with Minette , though the latter has no dialogue . The addition of Scully 's boyfriend was an attempt by the Fox executives to create the romantic interest that they felt was not there between Mulder and Scully . Chris Carter ultimately found that it was \" very easy \" to remove the character from the episode , both because his appearances seemed to slow down the scenes in which Mulder and Scully are together and due to the fact that Carter found Scully 's relationship with her FBI partner to actually be more interesting and exciting than her relationship with her boyfriend . \n = = Broadcast and reception = = \n \" Pilot \" premiered on the Fox network on September 10 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on September 19 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 9 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 7 @.@ 4 million households and 12 @.@ 0 million viewers . \n \" Pilot \" was well received by several of the series ' future crew members . Producer and writer Glen Morgan felt that the episode 's \" merging of Silence of the Lambs and Close Encounters of the Third Kind \" was impressive ; he also felt that it was the only truly scary series on television at the time . Writer Howard Gordon stated that \" the pilot set the tone of the show really successfully \" , noting the difficulty inherent in introducing both a series ' premise and its main cast in \" forty @-@ eight minutes \" and finding that the episode had achieved both , being \" a tremendous synthesis of all the parts \" . Chris Carter also recounted that the episode 's test screening for Rupert Murdoch and other Fox executives was met with \" spontaneous applause \" . \n The episode was generally well received by fans and critics alike . Variety magazine criticized the episode for \" using reworked concepts \" , but praised the production and noted its potential . Of the acting , Variety stated , \" Duchovny 's delineation of a serious scientist with a sense of humor should win him partisans , and Anderson 's wavering doubter connects well . They 're a solid team ... \" . Variety also praised the writing and direction : \" Mandel 's cool direction of Carter 's ingenious script and the artful presentation itself give TV sci @-@ fi a boost . \" The magazine concluded , \" Carter 's dialogue is fresh without being self @-@ conscious , and the characters are involving . Series kicks off with drive and imagination , both innovative in recent TV . \" Entertainment Weekly noted that Scully \" was set up as a scoffing skeptic \" in the pilot but progressed toward belief throughout the season . After the airing of just four episodes , the magazine called The X @-@ Files \" the most paranoid , subversive show on TV \" , noting the \" marvelous tension between Anderson — who is dubious about these events — and Duchovny , who has the haunted , imploring look of a true believer \" . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , praised the episode , rating it an A – . He felt that the episode 's premise worked well to \" set a template \" for future episodes , and noted that the chemistry between Duchovny and Anderson was \" already there \" from the outset . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , reviewed the episode positively , praising the chemistry between the lead roles and the quality of the script . In 2012 , SFX named it the tenth best TV pilot in the science fiction and fantasy genre , saying that it \" brought us everything we came to expect from the show \" . The plot for \" Pilot \" was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 1995 by Les Martin , under the title X Marks the Spot . \n = ODB + + = \n ODB + + is a proprietary CAD @-@ to @-@ CAM data exchange format used in the design and manufacture of electronic devices . Its purpose is to exchange printed circuit board design information between design and manufacturing and between design tools from different EDA / ECAD vendors . It was originally developed by Valor Computerized Systems , Ltd . ( acquired in 2010 by Mentor Graphics ) as the job description format for their CAM system . \n ODB stands for open database , but its openness is disputed , as discussed below . The ' + + ' suffix , evocative of C + + , was added in 1997 with the addition of component descriptions . There are two versions of ODB + + : the original ( now controlled by Mentor ) and an XML version called ODB + + ( X ) that Valor developed and donated to the IPC organization in an attempt to merge GenCAM ( IPC @-@ 2511 ) and ODB + + into Offspring ( IPC @-@ 2581 ) . \n = = Introduction = = \n Inside almost every electronic device is a PCB onto which the semiconductor and other components are mechanically and electrically connected by soldering . These PCBs are designed using a computer @-@ aided design ( CAD ) system . To physically realize the design , the computerized design information must be transferred to a photolithographic computer @-@ aided manufacturing ( CAM ) system . Since the CAD and CAM systems are generally produced by different companies , they have to agree on a CAD @-@ to @-@ CAM data exchange format to transfer the data . ODB + + is one such file format for performing this transfer . Other formats are compared and contrasted below . After the bare board is manufactured , the electronic components are placed and soldered , for example by SMT placement equipment and wave or reflow soldering . \n = = File structure = = \n When in use , ODB + + data is stored in a hierarchy of files and file folders . However , for transmission it is convenient to use common operating system commands that create a single , compressed file that preserves the hierarchy information . For example , on Unix tar and gzip commands can be used . In ODB + + ( X ) , the database is contained in a single XML file by default . \n ODB + + covers the specification of not only conductor layer artwork and drill data , but also material stack up , netlist with test points , component bill of materials , component placement , fabrication data , and dimension data . \n = = History = = \n Valor was founded in 1992 and it released ODB in 1995 . It added the + + suffix when component names were added in 1997 . The XML version was developed beginning 2000 , and ended in 2008 with the donation to IPC . Valor was acquired by Mentor in 2010 . \n = = Adoption = = \n In the late 1990s it became clear to industry participants that a second @-@ generation data transfer format would be more efficient than the prevalent , first @-@ generation Gerber format . However , it was very difficult to reach a consensus over which of two candidates should be selected : \n ODB + + : proven but proprietary \n IPC @-@ 2511 GenCAM : not widely used but open \n In 2002 , a compromise format , ODB + + ( X ) , was recommended by National Electronics Manufacturing Initiative ( NEMI ; an industry body , subsequently renamed International Electronics Manufacturing Initiative , iNEMI ) after a two @-@ year mediation effort between the GenCAM and ODB + + camps . Companies that supported the recommendation at the time included Cadence , Hewlett @-@ Packard , Lucent , Easylogix , Mentor ( which acquired Valor some eight years later ) , Nokia and Xerox . But in fact adoption to date has been minimal . As a result , and as detailed below , the industry is still divided . \n = = = Advocacy = = = \n Lists of EDA tools that support import and / or export of ODB + + have been compiled by Artwork Conversion Software , Mentor itself , and on the Comparison of EDA packages table . Some companies that have adopted the ODB + + format are advocates for its use . Streamline Circuits reports that ODB + + provides much greater efficiency than the competing Gerber format , stating that \" an 8 @-@ layer printed circuit board can take up to 5 hours to plan and tool using Gerber and only 1 hour when using ODB + + . \" According to Streamline , manufacturers are adopting it to overcome the limitations of the simpler Gerber format . DownStream Technologies calls ODB + + \" the defacto standard for intelligent data exchange in EDA \" In 2002 , Dana Korf of Sanmina / SCI called ODB + + \" the prevalent non @-@ Gerber format . \" Kent Balius of Viasystems , states of ODB + + \" ... really we don ’ t need anything else . \" \n = = = Opposition = = = \n = = = = Lack of need = = = = \n Ucamco , the developers of the Gerber format , argue that the prevalent Gerber @-@ based flow ( with some additions ) can be as complete and efficient as ODB + + . \n = = = = Concerns = = = = \n ODB + + is a proprietary format controlled by Valor and now Mentor , and so , like all proprietary standards , it comes with the risk of vendor lock @-@ in . CAD companies had some concerns about this when ODB + + was controlled by Valor , a CAM company , but these concerns were magnified when a rival CAD company , Mentor , acquired Valor . Although Mentor claims that it \" ... openly supports inclusion of ODB + + and updates for other EDA tool vendors , \" it used to restrict access to the specification and required a non @-@ disclosure agreement . The application form used to include a requirement to : \" ... Demonstrate a customer need for this integration through references from mutual customers . Provide a recommendation from a Mentor Graphics product division or demonstrate the incremental value of this integration to both Mentor Graphics and the partner company . \" Some direct competitors inferred this meant restricted access . This was a source of frustration not only for competitors but also for the Mentor user community . \n In 2012 , Julian Coates , director of business development at Mentor 's Valor division claimed that , so far , all ODB + + partners , including competitors to Mentor , who have applied for assistance to build and maintain ODB + + interfaces via the ODB + + Solutions Alliance have been accepted without reservation or cost . In addition , the format specification is now openly available via the ODB + + Solutions Alliance without the need for NDA . Membership of the ODB + + Solutions Alliance is free of charge and open to anybody who registers . A no @-@ charge ODB + + Viewer and other software utilities are available to registrants . \n = = = = Potential resolution = = = = \n Critics of the proprietary nature of ODB + + point to several more open formats as models for a future consensus format : \n RS @-@ 274X ( \" extended Gerber format \" ) : Although it is nominally proprietary to Ucamco , the specification can be downloaded freely making it de facto an open standard . \n IPC @-@ 2511 ( \" GenCAM \" ) which resulted from a donation of certain technologies by Teradyne / GenRAD to IPC . \n IPC @-@ 2581 ( \" Offspring \" ) an attempt to merge GenCAM with ODB + + ( X ) . The specification can be downloaded freely . In 2011 , an industry consortium was created to support it , motivated in part by frustration with the proprietary nature of ODB + + . Cadence Design Systems , Zuken , Artwork Conversion Software and the owners of Gerber format , Ucamco , joined it , but , initially , not Mentor . However , in 2012 , Mentor did join . This , combined with the 2012 announcement by Zuken that it would join the ODB + + Solutions Alliance , creates the possibility that PCB designers will have a choice of format no matter which EDA tool they choose . \n OpenAccess , which resulted from a transfer of certain technologies by Cadence to the Si2 organization . Although it was originally designed for integrated circuits , it is now finding application for IC package and PCB design also . \n JPCA @-@ EB02 ( \" Fujiko \" ) based on work by Prof. Tomokage of Fukuoka University . \n EDIF - Electronic Design Interchange Format \n = 2009 Sony Ericsson Open = \n The 2009 Sony Ericsson Open ( also known as 2009 Miami Masters ) was a men 's and women 's tennis tournament held from March 23 to April 5 , 2009 . It was the 25th edition of the Miami Masters event and was played on outdoor hard courts at the Tennis Center at Crandon Park in Key Biscayne , Florida , located near Miami . The tournament was part of 2009 ATP World Tour and 2009 WTA Tour , classified as ATP World Tour Masters 1000 and Premier Mandatory event respectively . \n The men 's singles event was won by British player Andy Murray , who defeated Novak Djokovic in the final . Victoria Azarenka of Belarus won the women 's singles event by defeating defending champion Serena Williams . Both Murray and Azarenka were first @-@ time winners at the tournament and also the first to win from their respective countries . In the doubles events , Max Mirnyi and Andy Ram won the men 's title by defeating the team of Ashley Fisher and Stephen Huss . The women 's doubles title was won by Svetlana Kuznetsova and Amélie Mauresmo who overcame Květa Peschke and Lisa Raymond in the final match . \n = = Tournament = = \n The 2009 Sony Ericsson Open was the 25th edition of the Miami Masters tournament and was held at Tennis Center at Crandon Park , Key Biscayne near Miami , Florida . The tournament was a joint event between the Association of Tennis Professionals ( ATP ) and the Women 's Tennis Association ( WTA ) and was part of the 2009 ATP World Tour and the 2009 WTA Tour calendars . The tournament consisted of both men 's and women 's singles and doubles events which were played on 12 Laykold Cushion Plus hard courts . The total prize money for the tournament was US $ 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with $ 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 assigned equally to ATP and WTA events . Singles winners received $ 605 @,@ 500 each and doubles winning teams received $ 225 @,@ 000 each . \n The tournament was conducted from March 23 to April 5 , with qualifying draws played on March 23 – 24 and main draws from March 25 to April 5 . Both the men 's and women 's singles draws consisted of 96 players and the doubles draws consisted of 32 teams . The qualifying draw consisted of 43 men and 42 women who competed for 12 positions each in the men 's and women 's final draw . \n = = Players = = \n 47 of the top 50 players in the ATP rankings entered the men 's singles event at the tournament with Rafael Nadal seeded first , followed by Roger Federer , Novak Djokovic and Andy Murray . Defending champion Nikolay Davydenko withdrew ahead of the tournament due to a foot injury . Richard Gasquet , who was initially going to play , withdrew prior to his first match after suffering from right shoulder injury . Gasquet was replaced by lucky loser Björn Phau . 12 players progressed from the qualifying draws to the main draw and six players , including Lleyton Hewitt and Marcos Baghdatis , were given wildcard entries . \n In the women 's singles field , defending champion Serena Williams was top seeded , with number two Dinara Safina only 311 points behind her in the WTA rankings at the start of the tournament . Maria Sharapova was expected to return to singles tennis at this tournament after playing doubles matches in the previous tournament , the 2009 BNP Paribas Open . Sharapova , who had not played singles matches since August 2008 , withdrew due to a continued lack of fitness . Jelena Dokić , Sania Mirza and Alexa Glatch were among the eight players who received wildcard entries . 12 players progressed from qualifying draws to main draw . \n The doubles draws were led by defending champions Bob and Mike Bryan on the men 's side and Cara Black and Liezel Huber on the women 's side . Katarina Srebotnik , one of the women 's doubles defending champions , had not recovered from an injury picked up in December 2008 and did not participate . Her partner from the previous year , Ai Sugiyama partnered with Russian Daniela Hantuchová . Marina Erakovic – Sun Tiantian and Francesca Schiavone – Chan Yung @-@ jan withdrew from the tournament due to respective injuries to Erakovic and Chan . The doubles draws included five wildcard entries in total . \n = = Events = = \n = = = Men 's singles = = = \n All the seeded players received a bye into the second round . Wildcards Marcos Baghdatis and Lleyton Hewitt were among the players progressing into the second round , while Germans Philipp Kohlschreiber and former World no . 2 Tommy Haas were the major upsets . Most seeded players continued their progress into the third round with eighth seed Fernando Verdasco winning his 200th ATP tour match in his career . Ivo Karlović and David Nalbandian were among the seeded players defeated in second round . Lucky loser Björn Phau was promoted into the third round after his opponent Albert Montañés suffered a hamstring injury during the second set of the match and was forced to withdraw . Frenchman Gaël Monfils took a hard @-@ fought win over 22nd seed and former world number 1 Marat Safin in a third round match played for nearly three hours . Qualifier Taylor Dent continued his successful run by defeating Tommy Robredo in the third round . Czechs Tomáš Berdych and Radek Štěpánek overcame higher seeded players James Blake and Fernando González en route to the fourth round . \n Top seed Rafael Nadal faced an uphill battle against Stanislas Wawrinka in the fourth round match , facing a tiebreak in each set and eventually defeating him . Second seed Roger Federer defeated Dent in the fourth round to set up a quarterfinal match with longtime rival Andy Roddick , who overcame Gaël Monfils in a two @-@ set match . Novak Djokovic , Andy Murray , Juan Martín del Potro , Verdasco and Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga made it into the quarterfinals . Del Potro defeated Nadal in the three @-@ set quarterfinal match to reach the first ATP Masters semifinal of his career . Del Potro took the final set on a tiebreak after losing the second set . Murray faced Verdasco in the second quarterfinal in a rematch of 2009 Australian Open fourth round . Verdasco suffered an injury in the second game of the match and had to be seen by his physio . He was not in good enough shape to compete with Murray and eventually lost . Federer defeated Roddick while Djokovic moved past Tsonga to advance to the semifinals . Djokovic rallied back to defeat Federer in the first semifinal after losing the first set . The third seed however kept his consistency in the next two sets and won them . Murray edged past del Potro in the second semifinal to enter his second straight Masters final . Murray faltered in the second set of the match conceding two service breaks . However he recovered in the final set , gaining an early break of serve , to win the match . \n Djokovic and Murray appeared in their seventh and fourth Masters final and 19th and 17th career finals respectively . Djokovic led the head @-@ to @-@ head tally against Murray , but Murray had won the last two encounters between them . In the match , Murray moved into a 4 – 0 lead in the first set . Djokovic improved his serve from that point but lost the set . A role reversal in the second set saw Djokovic move into a 4 – 1 lead . Murray fought back , however , to level the score to 5 – 5 and won the set to secure the victory . This was Murray 's third title win of the season and eleventh of his career . It was also his third Masters win of the career . Murray credited his improved fitness for his win . Djokovic , who had struggled with excessive heat in the past , struggled once again to assimilate with the temperature . He admitted that he was impatient early in the match , which resulted in him making too many unforced errors . \n Final score \n Andy Murray defeated Novak Djokovic , 6 – 2 , 7 – 5 . \n = = = Women 's singles = = = \n All the seeded players received a bye into the second round . Seven seeded players were ousted from the second round including third seed Jelena Janković , who was defeated by Gisela Dulko , and eighth seed Marion Bartoli , who lost to qualifier Anastasiya Yakimova . Second seed Dinara Safina , Vera Zvonareva and Ana Ivanovic were among the nine seeded players who were eliminated in the third round . Three times former champion and fifth seed Venus Williams faced stiff competition from Agnieszka Radwańska in fourth round . Williams lost the first set but prevailed in later sets to win the match . Li Na and Ekaterina Makarova also fought hard for a place in the quarterfinals , with Li coming out strong in the three set match , winning . \n Svetlana Kuznetsova beat Caroline Wozniacki in the first of the quarterfinals . Kuznetsova looked good to win the match in straight sets after building a big lead , however Wozniacki fought back to win the second set on a tiebreak . Kuznetsova ultimately won . Victoria Azarenka defeated Samantha Stosur in the second quarterfinal . Williams sisters Serena and Venus set up the second semifinal after defeating Li Na and Iveta Benešová respectively . The Williams sisters had met 19 times before their semifinal meeting , Venus leading the head @-@ to @-@ head tally 10 – 9 . Serena won this time in a closely fought match . Azarenka came on top in the second semifinal defeating Kuznetsova . \n Serena and Azarenka met in their careers ' 46th and seventh career finals respectively , with Serena appearing in her third consecutive final at the event , having won on the last two occasions . Azarenka dominated the final match , as Serena was playing while nursing a leg injury . Azarenka won the match , securing third title of her career . Azarenka stated that she was very nervous in the final game of the match and described her win as \" the biggest moment in [ her ] career \" . Serena mentioned that it was difficult for her to move to the left , but she still played with maximum effort . \n Final score \n Victoria Azarenka defeated Serena Williams , 6 – 3 , 6 – 1 . \n = = = Men 's doubles = = = \n Four seeded teams were eliminated in the first round of the event . Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić were the highest ranked team to lose , falling to Nicolás Almagro and David Ferrer , along with third seeds Mahesh Bhupathi and Mark Knowles , who lost to French duo Julien Benneteau and Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . Bennetau and Tsonga continued their progress into the third round defeating Rik de Voest and Bobby Reynolds . They were joined by Julian Knowle and Jürgen Melzer , who triumphed over Almagro and Ferrer . Only two seeded teams , those of Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan and of Bruno Soares and Kevin Ullyett , made it into the quarterfinals , and faced each other in that round . The Bryan brothers , who were the defending champions , overcame Soares and Ullyett in a two @-@ set match . Ashley Fisher and Stephen Huss , Knowle and Melzer and Max Mirnyi and Andy Ram were the other teams who made it into the semifinals . \n The Bryan brothers faced Fisher and Huss in the first semifinal and lost , ending their streak of winning 13 consecutive matches . Mirnyi and Ram encountered much harder competition against Knowle and Melzer and saved five match points before winning . In the final , there were no service breaks in the first set , with Fisher and Huss winning it in the tiebreak . Mirnyi and Ram came back strong to win the second set . The match @-@ tiebreak decided the outcome of the final , with Mirnyi and Ram winning the tiebreak and the match . It was Mirnyi 's 36th and Ram 's 16th men 's doubles title of the career and their second title as a team . \n Final score \n Max Mirnyi / Andy Ram defeated Ashley Fisher / Stephen Huss , 6 – 7 ( 4 – 7 ) , 6 – 2 , [ 10 – 7 ] . \n = = = Women 's doubles = = = \n Daniela Hantuchová and Ai Sugiyama , who lost to wildcard entrants Petra Martić and Coco Vandeweghe , were the only seeded pair to drop out in the first round . Another wildcard team of Svetlana Kuznetsova and Amélie Mauresmo defeated the top seeds Cara Black and Liezel Huber in"},"length_category":{"kind":"string","value":"Very Long"},"source":{"kind":"string","value":"wikitext-103-excerpt"}}},{"rowIdx":6899,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":" the second round . Eighth seeds Maria Kirilenko and Flavia Pennetta were also eliminated in second round , losing to Chuang Chia @-@ jung and Sania Mirza . Chuang and Mirza continued their march into the semifinal defeating second seeds Anabel Medina Garrigues and Virginia Ruano Pascual . They were joined by Kuznetsova and Mauresmo , Anna @-@ Lena Grönefeld and Patty Schnyder , and Květa Peschke and Lisa Raymond , the only seeded team left in the draw . \n Kuznetsova and Mauresmo defeated Grönefeld and Schnyder to enter their third final as a team . Peschke and Raymond overcame Chuang and Mirza to secure the second spot in the final . Kuznetsova and Mauresmo continued their winning streak in the final , defeating Peschke and Raymond . The title was Kuznetsova 's 14th , Mauresmo 's third and their second as a team . \n Final score \n Svetlana Kuznetsova / Amélie Mauresmo defeated Květa Peschke / Lisa Raymond , 4 – 6 , 6 – 3 , [ 10 – 3 ] . \n = = Viewership = = \n = = = Broadcasting = = = \n The tournament was broadcast on television channels worldwide . The British television station Sky Sports held rights to broadcast the tournament from the first round through to the final . Both the men 's and women 's finals were shown on CBS in the United States . The tournament also had around 44 hours of live coverage in the United States . The tournament was broadcast for more than 2000 hours and seen by over 153 million people worldwide . \n = = = Attendance = = = \n According to the event organisers , 293 @,@ 228 people attended the 22 sessions across the 12 days of the tournament . This was the second highest attendance in the tournament 's history and four sessions were sellouts . \n = Thomas Trueblood = \n Thomas Clarkson Trueblood ( April 6 , 1856 – June 5 , 1951 ) was an American professor of elocution and oratory and the first coach of the University of Michigan golf and debate teams . He was affiliated with the University of Michigan for 67 years from 1884 to 1951 , and was a nationally known writer and speaker on oratory and debate . He founded UM 's Department of Elocution and Oratory as well as the campus debate program . He became the subject of national media attention in 1903 when the Chicago Tribune ran an article stating that he was offering a new \" course in love making . \" His golf teams won two NCAA National Championships and five Big Ten Conference championships . He was posthumously inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981 . \n = = Professor of Elocution and Oratory = = \n Trueblood was a native of Salem , Indiana . He attended Earlham College in Richmond , Indiana and received an A.M. degree . In 1878 , Trueblood and Robert I. Fulton established the Fulton and Trueblood School of Oratory in Kansas City , Missouri , which became \" one of the largest and best known institutions of its kind in the United States . \" In 1884 , Trueblood came to Ann Arbor as a lecturer on public speaking , intending to give a six @-@ week course . The next year he was invited back . At the time he also was lecturing at Missouri , Kentucky and Ohio Wesleyan , and working out of Fulton and Trueblood School . Michigan asked him to join the faculty , and he stayed for 67 years . In 1892 , he founded the Department of Elocution and Oratory and became its first chairman . Michigan 's Oratory and Elocution Department was the first such unit in any major university or college in the country . He also established the first credit course in speech at any American university . At the turn of the century , speech and oratory played an important role in American society and academia , so much so that Trueblood was the highest paid professor on the University of Michigan faculty , and students were required to take Trueblood 's courses . \n In addition , Trueblood organized and coached the competitive debate and oratory contests at Michigan . He established the Northern Oratorical League , and later the Central Debating League , for the purpose of conducting competitive debates among Midwestern Universities , including Michigan , the University of Chicago , Northwestern , Oberlin College , Iowa , and Minnesota . In 1903 , an Iowa newspaper noted : \" It was due to his zeal in organization , his success in persuading students to enter the competitive contests , and his skill in drilling them , that has enabled Michigan to take so high a rank in oratory in these league contests , with seven first honors to her credit in ten years , and nine of the twelve victories in debate . \" \n Trueblood also delivered speeches and gave dramatic readings on tours all over the world . One newspaper noted : \" As a reader Prof. Trueblood is well known throughout the west . His readings are taken from the best literature , with special attention to Shakespearean work . It is his plan to give the principal scenes of the play , narrating the unimportant parts , thus providing an entertainment acceptable to those who do not attend the theater . \" After a performance of Hamlet in 1908 , an Iowa newspaper wrote : \" Prof. Trueblood is a man of remarkable personality . His cuttings of the play were taken from the most dramatic parts , giving a wide range of understanding of all the characters . Not only were the different parts interpreted with extremely keen judgment of the most real kind , but the speaker introduced each division with a brief description and delineation of the men and women who appeared . Prof. Trueblood 's manner of speaking and his diction are acquirements of a very high character and he held the interest of his hearers from beginning to end . \" \n Trueblood was president of the National Association of Elocutionists when they met in June 1899 for their annual convention at Chautauqua Institute , New York . He brought with him Charles Casper Simons , a law student who coached the debate team for Trueblood . Simons had won first honors in a speech contest with his oration on abolitionist John Brown . Knowing that Southern elocutionists would be in attendance , Trueblood asked Simons to deliver his tribute to Brown at the conference . One account of the conference states : \" The introduction was delivered without much reaction ; but when Simons intoned , ' The South had slain the man , but the spirit which animated him was beyond the reach of earthly power , ' the Southerners were distressed . Simons went on to proclaim that John Brown ' taught the South that a new era had begun , that not by persuasion , threat or rant , but by force was slavery to be exterminated . ' The Southern members of the association walked out of the amphitheater in angry protest . \" \n = = Michigan 's first African @-@ American debate champion = = \n In the early 1900s , Michigan 's athletic teams ( and those throughout the country ) were re @-@ segregated . While George Jewett had played for the Michigan football team in 1890 and 1892 , the next African @-@ American to play on the football team was Willis Ward , forty years later in 1932 . During this period of athletic segregation , an African @-@ American , Eugene Joseph Marshall , was permitted to compete in Trueblood 's debate competitions and won the university debate championship in 1903 . The Ann Arbor Argus reported : \" For the first time in the history of American universities , a colored man has won his highest honors in oratory in fair and free competition with all comers . The announcement of his victory will be read with pleasure by all who are working for the betterment of the colored race . \" Trueblood entertained Marshall at his home and presented him with the Chicago Alumni Medal . Marshall subsequently placed second in the Midwest regional collegiate competition . \n = = The Jam Handy incident = = \n In May 1903 , Trueblood became the subject of national media attention as a result of a newspaper article written by a 17 @-@ year @-@ old freshman student claiming Trueblood was teaching a new \" course in lovemaking . \" The student , Jam Handy , was a campus correspondent for the Chicago Tribune . In the class , Trueblood taught \" the delivery of short extracts from masterpieces of oratory . \" One such extract involved a scene from a play in which a man kneels in front of a woman pleading for her hand . In his 1893 textbook Practical Elements of Elocution , Trueblood used the scene to illustrate the \" aspirate explosive \" form of speech . \n After watching Trueblood act out the kneeling scene , Handy wrote an article that was published on the front page of the Chicago Tribune on May 8 , 1903 , with a headline stating : \" Learn Sly Cupid 's Tricks ; Students at Ann Arbor Take Lessons in Love Making . \" The article suggested that Trueblood was instructing his male students on romance rather than oratory technique . The next day , the Chicago Record @-@ Herald published a three @-@ panel cartoon of \" Professor Foxy Truesport \" dreaming up ways to \" teach his class how to properly make love . \" Newspapers across the country picked up the story . The Daily Northwestern wrote : \" Professor Trueblood of Michigan University has inaugurated a course in love making , his motive being to stimulate interest in his classes . The oratorical students are compelled to kneel and make fervid declarations to lady students . \" The Newark Advocate 's headline read : \" Lovemaking Lessons : Novel Course In the University of Michigan ; Sly Cupid 's Tricks Taught . \" The Salt Lake Tribune reported : \n \" Lessons in Lovemaking . The University of Michigan has added a new course to the curriculum , one that may best be styled a course in love making . Prof. Trueblood is the inventor of the novel scheme , and his course , which has been hitherto shunned as one of the toughest at the university , now seems likely to become the most popular on campus ... Early this week he hit upon the successful plan , and now the many visitors who attend his classes are spectators of thrilling love scenes . Fifty times a day Prof. Trueblood is forced to kneel to some maiden and show his pupils the right way to declare their devotion to their sweethearts ... Each budding orator takes his place before a blushing maid , and no matter how smoothly the pair may have progressed in private the professor finds some fault with the public demonstration . ' No , kneel on both knees — now hold her hand , it impresses her more @-@ so , ' and the old professor again kneels and goes through it all over again . \" \n On May 12 , the Chicago Tribune ran a photograph of Trueblood with the caption : \" Trueblood has nearly worn out his trousers at the knees , showing young men how to kneel , and has strained his voice and eyes in efforts to show his pupils how to throw fire and passion into their appeals . \" \n The story was an embarrassment for Trueblood and the university . In his memoirs , Handy recalled being summoned to Trueblood 's office : \" His desk was piled high with letters ... and clippings ... from around the country ... and he also had a copy of the McCutcheon cartoon . ( He ) was taking all of this as ridicule , although I had publicized the story with sincere enthusiasm for a new advance in education of which I felt the University of Michigan should be proud . \" The faculty voted unanimously to suspend Handy for a year for \" publishing false and injurious statements affecting the character of the work of one of the Professors . \" In addition to the suspension , Handy was charged as a \" faker \" in the press : \n Henry J. Handy , the student @-@ correspondent at the University of Michigan who sent a sensational story to the Chicago newspapers , relating how Professor Thomas C. Trueblood had a class in love @-@ making , has been suspended for one year and the story has been branded as a ' fake . ' Handy based the story on an incident that occurred during the rehearsal of a drama , when Professor Trueblood showed one of the students how to kneel to propose . \n Shortly after the incident , Trueblood left for a trip giving dramatic readings on the West Coast . Handy went on to become a successful public relations man . \n = = Golf coach = = \n Trueblood was the faculty tennis champion , but at age 40 his doctor told him to give up the game because it was too strenuous . He took up golf , and enjoyed success in that sport , too . \" I took it up in August and in October I won the Ann Arbor Golf Club championship , \" he said . In 1901 , Trueblood organized the first Michigan golf team . On October 24 – 25 , 1902 , Michigan defeated the University of Chicago 16 @-@ 12 in \" the first intercollegiate golf match held in the West . \" \n In 1921 , golf became a varsity sport , and Trueblood was the school 's first official coach . In 1926 , Trueblood retired as a professor emeritus at age 70 . At that time , he turned his attention full @-@ time to coaching . His coaching record at Michigan was 71 @-@ 9 @-@ 2 . During his 15 official seasons as golf coach , his teams won two NCAA National Championships ( 1934 @-@ 1935 ) and five Big Ten Conference championships ( 1932 @-@ 1936 ) , and were Big Ten runners @-@ up eight times . He coached two NCAA individual champions , John Fischer ( 1932 ) and Chuck Kocsis ( 1936 ) . Trueblood continued as golf coach until he was 80 , when athletic director Fielding H. Yost named him emeritus coach . \n In 1932 , Chuck Kocsis ( the first golfer inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor ) , enrolled at the university . When a promised alumni pledge to pay his expenses fell through , Trueblood agreed to make a loan ( at five percent interest ) so Kocsis could pay his tuition . The Wolverines with Kocsis won the NCAA championship twice . Kocsis recalled that the team often traveled to tournaments in Trueblood 's car . \" Professor Trueblood had a seven @-@ passenger Buick , \" Kocsis said . \" He designated me as the chauffeur . So if we had a golf match , we 'd all get into the car and go to Chicago , or go to Ohio , wherever we were going to play . \" Another teammate recalled the trips in Trueblood 's car : \" It wasn 't a very big Buick , as I recall . We rode with six guys . Chuck used to do most of the driving . I remember that trip down to Washington ( for the 1935 national championship at Congressional , which Michigan won ) . We started in the morning and drove all the way down there . Professor Trueblood was a big guy , too . \" Trueblood took the team on a side trip to Mount Vernon , where one of the players accidentally bumped the shifter into gear and hit the accelerator as he exited Trueblood 's car . The car lurched forward ; the open door hit something and was torn off its hinges . \n Ralph M. Cole , a member of the golf team of 1926 @-@ 1928 , later wrote of a humorous incident involving the septuagenarian Coach Trueblood . Cole recalled : \" As golf coach he could add very little about the mechanics of the game . But he added one piece of advice which was very helpful when followed , and which he drilled into us at every practice session . It was : ' Up and out in two , boys . ' As any golfer would know , it meant , when hitting a short approach shot , get it close enough to the pin to make the next putt . Now for the humorous part of that admonition . We had played Purdue in Lafayette on a Thursday and were to play Illinois on Friday . The Professor was to call us at 4 : 30 a.m. to catch a 5 : 30 train for Urbana . Well , he got confused on our room number and awakened a man who called the front desk and told the night clerk that there must be some nut calling at 4 : 30 a.m. and shouting , ' Up and out in two boys ! ' We did make the train , anyway . \" \n A.H. Jolly , Jr . , captain of the 1933 golf team , noted : \" Truby , as he was referred to when out of earshot , was still a most active and attentive coach . But the only club or clubs I recall seeing him handle in those days , was a Left @-@ Handed Putter ! \" \n = = Death and honors = = \n Trueblood died in Bradenton , Florida in 1951 at age 95 . At the time , the Associated Press noted : \" He pioneered the teaching of speech in the nation 's colleges during his 42 years on the University of Michigan faculty . \" His brother , Professor Edwin P. Trueblood , also a speech professor at Earlham College , died earlier the same year . Thomas Trueblood 's obituary reported that he \" devised the famous college cheer ' The Locomotive . ' \" He devised the University 's famous \" locomotive \" cheer in 1903 while returning to Ann Arbor on a train from a Big Ten football game . However , other sources indicate that the locomotive cheer began at Princeton in the 1890s . \n Trueblood 's papers are at the Bentley Historical Library in Ann Arbor . Trueblood has been the subject of two articles by Linda Robinson Walker in the University of Michigan alumni publication Michigan Today . Much of the factual information in this article is distilled from Walker 's articles . \n In 1921 , students of Professor Trueblood honored him by establishing the Trueblood Fund . Today , the Trueblood Fellowship is open to students majoring in Screen Arts & Cultures . In 1981 , Trueblood was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor as part of the fourth induction class . The Trueblood Theater was located in the Henry S. Frieze Building at the University of Michigan School of Music , Theater and Dance and named in Trueblood 's honor . The Trueblood Theater closed its doors in 2006 when the Frieze Building was razed to make room for the North Quad Residential and Academic Complex . \n A portrait of Trueblood painted in 1920 by Merton Grenhagen was originally hung first in Alumni Hall ( now the Museum of Art ) and then in the Theater Library in the Frieze Building . In 1998 , the Trueblood portrait was hung at the University of Michigan Golf Course . At the time of the installation , the University Record noted : \" Known as ' Chief ' to his teaching associates and ' Trueby ' to his students , Thomas C. Trueblood now resides among U @-@ M 's golf history . \" \n = = Books by Trueblood = = \n Robert I. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood , \" Choice Readings From Standard and Popular Authors \" ( Ginn and Company 1890 ) \n Thomas C. Trueblood and Robert I. Fulton , \" Practical Elements of Elocution : Designed as a Text @-@ Book for the Guidance of Teachers and Students of Expression \" ( Ginn & Company Publishers / The Anthenaeum Press 1893 ) \n Robert I. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood , \" Patriotic Eloquence Relating to the Spanish @-@ American War and Its Issues \" ( Charles Scribner 's Sons 1900 ) \n Robert I. Fulton , Thomas C. Trueblood , and Edwin P. Trueblood , \" Standard Selections \" ( Ginn & Company 1907 ) \n Thomas C. Trueblood , William G. Caskey , and Henry E. Gordon , \" Winning Speeches in the Contests of the Northern Oratorical League \" ( American Book Company 1909 ) \n Robert I. Fulton , Thomas C. Trueblood , \" Essentials of Public Speaking for Secondary Schools \" ( Ginn & Company 1910 ) \n Robert Irving Fulton and Thomas Clarkson Trueblood , \" British and American Eloquence \" ( Ginn and Company 1912 ) \n Robert I. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood , \" Choice Readings from Standard and Popular Authors Embracing a Complete Classification of Selections , a Comprehensive Diagram of the Principles of Vocal Expression , and Indexes to the Choicest Readings from Shakespeare , The Bible , and Hymn @-@ Books \" ( Ginn & Company 1912 ) \n = The Red and the Black ( The X @-@ Files ) = \n \" The Red and the Black \" is the fourteenth episode of the fifth season of American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by series creator Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz , directed by Carter and aired in the United States on March 8 , 1998 on the Fox network . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 0 , being watched by 19 @.@ 98 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received moderately positive reviews from critics . \n The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder has Scully put under hypnosis to learn the truth about her abduction after Cassandra Spender ( Veronica Cartwright ) goes missing and her son Jeffrey ( Chris Owens ) angrily attempts to push his way up in the FBI . The Syndicate , meanwhile , quicken their tests for the black oil vaccine , sacrificing their own to do so . \n \" The Red and the Black \" continues from the previous episode , \" Patient X \" and features the return of Mulder 's belief in extraterrestrials , a belief he initially lost in the season opener \" Redux \" . Director Rob Bowman was originally slated to direct the episode , but filming issues resulted in Carter directing it . Carter later described the episode , along with \" Patient X \" , as being \" the most challenging and logically complex projects of the season . \" \n = = Plot = = \n In the mountain wilderness of Canada , someone in a cabin writes a letter , addressed to \" Son \" and expresses hopes that they may reconcile . The envelope is addressed to the FBI , and is given to a boy courier for mailing . \n Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) arrives at the Ruskin Dam and finds a number of burned corpses , including those belonging to Quiet Willy and Dmitri . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is found with only minor burns , one of approximately fifty survivors who were found nearby in the woods . Jeffrey Spender arrives looking for his mother , Cassandra ( Veronica Cartwright ) , who is missing . Mulder meets with Scully about the incident , but she does not remember anything . Jeffrey sees Mulder and warns him not to get involved with his mother , who remains missing . \n The Well @-@ Manicured Man ( John Neville ) and other Syndicate Elders watch as their black oil vaccine is administered to Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) , which has yet to work . Later , The Well @-@ Manicured Man meets with Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , who is being held captive aboard a Russian freighter . The Well @-@ Manicured Man believes that the Russians possess a functional vaccine to the black oil , or else Krycek would not have infected the boy . With a working vaccine , resistance to the alien Colonists is possible . \n A spacecraft crashes at Wiekamp Air Force base in West Virginia , and the surviving Rebel passenger is captured by the military . Mulder shows Scully more photos of the victims and , having found more implants in them , believes the implant in Scully may be able to answer all of their questions . The Syndicate meets over the capture of the Rebel . The Well @-@ Manicured Man wants to align with the Rebels , but the other Syndicate members are reluctant and want to make sure the Russian vaccine from Krycek works . \n Under hypnosis , Scully recalls the Rebels burning her fellow abductees , and recalls a Colonist spacecraft killing the Rebels and abducting Cassandra . During a meeting with Walter Skinner , Mulder continues to insist that the events have been orchestrated by the military and not by aliens . Meanwhile , the Russian vaccine seems to have no effect on Marita . The First Elder tells the Well @-@ Manicured Man that they have already decided to turn the Rebel over to the Colonists . Jeffrey shows Scully a video of him talking about aliens while under hypnosis while he was a child , claiming his mother had forced him to make those statements . \n Krycek is released and attacks Mulder in his apartment . He claims that a war is raging between the aliens and that the Rebel immolations are meant to halt the impending colonization of Earth . He also claims that the captured Rebel is critical to their plans and must not die . Mulder and Scully head to Wiekamp Air Force Base , where the Alien Bounty Hunter — who is disguised as Quiet Willy — has come to kill the Rebel . However , Mulder witnesses a second Rebel arriving to seemingly kill the Bounty Hunter and rescue the captured Rebel . The Well @-@ Manicured Man watches as the Russian vaccine is revealed to have been successful on Marita . Mulder is released by the military but is confused by what he saw . At FBI Headquarters , Spender receives the letter from Canada . In Canada we see the boy return the unopened letter to the cabin and the sender is revealed to be The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) . \n = = Production = = \n = = = Casting and filming = = = \n Series creator Chris Carter explained that the cast listing for the episode , along with \" Patient X \" was \" longer than most cast lists you 'll ever see on a TV series \" . In order to allow for the increased expenses of hiring additional actors , Carter and the producers of the series talked Fox into allowing the episodes to be slightly more expensive because they would lead into the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released X @-@ Files movie . Carter explained , \" we convinced them to spend the extra money to do this extra special work because it was all leading up to [ ... ] when the X @-@ Files movie would be released . \" In addition , the child he gave the message to was a young boy and the son of production manager J.P. Finn . Rob Bowman originally intended to direct the episode but , due to reshoots , he was unable to do it , resulting in Carter directing . Bowman later recounted , \" I was supposed to direct ' The Red and the Black ' [ … ] but we were prepping for the reshoots [ of The X @-@ Files movie ] so I couldn 't do it . [ … ] Chris had to direct this episode . He was so mad at me . \" When filming the scene where Mulder and Scully go to a medic station , Carter made homage to the medical drama ER , filming it entirely with a Steadicam . \n The opening scene was filmed at Grouse Mountain , above the city of Vancouver , Canada . Most of the scenes at the Ruskin Dam were shot approximately 50 miles east of Vancouver , while the abduction sequence involved a full @-@ scale replica of the dam . The various scenes with the Syndicate testing the black oil vaccine on Marita Covarrubias were filmed at an abandoned hospital in Vancouver . Carter commented that they chose it because it had \" an interesting observation space above it that we used \" , which was difficult to shoot in . \n = = = Effects = = = \n \" The Red and the Black \" was a technically difficult episode , which Carter later described , along with \" Patient X \" , as \" the most challenging and logically complex projects of the season . \" The scene where Cassandra Spender was elevated into the colonist craft was shot by having a stuntwoman sit in Cassandra 's wheelchair and be lifted upward via a crane , which was removed from the shot during post @-@ production . The lights of the alien spacecraft were shot using a lighting rig combined with computer effects by Special Effects Supervisor Laurie Kalisen @-@ George . The crashed alien spacecraft was sixty feet in diameter , twice the length of any other spaceship seen before on the show , and dragged along the ground to create a skidmark . Twenty @-@ five explosions were set off to simulate the saucer crash ; the remains of the wreckage were then burned to create the rest of the footage . The scene took an entire night to film . \n The opening scene featuring the alien rebels incinerating a group of Russian alien abductees was filmed without actual Russian cars . Picture car coordination Bigel Habgood noted , \" I couldn 't get real Russian cars , so I decided to get creative and go seriously European . We burned a couple Saabs , and a BMW 2002 . I 'm sorry we couldn 't get any Yugos . \" For the scene after the intro wherein Mulder discovers the charred remains of abductees , the prop and the production design departments had to create specialized fake bodies . Carter later noted that it 's \" harder than it looks to create a charred , dead body . \" The stage for the alien abduction scene was built from scratch : construction supervisor Rob Maier was tasked with creating a full @-@ scale replica of the Ruskin Dam bridge in order to ease up the shots . The tagline for this episode is \" Resist or Serve \" . The tagline was later used for The X @-@ Files game , The X @-@ Files : Resist or Serve as well as the official book covering the fifth season of the show . The list of victims viewed by Scully in her hospital room was made up of X @-@ Files staffers . \n = = Reception = = \n \" The Red and the Black \" premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 8 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 0 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 0 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 19 @.@ 98 million viewers . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth . \n Critical reception to the episode was largely positive . The A.V. Club reviewer Zack Handlen gave \" The Red and the Black \" an A – , and wrote positively of the \" galactic war \" between the colonists and the rebels that is referenced in the episode , noting that it marked the point where \" shit is about to get real \" . Despite this , Handlen criticized the series for not following through on its tale of alien war , noting that the premise \" never really [ took off ] --at least [ … ] I 've never heard anyone refer to [ the last seasons of the show ] as ' the seasons when the The X @-@ Files mythology finally paid off . ' \" Handlen , however noted that \" The Red and the Black \" worked because \" the performances are great as always , and because the second part of this two parter rarely feels bogged down or draggy . \" Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two called the episode a \" typical mythology runaround \" and noted that the plot was \" complicated but the simpler scenes of confrontation are very well handled . \" Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . Vitaris praised the episode 's premise and wrote that it represented \" a second half of a two @-@ parter that is as strong as the first half . \" \n A variety of critics praised the hypnotism scene . Robert Shearman called the scene \" gorgeous \" and praised Gillian Anderson 's acting abilities . Paula Vitaris was extremely impressed with the scene 's blocking , calling the rendition \" virtually orgasmic in intensity \" and concluded that \" Anderson is marvelous \" . \n = Port Authority of New York and New Jersey = \n The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey ( PANYNJ ) is a joint venture between the U.S. states of New York and New Jersey , established in 1921 through an interstate compact authorized by the United States Congress . The Port Authority oversees much of the regional transportation infrastructure , including bridges , tunnels , airports , and seaports , within the geographical jurisdiction of the Port of New York and New Jersey . This 1 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 900 km ² ) port district is generally encompassed within a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) radius of the Statue of Liberty National Monument . The Port Authority is headquartered at 4 World Trade Center . \n The Port Authority operates the Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal , which handled the third @-@ largest volume of shipping among all ports in the United States in 2004 and the largest on the Eastern Seaboard . The Port Authority also operates Hudson River crossings , including the Holland Tunnel , Lincoln Tunnel , and George Washington Bridge connecting New Jersey with Manhattan , and three crossings that connect New Jersey with Staten Island . The Port Authority Bus Terminal and the PATH rail system are also run by the Port Authority , as well as LaGuardia Airport , John F. Kennedy International Airport , Newark Liberty International Airport , Teterboro Airport , Stewart International Airport and Atlantic City International Airport . The agency has its own 1 @,@ 600 @-@ member Port Authority Police Department . \n Although the Port Authority manages much of the transportation infrastructure in the area , most bridges , tunnels , and other transportation facilities are not included . The New York City Department of Transportation is responsible for the Staten Island Ferry and for the majority of bridges in the city . The Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority is responsible for other bridges and tunnels in the area . New York City Transit Authority buses and subways , Metro North and Long Island Rail Road ( all four are divisions of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority ) , and buses , commuter rail , and light rail operated by NJ Transit are also independent of PANYNJ . \n It is a member of REBNY . \n = = History = = \n The Port of New York and New Jersey comprised the main point of embarkation for U.S. troops and supplies sent to Europe during World War I , via the New York Port of Embarkation . The congestion at the port led experts to realize the need for a port authority to supervise the extremely complex system of bridges , highways , subways , and port facilities in the New York @-@ New Jersey area . The solution was the 1921 creation of the Port Authority under the supervision of the governors of the two states . By issuing its own bonds , it was financially independent of either state ; the bonds were paid off from tolls and fees , not from taxes . It became one of the major agencies of the metropolitan area for large @-@ scale projects . \n = = = Previous disputes = = = \n In the early years of the 20th century , there were disputes between the states of New Jersey and New York over rail freights and boundaries . At the time , rail lines terminated on the New Jersey side of the harbor , while ocean shipping was centered on Manhattan and Brooklyn . Freight had to be shipped across the Hudson River in barges . In 1916 , New Jersey launched a lawsuit against New York over issues of rail freight , with the Interstate Commerce Commission ( ICC ) issuing an order that the two states work together , subordinating their own interests to the public interest . The Harbor Development Commission , a joint advisory board set @-@ up in 1917 , recommended that a bi @-@ state authority be established to oversee efficient economic development of the port district . The Port of New York Authority was established on April 30 , 1921 , through an interstate compact between the states of New Jersey and New York . This was the first such agency in the United States , created under a provision in the Constitution of the United States permitting interstate compacts . The idea for the Port Authority was conceived during the Progressive Era , which aimed at the reduction of political corruption and at increasing the efficiency of government . With the Port Authority at a distance from political pressures , it was able to carry longer @-@ term infrastructure projects irrespective of the election cycles and in a more efficient manner . In 1972 it was renamed the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to better reflect its status as a partnership between the two states . \n Throughout its history , there have been concerns about democratic accountability , or lack thereof at the Port Authority . The Port District is irregularly shaped but comprises a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) area roughly within a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) radius of the Statue of Liberty . \n = = = Interstate crossings = = = \n At the beginning of the 20th century , there were no road bridge or tunnel crossings between the two states . The initial tunnel crossings were completed privately by the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad in 1908 and 1909 ( \" Hudson Tubes \" ) , followed by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1910 ( \" North River Tunnels \" ) . Under an independent agency , the Holland Tunnel was opened in 1927 , with some planning and construction pre @-@ dating the Port Authority . With the rise in automobile traffic , there was demand for more Hudson River crossings . Using its ability to issue bonds and collect revenue , the Port Authority has built and managed major infrastructure projects . Early projects included bridges across the Arthur Kill , which separates Staten Island from New Jersey . The Goethals Bridge , named after chief engineer of the Panama Canal Commission General George Washington Goethals , connected Elizabeth , New Jersey and Howland Hook , Staten Island . At the south end of Arthur Kill , the Outerbridge Crossing was built and named after the Port Authority 's first chairman , Eugenius Harvey Outerbridge . Construction of both bridges was completed in 1928 . The Bayonne Bridge , opened in 1931 , was built across the Kill van Kull , connecting Staten Island with Bayonne , New Jersey . \n Construction began in 1927 on the George Washington Bridge , linking the northern part of Manhattan with Fort Lee , New Jersey , with Port Authority chief engineer , Othmar Ammann , overseeing the project . The bridge was completed in October 1931 , ahead of schedule and well under the estimated costs . This efficiency exhibited by the Port Authority impressed President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who used this as a model in creating the Tennessee Valley Authority and other such entities . \n In 1930 , the Holland Tunnel was placed under control of the Port Authority , providing significant toll revenues . During the late 1930s and early 1940s , the Lincoln Tunnel was built , connecting New Jersey and Midtown Manhattan . \n In 1962 , the bankrupt Hudson & Manhattan Railroad was absorbed by the Port Authority , the Hudson Tubes restyled PATH ( Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson ) and Hudson & Manhattan Railroad ( Hudson Terminal ) razed for the future World Trade Center . \n = = = Austin J. Tobin era = = = \n = = = = Airports = = = = \n In 1942 , Austin J. Tobin became the Executive Director of the Port Authority . In the post @-@ World War II period , the Port Authority expanded its operations to include airports , and marine terminals , with projects including Newark Liberty International Airport and Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminals . Meanwhile , the city @-@ owned La Guardia Field was nearing capacity in 1939 , and needed expensive upgrades and expansion . At the time , airports were operated as loss leaders , and the city was having difficulties maintaining the status quo , losing money and unable to undertake needed expansions . The city was looking to hand the airports over to a public authority , possibly to Robert Moses ' Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority . After long negotiations with the City of New York , a 50 @-@ year lease , commencing on May 31 , 1947 , went to the Port Authority of New York to rehabilitate , develop , and operate La Guardia Airport ( La Guardia Field ) , John F. Kennedy International Airport ( Idlewild Airport ) , and Floyd Bennett Field . The Port Authority transformed the airports into fee @-@ generating facilities , adding stores and restaurants . \n = = = = World Trade Center = = = = \n David Rockefeller , president of Chase Manhattan Bank , who envisioned a World Trade Center for lower Manhattan , realizing he needed public funding in order to construct the massive project , approached Tobin . Although many questioned the Port Authority 's entry into the real estate market , Tobin saw the project as a way to enhance the agency 's power and prestige , and agreed to the project . The Port Authority was the overseer of the World Trade Center , hiring the architect Minoru Yamasaki and engineer Leslie Robertson . \n Yamasaki ultimately settled on the idea of twin towers . To meet the Port Authority 's requirement to build 10 million square feet ( 930 @,@ 000 m ² ) of office space , the towers would each be 110 @-@ stories tall . The size of the project raised ire from the owner of the Empire State Building , which would lose its title of tallest building in the world . Other critics objected to the idea of this much \" subsidized \" office space going on the open market , competing with the private sector . Others questioned the cost of the project , which in 1966 had risen to $ 575 million . Final negotiations between The City of New York and the Port Authority centered on tax issues . A final agreement was made that the Port Authority would make annual payments in lieu of taxes , for the 40 % of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants . The remaining space was to be occupied by state and federal government agencies . In 1962 , the Port Authority signed the United States Customs Service as a tenant , and in 1964 they inked a deal with the State of New York to locate government offices at the World Trade Center . \n In August 1968 , construction on the World Trade Center 's north tower started , with construction on the south tower beginning in January 1969 . When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed , the total cost to the Port Authority had reached $ 900 million . The buildings were dedicated on April 4 , 1973 , with Tobin , who had retired the year before , absent from the ceremonies . \n In 1986 , Port Authority sold rights to the World Trade Center name for $ 10 to an organization run by an outgoing executive , Guy F. Tozzoli . He in turn made millions of dollars selling the use of the name in up to 28 different states . \n = = = September 11 attacks = = = \n The terrorist attacks of September 11 , 2001 , and the subsequent collapse of the World Trade Center buildings impacted the Port Authority . With the Port Authority 's headquarters located in 1 World Trade Center , it became deprived of a base of operations and sustained a great number of casualties . An estimated 1 @,@ 400 Port Authority employees worked in the World Trade Center . Eighty @-@ four employees , including 37 Port Authority police officers , its Executive Director , Neil D. Levin , and police superintendent , Fred V. Morrone , died . In rescue efforts following the collapse , two Port Authority police officers , John McLoughlin and Will Jimeno , were pulled out alive after spending nearly 24 hours beneath 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) of rubble . Their rescue was later portrayed in the Oliver Stone film World Trade Center . \n = = = Fort Lee lane closure scandal = = = \n The Fort Lee lane closure scandal was a U.S. political scandal that concerns New Jersey Governor Chris Christie 's staff and his Port Authority political appointees conspiring to create a traffic jam in Fort Lee , New Jersey as political retribution , and their attempts to cover up these actions and suppress internal and public disclosures . Dedicated toll lanes for one of the Fort Lee entrances ( used by local traffic from Fort Lee and surrounding communities ) to the upper level on the George Washington Bridge , which connects to Manhattan , were reduced from three to one from September 9 – 13 , 2013 . The toll lane closures caused massive Fort Lee traffic back @-@ ups , which affected public safety due to extensive delays by police and emergency service providers and disrupted schools due to the delayed arrivals of students and teachers . Two Port Authority officials ( who were appointed by Christie and would later resign ) claimed that reallocating two of the toll lanes from the local Fort Lee entrance to the major highways was due to a traffic study evaluating \" traffic safety patterns \" at the bridge , but the Executive Director of the Port Authority was unaware of a traffic study . \n As of March 2014 , the repercussions and controversy surrounding these actions continue to be under investigation by the Port Authority , federal prosecutors , and a New Jersey legislature committee . The Port Authority 's chairman , David Samson , who was appointed by Governor Christie , resigned on March 28 , 2014 amid allegations of his involvement in the scandal and other controversies . \n = = Governance = = \n The Port Authority is jointly controlled by the governors of New York and New Jersey , who appoint the members of the agency 's Board of Commissioners and retain the right to veto the actions of the Commissioners from his or her own state . Each governor appoints six members to the Board of Commissioners , who are subject to state senate confirmation and serve overlapping six @-@ year terms without pay . An Executive Director is appointed by the Board of Commissioners to deal with day @-@ to @-@ day operations and to execute the Port Authority 's policies . Under an informal power @-@ sharing agreement , the Governor of New Jersey chooses the chairman of the board and the deputy executive director , while the Governor of New York selects the vice @-@ chairman and Executive Director . \n As of March 2014 , the appointed commissioners are as follows : \n Meetings of the Board of Commissioners are public . Members of the public may address the Board at these meetings , subject to a prior registration process via email . Public records of the Port Authority may be requested via the Office of the Secretary according to an internal Freedom of Information policy which is intended to be consistent with and similar to the state Freedom of Information policies of both New York and New Jersey . \n Members of the Board of Commissioners are typically business titans and political power brokers who maintain close relationships with their respective Governors . On February 3 , 2011 , Former New Jersey Attorney General David Samson was named new chairman of the Port Authority . \n Financially , the Port Authority has no power to tax and does not receive tax money from any local or state governments . Instead , it operates on the revenues it makes from its rents , tolls , fees , and facilities . \n Patrick J. Foye became Executive Director on November 1 , 2011 . Prior to joining the Port Authority , he served as Deputy Secretary for Economic Development for Governor Andrew M. Cuomo . \n = = = List of Executive Directors = = = \n John E. Ramsey ( CEO 1926 – 1930 , General Manager 1930 – 1942 ) \n Austin J. Tobin ( 1942 – 1972 ) \n Matthias Lukens ( acting , 1972 – 1973 ) \n A. Gerdes Kuhbach ( 1973 – 1977 ; acting 1973 – August 1974 ) \n Peter C. Goldmark , Jr . ( 1977 – 1985 ) \n Patrick J. Falvey ( acting , 1985 ) \n Stephen Berger ( 1986 – 1990 ) \n Stanley Brezenoff ( 1990 – 1995 ) \n George Marlin ( 1995 – 1997 ) \n Robert E. Boyle ( 1997 – 2001 ) \n Neil D. Levin ( March 2001 – Sep 11 , 2001 ) \n Joseph J. Seymour ( 2002 – 2004 ) \n Kenneth J. Ringler , Jr . ( 2004 – 2006 ) \n Anthony Shorris ( 2006 – 2008 ) \n Christopher O. Ward ( 2008 – 2011 ) \n Patrick J. Foye ( 2011 – Present ) \n = = Facilities = = \n The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey manages and maintains infrastructure critical to the New York / New Jersey region ’ s trade and transportation network — five of the region ’ s airports , the New York / New Jersey seaport , the PATH rail transit system , six tunnels and bridges between New York and New Jersey , the Port Authority Bus Terminal and George Washington Bridge Bus Station in Manhattan and The World Trade Center site . \n = = = Seaports = = = \n The Port of New York and New Jersey is the largest port complex on the East Coast of North America and is located at the hub of the most concentrated and affluent consumer market in the world , with immediate access to the most extensive interstate highway and rail networks in the region . In addition , The Port Authority directly oversees the operation of seven cargo terminals in the New York – New Jersey region . Each terminal offers comprehensive shipping services , rail and trucking services . \n The Port Authority operates the following seaports : \n Port Jersey Marine Terminal in Bayonne and Jersey City \n Brooklyn Port Authority Marine Terminal comprising the Brooklyn Piers and Red Hook Container Terminal in Red Hook , Brooklyn \n Howland Hook Marine Terminal on Staten Island . \n Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal in Newark and Elizabeth . \n The Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the first in the nation to containerize , As of 2004 , Port Authority seaports handle the third largest amount of shipping of all U.S. ports , as measured in tonnage . \n ExpressRail is a rail network supporting intermodal freight transport at the major container terminals including dockside trackage and railyards for transloading . Various switching and terminal railroads , including the Conrail Shared Assets Operations ( CRCX ) on the Chemical Coast Secondary , connect to the East Coast rail freight network carriers Norfolk Southern ( NS ) , CSX Transportation ( CSX ) , and Canadian Pacific ( CP ) . From January through October 2014 the system handled 391 @,@ 596 rail lifts . As of 2014 , three ExpressRail systems ( Elizabeth , Newark , Staten Island ) were in operation with the construction of a fourth at Port Jersey underway . \n New York New Jersey Rail , LLC ( NYNJ ) is a switching and terminal railroad operates a car float operation across Upper New York Bay between the Greenville Yard in Jersey City and Brooklyn . \n = = = Airports = = = \n The Port Authority operates the following airports : \n Atlantic City International Airport , ( Egg Harbor Township , New Jersey ) ( performs select management duties ) \n John F. Kennedy International Airport ( Queens , New York ) \n LaGuardia Airport ( Queens , New York ) \n Newark Liberty International Airport ( Newark and Elizabeth , New Jersey ) \n Stewart International Airport , ( Newburgh , New York ) \n Teterboro Airport ( Teterboro , New Jersey ) \n Both Kennedy and LaGuardia airports are owned by the City of New York and leased to the Port Authority for operating purposes . Newark Liberty is owned by the City of Newark and also leased to the Authority . In 2007 , Stewart International Airport , owned by the State of New York , was leased to the Port Authority . The Port Authority officially took over select management functions of the Atlantic City International Airport on July 1 , 2013 , in conjunction with the South Jersey Transportation Authority , which leases the airport site from the FAA . \n JFK , LaGuardia , and Newark Liberty as a whole form the largest airport system in the United States , second in the world in terms of passenger traffic , and first in the world by total flight operations , with JFK being the 19th busiest in the world and the 6th busiest in the US . Unfortunately , the three airports also share the dubious distinction of being consistently rated as some of the worst in the US and even the world . Frommer 's recently picked JFK 's Terminal 3 as the worst airport terminal in the world . \n = = = Heliports = = = \n The Authority operates the Downtown Manhattan Heliport ( Manhattan , New York ) . \n = = = Bridges and tunnels = = = \n Other facilities managed by the Port Authority include the George Washington Bridge , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the Holland Tunnel , which all connect Manhattan and Northern New Jersey ; the Goethals Bridge , the Bayonne Bridge , and the Outerbridge Crossing which connect Staten Island and New Jersey . \n = = = Bus and rail transit = = = \n The Port Authority operates the PATH rapid transit system linking lower and midtown Manhattan with New Jersey , the AirTrain Newark system linking Newark International Airport with NJ Transit and Amtrak via a station on the Northeast Corridor rail line , and the AirTrain JFK system linking JFK with Howard Beach ( subway ) and Jamaica ( subway and Long Island Rail Road ) . \n Major bus depots include the Port Authority Bus Terminal at 42nd Street , the George Washington Bridge Bus Station , and the Journal Square Transportation Center in Jersey City . \n = = = Real estate = = = \n The Port Authority also participates in joint development ventures around the region , including the Teleport business park on Staten Island , Bathgate Industrial Park in the Bronx , the Essex County Resource Recovery Facility , Newark Legal Center , Queens West in Queens , and the South Waterfront in Hoboken . However , by April 2015 , the agency was considering divesting itself of the properties to raise run and return to core mission of supporting transportation infrastructure . \n = = = Current and future projects = = = \n Major projects by the Port Authority include the One World Trade Center and other construction at the World Trade Center site . Other projects include a new passenger terminal at JFK International Airport , and redevelopment of Newark Liberty International Airport 's Terminal B , and replacement of the Goethals Bridge . The Port Authority also has plans to buy 340 new PATH cars and begin major expansion of Stewart International Airport . \n As owner of the World Trade Center site , the Port Authority has worked since 2001 on plans for reconstruction of the site , along with Silverstein Properties , and the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation . In 2006 , the Port Authority reached a deal with Larry Silverstein , which ceded control of One World Trade Center to the Port Authority . The deal gave Silverstein rights to build three towers along the eastern side of the site , including 150 Greenwich Street , 175 Greenwich Street , and 200 Greenwich Street . Also part of the plans is the World Trade Center Transportation Hub , which will replace the temporary PATH station that opened in November 2003 . \n = = Law enforcement = = \n The Port Authority has its own police department . The department currently employs approximately 1 @,@ 700 police officers and supervisors who have full police status in New York and New Jersey . \n = Flesh and Stone = \n \" Flesh and Stone \" is the fifth episode of the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who . Written by showrunner Steven Moffat and directed by Adam Smith , the episode was first broadcast on 1 May 2010 on BBC One . It is the conclusion of a two @-@ episode story that began with \" The Time of Angels \" that features the Weeping Angels as primary villains and sees the return of the character River Song ( Alex Kingston ) . \n Following the cliffhanger of the previous episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) , his companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) , River Song , and Father Octavian ( Iain Glen ) and his militarised clerics have escaped entrapment by the Weeping Angels , creatures who only move when unobserved by others . They take refuge inside the crashed starship Byzantium , but the Angels pursue them and Amy is on the brink of dying from the imprint of an Angel in her eye . Both the Angels and the Doctor 's team face danger from a widening crack in space and time which has the power to erase persons from history . \n Moffat wrote the two @-@ part story as a more action @-@ packed sequel to his 2007 episode \" Blink \" , inspired by the relationship between the film Alien and its sequel , Aliens . The episode contains vital information concerning the main story arc of the cracks in time , and contains many instances which are character @-@ motivated . \" The Time of Angels \" and \" Flesh and Stone \" were the first two episodes to be filmed ; filming for \" Flesh and Stone \" took place in late July , with location filming in Puzzlewood and Southerndown beach . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 495 million viewers in the United Kingdom and received mostly positive reviews from critics , though many commented that it did not live up to the quality to the first part and disagreed about the decision to show the Angels moving . Additionally , a scene in which Amy attempts to seduce the Doctor generated some complaints to the BBC . \n = = Plot = = \n Continuing from the cliffhanger of the previous episode , the destruction of the gravity globe allows the Doctor , Amy , Dr. River Song , and Father Octavian and his clerics to jump into the localised gravity well of the starship Byzantium and escape the horde of approaching Weeping Angels . The Angels follow them into the ship and the Doctor directs everyone into the ship 's oxygen factory , a forest contained within the starship . While in the secondary control room , the Doctor observes a familiar crack in the wall and realizes that it is the same one from Amy 's bedroom ( \" The Eleventh Hour \" ) . He determines that it is leaking time energy from which the Angels are attempting to feed . \n In the forest , the Doctor and River find Amy struggling with an image of an Angel imprinted in her brain . Amy has been counting down backwards and is close to being killed by the Angel when The Doctor instructs her to keep her eyes closed to starve the angel . With Amy unable to move , The Doctor , River and Octavian attempt to reach the primary control room on the other side of the forest . River and Octavian reveal to the Doctor that she is a prisoner in Octavian 's custody , with a pardon promised should she help them complete their mission . Octavian is captured and killed by an Angel as the Doctor and River enter the control room . As Amy and the clerics wait for rescue , the crack in the secondary control room opens further and the Angels move away from it . When some of the clerics approach it to investigate , they disappear completely ; while Amy remembers them , the remaining clerics have no knowledge of their existence . Amy is soon left alone as the remaining clerics also disappear investigating the crack . The Doctor instructs Amy to begin moving towards the primary control room , keeping her eyes closed but acting as if she is still able to see in order to fool the Angels . Amy trips and reveals her blindness to the Angels , but before they can kill her River teleports her to the control room . \n The Doctor reveals that the crack is due to an explosion somewhere in time , a date that he and River are able to determine . The Doctor warns that anything that falls into it is erased from time ; this is why the Angels fear the crack . The only way of temporarily closing the crack is to send a \" complicated space @-@ time event \" such as the Doctor himself or the whole of the Angels into the crack . The Angels continue to drain power from the Byzantium until they cause the artificial gravity to fail , dropping the Angels into the crack and sealing it while the Doctor , Amy , and River hang on to the controls . With the Angels gone , the Angel in Amy 's mind never existed , and she is able to recover . River is teleported away by the clerics ; she tells the Doctor that they will meet again soon when the \" Pandorica \" opens , which is dismissed by the Doctor as a fairy tale . \n Aboard the TARDIS , Amy asks the Doctor to return her to Earth on the night they left because she wants to show him something . In her room , she shows the Doctor her engagement ring and wedding dress and tells him that she is to wed Rory the next day . Amy then attempts to seduce the Doctor . Alarmed by this , the Doctor tries to deter her by pointing out that kind of relationship she is suggesting will not work between them , and that she is engaged . He then realises that Amy 's wedding the next day , 26 June 2010 , happens on the same day as the time explosion epicenter and he takes Amy away so that he can figure out what is going on . \n = = Production = = \n = = = Writing = = = \n Writer Steven Moffat came up with the concept for \" The Time of Angels \" and \" Flesh and Stone \" when he was thinking of the worst possible situations to be in with the Weeping Angels and thought of the inability to see . His first idea was blindness , though this developed into the situation that Amy ends up in . Moffat designed the two @-@ part story to be a more action @-@ oriented sequel to \" Blink \" , an episode he wrote for the third series that introduced the Weeping Angels . He was inspired by the relationship between the film Alien and its sequel , Aliens , which he referred to as \" the best conceived movie sequel ever \" , describing it as being more \" highly coloured \" as opposed to Alien 's more low @-@ key tone . He also intended for the Angels to have a plan that could become \" almost like a war \" , in contrast to the way they were struggling to survive in \" Blink \" . The title \" Flesh and Stone \" was suggested by Moffat 's son . \n The episode is also important in the main story arc concerning the cracks in time and space . The idea of the crack was inspired by a similar crack in the wall of Moffat 's son . As the crack reappears , several facts about it are revealed . In the episode , the Doctor speculates that they are connected to the fact that Amy could not remember the events of several previous episodes , as well as events in history that had occurred in \" The Next Doctor \" . He also discovers that the time explosion that caused the crack is 26 June 2010 , which is also the original airdate of the final episode of the series , \" The Big Bang \" . Before the Doctor , River , and Octavian leave Amy and the other clerics , the Doctor briefly returns to console Amy and to ask her to trust him and remember what he told her when she was younger ; however , the Doctor in this scene is shown wearing his jacket , which he had lost to the Angels earlier in the episode , as well as a different wristwatch . It is revealed in \" The Big Bang \" that this was in fact the Doctor from later in his timeline , setting up events in Amy 's past to try to help her remember him after he has rebooted the universe . River Song tells the Doctor she will see him again when the Pandorica opens ; the Pandorica was previously referred to by Prisoner Zero in \" The Eleventh Hour \" and is revealed in \" The Pandorica Opens \" , which also sees the return of River Song . \n Many instances in the episode were character @-@ driven . The action of the Angel to torture Amy \" for fun \" was met with anger from the Doctor but also gave him courage to defeat the Angels and save Amy . Moffat stated that in the scene in which the Doctor must figure out how to save Amy in a matter of seconds he was \" very basic ... very pure , simple Doctor \" and did not have time to comfort Amy because his compassion would get in the way of his thinking process . River was also meant to understand this and explain to Amy that he needed to think . Moffat believed that Amy was \" passionate and a fighter and ... also really smart \" which he showcased in the scene where Amy could not open her eyes for more than a second but was determined to do it for less than one . Moffat also believed that Amy 's decision to attempt to seduce the Doctor was consistent with the character he had built up from her first episode . It was also a reflection of how the two had just escaped from death and shared a hard time together , and Amy 's tendency to do things \" in the heat of the moment \" . The Doctor 's reaction was intended to be a reflection of how he often acted embarrassed and flustered when women behaved that way . \n = = = Filming and effects = = = \n \" The Time of Angels \" and \" Flesh and Stone \" were the first two episodes to be produced in the series . The read @-@ through for \" Flesh and Stone \" took place on 15 July 2009 following the read @-@ through of \" The Time of Angels \" . The forest scenes in the Byzantium were filmed at Puzzlewood , in the Forest of Dean over nine nights in July 2009 . The final scenes on a beach were shot at Southerndown , Vale of Glamorgan in Wales during 20 – 21 July 2009 , the first filming done for the new series . \n Most of the Weeping Angels are not statue props but young women wearing masks , costumes , and paint that took two to three hours to apply . Director Adam Smith called them \" an absolute nightmare to film with \" because it took a long time for them to get ready and they had to stand still for long periods of time . In the climactic scene Gillan had to walk with her eyes closed , which she said was difficult and challenging as the ground was uneven and muddy . She stated that \" it was the most scary thing \" when she had to trip over a step and fall , even though she was aware of the crash mat . As she was not able to express herself through her eyes , Gillan had to make herself more animated to convey emotion . The scene in which the Doctor , Amy and River are horizontal in mid @-@ air when the gravity field fails on the Byzantium was achieved by using wires and powerful wind machines . The blue in Amy 's bedroom was an idea of Adam Smith to show that it was inspired by the TARDIS from Amy 's encounter with the Doctor when she was young . \n = = Broadcast and reception = = \n \" Flesh and Stone \" was first broadcast on BBC One and simulcast on BBC HD on 1 May 2010 . Overnight figures showed that \" Flesh and Stone \" was watched by 6 @.@ 87 million viewers ; 6 @.@ 53 million watched on BBC One , with a further 0 @.@ 34 on BBC HD . This was a slight increase from the previous episode , but \" Flesh and Stone \" was still second for the night behind Britain 's Got Talent . Final consolidated ratings showed that 8 @.@ 495 million viewers had watched the episode , with 8 @.@ 019 on BBC One and 476 @,@ 000 on BBC HD , the fifth and first most @-@ watched programme on each channel respectively . It achieved an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered \" excellent \" . \n A Region 2 DVD and Blu @-@ ray containing \" Flesh and Stone \" together with the episodes \" The Time of Angels \" and \" The Vampires of Venice \" was released on 5 July 2010 . It was re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 . \n = = = Critical reception = = = \n \" Flesh and Stone \" has received mostly positive reviews . Daniel Martin gave the episode a positive review on The Guardian 's guardian.co.uk , saying that it \" can lay credible claim to being the greatest episode of Doctor Who there has ever been \" . He went on to declare : \" It 's just ridiculously good — so much that there 's scarcely any point in picking out moments because there was an iconic sequence every couple of seconds . \" In particular he praised Father Octavian 's death scene , noting how \" despair creeps over Matt Smith 's face as he realises he is going to have to leave him to die ; Octavian 's final speech weeps with honour and elegance \" . IGN 's Matt Wales gave the episode a 10 out of 10 rating , saying it was \" packed with huge , iconic moments \" and stated , \" by the end of it , we were left with more questions than answers and a far better sense of Moffat 's meticulous planning \" . \n Gavin Fuller , writing for The Daily Telegraph 's website , described the episode as \" a rollercoaster ride of thrills and spills \" . He praised the forest scenes , saying they were \" easily the highlight of the episode , taking in a whole range of emotions as the nature and scale of the threat facing the Doctor , Amy , River and the clerics shifted as the episode progressed . \" However he expressed uncertainty over Amy 's \" attempted seduction of the Doctor \" , claiming that it \" did seem out of keeping with the usual tone of the series \" , and that \" Given the number of young children who watch , it may not have been the most appropriate of scenes to screen \" . Patrick Mulkern , writing for the Radio Times , gave the episode a positive review , describing it and its predecessor \" The Time of Angels \" as \" two episodes of Who that deserve 10 out of 10 in anybody 's scorebook \" , although he felt that of the two \" The Time of Angels \" was \" marginally more dazzling \" , as he found the Angels in that episode more \" macabre \" , but he still thought that \" Flesh and Stone \" \" bombards us with shudders and tension \" . He also stated that he was \" much amused by Amy 's amorous antics at the end \" . \n Steven Cooper of Slant Magazine called it \" an exciting , action @-@ packed roller coaster \" and praised director Adam Smith 's \" top @-@ notch visuals \" as well of the performances of Smith , Gillan , and Kingston . He noted the difference between Moffat 's more obvious story arc as opposed to others in the revived series , believing it to be possibly a \" long @-@ overdue innovation \" for the show . Though he praised the final defeat of the Angels for making use of what the viewer had forgotten , he thought that being able to see the Angels moving was \" creepy and well @-@ done \" , but made them \" much less original and interesting \" and the reason behind it weak , considering that the scene had \" no significance at all \" and was just to fill up time . SFX Magazine 's Dave Golder agreed , calling the scene \" very creepy \" and the Angels moving \" effective \" , but feeling that \" these once great monsters come across a bit wussy and stupid \" . He also thought that it did not live up the \" brilliant first part \" , feeling \" a bit one @-@ note \" and lacking \" a really good jawdropping revelation \" . However , he thought it was \" a solid , exciting , pulse @-@ pounding 45 minutes \" that was \" tense , action @-@ packed , and stuffed with memorable one @-@ liners and touching character moments \" , particularly praising Amy 's countdown and Octavian 's death , and gave the episode four out of five stars . \n The Daily Mail claimed that the seduction scene led to complaints from some viewers who accused the BBC of trying to \" ' sex up ' the show to attract more adult viewers . \" The article quotes a representative from pressure group Mediawatch @-@ uk and an anonymous contributor to an internet message board . A BBC spokesman confirmed they had received 43 complaints of the scene out of the millions who watched the episode . \n = = = Reviews = = = \n \" The Time of Angels \" / \" Flesh and Stone \" reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide \n = HD 217107 b = \n HD 217107 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 64 light @-@ years away from Earth in the constellation of Pisces ( the Fish ) . The planet was discovered orbiting the star HD 217107 approximately every seven days , classifying the planet as a hot Jupiter . Because of the planet 's somewhat eccentric orbit , scientists were able to confirm another planet within the system ( HD 217107 c ) . \n = = Discovery = = \n As with the majority of extrasolar planet discoveries so far , it was found by detecting small variations in the radial velocity of the star it orbits , caused by the tug of its gravity . A study of the radial velocity of HD 217107 carried out in 1998 revealed that its motion along the line of sight varied over a 7 @.@ 1 day cycle . The period and amplitude of this variation indicated that it was caused by a planetary companion in orbit around the star , with a minimum mass slightly greater than that of Jupiter . The planet 's mean distance from the star is less than one fifth of Mercury 's distance from the Sun . \n = = = Indication of second planet = = = \n While most planets with orbital periods of less than 10 days have almost circular orbits , HD 217107 b has a somewhat eccentric orbit , and its discoverers hypothesized that this could be due to the gravitational influence of a second planet in the system at a distance of several astronomical units ( AU ) . Confirmation of the existence of a second planet , HD 217107 c , followed in 2005 . \n = Stephen Colbert at the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner = \n On April 29 , 2006 , American comedian Stephen Colbert appeared as the featured entertainer at the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner , which was held in Washington , D.C. , at the Hilton Washington hotel . Colbert 's performance , consisting of a 16 @-@ minute podium speech and a 7 @-@ minute video presentation , was broadcast live across the United States on the cable television networks C @-@ SPAN and MSNBC . Standing a few feet from U.S. President George W. Bush , in front of an audience of celebrities , politicians , and members of the White House Press Corps , Colbert delivered a controversial , searing routine targeting the president and the media . He spoke in the persona of the character he played on Comedy Central 's The Colbert Report , a parody of conservative pundits such as Bill O 'Reilly and Sean Hannity . \n Colbert 's performance quickly became an Internet and media sensation . Commentators remarked on the humor of Colbert 's performance , the political nature of his remarks , and speculated as to whether there was a cover @-@ up by the media in the way the event was reported . James Poniewozik of Time noted that whether or not one liked the speech , it had become a \" political @-@ cultural touchstone issue of 2006 — like whether you drive a hybrid or use the term ' freedom fries ' \" . \n = = Performance at the dinner = = \n American comedian Stephen Colbert was the featured entertainer at the White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner , held at the Hilton Washington hotel in Washington , D.C. on April 29 , 2006 . He was invited to speak by Mark Smith , the outgoing president of the White House Press Corps Association . Smith later told reporters that he had not seen much of Colbert 's work . Since 1983 , the event has featured well @-@ known stand @-@ up comics . Previous performances included President Gerald Ford and Chevy Chase making fun of Ford 's alleged clumsiness in 1975 , and Ronald Reagan and Rich Little performing together in 1981 . \n Colbert gave his after @-@ dinner remarks in front of an audience described by the Associated Press as a \" Who 's Who of power and celebrity \" . More than 2 @,@ 500 guests attended the event , including First Lady Laura Bush , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Peter Pace , U.S. Attorney General Alberto Gonzales , China 's Ambassador Zhou Wenzhong , AOL co @-@ founder Steve Case , model and tennis player Anna Kournikova , and actor George Clooney . Colbert spoke directly to President Bush several times , satirically praising his foreign policy , lifestyle , and beliefs , and referring to his declining approval rating and popular reputation . \n Colbert spoke in the persona of the character he played on Comedy Central 's The Colbert Report , a parody of a conservative pundit in the fashion of Bill O 'Reilly and Sean Hannity . He began by satirizing mass surveillance , joking \" If anybody needs anything else at their tables , just speak slowly and clearly into your table numbers . Someone from the NSA will be right over with a cocktail . \" While many of his jokes were directed at President Bush , he also lampooned the journalists and other figures present at the dinner . Most of the speech was prepared specifically for the event , but several segments were lifted — largely unchanged — from The Colbert Report , including parts of the \" truthiness \" monologue from the first episode of the show , where Colbert advocated speaking from \" the gut \" rather than the brain and denounced books as \" all fact , no heart \" . Colbert framed this part of the speech as though he were agreeing with Bush 's philosophies , saying that he and Bush are \" not brainiacs on the nerd patrol \" , implicitly criticizing the way Bush positioned himself as an anti @-@ intellectual . \n Following this introduction to his style and philosophy , Colbert listed a series of absurd \" beliefs that I live by \" , such as \" I believe in America . I believe it exists . \" He alluded to outsourcing to China and satirized the traditional Republican opposition to \" big government \" by referencing the Iraq War . \" I believe the government that governs best is the government that governs least . And by these standards , we have set up a fabulous government in Iraq . \" \n Colbert then mocked Bush 's sinking approval ratings : \n Now , I know there are some polls out there saying this man has a 32 percent approval rating . But guys like us , we don 't pay attention to the polls . We know that polls are just a collection of statistics that reflect what people are thinking in reality . And reality has a well @-@ known liberal bias ... Sir , pay no attention to the people who say the glass is half empty , [ ... ] because 32 percent means it 's two @-@ thirds empty . There 's still some liquid in that glass , is my point . But I wouldn 't drink it . The last third is usually backwash . \n He continued his mock defense of Bush by satirizing Bush 's appearances aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln , at the site of the collapsed World Trade Center , and in cities devastated by Hurricane Katrina : \n I stand by this man . I stand by this man because he stands for things . Not only for things , he stands on things . Things like aircraft carriers , and rubble , and recently flooded city squares . And that sends a strong message : that no matter what happens to America , she will always rebound — with the most powerfully staged photo ops in the world . \n Colbert ended the monologue specifically directed at Bush by parodying his energy policy . He then used Laura Bush 's reading initiative as a springboard to mock @-@ criticize books for being \" elitist \" , and harshly criticized the White House Press Corps — hosts of the event — and the media in general . Addressing the audience , he remarked : \n Over the last five years , you people were so good — over tax cuts , WMD intelligence , the effect of global warming . We Americans didn 't want to know , and you had the courtesy not to try to find out , [ ... ] And then you write , [ ... ] \" Oh , they 're just rearranging the deck chairs on the Titanic . \" First of all , that is a terrible metaphor . This administration is not sinking . This administration is soaring . If anything , they are rearranging the deck chairs on the Hindenburg ! \n Colbert also criticized the White House Press Corps for what was widely perceived as its reluctance to question the administration 's policies , particularly in regards to the lead up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , saying : \n But , listen , let 's review the rules . Here 's how it works . The President makes decisions . He 's the decider . The press secretary announces those decisions , and you people of the press type those decisions down . Make , announce , type . Just put ' em through a spell check and go home . Get to know your family again . Make love to your wife . Write that novel you got kicking around in your head . You know , the one about the intrepid Washington reporter with the courage to stand up to the administration ? You know , fiction ! \n For the remainder of his speech , Colbert joked about other people in the audience , including Peter Pace , Antonin Scalia , John McCain , and Joe Wilson . During this section , he made another reference to global warming while talking about interviewing Jesse Jackson : \" You can ask him anything , but he 's going to say what he wants , at the pace that he wants . It 's like boxing a glacier . Enjoy that metaphor , by the way , because your grandchildren will have no idea what a glacier is . \" \n Colbert received a chilly reception from the audience . His jokes were often met with silence and muttering , although some in the audience , such as Scalia , laughed heartily as Colbert teased them . This was in stark contrast to the warm reception accorded to a skit featuring Bush and his look @-@ alike , Steve Bridges , which immediately preceded Colbert 's monologue . \n At the end of his monologue , Colbert introduced what he characterized as an \" audition \" video to become the new White House Press Secretary — Scott McClellan had recently left the position . The video spliced clips of difficult questions from the White House press corps with responses from Colbert as Press Secretary . Colbert 's podium included controls marked \" eject \" , \" Gannon \" ( a reference to erstwhile White House reporter Jeff Gannon , who was suspected of asking planted questions ) , and \" volume \" , which he used to silence a critical question from journalist David Gregory . The video continued with Colbert fleeing the briefing room and the White House , only to be pursued by White House correspondent Helen Thomas , who had been a vocal critic of the Bush administration . At one point , Colbert picks up an emergency phone and explains that Thomas \" won 't stop asking why we invaded Iraq \" . The dispatcher responds with , \" Hey , why did we invade Iraq ? \" The entire second half of the video is a spoof of horror film clichés , particularly the film Westworld , with melodramatic music accompanying Thomas 's slow , unwavering pursuit of Colbert , and Colbert loudly screaming \" No ! \" at intervals . Widely available online , a portion of the mock audition tape aired on The Colbert Report on May 2 , 2006 . \n Although President Bush shook Colbert 's hand after his presentation , several of Bush 's aides and supporters walked out during Colbert 's speech , and one former aide commented that the President had \" that look that he 's ready to blow \" . Colbert recalled that \" not a lot of people laughed in the front row \" during the speech , and that \" when it was over , no one was even making eye contact with me ... no one is talking to me in the whole damn room \" ; only Scalia came to him afterward , praising Colbert 's imitation of a gesture the justice had recently been photographed doing . \n = = Early press coverage and allegations of a media blackout = = \n Cable channel C @-@ SPAN broadcast the White House Correspondents ' Dinner live , and rebroadcast the event several times in the next 24 hours , but aired a segment that excluded Colbert 's speech . The trade journal Editor & Publisher was the first news outlet to report in detail on Colbert 's performance , calling it a \" blistering comedy ' tribute ' \" that did not make the Bushes laugh . The reviewer noted that others on the podium were uncomfortable during the speech , \" perhaps feeling the material was a little too biting — or too much speaking ' truthiness ' to power \" . \n The New York Times and the Chicago Tribune covered the dinner , but not Colbert 's remarks . The wire services Reuters and the Associated Press each devoted three paragraphs to discuss Colbert 's routine in their coverage of the event , and The Washington Post mentioned Colbert several times throughout its article . The most extensive print coverage came from USA Today , which dedicated more space to Colbert 's performance than to President Bush 's skit . The day after the dinner , Howard Kurtz played clips of Colbert 's performance on his CNN show Reliable Sources . On the Fox News show Fox & Friends , the hosts mentioned Colbert 's performance , criticizing him for going \" over the line \" . Tucker Carlson , a frequent target of The Colbert Report before and after the event , criticized Colbert as being \" unfunny \" on his MSNBC show Tucker . \n Much of the initial coverage of the event highlighted the difference between the reaction to Bush and Bridges ( very positive ) and that for Colbert ( far more muted ) . \" The president killed . He 's a tough act to follow — at all times , \" said Colbert . On his show , Colbert joked that the unenthusiastic reception was actually \" very respectful silence \" and added that the crowd \" practically carried me out on their shoulders \" even though he was not ready to leave . On the May 1 , 2006 , episode of The Daily Show , on which Colbert had formerly been a correspondent , host Jon Stewart called Colbert 's performance \" balls @-@ alicious \" and stated , \" We 've never been prouder of our Mr. Colbert , and , ah — holy shit ! \" \n Lloyd Grove , gossip columnist for the New York Daily News , said that Colbert \" bombed badly \" , and BET founder Bob Johnson remarked , \" It was an insider crowd , as insider a crowd as you 'll ever have , and [ Colbert ] didn 't do the insider jokes \" . Congressional Quarterly columnist and CBS commentator Craig Crawford found Colbert 's performance hilarious , but observed that most other people at the dinner did not find the speech amusing . Time magazine TV critic James Poniewozik thought that Colbert 's critics missed the point : \" Colbert wasn 't playing to the room , I suspect , but to the wide audience of people who would later watch on the Internet . If anything , he was playing against the room . \" Poniewozik called the pained , uncomfortable reactions to Colbert 's jokes \" the money shots . They were the whole point . \" \n Some commentators , while noting the popularity of Colbert 's dinner speech , were critical of the perceived snubbing he was receiving from the press corps , even though he was the featured entertainer for the evening . The Washington Post columnist Dan Froomkin , calling it \" The Colbert Blackout \" , lambasted the traditional media for ignoring Colbert while focusing on the \" much safer \" topic of President Bush 's routine with Bridges . Amy Goodman of Democracy Now noted that initial coverage ignored Colbert entirely . Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism professor Todd Gitlin remarked , \" It 's too hot to handle . [ Colbert ] was scathing toward Bush and it was absolutely devastating . [ The mainstream media doesn 't ] know how to handle such a pointed and aggressive criticism . \" \n Others saw no intentional snub of Colbert by the press . Responding to a question about why The Washington Post 's article about the dinner did not go into any detail about Colbert 's speech , Media Backtalk writer Howard Kurtz responded , \" The problem in part is one of deadline . The presses were already rolling by the time Colbert came on at 10 : 30 , so the story had to be largely written by then . \" Asked why television news favored Bush 's performance over Colbert 's , Elizabeth Fishman , an assistant dean at the Columbia School of Journalism and a former 60 Minutes producer , told MTV that the \" quick hit \" for television news shows would have been to use footage of Bush standing beside his impersonator . \" It 's an easier set up for visual effect \" , she noted . Steve Scully , president of the White House Correspondents ' Association ( which hosted the dinner ) and political editor of C @-@ SPAN ( which broadcast the dinner ) , scoffed at the whole idea of the press intentionally ignoring Colbert : \" Bush hit such a home run with Steve Bridges that he got all of the coverage . I think that exceeded expectations . There was no right @-@ wing conspiracy or left @-@ wing conspiracy . \" Time columnist Ana Marie Cox dismissed allegations of a deliberate media blackout , because Colbert 's performance received coverage in The New York Times , The Washington Post , and the major wire services . Fellow commentator Kurtz concurred , noting that the video was carried on C @-@ SPAN and was freely available online ; he also played two clips on his own show . \" Apparently I didn 't get the memo , \" he said . \n In an article published on May 3 , 2006 , The New York Times addressed the controversy . The paper acknowledged that the mainstream media — itself included — had been criticized for focusing on Bush 's act with Bridges while ignoring Colbert 's speech . The paper then quoted several passages of Colbert 's more substantial criticism of the president and discussed various reactions to the event . On May 15 , The New York Times ' public editor , Byron Calame , wrote on his blog that more than two hundred readers had written to complain about the exclusion of any mention of Colbert from the paper 's initial lengthy article covering the dinner . Calame quoted his deputy bureau chief in Washington , who said that a mention of Colbert in the first article could not have been long enough to do his routine justice . But he also noted that the paper should have printed an in @-@ depth article specifically covering Colbert 's speech in the same issue , rather than waiting until days after the fact . \n = = Internet popularity = = \n Even though Colbert 's performance \" landed with a thud \" among the live audience , clips of Colbert at the dinner were an overnight sensation , becoming viral videos that appeared on numerous web sites in several forms . Sites offering the video experienced massive increases in traffic . According to CNET 's News.com site , Colbert 's speech was \" one of the Internet 's hottest acts \" . Searches for Colbert on Yahoo ! were up 5 @,@ 625 percent . During the days after the speech , there were twice as many Google searches for \" C @-@ SPAN \" as for \" Jennifer Aniston \" — an uncommon occurrence — as well as a surge in Colbert @-@ related searches . Nielsen BuzzMetrics ranked the post of the video clip as the second most popular blog post for all of 2006 . Clips of Colbert 's comic tribute climbed to the number 1 , 2 , and 3 spots atop YouTube 's \" Most Viewed \" video list . The various clips of Colbert 's speech had been viewed 2 @.@ 7 million times in less than 48 hours . In an unprecedented move for the network , C @-@ SPAN demanded that YouTube and iFilm remove unauthorized copies of the video from their sites . Google Video subsequently purchased the exclusive rights to retransmit the video , and it remained at or near the top of Google 's most popular videos for the next two weeks . \n Both Editor and Publisher and Salon , which published extensive and early coverage of the Colbert speech , drew record and near @-@ record numbers of viewers to their web sites . 70 @,@ 000 articles were posted to blogs about Colbert 's roast of Bush on the Thursday after the event , the most of any topic , and \" Colbert \" remained the top search term at Technorati for days . Chicago Sun @-@ Times TV critic Doug Elfman credited the Internet with promoting an event that would have otherwise been overlooked , stating that \" Internet stables for liberals , like the behemoth dailykos.com , began rumbling as soon as the correspondents ' dinner was reported in the mainstream press , with scant word of Colbert 's combustive address \" . Three weeks after the dinner , audio of Colbert 's performance went on sale at the iTunes Music Store and became the No. 1 album purchased , outselling new releases by the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Pearl Jam , and Paul Simon . The CEO of Audible.com , which provided the recording sold at iTunes , explained its success by saying , \" you had to not be there to get it \" . It continued to be a top download at iTunes for the next five months . \n = = Response = = \n Colbert 's performance received a variety of reactions from the media . In Washington , the response from both politicians and the press corps was negative — both groups having been targets of Colbert 's satire . The Washington press corps felt that Colbert had bombed . The Washington Post columnist Richard Cohen found that Colbert 's jokes were \" lame and insulting \" and wrote that Colbert was \" rude \" and a \" bully \" . Politician Steny Hoyer felt that Colbert had gone too far , telling the newspaper The Hill that \" [ Bush ] is the President of the United States , and he deserves some respect \" . Conservative pundit Mary Matalin called Colbert 's performance a \" predictable , Bush @-@ bashing kind of humor \" . Columnist Ana Marie Cox chastised those who praised Colbert as a hero : \" I somehow doubt that Bush has never heard these criticisms before \" . She added , \" Comedy can have a political point but it is not political action \" . \n On The Daily Show , Jon Stewart remarked , tongue in cheek , \" apparently [ Colbert ] was under the impression that they 'd hired him to do what he does every night on television \" . While comics were expected to tell jokes about the administration , the 2006 dinner was held at a time when the relationship between the administration and the media was under great strain , and the administration was sensitive to criticism . Attorney and columnist Julie Hilden concluded that Colbert 's \" vituperative parody \" might have been unfair under different circumstances , but noted that Bush 's record of controlling bad press created a heightened justification for people to criticize him when they got the chance . Media Matters and Editor & Publisher came to Colbert 's defense , calling his detractors hypocrites . They contrasted the critical reaction to Colbert to the praise that many in the press had for a controversial routine that Bush performed at a similar media dinner in 2004 , where Bush was shown looking for WMDs in the Oval Office and joking , \" Those weapons of mass destruction must be somewhere ! \" and \" Nope , no weapons over there ! \" \n Canadian Broadcasting Corporation News Online columnist Heather Mallick wrote , \" Colbert had the wit and raw courage to do to Bush what Mark Antony did to Brutus , murderer of Caesar . As the American media has self @-@ destructed , it takes Colbert to damn Bush with devastatingly ironic praise . \" Comedian and eventual Democratic U.S. Senator Al Franken , who performed at similar dinners twice during the Bill Clinton administration , admired what Colbert had done . In its year @-@ end issue , New York magazine described Colbert 's performance as one of the most \" brilliant \" moments of 2006 . Time 's James Poniewozik noted that in the \" days after Stephen Colbert performed at the White House Correspondents ' Dinner , this has become the political @-@ cultural touchstone issue of 2006 — like whether you drive a hybrid or use the term ' freedom fries ' \" . \n For the 2007 dinner , the White House Correspondents ' Association brought back the less controversial Rich Little . Arianna Huffington reported that Colbert told her he had specifically avoided reading any reviews of his performance , and remained unaware of the public 's reaction . On June 13 , 2007 , he was presented with a Spike TV Guys ' Choice Award for \" Gutsiest Move \" . He accepted the award via video conference . Six months later , New York Times columnist Frank Rich called Colbert 's after @-@ dinner speech a \" cultural primary \" , christening it the \" defining moment \" of the United States ' 2006 midterm elections . Three and a half years after the speech , Frank Rich referenced it again , calling it \" brilliant \" and \" good for the country \" , while columnist Dan Savage referred to it as \" one of the things that kept people like me sane during the darkest days of the Bush years \" . The editor of the The Realist , Paul Krassner , later put Colbert 's performance in historical context , saying that it stands out among contemporary US satire as the only example of the spirit of the satire by Lenny Bruce , George Carlin , and Richard Pryor , which took risks and broke barriers to free speech , \" rather than just proudly exercising it as comedians do now . \" \n = Chrono Trigger = \n Chrono Trigger ( Japanese : クロノ ・ トリガー , Hepburn : Kurono Torigā ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1995 . Chrono Trigger 's development team included three designers that Square dubbed the \" Dream Team \" : Hironobu Sakaguchi , the creator of Square 's Final Fantasy series ; Yuji Horii , a freelance designer and creator of Enix 's popular Dragon Quest series ; and Akira Toriyama , a freelance manga artist famed for his work with Dragon Quest and Dragon Ball . Kazuhiko Aoki produced the game , Masato Kato wrote most of the plot , while composer Yasunori Mitsuda scored most of the game before falling ill and deferring the remaining tracks to Final Fantasy series composer Nobuo Uematsu . The game 's story follows a group of adventurers who travel through time to prevent a global catastrophe . \n Square re @-@ released a ported version by Tose in Japan for the PlayStation in 1999 , later repackaged with a Final Fantasy IV port as Final Fantasy Chronicles in 2001 for the North American market . A slightly enhanced Chrono Trigger , again ported by Tose , was released for the Nintendo DS on November 25 , 2008 , in North America and Japan , and went on sale in Australia on February 3 , 2009 , and in Europe on February 6 , 2009 . The game was never released in PAL territories before the Nintendo DS version . \n Chrono Trigger was a critical and commercial success upon release and is frequently cited as one of the best video games of all time . Nintendo Power magazine described aspects of Chrono Trigger as revolutionary , including its multiple endings , plot @-@ related sidequests focusing on character development , unique battle system , and detailed graphics . Chrono Trigger was the third best @-@ selling game of 1995 , and the game 's SNES and PlayStation iterations have shipped 2 @.@ 65 million copies as of March 2003 . The version for the Nintendo DS sold 790 @,@ 000 copies as of March 2009 . Chrono Trigger was also ported to mobile phones , Virtual Console , the PlayStation Network , iOS devices , and Android devices . \n = = Gameplay = = \n Chrono Trigger features standard role @-@ playing video game gameplay . The player controls the protagonist and his companions in the game 's two @-@ dimensional fictional world , consisting of various forests , cities , and dungeons . Navigation occurs via an overworld map , depicting the landscape from a scaled @-@ down overhead view . Areas such as forests , cities , and similar places are depicted as more realistic scaled @-@ down maps , in which players can converse with locals to procure items and services , solve puzzles and challenges , or encounter enemies . Chrono Trigger 's gameplay deviates from that of traditional Japanese RPGs in that , rather than appearing in random encounters , many enemies are openly visible on field maps or lie in wait to ambush the party . Contact with enemies on a field map initiates a battle that occurs directly on the map rather than on a separate battle screen . \n Players and enemies may use physical or magical attacks to wound targets during battle , and players may use items to heal or protect themselves . Each character and enemy has a certain number of hit points ; successful attacks reduce that character 's hit points , which can be restored with potions and spells . When a playable character loses all hit points , he or she faints ; if all the player 's characters fall in battle , the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved chapter , except in specific storyline @-@ related battles that allow or force the player to lose . Between battles , the player can equip his / her characters with weapons , armor , helmets , and accessories that provide special effects ( such as increased attack power or defense against magic ) , and various consumable items can be used both in and out of battles . Items and equipment can be purchased in shops or found on field maps , often in treasure chests . By exploring new areas and fighting enemies , players progress through Chrono Trigger 's story . \n Chrono Trigger uses an Active Time Battle system — a staple of Square 's Final Fantasy game series designed by Hiroyuki Ito for Final Fantasy IV — named \" Active Time Battle 2 @.@ 0 . \" Each character can take action in battle once a personal timer dependent on the character 's speed statistic counts to zero . Magic and special physical techniques are handled through a system called \" Techs . \" Techs deplete a character 's magic points ( a numerical meter like hit points ) , and often have special areas of effect ; some spells damage huddled monsters , while others can harm enemies spread in a line . Enemies often change positions during battle , creating opportunities for tactical Tech use . A unique feature of Chrono Trigger 's Tech system is that numerous cooperative techniques exist . Each character receives eight personal Techs which can be used in conjunction with others ' to create Double and Triple Techs for greater effect . For instance , Crono 's sword @-@ spinning Cyclone Tech can be combined with Lucca 's Flame Toss to create Flame Whirl . When characters with compatible Techs have enough magic points available to perform their techniques , the game automatically displays the combo as an option . \n Chrono Trigger features several other unique gameplay traits , including time travel . Players have access to seven eras of the game world 's history , and past actions affect future events . Throughout history , players find new allies , complete side quests , and search for keynote villains . Time travel is accomplished via portals and pillars of light called \" time gates \" , as well as a time machine named Epoch . The game contains thirteen unique endings ; the ending the player receives depends on when and how he or she reaches and completes the game 's final battle . Chrono Trigger DS features a new ending that can be accessed from the End of Time upon completion of the final extra dungeon and optional final boss . Chrono Trigger also introduces a New Game + option ; after completing the game , the player may begin a new game with the same character levels , techniques , and equipment , excluding money , with which he or she ended the previous play through . However , certain items central to the storyline are removed and must be found again , such as the sword Masamune . Square has since employed the New Game + concept in later titles , including Chrono Cross , Parasite Eve , Vagrant Story , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , and Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII . \n = = Plot = = \n = = = Setting = = = \n Chrono Trigger takes place in a world familiar to Earth , with eras such as the prehistoric age , in which primitive humans and dinosaurs share the earth ; the Middle Ages , replete with knights , monsters , and magic ; and the post @-@ apocalyptic future , where destitute humans and sentient robots struggle to survive . The characters frequently travel through time to obtain allies , gather equipment , and learn information to help them in their quest . The party also gains access to the End of Time ( represented as year ∞ ) , which serves as a hub to travel back to other time periods . The party eventually acquires a time @-@ machine vehicle known as the Wings of Time , nicknamed the Epoch . The vehicle is capable of time travel between any time period without first having to travel to the End of Time . \n = = = Characters = = = \n Chrono Trigger 's six playable characters ( plus one optional character ) come from different eras of history . Chrono Trigger begins in AD 1000 with Crono , Marle and Lucca . Crono is the silent protagonist , characterized as a fearless young man who wields a katana in battle . Marle ( Princess Nadia ) lives in Guardia Castle ; though sheltered , at heart she 's a princess who enjoys hiding her royal identity . Lucca is a friend of Crono 's and a mechanical genius ; her home is filled with laboratory equipment and machinery . From the era of AD 2300 comes Robo , or Prometheus ( designation R @-@ 66Y ) , a robot with near @-@ human personality created to assist humans . Lying dormant in the future , Robo is found and repaired by Lucca , and joins the group out of gratitude . The fiercely confident Ayla dwells in 65 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 BC . Unmatched in raw strength , Ayla is the chief of Ioka Village and leads her people in war against a species of humanoid reptiles known as Reptites . \n The last two playable characters are Frog and Magus . Frog originated in AD 600 . He is a former squire once named Glenn , who was turned into an anthropomorphic frog by Magus , who also killed his friend Cyrus . Chivalrous but mired in regret , Frog dedicates his life to protecting Leene , the queen of Guardia , and avenging Cyrus . Meanwhile , Guardia in AD 600 is in a state of conflict against the Mystics ( known as Fiends in the US / DS port ) , a race of demons and intelligent animals who wage war against humanity under the leadership of Magus , a powerful sorcerer . Magus 's seclusion conceals a long @-@ lost past ; he was formerly known as Janus , the young prince of the Kingdom of Zeal , which was destroyed by Lavos in 12 @,@ 000 BC . The incident sent him forward through time , and as he ages , he plots revenge against Lavos and broods over the fate of his sister , Schala . Lavos , the game 's main antagonist who awakens and ravages the world in AD 1999 , is an extraterrestrial , parasitic creature that harvests DNA and the Earth 's energy for its own growth . \n = = = Story = = = \n In AD 1000 , Crono and Marle watch Lucca and her father demonstrate her new teleporter at the Millennial Fair . When Marle volunteers to be teleported , her pendant interferes with the device and creates a time portal into which she is drawn . After Crono and Lucca separately recreate the portal and find themselves in AD 600 , they find Marle only to see her vanish before their eyes . Lucca realizes that this time period 's kingdom has mistaken Marle for an ancestor of hers who had been kidnapped , thus putting off the recovery effort for her ancestor and creating a grandfather paradox . Crono and Lucca , with the help of Frog , restore history to normal by recovering the kidnapped queen . After the three part ways with Frog and return to the present , Crono is arrested on charges of kidnapping the princess and sentenced to death by the current chancellor of Guardia . Lucca and Marle help Crono to flee , haphazardly using another time portal to escape their pursuers . This portal lands them in AD 2300 , where they learn that an advanced civilization has been wiped out by a giant creature known as Lavos that appeared in 1999 . The three vow to find a way to prevent the future destruction of their world . After meeting and repairing Robo , Crono and his friends find Gaspar , an old sage at the End of Time , who helps them acquire magical powers and travel through time by way of several pillars of light . \n Their party expands to include Ayla and Frog after they visit the prehistoric era to repair Frog 's sword . They return to AD 600 to challenge Magus , believing him to be the source of Lavos ; after the battle , a summoning spell causes a time gate that throws Crono and his friends to the past . In prehistory , the group battle the Reptites and witness the origin of Lavos . They learn that Lavos was an alien being that arrived on the planet millions of years in the past , and began to absorb DNA and energy from every living creature before arising and razing the planet 's surface in 1999 so that it could spawn a new generation . In 12 @,@ 000 BC , Crono and friends find that the Kingdom of Zeal recently discovered Lavos and seeks to drain its power to achieve immortality through the Mammon Machine . However Zeal 's leader , Queen Zeal imprisons Crono and friends . Though Zeal 's daughter Schala frees them , the Prophet , a mysterious figure who has recently begun advising the queen , forces her to banish them from the realm and seal the time gate they used to travel to the Dark Ages . They return next to AD 2300 to find a time machine called the Wings of Time ( or Epoch ) , which can access any time period without using a time gate . They travel back to Zeal for the Mammon Machine 's activation at the Ocean Palace . Lavos awakens , disturbed by the Mammon Machine , and the Prophet reveals himself to be Magus and tries to kill the creature . Crono stands up to Lavos but is vaporized by a powerful blast , after which Lavos destroys the Kingdom of Zeal . \n Crono 's friends awake in a village and find Magus , who confesses that he used to be prince Janus of Zeal . In his memories , it is revealed that the disaster at the Ocean Palace scattered the Gurus of Zeal across time and sent him to the Middle Ages . Janus took the alias of Magus and gained a cult of followers while plotting to summon and kill Lavos in revenge for the death of his sister , Schala , but when Lavos appeared after his battle with Crono and his allies he was cast back to the time of Zeal and presented himself to them as a prophet . As Crono 's friends depart , the Ocean Palace rises into the air as the Black Omen . The group turns to Gaspar for help , and he gives them a \" Chrono Trigger , \" an egg @-@ shaped device that allows the group to replace Crono just before the moment of death with a Dopple Doll . Crono and his friends then gather power by helping people across time with Gaspar 's instructions . Their journeys involve defeating the remnants of the Mystics , stopping Robo 's maniacal AI creator , addressing Frog 's feelings towards Cyrus , locating and charging up the mythical Sun Stone , retrieving the Rainbow Shell , and helping restore a forest destroyed by a desert monster . The group enters the Black Omen and defeats Queen Zeal , then successfully battles Lavos , saving the future of their world . \n If Magus joined the party , he departs to search for Schala . Crono 's mother accidentally enters the time gate at the fair before it closes , prompting Crono , Marle , and Lucca to set out in the Epoch to find her while fireworks light up the night sky . Alternatively , if the party used the Epoch to break Lavos 's outer shell , Marle will help her father hang Nadia 's bell at the festival and accidentally get carried away by several balloons . Crono jumps on to help her , but cannot bring them down to earth . Hanging on in each other 's arms , the pair travel through the cloudy , moonlit sky . \n Chrono Trigger DS added two new scenarios to the game . In the first , Crono and his friends can help a \" lost sanctum \" of Reptites , who reward powerful items and armor . The second scenario adds ties to Trigger 's sequel , Chrono Cross . In a New Game + , the group can explore several temporal distortions to combat shadow versions of Crono , Marle , and Lucca , and to fight Dalton , who promises in defeat to raise an army in the town of Porre to destroy the Kingdom of Guardia . The group can then fight the Dream Devourer , a prototypical form of the Time Devourer — a fusion of Schala and Lavos seen in Chrono Cross . A version of Magus pleads with Schala to resist ; though she recognizes him as her brother , she refuses to be helped and sends him away . Schala subsequently erases his memories and Magus awakens in a forest , determined to find what he had lost . \n = = Development = = \n Chrono Trigger was conceived in 1992 by Hironobu Sakaguchi , producer and creator of the Final Fantasy series ; Yuji Horii , director and creator of the Dragon Quest series ; and Akira Toriyama , creator of the Dragon Ball comics series . Traveling to the United States to research computer graphics , the three decided to create something that \" no one had done before \" . After spending over a year considering the difficulties of developing a new game , they received a call from Kazuhiko Aoki , who offered to produce . The four met and spent four days brainstorming ideas for the game . Square convened 50 – 60 developers , including scenario writer Masato Kato , whom Square designated story planner . Development started in early 1993 . An uncredited Square employee suggested that the team develop a time travel @-@ themed game , which Kato initially opposed , fearing repetitive , dull gameplay . Kato and Horii then met several hours per day during the first year of development to write the game 's plot . Square intended to license the work under the Seiken Densetsu franchise and gave it the working title of \" Maru Island \" ; Hiromichi Tanaka ( the future director of Chrono Cross ) monitored Toriyama 's early designs . The team hoped to release it on Nintendo 's planned Super Famicom Disk Drive ; when Nintendo canceled the project , Square reoriented the game for release on a Super Famicom cartridge and rebranded it as Chrono Trigger . Tanaka credited the ROM catridge platform for enabling seamless transition to battles on the field map . \n Aoki ultimately produced Chrono Trigger , while director credits were attributed to Akihiko Matsui , Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita . Toriyama designed the game 's aesthetic , including characters , monsters , vehicles , and the look of each era . Masato Kato also contributed character ideas and designs . Kato planned to feature Gaspar as a playable character and Toriyama sketched him , but he was cut early in development . The development staff studied the drawings of Toriyama to approximate his style . Sakaguchi and Horii supervised ; Sakaguchi was responsible for the game 's overall system and contributed several monster ideas . Other notable designers include Tetsuya Takahashi , the graphic director , and Yasuyuki Honne , Tetsuya Nomura , and Yusuke Naora , who worked as field graphic artists . Yasuhika Kamata programmed graphics , and cited Ridley Scott 's visual work in the film Alien as an inspiration for the game 's lighting . Kamata made the game 's luminosity and color choice lay between that of Secret of Mana and the Final Fantasy series . Features originally intended to be used in Secret of Mana or Final Fantasy IV , also under development at the same time , were appropriated by the Chrono Trigger team . \n Yuji Horii , a fan of time travel fiction ( such as the TV series The Time Tunnel ) , fostered a theme of time travel in his general story outline of Chrono Trigger with input from Akira Toriyama . Horii liked the scenario of the grandfather paradox surrounding Marle . Concerning story planning , Horii commented , \" If there 's a fairground , I just write that there 's a fairground ; I don 't write down any of the details . Then the staff brainstorm and come up with a variety of attractions to put in . \" Sakaguchi contributed some minor elements , including the character Gato ; he liked Marle 's drama and reconciliation with her father . Masato Kato subsequently edited and completed the outline by writing the majority of the game 's story , including all the events of the 12 @,@ 000 BC era . He took pains to avoid what he described as \" a long string of errands ... [ such as ] ' do this ' , ' take this ' , ' defeat these monsters ' , or ' plant this flag ' . \" Kato and other developers held a series of meetings to ensure continuity , usually attended by around 30 personnel . Kato and Horii initially proposed Crono 's death , though they intended he stay dead ; the party would have retrieved an earlier , living version of him to complete the quest . Square deemed the scenario too depressing and asked that Crono be brought back to life later in the story . Kato also devised the system of multiple endings because he could not branch the story out to different paths . Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita then wrote various subplots . Kato became friends with composer Yasunori Mitsuda during development , and they would collaborate on several future projects . Katsuhisa Higuchi programmed the battle system , which hosted combat on the map without transition to a special battleground as most previous Square games had done . Higuchi noted extreme difficulty in loading battles properly without slow @-@ downs or a brief , black loading screen . The game 's use of animated monster sprites consumed much more memory than previous Final Fantasy games , which used static enemy graphics . \n Hironobu Sakaguchi likened the development of Chrono Trigger to \" play [ ing ] around with Toriyama 's universe , \" citing the inclusion of humorous sequences in the game that would have been \" impossible with something like Final Fantasy . \" When Square Co. suggested a non @-@ human player character , developers created Frog by adapting one of Toriyama 's sketches . The team created the End of Time to help players with hints , worrying that they might become stuck and need to consult a walkthrough . The game 's testers had previously complained that Chrono Trigger was too difficult ; as Horii explained , \" It 's because we know too much . The developers think the game 's just right ; that they 're being too soft . They 're thinking from their own experience . The puzzles were the same . Lots of players didn 't figure out things we thought they 'd get easily . \" Sakaguchi later cited the unusual desire of beta testers to play the game a second time or \" travel through time again \" as an affirmation of the New Game + feature : \" Wherever we could , we tried to make it so that a slight change in your behavior caused subtle differences in people 's reactions , even down to the smallest details ... I think the second playthrough will hold a whole new interest . \" The game 's reuse of locations due to time traveling made bug @-@ fixing difficult , as corrections would cause unintended consequences in other eras . \n = = = Music = = = \n Chrono Trigger was scored primarily by Yasunori Mitsuda , with contributions from veteran Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu , and one track composed by Noriko Matsueda . A sound programmer at the time , Mitsuda was unhappy with his pay and threatened to leave Square if he could not compose music . Hironobu Sakaguchi suggested he score Chrono Trigger , remarking , \" maybe your salary will go up . \" Mitsuda composed new music and drew on a personal collection of pieces composed over the previous two years . He reflected , \" I wanted to create music that wouldn 't fit into any established genre ... music of an imaginary world . The game 's director , Masato Kato , was my close friend , and so I 'd always talk with him about the setting and the scene before going into writing . \" Mitsuda slept in his studio several nights , and attributed certain pieces — such as the game 's ending theme , To Far Away Times — to inspiring dreams . He later attributed this song to an idea he was developing before Chrono Trigger , reflecting that the tune was made in dedication to \" a certain person with whom [ he ] wanted to share a generation \" . He also tried to use leitmotifs of the Chrono Trigger main theme to create a sense of consistency in the soundtrack . Mitsuda wrote each tune to be around two minutes long before repeating , unusual for Square 's games at the time . Mitsuda suffered a hard drive crash that lost around forty in @-@ progress tracks . After Mitsuda contracted stomach ulcers , Uematsu joined the project to compose ten pieces and finish the score . Mitsuda returned to watch the ending with the staff before the game 's release , crying upon seeing the finished scene . \n At the time of the game 's release , the number of tracks and sound effects was unprecedented — the soundtrack spanned three discs in its 1995 commercial pressing . Square also released a one @-@ disc acid jazz arrangement called \" The Brink of Time \" by Guido that year . 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the U.S. to Italy , he was upset with the modernist dialogue . Vidal agreed to work on the script for three months so that he would come off suspension and fulfill his contract with MGM , although Zimbalist pushed him to stay throughout the entire production . Vidal was researching a book on the 4th century Roman emperor Julian and knew a great deal about ancient Rome .
Vidal 's working style was to finish a scene and review it with Zimbalist . Once Vidal and Zimbalist had come to agreement , the scene would be passed to Wyler . Vidal said he kept the structure of the Tunberg / Behrman / Anderson script , but rewrote nearly all the dialogue . Vidal admitted to William Morris in March 1959 that Fry rewrote as much as a third of the dialogue which Vidal had added to the first half of the script . Vidal made one structural change which was not revised , however . The Tunberg script had Ben @-@ Hur and Messala reuniting and falling out in a single scene . Vidal broke the scene in two , so that the men first reunite at the Castle Antonia and then later argue and end their friendship at Ben @-@ Hur 's home . Vidal also added small character touches to the script , such as Messala 's purchase of a brooch for Tirzah and Ben @-@ Hur 's purchase of a horse for Messala . Vidal claimed that he worked on the first half of the script ( everything up to the chariot race ) , and scripted 10 versions of the scene where Ben @-@ Hur confronts Messala and begs for his family 's freedom .
Vidal 's claim about a homoerotic subtext is hotly debated . Vidal first made the claim in an interview in the 1995 documentary film The Celluloid Closet , and asserted that he persuaded Wyler to direct Stephen Boyd to play the role as if he were a spurned homosexual lover . Vidal said that he believed that Messala 's vindictiveness could only be motivated by the feeling of rejection that a lover would feel , and claimed to have suggested to Wyler that Stephen Boyd should play the role that way , and that Heston be kept in the dark about the Messala character 's motivations . Whether Vidal wrote the scene in question or had the acting conversation with Wyler , and whether Wyler shot what Vidal wrote , remain issues of debate . Wyler himself says that he does not remember any conversation about this part of the script or Boyd 's acting with Gore Vidal , and that he discarded Vidal 's draft in favor of Fry 's . Morgan Hudgens , publicity director for the film , however , wrote to Vidal in late May 1958 about the crucial scene , and implied there was a homosexual context : " ... the big cornpone [ the crew 's nickname for Heston ] really threw himself into your ' first meeting ' scene yesterday . You should have seen those boys embrace ! " Film critic F. X. Feeney , in a comparison of script drafts , concludes that Vidal made significant and extensive contributions to the script .
The final writer on the film was Christopher Fry . Charlton Heston has claimed that Fry was Wyler 's first choice as screenwriter , but that Zimbalist forced him to use Vidal . Whether Fry worked on the script before Vidal or not , sources agree that Fry arrived in Rome in early May 1958 and spent six days a week on the set , writing and rewriting lines of dialogue as well as entire scenes , until the picture was finished . In particular , Fry gave the dialogue a slightly more formal and archaic tone without making it sound stilted and medieval . A highly publicized bitter dispute later broke out over screenplay credits to the film , involving Wyler , Tunberg , Vidal , Fry and the Screen Writers ' Guild .
The final script ran 230 pages . The screenplay differed more from the original novel than did the 1925 silent film version . Some changes made the film 's storyline more dramatic . Others inserted an admiration for Jewish people ( who had founded the state of Israel by this time ) and the more pluralistic society of 1950s America rather than the " Christian superiority " view of Wallace 's novel .
= = = Casting = = =
MGM opened a casting office in Rome in mid @-@ 1957 to select the 50 @,@ 000 people who would act in minor roles and as extras in the film , and a total of 365 actors had speaking parts in the film , although only 45 of them were considered " principal " performers . In casting , Wyler placed heavy emphasis on characterization rather than looks or acting history . He typically cast the Romans with British actors and the Jews with American actors to help underscore the divide between the two groups . The Romans were the aristocrats in the film , and Wyler believed that American audiences would interpret British accents as patrician .
Several actors were offered the role of Judah Ben @-@ Hur before it was accepted by Charlton Heston . Burt Lancaster stated he turned down the role because he found the script boring and belittling to Christianity . Paul Newman turned it down because he said he didn 't have the legs to wear a tunic . Marlon Brando , Rock Hudson , Geoffrey Horne , and Leslie Nielsen were also offered the role , as were a number of muscular , handsome Italian actors ( many of whom did not speak English ) . Kirk Douglas was interested in the role , but was turned down in favor of Heston , who was formally cast on January 22 , 1958 . His salary was $ 250 @,@ 000 for 30 weeks , a prorated salary for any time over 30 weeks , and travel expenses for his family .
Stephen Boyd was cast as the antagonist , Messala , on April 13 , 1958 . William Wyler originally wanted Heston for the role , but sought another actor after he moved Heston into the role of Judah Ben @-@ Hur . Because both Boyd and Heston had blue eyes , Wyler had Boyd outfitted with brown contact lenses as a way of contrasting the two men . Marie Ney was originally cast as Miriam , but was fired after two days of work because she could not cry on cue . Heston says that he was the one who suggested that Wyler cast Martha Scott as Miriam , and she was hired on July 17 , 1958 . Cathy O 'Donnell was Wyler 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , and although her career was in decline , Wyler cast her as Tirzah .
More than 30 actresses were considered for the role of Esther . The Israeli actress Haya Harareet , a relative newcomer to film , was cast as Esther on May 16 , 1958 , after providing a 30 @-@ second silent screen test . Wyler had met her at the Cannes Film Festival , where she impressed him with her conversational skills and force of personality . Sam Jaffe was cast as Simonides on April 3 , 1958 , and Finlay Currie was cast as Balthasar on the same day . Wyler had to persuade Jack Hawkins to appear in the film , because Hawkins was unwilling to act in another epic motion picture so soon after The Bridge on the River Kwai . Hugh Griffith , who gained acclaim in the post @-@ World War II era in Ealing Studios comedies , was cast as the colorful Sheik Ilderim . The role of Jesus was played by Claude Heater ( uncredited ) , an American opera singer performing with the Vienna State Opera in Rome when he was asked to do a screen test for the film .
= = = Cinematography = = =
Robert L. Surtees , who had already filmed several of the most successful epics of the 1950s , was hired as cinematographer for the film . Early on in the film 's production , Zimbalist and other MGM executives made the decision to film the picture in a widescreen format . Wyler strongly disliked the widescreen format , commenting that " Nothing is out of the picture , and you can 't fill it . You either have a lot of empty space , or you have two people talking and a flock of others surrounding them who have nothing to do with the scene . Your eye just wanders out of curiosity . " The cameras were also quite large , heavy , and difficult and time @-@ consuming to move . To overcome these difficulties , Surtees and Wyler collaborated on using the widescreen lenses , film stocks , and projection technologies to create highly detailed images for the film . Wyler was best known for composition in depth , a visual technique in which people , props , and architecture are not merely composed horizontally but in depth of field as well . He also had a strong preference for long takes , during which his actors could move within this highly detailed space .
The movie was filmed in a process known as " MGM Camera 65 " . 1957 's Raintree County was the first MGM film to use the process . The MGM Camera 65 used special 65mm Eastmancolor film stock with a 2 @.@ 76 : 1 aspect ratio . 70mm anamorphic camera lenses developed by the Mitchell Camera Company were manufactured to specifications submitted by MGM . These lenses squeezed the image down 1 @.@ 25 times to fit on the image area of the film stock . Because the film could be adapted to the requirements of individual theaters , movie houses did not need to install special , expensive 70mm projection equipment . Six of the 70mm lenses , each worth $ 100 @,@ 000 , were shipped to Rome for use by the production .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Pre @-@ production began at Cinecittà Studios around October 1957 . The MGM Art Department produced more than 15 @,@ 000 sketches and drawings of costumes , sets , props , and other items needed for the film ( 8 @,@ 000 alone for the costumes ) ; photostatted each item ; and cross @-@ referenced and catalogued them for use by the production design team and fabricators . More than a million props were ultimately manufactured . Construction of miniatures for the entrance of Quintus Arrius into Rome and for the sea battle were under way by the end of November 1957 . MGM location scouts arrived in Rome to identify shooting locations in August 1957 . Location shooting in Africa was actively under consideration , and in mid @-@ January 1958 , MGM said that filming in North Africa ( later revealed to be Libya ) would begin on March 1 , 1958 , and that 200 camels and 2 @,@ 500 horses had already been procured for the studio 's use there . The production was then scheduled to move to Rome on April 1 , where Andrew Marton had been hired as second unit director and 72 horses were being trained for the chariot race sequence . However , the Libyan government canceled the production 's film permit for religious reasons on March 11 , 1958 , just a week before filming was to have begun . It is unclear whether any second unit filming took place in Israel . A June 8 , 1958 , reported in The New York Times said second unit director Andrew Martin had roamed " up and down the countryside " filming footage . However , the American Film Institute claims the filming permit was revoked in Israel for religious reasons as well ( although when is not clear ) , and no footage from the planned location shooting near Jerusalem appeared in the film .
Principal photography began in Rome on May 18 , 1958 . The script was still unfinished when cinematography began , so that Wyler had only read the first 10 to 12 pages of it . Shooting lasted for 12 to 14 hours a day , six days a week . On Sundays , Wyler would meet with Fry and Zimbalist for story conferences . The pace of the film was so grueling that a doctor was brought onto the set to give a vitamin B complex injection to anyone who requested it ( shots which Wyler and his family later suspected may have contained amphetamines ) . To speed things up , Wyler often kept principal actors on stand @-@ by , in full costume and make @-@ up , so that he could shoot pick @-@ up scenes if the first unit slowed down . Actresses Martha Scott and Cathy O 'Donnell spent almost the entire month of November 1958 in full leprosy make @-@ up and costumes so that Wyler could shoot " leper scenes " when other shots didn 't go well . Wyler was unhappy with Heston 's performances , feeling they did not make Judah Ben @-@ Hur a plausible character , and Heston had to reshoot " I 'm a Jew " 16 times . Shooting took nine months , which included three months for the chariot race scene alone . Principal photography ended on January 7 , 1959 , with filming of the crucifixion scene , which took four days to shoot .
= = = Production design = = =
Italy was MGM 's top choice for hosting the production . However , a number of countries — including France , Mexico , Spain , and the United Kingdom — were also considered . Cinecittà Studios , a very large motion picture production facility constructed in 1937 on the outskirts of Rome , was identified early on as the primary shooting location . Zimbalist hired Wyler 's long @-@ term production supervisor , Henry Henigson , to oversee the film , and art directors William A. Horning and Edward Carfagno created the overall look of the film , relying on the more than five years of research which had already been completed for the production . A skeleton crew of studio technicians arrived in the summer of 1956 to begin preparing the Cinecittà soundstages and back lot .
The Ben @-@ Hur production utilized 300 sets scattered over 148 acres ( 60 ha ) and nine sound stages . Several sets still standing from Quo Vadis in 1951 were refurbished and used for Ben @-@ Hur . By the end of the production more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 @,@ 000 kg ) of plaster and 40 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m3 ) of lumber were used . The budget called for more than 100 @,@ 000 costumes and 1 @,@ 000 suits of armor to be made , for the hiring of 10 @,@ 000 extras , and the procurement of hundreds of camels , donkeys , horses , and sheep . Costume designer Elizabeth Haffenden oversaw a staff of 100 wardrobe fabricators who began manufacturing the costumes for the film a year before filming began . Special silk was imported from Thailand , the armor manufactured in West Germany , and the woolens made and embroidered in the United Kingdom and various countries of South America . Many leather goods were hand @-@ tooled in the United Kingdom as well , while Italian shoemakers manufactured the boots and shoes . The lace for costumes came from France , while costume jewelry was purchased in Switzerland . More than 400 pounds ( 180 kg ) of hair were donated by women in the Piedmont region of Italy to make wigs and beards for the production , and 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of track laid down for the camera dollies . A workshop employing 200 artists and workmen provided the hundreds of friezes and statues needed . The mountain village of Arcinazzo Romano , 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Rome , served as a stand @-@ in for the town of Nazareth . Beaches near Anzio were also used , and caves just south of the city served as the leper colony . Some additional desert panoramas were shot in Arizona , and some close @-@ up inserts taken at the MGM Studios , with the final images photographed on February 3 , 1958 .
The sea battle was one of the first sequences created for the film , filmed using miniatures in a huge tank on the back lot at the MGM Studios in Culver City , California in November and December 1957 . More than 40 miniature ships and two 175 @-@ foot ( 53 m ) long Roman galleys , each of them seaworthy , were built for the live @-@ action segment . The ships were constructed based on plans found in Italian museums for actual ancient Roman galleys . An artificial lake with equipment capable of generating sea @-@ sized waves was built at the Cinecittà studios to accommodate the galleys . A massive backdrop , 200 feet ( 61 m ) wide by 50 feet ( 15 m ) high , was painted and erected to hide the city and hills in the background . To make the scene bloodier , Dunning sought out Italian extras who had missing limbs , then had the makeup crews rig them with fake bone and blood to make it appear as if they had lost a hand or leg during the battle . When Dunning edited his own footage later , he made sure that these men were not on screen for long so that audiences would be upset . The above @-@ decks footage was integrated with the miniature work using process shots and traveling mattes .
One of the most lavish sets was the villa of Quintus Arrius , which included 45 working fountains and 8 @.@ 9 miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ) of pipes . Wealthy citizens and nobles of Rome , who wanted to portray their ancient selves , acted as extras in the villa scenes . To recreate the ancient city streets of Jerusalem , a vast set covering 0 @.@ 5 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) was built , which included a 75 @-@ foot ( 23 m ) high Joppa Gate . The sets were so vast and visually exciting that they became a tourist attraction , and various film stars visited during production . The huge sets could be seen from the outskirts of Rome , and MGM estimated that more than 5 @,@ 000 people were given tours of the sets .
Dismantling the sets cost $ 125 @,@ 000 . Almost all the filmmaking equipment was turned over to the Italian government , which sold and exported it . MGM turned title to the artificial lake over to Cinecittà . MGM retained control over the costumes and the artificial lake background , which went back to the United States . The chariots were also returned to the U.S. , where they were used as promotional props . The life @-@ size galleys and pirate ships were dismantled to prevent them from being used by competing studios . Some of the horses were adopted by the men who trained them , while others were sold . Many of the camels , donkeys , and other exotic animals were sold to circuses and zoos in Europe .
= = = Editing = = =
A total of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 feet ( 340 @,@ 000 m ) was shot for the film . According to editor John D. Dunning , the first cut of the film was four and one @-@ half hours long . William Wyler stated that his goal was to bring the running time down to three and a half hours . The most difficult editing decisions , according to Dunning , came during scenes which involved Jesus Christ , as these contained almost no dialogue and most of the footage was purely reaction shots by actors . Dunning also believed that in the final cut the leper scene was too long and needed trimming . Editing was also complicated by the 70mm footage being printed . Because no editing equipment ( such as the Moviola ) existed which could handle the 70mm print , the 70mm footage would be reduced to 35mm and then cut . This caused much of the image to be lost . When the film was edited into its final form , it ran 213 minutes and included just 19 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 800 m ) of film . It was the third @-@ longest motion picture ever made at the time , behind Gone With The Wind and The Ten Commandments .
= = = Musical score = = =
The film score was composed and conducted by Miklós Rózsa , who scored most of MGM 's epics , although Zimbalist had previously commissioned and then set aside a score from Sir William Walton . Rózsa conducted research into Greek and Roman music of the period to give his score an archaic sound while still being modern . Rózsa himself directed the 100 @-@ piece MGM Symphony Orchestra during the 12 recording sessions ( which stretched over 72 hours ) . The soundtrack was recorded in six @-@ channel stereo . More than three hours of music were composed for the film , and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours of it were finally used , making it ( as of 2001 ) the longest score ever composed for a motion picture . The score contains no leitmotifs for the main characters . While not a leitmotif , the score does transition from full orchestra to pipe organ whenever Jesus Christ appears .
Rózsa won his third Academy Award for his score . As of 2001 , it was the only musical score in the ancient and medieval epic genre of film to win an Oscar . Like most film musical soundtracks , it was issued as an album for the public to enjoy as a distinct piece of music . The score was so lengthy that it had to be released in 1959 on three LP records , although a one @-@ LP version with Carlo Savina conducting the Symphony Orchestra of Rome was also issued . In addition , to provide a more " listenable " album , Rózsa arranged his score into a " Ben @-@ Hur Suite " , which was released on Lion Records ( an MGM subsidiary which issued low @-@ priced records ) in 1959 . This made the Ben @-@ Hur film musical score the first to be released not only in its entirety but also as a separate album .
The Ben @-@ Hur score is considered to be the best of Rózsa 's career . The musical soundtrack to Ben @-@ Hur remained deeply influential into the mid 1970s , when film music composed by John Williams for films such as Jaws , Star Wars , and Raiders of the Lost Ark became more popular among composers and film @-@ goers . Rózsa 's score has since seen several notable re @-@ releases , including by the Nuremberg Symphony Orchestra on Capitol Records in 1967 , several of the tracks by the United Kingdom 's National Philharmonic Orchestra and Chorus on Decca Records in 1977 and a Sony Music reissue as a two @-@ CD set in 1991 . In 2012 , Film Score Monthly and WaterTower Music issued a limited edition five @-@ CD set of music from the film .
= = Chariot race sequence = =
The chariot race in Ben @-@ Hur was directed by Andrew Marton and Yakima Canutt , filmmakers who often acted as second unit directors on other people 's films . Each man had an assistant director , who shot additional footage . Among these were Sergio Leone , who was senior assistant director in the second unit and responsible for retakes . William Wyler shot the " pageantry " sequence that occurs before the race , scenes of the jubilant crowd , and the victory scenes after the race concludes . The " pageantry " sequence before the race begins is a shot @-@ by @-@ shot remake of the same sequence from the 1925 silent film version . Wyler added the parade around the track because he knew that the chariot race would be primarily composed of close @-@ up and medium shots . To impress the audience with the grandeur of the arena , Wyler added the parade in formation ( even though it was not historically accurate ) .
= = = Set design = = =
The chariot arena was modeled on a historic circus in Jerusalem . Covering 18 acres ( 7 @.@ 3 ha ) , it was the largest film set ever built at that time . Constructed at a cost of $ 1 million , it took a thousand workmen more than a year to carve the oval out of a rock quarry . The racetrack featured 1 @,@ 500 @-@ foot ( 460 m ) long straightaways and five @-@ story @-@ high grandstands . Over 250 miles ( 400 km ) of metal tubing were used to erect the grandstands . Matte paintings created the illusion of upper stories of the grandstands and the background mountains . More than 40 @,@ 000 short tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) of sand were brought in from beaches on the Mediterranean to cover the track . Other elements of the circus were also historically accurate . Imperial Roman racecourses featured a raised 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high spina ( the center section ) , metae ( columnar goalposts at each end of the spina ) , dolphin @-@ shaped lap counters , and carceres ( the columned building in the rear which housed the cells where horses waited prior to the race ) . The four statues atop the spina were 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high . A chariot track identical in size was constructed next to the set and used to train the horses and lay out camera shots .
= = = Preparation = = =
Planning for the chariot race took nearly a year to complete . Seventy eight horses were bought and imported from Yugoslavia and Sicily in November 1957 , exercised into peak physical condition , and trained by Hollywood animal handler Glenn Randall to pull the quadriga ( a Roman Empire chariot drawn by four horses abreast ) . Andalusian horses played Ben @-@ Hur 's Arabians , while the others in the chariot race were primarily Lipizzans . A veterinarian , a harness maker , and 20 stable boys were employed to care for the horses and ensure they were outfitted for racing each day . The firm of Danesi Brothers built 18 chariots , nine of which were used for practice , each weighing 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) . Principal cast members , stand @-@ ins , and stunt people made 100 practice laps of the arena in preparation for shooting .
Heston and Boyd both had to learn how to drive a chariot . Heston , an experienced horseman , took daily three @-@ hour lessons in chariot driving after he arrived in Rome and picked up the skill quickly . Heston was outfitted with special contact lenses to prevent the grit kicked up during the race from injuring his eyes . For the other charioteers , six actors with extensive experience with horses were flown in from Hollywood , including Giuseppe Tosi , who had once been a bodyguard for Victor Emmanuel III of Italy .
= = = Filming = = =
The chariot scene took five weeks ( spread over three months ) to film at a total cost of $ 1 million and required more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) of racing to complete . Marton and Canutt filmed the entire chariot sequence with stunt doubles in long shot , edited the footage together , and showed the footage to Zimbalist , Wyler , and Heston to show them what the race should look like and to indicate where close @-@ up shots with Heston and Boyd should go . Seven thousand extras were hired to cheer in the stands . Economic conditions in Italy were poor at the time , and as shooting for the chariot scene wound down only 1 @,@ 500 extras were needed on any given day . On June 6 , more than 3 @,@ 000 people seeking work were turned away . The crowd rioted , throwing stones and assaulting the set 's gates until police arrived and dispersed them . Dynamite charges were used to show the chariot wheels and axles splintering from the effects of Messala 's barbed @-@ wheel attacks . Three lifelike dummies were placed at key points in the race to give the appearance of men being run over by chariots .
The cameras used during the chariot race also presented problems . The 70mm lenses had a minimum focusing distance of 50 feet ( 15 m ) , and the camera was mounted on a small Italian @-@ made car so the camera crew could keep in front of the chariots . The horses , however , accelerated down the 1 @,@ 500 @-@ foot ( 460 m ) straightaway much faster than the car could , and the long focal length left Marton and Canutt with too little time to get their shots . The production company purchased a more powerful American car , but the horses were still too fast , and even with a head start , the filmmakers only had a few more seconds of shot time . As filming progressed , vast amounts of footage were shot for this sequence . The ratio of footage shot to footage used was 263 : 1 , one of the highest ratios ever for a film .
One of the most notable moments in the race came from a near @-@ fatal accident when stunt man Joe Canutt , Yakima Canutt 's son , was tossed into the air by accident ; he incurred a minor chin injury . Marton wanted to keep the shot , but Zimbalist felt the footage was unusable . Marton conceived the idea of showing that Ben @-@ Hur was able to land on and cling to the front of his chariot , then scramble back into the quadriga while the horses kept going . The long shot of Canutt 's accident was cut together with a close @-@ up of Heston climbing back aboard , resulting in one of the race 's most memorable moments . Boyd did all but two of his own stunts . For the sequence where Messala is dragged beneath a chariot 's horses and trampled , Boyd wore steel armor under his costume and acted out the close @-@ up shot and the shot of him on his back , attempting to climb up into the horses ' harness to escape injury . A dummy was used to obtain the trampling shot in this sequence .
Several urban legends exist regarding the chariot sequence . One claims that a stuntman died during filming , which Nosher Powell claims in his autobiography , and another states that a red Ferrari can be seen during the chariot race . The book Movie Mistakes claims this is a myth . Heston , in a DVD commentary track for the film , mentions that a third urban legend claims that he wore a wristwatch during the chariot race , but points out that he wore leather bracers up to the elbow .
= = Release = =
A massive $ 14 @.@ 7 million marketing effort helped promote Ben @-@ Hur . MGM established a special " Ben @-@ Hur Research Department " which surveyed more than 2 @,@ 000 high schools in 47 American cities to gauge teenage interest in the film . A high school study guide was also created and distributed . Sindlinger and Company was hired to conduct a nationwide survey to gauge the impact of the marketing campaign . In 1959 and 1960 , more than $ 20 million in candy ; children 's tricycles in the shape of chariots ; gowns ; hair barrettes ; items of jewelry ; men 's ties ; bottles of perfume ; " Ben @-@ Her " and " Ben @-@ His " towels ; toy armor , helmets , and swords ; umbrellas ; and hardback and paperback versions of the novel ( tied to the film with cover art ) were sold .
Ben @-@ Hur premiered at Loew 's State Theatre in New York City on November 18 , 1959 . Present at the premiere were William Wyler , Charlton Heston , Stephen Boyd , Haya Harareet , Martha Scott , Ramon Novarro ( who played Judah Ben @-@ Hur in the 1925 silent film version ) , Spyros Skouras ( president of the 20th Century Fox ) , Barney Balaban ( president of Paramount Pictures ) , Jack L. Warner ( president of Warner Bros. ) , Leonard Goldenson ( president of the American Broadcasting Company ) , Moss Hart ( playwright ) , Robert Kintner ( an ABC Television executive ) , Sidney Kingsley ( playwright ) , and Adolph Zukor ( founder of Paramount Pictures ) .
= = = Box office = = =
During its initial release the film earned $ 33 @.@ 6 million in North American theater rentals ( the distributor 's share of the box office ) , generating approximately $ 74 @.@ 7 million in box office sales . Outside of North America , it earned $ 32 @.@ 5 million in rentals ( about $ 72 @.@ 2 million at the box office ) for a worldwide total of $ 66 @.@ 1 million in rental earnings , roughly equivalent to $ 146 @.@ 9 million in box office receipts . It was the fastest @-@ grossing film as well as the highest grossing film of 1959 , in the process becoming the second @-@ highest grossing film of all @-@ time ( at that time ) behind Gone with the Wind . Ben @-@ Hur saved MGM from financial disaster , making a profit of $ 20 @,@ 409 @,@ 000 on its initial release , and another $ 10 @.@ 1 million in profits when re @-@ released in 1969 . By 1989 , Ben @-@ Hur had earned $ 90 million in worldwide theatrical rentals .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Ben @-@ Hur received overwhelmingly positive reviews upon its release . Bosley Crowther , writing for The New York Times , called Ben @-@ Hur " a remarkably intelligent and engrossing human drama " . While praising the acting and William Wyler 's " close @-@ to " direction , he also had high praise for the chariot race : " There has seldom been anything in movies to compare with this picture 's chariot race . It is a stunning complex of mighty setting , thrilling action by horses and men , panoramic observation and overwhelming use of dramatic sound . " Jack Gaver , writing for United Press International , also had praise for the acting , calling it full of " genuine warmth and fervor and finely acted intimate scenes " . Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times called it " magnificent , inspiring , awesome , enthralling , and all the other adjectives you have been reading about it . " He also called the editing " generally expert " although at times abrupt . Ronald Holloway , writing for Variety , called Ben @-@ Hur " a majestic achievement , representing a superb blending of the motion picture arts by master craftsmen , " and concluded that " Gone With the Wind , Metro 's own champion all @-@ time top grosser , will eventually have to take a back seat . " The chariot race " will probably be preserved in film archives as the finest example of the use of the motion picture camera to record an action sequence . The race , directed by Andrew Marton and Yakima Canutt , represents some 40 minutes of the most hair @-@ raising excitement that film audiences have ever witnessed . "
There was some criticism , however . Crowther felt the film was too long . Scheuer , whilst mostly praising the film , felt that its biggest fault was " overstatement " , and that it hammered home at points long after they had been made . He singled out the galley rowing sequence , Jesus ' journey to the place of crucifixion , and nearly all the sequences involving the lepers . He also lightly criticized Charlton Heston for being more physically than emotionally compelling . John McCarten of The New Yorker was more critical of Heston , writing that he " speaks English as if he 'd learned it from records . " Even William Wyler later privately admitted he was disappointed with Heston 's acting . Film critic Dwight Macdonald also was largely negative . He found the film so uninvolving and lengthy that he said , " I felt like a motorist trapped at a railroad crossing while a long freight train slowly trundles by . " British film critic John Pym , writing for Time Out , was equally dismissive , calling the film a " four @-@ hour Sunday school lesson " . Many French and American film critics who believed in the auteur theory of filmmaking saw the film as confirmation of their belief that William Wyler was " merely a commercial craftsman " rather than a serious artist .
The film currently has an 88 % " Certified Fresh " rating on Rotten Tomatoes . The consensus reads , " Uneven , but in terms of epic scope and grand spectacle , Ben @-@ Hur still ranks among Hollywood 's finest examples of pure entertainment . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Ben @-@ Hur was nominated for 12 Academy Awards and won an unprecedented 11 . As of 2016 , only Titanic in 1998 and The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King in 2004 have matched the film 's wins . The lone category where Ben @-@ Hur did not win was for Best Adapted Screenplay ( losing to Room at the Top ) , and most observers attributed this to the controversy over the writing credit . MGM and Panavision shared a special technical Oscar in March 1960 for developing the Camera 65 photographic process .
Ben @-@ Hur also won three Golden Globe Awards – Best Motion Picture – Drama , Best Director , Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture for Stephen Boyd – and received a Special Achievement Award ( which went to Andrew Marton for directing the chariot race sequence ) . Heston was nominated for a Golden Globe in the Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama category , but did not win . The picture also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film , the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Film , and the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in a Motion Picture for William Wyler 's masterful direction .
Ben @-@ Hur also appears on several " best of " lists generated by the American Film Institute , an independent non @-@ profit organization created by the National Endowment for the Arts in 1967 . The " AFI 100 Years ... series " were created by juries consisting of over 1 @,@ 500 artists , scholars , critics , and historians , with movies selected based on the film 's popularity over time , historical significance , and cultural impact . Ben @-@ Hur appeared at # 72 on the 100 Movies , # 49 on the 100 Thrills , # 21 on the Film Scores , # 56 on the 100 Cheers and # 2 on the AFI 's 10 Top 10 Epic film lists . Judah Ben @-@ Hur was also nominated as a hero and Messala nominated as a villain in the AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains list . In 2004 , the National Film Preservation Board selected Ben @-@ Hur for preservation by the National Film Registry for being a " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " motion picture . It was listed as number 491 on Empire 's 500 Greatest films of all time .
= = = Broadcast and home video releases = = =
The film 's first telecast took place on Sunday , February 14 , 1971 . In what was then a television first for a Hollywood film , it was broadcast over five hours ( including commercials ) during a single evening by CBS , preempting all of that network 's regular programming for that one evening . It was watched by 85 @.@ 82 million people for a 37 @.@ 1 average rating . It was one of the highest rated movies ever screened on television at the time ( behind the broadcast premiere of Bridge on the River Kwai ) .
Ben @-@ Hur has been released on home video on several occasions . Recent releases have all been on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc . A two @-@ sided single disc widescreen release occurred in the United States on March 13 , 2001 . This release included several featurettes , including a commentary by Charlton Heston , a making @-@ of documentary ( made for a laserdisc release in 1993 ) , screen tests , and a photo gallery . This edition was released soon thereafter as a two @-@ disc set in other countries . The film saw another DVD release on September 13 , 2005 . This four @-@ disc edition included remastered images and audio , an additional commentary , two additional featurettes , and a complete version of the 1925 silent version of Ben @-@ Hur . A boxed " Deluxe Edition " , issued in the U.S. in 2002 , included postcard @-@ sized reprints of lobby cards , postcard @-@ sized black @-@ and @-@ white stills with machine @-@ reproduced autographs of cast members , a matte @-@ framed color image from the film with a 35mm film frame mounted below it , and a 27 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ inch ( 69 by 102 cm ) reproduction film poster .
In 2011 , Warner Home Video released a 50th anniversary edition on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD , making it the first home video release where the film is present on its original aspect ratio . For this release , the film was completely restored frame by frame from an 8K scan of the original 65mm negative . The restoration cost $ 1 million , and was one of the highest resolution restorations ever made by Warner Bros. A new musical soundtrack @-@ only option and six new featurettes ( one of which was an hour long ) were also included .
= = Remake = =
On April 25 , 2014 , Paramount Pictures and MGM announced that they will co @-@ produce another Ben @-@ Hur film with Mark Burnett and Roma Downey , who also made the 2013 miniseries The Bible . The film is set for release in August 2016 . On September 11 , Morgan Freeman was added to the cast to play the role of Ildarin , the man who teaches the slave Ben @-@ Hur to become a champion @-@ caliber chariot racer .
= Cyberpunk ( album ) =
Cyberpunk is the fifth studio album by English rock vocalist Billy Idol . A concept album , it was released in 1993 by Chrysalis Records . Inspired by his personal interest in technology and his first attempts to use computers in the creation of his music , Idol based the album on the cyberdelic subculture of the late 1980s and early 1990s . Heavily experimental in its style , the album was an attempt by Idol to take control of the creative process in the production of his albums , while simultaneously introducing Idol 's fans and other musicians to the opportunities presented by digital media .
The album featured a cyberpunk @-@ styled narrative as well as synthesized vocals and industrial influences . Despite the critical and financial failure of the album , Billy Idol set several precedents in the process of promoting the album . These included his use of the internet , e @-@ mail , virtual communities , and multimedia software – each a first for a mainstream celebrity . Idol also based his fashion style , music videos , and stage shows on cyberpunk themes and aesthetics .
Released to negative reviews , Cyberpunk polarised the internet communities of the period . Detractors viewed it as an act of cooptation and opportunistic commercialisation . It was also seen as part of a process that saw the overuse of the term " cyberpunk " until the word lost meaning . Alternatively , supporters saw Idol 's efforts as harmless and well @-@ intentioned , and were encouraged by his new interest in cyberculture .
= = Conception = =
During the release of 1990 's Charmed Life , Idol suffered a broken leg in a motorcycle accident . While in recovery , he was interviewed by Legs McNeil . McNeil noticed the electronic muscle stimulator on Idol 's leg and referred to him as a " cyberpunk " , citing the cyborg qualities of his appearance . This led to Idol taking a serious interest in the works of William Gibson for the first time , although he had read Neuromancer in the mid- ' 80s . In the following months , Idol continued to investigate cyberpunk fiction and technology . He also read Neal Stephenson 's Snow Crash , works by Robert Anton Wilson , and others .
At approximately the same time , he began to work with Trevor Rabin to create his music , having parted ways with his former producer , Keith Forsey . Rabin introduced Idol to his home studio , which was centralised around Rabin 's Macintosh computer and music software . The ability to personally produce music from his home , rather than at a professional studio , appealed to Idol 's " do it yourself " ethic . He felt that working through a team of producers and sound engineers cut into his personal vision for previous albums , and was interested in being more directly in control of his future work . Idol asked his producer , Robin Hancock , to educate himself and his guitarist , Mark Younger @-@ Smith , on the use of software for musical production .
With his increasing exposure to technology and science fiction , Idol decided to base his upcoming album on the cyberpunk genre , and quickly set about educating himself in Cyberdelic counter culture . Idol saw the convergence of affordable technology with the music industry and anticipated its impact on a new era for DIY punk music . " It 's 1993 , " Idol said during a New York Times interview . " I better wake up and be part of it . I 'm sitting there , a 1977 punk watching Courtney Love talk about punk , watching Nirvana talk about punk , and this is my reply . "
Reading Mondo 2000 and Gareth Branwyn 's 1992 manifesto , " Is There a Cyberpunk Movement ? " , Idol resolved to base an opening sequence on Branwyn 's essay , contacting the writer for permission . He also read Branwyn 's Beyond Cyberpunk ! HyperCard stack , a collection of essays based on fanzines , political tracts , conspiracy theories , and which referred to itself as " a do @-@ it @-@ yourself guide to the future . " Idol proceeded to consult with various writers familiar with the computer related magazines , such as Mondo 2000 , and Boing Boing . Idol also hosted a " cyber @-@ meeting " attended by the likes of Timothy Leary , famed counterculture guru ; Jaime Levy , author of books published on disks under the " Electronic Hollywood " imprint ; R. U. Sirius , co @-@ founder of Mondo 2000 ; and Brett Leonard , director of The Lawnmower Man .
Asked by Idol about how he could become further involved in cyberculture , Branwyn and Mark Frauenfelder advised him to investigate The WELL , one of the oldest online communities . Idol did so , discussing the album project online with WELL users , and creating a personal e @-@ mail account which he released on printed advertisements for the upcoming album , so that fans could communicate with him . Idol also made occasional postings to alt.cyberpunk , a Usenet newsgroup . Later in an interview for MTV News promoting the album , Idol expressed excitement over the medium . " This means I can be in touch with millions of people , but on my own terms . "
= = Recording = =
Cyberpunk was created in Idol 's home studio in Los Angeles , centred around his Macintosh computer and accompanying software . Programs used in the production included Studio Vision , by Opcode Systems , and Pro Tools , by Digidesign . Idol later recalled that the beginning of the recording sessions coincided with the onset of the 1992 Los Angeles riots . " We 'd just installed the computer in my music room , and there was a window above it overlooking the whole city . And there was a fire raging . There was smoke just pouring across the whole of LA . It was LA burning . And so I just straight quickly wrote the lyrics and sang them three times . What you 're hearing on the single ' Shock to the System ' is my news reportage of what I 'm seeing . " Idol recalled for a German broadcast . " We started the album with a riot . So that 's really rock and roll . "
Excited by the DIY aspects of the production process , Idol took only ten months to record the album , which he often contrasted with the combined period of eight years it took to create his two previous albums . Working with his computer over time also gave him the sense that the computer was itself an instrument , and that the performer 's style was also presented by the technology . Its versatility also allowed him to switch roles with Mark Younger @-@ Smith and Robin Hancock , allowing each to experiment with their different talents and blurring the lines of their specialised roles , leading Idol to repeatedly compare the production process to that of being in a garage band . Keyboards were also used to drive much of the music through the album . Together , the trio comprised what Idol considered to be the " core " production group , although a number of artists contributed to a various tracks . In particular , he credited his drummer Tal Bergman and bassist Doug Wimbish for their contributions to numerous tracks . Wimbish had recorded his work from a studio in New York City , and sent it to Los Angeles for use in the production .
= = Cyberpunk themes = =
Cyberpunk was a departure from Idol 's previous style of pop @-@ rock music . Several spoken or sound @-@ effect segues were placed between the album tracks to create a linear narrative . The effect of these segues caused the album to become a concept album . Karen Schoemer , of the New York Times , commented that " [ w ] ith its booming techno beats , screeching guitar riffs , sampled computer voices and songs like ' Power Junkie ' ( ' I feel tonight we 're bought and sold / Ah yeah , I think I 'll overload ' ) , the album functions as Mr. Idol 's interpretation of cyber culture . "
When asked why he was pursuing such a shift in his musical style by adopting electronic music , Idol responded that he had attempted to incorporate technology in his older work , but found the equipment of the late ' 70s and early ' 80s too limiting and gave up . With the computers of the ' 90s , Idol finally felt that the technology was able to quickly and easily make changes as he saw fit . Idol came to expound on his belief in their future importance for the music industry , and quoting Gareth Branwyn , referred to the computer as " the new cool tool . "
However , he rejected the idea of referring to the music as " computerized " , on the grounds that nothing was done for the album that couldn 't have been done with standard recording equipment , and that the computer had simply sped up and simplified the creative process . Placing emphasis on the contribution of the performers over the computer tools they used , Idol felt the album achieved a " garage band " spirit , that had captured the " Sturm und Drang " he found in rock and roll , and had simply modified it digitally . Idol thus felt that the album could be best identified as a rock album , rather than a techno album . Idol later agreed with an interviewer who commented that the album 's digital production and themes were ahead of their time .
= = = Futurism = = =
Idol was keen to share his ideas regarding the future of Cyberculture and its impact on the music industry , and was noted for his enthusiastic speculation in the future of computers throughout the promotion of the album . " You 're using very sort of extreme and raw ideas , but with very high level technology ... it 's probably whats going to be happening — or in fact , it is what is happening now — because that 's how we made this album , Cyberpunk . " Some of the predictions Idol made for the future of the internet , computers , and musicians , was that it would allow for cheap and efficient recording from home ; that musicians could record their music and send it to producers and fellow band members from great distances , perhaps while on tour ; and that musicians would be able to directly communicate with their fans and critics . Idol also hoped that the rapid ability to do whatever he desired with the production would allow raw forms of rock music to remain relevant after the Grunge movement swept America in the early 90s . " [ The computer ] can do anything ... If you want the music backwards , it can be backwards in a snap . This is in a way my sort of answer to grunge . I know there 's a way of using this modern technology to bring a lot of rawness back . "
= = = Fashion = = =
On 24 September 1992 , Billy Idol took part in a benefit fashion show by Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier . The event , entitled the " Jean Paul Gaultier in L.A. " , was a fashion benefit for amfAR AIDS research , at the Shrine Auditorium . Idol modelled a leather jacket and pants , covered in black sunglasses , to the yet @-@ unreleased song " Neuromancer " . This coincided with Idol 's decision to change his fashion style to match the cyberpunk aesthetic of the album . Idol changed his hair to dreadlocks , and wore sleek , futuristic clothing by New York fashion designer Stephen Sprouse . In a photo shoot published in Details July 1993 issue , highlighting Billy Idol 's new " cyberpunk " aesthetic , Idol modelled in a distressed @-@ velvet jacket and matching trousers designed by Paul Smith . In the background , Idol stood amongst computers and chaotically strewn cables representing his home studio . Idol wore the same suit during the " Shock to The System " music video and the 1993 Billboard Music Award presentation spot .
= = = Special edition software = = =
During his initial research into cyberculture , Idol ordered Beyond Cyberpunk ! from Gareth Branwyn . The HyperCard stack , which included collections of essays on cyberpunk culture , inspired Idol to include similar material within the Cyberpunk album as a special edition digipak feature . Discussing the matter with Branwyn , Idol received an initial bid for the job of producing the disk from the writer . While this bid was under consideration by Idol 's management company , Idol had purchased a book @-@ on @-@ disk by Jaime Levy at a Los Angeles bookstore . At the time , Levy was the author and publisher of Electronic Hollywood , one of the first magazines produced on floppy disk . Impressed by its contents , Idol set about contacting her for the job of producing the disk . Successfully under @-@ bidding Branwyn , she was then given the job and a master tape of recorded songs – which were not yet compiled into CD format – for use in sampling . Levy was given permission to include whatever content she desired . Meeting Idol to find what he was interested in presenting in the disk , his only concern was that the whole cyberpunk genre be represented as much as possible .
The special edition diskette , a Macintosh press kit entitled " Billy Idol 's Cyberpunk " , was an industry first . It included album clip art , sample sound bytes , a biography by Mark Frauenfelder , lyrics , and a cyberculture bibliography by Gareth Branwyn . Frauenfelder appeared on a segment of MTV News to describe the diskette 's features . Plans were considered by EMI / Chrysalis to re @-@ release the album in the following fall with an updated CD @-@ ROM if the album was successful . As CD @-@ ROMs were prohibitively expensive at the time of production , this was anticipated as a potential benchmark event for the music industry . However , this failed to materialise due to the critical and financial failure of the album .
= = = Computer graphic design = = =
After reading the work of Mark Frauenfelder on Boing boing , Idol hired him to use graphics software in the design of artwork associated with the album . This included its use for the album and singles ' cover art , the Billy Idol 's Cyberpunk floppy disk , and in the press pack released to the media .
Frauenfelder worked with Adobe Photoshop , while Idol was present for the design process to provide suggestions . The album cover itself was the first image created , following the initial five minutes of editing on Idol 's personal computer at the singer 's home .
= = = " Blendo " cinematography = = =
Inspired by The Lawnmower Man , Idol conceived of using " Blendo " imagery throughout the promotion of the album . Six music videos were produced with the use of what Idol dubbed " Blendo " cinematography , five for " Heroin " and a final one for " Shock to the System . "
= = = 1993 No Religion Tour = = =
To promote the release of Cyberpunk , Idol began the 1993 No Religion Tour . The title of the tour came from a lyric in the album 's first track , " Wasteland " , which described a man travelling through a dystopia . In keeping with the album 's theme , the performance stages were set to a computerised , high @-@ tech aesthetic . Idol wished to use Blendo imagery on massive television screens behind the stage to rapidly shift in time with the music . Some of the video and photography was shot by Idol and Brett Leonard , including photos of Idol during acupuncture , himself at a spa , various LA landscapes , and imagery which referenced heroin use . An engineer on stage , whom Idol fashioned as another band member , would be charged with altering the images in rhythm with the music , as though it were also an instrument . Multiple engineers with video equipment would also roam the audience , beaming images of the crowd onto the screen as well , creating an interactive show . The tour took place in Europe , performing a total of 19 shows in 18 cities across 11 countries . It began on 18 August 1993 in Berlin , and concluded on 20 September 1993 in London .
Idol hoped to advance the way stagecraft and lighting were used at rock concerts . " Part of the idea is to create an element of visible language , " Idol explained during an interview with the New York Times , " so that you feel as if you 're being talked to through images . I think you have to start looking to get to the future of what rock @-@ and @-@ roll concerts should be like . We 're working ; we 're pushing the technology to the edge . "
= = = Music videos = = =
Three of four Cyberpunk singles were promoted by music videos : " Heroin " , " Shock to the System " , and " Adam in Chains " . The fourth single , " Wasteland " , did not receive a music video .
The first single , " Heroin " , was accompanied with the most music videos , with a total of five for several different remixed versions of the cover . Each was a " Blendo " video which rapidly shifted random imagery and colours in time with the music . Four of the music videos for the song were directed by Brett Leonard , with a fifth being credited to Howard Deutch . Each used stock footage shot by Idol and Leonard , filmed personally and edited on Idol 's computer . Idol did so with the intention of sending a " do @-@ it @-@ yourself " message that mocked and rejected the standards of MTV music video creation . " We did it all on camcorder and we sort of wanted to say you can make your own videos , and you don 't always have to do it in a very MTV way . " None were released for rotation on television ; instead , one was included in the video album release , Cyberpunk : Shock to the System .
A " blendo " video was also produced for " Shock to the System " , being included in the Cyberpunk : Shock to the System VHS cassette .
The second single , " Shock to the System " , which was inspired by the Los Angeles riots of 1992 , received the first music video put into MTV rotation . As Idol explained for MTV News , he had originally created the song with an entirely different set of lyrics , but upon witnessing the riots on television he immediately rewrote and recorded them that day . Idol explained that he was trying to capture the political and economic conflict that had created the LA Riots . Idol further felt that the camcorder – as displayed in the witnessing of the Rodney King beating – was a " potent way of conveying ideas " and an important metaphor for technology used in rebellion .
The music video was set in a dystopian future controlled by Cyber @-@ cops ( referred to as such by director Brett Leonard . ) It depicted an individual who records the Cyber @-@ cops beating a man , only to be noticed and attacked himself . His camera is destroyed and the Cyber @-@ cops leave him unconscious on the ground , as they are busy trying to put down a riot elsewhere in the city . Alone , his camera equipment lands on him and is absorbed into his body , causing him to dramatically morph into a cyborg . The cyborg then joins the riot , leading the rebels to victory .
The make @-@ up effects were achieved through stop motion , with Billy Idol moving in slow stages during points of the filming , allowing the make up effects to gradually cover more of his body to create the illusion of metamorphosis . Stan Winston , who had previously worked on the Terminator series and Jurassic Park , supervised and created the special effects for the video . The music video for " Shock to the System " was nominated for " Best Special Effects in a Video " and " Best Editing in a Video " at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards , losing both times to Peter Gabriel 's video for " Steam " .
The final music video , " Adam in Chains " , was directed by Julien Temple . It depicted Billy Idol being bound into a chair as he is monitored by scientists . He struggles before being hypnotised , and is then inserted into a virtual reality simulator . There he is treated to an ethereal water fantasy . Idol eventually rejects the fantasy , which is consumed in flames as , in the real world , his body violently convulses . The scientists end the experiment and Idol is brought back into reality , only to fall unconscious .
= = = Cyberpunk : Shock to the System = = =
A supplementary VHS cassette was also produced to promote the album . Cyberpunk : Shock to the System included a director 's cut version of the " Shock to the System " music video ; Shockumentary , a mini @-@ documentary on the making of the aforementioned video ; and two music videos which made use of Blendo images , one for " Heroin " ( Overlords mix ) and " Shock to the System " . The production was directed by Brett Leonard , having already directed the " Shock to the System " music video . Its cover art featured images of the cyborg freedom fighter played by Billy Idol in the " Shock to the System " music video , and included taglines that suggested a story of a dystopian world of high technology and rebellion .
= = Release = =
A press pack was distributed to the media prior to its release to promote the album . The centerpiece of the pack was a copy of the Billy Idol 's Cyberpunk custom stickered 3 ½ " floppy disk , which was housed in a custom multi @-@ coloured folder with artist and title logo on the front and contact information on the back . The pack included a 5 @-@ page version of the biography in the diskette , for the benefit of any journalist who lacked the equipment to operate the floppy disk . Also included in the pack were three black @-@ and @-@ white publicity photographs . Two pictures of Idol were taken by Peter Gravelle and the other was a digitally edited image of Idol as he appeared in the blendo video , " Heroin " .
As part of press junkets promoting the album , Idol reportedly insisted attending journalists be familiar with cyberpunk fiction . It was also revealed that Idol was not entirely as familiar with the genre as he had proclaimed . William Gibson reported in an interview , " A London journalist told me when Billy did his ' Cyberpunk ' press junket over there , he made it a condition of getting an interview with him , that every journalist had to have read Neuromancer ... Anyway , they all did but when they met with Billy , the first thing that became really apparent was that Billy hadn 't read it . So they called him on it , and he said he didn 't need to .. he just absorbed it through a kinda osmosis . "
Upon release , the album did not fare well , failing to make the top 20 in either the UK or United States . Instead , the album debuted at No. 48 on the Billboard 200 on 17 July 1993 , and quickly plummeted to No. 192 in seven weeks before falling off the chart completely . The album saw slightly better chart placings in Europe , where it peaked at No. 5 in Austria , and No. 15 in Switzerland .
The first two singles fared slightly better . " Heroin " , a cover of The Velvet Underground 's " Heroin " , peaked at No. 16 on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . " Shock to the System " peaked at No. 7 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart , No. 23 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart , and No. 5 on Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . The last two singles , " Adam in Chains " and " Wasteland " , both failed to achieve any chart ratings within the United States , but did in other countries .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Cyberpunk was mostly slammed by critics , with some stating that the album was pretentious and meandering . They said Idol sounded like a man desperate to keep up with current trends . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic considered the album a failed attempt by Idol to recast himself for the ' 90s , and judged the content of the album as being mostly " ... padded with pretentious speeches , sampled dialog , and underdeveloped songs . " He also referred to the cover of " Heroin " as " one of the worst covers ever recorded . "
Taking note of Idol 's assertion that he had attempted to use technology in creating his early music , Ira Robbins of Newsday was sceptical . " [ It ] is hardly obvious in his work . " Though if his early work had been mild attempts to use technology , Cyberpunk itself , Robbins wrote , was " the sound of science gone too far . " The ideology of futurism Idol adopted was panned by Robbins , while the music itself was hardly different from his previous work . " For the most part , other than keyboards that add a pervasive nod to the jittering beat of techno @-@ rave music , Cyberpunk sounds pretty much like every other Idol album . "
Manuel Esparza of The Daily Cougar wrote a more mixed review , praising some elements , such as the track " Shangrila " , the use of sound space echo effects , and Idol 's talent as a singer . However , Esparza felt that Idol attempted the same techniques across too many songs , and referred to the lyrics as " ... [ just barely making ] more sense than a monkey pounding away on a typewriter ... " The " Billy Idol " entry on TrouserPress.com skewered Cyberpunk as a " third @-@ rate self @-@ parody ... that trusses him up in sci @-@ fi lingo and futurist mumbo jumbo . " Noting Idol 's attempt to infuse Cyberpunk with themes of social change , Paul Giangiordano of The Daily Collegian judged the album to be a repetitive and poorly developed attempt to create a socially relevant album . " There is a positive message to be found in Cyberpunk , " Giangiordano wrote , " the only problem is that techno plus early- ' 80s equals a big yawn , especially when the lyrics that accompany are annoyingly repetitive . "
Entertainment Weekly presented a favourable review of the album , giving it a " B + " rating and stating , " ... this is old @-@ fashioned glam @-@ pop — as dumb , and occasionally glorious , as it gets . " Two months later , Weekly included Idol on a list of " surprise losers " , following the album 's ranking of No. 48 on the Billboard charts .
= = = Cyberculture reception = = =
Prior to the album 's release , Idol was asked if he feared his new interest in technology would be seen as an attempt to co @-@ opt cyberculture . Idol denied this , stating that his belief in the relevancy of cyberpunk culture was genuine , and that he didn 't care what others thought of him . However , the reaction by the majority of the online community was openly hostile and suspicious of Idol 's motives . It was reported that his e @-@ mail account on the WELL received mail from angry computer users , and was occasionally flooded with e @-@ mail spam to antagonise him . Idol was also cast by many as a naive , tech @-@ illiterate poseur . The charge of illiteracy was not entirely false , as at the time of the album 's release , Idol was still typing using the " hunt and peck " system , and needed notes to log onto the internet .
In defending himself from what he believed was the elitism of his online critics , Idol admitted that he was still learning about computers , but compared it to the early punk ethic of simply trying your best as a musician , even if you had difficulty . He also pointed out that William Gibson was computer illiterate when he wrote Neuromancer . " I don 't know much about computers , but I have the desire to learn and I have a computer and a modem , so I go for it . Banging my head sometimes , but continuing on . "
Idol was also criticised for his use of the term " cyberpunk " for his album title , as detractors alleged that he had no claim to a title which belonged to the entire movement . Idol responded that he was not approaching the movement with a sense of entitlement . " I ain 't no rock star . I 'm an eager student , " Idol wrote on a post to the WELL . Regarding his use of the " cyberpunk " moniker , Idol refuted claims that he had ever called himself one , and instead used the name as an ode to the subculture . " I was revved up by the DIY energy of Gibson and the high @-@ tech underground . "
Gareth Branwyn , who was among the initial tech @-@ experts Idol consulted , defended Idol 's interest in cyberpunk . " Billy is genuinely interested in and excited by cyberculture , and like all the rest of us , wants to factor that interest into his work , which happens to be pop music . Whether presenting cyberculture in that forum is ultimately a good thing or not is beside the point of Billy 's right to bring it to that forum . After all , access to information should be free and total , right ? Or at least that 's how the mythology goes . " An update to Branwyn 's Beyond Cyberpunk ! hyper @-@ card stack included a new introduction , which referred to the Cyberpunk controversy , frankly stating " The release of Billy Idol 's album Cyberpunk was met with a hailstorm of controversy on the Net , as young cyber @-@ Turks whined about how he had ripped them off and destroyed their secret club . "
Mark Frauenfelder also defended Idol , pointing out the elitist hypocrisy of the WELL community , and highlighted the perceived pointlessness of the conflict . " There are all these 16- and 17 @-@ year @-@ old cyberpunks who are afraid that everybody 's going to learn their secret handshake or something . " Andy Hawks , original maintainer of the alt.cyberpunk Frequently Asked Questions list , and founder of the Future Culture mailing list , criticized what he perceived to be a double @-@ standard among Idol 's critics in questioning his motivation behind creating the album and his choice of associating on internet forums .
Penn Jillette , then a columnist for PC / Computing , accepted that Idol wasn 't well versed in computers , but considered it a non @-@ issue . " I 'm tempted to call him a computer ' poser ' but that 's not the point . [ ... ] He 's not a poser . He 's a fan of computers , and he doesn 't claim to be more . [ ... ] He 's not a fan of computers because he can write code , he 's a fan because he knows that whatever is really happening nowadays is happening around computers . "
Regardless , Cyberpunk is still seen as having been an act of hyped commercialisation . In Escape Velocity : Cyberculture at the End of the Century , Mark Dery commented on the mainstreaming of the cyberpunk subculture . He viewed Idol as representing some of the worst abuses this took , deriding Cyberpunk as " a bald @-@ faced appropriation of every cyberpunk cliché that wasn 't nailed down . " In 1995 , when writer Jack Boulware asked " When did cyberpunk die ? " at a meeting of former staff members of Mondo 2000 , a response was " 1993 . The release of the Billy Idol record . " In a section on " cyberpunk music " , The Cyberpunk Project website notes , " ... [ the ] usual opinion is that Billy Idol 's album is just commercialization and it has nothing to do with cyberpunk . " The F.A.Q for alt.cyberpunk , mirrored on the website , rejects the notion that there is a " cyberpunk fashion " . Of Billy Idol 's attempts to base his fashion and music on it , it states , " No matter how sincere his intentions might have been , scorn and charges of commercialization have been heaped upon him in this and other forums . "
Well known music critic , Robert Christgau , excoriated what he considered to be Idol 's attempt to co @-@ opt cyberpunk for commercial gain . In particular , he compared Idol 's new interest in cyberpunk to the musician 's previous co @-@ optation of the punk subculture . " Even if his interest was originally piqued by the dollar signs that appear in front of his eyes whenever he encounters the magic rune p @-@ u @-@ n @-@ k , that 's the fate of any good idea — sooner or later it touches people who have no deep connection to it . " However , unlike some critics who asserted Idol had no genuine interest in cyberculture , Christgau assumed he did and that this was to be expected , as many subcultures are eventually adopted by mainstream society . The problem , Christgau asserted , was that Idol had no genuine understanding of the concept , and that ultimately Idol could only " [ struggle ] for , over , or with authenticity , a rock obsession [ he 's ] always kept at arm 's length and never escaped . "
As one of the founders of the cyberpunk genre , William Gibson has repeatedly been asked for his opinion on the subject of the mainstreaming of cyberpunk , which has often brought up the topic of Idol 's album . In a 1994 interview , Gibson said that he did not approve of the way the term " cyberpunk " was being increasingly commercialised by popular culture , and that Idol had " turned it into something very silly . " Gibson also said in another interview that to understand cyberpunk as a movement was " something of a joke , as wonderfully demonstrated , not too long ago , by Billy Idol 's Cyberpunk album . " Despite his negative comments , Gibson was bemused , rather than angered , by Idol 's creation . Stating that he 'd tried to withhold judgment before hearing the album , he eventually did and said " ... I just don 't get what he 's on about . I don 't see the connection . [ ... ] I had lunch with Billy years ago in Hollywood ... and I thought he was a very likeable guy . He had a sense of humour about what he was doing that is not apparent in the product he puts out . If I run into him again , we can have a good laugh about what he 's doing now ! "
= = = Academic analysis = = =
Shawn P. Wilbur , a left @-@ libertarian academic then associated with the Bowling Green State University , closely critiqued the concept of the supposed " cyberpunk movement " . In an attempt to understand why members of the movement were so negative in reaction to attempts by the mainstream to investigate the cyberpunk meme , he directly investigated the criticism of Billy Idol on alt.cyberpunk. His interpretation of the discussions led him to dub the reactions of alt.cyberpunk the " Panic of ' 93 " . It was Wilbur 's assertion that the lack of a cohesive understanding of what " cyberpunk " meant was the chief reason for a lack of critical thought displayed during discussions concerning its inspection or adoption by " outsiders " .
He concluded , " [ u ] senet 's alt.cyberpunk is both a warning and a promise . It suggests the power of ideas to draw people together , even when they aren 't quite sure what those ideas are . "
While examining Pat Cadigan 's 1991 novel , Synners , Wilbur also referenced the Cyberpunk single , " Shock to the System " , interpreting the song on multiple levels . These included the " shock " cyberpunk represented to established forms of science fiction , as well as the " future shock " society felt in reaction to new technology . Wilbur also asserted that the storyline told by the music video neatly fit into the cyberpunk tradition of glorifying social resistance .
The single , " Shock to the System " , and its accompanying music video were also heavily analysed for the overtones of racial , sexual , and physical trauma presented within them by Thomas Foster , associate professor at Indiana University , in his 2005 book , The Souls of Cyberfolk .
= = = Re @-@ release = = =
Despite the overwhelmingly negative reviews from professional critics , the album was reissued on 22 August 2006 by Collectables Records as part of its Priceless Collection series . The reissued album did not include the special edition multimedia of the original , but did include new cover art .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Billy Idol 's career = = =
Following the failure of the Cyberpunk album , Billy Idol did not produce another original album until 2005 , 13 years later . However , this was not due to the failure of the album , but rather his dissatisfaction with his producers at Chrysalis Records . With the founding of Sanctuary Records , an independent record label Idol felt positive about , and the formation of a new band with Steve Stevens , Idol decided to produce Devil 's Playground . Idol 's later album featured a more power pop and classic rock sound similar to Idol 's 80s style , and received middling reviews .
During the intermittent years between albums , Idol created music for the Speed and Heavy Metal 2000 film soundtracks and regularly wrote and performed new songs for several tours , but never attempted to experiment with the style he explored in Cyberpunk . In 2001 , Idol released a compilation album , Greatest Hits . Only one song from Cyberpunk , " Shock to the System " , was included in the collection . In 2008 , another compilation album , The Very Best of Billy Idol : Idolize Yourself , was released . Once again , the only song from Cyberpunk to be included was a digital remaster of " Shock to the System " . Idol achieved widespread commercial success with his greatest hits material , Greatest Hits went platinum .
In the years following the album 's release , musicians who had worked with Idol in the past were asked to comment on the failure of Cyberpunk . Tony James of Sigue Sigue Sputnik , a pop @-@ cyberpunk band , and former bassist for Generation X , weighed in . Though sympathetic to his former band mate , he felt the stylistic change didn 't fit Idol . " Billy is always cool but he does Billy Idol rebel yellin the best , i felt cyberpunk was a wrong turning for him .. he has his sound .. stay great as u are Bill ... [ sic ] " In 2001 Steve Stevens was asked if Idol 's declining popularity and the failure of Cyberpunk was related to their split . Stevens rejected the idea , saying of the failed album , " I think the Cyberpunk record people didn 't get . I think I would be doing Billy and his fans a great disservice if I said that he needed me for his popularity . "
Idol briefly responded once more to the negative reception the album received on two occasions . In 1996 , Idol gave an interview for his website in which he was asked if he 'd pursue the style of Cyberpunk for a future album . Idol addressed the question by first explaining his interpretation of the failure of the album . " You see the thing about Cyberpunk is that it was supposed to be like a home [ - ] made record , much like these rap bands are doing , all made really on home equipment . But it was very hard to make people understand that I was sort of making an alternative record . They don 't allow you to make an alternative record ... " He then stated that he would not be pursuing the same style with any future album . In a 2005 interview , Idol simply stated " ... the idea that I was trying to do an overground @-@ underground record just wasn 't understood at the time . " Tony Dimitriades , a prominent music industry producer and manager , interpreted Idol 's response at the time . " He realized at that point , ' Well , if that 's what people think , maybe I lost touch with my public . ' "
While embarking upon a 2010 tour , Idol was asked if he intended to perform music from the Cyberpunk album . While not distancing himself from the production , Idol stated he had no intentions of doing so immediately . Pointing out that he did wish to perform a mixture of new and older works , and would perhaps perform the music in the future , he intended to base his tour on " more guitar music " and pointed out that Cyberpunk 's keyboard @-@ driven music was not going to be featured .
= = = Critical legacy = = =
In 1999 , The A.V. Club awarded Cyberpunk as the " Least Essential Concept Album " of the 1990s . An accompanying review stated , " The result [ of Idol 's casting as a " futuristic maverick " and the album itself ] is as laughably dated as it is difficult to endure in its entirety . " In 2006 , Q magazine listed Cyberpunk as No. 5 in their list of the 50 worst albums of all time . Said music critic Parke Puterbaugh , " To make that record in ' 93 , it may have been a number of years ahead of its time actually , because it didn 't do terribly well . "
= = = Music industry 's use of technology = = =
The album was prescient for its early advocacy of the use of the internet and software to market albums . The Boston Globe reported , " ... [ Cyberpunk ] demands recognition as a style setter , not for its musical content , but for the changes it may prompt in the ways recordings are made and marketed ... " Idol 's early adoption of the internet to communicate with fans was broadened in the years after Cyberpunk 's release . By the late ' 90s , many celebrities had made inroads on to the internet , using official websites and blogs to directly advertise albums and tours to fans , as well as organizing fansites for official fan clubs . Billy Idol 's own official fansite was established in 1997 . In 2010 , Idol continued to pursue his early vision for the integration of his tours with technology by utilising his website to document a world tour through a blog and streaming video feed . " These days , [ Idol ] sees his own website as his old vision of the future becoming reality . "
The inclusion of multimedia software as a special feature was a novelty when Chrysalis Records released the Billy Idol 's Cyberpunk diskette . This was also widely adopted by the music industry years later . CD @-@ ROMs were initially considered as a medium for Cyberpunk 's multimedia features , but were too expensive at the time of production , and so floppy disks were used instead . Peter Gabriel and Todd Rundgren had previously experimented with CD @-@ ROMs , but it was hoped that if Idol 's album had proved popular , it could have been reissued with CD @-@ ROMs , catapulting the format into the music industry 's mainstream . This never materialised due to the album 's general failures . However , during the late ' 90s it became increasingly common for some limited edition digipaks to include CD @-@ ROMs , evolving by the early 2000s into the inclusion of DVDs .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Billy Idol and Mark Younger @-@ Smith , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
" Core " personnel
Billy Idol – vocals ; keyboards ; programming ; arranger
Mark Younger @-@ Smith – guitars ; sitars ; keyboards ; programming ; arranger
Robin Hancock – arrangement ; mixing ; engineer ; producer ; programming ; keyboards
Additional personnel
Doug Wimbish – bass guitar
Larry Seymour – bass guitar
Tal Bergman – drums
Durga McBroom – vocals ( background )
Carnie Wilson – vocals ( background )
Wendy Wilson – vocals ( background )
Jamie Muhoberac – organ ; keyboards
Stephen Marcussen – audio mastering
Ed Korengo – audio mixing ; mixing assistant
Mike Baumgartner – audio engineering assistant ; mixing ; mixing assistant
Ross Donaldson – audio engineering
Ron Donaldson – audio engineering
Robert Farago – voices ; speech / speaker / speaking part ; spoken word
London Jo Henwood – speech / speaker / speaking part
David Weiss – percussion , saw
Henry Marquez – art direction
Michael Diehl – design
Greg Gorman – photography
Elisabeth Sunday – photography
Brett Leonard – photography
Gwen Mullen – rendering
Scott Hampton – rendering
Uncredited
Gareth Branwyn – consultation
Mark Frauenfelder – consultation ; graphic design ( cover art & logo for album , singles , and VHS cassette )
Timothy Leary – consultation ; spoken word ( album track No. 15 segue )
Jaime Levy – Interactive Producer
= = Chart positions = =
= Homer Simpson =
Homer Jay Simpson is a fictional character and the main protagonist of the American animated television series The Simpsons as the patriarch of the eponymous family . He is voiced by Dan Castellaneta and first appeared on television , along with the rest of his family , in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " on April 19 , 1987 . Homer was created and designed by cartoonist Matt Groening while he was waiting in the lobby of James L. Brooks ' office . Groening had been called to pitch a series of shorts based on his comic strip Life in Hell but instead decided to create a new set of characters . He named the character after his father , Homer Groening . After appearing for three seasons on The Tracey Ullman Show , the Simpson family got their own series on Fox that debuted December 17 , 1989 .
Homer and his wife Marge have three children : Bart , Lisa , and Maggie . As the family 's provider , he works at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant . Homer embodies several American working class stereotypes : he is a crude , bald , overweight , incompetent , clumsy , lazy , heavy drinking , ignorant and idiotic person ; however , he is essentially a decent man and fiercely devoted to his family . Despite the suburban blue @-@ collar routine of his life , he has had a number of remarkable experiences .
In the shorts and earlier episodes , Castellaneta voiced Homer with a loose impression of Walter Matthau ; however , during the second and third seasons of the half @-@ hour show , Homer 's voice evolved to become more robust , to allow the expression of a fuller range of emotions . He has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons – including video games , The Simpsons Movie , The Simpsons Ride , commercials and comic books – and inspired an entire line of merchandise . His signature catchphrase , the annoyed grunt " D 'oh ! " , has been included in The New Oxford Dictionary of English since 1998 and the Oxford English Dictionary since 2001 .
Homer is one of the most influential characters in the history of television . The British newspaper The Sunday Times described him as " the greatest comic creation of [ modern ] time " . He was named the greatest character " of the last 20 years " in 2010 by Entertainment Weekly , was ranked the second greatest cartoon character by TV Guide , behind Bugs Bunny , and was voted the greatest television character of all time by Channel 4 viewers . For voicing Homer , Castellaneta has won four Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance and a special @-@ achievement Annie Award . In 2000 , Homer and his family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Homer is the bumbling husband of Marge and father of Bart , Lisa and Maggie Simpson . He is the son of Mona and Abraham " Grampa " Simpson . Homer held over 188 different jobs in the first 400 episodes of The Simpsons . In most episodes , he works as the Nuclear Safety Inspector at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , a position he has held since " Homer 's Odyssey " , the third episode of the series . At the plant , Homer is often ignored and completely forgotten by his boss Mr. Burns , and constantly falls asleep and neglects his duties . Matt Groening has stated that he decided to have Homer work at the power plant because of the potential for Homer to wreak havoc . Each of his other jobs has lasted only one episode . In the first half of the series , the writers developed an explanation about how he got fired from the plant and was then rehired in every episode . In later episodes , he often began a new job on impulse , without any mention of his regular employment .
The Simpsons uses a floating timeline in which the characters never physically age , and , as such , the show is generally assumed to be set in the current year . Nevertheless , in several episodes , events in Homer 's life have been linked to specific time periods . " Mother Simpson " ( season seven , 1995 ) depicts Homer 's mother , Mona , as a radical who went into hiding in 1969 following a run @-@ in with the law ; " The Way We Was " ( season two , 1991 ) shows Homer falling in love with Marge Bouvier as a senior at Springfield High School in 1974 ; and " I Married Marge " ( season three , 1991 ) implies that Marge became pregnant with Bart in 1980 . However , the episode " That ' 90s Show " ( season 19 , 2008 ) contradicted much of this backstory , portraying Homer and Marge as a childless couple in the early 1990s .
Homer 's age has changed as the series developed ; he was 36 in the early episodes , 38 and 39 in season eight , and 40 in the eighteenth season , although even in those seasons his age is inconsistent . During Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein 's period as showrunners , they found that as they aged , Homer seemed to become older too , so they increased his age to 38 . His height is 6 ' 0 " .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Naming the characters after members of his own family , Homer was named after Groening 's father Homer Groening , who himself had been named after ancient Greek poet Homer . Very little else of Homer 's character was based on him , and to prove that the meaning behind Homer 's name was not significant , Groening later named his own son Homer . According to Groening , " Homer originated with my goal to both amuse my real father , and just annoy him a little bit . My father was an athletic , creative , intelligent filmmaker and writer , and the only thing he had in common with Homer was a love of donuts . " Although Groening has stated in several interviews that Homer was named after his father , he also claimed in several 1990 interviews that a character in the 1939 Nathanael West novel The Day of the Locust was the inspiration for naming Homer . Homer 's middle initial " J " , which stands for " Jay " , is a " tribute " to animated characters such as Bullwinkle J. Moose and Rocket J. Squirrel from The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show , who got their middle initial from Jay Ward .
Homer made his debut with the rest of the Simpson family on April 19 , 1987 , in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series airing on the Fox Broadcasting Company . Homer and the Simpson family remained the main characters on this new show .
= = = Design = = =
The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . The family was crudely drawn because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . Homer 's physical features are generally not used in other characters ; for example , in the later seasons , no characters other than Homer , Lenny , and Krusty the Clown have a similar beard line . When Groening originally designed Homer , he put his initials into the character 's hairline and ear : the hairline resembled an ' M ' , and the right ear resembled a ' G ' . Groening decided that this would be too distracting and redesigned the ear to look normal . However , he still draws the ear as a ' G ' when he draws pictures of Homer for fans . The basic shape of Homer 's head is described by director Mark Kirkland as a tube @-@ shaped coffee can with a salad bowl on top . Bart 's head is also coffee @-@ can shaped , while spheres are used for Marge , Lisa , and Maggie . During the shorts , the animators experimented with the way Homer would move his mouth when talking . At one point , his mouth would stretch out back " beyond his beardline " ; but this was dropped when it got " out of control . " In some early episodes , Homer 's hair was rounded rather than sharply pointed because animation director Wes Archer felt it should look disheveled . Homer 's hair evolved to be consistently pointed . During the first three seasons , Homer 's design for some close @-@ up shots included small lines which were meant to be eyebrows . Matt Groening strongly disliked them and they were eventually dropped .
In the season seven ( 1995 ) episode " Treehouse of Horror VI " , Homer was computer animated into a three @-@ dimensional character for the first time for the " Homer3 " segment of the episode . The computer animation directors at Pacific Data Images worked hard not to " reinvent the character " . In the final minute of the segment , the 3D Homer ends up in a real world , live @-@ action Los Angeles . The scene was directed by David Mirkin and was the first time a Simpsons character had been in the real world in the series . Because " Lisa 's Wedding " ( season six , 1995 ) is set fifteen years in the future , Homer 's design was altered to make him older in the episode . He is heavier ; one of the hairs on top of his head was removed ; and an extra line was placed under the eye . A similar design has been used in subsequent flashforwards .
= = = Voice = = =
Homer 's voice is performed by Dan Castellaneta , who voices numerous other characters , including Grampa Simpson , Krusty the Clown , Barney Gumble , Groundskeeper Willie , Mayor Quimby and Hans Moleman . Castellaneta had been part of the regular cast of The Tracey Ullman Show and had previously done some voice @-@ over work in Chicago alongside his wife Deb Lacusta . Voices were needed for the Simpsons shorts , so the producers decided to ask Castellaneta and fellow cast member Julie Kavner to voice Homer and Marge rather than hire more actors . In the shorts and first few seasons of the half @-@ hour show , Homer 's voice is different from the majority of the series . The voice began as a loose impression of Walter Matthau , but Castellaneta could not " get enough power behind that voice " , or sustain his Matthau impression for the nine- to ten @-@ hour @-@ long recording sessions , and had to find something easier . During the second and third seasons of the half @-@ hour show , Castellaneta " dropped the voice down " and developed it as more versatile and humorous , allowing Homer a fuller range of emotions .
Castellaneta 's normal speaking voice has no similarity to Homer 's . To perform Homer 's voice , Castellaneta lowers his chin to his chest and is said to " let his I.Q. go " . While in this state , he has ad @-@ libbed several of Homer 's least intelligent comments , such as the line " I am so smart , s @-@ m @-@ r @-@ t " from " Homer Goes to College " ( season five , 1993 ) which was a genuine mistake made by Castellaneta during recording . Castellaneta likes to stay in character during recording sessions , and he tries to visualize a scene so that he can give the proper voice to it . Despite Homer 's fame , Castellaneta claims he is rarely recognized in public , " except , maybe , by a die @-@ hard fan " .
" Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " ( season five , 1993 ) is the only episode where Homer 's voice was provided by someone other than Castellaneta . The episode features Homer forming a barbershop quartet called The Be Sharps ; and , at some points , his singing voice is provided by a member of The Dapper Dans . The Dapper Dans had recorded the singing parts for all four members of The Be Sharps . Their singing was intermixed with the normal voice actor 's voices , often with a regular voice actor singing the melody and the Dapper Dans providing backup .
Until 1998 , Castellaneta was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing for casting of new voices . However , the dispute was soon resolved and he received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . The issue was resolved a month later , and Castellaneta earned $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . After salary re @-@ negotiations in 2008 , the voice actors receive approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Castellaneta and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
= = = Character development = = =
Executive producer Al Jean notes that in The Simpsons ' writing room , " everyone loves writing for Homer " , and many of his adventures are based on experiences of the writers . In the early seasons of the show , Bart was the main focus . But , around the fourth season , Homer became more of the focus . According to Matt Groening , this was because " With Homer , there 's just a wider range of jokes you can do . And there are far more drastic consequences to Homer 's stupidity . There 's only so far you can go with a juvenile delinquent . We wanted Bart to do anything up to the point of him being tried in court as an adult . But Homer is an adult , and his boneheaded @-@ ness is funnier . [ ... ] Homer is launching himself headfirst into every single impulsive thought that occurs to him . "
Homer 's behavior has changed a number of times through the run of the series . He was originally " very angry " and oppressive toward Bart , but these characteristics were toned down somewhat as his persona was further explored . In early seasons , Homer appeared concerned that his family was going to make him look bad ; however , in later episodes he was less anxious about how he was perceived by others . In the first several years , Homer was often portrayed as sweet and sincere , but during Mike Scully 's tenure as executive producer ( seasons nine , 1997 to twelve , 2001 ) , he became more of " a boorish , self @-@ aggrandizing oaf " . Chris Suellentrop of Slate wrote , " under Scully 's tenure , The Simpsons became , well , a cartoon . [ ... ] Episodes that once would have ended with Homer and Marge bicycling into the sunset [ ... ] now end with Homer blowing a tranquilizer dart into Marge 's neck . " Fans have dubbed this incarnation of the character " Jerkass Homer " . At voice recording sessions , Dan Castellaneta has rejected material written in the script that portrayed Homer as being too mean . He believes that Homer is " boorish and unthinking , but he 'd never be mean on purpose . " When editing The Simpsons Movie , several scenes were changed or otherwise toned down to make Homer more sympathetic .
The writers have made Homer 's intelligence appear to decline over the years ; they explain this was not done intentionally , but it was necessary to top previous jokes . For example , in " When You Dish Upon a Star " , ( season 10 , 1998 ) the writers included a scene where Homer admits that he cannot read . The writers debated including this plot twist because it would contradict previous scenes in which Homer does read , but eventually they decided to keep the joke because they found it humorous . The writers often debate how far to go in portraying Homer 's stupidity ; one suggested rule is that " he can never forget his own name " .
= = = Personality = = =
The comic efficacy of Homer 's personality lies in his frequent bouts of bumbling stupidity and laziness , and his explosive anger . He has a low intelligence level and is described by director David Silverman as " creatively brilliant in his stupidity " . Homer also shows immense apathy towards work , is overweight , and " is devoted to his stomach " . His short attention span is evidenced by his impulsive decisions to engage in various hobbies and enterprises , only to " change ... his mind when things go badly " . Homer often spends his evenings drinking Duff Beer at Moe 's Tavern , and was shown in the episode " Duffless " ( season four , 1993 ) as a full @-@ blown alcoholic . He is very envious of his neighbors , Ned Flanders and his family , and is easily enraged by Bart. Homer will often strangle Bart on impulse in a cartoonish manner . The first instance of Homer strangling Bart was in the short " Family Portrait " . According to Matt Groening , the rule was that Homer could only strangle Bart impulsively , never with pre @-@ meditation , because doing so " seems sadistic . If we keep it that he 's ruled by his impulses , then he can easily switch impulses . So , even though he impulsively wants to strangle Bart , he also gives up fairly easily . " Another of the original ideas entertained by Groening was that Homer would " always get his comeuppance or Bart had to strangle him back " , but this was dropped . Homer shows no compunction about expressing his rage , and does not attempt to hide his actions from people outside the family .
Homer has complex relationships with all three of his children , and the rest of his family . He often berates Bart , but the two commonly share adventures and are sometimes allies ; some episodes , particularly in later seasons , show that the pair have a strange respect for each other 's cunning . Homer and Lisa have opposite personalities and he usually overlooks Lisa 's talents , but when made aware of his neglect , does everything he can to help her . While Homer 's thoughtless antics often upset his family , he has also revealed himself to be a caring father and husband : in " Lisa the Beauty Queen " , ( season four , 1992 ) he sold his cherished ride on the Duff blimp and used the money to enter Lisa in a beauty pageant so she could feel better about herself ; in " Rosebud " , ( season five , 1993 ) he gave up his chance at wealth to allow Maggie to keep a cherished teddy bear , despite the show also occasionally implying Homer forgets he has a third child , while the episode " And Maggie Makes Three " suggests she is the chief reason Homer took and remains at his regular job ( season six , 1995 ) ; in " Radio Bart " , ( season three , 1992 ) he spearheaded an attempt to dig Bart out after he had fallen down a well ; and in " A Milhouse Divided " , ( season eight , 1996 ) he arranged a surprise second wedding with Marge to make up for their unsatisfactory first ceremony . Homer , however , has a poor relationship with his father Abraham " Grampa " Simpson , whom he placed in a nursing home as soon as he could . The Simpson family will often do their best to avoid unnecessary contact with Grampa , but Homer has shown feelings of love for his father from time to time .
Homer is " a ( happy ) slave to his various appetites " , and would gladly sell his soul to the devil in exchange for a single doughnut . He has an apparently vacuous mind but at times exhibits a surprising depth of knowledge about various subjects , such as the composition of the Supreme Court of the United States , Incan mythology , bankruptcy law , and cell biology . Homer 's brief periods of intelligence are overshadowed , however , by much longer and consistent periods of ignorance , forgetfulness , and stupidity . Homer has a low IQ of 55 which has variously been attributed to the hereditary " Simpson Gene " ( which eventually causes every male member of the family to become incredibly stupid ) , his alcohol problem , exposure to radioactive waste , repetitive cranial trauma , and a crayon lodged in the frontal lobe of his brain . In the episode " HOMR " ( season 12 , 2001 ) Homer gets surgery to remove the ( newly discovered ) crayon from his brain , boosting his IQ to 105 , but although he bonds very well with Lisa , his newfound capacity for understanding and reason makes him less happy and he gets Moe to reinsert a crayon , causing his intelligence to return to its previous level . Homer often debates with his own mind , which is expressed in voiceover . His brain has a record of giving him dubious advice , sometimes helping him make the right decisions , but often failing spectacularly . It has even become completely frustrated and , through sound effects , walked out on him , Homer 's conversations with his brain were used several times during the fourth season , but were later phased out after the producers " used every possible permutation " . These exchanges were often introduced because they filled time and were easy for the animators to work on .
In the episode " Fear of Flying " it is revealed that his favorite song was " It 's Raining Men " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commendations = = =
Homer 's influence on comedy and culture has been significant . In 2010 , Entertainment Weekly named Homer " the greatest character of the last 20 years . " He was placed second on TV Guide 's 2002 Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters , behind Bugs Bunny ; fifth on Bravo 's 100 Greatest TV Characters , one of only four cartoon characters on that list ; and first in a Channel 4 poll of the greatest television characters of all time . In 2007 , Entertainment Weekly placed Homer ninth on their list of the " 50 Greatest TV icons " and first on their 2010 list of the " Top 100 Characters of the Past Twenty Years " . Homer was also the runaway winner in British polls that determined who viewers thought was the " greatest American " and which fictional character people would like to see become the President of the United States . His relationship with Marge was included in TV Guide 's list of " The Best TV Couples of All Time " .
Dan Castellaneta has won several awards for voicing Homer , including four Primetime Emmy Awards for " Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance " in 1992 for " Lisa 's Pony " , 1993 for " Mr. Plow " , in 2004 for " Today I Am a Clown " , and in 2009 for " Father Knows Worst " . Although in the case of " Today I Am a Clown " , it was for voicing " various characters " and not solely for Homer . In 2010 , Castellaneta received a fifth Emmy nomination for voicing Homer and Grampa in the episode " Thursdays with Abie " . In 1993 , Castellaneta was given a special Annie Award , " Outstanding Individual Achievement in the Field of Animation " , for his work as Homer on The Simpsons . In 2004 , Castellaneta and Julie Kavner ( the voice of Marge ) won a Young Artist Award for " Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series " . In 2005 , Homer and Marge were nominated for a Teen Choice Award for " Choice TV Parental Units " . Various episodes in which Homer is strongly featured have won Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program , including " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " in 1991 , " Lisa 's Wedding " in 1995 , " Homer 's Phobia " in 1997 , " Trash of the Titans " in 1998 , " HOMR " in 2001 , " Three Gays of the Condo " in 2003 and " Eternal Moonshine of the Simpson Mind " in 2008 . In 2000 , Homer and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard .
= = = Analysis = = =
Homer is an " everyman " and embodies several American stereotypes of working class blue @-@ collar men : he is crude , overweight , incompetent , dim witted , clumsy and a borderline alcoholic . Matt Groening describes him as " completely ruled by his impulses " . Dan Castellaneta calls him " a dog trapped in a man 's body " , adding , " He 's incredibly loyal – not entirely clean – but you gotta love him . " In his book Planet Simpson , author Chris Turner describes Homer as " the most American of the Simpsons " and believes that while the other Simpson family members could be changed to other nationalities , Homer is " pure American " . In the book God in the Details : American Religion in Popular Culture , the authors comment that " Homer 's progress ( or lack thereof ) reveals a character who can do the right thing , if accidentally or begrudgingly . " The book The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer includes a chapter analyzing Homer 's character from the perspective of Aristotelian virtue ethics . Raja Halwani writes that Homer 's " love of life " is an admirable character trait , " for many people are tempted to see in Homer nothing but buffoonery and immorality . [ ... ] He is not politically correct , he is more than happy to judge others , and he certainly does not seem to be obsessed with his health . These qualities might not make Homer an admirable person , but they do make him admirable in some ways , and , more importantly , makes us crave him and the Homer Simpsons of this world . " In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly justified designating The Simpsons as a television classic by stating , " we all hail Simpson patriarch Homer because his joy is as palpable as his stupidity is stunning " .
In the season eight episode " Homer 's Enemy " the writers decided to examine " what it would be like to actually work alongside Homer Simpson " . The episode explores the possibilities of a realistic character with a strong work ethic named Frank Grimes placed alongside Homer in a work environment . In the episode , Homer is portrayed as an everyman and the embodiment of the American spirit ; however , in some scenes his negative characteristics and silliness are prominently highlighted . By the end of the episode , Grimes , a hard working and persevering " real American hero " , has become the villain ; the viewer is intended to be pleased that Homer has emerged victorious .
In Gilligan Unbound , author Paul Arthur Cantor states that he believes Homer 's devotion to his family has added to the popularity of the character . He writes , " Homer is the distillation of pure fatherhood . [ ... ] This is why , for all his stupidity , bigotry and self @-@ centered quality , we cannot hate Homer . He continually fails at being a good father , but he never gives up trying , and in some basic and important sense that makes him a good father . " The Sunday Times remarked " Homer is good because , above all , he is capable of great love . When the chips are down , he always does the right thing by his children — he is never unfaithful in spite of several opportunities . "
= = Cultural influence = =
Homer Simpson is one of the most popular and influential television characters in a variety of standards . USA Today cited the character as being one of the " top 25 most influential people of the past 25 years " in 2007 , adding that Homer " epitomized the irony and irreverence at the core of American humor . " Robert Thompson , director of Syracuse University 's Center for the Study of Popular Television believes that " three centuries from now , English professors are going to be regarding Homer Simpson as one of the greatest creations in human storytelling . " Animation historian Jerry Beck described Homer as one of the best animated characters , saying , " you know someone like it , or you identify with ( it ) . That 's really the key to a classic character . " Homer has been described by The Sunday Times as " the greatest comic creation of [ modern ] time " . The article remarked , " every age needs its great , consoling failure , its lovable , pretension @-@ free mediocrity . And we have ours in Homer Simpson . "
Homer has been cited as a bad influence on children ; for example , in 2005 a survey conducted in the United Kingdom found that 59 % of parents felt that Homer promoted an unhealthy lifestyle . A five @-@ year study of more than 2 @,@ 000 middle @-@ aged people in France found a possible link between weight and brain function , the findings of which were dubbed the " Homer Simpson syndrome " . Results from a word memory test showed that people with a body mass index ( BMI ) of 20 ( considered to be a healthy level ) remembered an average of nine out of 16 words . Meanwhile , people with a BMI of 30 ( inside the obese range ) remembered an average of just seven out of 16 words .
Despite Homer 's embodiment of American culture , his influence has spread to other parts of the world . In 2003 , Matt Groening revealed that his father , after whom Homer was named , was Canadian , and said that this made Homer himself a Canadian . The character was later made an honorary citizen of Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada , because Homer Groening was believed to be from there , although sources say the senior Groening was actually born in the province of Saskatchewan . In 2007 , an image of Homer was painted next to the Cerne Abbas Giant in Dorset , England as part of a promotion for The Simpsons Movie . This caused outrage among local neopagans who performed " rain magic " to try to get it washed away . In 2008 , a defaced Spanish euro coin was found in Avilés , Spain with the face of Homer replacing the effigy of King Juan Carlos I.
On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 cent stamps featuring Homer and the four other members of the Simpson family . They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while the show is still in production . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 .
Homer has appeared , voiced by Castellaneta , in several other television shows , including the sixth season of American Idol where he opened the show ; The Tonight Show with Jay Leno where he performed a special animated opening monologue for the July 24 , 2007 , edition ; and the 2008 fundraising television special Stand Up to Cancer where he was shown having a colonoscopy .
= = = D 'oh ! = = =
Homer 's catchphrase , the annoyed grunt " D 'oh ! " , is typically uttered when he injures himself , realizes that he has done something stupid , or when something bad has happened or is about to happen to him . During the voice recording session for a Tracey Ullman Show short , Homer was required to utter what was written in the script as an " annoyed grunt " . Dan Castellaneta rendered it as a drawn out " d 'ooooooh " . This was inspired by Jimmy Finlayson , the mustachioed Scottish actor who appeared in 33 Laurel and Hardy films . Finlayson had used the term as a minced oath to stand in for the word " Damn ! " Matt Groening felt that it would better suit the timing of animation if it were spoken faster . Castellaneta then shortened it to a quickly uttered " D 'oh ! " The first intentional use of D 'oh ! occurred in the Ullman short " The Krusty the Clown Show " ( 1989 ) , and its first usage in the series was in the series premiere , " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " .
" D 'oh ! " was first added to The New Oxford Dictionary of English in 1998 . It is defined as an interjection " used to comment on an action perceived as foolish or stupid " . In 2001 , " D 'oh ! " was added to the Oxford English Dictionary , without the apostrophe ( " Doh ! " ) . The definition of the word is " expressing frustration at the realization that things have turned out badly or not as planned , or that one has just said or done something foolish " . In 2006 , " D 'oh ! " was placed in sixth position on TV Land 's list of the 100 greatest television catchphrases . " D 'oh ! " is also included in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations . The book includes several other quotations from Homer , including " Kids , you tried your best and you failed miserably . The lesson is never try " , from " Burns ' Heir " ( season five , 1994 ) as well as " Kids are the best , Apu . You can teach them to hate the things you hate . And they practically raise themselves , what with the Internet and all " , from " Eight Misbehavin ' " ( season 11 , 1999 ) . Both quotes entered the dictionary in August 2007 .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Homer 's inclusion in many Simpsons publications , toys , and other merchandise is evidence of his enduring popularity . The Homer Book , about Homer 's personality and attributes , was released in 2004 and is commercially available . It has been described as " an entertaining little book for occasional reading " and was listed as one of " the most interesting books of 2004 " by The Chattanoogan . Other merchandise includes dolls , posters , figurines , bobblehead dolls , mugs , alarm clocks , jigsaw puzzles , Chia Pets , and clothing such as slippers , T @-@ shirts , baseball caps , and boxer shorts . Homer has appeared in commercials for Coke , 1 @-@ 800 @-@ COLLECT , Burger King , Butterfinger , C.C. Lemon , Church 's Chicken , Domino 's Pizza , Intel , Kentucky Fried Chicken , Ramada Inn , Subway and T.G.I. Friday 's . In 2004 , Homer starred in a MasterCard Priceless commercial that aired during Super Bowl XXXVIII . In 2001 , Kelloggs launched a brand of cereal called " Homer 's Cinnamon Donut Cereal " , which was available for a limited time . In June 2009 , Dutch automotive navigation systems manufacturer TomTom announced that Homer would be added to its downloadable GPS voice lineup . Homer 's voice , recorded by Dan Castellaneta , features several in @-@ character comments such as " Take the third right . We might find an ice cream truck ! Mmm ... ice cream . "
Homer has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons . He has appeared in every one of The Simpsons video games , including the most recent , The Simpsons Game . Homer also appears as a playable character in the crossover game Lego Dimensions . Alongside the television series , Homer regularly appears in issues of Simpsons Comics , which were first published on November 29 , 1993 , and are still issued monthly . Homer also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood .
= Mother ( video game series ) =
The Mother series ( Japanese : マザー , Hepburn : Mazā ) consists of three role @-@ playing video games : the 1989 Mother for the Famicom , the 1994 Mother 2 , known as EarthBound outside of Japan , for the Super NES , and the 2006 Mother 3 for the Game Boy Advance . Written by Shigesato Itoi and published by Nintendo , and featuring game mechanics modeled on the Dragon Quest series , the Mother series is known for its sense of humor , originality , and parody . Set in a late 20th century United States , the player uses weapons and psychic powers to fight hostile , everyday objects . Signature elements of the series include the lighthearted plots , the battle sequences with psychedelic backgrounds , and the " rolling HP meter " : as player health ticks down like an odometer , players can outrun the meter to heal before dying . While the franchise is popular in Japan , in the United States , it is best associated with the cult following behind EarthBound .
While visiting Nintendo for other business , Itoi approached Shigeru Miyamoto about making Mother . When approved for a sequel , Itoi increased his involvement as a designer in the five @-@ year development of EarthBound . When the project began to flounder , producer and later Nintendo president Satoru Iwata rescued the game . EarthBound 's English localizers were given great liberties when translating the Japanese game 's cultural allusions . The American version sold poorly despite a multimillion @-@ dollar marketing budget . Mother 3 was originally slated for release on the Nintendo 64 and its 64DD disk drive accessory , but was cancelled in 2000 . Three years later , the project was reannounced for the Game Boy Advance alongside a rerelease of Mother and Mother 2 in a combined cartridge : Mother 1 + 2 , released in 2003 . The new Mother 3 abandoned the 3D graphics progress for a 2D style , and became a bestseller upon its release . EarthBound was rereleased for the Wii U Virtual Console in 2013 , and Mother received its English @-@ language debut in 2015 for the same platform , retitled EarthBound Beginnings .
EarthBound is widely regarded as a video game classic , and is included in multiple top ten lists . In absence of continued official support for the series , an EarthBound fan community organized online to advocate for further series releases through petitions and fan art . Their projects include a full fan translation of Mother 3 , a full @-@ length documentary , and a fangame sequel to Mother 3 . The protagonist of EarthBound , Ness , received exposure from his inclusion in all four entries of the Super Smash Bros. series . Other Mother series locations and characters have made appearances in the fighting games .
= = History = =
= = = Mother = = =
While visiting Nintendo for other work , celebrity copywriter Shigesato Itoi pitched to the company 's lead designer Shigeru Miyamoto , his idea for a role @-@ playing game set in contemporary times . The modern setting worked against role @-@ playing genre norms , and while Miyamoto liked the idea , he was hesitant until Itoi could show full commitment to the project . Itoi reduced his workload , formed a team , and began development in Ichikawa , Chiba . Nintendo tried to accommodate Itoi 's ideal work environment to feel more like an extracurricular club of volunteers . Itoi wrote the game 's script . Mother was developed by Ape , published by Nintendo , and released in Japan on July 27 , 1989 for the Famicom ( known as the Nintendo Entertainment System outside Japan ) . The game was slated for an English @-@ language localization as Earth Bound , but was abandoned when the team chose to localize Mother 2 instead . Years later , the complete localization was recovered by the public and distributed on the Internet , where it became known as EarthBound Zero . Mother received its English language debut in June 2015 as EarthBound Beginnings for the Wii U Virtual Console .
Mother is a single @-@ player , role @-@ playing video game set in a " slightly offbeat " , late 20th century United States ( as interpreted by Itoi ) . Unlike its Japanese role @-@ playing game contemporaries , Mother is not set in a fantasy genre . The player fights in warehouses and laboratories instead of in standard dungeons , and with baseball bats and psychic abilities instead of swords and magic . Mother follows the young Ninten as he uses psychic powers to fight hostile , formerly inanimate objects and other enemies . The game uses random encounters to enter a menu @-@ based , first @-@ person perspective battle system .
= = = EarthBound = = =
Mother 2 was made with a development team different from that of the original game , and most of its members were unmarried and willing to work through nights on the project . Itoi again wrote the game 's script and served as a designer . The game 's five @-@ year development exceeded time estimates and came under repeated threat of cancellation . It was in dire straits until producer Satoru Iwata joined the team . Mother 2 was developed by Ape and HAL , published by Nintendo , and released in Japan 's Super Famicom on August 27 , 1994 . The game was localized into English in the United States for Western audiences whereupon it became the only Mother series game to be released in North America until the later localization of Mother as Earthbound Beginnings . The localizers were given liberties to translate the Japanese script 's cultural allusions as they pleased . Symbolism was also modified between the versions to adapt to Western sensitivities . To avoid confusion about the series ' numbering , its English title was changed to EarthBound , and was released on June 5 , 1995 for the North American Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Though Nintendo spent about $ 2 million on marketing , the American release was ultimately viewed as unsuccessful within Nintendo . EarthBound was released when RPGs were not popular in the United States , and visual taste in RPGs was closer to Chrono Trigger and Final Fantasy VI . The game 's atypical " this game stinks " marketing campaign was derived from the game 's unusual humor and included foul @-@ smelling scratch and sniff advertisements . 1UP.com called the campaign " infamously ill @-@ conceived " . Between the poor sales and the dwindling support for the Super NES , the game did not receive a European release .
The Mother series titles are built on what Itoi considered " reckless wildness " , where he would offer ideas that encouraged his staff to contribute new ways of portraying scenes in the video game medium . He saw the titles foremost as games and not " big scenario scripts " . Itoi has said that he wanted the player feel emotions such as " distraught " when playing the game . The game 's writing was intentionally " quirky and goofy " in character , and written in the Japanese kana script so as to give dialogue a conversational feel . Itoi thought of the default player @-@ character names when he did not like his team 's suggestions . Many of the characters were based on real life personalities . Itoi sought to make the game appeal to populations that played games less , such as girls .
Giygas ( / ˈɡiːɡᵻs / , / ˈɡaɪ- / , GEE @-@ gus GUY @-@ gus ) reappears as the antagonist , and continues Mother 's story ( and thus did not die at the end of Mother ) . By default , the player starts as a young boy named Ness , who finds that the alien force Giygas has enveloped the world in hatred and consequently turned animals , humans , and objects into malicious creatures . A bee from the future instructs Ness to collect melodies in a Sound Stone to preemptively stop the force . While visiting these eight Sanctuaries , Ness meets three other kids named Paula , Jeff , and Poo — " a psychic girl , an eccentric inventor , and a ponytailed martial artist " , respectively — who join his party . Along the way , Ness meets the cultists of Happy Happy Village , the zombie @-@ infested Threed , the Winters boarding school , and the kingdom of Dalaam . When the Sound Stone is filled , Ness visits Magicant alone , a surreal location in his mind where he fights his dark side . Upon returning to Eagleland , he prepares to travel back in time to fight a young Giygas , a battle known for its " feeling of isolation , ... incomprehensible attacks , ... buzzing static " and reliance on prayer . EarthBound plays as a Japanese role @-@ playing game modeled on Dragon Quest . The game is characterized by its contemporary , satirical Western world setting and its unconventional characters , enemies , and humor . Examples of the game 's humor include untraditional enemies such as " New Age Retro Hippie " and " Unassuming Local Guy " , snide dialogue , frequent puns , and fourth wall @-@ breaking . The game also plays self @-@ aware pranks on the player , such as the existence of the useless ruler and protractor items that players and enemies can unsuccessfully try to use nonetheless .
= = = Mother 3 = = =
In 1996 , a sequel for the Nintendo 64 , Mother 3 ( EarthBound 64 in North America ) , was announced . It was slated for release on the 64DD , a disk drive expansion peripheral for the Nintendo 64 . Itoi 's expansive ideas during development led the development team to question whether fans would still consider the game part of the series . The game entered development hell and struggled to find a firm release date and in 2000 , despite its level of completion , was later cancelled altogether with the commercial failure of the 64DD .
The project was reannounced three years later as Mother 3 for the Game Boy Advance alongside a combined Mother 1 + 2 cartridge for the same handheld console . Itoi had been working on porting Mother and Mother 2 to the Game Boy Advance , and based on encouragement what he predicted to be further pressure , decided to release Mother 3 . The new Mother 3 abandoned the Nintendo 64 version 's 3D graphics , but kept its plot . The game was developed by Brownie Brown and HAL Laboratory , published by Nintendo , and released in Japan on April 20 , 2006 , whereupon it became a bestseller . It did not receive a North American release on the basis that it would not sell .
Mother 1 + 2 was released in Japan on June 20 , 2003 . The combined cartridge contains both Mother and EarthBound . Mother uses the extended ending of the unreleased English language prototype , but is still only presented in Japanese .
Unlike earlier games in the series , Mother 3 is presented in chapters . When the Pig Mask Army starts a forest fire and imposes police state @-@ like conditions on a " pastoral forest village " , a father , Flint , ventures out to protect his family ( twin sons Lucas and Claus and wife Hinawa ) , but the rest of the world is eventually implicated in the plot . Lucas , the game 's hero , does not become prominent until the fourth chapter . Along with his dog , a neophyte thief , and a princess , Lucas fulfills a prophecy of a " chosen one " pulling Needles from the earth to wake a sleeping dragon and determine the fate of the world . The game features a lighthearted plot , with characters such as " partying ghosts " and " talking rope snakes " . Mother 3 is a single @-@ player , simple role @-@ playing video game played with two buttons : one for starting conversations and checking adjacent objects , and another for running . The game updates the turn @-@ based , Dragon Quest @-@ style battle system with a " rhythm @-@ action mechanic " , which lets the player take additional turns to attack the enemy by chaining together up to sixteen taps in time with the background music . Apart from this , the battle system and " rolling HP meter " ( where health ticks down like an odometer such that players can outrun the meter to heal before dying ) are similar to EarthBound .
= = = Future of the series = = =
Around Mother 3 's 2006 release , Itoi stated that he had no plans to make Mother 4 , which he has reaffirmed repeatedly . Itoi has said that , of the three , he had the strongest drive to create the first Mother video game , and that it was made for the players . He made the second game as an exploration of his personal interests , and wanted to run wild with the third . While reflecting on Mother 3 's 2000 cancellation , Itoi recounted the great efforts the team made to tell small parts of the story , and felt this was a core theme in the series ' development .
In the absence of continued support for the series , an EarthBound fan community coalesced at Starmen.net with the intent to have Nintendo of America acknowledge their interest in Mother series . They drafted petitions for English language releases and created a full @-@ color , 270 @-@ page anthology of fan art , Upon " little " response from Nintendo , they localized Mother 3 by themselves and printed a " professional quality strategy guide " through Fangamer , a video game merchandising site that spun off from Starmen.net. The Verge cited the effort as proof of the fan base 's dedication . Other fan efforts include EarthBound , USA , a full @-@ length documentary on Starmen.net and the fan community , and Mother 4 , a fan @-@ produced sequel to the Mother series that went into production when Itoi definitively " declared " that he was done with the series .
IGN described the series as neglected by Nintendo in North America , as Mother 1 , Mother 1 + 2 , and Mother 3 were not released outside Japan . Despite this , Ness 's recurrence in the Super Smash Bros. series signaled favorable odds for the future of the Mother series . IGN and Nintendo Power readers anticipated a rerelease of EarthBound on the Wii 's Virtual Console upon its launch in 2006 , but it did not materialize . A Japanese rerelease was announced in 2013 for the Wii U Virtual Console as part of a celebration of the anniversaries of the NES and Mother 2 . North American and European releases for the same platform followed , with Nintendo president Satoru Iwata crediting fan interest on the company 's Miiverse social platform . The game was a " top @-@ seller " on the Wii U Virtual Console , and Kotaku users and first @-@ time EarthBound players had an " overwhelmingly positive " response to the game . Simon Parkin wrote that the game 's rerelease was a " momentous occasion " as the return of " one of Nintendo 's few remaining lost classics " after 20 years . In an interview in late November 2015 , Shigesato Itoi has once again denied plans to create a Mother 4 , despite fan feedback .
= = Recurring elements = =
The series is known for its emotionally evocative scripts . Itoi wanted to tell Mother 3 's through a technique that swapped the active player @-@ character , which he first attempted in EarthBound . The two games also share similar visual styles , both with psychedelic battle backgrounds and cartoonish art . While Mother 3 's music is both similar in tone to its predecessors and completely new , it features similar sound effects . EarthBound characters such as Mr. Saturn recur , and RPGamer wrote that Mother 3 's final chapter is " full of blatant links " between the games of the series . Mother also shares similarities with its sequel , such as the game save option through phoning Ninten 's father , an option to store items with Ninten 's sister at home , and an automated teller machine for banking money . Additionally , the members of the party follow behind the protagonist on the overworld screen in the first two games . Ninten 's party members in Mother are analogous to those of EarthBound in style and function .
While Mother 's battles were trigged through random encounters , EarthBound and early Mother 3 shared battle scene triggers , where physical contact with an enemy in the overworld began a turn @-@ based battle scene shown in the first @-@ person . Apart from Mother 3 's rhythm and combo battle mechanic , the two game 's battle systems are similar . Mother 3 also retains the " rolling HP meter " of EarthBound ( where health ticks down like an odometer such that players can outrun the meter to heal before dying ) but removes the feature where experience is automatically awarded before battles against much weaker foes . Recurring through the series is its signature " SMAAAASH " text and sound , which show when the player registers a critical hit .
Some characters are present in multiple entries of the series , such as Giygas , Mr. Saturn , and Pokey / Porky . Giygas is the primary antagonist in both Mother and EarthBound . The alien creature 's emotional complexity deviates from genre norms . Giygas shows internal conflict in Mother and has no appearance but as an " indescribable " force in EarthBound 's final boss battle . In both final battles , Giygas is defeated through love and prayer instead of through a tour de force of weaponry , unlike the endings of other period games . Nadia Oxford wrote for IGN that nearly two decades later , EarthBound 's final fight against Giygas continues to be " one of the most epic video game standoffs of all time " with noted emotional impact . This battle 's dialogue was based on Itoi 's recollections of a traumatic scene from the Shintoho film The Military Policeman and the Dismembered Beauty that he had accidentally seen in his childhood . Oxford wrote for 1UP.com that Itoi intended to show the alien 's yearning for love in " a manner ... beyond human understanding " . Despite EarthBound and Mother 3 's dissimilar settings , the Mr. Saturn fictional species appear in similar Saturn Valleys in both games . The Mr. Saturn look like an old man 's head with feet , a large nose , and bald except for a single hair with a bow . Though they are a technologically advanced and peaceful species with a pureness of heart , they are under constant attacks from encroaching enemies . Nadia and David Oxford of 1UP.com considered the Mr. Saturn to be aliens despite their human @-@ like and fleshy appearance , as described a piece arguing the central theme of aliens in the Mother series . They compared the Mr. Saturn to Kurt Vonnegut 's Tralfamadorian alien species . Finally , Pokey begins as Ness 's child neighbor who " cowers " and " refuses to fight " in EarthBound , but grows into a " vicious control freak with no regard for human
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@,@ 000 copies . USgamer 's Jeremy Parish said that Mother 's script was " as sharp as EarthBound 's " , but felt that the original 's game mechanics were subpar , lacking the " rolling HP counter " and non @-@ random encounters for which later entries in the series were known . Parish wrote earlier for 1UP.com that in comparison to EarthBound , Mother is " worse in just about every way " , and important less for its actual game and more for the interest it generated in video game emulation and the preservation of unreleased games .
EarthBound originally received little critical praise from the American press , and sold poorly in the United States : around 140 @,@ 000 copies , as compared to twice as many in Japan . Kotaku described EarthBound 's 1995 American release as " a dud " and blamed the low sales on " a bizarre marketing campaign " and graphics " cartoonish " beyond the average taste of players . Multiple reviewers described the game as " original " or " unique " and praised its script 's range of emotions , humor , cheery and charming ambiance , and " real world " setting , which was seen as an uncommon choice . Since its release , the game 's English localization has found praise , and later reviewers reported that the game had aged well .
Prior to its release , Mother 3 was in the " top five most wanted games " of Famitsu and at the top of the Japanese preordered game charts . It sold around 200 @,@ 000 units in its first week of sales in Japan , and was one of Japan 's top 20 bestselling games for the first half of 2006 . In comparison , the 2003 Mother 1 + 2 rerelease sold around 278 @,@ 000 copies in Japan in its first year , and a reissue " value selection " of the cartridge sold 106 @,@ 000 copies in Japan in 2006 . Mother 3 received a " Platinum Hall of Fame " score of 35 / 40 from Famitsu . Reviewers praised its story ( even though the game was only available in Japanese ) and graphics , and lamented its 1990s role @-@ playing game mechanics . Critics also complimented its music . Jackson said that the game was somewhat easier than the rest of the series and somewhat shorter in length .
= = Legacy = =
The series has a legacy as both " one of Japan 's most beloved " and the video game cognoscenti 's " sacred cow " , and is known for its long @-@ lasting , resilient fan community . At one point leading up to Mother 3 's release , the series ' " Love Theme " played as music on hold for the Japan Post . Similarly , the Eight Melodies theme used throughout the series has been incorporated into Japanese elementary school music classrooms . Donlan of 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die wrote that EarthBound is " name @-@ checked by the video gaming cognoscenti more often than it 's actually been played " .
Critics consider EarthBound a " classic " or " must @-@ play " among video games . The game was included in multiple top 50 games of all time lists , including that of Famitsu readers in 2006 and IGN readers in 2005 and 2006 . IGN ranks the game 13th in its top 100 SNES games and 26th among all games for its in @-@ game world , which was " distinct and unforgettable " for its take on Americanism , unconventional settings , and 1960s music . And Gamasutra named it one of its 20 " essential " Japanese role @-@ playing games . The rerelease was Justin Haywald of GameSpot 's game of the year , and Nintendo Life 's Virtual Console game of the year . GameZone said it " would be a great disservice " to merely call EarthBound " a gem " . In the United Kingdom , where EarthBound had been previously unreleased , GamesTM noted how it had been " anecdotally heralded as a retro classic " . IGN 's Scott Thompson said the game was " the true definition of a classic " . Kotaku wrote that the game was content to make the player " feel lonely " , and , overall , was special not for any individual aspect but for its method of using the video game medium to explore ideas impossible to explore in other media .
Multiple critics wrote that Mother 3 was one of the best role @-@ playing games for the Game Boy Advance . GamePro 's Jeremy Signor listed it among his " best unreleased Japanese role @-@ playing games " for its script and attention to detail . Video game journalist Tim Rogers posited that Mother 3 was " the closest games have yet come to literature " . There are no plans for an official Mother 4 .
The series , and specifically EarthBound , is known for having a cult following that developed over time well after its release . Colin Campbell of Polygon wrote that " few gaming communities are as passionate and active " as EarthBound 's , and 1UP.com 's Bob Mackey wrote that no game was as poised to have a cult following . Starmen.net hosted a Mother 25th Anniversary Fanfest in 2014 with a livestream of the game and plans for a remixed soundtrack . Later that year , fans released a 25th Anniversary Edition ROM hack that updated the game 's graphics , script , and gameplay balance . The Verge cited the two @-@ year @-@ long Mother 3 fan translation as proof of the fan base 's dedication , and Jenni Lada of TechnologyTell called it " undoubtably one of the best known fan translations in existence " , with active retranslations into other languages . Frank Caron of Ars Technica said that the fan translation 's " massive undertaking ... stands as a massive success " , and that " one cannot even begin to fathom " why Nintendo would not release their own English localization .
= = = Super Smash Bros. = = =
EarthBound 's Ness became widely known due to his later appearance in the Super Smash Bros. series . He appeared in the original Super Smash Bros. and its sequels : Melee , Brawl , and 3DS / Wii U. In Europe , which did not see an original EarthBound release , Ness is better known for his role in the fighting game than for his original role in the role @-@ playing game . He returned in the 2001 Melee with EarthBound 's Mr. Saturn , which could be thrown at enemies and otherwise pushes items off the battlefield . Melee also had an unlockable Fourside level based on the EarthBound location . Ness was joined by Mother 3 's Lucas in Brawl , and both characters returned in 3DS / Wii U , its sequel . Players can fight in the 3DS 's Magicant stage , which features clips from the Mother series in its background .
= Delaware Route 62 =
Delaware Route 62 ( DE 62 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware in the United States . The route officially runs from Old Capitol Trail in Prices Corner east to a dead end near Newport ; however , DE 62 is signed from an intersection with DE 2 and the southern terminus of DE 41 in Prices Corner to the DE 4 intersection . The road runs through suburban areas along Newport Gap Pike and Boxwood Road , interchanging with DE 141 . The Newport Gap Pike portion of road was built as a state highway by 1925 and became part of DE 41 by 1936 . Boxwood Road was improved in 1946 . DE 62 was assigned to its current alignment by 1981 .
= = Route description = =
DE 62 heads southeast from Old Capitol Trail on the Newport Gap Pike , a two @-@ lane undivided road . Newport Gap Pike continues northwest past this intersection to DE 2 ( Kirkwood Highway ) , where the road becomes DE 41 . Signage has DE 62 follow Newport Gap Pike northwest to the DE 2 / DE 41 intersection . DE 62 heads through suburban residential and commercial developments , crossing the Wilmington and Western Railroad and CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision . The road passes more development and reaches the community of Belvedere , where it comes to a ramp from southbound DE 141 .
At this point , the route turns east onto Boxwood Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway , with Newport Gap Pike continuing south to provide access to southbound DE 141 . DE 62 passes over the DE 141 freeway and intersects Centerville Road , which provides access to and from northbound DE 141 . Past this intersection , the road becomes two lanes and undivided , passing to the south of the former Wilmington Assembly plant used by General Motors and to the north of residential subdivisions . DE 62 continues through more residential neighborhoods , passing to the north of the Conrad Schools of Science , and reaches an intersection with DE 4 , where DE 62 signage ends . The route officially continues east on Middleboro Road through more neighborhoods , intersecting Dupont Road before coming to a dead end . DE 62 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 13 @,@ 544 vehicles at the DE 141 interchange to a low of 262 vehicles at the eastern terminus . None of DE 62 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now the Newport Gap Pike portion of DE 62 was originally chartered as the Gap and Newport Turnpike in 1808 , an extension of the 1807 @-@ chartered turnpike in Pennsylvania that was to run from Gap , Pennsylvania , southeast to Newport , Delaware . By 1920 , what is now DE 62 existed as a county road . The Newport Gap Pike portion of the route became a state highway by 1925 . This state highway became a part of DE 41 by 1936 , when Delaware designated its state highways . In 1946 , Boxwood Road was improved to provide access to the new General Motors plant along the road . By 1981 , DE 62 was designated onto its current alignment , with the Newport Gap Pike section replacing a portion of DE 41 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Graveyard Mountain Home =
Graveyard Mountain Home is the third studio album released under the name Chroma Key by American keyboardist Kevin Moore . It was released on November 8 , 2004 by InsideOut Music . Moore originally started work on the album in 2003 , planning to release a less electronica @-@ influenced album than previous Chroma Key albums , but put it aside to work on the first OSI album . He then moved to Istanbul , Turkey , where he wrote Ghost Book , the soundtrack to the film Okul . Enjoying the experience of writing music to film , Moore scrapped his previous plans for the third Chroma Key album , instead writing an album as an alternate soundtrack to an already @-@ existing film .
Moore found the social guidance film Age 13 in the Prelinger Archives , which served as his main inspiration . He slowed the film down to half its original playback speed to allow a full album to be written around the twenty @-@ five @-@ minute film . With complete creative control over the album , Moore was free to experiment , sometimes writing music " not necessarily to always match the images on the screen , but to sometimes play against it . " The deluxe edition of the album contains the film in its full length , played at half speed , with the album as a soundtrack in place of the original audio .
Critical reception of Graveyard Mountain Home was generally positive . Critics noted that the album was a departure from Moore 's previous works , and that it was best experienced as an alternate soundtrack to Age 13 . Moore played songs from Graveyard Mountain Home live for the first time in a small club in Istanbul in 2007 , and planned to tour more extensively in the future .
= = Background = =
In an interview published in December 2003 , Kevin Moore revealed that he had started work on a third Chroma Key album , but had put it aside to work on the first OSI album , Office of Strategic Influence . When Moore stopped working on Chroma Key material , he had already recorded two songs . " The big difference with the new [ Chroma Key album ] is that there are more real instruments , " Moore said . " I 've hooked up with a bunch of friends that made hand drums and didgeridoos . And I did a lot of recording with that . This new Chroma Key is going to be more organic , and less digital . "
Theron Patterson , a friend of Moore 's and former classmate at California Institute of the Arts , was working in Istanbul , Turkey and invited Moore to visit . Moore , who had been living in Costa Rica , stayed with him for two weeks , then decided to settle in Istanbul and record the third Chroma Key album there . Moore signed to InsideOut Records . " They 've been really great supporting this ; they sent me out to Turkey when I told them I wanted to record out there , basically supporting the whole process , " he said . The first project Moore worked on after he moved to Istanbul was Ghost Book , the soundtrack to the Turkish film Okul . Moore enjoyed the experience and decided to write the third Chroma Key album as an alternate soundtrack to an already @-@ existing film .
Moore decided to use a film in the public domain to avoid any rights issues . He looked through the Prelinger Archives to find a film which matched the mood he wanted for the Chroma Key album . One of the first films he found was the social guidance film Age 13 . " It was kind of rich for musical accompaniment and the cinematography and everything is really beautiful , kind of surreal , " Moore said . The film served as Moore 's main inspiration and source of audio samples .
When deciding on musicians to perform on the album , Moore said that he " picked people who were around " . His girlfriend , Bige Akdeniz , performed vocals , Theron Patterson did programming and Patterson 's drum teacher , Utku Ünal , performed the drums . The only musician Moore actively sought out was guitarist Erdem Helvacıoğlu , who performed on one track . Moore noted that none of the music was technically demanding , " it 's just more of a feel that we ’ re going for so it was just a matter of getting comfortable and getting in the mood and playing stuff together . "
Moore ranked Graveyard Mountain Home as the most enjoyable project he had worked on up to that point . " I never felt like ' Oh fuck I have to finish this record , I have to do one more song , I have to do something to this song to make it better , ' " Moore said . He described the process of making the album as feeling " more like I was playing with this film and I was playing against it so it felt easy somehow " .
= = Composition = =
Moore wrote music to Age 13 slowed down to half its original playback speed . This allowed him to write an album 's worth of music around the twenty @-@ five minute film and " made [ the film ] flow better " . Moore primarily worked alone in his home studio , recording short song ideas . " I would place [ the ideas ] inside a theme in the film , just sort of audition things that might work , and something would click and I would develop the idea , " Moore said . In contrast to Moore 's original plan to record an " organic , and less digital " album , all of the sounds on Graveyard Mountain Home are digital .
Unlike in a traditional film soundtrack , Moore often wrote music " not necessarily to always match the images on the screen , but to sometimes play against it . " Moore explained that a traditional soundtrack needs to convey the mood of the scene and advance the film 's storyline , but that he did not have to do that with Graveyard Mountain Home " because the director 's not around " . " I thought , well what would it be like if I did a totally different kind of mood than this scene is trying to convey ? When you put that music with that scene what happens there ? Sometimes it 's kind of interesting what happens , " Moore explained .
= = Release and promotion = =
Graveyard Mountain Home was released on November 8 , 2004 by InsideOut Music . A special edition of the album , including a DVD with the film Age 13 on it , was also released . Moore originally planned to tour in support of Graveyard Mountain Home , but nothing materialized . In a 2005 interview , Moore said he was still trying to organize a tour . He was optimistic that he would play " at least a couple shows " , but noted that getting the funding to tour made the process " a constant battle " .
Moore performed his first solo show at a small club in Istanbul on March 23 , 2007 . The hour @-@ long show consisted primarily of material from Graveyard Mountain Home , which was accompanied by projections of the corresponding scenes from Age 13 . " I thought that it would be good for the first show to be sort of small and comfortable ... so I thought we [ could ] just have a hundred people , " Moore said . " Everybody can see , everybody can be comfortable and sort of enjoy themselves . And if something goes horribly wrong , it only happens in front of a hundred people . " Moore hoped the show would form the basis of more elaborate , longer shows . He planned on playing more shows in Turkey , before touring Europe and the rest of the world .
= = Reception = =
Graveyard Mountain Home was generally well received . Rick Anderson of Allmusic regarded the album as " a surprisingly affecting and powerful work . " Writing for Sea of Tranquility , Michael Popke noted that " If you listen to Graveyard Mountain Home as a stand @-@ alone piece of music ... you probably won 't be overly impressed . If , however , you hear this sophisticated mix of dark , ambient post @-@ rock and psychedelic sounds while viewing the 1955 public @-@ domain film Age 13 , you may consider multi @-@ instrumentalist Kevin Moore a small @-@ time genius . " Popke speculated that if Moore created more albums based on obscure films , " he might just alter the face of the genre . " Martien Koolen of DPRP described Graveyard Mountain Home as " a typical album for dark , wintry afternoons , " although conceded that " it is not [ his ] cup of tea . "
Koolen described the music as having " absolutely no connection or Dream Theater influences whatsoever ... Kevin Moore mixes dark ambient , post @-@ rock and psychedelic music to create Chroma Key ’ s music . " He compared the album 's sound to that of Tortoise , Millenia Nova , Sigur Rós and early Pink Floyd . Anderson said that the album " sounds more like a twisted collaboration between Gábor Csupó and Muslimgauze than anything else you 're likely to hear on the InsideOut label . "
Rachel Jablonski of Stream of Consciousness described the overall feel of the album as " somewhat calm and bleak . Yet throughout , a distant brightness prevails whether via musical tone or mental imagery in a very subtle way . " Anderson said that the music " at times is funky in a glitchy , herky @-@ jerky sort of way ... and at others is dark and meditative " . He noted that there were some " traditional " songs on the album , singling out " Sad Sad Movie " , which he described as " gorgeous " . Koolen considered " Human Love " and " Andrew Was Drowning His Stepfather " to be the " weirdest songs ... which can hardly be described as music " .
Popke noted that although he saw little connection between the music and the film , Moore " expresses the mood of each scene brilliantly . " He found that watching Age 13 with Graveyard Mountain Home as the soundtrack enhanced the film : " Age 13 is not necessarily an enjoyable film to watch ... but viewing it with the Chroma Key soundtrack makes an odd experience even odder yet wholly compelling , with a mysterious filmstrip allure that freezes a bygone era . " Conversely , Jablonski considered Age 13 as an enhancement to the music . " Listening to the album stand alone for the first time you may not be much impressed , " she said . " The music is solemn and somewhat confusing as the tracks run from one to another without much build and in seemingly senseless patterns ... Having previously seen or simultaneously watching Age 13 most definitely would help the listener along . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Kevin Moore , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Kevin Moore – vocals , guitars , keyboard , programming
Utku Ünal – drums
Theron Patterson – programming on tracks 2 , 8 , and 14 ; bass
Bige Akdeniz – additional vocals on tracks 9 and 13
Bob Nekrasov – monologue on track 8
Erdem Helvacıoğlu – additional guitar on track 3
= William S. Taylor =
William Sylvester Taylor ( October 10 , 1853 – August 2 , 1928 ) was the 33rd Governor of Kentucky . He was initially declared the winner of the disputed gubernatorial election of 1899 , but the Kentucky General Assembly , dominated by the Democrats , reversed the election results , giving the victory to his Democratic Party ( United States ) opponent , William Goebel . Taylor served only 50 days as governor .
A poorly educated but politically astute lawyer , Taylor began climbing the political ladder by holding local offices in his native Butler County . Though he was a Republican in an overwhelmingly Democratic state , divisions in the majority party resulted in his election as Attorney General of Kentucky on a ticket with the Commonwealth 's first Republican governor , William O. Bradley . Four years later , Taylor was elected in 1899 to the governorship .
When the General Assembly reversed the election results after a dispute , incensed Republicans armed themselves and descended on Frankfort . Taylor 's Democratic opponent , William Goebel , was shot and died after being sworn in on his deathbed . Taylor exhausted his finances in a legal battle with Goebel 's running mate J. C. W. Beckham over the governorship . Taylor ultimately lost the battle , and was implicated in Goebel 's assassination . He fled to neighboring Indiana . Despite eventually being pardoned for any wrongdoing , he seldom returned to Kentucky . Taylor died in Indianapolis , Indiana in 1928 .
= = Early life = =
William Taylor was born October 10 , 1853 in a log cabin on the Green River , about five miles from Morgantown , Kentucky . He was the first child of Sylvester and Mary G. ( Moore ) Taylor . He spent his early years working on the family farm , and did not attend school until age fifteen ; thereafter , he attended the public schools of Butler County and studied at home . In 1874 , he began teaching , specializing in mathematics , history , and politics . He taught until 1882 , and later became a successful attorney , but continued to operate a farm .
On February 10 , 1878 , Taylor married Sara ( " Sallie " ) Belle Tanner . The couple had nine children , including six daughters and a son that survived infancy .
= = Political career = =
Taylor 's political career began in 1878 with an unsuccessful bid to become county clerk of Butler County . In 1880 , he was an assistant presidential elector for Greenback candidate James Weaver . Two years later , he was elected county clerk of Butler County . He was the first person in the history of the county to successfully challenge a Democrat for this position .
Taylor became a member of the Republican Party in 1884 . In 1886 , he was chosen to represent the third district on the Republican state central committee . That same year , the party nominated a full slate of candidates for county offices , including Taylor as the nominee for county judge . In the ensuing elections , the full Republican slate was elected . Taylor was a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1888 . He was re @-@ elected as county judge in 1890 .
In 1895 , Taylor was elected Attorney General of Kentucky , and served until 1899 . During his term , state senator William Goebel proposed an election law that created a state Board of Elections which was empowered to appoint all election officers in every county and certify all election results . The Board was to be appointed by the General Assembly , and there were no requirements that its composition be bi @-@ partisan . The law was widely seen as a power play by Goebel , designed to ensure Democratic victories in state elections , including Goebel 's own anticipated run for governor . The law passed the General Assembly , but was vetoed by Republican governor William O. Bradley . The General Assembly promptly overrode the veto . As attorney general , Taylor opined that the bill was unconstitutional . The measure was adjudicated by the Kentucky Court of Appeals and found to be constitutional .
= = = Gubernatorial election of 1899 = = =
Bradley 's election in 1895 had marked the first time in Kentucky 's history that the Commonwealth had elected a Republican governor . Angry Democrats , who had controlled the governorship since the fall of the Whig Party , sought to regain what they had lost . Bitter divisions in the party led to a contentious convention that nominated William Goebel as the party candidate . A faction of the Democratic Party held a second nominating convention and chose former governor John Y. Brown as their nominee .
The Republicans were initially no less divided than the Democrats . Senator William J. Deboe backed Taylor for governor . Governor Bradley backed Judge Clifton J. Pratt of Hopkins County , and the Republicans of Central Kentucky backed state auditor Sam H. Stone . Taylor organized a strong political machine and seemed in a solid position to obtain the nomination . Bradley was incensed that the party would not unite behind his candidate and boycotted the convention . Taylor unsuccessfully tried to woo him back with a promise to make his nephew , Edwin P. Morrow , secretary of state . Because Taylor represented the western part of the state , the so @-@ called " lily white " branch of the Republican Party , black leaders also threatened not to support him ; Taylor responded by hiring one of the black leaders his permanent secretary , and promised to appoint other black leaders to office if he won the election . Seeing that Taylor 's nomination was likely , all the other candidates withdrew , and Taylor won the nomination unanimously .
During the campaign , Taylor was attacked by Democratic opponents because of his party 's support from black voters and its ties to big business , including the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . They also charged that Governor Bradley had run a corrupt administration . Republicans answered with charges of factionalism and use of political machinery by Democrats . In particular , they derided the Goebel Election Law , which Taylor claimed subverted the will of the people .
Ex @-@ Confederates were usually a safe voting bloc for the Democrats , but many of them deserted Goebel because he had , in 1895 , killed former Confederate general John Sanford in a duel . On the other hand , blacks had historically been a safe bloc for the Republicans , but Taylor had alienated many of them by not strongly opposing the Separate Coach Bill , which would have racially segregated railroad facilities . Goebel also risked losing support to minor party candidates . Besides John Y. Brown , the dissenting Democrats ' nominee , the Populist Party nominated a candidate , drawing votes from Goebel 's populist base . To unite his traditional base , Goebel convinced William Jennings Bryan , a hero to most populists and Democrats , to campaign for him . As soon as Bryan finished his tour of the state , Governor Bradley reversed course and began speaking in favor of Taylor . While Bradley insisted that his motives were to defend his administration , journalist Henry Watterson believed Taylor had promised to support Bradley 's senatorial bid if elected .
= = = Governorship and later life = = =
In the general election , Taylor secured just 2 @,@ 383 more votes than Goebel . The Democrat @-@ controlled General Assembly challenged the election results . Under the Goebel Election Law , a three @-@ man Board of Elections ( dominated by Democrats ) were to review the results and certify the winner in the contest . Two of the members of the board had openly campaigned for Goebel , and all three owed their appointments to him , but in a surprising decision , the Board voted 2 — 1 to certify Taylor as the winner .
The Board claimed that the Goebel Election Law did not give them the power to hear proof of vote fraud or call witnesses , although the wording of their decision implied that they would have invalidated Taylor votes if they had been empowered to do so . Taylor was inaugurated on December 12 , 1899 . Days later , the Democratic @-@ dominated General Assembly convened in Frankfort . They claimed the power to decide disputed elections , and formed a partisan commission ( ten Democrats and one Republican ) to examine the election results .
Fearing Democrats in the Assembly would " steal " the election , armed men came to Frankfort from various areas of the state , primarily Eastern Kentucky , which was heavily Republican . On January 30 , Goebel was shot while entering the state capitol building . Taylor declared a state of emergency and called out the militia . He called a special session of the legislature , holding it in heavily Republican London , Kentucky rather than the capital . Democrats refused to heed the call , and met in Democratic @-@ dominated Louisville instead . They certified the election commission 's report that disqualified enough Taylor votes for Goebel to be declared the winner of the election . Shortly after being sworn in as governor , Goebel died from the gunshot wound he had received days earlier .
With Goebel dead , Democrats and Republicans met jointly and drafted a proposal to bring peace . Under terms of the proposal , Taylor and his lieutenant governor , John Marshall , would step down from their offices and be granted immunity from prosecution in the events surrounding the election and Goebel 's assassination . The Goebel Election Law would be repealed , and the militia would disperse from Frankfort . Prominent leaders on both sides signed the agreement , but on February 10 , 1900 , Taylor announced he would not . The legislature convened on February 19 , 1900 and agreed to put the election in the hands of the courts .
On March 10 , 1900 , the circuit court of Jefferson County upheld the General Assembly 's actions that certified Goebel as governor . The case was appealed to the Kentucky Court of Appeals , then the court of last resort in Kentucky . On April 6 , 1900 , the Court of Appeals ruled 6 — 1 that Taylor had been legally unseated . Taylor appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States , and on May 21 , 1900 , the Court refused to hear the case . Only Kentuckian John Marshall Harlan dissented from this refusal . With Taylor 's legal options exhausted , Goebel 's lieutenant governor , J. C. W. Beckham , ascended to the governorship . During his short term as governor , Taylor had done little beyond making a few appointments and issuing a few pardons .
Taylor was indicted as an accessory in the assassination of Goebel . He fled to Indianapolis , where the governor refused to extradite him . At least one attempt to abduct him by force failed in 1901 . Despite being pardoned in 1909 by Republican Governor Augustus E. Willson , Taylor seldom returned to Kentucky .
Financially strapped by the costs of challenging the election , Taylor became an insurance executive and practiced law . Shortly after arriving in Indiana , his wife died . In 1912 , he briefly returned to Kentucky to marry Nora A. Myers . The couple returned to Indianapolis and had a son together . Taylor died of heart disease on August 2 , 1928 , and was buried at the Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis .
= Dave Arneson =
David Lance " Dave " Arneson ( October 1 , 1947 – April 7 , 2009 ) was an American game designer best known for co @-@ developing the first published role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) , Dungeons & Dragons , with Gary Gygax , in the early 1970s . Arneson 's early work was fundamental to the development of the genre , developing the concept of the RPG using devices now considered to be archetypical , such as adventuring in " dungeons " , using a neutral judge , and having conversations with imaginary characters to develop the storyline .
Arneson discovered wargaming as a teenager in the 1960s , and began combining these games with the concept of role @-@ playing . He was a University of Minnesota student when he met Gygax at the Gen Con gaming convention in the late 1960s . In 1970 Arneson created the game and fictional world that became Blackmoor , writing his own rules and basing the setting on medieval fantasy elements . Arneson showed the game to Gygax the following year , and the pair co @-@ developed a set of rules that became Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) . Gygax subsequently founded TSR , Inc. to publish the game in 1974 . Arneson worked briefly for the company .
Arneson left TSR in 1976 , and filed suit in 1979 to retain credits and royalties on the game . He continued to work as an independent game designer , briefly worked for TSR again in the 1980s , and continued to play games for his entire life . Arneson also did some work in computer programming , and taught computer game design and game rules design at Full Sail University from the 1990s until shortly before his death in 2009 .
= = Experience with miniature wargaming = =
Arneson 's role @-@ playing game design work grew from his interest in wargames . His parents bought him the board wargame Gettysburg by Avalon Hill in the early 1960s . After Arneson taught his friends how to play , the group began to design their own games and tried out new ways to play existing games . Arneson was especially fond of naval wargames . Exposure to role @-@ playing influenced his later game designs . In college history classes he role @-@ played historical events , and preferred to deviate from recorded history in a manner similar to " what if " scenarios recreated in wargames .
In the late 1960s Arneson joined the Midwest Military Simulation Association ( MMSA ) , a group of miniature wargamers and military figurine collectors in the Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul area that included among its ranks future game designer David Wesely . Wesely asserts that it was during the Braunstein games he created and refereed , and in which other MMSA members participated , that Arneson helped develop the foundations of modern role @-@ playing games on a 1 : 1 scale basis by focusing on non @-@ combat objectives — a step away from wargaming towards the more individual play and varied challenges of later RPGs . Arneson was a participant in Wesely 's wargame scenarios , and as Arneson continued to run his own scenarios he eventually expanded them to include ideas from The Lord of the Rings and Dark Shadows . Arneson took over the Braunsteins when Wesely was drafted into the Army , and often ran them in different eras with different settings . Arneson had also become a member of the International Federation of Wargamers by this time .
In 1969 Arneson was a history student at the University of Minnesota and working part @-@ time as a security guard . He attended the second Gen Con gaming convention in August 1969 ( at which time wargaming was still the primary focus ) and it was at this event that he met Gary Gygax , who had founded the Castle & Crusade Society within the International Federation of Wargamers in the 1960s at Lake Geneva , Wisconsin , not far from Arneson 's home in Minnesota . Arneson and Gygax also shared an interest in sailing ship games and they co @-@ authored the Don 't Give Up The Ship ! naval battle rules , serialized from June 1971 and later published as a single volume in 1972 by Guidon Games with a revised edition by TSR , Inc. in 1975 .
= = Blackmoor = =
Following the departure of David Wesely to armed service duty in October 1970 , Arneson began to imagine a medieval fantasy style Braunstein wherein the players explored the dungeons of a castle inhabited by fantastic monsters . Arneson adjusted his Braunsteins to allow players to play themselves in the Barony of Blackmoor , where they would escort caravans , fight against the forces of evil , and delve into the sewers beneath Castle Blackmoor - which originated in a plastic kit that Arneson had of a Sicilian castle . Originally Arneson played his own mix of rules and used rock , paper , scissors to resolve combat , but later adapted elements from his naval wargame rules which had an armor class system like that later used in D & D. " I had spent the previous two days watching about five monster movies on channel 5 ’ s ' Creature Feature ' weekend , reading several Conan books ( I cannot recall which ones , but I always thought they were all pretty much the same ) , and stuffing myself with popcorn , doodling on a piece of graph paper . At the time , I was quite tired of my Nappy ( Napoleonic ) campaign with all its rigid rules and was rebelling against it . " The Fantasy combat system appearing in the Chainmail rules , written by Gygax and Jeff Perren and published in the spring of 1971 , were also applied for a short time . Finding those lacking , Arneson wrote modified rules to apply to his role @-@ playing game scenarios . The game that evolved from those modifications to Chainmail was the game Blackmoor , which modern players of D & D would describe as a campaign setting rather than a " complete game . " The gameplay would be recognizable to modern D & D players , featuring the use of fixed hit points , armor class , character development , and dungeon crawls . This setting was fleshed out over time and continues to be played to the present day . Arneson described Blackmoor as " roleplaying in a non @-@ traditional medieval setting . I have such things as steam power , gunpowder , and submarines in limited numbers . There was even a tank running around for a while . The emphasis is on the story and the roleplaying . " Details of Blackmoor and the original campaign , which was by then established on the map of the Castle & Crusade Society 's " Great Kingdom " , were first brought to print briefly in issue # 13 of the Domesday Book , the newsletter of the Castle & Crusade Society in July 1972 , and later in much @-@ expanded form as The First Fantasy Campaign , published by Judges Guild in 1977 .
Although much of what was later deemed to be " Tolkien @-@ influenced " in D & D and the concept of adventuring in " dungeons " originated with Blackmoor , as a setting it was not purely fantasy @-@ oriented , as it incorporated recent history and science fiction elements . These are visible much later in the DA module series published by TSR ( particularly City of the Gods ) , but were also present from the early to mid @-@ 1970s in the original campaign and parallel and intertwined games run by John Snider , whose ruleset developed from these adventures and was intended for publication by TSR from 1974 as the first science fiction RPG .
= = Dungeons & Dragons = =
In November 1972 , Arneson and David Megarry traveled to Lake Geneva to meet with Gary Gygax . Arneson thought that Gygax would be interested in Megarry 's Dungeon ! boardgame , which Megarry had developed as a player in Blackmoor , and Gygax had expressed a desire to play a game of Blackmoor itself . After playing in the Blackmoor game Arneson refereed , Gygax almost immediately began a similar campaign of his own which he called Greyhawk and asked Arneson for a draft of his playing rules . The two then collaborated by phone and mail , and playtesting carried out by their various groups and other contacts . Gygax and Arneson wanted to publish the game , but Guidon Games and Avalon Hill rejected it . Arneson could not afford to invest in the venture .
Gygax felt that there was a need to publish the game as soon as possible , since similar projects were being planned elsewhere , so rules were hastily put together and Arneson 's own final draft was never used . Despite all this , Brian Blume eventually provided the funding required to publish the original Dungeons & Dragons set in 1974 , with the initial print run of 1 @,@ 000 selling out within a year and sales increasing rapidly in subsequent years . Further rules and a sample dungeon from Arneson 's original campaign ( the first published RPG scenario in a professional publication ) were released in 1975 in the Blackmoor supplement for D & D , named after the campaign setting . The supplement offered little in the way of details from Arneson 's actual campaign , however . Blackmoor showed D & D as Arneson imagined it ; as he had not been able to work with the final proofs of the original game , this was his first opportunity to present his take on the game . He included new classes for monks and assassins , more monsters , and " The Temple of the Frog " , the first published RPG adventure for other people to run . Although the book bore the setting 's name , it focused more on Arneson 's house rules rather than background material .
Arneson formally joined TSR as their Director of Research at the beginning of 1976 but left at the end of the year to pursue a career as an independent game designer .
= = After TSR = =
In 1977 , despite the fact that he was no longer at TSR , Arneson published Dungeonmaster 's Index , a 38 @-@ page booklet that indexed all of TSR 's D & D properties to that point in time , including Chainmail , the original 3 @-@ book set of D & D , the five D & D supplements ( Greyhawk ; Blackmoor ; Eldritch Wizardry ; Gods , Demi @-@ gods & Heroes ; and Swords & Spells ) , and all seven issues of The Strategic Review .
TSR had agreed to pay Arneson royalties on all D & D products , but when the company came out with Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) in 1977 , it claimed that this was a significantly different product and did not pay him royalties . In response , Arneson filed the first of five lawsuits against Gygax and TSR in 1979 . In March 1981 , as part of a confidential agreement , Arneson and Gygax resolved the suits out of court by agreeing that they would both be credited as " co @-@ creators " on the packaging of D & D products from that point on , but the court ruled that Arneson was not due monies for the AD & D game . This did not end the lingering tensions between them . ( Twenty years later , Wizards of the Coast ( WotC ) bought TSR and wanted to drop the word " Advanced " from its planned third edition of D & D. WotC CEO Peter Adkison approached Arneson to resolve the two @-@ decade @-@ old issue and Arneson released all claims to D & D for an undisclosed sum of money . )
Arneson wrote up the Blackmoor setting for Judges Guild in The First Fantasy Campaign ( 1977 ) . In 1979 Arneson and Richard L. Snider , an original Blackmoor player , co @-@ authored Adventures in Fantasy , a role @-@ playing game that attempted to recapture the " original spirit of the Role Playing Fantasy Game " that Arneson had envisioned in the early 1970s , instead of what D & D had become . In the early 1980s he established his own game company , Adventure Games - staffed largely by Arneson 's friends , most of whom were also members of a Civil War reenactment group - that produced the miniatures games Harpoon ( 1981 ) and Johnny Reb ( 1983 ) , as well as a new edition of his own Adventures in Fantasy role @-@ playing game ( 1981 ) . The company also put out about a half @-@ dozen Tékumel related books , due to Arneson 's friendship with M. A. R. Barker . Adventure Games was profitable , but Arneson found the workload to be excessive and finally sold the company to Flying Buffalo . Flying Buffalo picked up the rights to Adventure Games in 1985 ; because Arneson owned a portion of Flying Buffalo , he let them take care of the rest of the company 's stock and IP when he shut the company down .
While Gary Gygax was president of TSR in the mid @-@ 1980s , he and Arneson reconnected , and Arneson briefly relinked Blackmoor to D & D with the " DA " ( Dave Arneson ) series of modules set in Blackmoor ( 1986 – 1987 ) . The four modules , three of which were written by Arneson , detailed Arneson 's campaign setting for the first time . When Gygax was forced out of TSR , Arneson was removed from the company before a planned fifth module could be published . Gygax and Arneson again went their separate ways . In 1986 Arneson wrote a new D & D module set in Blackmoor called " The Garbage Pits of Despair " , which was published in two parts in Different Worlds magazine issues # 42 and # 43 .
In 1988 Arneson stated his belief that RPGs , whether paper or computer , were still " hack and slash " and did not teach novices how to play , and that games like Ultima IV " have stood pretty much alone as quirks instead of trend setters " as others did not follow their innovations . He hoped that computer RPGs would teach newcomers how to role play while offering interesting campaigns , and said that SSI 's Gold Box games did not innovate on the genre as much as he had hoped . Arneson stepped into the computer industry and founded 4D Interactive Systems , a computer company in Minnesota that is still in business today . He also did some computer programming and worked on several games . He eventually found himself consulting with computer companies .
Living in California in the late 1980s , Arneson had a chance to work with special education children . Upon returning to Minnesota , he pursued teaching and began speaking at schools about educational uses of role @-@ playing and using multi @-@ sided dice to teach math . In the 1990s he began working at Full Sail , a private university that teaches multimedia subjects , and continued there as a professor of computer game design until 2008 .
In 1997 , after Wizards of the Coast purchased TSR , Peter Adkison wrote a check to Arneson to free up D & D from royalties owed to Arneson ; this allowed Wizards to retitle Advanced Dungeons & Dragons to simply Dungeons & Dragons . Around 2000 , Arneson was working with videographer John Kentner on Dragons in the Basement , a video documentary on the early history of role @-@ playing games . Arneson describes the documentary : " Basically it is a series of interviews with original players ( ' How did D & D affect your life ? ' ) and original RPG designers like Marc Miller ( Traveller ) and M.A.R. Barker ( Empire of the Petal Throne ) . " He also made a cameo appearance in the Dungeons & Dragons movie as one of many mages throwing fireballs at a dragon , although the scene was deleted from the completed movie . Arneson and Dustin Clingman founded Zeitgeist Games to produce an updated d20 System version of the Blackmoor setting . Goodman Games published and distributed Dave Arneson 's Blackmoor in 2004 , and Goodman produced a few more Blackmoor products in the next year . Code Monkey Publishing released Dave Arneson 's Blackmoor : The First Campaign ( 2009 ) for 4th edition D & D.
= = Personal life = =
Arneson married Frankie Ann Morneau in 1984 ; they had one daughter , Malia , and two grandchildren .
Arneson continued to play games his entire life , including D & D and military miniature games , and regularly attended an annual meeting to play the original Blackmoor in Minnesota . At Full Sail University he taught the class " Rules of the Game " , a class in which students learned how to accurately document and create rule sets for games that were balanced between mental challenges for the players and " physical " ones for the characters . He retired from the position on June 19 , 2008 .
Arneson died on April 7 , 2009 , after battling cancer for two years . According to his daughter , Malia Weinhagen , " The biggest thing about my dad 's world is he wanted people to have fun in life ... I think we get distracted by the everyday things you have to do in life and we forget to enjoy life and have fun . "
= = Honors and tributes = =
Arneson received numerous industry awards for his part in creating Dungeons & Dragons and other role @-@ playing games . In 1984 he was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts and Design 's Hall of Fame and in 1999 was named by Pyramid magazine as one of The Millennium 's Most Influential Persons , " at least in the realm of adventure gaming " . He was honored as a " famous game designer " by being featured on the king of hearts in Flying Buffalo 's 2008 Famous Game Designers Playing Card Deck .
Three days after his death , Wizards of the Coast temporarily replaced the front page of the Dungeons & Dragons section of their web site with a tribute to Arneson . Other tributes in the gaming world included Order of the Stick # 644 , and Dork Tower for April 8 , 2009 .
Video game publisher Activision Blizzard posted a tribute to Arneson on their website and on April 14 , 2009 , released patch 3 @.@ 1 of the online role @-@ playing game World of Warcraft , The Secrets of Ulduar , dedicated to Arneson .
Turbine 's Dungeons and Dragons Online added an in @-@ game memorial altar to Arneson in the Ruins of Threnal location in the game . They also created an in @-@ game item named the " Mantle of the Worldshaper " that is a reward for finishing the Threnal quest chain that is narrated by Arneson himself . The Mantle 's description reads : " A comforting and inspiring presence surrounds you as you hold this cloak . Arcane runes run along the edges of the fine cape , and masterfully drawn on the silken lining is an incredibly detailed map of a place named ' Blackmoor ' . "
On October 30 , 2010 , Full Sail University dedicated the student game development studio space as " Dave Arneson 's Blackmoor Studios " in Arneson 's honor .
= = Partial bibliography = =
Dungeons & Dragons ( 1974 ) ( with Gary Gygax )
Blackmoor ( 1975 )
Dungeonmaster 's Index ( 1977 )
The First Fantasy Campaign ( 1977 )
Adventures in Fantasy ( 1979 ) ( with Richard L. Snider )
Robert Asprin 's Thieves ' World ( 1981 ) ( co @-@ author )
Citybook II – Port o ' Call ( 1984 ) ( co @-@ author )
Adventures in Blackmoor ( D & D Module : DA1 ) ( 1986 ) ( with David J. Ritchie )
Temple of the Frog ( D & D Module : DA2 ) ( 1986 ) ( with David J. Ritchie )
City of the Gods ( D & D Module : DA3 ) ( 1987 ) ( with David J. Ritchie )
DNA / DOA ( 1989 )
The Case of the Pacific Clipper ( 1991 )
The Haunted Lighthouse ( Dungeon Crawl Classics Module # 3 @.@ 5 ) ( 2003 )
Dave Arneson 's Blackmoor ( 2004 ) ( lead designer )
Player 's Guide to Blackmoor ( 2006 )
= HMS Ocean ( 1862 ) =
HMS Ocean was the last of the Royal Navy 's four Prince Consort @-@ class ironclads to be completed in the mid @-@ 1860s . She was originally laid down as a 91 @-@ gun second @-@ rate ship of the line , and was converted during construction to an armoured frigate . The ship spent the bulk of her career on the China Station and served as flagship there for a time . Upon her return to Great Britain in 1872 her hull was found to be partly rotten and she was placed in reserve until she was sold for scrap in 1882 .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Ocean was 273 feet 1 inch ( 83 @.@ 2 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 58 feet 5 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) . The ship had a draught of 24 feet 5 inches ( 7 @.@ 4 m ) forward and 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) aft . She displaced 6 @,@ 832 long tons ( 6 @,@ 942 t ) .
Ocean had a metacentric height of 6 @.@ 01 feet ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) which meant that she rolled a lot and was an unsteady gun platform . Her hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling . Her crew consisted of 605 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Ocean had a simple horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine driving a single propeller shaft using steam was provided by eight rectangular boilers . The engine produced 4 @,@ 244 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 165 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials in June 1864 which gave the ship a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 9 knots ( 23 @.@ 9 km / h ; 14 @.@ 8 mph ) . Ocean carried a maximum of 570 long tons ( 580 t ) of coal , enough to steam 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 700 km ; 2 @,@ 300 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . She was barque @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 25 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) . Her best speed with the propeller disconnected and under sail alone was 11 @.@ 5 knots ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ; 13 @.@ 2 mph ) . Yards were added to the ship 's mizzenmast by 1866 and Ocean was given a full ship rig which she retained for the rest of her career .
= = = Armament = = =
Ocean was initially armed with twenty @-@ four seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . Four of these guns were mounted on the upper deck as chase guns , two each fore and aft . The 16 @-@ calibre seven @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 inches ( 196 mm ) of armour . In 1867 four of these guns were replaced by eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loaders . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre eight @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed nine long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle .
= = = Armour = = =
The entire side of the Prince Consort @-@ class ships , from the upper @-@ deck level downwards , was protected by wrought iron armour that tapered from 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends to 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) amidships . The armour extended 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline . One small conning tower was fitted on each side of the upper deck amidships , but these proved to be untenable when the ship 's guns were fired . The armour was backed by the sides of the ship which were 29 @.@ 5 inches ( 749 mm ) thick .
= = Service history = =
HMS Ocean was laid down on 23 August 1860 as a wooden two @-@ deck , 90 @-@ gun ship of the line by Devonport Dockyard . The Admiralty ordered on 5 June 1861 that she be lengthened 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) , cut down one deck , and converted to an armoured frigate for the price of £ 298 @,@ 851 . The ship was launched on 19 March 1863 and commissioned in July 1866 , but was not completed until 6 September 1866 . Ocean initially served with the Channel Fleet , but she was almost immediately transferred to the Mediterranean , and from there to the Far East ; she arrived in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) on 15 October 1867 . She was the only armoured ship ever to double the Cape of Good Hope under canvas alone . During this voyage Ocean set a record in having sailed 243 nautical miles ( 450 km ; 280 mi ) on 26 August 1867 with cold boilers , the greatest distance ever covered under sail power by a British ironclad .
Ocean served on the China Station for five years , 1867 – 1872 , without docking once . The ship relieved the old two @-@ decker HMS Rodney as station flagship in 1869 when Vice @-@ Admiral Henry Kellett took command ; a new crew was carried out by HMS Donegal and Captain William Hewett , VC assumed command of the ship . Ocean was relieved in turn by HMS Iron Duke in 1872 , but drew too much water to pass through the Suez Canal . The Admiralty therefore ordered that she return home via the Cape of Good Hope using steam . The ship 's bottom was very foul and she averaged only 4 @.@ 5 knots ( 8 @.@ 3 km / h ) during the voyage . Ocean had lost a lot of sheathing during her time in the Far East and much of her planking was in a bad state . The ship was therefore relegated to dockyard reserve until sold in 1882 .
= Máscara Dorada =
Máscara Dorada ( born November 3 , 1988 ) is a Mexican luchador enmascarado , currently signed to WWE and best known for his decade long stint in Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre . Máscara Dorada 's real name has not been officially documented , a tradition in Mexican Lucha Libre where masked wrestler 's real names often are not a matter of public record . The wrestler currently known as Máscara Dorada made his debut in 2005 and has worked under other names , but achieved most success as Máscara Dorada . His ring name is Spanish for " Golden Mask " .
At one time , Máscara Dorada was a quadruple CMLL champion , holding the Mexican National Trios Championship , the CMLL World Trios Championship , the CMLL World Super Lightweight Championship and the CMLL World Welterweight Championship at the same time . He is also the wrestler who has held the CMLL World Welterweight Championship , having held it four times in total . After a decade of working for CMLL in his native Mexico , Dorada signed with the Japanese promotion New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) in January 2015 . After a year with NJPW , Dorada returned to CMLL in January 2016 .
He made his in ring debut in 2005 , originally using the masked persona Plata II and later on would use the ring name " Metallik " where he held the local Occidente Welterweight Championship , but abandoned it when he was given the Máscara Dorada character . The " Máscara Dorada " was the first instance of a regular luchador being given a character based on a Mini @-@ Estrella as he was introduced after CMLL introduced Mascarita Dorada in 2007 .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( 2005 – 2016 ) = = =
The luchador who would later be known as Máscara Dorada made his debut on July 14 , 2005 , after training with Gran Cochisse and El Satánico . His initial ring persona was that of Plata II , a copy of the original Plata that wrestled in the early to mid 1990s . His run at Plata II was short lived as he was quickly repackage as Metalik , a variation of the " Metal based " look that he also used as " Plata II " . As Metalik he worked mainly for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre 's ( CMLL ) Guadalajara branch , getting experience while working on a local level . On April 13 , 2008 Metalik defeated wrestler Depredador for the Occidente Welterweight Championship , the local Welterweight title . About a month later Metalik won his first ever Luchas de Apuestas match , winning the hair of Jeque . The title win and hair win indicated that CMLL had plans for Metalik 's future . Metalik was entered in the 2008 Torneo Gran Alternativa , where a newcomer teams up with a veteran , Metalik teamed up with Dos Caras , Jr. and made it all the way to the finals before losing to Último Guerrero and Dragón Rojo , Jr .
In 2007 CMLL signed Mascarita Sagrada 2000 , but were not allowed to call him that as a rival promotion owned the copyright to the name . Instead CMLL chose to repackage the Mini luchador as Mascarita Dorada . The gimmick and the wrestler proved so successful , that in the fall of 2008 , CMLL announced that they were creating a " Large " version of Mascarita Dorada . Traditionally the minis were often patterned after existing Luchadors , but this time the mini was created before the " Regular " . On November 7 , 2008 Metalik was repackaged and made his debut as Máscara Dorada , helping his team defeat the trio of Averno , Mephisto and Ephesto . Máscara Dorada kept working mid @-@ card tag team matches throughout the spring of 2008 with general success . On April 4 , 2009 CMLL announced that they had stripped Rocky Romero of the CMLL World Super Lightweight Championship and announced that a tournament to crown the new champion would take place on April 7 , 2009 , one of the announced participants was Máscara Dorada . On the night Máscara Dorada won a Tornero Cibernetico outlasting nine other wrestlers to become the CMLL Super Lightweight Champion
Since he held a CMLL title Dorada was entered into CMLL 's inargual " Universal Championship " tournament , but was eliminated in the first round by Black Warrior . On December 19 , 2009 it was announced by the Comisión de Box y Lucha Libre Mexico D.F. that Poder Mexica had been stripped of the Mexican National Trios Championship title because Black Warrior had left CMLL , breaking up the team . At the same time they announced an eight team tournament to crown a new trios champion . The top half of the bracket took place on December 22 , 2009 and the bottom half of the bracket took place on December 29 . In the top bracket Máscara Dorada teamed with Stuka , Jr. and Metro for the first time ever and defeated Los Guerreros Tuareg ( Arkangel de la Muerte , Loco Max and Skándalo ) in the first round and Los Cancerberos del Infierno ( Virus , Euforia and Pólvora ) in the second round to qualify for the finals . The bottom bracket took place on December 29 , 2009 and saw the team of Poder Mexica ( Sangre Azteca , Dragón Rojo , Jr. and Misterioso , Jr . ) qualify for the final . On January 6 , 2010 Máscara Dorada , Stuka , Jr. and Metro defeated Poder Mexica to become the new Mexican National Trios Champions , making Máscara Dorada a double champion .
On January 22 , 2010 Máscara Dorada teamed up with Atlantis to participate in CMLL 's Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles ( " National Amazing Pairs tournament " ) , a tournament where CMLL teams up a Tecnico ( Dorada ) and a Rudo ( Atlantis ) for a tournament . The two defeated Dragón Rojo , and La Sombra in the opening round , Mr. Niebla and Máximo in the second round and Místico and Averno in the semi @-@ final to earn a spot in the final of the tournament . During the tournament Atlantis wore his old Tecnico white mask , acting and wrestling a tecnico style . On February 5 , 2010 Dorada and Atlantis defeated Negro Casas and La Máscara in the finals to win the tournament .
On May 14 , 2010 Máscara Dorada teamed up with La Sombra and La Máscara to defeat the then CMLL World Trios Champions La Ola Amarilla ( Hiroshi Tanahashi , Okumura and Taichi ) in a non @-@ title match to earn a shot at the titles the following week . One week later the trio defeated Ola Amarilla again , ending the Japanese trios title reign after just two weeks . By virtue of holding three CMLL championships Máscara Dorada participated in the 2010 Universal Championship tournament . Stuka , Jr. was part of " Block A " that competed on the July 30 , 2010 Super Viernes show . He was the first wrestler eliminated in the seeding battle royal and then defeated his Mexican National Trios Championship partner Stuka , Jr. in the first round of the actual tournament . Máscara Dorada was eliminated in the second round , losing to Último Guerrero . On September 7 , 2010 Máscara Dorada defeated Negro Casas to win the CMLL World Welterweight Championship , making him a quadruple CMLL champion , the first ever in the history of the promotion . On November 18 , 2010 , Dorada announced that he was relinquishing his hold of the Mexican National Trios Championship , which Metro and Stuka , Jr. will continue to hold with a new partner .
On January 22 , 2011 , Dorada lost the CMLL World Welterweight Championship to Ryusuke Taguchi at Fantastica Mania 2011 , a CMLL and New Japan Pro Wrestling co – promoted event in Tokyo , Japan . On February 25 , 2011 , Máscara Dorada and Atlantis defeated Blue Panther and Dragón Rojo , Jr. in the finals to win the Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles for the second year in a row . On April 7 Dorada vacated the CMLL World Super Lightweight Championship , stating that he was moving up to the middleweight division . After Dorada returned from Japan with the CMLL World Welterweight Championship , La Generación Dorada lost the CMLL World Trios Championship to Los Hijos del Averno ( Averno , Ephesto and Mephisto ) on July 15 , 2011 . On November 11 , 2012 , Dorada lost the CMLL World Welterweight Championship to Pólvora during CMLL 's Sunday night event in Arena Mexico .
On June 2 , 2013 , Dorada defeated Negro Casas to win the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship for the first time . On June 16 , Dorada and his new Los Estetas del Aire ( " Air Aesthetes " ) stable , formed with Místico and Valiente , won the CMLL World Trios Championship . On November 19 , Dorada lost the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship to Volador Jr . On March 28 , 2014 , Los Estetas del Aire also lost the CMLL World Trios Championship .
On January 2 , 2015 , Dorada defeated Negro Casas in the finals of a tournament to win the CMLL World Welterweight Championship for the third time . Later in the month , through CMLL 's relationship with NJPW , Dorada signed a one @-@ year contract with NJPW , leaving his Mexican home promotion . He returned to CMLL and hand his first match in Mexico for over a year on February 1 , 2016 . On May 3 , 2016 his fourth reign as the CMLL World Welterweight Champion was ended as Mephisto defeated him for the championship .
= = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2010 – 2016 ) = = =
In April 2010 it was announced that Máscara Dorada and Valiente would travel to Japan in early May to participate in New Japan Pro Wrestling 's first ever Super J Tag Team tournament . In the first round of the tournament they lost to former IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions Ryusuke Taguchi and Prince Devitt in just under eight minutes . In November 2010 Máscara Dorada and La Sombra took part in New Japan 's five @-@ day @-@ long Super J Tag League . After winning two out of their four matches in the group stage , Sombra and Dorada finished third in their block , missing the finals of the tournament . Dorada and Sombra returned to New Japan on January 4 , 2011 , at Wrestle Kingdom V in Tokyo Dome , where they defeated Jushin Thunder Liger and Héctor Garza in a tag team match .
Dorada returned to New Japan on April 16 , teaming with Tama Tonga to defeat Liger and King Fale in a tag team match . Dorada worked a majority of the tour as a rudo , teaming with members of the Chaos stable . On May 3 at Wrestling Dontaku 2011 , Dorada unsuccessfully challenged Liger for the CMLL World Middleweight Championship . Dorada 's extended tour of New Japan also included participation in the 2011 Best of the Super Juniors tournament in late May @-@ early June . Dorada managed to win four out of his eight matches in the round robin stage of the tournament , which included wins over Liger and CMLL World Welterweight Champion Ryusuke Taguchi , and finished sixth out of the nine wrestlers in his block . On June 18 at New Japan 's Dominion 6 @.@ 18 show , Dorada defeated Taguchi to regain the CMLL World Welterweight Championship . Three days later Dorada entered the J Sports Crown Openweight 6 Man Tag Tournament , teaming with IWGP Heavyweight Champion Hiroshi Tanahashi and KUSHIDA , with the team defeating Brian Kendrick , Gedo and Jado in their first round match . The following day the trio was eliminated from the tournament in the second round by Giant Bernard , Jushin Thunder Liger and Karl Anderson . Dorada 's tour of New Japan ended the following day , when he , Tanahashi , Hiroyoshi Tenzan , Tiger Mask and Wataru Inoue were defeated in a ten man tag team match by Chaos ( Dick Togo , Gedo , Jado , Masato Tanaka and Yujiro Takahashi ) .
On January 4 , 2012 , Dorada returned to New Japan at Wrestle Kingdom VI in Tokyo Dome , where he teamed with Jushin Thunder Liger , KUSHIDA and Tiger Mask to defeat Atlantis , Taichi , Taka Michinoku and Valiente in an eight man tag team match . Dorada returned to Japan on January 21 to take part in the Fantastica Mania 2012 events , teaming with Rush losing to the team of Hirooki Goto and KUSHIDA on the first night . The second night , Dorada successfully defended the CMLL World Welterweight Championship against KUSHIDA . On September 7 , 2012 , Dorada returned to Japan for another two @-@ week tour with New Japan Pro Wrestling . In January 2013 , Dorada returned to Japan to take part in the three @-@ day Fantastica Mania 2013 event . During the first night on January 18 , he teamed with La Máscara and Máximo in a six man tag team match , where they were defeated by Taichi , Taka Michinoku and Volador Jr . The following night , Dorada and Diamante were defeated in a tag team match by Mephisto and Okumura . During the third and final night , Dorada took part in a twelve @-@ man torneo cibernetico , from which he was the eighth man eliminated by Yoshi @-@ Hashi and which was eventually won by Tomohiro Ishii . Dorada returned to New Japan on September 23 ,
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worked exclusively on the Sagrada Família until his death .
= = Collaborators = =
The enormous task which Gaudí faced , not in terms of the number of works , but in terms of their complexity , required the collaboration of a large number of assistants , artists , architects and craftsmen . Gaudí always led the way , but allowed expression of the individual abilities of all of his collaborators . A test of his expertise both in his field and in interpersonal communication was demonstrated in bringing together a large number of diverse professionals and creating an integrated team . Among his collaborators were :
Architects : Francesc Berenguer , Josep Maria Jujol , Cristòfor Cascante i Colom , Josep Francesc Ràfols , Cèsar Martinell , Joan Bergós , Francesc Folguera , Josep Canaleta , Joan Rubió , Domènec Sugrañes , Francesc Quintana , Isidre Puig i Boada , Lluís Bonet i Garí .
Sculptors : Carles Mani , Joan Flotats , Llorenç Matamala , Joan Matamala , Josep Llimona .
Painters : Ricard Opisso , Aleix Clapés , Iu Pascual , Xavier Nogués , Jaume Llongueras , Joaquín Torres García .
Builders and foremen : Agustí Massip , Josep Bayó i Font , Claudi Alsina i Bonafont , Josep Pardo i Casanova and his nephew Julià Bardier i Pardo .
Craftsmen : Eudald Puntí ( carpenter and forger ) , Joan Oñós ( forger ) , Lluís y Josep Badia i Miarnau ( forger ) , Joan Bertran ( plasterer ) , Joan Munné ( cabinet maker ) , Frederic Labòria ( cabinet maker ) , Antoni Rigalt i Blanch ( glazier ) , Josep Pelegrí ( glazier ) , Mario Maragliano ( mosaic artist ) , Jaume Pujol i Bausis and his son Pau Pujol i Vilà ( ceramicists ) .
= = Legacy = =
After his death , Gaudí 's works suffered a period of neglect and were largely unpopular among international critics , who regarded them as baroque and excessively imaginative . In his homeland he was equally disdained by Noucentisme , the new movement which took the place of Modernisme . In 1936 , during the Spanish Civil War , Gaudí 's workshop in the Sagrada Família was ransacked and a great number of his documents , plans and scale models were destroyed .
Gaudí 's reputation was beginning to recover by the 1950s , when his work was championed not only by Salvador Dalí but also by architect Josep Lluís Sert . In 1952 , the centenary year of the architect 's birth , the Asociación de Amigos de Gaudí ( Friends of Gaudí Association ) was founded with the aim of disseminating and conserving his legacy . Four years later , a retrospective was organised at the Saló del Tinell in Barcelona , and the Gaudí Chair at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia was created with the purpose of deepening the study of the Gaudí 's works and participating in their conservation . These events were followed in 1957 by Gaudí 's first international exhibition , held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City . In 1976 , on the 50th anniversary of his death , the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs organised an exhibition about Gaudí and his works that toured the globe .
Between 1950 and 1960 , research and writings by international critics like George R. Collins , Nikolaus Pevsner and Roberto Pane spread a renewed awareness of Gaudí 's work , while in his homeland it was admired and promoted by Alexandre Cirici , Juan Eduardo Cirlot and Oriol Bohigas . Gaudí 's work has since gained widespread international appreciation , such as in Japan where notable studies have been published by Kenji Imai and Tokutoshi Torii . International recognition of Gaudí 's contributions to the field of architecture and design culminated in the 1984 listing of Gaudí 's key works as UNESCO World Heritage Sites . Gaudí 's style have subsequently influenced contemporary architects such as Santiago Calatrava and Norman Foster .
Due to Gaudí 's profoundly religious and ascetic lifestyle , the archbishop of Barcelona , Ricard Maria Carles proposed Gaudí 's beatification in 1998 . His beatification was approved by the Vatican in 2000 . In 1999 , American composer Christopher Rouse wrote the guitar concerto Concert de Gaudí , which was inspired by Gaudí 's work ; it went on to win the 2002 Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition . On the occasion of the 150th anniversary of Gaudí 's birth , a number of official ceremonies , concerts , shows and conferences were held , and several books were published . On 24 September of the same year , the musical Gaudí had its premiere in the Palau dels Esports de Barcelona . The authors of the piece were Jordi Galceran , Esteve Miralles and Albert Guinovart . In 2008 the Gaudí Awards were launched in his honour , organised by the Catalan Film Academy to award the best Catalan films of the year . An Iberia Airbus A340 @-@ 642 , EC @-@ INO is named after Gaudí .
= = = World Heritage = = =
Several of Gaudí 's works have been granted World Heritage status by UNESCO : in 1984 the Park Güell , the Palau Güell and the Casa Milà ; and in 2005 the Nativity facade , the crypt and the apse of the Sagrada Família , the Casa Vicens and the Casa Batlló in Barcelona , together with the crypt of the Colònia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló .
The declaration of Gaudí 's works as World Heritage aims to recognise his outstanding universal value . According to the citation :
* The work of Antoni Gaudí represents an exceptional and outstanding creative contribution to the development of architecture and building technology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
Gaudí 's work exhibits an important interchange of values closely associated with the cultural and artistic currents of his time , as represented in el Modernisme [ sic ] of Catalonia . It anticipated and influenced many of the forms and techniques that were relevant to the development of modern construction in the 20th century .
Gaudí 's work represents a series of outstanding examples of the building typology in the architecture of the early 20th century , residential as well as public , to the development of which he made a significant and creative contribution .
= Mistle thrush =
The mistle thrush ( Turdus viscivorus ) is a bird common to much of Europe , Asia and North Africa . It is a year @-@ round resident in much of its range , but northern and eastern populations migrate south for the winter , often in small flocks . It is a large thrush with pale grey @-@ brown upperparts , a greyish @-@ white chin and throat , and black spots on its pale yellow and off @-@ white underparts . The sexes are similar in plumage , and its three subspecies show only minimal differences . The male has a loud , far @-@ carrying song which is delivered even in wet and windy weather , earning the bird the old name of " stormcock " .
Found in open woods , parks , hedges and cultivated land , the mistle thrush feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates , seeds and berries . Its preferred fruits including those of the mistletoe , holly and yew . Mistletoe is favoured where it is available , and this is reflected in the thrush 's English and scientific names ; the plant , a parasitic species , benefits from its seeds being excreted by the thrush onto branches where they can germinate . In winter , a mistle thrush will vigorously defend mistletoe clumps or a holly tree as a food reserve for when times are hard .
The open cup nest is built against a trunk or in a forked branch , and is fearlessly defended against potential predators , sometimes including humans or cats . The clutch , typically of three to five eggs , is incubated for 12 – 15 days , mainly by the female . The chicks fledge about 14 – 16 days after hatching . There are normally two broods . There was a large range expansion in the 18th and early 19th centuries , although there has been a small decline in recent decades , perhaps due to changes in agricultural practices . Given its high numbers and very large range , this thrush is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
The mistle thrush was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 under its current scientific name . The bird 's liking for mistletoe berries is indicated by both its English and scientific names . Turdus is the Latin for " thrush " , and viscivorus , " mistletoe eater " , comes from viscum " mistletoe " and vorare , " to devour " .
There are more than 60 species of medium to large thrushes in the genus Turdus , characterised by rounded heads , longish pointed wings , and usually melodious songs . A mitochondrial DNA study identified the mistle thrush 's closest relatives as the similarly plumaged song and Chinese thrushes , all three species being early offshoots from the main Turdus radiation , and hence more distantly related to other European thrushes such as the common blackbird .
At least eight subspecies have been proposed , but the differences are mainly clinal , with birds of the nominate subspecies becoming paler and less densely spotted in the east of the range . The currently accepted subspecies are :
Turdus viscivorus viscivorus , Linnaeus , 1758 . The nominate subspecies .
T. v. bonapartei , Cabanis , 1860 .
T. v. deichleri , Erlanger , 1897 .
An isolated population in Crimea has sometimes been separated as T. v. tauricus , but this is not considered to be a valid form . Mistle thrush fossils have been found in Pleistocene deposits from Poland and Sicily .
= = Description = =
The mistle thrush is the largest thrush native to Europe . The nominate subspecies measures 27 – 28 cm ( 11 – 11 in ) in length , with a 45 cm ( 18 in ) wingspan . It weighs 93 to 167 g ( 3 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 9 oz ) , with an average of around 130 g ( 4 @.@ 6 oz ) . It has a stocky upright posture when on the ground . It has pale grey @-@ brown upperparts , the chin and throat are greyish @-@ white , and the yellowish @-@ buff breast and off @-@ white belly are marked with round black spots . The spotting becomes denser on the lower chest , giving the appearance of a breast @-@ band . The long tail has white tips on the outer feathers , and the underwing coverts are white . The eyes are dark brown and the bill is blackish with a yellowish base to the lower mandible . The legs and feet are yellowish @-@ brown . There are no plumage differences between the sexes . Juveniles are similar to adults , but they have paler upperparts with creamy centres to many of the feathers and smaller spots on the yellowish underparts . By their first winter they are very similar to adults , but the underparts are usually more buff @-@ toned .
The eastern subspecies T. v. bonapartei is 30 cm ( 12 in ) in length , and therefore slightly larger than the nominate form . It is paler grey above and whiter below , with fewer black spots . Birds of intermediate appearance are seen west of the Ob River where the range overlaps with viscivorus . The southern race T. v. deichleri resembles bonapartei in appearance , but is closer in size to the nominate viscivorus , although it has a more slender bill .
Adults have a full moult after breeding , beginning between late May and the end of June , and completed by early October . Juvenile birds have a partial moult , replacing their head , body , and covert feathers ; this is completed by October , although the start of the moult depends on when the chicks hatched .
The mistle thrush is much larger , paler and longer @-@ tailed than the sympatric song thrush . In the western Himalayas it could be confused with both the plain @-@ backed and the long @-@ tailed thrushes . These are similar to the mistle thrush , but the plain – backed thrush lacks obvious wing bars , is more rufous above than its relative , and is barred rather than spotted below . The long @-@ tailed thrush has olive @-@ toned upperparts , bars on its breast and two wing bars . Juvenile mistle thrushes are superficially similar to White 's thrush , but that species has golden @-@ yellow plumage , scalloped underparts and a distinctive underwing pattern .
= = = Voice = = =
The male mistle thrush has a loud melodious song with fluted whistles , sounding like chewee @-@ trewuu ... trureetruuruu or similar , repeated three to six times , and used to advertise his territory , attract a mate and maintain the pair bond . The tone resembles that of the song thrush or blackbird , but compared to its relatives the mistle thrush 's repertoire is less varied and the delivery is slower . The song is , however , much louder , often audible up to 2 km ( 2 @,@ 000 yd ) away . The song is given from a treetop or other elevated position mainly from November to early June . The male is most vocal in the early morning , and its tendency to sing after , and sometimes during , wet and windy weather led to the old name " stormcock " . The song may be heard in any month , although it is uncommon from July to August while the thrush is moulting . The main call , given by both sexes , is a dry chattering krrrr , louder when it is alarmed or excited . It is often likened to the sound of a football rattle , a form of musical ratchet . There is also a squeaky tuk contact call .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The mistle thrush breeds in much of Europe and temperate Asia , although it is absent from the treeless far north , and its range becomes discontinuous in southeast Europe , Turkey and the Middle East . In these warmer southern areas , it tends to be found in the milder uplands and coastal regions . Nominate T. v. viscivorus breeds in Europe and in Asia east to the Ob , beyond which it is replaced by T. v. bonapartei . The southern form T. v. deichleri is resident in North Africa , Corsica and Sardinia .
The mistle thrush is a partial migrant : birds from the north and east of the range wintering in the milder areas of Europe and North Africa . Scandinavian and Russian birds start moving south from mid @-@ September onwards , most birds wintering in Europe , western Turkey and the Middle East . Between mid @-@ October and November , large numbers cross the Strait of Gibraltar and others pass through Cyprus , but there is hardly any migration across the North Sea . Breeding birds in the British Isles and north @-@ west Europe are resident or move only short distances . In the Himalayas , the breeding population moves to nearby lower @-@ altitude sites in winter . Return migration starts mainly from late March , although it can be a month earlier in the Middle East , and northern breeders may not arrive back on their territories until late April or early May . Migration may be by day or night , and typically involves individuals or small groups . Vagrant birds have occurred in the Azores , China , Crete , Faroe Islands , Iceland , Japan , Oman , Saudi Arabia , Sikkim and the United Arab Emirates .
The mistle thrush is found in a wide range of habitats containing trees , including forests , plantations , hedges and town parks . In the south and east of its range , it inhabits upland coniferous woodland and the range extends above the main tree line where dwarf juniper is present . Breeding occurs at up to 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) in the mountains of North Africa , and occasionally much higher , to 1 @,@ 700 m ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) . In the highlands of Europe , its preferred altitude is from 800 – 1 @,@ 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 – 5 @,@ 900 ft ) . More open habitats , such as agricultural land , moors and grassy hills , are extensively used in winter or on migration .
There is evidence that this species has changed its natural habitat in at least parts of its range . In Germany and elsewhere in central Europe , it was found only in coniferous forest until the mid @-@ 1920s when its range rapidly expanded , first into farmland , and then to suburbs and urban parks . The reasons for this expansion are unclear . In areas of intensive farming , such as eastern England , arable land has in turn largely been abandoned in favour of built @-@ up areas with their greater variety of green habitats .
= = Behaviour = =
Mistle thrushes are found as individuals or pairs for much of the year , although families forage together in late summer , and groups may merge to form flocks of several tens of birds ; it is not uncommon for up to 50 thrushes to feed together at that time of year . They roost at night in trees or bushes , again typically as individuals or pairs , but with families roosting together in autumn .
The mistle thrush is quite terrestrial , hopping with its head held up and body erect ; when excited , it will flick its wings and tail . The flight consists of undulating bounds interspersed with glides .
= = = Breeding = = =
Mistle thrushes breed in the year subsequent to their hatching ; they are monogamous and stay as a pair throughout the year in areas where they are not migratory . Their territories are much larger than those of blackbirds or song thrushes ; although the nest territory is only about 0 @.@ 6 hectares ( 1 @.@ 5 acres ) , around 15 – 17 ha ( 37 – 42 acres ) is used for feeding . Territories are normally reoccupied in subsequent years . Territories are larger in woods than in farmland . The male will attack intruders into its breeding area , including birds of prey and corvids , and sometimes cats or humans . Courtship feeding of the female by her partner has sometimes been observed . Breeding typically commences in mid @-@ March in the south and west of Europe ( late February in Britain ) , but not till early May in Finland . The nest is usually built in a tree in the fork of a branch or against the trunk , although hedges , ledges on buildings and cliff faces may also be used . The nest site may be up to 20 m ( 66 ft ) above the ground , although 2 – 9 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 29 @.@ 5 ft ) is more typical . The common chaffinch often nests close to a mistle thrush , the vigilance of the finch and the aggressive behaviour of the thrush benefiting both species . The thrush 's nest is a large cup of sticks , dry grass , roots and moss , coated on the inside with a layer of mud and lined with fine grass and leaves . The nest is built by the female , although the male may help . Nests built early in the breeding season may be destroyed by bad weather .
The clutch is typically three to five eggs ( range two to six ) , which are usually whitish @-@ buff or greenish @-@ blue and are spotted with red , purple or brown . The average size of the egg is 30 mm × 22 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in × 0 @.@ 87 in ) , and weighs 7 @.@ 8 g ( 0 @.@ 28 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . The eggs are incubated for 12 – 15 days , mainly by the female . The chicks are altricial and downy , and are fed by both parents . They fledge about 14 – 16 days after hatching . There are normally two broods , except in Siberia , where there is only one , the male feeding the fledglings from the first brood while the female sits on the second clutch . Sometimes the same nest is reused for both broods . The young are dependent on their parents for 15 – 20 days after fledging .
In a study carried out in Britain , the survival rate for juveniles in their first year is 57 per cent , and the adult annual survival rate is 62 per cent . Life expectancy is typically three years , but the maximum age recorded from bird ringing recoveries is 21 years and 3 months for a bird shot in Switzerland .
= = = Feeding = = =
Mistle thrushes feed mainly on invertebrates , fruit and berries . Animal prey include earthworms , insects and other arthropods , slugs and snails . Snails are sometimes smashed on a stone " anvil " , a technique also used by the song thrush . The mistle thrush has been known to kill slow worms and the young of the song thrush , blackbird and dunnock .
Plant food includes the fruits and seeds of bushes and trees , mainly holly , yew , ivy and mistletoe , but also , for example , blackberry , cherry , elder , hawthorn , olive and rose . It may eat the flowers and shoots of grasses and other plants , and will take fallen apples and plums . It forages within its breeding habitat and in open fields , sometimes sharing these feeding areas with redwings or fieldfares .
Young birds are initially mainly fed on invertebrates , often collected from low foliage or under bushes rather than in the grassland preferred by the adults . Adults will roam up to 1 km ( 1000 yd ) from the nest on pasture or ploughed land . After fledging the young may accompany their parents until the onset of winter . Individuals or pairs will defend one or more fruit @-@ bearing trees throughout the winter , mistletoe being preferred where available , with holly as the first choice elsewhere . Although the thrush normally feeds on the ground or other trees , the defence of this resource conserves the fruit for later in the season when other food items are becoming scarce . The trees are defended against conspecifics , other thrushes and species such as the bullfinch and great spotted woodpecker . In years when there is an abundance of winter fruit , this strategy may be abandoned , with the mistle thrushes foraging in flocks . Conversely , in hard winters , the defender may be overwhelmed by large flocks of fieldfares , redwings or Bohemian waxwings .
As its name implies , the mistle thrush is important in propagating the mistletoe , an aerial parasite , which needs its seeds to be deposited on the branches of suitable trees . The highly nutritious fruits are favoured by the thrush , which digests the flesh leaving the sticky seeds to be excreted , possibly in a suitable location for germination .
= = Predators and parasites = =
The mistle thrush is hunted by birds of prey including the boreal owl , short @-@ eared owl , tawny owl , Ural owl , Eurasian eagle @-@ owl , golden eagle , kestrel , common buzzard , red kite , northern goshawk , peregrine falcon , and sparrowhawk . The eggs and chicks may be targeted by cats and corvids , although the adults are fearless in defence of their nests , occasionally even attacking humans . The mistle thrush is not normally a host of the common cuckoo , a brood parasite .
External parasites of the mistle thrush include the hen flea , the moorhen flea , the castor bean tick and the brightly coloured harvest mite . Internally , the thrush may be hosting tapeworms , nematodes , and Syngamus merulae a relative of the gapeworm . Blood parasites include Trypanosoma and Plasmodium species .
= = Status = =
The mistle thrush has an extensive distribution in Europe and western Asia , and its European breeding population is estimated at 9 – 22 @.@ 2 million birds . When Asian breeders are added , this gives a global total of 12 @.@ 2 – 44 @.@ 4 million . The species was formerly more restricted in range , and rarely bred even in northern England in the 1700s . It expanded rapidly into lowland and coastal areas of Europe during the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century , colonising areas where it was formerly rare or absent , such as Ireland ( where it first bred in 1807 ) , Scotland and the Netherlands . The range also increased in Denmark , Norway , Hungary and Austria .
Although the population now appears to be declining , the decrease is not rapid or large enough to trigger conservation vulnerability criteria . Given its high numbers and very large range , this thrush is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern . The perceived decline may be due to the loss of invertebrate @-@ rich pastures and mixed farms through conversion to arable agriculture or more intensively managed grassland . Adult survival , clutch size and fledging success are all lower in arable landscapes than in areas with extensive pasture . In Finland , the loss of ancient forests is thought to have led to a local decline .
= = In culture = =
Desiderius Erasmus 's early sixteenth @-@ century collection of Latin proverbs included Turdus malum sibi ipse cacat , ( the thrush himself excretes his own trouble ) , which refers to the use of the sticky berries favoured by this species to make birdlime for trapping birds . The thrush is literally spreading the seeds of his own destruction .
Giovanni da Udine painted in Raphael 's workshop in the 16th century . His Mistle Thrush and Alpine Chough was a sketch for his Bird with Garland and Fruit , and this in turn was the basis for a Raphael fresco in the Apostolic Palace .
The early Renaissance poem " The Harmony of Birds " had the thrusshe ( mistle thrush ) sing " sanctus , sanctus " , and distinguished it from the song thrush , the mauys or throstle . The song is also described in Thomas Hardy 's " Darkling Thrush " and Edward Thomas 's " The Thrush " . The loud call of this common and conspicuous bird also led to many old or local names , including " screech " , " shrite " and " gawthrush " . Other names , including " stormcock " referred to its willingness to sing in wind and rain . " Holm thrush " , " hollin cock " and " holm cock " are based on obsolete names for the holly tree , which may be defended by the thrush in winter for its berries .
= Science and technology of the Han dynasty =
The Han dynasty ( 206 BC – 220 AD ) of ancient China , divided between the eras of Western Han ( 206 BC – 9 AD , when the capital was at Chang 'an ) , Xin dynasty of Wang Mang ( r . 9 – 23 AD ) , and Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 AD , when the capital was at Luoyang , and after 196 AD at Xuchang ) , witnessed some of the most significant advancements in premodern Chinese science and technology .
There were great innovations in metallurgy . In addition to Zhou @-@ dynasty China 's ( c . 1050 BCE – 256 BC ) previous inventions of the blast furnace and cupola furnace to make pig iron and cast iron , respectively , the Han period saw the development of steel and wrought iron by use of the finery forge and puddling process . With the drilling of deep boreholes into the earth , the Chinese used not only derricks to lift brine up to the surface to be boiled into salt , but also set up bamboo @-@ crafted pipeline transport systems which brought natural gas as fuel to the furnaces . Smelting techniques were enhanced with inventions such as the waterwheel @-@ powered bellows ; the resulting widespread distribution of iron tools facilitated the growth of agriculture . For tilling the soil and planting straight rows of crops , the improved heavy @-@ moldboard plough with three iron plowshares and sturdy multiple @-@ tube iron seed drill were invented in the Han , which greatly enhanced production yields and thus sustained population growth . The method of supplying irrigation ditches with water was improved with the invention of the mechanical chain pump powered by the rotation of a waterwheel or draft animals , which could transport irrigation water up elevated terrains . The waterwheel was also used for operating trip hammers in pounding grain and in rotating the metal rings of the mechanical @-@ driven astronomical armillary sphere representing the celestial sphere around the Earth .
The quality of life was improved with many Han inventions . The Han Chinese had hempen @-@ bound bamboo scrolls to write on , yet by the 2nd century AD had invented the papermaking process which created a writing medium that was both cheap and easy to produce . The invention of the wheelbarrow aided in the hauling of heavy loads . The maritime junk ship and stern @-@ mounted steering rudder enabled the Chinese to venture out of calmer waters of interior lakes and rivers and into the open sea . The invention of the grid reference for maps and raised @-@ relief map allowed the Chinese to better navigate their terrain . In medicine , they used new herbal remedies to cure illnesses , calisthenics to keep physically fit , and regulated diets to avoid diseases . Authorities in the capital were warned ahead of time of the direction of sudden earthquakes with the invention of the seismometer that was tripped by a vibration @-@ sensitive pendulum device . To mark the passing of the seasons and special occasions , the Han Chinese used two variations of the lunisolar calendar , which were established due to efforts in astronomy and mathematics . Han @-@ era Chinese advancements in mathematics include the discovery of square roots , cube roots , the Pythagorean theorem , Gaussian elimination , the Horner scheme , improved calculations of pi , and negative numbers . Hundreds of new roads and canals were built to facilitate transport , commerce , tax collection , communication , and movement of military troops . The Han @-@ era Chinese also employed several types of bridges to cross waterways and deep gorges , such as beam bridges , arch bridges , simple suspension bridges , and pontoon bridges . Han ruins of defensive city walls made of brick or rammed earth still stand today .
= = Modern perspectives on science and technology during Han = =
Jin Guantao , a professor of the Institute of Chinese Studies at the Chinese University of Hong Kong , Fan Hongye , a research fellow with the Chinese Academy of Sciences ' Institute of Science Policy and Managerial Science , and Liu Qingfeng , a professor of the Institute of Chinese Culture at the Chinese University of Hong Kong , assert that the latter part of the Han dynasty was a unique period in the history of premodern Chinese science and technology . They compare it to the incredible pace of scientific and technological growth during the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 AD ) . However , they also argue that without the influence of proto @-@ scientific precepts in the ancient philosophy of Mohism , Chinese science continued to lack a definitive structure :
From the middle and late Eastern Han to the early Wei and Jin dynasties , the net growth of ancient Chinese science and technology experienced a peak ( second only to that of the Northern Song dynasty ) ... Han studies of the Confucian classics , which for a long time had hindered the socialization of science , were declining . If Mohism , rich in scientific thought , had rapidly grown and strengthened , the situation might have been very favorable to the development of a scientific structure . However , this did not happen because the seeds of the primitive structure of science were never formed . During the late Eastern Han , disastrous upheavals again occurred in the process of social transformation , leading to the greatest social disorder in Chinese history . One can imagine the effect of this calamity on science .
Joseph Needham ( 1900 – 1995 ) , a late Professor from the University of Cambridge and author of the groundbreaking Science and Civilisation in China series , stated that the " Han time ( especially the Later Han ) was one of the relatively important periods as regards the history of science in China . " He noted the advancements during Han of astronomy and calendrical sciences , the " beginnings of systematic botany and zoology " , as well as the philosophical skepticism and rationalist thought embodied in Han works such as the Lunheng by the philosopher Wang Chong ( 27 – 100 CE ) .
= = Writing materials = =
The most common writing mediums found in archaeological digs from ancient sites predating the Han period are shells and bones as well as bronzewares . In the beginning of the Han period , the chief writing mediums were bamboo ( Chinese : 竹簡 ) and clay tablets , silk cloth , and rolled scrolls made of strips of bamboo sewn together with hempen string passed through drilled holes ( 册 ) and secured with clay stamps . The written characters on these narrow flat strips of bamboo were arranged into vertical columns .
While maps drawn in ink on flat silk cloths have been found in the tomb of the Marquess of Dai ( interred in 168 BCE at Mawangdui , Hunan province ) , the earliest known paper map found in China , dated 179 – 41 BC and located at Fangmatan ( near Tianshui , Gansu province ) , is incidentally the oldest known piece of paper . Yet Chinese hempen paper of the Western Han and early Eastern Han eras was of a coarse quality and used primarily as wrapping paper . The papermaking process was not formally introduced until the Eastern Han court eunuch Cai Lun ( 50 – 121 AD ) created a process in 105 AD where mulberry tree bark , hemp , old linens , and fish nets were boiled together to make a pulp that was pounded , stirred in water , and then dunked with a wooden sieve containing a reed mat that was shaken , dried , and bleached into sheets of paper . The oldest known piece of paper with writing on it comes from the ruins of a Chinese watchtower at Tsakhortei , Alxa League , Inner Mongolia , dated precisely 110 AD when the Han garrison abandoned the area following a nomadic Xiongnu attack . By the 3rd century , paper became one of China 's chief writing mediums .
= = Ceramics = =
The Han ceramics industry was upheld by private businesses as well as local government agencies . Ceramics were used in domestic wares and utensils as well as construction materials for roof tiles and bricks .
Han dynasty grey pottery — its color derived from the clay that was used — was superior to earlier Chinese grey pottery due to the Han people 's use of larger kiln chambers , longer firing tunnels , and improved chimney designs . Kilns of the Han dynasty making grey pottery were able to reach firing temperatures above 1 @,@ 000 ° C ( 1 @,@ 830 ° F ) . However , hard southern Chinese pottery made from a dense adhesive clay native only in the south ( i.e. Guangdong , Guangxi , Hunan , Jiangxi , Fujian , Zhejiang , and southern Jiangsu ) was fired at even higher temperatures than grey pottery during the Han . Glazed pottery of the Shang ( c . 1600 – c . 1050 BC ) and Zhou ( c . 1050 – 256 BCE ) dynasties were fired at high temperatures , but by the mid Western Han ( 206 BC – 9 AD ) , a brown @-@ glazed ceramic was made which was fired at the low temperature of 800 ° C ( 1 @,@ 470 ° F ) , followed by a green @-@ glazed ceramic which became popular in the Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 CE ) .
Wang Zhongshu states that the light @-@ green stoneware known as celadon was thought to exist only since the Three Kingdoms ( 220 – 265 AD ) period onwards , but argues that ceramic shards found at Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 AD ) sites of Zhejiang province can be classified as celadon . However , Richard Dewar argues that true celadon was not created in China until the early Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) when Chinese kilns were able to reach a minimum furnace temperature of 1 @,@ 260 ° C ( 2 @,@ 300 ° F ) , with a preferred range of 1 @,@ 285 to 1 @,@ 305 ° C ( 2 @,@ 345 to 2 @,@ 381 ° F ) for celadon .
= = Metallurgy = =
= = = Furnaces and smelting techniques = = =
A blast furnace converts raw iron ore into pig iron , which can be remelted in a cupola furnace to produce cast iron . The earliest specimens of cast iron found in China date to the 5th century BC during the late Spring and Autumn period , yet the oldest discovered blast furnaces date to the 3rd century BC and the majority date to the period after Emperor Wu of Han ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) established a government monopoly over the iron industry in 117 BCE ( most of the discovered iron works sites built before this date were merely foundries which recast iron that had been smelt elsewhere ) . Iron ore smelted in blast furnaces during the Han was rarely if ever cast directly into permanent molds ; instead , the pig iron scraps were remelted in the cupola furnace to make cast iron . Cupola furnaces utilized a cold blast traveling through tuyere pipes from the bottom and over the top where the charge of charcoal and pig iron was introduced . The air traveling through the tuyere pipes thus became a hot blast once it reached the bottom of the furnace .
Although Chinese civilization lacked the bloomery , the Han Chinese were able to make wrought iron when they injected too much oxygen into the cupola furnace , causing decarburization . The Han @-@ era Chinese were also able to convert cast iron and pig iron into wrought iron and steel by using the finery forge and puddling process , the earliest specimens of such dating to the 2nd century BCE and found at Tieshengguo near Mount Song of Henan province . The semisubterranean walls of these furnaces were lined with refractory bricks and had bottoms made of refractory clay . Besides charcoal made of wood , Wang Zhongshu states that another furnace fuel used during the Han were " coal cakes " , a mixture of coal powder , clay , and quartz .
= = = Use of steel , iron , and bronze = = =
Donald B. Wagner writes that most domestic iron tools and implements produced during the Han were made of cheaper and more brittle cast iron , whereas the military preferred to use wrought iron and steel weaponry due to their more durable qualities . During the Han dynasty , the typical 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) bronze sword found in the Warring States period was gradually replaced with an iron sword measuring roughly 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in length . The ancient dagger @-@ axe ( ge ) made of bronze was still used by Han soldiers , although it was gradually phased out by iron spears and iron ji halberds . Even arrowheads , which were traditionally made of bronze , gradually only had a bronze tip and iron shaft , until the end of the Han when the entire arrowhead was made solely of iron . Farmers , carpenters , bamboo craftsmen , stonemasons , and rammed earth builders had at their disposal iron tools such as the plowshare , pickaxe , spade , shovel , hoe , sickle , axe , adze , hammer , chisel , knife , saw , scratch awl , and nails . Common iron commodities found in Han dynasty homes included tripods , stoves , cooking pots , belt buckles , tweezers , fire tongs , scissors , kitchen knives , fish hooks , and needles . Mirrors and oil lamps were often made of either bronze or iron . Coin money minted during the Han was made of either copper or copper and tin smelted together to make the bronze alloy .
= = Agriculture = =
= = = Tools and methods = = =
Modern archaeologists have unearthed Han iron farming tools throughout China , from Inner Mongolia in the north to Yunnan in the south . The spade , shovel , pick , and plow were used for tillage , the hoe for weeding , the rake for loosening the soil , and the sickle for harvesting crops . Depending on their size , Han plows were driven by either one ox or two oxen . Oxen were also used to pull the three @-@ legged iron seed drill ( invented in Han China by the 2nd century BCE ) , which enabled farmers to plant seeds in precise rows instead of casting them out by hand . While artwork of the Wei ( 220 – 265 CE ) and Jin ( 265 – 420 CE ) periods show use of the harrow for breaking up chunks of soil after plowing , it perhaps first appeared in China during the Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 CE ) . Irrigation works for agriculture included the use of water wells , artificial ponds and embankments , dams , canals , and sluice gates .
= = = Alternating fields = = =
During Emperor Wu 's ( r . 141 – 87 BCE ) reign , the Grain Intendant Zhao Guo ( 趙過 ) invented the alternating fields system ( daitianfa 代田法 ) . For every mou of land — i.e. a thin but elongated strip of land measuring 1 @.@ 38 m ( 4 @.@ 5 ft ) wide and 331 m ( 1 @,@ 086 ft ) long , or an area of roughly 457 m2 ( 0 @.@ 113 acres ) — three low @-@ lying furrows ( quan 甽 ) that were each 0 @.@ 23 m ( 0 @.@ 75 ft ) wide were sowed in straight lines with crop seed . While weeding in the summer , the loose soil of the ridges ( long 壟 ) on either side of the furrows would gradually fall into the furrows , covering the sprouting crops and protecting them from wind and drought . Since the position of the furrows and ridges were reversed by the next year , this process was called the alternating fields system .
This system allowed crops to grow in straight lines from sowing to harvest , conserved moisture in the soil , and provided a stable annual yield for harvested crops . Zhao Guo first experimented with this system right outside the capital Chang 'an , and once it proved successful , he sent out instructions for it to every commandery administrator , who were then responsible for disseminating these to the heads of every county , district , and hamlet in their commanderies . Sadao Nishijima speculates that the Imperial Counselor Sang Hongyang ( d . 80 BCE ) perhaps had a role in promoting this new system .
Rich families who owned oxen and large heavy moldboard iron plows greatly benefited from this new system . However , poorer farmers who did not own oxen resorted to using teams of men to move a single plow , which was exhausting work . The author Cui Shi ( 催寔 ) ( d . 170 CE ) wrote in his Simin yueling ( 四民月令 ) that by the Eastern Han Era ( 25 – 220 AD ) an improved plow was invented which needed only one man to control it , two oxen to pull it , had three plowshares , a seed box for the drills , a tool which turned down the soil , and could sow roughly 45 @,@ 730 m2 ( 11 @.@ 30 acres ) of land in a single day .
= = = Pit fields = = =
During the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han ( r . 33 – 7 BCE ) , Fan Shengzhi wrote a manual ( i.e. the Fan Shengzhi shu 氾勝之書 ) which described the pit field system ( aotian 凹田 ) . In this system , every mou of farmland was divided into 3 @,@ 840 grids which each had a small pit that was dug 13 @.@ 8 cm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) deep and 13 @.@ 8 cm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) wide and had good quality manure mixed into the soil . Twenty seeds were sowed into each pit , which allegedly produced 0 @.@ 6 L ( 20 oz ) of harvested grain per pit , or roughly 2 @,@ 000 L ( 67 @,@ 630 oz ) per mou . This system did not require oxen @-@ driven plows or the most fertile land , since it could be employed even on sloping terrains where supplying water was difficult for other methods of farming . Although this farming method was favored by the poor , it did require intensive labor , thus only large families could maintain such a system .
= = = Rice paddies = = =
Han farmers in the Yangzi River region of southern China often maintained paddy fields for growing rice . Every year , they would burn the weeds in the paddy field , drench it in water , sow rice by hand , and around harvest time cut the surviving weeds and drown them a second time . In this system , the field lays fallow for much of the year and thus did not remain very fertile . However , Han rice farmers to the north around the Huai River practiced the more advanced system of transplantation . In this system , individual plants were given intensive care ( perhaps in the same location as the paddy field ) , their offshoots separated so that more water could be conserved , and the field could be heavily fertilized since winter crops were grown while the rice seedlings were situated nearby in a plant nursery .
= = Mechanical and hydraulic engineering = =
= = = Literary sources and archaeological evidence = = =
Evidence of Han @-@ era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes disinterested Confucian scholars . Professional artisan @-@ engineers ( jiang 匠 ) did not leave behind detailed records of their work . Han scholars , who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering , sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described .
Nevertheless , some Han literary sources provide crucial information . As written by Yang Xiong in 15 BCE , the belt drive was first used for a quilling device which wound silk fibers onto the bobbins of weaver shuttles . The invention of the belt drive was a crucial first step in the development of later technologies during the Song dynasty , such as the chain drive and spinning wheel .
The inventions of the artisan @-@ engineer Ding Huan ( 丁緩 ) are mentioned in the Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital . The official and poet Sima Xiangru ( 179 – 117 BC ) once hinted in his writings that the Chinese used a censer in the form of a gimbal , a pivot support made of concentric rings which allow the central gimbal to rotate on an axis while remaining vertically positioned . However , the first explicit mention of the gimbal used as an incense burner occurred around 180 CE when the artisan Ding Huan created his ' Perfume Burner for use among Cushions ' which allowed burning incense placed within the central gimbal to remain constantly level even when moved . Ding had other inventions as well . For the purpose of indoor air conditioning , he set up a large manually operated rotary fan which had rotating wheels that were 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in diameter . He also invented a lamp which he called the ' nine @-@ storied hill @-@ censer ' , since it was shaped as a hillside . When the cylindrical lamp was lit , the convection of rising hot air currents caused vanes placed on the top to spin , which in turn rotated painted paper figures of birds and other animals around the lamp .
When Emperor Gaozu of Han ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) came upon the treasury of Qin Shi Huang ( r . 221 – 210 BC ) at Xianyang following the downfall of the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) , he found an entire miniature musical orchestra of puppets 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) tall who played mouth organs if one pulled on ropes and blew into tubes to control them . Zhang Heng wrote in the 2nd century AD that people could be entertained by theatrical plays of artificial fish and dragons . Later , the inventor Ma Jun ( fl . 220 – 265 AD ) invented a theater of moving mechanical puppets powered by the rotation of a hidden waterwheel .
From literary sources it is known that the collapsible umbrella was invented during Wang Mang 's reign , although the simple parasol existed beforehand . This employed sliding levers and bendable joints that could be protracted and retracted .
Modern archaeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources . This includes the crank handle . Han pottery tomb models of farmyards and gristmills possess the first known depictions of crank handles , which were used to operate the fans of winnowing machines . The machine was used to separate chaff from grain , but the Chinese of later dynasties also employed the crank handle for silk @-@ reeling , hemp @-@ spinning , flour @-@ sifting , and drawing water from a well using the windlass . To measure distance traveled , the Han @-@ era Chinese also created the odometer cart . This invention is depicted in Han artwork by the 2nd century CE , yet detailed written descriptions were not offered until the 3rd century CE . The wheels of this device rotated a set of gears which in turn forced mechanical figures to bang gongs and drums that alerted the travelers of the distance traveled ( measured in li ) . From existing specimens found at archaeological sites , it is known that Han @-@ era craftsmen made use of the sliding metal caliper to make minute measurements . Although Han @-@ era calipers bear incised inscriptions of the exact day of the year they were manufactured , they are not mentioned in any Han literary sources .
= = = Uses of the waterwheel and water clock = = =
By the Han dynasty , the Chinese developed various uses for the waterwheel . An improvement of the simple lever @-@ and @-@ fulcrum tilt hammer device operated by one 's foot , the hydraulic @-@ powered trip hammer used for pounding , decorticating , and polishing grain was first mentioned in the Han dictionary Jijiupian of 40 BC . It was also mentioned in the Regional Speech ( Fangyan ) dictionary written by Yang Xiong ( 53 BC – 18 AD ) in 15 BC , the philosophical Xinlun 新論 written by Huan Tan ( 43 BC – 28 AD ) in 20 AD , the poetry of Ma Rong ( 79 – 166 CE ) , and the writings of Kong Rong ( 153 – 208 CE ) .
In his Balanced Discourse ( Lunheng ) , the philosopher Wang Chong ( 27 – 100 AD ) was the first in China to describe the square @-@ pallet chain pump used to lift water ( and other substances ) . Although some models were operated manually by foot pedals , some chain pumps were powered by a horizontal waterwheel which rotated large toothed gears and a horizontal axis beam . Their primary use was for lifting water into irrigation ditches , but chain pumps were also used in public works programs , such as when Zhang Rang ( d . 189 CE ) had an engineer build several of them to lift water into pipes that provided the capital Luoyang and its palaces with clean water .
While acting as administrator of Nanyang in 31 CE , Du Shi ( d . 38 CE ) invented a water @-@ powered reciprocator which worked the bellows of the blast furnace and cupola furnace in smelting iron ; before this invention , intensive manual labor was required to work the bellows .
Although the astronomical armillary sphere ( representing the celestial sphere ) existed in China since the 1st century BCE , the mathematician and court astronomer Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 CE ) provided it with motive power by using the constant pressure head of an inflow water clock to rotate a waterwheel that acted on a set of gears . Zhang Heng was also the first to address the problem of the falling pressure head in the inflow water clock ( which gradually slowed the timekeeping ) by setting up an additional tank between the reservoir and inflow vessel .
= = = Seismometer = = =
The Han court was responsible for the major efforts of disaster relief when natural disasters such as earthquakes devastated the lives of commoners . To better prepare for calamities , Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction . Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest , a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 to 500 km ( 250 to 310 mi ) northwest of Luoyang ( in what is now modern Gansu ) . Zhang called his device the ' instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth ' ( Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪 ) , so @-@ named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air .
As described in the Book of the Later Han , the frame of the seismometer was a domed bronze vessel in the shape of a wine jar , although it was 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in diameter and decorated with scenes of mountains and animals . The trigger mechanism was an inverted pendulum ( which the Book of the Later Han calls the " central column " ) that , if disturbed by the ground tremors of earthquakes located near or far away , would swing and strike one of eight mobile arms ( representing the eight directions ) , each with a crank and catch mechanism . The crank and a right angle lever would raise one of eight metal dragon heads located on the exterior , dislodging a metal ball from its mouth that dropped into the mouth of one of eight metal toads below arranged like the points on a compass rose , thus indicating the direction of the earthquake . The Book of the Later Han states that when the ball fell into any one of eight toad mouths , it produced a loud noise which gained the attention of those observing the device . While Wang Zhenduo ( 王振铎 ) accepted the idea that Zhang 's seismometer had cranks and levers which were disturbed by the inverted pendulum , his contemporary Akitsune Imamura ( 1870 – 1948 ) argued that the inverted pendulum could have had a pin at the top which , upon moving by force of the ground vibrations , would enter one of eight slots and expel the ball by pushing a slider . Since the Book of the Later Han states that the other seven dragon heads would not subsequently release the balls lodged up into their jaws after the first one had dropped , Imamura asserted that the pin of the pendulum would have been locked into the slot it had entered and thus immobilized the instrument until it was reset .
= = Mathematics and astronomy = =
= = = Mathematical treatises = = =
One of the earliest surviving mathematical treatises of ancient China is the Book on Numbers and Computation ( Suan shu shu ) , part of the Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts dated 202 to 186 BCE and found in Jiangling County , Hubei . Another mathematical text compiled during the Han was The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven ( Zhoubi suanjing ) , dated no earlier than the 1st century BCE ( from perhaps multiple authors ) and contained materials similar to those described by Yang Xiong in 15 BCE , yet the zhoubi school of mathematics was not explicitly mentioned until Cai Yong 's ( 132 – 192 CE ) commentary of 180 CE . A preface was added to the text by Zhao Shuang 趙爽 in the 3rd century CE . There was also the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art ( Jiuzhang Suanshu ) ; its full title was found on two bronze standard measurers dated 179 CE ( with speculation that its material existed in earlier books under different titles ) and was provided with detailed commentary by Liu Hui ( fl . 3rd century CE ) in 263 CE . It is worth noting in this context that many of the documents excavated from Qin and Han sites contain evidence of the practical mathematics used by administrators for inventories and taxes , as well as for calculating labor needed for public works projects , just as described in the mathematical treatises .
= = = Innovations in the treatises = = =
The Suan shu shu presents basic mathematics problems and solutions . It was most likely a handbook for day @-@ to @-@ day business transactions or affairs of government administration . It contains problems and solutions for field measurements of area , proportional exchange rates for agricultural millet and rice , distribution by proportion , short width division , and excess and deficiency . Some of the problems found in the Suan shu shu appear in the later text Jiuzhang suanshu ; in five cases , the titles are exact matches . However , unlike the Jiuzhang suanshu , the Suan shu shu does not deal with problems involving right @-@ angle triangles , square roots , cube roots , and matrix methods , which demonstrates the significant advancements made in Chinese mathematics between the writings of these two texts .
The Zhoubi suanjing , written in dialogue form and with regularly presented problems , is concerned with the application of mathematics to astronomy . In one problem which sought to determine the height of the Sun from the Earth and the diameter of the Sun , Chen Zi ( 陳子 ) instructs Rong Fang ( 榮方 ) to wait until the shadow cast by the 8 chi tall gnomon is 6 chi ( one chi during the Han was 33 cm ) , so that a 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 right @-@ angle triangle can be constructed where the base is 60 @,@ 000 li ( one li during the Han was the equivalent of 415 m or 1362 ft ) , the hypotenuse leading towards the sun is 100 @,@ 000 li , and the height of the sun is 80 @,@ 000 li . Like the Jiuzhang suanshu , the Zhoubi suanjing also gives mathematical proof for the " Gougu Theorem " ( 勾股定理 ; i.e. where c is the length of the hypotenuse and a and b are the lengths of the other two sides , respectively , a2 + b2 = c2 ) , which is known as the Pythagorean theorem in the West after the Greek mathematician Pythagoras ( fl . 6th century BCE ) .
The Jiuzhang suanshu was perhaps the most groundbreaking of the three surviving Han treatises . It is the first known book to feature negative numbers , along with the Bakhshali manuscript ( 200 CE ? – 600 CE ? ) of India and the book of the Greek mathematician Diophantus ( fl . 3rd century ) written in about 275 CE . Negative numbers appeared as black counting rods , while positive numbers appeared as red counting rods . Although the decimal system existed in China since the Shang dynasty ( c . 1600 – c . 1050 BCE ) , the earliest evidence of a decimal fraction ( i.e. the denominator is a power of ten ) is an inscription on a standard volume @-@ measuring vessel dated 5 CE and used by the mathematician and astronomer Liu Xin ( 46 BCE – 23 CE ) . Yet the first book to feature decimal fractions was the Jiuzhang suanshu , as a means to solve equations and represent measurements . Gaussian elimination , an algorithm used to solve linear equations , was known as the Array Rule in the Jiuzhang suanshu . While the book used continued fractions to find the roots of equations , Liu Hui built on this idea in the 3rd century when he increased the decimals to find the cube root of 1 @,@ 860 @,@ 867 ( yielding the answer 123 ) , the same method used in the Horner scheme named after William George Horner ( 1786 – 1837 ) .
= = = Approximations of pi = = =
For centuries , the Chinese had simply approximated the value of pi as 3 , until Liu Xin approximated it at 3 @.@ 154 sometime between 1 – 5 CE , although the method he used to reach this value is unknown to historians . Standard measuring vessels dating to the reign of Wang Mang ( 9 – 23 CE ) also showed approximations for pi at 3 @.@ 1590 , 3 @.@ 1497 , and 3 @.@ 167 . Zhang Heng is the next known Han mathematician to have made an approximation for pi . Han mathematicians understood that the area of a square versus the area of its inscribed circle had an approximate ratio of 4 : 3 , and also understood that the volume of a cube and the volume of its inscribed sphere would be 42 : 32 . With D as diameter and V as volume , D3 : V = 16 : 9 or V = 9 ⁄ 16D3 , a formula Zhang found fault with since he realized the value for diameter was inaccurate , the discrepancy being the value taken for the ratio . To fix this , Zhang added 1 ⁄ 16D3 to the formula , thus V
= 9 ⁄ 16D3 + 1 ⁄ 16D3 =
5 ⁄ 8D3 . Since he found the ratio of the volume of the cube to the inscribed sphere at 8 : 5 , the ratio of the area of a square to the inscribed circle is √ 8 : √ 5 . With this formula , Zhang was able to approximate pi as the square root of 10 , or 3 @.@ 162 . After the Han , Liu Hui approximated pi as 3 @.@ 14159 , while the mathematician Zu Chongzhi ( 429 – 500 CE ) approximated pi at 3 @.@ 141592 ( or 355 ⁄ 113 ) , the most accurate approximation the ancient Chinese would achieve .
= = = Musical tuning and theory = = =
Mathematics were also used in musical tuning and music theory . The 2nd @-@ century @-@ BCE Huainanzi , compiled by eight scholars under the patronage of King Liu An ( 179 – 122 BCE ) , outlined the use of twelve tones on a musical scale . Jing Fang ( 78 – 37 BCE ) , a mathematician and music theorist , expanded these to create a scale of 60 tones . While doing so , Jing Fang realized that 53 just fifths is approximate to 31 octaves . By calculating the difference at 177147 ⁄ 176776 , Jing reached the same value of 53 equal temperament duly discovered by the German mathematician Nicholas Mercator ( 1620 – 1687 ) ( i.e. 353 / 284 , known as Mercator 's comma ) . Later , the prince Zhu Zaiyu ( 1536 – 1611 CE ) in Ming China and Simon Stevin ( 1548 – 1620 CE ) of the Flemish Region in Europe would simultaneously ( but separately ) discover the mathematical formula for equal temperament .
= = = Astronomical observations = = =
The ancient Chinese made careful observations of heavenly bodies and phenomena since observations of the cosmos were used for astrology and prognostication . The astronomer Gan De ( fl . 4th century BCE ) from the State of Qi was the first in history to acknowledge sunspots as genuine solar phenomena ( and not obstructing natural satellites as thought in the West after Einhard 's observation in 807 CE ) , while the first precisely dated sunspot observation in China occurred on May 10 , 28 BCE during the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han ( r . 33 – 7 BCE ) . Among the Mawangdui Silk Texts dated no later than 168 BCE ( when they were sealed in a tomb at Mawangdui , Changsha , Hunan province ) , the Miscellaneous Readings of Cosmic Patterns and Pneuma Images ( Tianwen qixiang zazhan 天文氣象雜占 ) manuscript illustrates in writings and ink drawings roughly three @-@ hundred different climatic and astronomical features including clouds , mirages , rainbows , stars , constellations , and comets . Another silk text from the same site reports the times and locations of the rising and setting of planets in the night sky from the years 246 – 177 BCE .
The Han @-@ era Chinese noted the passage of the same comet seen in Persia for the birth of Mithridates II of Parthia in 135 BCE , the same comet the Romans observed close to the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE , Halley 's comet in 12 BCE , the same comet noted by Roman historian Cassius Dio ( c . 155 – c . 229 CE ) for 13 CE , and ( what is now known to have been ) a supernova in 185 CE . For various comets discussed in the Han @-@ era history books Records of the Grand Historian and Book of Han , details are given for their position in the sky and direction they were moving , the length of time they were visible , their color , and their size .
The Han @-@ era Chinese also made star catalogues , such as historian Sima Qian 's ( 145 – 86 BCE ) A Monograph on Celestial Officials ( Tianguanshu 天官書 ) and Zhang Heng 's 2nd @-@ century @-@ CE star catalogue which featured roughly 2 @,@ 500 stars and 124 constellations . To create a three @-@ dimensional representation of such observations , Astronomer Geng Shouchang ( 耿壽昌 ) provided his armillary sphere with an equatorial ring in 52 BCE . By 84 CE the elliptical ring was added to the armillary sphere , while Zhang Heng 's model of 125 CE added the celestial horizon ring and meridian ring .
= = = Han calendars = = =
The Han Chinese used astronomical studies mainly to construct and revise their calendar . In contrast to the Julian calendar ( 46 BCE ) and Gregorian calendar ( 1582 CE ) of the West ( but like the Hellenic calendars of Classical Greece ) , the Chinese calendar is a lunisolar calendar , meaning that it uses the precise movements of the Sun and Moon as time @-@ markers throughout the year . In the 5th century BCE during the Spring and Autumn period , the Chinese established the Sifen calendar ( 古四分历 ) , which measured the tropical year at 3651 ⁄ 4 days ( like the Julian calendar of Rome ) . Emperor Wu replaced this with the new Taichu calendar ( 太初历 ) in 104 BCE which measured the tropical year at 365385 ⁄ 1539 days and the lunar month at 2943 ⁄ 81 days . Since the Taichu calendar had become inaccurate over two centuries , Emperor Zhang of Han ( r . 75 – 88 CE ) halted its use and revived use of the Sifen calendar . Later , astronomer Guo Shoujing ( 1233 – 1316 CE ) would set the tropical year at 365 @.@ 2425 days for his Shoushi calendar ( 授時曆 ) , the same value used in the Gregorian calendar . Besides the use of the calendar for regulating agricultural practices throughout the seasons , it was also used to mark important dates in the Sexagenary cycle — constructed by celestial stems ( gan 干 ) and Earthly Branches ( zhi 支 ) , each of the latter associated with an animal of the Chinese zodiac .
= = = Astronomical theory = = =
Zhao Shaung 's 3rd @-@ century commentary in the Zhoubi suanjing describes two astronomical theories : in one , the heavens are shaped as a hemi @-@ spherical dome extending over the earth , while the other compares the earth to the central yolk of an egg , where the heavens are shaped as a celestial sphere around the earth . The latter astronomical theory was mentioned by Yang Xiong in his Model Sayings ( Fayan 法言 ) and expounded on by Zhang Heng in his Spiritual Constitution of the Universe ( Lingxian 靈憲 ) of 120 CE . Thus , the Han @-@ era Chinese believed in a geocentric model for the immediate solar system and greater universe , as opposed to a heliocentric model .
The Han @-@ era Chinese discussed the illumination and shapes of heavenly bodies : were they flat and circular , or were they rounded and spherical ? Jing Fang wrote in the 1st century BCE that Han astronomers believed the Sun , Moon , and planets were spherical like balls or crossbow bullets . He also wrote that the Moon and planets produce no light of their own , are viewable to people on Earth only because they are illuminated by the Sun , and those parts not illuminated by the Sun would be dark on the other side . For this , Jing compared the Moon to a mirror illuminating light . In the 2nd century CE , Zhang Heng drew a similar comparison to Jing 's by stating that the Sun is like fire and the Moon and planets are like water , since fire produces light and water reflects it . He also repeated Jing 's comment that the side of the moon not illuminated by the Sun was left in darkness . However , Zhang noted that sunlight did not always reach the Moon since the Earth obstructs the rays during a lunar eclipse . He also noted that a solar eclipse occurred when the Moon and Sun crossed paths to block sunlight from reaching earth .
In his Balanced Discourse ( Lunheng ) , Wang Chong ( 27 – 100 CE ) wrote that some Han thinkers believed that rain fell from the Heavens ( i.e. where the stars were located ) . Wang argued that , although rain fell from above , this common theory was false . He agreed with another theory that stated clouds were formed by the evaporation of water on earth , and that since clouds disperse rain , clouds and rain are in fact one and the same ; in essence , he accurately described the water cycle .
= = Structural engineering and public works = =
= = = Materials and construction = = =
Timber was the chief building material in Han architecture . It was used for grand palace halls , multi @-@ story towers , multi @-@ story residential halls , and humble abodes . However , due to wood 's rapid decay over time and susceptibility to fire , the oldest wooden buildings found in China ( i.e. several temple halls of Mount Wutai ) date no earlier than the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 CE ) . Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp describes the scarcity of Han @-@ era archaeological remains , as well as the often unreliable Han @-@ era literary and artistic sources used by historians for clues about non @-@ existent Han architecture . What remains of Han @-@ dynasty architecture are ruins of brick and rammed earth walls ( including aboveground city walls and underground tomb walls ) , rammed earth platforms for terraced altars and halls , funerary stone or brick pillar @-@ gates , and scattered ceramic roof tiles that once adorned timber halls . Sections of the Han @-@ era rammed earth Great Wall still exist in Gansu province , along with the Han frontier ruins of thirty beacon towers and two fortified castles with crenellations . Han walls of frontier towns and forts in Inner Mongolia were typically constructed with stamped clay bricks instead of rammed earth .
Thatched or tiled roofs were supported by wooden pillars , since the addition of brick , rammed earth , or mud walls of these halls did not actually support the roof . Stone and plaster were also used for domestic architecture . Tiled eaves projecting outward were built to distance falling rainwater from the walls ; they were supported by dougong brackets that were sometimes elaborately decorated . Molded designs usually decorated the ends of roof tiles , as seen in artistic models of buildings and in surviving tile pieces .
= = = Courtyard homes = = =
Valuable clues about Han architecture can be found in Han artwork of ceramic models , paintings , and carved or stamped bricks discovered in tombs and other sites . The layout of Han tombs were also built like underground houses , comparable to the scenes of courtyard houses found on tomb bricks and in three @-@ dimensional models . Han homes had a courtyard area ( and some had multiple courtyards ) with halls that were slightly elevated above it and connected by stairways . Multi @-@ story buildings included the main colonnaded residence halls built around the courtyards as well as watchtowers . The halls were built with intersecting crossbeams and rafters that were usually carved with decorations ; stairways and walls were usually plastered over to produce a smooth surface and then painted .
= = = Chang 'an and Luoyang , the Han capitals = = =
The ruins of the walls of Han 's first capital Chang 'an still stand today at 12 m ( 39 ft ) in height with a base width of 12 to 16 m ( 39 to 52 ft ) . Modern archaeological surveys have proven that the eastern wall was 6 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) long , the southern wall was 7 @,@ 600 m ( 24 @,@ 900 ft ) long , the western wall was 4 @,@ 900 m ( 16 @,@ 100 ft ) long , and the northern wall was 7 @,@ 200 ( 23 @,@ 622 ft ) long . Overall the total length of walls equalled 25 @,@ 700 m ( 84 @,@ 300 ft ) , and formed a roughly square layout ( although the southern and northern walls had sections which zigzagged due to topographical concerns : rough terrain existed along the southern wall and the course of the Wei River obstructed the straight path of the northern wall ) . The city 's moat was 8 m ( 26 ft ) wide and 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep ; the remains of what were wooden bridges have been discovered along the moat . Chang 'an had twelve gatehouses leading into the city , three for each side of the wall , and acted as terminus points for the main avenues . Every gatehouse had three gateway entrances that were each 6 m ( 20 ft ) wide ; Han @-@ era writers claimed that each gateway could accommodate the traffic of four horse @-@ drawn carriages at once . The drainage system included many drainholes that were dug under these gates and lined with bricks that form arches , where ceramic water pipes have been found that once connected to the ditches built alongside the major streets . Only some wall sections and platform foundations of the city 's once lavish imperial palaces remain . Likewise , the stone foundations of the armory were also discovered , but its wooden architecture had long since disappeared .
Some sections of the wall ruins of Han 's second capital Luoyang still stand at 10 m ( 33 ft ) in height and 25 m ( 82 ft ) in width at the base . The eastern wall was 3 @,@ 900 m ( 12 @,@ 800 ft ) long , the western wall was 3 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 200 ft ) long , and the northern wall was 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) long , yet the southern wall was washed away when the Luo River changed its course centuries ago ; by using the terminus points of the eastern and western walls , historians estimate that the southern wall was 2 @,@ 460 m ( 8 @,@ 070 ft ) long . The overall walled enclosure formed a rectangular shape , yet with some disruptive curves due to topographical obstructions . Like Chang 'an , Luoyang had twelve gatehouses , three for each side of the wall , while each gatehouse had three gateway entrances which led to major avenues within the city . The rammed earth foundational platforms of religious altars and terraces still stand today outside of the walled perimeter of Luoyang , dedicated to the worship of deities and where state sacrifices were conducted . They were approached by long ramps and once had timber halls built on top with verandas on the lower levels .
= = = Underground tombs = = =
By the 1980s , over ten thousand brick @-@ and @-@ stone underground Han tombs had been discovered throughout China . Earlier Chinese tombs dating to the Warring States were often vertically dug pits lined with wooden walls . In digging the tomb sites , Han workers would first build vertical pits and then dig laterally , hence the name " horizontal pits " for Han tombs ; this method was also used for tomb sites dug into the sides of mountains . The walls of most Western Han tombs were built of large hollow bricks while the smaller , non @-@ hollow brick type that dominated Eastern Han tomb architecture ( with some made out of stone ) appeared in the late Western Han . The smaller brick type was better @-@ suited for Han tomb archways at entrances , vaulted chambers , and domed roofs . Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits . The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han structures is unknown .
The layout of tombs dug into the sides of mountains typically had a front chamber , side chambers , and a rear chambers designed to imitate a complex of aboveground halls . The tomb of King Liu Sheng ( d . 113 BCE ) in Hebei province not only had a front hall with window drapes and grave goods , carriages and horses in the southern separate side chamber , and storage goods in the northern side chamber , but also the remains of real timber houses with tiled roofs erected within ( along with a house made of stone slabs and two stone doors in the rear chamber ) . Doors made completely out of stone were found in many Han tombs as well as tombs in later dynasties .
A total of twenty @-@ nine monumental brick or stone @-@ carved pillar @-@ gates ( que ) from the Han dynasty have survived and can be found in the aboveground areas around Han tomb and shrine sites . They often formed part of outer walls , usually flanking an entry but sometimes at the corners of walled enclosures . Although they lack wooden and ceramic components , they feature imitation roof tiles , eaves , porches , and balustrades .
= = = Boreholes and mining shafts = = =
On Han tomb brick reliefs of Sichuan province , scenes of borehole drilling for mining projects are shown . They show towering derricks lifting liquid brine through bamboo pipes to the surface so that the brine could be distilled in evaporation pans over the heat of furnaces and produce salt . The furnaces were heated by natural gas brought by bamboo pipes , yet gas brought up from 610 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) below the surface could cause an explosion if it was not properly mixed with oxygen first , so the Han @-@ era Chinese built underground carburetor chambers and siphoned some of the gas off with exhaust pipes . The drill bit for digging boreholes was operated by a team of men jumping on and off a beam while the boring tool was rotated by a draft animal , usually oxen or water buffaloes . Han boreholes dug for collecting brine could reach hundreds of meters ( feet ) beneath the Earth 's surface . Mining shafts dating to the Han dynasty have been found which reach depths of hundreds of meters ( feet ) beneath the earth , complete with spacious underground rooms structured by timber frames along with ladders and iron tools left behind .
= = = Ceramic model buildings = = =
There are Han @-@ era literary references to tall towers found in the capital cities ; they often served as watchtowers , astronomical observatories , and religious establishments meant to attract the favor of immortals . The court eunuchs Zhao Zhong and Zhang Rang discouraged the aloof Emperor Ling of Han ( r . 168 – 189 CE ) from ascending to the top floors of tall towers ( claiming it would cause bad luck ) , in order to conceal from him the enormous palatial mansions the eunuchs built for themselves in Luoyang . It is not known for certain whether or not miniature ceramic models of residential towers and watchtowers found in Han @-@ dynasty tombs are completely faithful representations of such timber towers , yet they reveal vital clues about lost timber architecture .
There are only a handful of existing ceramic models of multi @-@ story towers from pre @-@ Han and Western Han eras ; the bulk of the hundreds of towers found so far were made during the Eastern Han period . Model towers could be fired as one piece in the kiln or assembled from several different ceramic pieces to create the whole . No one tower is a duplicate of the other , yet they share common features . They often had a walled courtyard at the bottom , a balcony with balustrades and windows for every floor , roof tiles capping and concealing the ceiling rafters , human figures peering out the windows or standing on the balconies ,
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dedicated single role aircraft for specialist purposes such as battlefield reconnaissance , maritime patrol duties , or dedicated electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) were phased out – either by standard Tornados or modified variants , such as the Tornado ECR . The most extensive modification from the base Tornado design was the Tornado ADV , which was stretched and armed with long range anti @-@ aircraft missiles to serve in the interceptor role .
The Tornado operators have chosen to undertake various life extension and upgrade programmes to keep their Tornado fleets as viable frontline aircraft for the foreseeable future . The RAF and RSAF have upgraded their Tornados to the GR4 standard to increase combat effectiveness , while German Tornados have been undergoing periodic upgrades under the multi @-@ stage ASSTA ( Avionics System Software Tornado in Ada ) programme . With these upgrades , as of 2011 , it is projected that the Tornado shall be in service until 2025 , more than 50 years after the first prototype took flight .
= = = Variable @-@ sweep wing = = =
In order for the Tornado to perform well as a low @-@ level supersonic strike aircraft , it was considered necessary for it to possess good high @-@ speed and low @-@ speed flight characteristics . To achieve high @-@ speed performance , a swept or delta wing is typically adopted , but these wing designs are inefficient at low speeds . To operate at both high and low speeds with great effectiveness , the Tornado uses a variable @-@ sweep wing . This approach had been adopted by earlier aircraft , such as the American General Dynamics F @-@ 111 Aardvark strike fighter , and the Soviet Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 23 fighter . The F @-@ 111 has many similarities with the smaller Tornado ; however , the Tornado differs in being a multi @-@ role aircraft with more advanced onboard systems and avionics .
The level of wing sweep , the angle of the wings in relation to the fuselage , can be altered in flight at the pilot 's control . The variable wing can adopt any sweep angle between 25 degrees and 67 degrees , with a corresponding speed range for each angle ; some Tornado ADVs were outfitted with an automatic wing @-@ sweep system to reduce pilot workload . When the wings are swept back , the exposed wing area is lowered and drag is significantly decreased , which is conducive to performing high @-@ speed low @-@ level flight . The weapons pylons pivot with the angle of the variable @-@ sweep wings so that the stores point in the direction of flight and do not hinder any wing positions .
In development , significant attention was given to the Tornado 's short @-@ field take @-@ off and landing ( STOL ) performance . Germany , in particular , encouraged this design aspect . For shorter take @-@ off and landing distances , the Tornado can sweep its wings forwards to the 25 @-@ degree position , and deploy its full @-@ span flaps and leading edge slats to allow the aircraft to fly at slower speeds . These features , in combination with the thrust reverser @-@ equipped engines , give the Tornado excellent low @-@ speed handling and landing characteristics .
= = = Avionics = = =
The Tornado features a tandem @-@ seat cockpit , crewed by a pilot and a navigator / weapons officer ; both electromechanical and electro @-@ optical controls are used to fly the aircraft and manage its systems . An array of dials and switches are mounted on either side of a centrally placed CRT monitor , controlling the navigational , communications , and weapons @-@ control computers . BAE Systems developed the Tornado Advanced Radar Display Information System ( TARDIS ) , a 32 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) multi @-@ function display , to replace the rear cockpit 's Combined Radar and Projected Map Display ; the RAF began installing TARDIS on the GR4 fleet in 2004 .
The primary flight controls of the Tornado are a fly @-@ by @-@ wire hybrid , consisting of an analogue quadruplex Command and Stability Augmentation System ( CSAS ) connected to a digital Autopilot & Flight Director System ( AFDS ) ; in addition a level of mechanical reversion capacity was retained to safeguard against potential failure . To enhance pilot awareness , artificial feel was built into the flight controls , such as the centrally located stick ; because of the Tornado 's variable wings enabling the aircraft to drastically alter its flight envelope , the artificial responses adjust automatically to wing profile changes and other changes to flight attitude . As a large variety of munitions and stores can be outfitted , the resulting changes to the aircraft 's flight dynamics are routinely compensated for by the flight stability system .
The Tornado incorporates a combined navigation / attack Doppler radar that simultaneously scans for targets and conducts fully automated terrain @-@ following for low @-@ level flight operations ; being readily able to conduct all @-@ weather hands @-@ off low @-@ level flight was considered one of the core advantages of the Tornado . The Tornado ADV has a different radar system to other variants , designated AI.24 Foxhunter , as it is designed for air defence operations ; it is capable of continuously keeping track of up to 20 targets at ranges of up to 160 kilometres ( 100 mi ) . The Tornado was one of the earliest aircraft to fitted with a digital data bus for data transmission . A link 16 JTIDS integration on the F3 variant enabled the exchange of radar and other sensory information with nearby friendly aircraft .
Some Tornado variants carry different avionics and equipment , depending on their mission . The Tornado ECR is devoted to Suppression of Enemy Air Defences ( SEAD ) missions , operated by Germany and Italy . The Tornado ECR is equipped with an emitter @-@ locator system ( ELS ) to spot radar use . German ECRs have a Honeywell infrared imaging system for reconnaissance flights . RAF and RSAF Tornados have the Laser Range Finder and Marked Target Seekers ( LRMTS ) for targeting laser @-@ guided munitions . In 1991 , the RAF introduced TIALD , allowing Tornado GR1s to laser @-@ designate their own targets .
The GR1A and GR4A were equipped with TIRRS ( Tornado Infrared Reconnaissance System ) , consisting of one SLIR ( Sideways Looking Infra Red ) sensor on each side of the fuselage forward of the engine intakes to capture oblique images , and a single IRLS ( InfrarRed LineScan ) sensor mounted on the fuselage 's underside to provide vertical images . TIRRS recorded images on six S @-@ VHS video tapes . The newer RAPTOR reconnaissance pod has replaced the built @-@ in TIRRS system .
= = = Armament and equipment = = =
The Tornado is cleared to carry the majority of air @-@ launched weapons in the NATO inventory , including various unguided and laser @-@ guided bombs , anti @-@ ship and anti @-@ radiation missiles , as well as specialised weapons such as anti @-@ personnel mines and anti @-@ runway munitions . To improve survivability in combat , the Tornado is equipped with onboard countermeasures , ranging from flare and chaff dispensers to electronic countermeasure pods that can be mounted under the wings . Underwing fuel tanks and a buddy store aerial refuelling system that allows one Tornado to refuel another are available to extend the aircraft 's range .
In the decades since the Tornado 's introduction , all of the Tornado operators have undertaken various upgrade and modification programmes to allow recently introduced weapons to be used by their squadrons . Amongst the new armaments that the Tornado has been adapted to deploy are the enhanced Paveway and Joint Direct Attack Munition bombs , and modern cruise missiles such as the Taurus and Storm Shadow missiles ; these upgrades have increased the Tornado 's capabilities and combat accuracy . Precision weapons such as cruise missiles have replaced older munitions such as cluster bombs .
Strike variants have a limited air @-@ to @-@ air capability with AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder or AIM @-@ 132 ASRAAM air @-@ to @-@ air missiles ( AAMs ) ; additionally the Tornado ADV is outfitted with beyond visual range AAMs such as the Skyflash and AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM missiles . The Tornado is armed with two 27 mm ( 1 @.@ 063 in ) Mauser BK @-@ 27 revolver cannon internally mounted underneath the fuselage ; the Tornado ADV was only armed with one cannon . When the RAF GR1 aircraft were converted to GR4 , the FLIR sensor replaced the left hand cannon , leaving only one ; the GR1A reconnaissance variant gave up both its guns to make space for the sideways looking infra @-@ red sensors . The Mauser BK @-@ 27 was developed specifically for the Tornado , but has since been used on several other European fighters , such as the Dassault / Dornier Alpha Jet , Saab JAS 39 Gripen , and Eurofighter Typhoon .
The Tornado is capable of delivering air @-@ launched nuclear weapons . In 1979 , Britain considered replacing its Polaris submarines with either the Trident submarines or alternatively the Tornado as the main bearer of its nuclear deterrent . Although the UK proceeded with Trident , several Tornado squadrons based in Germany were assigned to SACEUR to deter a major Soviet offensive with both conventional and nuclear weapons , namely the WE.177 nuclear bomb , which was retired in 1998 . German and Italian Tornados are capable of delivering US B61 nuclear bombs , which are made available through NATO .
= = = Engine = = =
Britain considered the selection of Rolls @-@ Royce to develop the advanced engine for the MRCA to be essential , and was strongly opposed to adopting an engine from an American manufacturer , to the point where the UK might have withdrawn over the issue . In September 1969 , Rolls @-@ Royce 's RB 199 engine was selected to power the MRCA . One advantage over the US competition was that a technology transfer between the partner nations had been agreed ; the engine was to be developed and manufactured by a joint company , Turbo @-@ Union . The programme was delayed by Rolls @-@ Royce 's entry into receivership in 1971 ; the nature of the multinational collaboration process helped avoid major disruption of the Tornado programme . Research from the supersonic airliner Concorde contributed to the development and final design of the RB.199 and of the engine control units .
To provide the desired performance , several features were used in the RB.199. To operate efficiently across a wide range of conditions and speeds up to Mach 2 , the RB.199 and several other engines make use of variable intake ramps to control the air flow . The hydraulic system is pressurised by syphoning power from both or either operational engine ; the hydraulics are completely contained within the airframe rather than integrating with the engine to improve safety and maintainability . In case of double @-@ engine , or double @-@ generator , failure , the Tornado has a single @-@ use battery capable of operating the fuel pump and hydraulics for up to 13 minutes .
Relatively rare amongst fighter aircraft , the RB.199 is fitted with thrust reversers to decrease the distance required to safely land . To fully deploy the thrust reverser during landings , the yaw damper is connected to the steering of the nosewheel to provide greater stability .
In August 1974 , the first RB.199 powered flight of a prototype Tornado occurred ; the engine completed its qualification tests in late 1978 . The final production standard engine met both reliability and performance standards , though the development cost had been higher than predicted , in part due to the ambitious performance requirements . At the time of the Tornado 's introduction to service , the turbine blades of the engine suffered from a shorter life span than desired , which was rectified by the implementation of design revisions upon early @-@ production engines . Several uprated engines were developed and used on both the majority of Tornado ADVs and Germany 's Tornado ECRs . The DECU ( Digital Engine Control Unit ) is the current engine control unit for RB 199 engines superseding the analogue MECU ( Main Engine Control Unit ) also known as CUE .
= = = Upgrades = = =
Being designed for low @-@ level operations , the Tornado required modification to perform in medium level operations that the RAF adopted in the 1990s . The RAF 's GR1 fleet was extensively re @-@ manufactured as Tornado GR4s . Upgrades on Tornado GR4s included a Forward looking infrared , a wide @-@ angle HUD ( Head @-@ up display ) , improved cockpit displays , NVG ( Night vision devices ) capabilities , new avionics , and a Global Positioning System receiver . The upgrade eased the integration of new weapons and sensors which were purchased in parallel , including the Storm Shadow cruise missile , the Brimstone anti @-@ tank missile , Paveway III laser @-@ guided bombs and the RAPTOR reconnaissance pod was integrated . The first flight of a Tornado GR4 was on 4 April 1997 , on 31 October 1997 the RAF accepted the first delivery and deliveries were completed in 2003 . In 2005 , the RSAF opted to have their Tornado IDSs undergo a series of upgrades to become equivalent to the RAF 's GR4 configuration . On 21 December 2007 BAE signed a £ 210m contract for CUSP , the Capability Upgrade Strategy ( Pilot ) . This project would see RAF GR4 / 4A improved in two phases , starting with the integration of the Paveway IV bomb and a communications upgrade , followed by a new tactical datalink in Phase B.
Beginning in 2000 , German IDS and ECR Tornados received the ASSTA 1 ( Avionics System Software Tornado in Ada ) upgrade . ASSTA 1 involved a replacement weapons computer , new GPS and Laser Inertial navigation systems . The new computer allowed the integration of the HARM III , HARM 0 Block IV / V and TAURUS KEPD 350 missiles , the Rafael Litening II Laser Designator Pod and GBU @-@ 24 Paveway III laser @-@ guided bombs . The ASSTA 2 upgrade began in 2005 , primarily consisting of several new digital avionics systems , a new ECM suite and provision for the Taurus cruise missile ; these upgrades are to be only applied to 85 Tornados ( 20 ECRs and 65 IDSs ) , as the Tornado is in the process of being replaced by the Eurofighter Typhoon . The ASSTA 3 upgrade programme , started in 2008 , will introduce support for the laser @-@ targeted Joint Direct Attack Munition along with further software changes .
= = = = Test platform for 3 @-@ D printed parts = = = =
BAE Systems announced that , in December 2013 , the company had test flown a Tornado equipped with parts that were made with 3D printing equipment . The parts included a protective cover for the radio , a landing @-@ gear guard and air @-@ intake door support struts . The test demonstrated the feasibility of making replacement parts quickly and cheaply at the air base hosting the Tornado . The company claims that , with some of the parts costing less than £ 100 per piece to manufacture , 3D printing has already resulted in savings of more than £ 300 @,@ 000 and will offer further potential cost savings of more than £ 1 @.@ 2 million between now and 2017 .
= = Operational history = =
= = = German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) = = =
The first Tornado prototype made its first flight on 14 August 1974 from Manching airbase , in what was then West Germany . Deliveries of production Tornados began on 27 July 1979 . The total number of Tornados delivered to the German Air Force numbered 247 , including 35 ECR variants . Originally Tornados equipped five fighter @-@ bomber wings ( Geschwader ) , with one tactical conversion unit and four front line wings , replacing the Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter . When one of the two Tornado wings of the German Navy was disbanded in 1994 , its aircraft were used to re @-@ equip a Luftwaffe 's reconnaissance wing formerly equipped with RF @-@ 4E Phantoms .
As many as 15 German Tornados undertook combat operations as a part of NATO 's campaign during the Bosnian War ; this was the first combat operation for the Luftwaffe since World War II . The Tornados , operating from in Piacenza , Italy , flew reconnaissance missions to survey damage inflicted by previous strikes and to scout targets for other aircraft to strike . These reconnaissance missions were reportedly responsible for a significant improvement in target selection throughout the campaign .
In 1999 , German and Italian Tornados participated in Operation Allied Force , NATO 's military operation against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War . The ECR aircraft would escort various allies ' aircraft while carrying several AGM @-@ 88 HARM missiles to counter attempted use of radar against the allied aircraft . During the Kosovo hostilities , Germany 's IDS Tornados would routinely conduct reconnaissance flights to identify both enemy ground forces and civilian refugees within Yugoslavia .
In June 2007 , a pair of Luftwaffe Tornado were controversially used to fly reconnaissance flights over an anti @-@ globalisation demonstration during the 33rd G8 summit in Heiligendamm . Following the mission , the German Defence Ministry admitted one aircraft had broken the minimum flying altitude and that mistakes were made in the handling of security of the summit .
In 2007 , a detachment of six Tornados of the Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 " Immelmann " ( 51st reconnaissance wing ) were deployed to Mazar @-@ i @-@ Sharif , Northern Afghanistan , to support NATO forces . The decision to send Tornados to Afghanistan was a controversial decision , including one political party launching an unsuccessful legal bid to block the deployment as unconstitutional . In support of the Afghanistan mission , improvements in the Tornado 's reconnaissance equipment were accelerated ; improving the Tornado 's ability to detect hidden improvised explosive devices ( IEDs ) . The German Tornados were withdrawn from Afghanistan in November 2010 .
Defence cuts announced in March 2003 resulted in the decision to retire 90 Tornados from Luftwaffe service . This led to a reduction in its Tornado strength to four wings by September 2005 . On 13 January 2004 , the then German Defence Minister Peter Struck announced further major changes to the German armed forces . A major part of this announcement is the plan to cut the German fighter fleet from 426 in early 2004 to 265 by 2015 . The German Tornado force is to be reduced to 85 , with the type expected to remain in service with the Luftwaffe until 2020 . The aircraft being retained have been undergoing a service life extension programme . Currently , the Luftwaffe operates Tornados with Tactical Wings Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 33 in Cochem / Büchel , Rhineland @-@ Palatinate and with Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 51 " Immelmann " in Jagel , Schleswig @-@ Holstein . Aircrew training takes place at Fliegerisches Ausbildungszentrum der Luftwaffe , based on Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico , US .
= = = German Navy ( Marineflieger ) = = =
In addition to the order made by the Luftwaffe , the German Navy 's Marineflieger also received 112 of the IDS variant in the anti @-@ shipping and marine reconnaissance roles , again replacing the Starfighter . These equipped two wings , each with a nominal strength of 48 aircraft . The principal anti @-@ ship weapon was the AS.34 Kormoran anti @-@ ship missile , which were initially supplemented by unguided bombs and BL755 cluster munitions , and later by AGM @-@ 88 HARM anti @-@ radar missiles . Pods fitted with panoramic optical cameras and an infrared line scan were carried for the reconnaissance mission .
The end of the Cold War and the signing of the CFE Treaty gave rise to a requirement for Germany to reduce the size of its armed forces , including the number of combat aircraft . To meet this need , one of the Marineflieger 's Tornado wings was disbanded on 1 January 1994 ; its aircraft replaced the Phantoms of a Luftwaffe reconnaissance wing . The second wing was enlarged and continued in the anti @-@ shipping , reconnaissance and anti @-@ radar roles until it was disbanded in 2005 with its aircraft and duties passed on to the Luftwaffe .
= = = Italian Air Force ( Aeronautica Militare ) = = =
The first Italian prototype made its maiden flight on 5 December 1975 from Turin , Italy . The Aeronautica Militare received a total of 100 Tornado IDS . 16 IDSs were subsequently converted to the ECR configuration ; the first Italian Tornado ECR was delivered on 27 February 1998 . As a stop @-@ gap measure for 10 years , the Aeronautica Militare additionally operated 24 Tornado ADVs in the air defence role , which were leased from the RAF to cover the service gap between the retirement of the Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter and the introduction of the Eurofighter Typhoon .
In 2000 , with major delays hampering the Eurofighter , the Aeronautica Militare began a search for another interim fighter . While the Tornado itself was considered , any long term extension to the lease would have involved upgrade to RAF CSP standard and thus was not considered cost effective . In February 2001 , Italy announced its arrangement to lease 35 F @-@ 16s from the United States . The Aeronautica Militare returned its Tornado ADVs to the RAF , with the final aircraft arriving at RAF Saint Athan on 7 December 2004 . One aircraft was retained for static display purposes .
Italian Tornados , along with RAF Tornados , took part in the first Gulf War in 1991 . Operation Locusta saw eight Tornado IDS interdictors deployed from Gioia del Colle , Italy , to Al Dhafra , Abu Dhabi , as a part of Italy 's contribution to the coalition . During the conflict , one aircraft was lost to Iraqi anti @-@ aircraft fire , the pilots ejected safely and were captured by Iraqi forces .
A total of 22 Italian Tornados were deployed in the NATO @-@ organised Operation Allied Force over Kosovo in 1999 , the IDS variant was used in the bombing role while the ECR variants patrolled the combat region , acting to suppress enemy anti @-@ aircraft radars , firing 115 AGM @-@ 88 HARM missiles . In response to anticipated violence during the 2010 Afghanistan elections , Italy , along with several other nations , increased its military commitment in Afghanistan , dispatching four IDS Tornados to the region .
Italian Tornado IDS and ECR aircraft participated in the enforcement of a UN no @-@ fly zone during the 2011 military intervention in Libya . Various coalition aircraft operated from bases in Italy , including RAF Tornados . Italian military aircraft delivered a combined 710 guided bombs and missiles during the strikes against Libyan targets . Of these Aeronautica Militare Tornados and AMX fighter @-@ bombers released 550 guided bombs and missiles , and Italian Navy AV @-@ 8Bs delivered 160 guided bombs . Italian Tornados launched 20 to 30 Storm Shadow cruise missiles with the rest consisting of Paveway and JDAM guided bombs .
In July 2002 , Italy signed a contract with the Tornado Management Agency ( NETMA ) and Panavia for the upgrading of 18 IDSs , the first of which was received in 2003 . The upgrade introduced improved navigation systems ( integrated GPS and laser INS ) and the ability to carry new weapons , including the Storm Shadow cruise missile , Joint Direct Attack Munition and Paveway III laser @-@ guided bombs .
Italy has opted to extend the Tornado 's service life at the expense of alternative ground @-@ attack aircraft such as the AMX International AMX ; in 2010 a major upgrade and life extension program was initiated , which will provide new digital displays , Link 16 communications capability , night @-@ vision goggles compatibility , and several other upgrades . In the long term , it is planned to replace the Tornado IDS / ECR fleet in Italian service with the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , with the final Italian Tornado scheduled to be phased out in 2025 .
On 14 November 2014 , Italy announced it was sending four Tornado aircraft with 135 support staff to Ahmed Al Jaber Air Base in Kuwait in participation of coalition operations against the Islamic State . The four aircraft will be used for reconnaissance missions only .
= = = Royal Air Force = = =
Nicknamed the " Tonka " by the British , the Tornado made its combat debut as part of the British contribution to the Gulf War in 1991 . Operation Granby saw nearly 60 RAF GR1s deploy to air bases at Muharraq in Bahrain and Tabuk and Dhahran in Saudi Arabia . Several Tornado ADVs were deployed to provide air cover , the threat of their long range missiles being a significant deterrent to Iraqi pilots , who would deliberately avoid combat when approached .
Early on in the conflict , the GR1s targeted military airfields across Iraq , deploying a mixture of 450 kg ( 1 @,@ 000 lb ) unguided bombs in loft @-@ bombing attacks and specialised JP233 runway denial weapons . Six RAF Tornados were lost in the conflict , four were lost while delivering unguided bombs , one was lost after delivering JP233 , and one trying to deliver laser @-@ guided bombs . On 17 January 1991 , the first Tornado to be lost was shot down by an Iraqi SA @-@ 16 missile following a failed low @-@ level bombing run . On 19 January , another RAF Tornado was shot down during an intensive raid on Tallil Air Base . The impact of the Tornado strikes upon Iraqi air fields is difficult to determine .
In an emergency deployment , the UK sent out a detachment of Blackburn Buccaneer aircraft equipped with the Pave Spike laser designator , allowing Tornado GR1s to drop precision guided weapons . A further crash programme in support of the sudden military action saw multiple GR1s outfitted with the TIALD laser designation system ; author Claus @-@ Christian Szejnmann declared that the TIALD pod enabled the GR1 to " achieve probably the most accurate bombing in the RAF 's history " . Although laser designation proved effective in the Gulf War , only 23 TIALD pods were purchased by 2000 ; shortages hindered combat operations over Kosovo .
Following the initial phase of the war , the GR1s switched to medium level strike missions , typical targets for these strikes included munition depots and oil refining facilities . Only the reconnaissance Tornado GR1As continued to operate at the low @-@ altitude high @-@ speed profile throughout the war , the GR1A emerged unscathed despite the inherent danger posed by missions such as conducting pre @-@ attack reconnaissance . In the war 's aftermath , Britain maintained a military presence in the Gulf , around half a dozen GR1s were based at Ali Al Salem airbase in Kuwait for operations over the southern no fly zone as part of Operation Southern Watch ; another half a dozen GR1s participated in missions over Northern Iraq in Operation Provide Comfort .
In March 1993 , a Mid @-@ Life Upgrade ( MLU ) project of the Tornado was launched to upgrade the GR1 / GR1A to GR4 / GR4A standard . The Tornado GR4 made its operational debut in Operation Southern Watch ; patrolling Iraq 's southern airspace from bases in Kuwait . Both Tornado GR1s and GR4s based at Ali Al Salem , Kuwait , took part in coalition strikes at Iraq 's military infrastructure during Operation Desert Fox in 1998 . In December 1998 , an Iraqi anti @-@ aircraft battery fired six to eight missiles at a patrolling Tornado , the battery was later attacked in retaliation , no aircraft were lost during the incident . It was reported that during Desert Fox RAF Tornados had successfully destroyed 75 % of allotted targets , and out of the 36 missions planned , 28 had been successfully completed .
The GR1 participated in the Kosovo War in 1999 . The Tornados initially operated from RAF Bruggen , Germany ; they later moved to Solenzara Air Base , Corsica . Experience from fighting in Kosovo led to the RAF procuring AGM @-@ 65 Maverick missiles and Enhanced Paveway smart bombs for the Tornado fleet . Following the Kosovo War , the GR1 was phased out as more aircraft were upgraded to GR4 standard . The final GR1 was upgraded and returned to the RAF on 10 June 2003 .
The GR4 was heavily used in Operation Telic , the British contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq . RAF Tornados flew in the opening phase of the war , flying alongside American strike aircraft to rapidly attack key installations . Following an emphasis on minimising casualties , Tornados of No. 617 Squadron deployed the new Storm Shadow precision cruise missile for the first time in the Iraq conflict ; while 25 % of the UK 's air @-@ launched weapons in Kosovo were precision @-@ guided , four years later in Iraq this ratio increased to 85 % .
On 23 March 2003 , a Tornado GR4 was shot down over Iraq by friendly fire from a US Patriot missile battery , killing both crew members . In July 2003 , a US board of inquiry exonerated the battery 's operators , observing the Tornado 's " lack of functioning IFF ( Identification Friend or Foe ) " as a factor in the incident . Problems with Patriot were also suggested as a factor , multiple incidents of mis @-@ identification of friendly aircraft have occurred , including the fatal shootdown of a US Navy McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet a few weeks after the loss of the Tornado . Britain withdrew the last of its Tornados from Iraq in June 2009 .
In early 2009 , several GR4s arrived at Kandahar airfield , Afghanistan to replace the Harrier GR7 / 9 aircraft deployed there since November 2004 . In 2009 , Paveway IV guided bombs were brought into service on the RAF 's Tornados , having been previously used in Afghanistan by the Harrier II fleet . In Summer 2010 , extra Tornados were dispatched to Kandahar for the duration of the 2010 Afghan election . British Tornados ended their operations in Afghanistan in November 2014 . They flew over 5 @,@ 000 pairs sorties over 33 @,@ 500 hours , including 600 " shows of force " to deter Taliban attacks . During more than 70 engagements , some 140 Brimstone missiles and Paveway IV bombs were deployed in total ( roughly half each ) and over 3 @,@ 000 27 mm cannon shells were fired .
Prior to the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review ( SDSR ) ' s publication , the retirement of the entire Tornado fleet was under consideration , savings of £ 7 @.@ 5 billion were anticipated . The SDSR announced the Tornado would be retained at the expense of the Harrier II , although Tornado numbers are to decline in transition to the Eurofighter Typhoon , and later on , the F @-@ 35 Lightning II .
On 18 March 2011 , British Prime Minister David Cameron announced the deployment of Tornados and Typhoons to enforce a no @-@ fly zone in Libya . In March 2011 , several Tornados flew 3 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 4 @,@ 800 km ) strike missions against targets inside Libya in what were , according to Defence Secretary Liam Fox , " the longest range bombing mission conducted by the RAF since the Falklands conflict " . A variety of weapons were used in operations over Libya , including Laser @-@ guided bombs and Brimstone missiles . 59 RAF aircraft are receiving the CUSP avionics upgrade which achieved Initial Service Date ( ISD ) in March 2013 and the type will be withdrawn from RAF service on 31 March 2019 .
On 11 August 2014 , a Cabinet Office Briefing Room ( COBR ) emergency meeting concluded that the RAF would deploy Tornado GR4s to RAF Akrotiri , Cyprus in support of refugees sheltering from Islamic State militants in the Mount Sinjar region of Iraq . The decision came three days after the United States began conducting air attacks against the Islamic State . Tornados were pre @-@ positioned to use their surveillance capabilities to gather situational awareness to help with humanitarian efforts . On 29 September 2014 , three days after Parliament approved of airstrikes against Islamic State forces inside Iraq , two Tornados conducted their first armed reconnaissance mission over the country , in conjunction with other coalition aircraft , and were cleared to conduct airstrikes if needed . Britain 's first airstrike was conducted the next day , when two Tornados hit a heavy weapons post and an armored vehicle in the process of supporting Kurdish forces in northwest Iraq . By 1 March 2015 , eight RAF Tornados had been deployed to Akrotiri and conducted 159 airstrikes against IS targets in Iraq .
On the 2 December 2015 , the British Parliament voted to begin air strikes in Syria as well as Iraq , to combat the growing threat of ISIS . Tornados began their bombing that evening .
= = = Royal Saudi Air Force = = =
On 25 September 1985 , the UK and Saudi Arabia signed the Al Yamamah I contract including , amongst other things , the sale of 48 IDS and 24 ADV model Tornados . The first flight of a RSAF Tornado IDS was on 26 March 1986 , and the first Saudi ADV was delivered on 9 February 1989 . Saudi Tornados undertook operations during the Gulf War . In June 1993 the Al Yamamah II contract was signed , the main element of which was 48 additional IDSs .
Following experience with both the Tornado and the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 15E Strike Eagle , the RSAF discontinued low @-@ level mission training in the F @-@ 15E in light of the Tornado 's superior low @-@ altitude flight performance . In addition , 10 of the Saudi Tornados were outfitted with equipment for performing reconnaissance missions . The 22 Tornado ADVs were replaced by the Eurofighter Typhoon ; the retired aircraft were being purchased back by the UK as of 2007 .
By 2007 , both the Sea Eagle anti @-@ ship missile and the ALARM anti @-@ radiation missile that previously equipped the RSAF 's Tornados had been withdrawn from service . As of 2010 , Saudi Arabia has signed several contracts for new weapon systems to be fitted to their Tornado and Typhoon fleets , such as the short range air @-@ to @-@ air IRIS @-@ T missile , and the Brimstone and Storm Shadow cruise missiles .
In September 2006 , the Saudi government signed a contract worth £ 2 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 4 @.@ 7 billion ) with BAE Systems to upgrade up to 80 RSAF Tornado IDS aircraft to keep them in service until 2020 . RSAF Tornado 6612 was returned to BAE Systems Warton in December 2006 for upgrade under the " Tornado Sustainment Programme " ( TSP ) , which will " equip the IDS fleet with a range of new precision @-@ guided weapons and enhanced targeting equipment , in many cases common with those systems already fielded by the UK 's Tornado GR4s . " In December 2007 , the first RSAF aircraft to complete modernisation was returned to Saudi Arabia .
Starting from the first week of November 2009 , Saudi Air Force Tornados , along with Saudi F @-@ 15s performed air raids during the Shia insurgency in north Yemen . It was the first time since Operation Desert Storm in 1991 that the Royal Saudi Air Force participated in a military operation over hostile territory .
= = Variants = =
= = = Tornado IDS = = =
Tornado GR1
RAF IDS variants were initially designated the Tornado GR1 with later modified aircraft designated Tornado GR1A , Tornado GR1B , Tornado GR4 and Tornado GR4A . The first of 228 GR1s was delivered on 5 June 1979 , and the type entered service in the early 1980s . A total of 142 aircraft were upgraded to GR4 standard from 1997 to 2003 .
Tornado GR1B
The Tornado GR1B was a specialised anti @-@ shipping variant of the GR1 . A total of 26 were converted , which were based at RAF Lossiemouth , Scotland , replacing the Blackburn Buccaneer . Each aircraft was equipped to carry up to four Sea Eagle anti @-@ ship missiles . At first the GR1B lacked the radar capability to track shipping , instead relying on the missile 's seeker for target acquisition , later updates allowed target data to be fed from aircraft to missile .
Tornado GR4
In 1984 , the UK Ministry of Defence began studies for a GR1 Mid @-@ Life Update ( MLU ) . The update to GR4 standard , approved in 1994 , would improve capability in the medium @-@ altitude role based on lessons learned from the GR1 's performance in the 1991 Gulf War . British Aerospace ( later BAE Systems ) upgraded 142 Tornado GR1s to GR4 standard , beginning in 1996 and finished in 2003 . 59 RAF aircraft are receiving the CUSP avionics package which integrates the Paveway IV bomb and installs a new secure communications module from Cassidian in Phase A , followed by the Tactical Information Exchange ( TIE ) datalink from General Dynamics in Phase B.
Tornado GR1A / GR4A
The GR1A is the reconnaissance variant used by the RAF and RSAF , fitted with the TIRRS ( Tornado Infra @-@ Red Reconnaissance System ) , replacing the cannon . The RAF ordered 30 GR1As , 14 as GR1 rebuilds and 16 as new @-@ builds . When the Tornado GR1s were upgraded to become GR4s , GR1A aircraft were upgraded to GR4A standard . The switch from low @-@ level operations to medium / high @-@ level operations means that the internal TIRRS is no longer in use . As the GR4A 's internal sensors are no longer essential , the RAF 's Tactical Reconnaissance Wing operate both GR4A and GR4 aircraft .
= = = Tornado ECR = = =
Operated by Germany and Italy , the ECR is a Tornado variant devoted to Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses ( SEAD ) missions . It was first delivered on 21 May 1990 . The ECR has sensors to detect radar usage and is equipped with anti @-@ radiation AGM @-@ 88 HARM missiles . The Luftwaffe 's 35 ECRs were delivered new , while Italy received 16 converted IDSs . Italian Tornado ECRs differ from the Luftwaffe aircraft as they lack built @-@ in reconnaissance capability and use RecceLite reconnaissance pods , also only Luftwaffe ECRs are equipped with RB199 Mk.105 engine , which has a slightly higher thrust rating . The German ECRs do not carry a cannon . The RAF uses the IDS version in the SEAD role instead of the ECR . It also modified several of its Tornado F.3s to undertake the mission .
= = = Tornado ADV = = =
The Tornado ADV ( air defence variant ) was an interceptor variant of the Tornado , developed for the RAF ( designated Tornado F2 or F3 ) and also operated by Saudi Arabia and Italy . The ADV had inferior agility to fighters like the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 15 Eagle , but it was not intended as a dog @-@ fighter , instead it was a long @-@ endurance interceptor to counter the threat from Cold War bombers . Although the ADV had 80 % parts commonality with the Tornado IDS , the ADV had greater acceleration , improved RB199 Mk.104 engines , a stretched body , greater fuel capacity , the AI.24 Foxhunter radar , and software changes . It had only one cannon to accommodate a retractable inflight refuelling probe .
= = Operators = =
Germany
German Air Force had 64 IDS and 29 ECR aircraft in service in December 2015 .
Italy
Italian Air Force had 62 IDS and 16 ECR aircraft in operation in December 2011 .
Saudi Arabia
Royal Saudi Air Force had 82 IDS in operation in December 2011 .
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force had 102 GR4 / GR4A aircraft in service in March 2014 .
= = Aircraft on display = =
Bulgaria
44 + 13 Tornado IDS on display at the National Museum of Military History , Sofia
Germany
D @-@ 9591 Tornado Prototype P.01 on display at Militärhistorisches Museum Flugplatz Berlin @-@ Gatow
XX948 Tornado Prototype P.06 on display at Hermeskeil
43 + 01 Tornado IDS ( first series aircraft ) at Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 33 in Cochem / Büchel
43 + 96 Tornado gate guard at the German air base in Jagel , near Schleswig , Schleswig @-@ Holstein
44 + 97 Tornado IDS of the Einsatzgeschwader ( Expeditionary Air Wing ) Mazar @-@ i @-@ Sharif at the Deutsches Museum Flugwerft Schleissheim , Oberschleißheim
44 + 31 Tornado IDS ( Blue Lightning paint scheme ) of the 31st Fighter Bomber Wing " Boelcke " at Nörvenich AB
Tornado IDS on display at the Luftwaffenmuseum , in Berlin
Tornado IDS on display at the Technikmuseum Speyer
43 + 86 Tornado ( MTU corporate design paint scheme ) at MTU Aero Engines , in Munich
Italy
MM7210 Tornado F3 on display at the Italian Air Force Museum , Vigna di Valle
Saudi Arabia
Tornado ADV on display at King Abdul @-@ Aziz Air Base , Dhahran
Tornado ADV on display at the Royal Saudi Air Force Museum in Riyadh
Tornado IDS on display the Royal Saudi Air Force Museum in Riyadh
Tornado IDS on display at King Abdul @-@ Aziz Air Base , Dhahran
United Kingdom
XX946 Tornado Prototype P.02 on display at the RAF Museum Cosford , England
XX947 Tornado Prototype P.03 , was gate guardian at Shoreham Airport in West Sussex , England but was for sale in September 2014 .
XZ631 Tornado GR4 Prototype P.15 on display at Yorkshire Air Museum , Elvington , England
ZA319 Tornado GR1T Gate Guard , MoD DSDA Arncott , Bicester , Oxfordshire , England
ZA326 Tornado GR1 on display at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome , Leicestershire , England .
ZA354 Tornado GR1 on display at Yorkshire Air Museum , Elvington , England
ZA361 Tornado GR1 on display at RNAS Can Florit , Calvia , Palma Mallorca , Spain - not on public display
ZA362 Tornado GR1 on display at Highland Aviation Museum , Inverness , Scotland
ZA452 Tornado GR4 on display at Midland Air Museum , Coventry , England .
ZA457 Tornado GR1B on display at RAF Museum , Hendon , England
ZA465 Tornado GR1 on display at Imperial War Museum , Duxford , England
ZA475 Tornado GR1 on the gate at RAF Lossiemouth , Scotland .
ZA549 Tornado GR4 on display at RAF Marham , Norfolk , England .
ZE760 Tornado F3 on the gate at RAF Coningsby , Lincolnshire , England
ZE887 Tornado F3 on display at RAF Museum , Hendon , England .
ZE934 Tornado F3 on display at National Museum of Flight , East Fortune , Scotland
ZH552 Tornado F3 on display at RAF Leeming , North Yorkshire , England
United States
ZA374 Tornado GR1 on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force , Wright Patterson AFB , Ohio
43 + 74 Tornado IDS of the German Navy , Marinefliegergeschwader 1 at the Pima Air & Space Museum , Tucson , AZ
= = Specifications ( Tornado GR4 ) = =
Data from International Warbirds : An Illustrated Guide to World Military Aircraft , 1914 – 2000 , Tornado , Modern Fighting Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 16 @.@ 72 m ( 54 ft 10 in )
Wingspan : 13 @.@ 91 m at 25 ° wing sweep , 8 @.@ 60 m at 67 ° wing sweep ( 45 @.@ 6 ft / 28 @.@ 2 ft )
Height : 5 @.@ 95 m ( 19 @.@ 5 ft )
Wing area : 26 @.@ 6 m2 ( 286 ft2 )
Empty weight : 13 @,@ 890 kg ( 30 @,@ 620 lb )
Loaded weight : 20 @,@ 240 kg ( 44 @,@ 620 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 28 @,@ 000 kg ( 61 @,@ 700 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Turbo @-@ Union RB199 @-@ 34R Mk 103 afterburning turbofans
Dry thrust : 43 @.@ 8 kN ( 9 @,@ 850 lbf ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 76 @.@ 8 kN ( 17 @,@ 270 lbf ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 2 @.@ 2 ( 2 @,@ 400 km / h , 1 @,@ 490 mph ) at 9 @,@ 000 m ( 30 @,@ 000 ft ) altitude ; 800 knots , 1 @,@ 482 km / h , 921 mph indicated airspeed near sea level
Range : 1 @,@ 390 km ( 870 mi ) for typical combat mission
Ferry range : 3 @,@ 890 km ( 2 @,@ 417 mi ) with four external drop tanks
Service ceiling : 15 @,@ 240 m ( 50 @,@ 000 ft )
Rate of climb : 76 @.@ 7 m / s ( 15 @,@ 100 ft / min )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 77
Armament
Guns : 1 × 27 mm ( 1 @.@ 06 in ) Mauser BK @-@ 27 revolver cannon internally mounted under starboard side of fuselage with 180 rounds
Hardpoints : 4 × light duty + 3 × heavy duty under @-@ fuselage and 4 × swivelling under @-@ wing pylon stations with a capacity of 9 @,@ 000 kg ( 19 @,@ 800 lb ) of payload , the two inner wing pylons have shoulder launch rails for 2 × Short @-@ Range AAM ( SRAAM ) each and provisions to carry combinations of :
Missiles : AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder or AIM @-@ 132 ASRAAM air @-@ to @-@ air missiles for self @-@ defence
6 × AGM @-@ 65 Maverick ; or
12 × Brimstone missile ; or
2 × Storm Shadow
9 × ALARM anti @-@ radiation missile
Bombs : 5 × 500 lb Paveway IV ; or
3 × 1000 lb ( UK Mk 20 ) Paveway II / Enhanced Paveway II ; or
2 × 2000 lb Paveway III ( GBU @-@ 24 ) / Enhanced Paveway III ( EGBU @-@ 24 ) ; or
BL755 cluster bombs ; or
Up to 2 × JP233 or MW @-@ 1 munitions dispensers ( for runway cratering operations )
Up to 4 × B61 or WE.177 tactical nuclear weapons
Other : Up to 4 × drop tanks for ferry flight / extended range / flight time
Avionics
RAPTOR aerial reconnaissance pod
Rafael LITENING targeting pod ; or
TIALD laser designator pod
BAE Systems Sky Shadow electronic countermeasure pod
= = Popular culture = =
= Franklin Peale =
Benjamin Franklin Peale ( born Aldrovand Peale ; October 15 , 1795 – May 5 , 1870 ) , usually Franklin Peale , was an employee and officer of the Philadelphia Mint from 1833 to 1854 . Although Peale introduced many innovations to the Mint of the United States , he was eventually dismissed amid allegations he had used his position for personal gain .
Peale was the son of painter Charles Willson Peale , and was born in the museum of curiosities that his father ran in Philadelphia . For the most part , Franklin Peale 's education was informal , though he took some classes at the University of Pennsylvania . He became adept in machine making . In 1820 , he became an assistant to his father at the museum , and managed it after Charles Peale 's death in 1827 .
In 1833 , Peale was hired by the Mint , and was sent for two years to Europe to study and report back on coining techniques . He returned with plans for improvement , and designed the first steam @-@ powered coinage press in the United States , installed in 1836 . Peale was made Melter and Refiner of the Philadelphia Mint that year , and Chief Coiner three years later upon the retirement of the incumbent , Adam Eckfeldt , who continued in his work without pay . Eckfeldt 's labor allowed Peale to run a medal business using Mint property . This sideline eventually caused Peale 's downfall : conflicts with Engraver James B. Longacre and Melter and Refiner Richard Sears McCulloh led to Peale being accused of misconduct , and he was dismissed by President Franklin Pierce in 1854 .
In retirement , Peale continued his involvement in and leadership of many civic organizations ; he died in 1870 . Numismatic author Q. David Bowers suggests that the facts of Peale 's career allow writers to draw very different conclusions about him .
= = Early life and career = =
Benjamin Franklin Peale was born October 15 , 1795 , to painter Charles Willson Peale and his second wife , the former Elizabeth de Peyster . As well as pursuing his art , Charles Peale ran a museum of curiosities housed in Philosophical Hall in Philadelphia , home of the American Philosophical Society . The boy was born in the family quarters in the museum . He was given the name Aldrovand , after the Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi .
Charles Peale recorded family births on the flyleaf of a copy of Matthew Pilkington 's Dictionary of Painters , rather than in a Bible , and after recording " Aldrovand " added the notation , " if he likes that name when he comes of age " . The father was a member of the American Philosophical Society , and in February 1796 brought his young son to a meeting , and asked the members to select another name for the child . They decided on Benjamin Franklin Peale , naming the boy after the Society 's founder , Benjamin Franklin . Society legend holds that the boy was given the name while placed in the chair of the president of the Society , which had been donated by Franklin .
Franklin Peale was one of sixteen children his father would have by his three wives . Elizabeth Peale died when Franklin was eight years old , but his father soon remarried , and the child was thereafter cared for by his stepmother . He was given little classroom education , though he did spend some time at a local school in nearby Bucks County , as well as at Germantown Academy and the University of Pennsylvania . For the most part , his education was informal , as was usual in the Peale family , with the student given the means to study what interested him , or what he appeared to be good at . In Franklin Peale 's case , he made toys as a boy , and surveyed his father 's farm near Germantown . Although he lacked the artistic talent of some of his brothers , such as Titian Peale , he proved mechanically inclined .
At age 17 , Peale began to work for the Delaware cotton factory of William Young , on the Brandywine River , learning the making of machines . He was an apt student , becoming adept as a turner , founder , and draftsman . He was tolerated in his desire for a mechanical career by his father , who considered it a foolish whim . Within a year , one of the Hodgson brothers , who ran a nearby machine shop , described Peale as highly capable with tools . At age 19 Peale returned to Germantown , where , having designed and supervised the installation of the machinery for a cotton factory there , he was put in charge , and continued to manage the factory for several years . He then moved to nearby Philadelphia , and worked for the firm of John & Coleman Sellers , which made machinery for card sticking .
On April 24 , 1815 , Peale , still a minor at age 19 , married Eliza Greatrake without his father 's consent . Almost immediately , it became evident she had mental problems . Although Eliza bore Peale a child within the first year of the marriage ( a daughter , Anna ) , she thereafter left him , returning to live with her mother , who had her committed to Pennsylvania Hospital as a " lunatic " . The Peale family began a lengthy effort to show that Eliza Peale was mad when she married Franklin , a ground for annulment . With aid from the testimony of Captain Allen McLane , they were successful , and the annulment was granted on March 22 , 1820 . Franklin Peale was required to post assets as security for the support of his former wife ; his sister Sophy lent him some of her stock in the museum for that purpose .
In 1820 , Peale left factory management to assist his aging father in running the museum , and remained there for over a decade . When Charles Willson Peale died in 1827 , Franklin became the manager of the museum , and like his siblings , inherited stock in it . He not only maintained the exhibits , but added to them , contributing a " curious speaking toy " as well as the model for an early locomotive , which was used to draw two small cars in the museum , with seating for four people . At the time , the museum was located in the Old State House ( today , Independence Hall ) , and Peale worked out a system for using the State House bell to inform fire companies of the location of a blaze .
Peale was one of the founders of The Franklin Institute in 1824 , one of several mechanics ' institutes that came into being in the early 1820s to provide working men with technical education . It quickly became important and influential , organizing an exhibition of American manufactured goods that October , one of at least 26 such shows that it put on in the first 34 years of its existence . Peale taught natural history , mechanics ( illustrating his lectures with models and drawings ) , and chemistry , livening the talks with experiments . He was for many years actively involved with The Franklin Institute , writing articles for its Journal and serving on key committees .
= = Mint employee and officer ( 1833 – 1854 ) = =
= = = Hiring and Europe tour = = =
The second building to house the Philadelphia Mint opened in 1833 , with up @-@ to @-@ date technology except in the coining process . For this , it used the transplanted machinery of its predecessor , using human muscle power to strike coins . Although the Mint wanted all coins to be identical to others of the same denomination , the use of the screw press was an impediment to this , as the force used to impress the design on the coins was not uniform . Additionally , the coinage dies were made by hand , leading to differences between coins struck from different dies . This state of affairs was unsatisfactory to the director , Samuel Moore , who had for several years contemplated purchasing a modern set of steam machinery for the production of coins from the Soho Mint in Birmingham , England , founded by coining pioneer Matthew Boulton . Moore instead decided to engage a new employee and send him on a special tour of European mints and refineries , in order to learn the best features of each and bring the knowledge home for use at the Philadelphia facility . The individual would be given the title of Assistant to the Assayer , Jacob R. Eckfeldt . Moore obtained the approval of Treasury Secretary Louis McLane and an appropriation of $ 7 @,@ 000 for the purpose .
Moore , in a letter to McLane , noted that sending an agent to Europe to gather technology had been discussed in the past , but proposals had foundered over the difficulty of finding a person both competent enough to undertake the trip successfully and not too busy to spend a year or more in Europe . At the recommendation of the director 's first cousin , Robert M. Patterson , Moore hired Peale for the position . According to Patterson , " I do not know any man more likely to succeed in such a mission . His skill , his perseverance , his address all fit him for the errand . " Peale was willing to go , writing , " a variety of circumstances render me very desirous of vacating the situation that I have held for many years as Manager of the Phila Museum , it will therefore be agreeable to change even at a pecuniary sacrifice . "
Peale departed from New York for Le Havre on May 8 , 1833 , arriving in Paris late in the month . At this time , it was only certain that Peale would visit Paris — a visit to England , with instruction at local mints and refineries , was still under discussion . Peale had been instructed to learn " parting , " a newly developed method for separating gold and silver . This process , also dubbed refining , is necessary because nuggets that contain gold also contain some silver , and the latter metal must be removed before the gold can be alloyed with copper for coining . The older method of removing silver involved the use of nitric and sulphuric acids , and was dangerous and expensive . Director Moore also instructed Peale to gain the method of assaying silver by the " humid process " ( titration ) , and to learn everything he could of coining technology and how it was powered by steam . Moore warned , " a very material object of your mission is to be regarded as unaccomplished , until you have become familiar with everything requisite for directing the formation of an establishment de novo [ from nothing ] ... and until you shall have acquired a good share of adroitness in the actual manipulations ... Whatever can be added to our information in regard to the treatment of the precious metals , and Mint processes and machinery is within the scope of your inquiries . " Moore asked that , if Peale had any time remaining , to look into other technologies that might be useful to the United States , such as the gas illumination of cities .
With the aid of the United States Minister to France , Edward Livingston , Peale gained permission to study closely the workings of the Monnaie de Paris . The staff there was cooperative , and Peale was able to learn the " humid " method from watching the assayer as he verified the silver content of the coins from the French branch mints . Peale 's notes were supplemented by detailed engravings of all the fixtures used in the process , published and sold by the Paris mint at an expense of 98 francs 50 centimes , which Peale deemed worth the purchase on the US government 's behalf . Peale also purchased a set of the apparatus for the humid method , made and sold by the mint ; Peale paid 500 francs for this .
Some of the machinery that would be installed on Peale 's return to Philadelphia was based on what he saw in Paris . He sketched the Monnaie de Paris 's Thonnelier model coin presses . He also copied the Paris facility 's Tour á portrait reducing lathe . He could not learn parting there as the facility contracted the process to private refineries ; attempts to gain permission to learn the process at these facilities failed when their owners demanded huge sums , believing that Peale , as a government agent , was flush with money .
Peale journeyed to London , hoping that Moore 's connections could get him instruction in the parting process . Although he visited the Royal Mint , he found officials there unhelpful and unwilling to teach him . In England , Peale studied the method of assaying via the humid process at Percival N. Johnson 's refinery , and in 1835 introduced it to the Philadelphia Mint , replacing assaying by cupellation . Peale wrote that he " cannot speak in too high terms of Mr. Percival Johnson ... I have derived much useful information in his refinery particularly his method of separating silver , gold and paladium [ palladium ] by a shortened process " . While in London , Peale ordered a delicate balance scale from his friend , expatriate American Joseph Saxton , and later induced Saxton to return to the United States and work for the Philadelphia Mint .
Peale returned to France where , as the refiners wanted payment for teaching him the French method of parting , he learned it by observing the assayer at the branch mint in Rouen . He was not completely happy with this , as he was not allowed to practice it himself , or to experiment , but felt that he could reproduce what he had seen on his return to Philadelphia . Peale also visited the German mints of Dresden , Stuttgart , and Karlsruhe . In Germany , parting was done in iron vessels ; although Peale noted these were cheaper than platinum ones , he preferred the latter , writing in December 1834 that use of iron " sometimes leads to losses that are embarrassing . " He also visited Freiberg , in Saxony , observing the smelting and refining of lead ore .
= = = Return and results = = =
On June 17 , 1835 , Peale submitted his report to Moore , 276 pages of his observations at the various European mints he had visited , and his comments and recommendations . He warned , " in the organization of Mints in both France and England that there are offices and incumbents , that are useless , and who render no services of importance for their appointment " . He recommended favorably the French practice of not appointing a coin designer , but having competitions judged jointly by Mint officers and by artists . Peale also urged the passage of a single , comprehensive Mint Act , to replace the scattered bits of legislation passed over the years ; this was done in 1837 . One recommendation submitted by Peale , but not adopted , was to have the Mint set up a guaranty department , to hallmark items made of gold or silver by the private sector as public assurance of their quality , as done by the Goldsmiths Company in London . He also recommended that the Philadelphia Mint strike medals , as did its French counterpart . He suggested that the Mint establish a museum of coins and coining , as the Paris facility had .
Peale returned from Europe with plans he had drawn for a steam @-@ powered coinage press , borrowing the steam machinery design from English mints and the toggle joint technology from French ones . In September , Patterson , by then Mint Director in place of the retired Moore , wrote to Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury , " we have just completed under the superintendence of Mr. Peale , a model of a coining press from plans which he saw in successful operation in France and in Germany , and possessing many very manifest advantages over the Screw press now applied at the Mint . Among these one of the most important is that [ it ] admits the immediate and easy application of steam power . " Director Patterson called March 23 , 1836 " an epoch in our coinage " . To take advantage of the new press 's increased production capacity , Peale designed a new machine to cut planchets , or blanks , from metal strips . This machine remained in use , almost unmodified , until 1902 .
Another of the steam @-@ powered machines Peale had installed on his return was a milling machine , which was used to " upset " the coin — to form a rim around it . A Contamin portrait lathe was imported from France and installed at the Philadelphia Mint in 1837 . Prior to this time , all coin dies for American coins had to be made individually , by hand at Philadelphia . Once the lathe was installed , they could be reproduced mechanically by the pantograph @-@ like device .
The first pieces produced by steam power at the Philadelphia Mint , commemorative medals , were struck on March 23 , 1836 . The first steam press there then began minting cents , with silver and gold coinage first struck there by steam towards the end of the year . Built by the Philadelphia firm of Merrick , Agnew , and Taylor to Peale 's design , the press was able to coin 100 pieces per minute . After being retired from government service , the press was used at The Franklin Institute to strike miniature medals for many years , and in 2000 was moved to the American Numismatic Association 's Money Museum in Colorado Springs . Patterson wrote ,
The performance of the press , in which the power of the lever is substituted for that of the screw , has answered all our expectations . Since that time , all the copper coins have been struck by this press , and it has been lately used with success for coining half dollars . The workmen are now engaged in making other steam presses ; and as these are completed , the coining by human labor be abandoned , and the work that can be executed in ... the Mint will be greatly increased .
Numismatist Roger Burdette notes , " in most respects , Peale seems to have selected the best from European examples , and discarded all unnecessary complexity and ineffective motion . " Although minor improvements were made from time to time , these machines struck the nation 's coinage for the remainder of Peale 's life .
According to numismatist David Lange , " the fact @-@ finding journey of [ future ] Philadelphia Mint Melter and Refiner Franklin Peale through the mints of Europe from 1833 to 1835 assured that United States coins would be second to none in terms of technology . " Lange , in his history of the Mint , notes that though Peale ended his career by being fired amid accusations of impropriety , upon his return from Europe , " he was the bearer of many innovations devised in the mints of Europe and now made available to the United States Mint at Philadelphia " . Robert Patterson III , son of the Mint Director under whom Peale served for many years , wrote that through Peale 's report , " our Mint was placed in full possession of all that was then worthy to be known " from foreign mints and refineries . Patterson indicated that he had often thought , as he passed through the Philadelphia Mint 's coining department , that a plaque should be set up to Peale reproducing the tribute to Sir Christopher Wren in London 's St. Paul 's Cathedral , Si Monumentum Requiris , Circumspice ( if you seek his monument , look around you ) .
= = = Melter and Refiner = = =
Joseph Cloud had held the position of Melter and Refiner of the Philadelphia Mint since 1797 . The Washington administration appointee resigned , effective at the start of 1836 . Peale was nominated as Cloud 's replacement by President Andrew Jackson on December 21 , 1835 , and was confirmed by the Senate on January 5 , 1836 .
On taking office as Melter and Refiner , Peale implemented the changes he had recommended based on what he had seen in Europe . He also wanted additional mechanization in the mint 's Coining Department , headed by Chief Coiner Adam Eckfeldt , whose son Jacob was the Philadelphia Mint 's Assayer . Adam Eckfeldt had helped strike some of the first federal coins in 1792 and had been in his office since 1814 . Eckfeldt was reluctant to adopt all Peale 's recommendations , telling Peale 's nephew , engineer George Sellers , " If Mr. Peale had full swing he would turn everything upside down ... he wants something better and no doubt he would have it if we were starting anew . " As improvements crept in despite Eckfeldt 's caution , the Chief Coiner saw their value and became more enthusiastic , noting the savings in working time afforded by the Contamin lathe , which had been imported from France after being seen by Peale there . To help deal with the increased output from the Philadelphia Mint , Peale invented a piling @-@ box , allowing planchets or coins to be quickly stacked , and a counting board , speeding the work of the clerks . The counting board remained in use until the mints installed mechanical counters in 1934 .
One of the innovations that Peale introduced as Melter and Refiner was the use of salt in parting , using it to recover the silver dissolved in nitric acid when gold bullion was being purified . Previously , this could only be done by using copper , a process that generated dangerous and offensive fumes . Table salt ( sodium chloride ) , dissolved in nitric acid , caused silver chloride to precipitate , which could be recovered as metallic silver through the use of zinc and sulfuric acid . This was a further refinement of the parting process ; the director of the Monnaie de Paris , Joseph Louis Gay @-@ Lussac , had first used a salt solution as an easy , accurate means of assaying silver . A Senate report in 1873 stated that Peale 's advancement of this process " attests to his genius , enterprise , and high attainments " . When there were calls in Congress in 1836 for a two @-@ cent piece to be made of debased silver , or billon , Patterson had Peale , working with Second Engraver Christian Gobrecht , strike pattern coins to show that the coins would be easily counterfeited using base metals .
In 1835 , Congress had authorized branch mints at Charlotte , North Carolina , Dahlonega , Georgia , and New Orleans , Louisiana , to strike into American coin the gold being mined in or entering the country through the South . Despite the rich gold deposits nearby , both Charlotte and Dahlonega were in areas lacking men with technical training ; accordingly trained personnel would have to be sent from Philadelphia . New buildings were to be constructed . In August 1837 , Mint Director Patterson received word of problems at both sites , including a partial collapse of the Dahlonega building . He wrote to Treasury Secretary Levi Woodbury , proposing " to send , to both the Gold mints , a confidential & skillful person , who may ... give instructions as to correcting the errors , that have been committed ... I know of no one competent to this task , except our Melter & Refiner , Mr. Peale . " Woodbury agreed , informing Patterson , " you are authorized to send Mr. Peak . [ sic ] "
Peale , accompanied by his daughter Anna , arrived in Charlotte on September 23 , 1837 . He found that necessary equipment had not yet arrived , and without it he could do little . Peale ordered a search made , and reported to Patterson that he was " in a trap " in " this fag end of creation " in a town where " the only active beings are the hogs " . Peale spent time visiting the mines on which the Charlotte Mint would rely for bullion . He proposed to Patterson that he continue to New Orleans after Dahlonega , to which the Mint Director replied that he would " exercise my veto upon your proposed long delay " and " your presence [ in Philadelphia ] cannot be dispensed with " . On October 27 , much of the missing equipment arrived in Charlotte , and Peale was able to complete his mission there and leave for Dahlonega on November 10 . Following a difficult journey over primitive mountain roads , Franklin and Anna Peale arrived there on November 15 . After assessing the problems at the nascent Dahlonega Mint , Peale reported to Patterson ,
The workmanship of the Mint edifice is abominable , a letter might be three times filled with the details of errors and intentional mal construction , the first and greatest of which might be traced to Philada , in ordering a brick building in a country where there is no clay , the material employed for the brick making being the red soil of the Gold region , a decomposed granite … put into brick by men who certainly deserve diplomas for Botching .
Nevertheless , Peale recommended that construction on the building continue , as he deemed Congress unlikely to pass another appropriation for construction . The Peales left Dahlonega at the end of November . On their way north , Anna was slightly injured when the train in which they were riding though Virginia derailed . Peale was back at his desk at the Philadelphia Mint on December 23 , 1837 .
Roger Burdette discusses the influence Peale had on the Mint in the 1830s :
In mid @-@ 1835 we find Philadelphia engineer / machinist Benjamin Franklin Peale discarding most of the complexity and tradition attendant to press design work of Thonnelier in Paris , Uhlhorn in Karlsruhe , and Boulton in London . Peale went to basic principles of equipment used at these great mints , and adapted it to the American model of efficiency . Equipment had to be robust and easy to repair . The vast distances of North America made it impossible to have mechanical experts at each mint , sitting , waiting for something to break ... The Mint Bureau of 1839 had to insist on similar ways of processing gold and silver [ at the four mints ] , even if these processes were not the most efficient or inexpensive . As with equipment , we can again see Franklin Peale borrowing from the Royal Mint and Paris Mint such production methods that worked well , and discarding those of questionable utility in the American mints .
= = = Chief Coiner = = =
= = = = Appointment and early years = = = =
When Adam Eckfeldt retired in 1839 , he recommended Peale as his successor . As the Senate was not sitting , Peale was given a recess appointment as Chief Coiner of the Philadelphia Mint by President Martin Van Buren on March 27 , 1839 . On January 23 , 1840 , after the Senate reconvened , Van Buren nominated Peale ; the Senate gave its approval on February 17 . Despite his retirement , Eckfeldt continued to come to the mint every day until shortly before his death in February 1852 , performing the function of Chief Coiner and leaving Peale with time on his hands .
Soon after his appointment , Peale began to engage in a private business on the Mint 's premises . He did this by designing , striking and selling medals for private commission , using government property and labor , and the Philadelphia Mint 's facilities . Peale 's enterprise was very profitable , as his expenses were minimal . This activity took place with the knowledge of the other officers of the Philadelphia Mint , most of whom were Peale 's friends and relatives . Clients included corporations as well as one couple celebrating a 50th wedding anniversary . According to Robert E. Wright in his history of Philadelphia as an early financial center , the legality of Peale 's business was unclear , but " the uncertainty of the situation made it almost inevitable that someone would make a stink on [ Philadelphia 's ] Chestnut Street . "
This activity has been variously characterized by numismatic writers . According to coin dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers , " Peale started to abuse his position and privileges , in effect stealing services from the government " . Burdette notes , " Overall , it appears that Peale used mint equipment and employees to make medals as instructed by Congress and the mint director , and to produce copies from private and official dies for sale to anyone who was interested . In the case of private sales , Peale seems to have used government metal , then reimbursed the bullion accounts when he collected for the medal . Profits were not accounted for in mint ledgers and it is unknown how much went to Peale , others at the mint or into the mint 's Cabinet of Coins . The total amount was probably not large . "
After scalemaker Saxton left the Mint Service in 1844 , much of the work of maintaining and modifying the sensitive balances for which Saxton was responsible fell to Peale . The Chief Coiner made a number of improvements to the scales , which he wrote up for an article in the Journal of The Franklin Institute in 1847 . These balances , sensitive to .0001 troy ounces ( 0 @.@ 00011 oz ; 0 @.@ 0031 g ) , were protected by plate glass from air currents and dust .
= = = = Conflict with Longacre = = = =
In 1844 , Engraver Gobrecht died , and was replaced by James B. Longacre . The new incumbent had obtained his appointment through the influence of South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun . He had no relationship to the families that dominated the Philadelphia Mint , such as the Pattersons and Eckfeldts , and the connection with the Southerner Calhoun was objectionable to Peale , Patterson , and their associates . They would have preferred no replacement for Gobrecht , with the New York engraver Charles Cushing White or others they knew and trusted brought in on contract as necessary . This would ensure Peale 's highly profitable medal business was not threatened . Additionally , Longacre had no training , prior to his appointment , in coin or medal design , being a successful plate engraver , and Lange states that the Mint officers were " understandably " prejudiced against him .
Peale sometimes worked on medals for the government , taking care to exclude Longacre from the process . During the Mexican @-@ American War , Congress voted a gold medal to Major General Zachary Taylor for his victories at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma . Peale engraved the design from a portrait by William Carl Brown and a model by John T. Battin . After Taylor became president , Peale designed his Indian Peace Medal ; Peale also engraved Indian Peace Medals for presidents John Tyler and James Polk , working from designs or models by other men . In 1846 , Peale designed and engraved the Coast Survey Medal ( also called the George M. Bache medal ) . Peale believed that all national commemorative medals , those authorized by Congress , should have their dies lodged at the Philadelphia Mint , and be struck there , and with Patterson 's support urged the issuance of medals for presidents for whom no Indian Peace Medal had been designed , such as John Adams and William Henry Harrison . This was done , but not in Peale 's time — for example , the William Henry Harrison medal was designed by later Assistant and Chief Engraver George T. Morgan . These works , like Peale 's Indian Peace Medals , form part of the Mint 's Presidential series , which continues to the present day .
Peale 's improvements had made it possible for dies to be reproduced mechanically , relieving the Mint 's Engraver of much of his routine duties . In the absence of a need for new designs or denominations , Longacre had little to do but add the dates to dies . Some of these insertions were blundered , and modern @-@ day numismatic scholars , such as R. W. Julian , have wondered if , as Peale and those who worked under him also sometimes inserted dates into dies , these mistakes were done intentionally in an attempt to bring discredit on Longacre . Nevertheless , Longacre 's first few years at the Philadelphia Mint passed without serious conflict with Peale . All this changed in 1849 , when Congress authorized a gold dollar and a double eagle ( $ 20 piece ) . This made Longacre the center of attention at the mint , as he would be responsible for producing the new designs and dies . It also brought him into direct conflict with Peale : the Engraver would need to use the Contamin lathe , which was necessary to Peale 's medal business . Peale sought to sabotage Longacre 's attempts , with the goal of having him dismissed , and such work contracted for outside the government , allowing the medal business to continue undisturbed . In this , Peale had the support of Director Patterson .
As Longacre worked to complete the two new coins , he had to deal with interference from Peale . In early 1849 , according to a letter written by Longacre the following year , the Engraver was approached by a member of the Mint staff , warning him that another officer ( plainly Peale ) sought to have the engraving work done outside the Mint , making Longacre redundant . Longacre 's response to the information was to spend much of March 1849 preparing the dies for the gold dollar , at some cost to his health , as he later related . Longacre proceeded with work on the double eagle through late 1849 , and described the obstacles set in his path by Peale :
The plan of operation selected for me was to have an electrotype mould made from my model , in copper , to serve as a pattern for a cast in iron . The operations of the galvanic battery for this purpose were conducted in the apartments of the chief coiner . The galvanic process failed , my model was destroyed in the operation . I had , however , taken the precaution to make a cast in plaster ... From this cast , as the only alternative , I procurred [ sic ] a metallic one which , however , was not perfect ; but I thought I should be able to correct the imperfections in the engraving of the die ... this was a laborious task , but seasonably completed , entirely by my own hand . The die then had to be hardened in the coining department ; it unluckily split in the process .
According to numismatic historian Don Taxay , " under the circumstances , Peale 's adoption of a process not normally used at the Mint , together with its catastrophic failure , seems more than coincidental . " When Longacre completed the double eagle dies , they were rejected by Peale , who stated that the design was engraved too deeply to fully impress the coin , and the pieces would not stack properly . Taxay , however , noted that the one surviving 1849 double eagle displays no such problems , and by appearance would be level in a stack . Peale complained to Patterson , who wrote to Treasury Secretary William M. Meredith asking for Longacre 's removal on December 25 , 1849 , on the ground he could not make proper dies . Meredith was apparently willing to have Longacre fired , but relented after the Engraver journeyed to Washington and met with him personally .
Beginning in 1849 , there were calls for a silver three @-@ cent piece , and pattern coins were struck at the Philadelphia Mint . Longacre 's design featured a shield within a six @-@ pointed star on one side . Peale offered a competing design , showing a Liberty cap , very similar to one Gobrecht had made in 1836 when a gold dollar had been proposed . Patterson preferred Peale 's design , but reluctantly endorsed Longacre 's , since it was in lower relief and could be struck more easily , and Treasury Secretary Thomas Corwin approved the Engraver 's work . The three @-@ cent piece went into circulation in 1851 .
In 1850 , with the Mint faced with a vast increase in gold deposits due to the California Gold Rush , Peale suggested that the Mint hire women to supplement the staff assigned to weigh and adjust gold planchets , or coin blanks , describing the work as " being entirely suited to their capacity " . The Mint did hire 40 women , who were ( as of 1860 ) paid $ 1 @.@ 10 per ten @-@ hour day , a sum considered generous . The Mint 's hiring of women was the first time the American government had employed women to fill specific jobs at regular wages .
In 1851 , Peale designed a new steam engine for the Philadelphia Mint , using a " steeple " design without exterior pipes . Although designed to generate 100 horsepower , wear soon reduced its capacity . American journals of engineering mentioned Peale 's latest work without comment ; British journals pointed out the defects and suggested that time had passed Peale by .
= = = = Downfall = = = =
Not all of Peale 's innovations were successful . He caused the Mint to purchase a large lathe for turning heavy metal rolls , which cost the government at least $ 2 @,@ 000 and that Peale conceded had never worked and likely never would . He bought from his nephew , George Sellers , a set of molds for casting ingots and accompanying equipment , which proved unusable as they were not adapted to the Mint 's machinery . A drawbench made by Peale at the cost of at least $ 1 @,@ 500 proved dangerous as the piston would drive with tremendous force against the end of its cylinder , causing a concussion and endangering those nearby . " Peale 's machine gun " was put aside by Mint staff as useless soon after its introduction . An 1853 attempt by Peale to convert the Philadelphia Mint 's wood @-@ burning annealing furnaces to use anthracite coal destroyed the furnaces , cost the government several thousand dollars , and led to Peale being ordered to undertake no more such projects . One invention that worked well was the " noisy sofa " — sitting on it set off a trumpet blast . Constructed at the cost of about $ 200 in government funds , it graced in turn the offices of Peale and Patterson .
These activities were financed through a provision of the Mint Act of 1837 that Patterson interpreted to allow the Mint to decline to give credit for small amounts of silver in gold deposits . This practice was twice approved by the then @-@ Secretary of the Treasury , in 1837 and 1849 . Small deposits of bullion were rounded down to be divisible by $ 5 , with the surplus kept and used at the discretion of Mint officials . This , and similar practices whereby officials financed activities without an appropriation from Congress , were brought to an end after Peale proposed a $ 20 @,@ 800 renovation of part of the Philadelphia Mint building in 1850 , and ran over budget by $ 12 @,@ 000 . To pay this , Patterson used the profits , or seignorage , projected to be made from the new three @-@ cent pieces . When Congress heard of this , it passed the Act of February 21 , 1853 , requiring the Mint Director to regularly pay the seignorage into the Treasury .
One flaw in Peale 's medal business was his need to acquire gold and silver bullion within the Mint . This was paid for once the medal sold , and there was no problem while the Melter and Refiner of the Philadelphia Mint was Peale 's friend Jonas R. McClintock . But in 1846 , McClintock resigned and was replaced by Richard Sears McCulloh . At first , McCulloh gave Peale whatever gold and silver he needed without question , but came to object to doing so . Peale and McCulloh made a deal whereby the struck medal would remain in McCulloh 's custody until Peale had replaced the bullion , but Peale objected that the procedure was " inconvenient " . Beginning in August 1849 , McCulloh refused further requests from Peale for bullion , and Peale instead gained it from the Mint 's Treasurer .
Peale did his best to make McCulloh 's position difficult , such as refusing to accept bullion for coins except from McCulloh personally . In 1850 , McCulloh resigned . In November of that year , the former official published an article in the New York Evening Express alleging that those employed at the Mint had transformed " it into a workshop for their gain " . President Millard Fillmore sent the article to Secretary of the Treasury Corwin for an explanation ; Corwin forwarded it to Patterson , who confirmed that Peale was running a private medal business on the premises , but stated that there was no interference with the performance of Peale 's duties as Chief Coiner . Taxay noted that this was only true because the retired Adam Eckfeldt was still performing the duties of that office without salary , and this ceased in February 1852 when Eckfeldt died after a brief illness . The death of his predecessor caused Peale to write " a frantic letter " to the new Mint Director ( Patterson had retired ) , George N. Eckert , stating that he urgently needed an assistant .
McCulloh 's campaign had continued ; on August 1 , 1851 , he wrote directly to President Fillmore , accusing Peale of " lavish and unnecessary expenditure of public money " , and stating that Peale was unfit to hold office . He alleged that Mint workmen had been detailed to make repairs to Peale 's house while being paid for their time by the government . One man subsequently stated that he and another Mint employee spent two days working on Peale 's house ; another alleged that whenever the archery club of which Peale was a member met , Mint employees were sent to help with the arrangements . McCulloh also accused Peale of having Mint workers make furniture for his use when they would otherwise be idle . Corwin ordered an investigation , which dragged on for the next year and a half . Peale entered a statement in April 1852 , alleging that McCulloh was accusing the Director and the accounting staff of " gross neglect of duty " , and that McCulloh 's attack on Peale 's medal business was a slight on " the late venerable and much loved Adam Eckfeldt " , whose precedent Peale stated he was following . Peale wrote in his defense , " I boldly claim to have done for the Mint and my country , much that will entitle me gratitude . "
Eckert was friendly towards Peale , and worked to discredit the accusations . McCulloh urged Corwin to review the correspondence himself , and the Secretary agreed , but both Corwin and Eckert left office in early 1853 with no action having been taken against Peale . McCulloh that summer published a pamphlet , The Proceedings of the Late Director of the Mint in Relation to the Official Misconduct of Franklin Peale Esq . , Chief Coiner and Other Abuses in the Mint , printing much of the correspondence . This tract was reviewed by the new Mint Director , James Ross Snowden ; he and the new Treasury Secretary , James Guthrie , decided to forbid private enterprises on the Mint 's property . In August 1854 , Guthrie issued regulations banning the practice .
Taxay recorded that the new policy " seem [ s ] to have been ill @-@ received in certain quarters of the Mint " but that as not all records are extant , the specifics are uncertain . According to Taxay ,
It is clear , however , that Snowden wrote to Guthrie preferring charges against Peale , and that Guthrie in turn wrote to the President [ Franklin Pierce ] who , having no one else to write to , dismissed Peale at once ... Peale left the Mint on December 2 , [ 1854 , ] never again to return .
The reasons for Peale 's firing were not publicly announced , and his friends and allies , such as William DuBois ( Adam Eckfeldt 's son @-@ in @-@ law and the Assistant Assayer ( later Assayer ) of the Philadelphia Mint ) stated that it was so President Pierce could have the position to fill from the Democratic Party . Taxay noted that this explanation ignored the fact that Martin Van Buren , under whose administration Peale had been appointed Chief Coiner , was also a Democrat as president . Nevertheless , an 1873 Senate report on Peale 's request for compensation after being dismissed stated , " why such a valuable officer was displaced does not appear " .
= = Later years , death , and assessment = =
After his departure from the Philadelphia Mint , Peale initially retired from all employment . In 1864 , he returned to the private sector as president of the Hazelton Coal and Rail Road Company , in which he had long been involved , remaining in that position through 1867 . Civic organizations of which he was president included the Musical Fund Society of Pennsylvania and the Institution for Instruction to the Blind . He had been elected a manager of the latter organization in 1839 , served on many important committees , and was elected its president in 1863 , still holding the office at his death in 1870 . A member of the American Philosophical Society since 1833 , he served as one of its curators from 1838 to 1845 and from 1847 until 1870 . A longtime member of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts , which his father had helped to found , he served as one of its directors through much of his retirement . He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1865 .
In his later years , Peale spent some of his autumns at the Delaware Water Gap north of Philadelphia , searching for Stone Age artifacts and amassing a major collection . Peale catalogued his finds and added narrative descriptions , bequeathing the collection to the American Philosophical Society . An adept archer , he helped found the United Bowmen club , members of whom carried his casket to his grave , at his instructions . He was also , at his death , president of the Skater 's Club . He was a lifelong skater , and developed a method for extracting a skater who broke through the ice that saved many lives .
Peale was among those consulted in 1870 by Treasury Secretary George Boutwell in preparing the legislation to reform the Mint that became the Coinage Act of 1873 . Peale advocated for the office of the Mint Director to be moved from Philadelphia to Washington ; this was enacted . He supported the abolition of the gold dollar and the three @-@ dollar piece , but these coins were not ended by Congress until 1890 . He denigrated recent coin issues ( many designed by Longacre , who had died in 1869 ) , saying that their designs have , " hitherto been lamentably , if not disgracefully deficient " .
Peale married twice ; his first marriage to Eliza Greatrake , contracted in 1815 while he was still a minor , produced one daughter , Anna , who survived him . His second , childless , marriage was to Caroline Girard Haslam , a widow , and the niece of the wealthy Stephen Girard ; it lasted from 1839 to his death . He enjoyed the company of children , making toys by his own hand for them . Peale was in declining health in his final months , but was still able to continue his activities , and only a short illness preceded his death at his home at 1131 Girard Street in Philadelphia , on May 5 , 1870 . His final words were , " If this is death , it is as I wished , perfect peace , perfect comfort , perfect joy . "
Mint Director Henry Linderman stated in 1873 of Peale , " Although Mr. Peale undoubtedly received the cooperation of [ Patterson and others ] , the inventions and improvements were peculiarly Mr. Peale 's . I have no doubt whatever on that point . They were of almost incalculable value to the public service . " George G. Evans , in his late 19th century history of the Mint , described Peale , " his mildness , integrity , gentlemanly bearing and high moral and mental culture constituted him a model officer " . Walter Breen deemed Peale , " brilliant but unscrupulous " . Burdette writes of Peale and his effect on the Mint , " during the generation from about 1830 to 1855 , the greatest influence to operations and production came from one man : Benjamin Franklin Peale . He was the consummate ' machinist ' of the day at a time when this term encompassed imaginative design , planning , construction and improvement of working processes ... While he had the complete support of mint directors Moore and Patterson , he was also held in high esteem by the common mint workers and Philadelphia 's scientific elite . Results of many of his ideas lasted a century or more , until growth in population made nineteenth century engineering insufficient for modern coinage needs . " According to Bowers , " today Peale is one of several Mint people who can be viewed from many different angles , each perspective sometimes leading certain writers to draw widely differing conclusions . "
After his dismissal , Peale petitioned Congress for $ 30 @,@ 000 as payment for improvements and inventions he had made for the government . The Senate twice , in 1858 and 1860 , passed legislation to pay Peale $ 10 @,@ 000 , but the House of Representatives declined to vote on it . In 1870 , it was introduced in the Senate again , but did not pass . Legislation to compensate Peale in the amount of $ 10 @,@ 000 was enacted on March 3 , 1873 , after his death — the act was , according to its title , in relief of Anna E. Peale , Franklin Peale 's daughter . The following month , Caroline Peale , Franklin 's widow , gave the Mint a marble bust of her late husband , " to be set upon a pedestal , in some position , where it may be open to the inspection of visitors and preserve his memory to future generations . " Taxay , writing in 1966 , stated that he had been unable to ascertain the bust 's whereabouts .
= Jocko Thompson =
John Samuel " Jocko " Thompson ( January 17 , 1917 – February 3 , 1988 ) was a professional baseball pitcher . He played all or part of four seasons for the Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball from 1948 to 1951 . He also served in the Army of the United States as a first lieutenant in the European theater during World War II . Thompson played in Major League Baseball during the Whiz Kids era during a career which spanned 12 seasons ( 1940 – 1941 , 1946 – 1955 ) . After attending Northeastern University , Thompson appeared as a situational pitcher and spot starter during the 1948 , 1949 , and 1950 seasons with the Phillies , and went 4 – 8 in his only season as a regular member of the team 's starting rotation . After demotion to the minors in 1952 , Thompson retired from baseball after the 1955 season .
Before his major league career , Thompson entered the military and participated in Operation Market Garden , where he led a platoon to secure a bridge over the Maas River . He served in the Army from 1941 to 1945 . In 2004 , the bridge that his platoon captured was renamed in his honor .
= = Early career = =
Described as a " fast ball specialist " , Thompson played three seasons for the baseball team at Northeastern University , one of six Major League Baseball players to attend the school . During his tenure ( 1938 – 1940 ) , the Huskies won 31 games and lost 14 , accumulating a .689 winning percentage . After the 1940 college season , Thompson was signed by Major League Baseball 's Boston Red Sox as an amateur free agent . The Red Sox assigned Thompson to their D @-@ level affiliate , the Centreville Red Sox , where he posted an 18 – 5 record and a 1 @.@ 56 earned run average ( ERA ) in 27 games . He also played in seven games for the Canton Terriers , winning one and losing one and compiling a 3 @.@ 41 ERA . Under manager Heinie Manush , Thompson played for the Greensboro Red Sox in the Piedmont League during the 1941 season ; he amassed an 8 – 13 record and a 3 @.@ 56 ERA in 162 innings pitched .
= = Military service = =
Thompson entered the Army of the United States in 1941 and was assigned to the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment , a part of the 82nd Airborne Division . In 1944 , as a first lieutenant , Thompson led his men during an air raid as part of Operation Market Garden . The light in the jump bay of the platoon 's C @-@ 47 Skytrain was later than expected , moving their landing zone from its intended location near Grave , Netherlands ; the plane was passing over buildings when the paratroopers were signalled to leave the aircraft , and Thompson decided to wait until reaching several approaching fields .
Thompson led his platoon in an attack against the nearby bridge spanning the Maas River , which was defended by German forces supplemented by two 20 mm flak guns , one on the close side of the bridge and one across the river . The platoon opened fire on the German forces , killing four . Two trucks of German soldiers arrived on the scene , but they " showed no desire to fight ... [ and ] ran away " . Thompson 's platoon destroyed " electrical equipment and cables that they expected were hooked up to demolitions " , and their bazooka operator destroyed the nearer flak gun , permitting the establishment of a roadblock on the bridge while waiting for the remainder of the 82nd Airborne . After the battle at the Maas bridge , Thompson also participated in the Battle of the Bulge , where he was given a field commission , and during the Allied occupation of Berlin , where he served as an aide to General James M. Gavin .
Thompson was wounded twice during the war , for which he received two Purple Hearts ; fellow pitcher Robin Roberts later wrote that his Phillies teammates " understood that Jocko still carried around a considerable amount of shrapnel in his body " . Other decorations included the Bronze Star with cluster , the Silver Star , and various awards from the Belgian , French , and Dutch governments .
= = Return to baseball = =
Thompson returned to baseball with the Scranton Red Sox of the Eastern League for the 1946 season . He was second on the team in innings pitched ( 180 ) and finished with a 13 – 7 record in 26 games ( 20 starts ) . For the season , Thompson allowed 164 hits — the most on the team — and 97 walks . The following year , he was promoted to the Toronto Maple Leafs , one of Boston 's two Triple @-@ A @-@ level affiliates . After he posted a 6 – 12 record — the team 's worst mark among starters with 30 or more appearances — the Red Sox did not retain Thompson 's rights when their working agreement with the Maple Leafs ended . He remained with Toronto and his rights became the property of the Philadelphia Phillies when those two teams established a new agreement .
In 1948 , Thompson went 12 – 8 for the Maple Leafs , the second @-@ best win – loss record among the team 's regular starting pitchers ( 20 or more starts ) . He was third on the team with 161 innings pitched , allowed the most earned runs ( 91 ) , and posted a 5 @.@ 09 ERA . At the end of the season , manager Eddie Sawyer called Thompson and Jim Konstanty up to the major league level . As per the working agreement between the teams , the major league club paid Toronto for the rights to each Maple Leafs player it called up : $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 246 @,@ 000 in current terms ) for the first player , and $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 49 @,@ 000 currently ) for each player thereafter . Sawyer recalled that Pete Campbell , Toronto 's owner , and Konstanty " didn 't get along ... [ because ] they were both the same " . Although Campbell was " glad to get rid of Konstanty " , he told Sawyer to take Thompson as the $ 25 @,@ 000 player because he did not want Konstanty to think he was worth the larger fee .
= = Major league career = =
= = = 1948 – 1949 = = =
Thompson made his major league debut in the second game of a doubleheader on September 21 , 1948 . He pitched a complete game against the Cincinnati Reds , allowing one run on five hits , striking out five , and walking five batters to collect the first win of his major league career . He appeared in one other game during the 1948 season , pitching four innings in the second game of a doubleheader against the New York Giants on September 28 , allowing three runs in a 6 – 3 Philadelphia victory . Thompson wore the uniform number 9 during his brief call @-@ up .
Thompson began the 1949 season in the Phillies ' starting rotation with Roberts , Ken Heintzelman , Russ Meyer , and Curt Simmons , and the Phillies " hoped for contributions " from him and some of his teammates , like Schoolboy Rowe and Blix Donnelly . However , Thompson lost his first two starts , both against the Boston Braves . He was sent down to Toronto , amassing a 14 – 5 record there for the 1949 season , and was later described as the team 's " top pitcher " for that year . His 2 @.@ 73 ERA was second on the team to right @-@ handed starter Bubba Church ; Thompson allowed 44 earned runs in 145 innings . He made a spot start in midseason for the Phillies against the Brooklyn Dodgers , but the Phillies lost 8 – 4 . Thompson did not get his first win in the majors that year until September 19 , when he defeated the St. Louis Cardinals behind Howie Pollet , 4 – 3 . He made his final start of the season for the Phillies on September 24 , against Don Newcombe and the Dodgers ; the Phillies lost , 8 – 1 . Thompson finished 1949 with a 1 – 3 record at the major league level , with a career @-@ high ERA of 6 @.@ 89 , 12 strikeouts and 11 walks in 31 1 ⁄ 3 innings . For his 1949 appearance , Thompson 's uniform number was 37 .
= = = 1950 – 1951 = = =
Although Thompson was expected to contribute during the 1950 Phillies season and the Whiz Kids ' " improbable " run to the pennant , he spent most of the season with Toronto . On June 8 , he defeated the Jersey City Giants , 5 – 3 , turning in a four @-@ hit performance and striking out eleven batters . He also took a late @-@ game loss in a doubleheader against the Baltimore Orioles , as they staged a five @-@ run rally in the ninth inning to defeat Toronto . Again described as the team 's top pitcher , he amassed 10 wins and 14 losses , a 4 @.@ 57 ERA , and led the team with 201 innings pitched . As a batter , Thompson hit two doubles , two triples , and batted in nine runs . He was called up late in the season to reinforce a team that Roberts described as " depleted " ; within one week 's time , the Phillies had lost Church to injury , Simmons to military service , and Bob Miller to a recurring back injury . Thompson appeared in relief of Church after his return on September 15 , but the Phillies lost , 5 – 0 , due in part to a Bobby Thomson inside @-@ the @-@ park grand slam . In his 1950 major league appearances , he played in two games , pitching four innings and allowing one run . Although Thompson was on the playoff roster , he made no postseason appearances with the team . His uniform number for the rest of his Phillies career was 33 .
1951 was Thompson 's only full season as a regular in the major leagues , when he beat out Leo Cristante in spring training to make the team . During the preseason , he and Ken Johnson combined for a 1 – 0 shutout of the Cardinals . In the regular season , Thompson amassed a 4 – 8 record in 14 starts . He made a total of 29 appearances on the season , notching a 3 @.@ 85 ERA . He won his first game of the year against the New York Giants , 8 – 4 , on April 23 ; it was the Giants ' fifth straight loss . His first loss of the season came in April in the first game of a doubleheader against the Braves , losing 1 – 0 though he held the Braves to two hits . At the plate , Thompson batted .103 with one double and one triple , the latter of which came on June 2 in a 7 – 3 defeat of St. Louis . The Phillies and the Reds split a doubleheader in July , with Thompson earning the victory in the nightcap ; the Phillies won , 10 – 0 . In August , Thompson entered in relief in the first inning of a game against the Pittsburgh Pirates after Russ Meyer was knocked out of the contest , staging a " respectable duel " with Mel Queen to the eighth inning in a 12 – 7 Phillies victory ; later in the month , he shut out the Reds on three hits to complete a series sweep by the Phillies . Thompson also defeated St. Louis late in the pennant race when the Cardinals were battling the Dodgers for the top position in the league .
= = After the majors = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Thompson returned to the minor leagues for the 1952 season , playing for the Baltimore Orioles , now affiliated with Philadelphia . He led the Orioles in innings pitched ( 231 ) and strikeouts ( 119 ) as he compiled a 13 – 14 record and a 2 @.@ 49 ERA , third @-@ best on the team . After the season , he played winter baseball in Havana , Cuba , pitching 14 1 ⁄ 3 innings in 5 games . Thompson 's .714 winning percentage ( ten wins and four losses ) was best on the 1953 Orioles among pitchers who made 20 or more starts , and he pitched seven complete games . His 1953 ERA was 3 @.@ 80 , and he allowed 16 home runs in 154 innings . When the minor league Orioles moved to Richmond , Virginia , to make room for the transplanted St. Louis Browns of the American League , Thompson left the Phillies ' system and remained with the old franchise , the unaffiliated Richmond Virginians , who began play in the 1954 season .
Thompson posted an 8 – 14 record for the Virginians in 1954 ; his ERA totaled 5 @.@ 00 in 29 starts and he placed third on the team in innings pitched ( 198 ) . His 112 strikeouts led Richmond , as did his 232 hits allowed . After a 6 – 16 season and a 5 @.@ 17 ERA in 1955 , Thompson retired from baseball .
= = = Post @-@ baseball = = =
After his playing days ended , Thompson worked as a sales manager in Maryland . He died at age 71 on February 3 , 1988 , and was interred at the Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Silver Spring , Maryland . In 2004 , the bridge over the Maas River which Thompson 's platoon secured 60 years earlier was renamed the John S. Thompsonbrug ( " John S. Thompson Bridge " ) . Many veterans of World War II , as well as Thompson 's wife , attended the ceremony .
= Mangalore =
Mangalore ( / ˈmæŋɡəlɔːr / ) , officially known as Mangaluru , is the chief port city of the Indian state of Karnataka . It is known as Kudla in Tulu , Mangaluru in Kannada , Kodial in Konkani , Maikāla in Beary . It is located about 352 kilometres ( 220 mi ) west of the state capital , Bangalore between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghat mountain ranges . It is the administrative headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada ( formerly South Canara ) district in south western Karnataka .
It developed as a port on the Arabian Sea — remaining , to this day , a major port of India . Lying on the backwaters of the Netravati and Gurupura rivers , Mangalore is often used as a staging point for sea traffic along the Malabar Coast . The city has a tropical climate and lies in the path of the Arabian Sea branch of the South @-@ West monsoons . Mangalore 's port handles 75 per cent of India 's coffee and cashew exports . Mangalore was ruled by several major powers , including the Kadambas , Alupas , Vijayanagar Empire , Keladi Nayaks and the Portuguese . The city was a source of contention between the British and the Mysore rulers , Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan . Eventually annexed by the British in 1799 , Mangalore remained part of the Madras Presidency until India 's independence in 1947 . The city was unified with the state of Mysore ( now called Karnataka ) in 1956 .
Mangalore is demographically diverse with several languages , including Tulu , Konkani , Kannada , English , Urdu and Beary commonly spoken , and is the largest city in Dakshina Kannada district . Mangalore is one of the most cosmopolitan non @-@ metro cities of India . It is also the largest city in the Coastal and Malnad regions of Karnataka , besides being a leading commercial , industrial , educational and healthcare hub on the West Coast . Mangalore city urban agglomeration extends from Ullal in the south to mulki in the north , covering a distance of over 40 km . The city 's landscape is characterised by rolling hills , coconut palms , freshwater streams and hard red @-@ clay tiled @-@ roof buildings .
Mangalore ranks amongst the cleanest cities in India . The city was ranked India 's 13th and Karnataka 's second most favourable destination for business . Mangalore was selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modi 's flagship Smart Cities Mission .
= = Etymology = =
Mangalore was named after the Hindu deity Mangaladevi , the presiding deity of the Mangaladevi temple or a synonym of Tara Bhagvati of the Vajrayana Buddhist sect . According to local legend , a princess from Malabar named Parimala or Premaladevi renounced her kingdom and became a disciple of Matsyendranath , the founder of the Nath tradition . Having converted Premaladevi to the Nath sect , Matsyendranath renamed her Mangaladevi . She arrived in the area with Matsyendranath , but had to settle near Bolar in Mangalore as she fell ill on the way . Eventually she died , and the Mangaladevi temple was consecrated in her honour at Bolar by the local people after her death . The city got its name from the temple .
One of the earliest references to the city 's name was made in 715 CE by the Pandyan King Chettian , who called the city Mangalapuram . The city and the coastal region was a part of the Pandyan Kingdom . According to K.V. Ramesh , President of the Place Names Society of India , Mangaluru was first heard in 1345 CE during the Vijayanagar rule . Many shilashasanas ( stones ) of Vijayanagar period refer the city as Mangalapura . Even before that , during the Alupas period , it was referred to as Mangalapura ( ' Mangala ' means ' auspicious ' ) . The city is well known as Mangaluru in Kannada , a reference to Mangaladevi ( the suffix uru means town or city ) . During the British occupation from 1799 , Mangalore ( anglicised from Mangaluru ) , stuck as the official appellation . However , according to historian George M. Moraes , the word " Mangalore " is the Portuguese corruption of Mangaluru . The name of this town also appears in maps as early as the 1652 Sanson Map of India .
Mangalore 's diverse communities have different names for the city in their languages . In Tulu , the primary spoken language , the city is called Kuḍla , meaning " junction " , since the city is situated at the confluence of the Netravati and Gurupura rivers . In Konkani , Mangalore is referred to as Koḍiyāḷ , while the Beary name for the city is Maikala .
= = History = =
Mangalore 's historical importance is highlighted by the many references to the city by foreign travellers . During the first century CE , Pliny the Elder , a Roman historian , made references to a place called Nitrias , as a very undesirable place for disembarkation , on account of the pirates which frequent its vicinity , while Greek historian Ptolemy in the second century CE referred to a place called Nitra . Ptolemy 's and Pliny the Elder 's references were probably made to the Netravati River , which flows through Mangalore . Cosmas Indicopleustes , a Greek monk , in his 6th century work Christian Topography mentions Malabar as the chief seat of the pepper trade , and Mangarouth ( port of Mangalore ) as one of the five pepper marts which exported pepper .
Mangalore is the heart of a distinct multilinguistic — cultural region : Tulu Nadu , the homeland of the Tulu @-@ speaking people , which was nearly coterminous with the modern district of South Canara . In the third century BCE , the town formed part of the Maurya Empire , ruled by the Buddhist emperor , Ashoka of Magadha . From the third century CE to sixth century CE , the Kadamba dynasty , whose capital was based in Banavasi in North Canara , ruled over the entire Canara region as independent rulers . From the middle of the seventh century to the end of the 14th century , the South Canara region was ruled by its own native Alupa rulers . The Alupas ruled over the region as feudatories of major regional dynasties like the Chalukyas of Badami , Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta , Chalukyas of Kalyani , and Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra . During the reign of the Alupa king Kavi Alupendra ( c . 1110 – c.1160 ) , the city was visited by the Tunisian Jewish merchant Abraham Ben Yiju , who travelled between the Middle East and India during the 12th century . The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta , who had visited the town in 1342 , referred to it as Manjarur , and stated that the town was situated on a large estuary , called the " estuary of the wolf , " and was the greatest estuary in the country of Malabar . By 1345 , the Vijayanagara rulers brought the region under their control . During the Vijayanagara period ( 1345 – 1550 ) , South Canara was divided into Mangalore and Barkur rajyas ( provinces ) , and two governors were appointed to look after each of them from Mangalore and Barkur . But many times only one governor ruled over both Mangalore and Barkur rajyas , and when the authority passed into the hands of Keladi rulers ( c . 1550 – 1763 ) , they had a governor at Barkur alone . In 1448 , Abdur Razzaq , the Persian ambassador of Sultan Shah Rukh of Samarkand , visited Mangalore , en route to the Vijayanagara court . The Italian traveller , Ludovico di Varthema , who visited India in 1506 says that he witnessed nearly sixty ships laden with rice ready for sail in the port of Mangalore .
European influence in Mangalore can be traced back to 1498 , when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed at St Mary 's Island near Mangalore . In the 16th century , the Portuguese came to acquire substantial commercial interests in Canara . Krishnadevaraya ( 1509 – 1529 ) , the then ruler of the Vijaynagara empire maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese . The Portuguese trade was gradually gathering momentum and they were striving to destroy the Arab and Moplah trade along the coast . In 1524 , when Vasco da Gama heard that the Muslim merchants of Calicut had agents at Mangalore and Basrur , he ordered the rivers to be blockaded . In 1526 , the Portuguese under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio took possession of Mangalore . The coastal trade passed out of Muslim hands into Portuguese hands . In 1550 , the Vijayanagara ruler , Sadashiva Raya , entrusted the work of administering the coastal region of Canara to Sadashiv Nayaka of Keladi . By 1554 , he was able to establish political authority over South Canara . The disintegration of the Vijaynagara Empire in 1565 gave the rulers of Keladi greater power in dealing with the coastal Canara region . They continued the Vijayanagara administrative system . The two provinces of Mangalore and Barkur continued to exist . The Governor of Mangalore also acted as the Governor of the Keladi army in his province . In 1695 , the town was torched by Arabs in retaliation to Portuguese restrictions on Arab trade .
Hyder Ali , the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore , conquered Mangalore in 1763 , consequently bringing the city under his administration until 1767 . Mangalore was ruled by the British East India Company from 1767 to 1783 , but was subsequently wrested from their control in 1783 by Hyder Ali 's son , Tipu Sultan ; who renamed it Jalalabad . The Second Anglo – Mysore War ended with the Treaty of Mangalore , signed between Tipu Sultan and the British East India Company on 11 March 1784 . After the defeat of Tipu at the Fourth Anglo – Mysore War , the city remained in control of the British , headquartering the Canara district under the Madras Presidency .
According to the Scottish physician Francis Buchanan who visited Mangalore in 1801 , Mangalore was a rich and prosperous port with flourishing trading activity . Rice was the grand article of export , and was exported to Muscat , Bombay , Goa and Malabar . Supari or Betel @-@ nut was exported to Bombay , Surat and Kutch . Pepper and Sandalwood were exported to Bombay . Turmeric was exported to Muscat , Kutch , Surat and Bombay , along with Cassia Cinnamon , Sugar , Iron , Saltpeter , Ginger , Coir and Timber .
The British colonial government did not support industrialisation in the region , and local capital remained invested mostly in land and money lending , which led to the later development of banking in the region . With the arrival of European missionaries in the early 19th century , the region saw the development of educational institutions and a modern industrial base , modelled on European industries . The opening of the Lutheran Swiss Basel Mission in 1834 was central to the industrialisation process . Printing press , cloth @-@ weaving mills and tile factories manufacturing the famed Mangalore tiles were set up by the missionaries . When Canara ( part of the Madras Presidency until this time ) was bifurcated into North Canara and South Canara in 1859 , Mangalore was transferred into South Canara and became its headquarters . South Canara remained under Madras Presidency , while North Canara was detached from Madras Presidency and transferred to Bombay Presidency in 1862 . The enactment of the Madras Town Improvement Act ( 1865 ) mandated the establishment of the Municipal council on 23 May 1866 , which was responsible for urban planning and providing civic amenities . The Italian Jesuits , who arrived in Mangalore in 1878 , played an important role in education , economy , health , and social welfare of the city . The linking of Mangalore in 1907 to the Southern Railway , and the subsequent proliferation of motor vehicles in India , further increased trade and communication between the city and the rest of the country . By the early 20th century , Mangalore had become a major supplier of educated manpower to Bombay , Bangalore , and the Middle East .
As a result of the States Reorganisation Act ( 1956 ) , Mangalore ( part of the Madras Presidency until this time ) was incorporated into the dominion of the newly created Mysore State ( now called Karnataka ) . Mangalore is the sixth largest city of Karnataka , and ninth largest port of India , providing the state with access to the Arabian Sea coastline . Mangalore experienced significant growth in the decades 1970 – 80 , with the opening of New Mangalore Port in 1974 and commissioning of Mangalore Chemicals & Fertilizers Limited in 1976 . Today , the Mangalore region is a nationally known higher education hub with a flourishing service sector , particularly in medical services , a small but growing IT regional hub , and a booming real estate and banking industry .
= = Geography and climate = =
Mangalore is located at 12 @.@ 87 ° N 74 @.@ 88 ° E / 12 @.@ 87 ; 74 @.@ 88 in the Dakshina Kannada district of Karnataka . It has an average elevation of 22 metres ( 72 ft ) above mean sea level . It is the administrative headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada district , the largest urban coastal centre of Karnataka , and the fourth largest city in terms of population in the state . Mangalore is situated on the west coast of India , and is bounded by the Arabian Sea to its west and the Western Ghats to its east . Mangalore city , as a municipal entity , spans an area of 184 @.@ 45 km2 ( 71 @.@ 22 sq mi ) . Mangalore experiences moderate to gusty winds during day time and gentle winds at night . The topography of the city is plain up to 30 km ( 18 @.@ 64 mi ) inside the coast and changes to undulating hilly terrain sharply towards the east in Western Ghats . There are four hilly regions with natural valleys within the city . The geology of the city is characterised by hard laterite in hilly tracts and sandy soil along the seashore . The Geological Survey of India has identified Mangalore as a moderately earthquake @-@ prone urban centre and categorised the city in the Seismic III Zone .
Mangalore lies on the backwaters of the Netravati and Gurupura rivers . These rivers effectively encircle the city , with the Gurupura flowing around the north and the Netravati flowing around the south of the city . The rivers form an estuary at the south @-@ western region of the city and subsequently flow into the Arabian sea . The city is often used as a staging point for traffic along the Malabar Coast . The coastline of the city is dotted with several beaches , such as Mukka , Panambur , Tannirbavi , Suratkal , and Someshwara . Coconut trees , palm trees , and Ashoka trees comprise the primary vegetation of the city .
Under the Köppen climate classification , Mangalore has a tropical monsoon climate and is under the direct influence of the Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoon . It receives about 95 per cent of its total annual rainfall within a period of about six months from May to October , while remaining extremely dry from December to March . The average annual precipitation in Mangalore is 3 @,@ 796 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 149 in ) . Humidity is approximately 75 per cent on average , and peaks during May , June and July . The maximum average humidity is 93 per cent in July and average minimum humidity is 56 per cent in January .
The most pleasant months in Mangalore are from December to February , during which time the humidity and heat are at their lowest . During this period , temperatures during the day stay below 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) and drop to about 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) at night . The lowest recorded temperature at Panambur is 15 @.@ 6 ° C ( 60 ° F ) on January 8 , 1992 , and at Bajpe it is 15 @.@ 9 ° C ( 61 ° F ) on November 19 , 1974 . This season is soon followed by a hot and humid summer , from March to May . In Mangalore , the temperature has never touched 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) , according to the IMD . The highest ever recorded temperature in Mangalore is 38 @.@ 1 ° C ( 101 ° F ) on March 13 , 1985 . The summer gives way to the monsoon season , when the city experiences the highest precipitation among all urban centres in India , due to the influence of the Western Ghats . Rainfall up to 4 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 157 in ) could be recorded during the period from June to September . The rains subside in September , with the occasional rainfall in October .
The highest rainfall recorded in a 24 @-@ hour period is 330 @.@ 8 millimetres ( 13 in ) on 22 June 2003 . In the year 1994 , Mangalore received very heavy annual rainfall of 5 @,@ 018 @.@ 52 millimetres ( 198 in ) .
= = Economy = =
Mangalore is the second largest city in Karnataka in terms of economy . It is also the second largest highest revenue generating city of Karnataka . Mangalore 's economy is dominated by the industrial , commercial , agricultural processing and port @-@ related activities . One of the largest SEZs in India , the MSEZ is in Mangalore . Karnataka 's 2nd biggest industrial area @-@ Baikampady IE is in Mangalore . The New Mangalore Port is India 's seventh largest port , in terms of cargo handling . It handles 75 per cent of India 's coffee exports and the bulk of its cashew nuts . During 2000 – 01 , Mangalore generated a revenue of ₹ 33 @.@ 47 crore ( US $ 4 @.@ 97 million ) to the state . The city 's major enterprises include Mangalore Chemicals and Fertilizers Ltd . ( MCF ) , Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Ltd . ( KIOCL ) , Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd . ( MRPL ) , BASF , Bharati Shipyard Limited and Total Oil India Limited ( ELF Gas ) . The leaf spring industry has an important presence in Mangalore , with Canara Workshops Ltd. and Lamina Suspension Products Ltd. in the city . The Baikampady and Yeyyadi Industrial areas harbour several small @-@ scale industries . Imports through Mangalore harbour include crude oil , edible oil , LPG , and timber . The city along with Tuticorin is also one of two points for import of wood to South India .
Major information technology ( IT ) and outsourcing companies like Infosys , Cognizant Technology Solutions , MphasiS BPO , Thomson Reuters , Endurance International Group have established a presence in Mangalore . Plans to create three dedicated I.T. parks are underway , with two parks ( Export Promotion Industrial park ( EPIP ) at Ganjimutt and Special Economic Zone ( SEZ ) near Mangalore University ) currently under construction . A third IT SEZ is being proposed at Ganjimutt . Another IT SEZ , sponsored by the BA group , is under construction at Thumbe and spans 2 million square feet ( 180 @,@ 000 m ² ) .
The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation ( ONGC ) plans to invest over ₹ 35 @,@ 000 crore ( US $ 5 @.@ 20 billion ) in a new 15 million tonne refinery , petrochemical plant and power , as well as LNG plants at the Mangalore Special Economic Zone . Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Ltd , a special purpose vehicle under the Oil Industry Development Board , is developing strategic crude oil reserves in Mangalore and two other places in India . Out of the proposed 5 million metric tonnes ( MMT ) storage , 1 @.@ 5 MMT would be at Mangalore . According to an International edition of India Today ( 28 November – 4 December 2006 ) , Mangalore is the fastest growing non @-@ metro in South India .
Corporation Bank , Canara Bank , and Vijaya Bank were the three nationalised banks established in Mangalore during the first half of the 20th century . Karnataka Bank , founded in Mangalore , was one of the largest banks to have not been taken over by the Government . The Mangalore Catholic Co @-@ operative Bank ( MCC Bank ) Ltd. and SCDCC Bank were the scheduled banks established in Mangalore . The boat building and fishing industry have been core businesses in Mangalore for generations . The Old Mangalore Port is a fishing port located at Bunder in Mangalore , where a large number of mechanised boats anchor . The traffic at this port was 122 @,@ 000 tonnes during the years 2003 – 04 . The fishing industry employs thousands of people , their products being exported to around the region . Mangalorean firms have a major presence in the tile , beedi , coffee , and cashew nut industry , although the tile industry has declined due to concrete being preferred in modern construction . The Albuquerque tile factory in Mangalore is one of India 's oldest red roof tile manufacturing factories . Cotton industries also flourish in Mangalore . The Ullal suburb of Mangalore produces hosiery and coir yarns , while beedi rolling is an important source of revenue to many in the city . The process of making Mangalore City Corporation into ‘ Greater Mangalore ’ has almost begun and steps are being initiated to embrace 33 villages around the MCC . In this regard , the meeting of the Gram Panchayat , Town Municipal council and Gram Panchayat Presidents and Secretaries has been convened .
= = Demographics = =
Mangalore city has a population of 684 @,@ 785 per the 2011 census of India . While the Mangalore city metropolitan area has a population of 684 @,@ 785 ( 2011 ) . The number of males was 240 @,@ 651 , constituting 50 per cent of the population , while the number of females were 244 @,@ 134 . The decadal growth rate was 45 @.@ 90 . Mangalore has the highest literacy rate in karnataka . Male literacy was 96 @.@ 49 per cent , while female literacy was 91 @.@ 63 per cent . About 8 @.@ 5 per cent population was under six years of age . Mangalore 's literacy rate is 94 @.@ 03 per cent — significantly higher than the national average of 59 @.@ 5 per cent . The Human Development Index ( HDI ) of Mangalore city is 0 @.@ 83 . Birth rate was 13 @.@ 7 per cent , while death rate and infant mortality rate were at 3 @.@ 7 per cent and 1 @.@ 2 per cent respectively . The Mangalore urban area had 32 recognised slums , and nearly 22 @,@ 000 migrant labourers lived in slums within the city limits . According to the Crime Review Report ( 2006 ) by the Dakshina Kannada Police , Mangalore registered a drop in the crime rate in 2005 , compared with 2003 .
The four main languages in Mangalore are Tulu , Kannada , Konkani , and Beary ; with Tulu being the mother tongue of the majority . English , Hindi and Urdu are also widely spoken in the city . A resident of Mangalore is known as a Mangalorean in English , Kuḍlada in Tulu , Mangalurna in Kannada , Koḍiyāḷci in Goud Saraswat Brahmin Konkani , Koḍiyāḷco in Catholic Konkani and Maikalta in Beary basse .
Hinduism is the majority religion in Mangalore , with Devadiga , Mogaveera , Bunts , Goud Saraswat Brahmins ( GSBs ) , Billavas , Ganigas , Kota Brahmins , Shivalli Brahmins , Havyaka Brahmins , Sthanika Brahmins , Chitpavan , Brahmins , Kulal 's , Gatty 's are the major communities in Hindus . Christians form a sizeable section of Mangalorean society , with Mangalorean Catholics accounting for the largest Christian community . Protestants in Mangalore typically speak Kannada .
Mangalore has one of the highest percentage of Muslims as compared to other cities in Karnataka . Most Muslims in Mangalore are Bearys , who speak a dialect of Kannada and Tulu called Beary language . Majority of them follow the Shafi 'i school of Fiqh ( Islamic Jurisprudence ) .
There is also a small community of local Jains , and Gujarati traders .
= = Culture = =
Many classical dance forms and folk art are practised in the city . The Yakshagana , a night @-@ long dance and drama performance , is held in Mangalore , while Pilivesha ( literally , tiger dance ) , a folk dance unique to the city , is performed during Dasara and Krishna Janmashtami . Karadi Vesha ( bear dance ) is another well known dance performed during Dasara . Paddanas ( Ballad @-@ like epics passed on through generations by word of mouth ) are sung by a community of impersonators in Tulu and are usually accompanied by the rhythmic drum beats . The Bearys ' unique traditions are reflected in such folk songs as kolkai ( sung during kolata , a valour folk @-@ dance during which sticks used as props ) , unjal pat ( traditional lullaby ) , moilanji pat , and oppune pat ( sung at weddings ) . The Evkaristik Purshanv ( Konkani : Eucharistic procession ) is an annual Catholic religious procession led on the first Sunday of each New Year . The Shreemanti Bai Memorial Government Museum in Bejai is the only museum of Mangalore .
Most of the popular Indian festivals are celebrated in the city , the most important being Dasara , Diwali , Christmas , Easter , Eid , and Ganesh Chaturthi . Kodial Theru , also known as Mangaluru Rathotsava ( Mangalore Car Festival ) is a festival unique to the Goud Saraswat Brahmin community , and is celebrated at the Sri Venkatramana Temple . The Mangalorean Catholics community 's unique festivals include Monti Fest ( Mother Mary 's feast ) , which celebrates the Nativity feast and the blessing of new harvests . The Jain Milan , a committee comprising Jain families of Mangalore , organises the Jain food festival annually , while festivals such as Mosaru Kudike , which is part of Krishna Janmashtami festival , is celebrated by the whole community . Aati , a festival worshiping Kalanja , a patron spirit of the city , occurs during the Aashaadha month of Hindu calendar . Festivals such as Karavali Utsav and Kudlostava are highlighted by national and state @-@ level performances in dance , drama and music . Bhuta Kola ( spirit worship ) , is usually performed by the Tuluva community at night . Nagaradhane ( snake worship ) is performed in the city in praise of N
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through Mangalore . NH @-@ 66 ( previously known as NH @-@ 17 till April 2011 ) , which runs from Panvel ( in Maharashtra ) to Edapally Junction ( near Cochin in Kerala ) , passes through Mangalore in a north – south direction , while NH @-@ 48 ( presently known as NH @-@ 75 ) runs eastward to Bangalore . NH @-@ 13 ( presently known as NH @-@ 50 ) runs north @-@ east from Mangalore to Solapur.NH @-@ 234 , a 715 @-@ km long National Highway connects Mangalore to Viluppuram . National Highways Authority of India ( NHAI ) is upgrading the national highways connecting New Mangalore Port to Surathkal on NH @-@ 66 and BC Road junction on NH @-@ 48 . Under the port connectivity programme of the National Highways Development Project ( NHDP ) , a 37 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 23 @.@ 3 mi ) stretch of these highways will be upgraded from two @-@ lane to four @-@ lane roads .
Mangalore 's city bus service is operated by private operators and provides access within city limits and beyond . Two distinct sets of routes for the buses exist — city routes are covered by city buses , while intercity routes are covered by service and express buses . Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation ( KSRTC ) operates long distance bus services from Mangalore to other parts of the state . The other key players who run bus services from Mangalore are the Dakshina Kannada Bus Operators Association ( DKBOA ) and the Canara Bus Operators Association ( CBOA ) . These buses usually ply from the Mangalore Bus Station . There are also KSRTC JnNurm green colour city buses from statebank bus stand . These buses travel to different parts of the city and its suburbs . White coloured taxis also traverse most of the city . Another mode for local transport is the autorickshaw .
Rail connectivity in Mangalore was established in 1907 . Mangalore was also the starting point of India 's longest rail route . The city has two railway stations — Mangalore Central ( at Hampankatta ) and Mangalore Junction ( at Kankanadi ) . A metre gauge railway track , built through the Western Ghats , connects Mangalore with Hassan . The broad gauge track connecting Mangalore to Bangalore via Hassan was opened to freight traffic in May 2006 and passenger traffic in December 2007 . Mangalore is also connected to Chennai , Trivandrum , Kochi , Kollam ( Quilon ) through the Southern Railway and to Mumbai via the Konkan Railway .
The Mangalore Harbour has shipping , storage , and logistical services , while the New Mangalore Port handles dry , bulk , and fluid cargoes . The New Mangalore Port is also well equipped to handle petroleum oil lubricants , crude products and LPG containers . It is also the station for the coast guard . This artificial harbour is India 's ninth largest port , in terms of cargo handling , and is the only major port in Karnataka .
= = Sports = =
Traditional sports like Kambala ( buffalo race ) , contested in water filled paddy fields , and Korikatta ( cockfight ) are very popular in the city . Cricket is the most popular sport in the city . Dakshina Kannada 's only full @-@ fledged cricket stadium , the Mangala Stadium , is in Mangalore . The Sports Authority of India ( SAI ) has also set up a sports training centre at the stadium . The Central Maidan in Mangalore is another important venue hosting domestic tournaments and many inter @-@ school and collegiate tournaments . The Mangalore Sports Club ( MSC ) is a popular organisation in the city and has been elected as the institutional member for the Mangalore Zone of the Karnataka State Cricket Association ( KSCA ) . Football is also quite popular in the city and is usually played in the maidans ( grounds ) , with the Nehru Maidan being the most popular venue for domestic tournaments . Chess is also a popular indoor sport in the city . Mangalore is headquarters to the South Kanara District Chess Association ( SKDCA ) , which has hosted two All India Open Chess tournaments .
Other sports such as tennis , squash , billiards , badminton , table tennis and golf are played in the numerous clubs and gymkhanas . Pilikula Nisargadhama , an integrated theme park , has a fully functional nine @-@ hole golf course at Vamanjoor . Lokesh Rahul , commonly known as KL Rahul and Budhi Kunderan , a former Indian wicket keeper was from Mangalore . Ravi Shastri , who represented India for several years in international cricket as an all @-@ rounder and captained the team , is of Mangalorean descent .
= = Media = =
Major national English language newspapers such as Times of India , The Hindu , The New Indian Express and Deccan Herald publish localised Mangalore editions . The Madipu , Mogaveera , Samparka ( Contact ) and Saphala ( Fulfillment ) are well @-@ known Tulu periodicals in Mangalore . Popular Konkani language periodicals published in the city are Raknno ( Guardian ) , Konknni Dirvem ( Konkani Treasure ) , and Kannik ( Offering ) . Beary periodicals like Jyothi ( Light ) and Swatantra Bharata ( Independent India ) are also published from Mangalore . Among Kannada newspapers , Udayavani ( Morning Voice ) , Vijaya Karnataka ( Victory of Karnataka ) , Prajavani ( Voice of the People ) , Kannada Prabha and Varthabharathi ( Indian News ) are popular . Evening newspapers such as Karavali Ale ( Waves from the Coast ) , Mangalooru Mitra ( Friend of Mangalore ) , Sanjevani ( Evening Voice ) , and Jayakirana ( Rays of Victory ) are also published in the city . The Konkani language newspaper kodial Khabbar is released fortnightly . The first Kannada language newspaper Mangalore Samachara ( News of Mangalore ) was published from Mangalore in 1843 .
The state run , nationally broadcast Doordarshan provides both national and localised television coverage . Cable television also provides broadcast cable channels of independently owned private networks . Canara TV transmits daily video news channels from Mangalore . Mangalore is not covered by the Conditional access system ( CAS ) ; however , a proposal to provide CAS to television viewers in Mangalore sometime in the future has been initiated by V4 Media , the local cable service provider . Direct @-@ to @-@ Home ( DTH ) services are available in Mangalore via Dish TV , Tata Sky , Sun Direct DTH , Airtel digital TV , Reliance BIG TV and Videocon D2h . All India Radio ( AIR ) has a studio at Kadri ( with frequency 100 @.@ 3 MHz ) that airs program during scheduled hours . Mangalore 's private FM stations include Radio Mirchi 98 @.@ 3 FM , Big 92 @.@ 7 FM and Red 93 @.@ 5 FM .
Mangalore is home to the Tulu Film Industry , which releases one film per month , on average . Popular Tulu films include Kadala Mage ( Son of the Sea ) and Suddha ( The Cleansing Rites ) . Tulu dramas , mostly played in the Town Hall at Hampankatta , are very popular . In 2006 , a Tulu film festival was organised in Mangalore .
= = Utility services = =
Electricity in Mangalore is regulated by the Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited ( KPTCL ) and distributed through Mangalore Electricity Supply Company ( MESCOM ) . Mangalore experiences scheduled and unscheduled power cuts , especially during the summer , due to excess consumption demands . Major industries like Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals ( MRPL ) and Mangalore Chemicals & Fertilizers ( MCF ) operate their own captive power plants .
Potable water to the city is supplied by Mangalore City Corporation . Almost all water is from the vented dam constructed across the Netravati River at Thumbe , 14 kilometres ( 9 mi ) from Mangalore . The Karnataka Urban Development and Coastal Environment Management Project ( KUDCEMP ) aim to improve safe water supply systems and reduce leakage and losses in the distribution system in Mangalore . The official garbage dumping ground of Mangalore is in Vamanjoor . The city generates an average of 175 tons per day of waste , which is handled by the health department of the Mangalore City Corporation . The city has developed and maintains public parks such as Pilikula Nisargadhama , Kadri Park at Kadri , Tagore Park at Light House Hill , Gandhi Park at Gandhinagar , and Corporation Bank Park at Nehru Maidan . Pilikula is also famous for the zoo , botanical garden , lake , water park ( Manasa ) and a golf course ( Pilikula golf course ) which is a set in an area of 35 acres .
Fixed Line telecom services are offered alongside GSM and Code division multiple access ( CDMA ) mobile services . Mangalore is the headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada Telecom District , the second largest telecom district in Karnataka . Prominent broadband internet service providers in the city include Tata , Airtel and DataOne by BSNL . Recently Bharti Airtel has also launched 4G LTE service in the city .
= = Sister cities = =
Mangalore is twinned with two Canadian cities :
= Hoopoe starling =
The hoopoe starling , also known as the Réunion starling or Bourbon crested starling ( Fregilupus varius ) , is a species of starling which lived on the Mascarene island of Réunion , and became extinct in the 1850s . Its closest relatives were the Rodrigues starling and the Mauritius starling from nearby islands , and the three apparently originated in Southeast Asia . The bird was first mentioned during the 17th century and was long thought to be related to the hoopoe , from which its name is derived . Although a number of affinities have been proposed , it was confirmed as a starling in a DNA study .
The hoopoe starling was 30 cm ( 12 in ) in length . Its plumage was primarily white and grey , with its back , wings and tail a darker brown and grey . It had a light , mobile crest , which curled forwards . The bird is thought to have been sexually dimorphic , with males larger and having more curved beaks . The juveniles were more brown than the adults . Little is known about hoopoe starling behaviour . Reportedly living in large flocks , it inhabited humid areas and marshes . The hoopoe starling was omnivorous , feeding on plant matter and insects . Its pelvis was robust , its feet and claws large , and its jaws strong , indicating that it foraged near the ground .
The birds were hunted by settlers on Réunion , who also kept them as cagebirds . Nineteen specimens exist in museums around the world . The hoopoe starling was reported to be in decline by the early 19th century , and was probably extinct before the 1860s . A number of factors have been proposed , including competition and predation by introduced species , disease , deforestation and persecution by humans , who hunted it for food and as an alleged crop pest .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first account thought to mention the hoopoe starling is a 1658 list of birds of Madagascar written by French governor Étienne de Flacourt . Although he mentioned a black @-@ and @-@ grey " tivouch " or hoopoe , later authors have wondered whether this referred to the hoopoe starling or the Madagascan subspecies of hoopoe ( Upupa epops marginata ) , though that bird resembles the Eurasian subspecies . The hoopoe starling was first noted on the Mascarene island of Réunion ( then called " Bourbon " ) by Père Vachet in 1669 , but was not described in detail until Sieur Dubois 's 1674 account :
Hoopoes or ' Calandres ' , having a white tuft on the head , the rest of the plumage white and grey , the bill and the feet like a bird of prey ; they are a little larger than the young pigeons . This is another good game [ i.e. , to eat ] when it is fat .
Early settlers on Réunion referred to the bird as " huppe " , due to the similarity of its crest and curved bill with that of the hoopoe . Little was recorded about the hoopoe starling during the next 100 years , but specimens began to be brought to Europe during the 18th century . Although the species was first scientifically described by French naturalist Philippe Guéneau de Montbeillard in the 1779 edition of Comte de Buffon 's Histoire Naturelle , it did not receive its scientific name until its designation by Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert for the book 's 1783 edition . Boddaert named the bird Upupa varia ; its genus name is that of the hoopoe , and its specific name means " variegated " , describing its black @-@ and @-@ white colour . Boddaert provided Linnean binomial names for plates in Buffon 's works , so the accompanying 1770s plate of the hoopoe starling by François @-@ Nicolas Martinet is considered the holotype or type illustration . Though the plate may have been based on a specimen in the National Museum of Natural History in Paris , this is impossible to determine today ; the Paris museum originally had five hoopoe starling skins , some which only arrived during the 19th century . The possibly female specimen MNHN 2000 @-@ 756 , one of the most @-@ illustrated skins , has an artificially trimmed crest resulting in an unnaturally semi @-@ circular shape , unlike its appearance in life ; the type illustration has a similarly shaped crest .
De Flacourt 's " tivouch " led early writers to believe that variants of the bird were found on Madagascar and the Cape of Africa ; they were thought to be hoopoes of the Upupa genus , which received names such as Upupa capensis and Upupa madagascariensis . A number of authors also allied the bird with groups such as birds @-@ of @-@ paradise , bee @-@ eaters , cowbirds , Icteridae , and choughs , resulting in its reassignment to other genera with new names , such as Coracia cristata and Pastor upupa . In 1831 , René @-@ Primevère Lesson placed the bird in its own monotypic genus , Fregilipus , a composite of Upupa and Fregilus , the latter a defunct genus name of the chough . Auguste Vinson established in 1868 that the bird was restricted to the island of Réunion and proposed a new binomial , Fregilupus borbonicus , referring to the former name of the island .
Hermann Schlegel first proposed in 1857 that the species belonged to the starling family ( Sturnidae ) , reclassifying it as part of the Sturnus genus S. capensis . This reclassification was observed by other authors ; Carl Jakob Sundevall proposed the new genus name Lophopsarus ( " crested starling " ) in 1872 , yet Fregilupus varius — the oldest name — remains the bird 's binomial , and all other scientific names are synonyms . In 1874 , after a detailed analysis of the only known skeleton ( held at the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology ) , James Murie agreed that it was a starling . Richard Bowdler Sharpe said in 1890 that the hoopoe starling was similar to the starling genus Basilornis , but did not note any similarities other than their crests . In 1941 , Malcolm R. Miller found the bird 's musculature similar to that of the common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) after he dissected a specimen preserved in spirits at the Cambridge Museum , but noted that the tissue was very degraded and the similarity did not necessarily confirm a relationship with starlings . In 1957 , Andrew John Berger cast doubt on the bird 's affinity with starlings due to subtle anatomical differences , after dissecting a spirit specimen at the American Museum of Natural History . Some authors proposed a relationship with vangas ( Vangidae ) , but Hiroyuki Morioka rejected this in 1996 , after a comparative study of skulls .
In 1875 , British ornithologist Alfred Newton attempted to identify a black @-@ and @-@ white bird mentioned in an 18th @-@ century manuscript describing a marooned sailor 's stay on the Mascarene island of Rodrigues in 1726 – 27 , hypothesising that it was related to the hoopoe starling . Subfossil bones later found on Rodrigues were correlated with the bird in the manuscript ; in 1879 , these bones became the basis for a new species , Necropsar rodericanus ( the Rodrigues starling ) , named by ornithologists Albert Günther and Edward Newton . Although they found the Rodrigues bird closely related to the hoopoe starling , Günther and Newton kept it in a separate genus due to " present ornithological practice " . American ornithologist James Greenway suggested in 1967 that the Rodrigues starling belonged in the same genus as the hoopoe starling , due to their close similarity . Subfossils found in 1974 confirmed that the Rodrigues bird was a distinct genus of starling ; primarily , its stouter bill warrants generic separation from Fregilupus . In 2014 , British palaeontologist Julian P. Hume described a new extinct species , the Mauritius starling ( Cryptopsar ischyrhynchus ) , based on subfossils from Mauritius , which was closer to the Rodrigues starling than to the hoopoe starling in its skull , sternal , and humeral features .
= = = Evolution = = =
In 1943 , Dean Amadon suggested that Sturnus @-@ like species could have arrived in Africa and given rise to the wattled starling ( Creatophora cinerea ) and the Mascarene starlings . According to Amadon , the Rodrigues and hoopoe starlings were related to Asiatic starlings — such as some Sturnus species — rather than to the glossy starlings ( Lamprotornis ) of Africa and the Madagascan starling ( Saroglossa aurata ) , based on their colouration . A 2008 study analysing the DNA of a variety of starlings confirmed that the hoopoe starling belonged in a clade of Southeast Asian starlings as an isolated lineage , with no close relatives . The following cladogram shows its position :
An earlier attempt by another team could not extract viable hoopoe starling DNA . The authors of the successful study suggested that ancestors of the hoopoe starling reached Réunion from Southeast Asia by using island chains as " stepping stones " across the Indian Ocean , a scenario also suggested for other Mascarene birds . Its lineage diverged from that of other starlings four million years ago ( about two million years before Réunion emerged from the sea ) , so it may have first evolved on landmasses now partially submerged .
Extant relations , such as the Bali myna ( Leucopsar rothschildi ) and the white @-@ headed starling ( Sturnia erythropygia ) , have similarities in colouration and other features with the extinct Mascarene species . Since the Rodrigues and Mauritius starlings seem morphologically closer to each other than to the hoopoe starling — which appears closer to Southeast Asian starlings — there may have been two separate migrations of starlings from Asia to the Mascarenes , with the hoopoe starling the latest arrival . Except for Madagascar , the Mascarenes were the only islands in the southwestern Indian Ocean with native starlings , probably due to their isolation , varied topography , and vegetation .
= = Description = =
The hoopoe starling was 30 cm ( 12 in ) in length . The bird 's culmen was 41 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long , its wing 147 mm ( 5 @.@ 8 in ) , its tail 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) , and its tarsus about 39 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) long . It was the largest of the three Mascarene starlings . A presumed adult male ( NHMUK 1889 @.@ 5 @.@ 30 @.@ 15 ) in the Paris museum has a light ash @-@ grey head and back of the neck ( lighter on the hind @-@ neck ) , with a long crest the same colour with white shafts . Its back and tail are ash @-@ brown , its wings darker with a greyish wash , and its uppertail covert feathers and rump have a rufous wash . Its primary coverts are white with brown tips , although the bases ( instead of the tips ) are brown in other specimens . The superciliary stripe , lore , and most of the specimen 's underside is white , with a pale rufous wash on the flanks and undertail coverts . The extent of light rufous on the underside varies by specimen . The beak and legs are lemon @-@ yellow , with yellow @-@ brown claws . It has a bare , triangular area of skin around the eye , which may have been yellow in life . Though the species ' iris was described as bluish @-@ brown , it has been depicted as brown , yellow or orange .
There has been confusion about which characteristics that were sexually dimorphic in the species . Only three specimens were sexed ( all males ) , with age and individual variation not considered . The male is thought to have been largest with a longer , curvier beak . In 1911 , Réunion resident Eugène Jacob de Cordemoy recalled his observations of the bird about 50 years before , suggesting that only males had a white crest , but this is thought to be incorrect . A presumed female ( MNHN 2000 @-@ 756 ) in the Paris museum appears to have a smaller crest , a smaller and less @-@ curved beak , and smaller primary coverts . A juvenile specimen has a smaller crest and primary coverts , with a brown wash instead of ash grey on the crest , lore , and superciliary stripe , and a light @-@ brown ( instead of ash @-@ brown ) back . The juveniles of some southeast Asian starlings are also browner than adults .
Vinson , who observed live hoopoe starlings when he lived on Réunion , described the crest as flexible , disunited and forward @-@ curled barbs of various lengths , highest in the centre , and able to be erected at will . He compared the bird 's crest to that of a cockatoo and to the tail feathers of a bird @-@ of @-@ paradise . Most mounted specimens have an erect crest , indicating its natural position . The only illustration of the hoopoe starling now thought to have been made from life was drawn by Paul Philippe Sauguin de Jossigny during the early 1770s . Jossigny instructed engravers under the drawing that for accuracy , they should depict the crest angled forward from the head ( not straight up ) . Hume believes that Martinet did this when he made the type illustration , and it was derivative of Jossigny 's image rather than a life drawing . Jossigny also made the only known life drawing of the now @-@ extinct Newton 's parakeet ( Psittacula exsul ) after a specimen sent to him from Rodrigues to Mauritius , so this is perhaps also where he drew the hoopoe starling . Murie suggested that only the illustrations by Martinet and Jacques Barraband were " original " , since he was unaware of Jossigny 's drawing , but noted a crudeness and stiffness in them which made neither appear lifelike .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Little is known about the behaviour of the hoopoe starling . According to François Levaillant 's 1807 account of the bird ( which included observations from a Réunion resident ) it was abundant , with large flocks inhabiting humid areas and marshes . In 1831 , Lesson , without explanation , described its habits as similar to those of a crow . Vinson 's 1877 account relates his experiences with the bird more than 50 years earlier :
Now these daughters of the wood , when they were numerous , flew in flocks and went thus in the rain forests , while deviating little from one another , as good companions or as nymphs taking a bath : they lived on berries , seeds and insects , and the créoles , disgusted by the latter fact , held them for an impure game . Sometimes , coming from the woods to the littoral [ coast ] , always flying and leaping from tree to tree , branch to branch , they often alighted in swarms on coffee trees in bloom , and there was in the past the testimony of an inhabitant of the Island of Bourbon , said the naturalist Levaillant , that they caused big damage in coffee trees by making the flowers fall prematurely . But it is not the white flowers of coffee that the hoopoes were searching for and thus behaving so , it was for the caterpillars and insects that devoured them ; and in this they made an important service to the silviculture of the Island of Bourbon and the rich coffee plantations , with which this land was then covered , the golden age of the country !
Like most other starlings , the hoopoe starling was omnivorous , feeding on fruits , seeds , and insects . Its tongue — long , slender , sharp , and frayed — may have been able to move rapidly , helpful when feeding on fruit , nectar , pollen , and invertebrates . Its pelvic elements were robust and its feet and claws large , indicating that it foraged near the ground . Its jaws were strong ; Morioka compared its skull to that of the hoopoe , and it may have foraged in a similar way , probing and opening holes in substrate by inserting and opening its beak . De Montbeillard was informed of the stomach contents of a dissected specimen , consisting of seeds and the berries of " Pseudobuxus " ( possibly Eugenia buxifolia , a bush with sweet , orange berries ) . He noted that the bird weighed 4 ounces ( 110 g ) , and was fatter around June and July . Several accounts suggest that the hoopoe starling migrated on Réunion , spending six months in the lowlands and six months in the mountains . Food may have been easier to obtain in the lowlands during winter , with the birds breeding in the mountain forests during summer . The hoopoe starling probably nested in tree cavities . Its song was described as a " bright and cheerful whistle " and " clear notes " , indicating a similarity to the songs of other starlings .
Many other endemic species on Réunion became extinct after the arrival of humans and the resulting disruption of the island 's ecosystem . The Mascarene parrot lived with other now @-@ extinct birds , such as the Réunion ibis , the Mascarene parrot , the Réunion parakeet , the Réunion swamphen , the Réunion owl , the Réunion night heron , and the Réunion pink pigeon . Extinct Réunion reptiles include the Réunion giant tortoise and an undescribed Leiolopisma skink . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Réunion and Mauritius before vanishing from both islands .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The hoopoe starling was described as tame and easily hunted . In 1704 , Jean Feuilley explained how the birds were caught by humans and cats :
Hoopoes and merles [ Hypsipetes borbonicus ] are the same fatness as those in France , and are of a marvellous taste , which are fat at the same time as parrots , living on the same foods . In order to catch them , hunting was done with staffs or long thin poles from six to seven feet in length , though this hunt is infrequently seen . The marrons [ escaped ] cats destroy many . These birds allow themselves to be approached very closely , so the cats take them without leaving their places .
The hoopoe starling was kept as a cagebird on Réunion and Mauritius , and although the bird was becoming scarcer , a number of specimens were obtained during the early 19th century . It is unknown whether any live specimens were ever transported from the Mascarenes . Cordemoy recalled that captive birds could be fed a wide variety of food , such as bananas , potatoes , and chayote , and wild birds would never enter inhabited areas . Many individuals survived on Mauritius after escaping there , and it was thought that a feral population could be established . However , the Mauritian population lasted less than a decade ; the final specimen on the island ( the last definite record of a live specimen anywhere ) was taken in 1836 . Specimens could still be collected on Réunion during the 1830s and , possibly , the early 1840s .
There are 19 surviving hoopoe starling specimens in museums around the world ( including one skeleton and two specimens preserved in spirit ) , two in the Paris museum and four in Troyes . Additional skins in Turin , Livorno , and Caen were destroyed during World War II , and four skins have disappeared from Réunion and Mauritius ( which now have one each ) . Specimens were sent to Europe beginning in the second half of the 18th century , with most collected during the first half of the 19th century . It is unclear when each specimen was acquired , and specimens were frequently moved between collections . It is also unclear which specimens were the basis for which descriptions and illustrations . The only known subfossil hoopoe starling specimen is a femur , discovered in 1993 in a Réunion grotto .
= = = Extinction = = =
Several causes for the decline and sudden disappearance of the hoopoe starling have been proposed , all connected to the activities of humans on Réunion , who it survived alongside for two centuries . An oft @-@ repeated suggestion is that the introduction of the common myna ( Acridotheres tristis ) led to competition between these two starling species . The myna was introduced to Réunion in 1759 to combat locusts , and became a pest itself . However , the hoopoe starling coexisted with the myna for nearly 100 years and they may not have shared habitat . The black rat ( Rattus rattus ) arrived on Reunion in the 1670s , and the brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) in 1735 , multiplying rapidly and threatening agriculture and native species . Like the hoopoe starling , the rats inhabited tree cavities and would have preyed on eggs , juveniles , and nesting birds . During the mid @-@ 19th century the Réunion slit @-@ eared skink ( Gongylomorphus borbonicus ) became extinct due to predation by the introduced wolf snake ( Lycodon aulicum ) , which may have deprived the bird of a significant food source . Hoopoe starlings may have contracted diseases from introduced birds , a factor known to have triggered declines and extinctions in endemic Hawaiian birds . According to ecologist Anthony S. Cheke , this was the chief cause of the hoopoe starling 's extinction ; the species had survived for generations despite other threats .
Beginning in the 1830s , Réunion was deforested for plantations . Former slaves joined white peasants in cultivating pristine areas after slavery was abolished in 1848 , and the hoopoe starling was pushed to the edges of its former habitat . According to Hume , over @-@ hunting was the final blow to the species ; with forests more accessible , hunting by the rapidly growing human population may have driven the remaining birds to extinction . In 1821 , a law mandating the extermination of grain @-@ damaging birds was implemented , and the hoopoe starling had a reputation for damaging crops . During the 1860s , various writers noted that the bird had almost disappeared , but it was probably already extinct by this time ; in 1877 , Vinson lamented that the last individuals might have been killed by recent forest fires . No attempts to preserve the species in captivity seem to have been made . The hoopoe starling survived longer than many other extinct Mascarene species , and was the last of the Mascarene starling species to become extinct . The Rodrigues and Mauritius species probably disappeared with the arrival of rats ; at least five species of Aplonis starlings have disappeared from the Pacific Islands , with rats contributing to their extinction . The hoopoe starling may have survived longer due to Réunion 's rugged topography and highlands , where it spent much of the year .
= Delaware Route 279 =
Delaware Route 279 ( DE 279 ) is a 1 @.@ 05 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 69 km ) long state highway located in northern New Castle County , Delaware . It runs from the Maryland state line southwest of Newark , where it continues as Maryland Route 279 ( MD 279 ) , northeast to DE 4 and DE 896 in Newark . DE 279 follows a four @-@ lane divided highway called Elkton Road and serves as part of the route connecting Elkton , Maryland with Newark . The roadway is maintained by the Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) . DE 279 was originally the westernmost portion of DE 2 , designated in the 1930s . This portion of road was widened into a divided highway in 1972 . In 2013 , DE 2 was truncated from the Maryland border to east of Newark to simiplify the route designations through Newark , resulting in DE 279 being designated to its current alignment .
= = Route description = =
DE 279 begins at the Maryland border southwest of Newark . The road continues southwest into that state as MD 279 , which heads towards Elkton . From the state line , the route heads northeast on Elkton Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway . DE 279 heads through commercial areas of Newark , where it comes to an intersection with Otts Chapel Road ( Road 397 ) . The road continues past more commercial development and comes to an intersection with the western terminus of DE 4 and DE 896 ( Christiana Parkway ) . Here , DE 279 ends and Elkton Road continues northeast as part of DE 896 towards downtown Newark . The entire length of the route is located in New Castle County . The route passes through flat to gently rolling terrain at an elevation of about 100 feet ( 30 m ) .
DE 279 has an annual average daily traffic count of 33 @,@ 231 vehicles west of Otts Chapel Road and 31 @,@ 069 vehicles east of Otts Chapel Road . The entire length of DE 279 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 279 was originally an unimproved county road by 1920 . By 1924 , the road was paved . In 1925 , suggestions were made for the state to take over maintenance of the highway connecting the Maryland border to Newark . In 1927 , the state took over maintenance of the highway between the Maryland border and Newark . When Delaware designated its state highways by 1936 , the current alignment of DE 279 was designated as the westernmost part of DE 2 , which ran from the Maryland border through Newark east to Wilmington . The portion of DE 2 along Elkton Road between the Maryland border and Newark was widened into a divided highway in 1972 . In 2013 , DelDOT proposed the renumbering of routes in and around Newark , which involved truncating DE 2 from the Maryland border to the eastern edge of Newark and the removal of DE 2 Bus. through downtown Newark . As a result of these changes , the portion of Elkton Road between the Maryland border and the Christiana Parkway was to be designated as DE 279 . The goal of the project was to " simplify the route designations in Newark , reduce sign clutter , and reduce sign maintenance costs . " The changes were completed in summer 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Newark , New Castle County .
= Something ( Beatles song ) =
" Something " is a song by the Beatles , written by George Harrison and released on the band 's 1969 album Abbey Road . It was also issued on a double A @-@ sided single with another track from the album , " Come Together " . " Something " was the first Harrison composition to appear as a Beatles A @-@ side , and the only song written by him to top the US charts before the band 's break @-@ up in April 1970 . The single was also one of the first Beatles singles to contain tracks already available on an LP album .
The song drew high praise from the band 's primary songwriters , John Lennon and Paul McCartney ; Lennon stated that " Something " was the best song on Abbey Road , while McCartney considered it the best song Harrison had written . As well as critical acclaim , the single achieved commercial success , topping the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States and making the top five in the United Kingdom . The song has been covered by over 150 artists , making it the second @-@ most covered Beatles song after " Yesterday " . Artists who have covered the song include Phish , Elvis Presley , Frank Sinatra , Ray Charles , James Brown , Shirley Bassey , Tony Bennett , Andy Williams , Smokey Robinson , Ike & Tina Turner , Eric Clapton , Joe Cocker , Isaac Hayes , Julio Iglesias and Neil Diamond . Harrison said his favourite version of the song was James Brown 's , which he kept in his personal jukebox .
= = Background and inspiration = =
George Harrison began writing " Something " in September 1968 , during a session for the Beatles ' self @-@ titled double album , commonly known as " the White Album " . In his autobiography , I , Me Mine , he recalls working on the melody on a piano , while Paul McCartney carried out overdubs in a neighbouring studio at London 's Abbey Road Studios . Harrison put the composition " on ice " at first , believing that with the tune having come to him so easily , it might have been the melody from another song . In I , Me , Mine , he adds that the middle eight for " Something " " took some time to sort out " .
The song 's opening lyric was taken from the title of " Something in the Way She Moves " , a track by Harrison 's fellow Apple Records artist James Taylor . While musically Harrison imagined the composition in the style of Ray Charles , his inspiration for " Something " was his wife , Pattie Boyd . In her 2007 autobiography , Wonderful Today , Boyd recalls : " He told me , in a matter @-@ of @-@ fact way , that he had written it for me . I thought it was beautiful ... " Boyd discusses the song 's subsequent popularity among other recording artists and concludes : " My favourite [ version ] was the one by George Harrison , which he played to me in the kitchen at Kinfauns . "
Having begun to write love songs that were directed at both God and a woman , with his White Album track " Long , Long , Long " , Harrison later cited alternative sources for his inspiration for " Something " . In early 1969 , according to author Joshua Greene , Harrison told his friends from the Hare Krishna Movement that the song was about the Hindu deity Krishna ; in an interview with Rolling Stone magazine in 1976 , he said of his approach to writing love songs : " all love is part of a universal love . When you love a woman , it 's the God in her that you see . " By 1996 , Harrison had denied writing " Something " for Boyd , adding that " everybody presumed I wrote it about Pattie " because of the promotional film accompanying the release of the Beatles ' recording , which showed each member of the band with his respective wife .
= = Composition = =
In the version issued on the Beatles ' 1969 album Abbey Road , which was the first release for the song , " Something " runs at a speed of around 66 beats per minute and is in common time throughout . It begins with a five @-@ note guitar figure , which functions as the song 's chorus , since it is repeated before each of the verses and also closes the track . The melody is in the key of C major until the eight @-@ measure @-@ long bridge , or middle eight , which is in the key of A major . Harrison biographer Simon Leng identifies " harmonic interest ... [ in ] almost every line " of the song , as the melody follows a series of descending half @-@ steps from the tonic over the verses , a structure that is then mirrored in the new key , through the middle eight . The melody returns to C major for the guitar solo , the third verse , and the outro .
While Leng considers that , lyrically and musically , " Something " reflects " doubt and striving to attain an uncertain goal " , author Ian Inglis writes of the confident statements that Harrison makes throughout regarding his feelings for Boyd . Referring to lines in the song 's verses , Inglis writes : " there is a clear and mutual confidence in the reciprocal nature of their love ; he muses that [ Boyd ] ' attracts me like no other lover ' and ' all I have to do is think of her , ' but he is equally aware that she feels the same , that ' somewhere in her smile , she knows . ' " Similarly , when Harrison sings in the middle eight that " You 're asking me will my love grow / I don 't know , I don 't know " , Inglis interprets the words as " not an indication of uncertainty , but a wry reflection that his love is already so complete that it may simply be impossible for it to become any greater " . Richie Unterberger of AllMusic describes " Something " as " an unabashedly straightforward and sentimental love song " written at a time " when most of the Beatles ' songs were dealing with non @-@ romantic topics or presenting cryptic and allusive lyrics even when they were writing about love " .
= = Pre @-@ Abbey Road recording history = =
= = = The Beatles ' Get Back rehearsals = = =
Harrison first introduced " Something " at a Beatles session on 19 September 1968 , when he played it to George Martin 's stand @-@ in as producer of The Beatles , Chris Thomas , while the latter was working out the harpsichord part for Harrison 's track " Piggies " . Despite Thomas 's enthusiasm for the new composition , Harrison chose to focus on " Piggies " . He told Thomas that he intended to offer " Something " to singer Jackie Lomax , whose debut album Harrison was producing for Apple Records . " Something " was not among the tracks released on Lomax 's album , however , much of which was recorded in Los Angeles following the completion of the White Album .
After Harrison rejoined the Beatles in January 1969 for their Get Back film project ( later released as Let It Be ) , " Something " was one of many recent compositions that he offered to the group . Leng describes this period as a prolific one for Harrison as a songwriter , comparing it with John Lennon 's peak of creativity over 1963 – 64 , yet Harrison 's songs received little interest from Lennon and McCartney amid the tense , uncooperative atmosphere within the band . Martin was also unimpressed by " Something " at first , considering it " too weak and derivative " , according to music journalist Mikal Gilmore .
The Beatles rehearsed the song at Apple Studio on 28 January . With the proceedings being recorded by director Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg for the planned documentary film , tapes reveal Harrison discussing his unfinished lyrics for " Something " with Lennon and McCartney , since he had been unable to complete the song 's second line , which begins " Attracts me ... " To serve as a temporary filler , Lennon suggested " like a cauliflower " , which Harrison then altered to " like a pomegranate " . In their study of the available tapes , Doug Sulpy and Ray Schweighardt write that the Beatles gave the song two run @-@ throughs that day , which was the only occasion that they attempted it during the Get Back / Let It Be project .
= = = Harrison solo demo = = =
Following the Beatles ' brief efforts with " Something " on 28 January , Harrison talked with Lennon and Yoko Ono about recording a solo album of his unused songs , since he had already stockpiled enough compositions " for the next ten years " , given his usual allocation of two tracks per album , and in order to " preserve this , the Beatle bit , more " . Lennon offered his support for the idea , similarly keen that his and Ono 's recording projects outside the Beatles could continue without jeopardising the band 's future . On 25 February 1969 – his 26th birthday – Harrison entered Abbey Road Studios and taped solo demos of " Something " , " Old Brown Shoe " and " All Things Must Pass " , the last two of which had also been rejected recently by Lennon and McCartney .
With Ken Scott serving as his engineer , he recorded a live take of " Something " , featuring just electric guitar and vocal . By this point , Harrison had completed the lyrics , although he included an extra verse , sung to a counter @-@ melody , over the section that would comprise his guitar solo on the Beatles ' subsequent official recording . This demo version of " Something " remained unreleased until its inclusion on the Beatles ' outtake collection Anthology 3 in 1996 .
= = = Joe Cocker demo = = =
In March 1969 , Harrison gave " Something " to Joe Cocker to record , having decided that it was more likely to become a hit with Cocker than with Lomax . Referring to this and similar examples where Harrison placed his overlooked songs with other recording artists , Ken Scott has refuted the idea that he lacked confidence as a songwriter in the Beatles , saying : " I think he was totally confident about the songs . The insecurity may have been , if the Beatles kept going , ' How many songs am I going to be able to get on each album ? ' , and with the backlog sort of mounting up ... [ to ] get it out there , and get something from it . "
Assisted by Harrison , Cocker recorded a demo of the song at Apple . While musicologist Walter Everett suggests that this was the same recording of " Something " that appeared on the Joe Cocker ! album in November 1969 , Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn writes that Cocker subsequently remade the track .
= = Recording and production = =
The Beatles undertook the recording of Abbey Road with a sense of discipline and cooperation that had largely been absent while making the White Album and Let It Be . Having temporarily left the group in January 1969 partly as a result of McCartney 's criticism of his musicianship , Harrison exhibited a greater level of assertiveness regarding his place in the band , particularly while they worked on his compositions " Something " and " Here Comes the Sun " . In addition , like Lennon and McCartney , Martin had come to fully appreciate Harrison as a songwriter , later saying : " I first recognised that he really had a great talent when we did ' Here Comes the Sun . ' But when he brought in ' Something , ' it was something else ... It was a tremendous work – and so simple . "
The group recorded " Something " on 16 April before Harrison decided to redo the song , a new basic track for which was then completed at Abbey Road on 2 May . The line @-@ up was Harrison on Leslie @-@ effected rhythm guitar , Lennon on piano , McCartney on bass , Ringo Starr on drums , and guest musician Billy Preston playing Hammond organ . On 5 May , at Olympic Sound Studios , McCartney re @-@ recorded his bass part and Harrison added lead guitar . At this point , the song ran to eight minutes , due to the inclusion of an extended coda led by Lennon 's piano .
After taking a break from recording , the band returned to " Something " on 11 July , when Harrison overdubbed what would turn out to be a temporary vocal . With the resulting reduction mix , much of the coda , along with almost all of Lennon 's playing on the main part of the song , was cut from the recording . The piano can be heard only in the middle eight , specifically during the descending run that follows each pair of " I don 't know " vocal lines . Lennon later reprised the piano chords from the discarded coda in his 1970 song " Remember " . On 16 July , Harrison recorded a new vocal , with McCartney overdubbing his harmony vocal over the middle eight and Starr adding both a second hi @-@ hat part and a cymbal .
Following another reduction mix , at which point the remainder of the coda was excised from the track , Martin @-@ arranged string orchestration was overdubbed on 15 August , as Harrison , working in the adjacent studio at Abbey Road , re @-@ recorded his lead guitar part live . Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , David Fricke described the Beatles ' version of " Something " as " actually two moods in one : the pillowy yearning of the verses ... and the golden thunder of the bridge , the latter driven by Ringo Starr 's military flourish on a high @-@ hat cymbal " . Leng highlights Harrison 's guitar solo on the recording as " a performance that is widely regarded as one of the great guitar solos " , and one in which Harrison incorporates the gamaks associated with Indian classical music , following his study of the sitar in 1965 – 68 , while also foreshadowing the expressive style he would adopt on slide guitar as a solo artist .
= = Release = =
Apple Records issued Abbey Road on 26 September 1969 , with " Something " sequenced as the second track , following Lennon 's " Come Together " . Lennon considered " Something " to be the best song on the album ; having ensured that " Old Brown Shoe " was chosen as the B @-@ side for the Beatles ' single " The Ballad of John and Yoko " , according to his later recollection , Lennon now pushed Allen Klein to release " Something " as a single from Abbey Road . Coupled with " Come Together " , the double A @-@ side single was issued on 6 October in America ( as Apple 2654 ) and 31 October in Britain ( as Apple R5814 ) .
The release marked the first time that a Harrison composition had been afforded A @-@ side treatment on a Beatles single , as well as the only time during their career that a single was issued in the UK featuring tracks already available on an album . In a 1990 letter to Mark Lewisohn , Klein refuted a claim made by Lewisohn in his book The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions , that the single was intended as a money @-@ making exercise ; Klein said it was purely a mark of Lennon 's regard for " Something " and " to point out George as a writer , and give him courage to go in and do his own LP . Which he did . " Following the Beatles ' break @-@ up in April 1970 , Harrison 's ascendancy as a songwriter would continue with his triple album All Things Must Pass , building on the promise of White Album tracks such as " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and his two contributions to Abbey Road .
= = = Commercial success = = =
Although its commercial impact was lessened by the ongoing success of the parent album , " Something " / " Come Together " was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 27 October . During the single 's chart run on Billboard in the US , " Something " peaked at number 3 until the magazine changed its practice of counting sales and airplay separately for each song ; following this change on 29 November , the single topped the Billboard Hot 100 , for one week . " Something " / " Come Together " thereby became the Beatles ' eighteenth number 1 single in the US , surpassing Elvis Presley 's record of seventeen .
As the preferred side , " Something " was number 1 in Canada ( for five weeks ) , Australia ( five weeks ) , West Germany ( two weeks ) , New Zealand and Singapore . In the other US national charts , Record World listed " Something " / " Come Together " at number 1 , while in Cash Box magazine , which continued to rank each song separately , " Something " peaked at number 2 and " Come Together " spent three weeks at number 1 . The combined sides reached number 4 in Britain . There , the release was highly unusual , given the traditional preference for non @-@ album singles ; in addition , according to former Mojo editor Paul Du Noyer , " so enormous were sales of Abbey Road that demand for the single was inevitably dampened . "
On 17 February 1999 , " Something " was certified double Platinum by the RIAA . In its 2014 list titled " The Beatles ' 50 Biggest Billboard Hits " , Billboard places the double A @-@ side single in sixth place , immediately after " Let It Be " and ahead of " Hello , Goodbye " . Additionally , " Something " is placed again at number 30 , representing the song 's performance before the November 1969 Hot 100 rule change .
= = = Promotional video = = =
The promotional video for " Something " was shot shortly after Lennon had privately announced that he was leaving the band . By this time , the individual Beatles had drawn apart and so the film consisted of separate clips of each Beatle walking around his home , accompanied by his wife , edited together . The film was directed by Neil Aspinall .
The promo film is included in the Beatles ' 2015 video compilation 1 .
= = Critical reception , awards and legacy = =
Among contemporary reviews , Time magazine declared " Something " to be the best track on Abbey Road , while John Mendelsohn wrote in Rolling Stone : " George 's vocal , containing less adenoids and more grainy Paul tunefulness than ever before , is one of many highlights on his ' Something , ' some of the others being more excellent drum work , a dead catchy guitar line , perfectly subdued strings , and an unusually nice melody . Both his and Joe Cocker 's version will suffice nicely until Ray Charles gets around to it . " Writing in Saturday Review magazine , Ellen Sander described " Something " as " certainly one of the most beautiful songs George Harrison has ever written " and added : " He feels his way through the song , instinctively cutting through its body and into the core , emoting so clearly and so gracefully that at the moment he peals ' I don 't know , I don 't know , ' it is shown that even what is not known can be understood . " In his review of the single , Derek Johnson of the NME lauded the track as " a real quality hunk of pop " with a " strident lead guitar which exudes a mean and moody quality " . Johnson stated his regret that Harrison " isn 't featured more regularly as a singer " , and concluded of " Something " : " It 's a song that grows on you , and mark my words , it will – in a big way ! "
Writing in his book Revolution in the Head , critic and author Ian MacDonald described " Something " as " the acme of Harrison 's achievement as a writer " . MacDonald highlighted the song 's " key @-@ structure of classical grace and panoramic effect " , and cited the lyrics to verse two as " its author 's finest lines – at once deeper and more elegant than almost anything his colleagues ever wrote " .
Like Lennon , both McCartney and Starr held the song in high regard . In the 2000 book The Beatles Anthology , Starr paired " Something " with " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " as " Two of the finest love songs ever written " , adding , " they 're really on a par with what John and Paul or anyone else of that time wrote " ; McCartney said it was " George 's greatest track – with ' Here Comes the Sun ' and ' While My Guitar Gently Weeps ' " . Among Harrison 's other peers , Paul Simon described " Something " as a " masterpiece " and Elton John said : " ' Something ' is probably one of the best love songs ever , ever , ever written ... It 's better than ' Yesterday , ' much better ... It 's like the song I 've been chasing for the last thirty @-@ five years . "
In a 2002 article for The Morning News , Kenneth Womack included Harrison 's guitar solo on the track among his " Ten Great Beatles Moments " . Describing the instrumental break as " the song 's greatest lyrical feature – even more lyrical , interestingly enough , than the lyrics themselves " , Womack concluded : " A masterpiece in simplicity , Harrison 's solo reaches toward the sublime , wrestles with it in a bouquet of downward syncopation , and hoists it yet again in a moment of supreme grace . " Guitar World included the performance as the magazine 's featured solo in June 2011 . Later that year , " Something " was one of the two " key tracks " highlighted by Rolling Stone when the magazine placed Harrison at number 11 on its list of the " 100 Greatest Guitarists " .
In July 1970 , " Something " received the Ivor Novello Award for " Best Song Musically and Lyrically " of 1969 . In 2005 , the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) named it as the 64th @-@ greatest song ever . According to the BBC , the song " shows more clearly than any other song in The Beatles ' canon that there were three great songwriters in the band rather than just two " . The Beatles ' official website states that " Something " " underlined the ascendance of George Harrison as a major songwriting force " .
With more than 150 versions , " Something " is the second most covered Beatles song after " Yesterday " . In 1999 , Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI ) named " Something " as the 17th @-@ most performed song of the twentieth century , with 5 million performances . In 2004 , the track was ranked at number 278 on Rolling Stone 's list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . In 2010 , " Something " appeared at number 6 on the magazine 's " 100 Greatest Beatles Songs " list . Four years before this , Mojo placed it 7th in a similar list of the Beatles ' best songs .
= = Cover versions = =
= = = Shirley Bassey = = =
Among the song 's many cover versions , Welsh singer Shirley Bassey recorded a successful version of " Something " . It was released in 1970 as the title track to her album of the same name . Also issued as a single , it became Bassey 's first top @-@ ten hit in the UK since " I ( Who Have Nothing ) " in 1963 , peaking at number 4 and spending 22 weeks on the chart . The single also reached the top twenty in other European countries and peaked at number 6 on Billboard 's Easy Listening ( later Adult Contemporary ) chart .
Although she had been unaware of the song 's origins when recording " Something " , Bassey later suggested that she and Harrison could become a singer @-@ and @-@ songwriter pairing on the scale of Dionne Warwick and Burt Bacharach . After reading these comments in 1970 , Harrison wrote " When Every Song Is Sung " with Bassey in mind , although it was not a composition that she ever recorded .
= = = Frank Sinatra = = =
Frank Sinatra was particularly impressed with " Something " , calling it " the greatest love song of the past 50 years " . According to Du Noyer , he " especially admired the way the lyric evokes a girl who isn 't even present " . Aside from performing " Something " numerous times in concert , Sinatra recorded the song twice : in October 1970 as a single for Reprise Records ( a version that later appeared on Frank Sinatra 's Greatest Hits , Vol . 2 ) , and for his 1980 triple album Trilogy : Past Present Future . With the sides flipped to favour the B @-@ side , " Bein ' Green " , the 1970 single peaked at number 22 on Billboard 's Easy Listening chart .
During his live performances , Sinatra was known to mistakenly introduce " Something " as a Lennon – McCartney composition . By 1978 , however , he had begun correctly citing Harrison as its author . Harrison went on to adopt Sinatra 's minor lyrical change ( in the song 's middle eight , singing " You stick around , Jack ... " ) in his live performances over 1991 – 92 . In The Beatles Anthology , Harrison says he viewed Sinatra as being part of " the generation before me " and so only later came to appreciate the American singer 's adoption of the song .
= = = Other artists = = =
Harrison 's composition began accumulating cover versions almost immediately after the release of Abbey Road . In addition to Joe Cocker , Peggy Lee and Tony Bennett each issued recordings of the song at the end of 1969 . Lena Horne recorded " Something " in the jazz style for her 1970 album with guitarist Gabor Szabo , titled Lena & Gabor . An instrumental version by Booker T. & the M.G. ' s , from their Abbey Road tribute album McLemore Avenue , peaked at number 76 on the Billboard Hot 100 in August 1970 . Other artists who released covers of the song that year include Della Reese , Perry Como , Duane Eddy , the Ray Conniff Singers , Jerry Butler , Johnny Mathis , Engelbert Humperdinck , Isaac Hayes , King Curtis , Martha Reeves & the Vandellas and the Shadows . Ray Charles issued his version on the album Volcanic Action of My Soul in 1971 , the same year that recordings appeared by Andy Williams and Junior Walker & the All Stars , while Buddy Rich , Blue Mink and Ike & Tina Turner were among the acts who covered it in 1972 . Referring to the song 's popularity among easy @-@ listening artists , Harrison later said : " When even Liberace covered it [ in 1970 ] , you know that it 's one of them that ends up in an elevator ... "
" Something " was one of the rare Beatles songs that Elvis Presley chose to play , when he introduced it into the setlist for his third season at the International Hotel in Las Vegas , in August 1970 . He also performed it on his 1973 Aloha from Hawaii TV special , the recording from which appeared on the accompanying bestselling album . A live version from the 1970 Las Vegas concerts subsequently appeared on the Presley box sets Walk a Mile in My Shoes : The Essential ' 70s Masters ( 1995 ) and Live in Las Vegas ( 2001 ) .
Other versions of " Something " include recordings by James Brown , Peggy Lee , Willie Nelson , Smokey Robinson , Julio Iglesias and Musiq Soulchild . Harrison referred to James Brown 's recording as his favourite cover of the song , saying : " It was one of his B sides . I have it on my jukebox at home . It 's absolutely brilliant . "
Ray Stevens covered the song in 1970 in addition to covering another Beatles composition , She Came In Through the Bathroom Window , both on the same LP , Everything Is Beautiful . A version by country singer Johnny Rodriguez reached the top ten of the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in the spring of 1974 . Barbara Mandrell covered the song on her 1974 album This Time I Almost Made It . Norwegian country music singer Teddy Nelson covered it for his 1989 top @-@ selling album American Dreamer , one of his few ventures into rock music . In 1999 , Power Metal band Helloween released a single of covers titled Lay All Your Love on Me in which they remade " Something " in the heavy metal style . English actor @-@ singer Jimmy Nail performed " Something " on ukulele , an instrument that Harrison championed from the 1980s onwards , as honorary president of the George Formby Appreciation Society . Nail 's recording on his 2001 album 10 Great Songs and an OK Voice eschewed the ukulele backing for a brass band arrangement , however . In 2013 Nancy Sinatra covered " Something " on her album Shifting Gears .
= = = Harrison tributes = = =
Bruce Springsteen opened his first show after Harrison 's death on 29 November 2001 by playing an acoustic version of " Something " with violinist Soozie Tyrell , followed by a rendition of Harrison 's solo hit " My Sweet Lord " . Elton John gave a solo performance of the song at New York 's Carnegie Hall in April 2002 , as part of a one @-@ hour Harrison tribute during the eleventh annual Rainforest Foundation concert .
In honour of Harrison 's fondness for the instrument , Paul McCartney played a ukulele rendition of " Something " throughout his 2002 – 03 world tour and included the track on his Back in the U.S. live album . At the Concert for George , held at London 's Royal Albert Hall on 29 November 2002 , he and Eric Clapton performed a version that begins with McCartney alone , on ukulele , and then reverts to the familiar , rock arrangement , with Clapton taking over as lead singer and backing from Starr , Preston and others . Following its appearance in David Leland 's film Concert for George ( 2003 ) and on the accompanying live album , this performance of " Something " was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals . Bob Dylan also played the song live during his November 2002 concerts , as a tribute to Harrison . McCartney has continued to perform " Something " , adopting the Concert for George mix of ukulele and rock backing ; a version with this musical arrangement was included on his 2009 album Good Evening New York City .
= = Live performances by Harrison = =
Harrison played " Something " at the two Concert for Bangladesh shows , held at Madison Square Garden in New York on 1 August 1971 . His first live performance as a solo artist , he was backed by a large band that included Starr , Preston , Clapton and Leon Russell . The version used on the live album and in the 1972 concert film was taken from the evening show that day , when Harrison played it as the final song before returning to perform " Bangla Desh " as an encore .
Harrison included " Something " in all of his subsequent , and rare , full @-@ length concert appearances . For his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar , he had been reluctant to feature any material from the Beatles ' catalogue , but at the urging of Shankar and Preston during rehearsals , he added " Something " to the setlist . To the disappointment of many fans , however , he chose to alter some of the song 's lyrics ( such as changing the first line to " If there 's something in the way , remove it " ) . Further distancing himself from the Beatles ' legacy , Harrison told journalists at the start of the tour that he would join a group with Lennon " any day " but rejected the idea of working again with McCartney , since he preferred Willie Weeks as a bassist . MacDonald comments that this statement was likely in reference to McCartney 's " too fussily extemporised " bass part on the Beatles ' 1969 recording . With Boyd having left Harrison for Clapton earlier in 1974 , Larry Sloman of Rolling Stone described the reworked " Something " as " a moving diary of his love life " .
A version from Harrison 's December 1991 tour of Japan with Clapton – Harrison 's only other tour as a solo artist – appears on the Live in Japan double album ( 1992 ) . Inglis writes of the track having " extra poignancy " by this time , " in that the woman for whom it was written had been married to , and divorced from , Harrison and Clapton in turn " . Inglis adds : " It is not a new interpretation of the song , but it does suggest a new perspective , in which words and music are used by two close friends to reflect on the lives they have led . "
= = Personnel = =
The Beatles
George Harrison – lead vocal , lead guitar , rhythm guitar
Paul McCartney – bass guitar , backing vocal
John Lennon – piano
Ringo Starr – drums
Additional personnel
Billy Preston – Hammond organ
George Martin – string arrangement
Personnel per Walter Everett .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Otto Kittel =
Otto " Bruno " Kittel ( 21 February 1917 – 14 or 16 February 1945 ) was a World War II Luftwaffe flying ace . He flew 583 combat missions on the Eastern Front , claiming 267 aerial victories , making him the fourth highest scoring ace in aviation history . Kittel claimed all of his victories flying the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 against the Red Air Force .
Kittel joined the Luftwaffe in 1939 , at the age of 22 and flew his first combat missions in 1941 . In spring 1941 , he joined Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 ) supporting Army Group North on the Eastern Front . Kittel claimed his first victory on 22 June 1941 , the opening day of Operation Barbarossa . Kittel took time to amass his personal tally of aerial victories . By February 1943 , he reached 39 kills , relatively insignificant when compared with some other German aces . In 1943 , his tally began to increase when JG 54 began to operate the Fw 190 . Kittel earned the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 29 October 1943 , for reaching 120 aerial victories . By the time he was awarded the decoration he had a tally of 123 victories . Many of the Soviet aircraft shot down by Kittel were IL @-@ 2 Shturmoviks .
During the remainder of World War II , Kittel was credited with 144 more aerial victories and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords . On 14 or 16 February 1945 , flying his 583rd combat mission , Kittel was shot down and killed by the air gunner of a Shturmovik . Kittel was the most successful German fighter pilot to be killed in action .
= = Personal life = =
Kittel was born on 21 February 1917 in Kronsdorf ( Krasov ) near Krnov in Sudeten Silesia , Austria @-@ Hungary . His father was Eduard Kittel , a farmer . Contrary to the public perception of fighter pilots , author Franz Kurowski describes Kittel as reserved and soft @-@ spoken .
Fascinated with flight at an early age , after working briefly as an auto mechanic Kittel joined the Luftwaffe in 1939 at the age of 22 . After completing his training on 12 February 1941 , Kittel was posted to JG 54 based at Jever , Germany . He was assigned to 2 Staffel ( Squadron ) JG 54 at the rank of Unteroffizier . During his training he was described as a good comrade on account of his calm demeanour , presence of mind and sense of duty . Owing to these attributes , his superior officers treated him with respect . During his training and early career Hannes Trautloft became a role model and offered Kittel advice about his techniques .
Kittel formed a friendship with German ace Hans Philipp , who often shared advice about aerial combat . Philipp later served as a pastor when Kittel married his fiancé , Edith , in June 1942 at Krasnogvardeysk , after she had travelled into occupied Soviet territory to be with him . The couple had a son , Manfred , who was born in 1945 .
= = World War II = =
Kittel 's first operations were air superiority missions during the Balkans Campaign . Assigned to support the German invasion of Yugoslavia and the bombing of Belgrade , Kittel 's Geschwader ( Wing ) was credited with 376 aerial victories by the time of the Yugoslavian surrender on 17 April 1941 . During the course of the campaign Kittel acted as wingman for his staffel leader , who was the first to engage any enemy aircraft , and Kittel saw only limited air combat . His only combat actions were during strafing missions against Yugoslav Army forces . On 12 May 1941 , JG 54 handed over its old Bf 109E fighters to Jagdgeschwader 77 ( Fighter Wing 77 ) , and Kittel began intensive training on the new Bf 109F .
= = = Operation Barbarossa = = =
Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , began on 22 June 1941 . In the fortnight prior , JG 54 had been moved to an airfield in Lindenthal near Rautenberg , East Prussia , present @-@ day Uslowoje in Kaliningrad Oblast . Tasked with supporting Army Group North in its advance through the Baltic states towards Leningrad , the unit began combat operations shortly afterwards . On 24 June 1941 , Kittel claimed his first two aerial victories , two Tupolev SB @-@ 2 bombers , shot down during an early morning mission . On 30 June 1941 , he downed his first Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 Shturmovik . His third victory earned him the Iron Cross , Second Class ( Eisernes Kreuz zweiter Klasse ) . By that time , the German advance had taken JG 54 to Staraya Russa , just south of Leningrad , and they would remain there for nearly two years .
By winter 1941 – 1942 , he had 11 victories and was awarded the Iron Cross First Class ( Eisernes Kreuz erster Klasse ) in October 1941 . In mid @-@ March , Kittel claimed two Shturmoviks for his 13 – 14 aerial victories but his Bf 109 suffered damage and Kittel returned to base , resisting the urge to chase more and risk his life . His motto was to get back in one piece and avoid risks : " Take the safe route and avoid ill @-@ considered and wild offensive tactics " . In the end that alone produced success , risking himself for a single victory was not Kittel 's way . Within two months , his tally had risen to 17 and in May 1942 , Kittel claimed two more victories : a bomber and a fighter , in one sortie . During the combat , he became involved in a dogfight with two experienced opponents ; the Soviet pilots tried to force him into a trap , one chasing the other in an attempt to cut him off . Kittel 's aircraft was fired on several times and hit but he managed to shoot down one of the Soviet fighters and make his escape .
= = = Leningrad Front = = =
During the summer of 1942 , aerial victories were rare ; operating in the northern sector of the front usually meant little action as all the Soviet air activity was combating Army Group South 's summer offensive , codenamed Case Blue . Kurowski recounts that Kittel became frustrated at this time , although his ground crew worked to keep up his spirits . On 19 February 1943 , Feldwebel Kittel achieved his 39th victory , which was also JG 54 's 4,000th of the war . JG 54 Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) Hannes Trautloft congratulated Kittel , and decreed that he was no longer to be assigned the role of wingman , but would instead be allowed to conduct lone combat patrols . In early 1943 , JG 54 was withdrawn from the frontline to convert to the Fw 190 . With a stronger undercarriage for the harsher conditions on the Eastern Front , greater firepower , speed and agility , the fighter was popular among pilots . Kittel , in particular , was pleased . The Fw 190 was an ideal interceptor against the tough and heavily armoured Shturmovik , his favourite target . At this point , after returning to combat , Kittel 's victory tally climbed rapidly . By mid @-@ March 1943 , Kittel had reached 46 victories , encompassing all types of aircraft .
On 14 or 15 March 1943 while on a mission over the Demyansk pocket , Kittel 's Fw 190 suffered engine failure . He was 80 kilometers ( 50 mi ) behind Soviet lines . He removed his precision board clock , an intricately engineered instrument which he was under orders to secure , and landed his Fw 190 which slid 150 meters ( 490 ft ) to a stop in a snow @-@ covered field . During the landing , fellow pilot Herbert Broennle , who had been shot down under similar circumstances , advised Kittel over the radio to hide after landing , to travel only by night and to march compass bearing of 255 degrees ( north @-@ west ) which would take him to Staraya Russa , towards JG 54 's base behind German lines . After exiting his aircraft , Kittel ran for the nearest forest after landing as several locals began emerging from nearby houses . When Kittel got to the forest , he found he had left his emergency rations behind , having only a chocolate bar with him . He continued through the forest . In the dense vegetation , he was able to move during the day unseen . Resting often , he raided several empty houses and found clothes but no food . Determined to find food , and dressed as a Russian peasant , he passed through several Soviet checkpoints looking for something to eat . Kittel spoke Czech and some Russian and managed to evade detection . En route , he stopped at several points and was given food , and eventually Kittel made it to the edge of Lake Ilmen . After nightfall he crossed the frozen lake and made it to German lines , three days after his crash landing .
Following his return , Kittel was promoted to Oberfeldwebel ( staff sergeant ) on 18 March 1943 . Kittel took leave in March / April 1943 . By the time he returned Walter Nowotny had taken over the Gruppe ( Group ) . Philipp had left to take command of Jagdgeschwader 1 ( JG 1 ) in Germany , and was later killed in action on 8 October 1943 . On 3 May 1943 , Kittel scored his first aerial victories since his return , claiming three Soviet aircraft in an operation before machine gun fire from a bomber 's rear gunner damaged his aircraft and forced him to crash land . On 10 June 1943 , Kittel achieved another aerial victory , taking his total to 50 .
= = = Kursk and the Baltic = = =
During the fighting in mid @-@ 1943 , JG 54 took part in many of the spring battles over the Crimea Peninsula , Vyazma @-@ Bryansk , Vitebsk , Kharkov , Orsha and Orel regions . As the spring battles ended , the Germans prepared for Operation Citadel , which led to the Battle of Kursk . During the air battles that followed Kittel 's unit escorted Junkers Ju 87 Stukas of III . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 ( Third Group , StG 2 , or Dive Bomber Wing 2 ) , commanded by Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel .
On 5 July 1943 , the Germans launched their attack . By this date , Kittel had claimed 56 victories . During the first day of Citadel , Kittel became an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " claiming six victories . The next day he shot down three more Soviet aircraft . It was at this point Kittel achieved recognition as one of the most prominent German aces . After the German defeat at Kursk , Kittel 's combat career continued as the German Army retreated to the Dnieper River . Kittel had achieved a one kill per day average to reach 94 victories on 4 September 1943 . Just 10 days later , on 14 September 1943 , Kittel claimed his 100th aerial victory , a Yakovlev Yak @-@ 9 fighter . The 53rd Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark , he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 29 October 1943 . By the time he was awarded it on 29 October , his tally was 123 aerial victories . The presentation was made by Oberst Franz Reuß .
On 1 November 1943 , Kittel was promoted to the rank of Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) . From then until January 1944 Kittel served a the chief instructor of the Ergänzungs @-@ Jagdgruppe Ost ( Training Group East ) in Biarritz , France , providing instructor to trainee fighter pilots . Unhappy in a teaching role , Kittel filed several applications to return to combat , and in March 1944 his request was approved . Kittel subsequently returned to JG 54 on the Eastern Front .
In early April , achieved his 150th aerial victory . On April 14 , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) for his 152nd aerial victory , claimed on 12 April . Kittel received the Oak Leaves from Adolf Hitler at the Berghof , Obersalzberg on 5 May 1944 , becoming the 449th German to receive the award . In May 1944 , 2 . Staffel was transferred to augment III . Gruppe ( 3rd group ) of JG 54 fighting on the Western Front to provide air defense for the Reich amidst increasing Allied aerial attacks . In August 1944 , a new 2 . Staffel was formed from remnants of 3 . Staffel , and Kittel was appointed its Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) .
Kittel continued to increase his tally , shooting down another 50 aircraft by 26 August 1944 , bringing his overall total to 200 . By this time , Kittel had converted to flying a Fw 190A @-@ 6 , designated " Yellow 5 " . By the 27 October 1944 , Kittel had achieved 254 victories , a total of 102 in just six months . He earned the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) on 25 November 1944 for 264 victories , only the 113th German serviceman to receive the award . Kittel flew to Hitler 's headquarters to receive the award and then continued to Germany to spend his leave there . When he returned in January 1945 , he took JG 54 's second squadron , 2 Staffel . Kittel added a further three victories during his time as the Staffel 's leader . By 13 February 1945 , Kittel had a personal total of 266 aerial victories .
At 12 : 06 on 14 or 16 February 1945 , Kittel took off with his Geschwader ( Wing ) flying Fw 190 A @-@ 8 " Black 1 " ( Werknummer — factory number — 690 282 ) to engage a formation of 14 Shturmovik aircraft over the Courland Pocket . His wingman , Oberfähnrich Renner , later reported : At 12 : 13 he made contact with the formation at low altitude , no more than 100 – 150 meters ( 330 – 490 ft ) . Kittel attacked , firing at and damaging several Shturmovik . Kittel damaged one aircraft and chased it . As he closed in for the kill , his Focke @-@ Wulf was hit by return fire from a rear gunner , and descended towards the ground on fire . Kittel , probably incapacitated and unable to use his parachute , did not bail out and the Fw 190 crashed in flames . The site of the crash is believed to have been 6 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) south @-@ west of Džūkste in Latvia . Witnesses from Kittel 's formation reported that a Shturmovik had been shot down by Kittel before he himself was killed during the air battle having scored his 267th and final victory .
= = Awards = =
Wound Badge in Black
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe on 21 December 1942 as Feldwebel and pilot
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 500 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge
German Cross in Gold on 18 March 1943 as Feldwebel in the 2 . / JG 54
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 30 June 1941 )
1st Class ( October 1941 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 29 October 1943 as Oberfeldwebel ( Master Sergeant or First Sergeant ) and pilot in the 2 . / JG 54
449th Oak Leaves on 11 April 1944 as Leutnant ( Second Lieutenant ) pilot in the 1 . / JG 54
113th Swords on 25 November 1944 as Oberleutnant ( First Lieutenant ) ( war officer ) and Staffelkapitän of the 2 . / JG 54
= Hey Good Lookin ' ( film ) =
Hey Good Lookin ' is a 1982 American adult animated coming of age comedy film written , directed , and produced by Ralph Bakshi . The film takes place in Brooklyn , New York , during the 1950s and focuses on Vinnie , the leader of a gang named " the Stompers , " his friend , Crazy Shapiro , and their girls , Roz and Eva . It features the voices of Richard Romanus , David Proval , Tina Bowman , and Jesse Welles .
Hey Good Lookin ' was first completed in 1975 as a live @-@ action / animated combination , in which only the main characters were animated and the rest were portrayed by live actors , but the film 's release was pushed back , and later postponed indefinitely . Warner Bros. claimed that this version of the film was unsatisfactory ; concerns over controversy as the result of the backlash against the film Coonskin were also cited .
In 1982 , a very different version of the film was released ; much of the live @-@ action sequences were replaced by animated ones , and dialogue was heavily rewritten and reedited . This version was distributed in a limited release in the United States and went largely unnoticed by the American public ; it performed respectably in foreign markets , and developed a cult following on cable television and home video . The original version of the film remains unreleased .
= = Story = =
The film opens on a Trash can talking to a pile of Garbage , debating over the existence of Heaven . The Garbage hears a rumbling and declares that God has arrived , and is then scooped into a garbage truck and driven away calling " Fuck this city ! " The camera reveals Brooklyn during the 1980s . A heavyset , middle @-@ aged woman walks alone in the streets , and meets a mysterious man who greets her and shows her the remains of a black leather jacket . The woman sobs at the sight of it , and the man begins his story ...
In Brooklyn during the 1950s , Vinnie serves as the leader of a gang named " the Stompers " . His best friend , Crazy Shapiro , is subject to multiple murder attempts by Crazy 's detective father , Solly . While in an old basketball court , Vinnie reunites with an old flame named Rozzie , but their reunion is abruptly interrupted by Rozzie 's protective Jewish father , who chains her to her bed so she won 't meet with Vinnie . Vinnie and Crazy spend the evening drinking , meet up with two prostitutes and go to sleep on the beach , waking up to find themselves close to a group of showering women and their mobster husbands . While Crazy inches over to the ladies , Vinnie finds a dead body buried in the sand . The screams of Vinnie and the women alert the mobsters , who beat up Crazy . It 's later seen that Crazy has killed off the mobsters .
Vinnie runs off , finding himself on the black area of the beach where he bumps into rival gang leader Boogaloo Jones and his gang , the Chaplains . Boogaloo sets up a rumble between his gang and the Stompers . Vinnie later meets up with Roz and the girl Crazy dates , Eva ; Crazy has meanwhile beaten all the mobsters . The four head out to a party , where Vinnie tells the Stompers that they are going to fight with the Chaplains , to which the gang responds with negativity . Much of the gang and their girls head out to a rock and roll show . Vinnie is horrified at the idea of Crazy and himself having to fight the Chaplains alone . One of the Stompers named Sal and his girl have a run @-@ in with Boogaloo while driving , and wind up in a car crash on the stage of the show . Vinnie finally persuades the Stompers to rumble with the Chaplains .
At a drive @-@ in fast food restaurant , Vinnie and Crazy make out with their girls . When Roz spots a car that she thinks Boogaloo is in , Crazy is quick to drive off after it . Crazy ends up shooting two of the black gang members in an alley , much to Vinnie 's shock . Solly investigates the death of the two black gang members . He questions Boogaloo , who tells him that he should be looking for the Stompers .
Crazy and Roz are then seen at a pier . Rozzie tells him that Vinnie is ditching town , her and the rumble , which makes Crazy the leader of the Stompers . Disgusted with Vinnie 's cowardice , Roz allows Crazy to make love to her in an abandoned warehouse . Solly interrupts their time together , and fights boxer @-@ style with Crazy to get him to talk . As he is losing , Crazy lies to his father that Vinnie killed the gang members . Vinnie packs up his things and tries to avoid the rumble , but bumps into the Stompers and is unfortunately in time for the rumble . As the two gangs wait for Boogaloo to show up , Solly drives up , ready to arrest Vinnie . On the rooftop of a nearby building , Crazy begins shooting randomly towards the street , causing both gangs to begin shooting at each other , and fights against his own hallucinations — including garbage can monsters and giant naked women . Vinnie tries to run and is shot at by Solly . Crazy jumps off the rooftop , landing on Solly , killing himself and Solly at the same time — perhaps to save Vinnie . As Roz calls up a radio station to make a memorial request in honor of Vinnie 's apparent demise , he stands up and walks away , leaving Brooklyn .
The scene returns to Long Island in the 1980s . As the mysterious man finishes his story , he claims he left because he was heartbroken over the death of Crazy . The woman knows he is lying . She reveals that she is Roz , and that the man is Vinnie , returned after 30 years . Roz angrily berates him for abandoning her and the gang just to save his own skin . Roz tells him that her husband will soon come looking for her , and he hates to see her with any other man . She gives Vinnie a second chance , if he will fight for her like she wished he did before . But she 's bluffing . At first Vinnie imagines himself walking out on her again , but then embraces Roz telling her " I 've been waiting for you . " The lovers reunite .
= = Cast = =
Richard Romanus as Vinnie Genzianna
David Proval as Crazy Shapiro
Tina Bowman as Rozzie Featherschneid
Jesse Welles as Eva
Philip Michael Thomas as Boogaloo and Chaplin ( credited as Philip M. Thomas )
Frank DeKova as Old Vinnie Genzianna
Angelo Grisanti as Solly
Candy Candido as Sal
Danny Wells as Stomper # 1
Larry Bishop as Stomper # 2
Tabi Cooper as Stomper # 3
Bernie Massa as Stomper # 4
Gelsa Palao as Stomper # 5
Paul Roman as Stomper # 6
Juno Dawson as Waitress
Shirley Jo Finney as Chaplin
Martin Garner as Yonkel
Terry Haven as Alice
Allen Joseph as Max
Ed Peck as Italian Man
Lillian Adams as Italian Woman # 1
Mary Dean Lauria as Italian Woman # 2
Donna Ponterotto as Gelsa
Vincent Di Paolo as Gang Member at Beach ( uncredited )
Chris Eann as Gangster ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
After production concluded on Harlem Nights , Bakshi wanted to distinguish himself artistically by producing a film in which live action and animated characters would interact . Bakshi began writing the screenplay for Hey Good Lookin ' while editing Coonskin , and storyboarding a proposed series for ABC . The characters of Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro were based upon Bakshi 's high school friends , Norman Darrer and Allen Schechterman . Warner Bros. had previously agreed to distribute Fritz the Cat before pulling their funding from that film , but were eager to option the screenplay for Hey Good Lookin ' , and greenlit the film in 1973 . Several African American animators , including graffiti artists , were hired by Bakshi 's studio , at a time when black animators were not widely employed by major animation studios . Following controversy over the film Coonskin , some black animators left Bakshi 's studio in embarrassment , resulting in production problems for Hey Good Lookin ' .
Principal photography began in 1974 . The budget was $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Pre @-@ production lasted one week , including casting . Grittier sequences were shot on the streets of New York City , while less serious locations were shot on Warner Bros. ' sound stages in Los Angeles . According to Bakshi , " What I would do is dress guys up , live @-@ action guys . Very strange dudes ! The weirdest guys I could find . Having them talk to animated characters in front of candy stores , discussing girlfriends and such . It was very surrealistic . " Yaphet Kotto and the glam punk band New York Dolls were cast in the live action sequences , with the New York Dolls playing homosexuals . Mean Streets actors Richard Romanus and David Proval were cast as the voices of Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro . Much of the shooting of live action sequences and recording of animated dialogue involved improvisation , with Bakshi setting up the premise of the scene and allowing his actors to create their own dialogue . During the " rumble " sequence , the actors playing the Chaplains were filmed popping and performing styles of dance which later evolved into breakdancing , dance styles which were unheard of in the 1970s studio system .
Bakshi had selected a number of songs from his own record collection for the film 's soundtrack , which were not used in the film due to the high costs of licensing the songs . The film was initially scored by singer Dan Hicks , who became involved with the production of the film in 1974 . Because the release of the delay of the film 's release , Hicks ' label released the material from these sessions under the title It Happened One Bite . When the film was released in 1982 , it had been rescored by John Madara .
Much of the cinematography was shot at night , because Bakshi felt that the daylight made the scenes less believable . Bakshi recounts that during the first day of shooting , the actors were unable to play their roles naturally , but began casually talking and acting the way he wanted their characters to act when the cameras were off , including flirting with an actress . However , the camera man was not around to capture these events , so Bakshi filmed them himself . When Bakshi excitedly told William A. Fraker about this , Fraker quit the production , and was replaced by a young cinematographer who had never worked in film before .
= = Post @-@ production and release = =
During the post @-@ production of the film , Bakshi found that the cost of the optical effect required to complete live @-@ action scenes with animated characters was larger than the film 's budget . In order to complete these scenes cost effectively , Bakshi and his camera man Ted C. Bemiller purchased a 35 mm camera to project the footage onto the glass under the animation camera , which was reflected onto where the animation was shot . The same technique was used for the rotoscoped scenes in The Lord of the Rings . According to Bakshi , " The illusion I attempted to create was that of a completely live @-@ action film . Making it work almost drove us crazy . "
A three @-@ minute promo of the live @-@ action version of Hey Good Lookin ' was screened at the 1975 Cannes Film Festival ; a print of this promo is owned by the UCLA Film and Television Archive . The film was initially scheduled for a Christmas 1975 release , but was moved to the summers of 1976 and later 1977 , before ultimately being postponed indefinitely . Warner Bros. was concerned about any controversy the film would encounter controversy as a result of the backlash over the film Coonskin , despite the fact that Hey Good Lookin ' did not contain any political content . The studio also felt that the film was " unreleasable " because of its combination of live @-@ action and animation , but would not spend further money on the project . Bakshi financed the film 's completion himself out of the director 's fees for other projects he headed from 1976 until 1982 , such as : Wizards , The Lord of the Rings , and American Pop .
Warner Bros. president Frank Wells told film trades that Hey Good Lookin ' needed to be " fine @-@ tuned " , claiming that Bakshi needed to revamp the dialogue and reshoot some scenes because they had not tested well with market research audiences . During production meetings , Wells told Bakshi that he had not fulfilled his contractual obligations and had used more live @-@ action than he said he would ; Bakshi 's lawyer was able to convince the studio not to sue him .
The majority of the live action footage was deleted ; because Bakshi wanted to keep the breakdancing sequences , he used rotoscoping to animate the footage , but did not animate all of the movements for budgetary reasons . Little dialogue from the 1974 cut of the film was retained in the animated version , which instead featured newly recorded dialogue by Proval , Romanus , and Philip Michael Thomas , who had starred in Coonskin .
Following the success of Heavy Metal and American Pop , Warner Bros. became excited about the second version of Hey Good Lookin ' , forming a specialty division for the film 's distribution . The film opened in New York City on October 1 , 1982 , and was released in Los Angeles in January 1983 . Although it went largely unnoticed by the American public , it received respectable business in foreign markets .
= = Response = =
In a brief review , Vincent Canby wrote that it was " not exactly incoherent , but whatever it originally had on its mind seems to have slipped away " . Leonard Maltin wrote that the film is " more interesting visually than Bakshi 's other later films , [ ... ] but as entertainment it 's vulgar and pointless . "
Animation historian Jerry Beck wrote that " the beginning of the film is quite promising , with a garbage can discussing life on the streets with some garbage . This is an example of what Bakshi did best — - using the medium of animation to comment on society . Unfortunately , he doesn 't do it enough in this film . There is a wildly imaginative fantasy sequence during the climax , when the character named Crazy starts hallucinating during a rooftop shooting spree . This scene almost justifies the whole film . But otherwise , this is a rehash of ideas better explored in Coonskin , Heavy Traffic , and Fritz the Cat . "
= = Legacy = =
Hey Good Lookin ' developed a cult following through cable television airings and home video . Quentin Tarantino stated that he preferred Hey Good Lookin ' to Ralph Bakshi 's Heavy Traffic . The 1975 version of the film remains unreleased , although Warner Bros. owns a complete print .
Though a soundtrack album was not originally released at the time of the film 's theatrical distribution , a compact disc release of music from the film was produced in 2006 and released through the independent record label That Philly Sound . The film is available to buy and rent on iTunes or as a manufacture @-@ on @-@ demand DVD release through the Warner
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Archive Collection .
= Galveston Bay Area =
The Galveston Bay Area ( known as the Bay Area ) is a region that surrounds the Galveston Bay estuary of Southeast Texas in the United States , within Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land metropolitan area . Normally the term refers to the mainland communities around the bay and excludes Galveston as well as most of Houston .
Originally part of the pirate kingdom of Jean Lafitte , this area played a role in the early history of Texas having been the site of some early rebellions against Mexican rule and the site of the victory of the Texas army over the Mexican army during the Texas Revolution . Ranching interests became early economic drivers around the bay . As the nearby cities of Galveston and Houston developed as commercial centers , the Bay Area communities became part of a principal commercial corridor between the cities .
The Bay Area is also the location of NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center which houses the Christopher C. Kraft Jr . Mission Control Center . The City of Houston 's official nickname as " Space City " is derived from this . In addition , a large tourist attraction for area visitors is Space Center Houston .
The landscape around the bay features a mix of swamps , beaches , industrial facilities , tourist attractions , and historic sites . The area 's developing population is ethnically diverse with a growing international community . The communities host cultural events ranging from ballet and musical theater to fairs and rodeos . The bay itself supports a commercial fishing industry and features one of the highest concentrations of marinas in the nation . On land the area holds numerous historic sites such as the San Jacinto Monument , and many parks and nature preserves such as the Armand Bayou Nature Center .
= = Boundaries = =
The shores of Galveston Bay are home to many different municipalities and communities . The region is part of the larger Houston – Sugar Land – Baytown Metropolitan Area . Though the term Bay Area in its broadest sense refers to all communities near the shoreline , some sources , such as the Bay Area Houston Economic Partnership ( BAHEP ) , use more limited definitions , often referring more specifically to the clusters of communities nearest to Houston .
= = = Municipalities = = =
The following communities lie on the shores of Galveston Bay proper and Trinity Bay , the two main components of the Galveston Bay complex ( excluding those along the Gulf of Mexico ) :
Anahuac , Bacliff , Baytown , Beach City , Kemah , La Porte , Morgan 's Point , Seabrook , Shoreacres , Pasadena , Texas City
The BAHEP and the Clear Lake Area Chamber of Commerce ( CLACC ) include the following additional communities in their membership :
Clear Lake superneighborhood of Houston ( which includes Clear Lake City and JSC ) , Clear Lake Shores , Deer Park , Dickinson , El Lago , Friendswood , League City , Nassau Bay , Taylor Lake Village , Webster .
Some additional communities such as La Marque , adjacent to Texas City , are treated as bayside communities by some sources .
= = = Subdivisions = = =
The Bay Area can be sub @-@ divided based on the histories and economic connections of the different communities .
The Pasadena – Baytown area , including Deer Park and La Porte , straddles the Houston Ship Channel and has since the world wars been defined by the heavy industry along its shores . The two towns have distinct histories with Baytown having become tied to the oil industry earlier and Pasadena having a longer history tied to ranching and agriculture before petrochemicals came to dominate . But in modern times their fortunes have been closely tied by their cores of heavy industry .
The Clear Lake Area includes numerous communities and municipalities surrounding Clear Lake between Pasadena , Houston , and the bay . This area largely owes its recent growth and prosperity directly and indirectly to the Johnson Space Center , and has been traditionally characterized by a large white collar workforce and its prolific middle- and upper @-@ middle @-@ class neighborhoods . The area is sometimes seen as the heart of the Bay Area in spite of the relative youth of its history .
The Texas City area includes Texas City and La Marque and surrounding communities . Until recently this area and Galveston together were treated by the federal government as a metro area distinct from Houston . The area 's prosperity revolves to a great degree around the Port of Texas City and the heavy industry around it .
The bayside region of Chambers County encompasses the shoreline of Trinity Bay ( and East Bay ) , on the northeast side of the bay complex . This area includes Anahuac as its largest community . Some of the area remains semi @-@ rural and oriented to agriculture and commercial fishing but petroleum and chemical processing are significant industries as well . Urban development is more limited giving the area a more small @-@ town and rural atmosphere . This area 's history is somewhat distinct from the other areas around the bay as it is not part of the once crucial commercial corridor between Galveston and Houston .
= = History = =
= = = Spain , Mexico , and the Republic of Texas = = =
Prior to European settlement the area around Galveston Bay was settled by the Karankawa and Atakapan tribes , who lived throughout the Gulf coast region . Spanish explorers such as the Rivas @-@ Iriarte expedition and José Antonio de Evia charted the bay and gave it its name . In 1816 the pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury established a settlement on Galveston Island but was soon succeeded by the pirate Jean Lafitte . Lafitte transformed Galveston and the bay into a pirate kingdom establishing bases and hide @-@ outs at locations such as Trinity Bay , Clear Lake , and Eagle Point . In 1821 , however , the United States Navy ousted Lafitte and the colony was largely abandoned .
Following its declaration of independence from Spain the new nation of Mexico moved to colonize its northern territory of Texas by offering land grants to settlers both from within Mexico and from the nearby United States . Small settlements such as Lynchburg and San Jacinto were gradually established around the bay and in 1830 Mexican authorities created a customs and garrison post at Anahuac commanded by Juan Davis Bradburn . Conflicts between Bradburn and the settlers in the region led to the Anahuac Disturbances , a prelude to the larger Texas rebellion that was to come . Following a coup in the Mexican government many freedoms previously enjoyed by the Texans were revoked causing Texas to revolt and declare its independence in 1835 . After a number of battles the Texas army , under the leadership of General Sam Houston , finally defeated the Mexican Army in the Battle of San Jacinto , near modern Pasadena .
The new Republic of Texas grew rapidly . The shores of the bay were initially mostly home to farms and ranches such as the famed Allen Ranch . New communities such as Goose Creek ( modern Baytown ) were established .
= = = U.S. annexation = = =
Texas succeeded in its bid to join the United States in 1845 which helped launch the Mexican @-@ American War . Texas ' annexation brought more people to Texas and ranching interests around the bay began to grow . Throughout the 19th century Galveston remained Texas ' dominant metropolis and the communities around the bay were strongly tied economically and culturally to the city though , as Houston began to develop , so did the Bay Area 's ties to it . The construction of the Galveston , Houston and Henderson Railroad further spurred growth in the area .
During the American Civil War , during which Texas seceded from the United States , the area served a limited role in the conflict as new fortifications like Fort Chambers , near Anahuac , were constructed to ward off a mainland invasion by Union forces and to protect supply routes to and from Galveston . The Bay Area sat in the middle of the conflict as the most important battles in Texas occurred at Galveston with the conflict moving through the area on to Harrisburg and Houston after Galveston 's fall .
In the aftermath of the war the Texas economy declined for a period . Nevertheless , ranching interests became major economic drivers in the area spawning many other economic enterprises such as hide processing plants and shipping concerns . The success of these enterprises and the growth of Galveston as one of the prime commercial centers in the South and Southwest helped promote the construction of the Gulf , Colorado and Santa Fe Railway ; and the La Porte , Houston and Northern Railroad through the area over the course of the 19th century . These railroads running along the southwest shore of the bay would spawn new communities such as Clear Creek ( League City ) , Webster , and later Texas City . Some of these new communities would develop initially as stop @-@ over points for travelers on the rail lines . Toward the end of the century , as ranching 's profitability declined , many communities turned increasingly to agriculture . The farming community of Pasadena was established during this time .
The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 devastated the city of Galveston and heavily damaged communities around the bay ( according to some estimates the Bay Area death toll may have been as high as 2000 ) . Bridges between Galveston and the mainland were destroyed . Communities along the shoreline declined for some time as economic growth moved inland and Houston became the dominant economic center in the region . The region received a population boost from some Galveston refugees who relocated to the mainland following the catastrophe .
= = = 20th century = = =
The sparsely populated Bay Area transformed during the 20th century . Following the hurricane , donations by the newly established Red Cross helped revive area farming communities . The newly established community of Texas City opened its port and railroad junctions shipping cotton and grain . Commercial fishing , particularly for oysters and shrimp , grew as a significant area industry .
In the early 1900s the Goose Creek Oil Field was discovered launching an oil boom at Galveston Bay . In 1915 Goose Creek acquired the first offshore oil drilling site in the state and soon after refineries opened in Texas City , Baytown and Pasadena . The Humble Oil refinery in Baytown became the largest in the Houston area . The wealth brought on by the boom transformed the region and population surged . Manufacturing and refining expanded rapidly . During the Roaring 20s , tourism and resort communities developed around Clear Lake and the bay shoreline in communities such as Morgan 's Point , Seabrook , Kemah .
The World Wars created new manufacturing opportunities for factories around the bay and the area 's population grew even faster than Houston . Ellington Air Force Base was built becoming a major air field and flight training center during the wars .
After the war area economic diversification brought on by the war effort helped in the transition to a peacetime economy . NASA 's Johnson Space Center was established in 1963 helping to spur explosive growth in the mid @-@ 20th century , especially the 1970s and 1980s . The remainder of the communities on the southwestern shore urbanized and development connected the area to Houston . Tourism and recreation re @-@ emerged and blossomed particularly around the Clear Lake area and the nearby shoreline .
Hurricane Ike struck the Bay Area in 2008 causing substantial damage both environmentally and economically , the most destructive event since 1900 . As of 2009 a proposal to build a levee system , the Ike Dike , to protect the bay is under discussion .
= = Geography = =
The Galveston Bay Area is located on the gulf coastal plain , and its vegetation is classified as temperate grassland and marshes . The municipalities have been built on reclaimed marshes , swamps , and prairies , which are all still visible in undeveloped areas . Flatness of the local terrain and proximity to the Bay and the Gulf have made flooding a recurring problem for the area . The region once relied on groundwater for its needs , but land subsidence has forced much of the region to turn to ground @-@ level water sources .
= = = Geology = = =
The land beneath the Bay Area consists of layers of sand and clay to great depths . These layers were created by millennia of river @-@ borne sediments which gradually incorporated plant and animal matter creating the petroleum deposits for which the Gulf Coast is known .
The region has numerous faults , many considered active , but none has produced significant earthquakes in recorded history . These faults tend to move at a smooth rate in what is termed fault creep , which reduces the risk of an earthquake .
= = = Bay and coastline = = =
Galveston Bay is an estuary along the Texas Gulf Coast . The bay as a whole is composed of four major sub @-@ bays : Galveston Bay proper , Trinity Bay , East Bay , and West Bay . Other smaller bays and lakes connecting to this complex of waterways in the Bay Area include San Jacinto Bay , Burnet Bay , Scott Bay , Crystal Bay , Goose Lake , Clear Lake , Dickinson Bay , and Moses Lake .
Galveston Bay is mostly shallow with an average depth of 7 – 9 feet . It is fed by the Trinity River and the San Jacinto River , numerous local bayous and incoming tides from the Gulf of Mexico . This unique and complex mixing of waters from different sources supports many types of marine life including crabs , shrimp , oysters , and many varieties of fish thereby supporting a substantial fishing industry . Additionally the system of bayous , rivers , and marshes that ring the Bay support their own ecosystems allowing for diverse wildlife and enabling freshwater farming of crawfish . The areas near the bay shore in fact have a higher diversity of habitats than the nearby Gulf coast .
The bay receives the fourth highest level of toxic chemicals in the state from bayside industrial discharge , in addition to pollutants washing in from the Houston Ship Channel . Although contaminants from the major industrial complexes along the bay contribute substantially to bay pollution , most is the result of storm run @-@ off from various commercial , agricultural , and residential sources . In recent decades , conservation efforts have been enacted which have improved water quality in the bay .
= = = Climate = = =
The Bay Area 's climate is classified as humid subtropical ( Cfa in Köppen climate classification system ) . Spring supercell thunderstorms sometimes create tornados ( but not to the extent found in tornado alley ) . Prevailing winds from the south and southeast bring heat from the deserts of Mexico and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico .
Summer temperatures regularly exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) . The area 's proximity to the bay and the winds that it generates moderate the area 's temperatures and ease the effects of the humidity creating a more pleasant climate than inland communities like Houston ( e.g. the average July high in Texas City is 89 ° F ( 32 ° C ) with 9 @.@ 8 mph ( 15 @.@ 8 km / h ) winds vs. 94 ° F ( 34 ° C ) with 6 @.@ 7 mph ( 10 @.@ 8 km / h ) winds in Houston ) . Winters in the area are temperate with typical January highs above 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) and lows are near 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) . Snowfall is rare . Annual rainfall averages can range from 40 to 50 inches ( 100 to 130 cm ) depending on the community .
Excessive ozone levels can occur due to industrial activities ; nearby Houston is ranked among the most ozone @-@ polluted cities in the United States . The industries located along the ship channel and the bay are a major cause of the pollution .
Hurricanes are a substantial concern during the fall season . Though Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula provide some shielding , the Bay Area still faces more danger than Houston and other inland communities , particularly because of storm surge .
= = Economy = =
The Bay Area has a diverse economy with much of it built around aerospace , petrochemicals , and high tech industries . The region 's economy is closely tied to the rest of the Houston area though the mix of local businesses is somewhat unique . In 2005 , the median household income for the Clear Lake area was $ 62 @,@ 061 compared to $ 50 @,@ 868 for the Houston area as whole and $ 45 @,@ 472 for all of Texas .
= = = Overview = = =
The Bay Area 's four major employment sectors are aerospace , petrochemicals and chemical processing , high @-@ tech ( software , biotechnology , electronics , etc . ) , and tourism . Most other employment in the region is supported by these industries although some smaller , independent industries exist as well .
The most widespread economic activities in the area revolve around petroleum and petrochemicals , largely centered in Baytown , Pasadena / La Porte , and Texas City . These industries in Houston and the Bay Area account for nearly half of the U.S. petrochemical manufacturing and approximately one third of the U.S. petroleum refining capacity . The Bay Area is home to the largest refineries and petrochemical complexes in the Greater Houston area and to the majority of the processing capacity .
NASA 's Johnson Space Center ( JSC ) is an important pillar of the Bay Area economy . Businesses around this core include a broad range of high @-@ tech development enterprises from aerospace engineering to software and electronics .
The tourism industry attracts millions of visitors each year with attractions ranging from Space Center Houston to the bay itself . Ecotourism , in particular , is a growing sector with destinations such as the Armand Bayou Nature Center . Biotechnology , which already employs nearly 3000 workers in the area , is a smaller but growing industry in the area enabled in large part by JSC and the Texas Medical Center in Houston . Commercial fishing is one the older industries in the region and is still a significant economic sector .
Some outlying areas around the bay remain semi @-@ rural . Cattle ranching and agriculture remain staples of some local economies as well as shrimp fishing and oyster farming .
= = = Economic hubs = = =
Major Bay Area economic hubs include the following :
Bayport Industrial District - A large complex of chemical processing facilities comprising 57 companies with a business impact of over $ 829 million .
Johnson Space Center - The central facility of NASA , this site manages more than $ 4 billion annually in aerospace contracts , and together with numerous private companies involved in space programs and related ventures gives the Bay Area one of the highest concentrations of aerospace businesses and expertise in the nation . Additionally , JSC 's research in bioastronautics has helped create a growing biotechnology industry in the area . The Galveston Bay area is home to 92 % of the Houston @-@ Galveston area aerospace jobs .
ExxonMobil Baytown Complex — One of the world 's largest petrochemical industrial complexes , this complex is Baytown 's largest employer and one of the largest in the area . For its part the Baytown Refinery located on this site is the largest refinery in the United States and is capable of processing 572 @,@ 000 barrels of oil per day .
Texas City Industrial Complex — This petrochemical complex includes the BP Texas City Refinery , the state 's second largest .
Barbours Cut Terminal - This shipping terminal , the largest of the terminals operated by the Port of Houston Authority , handles in excess of 3 million tons of cargo annually .
Ellington Airport - This mixed @-@ use ( military @-@ civilian ) airport is part of the Houston Airport System and home to the 147th Reconnaissance Wing of the Texas Air National Guard . The airfield has traditionally been a major contributor to the local economy though government realignments have scaled back the base 's military role through the years .
= = Demographics = =
Home to a diverse set of communities , the Bay Area has a demographic distribution that varies greatly among these individual communities . Based on data from the U.S. Census Bureau and the City of Houston ( 2008 , where available , and 2000 otherwise ) , the area demographic statistics are as follows ( see table for more details ) . The total population was approximately 566 @,@ 850 . The median household income was $ 56 @,@ 827 . The white population was 72 @.@ 9 % , the African American population was 8 @.@ 3 % , and the Asian population was 3 @.@ 9 % .
The most populous community in the region is Pasadena ( though Houston is a much larger city , the portion within this region is smaller than Pasadena ) . Taylor Lake Village has ( by far ) the highest median household income ; and Bacliff and San Leon have the lowest . Texas City and La Marque have the largest African @-@ American populations . La Porte and the Clear Lake area of Houston have the largest Asian populations .
= = Education = =
= = = Colleges and universities = = =
The Bay Area contains several institutions of higher education . The largest is the University of Houston – Clear Lake ( UHCL ) located adjacent to Clear Lake City . UHCL is separate and distinct from the University of Houston ( UH ) , but it is part of the larger University of Houston System . The university offers a wide spectrum of programs including what it touts as the most complete biotechnology graduate programs in the state .
Texas Chiropractic College in Pasadena , one of only two schools of chiropractics in Texas and one of a handful in the nation , provides training for students from around the state . Several community colleges serve communities in the area as well , including San Jacinto College , College of the Mainland , Lee College , and Houston Community College .
= = = Primary and secondary schools = = =
The Bay Area covers multiple municipalities with multiple school districts . Most of the communities in the Clear Lake Area are served by Clear Creek Independent School District though some nearby areas are served by Dickinson and Houston Independent School Districts . Communities in the Pasadena / Baytown area are served by Deer Park , Goose Creek Consolidated , La Porte , and Pasadena Independent School Districts . The Friendswood area is served by the Friendswood Independent School District . The Texas City area is served by La Marque and Texas City Independent School Districts . The communities in Chambers County near Anahuac are served by Anahuac Independent School District and Barbers Hill Independent School District .
As of 2009 these 11 districts , excluding Houston ISD , have a total of 190 primary and secondary schools . Of these Clear Creek , Deer Park , Goose Creek , Barbers Hill and Anahuac ISD were evaluated as " recognized " districts ( the second highest ranking ) by the Texas Education Agency , or TEA . All of the others were evaluated as " academically acceptable " with the exception of Texas City ISD , which was evaluated as " academically unacceptable " .
67 ( 35 % ) of the schools were ranked as " exemplary " ( the highest ranking ) ; 62 ( 33 % ) were ranked as " recognized " ; 39 ( 21 % ) were ranked as " academically acceptable " ; 2 ( 1 % ) were ranked as " academically unacceptable " ; and 20 ( 11 % ) were not rated by the TEA . Notably 100 % of Friendswood ISD schools and 65 % of Clear Creek ISD schools were " exemplary " , the highest percentages of these 10 districts . Overall , of the schools that were rated , 37 % of the schools in these 10 districts were " exemplary " , compared with 29 % for the entire state .
= = Transportation = =
The Bay Area Houston Transportation Partnership ( BayTran ) coordinates planning for the transportation needs of the Bay Area . Collaborative efforts by the local communities have helped push forward development of regional infrastructure .
= = = Ground transportation = = =
The Bay Area 's two interstate freeways act as linear backbones connecting the communities on either side of the ship channel . The few other freeways in the region provide access into the centers of heavy industry within the region . Connectivity within other communities mostly relies on uncontrolled , surface highways .
Interstate 45 ( the Gulf Freeway ) is the major freeway for the core areas of the Bay Area linking them with Houston and Galveston . Highway 146 ( Bayport Blvd . ) is a coastal highway linking the waterfronts of the communities . The Gulf Freeway and Bayport Blvd. together are the main arteries linking the Clear Lake Area communities and Pasadena , though Highway 225 , East Beltway 8 , Highway 3 and others are important as well . The Fred Hartman Bridge on Highway 146 crosses the ship channel connecting Baytown and Pasadena , while the Galveston Causeway on the Gulf Freeway crosses the bay connecting Texas City and Galveston Island .
In the outlying north Bay Area , Interstate 10 links Anahuac and other communities nearby connecting them to Houston and the rest of the Bay Area . Highway 124 provides access to the Bolivar Peninsula .
The Houston Metro bus system provides service to the southeast Houston and Pasadena connecting the communities with central Houston . The remaining communities in the Bay Area communities are not served by mass transit . Greyhound Bus Lines , which provides service to cities nationwide , has stations at Baytown and La Marque / Texas City .
= = = Air travel = = =
Houston Hobby Airport ( HOU ) is the nearest airport providing regular domestic service . It is in southeast Houston near the Bay Area and provides service to U.S. destinations . International service is provided by Bush Intercontinental Airport ( IAH ) in north Houston .
Ellington Airport , the other branch of the Houston Airport System ( HAS ) , is a mixed @-@ use airport . It acts as a reliever airport for Hobby , in addition to use by NASA , the military , and public aviation . The system has performed significant expansion of the airport in recent years expecting significant growth in its usage in coming years . La Porte Municipal Airport in Pasadena and Chambers County Airport near Anahuac provide public air access to their respective communities .
= = = Shipping = = =
For seagoing shipping the Barbours Cut and Bayport terminals ( administered by the Port of Houston Authority ) , and the Port of Texas City are the major freight shipping points . For railway shipping the Union @-@ Pacific Webster station , the Union @-@ Pacific Deer Park station , the Union @-@ Pacific Baytown station , and the Texas City Terminal Railway Company , are major access points .
= = Healthcare and medicine = =
The Bay Area Houston Healthcare Network ( BAHHN ) is a collaboration of health care providers coordinating health care services in many of the west bay communities and Galveston . The hubs of the network include Memorial Hermann Southeast Hospital in the Clear Lake City area , Bayshore Medical Center in Pasadena , and the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston .
Numerous other health care facilities exist in the region as well . Notable facilities outside the area covered by BAHHN include San Jacinto Methodist Hospital ( Baytown ) and Mainland Medical Center ( Texas City ) .
= = Culture = =
The Bay Area is a racially and ethnically diverse region . The industrial centers of Pasadena and Baytown in particular have large international communities . Multicultural events such as the Grito Fest ( Baytown ) celebrate the area 's diversity .
Many other annual events take place in the Bay Area as well . The Strawberry Festival in Pasadena celebrates the role the iconic fruit played in rescuing the town 's economy following the 1900 Hurricane . The Blessing of the Fleet boat parade in Kemah is an annual event that celebrates Kemah 's history as a shrimp fishing town . The Gulf Coast Film Festival annually showcases independent films from local , regional and international artists in various categories ranging from short films to documentaries . Other annual events include the Wings over Houston Air Fest ( Ellington Field ) , the Music Fest by the Bay ( Texas City ) , the Ballunar Festival , the Oak Tree Festival ( League City ) , and the South Shore Dockside Food & Wine Festival ( League City ) . In Anahuac the annual Gatorfest celebrates the semi @-@ rural culture of Chambers County . And , of course , in the spirit of the state to which the area belongs , the annual Pasadena Livestock Show and Rodeo features traditional rodeo events for area spectators .
= = = Arts and theatre = = =
The Bay Area has a substantial community of artists and artistic programs . The Bay Area Houston Ballet and Theatre group and the League City Ballet offer performances in genres ranging from ballet to American musicals . The Clear Lake Symphony , the Pasadena Philharmonic Orchestra , and the Baytown Symphony Orchestra offer multiple performances each year ranging from classical to " pops " performances .
Other arts and theatre programs exist in the area as well . The Arts Alliance at Clear Lake , a group of 50 area arts organizations , regularly schedules arts exhibits , musical performances , and other arts programs . Community theater groups such as the Pasadena Little Theatre , the Clear Creek Country Theatre ( Nassau Bay ) , the Harbour Playhouse ( Dickinson ) , and the Baytown Little Theater offer a variety of regularly scheduled performances . Regular free concerts and other cultural events take place in venues such as the Pasadena Fairgrounds and League Park Plaza ( League City ) .
= = = Parks and landmarks = = =
The Bay Area contains parks and landmarks . One of the oldest landmarks is the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site in La Porte which marks the site of the Battle of San Jacinto and holds the San Jacinto Monument and the USS Texas . Nearby , the Sterling Mansion , a former Governor 's residence , at Morgan 's Point marks the edge of the former Gold Coast of Texas .
The Armand Bayou Nature Center in Pasadena is the largest urban wilderness preserve in the nation . It features a boardwalk through the marshes , numerous nature trails , and boat tours offering views of natural habitats for animals ranging from bison to seagulls to butterflies . The Baytown Nature Center , located on two peninsulas along the ship channel , and the Texas City Prairie Preserve , located along Moses Lake and the bay , are largely undeveloped nature preserves with views of wetlands and coastal wildlife in addition to a variety of park facilities . The Seabrook Trail System which includes Robinson and Pine Gully parks offers primitive access to natural habitats for numerous species . These sites are all part of the larger Great Texas Coastal Birding Trail .
Further from the core on the northeast side of the bay sits the Anahuac National Wildlife Refuge , a 34 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 140 km2 ) federal nature preserve . The coastal habitats in the park offer opportunities for viewing species ranging from the American alligator and bobcat to bird species such as the fulvous whistling @-@ duck and the yellow rail .
Other major area parks include Clear Creek Nature Park ( League City ) , Chandler Arboretum ( Baytown ) , Challenger 7 Memorial Park ( Webster ) , and Sylvan Beach Park ( La Porte ) .
= = = Urban attractions = = =
Space Center Houston is the tourist arm of the Johnson Space Center and one of the most visited tourist attractions in Texas . Visitors can tour the Space Center grounds , view space capsules and artifacts , and find numerous educational activities including an IMAX theater .
The Kemah Boardwalk is a waterfront attraction featuring a variety of rides , restaurants , shops , and other entertainment venues . It is next to the Kemah Marina and hosts annual events such as the Boardwalk Wine Festival .
The Eddie V. Gray Wetlands Education and Recreation Center in Baytown offers indoor and outdoor educational exhibits featuring wetlands wildlife and habitats . The exhibits range from aquariums to science labs . The site also includes hiking trails through primitive habitats .
Museums in the area include the San Jacinto Museum of History , the Bay Area Museum ( Seabrook ) , the Pasadena Historical Museum , the West Bay Common School Museum ( League City ) , the Baytown Historical Museum , the Texas City Museum , the Buttler Longhorn Museum ( League City ) and the Dickinson Railroad Museum .
Farmers markets in the area , including the Nassau Bay Farmers Market and the Farmers Market at Clear Lake Shores , provide opportunities for area residents to connect with local growers , producers , and other businesses . Historic districts such as the Goose Creek Historic District ( Baytown ) , the Morgan 's Point Historic District , and the League City Historic District are available providing views of early area architecture in addition to unique shopping venues .
The area contains many marinas for boating and fishing enthusiasts such the Bayland Park Marina ( Baytown ) and the Watergate Yachting Center ( Clear Lake Shores ) . The shoreline of Clear Lake itself has the greatest concentration of recreational boats in Texas and ranks third nationwide ( Watergate even claims to be the nation 's largest ) .
= = = Sports = = =
The Bay Area Toros are the area 's minor @-@ league baseball team . The Toros play their home games at Robinson Stadium in Texas City . The Texas City Rangers are a minor @-@ league basketball team that plays its home games at La Marque High School . The Houston Raceway Park in Baytown holds regular drag racing and speedway motorsport events through the year . The park has a seating capacity of 30 @,@ 000 with VIP suites .
The Galveston Bay Cruising Association holds regular regatta events on the bay such as the Bay Cup ( Lakewood Yacht Club , Seabrook ) and the Performance Cup . The 2009 season had 22 events throughout the year offering entertainment for sportsmen and spectators . The Gulf Greyhound Park in LaMarque is a stadium complex offering dog racing exhibitions . The park is the largest of its kind and features the state 's largest restaurant among its amenities .
= = = Media = = =
Major daily newspapers serving the area include the Galveston County Daily News , the Baytown Sun , and the Houston Chronicle . Several smaller local newspapers serving the communities are available including the Bay Area Observer , the Bay Area Citizen , the Pasadena Citizen , and the Deer Park Progress . The Bay Area Observer , Bay Area Houston Magazine and the Bay Area Houston .Directory are online publications providing area interest stories and information .
The area receives many radio stations including some licensed within the area , such as KKBQ ( country , Pasadena ) , KWWJ ( gospel , Baytown ) , and KFTG and KLVL ( Spanish religious , Pasadena ) . Among the many television stations received in the area stations licensed in the area include KUBE @-@ TV ( TuVisión , Spanish language , Baytown ) .
= Kennedy half dollar =
The Kennedy half dollar , first minted in 1964 , is a fifty @-@ cent coin currently issued by the United States Mint . Intended as a memorial to the assassinated President John F. Kennedy , it was authorized by Congress just over a month after his death . Use of existing works by Mint sculptors Gilroy Roberts and Frank Gasparro allowed dies to be prepared quickly , and striking of the new coins began in January 1964 .
The silver coins vanished from circulation upon their release in March 1964 due to collectors , hoarders , and those interested in a memento of the late president . Although the Mint greatly increased production , the denomination was seldom seen in circulation . Continued rises in the price of silver increased the hoarding — many early Kennedy half dollars have been melted for their silver . Starting with 1965 @-@ dated pieces , the percentage of fine silver was reduced from 90 % to 40 % ( silver clad ) , but even with this change the coin saw little circulation .
In 1971 , silver was eliminated entirely from the coins . A special design for the reverse of the half dollar was issued for the United States Bicentennial and was struck in 1975 and 1976 . In addition to business strikes , special collector coins were struck for the Bicentennial in silver clad ; silver proof sets in which the dime , quarter and half dollar were struck in 90 % silver were first minted in 1992 . In 2014 a special edition of the Kennedy half dollar was also struck in 99 @.@ 99 % gold .
Even though ample supplies of circulating half dollars are readily available from banks , their circulation is extremely limited . Since 2002 , Kennedy half dollars have only been struck to satisfy the demand from collectors , and are available at a premium through the Mint .
= = Inception = =
Within hours of the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22 , 1963 , Mint Director Eva Adams called Chief Engraver Gilroy Roberts , informing him that serious consideration was being given to depicting Kennedy on one of the larger silver coins : either the silver dollar , half dollar , or quarter dollar . Adams called Roberts again on November 27 and authorized the project , stating that the late president 's widow , Jacqueline Kennedy preferred that he be depicted on the half dollar , replacing the previous design of Benjamin Franklin . Mrs. Kennedy 's reasoning was that she did not want to replace George Washington on the quarter .
In the interest of time ( the striking of the new coin was to begin in January 1964 ) , Roberts modified the existing bust of Kennedy he had created for use on the Kennedy medal in the Mint 's Presidential series , while Frank Gasparro began modifications to the reverse he had created for the same medal . Both Roberts ' and Gasparro 's designs had been approved by Kennedy . Roberts had met with Kennedy in person to show him early models of the design ; although the President expressed no opinion regarding the depiction , Roberts decided to make some changes after meeting him . After the Mint produced trial strikes , Jacqueline and Robert Kennedy were invited to view them . Mrs. Kennedy viewed the designs favorably , but suggested that the hair be altered slightly . It was also suggested that a full or half figure of the president be used instead of the profile , but Roberts noted that there was not enough time to produce an entirely new design because of the project 's time constraints , and also that he believed the left profile would give a more attractive appearance .
Frank Gasparro 's reverse design of the Kennedy half dollar was also influenced by the experience he gained from designing the President John . F. Kennedy appreciation medal . In 1962 , President Kennedy had three hundred appreciation medals struck by the United States Mint in Philadelphia that were later presented during his June 23 , 1963 through July 2 , 1963 trip to the nations of Federal Republic of Germany , Germany ( West Berlin ) , Ireland , United Kingdom , Italy , and the Vatican City State . The reverse design of the Kennedy appreciation medal depicts a larger and more detailed Presidential Seal than the one he designed on the Mint 's Presidential series ( Bureau of the Mint Presidential series stock medal # 135 known as the John F. Kennedy Presidential inauguration medal ) . Gasparro 's placement of his initials FG is also similarly located ( under the right leg of the eagle ) on both the Kennedy appreciation medal and Kennedy half dollar .
Congressional approval was required for any design change within 25 years of the last . In early December , Representative Henry Gonzalez ( Democrat @-@ Texas ) introduced a bill for Kennedy to appear on the half dollar . On December 10 , the new President , Lyndon Johnson , endorsed the call for a Kennedy half dollar , asking Congress to pass the legislation promptly to allow striking of the new piece to begin early in 1964 . President Johnson stated that he had been moved by letters from many members of the public to agree with the plan . The bill to authorize the Kennedy half dollar passed on December 30 , 1963 . Work was already underway on coinage dies ; the use of the already @-@ available designs allowed for the completion of the first dies on January 2 , 1964 . Only proof coins were initially struck . The first Kennedy half dollars intended for circulation were struck at the Denver Mint on January 30 , 1964 , followed by the Philadelphia Mint the next week . A ceremonial first strike was held at both Philadelphia and Denver on February 11 , 1964 .
= = Release = =
= = = Initial popularity = = =
The Treasury Department made the coins available to the public beginning on March 24 , 1964 . A line a block long formed at the department 's windows in Washington to purchase the 70 @,@ 000 coins initially allocated for public sale . Although the department limited sales to 40 per customer , by the end of the day , the coins were gone , but the line had not shortened . Banks in Boston and Philadelphia quickly rationed supplies , but still sold out by noon . Sales in New York did not begin until the following day , and rationing was imposed there as well , to the disgruntlement of the head of the coin department at Gimbels , the largest dealer in the city , which had hoped to sell the coins at a premium .
The coins were popular overseas as well . U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs G. Mennen Williams distributed plastic @-@ encased specimens to presidents and foreign ministers of African nations and to the U.S. ambassadors serving there " to win friends for the United States in Africa " . Shortly after the coin 's release , the Denver Mint began receiving complaints that the new coin depicted a hammer and sickle on the bottom of Kennedy 's truncated bust . In response , Roberts stated that the portion of the design in question was actually his monogram , a stylized " GR " .
The Mint struck Kennedy half dollars in large numbers in an attempt to meet the overwhelming demand . The Treasury had initially planned to issue 91 million half dollars for 1964 , but raised the number to 141 million . However , a public announcement of the increase failed to cause more coins to actually circulate or to decrease the prices on the secondary market . By late November , the Mint had coined approximately 160 million pieces , yet the coin was almost never seen in circulation . Silver prices were rising , and many coins were being hoarded . Hopeful that issuing more 1964 @-@ dated coins would counter the speculation in them , the Treasury requested and received Congressional authorization to continue striking 1964 @-@ dated coins into 1965 . Eventually , almost 430 million half dollars dated 1964 were struck , a sum greater than the total struck for circulation in the sixteen years of the Franklin half dollar series .
These minting operations were rapidly depleting the Treasury 's stock of silver . Prices for the metal were rising to such an extent that , by early June , a dime contained 9 @.@ 33 cents ' worth of silver at market prices . On June 3 , 1965 , President Johnson announced plans to eliminate silver from the dime and quarter in favor of a clad sandwich with layers of copper @-@ nickel on each side of a layer of pure copper . The half dollar was changed from 90 % silver to 40 % . Congress passed the Coinage Act of 1965 in July . The new half dollars retained their silvery appearance , due to the outer layer being 80 % silver and 20 % copper . The coin was also minted with an inner layer of 21 % silver and 79 % copper . The first clad half dollars were struck at the Denver Mint on December 30 , 1965 . They bore the date 1965 ; the date would not be changed for US coins until the coin shortage was eased . Beginning on August 1 , 1966 , the Mint began to strike 1966 @-@ dated pieces , and thereafter it resumed the normal practice of striking the current year 's date on each piece . Despite the proclaimed end to the coin shortage , Kennedy half dollars circulated little , a scarcity caused by continued hoarding and a dip in production , with the Treasury reluctant to expend more of the nation 's silver holdings on a coin which did not circulate . According to coin dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers ,
Where the hundreds of millions of them went remains somewhat of a mystery today . In the meantime , Washington quarters , the same design used since 1932 , became the highest value coin of the realm , in terms of circulation use . These were particularly popular for vending machines , arcade games , and the like . Today , this continues to be the case , and Kennedy half dollars as well as the later mini @-@ dollar coins , are almost never encountered . "
= = = Switch to base metal = = =
In May 1969 , the Treasury sought authorization to eliminate the half dollar 's silver content , changing it to the same copper @-@ nickel clad composition as the dime and quarter . The Treasury also sought approval to strike base @-@ metal dollar coins , which would fill a need for gaming tokens in Western casinos . Former president Dwight Eisenhower had died recently , and there was discussion of placing Eisenhower 's portrait on the dollar . The Treasury hoped that with the removal of the silver content , the coin would cease to be hoarded and again circulate . Despite the support of President Richard Nixon , some Republicans in the House of Representatives initially scuttled the legislation , disliking the idea of putting Eisenhower on a base metal coin . The dispute dragged on for over a year before Nixon signed a bill on December 31 , 1970 which authorized the Eisenhower dollar and eliminated silver from the half dollar . As a result of the delay , in 1970 non @-@ proof half dollars were only made in Denver and released solely in mint sets . With a mintage of 2 @.@ 1 million the 1970 @-@ D Kennedy is considered the " key " to the series , although enough were produced to keep prices modest . The Mint did not announce that 1970 half dollars would not be struck for circulation until after mint set ordering had closed .
By the time silver was eliminated from the half dollar , it had been out of circulation for so long that banks had eliminated the slot for the denomination from machines . The Mint anticipated a comeback for the denomination , but in July 1971 , Mint Director Mary Brooks disclosed that the Treasury was holding 200 million of the new base metal half dollars , as commercial banks expressed little interest in ordering them . " I can 't understand the population . They 're not using them . " According to Brooks , most of the over one billion Kennedy half dollars containing silver had been hoarded by the public . Brooks theorized that because the silver Kennedy half dollar never circulated much and few half dollars were struck in 1970 in anticipation of the authorization to eliminate silver , the public had become accustomed to not seeing the half dollar in trade . Brooks suggested , " If the country knew there were plenty of them around , they 'd probably start hoarding them , too . "
On March 5 , 1973 , Brooks announced that the Mint would be soliciting new reverse designs for the half dollar and dollar to commemorate the 1976 United States Bicentennial . On October 18 , President Nixon signed Public Law 93 @-@ 127 , which provided for new reverse designs for the quarter , half dollar , and dollar . The designs were to be emblematic of the Bicentennial era . The Mint announced a competition open to all American sculptors . Seth G. Huntington 's design depicting Independence Hall was selected for the half dollar . All half dollars struck in 1975 and 1976 bore the double date 1776 – 1976 on the obverse and Huntington 's design on the reverse . Over 521 million Bicentennial half dollars were struck for circulation .
Following the high mintage of the Bicentennial piece , the number of pieces struck per year declined . However , in 1979 , Mint Director Stella B. Hackel indicated that the Mint would continue to strike them . " We really don 't think many half dollars are being used in commerce . They do go somewhere , though , so someone must want them . " By then , more than 2 @.@ 5 billion Kennedy half dollars had been struck , more than all previously struck half dollars combined . The New York Times numismatic columnist Ed Reiter suggested that hoarding had continued even into the base @-@ metal era , accounting for the shortage of pieces in commerce . The late 1970s saw the destruction of many early Kennedy half dollars , as high silver prices caused extensive melting for the metal content .
The coin continued to be struck through the remainder of the twentieth century , and mintage numbers remained relatively steady in both the Philadelphia and Denver mints until 1987 , a year in which no half dollars were struck for circulation ; the Treasury had accumulated a two @-@ year supply of the pieces , making further production unncessary . Demand for half dollars dropped , and casinos ( where they were commonly used ) increasingly began producing fifty cent tokens to use in place of the coins . With mintage numbers remaining low , beginning in 2002 , the Kennedy half dollar ceased to be struck for general circulation . Rolls and bags of the current year 's pieces may be purchased from the Mint , at a premium above face value .
In January 2014 , a private firm , on behalf of the Mint , began surveying customers on possible options for a special issue of the half dollar in commemoration of its 50th anniversary . In June , the Mint announced plans to issue seven special 2014 Kennedy half dollars in commemoration of the series ' fiftieth anniversary : two in clad , from Philadelphia and Denver , four in silver from Philadelphia , Denver , San Francisco , and the West Point Mint , and one in .9999 gold , from West Point . The clad and silver versions bear the normal date ; the gold coin has the double date 1964 – 2014 . All have higher relief than the usual issues . The gold coins were released in conjunction with the American Numismatic Association convention in Rosemont , Illinois on August 5 , 2014 .
= = Collecting = =
With the exception of 1965 through 1967 , proofs have been struck each year in the same metallic composition as regular issue pieces . The first Kennedy half dollar proofs were struck in early January 1964 . Early strikes depicted Kennedy with heavily accented hair ; an estimated 100 @,@ 000 coins were struck with this feature . This was altered for the remainder of the mintage of nearly four million proof coins . Due to the coin shortage , the Treasury Department announced that no proof sets would be struck in 1965 . Instead , Special Mint Sets would be struck to satisfy collector demand . Coins for these sets , minted at the San Francisco Assay Office , were struck with no mint marks early in 1966 with heavily polished dies dated 1965 . Similar sets bearing the dates 1966 and 1967 were also struck . A few of the 1966 halves from the Special Mint Sets are known with Gasparro 's initials " FG " missing from the reverse , apparently because of an overpolished die . The first year 's production was sold in soft plastic packaging ; the 1966 and 1967 issues were sonically sealed in hard plastic cases . In 1968 , regular proof coinage was resumed , although production of proof coins was shifted to San Francisco , the " S " mintmark added and sets were encapsulated in hard plastic .
In 1973 , Congress authorized silver @-@ clad collector versions of the Bicentennial coins ; in April 1975 , the Mint began to strike them . The coins were issued in both proof and uncirculated quality . Copper @-@ nickel clad Bicentennial coins were placed in both the 1975 and 1976 proof sets , while their silver clad counterparts were sold in three coin sets . Since 1992 , the Mint has struck Kennedy half dollars in 90 % silver for inclusion in special silver proof sets . 1964 proofs were struck in Philadelphia , and since 1968 , proof coins have been struck in San Francisco only . In 1998 , some silver proof pieces were struck to a matte finish for inclusion in a set along with a Robert Kennedy commemorative silver dollar . From 2005 – 2010 , uncirculated pieces included in mint sets received a matte finish , which differentiates them from the pieces sold in bags and rolls .
= Macedonia ( terminology ) =
The name " Macedonia " is used in a number of competing or overlapping meanings to describe geographical , political and historical areas , languages and peoples in a part of south @-@ eastern Europe . It has been a major source of political controversy since the early 20th century . The situation is complicated because different ethnic groups use different terminology for the same entity , or the same terminology for different entities , with different political connotations .
Historically , the region has presented markedly shifting borders across the Balkan peninsula . Geographically , no single definition of its borders or the names of its subdivisions is accepted by all scholars and ethnic groups . Demographically , it is mainly inhabited by four ethnic groups , three of which self @-@ identify as Macedonians : two , a Bulgarian and a Greek one at a regional level , while a third ethnic Macedonian one at a national level . Linguistically , the names and affiliations of languages and dialects spoken in the region are a source of controversy . Politically , the rights to the extent of the use of the name Macedonia and its derivatives has led to a diplomatic dispute between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia . Despite mediation of the United Nations , the dispute is still pending resolution since 1993 , but as a result it was admitted under the provisional reference of the " former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia " , sometimes abbreviated as FYROM .
= = Etymology = =
The name Macedonia derives from the Greek Μακεδονία ( Makedonía ) , a kingdom ( later , region ) named after the ancient Macedonians . Their name , Μακεδόνες ( Makedónes ) , is cognate to the Ancient Greek adjective μακεδνός ( makednós ) , meaning " tall , slim " . It was traditionally derived from the Indo @-@ European root * mak- , meaning ' long ' or ' slender ' ( attested in Homer , and recorded by Hesychius of Alexandria as a Doric word meaning " large " ) , or makros ( ' long , large ' ) , as well as related words in other Indo @-@ European languages . It is commonly explained as having originally meant ' the tall ones ' or ' highlanders ' . However , according to modern research by Robert S. P. Beekes , both terms are of Pre @-@ Greek substrate origin and cannot be explained in terms of Indo @-@ European morphology .
= = History = =
The region of Macedonia has been home to several historical political entities , which have used the name Macedonia ; the main ones are given below . The borders of each of these entities were different .
= = = Early history = = =
= = = = Ancient Macedonia = = = =
Macedonia or Macedon , the ancient kingdom , was centered on the fertile plains west of the Gulf of Salonica ; the first Macedonian state emerged in the 8th or early 7th century BC . Its extent beyond the center varied ; some Macedonian kings could not hold their capital ; Philip II expanded his power until it reached from Epirus , across Thrace to Gallipoli , and from Thermopylae to the Danube . His son Alexander the Great conquered most of the land in southwestern Asia stretching from what is currently Turkey in the west to parts of India in the east . However , while Alexander 's conquests are of major historical importance as having launched the Hellenistic Age , Macedon as a state had no significant territorial gains due to them . Alexander 's kingdom fell apart after his death in 323 BC ; several of his Successors attempted to form a kingdom for themselves in Macedonia ; the kingdom formed by Antigonus Gonatas contained all the land Philip II had started with and controlled much of what is now modern Greece ; it lasted until the Romans divided it into four republics in 168 BC .
= = = = Roman Macedonia = = = =
The ancient Romans had two different entities called Macedonia , at different levels . Macedonia was established as a Roman province in 146 BC . Its boundaries were shifted from time to time for administrative convenience , but during the Roman Republic and the Principate it extended west to the Adriatic and south to Central Greece .
Under Diocletian , Thessaly , including parts of West Macedonia , was split off to form a new province , and the central and southern Balkan provinces were grouped into the Diocese of Moesia . At some point in the 4th century ( first securely attested in 370 ) this was divided into two new dioceses , the mostly Latin @-@ speaking Diocese of Dacia in the north and the mostly Greek @-@ speaking Diocese of Macedonia in the south . Under Constantine the Great , the western part of the province of Macedonia was also split off to form the new province of Epirus nova . After Constantine 's death , the western Balkans , Macedonia included , became part of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum .
With the exception of a short @-@ lived division between Macedonia Prima in the south and Macedonia Salutaris in the north towards the end of the 4th century ( attested only in the Notitia Dignitatum ) , Macedonia formed a single province until re @-@ divided into southern and northern parts sometime in the late 5th century ( the division is first securely attested in 482 ) , although the province seems to have been reunified by 535 . According to the 6th @-@ century Synecdemus , Macedonia Prima , with Thessalonica as its capital and governed by a consularis , counted 32 cities , and Macedonia Secunda in the north , with Stobi as its capital and governed by a praeses , only eight . The approximate boundary between the two ran on a rough line from north of Bitola ( which belonged to Macedonia Prima ) to the area of Demir Kapija .
= = = = Byzantine Macedonia = = = =
During the 7th century , most of the Balkans were overrun by Slavic invasions , which left only the fortified towns and the coasts in the hands of the Greek @-@ speaking Byzantine Empire . " Macedonia " was then used for a new theme in the late 8th century under Irene of Athens . Geographically however it was located in Thrace and not in Macedonia , which was under the themes of Thessalonica , Strymon and other smaller commands such as Boleron or Drougoubiteia . Themes were not named geographically and the original sense was " army " . They became districts during the military and fiscal crisis of the seventh century , when the Byzantine armies were instructed to find their supplies from the locals , wherever they happened to be . Thus the Armeniac theme was considerably west of Armenia ; the Thracesian Theme was in Asia Minor , not in Thrace . The Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire acquired its name from its founder , Basil I the Macedonian , an Armenian by descent , who was born in the theme of Macedonia .
The interior of Macedonia remained in Slavic and later Bulgarian hands until the campaigns of Basil II , which ended the existence of the Bulgarian state and extended Byzantine authority across the central and northern Balkans . Thereafter Macedonia remained under Byzantine control until the Fourth Crusade ( 1204 ) . A short @-@ lived Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica was established which survived until 1224 , when it was captured by Epirus . Most of Macedonia then came under the control of the Empire of Nicaea in 1246 , although its northern regions remained disputed with the Serbs and the Bulgarians . Most of the region was conquered by the Serbs under Stephen Dushan during the Byzantine civil war of 1341 – 1347 . Only Thessalonica and its environs remained in Byzantine hands . By the late 14th century , the Ottoman Turks in turn had conquered the region , although Thessalonica held out under Byzantine and later Venetian control until 1430 .
= = = = Ottoman Macedonia = = = =
The Ottomans did not keep Macedonia as an administrative unit : since 1864 parts of geographical Macedonia lay in three vilayets , which also comprised some non @-@ Macedonian areas . Northern Macedonia was part of the Kosovo vilayet and then of Skopje ; the Thessaloniki ( south Macedonia ) , and the Monastir ( Central Macedonia ) vilayet were also created . This administrative division lasted until 1912 – 13 , when Macedonia was divided among the Balkan states .
= = = Modern history = = =
Since the early stages of the Greek Revolution , the provisional government of Greece claimed Macedonia as part of Greek national territory , but the Treaty of Constantinople ( 1832 ) , which established a Greek independent state , set its northern boundary between Arta and Volos . When the Ottoman Empire started breaking apart , Macedonia was claimed by all members of the Balkan League ( Serbia , Montenegro , Greece and Bulgaria ) , and by Romania . Under the Treaty of San Stefano that ended the Russo @-@ Turkish War , 1877 – 78 the entire region , except Thessaloniki , was included in the borders of Bulgaria , but after the Congress of Berlin in 1878 the region was returned to the Ottoman Empire . The armies of the Balkan League advanced and occupied Macedonia in the First Balkan War in 1912 . Because of disagreements between the allies about the partition of the region , the Second Balkan War erupted , and in its aftermath the arbitrary region of Macedonia was split into the following entities , that existed or still exist in this region :
Macedonia ( as a region of Greece ) refers to three regions in northern Greece , incorporated in 1913 , as a result of the Balkan Wars between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League .
Macedonia ( as a People 's Republic within Yugoslavia ) used to refer to the People 's Republic of Macedonia established in 1946 , later known as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia , one of the constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , renamed in 1963 . Between 1929 and 1941 this region was part of Vardar Banovina province in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia .
Macedonia ( as a contemporary sovereign state ) refers to the conventional short form name of the Republic of Macedonia , which held a referendum and established its independence from Yugoslavia on 8 September 1991 .
= = Geography = =
Macedonia ( as a current geographical term ) refers to a region of the Balkan peninsula in south @-@ eastern Europe , covering some 60 @,@ 000 or 70 @,@ 000 square kilometers . Although the region 's borders are not officially defined by any international organization or state , in some contexts , the territory appears to correspond to the basins of ( from west to east ) the Haliacmon ( Aliákmonas ) , Vardar / Axios and Struma / Strymónas rivers , and the plains around Thessaloniki and Serres .
In a historic context , the term Macedonia was used in various ways . Macedonia was not an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire ; its entire territory was part of the beylerbeylik of Rumelia . The geographer H. R. Wilkinson suggests that the region " defies definition " but that many mappers agree " on its general location " . Macedonia was well enough defined in 1897 for Gladstone to propose " Macedonia for the Macedonians " ; philhellenes argued that the phrase could not be used by a man of impartiallity , while Turcophiles asserted that there are six different kinds of Macedonians , and only Turkish rule could prevail total anarchy in the region . The Balkan nations began to proclaim their rights to it after the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 and its revision at the Congress of Berlin .
Many ethnographic maps were produced in this period of controversy ; these differ primarily in the areas given to each nationality within Macedonia . This was in part a result of the choice of definition : an inhabitant of Macedonia might well have different nationalities depending on whether the basis of classification was denomination , descent , language , self @-@ identification or personal choice . In addition , the Ottoman census , taken on the basis of religion , was misquoted by all sides ; descent , or " race " , was largely conjectural ; inhabitants of Macedonia might speak a different language at the market and at home , and the same Slavic dialect might be called Serbian " with Bulgarian influences " , Macedonian , or West @-@ Bulgarian .
These maps also differed somewhat in the boundaries given to Macedonia . Its only inarguable limits were the Aegean Sea and the Serbian and Bulgarian frontiers ( as of 1885 ) ; where it bordered Old Serbia , Albania , and Thrace ( all parts of Ottoman Rumelia ) was debatable .
The Greek ethnographer Nicolaides , the Austrian Meinhard , and the Bulgarian Kǎnčev placed the northern boundary of Macedonia at the Šar Mountains and the Crna hills , as had scholars before 1878 . The Serb Gopčevič preferred a line much further south , assigning the entire region from Skopje to Strumica to " Old Serbia " ; and some later Greek geographers have defined a more restricted Macedonia . In addition , maps might vary in smaller details : as to whether this town or that was Macedonian . One Italian map included Prizren , where Nicolaides and Meinhard had drawn the boundary just south of it . On the south and west , Grevena , Korçë , and Konitsa varied from map to map ; on the east , the usual line is the lower Mesta / Nestos river and then north or northwest , but one German geographer takes the line so far west as to exclude Bansko and Nevrokop / Gotse Delchev .
= = = Subregions = = =
The region of Macedonia is commonly divided into three major and two minor sub @-@ regions . The name Macedonia appears under certain contexts on the major regions , while the smaller ones are traditionally referred to by other local toponyms :
= = = = Major regions = = = =
The region of Macedonia is commonly split geographically into three main sub @-@ regions , especially when discussing the Macedonian Question . The terms are used in non @-@ partisan scholarly works , although they are also used in ethnic Macedonian literature of an irredentist nature .
Aegean Macedonia ( or Greek Macedonia ) is a term that refers to an area in the south of the Macedonia region . The borders of the area are , overall , those of ancient Macedonia in Greece . It covers an area of 34 @,@ 200 square kilometres ( 13 @,@ 200 sq mi ) ( for discussion of the reported irredentist origin of this term , see Aegean Macedonia ) .
Pirin Macedonia ( or Bulgarian Macedonia ) is an area in the east of the Macedonia region . The borders of the area approximately coincide with those of Blagoevgrad Province in Bulgaria . It covers an area of 6 @,@ 449 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 490 sq mi ) .
Vardar Macedonia ( formerly Yugoslav Macedonia ) is an area in the north of the Macedonia region . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia . It covers an area of 25 @,@ 333 square kilometres ( 9 @,@ 781 sq mi ) .
= = = = Minor regions = = = =
In addition to the above named sub @-@ regions , there are also two smaller regions , in Albania and Serbia respectively . These regions are also considered geographically part of Macedonia . They are referred to by ethnic Macedonians as follows , but typically are not so referred to by non @-@ partisan scholars .
Mala Prespa and Golo Brdo is a small area in the west of the Macedonia region in Albania , mainly around Lake Ohrid . It includes parts of the Korçë , Pogradec and Devoll districts . These districts in whole occupy about 3 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 158 sq mi ) , but the area concerned is significantly smaller . Gora ( part of the municipality of Dragaš ) and Prohor Pčinjski are minor parts in the north of the Macedonia region in Serbia .
= = Demographics = =
The region , as defined above , has a total population of about 5 million . The main disambiguation issue in demographics is the self @-@ identifying name of two contemporary groups . The ethnic Macedonian population of the Republic of Macedonia self @-@ identify as Macedonian on a national level , while the Greek Macedonians self @-@ identify as both Macedonian on a regional , and Greek on a national level . According to the Greek arguments , the ancient Macedonians ' nationality was Greek and thus , the use of the term on a national level lays claims to their history . This disambiguation problem has led to a wide variety of terms used to refer to the separate groups , more information of which can be found in the terminology by group section .
The self @-@ identifying Macedonians ( collectively referring to the inhabitants of the region ) that inhabit or inhabited the area are :
As an ethnic group , Macedonians refers to the majority ( 64 @.@ 7 % , 2002 ) of the population of the Republic of Macedonia . Statistics for 2002 indicate the population of ethnic Macedonians within the country as c . 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 . On the other hand , as a legal term , it refers to all the citizens of the Republic of Macedonia , irrespective of their ethnic or religious affiliation . However , the preamble of the constitution distinguishes between " the Macedonian people " and the " Albanians , Turks , Vlachs , Romanics and other nationalities living in the Republic of Macedonia " , but for whom " full equality as citizens " is provided . As of 2002 the total population of the country is 2 @,@ 022 @,@ 547 .
As a regional group in Greece , Macedonians refers to ethnic Greeks ( 98 % , 2001 ) living in regions referred to as Macedonia , and particularly Greek Macedonia . This group composes the vast majority of the population of the Greek region of Macedonia . The 2001 census for the total population of the Macedonia region in Greece shows 2 @,@ 625 @,@ 681 .
The same term in antiquity described the inhabitants of the kingdom of Macedon , including their notable rulers Philip II and Alexander the Great who self @-@ identified as Greeks .
As a regional group in Bulgaria , Macedonians refers to the inhabitants of Bulgarian Macedonia , who in their vast majority self @-@ identify as Bulgarians at a national level and as Macedonians at a regional , but not ethnic level . As of 2001 , the total population of Bulgarian Macedonia is 341 @,@ 245 , while the ethnic Macedonians living in the same region are 3 @,@ 117 . The Bulgarian Macedonians also self @-@ identify as Piriners ( пиринци , pirintsi ) to avoid confusion with the neighboring ethnic group .
Macedo @-@ Romanians can be used as an alternative name for Aromanians , people living throughout the southern Balkans , especially in northern Greece , Albania , the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria , and as an emigrant community in Northern Dobruja , Romania . According to Ethnologue , their total population in all countries is 306 @,@ 237 . This not very frequent appellation is the only one with the disambiguating portmanteau , both within the members of the same ethnic group and the other ethnic groups in the area . To make matters more confusing , Aromanians are often called " Machedoni " by Romanians , as opposed to the citizens of Macedonia , who are called " Macedoneni " .
The ethnic Albanians living in the region of Macedonia , as defined above , are mainly concentrated in the Republic of Macedonia ( especially in the northwestern part that borders Kosovo and Albania ) , and less in the Albanian minor sub @-@ region of Macedonia around the Lake Ohrid . As of 2002 , the total population of Albanians within the republic is 509 @,@ 083 or 25 @.@ 2 % of the country 's total population .
= = Linguistics = =
As language is one of the elements tied in with national identity , the same disputes that are voiced over demographics are also found in linguistics . There are two main disputes about the use of the word Macedonian to describe a linguistic phenomenon , be it a language or a dialect :
The origins of the Ancient Macedonian language are currently debated . At this time it is not conclusively determined whether the language / dialect was a Greek dialect related to Doric Greek and / or Aeolic Greek dialects among others , a sibling language of ancient Greek forming a Hellenic ( i.e. Greco @-@ Macedonian ) supergroup , or viewed as an Indo @-@ European language which is a close cousin to Greek ( and perhaps somewhat related to Thracian and / or Phrygian languages ) . The scientific community generally agrees that , although sources are available ( e.g. Hesychius ' lexicon , Pella curse tablet ) there is no decisive evidence to exclude any of the above hypotheses .
Modern Macedonian language , a south Slavic language , is unrelated to the Ancient Macedonian language . It is currently the subject of two major disputes . The first is over the name ( alternative ways of referring to this language can be found in the terminology by group section and in the article Macedonian language naming dispute ) . The second dispute is over the existence of a Macedonian language distinct from Bulgarian , the denial of which is a position supported by nationalist groups , Bulgarian and other linguists and also by many ordinary Bulgarians .
Macedonian is also the name of a dialect of Modern Greek , a language of the Indo @-@ European family . Additionally , Macedo @-@ Romanian is an Eastern Romance language , spoken in Southeastern Europe by the Aromanians .
= = Politics = =
The controversies in geographic , linguistic and demographic terms , are also manifested in international politics . Among the autonomous countries that were formed as a result of the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s , was the ( until then ) subnational entity of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , by the official name of " Socialist Republic of Macedonia " , the others being Serbia , Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro . The peaceful break @-@ away of that nation resulted in the change of its name to " Republic of Macedonia " .
Republic of Macedonia is the constitutional name of the sovereign state which occupies the northern part of the geographical region of Macedonia , which roughly coincides with the geographic subregion of Vardar Macedonia . The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia ( FYROM ) is a term used to refer to this state by the main international organisations , including United Nations , European Union , NATO , IMF , WTO , IOC , World Bank , EBRD , OSCE , FIFA , and FIBA . The term was introduced in 1993 by the United Nations , following a naming dispute with Greece . Some countries use this term as a stop @-@ gap measure , pending resolution of the naming dispute .
Greece and the Republic of Macedonia each consider this name a compromise : it is opposed by some Greeks for containing the Greek self @-@ identifying name Macedonia , and by many in the Republic of Macedonia for not being the short self @-@ identifying name . Greece uses it in both the abbreviated ( FYROM or ΠΓΔΜ ) and spellout form ( Πρώην Γιουγκοσλαβική Δημοκρατία της Μακεδονίας ) .
Macedonia refers also to a geographic region in Greece , which roughly coincides with the southernmost major geographic subregion of Macedonia . It is divided in the three administrative sub @-@ regions ( regions ) of West , Central , and East Macedonia and Thrace . The region is overseen by the Ministry for Macedonia – Thrace . The capital of Greek Macedonia is Thessaloniki , which is the largest city in the region of Macedonia ; Greeks often call it the " co @-@ capital " of Greece .
= = = Ethnic Macedonian nationalism = = =
Ethnic Macedonian irredentists following the idea of a " United Macedonia " have expressed claims to what they refer to as " Aegean Macedonia " ( in Greece ) , " Pirin Macedonia " ( in Bulgaria ) , " Mala Prespa and Golo Bardo " ( in Albania ) , and " Gora and Prohor Pčinjski " ( in Serbia ) .
Loring Danforth , a professor of anthropology at Bates College , asserts that ethnic Macedonian nationalists , who are concerned with demonstrating the continuity between ancient and modern Macedonians , deny they are Slavs and claim to be the direct descendants of Alexander the Great and the ancient Macedonians . Danforth stresses , however , that the more moderate Macedonian position , publicly endorsed by Kiro Gligorov , the first president of the Republic of Macedonia , is modern Macedonians have no relation to Alexander the Great , but are a Slavic people whose ancestors arrived in Macedonia in the sixth century AD . Proponents of both the extreme and the moderate Macedonian positions stress that the ancient Macedonians were a distinct non @-@ Greek people . In addition to affirming the existence of the Macedonian nation , Macedonians are concerned with affirming the existence of a unique Macedonian language as well . They thus emphasize that the Macedonian language has a history dating to the Old Church Slavonic used by Saints Cyril and Methodius in the ninth century .
Although ethnic Macedonians agree Macedonian minorities exist in Bulgaria and Greece and these minorities have been subjected to harsh policies of forced assimilation , there are two different positions with regard to what their future should be . These were summarized by Danforth :
The goal of more extreme Macedonian nationalists is to create a " free , united , and independent Macedonia " by " liberating " the parts of Macedonia " temporarily occupied " by Bulgaria and Greece . More moderate Macedonian nationalists recognize the inviolability of the Bulgarian and Greek borders and explicitly renounce any territorial claims against the two countries . They do , however , demand that Bulgaria and Greece recognize the existence of Macedonian minorities in their countries and grant them the basic human rights they deserve .
Schoolbooks and official government publications in the Republic have shown the country as part of an " unliberated " whole , although the constitution of the Republic , especially after its amendment in 1995 , does not include any territorial claims .
= = = Greek nationalism = = =
Danforth describes the Greek position on Macedonia as follows : because Alexander the Great and the ancient Macedonians were Greeks , and because ancient and modern Greece are bound in an unbroken line of racial and cultural continuity , it is only Greeks who have the right to identify themselves as Macedonians . According to Danforth , this is why Greeks generally refer to Ethnic Macedonians as " Skopians " , a practice comparable to calling Greeks " Athenians " . Danforth asserts that the negation of Macedonian identity in Greek nationalist ideology focuses on three main points : the existence of a Macedonian nation , a Macedonian language , and a Macedonian minority in Greece . More specifically , Danforth says :
From the Greek nationalist perspective there cannot be a Macedonian nation since there has never been an independent Macedonian state : the Macedonian nation is an " artificial creation " , an " invention " , of Tito , who " baptized " a " mosaic of nationalities " with the Greek name " Macedonians " . Similarly Greek nationalists claim that because the language spoken by the ancient Macedonians was Greek , the Slavic language spoken by the " Skopians " cannot be called " the Macedonian language . " Greek sources generally refer to it as " the linguistic idiom of Skopje " and describe it as a corrupt and impoverished dialect of Bulgarian . Finally , the Greek government denies the existence of a Macedonian minority in northern Greece , claiming that there exists only a small group of " Slavophone Hellenes " or " bilingual Greeks " , who speak Greek and " a local Slavic dialect " but have a " Greek national consciousness " .
Thus from the Greek nationalist perspective the use of the term " Macedonian " by the " Slavs of Skopje " constitutes a " felony " , an " act of plagiarism " against the Greek people . Greek nationalists believe that , by calling themselves " Macedonians " , the ethnic Macedonians are " stealing " a Greek name , " embezzling " Greek cultural heritage , and " falsifying " Greek history . Greek fears that the use of the name " Macedonia " by the ethnic Macedonians will inevitably lead to the assertion of irredentist claims to territory in Greek Macedonia are heightened by fairly recent historical events .
From a different point of view , Demetrius Andreas M.-A. Floudas , of Hughes Hall , Cambridge , a leading commentator on the naming dispute from the Greek side , sums up this nationalistic reaction as follows : the Republic of Macedonia was accused of usurping the historical and cultural patrimony of Greece " in order to furnish a nucleus of national self @-@ esteem for the new state and provide its citizens with a new , distinct , non @-@ Bulgarian , non @-@ Serbian , non @-@ Albanian identity " . The Republic emerged thus to Greek eyes as a country with a personality crisis , " a nondescript parasitic state " that lived off the history of its neighbours , because it allegedly lacked an illustrious past of its own , for the sake of achieving cohesion for what Greeks regarded as an " unhomogeneous little new nation " . Floudas criticizes Greek stance as follows :
What appeared to go unquestioned in Greece nevertheless was whether there was indeed substance in the claims of FYROM that their citizens do feel members of a distinct ' Macedonian ' nationality . To answer this appropriately , neither the decades of persistent indoctrination [ during Tito 's time ] should be left out of consideration , nor Greece 's violent struggle since 1991 in contrast to her complacency for the 45 years before this . If it was a common bond that the people in Skopje wanted , they found it by claiming this name and rallying the whole population in a united resistance front under a common cause against pugnacious Greece . After this bitter and protracted struggle , even the ones in FYROM who might have not initially been infused with any distinct Macedonian ethnic identity must be feeling very Macedonian now , thanks to Greece
As of early 2008 , the official position of Greece , adopted unanimously by the four largest political parties , has made a more moderate shift towards accepting a " composite name solution " ( i.e. the use of the name " Macedonia " plus some qualifier ) , so as to disambiguate the former Yugoslav Republic from the Greek region of Macedonia and the wider geographic region of the same name .
= = Names in the languages of the region = =
Albanian : Maqedonia
Armenian : Մակեդոնիա ( Makedonia )
Aromanian : Machidunia / Machedonia
Bulgarian : Македония ( Makedonia )
Georgian : მაკედონია ( Makedonia )
Greek : Μακεδονία ( Makedonia )
Ladino : Makedonia , מקדוניה
Macedonian : Македонија ( Makedonija )
Romany : Makedoniya
Serbian : Македонија , Makedonija
Serbian ( archaic ) : Маћедонија , Maćedonija
Turkish : Makedonya
= = Terminology by group = =
All these controversies have led ethnic groups in Macedonia to use terms in conflicting ways . Despite the fact that these terms may not always be used in a pejorative way , they may be perceived as such by the ethnic group to which they are applied . Both Greeks and ethnic Macedonians generally use all terms deriving from Macedonia to describe their own regional or ethnic group , and have devised several other terms to disambiguate the other side , or the region in general .
Bulgarians and ethnic Macedonians seek to deny the self @-@ identification of the Slavic speaking minority in northern Greece , which mostly self @-@ identifies as Greek . Extremists on all sides have been known to fabricate and reproduce falsified information , along with denying genuine information and propagating unscientific and pseudoscientific theories .
Certain terms are in use by these groups as outlined below . Any denial of self @-@ identification by any side , or any attribution of Macedonia related terms by third parties to the other side , can be seen as highly offensive . General usage of these terms follows :
= = = Bulgarian = = =
Gărkomani ( Гъркомани ) is a derogatory term used to refer to the largest portion of the Slavic @-@ speaking minority of Macedonia in Greece who self @-@ identify as Greeks .
Macedonian ( Македонец ) is a person originating from the region of Macedonia – the term has only regional , not ethnic meaning , and it usually means a Bulgarian , or a clarification is made ( Greek , Albanian ... ) .
Macedonian ( Македонски ) and the Slavic dialects of Greece are considered dialects of Bulgarian by Bulgarian linguists ; not independent languages or dialects of other languages ( e.g. Serbian ) . This is also the popular view in Bulgaria . The Bulgarian government , therefore , has officially recognized the language merely as " the constitutional language of the Republic of Macedonia " . Translations are officially called " adaptations " .
Macedonism ( Македонизъм ) is a term referring to the political ideology or simply views that the Slavs of Macedonia are an ethnic group separate from Bulgarians , with their own separate language , history and culture . It is also used to describe what Bulgarians view as the falsification of their history whether by Macedonian or foreign scholars who subscribe to the Macedonist point of view . It carries strong negative connotations .
Macedonistics ( Македонистика ) is a term , generally synonymous with disciplines such as study of the origins of the Macedonian language and history of the Macedonian people conducted in the Republic of Macedonia and in former Yugoslavia . It is generally considered in Bulgaria to be a kind of pseudoscience .
Macedonist ( Македонист ) is a term for a person ( typically Macedonian Slav ) who believes that Macedonian Slavs are not ethnic Bulgarians but a separate ethnic group , directly descended from the ancient Macedonians . It is a more negatively charged synonym of " Macedonian nationalist " . More rarely it is used for someone associated with the study of the origins of the Macedonian language and history of the Macedonian people ( not necessarily from the Republic of Macedonia or Yugoslavia ) , whose studies support the official historical doctrine of the Republic of Macedonia or former Yugoslavia .
Sărbomani ( Сърбомани ) is a derogatory term used to refer to people in the Republic of Macedonia self @-@ identifying as Serbian , or having a pro @-@ Serb orientation . It is also used pejoratively by Bulgarians to refer to Macedonians who refuse the Bulgarian national idea .
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2009 . His first season at the club was a successful one , finishing the season as the club 's top goalscorer , as well as helping the Hertfordshire outfit earn promotion to the Football League for the first time in the club 's history . In January 2011 , Odubade joined Newport County on loan until the end of the 2010 – 11 campaign . On returning to his parent club , Odubade signed for Conference Premier side Gateshead on a free transfer in June 2011 . After spending two years at Gateshead , during which he spent a brief time on loan at Forest Green Rovers , Odubade then joined Eastleigh in May 2013 .
= = Career = =
Despite being born in Lagos , Nigeria , Odubade grew up in East Sussex . He attended The Bishop Bell School in Eastbourne . He began his football career in England , playing in the Sussex County League for Eastbourne Town in 2002 . He scored over 70 times in just two seasons at the East Sussex club in all competitions , before attracting the attention of then – Yeovil Town manager Gary Johnson before the start of the 2004 – 05 season , he subsequently joined the club on a one @-@ year contract in July 2004 after a successful trial . He made his debut as a substitute for the Somerset side in a 4 – 3 defeat against Torquay United in the Football League Trophy in September 2004 . He made his second Yeovil appearance in a 3 – 1 victory away at Histon in an FA Cup tie , scoring his only goal for the club deep into injury @-@ time . He made a further four appearances for the side , before leaving the club in February 2005 due to personal reasons , and subsequently joined Conference South side Eastbourne Borough two days later . Odubade made his Eastbourne Borough debut in the club 's 2 – 0 victory against Basingstoke Town just three days after signing for the club , playing 45 minutes of the match . In the following game , he scored twice as Eastbourne came from back from a two @-@ goal deficit to draw 2 – 2 at Cambridge City , scoring both goals within the space of five minutes . Odubade made it five goals in his first three games for Eastbourne , as he scored a hat @-@ trick in the club 's 4 – 0 home victory against Thurrock . He also scored Eastbourne 's third goal in a 3 – 1 win in the following game against Newport County , latching onto a long ball and beating the goalkeeper first time . Throughout March 2005 , Odubade scored in four consecutive games , netting against Cambridge City , Havant & Waterlooville , Sutton United , and Hayes to take his tally to ten goals for the club . He also provided the assists for two of Eastbourne 's goals in a 3 – 0 win against Redbridge , and scored two goals in late April 2005 against Bishop 's Stortford and Weston @-@ Super @-@ Mare respectively . He scored his last goal of the season in Eastbourne 's 3 – 0 away win against Cambridge City in the play @-@ off , and was in the side that lost 2 – 1 to Altrincham in the final . Odubade made a total of 17 appearances for Eastbourne during the second half of the 2004 – 05 campaign , scoring 13 times .
Odubade opted to stay at Eastbourne Borough ahead of the 2005 – 06 season , and subsequently started in the club 's first game of the season , scoring the only goal of the game in a 1 – 0 away win against Bishop 's Stortford . Odubade scored his second goal of the season a week later , scoring the opening goal of the match as Eastbourne lost 3 – 2 against Basingstoke Town , as well as scoring in the club 's 2 – 1 home loss to Weston @-@ Super @-@ Mare . After scoring three goals in the club 's first five matches of the season , Odubade failed to score again until November 2005 – scoring Eastbourne 's goal in a 1 – 1 draw against Carshalton Athletic . He also scored and assisted a goal in the club 's 3 – 2 away victory against Farnborough Town at Cherrywood Road . Odubade impressed in the club 's FA Cup run during the same season , helping the club take Oxford United to a replay in November 2005 . After impressing Oxford manager Brian Talbot in the two ties , Odubade joined Oxford two months later for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 on an 18 @-@ month contract . On joining Oxford , Odubade said " It brings a tear to my eye just the thought of leaving Eastbourne . But I wanted to get back into the Football League and I just feel I am very lucky to have this second chance " . In total , Odubade played 40 times for Eastbourne Borough in all competitions , scoring 20 goals .
= = = Oxford United = = =
Odubade was assigned the number 7 shirt ahead of his first game for Oxford . He subsequently made his debut a day after signing for the club , starting in a 3 – 0 defeat against Rushden & Diamonds at Nene Park , but was substituted after just 33 minutes with Rushden three goals up . He was an unused substitute in the club 's next two matches , but returned to first @-@ team action in Oxford 's 1 – 1 draw against Cheltenham Town , coming on as a 59th @-@ minute substitute . In the club 's following game , he scored his first goal for Oxford in a 2 – 1 loss away to Wycombe Wanderers , having come on at half @-@ time . He started one further match against Stockport County , but was an unused substitute for the club 's last two matches of the 2005 – 06 season . Odubade played a total of 8 games throughout Oxford 's 2005 – 06 campaign , scoring once , as the club were relegated to the Conference National . Under the new management of Jim Smith , Odubade started the 2006 – 07 campaign by appearing as a 60th @-@ minute substitute in Oxford 's 2 – 0 win against Halifax Town . Three days later , Odubade came on as a half @-@ time substitute against Dagenham & Redbridge , and scored the only goal of the game in the 57th minute . He also scored in Oxford 's 5 – 1 home victory against Northwich Victoria , again appearing as a substitute . He scored the winner in the club 's 2 – 1 win against St Albans City , as well as scoring in Oxford 's 5 – 1 away win at Forest Green Rovers in October 2006 . Odubade 's first 15 appearances of the 2006 – 07 season were made as a substitute , and he started his first game of the season in Oxford 's 1 – 1 draw against Altrincham . A week later , he was in the starting line @-@ up once more , scoring twice in Oxford 's 3 – 0 win against Cambridge United at the Abbey Stadium . He provided assists for goals in draws against Stevenage and Cambridge United respectively , before scoring in a 1 – 1 draw against Aldershot Town in February 2007 . He scored Oxford 's first goal after 11 minutes in the club 's 3 – 1 away win against Tamworth . A brace against Dagenham & Redbridge in a 2 – 2 draw took Odubade 's tally to 10 goals for the season . His 11th of the season followed shortly after , scoring a headed goal in a 2 – 0 away victory at St Albans City . Oxford failed to gain promotion back to the Football League after losing on penalties to Exeter City , although Odubade scored and assisted another during the two ties . Consequently , he was voted Oxford 's Player of the Year at the end of the season . Odubade scored a total of 12 goals in 46 games during the campaign .
He started in Oxford 's first game of the 2007 – 08 season , a 1 – 0 home win against Forest Green Rovers , coming on at half @-@ time . Eight days later , he scored his first goal of the campaign in the club 's 2 – 1 away win at the Pirelli Stadium against Burton Albion , latching onto Eddie Odhiambo 's cross to score from six yards . He started his first game in a 0 – 0 draw against Stevenage at Broadhall Way in late August 2007 , and started once more in a game against Altrincham at Moss Lane a month later , scoring in injury @-@ time to seal a 3 – 1 victory , having previously assisted the first goal . Odubade 's third goal of the campaign came in Oxford 's 2 – 1 home win against Salisbury City , scoring from just inside the area . He also scored a consolation goal for Oxford in the club 's 3 – 1 away loss to relegation candidates Droylsden , as well as scoring twice in the following game as Oxford raced into a three @-@ goal lead against Torquay United , although the game ended 3 – 3 . Odubade scored again against Northwich Victoria in the FA Cup in November 2007 , but failed to net again until January 2008 – scoring Oxford 's goal in a 3 – 1 loss away to Salisbury City . After a 0 – 0 draw against Grays Athletic , a game in which Odubade was substituted on 64 minutes , he failed to start a game for three months . Subsequently , in March 2008 , he was transfer @-@ listed by manager Darren Patterson . Shortly after Odubade had been transfer @-@ listed , it was announced that he had played his last game for the club , with Patterson saying " I think the best thing for him and us is that we go our separate ways " . However , just a week later , Odubade was told by Patterson that he " must start producing performances " if he wants to be taken off the transfer list . He was taken off of the list after scoring three goals in four games at the end of the season , as well as starting in the club 's last two games of the season . Patterson said that Odubade was removed from the transfer list because " he 's now putting in a shift " every game . He finished the season as Oxford 's top goalscorer , as Oxford finished the season in ninth place . In total , Odubade played 43 games in all competitions , scoring 11 times as Oxford finished in ninth place .
Odubade started the first six games of the 2008 – 09 season , but sustained an injury in a 1 – 1 draw away Ebbsfleet United , and subsequently missed the following match . He returned to first @-@ team action against Kettering Town , coming on as a 64th @-@ minute substitute and scoring eight minutes later from close range . He scored his second goal of the season in Oxford 's 2 – 1 home defeat against Crawley Town , and assisted Phil Trainer 's goal in a 2 – 1 win against Rushden & Diamonds in October 2008 . He scored the only goal of the game as Oxford beat York City 1 – 0 at the Kassam Stadium , scoring an 87th @-@ minute penalty having been fouled in the area . He scored in the FA Cup for the third consecutive year , scoring in a 3 – 1 win against Dorchester Town , scoring Oxford 's third in the 120th minute , after the tie had gone to extra @-@ time . His fifth goal of the season came in Oxford 's 5 – 1 win against Ebbsfleet United , scoring the third goal with a " precise finish " . Two weeks later , he came off the substitutes bench to score a goal and assist another in Oxford 's 2 – 1 win against Forest Green Rovers . He also scored in a 3 – 0 win against Barrow , his final goal for Oxford . He featured mainly off the bench during the latter stages of the season , although did start in the final game of the season as Oxford lost 2 – 1 against Northwich Victoria . He scored a total of seven times in 46 appearances , although in 25 games he featured as a substitute . In April 2009 , new manager Chris Wilder opted not to renew Odubade 's contract at the Kassam Stadium due to " the financial terms in his contract " , as well as him playing a peripheral role during the 2008 – 09 season , and subsequently he was allowed to leave the club on a free transfer . During his three and a half @-@ year tenure at Oxford , Odubade made a total of 145 appearances , scoring 32 goals .
= = = Stevenage = = =
Odubade signed for Conference Premier side Stevenage on a free transfer in May 2009 . He made his debut for the club as a substitute in Stevenage 's 1 – 1 draw with Tamworth in the opening game of the 2009 – 10 season . He scored his first goal for the club in a 2 – 1 defeat against his former employers , Oxford United , scoring from close range at the back post . He scored his second goal for the club as Stevenage came from two goals down to beat Mansfield Town at Field Mill , scoring the equalising goal . Odubade made his first eight appearances for Stevenage as a substitute , but started the next game ; a 4 – 0 win over Hayes & Yeading , assisting Stevenage 's second goal . In the following match , he started once more , and assisted two of the club 's goals in a 3 – 1 win against Salisbury City . Throughout November 2009 , Odubade became a regular feature in the Stevenage squad , scoring twice in games against Gateshead and Chester City respectively . He also notched the club 's solitary goal in a 2 – 1 defeat against Ebbsfleet United in early December , a game in which he was injured and was subsequently substituted at half @-@ time . Odubade then returned to first @-@ team action on Boxing Day to score a penalty against Cambridge United , as well as setting up the third goal in a 3 – 1 victory . He then played a major part in the reverse fixture at Broadhall Way six days later , scoring one and claiming two assists in a 4 – 1 win . He scored his eighth goal of the season in Stevenage 's 4 – 1 victory against Dover Athletic ; coming on as a substitute and volleying home the fourth in injury @-@ time . A brace against Mansfield Town ensured his goal tally reached double figures in his first season at the club , helping the club come from a goal behind to win 3 – 1 . A month later , he scored a hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 home victory against Barrow . He followed this up with another goal four days later against Kidderminster Harriers in the FA Trophy . Odubade scored his 15th and 16th goals of the season against Crawley Town , scoring both goals in the first @-@ half as Stevenage ran out 3 – 0 winners . Odubade played a total of 47 times during his first season at Stevenage , scoring 16 times and finishing as the club 's top goalscorer for the season – a season that witnessed the club reach the Football League for the first time in their history after finishing as league champions .
Ahead of the 2010 – 11 season , Odubade scored in a pre @-@ season friendly against Histon , in a 2 – 0 win . He featured in the club 's first Football League match , against Macclesfield Town in August 2010 , coming on as a 60th @-@ minute substitute in a match that ended 2 – 2 . He subsequently started his first game of the season in Stevenage 's 2 – 1 loss to Portsmouth in the League Cup . Odubade scored his first goal of the season in the club 's 1 – 1 home draw against Crewe Alexandra in September 2010 , tapping in from close range to give Stevenage the lead . He scored his second goal of the season in Stevenage 's 2 – 0 televised FA Cup victory against AFC Wimbledon .
In January 2011 , Odubade went on loan to Conference National side Newport County until the end of the 2010 – 11 campaign . He made his Newport debut in the club 's televised 3 – 3 away draw against Mansfield Town , coming on as an 82nd @-@ minute substitute in the match . Odubade made his first start for Newport in a 2 – 2 away draw against Bath City on 22 February 2011 , scoring Newport 's first goal after 14 minutes . It was to be Odubade 's only goal for Newport in the eleven appearances he made for the club , seven of which were as a substitute . He returned to his parent club on 17 May 2011 .
= = = Gateshead = = =
Having been released by Stevenage at the end of the 2010 – 11 season , Odubade signed for Conference National side Gateshead on 7 June 2011 . He joined Gateshead on a free transfer , signing for the club alongside Eddie Odhiambo ; the two had previously played alongside each other at Oxford United , Stevenage , and Newport County . On joining Gateshead , Odubade said " I have parted company with Stevenage on good terms and this is now a new chapter for me . Gateshead is a good club that is moving in the right direction and I 'm sure we can kick on next season . I don 't look back with any regrets as things happen for a reason . I am always looking forward . Gateshead is a new challenge for me and I can only see good things coming from it " . He made his Gateshead debut on 13 August 2011 in the club 's 3 – 2 away win against Kidderminster Harriers at Aggborough , assisting Kris Gate 's goal in the 80th minute . Odubade scored his first goal for Gateshead three days later at Gateshead International Stadium in Gateshead 's 3 – 0 win against Mansfield Town , which was voted Goal of the Season in the club 's end of season awards . His first season at Gateshead was disrupted by two @-@ foot injuries mid @-@ way through the campaign , with Odubade breaking his metatarsal bone on two occasions , subsequently missing a total of 18 games . Despite the injuries , he made 34 appearances throughout the season , scoring seven times . He signed a one @-@ year contract extension with Gateshead in May 2012 .
Despite appearing 24 times for Gateshead during the opening half of the 2012 – 13 season , although eight of which were as a substitute , Odubade was loaned to Conference National side Forest Green Rovers on 17 January 2013 , for the remainder of the campaign . He made his debut on 19 January as a second @-@ half substitute against Stockport County , a game in which Forest Green lost 2 – 1 . He scored his first goal for Forest Green on 12 March 2013 in a 2 – 1 win over Southport . It proved to be his only goal during his time at Forest Green , making 14 appearances , all of which in the league . Odubade returned to Gateshead following the conclusion of the 2012 – 13 season , and was told he was one of seven players released by the club in April 2013 .
= = = Eastleigh = = =
Following his release from Gateshead , Odubade joined Conference South side Eastleigh on a free transfer on 31 May 2013 . On acquiring Odubade 's services , Eastleigh manager Richard Hill stated — " I was impressed with his own personal ambition and his desire to be successful and Yemi opted to sign for Eastleigh as he wants to be with a Club that hold the same ambitions " . While playing for Eastleigh , Odubade went on loan to Woking during the 2014 / 15 season and made his debut as a substitute against Alfreton . He soon became a regular starter and scored in half the games he played in for the club .
= = Style of play = =
Odubade is generally deployed as a striker , but has also been used as a winger . He believes that his best asset is his turn of pace , and that he is at his most dangerous when he is " running at opposition defences " . He is predominantly right @-@ footed , and scores the majority of his goals with his right foot , but is also comfortable using his left . During his time at Stevenage , manager Graham Westley has used Odubade as the second striker as part of a 4 – 4 – 2 formation sitting off the shoulder of the centre forward . Westley has also used him as part of a 4 – 3 – 3 formation , usually on the right side of a three @-@ pronged attack . Odubade has been described as possessing " blistering pace " , which was emphasised following two goals away at Crawley Town in March 2010 , whereby his pace left the Crawley defence " in their tracks " . Former Oxford United manager Darren Patterson said that Odubade needs " to work on his movement up front , and he 's got to realise what his assets are and play to them " .
= = Honours = =
Individual
Oxford United Player of the Season : 2006 – 07
= = Career statistics = =
As of 26 April 2015 .
= 1997 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1997 Pacific hurricane season was a very active hurricane season . With hundreds of deaths and hundreds of millions of dollars in damage , this season was the costliest and one of the deadliest Pacific hurricane seasons . This was due to the exceptionally strong 1997 – 98 El Niño event . The 1997 Pacific hurricane season officially started on May 15 , 1997 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1997 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1997 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when almost all tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean .
Several storms impacted land . The first was Tropical Storm Andres which killed four people and left another two missing . In August , Tropical Storm Ignacio took an unusual path , and its extratropical remnants caused minor damage in the Pacific Northwest and California . Linda became the most intense east Pacific hurricane in recorded history . Although it never made landfall , it produced large surf in Southern California and as a result five people had to be rescued . Hurricane Nora caused flooding and damage in the Southwestern United States , while Olaf made two landfalls and caused eighteen deaths and several other people were reported missing . Hurricane Pauline killed several hundred people and caused record damage in southeastern Mexico . In addition , Super Typhoons Oliwa and Paka originated in the region before crossing the International Date Line and causing significant damage in the western Pacific . There were also two Category 5 hurricanes : Linda and Guillermo .
Activity in the season was above average . The season produced 17 named storms , which was a little above normal . The average number of named storms per year is 15 . The 1997 season also had 9 hurricanes , compared to the average of 8 . There were also 7 major hurricanes compared to the average of 4 .
= = Season summary = =
The 1997 Pacific hurricane season officially started on May 15 , 1997 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1997 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1997 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . This season exceeded these boundaries appreciably , as Tropical Storm Paka formed December 2 , and dissipated nineteen days later after crossing the International Dateline and then moved into the Western Pacific .
The 1997 Pacific hurricane season was fairly active , due to the strong El Niño that was occurring at the time . El Niño causes wind shear to be reduced and water temperatures to increase , resulting in conditions more conductive for tropical cyclones in the East Pacific . There were 24 cyclones in total , including five unnamed tropical depressions . Of these , 19 were in the east Pacific ( east of 140 ° W ) . Of these , eight peaked at tropical storm intensity , while ten reached hurricane status . Seven of these reached Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale , including central Pacific cyclones Super Typhoons Oliwa and Paka , which became typhoons after crossing into the western Pacific . The first hurricane of the year was Hurricane Dolores , and the first major hurricane was Hurricane Enrique . Most months during the year had several storms , but no records were set for storms in any particular month .
Activity in the central Pacific was also above average . Two tropical storms formed , as did several tropical depressions . A number of storms moved in from the east . With a total of nine tropical cyclones entering or forming there , this was the fourth highest number since satellite observations began . The first storm formed on June 1 . The last storm dissipated December 21 , which gives this season the latest known end . However , if December 6 , the date the last storm crossed the dateline is taken to be the end , this season has the second latest end , behind the 1983 season and tied with the 1957 season .
= = Season summary and statistics = =
The season began with the formation of Tropical Depression One @-@ E on June 1 and ended with the dissipation of Tropical Depression Paka on December 22 . The season can alternatively be considered to end on December 6 , the day Tropical Storm Paka crossed the international dateline . No named storms formed in May , three in June , four in July , four in August , five in September , one in October , and one in November . Very unusually , a tropical storm formed in December , after the season ended . The other two times this feat occurred since the satellite era began in 1971 were in 1983 and 2010 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Andres = = =
Andres originated from a disturbance that slowly organized and formed into Tropical Depression One @-@ E on June 1 . The next day , it reached tropical storm status as a second circulation formed north @-@ northwest of the initial circulation . However , the former circulation became dominant , and Andres intensified slightly . After a brief period of a normal track to the northwest , Andres was picked up by westerly winds and became the first named storm to threaten Central America . Initially forecast to cross the isthmus and enter the Caribbean Sea , Andres instead turned to the southeast and paralleled the coast . This was the first time since record @-@ keeping began that any East Pacific storm had taken such a path . Andres then turned back to the northeast . It weakened to a depression and made landfall near San Salvador on June 7 and dissipated shortly thereafter .
Among the casualties were two fishers who were reported missing . Andres caused power outages , flooding rivers , several car crashes , and damage to roughly ten homes . The highest rainfall report from Mexico was 11 @.@ 42 inches ( 290 mm ) at Mazatan . Damage was noted in parts of Nicaragua . Andres also killed four people in Usulután , El Salvador due to heavy flooding .
= = = Tropical Storm Blanca = = =
Tropical Depression Two @-@ E formed from a broad area of low pressure on June 9 . Six hours later the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Blanca . This system developed a good outflow , and reached its peak intensity with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . However , its circulation was not well @-@ defined and a weakening trend began , and Blanca was downgraded to a depression on June 12 . It lost its closed circulation shortly thereafter and was thus declared dissipated .
Blanca briefly threatened land on June 10 as warnings and watches were established by the Mexican Servicio Meteorológico Nacional . Shortly thereafter , a ridge of high pressure turned Blanca away from the coast . As Blanca moved just south of the Mexican coast , it dropped a total of 5 @.@ 77 inches ( 147 mm ) of rainfall at Fincha Chayabe / Maragaritas . There were no major damage or casualties as Blanca 's impact was generally minimal .
= = = Tropical Depression Three @-@ E = = =
Tropical Depression Three @-@ E formed June 21 . Moving rapidly westward , it never strengthened and the winds of the depression soon decreased . It dissipated early on June 24 . The depression never impacted land .
= = = Tropical Storm Carlos = = =
On June 22 , showers increased associated with a tropical wave several hundred miles away from land . Three days later , deep convection became more concentrated , and the system became a tropical depression . It intensified into Tropical Storm Carlos as banding features increased and the outflow became better defined . As it moved west , convection diminished as Carlos moved into cooler water . Shortly thereafter , increased wind shear took its toll on Carlos as the low @-@ level center became exposed from the deep convection . Carlos weakened into a depression early on June 27 , and dissipated June 28 . However , a swirl of clouds remained for a couple of days . Except for Socorro Island , which the system passed close to , Carlos never threatened land . No indications of casualties or damage were reported .
= = = Tropical Depression Five @-@ E = = =
On the afternoon of June 29 , Tropical Depression Five @-@ E formed . It erratically moved westward . On July 1 , the depression weakened slightly , but quickly reintensified . It dissipated on July 4 , without even threatening land .
= = = Hurricane Dolores = = =
In early July , shower activity increased in association with an area of disturbed weather . With surface pressures lower than normal for a tropical disturbance , deep convection increased further and Tropical Depression Six @-@ E formed late on July 5 and reaching tropical storm status the following day and was named Dolores . Despite moderate wind shear , very cold cloud tops formed as the winds increased to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , a moderate tropical storm . Moving westward , Dolores strengthened into the first hurricane of the season on July 7 as a ragged eye formed .
Dolores continued to intensify and it reached a peak windspeed of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , a strong Category 1 hurricane , two days later . Meanwhile , Dolores became the first hurricane in over two years to cross longitude 125 ° W. Shortly thereafter , the hurricane started losing strength as it moved over cooler waters . The eye dissipated from satellite imagery while the associated thunderstorm activity became sheared . Dolores weakened back into a tropical storm on July 10 and a tropical depression the next day . The cyclone then crossed into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility ( west of longitude 140 ° W ) while producing minimal shower activity . It dissipated on July 12 . The hurricane was not a threat to any land .
= = = Hurricane Enrique = = =
The first major hurricane of the season originated from a broad area of low pressure on July 8 near the Gulf of Tehuantepec . The thunderstorms gradually became more concentrated and a tropical depression formed on July 12 . It strengthened into a tropical storm twelve hours later , and then began to rapidly intensify as convection increased further near the center . It became a hurricane on July 13 . Enrique continued to steadily intensify and became a Category 2 hurricane on July 14 . The next day , Enrique reached its peak intensity of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and peak pressure 960 mbar ( hPa ) on July 14 . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane outflow became asymmetrical and it began to weaken over cool waters . It weakened fairly quickly and was downgraded into a Category 2 hurricane on July 15 . It then lost hurricane intensity later that day . On July 16 the winds had decreased further to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Enrique weakened into a depression the next day , and degenerated into a swirl of clouds shortly thereafter . The system never threatened land .
= = = Hurricane Felicia = = =
A large area of disturbed weather formed on July 13 . It then organized into a depression south of Manzanillo , Colima , on July 14 . Intensification was delayed by wind shear due to its proximity to Enrique for about two days . However , it became a tropical storm late July 15 as it moved west @-@ northwestward . Continuing to intensify , an eye formed . Based on this , Felicia was upgraded into a hurricane on July 17 . Its development was again halted by increased wind shear , and as such it leveled off in intensity . After the shear decreased , Felicia began to intensify and the hurricane 's winds reached 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) and its pressure fell to 948 mbar ( hPa ) , making it a moderate low @-@ end Category 4 hurricane . Shear increased for the third time , and then moved into cooler waters . It began to weaken as it moved west @-@ northwest . On July 20 , it lost major hurricane intensity . Shortly before being downgraded to a tropical storm , it crossed 140 ° W. A strong wind shear took toll on Felicia and it was downgraded into a tropical depression July 22 . No damage or deaths were reported in wake of the hurricane .
= = = Tropical Depression One @-@ C = = =
Tropical Depression One @-@ C formed on July 26 from a disturbance that had been showing signs of organization for the past three days . It moved west to southwest through an unfavorable environment . On the morning of July 27 , it dissipated due to strong wind shear caused by an upper @-@ level trough . The system never impacted land , thus no damage was reported .
= = = Hurricane Guillermo = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Pacific Ocean on July 27 . It organized into a depression July 30 and was named Tropical Storm Guillermo the next day . It quickly intensified , reaching hurricane status on August 1 . Guillermo became a major hurricane August 2 . It reached Category 4 intensity on August 3 . Continuing to rapidly intensify , Guillermo attained Category 5 strength August 4 . The tropical cyclone peak intensity was 919 mbar ( hPa ) and 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) .
Guillermo then weakened slowly , becoming a tropical storm August 8 . It crossed 140 ° W and entered the Central Pacific . It weakened to a depression late August 10 , but restrengthened back into a storm 24 hours later when it encountered a small area of warmer water . It weakened to a depression for the second and final time August 15 and became an extratropical cyclone early the next day . The storm 's remnants recurved over the far northern Pacific . They were tracked to a point 500 nautical miles ( 930 km ) west of Vancouver Island . The remnants persisted for a few more days and drifted south before being absorbed by a mid @-@ latitude cyclone August 24 off the coast of California .
= = = Tropical Storm Hilda = = =
A tropical wave that had showed signs of development emerged into the East Pacific and organized into Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E on August 10 . Despite some wind shear , the depression managed to become a tropical storm late on August 11 . Hilda reached its peak intensity as a moderate 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) tropical storm the next day . After maintaining its peak intensity for 24 hours , it gradually weakened due to increasing wind shear On August 14 , shear weakened Hilda to a depression and the cyclone dissipated early the next morning . Hilda was no threat to land and caused no known damage or deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Ignacio = = =
Tropical Storm Ignacio formed first as a depression in an area of disturbed weather on August 17 . Twelve hours later , it organized into a tropical storm . Its location of tropical cyclone formation was further north and west of where most East Pacific tropical cyclones develop . Steering currents pulled Ignacio north , where it encountered wind shear and cooler waters . Ignacio never intensified beyond 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and then was downgraded into a depression on August 18 . It last transitioned into an extratropical cyclone 24 hours later . It was then absorbed by a cyclone associated with the remnants of Hurricane Guillermo .
Ignacio 's remnants moved north , bringing gusty winds to California coastal waters before dissipating . Severe flooding was recorded along Highway 97 with a debris flow estimated at 0 @.@ 5 mi ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) and 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) deep . They caused rainfall as far north as the U.S. state of Washington . Thunderstorms caused power outages in central California .
= = = Hurricane Jimena = = =
During the third week of August , a tropical disturbance formed far from land . Although the system was located over warmer than average sea surface temperatures , the upper @-@ level environment was initially unfavorable . However the environment gradually became more conducive for tropical cyclone formation and Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E formed August 25 from an area of disturbed weather in a rather easterly location . It became a tropical storm the next day and a hurricane on August 27 . Intensification was rapid , with winds increasing from 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) in just 6 hours . Continuing to rapidly intensify , it reached its peak intensity as a low @-@ end category 4 hurricane . After maintaining peak intensity for 30 hours , it moved north @-@ northwest and encountered increasing wind shear which reduced its winds from 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) to 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) in just 24 hours . Jimena completely dissipated on August 30 , not long after entering the Central Pacific Basin . Hurricane Jimena was of no threat to land .
= = = Tropical Storm Oliwa = = =
Tropical storm Oliwa began as a tropical disturbance that had meandered south of Johnston Atoll . It organized into Tropical Depression Two @-@ C on September 2 . Later that day , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Oliwa ( Hawaiian for Oliver ) as it slowly moved towards the west . It crossed the dateline late on September 3 and entered the Joint Typhoon Warning Center 's Area of Responsibility . ) In the Pacific Ocean , tropical cyclones are not renamed when they cross basin boundaries , so Oliwa kept its name .
Oliwa passed south of Wake Island on September 6 , where it caused heavy rains but no damage . On September 7 , Oliwa started a period of rapid strengthening , becoming a typhoon on September 8 and a Super Typhoon eight hours later . Oliwa stayed at that intensity for over two days . While still a strong typhoon , Oliwa passed near the Northern Marianas Islands . It then started weakening as it curved towards Japan . It made landfall as a minimal typhoon September 16 . It quickly dissipated later that same day . Typhoon Oliwa caused 12 fatalities and left 30 @,@ 000 people homeless . Damage totaled to 4 @.@ 36 billion yen ( $ 50 @.@ 1 million USD ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Kevin = = =
Tropical Storm Kevin , first displayed hints of development while located near Panama , and developed a well @-@ defined circulation after emerging into the Pacific . It was classified as a tropical depression in the Pacific on September 3 while located south @-@ south west of Baja California . Convection increased and the outflow of the storm became better defined . As such , it became a tropical storm on the morning of September 4 . Gradually intensifying , it reached it peak intensity as a mid @-@ level tropical storm on September 5 . As it moved westbound , it maintained its intensity for 12 hours . The environment was unfavorable , and two days later , Kevin weakened to a depression when deep convection ceased . It dissipated early on September 7 , having never posed a threat to land .
= = = Hurricane Linda = = =
A tropical disturbance formed on September 9 and became Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E later that day . The cyclone moved northwest and strengthened into a tropical storm on September 10 . Linda then rapidly intensified reaching hurricane intensity the next day as an eye formed . It peaked in intensity on September 12 with it reaching a maximum windspeed of 185 mph ( 298 km / h ) — enough to make it a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale — and a minimum pressure of 902 mbar ( 902 hPa ) , making it the most intense Pacific hurricane ever recorded until Hurricane Patricia took its place in 2015 . However , Linda soon moved over cooler waters , and lost hurricane intensity on September 16 . It then slowly weakened and dissipated on September 17 .
Linda passed very near Socorro Island . In addition , early forecasts predicted that Linda would make landfall in California . The landfall never materialized and warnings or watches were not necessary for any location . However , Linda caused large surf , which crashed ashore in California , where it swept five people off a jetty . Moisture related to Linda also contributed to a landslide in southern California that destroyed or damaged 79 houses .
= = = Tropical Storm Marty = = =
An area of disturbed weather formed early on September 10 . It became better organized two days later as convection increased , and then organized into Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E late on September 12 . Moving slowly in a westward direction , it strengthened into a tropical storm in the morning of September 14 . Later that day , the system reached its peak intensity of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . Meanwhile , the storm 's forward speed slowed down even more , and it turned to the south . It then encountered an area of strong wind shear , and it weakened into a depression on September 15 as the center of circulation became displaced from the deep convection . The shear continued to weaken , and the tropical cyclone dissipated late on September 16 . There were no deaths or damage .
= = = Hurricane Nora = = =
A large area of disturbed weather moved into the Pacific on September 12 . It then organized into Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E on September 16 and quickly strengthened into a tropical storm . Early on September 18 , a poorly defined and ragged eye appeared on infrared imagery . Shortly thereafter , its winds reached 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . Nora eventually peaked at Category 4 . It then encountered water temperature anomalies , and fluctuated in strength . Then , a trough pulled Nora northward and accelerated the storm . After weakening to a Category 1 , Nora made landfall in northern Baja California and stayed a tropical storm as it entered the United States . At that time , however , most of the deep rest convection was displaced to the northeast . Nora dissipated over Arizona , but its remnants kept going north .
Hurricane Nora was the first Pacific hurricane to bring gale @-@ force winds to the Continental United States since Kathleen in 1976 . In Mexico , Nora produced high waves , flooding , and heavy damage . Many homes were destroyed . In the United States , rains were heavy , and damage amounted to several hundred million dollars . Several hundred people were rendered homeless , and there was wind and flood damage in Arizona . Nora killed two people in Mexico , and several indirect deaths were reported in California .
= = = Tropical Storm Olaf = = =
A tropical disturbance left Central America on September 22 . Despite some wind shear , the system gradually became better organized and a tropical depression formed September 26 , being upgraded to a tropical storm several hours later . The cyclone immediately moved north . Instead of strengthening into a hurricane before landfall as forecasted , Olaf weakened due to its proximity to land . On September 29 , Olaf made landfall near Salina Cruz , Oaxaca .
Olaf , as a tropical depression , moved westward , far out to sea . Operationally , Olaf was believed to have dissipated for six days. however , in the Tropical Cyclone Report , a report issued several months after the hurricane 's duration , it was believed to have remained a tropical cyclone the entire time . After restrengthening slightly , Olaf moved southeast on October 5 due to the influence of Hurricane Pauline . Olaf then turned north , and on October 12 made a second landfall near Manzanillo , Colima , as a tropical depression . Olaf 's surface circulation weakened , and its remnants moved back out to sea , but did not redevelop .
Olaf resulted in some reports of damage and flooding in Mexico and Guatemala . During two time frames , from September 27 through October 2 and 10 through October 16 , a total of 27 @.@ 73 inches ( 704 mm ) of rainfall fell in association with Olaf in Soyalapa / Comaltepec . Several people were reported missing . Most of its damage was from its first landfall . Throughout Southern Mexico , Guatemala and El Salvador , flooding caused by Olaf was blamed for eighteen deaths .
= = = Hurricane Pauline = = =
On October 3 , a distinct area of disturbed weather formed . It drifted eastbound , and a well @-@ defined low pressure soon formed . It became Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E on October 5 . Early the next day it intensified into tropical Storm Pauline . An eye feature developed on October 7 and as such Pauline was upgraded into a hurricane . In a favorable environment , the cyclone rapidly intensified , reaching Category 4 intensity . After fluctuating in intensity , interaction with land weakened Pauline to a Category 2 by the time it made landfall on October 9 . It accelerated to the northwest , and passed over a mountainous region . The mountains disrupted Pauline 's circulation , and squeezed the moisture from the hurricane . Pauline dissipated on October 10 while over Jalisco .
Hurricane Pauline was the deadliest storm of the season . Landslides and flooding caused by heavy rain caused tragic loss of life and left thousands homeless . There were at least 230 casualties . The Red Cross reported that 400 people died , but this was disputed by Mexican officials . Pauline was Mexico 's deadliest hurricane since 1976 's Liza . In addition , the hurricane caused $ 447 @.@ 8 million in damage ( 1997 USD ; $ 473 million 2008 USD ) .
= = = Tropical Depression Three @-@ C = = =
A tropical disturbance formed near 140 ° W. It became Tropical Depression Three @-@ C on October 6 . The waters were very warm , and there was only moderate wind shear . However , the depression slowly moved westward without intensifying , and dissipated the next day .
= = = Tropical Depression Four @-@ C = = =
A tropical disturbance formed in late October . It became Tropical Depression Four @-@ C on October 30 well southwest of Hawaii . Although the waters were very warm , some dry air was located north of the system . It slowly moved westward without intensifying , and dissipated the next day as the circulation became exposed .
= = = Hurricane Rick = = =
The first hurricane in November since 1991 formed from a tropical disturbance . Although the circulation was initially poorly defined , it later acquired enough organization and was classified as a tropical depression on November 7 . It moved north until a trough of low pressure turned it to the northeast . It was named on November 8 , and was upgraded to a hurricane the next day . It reached its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and 973 mbar ( hPa ) . Rick made landfall in Oaxaca – the same area devastated by Hurricane Pauline one month earlier – and quickly weakened , dissipating early on November 11 .
The storm downed trees , washed out recently repaired roads , and disrupted communications in some small population centers . A total of 10 @.@ 47 inches ( 266 mm ) of rain was reported at Astata / San Pedro Huameluca near the point of landfall in Mexico . No one was killed .
Rick is one of only eight known hurricanes to form in the Pacific Ocean east of the dateline in the month of November . The other ones are Nina , Tara , Iwa , Nora , Sergio , Kenneth , and Sandra of which only Rick , Tara , and Iwa directly impacted land . It was also the second @-@ latest landfalling Pacific hurricane .
= = = Tropical Storm Paka = = =
Tropical Depression Five @-@ C formed on December 2 , two days after the season ended . It was the second December tropical depression east of the dateline ; 1983 's Hurricane Winnie was the only other one . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Paka ( Hawaiian for Pat ) while west of Palmyra Atoll . The system began to move westward at a steady pace . As Paka moved westward , dry air and wind shear disrupted its development until it crossed the dateline on December 6 .
After entering the Western Pacific , the cyclone encountered a more favorable environment , resulting in rapid intensification . It became a typhoon on December 10 and passed near Kwajalein with winds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . It strengthened further , twice reaching Category 5 intensity . While a super typhoon , Paka passed close to Guam on December 17 , causing major damage . Afterwards , Paka encountered a hostile environment and had completely dissipated by the evening of December 22 .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in 1997 and their landfall ( s ) , if any . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still storm @-@ related . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low , but do not include impacts in the Western Pacific basin .
= = Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) = =
Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) is a measure of how active a hurricane season is . It is calculated by squaring the windspeed of a cyclone with at least tropical storm @-@ force winds every six hours , summing the results , and dividing that total by 104 . This explains why Hurricane Guillermo has a higher ACE than Linda . It was not as strong as that storm , but because it was above tropical storm force for a longer time , it reached a higher ACE level . As a tropical cyclone does not have gale @-@ force winds until it becomes a tropical storm , tropical depressions are not included in these tables . For all storms , ACE is given to three significant figures . The ACE in the east Pacific proper ( 140 ° W to North America ) is given ; the ACE in the central Pacific ( the international dateline to 140 ° W ) is given in brackets .
The table includes the ACE for Oliwa and Paka only during those storm 's time east of the dateline . Their ACE west of the dateline is part of the totals of the 1997 typhoon season .
The National Hurricane Center uses ACE to rank hurricane seasons as above @-@ normal , near @-@ normal , and below @-@ normal . This season has a total of 17 tropical storms , 9 hurricanes , and 7 major hurricanes . The total ACE of this season is 160 * 104 kt2 in the east Pacific proper . This qualifies this season as above @-@ normal .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1997 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 2003 season . This is the same list used for the 1991 season except for Felicia , which replaced Fefa . A storm was named Felicia for the first time in 1997 . Also , the name " Dolores " was misspelled " Delores " in the 1991 season ; in this and subsequent seasons , the typo was corrected .
For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line , all names are used in a series of four rotating lists . The next four names that were slated for use in 1997 are shown below , however , only two of them were used .
= = = Retirement = = =
The World Meteorological Organization retired one name in the spring of 1998 : Pauline . It was replaced in the 2003 season by Patricia . In 2006 , a name from the Central Pacific list was retired due to its effects west of the International Dateline in this season : Paka . The name set to replace it is Pama .
= Yugoslav submarine Nebojša =
The Yugoslav submarine Nebojša was the second of the Hrabri @-@ class diesel @-@ electric submarines built by the Vickers @-@ Armstrong Naval Yard on the River Tyne in the United Kingdom , for the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) and was launched in 1927 . Her design was based on that of the British L @-@ class submarine of World War I , and she was built using parts originally assembled for a Royal Navy L @-@ class submarine that was never built . She was armed with six bow @-@ mounted 533 mm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes , two 102 mm ( 4 in ) guns and one machine gun , and could dive to 60 metres ( 200 ft ) .
Prior to World War II Nebojša participated in cruises to several Mediterranean ports . During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , she evaded capture by Italian forces , and joined British naval forces in the Mediterranean where she performed a training role . After the war she was taken over by the new Yugoslav government and renamed Tara . She was eventually stricken in 1954 , and scrapped in 1958 .
= = Description and construction = =
Yugoslav naval policy in the interwar period lacked direction until the mid @-@ 1920s , although it was generally accepted that the Adriatic coastline was effectively a sea frontier that the naval arm was responsible for securing with the limited resources made available to it . In 1926 , a modest ten @-@ year construction program was initiated to build up a force of submarines , coastal torpedo boats , torpedo bombers and conventional bomber aircraft to perform this role . The Hrabri @-@ class submarines were one of the first new acquisitions aimed at developing a naval force capable of meeting this challenge .
Nebojša ( Fearless ) was built in 1927 for the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , by the Vickers @-@ Armstrong Naval Yard on the River Tyne in the United Kingdom . Her design was based on that of the British L @-@ class submarine of World War I , and she was built using parts originally assembled for HMS L @-@ 68 , which was never completed . Along with her sister submarine Hrabri , she had an overall length of 72 @.@ 05 metres ( 236 ft 5 in ) , a beam of 7 @.@ 32 m ( 24 ft 0 in ) , and a surfaced draught of 3 @.@ 96 m ( 13 ft 0 in ) . Her surfaced displacement was 975 long tons ( 991 t ) or 1 @,@ 164 long tons ( 1 @,@ 183 t ) submerged , and her crew consisted of 45 officers and enlisted men . She had an operational depth of 60 m ( 200 ft ) .
The Hrabri @-@ class had two shafts driven by two diesel engines ( when surfaced ) or two electric motors ( when submerged ) . Their diesel engines were rated at 2 @,@ 400 brake horsepower ( 1 @,@ 800 kW ) and the electric motors at 1 @,@ 600 shaft horsepower ( 1 @,@ 200 kW ) , and they were designed to reach a top speed of 15 @.@ 7 knots ( 29 @.@ 1 km / h ; 18 @.@ 1 mph ) under diesel power while surfaced , and 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) on their electric motors when submerged . They were armed with six bow @-@ mounted 533 mm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes , and carried twelve torpedoes . They were also equipped with two 102 mm ( 4 in ) deck guns ( one forward and one aft of the conning tower ) , and one machine gun . Their radius of action was 3 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 000 km ; 4 @,@ 400 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = Service career = =
Nebojša was launched in 1927 as the second submarine of the navy of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , which later became the Royal Yugoslav Navy . Along with her sister submarine Hrabri , she left the Tyne in late January 1928 . In company with the Yugoslav submarine tender Hvar , the two submarines arrived in the Bay of Kotor on the southern Adriatic coast on 8 April 1928 . In May and June 1929 , Hrabri , Nebojša , Hvar and six torpedo boats accompanied the light cruiser Dalmacija on a cruise to Malta , the Greek island of Corfu in the Ionian Sea , and Bizerte in the French protectorate of Tunisia . The British naval attaché observed that the ships and crews made a very good impression while visiting Malta . On 16 May 1930 , Nebojša was exercising her crew at periscope depth near the entrance to the Bay of Kotor when she collided with a Yugoslav steamship . The damage was not serious and there were no injuries , but her forward 102 mm gun was lost overboard . The necessary repairs were carried out at the dockyard in the Bay of Kotor .
In June and July 1930 , Hrabri , Nebojša and the fleet auxiliary Sitnica again cruised the Mediterranean , visiting Alexandria and Beirut . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships engaged in few exercises , manoeuvres or gunnery training due to reduced budgets . In September 1933 , Nebojša and the submarine Osvetnik cruised the southern part of the central Mediterranean . In August 1936 , Nebojša and Osvetnik visited the Greek island of Corfu .
During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , she and two Orjen @-@ class motor torpedo boats evaded capture by Italian forces at the Bay of Kotor , arriving at Suda Bay , Crete , on 23 April , after eight days at sea . Despite this , the Italians claimed that they had sunk all the Yugoslav vessels . Nebojša then sailed to Alexandria , but the Royal Navy considered her unfit for combat duties . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill suggested her crew might be retrained and used to operate the recently captured German Type VIIC U @-@ boat U @-@ 570 , but this idea was soon abandoned . She was based at Valletta in Malta as an anti @-@ submarine warfare training vessel , serving with the British 2nd Submarine Flotilla in 1942 and the British 3rd Submarine Flotilla in 1943 . She continued working in the Mediterranean until the end of the war , but her service with the Royal Navy appears to have been limited to a training role .
After the war she was towed first to Bari in Italy , then in August 1945 to the port of Split where she was overhauled , renamed Tara and given the pennant number 801 . She was then transferred to Pula on the Istrian peninsula in the northern Adriatic . Used to train the fledgling Yugoslav Navy submarine arm , she was stricken in 1954 . One of her guns was removed at the end of her career , and she was eventually scrapped in 1958 .
= = Legacy = =
In 2011 , to mark the 70th anniversary of the invasion of Yugoslavia , the Military Museum in Belgrade , Serbia hosted an exhibit which included a flag from the Nebojša . In April 2013 , the 85th anniversary of the arrival of the first Yugoslav submarines at the Bay of Kotor was marked by an event in Tivat , Montenegro , attended by dozens of former Yugoslav submariners .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Periodicals = = =
= = = Websites = = =
= 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion was formed in June 1940 as part of the 7th Division and served in Egypt , Syria , the Netherlands East Indies and New Guinea during World War II . Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Blackburn when it was raised , the battalion was primarily a South Australian unit , although it had sub @-@ units formed in Victoria , Tasmania and Western Australia . After completing training in Australia , in April 1941 the battalion embarked for the Middle East . In June / July 1941 it saw action against Vichy French forces during the Syria – Lebanon campaign , during which time the battalion was heavily involved in supporting various elements of the 7th Division .
Following Japan 's entry into the war , the decision was made to transfer a large number of Australian troops from the Middle East to the Pacific region . In early 1942 , as the Japanese advanced through the Netherlands East Indies , the majority of the battalion was captured during the Battle of Java . A small number of the battalion 's personnel returned to Australia and it was subsequently re @-@ raised in mid @-@ 1942 . It was later attached to the 6th Division as a corps unit and served in Papua New Guinea during the Aitape – Wewak campaign in 1944 – 45 . The battalion was disbanded in January 1946 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and training = = =
The 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion was one of four machine gun battalions that were raised as part of the all @-@ volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) for service overseas during World War II . Motorised infantry units , equipped with wheeled motor vehicles , motorcycles and sometimes tracked carriers , the machine gun battalions were formed to provide a greater level of support by fire than that which was organically available within ordinary infantry battalions . At its peak , the 2 / 3rd was equipped with 124 motor vehicles of various descriptions and 50 motorcycles .
Developed by the British Army , the concept within the Australian Army had its genesis during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 , when the machine guns assigned to the infantry battalions – initially two and then , later , four – had been grouped together and co @-@ ordinated at brigade level to help compensate for the lack of artillery support . Over the course of the war , on the Western Front the concept had evolved through the establishment of machine gun companies in 1916 and machine gun battalions in 1918 . Similar formations had also been established amongst the Australian Light Horse units serving in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . During the inter @-@ war years , the machine gun battalions had been deemed unnecessary . When the Army was reorganised in 1921 , they were not re @-@ raised , but in 1937 , as the Army looked to expand as fears of war in Europe loomed , four such units were raised within the part @-@ time Militia , by converting light horse units and motorising them . When World War II broke out , the decision was made to raise several machine gun battalions within the 2nd AIF , allocated at a rate of one per division .
The 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion was formed on 17 June 1940 , in Wayville , South Australia . Upon formation , the battalion was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Blackburn , a World War I veteran who had received the Victoria Cross for actions at Pozieres . Designated a South Australian battalion , its personnel were nevertheless recruited from several Australian states : South Australians predominated , but there were also men from Victoria , Tasmania , and Western Australia , with many of the battalion 's cadre staff of officers and senior non commissioned officers having served previously in the Militia with various light horse regiments and infantry battalions . In common with the other Australian machine gun battalions , the colours chosen for the battalion 's Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) were black and gold . These were presented in a triangular shape with a border of grey .
Initially , the battalion was stretched across several locations , with companies being formed in Seymour , Victoria , Brighton , Tasmania , and Northam , Western Australia . The Tasmanians and Western Australians had initially been intended to join the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion , and during its formative period , the companies completed basic training in their home locations , before concentrating together at Warradale , South Australia with the Tasmanians sailing to Melbourne to link up with Victorians prior to entraining for the journey west , while the Western Australians crossed the Nullarbor Plain . At this point , the unit 's establishment was completed , as the battalion structure was finalised . It was structured along the same lines as the other 2nd AIF machine gun battalions , which consisted of between 800 and 900 personnel organised into a headquarters element consisting of three platoons – signals , anti @-@ aircraft and administration – and four machine gun companies , each equipped with 12 Vickers machine guns , to make a total of 48 across the entire battalion . Within the machine gun companies there were three platoons ; these were numbered sequentially starting from 1 to 3 in Headquarters Company through to 13 to 15 in ' D ' Company . A Light Aid Detachment of electrical and mechanical engineers was also attached .
= = = Fighting against the French : Palestine and Syria = = =
In early April 1941 , the battalion , less ' D ' Company which travelled west for home leave , entrained at Oakbank , near to Woodside , South Australia where they had moved the previous February . From there , the battalion travelled overland to Sydney where they embarked upon the SS Ile de France from Pyrmont Wharf , bound for the Middle East , as part of a large convoy of troopships . Sailing via Fremantle where ' D ' Company rejoined the battalion , they sailed on to Colombo , which was reached in late April , where the troopship put in for repairs and shore leave was given to all battalion personnel . Departing again in early May , they continued on alone , crossing the Red Sea in a week and making landfall at Port Tewfik . The troops had to endure a two day wait before disembarkation whereupon they were taken to the eastern side of the Suez Canal by lighter and then transferred by train to Kantara .
Upon arrival in the Middle East , the 2 / 3rd was assigned to the 7th Division , the 2nd AIF 's second division – there were also five infantry divisions as part of the Militia at this time , which were reserved for service in Australia and New Guinea – and subsequently joined them in Palestine , establishing a camp at Hill 95 , to the north of Gaza . There the battalion undertook a vigorous physical training regime to regain the fitness lost from the sea voyage . The final elements of unit identity were issued at the time : pugarees and colour patches . It also finally began to receive its vehicles and heavy equipment , including its Vickers machine guns as preparations were made for the battalion to join the fighting in the Western Desert .
In the end , this did not eventuate , as the 7th Division was committed to the Syria – Lebanon campaign in early June , to secure the Allied eastern flank from attack . Due to the presence of Vichy French troops , the campaign was politically sensitive and as a result of heavy censorship not widely reported in Australia at the time ; the nature of the fighting , where it was reported , was also downplayed with the Vichy Forces outnumbering the Allies and also being better equipped . For the 2 / 3rd , the campaign saw them heavily involved throughout the short , but sharply contested campaign , with each of the four machine gun companies supporting separate efforts by elements of the 7th Division and also British troops , seeing action around Merdajayoun , Metula , Quneitra , Sidon and Damour before the Vichy French requested an armistice in mid @-@ July . The 2 / 3rd 's casualties during the campaign amounted to one officer and 41 other ranks killed or wounded . In the aftermath of the campaign , the 2 / 3rd stayed on as part of the Allied occupation force established in Syria and Lebanon to defend against a possible drive south by Axis forces through the Caucasus . The battalion defended a position north @-@ east of Beirut , around Bikfaya , initially but was moved around to various locations including Aleppo , on the Turkish border , throughout the remainder of 1941 . They endured a bitter cold , and snowy , winter at Fih near Tripoli , which was punctuated by leave drafts to Tel Aviv .
= = = Into action against the Japanese : Java and captivity = = =
In late 1941 , the Japanese entered the war , attacking Pearl Harbor and launching an invasion of Malaya . Faced with a threat closer to home , the Australian government pressed for the return of its troops from the Middle East , and so in early 1942 the 7th Division began withdrawing from their garrison posts in Syria and Lebanon . The 2 / 3rd left the village of Fih and moved to a camp at Hill 69 , in Palestine , on 14 January 1942 . They remained there until 31 January when they boarded a train which took them to Kantara where they were ferried across the canal to continue the journey to Port Tewfik where the majority of the battalion , totalling 636 personnel of all ranks , boarded the troopship Orcades . Men who were in the hospital or on course were subsequently reposted to the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion , and remained in the Middle East , later seeing action at El Alamein . Others who did not board the Orcades included the battalion 's ' B ' Echelon , essentially all its vehicles , baggage and heavy weapons , and its maintenance personnel . These embarked on eight smaller vessels : the Silver Willow , Penrith Castle , Shillong , Tarifa , Sophecles , Nigerstroom , Industria and Tricolor . These ships were to follow the Orcades up at its eventual destination , which was at the time , still being kept secret even to the troops on board .
The Orcades , a fast transport capable of 26 knots , set sail for Colombo before even the battalion 's baggage could be brought on board . On 8 February 1942 , the ship reached its intermediate destination from where it was escorted by the cruiser HMS Dorsetshire . As the situation in the Pacific worsened for the Allies – Singapore had fallen in early February and the Japanese were steadily advancing through the Netherlands East Indies – the Allies made the decision to hastily make a stand . The Orcades reached Oosthaven , in Sumatra , on 15 February , and the troops from Orcades were ferried ashore on the tanker Van Spillsbergen , where they were grouped together as " Boost Force " under orders to take up the defence of the Palembang airfields and providing protection to civilians as they were evacuated . Missing many of their weapons , the troops were re @-@ equipped with rifles from the Orcades 's armoury . However , shortly after their arrival , they were ordered to re @-@ embark on the tanker , which eventually caught up with Orcades and transferred its personnel for the remainder of the journey to Batavia . There , fresh orders reached them . The units aboard the Orcades – the 2 / 2nd Pioneers as well as an engineer field company , and an anti @-@ aircraft regiment as well as transport and medical personnel – were ordered to form an ad hoc force along with a squadron from the British 3rd The King 's Own Hussars and an artillery battery from the US 131st Field Artillery Regiment . This force , under Blackburn who was promoted to brigadier , came to be known as " Blackforce " , with headquarters being established at Batavia . In Blackburn 's stead , the ' D ' Company commander , Major Edward Lyneham , was promoted to take over command of the battalion .
Blackburn established his force into a brigade formation , utilising the pioneers and machine gunners as infantry battalions , and forming a third infantry battalion from troops that were assigned to garrison the base , as well as logistics and administrative personnel , and members of the AIF who had been able to get out of Singapore before it fell . Due to the presence of a large amount of equipment on the wharf , which had been intended to be sent to Singapore before its fall , Blackforce was able to re @-@ equip itself handsomely with vehicles including carriers and armoured cars , Bren guns , Thompson sub @-@ machine guns and mortars ; but there were no machine guns . Concentrating around the civilian airport at Kemajoian , the battalion formed part of Blackforce 's defensive garrison , tasked with protecting Batavia 's five airfields from Japanese paratroopers ; ' B ' Company was detached in this time to defend the Buitenzorg military airfield . Shortly afterwards , they came under air attack from Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zeroes on 22 February , during which one member of the 2 / 3rd was killed , while six others were wounded . Two of these wounded were later smuggled out of the Indies by medical personnel back to Australia , with one rejoining the battalion there later in the year . As the Japanese began advancing further in the Indies , Blackburn sought to re @-@ orient his troops , and the machine gunners were subsequently moved to the Leuwiliang area , 15 miles ( 24 km ) west of Buitenzorg along an expected main avenue of advance , and they were given the task for defence the bridge over the Tjianten River .
Following the Battle of the Java Sea , the Japanese were able to land a force around Banten Bay and Marek , on the western tip of Java , and subsequently began advancing east towards Batavia and Buitenzorg , forcing Blackforce to reorientate itself east of the Tjianten River , to make a stand south of Buitenzorg . On 3 March , the battalion went into action around Leuwiliang for the first time as Dutch troops began to withdraw . Occupying positions in support of the 2 / 2nd Pioneers who held the bridge over the Tjianten River , they were alerted to the advancing Japanese by the presence of fifth columnists , who were seen to be laying out marking panels . A short time later , a force of five Japanese light tanks attempted to cross the river , but were rebuffed by anti @-@ tank rifles and small arms . The plan had been for the Dutch troops to make a stand at Djasinga , but faulty intelligence resulted in a rout and the Dutch began to withdraw back to Bandung , flooding through Blackforce 's lines . In the ensuing chaos , Dutch engineers blew up the bridge at the Tjianten River . For the next couple of days , the battalion fought several skirmishes with ' C ' Company bearing the brunt of the Japanese attacks , suffering seven killed and 28 wounded , while inflicting about 200 casualties on the Japanese . As the Allied defence of the island began to collapse , the machine gunners were ordered to hold up the Japanese around Leuwiliang for a day . After this , Blackforce began moving towards Soekaboemi on 5 March , as part of efforts to reach Tjilatjap on the southern coast of the island to secure passage back to Australia . Ultimately , this never eventuated and Blackforce was ordered to surrender on 9 March 1942 following the Dutch capitulation the day before . They would subsequently endure three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years in captivity as Japanese prisoners of war , being sent to camps across south @-@ east Asia , including the infamous Thai – Burma Railway . Forced to endure brutal conditions , over worked in labour camps , and inadequately provided for , casualties amongst these men were high .
= = = Re @-@ organisation and garrison duties in Australia = = =
While the troops who had boarded the Orcades went into captivity on Java , the five officers and 257 other ranks that had been transported on the eight smaller ships returned to Australia in the last week of March 1942 . Arriving at Port Adelaide , the battalion 's vehicles , weapons and heavy equipment was moved to Morphettville Racecourse and the remaining personnel concentrated at Sandy Creek . On 15 April 1942 , the order was passed to re @-@ form the battalion , under Lieutenant Colonel Sidney Reed , the battalion 's original second @-@ in @-@ command . Reinforcements arrived from various locations , including the Machine Gun Training Battalion based at Camden , New South Wales , while others came from the 2 / 1st Machine Gun Battalion to provide a cadre of experienced personnel .
In May , the battalion moved to Balcombe on the Mornington Peninsula in Victoria , where they undertook range shoots , planning exercises and bivouacks . In mid @-@ July , the 2 / 3rd received orders to move north to Cowra by road . Along the way , they stopped at Ingleburn , New South Wales where a draft of almost 400 reinforcements was received ; the result of this was that in its second incarnation , about half the battalion came from New South Wales , instead of South Australia . The battalion remained in Cowra , where they carried out training , for ten months , eventually proceeding north to south @-@ east Queensland in May 1943 . Based around the Deception Bay area , north of Brisbane , a company was deployed to Moreton Island and another to Bribie Island . In late June , ' B ' Company embarked upon the Dutch vessel , the SS Jansens and deployed to Netherlands New Guinea as part of Merauke Force , remaining there in a defensive capacity until May 1944 .
While ' B ' Company was deployed to Merauke , the remainder of the battalion moved to the Atherton Tablelands in mid @-@ August 1943 , at which time the battalion was transferred to the command of the 6th Division , assigned as a corps unit rather than a direct command unit . Lieutenant Colonel Roy Gordon , who had raised the original ' C ' Company in 1940 , took over command of the battalion in February 1944 . A long period of relative inactivity subsequently followed as a result of inter @-@ Allied service politics which saw the US Army assume primacy of operations in the Pacific , and indecision about the future role of Australian forces in the Pacific campaign . During this time , the battalion was based around Wondecla , south @-@ west of Cairns . The battalion was transferred to the " tropical war establishment " during this period as part of an Army @-@ wide reorganisation intended to optimise units for jungle warfare . As a result of this change , the battalion was required to return all of its vehicles , with the intention that its guns would largely be carried across the battlefield by soldiers moving on foot . The 2 / 3rd remained at Wondecla until 2 December 1944 , when they entrained for Cairns and subsequently boarded the transport Evangeline , a former cruise ship , bound for New Guinea , where they were to undertake their final campaign of the war .
= = = Aitape – Wewak : The final campaign = = =
Although it had been intended to deploy the Australians as part of the Allied efforts to recapture the Philippines , this did not eventuate . Instead , the Australian troops were tasked with relieving the US forces around New Guinea , so that they could be redistributed in the Pacific . The 6th Division was subsequently assigned to take over from the US XI Corps around Aitape – Wewak . The campaign that followed was , in the words of author Eustace Keogh , essentially a " mopping up campaign " , with the division being tasked with security of the airstrip and base area , and ensuring that contact was maintained with Japanese forces in the area . These tasks were to be achieved without large @-@ scale offensive action , due to contingency plans for the division to be re @-@ deployed to the Philippines ; in the event this did not occur and the 6th Division remained in Aitape – Wewak for the remainder of the war .
With priority of effort being given to the campaigns in the Philippines and Borneo , the arrival of the 6th Division took place over several months . Initially , they were camped around Tadji defending the airfield there , but after Christmas , the majority of the battalion – headquarters , headquarters company and two machine gun companies – was assigned to the 19th Brigade as they advanced west along the coast towards the Danmap , switching to providing support to the 16th Brigade in early January as it drove towards Abau ; in the open country of the coastal area the machine guns proved quite effective . While this took place , ' B ' and ' D ' Companies were assigned to the 17th Brigade , with whom they undertook a mainly defensive role around Aitape , while accompanying infantry patrols into the interior .
In February 1945 , as the Australians began advancing into the thick , hilly interior , the utility of the machine guns decreased . At the behest of Brigadier Roy King , commander of the 16th Brigade , the 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion was hastily converted into a standard infantry battalion , which was achieved with a quick issue of rifles , sub @-@ machine guns and mortars . From then until the end of the war , the battalion took part in the ground advance through Wewak and beyond , fighting a series of small scale patrol actions , initially advancing through Arohemi and Muguluwela , and finally the town of But , while ' B ' Company was assigned to Farida Force and carried out an amphibious landing around Dove Bay , in early May . The battalion later moved into the Mandi and Brandi areas where they were tasked with re @-@ invigorating the Australian operations in the area , as Japanese resistance around the plantations increased . By late July , the majority of the battalion moved to Wewak Point , while two companies remained in the vicinity of Mandi – Bandi ; operations in the area had killed 59 Japanese , for the loss of four men from 2 / 3rd killed in action and eight wounded . The battalion 's final action of the war came on 7 August when a patrol killed four Japanese . A week later , the Japanese surrender was announced , bringing combat operations officially to an end . The battalion 's final campaign of the war cost them 94 battle casualties .
= = = Disbandment = = =
In late August , following the conclusion of hostilities the 2 / 3rd was concentrated at Wewak Point , in the 19th Brigade 's area , where final parades were held and education classes commenced to prepare the soldiers for discharge and return to civilian life . Meanwhile , following the conclusion of hostilities , the battalion 's personnel were slowly transferred to other units or repatriated back to Australia for demobilisation . In early December 1945 , the 2 / 3rd 's remaining personnel returned to Australia aboard the British aircraft carrier HMS Implacable , arriving in Sydney , and the following month , in January 1946 , after final clearances had been obtained the unit was disbanded . During the war the battalion lost 202 men killed or died on active service , of which 56 were killed in action , 139 died while prisoners of war and seven in accidents or illness on active service . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Distinguished Service Order , three Military Crosses , four Military Medals , one British Empire Medal and 21 Mentions in Despatches . In addition , one member was appointed as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire and four were appointed as Members of the Order of the British Empire .
After the war , the Australian Army moved away from the machine gun battalion construct and consequently no similar units have been raised since , with the role being subsumed into the support companies of individual infantry battalions . The concept was arguably misunderstood by Australian commanders throughout the war , and this may have influenced the decision to move away from the concept . When the units had been established , the intent had been that the machine gun battalions would provide highly mobile fire support ; however , this was largely only applicable in theatres where principles of open warfare could be applied . Once the focus of Australian Army combat operations shifted to the Pacific , the machine gun battalions were largely misused , being employed in a static defensive capacity against short and medium range targets , or for menial tasks , rather than as offensive fire support weapons that could have been employed to provide long range fire support . The medium machine guns were also largely utilised in the same manner as light machine guns , such as the Bren . Other reasons identified for the concept 's limited use include distrust of overhead fire by some commanders , a preference for organic fire support over attached sub @-@ units , over @-@ estimating the difficulty of transporting Vickers guns in the jungle , and a tendency to ignore targets that could not be seen . The difficulties of target acquisition in dense jungle also contributed . For the 2 / 3rd , the Syrian campaign was the only one of its three campaigns where it was employed wholly as a machine gun unit in support of the infantry ; on Java and in Aitape – Wewak , it was utilised as infantry .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion received the following battle honours :
Anumb River , But – Dagua , Damour , Jebel Mazar , Jezzine , Nambut Ridge , Sidon , and Syria 1941 .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers commanded the 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion during the war :
Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Blackburn ( 1940 – 42 )
Lieutenant Colonel Edward Lyneham ( 1942 )
Lieutenant Colonel Sidney Reed ( 1942 – 44 )
Lieutenant Colonel Roy Gordon ( 1944 – 45 )
Of these , both Blackburn and Reed were World War I veterans who had later served in the Militia in the 18th Light Horse Regiment , in South Australia , during the inter @-@ war years . Lyneham and Gordon had both served in the Militia before the war , with Lyneham serving in the 28th Battalion , The Swan Regiment in Western Australia and Gordon in the 6th Battalion , Royal Melbourne Regiment . Gordon later reached the rank of major general .
= Ne @-@ Yo =
Shaffer Chimere Smith ( born October 18 , 1979 ) , better known by his stage name Ne @-@ Yo , is an American R & B singer , songwriter , record producer , dancer , and actor . Ne @-@ Yo gained fame for his songwriting abilities when he penned his 2004 hit " Let Me Love You " for singer Mario . The single 's successful release in the United States prompted an informal meeting between Ne @-@ Yo and Def Jam 's label head , and the signing of a recording contract .
= = Early life = =
Ne @-@ Yo was born in Camden , Arkansas . His father is of African American and Chinese descent , and his mother is African @-@ American . Both his parents were musicians . As a young child , he was raised by his mother after she separated from his father . In hopes of better opportunity , his mother relocated the family to Las Vegas , Nevada .
While in the Las Vegas Academy , Smith adopted the stage name " GoGo " and joined an R & B group called Envy , who appeared during amateur night on Showtime at the Apollo and on the MTV 's The Cut ( hosted by Lisa " Left Eye " Lopes of TLC ) . The group disbanded in 2000 , and Smith continued to write songs for other artists before starting his solo career . The stage name " Ne @-@ Yo " was coined by Big D Evans , a producer with whom Ne @-@ Yo once worked , because Evans claimed that Ne @-@ Yo sees music as Neo sees the matrix .
= = Music career = =
= = = 1998 – 2005 : Career beginnings = = =
At an early age , Ne @-@ Yo emerged on the recording industry scene as a member of the Romford @-@ based quartet Envy , which featured Chimna Orji as its leading woman . After the group disbanded in 2000 , Columbia Records signed Ne @-@ Yo , but the label dropped him before he could release his already @-@ recorded first album . American singer Marques Houston happened to hear " That Girl " , which Ne @-@ Yo had planned to release as his debut single off his then @-@ unreleased album . Houston re @-@ recorded the song and released it as a single for his 2003 album MH . The release of the song led to Ne @-@ Yo being recognized as a top songwriter .
For the next two years , Ne @-@ Yo continued writing songs , some of which have not been officially released . He contributed songs to American singer Teedra Moses 's 2004 album Complex Simplicity , Christina Milian 's It 's About Time , and the American boy band Youngstown , none of which , however , brought Ne @-@ Yo much mainstream attention . Ne @-@ Yo has also contributed songs to singers Mary J. Blige , B2K , Faith Evans , and Musiq , among others .
A breakthrough came when Ne @-@ Yo wrote " Let Me Love You " for American singer Mario . The song reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , and later stayed at the top spot for nine weeks . After the successful release , Tina Davis , former A & R representative for Def Jam Recordings , arranged an informal meeting with label head L.A. Reid . Despite not seeking a new contract at the time , then @-@ CEO of Def Jam Jay Z signed Ne @-@ Yo to a new deal after he performed for the label 's executives .
= = = 2006 – 07 : In My Own Words and Because of You = = =
In early 2006 , Ne @-@ Yo released his debut album , In My Own Words , through Def Jam . Boosted by its popular second single " So Sick " , the album debuted at number one on Billboard 200 , selling over 301 @,@ 000 copies in its first week on sale . During the same week , the single had reached number one on the | Billboard Hot 100 . Later singles released were " When You 're Mad " and " Sexy Love " , which peaked at number 15 and number 7 , respectively . The album has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for a shipment of over one million units .
His second album , Because of You , was released on May 1 , 2007 , and , fueled by its lead single , debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 251 @,@ 000 copies in the United States ; the feat gave Ne @-@ Yo his second number @-@ one album . The first single from the platinum @-@ selling album was the title track , which peaked at the number @-@ two spot . Despite the success of " Because of You , " later singles released charted lower and were unable to reach the Top 20 . The album has been certified platinum by RIAA for a shipment of over one million units . In December 2007 , Ne @-@ Yo and the Goo Goo Dolls performed at a fund @-@ raising concert for the then – presidential candidate Senator Barack Obama .
= = = 2008 – 10 : Year of the Gentleman and Libra Scale = = =
Ne @-@ Yo 's third album , Year of the Gentleman , was released internationally on August 5 , 2008 . Speaking to noted UK R & B writer Pete Lewis of the award @-@ winning Blues & Soul , Ne @-@ Yo explained the thinking behind its title : " To me Year of the Gentleman is all about a persona , a swag and a charm . I made an assessment of the music business . And , in my personal opinion , the essence of the gentleman is absent right now . Everybody kinda looks the same , everybody 's kinda doing the same thing , everybody 's kinda rude and full of themselves . Whereas a gentleman is calm , courteous , kind , charming ... So that title basically represents me trying to lead by example , and showing these cats what it is to be a gentleman in this business still . "
The album sold 250 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the United States , debuting on the Billboard 200 at number two . Reviews for the album were positive : in one , Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that Year of the Gentleman is " actually a superb concept album about what a great boyfriend he [ Ne @-@ Yo ] can be " .
The first two singles , " Closer " and " Miss Independent , " peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 . The album was nominated for Best Contemporary R & B Album and Album of the Year at the 2009 Grammy Awards , " Closer " for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance , and " Miss Independent " for Best Male R & B Vocal Performance and Best R & B Song . Year of the Gentleman has been certified platinum by RIAA for a shipment of more than one million copies . The third single , " Mad , " peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
On August 12 , 2008 , the New Kids on the Block released " Single , " the second single from their fifth studio album , The Block , which is a duet with Ne @-@ Yo . Ne @-@ Yo included a solo version of the song on his album Year of the Gentleman .
In December 2008 , Ne @-@ Yo performed at the Kennedy Center Honors as part of the tribute to Barbra Streisand ; he sang and danced to the song " Lover Come Back to Me , " which Streisand recorded on her second album in 1963 .
In 2009 , Billboard ranked him as the 57th Artist of the 2000s decade .
On September 2 , 2009 , Ne @-@ Yo released greatest hits album Ne @-@ Yo : The Collection in Japan . The album was also released with a limited edition CD + DVD edition complete with the music videos of singles . It debuted at number four on Japan 's Oricon weekly albums chart , selling 55 @,@ 625 copies in the first week .
In January 2010 , Ne @-@ Yo was featured in a duet with singer Mariah Carey titled Angels Cry .
In June 2010 , Ne @-@ Yo released the single " Beautiful Monster , " which became Ne @-@ Yo 's first number @-@ one single on the UK Singles Chart . It peaked at number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart .
On October 8 , 2010 , Ne @-@ Yo performed some of his songs from the new album at P.C. Richard & Son Theater in New York City , an event hosted by iheartradio . Ne @-@ Yo made an appearance at New York ComicCon to announce that he was collaborating with Stan Lee for a Libra Scale comic . Ne @-@ Yo also met with fans for pictures and autographs in the Cultyard of the ComicCon . The second and third singles released off of the album are " Champagne Life " and " One in a Million , " respectively .
Libra Scale was released on November 22 , 2010 . It received critical acclaim from music critics , but was a commercial disappointment , debuting at number nine on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling less than all of his previous three studio albums . Ne @-@ Yo stated : " The album is based upon this short story which basically follows these three characters who are forced to choose between money @-@ power @-@ and @-@ fame versus love . Which in turn is why I 've called it ' Libra Scale ' . You know , its whole concept is based on that question of morality – that , if you weighed it all out on a libra scale , which one of those two options would you choose ? " . Libra Scale sold 112 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number 11 on the UK Albums Chart , while debuting at number one on the UK R & B Chart .
= = = 2011 – 12 : R.E.D. = = =
On February 25 , 2011 , while on his tour in the United Kingdom , he announced his new album would be called Love and Passion and would be released in September , but this was proven false as the title was tentative . American rapper Fabolous said in an interview that he is planning a collaboration album with Ne @-@ Yo as well . Ne @-@ Yo has also written songs for Mary J. Blige , JB , Beyoncé , Monica , Alexandra Burke , Cheryl Cole and Willow Smith 's upcoming albums . Ne @-@ Yo starred in two motion pictures , the long @-@ gestating George Lucas project Red Tails , released in early 2012 , and Battle : Los Angeles , which was released in the United States on March 11 , 2011 . Ne @-@ Yo has already finished writing songs for American pop singer and Roc Nation artist Alexis Jordan and her self @-@ titled debut album as well as Jennifer Hudson for her second studio album , I Remember Me , which had a North American release on March 22 , 2011 . Ne @-@ Yo appeared in the children 's preschool show The Fresh Beat Band and was one of the few artists not to cancel appearances in the wake of the 2011 Japan earthquake .
In the spring of 2011 , Ne @-@ Yo collaborated with American rapper Pitbull and Nayer on his single " Give Me Everything " , which peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , giving Ne @-@ Yo his second U.S. number @-@ one single , his first since 2006 's " So Sick " and his first as a guest artist . Ne @-@ Yo also revealed in an interview that he would like to collaborate with Chris Brown , Lil Wayne and Drake on his upcoming album .
In January 2012 , it was reported that Ne @-@ Yo , along with his label imprint Compound Entertainment , had moved from Def Jam Recordings to Motown Records . He was also appointed Senior Vice President of A & R of Motown , where he would serve " ... as a producer and mentor to the label 's artists , as well as seeking out and signing new talent to the label . " Ne @-@ Yo was slated to release his fifth studio album , R.E.D. ( as in " Realizing Every Dream " ) , on September 18 , 2012 . The album was initially titled The Cracks in Mr. Perfect . The album 's first official single , " Lazy Love , " was released on June 12 , 2012 and peaked at number forty @-@ two on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Let Me Love You ( Until You Learn to Love Yourself ) , " co @-@ written by Australian singer @-@ songwriter Sia , was released as the second single on July 31 , 2012 . Because of Kevin McCall 's new album and the song Ne @-@ Yo will be in , Love Time , is not yet released because he and his friend Chris Brown will make an appearance on Ne @-@ Yo 's R.E.D. album in the song called What I Do , which they all will be involved in writing the beat says Ne @-@ Yo , who was interviewed by TMZ in New York . " I expect this to be a banger in clubs for the slow songs and to get Ne @-@ Yo his first top 10 song in years , " said Chris Brown , after a celebrity basketball game with Ne @-@ Yo , Kevin Hart , and other celebrities in the month of July .
On August 29 , 2012 , Ne @-@ Yo was one of the headliners alongside R & B recording artist Melanie Fiona , in the Summer Beats Concert Series , otherwise known as the MJ Birthday Concert , which was on what would have been the 54th birthday of the late American pop icon Michael Jackson which was sponsored by and live @-@ streamed by Pepsi and Billboard . He performed a medley of hits , as well as performing " The Way You Make Me Feel , " " Smooth Criminal , " and " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " from Jackson 's best @-@ selling 1987 album , Bad , in preparation for the reissue of Bad 25 on September 18 , 2012 . The concert took place at Gotham Hall in New York City . R.E.D. was released in the United Kingdom on November 5 , and in North America on November 6 , 2012 .
In 2012 , Ne @-@ Yo was awarded the Hal David Starlight Award of the Songwriter 's Hall of Fame which honors gifted songwriters who are at an apex in their careers and are making a significant impact in the music industry via their original songs .
= = = 2013 – present : Non @-@ Fiction and seventh studio album = = =
In March 2013 , Ne @-@ Yo collaborated with Akon on David Guetta 's single " Play Hard " , from his 2012 album Nothing but the Beat 2 @.@ 0 . He also collaborated with Jessica Sanchez on her single " Tonight " from her debut album Me , You & the Music . The single , along with the music video got released on March 21 , 2013 . In April , Ne @-@ Yo and Cher Lloyd collaborated on their single " It 's All Good " , which eventually was featured on Fruttare commercials . Around the same time , he and Celine Dion recorded " Incredible " for Dion 's 2013 album Loved Me Back to Life . " Incredible " was released as a single in February 2014 and the music video premiered in June 2014 .
On May 29 , 2014 , Ne @-@ Yo announced his upcoming sixth studio album would be called Non @-@ Fiction . That same day , he announced a new single , " Money Can 't Buy . " On September 16 , 2014 , Ne @-@ Yo released the lead single from " Non Fiction " to mainstream radio titled " She Knows " featuring Juicy J. A few months later , Ne @-@ Yo announced that the new release date for Non @-@ Fiction was January 27 , 2015 . The album included collaborations with Pitbull and Charisse Mills . The album peaked at number 5 of on the Billboard 200 chart .
In July 2015 , Ne @-@ Yo collaborated with Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike on a new song for the Tomorrowland anthem titled " Higher Place " .
In August 2015 Ne @-@ Yo announced his seventh studio album with no title yet . However , he plans on the album to drop sometime in 2016 . He also leaked a sneak peek of the potential lead single off the album titled " Hang W / " during a live recording in the studio .
On September 6 , 2015 , Ne @-@ Yo premiered two new songs off the album titled " Goodbye " and " She Leaving With Me " featuring Busta Rhymes .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style and influence = = =
Ne @-@ Yo 's music is generally R & B , while he also incorporates Pop and Hip @-@ hop occasionally . His musical influences include Luther Vandross , Michael Jackson , R.kelly , Babyface , Blackstreet and Usher .
= = = Voice = = =
Ne @-@ Yo possess a light Lyric tenor vocal style .
= = = Songwriting and production = = =
Ne @-@ Yo frequently co @-@ writes with Tor Erik Hermansen and Mikkel S. Eriksen of the Norwegian production team Stargate . Ne @-@ Yo met them in a hallway at Sony Music Studios in New York , and knowing the team produced R & B records , decided to collaborate with them . The collective 's early works were tracks off In My Own Words , including " So Sick . "
Aside from working on his own album , Ne @-@ Yo also collaborates with several other artists . His works include : Rihanna 's top @-@ ten singles " Unfaithful , " " Russian Roulette , " and her number @-@ one hit " Take a Bow , " Mario Vazquez 's " Gallery , " Paula DeAnda 's " Walk Away ( Remember Me ) , " and Beyoncé Knowles ' Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one single " Irreplaceable , " which stayed at the top of the chart for ten consecutive weeks . He wrote the song " I 'm You " for Leona Lewis 's debut album Spirit , and is currently writing songs for her next album and for the debut album of fellow X Factor winner Alexandra Burke . He has also been working with Sugababes for their seventh album , with member Keisha Buchanan confirming that Ne @-@ Yo had written a song called " No More You " for their album .
In 2010 , he dueted with Mariah Carey on " Angel 's Cry , " a song on her cancelled album , Angels Advocate . Ne @-@ Yo has also written songs for Celine Dion , Whitney Houston , Carrie Underwood , Anastacia , Ciara , Corbin Bleu , Enrique Iglesias , and Dima Bilan . He collaborated with Lindsay Lohan on her new material , having already finished " Bossy " , a pre @-@ single for her new album Spirit in the Dark . In 2007 , Ne @-@ Yo confirmed that he had been contacted by producer will.i.am to work on what would have been Michael Jackson 's new album . However , at the time of Jackson 's death , Ne @-@ Yo 's collaborations with him had yet to move past the writing stage . In an interview in 2010 , Ne @-@ Yo said that , since Jackson 's death , he had been confused as what to do with the songs , as he felt that selling them to another artist or even releasing the songs himself would be disrespectful to Jackson 's legacy . In 2009 , he wrote " Truth ( Saigo no Shinjitsu ) " for w @-@ inds . , the Japanese pop group .
Ne @-@ Yo ventured out to open his own recording studio , called Carrington House , in Atlanta , Georgia . He also had started his own production company , Compound Entertainment , in 2007 , and has hired several producers and songwriters in hopes of turning it into a full @-@ fledged record label . It successfully became a label , and artists such as RaVaughn , Paula Campbell , Sixx John , Adrienne Bailon and Shanell are now associated with Compound .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Television = = =
In 2011 Ne @-@ Yo was approached by Cartoon Network to help create an animated series . Ne @-@ Yo announced that the show would be titled I Heart Tuesday and that he had created it for his sister . He also stated that he wanted to avoid having the show resemble the anime art style of The Boondocks due to the potential cost of the show 's animation style .
Ne @-@ Yo appeared in an episode of the seventh season of CSI : NY as a hit @-@ man , under his birth name of Shaffer Smith .
In 2011 , Ne @-@ Yo appeared in an episode of The Fresh Beat Band as himself .
He starred as the Tin Man in NBC 's musical telecast adaptation of The Wiz alongside David Alan Grier , Elijah Kelley , Queen Latifah , Common , Amber Riley , Uzo Aduba and Mary J. Blige . The musical telecast premiered December 3 , 2015 as a three @-@ hour event . For his performance , he received a Critics Choice Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Movie made for Television or Limited Series .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Ne @-@ Yo is very passionate about the arts and children , and has shown his support for Little Kids Rock by filming a PSA for the organization .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
In 2005 , Jessica White , Ne @-@ Yo 's girlfriend at the time , gave birth to a boy , naming him Chimere after Ne @-@ Yo 's middle name . Though Ne @-@ Yo believed he was the father , he later discovered the child was not his .
In June 2010 , Ne @-@ Yo told Ebony that he and his girlfriend , Monyetta Shaw , were expecting their first child together , a girl due early in 2011 . Shaw gave birth early to daughter , Madilyn Grace Smith , on November 12 , 2010 in Atlanta , Georgia . Announcing the birth , Ne @-@ Yo said of his first child , " I 've been in love before but this feels like nothing I 've ever felt ... like I 'm in love for the first time . "
In September 2011 , Ne @-@ Yo revealed that he was expecting his second child with Monyetta Shaw . Shaw gave birth to a boy , Mason Evan Smith , on October 9 , 2011 .
In September 2015 , the singer announced that he and Crystal Renay Williams were engaged and expecting a child . They were married on February 20 , 2016 . Their son , Shaffer Chimere Smith , Jr . , was born in March 2016 .
= = = Legal issues = = =
On February 19 , 2008 , Ne @-@ Yo was arrested for reckless driving and driving without a valid license while driving through Cobb County , Georgia in his 2006 Range Rover . It was reported that he was doing about 150 mph , 100 mph over the speed limit . On June 2 , 2008 , Ne @-@ Yo pleaded guilty to driving without a valid license and no contest to the reckless driving charge . He was sentenced to 24 hours of community service .
On August 22 , 2011 , Ne @-@ Yo was sued along with rapper Pitbull and Dutch DJ Afrojack by actress Lindsay Lohan , claiming that their song " Give Me Everything " referenced her by name in the lyrics . Pitbull won the lawsuit .
= = Discography = =
In My Own Words ( 2006 )
Because of You ( 2007 )
Year of the Gentleman ( 2008 )
Libra Scale ( 2010 )
R.E.D. ( 2012 )
Non @-@ Fiction ( 2015 )
= = Filmography = =
= George Odlum =
George William Odlum ( 24 June 1934 – 28 September 2003 ) was a Saint Lucian left @-@ wing politician who served as Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister . Born in Castries , Odlum studied at Bristol University and Oxford University in the United Kingdom before returning to Saint Lucia as Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Trade . After working for the Commonwealth Secretariat and the West Indies Associated States , he formed the Saint Lucia Forum , a left @-@ wing pressure group . This group merged with the Saint Lucia Labour Party in time for the 1974 elections ; although the Party did not win , the progress they made allowed them to take power in 1979 , with Odlum as Deputy Prime Minister .
Although a secret agreement originally stated that Odlum would take power after six months , his support for Cuba and similar left @-@ wing nations led to American pressure to keep him out . After months of negotiations , Odlum was dismissed as Deputy Prime Minister , and the ensuing government weakness and infighting led to its defeat in the 1982 election . In opposition , Odlum was made Ambassador to the United Nations , resigning in 1996 . When the Labour Party came to power again a year later , he became Foreign Minister , overseeing the establishment of stronger relations with both Cuba and China . Amidst controversy over his alleged alliance with the opposition , Odlum resigned in 2001 . Never again returning to power , he died on 28 September 2003 following a battle with pancreatic cancer .
Odlum 's legacy is controversial : while noted as a skilled orator who cared deeply for Saint Lucia 's working class , his idealism , support for controversial figures such as Muammar Gaddafi and departure from two Labour administrations were noted as factors which harmed him and others around him . Despite this , his funeral saw widespread grieving , with Ralph Gonsalves , the Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , describing him simply as a " giant of a man " .
= = Early life = =
Odlum was born on 24 June 1934 in Castries , the son of a barber . He studied economics at Bristol University , becoming the first Afro @-@ Caribbean head of the University of Bristol Union before moving to Magdalen College , Oxford in 1959 , where he studied Philosophy , Politics and Economics and was one of the few Afro @-@ Caribbean students to attend . At university , Odlum acted , played both football and cricket , and became noted as a successful debater . After graduating from Oxford he returned to St Lucia in 1961 , becoming a Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Trade . He moved back to the United Kingdom in 1964 to work as an economist in the Commonwealth Secretariat , leaving 3 years later . Returning to St Lucia again , he became Executive Secretary to the Council of Ministers of the West Indies Associated States .
= = Career = =
During the early 1960s , St Lucia and the other West Indies Associated States were British colonies , with a limited degree of self @-@ rule . In St Lucia , the Saint Lucia Labour Party was considered the traditional party for " political and constitutional advance " but , despite this , it lost the general election in 1964 to the United Workers Party , a right @-@ wing party led by John Compton that continued to rule until 1979 . In response Odlum , a socialist , founded the Saint Lucia Forum , a pressure group that discussed " the socialist and black cultural ideas which were beginning to challenge the Caribbean status quo " . This was part of a group of Forums established in 1970 following secret talks with other left @-@ wing Caribbean intellectuals , including Maurice Bishop . In 1972 Odlum left his job with the Council of Ministers to form the St Lucia Action Movement , which later merged with a weakened Labour Party in time for the 1974 general election .
Odlum 's faction of the Labour Party did most of the work in the election , building their power base among the banana @-@ producing small farmers , with Odlum leading frequent strikes in an attempt to improve working conditions . His work in the 1974 election , along with his " good looks and charisma " , yielded a safe seat in Castries , which he allowed his brother to run for . Odlum instead chose to campaign for a rural seat held by the United Workers Party , which he lost by a small margin . Despite the Labour Party still being in opposition in Saint Lucia , socialism and left @-@ wing politics were on the rise in the Caribbean as a whole and , during his time out of Parliament , Odlum was the public face of socialism in the region .
Saint Lucia gained full independence in 1979 . Immediately beforehand , Odlum organised large protests in front of international news cameras , further cementing his role in the region 's communist and socialist movement . Three weeks after independence , the nearby country of Grenada saw the overthrow of its government by communists revolutionaries led by Maurice Bishop . When the United Workers Party called a general election in Saint Lucia three weeks later , Compton 's government fell – Odlum was returned to Parliament and the Labour Party , led by Allan Louisy , came to power .
= = = Deputy Prime Minister = = =
Odlum 's prominent role within the party led to his immediate appointment as Deputy Prime Minister , with the portfolios of foreign affairs and trade and industry . He publicly supported the Grenadian revolutionaries , who were constructing a new airport with Cuban support . Ronald Reagan alleged that this was to be used as a launching point for Soviet aircraft , and Odlum 's support for it worried both the Americans ( due to their concerns about the purposes of the new facility ) and his fellow communists , who saw him as a " loose cannon " and thought that his continuing public championing of it would further draw American attention .
Louisy had become Prime Minister thanks to a secret agreement with Odlum that he would resign , allowing Odlum to take over , within 6 months . When the time came Louisy refused , backed by the Americans , who wanted to keep Odlum out of office at all costs . This saw Odlum turn against his own government and even vote against the budget . A second proposal that Louisy resign was rejected on 30 December 1980 , with the power struggle continuing despite his agreement to hand over some of his portfolios . The dispute continued into 1981 , with Odlum attracting controversy by announcing on 3 March that he had not ignored the possibility of his grouping within the Labour Party splitting and joining the United Workers Party .
The result was the 1981 dismissal of Odlum as Deputy Prime Minister and the resignation of Louisy . Louisy was succeeded not by Odlum , but by Winston Cenac , who himself resigned eight months later on 16 January 1982 . Cenac was succeeded by Michael Pilgrim in an attempt by moderates in the Labour Party to avoid the possibility of Odlum leading the country . By this point Odlum had left the party , forming the Progressive Labour Party ( PLP ) . Pilgrim 's government also collapsed , necessitating an early general election in 1982 in which the Labour Party was left with only 3 of the 17 seats , returning the United Workers Party to government and seeing Odlum dismissed from Parliament . His Progressive Labour Party won only a single seat .
= = = Ambassador and Foreign Minister = = =
Now outside Parliament , Odlum maintained his presence in the public eye through meetings and the work of his newspaper , The Crusader . His revenge over the Labour Party finally occurred during the 1987 general election , when the PLP split the vote and denied his old allies victory . In 1995 he accepted the position of Ambassador to the United Nations from Compton , his old enemy , holding it for only a year . When Compton resigned in 1996 , Odlum chose to stand for election against his successor and lost the contest .
After again allying with the Labour Party in 1997 , Odlum was returned to Parliament , receiving appointment as Foreign Minister in the government of Kenny Anthony . In this position , he oversaw the improvement of diplomatic relations with Cuba , announcing that a consulate would be established there and spearheading the signing of a joint Cuban @-@ Saint Lucian trading agreement to oversee improvements in the agricultural and healthcare sectors . Odlum 's ministry also saw the diplomatic recognition of China in 1997 , following month @-@ long negotiations and the offer of several million dollars worth of aid to Saint Lucia . Taiwan responded to the announcement by breaking off relations , stating that the government 's move to recognise China had harmed Taiwan 's " national interests and dignity " . After diplomatic relations were officially established , Odlum visited China between 5 and 12 September .
Odlum resigned in 2001 after a series of controversies . His fellow ministers accused him of conspiring against the government and attempting to have it overthrown and replaced with a new administration . Odlum , on the other hand , argued that ruling members of the Labour Party had been making efforts to remove him and that the " dastardly act " of cutting away a significant portion of his constituency in a boundary change was what had forced him over the edge . His resignation came immediately before a letter of dismissal arrived at his house .
Odlum formed the National Alliance party to contest the 2001 elections , but the party failed to win any seats .
= = Retirement and death = =
Odlum attracted controversy in November 2002 when he spoke at the funeral service for Antiguan politician Tim Hector . His speech censured the attendees for what he perceived as mourning Hector in death while failing to support him in life , asking " were you there when the ballot process was contaminated to declare him a loser ? Were you there ? " . His speech was criticised by Vere Bird , Jr . , the Antiguan Minister of Agriculture , Lands and Fisheries , who called Odlum 's words " strident and ill @-@ informed reflections " .
Following a long fight against cancer , spending most of the last year of his life in and out of hospital , Odlum died on 28 September 2003 in Tapion Hospital , Castries , aged 69 . The body lay in state on 5 October , where it was viewed by Pearlette Louisy , Kenny Anthony , and members of the Cabinet . Odlum 's funeral was held on 6 October , with a 30 @-@ vehicle procession travelling from Vieux Fort to Castries ; it was led by a pair of police outriders and a coach carrying the coffin , draped in the national flag . St Lucian citizens were reported to be openly weeping at Odlum 's death . The funeral itself was held in a park , due to no church in Castries being large enough to hold the number of mourners . During the service , sections of his most famous speeches were broadcast from loudspeakers . James Fletcher , a Cabinet Secretary , had previously announced that all flags would be flown at half @-@ mast for the day as a tribute .
Edwin Carrington , the Secretary @-@ General of the Caribbean Community , stated that Odlum " served his country , St Lucia , with distinction " and was " charismatic , eloquent and a consummate master of communication , both in speaking and writing ... one of the region 's leading and most persistent exponents on the debilitating effects of the erosion of trade preferences for the region 's banana industry on the livelihood of the people " . Other tributes came from Ralph Gonsalves , the Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , who described Odlum as " one of the region 's finest political orators , who was persuasive , eloquent and was able to command attention universally , not only in his native capital city Castries but also at the United Nations , in Geneva , Cape Town or in London " .
In 2004 , on the anniversary of his death , a series of activities were organised in memory of Odlum . These included the dedication of a tomb at the Choc Cemetery and a service at the Mount of Prayer in Coubaril that was attended by his family and close friends .
= = Legacy = =
Odlum , known simply as " Brother George " , had a controversial legacy . He was noted as one of the region 's greatest orators , able to command attention not only in Saint Lucia itself , but at the United Nations and on the world stage . Supporters praised his connection with the working class , and his fight for better pay and conditions in the agricultural sector .
At the same time , both critics and supporters point towards awkward elements of his personality and career . Gonsalves , at his funeral , noted that " the strictures of bureaucratic systems he found difficult to be contained within " , while his obituary in The Times described him as a man " with more flamboyance than substance " . His resignation from the two Labour administrations , as well as his alliances with the UWP and other factions , were noted as contradictions which would require historical debate and assessment . His support of figures such as Fidel Castro and Muammar Gaddafi was also noted as controversial , with his relentless left @-@ wing approach to politics being identified as damaging both to others and to the causes he championed .
= John Baker White ( Virginia ) =
John Baker White ( August 4 , 1794 – October 9 , 1862 ) was a 19th @-@ century American military officer , lawyer , court clerk , and civil servant in the U.S. state of Virginia .
During the War of 1812 , White enlisted in the United States Army as a soldier and was promoted to the military rank of ensign . In 1815 , White was qualified as Clerk of Court for both the county and circuit courts of Hampshire County , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) and he continued to hold these offices through successive appointments and elections for 46 years between 1815 and 1861 . To date , White remains the longest @-@ serving Clerk of Court for Hampshire County since the office 's creation in 1757 . As a prominent lawyer and court clerk , White taught jurisprudence . Many of White 's law students later became eminent lawyers and public officials in their own right , including Henry Bedinger , United States House Representative and United States Ambassador to Denmark .
During the American Civil War , White was concerned for the safety of the county 's records and proceeded to load land registration records ledger books onto wagons and had them transported for safekeeping . Because of White 's efforts , Hampshire County land records survived the war , while those records that remained in the courthouse were destroyed . White was threatened by occupying Union Army forces to either vacate his residence in Romney or face arrest because of his Confederate sympathies . White relocated to Richmond and served in the Confederate States Department of the Treasury .
White was a member of the White political family of Virginia and West Virginia and was the son of prominent Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) and the father of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White ( 1833 – 1915 ) and Hampshire County Clerk of Court Christian Streit White ( 1839 – 1917 ) .
= = Early life and military career = =
John Baker White was born on August 4 , 1794 , near Winchester in Frederick County , Virginia . White was the third and youngest child of prominent Virginia General Court judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) and his wife Arabella Baker . Among his other relations , White was a great @-@ great @-@ nephew of United States House Representative Alexander White ( 1738 – 1804 ) and a great @-@ nephew of another United States House Representative , Francis White ( 1761 – 1826 ) .
During the War of 1812 , White enlisted in the United States Army as a soldier and was promoted to the military rank of ensign .
= = Clerk of court career = =
Following his service in the War of 1812 , White settled in Romney , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) where he was appointed as deputy clerk for both the superior court and circuit court in Hampshire County in 1814 . On March 20 , 1815 , White was qualified as Clerk of Court for both the superior and circuit courts of Hampshire County , and he continued to hold these offices through successive appointments and elections for 46 years between 1815 and 1861 . To date , White remains the longest @-@ serving Clerk of Court for Hampshire County since the office 's creation in 1757 .
= = Academic affairs = =
As a prominent lawyer and court clerk , White conducted the teaching of jurisprudence in both his Clerk of Court office and residence , where he allowed his law students to reside during their studies . Many of White 's law students later became eminent lawyers and public officials in their own right , including : Henry Bedinger , United States House Representative and United States Ambassador to Denmark ; James Dillon Armstrong , Hampshire County Circuit Court judge and son of William Armstrong ; Dr. Robert White , Presbyterian minister of Tuscaloosa , Alabama ; and Virginia lawyers Newton Tapscott , Alfred P. White , and Philip B. Streit .
In addition to his law instruction , White was an active member of the Romney Literary Society . When the act of incorporation for Romney Academy was amended by the Virginia General Assembly on March 25 , 1839 , White was appointed as a trustee along with other prominent Romney area residents David Gibson , Angus William McDonald , Daniel Mytinger , and John Kern , Jr . The 1839 act authorized any of the five appointed trustees of Romney Academy to fill vacancies on the board " occasioned by death , resignation , removal , or legal disability " , thereby preventing future prolonged vacant trustee seats .
= = Business affairs = =
By 1839 , White was serving on the board of directors of the Bank of the Valley of Virginia in Romney . During the absence of the board 's president , David Gibson , White served as president pro tempore from November 29 until December 13 , 1839 . The Wirgman Building housed the Bank of the Valley of Virginia during White 's tenure on its board of directors .
= = American Civil War = =
Prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War , White was in support of preserving the United States . In the United States presidential election of 1860 , White supported Constitutional Union Party presidential candidate John Bell and his running mate Edward Everett . The Constitutional Union Party was formed by former Whig Party members seeking to avoid secessionism over the issue of slavery . In 1861 , White voted for Union candidates to serve as delegates from Hampshire County in the Virginia secession convention , one of which was his son @-@ in @-@ law Colonel E. M. Armstrong .
White 's national loyalties shifted following the Battle of Fort Sumter and other Union encroachments into the Confederate States of America , after which White supported the defense of Virginia 's states ' rights and of the United States Constitution . White 's eldest three sons out of four joined the Confederate States Army , and White became active in enlisting and arousing support within Hampshire County for the Confederate States cause . Because of his Confederate sympathies , White was threatened by occupying Union Army forces to either vacate his residence in Romney or face arrest .
= = = Preservation of Hampshire County records = = =
No court proceedings convened in the county between 1861 and 1864 , and the Hampshire County Courthouse was utilized as a stable by Union soldiers stationed in Romney during the war . In 1861 , Union Army forces under the command of Lew Wallace occupied Romney following a minor battle there during which White " kept close watch over " the county 's record books so that they would not be destroyed by Union forces . Later in the fall of 1861 , Union Army forces under the command of Benjamin Franklin Kelley advanced upon Romney .
Upon learning of this , White was again concerned for the safety of the county 's records and proceeded to load land registration records ledger books onto wagons and had them transported to Winchester for safekeeping . White selected for transport only the bound volumes of records which included " deed books , wills , and settlements of estates " and kept the unbound paper records in the courthouse , thus separating them so that the entirety of the county 's records could not be destroyed by Union forces . White likely chose to transport the bound volumes of records , as the loose paper records would have been more cumbersome to keep together .
In 1863 , when Winchester was no longer a safe location for the storage of Hampshire County 's records and they again risked destruction by Union Army forces , White 's son Captain Christian Streit White took responsibility for the records and transferred them to Front Royal . When Front Royal became endangered by advancing Union Army forces , Captain White had the records moved to Luray Caverns where they remained for several months . In the fall of 1864 , the county 's record books were rescued by Captain White and his company as Union Army troops were in the process of destroying them . Captain White 's company loaded about 150 record books into a wagon , and they were taken to North Carolina where they remained safely for the duration of the war . Hampshire County 's land records survived and were returned to the courthouse following the conclusion of the American
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Civil War , likely by a soldier returning to the area from North Carolina . Had White not separated the records and sent the bound volumes away for safekeeping , Hampshire County would have lost all its records during the course of the war , as those that remained in the courthouse were destroyed .
In addition to the desecration of the courthouse 's loose paper records , either a Union Army officer or an Indiana unit confiscated an old Scots language Bible belonging to White , which had been passed down to him from his grandfather , John White . The " old Scots Bible " was purportedly taken as punishment against White for his support of the Confederacy .
= = = Removal to Richmond = = =
White left Romney with his wife and youngest children and traveled to Richmond where he was offered a position in the Confederate States Department of the Treasury within the government of the President of the Confederate States of America , Jefferson Davis .
= = Death and legacy = =
White died soon after his arrival in Richmond on October 9 , 1862 . He was interred by Scottish Rite Masons at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond . Distant relative Reverend Moses D. Hoge of the Southern Presbyterian Church , Bishop Duncan of the Methodist Episcopal Church , South , and Bishop Minegerode of the Southern Protestant Episcopal Church participated in White 's funeral services .
White 's friends and family believed that he " died of grief " caused by the loss of his property in Romney and his concern for the safety of the records in the Hampshire County Courthouse during the conflict . In their History of Hampshire County , West Virginia : From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present ( 1897 ) , West Virginia historians Hu Maxwell and Howard Llewellyn Swisher said of White :
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriage and issue = = =
White was married first to Alcinda Louisa Tapscott of Jefferson County , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) , on December 15 , 1815 . Tapscott was White 's cousin through his mother , Arabella Baker White . White and his first wife Alcinda had three children together :
White was married for the second time to Frances Ann Streit ( March 19 , 1811 – November 12 , 1866 ) , a daughter of Lutheran Reverend Christian Streit of Winchester , Virginia . Streit and her family were of Swiss descent . White and his second wife , Frances , had ten children ( one of which died in infancy ) :
= = = Residence = = =
White and his family resided in a large brick mansion located along East Main Street ( Northwestern Turnpike ) which was later known as " Liberty Hall " . Due to his upbringing in an affluent family , White was a person of means from a young age , and in his early adulthood he was able to construct a " large brick mansion " at this location . His original residence was destroyed by fire in 1857 , and White replaced it with a more modest brick edifice where he resided until his departure from Romney in 1861 during the American Civil War . White 's home was a " seat of true old Virginia hospitality " and it was frequented by all socio @-@ cultural strata of Hampshire County and the greater Valley of Virginia region .
During the construction of the Northwestern Turnpike through Romney , the state superintendent for the project , Angus William McDonald , proposed building the thoroughfare through White 's garden in front of his residence . White won an appeal in court which caused the turnpike to be rerouted , thus creating the present curve on East Main Street in front of White 's former residence .
= Battle of Glenmama =
The Battle of Glenn Máma ( Irish : Cath Ghleann Máma , The Battle of " The Glen of the Gap " ) or Glenmama was a battle that took place , most probably near Lyons Hill in Ardclough . County Kildare in AD 999 between Windmill Hill and Blackchurch . It was the decisive and only engagement of the brief Leinster revolt of 999 – 1000 against the King of Munster , Brian Boru . In it , the combined forces of the Kingdoms of Munster and Meath , under King Brian Boru and the High King of Ireland , Máel Sechnaill II , inflicted a crushing defeat on the allied armies of Leinster and Dublin , led by King Máel Mórda of Leinster .
The two armies met in a narrow valley , causing a rout of Máel Mórda 's army in at least three directions . They were pursued , and the main body of the army was slaughtered when they rallied at several fording points along the River Liffey . The main commanders were either killed or captured .
The battle resulted in the occupation of Dublin by Brian 's Munster forces , and the submission of Máel Mórda and King Sigtrygg Silkbeard of Dublin to Brian Boru . The solution did not prove permanent , however , and eventually resulted in the second Leinster revolt against Brian and the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 .
= = Location = =
Although nineteenth century scholars , including John O ’ Donovan and Todd , and especially the Dunlavin @-@ based clergyman John Francis Shearman ( in 1830 ) were tempted to locate the battle @-@ site in the vicinity of Dunlavin , Co Wicklow , within their lifetime the theory was disputed by Goddard Orpen , and were disproved by Joseph Lloyd in 1914 and subsequently by Albha mac Gabhrain who located the battle site beside Ardclough on the Dublin @-@ Kildare border in 1914 ( he Irish form of Dunlavin is in reality Dun Luadhain ) . between Windmill Hill and Blackchurch .
Ailbhe Mac Shamhráin wrote :
Given the propensity for battles to take place in border regions , it seems reasonable to seek a location close to the perimeter of the Hiberno @-@ Norse kingdom of Dublin . On that account , the suggestion of Lloyd , which places the battle at a gap now crossed by the Naas Road on the section between Kill and Rathcoole , is still worthy of consideration . In any event , the engagement took place within an easy day ’ s march of Dublin , as Brian pressed on immediately afterwards to reach the town on the following day .
= = Background = =
In 997 , at a royal meeting near Clonfert , Brian Boru , King of Munster , met with his long @-@ time rival Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill , who was at the time High King of Ireland . Although the idea of the high @-@ kingship is considered mainly an anachronistic invention , it came into vogue in the 10th century to denote a king who had enforced his power over external territories . Máel Sechnaill assumed the Irish high @-@ kingship after the Battle of Tara in 980 .
The two kings made a truce , by which Brian was granted rule over the southern half of Ireland , while Máel Sechnaill retained the northern half and high kingship . In honour of this arrangement , Máel Sechnaill handed over to Brian the hostages he had taken from Dublin and Leinster ; and in 998 , Brian handed over to Máel Sechnaill the hostages of Connacht . In the same year , Brian and Máel Sechnaill began co @-@ operating against the Norse of Dublin for the first time .
Late in 999 , however , the Leinstermen , historically hostile to domination by either the Uí Néill overkings or the King of Munster , allied themselves with the Norse of Dublin and revolted against Brian . According to the 17th century Annals of the Four Masters , the following prophecy had predicted the Battle of Glenmama :
They shall come to Gleann @-@ Mama ,
It will not be water over hands ,
Persons shall drink a deadly draught
Around the stone at Claen @-@ Conghair .
From the victorious overthrow they shall retreat ,
Till they reach past the wood northwards ,
And Ath @-@ cliath the fair shall be burned ,
After the ravaging the Leinster plain .
= = Battle = =
The Annals of the Four Masters records that Brian and Máel Sechnaill united their forces , and according to the Annals of Ulster , they met the Leinster @-@ Dublin army at Glenmama on Thursday , 30 December 999 . Glenmama , near Lyons Hill in County Kildare , was the ancient stronghold of the Kings of Leinster .
The Munster @-@ Meath army defeated the Leinster @-@ Dublin army . Later historians have also seen the battle as decisive . The sources point to high mortality on both sides . According to the Annals of Innisfallen , which represents a Munster perspective , formna Gall herend ( ‘ the best part of the foreigners of Ireland ’ ) fell therein . The more partisan Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib indulges in hyperbole , claiming that ‘ since the Battle of Mag Roth to that time there had not taken place a greater slaughter . ” The fallen included Harald son of Amlaib ( a brother of Sitriuc Silkbeard ) and ‘ other nobles of the foreigners ’ , amongst whom was one Cuilén son of Eitigén , who apparently belonged to the Gailenga ; he may have been a brother of Ruadacán son of Eitegén , king of Airther Gaileng , who died in 953 .
On Brian ’ s side , even the Cogadh acknowledges that ‘ there fell many multitudes of the Dál Cais , ’ but no details are provided. the It says the battle was ' bloody , furious , red , valiant , heroic , manly ; rough , cruel and heartless ; ' and that there had been no greater slaughter since the seventh century Battle of Magh Rath .
Ó Corráin refers to it as a " crushing defeat " of Leinster and Dublin , while The dictionary of English history says the battle effectively " quelled " the " desperate revolt " of Leinster and Dublin . Tradition records that " the son of the King of the Danes " , Harold Olafsson , was killed in the retreat , and was interned at the now obscure cemetery of Cryhelpe . Brian took Máel Mórda of Leinster prisoner and held him until he received hostages from the Leinstermen . It was alleged that 7000 Norse fell in the battle . This was at a time when warfare was fought on a very limited scale , and raiding armies generally had between a hundred and two hundred men . Most importantly , the defeat left the road to Dublin " free and unimpeded for the victorious legions of Brian and Maelsechlainn " .
= = Sack of Dublin = =
The victory was followed up with an attack on the city of Dublin . Brian ’ s forces marched quickly to Dublin ( again confirming a Saggart @-@ Ardclough location for the battle ) reaching the town on New Year ’ s Eve 999 . They entered its defences without any great resistance and the Annals of Innisfallen say that , on New Year ’ s Day ( the Kalends of January ) 1000 , they burned both the settlement itself and the nearby wood known as Caill Tomair which apparently stood on the north side of the Liffey . The plunder of the town , for the second time in ten years , is described in considerable detail in the Cogaidh . The 12th century Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh gives two accounts of the occupation : that Brian remained in Dublin from Christmas Day until Epiphany ( 6 January ) , or from Christmas Day until St. Brigid 's Day ( 1 February ) . The later Annals of Ulster gives a date of 30 December for the Battle of Glenmama , while Annals of Inisfallen dates Brian 's capture of the city two days later , to 1 January 1000 . According to the much more reliable Annals of the Four Masters and the Chronicon Scotorum , Dublin was only occupied for a week by Munster forces . In any case , in 1000 Brian plundered the city , burned the Norse fortress and expelled its ruler , King Sigtrygg Silkbeard . Ailbhe Mac Shamhráin wrote :
Allowance must be made here for poetic license but , event itself , some picture can be obtained of the wealth of the trading centre that was Dublin According to the account Brian , having plundered the dún ( fortress ) , entered the margadh ( market area ) and here seized the greatest wealth . Meanwhile , on the approach of the Munster forces , King Sitriuc had fled northward hoping to obtain asylum among the Ulstermen . His ally , Máel @-@ mórda of Uí Faeláin , was captured , in ignominious circumstances according to Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib .
= = Aftermath = =
The kingship of Leinster was bestowed upon the Uí Dunchada candidate , Dunchad son of Domnail , who retained this status until he was deposed in 1003 . Sigtrygg Silkbeard returned having found no asylum in the north . The annal accounts concur that he , too , yielded hostages to Brian while the Annals of Innisfallen add that Brian in a suitable magnanimous gesture , ‘ gave the fort ( dún ) to the Foreigners . Ailbhe Mac Shamhráin wrote :
The implications here is that , from this time onwards , the Hiberno @-@ Scandinavian ruler would hold his kingship from his Munster overlord . Brian , at this stage , aspired to an even tighter dominance of Dublin that than secured by his rival , Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill , ten years earlier . There seems to be little doubt that the longer term beneficiary of Glenn Máma was Brian alone . With renewed confidence , he again moved against Máel Sechnaill | Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill , even if his initiatives of 1000 @-@ 1001 resulted in setbacks , one expedition into Brega resulted in his advance cavalry being slaughtered by the Uí Néill , another foray was reversed in Míde ( Co Westmeath ) , and the Dál Cais river @-@ fleet was impeded by the King of Tara and his Connachta allies having constructed a barrier across the Shannon . Brian , however , found a way of circumventing hit and , early in 1002 , brought a large army through to Athlone and took the hostages of Connacht .
According to the Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh , Sigtrygg 's flight from the city brought him north , first to the Ulaid and then to Áed of Cenél nEógain . Since Sigtrygg could find no refuge in Ireland , he eventually returned , submitted to Brian , gave hostages and was restored to Dublin . This was three months after Brian ended his occupation in February . In the meantime , Sigtrygg may have temporarily " turned pirate " and been responsible for a raid on St David 's in Wales .
Brian gave his own daughter by his first wife in marriage to Sigtrygg . Brian in turn took as his second wife Sigtrygg 's mother , the now thrice @-@ married Gormflaith . The cessation of revolt was followed by over a decade of peace in Dublin while Sigtrygg 's men served in the armies of Brian . However , Sigtrygg never forgot the insult of the Ulaid , and in 1002 he had his revenge when his soldiers served in Brian 's campaign against the Ulaid and ravaged their lands .
Máel Sechnaill found the support of the northern kings slipping away felt obliged to submit and a new political order was created . The capitulation of the king of Tara left Brian as the most powerful king in Ireland – the first non Uí Néill king to achieve such prominence . Ailbhe Mac Shamhráin wrote :
Glenn Máma gave Brian a psychological advantage over the king of Tara and increased his readiness to break the Agreement of Clonfert . As a result of the battle , he had achieved domination , in a meaningful sense , of Leinster and Dublin . Through achieving effective dominance of Dublin , Brian acquired a military ( aside from a psychological ) advantage over Máel Sechnaill , which helped him in his endeavours to reach beyond the lordship of Leth Moga . His success in this regard was probably instrumental in tying Dublin into the sphere of Leth Moga for at least a century to follow .
= Iori Yagami =
Iori Yagami ( 八神 庵 , Yagami Iori ) is a character from SNK 's The King of Fighters video game series who first appeared in The King of Fighters ' 95 as the leader of the Rivals Team . He is an iconic character in the series , and appears regularly on publicity material and merchandise . Iori is a central character to the series ' plot , and the initial enemy and eventual rival of Kyo Kusanagi . He was created specifically to become Kyo 's rival and his name and abilities were designed to relate him with the Yamata no Orochi legend . The designers ended up liking him so much that they are careful how his character is developed as the series expands .
Iori is the heir of the Yagami clan , who wield pyrokinetic powers and sealed the Orochi demon along with the Kusanagi and Yata clans . However , after betraying the Kusanagi clan , the Yagami are cursed by Orochi giving them powers that cause all their members to die young . The character harbors hatred against the other clans , but later becomes obsessed with killing their heir Kyo . As a result , Iori sometimes helps him in order to have the opportunity to have a final fight against him . Aside from the main series , Iori appears in several other media series such as spin @-@ offs and crossover video games , and comic adaptations of the series .
Video games journalists have praised the character as one of the most powerful characters in the series . Reviewers have also cited Iori as one of the best characters from the games , labeling him as a veteran character and praising his appearance as one of the best creations by SNK . A variety of collectibles based on Iori 's likeness have been created , including key chains and figurines .
= = Attributes = =
Iori is a violent and sadistic person who suffers from trauma because of his clan 's past . In ancient times , the Yagami clan was known as the Yasakani . With the help of the Yata and Kusanagi clans , they sealed the demon Orochi . As time passed , the Yasakani , tired of living in the shadow of the Kusanagi , made a blood pact with Orochi . This gave them greater powers , but in return , they and their descendants were forever cursed . They renamed their clan the Yagami and set out to destroy the Kusanagi with their new powers . In response , the Kusanagi declared war on the Yagami , which led to many clan members on both sides being killed .
As a side @-@ effect of the Orochi 's curse , the flames of the Yagami have a bluish tint . The curse also causes each heir to die young and each mother to die in childbirth . Iori suffers from an additional curse - " The Riot of the Blood " ( 血の暴走 , Chi no Bōso ) - when he becomes faster , more powerful , wilder , and tends to attack anybody near him indiscriminately . In this state Iori is commonly named " Wild Iori " or " Orochi Iori " ( 月の夜大蛇の血に狂う庵 , Tsuki no Yoru Orochi no Chi ni Kuruu Iori , lit . Insane Iori with Blood of Orochi Under the Night of the Moon ) . Iori hates the Kusanagi clan because of this curse , but later becomes obsessed with killing its heir Kyo , disregarding their clans ' past . This sometimes results in Iori helping him to defeat his enemies to finish their battle . In order to find him , he sometimes enters the The King of Fighters tournaments and uses his teammates as tools in order to get to him . Iori appears in most of the series ' games , and is voiced by Kunihiko Yasui .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
First appearing in The King of Fighters ' 95 , Iori enters the annual tournament as the leader of the Rival Team along with Billy Kane and Eiji Kisaragi ) as he learns that the heir of the Kusanagi clan , Kyo , is expected to be there . However , the team fails to defeat Kyo 's team and Iori betrays his teammates . In the next video game , Iori teams up with two women , Vice and Mature , servants of the Orochi demon . The same team would be repeated in KOF ' 98 , KOF 2002 , and Neowave , games which do not feature a storyline . During the ' 96 competition , Iori meets Chizuru Kagura , heir of the Yata clan , who wants to gather Kyo and Iori on her team to seal Orochi . Together they defeat the Orochi follower Goenitz but neither Iori nor Kyo agree with the idea . When Iori leaves with his teammates , he is unable to control this surge of Orochi power , resulting in their deaths . Iori continued to suffer from multiple outbreaks and during The King of Fighters ' 97 , attacks other team members . As such , Iori appears as a sub @-@ boss character in the game depending on the characters that the player uses . He later joins Chizuru and Kyo to confront and seal Orochi .
In The King of Fighters ' 99 Iori is a secret character in most versions of the game . Iori can be faced as a bonus fight in the end of the game if the player manages to get a high score . In the story , Iori discovers the creation of Kyo clones and enters the annual tournament where he finds those responsible , an organization named NEST . Iori follows the battles in secret and fights against the Nests ' agents to continue his fight against Kyo . An assistant version of his character , named Striker , also appears for Iori in The King of Fighters 2000 but with an outfit based on his illustrations from artbooks . In The King of Fighters 2001 , an agent named Seth invites Iori to join his team for the next King of Fighters tournament , presuming that he would get his shot against Kyo . While his regular form appears in KOF 2002 , his Orochi form is also featured in the PlayStation 2 port from the game as well as the remake of KOF ' 98 . In The King of Fighters 2003 , Chizuru appears to both Kyo and Iori , requesting that they form a team and investigate suspicious activities concerning the Orochi seal . During the investigation , the team is ambushed by the fighter Ash Crimson , who plans to get the power from the descendants of the clans who sealed Orochi and steals the ones from Chizuru . In the following video game , Iori and Kyo form a team once again with Kyo 's student Shingo Yabuki to fill Chizuru 's spot to stop Ash . At the end of the tournament , the strengthening presence of Orochi causes Iori to enter the Riot of Blood state , in which he attacks his comrades . Ash appears afterward and defeats Iori , stealing his powers . Iori is a playable character in The King of Fighters XII . Iori is featured with a different outfit , and with a new moveset , that does not use purple flames . Like each character , he does not have a team . Iori 's appearance in The King of Fighters XIII sees him teamed with his former team members from the 1996 tournament , Mature and Vice , who return as spirits . He recovers his flames in his ending and appears as downloadable content in this form . He is set to return in the upcoming The King of Fighters XIV .
In The King of Fighters : Kyo , a role @-@ playing video game situated before KOF ' 97 , Iori appears as Kyo 's antagonist in his journey around the world . Iori appears in the spin @-@ off video games Maximum Impact series . In the North American editions of Maximum Impact , Iori is voiced by Eric Summerer . Iori also appears as a sub @-@ boss during The King of Fighters Ex : Neo Blood , which is situated after his fight against Orochi . Although Iori enters the tournament to fight Kyo , Geese Howard , the organizer of the tournament , tries to make him awake his Riot of the Blood to absorb his powers , but fails . In The King of Fighters EX2 : Howling Blood , Iori enters another tournament , and is joined by two women who want to find a man controlled by the Orochi power . The shooter game KOF : Sky Stage also features him as a boss .
Iori also appears in SNK 's hand @-@ held game , SNK Gals ' Fighters , as a comical interpretation called Miss X ( ミス X , Misu Ekusu ) . The character insists he is a female in order to participate in the game 's Queen of Fighters tournament , though several female fighters easily see through his disguise . In the crossover video games NeoGeo Battle Coliseum and SNK vs. Capcom series , Iori appears as a playable character ; the latter includes his Riot of the Blood state . His character is also a boss character ( along with Geese ) in the Game Boy version from Real Bout Fatal Fury Special .
= = = In other media = = =
Aside from the King of Fighters series , the character is featured on his own drama CD and character image album . In the anime The King of Fighters : Another Day , Iori is seen searching for Ash to regain his powers . Iori appears in the spin @-@ off manga story based on his adventure prior to The King of Fighters ' 96 entitled , The King of Fighters : Kyo . The character appears in the manhua adaptation of The King of Fighters : Zillion created by Andy Seto . The manhua retells Iori 's story from his fight against Orochi until he attacks NESTS to destroy Kyo 's clones . He also stars in further manhua for the games , starting with The King of Fighters 2001 through 2003 along with the Maximum Impact series . In the The King of Fighters movie , Iori is played by Will Yun Lee .
= = Conception and creation = =
A main objective planned for The King of Fighters ' 95 was to introduce Iori properly as Kyo 's rival . Creators have stated Iori 's personality , and other aspects of his character such as his phrases and unique moves , " broke the mold for characters in fighting games at that time " Like Kyo , several aspects of Iori , including his surname and abilities , were designed to relate him to the Yamata no Orochi legend , which was the inspiration for the plot . After observing fan reactions at initial location testing for King of Fighters ' 95 , several staff members predicted that Iori would be popular on his release . One of them was happy that at an event for The King of Fighters XIII on March 25 , 2010 , several fans reminded him that it was Iori 's birthday according to his official profile . Iori is a berserker due to the Orochi demon blood within him . This version of him , officially named " Orochi Iori " , is hinted to have existed before his debut in The King of Fighters ' 97 as one of the game 's mid bosses . This form of Iori was designed specifically to overpower other characters easily . Series ' flagship director , Toyohisa Tanabe , states that the staff was initially reluctant to add this version of Iori to the series ' roster — worried about fans ' reactions — but did so to add more impact to the Orochi saga 's climax . He was particularly pleased to see surprised reactions from female fans to this form during KOF ' 97 's location testing . Another minor development of his character was his change of " most valued possession / valued treasure " information . A girlfriend was also listed more than once , specifically in The King of Fighters ' 95 , The King of Fighters ' 99 , and The King of Fighters 2000 . However , starting with The King of Fighters 2001 and every entry after , the space is listed as " None " . The SNK staff commented that it is curious that he does not have a girlfriend anymore .
During the early development stages of The King of Fighters ' 99 , SNK planned to exclude Iori and Kyo from the game , as the story 's focus was meant to center on the new protagonist , K ' . However , they reversed this decision because of the characters ' popularity . Iori 's , Kyo 's , and other SNK regulars repeated appearances in the series is at the insistence of the marketers and main planners , making it a challenge to decide the story for each title . Because of his popularity among fans , some of the series ' main designers have stated that he is " difficult to draw for " . Illustrator Shinkiro thought Iori was one of the series ' wildest characters because of his hairstyle ; similar sentiments were expressed by Last Blade illustrator , Tonko . In addition , KOF : Maximum Impact producer Falcoon stated that attempting to change an " untouchable " design such as Iori 's put him under severe pressure . He stated that creating Iori 's alternate design that appears in the Maximum Impact series almost felt " unforgivable " , as he felt unsure of fans ' reaction to the change .
In The King of Fighters XIII , Iori 's gameplay mechanics were modified to be a close range fighter . Despite losing his flaming techniques , he was given brutal moves using his nails to emphasize his character 's ferociousness . His strongest technique in the game , " Forbidden 1218 Shiki : Yatagarasu " ( 禁千弐百拾八式 ・ 八咫烏 ) , is a new move that focuses on violent combos and serves as a reference to the character 's ending from The King of Fighters ' 96 in which he brutally murders his teammates . Iori 's 10th color scheme in the game matches his classic outfit 's scheme , and during development of the game , details were added to increase the similarities . The ending of the character at the end of the game was also pointed by developers as something to look forward to . His version , featuring his classic techniques , was designed with the intention of not surpassing the current Iori so that players would choose the fighting style they prefer in the game . This was further emphasized in the console version of The King of Fighters XIII where Iori had his moveset adjusted for better balancing by not using flaming techniques .
= = Reception = =
Iori 's character was mostly well received by several video game publications and other media . IGN 's A. E. Sparrow considered him one of the most useful of the games ' characters and one of the best ones for the " veteran players " . In another review from the same site , writer Jeremy Dunham praised Iori 's appearance in KOF : Maximum Impact as one of the best designs from the game . However , Dunham complained about his lack of bloody scenes considering his actions in previous 2D games . The character 's ending in The King of Fighters ' 97 has been considered by 1UP.com as one of the strangest parts of the story . However , they considered his winning quotations and appearance as one of the best creations of SNK , commenting that the company had been unable to make such an appealing character until K ′ ' s introduction . Lucke M. Albiges from Eurogamer praised Iori , along with Kyo , as having one of the most unpredictable appearances in the series , and considered him a veteran character . In the top ten fighting games from GameTrailers , Iori has been called one of the main innovative figures from the series , from his introduction in The King of Fighters ' 95 through his development in the following games . Some commentators found his recurring interactions with Kyo Kusanagi during fights d to be appealing , adding depth to the games , despite the fact English gamers are not able to understand them , and some lack a storyline . The character 's new design from The King of Fighters XII has been well received by GameSpot writer Andrew Park who found such moves interesting . On the other hand , 1UP.com writer Richard Li ; Li complained about the lack of Iori 's signature moves such as his fireballs , and while some of them remained , Li noted that they now require a different input from the ones they normally require .
In an interview with Iori 's Japanese voice actor , Kunihiko Yasui comments that he feels responsible as a voice actor for his performances as Iori , taking care to sound different in each installment as a means of developing and " protecting " his character 's humanity . Iori has been highly popular with video gamers . In Gamest 's 1996 Heroes Collection , Iori was no . 2 in the poll Best Character from 1996 . In an issue from 1997 , Iori was voted as the staff 's favorite character , claiming first place over fifty other characters . He also received the same rank on Neo Geo Freak 's website with a total of 3 @,@ 792 votes . In a 2005 poll made by SNK @-@ Playmore USA , he was voted the eighth fan favorite character with 145 votes . Merchandising based on Iori has also been released including figurines , key @-@ chains and puzzles .
= Glee : The Music , Journey to Regionals =
Glee : The Music , Journey to Regionals is the second extended play ( EP ) by the cast of musical television series Glee . Containing six songs from the season one finale " Journey to Regionals " , it was released on June 8 , 2010 , the same day the episode aired . Half of the tracks are cover versions of songs by American rock band Journey . The EP debuted at the top of the US Billboard 200 and Soundtrack charts , with first @-@ week sales of 154 @,@ 000 copies . Unlike previous Glee releases , no singles were released from this album , but all of its tracks managed to appear on multiple national charts . Songs were generally received favorably , with many enjoying the Journey covers . The setlist of Glee Live ! In Concert ! , the cast 's first concert tour , included three songs from the Glee : The Music , Journey to Regionals .
= = Background and composition = =
The season one finale of Glee first aired on Fox on June 8 , 2010 in the US . The episode sees the fictional William McKinley High School glee club New Directions compete at the 2010 Midwest Regional Show Choir Championships . Director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) decides to have New Directions pay tribute to American rock band Journey . This was not only as homage to the cast 's cover of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " in the season one premiere that led to his decision to remain at the school , but as a representation of the path undertaken to arrive at the Regionals level of competition . They perform a medley of Journey songs : the love ballad " Faithfully " , with Lea Michele and Cory Monteith on lead vocals as Rachel Berry and Finn Hudson , respectively , transitions into a mashup of " Any Way You Want It " and " Lovin ' , Touchin ' , Squeezin ' " . This ends with a reprise of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , where each cast member sings a portion of the song . Rival choir Vocal Adrenaline performs a cover of Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " thereafter , with Jesse ( Jonathan Groff ) on lead vocals . At the end of the episode , New Directions decides to show appreciation for Schuester with a rendition of Lulu 's " To Sir With Love " , the theme of the 1967 film of the same name . He returns the honor , performing Israel Kamakawiwoʻole 's reinvention of " Over the Rainbow " along with glee club member Puck ( Mark Salling ) .
The EP , along with its track listing , was announced in an official press release on May 26 , 2010 . It was released on June 8 , 2010 in the US , and on June 14 , 2010 in the UK . " Lovin ' , Touchin ' , Squeezin ' " was previously covered in the series ' pilot episode . The 1981 single " Don 't Stop Believin ' " was also previously performed in the pilot , as well as in the season one episode " The Rhodes Not Taken " . The songs in the EP all fall under the genres of pop and rock .
= = Critical reception = =
The Denver Post 's Ricardo Baca enjoyed the familiar nature of the songs on the EP , and liked " Faithfully " best of the Journey covers . He felt , however , that the music of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " outshone the vocals of the cast . Andrew Leahey of allmusic gave the album a rating of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . A writer for Reuters called the Journey medley " heartfelt and uplifting " and Jessica Derschowitz of CBS News found it " fantastic " . Gerrick Kennedy also enjoyed it , highlighting its emotional nature and complimenting the entire cast 's vocals . IGN 's Eric Goldman thought the reprise of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " worked well , and liked not only the connection to the pilot , but also its musical rearrangment . Bobby Hankinson of The Houston Chronicle enjoyed " Don 't Stop Believin ' " best of the performances but Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk deemed it unnecessary in the medley , and felt the cast would have done better to showcase more of " Lovin ' , Touchin ' , Squeezin ' " . Berk enjoyed " Bohemian Rhapsody " best , giving it a rating of four stars out of a possible five , though he thought it was too predictable a song choice . Time 's James Poniewozik opined the song was one of Glee 's best , but was contemplative of which choir 's performance was the better . Berk felt the lyrical context of " To Sir With Love " was trite and Hankinson was impressed by the song , calling it " sweet " . " Over the Rainbow " was called " lovely " by the former and Derschowitz decided it was a " perfect " closing song .
Former Journey frontman Steve Perry gave an interview to American magazine RadarOnline , as co @-@ writer of several Journey tracks , and praised the use of his songs on the show : " Glee has opened up a international [ sic ] catalog of songwriting and introduced those songs to a whole new generation that would have otherwise never heard them . " The Regionals version of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " earned a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for the ceremonies in 2011 . Following this nomination , the song was included on the compilation album 2011 Grammy Nominees .
= = Chart performance = =
The EP debuted at number one on both the US Billboard 200 and Soundtracks charts , selling 154 @,@ 000 copies there . The album became the cast 's third number @-@ one album on the Billboard 200 . Reaching the top of the chart on June 26 , 2010 , it did so three weeks after Glee : The Music , Volume 3 Showstoppers . This beat the cast 's own record for the shortest span between number @-@ one debuts with different releases , previously held with Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna and Volume 3 Showstoppers . It entered at number two in Canada and the United Kingdom , selling 14 @,@ 000 copies in the former . On the Irish Albums Chart , Journey to Regionals entered the week of June 10 , 2010 at number 14 and ascended to the top position the next week , taking the spot from Volume 3 Showstoppers . The EP entered at number seven in Australia on July 4 , 2010 , climbing four places to its peak three weeks later , and in Mexico , a peak of fifty @-@ nine was reached . Second @-@ week sales in the US amounted to 39 @,@ 000 copies as the EP dropped to the tenth position on the Billboard 200 . The EP has spent a total of 39 weeks on the Soundtracks chart .
Although none of the tracks were released as singles , all of the tracks managed to chart in several countries ( with the new version of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " charting under the original entry ) . On the Billboard Hot 100 , " Faithfully " debuted highest the week of June 26 , 2010 , at number 37 . The same week on the Canadian Hot 100 , " Over the Rainbow " led the Glee debuts at number 31 . The song was also highest on the Australian and UK Singles Chart , at numbers 42 and 30 , respectively . In Ireland , " Any Way You Want It / Lovin ' Touchin ' Squeezin ' " charted as highest of the Glee entries at number twenty on June 17 , 2010 . " Don 't Stop Believin ' " was regarded as a re @-@ entry of the group 's debut single by most chart companies ; in addition to the debut of the new tracks , it climbed from 71 to 33 in the UK and from 49 to 24 in Ireland . It re @-@ entered the single charts of the US at 59 and Canada at 37 , setting a new peak for the song in the latter . Only the Australian Recording Industry Association regarded it as a separate song , who placed it at number 67 the week of July 12 , 2010 .
With sales figures provided by Nielsen SoundScan , a list of the twenty most successful Glee songs was released by Yahoo ! Music on October 22 , 2010 . The best @-@ selling song , with 1 @,@ 005 @,@ 000 copies sold , was " Don 't Stop Believin ' " — 84 @,@ 000 of those came from sales of the Regionals reprise . " Faithfully " was also on the list , at number eighteen with 159 @,@ 000 copies . The EP 's five new Billboard Hot 100 entries brought the cast 's total appearances on the chart to 64 , an accomplishment that placed them seventh among all artists , between Elton John ( 67 ) and Stevie Wonder ( 63 ) . Billboard noted an increase in sales of the original seven songs rising in percentages ranging from 23 % ( " Don 't Stop Believin ' " ) to 557 % ( " To Sir With Love " ) . Additionally , Journey 's compilation Greatest Hits ( 1988 ) saw a 62 % increase in sales , rising from 104 to 57 on the Billboard 200 .
= = Promotion = =
The cast embarked on an American concert tour , Glee Live ! In Concert ! starting in May 2010 in promotion of their first season . From the EP , " Faithfully " and " Any Way You Want It / Lovin ' Touchin ' Squeezin ' " were included on the set list . Morrison appeared on dates in New York City to sing " Over the Rainbow " whilst playing the ukulele . He was accompanied by Salling when he again sang the number at the annual White House Easter Egg Roll in 2010 . In addition , he also performed the song at The O2 Arena in London with Leona Lewis on June 16 , 2010 , as part of Lewis ' tour , The Labyrinth . On December 5 , 2010 , the cast appeared on the seventh season of UK reality TV series The X Factor to perform " Don 't Stop Believin ' " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Source : allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Ioan C. Filitti =
Ioan Constantin Filitti ( Romanian pronunciation : [ iˈon konstanˈtin fiˈliti ] , first name also Ion ; Francized Jean C. Filitti ; May 8 , 1879 – September 21 , 1945 ) was a Romanian historian , diplomat and conservative theorist , best remembered for his contribution to social history , legal history , genealogy and heraldry . A member of the Conservative Party and an assistant of its senior leader Titu Maiorescu , he had aristocratic ( boyar ) origins and an elitist perspective . Among his diverse contributions , several focus on 19th @-@ century modernization under the Regulamentul Organic regime , during which Romania was ruled upon by the Russian Empire . As a historian , Filitti is noted for his perfectionism , and for constantly revising his own works .
I. C. Filitti had an auspicious debut in diplomacy and politics , but his career was mired in controversy . A " Germanophile " by the start of World War I , he secretly opposed the pact between Romania and the Entente Powers , and opted to stay behind in German @-@ occupied territory . He fell into disgrace for serving the collaborationist Lupu Kostaki as Prefect and head of the National Theater , although he eventually managed to overturn his death sentence for treason . Filitti became a recluse , focusing on his scholarship and press polemics , but was allowed to serve on the Legislative Council after 1926 .
In his political tracts , written well after the Conservative Party 's demise , I. C. Filitti preserves the orthodox conservative principles of Maiorescu . His attachment to boyar tradition was expanded into a critique of centralized government , etatism and Romanian liberalism . Toward the end of his life , he supported the dictatorial regime known as National Renaissance Front .
= = Biography = =
= = = Origin and early life = = =
Through his paternal family , Filitti descended from historical figures whose careers were intertwined with the history of Wallachia , the Romanian subregion and former autonomous state . It originated with ethnic Greek migrants from the Epirus — where the Filitti family was known to be residing in the 17th century . The main settlers were male monks , whose presence was attested in Buzău County around 1786 : rising through the ranks of the Romanian Orthodox Church , Dositei Filitti served as Wallachian Metropolitan Bishop , assigning nephew Constandie to preside over the Diocese of Buzău . Although his Epirote father was a noted Russophile , the Metropolitan regarded himself as a liberal @-@ minded Wallachian patriot : he founded the local school of divinity , provided scholarships to young Wallachians , and sponsored the growing printing industry . In tandem , he spoke out against the practice of slavery , protecting Romani women from their Wallachian masters and donating money for the release of devșirme victims . During times of turmoil , when Wallachia effectively became a dominion of the Russian Empire , Dositei was swiftly deposed on Russian orders .
The historian claimed lineage from the non @-@ monastic branch of the Filitti clan . A Silvestru Filitti , active ca . 1810 , was among the first private practitioners in Wallachia . Fully Romanianized , 20th @-@ century Filittis were still members of Romania 's privileged class . A native of Bucharest , Ioan C. was the son of Colonel Constantin Filitti , a former Ordinance Officer of the Romanian Domnitori . By then , the family owned a country estate , at Alexeni , Ialomița County . The Filittis preserved strong connections with the Ialomița region , where Colonel Filitti had twice served as Prefect . Ioan inherited from him a deep dislike and mistrust toward the dominant National Liberal Party ( PNL ) , sentiments which carried him into Conservative politics : Constantin regarded himself as a political victim of the PNL establishment , and in particular of the Brătianu family . Colonel Filitti had another son , Alexandru — better known under the moniker Filitti @-@ Robănești .
The mother , Elena , was born into the Ghica family . Her father , Mihail Ghica , was a staff officer of the Royal Army , who had been married for a while to writer Elena Văcărescu . Thorough his mother 's other relatives , Ioan also descended from the eponymous boyar line of Slatina ( the Slătineanus ) .
I. C. Filitti studied at Saint Sava National College , where he was colleagues with future politician ( and adversary ) Ion G. Duca . He was an eminent student , who earned top distinctions annually , and moved on to study at the École Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris . His first ever published work as a historian was a French @-@ language tome , Le Rôle diplomatique des phanariotes de 1700 à 1821 ( " The Diplomatic Role of Phanariotes from 1700 to 1821 " ) . Signed Jean C. Filitti , it was probably his Licence ès Lettres , and , although receiving good reviews , was never listed by its author in his official résumés . He became a Doctor of Law in 1904 , when he published the first draft of his study about Regulamentul Organic as the first ever Romanian constitution .
= = = Entry into public life = = =
Young Filitti made a remarkably early entry into the diplomatic corps , and stayed on with the Romanian Legation in France . In this capacity , he purposefully embarrassed PNL Foreign Minister Ion I. C. Brătianu by not sending in all Legation employees to receive him during an official visit . During his return trips to Romania , Filitti was focusing on researching his own family archives , and , in 1910 , published the volume Așezământul cultural al mitropolitului Dosit [ h ] ei Filitti , de la înființare până azi ( " Metropolitan Dosit [ h ] ei Filitti 's Cultural Foundation , from Its Establishment to the Present Day " ) . In researching this work , Filitti sought input from the genealogical school in Greece and Macedonia , and from Romanian diplomats working in Istanbul . In a show of perfectionism , Filitti constantly revised the work as new data surfaced , and , in 1936 , declared the 1910 edition to be entirely unusable .
Filitti was soon drawn into the Conservative establishment , by politics and family connections . His wife Alexandrina ( " Sanda " ) , descending from another branch of the Ghica clan , was a distant relative of two Conservative potentates and doyens of the Cantacuzino political family : Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino @-@ Nababul , who was twice the Prime Minister of Romania , and newspaper magnate Grigore Gh . Cantacuzino . She brought in considerable wealth . Filitti was by then also in contact with Junimea , an inner @-@ Conservative club dedicated to cultural criticism , presided upon by the aged literary patron Titu Maiorescu . As noted in 2008 by political scientist Ioan Stanomir , the young diplomat was " an orthodox Junimist who survived the end of his world . " Like other historiographers and doctrinaires raised by Junimea , Filitti the scholar firmly believed in the preservation of boyar demesnes and , as political scientist Victor Rizescu suggests , took part in the century @-@ long debate opposing elitist historians to the advocates of natural law .
Filitti 's biographer and posthumous daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Georgeta Penelea @-@ Filitti , also writes that , even in the 1910s , he had become a Conservative apologist , who felt compelled to justify the party line in a " trenchant and unresponsive " manner . Like senior Junimists Maiorescu and Petre P. Carp , Filitti reserved contempt for Take Ionescu , the rising star of Romanian conservatism , whom he depicted as a manipulator with no actual convictions .
Filitti 's first important postings were received from the Conservative cabinet of P. P. Carp , wherein Titu Maiorescu held the Foreign Affairs portfolio . After 1910 , Maiorescu appointed Filitti head of the Ministry 's Political Section in Bucharest , and then granted him supervision of the Consular and Litigation sections . Filitti was also sent on regular missions to France , Austria @-@ Hungary , the Ottoman Empire , Serbia and Italy . The missions allowed Filitti to expand his activity as a historiographer and archivist . The main stimulus of this activity was , according to Filitti 's son Manole , a sense of filial duty : " since destiny wished for his parents to have such assets as would allow him to study in Paris for a couple of years , [ my father ] felt compelled to repay them by publishing works which would live up to that degree of education . " According to historian Lucian Boia , although " non @-@ academic " , Filitti 's work has earned deserved praise from within the scholarly community . Georgeta Penelea @-@ Filitti argues that I. C. Filitti 's work , indicative of his personality , covers an impressively " large horizon . "
On May 8 , 1913 , shortly before the Second Balkan War , Filitti began keeping a diary , which records the political intrigues of his age , and offers insight into Conservative affairs . One of the first events recorded there is the August 1913 Peace Conference of Bucharest . Filitti was the official Secretary during the proceedings . In this context , he also helped Titu Maiorescu with drafting Cartea Verde ( " The Green Book " ) , that is the official justification of Romanian foreign policy . Decades later , he recalled that the congress had been a magnificent affair , noting especially the triumphant arrival of King Carol I , that " old Nestor of European monarchs " . The Conference , he recalled , " was the swan song of the old Conservative Party . "
His services during the Conference earned him public praise from Maiorescu , and Filitti , who feared for his prospects , was kept on at the Ministry even after the National Liberal Emanuel Porumbaru became Minister in January 1914 . In tandem with his diplomatic endeavors , he spent time researching at the Vatican Library in Rome . As noted by Manole Filitti , Ioan C. received " special recommendations " , which allowed him entry into the less accessible archives of the Holy See . Such study trips resulted in a two @-@ volume anthology of historical sources , Din arhivele Vaticanului ( " From the Vatican Archives " , 1913 and 1914 ) .
= = = Germanophile polemicist and Domniile române ... = = =
World War I was a turning point in Filitti 's diplomatic career . Like many of his fellow Conservatives , and against the lobby which dominated the PNL , he believed in tying Romania to the Central Powers , especially to the German Empire and Austria @-@ Hungary . The Entente Powers alternative , he argued , was bankrupt , because Romania would find herself manipulated by a hostile Russian Empire . His core idea , paraphrased by Georgeta Filitti , was that : " Any entente , any attempt to collaborate , any concession made to [ Russia ] would sooner or later turn against us . " The diplomat witnessed with alarm that public opinion was against him , either because of seductive Francophilia , or because a war on Austria @-@ Hungary could bring Romania Transylvania region and other irredenta : " The Russian gold has bought off the press and many private persons . Others are guided by sentimentality " . In restaurants such as Casa Capșa , " Franco @-@ hysteria and Russo @-@ Frenchitude [ have reached ] a peak " , and " people of no significance " were even proposing to assassinate the Germanophile King Carol . In this context , he believed , Transylvania could only stand to lose its character if ever governed from Bucharest .
At around that time , Filitti issued at his expense the Germanophile brochure Cu Tripla Alianță ( " With the Triple Alliance " ) . He prudently signed it with the fake initials F. K. In it , Filitti spoke out at length about containing Pan @-@ Slavism , more important a priority than " the nation 's other aspirations " ( in Transylvania ) : " The best thing one may wish upon Romania is that the Muscovite Empire be evicted as far away as possible from the heart of Europe . " The pamphlet was also noted for its unfulfilled prophecy that Italy would also join the war as a German ally , and for arguing that , either way , Austria @-@ Hungary was set to collapse after the war . The text 's reception , he noted , was disastrous : no reviews were printed , almost no bookstores would sell it , and the few who looked over it attributed it to an agent of influence or to some " paid @-@ off Jew " . In Cu Tripla Alianță and in his diary , the diplomat continued to complain that the Francophile mood was irrational , since France and the Entente as a whole only " love [ Romanians ] when they need us " , which was " only natural " . In the same vein , his diary documents earlier instances where ( he argued ) France had gambled with Romania 's independence .
In his more public existence , I. C. Filitti was still regarded with sympathy by the entire political and cultural establishment . In 1915 , he was elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy . The institution also granted him its prestigious Năsturel Herescu Award . This was in recognition of his groundbreaking monograph on modernization under the Regulamentul regime : Domniile române sub Regulamentul Organic ( " Romanian Reigns under Regulamentul Organic " ) . It described in some detail the culture shock of the 1830s , when the Westernized elites reversed a process of Turkification [ ? ? controversial use of this term ] , and noted the ambivalent policies of Russian governors . The book also speaks about the 1832 manhunt for , and forced sedentarization of , Wallachia 's Romani people , both the fugitive slaves and the free nomads .
Domniile române ... was simultaneously published in Bucharest ( by Editura Socec ) , Leipzig ( Otto Harrassowitz ) and Vienna ( Carl Gerold ) . It was then reprinted by the official Editura Academiei press , under the supervision of historian Nicolae Iorga . The encounter was confrontational : Iorga decided to cut out entire passages where , he argued , the author had gone into too much detail . The intervention was unwittingly destructive , as part of the documents cited by Filitti , and only by him , have since been destroyed .
It was also in 1915 that Filitti contributed his views on the thorny issue of " Capitulations " , contracts reputedly signed by two Danubian Principalities ( Wallachia and Moldavia ) when they first came under the Ottoman Empire 's suzerainty . The author postulated that the Capitulations regulated the status of foreigners living in ancient Romania , exempting them from the consequences of common law , and creating major legal problems after 1800 . His research produced the article România față de capitulațiile Turciei ( " Romania in Relation to the Turkish Capitulations " ) , taken up by the Academy 's official yearbook . It saw print at the same time as his new collection of documents , sampling the archives of French Ambassadors to the Porte : Lettres et extraits concernant les relations des principautés roumaines avec la France , 1728 @-@ 1810 ( " Letters and Excerpts on the Relations between the Romanian Principalities and France " ) .
= = = Filitti and the Kostaki administration = = =
I. C. Filitti was not in a celebratory mood as the National Liberals publicized their August 1916 Treaty , when Romania became part of the Entente . His diaries record not only his general frustration , but also his belief that the decades of PNL rule had left the military ill @-@ prepared , and claims about generalized embezzlement within the Army . He was soon after drafted into the Romanian Land Forces , as officer of the Second Field Army , and stationed in Bucharest . When the German @-@ led counteroffensive forced the army on the retreat , resulting in the Central Powers ' occupation of southern Romania , Filitti took his most controversial decision . In circumstances that are largely unknown , he opted to stay behind in occupied territory , and greeted the enemy . According to Boia , Filitti received two contradictory orders : one to follow the Imperial Russian Army as liaison officer , the other to stay behind in Bucharest ; he conveniently opted to follow the latter .
The Filitti family had by then divided its loyalties : judge Ioan D. Filitti , formerly a PNL politico , followed the Germanophile line ; instead , Ioan C. ' s own brother Alexandru entered history when he led a cavalry charge on a German machine gun turret , located outside of Balș .
At the time , Lupu Kostaki was organizing left @-@ behind Conservatives and forming a provisional administration , answering to the German command . Filitti served Kostaki as Head of the National Theater Bucharest . Under his management , the Theater took on some 67 new productions of Romanian plays . The Germans also assigned him to an administrative position , making him the Prefect of Ialomița County . However , Filitti himself was troubled by his association with the puppet regime . According to Georgeta Filitti , the diary he kept shows " the efforts to interpose himself between the foreign military authorities and his own administrators , to alleviate the unbearable regime of requisitions , the abuse and Prussian arrogance , [ efforts which ] were , for the most part , ineffectual . " Like other Germanophiles , Filitti justified himself as a protector of Romanian interests during times of chaos , and was discouraged to find out that the German regime regarded him as a servant . He had similar trouble getting along with some of his Romanian colleagues , in particular Virgil Arion , the phantom Minister of Education ( whom he described as nepotistic , aloof , and especially " lazy " ) .
Both of his assignments failed to satisfy him : he was , according to Boia , a " strange " choice for the Theater leadership , and gave up on this office in April 1917 ; Filitti himself viewed his Prefect 's job as inane , and repeatedly presented his resignation ( only accepted in February 1918 ) . His departure from the Theater was in fact hastened by the Germans , who took over the location for their own purposes . Filitti informed the troupe members that they had to pay rent , and they moved out in protest . While in Ialomița , Filitti combined his administrative missions ( retold as short notes in his diaries ) with historical research , and tapped into a documentary fund at Alexeni . Although only a junior member of the administrative staff , Filitti aimed for a position at the core of government , and demanded from Kostaki a post better suited to his intelligence , " in Bucharest " . He noted that the death of Maiorescu in June 1917 had stripped him of political support inside the Conservative Party , and had derailed his steady advancement .
Meanwhile , the legitimate government had relocated to Iași , in besieged Moldavia . Late in 1916 , it court @-@ martialled Filitti in absentia , and sentenced him to death for the crime of high treason . By January 1918 , the collapse of Russian forces on the Eastern Front led the Iași administration into negotiating a separate peace with the Central Powers . Germanophile Alexandru Marghiloman took over as Premier , in what seemed to spell a moral victory for the pro @-@ German camp . However , Filitti was drawing closer to the more disgruntled Germanophiles , led by P. P. Carp , who wanted to sign peace on their own terms : " I ask Carp , should he leave to negotiate for Romania , to take me with him . He says that he 'll take along his son . I note that one does not exclude the other . He agrees " ( January 12 , 1918 ) . Filitti was also upset that Marghiloman himself had not yet offered him a high diplomatic post during negotiations over the Buftea @-@ Bucharest Peace Treaty , and noted that the Ententist King , Ferdinand I , " made it hard " for him to be accepted back into the diplomatic corps . As noted by Georgeta Filitti , Ferdinand vetoed successive proposals to rehire him as public servant .
In June 1918 , I. C. Filitti handed himself in to the authorities in Moldavia , and , upon retrial , was acquitted of treason . In addition to presenting evidence of his efforts to curb German excesses , he enlisted the testimony of Ialomița citizens , who vouched for him . However , Boia concludes , the retrial itself was a sham : " A rehabilitation as politicized in the new context as had been his sentencing at the end of 1916 . "
= = = Post @-@ 1918 controversy = = =
Upon the end of 1918 , when the Central Powers succumbed on the Western Front , the pro @-@ Entente forces regained power . I. C. Filitti faced the political repercussions : blocked out of the Foreign Ministry and diplomatic corps , he had to reinvent himself as a full @-@ time historian , publicist and essayist . He largely immersed himself in his decades @-@ long work , in effect a multilevel historical narrative covering the history of the Danubian Principalities , from the foundation of Wallachia ( 14th century ) to the emergence of United Romania ( 1859 ) . Much of his interest , marked by what Georgeta Filitti calls " excessive accuracy " , was in reviewing the intricate boyar genealogies . He substantiated the various inheritance claims , and , in addition , painstakingly retraced the borders of Wallachia 's oldest demesnes . During his retrial , facing the possibility of execution , Filitti also turned his attention to the philosophy of history , reading profusely from Ernest Renan and Hippolyte Taine .
According to Filitti , the war spelled out the end of Romania 's aristocratic order , leaving the country prey to the nouveaux riches and the neo @-@ Jacobins . As the Conservative Party itself collapsed into obscurity , he remained largely cut off from the outside world , and rejected many of the recent innovations . Reportedly , he wrote all his books and articles in dip pen , and never watched a motion picture . After 1919 , he had to recover from financial ruin , having entrusted the bulk of his assets ( what had not been lost in the war ) to a broker , who gambled it away and then committed suicide .
Filitti lived secluded in a townhouse on Oltarului Street , in the Bucharest quarter of Moșilor . He repeatedly complained about street noises , confiscated the footballs of neighborhood children , and eventually received ( from Romanian Police chief Gavrilă Marinescu ) a permanent guard to protect him from distractions . Filitti had few visiting friends , among them Alexandru Filitti @-@ Robănești , teacher Alexandru Pisoschi , historians Emanoil Hagi @-@ Moscu and G. D. Florescu . He was however in constant correspondence with other scholars who shared his passions , including Greek jurist Panagiotis Zepos , His Majesty 's Antiquarian G. T. Kirileanu , bibliophile Constantin Karadja , regional historian G. Poboran , academician @-@ priest Nicolae M. Popescu and Hungarian archivist Endre ( Andrei ) Veress . In addition to the anti @-@ Germanophile Nicolae Iorga , his rivals in academia included a new generation of leading historians , who were targets of his polemical articles : Gheorghe I. Brătianu , George Fotino , Constantin C. Giurescu and P. P. Panaitescu . The latter was however influenced by Filitti 's ideas on the sources of landed property , and incorporated them into his own historical narrative .
An early product of Filitti 's interest in genealogy was a 1919 book about his relatives , the Cantacuzinos : Arhiva Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino ( " The Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino Archive " ) . It refers to the documents collected by Cantacuzino @-@ Nababul , whom the book describes as : " Good and kind , a self @-@ effacing host , confident of the nation 's faculties . " The author tracked down Nababul 's origins to Michael " Șeytanoğlu " Kantakouzenos , a Byzantine Greek in Ottoman service , active around 1580 . The factual errors of this study caused Filitti great distress , to the point where he planned to entirely revise his version of the Cantacuzino family tree . The book is still considered a particularly relevant source on the obscure genealogies of some high @-@ ranking Greek @-@ Romanian families : Cara ( g ) iani , Filodor , Gheraki and Plagino .
Filitti the politician returned in 1921 with an extended pro domo covering his wartime stances : Rusia , Austro @-@ Ungaria și Germania față de România ( " Russia , Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany Confront Romania " ) . The same year , in May , Iași 's Viața Românească review hosted his tract on administrative reform , whereby he criticized attempts to impose centralized government on post @-@ war Greater Romania . He proposed three essential policies : decentralization , the depoliticization of public administration , and enhanced executive powers for the prefects . These prolonged P. P. Carp 's ideas on local autonomy and , in addition , attempted to protect the existing local government of the newly united Transylvania , Bessarabia and Bukovina .
He still struggled with prejudice against Germanophiles : also in 1921 , he tried to obtain the History Chair at the University of Iași , but lost once his old adversary Iorga intervened against him . Two years later , he was present at the funeral ceremony of Dimitrie Onciul , a fellow historian and Junimist . Onciul , whose Germanophila had been the topic of a major scandal in 1919 , was honored by Filitti with a funeral oration . It stated : " All of us , we are what our known or unknown ancestors have accumulated in our beings ; we are that which preceding generations have planted in us ; we are the echo of our dead . "
= = = Recovery = = =
In the early 1920s , I. C. Filitti worked with the formerly Junimist tribune Convorbiri Literare , which published fragments of his research on Maiorescu ( 1922 ) and novelist Costache Negruzzi ( 1923 ) . Filitti subsequently turned his attention to some of the earliest sources on Wallachian history , adding his opinion to the debate surrounding the historicity of Negru Vodă ( described by some early modern sources as Wallachia 's state @-@ builder ) . His topical study , published by in the 1924 Romanian Academy annals , concluded that Negru Vodă was in fact the stuff of legend , concocted by the 17th @-@ century Wallachian Lord Matei Basarab . The next year , he returned to social history , with the book Clasele sociale în trecutul românesc ( " Social Classes in the Romanian Past " ) . It mainly explained the difference between the concepts of nobility in Western Europe , on one hand , and the Danubian Principalities , on the other : Moldo @-@ Wallachian nobility had no concept of knighthood , as all boyars were defined by their demesnes .
Eventually , in 1926 , King Ferdinand allowed Filitti to resume his political career , making him a member of the Romanian Legislative Council . An emanation of the 1923 Constitution , it comprised experts tasked with reviewing laws endorsed by Parliament , and whose exact role sparked a series of controversies . Filitti was among those who described the Council as a necessary branch of the legislature , rather than as an organ of the executive .
Also in 1926 , Filitti was one of the authors of a legal history overview , Contribuții la istoria justiției penale în Principatele române ( " Contributions to the History of Penal Justice in the Romanian Principalities " ) . By means of Iorga 's academic journal Revista Istorică , he also publicized his discovery of a 17th @-@ century Romanian glossary , which emissaries of the Holy See used on their missions to the Danubian Principalities . He returned in 1927 with a work tracing the very history of the Legislative Council : Originea și menirea Consiliului Legislativ ( " The Origin and Purpose of the Legislative Council " ) .
Filitti ended the 13th and final notebook of his diary on March 6 , 1928 . By 1929 , he turned his attention to the history of medicine in Wallachia , publishing a study of medical practice between 1784 and 1828 . The same year , he edited the critical edition of the 1829 boyar register ( catagrafie ) , originally compiled by Russian authorities under Regulamentul provisions . It notably showed the division of aristocracy into three classes , with only 70 entries in the top , " great boyars " , category . Filitti conclusively showed that , at only 4 @.@ 6 ‰ of the Wallachian population , Wallachian boyars formed one of the thinnest layers of European aristocrats proportional to the respective population .
While still involved in the disputes over Legislative Council attributions , Filitti was a member , and later President , of the state 's Heraldry and Genealogy Commission . The appointment again brought him into disagreement with the Romanian monarch , this time involving the heraldic symbols of Greater Romania . Filitti and Kirileanu suggested redesigned coats of arms of the Romanian counties , each bearing the Steel Crown , as a show of national unity ; Ferdinand disagreed , and the counties were only allowed their simple escutcheons . He was turning his attention to the Slătineanu branch of his family , and completed a biographical study on Ion Slătineanu , governor of Brăila in the 1830s ( hosted by the magazine Analele Brăilei , 1 / 1929 ) .
Some of Filitti 's biographical work was dedicated to the 16th @-@ century Wallachian hero Michael the Brave . In 1931 , he published an investigation of Michael 's early career as titular Ban of Oltenia . A year later , he detailed Michael 's introduction of serfdom in Wallachia : Despre " legătura " lui Mihai Viteazul ( " On ' Bondage ' under Michael the Brave " ) . Between these , the academic review Analele Economice și Statistice , Vol . XIV , reissued the 1857 count of emancipated Romani slaves , annotated by Filitti . In 1932 , returning to the history of Oltenian Bans , he gave an account on the Craiovești family history , taken up by Arhivele Olteniei journal . His ongoing research into social issues of the early 19th century produced another book , Frământări politice și sociale în Principatele române de la 1821 la 1828 ( " Political and Social Turmoil in the Romanian Principalities from 1821 to 1828 " , Cartea Românească , 1932 ) . It has been described as a " non @-@ partisan analysis " of the Wallachian uprising of 1821 and its reverberations , and features detail on the property dispute between local Orthodox monks and their Greek Orthodox competitors .
= = = Conservative theories and Principatele române ... = = =
By 1928 , I. C. Filitti 's writing was moving from sheer historical research , as he was taking a stand in political theory . As noted by Ioan Stanomir , Filitti 's evolution in this direction marks a final cycle in the history of classical , " Burkean " , conservatism in Romania , which did not have a political aspect , but was complementary and contemporary with the views of his rival Nicolae Iorga . According to Stanomir , the objectivity professed by Filitti the historiographer was at odds with his ambition to rehabilitate Junimea and the Conservative cause , to prolong their relevancy into the 1930s . Some of his core ideas were updated versions of 19th @-@ century Junimist concepts : the praise of moderation and organicity , the rejection of state capitalism and its " pseudo @-@ bourgeoisie " , and in particular the critique of generous land reforms . Directly influenced by the agrarian skepticism of Carp and Maiorescu , Filitti argued that the division of large estates into non @-@ lucrative plots had only enhanced endemic problems , such as poverty or an unskilled workforce , and had prevented an organic growth toward good governance . Filitti 's diary chides the political establishment of Greater Romania for not obtaining sufficient guarantees of territorial integrity — particularly so against Russia 's successor , the Soviet Union — and for deprofessionalizing the diplomatic corps .
From Maiorescu , Filitti borrowed the essential sociological concept of " forms without content " , criticizing all modernization which did not take into account local realities , writing : " After seven decades of bourgeois forms , without a bourgeoisie , with all that maelstrom of laws and regulations , which has grown to cover 20 @,@ 000 pages [ ... ] , the tally shows that [ ... ] the villages of all places have registered no profit , although [ ... ] Romania is , at heart , nothing but one giant village . " In his post @-@ Junimist studies , Filitti angrily noted that the PNL regime had only increased the ranks of the bureaucracy ( and implicitly enlarged their political machine ) , perpetuating etatism . He proposed measures to counter this trend by encouraging a " rural bourgeoisie " , " self @-@ reliant " , determined to reemerge " from the darkness and routine " of country life , and , in time , capable of supporting a national industry .
In 1932 , Filitti , who kept a vivid interest in Romanian Orthodox history , published Biserici și ctitori ( " Churches and Ktitors " ) . He was preoccupied with similar thoughts when he decided to sponsor the rebuilding and refurbishing of two ancestral churches : the Dormition Church in Slatina , originally built by his Slătineanu relatives ( whom he commemorated with a coat of arms , displayed over the church entrance ) ; and the Sfântul Dumitru de Jurământ Metochion of Constandie Filitti ( whom he had reburied on church premises ) .
It was in 1934 that I. C. Filitti registered one of his greatest successes , when he published a revised and extended version of his 1904 study : Principatele române de la 1828 la 1834 . Ocupațiunea rusească și Regulamentul Organic ( " The Romanian Principalities from 1828 to 1834 . The Russian Occupation and Regulamentul Organic " ) . The study even earned him accolades from Iorga , who called it " an extraordinarily rich work of pragmatic history " . The work mainly documents the emergence of a civic consciousness , called " public spirit " by Filitti , over the years when Regulamentul was in force , and speaks about how the Moldo @-@ Wallachian Russophile class turned Russophobic as it became acquainted with Tsarist autocracy . Principatele române ... includes additional data on the rift between the liberal youth , with its ideal of national liberation , and the peasantry , more determined to terminate the corvée system . He continued to publish on topical issues of legal history , documenting the antique Wallachian form of Weregild ( plata capului , " head payment " ) , and on historiography , with a Revista Istorică biography of Wallachian chronicler Radu Greceanu . His other book for that year was an extended political manifesto , Rătăcirile unei pseudo @-@ burghezii și reforme ce nu se fac ( " The Aberrations of a Pseudo @-@ bourgeoisie and Reforms Not Effected " ) .
In 1935 , Filitti completed his Proprietatea solului în Principatele române până la 1864 ( " Land Ownership in the Romanian Principalities to 1864 " ) and Contribuții la istoria diplomatică a României în secolul al XIX @-@ lea ( " Contributions to the Diplomatic History of Romania in the 19th Century " ) . In Vechea organizare fiscală a Principatelor Române până la Regulamentul Organic ( " On the Ancient Fiscal Order of the Romanian Principalities to Regulamentul Organic " ) , he discussed the proliferation of state taxes over the centuries , and the measure to which the Orthodox clergy was exempted . A fourth book , on literary history , saw print with the title Cărți vechi privitoare la români ( " Old Books Relating to the Romanians " ) . Also in 1935 , he released a selection of his memoirs , as Câteva amintiri ( " Some Recollections " ) , and set in print his conferences for the state Radio Company : Dezvoltarea politică a României moderne ( " The Political Development of Modern Romania " ) . Building on his previous research in Arhiva Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino , Filitti also contributed an article about the Romanian origins of French diplomat Maurice Paléologue ( Adevărul daily , September 29 , 1935 ) and edited for print the letters of Oltenian engineer Petrache Poenaru ( Arhivele Olteniei , 74 @-@ 76 / 1934 ) .
His other contribution for 1935 was a collection of texts on political history , called Pagini din istoria României moderne ( " Pages from the History of Modern Romania " ) . The volume criticized the PNL 's historical narrative , Romania 's answer to Whiggishness , and noted that , from the beginning , the Conservatives were closer to the models of classical liberalism than their revolutionist opponents . Published with the Lupta Graphic Arts Institute in 1936 , Filitti 's new essay revisited the birth and evolution of conservatism in the Danubian Principalities and then Romania : Conservatori și junimiști în viața politică românească ( " Conservatives and Junimists in Romanian Political Life " ) . The work postulated that local conservatism had in fact originated within the first phase of Romanian liberalism , grouping opponents of the " extremist " , " utopian " , " exulted " force which became the National Liberal elite . He argued that , since the National Liberals had become the establishment and did away with their republican agenda , the Conservatives , " in reality moderate liberals " , came to be falsely depicted as " reactionaries " . His retrospective portrait of Junimea was , according to Stanomir , particularly " melancholy " , his own Junimism " never abjured " .
= = = Final years = = =
In 1936 , I. C. Filitti wrote an article defining the scope and history of the Legislative Council . It was featured in the anniversary collection of articles published by Council President Ioan Ionescu @-@ Dolj . His revised work on the Cantacuzinos , published in Bucharest as Notice sur les Cantacuzène du XIe au XVIIe siècles ( " Note on the Cantacuzinos from the 11th to the 14th Century " ) , traced the family links between Cantacuzino @-@ Nababul and 14th @-@ century Byzantine Emperor John VI , whom Filitti identified as a usurper . Also then , he republished a political pamphlet by the 18th @-@ century poet Alecu Văcărescu , with the journal Preocupări Literare .
Filitti was preparing his retirement from public life , and designated his only son Manole as a curator of the Filitti Archive . Filitti Jr was a lawyer , financier and amateur rugby footballer , who would later serve as manager of the Phoenix Oil Factory . Married to actress Mimi Enăceanu , he was for long based in Iași , sharing a villa with the poet Mihail Codreanu . It was there that Ioan C. ' s grandson Ion was born in 1936 . His baptism was a public affair involving some of the established aristocratic houses , and one of the last functions ever attended by Filitti Sr ( who met and befriended Codreanu on the occasion ) .
The National Renaissance Front dictatorship , with King Carol II at its helm , put an end to democratic rule in Greater Romania . Under these circumstances , I. C. Filitti was recovered by the official school of historians . From 1938 , sociologist Dimitrie Gusti employed Filitti as an external contributor to the standard Romanian dictionary , Enciclopedia României . His " fundamental " contribution was , according to Stanomir , the " Legislative Council " entry , included in Volume I. Together with I. C. Vântu , Filitti also wrote the section on the administrative reform , whereby Carol had replaced the counties with larger ținuturi . This entry justified Carol 's ideas on territorial division , describing the new regions as organic , " moral , cultural , economic and financial " units . The two authors offered praise to the supposedly increased representative powers of communes , and to the laws protecting private property within urban domains . As noted by Georgeta Filitti , I. C. Filitti was again dissatisfied with the finished product : " The [ Enciclopedia ] copy he left comprises numerous rectifications to his own entries and observations made on those of other authors , which would be welcomed for any future reediting . " Filitti 's other contribution for 1938 is an eponymous volume about the 1821 Wallachian revolutionist Tudor Vladimirescu , with the subtitle : Rostul răscoalei lui ( " The Purpose of His Revolt " ) .
The outbreak of World War II again pushed Filitti away from public life . Romania was an Axis country , and , as such , Bucharest endured heavy bombardments by the United States Air Force . The air attack of April 4 , 1944 , effectively destroyed the Filitti residence , its art collection ( including Murano glassware ) and scores of unedited documents . The historian survived , but , according to Georgeta Filitti , the incident " hastened his death " .
I. C. Filitti died in September 1945 , almost a year after King Michael 's Coup broke with the Axis . By his own account , he had published 82 volumes , 267 topical articles , and completed some 700 family trees . Many of these texts were circular of " rectifications " to previous editions , addressed to the community of scientists at large .
= = Legacy = =
Filitti 's death occurred shortly before a Romanian communist regime came into existence . He was survived by his wife and son . An aristocrats by blood and conservatives by conviction , Ioan C. ' s descendants and relatives suffered heavily as a result of the new policies : the outspoken anti @-@ communist Filitti @-@ Robănești became a political prisoner , as did his cousin Puiu Filitti , who had been the King 's Adjutant . Alexandrina Filitti was stripped of virtually all her land during the land reform and nationalization , but still forced to meet agricultural quotas imposed by the government ; when she failed to do so , Manole Filitti took it upon himself to face the consequences , and spent some three years in communist jails .
Upon release , Manole and part of the Filitti clan moved into a single Bucharest home , located near the Darvari Skete . Reintegrated as a clerk for nationalized enterprises , he remarried , in 1985 , to historian Georgeta Penelea . Of Croat and Istro @-@ Romanian ancestry , she is related to prestigious woman reporter Mihaela Catargi . Manole 's son Ion had a career in engineering , but could not advance professionally due to his aristocratic lineage . He emigrated to West Germany , where a branch of the Filittis still resides .
Although officially censored , Filitti 's work was not entirely inaccessible . As indicated by Victor Rizescu , under orthodox Marxism @-@ Leninism , the idea of boyar precedence in the early Danubian Principalities was not discarded , but rather integrated within a " modes of production " theory . Some of Filitti 's books were reprinted in the 1980s , when national communism allowed selective exposure to Romania 's conservative schools of thought . As noted by historian Ovidiu Pecican , the regime was trying to encourage " autarkic xenophobia " , preventing intellectuals from receiving Western ideas , but in exchange allowing them a selective recovery of old ideas . In 1985 , Proprietatea solului ... , Frământări politice și sociale ... and România față de capitulațiile Turciei were reissued in critical editions . On the academic side , the main contributor to this particular recovery project was Georgeta Penelea @-@ Filitti , also distinguished as the editor of books by Iorga , Mihail Kogălniceanu , etc .
The Romanian Revolution of 1989 resulted in more consideration being granted to I. C. Filitti , as both researcher and polemicist . The Filitti Archive , preserved by Manole Filitti , was divided into separate funds , and divided between several institutions : the Romanian Academy Library , the National Archives , the Cotroceni Palace collection , and the Ialomița County Museum . Selections from the historian 's diaries were published by Georgeta Filitti as fascicles in the academic review Revista Istorică , during the early 1990s . Beginning 2008 , she published the diary in book form , with the Ialomița Museum press and Cetatea de Scaun company of Târgoviște .
Romania 's academic community was thus prompted to reassess the overall value of Ioan C. Filitti 's work . The popular history review Magazin Istoric grants an I. C. Filitti Award as one of its four annual distinctions for exceptional research and writing . In 2009 , Editura Compania company published historian Dan Berindei 's book of scholarly biographies , which notably includes a chapter on Filitti . According to Boia , Berindei bracketed out Filitti 's entire career in occupied Romania , while expressing a vague regret that Filitti never reached his full potential in diplomacy . Boia asks rhetorically : " the historian knows [ the reason for this ] , shouldn 't the reader also find it out ? " According to political scientist Cristian Cercel , Ioan Stanomir takes credit for having helped recover Filitti 's contributions as conservative theorist , which had been " all too soon forgotten . " In his 2004 book Conștiința conservatoare ( " The Conservative Consciousness " ) , Stanomir places Filitti alongside Constantin Rădulescu @-@ Motru , Alexandru Duțu and Virgil Nemoianu , as one of the intellectuals who preserved a place for Junimist conservatism into the latter 20th century and beyond .
= Sangay =
Sangay ( also known as Macas , Sanagay , or Sangai ) is an active stratovolcano in central Ecuador . It is the most active volcano in Ecuador , having erupted three times in recorded history . It exhibits mostly strombolian activity ; the most recent eruption , which started in 1934 , is still ongoing . Geologically , Sangay marks the southern boundary of the Northern Volcanic Zone , and its position straddling two major pieces of crust accounts for its high level of activity . Sangay 's approximately 500 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old history is one of instability ; two previous versions of the mountain were destroyed in massive flank collapses , evidence of which still litters its surroundings today .
Due to its remoteness , Sangay hosts a significant biological community with fauna such as mountain tapirs , giant otters , cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock , and king vultures . Since 1983 , its ecological community has been protected as part of the Sangay National Park . Although climbing the mountain is hampered by its remoteness , poor weather conditions , river flooding , and the danger of falling ejecta , the volcano is regularly climbed , a feat first achieved by Robert T. Moore in 1929 .
= = Geological setting = =
Lying at the eastern edge of the Andean cordillera , Sangay was formed by volcanic processes associated with the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate at the Peru – Chile Trench . It is the southernmost volcano in the Northern Volcanic Zone , a subgroup of Andean volcanoes whose northern limit is Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia .
The next active volcano in the chain , Sabancaya , is in Peru , a distant 1 @,@ 600 km ( 990 mi ) to the south . Sangay lies above a seismogenic tectonic slab located about 130 km ( 80 mi ) beneath Sabancaya , reflecting a sharp difference in the thermal character of the subducted oceanic crust , between older rock beneath southern Ecuador and Peru ( dated more than 32 million years old ) , and younger rock under northern Ecuador and Colombia ( dated less than 22 million years old ) . The older southern rock is more thermally stable than the northern crust , and to this is attributed the long break in volcanic activity in the Andes ; Sangay occupies a position at the boundary between these two bodies , accounting for its high level of activity .
= = Geology = =
Sangay developed in three distinct phases . Its oldest edifice , formed between 500 @,@ 000 and 250 @,@ 000 years ago , is evidenced today by a wide scattering of material opening to the east , defined by a crest about 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 120 ft ) high . This first Sangay , pockmarked by secondary ridges , is thought to have been 15 – 16 km ( 9 – 10 mi ) in diameter , with a summit located 2 to 3 km ( 1 to 2 mi ) southeast of the present summit . The curved shape of the remnants of this first structure indicates that it suffered a massive flank collapse , scattering the nearby forest lowlands with debris and causing a large part of its southern caldera wall to slide off the mountain , forming an embayment lower on its slopes . This 400 m ( 1 @,@ 312 ft ) thick block , the best preserved specimen of Sangay 's early construction , consists of sequentially layered breccias , pyroclastic flows , and lahar deposits . Acidic andesites with just under 60 % silicon dioxide dominate these flows , but more basic andesites can be found as well .
Sangay 's second edifice began to form anew after the massive sector collapse that damaged the first , being constructed between 100 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 years ago . Remnants of its second structure lie within the southern and eastern parts of the debris from its first collapse ; some remnants of the volcano lie to the west and north as well . Sangay 's second structure is believed to have had an east @-@ to @-@ west elongated summit , and like its first summit structure , it suffered a catastrophic collapse that created a debris avalanche 5 km ( 3 mi ) wide and up to 20 km ( 12 mi ) in length . It was likely less voluminous than the volcano 's first version , and its summit lay near Sangay 's current one .
Sangay currently forms an almost perfect glacier @-@ capped cone 5 @,@ 230 m ( 17 @,@ 159 ft ) high , with a 35 ° slope and a slight northeast @-@ southwest tilt . Its eastern flank marks the edge of the Amazon Rainforest , and its western flank is a flat plain of volcanic ash , sculpted into steep gorges up to 600 m ( 1 @,@ 970 ft ) deep by heavy rainfall . It has a west @-@ east trending summit ridge , capped by three active craters and a lava dome . Sangay has been active in its current form for at least 14 @,@ 000 years , and is still filling out the area left bare by its earlier incarnations , being smaller than either of them . Uniquely , in its 500 @,@ 000 years of activity , its magma plume has never changed composition or moved a significant distance .
Mainly andesitic in composition , Sangay is highly active . The earliest report of a historical eruption was in 1628 ; ash fell as far away as Riobamba , located 50 km ( 31 mi ) northwest of Sangay , and was severe enough to cover pastures and starve local livestock . The volcano erupted again in 1728 , remaining essentially continuously active through 1916 , with particularly heavy activity in 1738 – 1744 , 1842 – 1843 , 1849 , 1854 – 1859 , 1867 – 1874 , 1872 , and 1903 . After a brief pause , it erupted again on August 8 , 1934 , and has not completely quelled ever since , with heavy eruptive periods occurring in 1934 – 1937 and 1941 – 1942 .
Eruptions at Sangay exhibit strombolian activity , producing ashfall , lava flows , pyroclastic flows , and lahars . All known eruptions at the volcano have had a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of 3 . Despite its activity , Sangay is located in a remote , uninhabited region ; only a large Plinian eruption could threaten occupied areas 30 – 100 km ( 19 – 62 mi ) to its west . Nonetheless , a flank collapse on its eastern side , possible given the volcano 's construction and history , could displace nearby forest and possibly affect settlements . Access to the volcano is difficult , as its current eruptive states constantly peppers the massif with molten rock and other ejecta . For these reasons , it is not nearly as well @-@ studied as other , similarly active volcanoes in the Andes and elsewhere ; the first detailed study of the volcano was not published until 1999 .
= = Ecology = =
Sangay is one of two active volcanoes located within the namesake Sangay National Park , the other being Tungurahua to the north . As such it has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983 . The area 's isolation has allowed it to maintain a pristine ecology relatively untouched by human interaction , and the park hosts a biome ranging from alpine glaciers on the volcanoes ' peaks to tropical forest on their flanks . Altitude and rainfall are the most significant local factors affecting fauna , and therefore the most lush ecosystems are found on the wetter parts of the volcano 's eastern slope .
The highest level below the snowline is dominated by lichen and bryophytes . Below this lies a zone of small trees and shrubs which develops into montane forest , principally in western valleys and on well @-@ irrigated eastern slopes , which occurs below 3 @,@ 750 m ( 12 @,@ 303 ft ) . Tree heights develop from 5 m ( 16 ft ) near the top to up to 12 m ( 39 ft ) below 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 843 ft ) ; below 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) , subtropical rainforest is present , with temperatures between 18 and 24 ° C ( 64 and 75 ° F ) and up to 500 cm ( 196 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall .
Fauna is similarly distributed , with distinct altitudinal zonation present . The highest altitudes support endangered mountain tapirs ( Tapirus pinchaque ) , cougars ( Puma concolor ) , guinea pigs ( Cavia porcellus ) , and Andean foxes ( Lycalopex culpaeus ) . Lower down , spectacled bears ( Tremarctos ornatus ) , jaguars ( Panthera onca ) , ocelots
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counsel from the hearings .
In a 5 – 4 opinion written by Justice Samuel Alito , the Supreme Court held that even if the trial court committed error , the error was harmless and that Ayala did not suffer any actual prejudice . Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote a dissenting opinion in which she argued that Ayala 's sentence should be reversed because the exclusion of Ayala 's counsel from the hearings " substantially influenced the outcome " of the case . Additionally , Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote a separate concurring opinion in which he questioned the propriety of Ayala 's placement in solitary confinement . In response , Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a one @-@ paragraph concurring opinion in which he stated that Ayala 's accommodations were " far sight more spacious than those in which his victims ... now rest " .
Commentators have described the case as " important " and note that will likely have a " significant effect " on similar cases in the future . However , some analysts have described the outcome as " particularly unjust " . Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion also received significant coverage from the media , and some analysts suggested that solitary confinement may become a " new battleground " for Justice Kennedy . One commentator described Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion as " the single most surprising and heartening development of the term " .
= = Legal Background = =
= = = Batson challenges = = =
In Batson v. Kentucky , the Supreme Court of the United States held that a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution occurs when prosecutors use peremptory challenges to exclude jurors on the basis of race . If a defendant alleges that a prosecutor challenged a prospective juror on the basis of that juror 's race ( a process known as a " Batson challenge " ) , trial courts will conduct a three @-@ part analysis of the peremptory challenge in question : " [ f ] irst , a defendant must make a prima facie showing that a peremptory challenge has been exercised on the basis of race ; second , if that showing has been made , the prosecution must offer a race @-@ neutral basis for striking the juror in question ; and third , in light of the parties ’ submissions , the trial court must determine whether the defendant has shown purposeful discrimination . " A court will only sustain a Batson challenge if all three elements of this test are satisfied . On appeal , a trial court 's findings with respect to a Batson challenge will only be reversed if a trial court judge committed clear error . Additionally , the Supreme Court of the United States has held that findings with respect to a prosecutor 's explanation of the reasons for their use of peremptory challenges is " entitled to ' great deference ' " .
= = = The right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus under federal law = = =
When individuals are convicted for crimes under state law , those individuals have the right to challenge the constitutionality of their convictions in federal court by petitioning for a writ of habeas corpus . This right was codified by the Habeas Corpus Act of 1867 , and in 1953 , the United States Supreme Court held that even when a state court rules against a prisoner , that individual still has the right to seek de novo review of their constitutional claims in federal court . However , in the wake of the Oklahoma City bombing , congress passed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act ( " AEDPA " ) in 1996 to modify federal habeas corpus procedures . Under the AEDPA 's new standards , when a prisoner 's claim has been adjudicated in state court , that individual 's petition for habeas corpus shall not be granted unless the state court decision " was contrary to , or involved an unreasonable application of , clearly established Federal law , as determined by the Supreme Court of the United States " . In 2007 , the United States Supreme Court held that , as a " precondition " for relief under the AEDPA , habeas petitioners must demonstrate evidence that a state court 's error resulted in " actual prejudice " .
= = = Federal harmless error doctrine = = =
The Supreme Court of the United States has identified a narrow range of errors that require automatic reversal ; for all other errors , the decision of a lower court will be upheld if the error was harmless . In 1967 , the Supreme Court ruled in Chapman v. California that a constitutional error will only be considered harmless when the court is " able to declare a belief that it was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt " . Additionally , when reviewing federal habeas corpus petitions , a petitioner must demonstrate that an error " had substantial and injurious effect or influence in determining the jury 's verdict " . The Supreme Court has also ruled that when reviewing a determination of harmlessness under Chapman , the AEDPA mandates that the reviewing court may not grant a petition for habeas corpus " unless the harmlessness determination itself was unreasonable " . According to the Supreme Court , the rationale underlying this doctrine is the public policy concern that states courts should not be forced to undertake the " arduous task " of retrying criminal defendants " based on mere speculation that the defendant was prejudiced by trial error " .
= = Arrest and Trial of Hector Ayala = =
Hector Ayala was charged with three counts of murder that allegedly occurred during an attempted robbery of an automobile body shop in San Diego , California in April 1985 . During jury selection , the prosecution used peremptory challenges to strike all Black and Hispanic jurors who were available for jury service . Ayala , who was of Hispanic descent , filed a series of Batson challenges to contest the prosecution 's use of peremptory challenges . The trial judge permitted the prosecution to explain the basis of their peremptory challenges in a closed hearing , outside the presence of Ayala 's counsel , " so as not to disclose trial strategy " . The trial court ultimately concluded that the peremptory challenges were based on race @-@ neutral criteria , and Ayala was convicted of the three counts of murder in August 1989 . The jury returned a sentence of death for the three murder convictions , and the trial judge entered a judgment consistent with the jury 's sentence . On direct appeal , the California Supreme Court upheld Ayala 's conviction and sentence , noting that even if the trial judge committed an error when considering the defense 's Batson challenges , that error was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt . Ayala subsequently filed a petition for habeas corpus , which was denied by a district court judge in 2006 . On appeal , the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit granted Ayala 's habeas petition in 2013 , holding that Ayala was denied due process at trial and that the trial court 's error was not harmless . In 2014 , the Supreme Court of the United States granted certiorari to review the Ninth Circuit 's ruling .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
In his majority opinion , Justice Samuel Alito held that the exclusion of Ayala 's counsel during the Batson hearings was harmless error . Justice Alito emphasized that under federal law , prisoners are not entitled to habeas relief unless they can demonstrate " actual prejudice " . Additionally , Justice Alito noted that under the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act , federal courts should be " highly deferential " to state courts " when a prisoner 's ' claim ' has been ' adjudicated on the merits ' in state court " . Applying these standards to the facts of this case , Justice Alito ruled that Ayala did not suffer any actual prejudice and that the California Supreme Court 's opinion " represented an entirely reasonable application of controlling precedent " . Consequently , Justice Alito held that the Ninth Circuit 's ruling should be reversed and that the case should be remanded for reconsideration in light of the Supreme Court 's decision .
= = = Concurring opinions = = =
Although he noted that his support for the majority 's opinion was " unqualified " , Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote a separate concurring opinion in which he questioned the propriety of solitary confinement . Justice Kennedy observed that since 1989 , Ayala had spent more than twenty five years in solitary confinement . Although the conditions of Ayala 's confinement were not established in the record , Justice Kennedy wrote that " it is likely [ he ] has been held for all or most of the past 20 years or more in a windowless cell no larger than a typical parking spot for 23 hours a day ; and in the one hour when he leaves it , he likely is allowed little or no opportunity for conversation or interaction with anyone " . Justice Kennedy wrote that " [ t ] he human toll wrought by extended terms of isolation long has been understood , and questioned , by writers and commentators " and that solitary confinement " bears a further terror and peculiar mark of infamy " . Justice Kennedy conceded that " in some instances temporary , solitary confinement is a useful or necessary means to impose discipline and to protect prison employees and other inmates " , but that courts should ultimately determine " whether workable alternative systems for long @-@ term confinement exist , and , if so , whether a correctional system should be required to adopt them " .
Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a separate , one @-@ paragraph concurring opinion to respond to Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion . He wrote that the " accommodations in which Ayala is housed are a far sight more spacious than those in which his victims , Ernesto Dominguez Mendez , Marcos Antonio Zamora , and Jose Luis Rositas , now rest " . Justice Thomas also noted that because Ayala 's victims were all 31 years of age or younger , " Ayala will soon have had as much or more time to enjoy those accommodations as his victims had time to enjoy this Earth " .
= = = Justice Sotomayor 's dissenting opinion = = =
Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote a dissenting opinion in which she was joined by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg , Justice Stephen Breyer , and Justice Elena Kagan . Justice Sotomayor argued that the exclusion of Ayala 's counsel from the Batson hearings " substantially influenced the outcome " of the case and that " grave doubt exists as to whether [ the exclusion ] was harmless " . She critiqued Justice Alito 's methodological approach , arguing that " [ t ] he proper inquiry is not whether the trial court ’ s determination can be sustained , but whether it may have been different had counsel been present " . Considering the evidence presented in this case , Justice Sotomayor concluded that there " is neither a factual nor a legal basis for the Court ’ s confidence " that the prosecution 's use of peremptory challenges was race neutral . She argued that in light of " the strength of Ayala ’ s prima facie case " , the Court should have upheld the Ninth Circuit 's ruling .
= = Commentary and analysis = =
Following the release of the Court 's opinion , commentators described Davis v. Ayala as " an important case raising claims about jury selection and harmless error " . Steve Vladeck wrote that " [ g ] oing forward , the dispute between the majority and dissent will have an especially significant effect on cases in which trial courts conduct Batson proceedings ex parte " . Hadar Aviram wrote that " [ t ] he Court was willing to accept , as a basic premise , that Ayala 's constitutional rights were violated ; but that is not enough to merit a reversal " . In his review of the case for The New Yorker , Lincoln Caplan described the Court 's opinion as " particularly unjust " because the Court " had the opportunity to hold a state prosecutor to account for using trumped @-@ up reasons to justify racial discrimination in a jury selection " but failed to do so .
= = = Commentary about Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion = = =
Much of the initial commentary about the case focused on Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion . Writing for the Los Angeles Times , David G. Savage described Justice Kennedy 's opinion as " unusual " and " a rare instance of a Supreme Court justice virtually inviting a constitutional challenge to a prison policy " . Marty Lederman described Justice Kennedy 's concurring opinion as " the single most surprising and heartening development of the term " . Matt Ford wrote that " Kennedy ’ s critique of solitary confinement in Davis came without warning or fanfare " and that " [ s ] olitary confinement is a new battleground for the Court ’ s second @-@ longest serving justice , but not a surprising one " .
Although he suggested Justice Kennedy 's concurrence may be " more consequential " than Justice Harry Blackmun 's dissent in Callins v. Collins , Mark Joseph Stern described Justice Kennedy 's concurrence as " myopic " , noting that " large chunks of the ' legal academy ' in the ' public ' were aware — and outraged — by the practice long before Kennedy condemned it " . Dahlia Lithwick wrote that even though " Kennedy may not come around on the death penalty " and rule it unconstitutional , " after reading his own words in Ayala — he probably should " . In an interview with Harvard Law School dean Martha Minow , Justice Kennedy explained that when he was in the Army , he was locked in a cell for four hours and " slightly tortured " . Justice Kennedy remarked that " [ a ] fter four hours in a cell , I was going mad . These people are in , some for 40 years . It drives people mad and we don ’ t even think about it . We ’ ve got to do something about it " .
= The Pest House =
" ' The Pest House " is the fourteenth episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on February 27 , 1998 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Allen Coulter . " The Pest House " featured guest appearances by Melinda McGraw , Justin Louis and Michael Massee .
Millennium Group offender profilers Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) investigate a series of murders mimicking urban legends . The case soon leads them to a psychiatric hospital for violent criminals , where all is not as it seems .
" The Pest House " marked the second of three contributions by Coulter , and saw past Morgan and Wong collaborator McGraw once again work for the writing duo . The episode received positive reviews from critics , and was viewed by approximately 5 @.@ 59 million households in its initial broadcast .
= = Plot = =
A young couple sit in a car , sharing a story of a serial killer from the area . They hear sounds outside , and the boyfriend steps out to see what they are . His girlfriend is terrified when she hears sounds of a struggle , and investigates to find him dangling above the car , dead .
Millennium Group members Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) examine the crime scene . Black is skeptical when Watts notes that similar killings have occurred in the past , believing it is simply an urban legend . However , an inmate at the psychiatric hospital nearby was committed for similar murders . Unconvinced that he could have escaped , the pair nevertheless visit the facility . They meet Dr. Ellen Stoller ( Melinda McGraw ) , who reluctantly assists them in interviewing their suspect , E. Jacob Woodcock . Woodcock admits the killing fits his methods , but denies involvement . The interview is terminated when two inmates begin fighting .
That night , another couple is brutally killed on the highway . Black and Watts investigate , but they deem the deaths unconnected . However , Black notices that the newest murders are identical to the prior crimes of " Bear " , one of the inmates involved in the previous day 's fight . Stoller is adamant Bear cannot be responsible — until she finds the victim 's hand in the cafeteria 's stew . Bear insists someone took something " from inside " him , but has a seizure before he can explain . Between this incident and Woodcock insisting that Edward ( Justin Louis ) has stolen his dreams , Black realizes someone in the hospital is causing the deaths .
After seeing a vision of Stoller being stabbed in her car , Black warns her that she may be in danger , which she rebukes . However , she is approached by another patient , Purdue ( Michael Massee ) , who insists that Edward is stealing dreams , but will not steal his . Watts researches the facility 's inmates to find who has committed stabbings in the victims ' cars , concluding that Purdue is the one this profile fits . Black attempts to warn Stoller , but she has already driven away from the hospital . Black gives chase , scaring her , and she out @-@ paces him before pulling into a filling station . However , the attendant alerts Stoller that someone is hiding in the back seat of her car , and manages to bring her to the safety of his office . Black arrives and finds the car empty . He drives Stoller back to the hospital while the attendant attempts to call the police . However , he is killed before making the call .
Black searches for Purdue in the hospital , but encounters Edward , who tells him a nurse was murdered years before by Woodcock . Edward believes the patients can be cured by having the evil drained from their bodies . The electricity is cut and the lights go off . Black and Stoller roam in the dark , finding the body of the night nurse . Purdue 's voice is heard over the intercom , and the pair move to the office with the tannoy equipment to find him . Edward attacks with a knife — Stoller sees him shape @-@ shift into Purdue , then Bear , and then Woodcock . However , Purdue fights and kills him , proclaiming it " the sanest thing I ever did . " Black theorizes that Edward somehow absorbed the killers ' violent impulses into himself , but was unable to refrain from acting upon them .
= = Production = =
" The Pest House " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Allen Coulter . The episode was Coulter 's second contribution to the series — he had previously directed " Beware of the Dog " and would return to helm " Siren " later in the second season . " The Pest House " was the eleventh episode to have been written by Morgan and Wong , who had penned several across the first and second seasons . The pair had also taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers for the season .
Guest star Melinda McGraw had appeared in several episodes of Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , in a recurring role as Melissa Scully , debuting in an episode of that series also penned by Morgan and Wong . McGraw had also worked with the writers on The Commish .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Pest House " was first broadcast on the Fox network on February 27 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 59 million households , and left the episode the seventy @-@ fifth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an A − , finding it " is , like many episodes of this season before it , a bit of mess , a melange of concepts which don 't always taste so great together " . Handlen felt that the episode began with an " iffy " premise which more closely resembled an episode of The X @-@ Files , but by its end had managed to make it something more distinct and separate . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , writing that it was " an episode that pays lip service to the Group 's interest in this case to merely go back to the same old " killer of the week " conceit " . However , Gibron felt that " the acting is wonderful , and the actual story very moody and atmospheric " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " The Pest House " three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . Shearman praised guest star Massee 's performance , and felt that the script was " great fun " , noting that it worked as a more serious version of the 1996 film Scream .
= Slavery in Haiti =
Slavery in Haiti has existed since Christopher Columbus arrived on the island in 1492 . The practice was so devastating to the native population that the Spanish began importing African slaves . During the French colonial period beginning in 1625 , the economy of Haiti ( then known as Saint @-@ Domingue ) was based on slavery , and the practice there was regarded as the most brutal in the world . The Haitian Revolution of 1804 , the only successful slave revolt in human history , precipitated the end of slavery not only in Saint @-@ Domingue , but in all French colonies . However , several Haitian leaders following the revolution employed forced labor , believing a plantation @-@ style economy was the only way for Haiti to succeed , and building fortifications to safeguard against attack by the French . During the U.S. occupation between 1915 and 1934 , the U.S. military forced Haitians to work building roads for defense against Haitian resistance fighters .
Slavery is still practiced in Haiti today . As many as half a million children are unpaid domestic servants called restaveks , who routinely suffer physical and sexual abuse . Additionally , human trafficking , including child trafficking is a significant problem in Haiti ; trafficked people are brought into , out of , and through Haiti for forced labor , including sex trafficking . The groups most at risk include the poor , women , children , the homeless , and people migrating across the border with the Dominican Republic . The devastating earthquake in 2010 displaced many , rendering them homeless , isolated , and supremely vulnerable to exploitation by traffickers . The chaos following the quake also distracted authorities and hindered efforts to stop trafficking . The government has taken steps to prevent and stop trafficking , ratifying human rights conventions and enacting laws to protect the vulnerable , but enforcement remains difficult .
= = History = =
= = = Spanish Hispaniola ( 1492 – 1625 ) = = =
The natives living on the island that would come to be called Hispaniola were peaceful and not trained in military tactics . In the Pre @-@ Columbian era , other Caribbean tribes would sometimes attack the island to kidnap people into slavery . However , when Columbus arrived in 1492 , slavery on the island turned into a major business : colonists quickly began establishing sugar plantations dependent on slave labor . The practice of slavery in the Spanish New World colonies would become so large scale in Spain 's colonization of the Americas that imports of African slaves outnumbered Spanish immigration to the New World by the end of the 1500s .
When Columbus arrived in what is today Haiti in December 1492 and met the native Taino Arawak people , they were friendly , exchanging gifts with the Spaniards and volunteering their help . But Columbus was already planning to enslave them . He wrote in a letter to Queen Isabella of Spain that the natives were " tractable , and easily led ; they could be made to grow crops and build cities " .
When Columbus returned to Europe in 1493 , 30 of his soldiers stayed to build a fort there called La Navidad . They began stealing from , raping , and enslaving the natives — in some cases they held native women and girls as sex slaves . Finding gold was a chief goal for the Spanish ; they quickly forced enslaved natives to work in gold mines , which took a heavy toll in life and health . In addition to gold the slaves mined copper , and they grew crops for the Spaniards . In response to the brutality , the natives fought back . Some Taino escaped into remote parts of the island 's mountains and formed communities in hiding as " maroons " , who organized attacks against Spaniards ' settlements. the Spanish responded to the native resistance with severe reprisals , for example destroying crops to starve the natives . The Spaniards brought to the island dogs trained to kill the natives and unleashed them upon those who rebelled against enslavement . In 1495 Columbus sent 500 captured natives back to Spain as slaves , but 200 did not survive the voyage , and the others died shortly afterwards . In the late 1490s he planned to send 4000 slaves back to Spain each year , but this expectation failed to take into account the rapid decline the native population would soon suffer and was never achieved .
It is not known how many Taino people were on the island prior to Columbus 's arrival — estimates range from several thousand to eight million — but overwork in slavery and diseases introduced by the Europeans quickly killed a large part of the population . Between 1492 and 1494 , one third of the native population on the island died . Two million had been killed within ten years of the Spaniards ' arrival , and by 1514 , 92 % of the native population of the island were killed by enslavement and European diseases . By the 1540s the culture of the natives had disappeared from the island , and by 1548 the native population was under 500 . The rapid rate at which the native slaves died necessitated the import of Africans , for whom contact with Europeans was not new and who therefore had already developed some immunity to European diseases . Columbus 's son Diego Columbus started the African slave trade to the island in 1505 . Some newly arrived slaves from Africa and neighboring islands were able to escape and join maroon communities in the mountains . In 1519 Africans and Native Americans joined forces to start a slave rebellion that turned into a years @-@ long uprising which was eventually crushed by the Spanish in the 1530s .
Spanish missionary Bartolomé de las Casas spoke out against the enslavement of the natives and the brutality of the Spaniards . He wrote that to the natives , the Christianity brought by the Spaniards had come to symbolize the brutality with which they had been treated ; he quoted one Taino cacique ( tribal chief ) , " They tell us , these tyrants , that they adore a God of peace and equality , and yet they usurp our land and make us their slaves . They speak to us of an immortal soul and of their eternal rewards and punishments , and yet they rob our belongings , seduce our women , violate our daughters . " Las Casas commented that the Spaniards ' punishment of a Taino man by cutting off his ear " marked the beginning of the spilling of blood , later to become a river of blood , first on this island and then in every corner of these Indies . " Las Casas ' campaign led to an official end of the enslavement of Tainos in 1542 — however it was replaced by the African slave trade . As Las Casas had presaged , the Spaniards ' treatment of the Tainos was the start of a centuries @-@ long legacy of slavery in which abuse such as amputating body parts was commonplace .
= = = French Saint Domingue ( 1625 – 1789 ) = = =
The Spanish ceded control of the western part of the island of Hispaniola to the French in the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 ; France named its new colonial possession Saint Domingue . The colony , based on the export of slave @-@ grown crops , particularly sugar , would become the richest in the world . Known as the " Pearl of the Antilles " , the colony became the world 's foremost producer of coffee and sugar cane . The French , like the Spanish , imported slaves from Africa . In 1681 there were 2 @,@ 000 African slaves in the future Saint Domingue ; by 1789 there were almost half a million .
French plantation @-@ owners worked their African slaves so hard that half died within a few years ; it was cheaper to import new slaves than to improve working conditions enough to increase survival . The rate of death of slaves on Saint Domingue 's plantations was higher than anywhere else in the western hemisphere . Over the French colony 's hundred @-@ year course , slavery killed about a million Africans , and thousands more chose suicide . Slaves newly arrived from Africa , particularly women , were especially likely to kill themselves ; some thought that in death they could return home to Africa . Pregnant slaves usually did not survive long enough or have healthy enough pregnancies to have live babies , but if they did the children often died young . Food was insufficient , and slaves were expected to grow and prepare it for themselves on top of their already crushing , 12 @-@ hour workdays . It was legal for a slaveholder to kill a slave who hit a white person , according to the 1685 Code Noir , a decree by the French king Louis XIV regulating practices of slaves and slavers . Torture of slaves was routine ; they were whipped , burned , buried alive , restrained and allowed to be bitten by swarms of insects , mutilated , raped , and had limbs amputated . Slaves caught eating the sugar cane would be forced to wear tin muzzles in the fields .
The Catholic Church condoned slavery and the practices used in the French colony , viewing the institution as a way to convert Africans to Christianity .
About 48 @,@ 000 slaves in Saint Domingue managed to escape ; slaveholders hired bounty hunters to catch these maroons . Those who were not caught and re @-@ enslaved established communities away from settled areas . Maroons would organize raids called mawonag on plantations , stealing supplies that their communities needed to survive , such as food , tools , and weapons . One famous maroon , François Mackandal , escaped into the mountains in the middle of the 18th century and went on to plan attacks on plantation owners . Mackandal was caught and burned at the stake in 1758 , but his legend lived on to inspire rebellion among slaves — and fear among slaveholders . In addition to escaping , slaves resisted by poisoning slaveholders , their families , their livestock , and other slaves — this was a common and feared enough occurrence that in December 1746 the French King banned poisoning in particular . Arson was another form of slave resistance .
The rapid rate of death of slaves during this period set the stage for the Haitian revolution by necessitating the import of more slaves from Africa . These were people who had known freedom , some of whom had been captured as soldiers and had military training . Before the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789 there were eight times as many slaves in the colony as there were white and mixed @-@ race people put together . In 1789 the French were importing 30 @,@ 000 slaves a year and there were half a million slaves in the French part of the island alone , compared to about 30 @,@ 000 whites .
= = = Revolutionary period ( 1789 – 1804 ) = = =
Sex between male masters and female slaves was so common in Saint Domingue that a separate class had emerged consisting of the mixed @-@ race children of these encounters . It was standard for fathers to free these children , leading them to become a new class more privileged than slaves but less so than whites ; they were called gens de couleur , " free people of color " . Some of these free people of color were quite wealthy and some owned slaves .
The French Revolution in 1789 presented an opportunity for Haiti 's middle class , who organized a revolt , which was followed shortly thereafter by a general slave revolt . In 1791 , slaves staged a revolt , massacring whites and torching plantations . By 1801 , the revolt had succeeded , putting Toussaint Louverture into power as Governor General of Haiti . Although slavery was outlawed , Louverture , believing that the plantation economy was necessary , forced laborers back to work on the plantations using military might .
With a view towards re @-@ establishing slavery , Napoleon Bonaparte sent his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Charles Leclerc to regain control of Haiti , along with a fleet of 86 ships and 22 @,@ 000 soldiers . The Haitians resisted the soldiers , but the French were more numerous and better positioned , until the rainy season brought yellow fever . As French soldiers and officers died , black Haitian soldiers who had allied themselves with the French began to defect to the other side .
= = = Jean @-@ Jacques Dessalines = = =
In 1802 , Louverture was arrested and deported to France , where he later died in prison , leaving leadership of the military to Jean @-@ Jacques Dessalines . In 1804 , the French were defeated . France officially gave up control of Haiti , making it the second independent country in the Americas ( after the US ) and the first successful slave revolt in the world . Dessalines was the country 's leader , first naming himself Governor @-@ General @-@ for @-@ life , then Emperor of Haiti .
After the revolution , newly freed slaves were violently opposed to remaining on plantations , but Dessalines , like Louverture , used military might to keep them there , thinking that plantation labor was the only way to make the economy function . Most ex @-@ slaves viewed Dessalines ' rule as more of the same oppression they had known during de jure slavery . Dessalines was killed by a mob of his own officers in 1806 .
= = = Henri Christophe = = =
Dessalines ' successor was King Henry Christophe , another general in the revolution . Christophe , fearing another French invasion , continued in Dessalines ' footsteps fortifying the country . For the construction of one citadel , La Citadelle Laferrière , Christophe is thought to have forced hundreds of thousands of people into laboring on it , killing an estimated 20 @,@ 000 of them .
Also like his predecessors Louverture and Dessalines , Christophe used military might to force former slaves to stay on the plantations . Plantation workers under Louverture and Christophe were not unpaid — they received one quarter of what they produced , paying the rest to plantation owners and the government . Under Christophe 's rule it was also possible for black people to rent their own land or work in government , and agricultural workers on plantations could make complaints to the royal administration about working conditions . These ex @-@ slaves may also have sometimes had a choice about what plantation they would work on — but they could not choose not to work , and they could not legally leave a plantation they were " attached " to . Many ex @-@ slaves were probably forced to work on the same plantations they had worked on as slaves .
The population 's staunch resistance to working on plantations — owned by whites or otherwise — made it too difficult to perpetuate the system , despite its profitability . Christophe and other leaders enacted policies allowing state land to be broken up and sold to citizens , and the plantation system largely gave way to one in which Haitians owned and farmed smaller lots .
= = = Jean @-@ Pierre Boyer = = =
In 1817 , a Haitian ship seized a Spanish slave ship bound for Cuba which had entered Haiti ’ s waters , and , acting on standing government orders , brought it ashore . All 171 captive Africans were liberated and joyfully accepted into Haitian society , and President Jean @-@ Pierre Boyer himself served as their godfather . The ship ’ s captain , and later Cuban officials , protested to Boyer that his trade was legal , but Boyer maintained that the 1816 constitution decreed that there could be no slaves in Haitian territory , and no reimbursement could be given for their value . Slave ships had also been seized and their human cargo freed under previous leaders Christophe and Alexandre Pétion , and slaves who managed to take control of ships and arrive in Haiti were given asylum . Slavers quickly learned to avoid Haiti ’ s waters .
In 1825 France sent an armada to Haiti and threatened to blockade the country , preventing trade unless Boyer agreed to pay France 150 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 francs to reimburse it for losses of " property " — mostly its slaves . In exchange , France would recognize Haiti as an independent nation , which it had so far refused to do . Boyer agreed without making the decision public beforehand , a move which met with widespread outrage in Haiti . The amount was reduced to 90 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 francs in 1838 , equivalent to USD $ 19 billion in 2015 . Haiti was saddled with this debt until 1947 , and forced to forgo spending on humanitarian programs such as sanitation . In 1838 , an estimated 30 % of the country 's yearly budget went to debt , and in 1900 , the amount had risen to 80 % . Haiti took out loans from Germany , the US , and France itself to come up with this money , further increasing its debt burden and those countries ' centrality in the Haitian economy .
Under new pressure to produce money to pay the debt , in 1826 , Boyer enacted a new set of laws called the Code Rural that restricted agricultural workers ' autonomy , required them to work , and prohibited their travel without permission . It also reenacted the system of Corvée , by which police and government authorities could force residents to work temporarily without pay on roads . These laws met with widespread resistance and were difficult to enforce since the workers ' access to land provided them autonomy and they were able to hide from the government .
The United States passed laws to keep Haitian merchants away from US soil because slaveholders there did not want their slaves getting ideas about revolt from the Haitians . However the two countries continued trade , with Haiti purchasing the weapons it needed , albeit at disadvantageous prices . The US embargo of Haiti lasted 60 years , but Lincoln declared it unnecessary to deny the country 's independence once the institution in the US began to be ended . He encouraged newly freed slaves to emigrate there to attain a freedom he did not deem possible in the US .
= = = US occupation = = =
In July 1915 , after political unrest and the mob murder of Haiti 's president Vilbrun Guillaume Sam , United States marines invaded Haiti . Prior to the occupation peasants had staged uprisings to resist moves by US investors to appropriate their land and convert the style of agriculture in the area from subsistence back to a plantation @-@ like system — the idea of going back to anything like the plantation system faced fierce resistance . Haitians had been afraid that US investors were trying to convert the economy back into a plantation @-@ based one since US businesses had been amassing land and evicting rural peasants from their family land . Rural Haitians formed armies that roamed around the countryside , stealing from farmers and raping women . The motivation of the US occupation of Haiti was partly to protect investments and to prevent European countries from gaining too much power in the area . One stated justification for the occupation had been the practice of enslaving children as domestic servants ; however the US then reinstituted the practice of forced labor under the corvée system .
As had occurred under the regimes of Dessalines and Christophe , unfree labor was again employed in a public works program , this time ordered by the US Admiral William Banks Caperton . In 1916 , the US occupiers employed the corvée system of forced labor allowed by Haiti 's 1864 Code Rural until 1918 . Since the Cacos , Haitian resistance fighters , hid out in remote , mountainous areas and waged guerrilla @-@ style warfare against the marines , the military needed roads built to find and fight them . To build these roads , laborers were forcibly taken from their homes , bound together with rope into chain gangs , sometimes beaten and abused , and resisters were executed . Peasants were told they would be paid for their labor and given food , working near their homes — but sometimes the promised food and wages were meager or altogether absent . Corvée was highly unpopular ; Haitians widely believed that whites had returned to Haiti to force them back into slavery . The brutality of the forced labor system strengthened the Cacos ; many Haitians escaped to the mountains to join them , and many more lent their help and support . Reports of the abuses led the commander of the marines to order an end to the practice in 1918 ; however it continued illegally in the North until it was discovered — no one faced punishment for the infraction . When corvée was no longer available , occupiers turned to prison labor , sometimes having men arrested for the purpose when they had too few laborers . The occupation lasted until 1934 .
= = Modern day = =
Slavery is still widespread in Haiti today . According to the 2014 Global Slavery Index , Haiti has an estimated 237 @,@ 700 enslaved persons making it the country with the second @-@ highest prevalence of slavery in the world , behind only Mauritania . Haiti has more human trafficking than any other Central or South American country . According to the United States Department of State 2013 Trafficking in Persons Report , " Haiti is a major source , passage , and destination country for men , women , and children subjected to forced labor and sex slavery . " Haitians are trafficked out of Haiti and into the neighboring Dominican Republic , as well as to other countries such as Ecuador , Bolivia , Argentina , Brazil , and North American countries as well . Haiti is also a transit country for victims of trafficking en route to the United States . After the 2010 Haiti earthquake , human trafficking has drastically increased . While trafficking often implies moving , particularly smuggling people across borders , it only requires " the use of force , fraud , or coercion to exploit a person for profit , " and it is understood to be a form of slavery .
= = = Children = = =
Child trafficking is a substantial part of the human trafficking crisis in Haiti . One major form of child trafficking and child slavery , affecting an estimated 300 @,@ 000 Haitian children , is called the restavek system , in which children are forced to work as domestic servants . The restavek system accounts for the lion 's share of human trafficking in Haiti . Families send the children into other households , exchanging their labor for upbringing . Impoverished rural parents hope for education and a better life for their children in the city , sending them to wealthier ( or at least less poor ) households . Increasingly , children enter domestic servitude when a parent dies . Paid middlemen may act as recruiters , fetching the children for the host families . Unlike slaves in the traditional sense , restaveks are not bought or sold or owned , could run away or return to their families , and are typically released from servitude when they become adults ; however , the restavek system is commonly understood to be a form of slavery .
Some restaveks do receive proper nutrition and education , but they are in the minority . Restaveks ' labor includes hauling water and wood , grocery shopping , laundry , house cleaning , and childcare . Restaveks work long hours ( commonly 10 to 14 a day ) under harsh conditions , are frequently denied schooling , and are at severe risk of malnutrition and verbal , physical , and sexual abuse . Beatings are a daily occurrence for most restaveks , and most of the girls are sexually abused , which puts them at an elevated risk for HIV infection . Those who are thrown out or run away from their host homes become street children , vulnerable to exploitation including forced prostitution . Those who return to their families may be unwelcome as an added economic burden or shamed and stigmatized for having been a restavek . The trauma of abuse and the deprivation of free time and normal childhood experiences can stunt a child 's development and have long @-@ lasting effects .
The term restavek comes from the French " to live with " , rester avec . The practice has been around since the end of the revolution but became common in the 20th century as a way for rural people to cope with poverty . The number of restaveks increased after the 2010 earthquake , when many children became orphans or were separated from their families . The US Department of State estimated in 2013 that between 150 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 children were in domestic servitude , accounting for most of Haiti ’ s human trafficking . About 19 % of Haitian children ages 5 to 17 live away from their parents , and about 8 @.@ 2 % are considered domestic workers . In one survey , restaveks were present in 5 @.@ 3 % of households by their heads ' own admission . In one study , 16 % of Haitian children surveyed admitted to being restaveks . It is estimated that an additional 3 @,@ 000 Haitian children are domestic servants in the Dominican Republic .
Children are also trafficked out of Haiti by organizations claiming to be adoption agencies , into countries including the US — but some are actually kidnapped from their families . This practice was particularly widespread in the chaos following the 2010 earthquake . While women migrants were vulnerable during this time , the situation of children was underscored because of the phenomenon of irregular adoptions ( one facet of human trafficking ) of supposed “ orphans ” through the Dominican Republic . International outcry arose when on January 29 , 2010 , ten members of the American New Life Children 's Refuge were arrested trying to take 33 Haitian children out of the country to an orphanage — but the children were not orphans . Traffickers pretending to be workers from legitimate charitable organizations have been known to trick refugee families , convincing them that their children would be taken to safety and cared for . In some cases , traffickers run " orphanages " or " care facilities " for children that are difficult to distinguish from legitimate organizations . Children may be smuggled across the border by paid traffickers claiming to be their parents and subsequently forced into laboring for begging rings or as servants . Child trafficking spurred Unicef to fund the Brigade de Protection des Mineurs , a branch of the national police that exists to monitor cases of child trafficking , to watch borders and refugee camps for such activity . Children in refugee camps are in particular danger of other kinds of trafficking as well , including sexual exploitation .
= = = Sex slavery = = =
Although a majority of the modern day slavery cases in Haiti are due to the practice of the restavek system , trafficking for Sexual exploitation in Haiti is a widespread and pressing issue . In recent years , Haiti has become a magnet for sex tourists . Sex slavery includes the practices of coercion , forced prostitution , and trafficking for any sexual purposes . Sheldon Zhang defines sex trafficking as “ migrants [ who ] are transported with the intent to perform sexual services ... and in which the smuggling process is enabled through the use of force , fraud , or coercion . ” Most victims are trafficked for prostitution , but others are used for pornography and stripping . Children tend to be trafficked within their own countries , while young women may be trafficked internally or internationally , sometimes with the consent of their husbands or other family members .
Suspicion was raised in 2007 that UN peacekeeping forces ( deployed in 2004 to quell political instability ) were creating an increased demand for sex trafficking after 114 UN soldiers were expelled from Haiti for using prostitutes . In its 2007 yearly report , the US state department found an increase in sex trafficking into Haiti of women and girls to work as prostitutes for peacekeepers . It was the first mention in such a report of women being trafficked into Haiti from the Dominican Republic for sex work .
= = = Haitian – Dominican border = = =
For decades Haitians have been crossing the Haitian @-@ Dominican border for various reasons , including voluntary and involuntary migration , long- and short @-@ term residence in the Dominican Republic , legal and illegal entry , smuggling , and human trafficking . Haitians move across the Haitian @-@ Dominican border in search of opportunities and they are highly vulnerable to exploitation . In fact , the Dominican Republic has one of the worst records of human rights abuses , including human trafficking , against migrant workers in all of the Caribbean . Haitians in the Dominican Republic are widely disparaged as a migrant minority because of the countries ' proximity . During the dictatorial reign of Jean @-@ Claude Duvalier in the 1970s and 80s , he sold Haitians at bulk rates to work on sugar plantations in the Dominican Republic .
Most people who move across the border are women and girls . The migration of Haitian women to the Dominican Republic is intrinsically linked to the “ feminization of migrations ” which is in turn part of the “ new Haitian immigration , ” brought about by changes in labor markets as well as by the fragile situation of women and their families in Haiti . Women migrants are particularly vulnerable to human trafficking , violence and illicit smuggling . When attempting to cross the border , Haitian women are at risk of being robbed , assaulted , raped and murdered , at the hands of smugglers , delinquents and traffickers , both Dominican and Haitian . Given this threat of violence , women turn to alternative , unofficial routes and dependence upon hired buscones ( informal scouts ) , cousins and other distant family to accompany them across the border . These hired smugglers who have promised to help them , often through force and coercion , trick them instead into forced domestic labor in private homes in Santo Domingo , the capital of Dominican Republic . Hired buscones also sell women and children into the sex slave trade within the Dominican Republic ( brothels and other venues ) or into sexual slavery as an export . Often , mothers need their young children to help provide for the family , which puts the children in vulnerable positions and allows them to fall prey to predators and traffickers . The number of children smuggled into the Dominican Republic is not known , but a UNICEF estimate placed the number at 2 @,@ 000 in 2009 alone . Haitian officials report that there are three main fates met by children trafficked out of Haiti : domestic work , prostitution , and organ harvesting .
Women from the Dominican Republic have also reportedly been trafficked into Haiti to be sex slaves .
= = = Government action = = =
The 2014 US Trafficking in Persons Report has placed Haiti on the Tier 2 Watch list . The Tier 2 Watch List placement is given to countries whose governments do not fully comply with the Trafficking Victims Protection Act ’ s ( TVPA ) minimum standards , but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards , and the number of victims of severe forms of trafficking is very significant or significantly increasing . Some of Haiti 's efforts to combat modern day slavery include ratifying several key conventions , including the Universal Declaration on Human Rights ( UHDR ) , the Convention on the Rights of the Child ( CRC ) , the International Labour Organization ( ILO ) Convention Concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour , and the ILO Minimum Age Convention . In 2014 Haiti ratified the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children . Conventions such as these , if enforced , could help to combat human trafficking . In 2000 , Haiti signed the UN Protocol to Prevent , Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons , especially Women and Children , but has not ratified it . Haiti has not ratified the Convention on Domestic Workers .
= = = = Anti @-@ restavek action = = = =
In accordance with these international conventions , Haitian law prohibits abuse , violence , exploitation , and servitude of children of any kind that is likely to harm their safety , health , or morals . Additionally , it declares that all children have the right to an education and to be free from degrading and inhumane treatment . Enacted in 2003 , Article 335 of the Haitian Labor code prohibits the employment of children under the age of 15 . Furthermore , an Act passed in June 2003 specifically outlawed the placement of children into restavek service . The law states that a child in domestic service must be treated in the same manner as the biological children of the family ; however it does not contain any criminal sanctions for those who violate its provisions . Despite the enactment of these laws , the practice of restavek persists and grows . Political instability and lack of resources hinder efforts to curtail trafficking in children .
= = = = Prosecution and protection = = = =
The government took steps to legally address the issue of trafficking of women and children by submitting a bill to Parliament , in response to its ratification of the Palermo Protocol which required it . In 2014 the law CL / 2014 @-@ 0010 was passed , criminalizing trafficking with penalties of up to 15 years of imprisonment . However , enforcement remains elusive . Impediments to combating human trafficking include widespread corruption , the lack of quick responses to cases with trafficking indicators , the slow pace of the judicial branch to resolve criminal cases , and scant funding for government agencies .
People displaced by the 2010 earthquake are at an increased risk of sex trafficking and forced labor . The international protections in place for the internally displaced , primarily the 1998 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement , do not apply to earthquake survivors who have crossed an international border . There is nothing protecting the externally displaced , which creates significant protection gaps for those most vulnerable to trafficking — girls and young women — who are treated as migration offenders rather than forced migrants in need of protection . No temporary protected status has been created or granted in the Dominican Republic .
Since the 2010 Haiti earthquake , international aid and domestic effort has been focused on relief and recovery , and as a result few resources have been set aside for combating modern day slavery . There are no government @-@ run shelters to aid human trafficking victims . The government refers victims to non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) for services like food and medical care . The majority of victim services are provided by Haitian NGOs such as Foyer l ’ Escale , Centre d ’ Action pour le Developpement and Organisation des Jeunes Filles en Action that provide accommodation , educational and psycho @-@ social services to victims . Additionally , the IOM has been cooperating with local NGOs and the Haitian Ministry of Social Affairs , the Institute for Social Welfare and Research or the Brigade for the Protection of Minors of the Haitian national police to tackle human trafficking .
= = = = Prevention = = = =
The government has made efforts to prevent and reduce human trafficking . In June 2012 , the IBESR ( Institut du BienEtre Social et de Recherches ) launched a human trafficking hotline and conducted a campaign to raise public awareness about child labor , child trafficking , and child sexual abuse . The government made a hotline to report cases of abuse of restaveks . In December 2012 , the government created a national commission for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor , which involved launching a public awareness campaign on child labor , and highlighting the national day against restavek abuse . In early 2013 , the government created an inter @-@ ministerial working group on human trafficking , chaired by the Judicial Affairs Director of the foreign affairs ministry , to coordinate all anti @-@ trafficking executive branch initiatives .
= = = Contributing factors = = =
The 2013 Trafficking in Persons Report has identified several individual and structural factors that contribute to the persistence of human trafficking to , through , and out of Haiti , as well as throughout Latin America and the Caribbean . The Haitians at gravest risk of victimization by human traffickers are its poorest people , particularly children . In Haiti , the poorest country in the western hemisphere , over half the population lives on less than a dollar a day and over three quarters live on less than two dollars a day . Severe poverty , compiled with a lack of social services such as education and basic healthcare increases a child ’ s vulnerability to modern slavery . Factors that increase a child 's likelihood of becoming a restavek include illness or loss of one or both parents , lack of access to clean water , lack of educational opportunities , and having access to family in a city . In addition to poverty , individual factors that can lead to exploitation include unemployment , illiteracy , poor educational opportunities , a history of physical or sexual abuse , homelessness , and drug abuse . These individual factors “ push ” people towards pathways of human trafficking and modern day slavery . Oftentimes men , women and children accept slave @-@ like work conditions because there is little hope for better and they need to survive . Some cross national borders in search of positive opportunities , but instead find themselves a part of the exploited work force . Additionally , factors that make people easy targets for traffickers make enslavement more likely . One group at high risk for sexual enslavement and other types of forced labor is internally displaced persons , particularly women and children living in refugee camps , which offer little security . The estimated 10 % of undocumented Haitians , whose births go unreported , are at especial risk of enslavement .
Human trafficking along the Haitian @-@ Dominican border persists because both sending and receiving countries have a huge economic stake in continuing the stream of undocumented migration which directly leads to trafficking . Trafficking is a profitable business for traffickers both in Haiti and the Dominican Republic . As long as large economic and social disparities such as poverty , social exclusion , environmental crisis , and political instability exist between the two countries , the trade will continue .
There are also structural factors outside of the individual that explain the persistence of modern day slavery in Haiti . The US state department 's Trafficking in Persons report has identified the following eight structural factors that contribute to human trafficking in Latin America and the Caribbean : ( 1 ) the high demand for domestic servants , agricultural laborers , sex workers , and factory labor ; ( 2 ) political , social , or economic crises , as well as natural disasters such as the January 2010 earthquake ; ( 3 ) lingering machismo ( chauvinistic attitudes and practices ) that tends to lead to discrimination against women and girls ; ( 4 ) existence of established trafficking networks with sophisticated recruitment methods ; ( 5 ) public corruption , especially complicity between law enforcement and border agents with traffickers and smugglers of people ; ( 6 ) restrictive immigration policies in some destination countries that have limited the opportunities for legal migration flows to occur ; ( 7 ) government disinterest in the issue of human trafficking ; and ( 8 ) limited economic opportunities for women . The restavek tradition is perpetuated by widespread tolerance for the practice throughout Haiti . Other contributing factors to the restavek system include poverty and lack of access to contraception , education , and employment in the countryside . Poor rural families with many children have few opportunities to feed and educate them , leaving few options other than servitude in the city .
= Tsing Yi North Coastal Road =
Tsing Yi North Coastal Road , also abbreviated as TYNCR , ( Chinese : 青衣北岸公路 ; Jyutping : cing1 ji1 bak1 ngon6 gung1 lou6 ; pinyin : Qīngyī Běi 'àn Gōnglù ) is a dual carriageway in Tsing Yi , Hong Kong . The road starts at Tsing Tsuen Road , where it travels through the northern part of the island . It ends at Route 3 and Route 8 on the western side of the island at a left @-@ in / left @-@ out interchange , 2 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) from its eastern terminus . The road was first planned in 1998 to relieve traffic coming from Lantau . It was constructed in 1999 , and was opened in February 2002 .
= = Description = =
The road starts at the border of the Tsing Ma Control Area , on the eastern exit ramps of the Tam Kong Shan Interchange and the western terminus of Tsing Tsuen Road . The road travels westward , with ramps reemerging from the interchange , which is surrounded by noise barriers . TYNCR then travels across multiple viaducts on the northern side of Tsing Yi , with hills south of the road , and the coastline north of it . About 1 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 87 mi ) from the eastern terminus , TYNCR travels to Tam Kong Shan Road , near a shipyard and a cement factory . The exit ramp is accessible from westbound lanes , and the entrance ramp from Tam Kong Shan Road to eastbound lanes . The road continues eastward and ends at a left @-@ in / left @-@ out intersection , located east of the Lantau Link Visitors Centre . The interchange then connects to Routes 3 and 8 .
In 2014 , 15 @,@ 240 vehicles traveled the road between Tam Kong Shan Road interchange and Tsing Tsuen Road . It is measured in average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which measures the amount of traffic daily on average . The road is classified as a District Distributor by the Transport Department .
= = History = =
Planning for the road began around 1996 , as part of the Tsing Ma Control Area , a small region of highways with special management . The road was to relieve the higher traffic traveling through Tsing Yi , especially with the new Hong Kong International Airport and developments in Lantau being built . The project included the road and its ramps , pedestrian pathways , noise barriers around the highway , surveillance system , and a maintenance centre in Tsing Yi . The Highways Department signed a contract with Gammon Construction Limited for HKD $ 775 @.@ 6 million in February 1999 , after it invited qualified contractors in October 1998 . Construction began later that month .
During construction , techniques were used to prevent air pollution . Water was sprayed on roads , vehicles , and other areas to keep dust from leaving the site . Multiple viaducts , road embankments , and retaining walls were constructed in the project , with a set of walls replaced after its footings were damaged . Construction of the traffic control system began in November 2000 , after the Transport Department signed an agreement with ABB Industrial and Building Systems Limited . The road was opened on February 2 , 2002 , after Donald Tsang inaugurated the road in a ceremony on February 1 . New speed limits were set to 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) upon opening .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire road is in Kwai Tsing District .
= Texas Park Road 3 =
Park Road 3 ( PR 3 ) is a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) Park Road located near Fort Davis , in the U.S. state of Texas . The highway connects the Indian Lodge of Davis Mountains State Park to State Highway 118 ( SH 118 ) . The entire length of the road is located within the park . The highway was constructed in 1933 by the Civilian Conservation Corps .
The highway currently has one suffixed route , Park Road 3A , also known as Skyline Drive . This route is 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) long , which is longer than its parent route . This road was created in 1965 .
= = Route description = =
PR 3 's 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) main road begins at SH 118 . Immediately after the intersection , PR 3 divides into two one @-@ way roadways separated by the park headquarters and reuniting just beyond . The road then continues westward through Keesey Canyon one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) passing a couple of small hiking trails to the intersection with PR 3A . Beyond PR 3A , several drives branch off as loops accessing campsites , staff residences , and other park facilities . The road makes a sharp curve and a steep upward grade before ending at Indian Lodge 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) west of the intersection with PR 3A .
= = History = =
In 1924 , the Texas Legislature directed the State Parks Board , a predecessor agency to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department , to consider establishing a major destination park within the Davis Mountains . After the parks board failed to receive appropriations or donated land for a new park , the Legislature then instructed the State Highway Department , which preceded the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) , to build a Davis Mountains State Park Highway in 1927 . Landowners finally agreed to donate land for the park in 1933 to boost the local economy devastated by the Great Depression . With the creation of the park , a state park highway was no longer necessary , and that highway initially became SH 166 .
Construction of PR 3 began in 1933 soon after the establishment of the state park . Like the park , the road was originally constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps . The road at this time consisted of the main route between the park entrance and Indian Lodge .
In 1939 , SH 118 was extended from Fort Davis to Kent over the portion of SH 166 at the terminus of PR 3 . The state ended the SH 166 designation over that same portion in 1941 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in the Davis Mountains State Park , Jeff Davis County .
= = Park Road 3A = =
Park Road 3A ( PR 3A ) is a 2 @.@ 8 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) suffixed spur of PR 3 . The road travels from a junction with PR 3 to the border of the state park , and provides access to a trail leading to Fort Davis National Historic Site .
The road begins at PR 3 and crosses Keesey Creek before turning east in Keesey Canyon . Like PR 3 , the road also has connecting drives acting as loops and cul @-@ de @-@ sacs to campgrounds and park facilities . After leaving the campground , the road begins steeply ascending the ridge between Keesey and Hospital canyons on a climb requiring several switchbacks . The road connects with drives to scenic overlooks , picnic tables , and trail heads before terminating after 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) at a scenic overlook and trail head at the boundary between the park and Fort Davis National Historic Site .
Park Road 3A was first created by the CCC in 1933 , when the state park was built . In 1965 , the Texas Department of Transportation numbered the route Park Road 3A .
Major junctions
The entire highway is in the Davis Mountains State Park , Jeff Davis County .
= A Town Called Mercy =
" A Town Called Mercy " is the third episode of the seventh series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , transmitted on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 15 September 2012 . It was written by Toby Whithouse and directed by Saul Metzstein .
The episode featured alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) visiting the Wild West , where they encounter a town which is cut off from the rest of the frontier until they hand over Kahler @-@ Jex , an alien doctor , to a cyborg called the Gunslinger . However , the Gunslinger is a product of experiments by Jex to win a civil war on his planet , and the Doctor is unsure of what is the right thing to do .
Showrunner Steven Moffat pitched the Wild West theme to Whithouse when thinking of ways to give each episode a distinct theme . Whithouse further developed the theme , including classic Western tropes and a sympathetic villain . " A Town Called Mercy " and the previous episode " Dinosaurs on a Spaceship " were the first to enter production for the seventh series . Much of the episode was filmed in March 2012 in the desert area of Almería , Spain , in Mini Hollywood and Fort Bravo , locations used for many Western @-@ set films . Reviewers noted that the episode addressed a moral debate . " A Town Called Mercy " was watched by 8 @.@ 42 million viewers in the UK . Critical reception was generally positive to mixed , with some critical of the Doctor 's actions and pacing .
= = Plot = =
= = = Prequel = = =
A prequel to " A Town Called Mercy " was released exclusively onto iTunes , and titled " The Making of The Gunslinger " . It depicts the actual making and formation of the Gunslinger , from a normal humanoid body . It also has an explanation of the making of the Gunslinger in voice @-@ over by Kahler @-@ Jex .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The Doctor , Amy , and Rory , while en route to the Day of the Dead festival in Mexico via the TARDIS , instead arrive at the small American Frontier town of Mercy . The Doctor is curious as to a ring of stone and wood that surrounds the town 's border and the availability of electricity to the town ten years too early . They learn from the town 's marshal , Isaac , that they have been kept within town for the last three weeks by " The Gunslinger " , who uses alien weaponry to threaten to kill anyone trying to leave town and blocks the town from receiving any supplies . The Gunslinger has demanded the town turn over " the doctor " , which the Doctor deduces is not himself but a humanoid alien hiding in the marshal 's jail . The alien introduces himself as Kahler @-@ Jex , who had crashed on Earth about ten years earlier , and was rescued from his craft by the town ; in return , Jex has helped the town as their physician , ending a cholera outbreak and providing the town with primitive electricity . However , the town 's food supplies are nearly empty , and while the situation has become more dire , the marshal is reluctant to hand over Jex .
The Doctor offers to get the TARDIS and evacuate the town , riding off on horseback to collect it while Isaac and Rory distract the Gunslinger . The Doctor comes across Jex 's craft and enters it , though in doing so he sets off an alarm heard across the plains . He reviews Jex 's records and discovers that Jex was part of a team of scientists from his war @-@ torn homeworld that experimented on a number of volunteers to convert them into cyborgs , who either died or killed countless people in the battle . Aghast , the Doctor leaves the ship to find the Gunslinger waiting for him , and he realises that the Gunslinger is one of Jex 's subjects . The Gunslinger affirms that he is seeking revenge on those that created him , with Jex being the last member alive ; he further explains that his programming prevents him from harming innocents , creating the ring around Mercy to protect the townsfolk while Jex is in their care , but demands of the Doctor that the next person that crosses that line must be Jex .
The Doctor returns to Mercy and angrily drags Jex to the edge of town , followed by his companions and the concerned townsfolk . As he forces Jex to cross the line , Amy asserts that the Doctor has changed for the worse from months of travelling on his own . The Gunslinger arrives and holds his weapon to Jex ; Jex tries to offer that he has become better and rejects his past actions , but this does not sway the cyborg . As the Gunslinger is about to fire , Isaac pushes Jex out of the way , taking the lethal shot . Isaac 's final action is to hand his marshal badge to the Doctor and ask him to protect the town . The Gunslinger leaves , warning that he will return at noon tomorrow to collect Jex , even if it puts the townspeople at risk .
During the night , Jex explains his guilt to the Doctor , trying to repent for his past knowing what will await him in his afterlife : his culture believes that upon death , one must carry the souls of everyone they have ever wronged up a mountain , giving Jex an unbearable load . An angry mob of townsfolk arrive to demand Jex , but the Doctor warns by doing so they would have not honored Isaac 's death . Further discussions with Jex provide the Doctor with an idea for a plan . The next day , when the Gunslinger arrives the Doctor distracts it by amplifying the electricity sent through town , while other townsfolk , wearing makeup applied in the same fashion as Jex 's facial markings , dash between buildings to confuse the cyborg . Jex flees out of town to his ship as the Doctor planned , but instead of returning to space , Jex initiates the ship 's self @-@ destruct . Before he dies , Jex explains that no matter where he goes , the Gunslinger will follow and more innocents will be caught in the crossfire . Truly wishing to repent of his past actions , he declares that his last act will be to end the war for the Gunslinger and go to face the souls of those he wronged . The Gunslinger becomes desolate with his quest for revenge complete and the realization that Jex was no worse a person than he is . Recognizing that there is no need for a creature of war during a time of peace , the Gunslinger announces his intent to self @-@ destruct far away from town , but the Doctor suggests that he could become the protector of peace as the new marshal . The Doctor takes Amy and Rory home , while the Gunslinger stays on to watch over Mercy .
= = Production = =
In looking to give each episode of the series a distinct feel , showrunner Steven Moffat pitched the Wild West theme to writer Toby Whithouse , suggesting that the episode could be about a town terrorised by a robot . Moffat was keen on putting Matt Smith in a Western setting , who he called one of the last people one would expect to replace Clint Eastwood . Whithouse had previously written the Doctor Who episodes " School Reunion " ( 2006 ) , " The Vampires of Venice " ( 2010 ) , and " The God Complex " ( 2011 ) . Moffat had been planning for the first five episodes of the series to have " movie marquee " themes . Whithouse noted that it was a genre he had not written before , but he " absolutely [ loved ] it " . The Wild West has not been a setting for a Doctor Who episode since the 1966 third season serial The Gunfighters . Whithouse was advised not to watch The Gunfighters by the other writers , who said it was " not exactly the jewel in the crown " . Whithouse felt obliged to include common Western tropes , such as the Doctor riding a horse and a face @-@ off . He stated the hardest scene to write was where the Doctor is forced to use a gun ; the Doctor is a pacifist and he would need " the right sort of emotional journey " .
Whithouse preferred the cyborg villain to be three @-@ dimensional and sympathetic , which would require it to have a " living consciousness " rather than simply be a " soulless automaton " . He wanted its look to be reminiscent of Frankenstein 's monster , and later called the design " fantastic " . It took about three and a half hours for Andrew Brooke to have all the make @-@ up applied . Due to the costume , Brooke had to act with just his left eye . Smith had praise for guest actors Ben Browder , who he said " [ made ] a good cowboy " with " that great drawl " , and Adrian Scarborough , who he said " steals the whole episode " . Browder was offered the role and gladly accepted ; he was aware of the show as his children had watched it , and he also wanted to do a western . Whithouse was " thrilled " with Browder 's performance , as it was how he imagined the character .
" A Town Called Mercy " and the previous episode , " Dinosaurs on a Spaceship " , were the first episodes to be produced for the seventh series , and both were directed by Saul Metzstein . The two episodes are Metzstein 's first Doctor Who credits . Much of the episode was filmed around the desert area of Almería , Spain , where studios have built Wild West @-@ style streets that have been used in the making of over 100 Western @-@ set films , such as A Fistful of Dollars . Filming the episode in Spain was cheaper than constructing a set in the UK . Moffat stated , " We knew from the start we need some serious location shooting for this one , and given the most iconic American setting imaginable , there was only one place to go – Spain . " They reportedly filmed there from 8 March to 17 March 2012 . Filming took place at Oasys / Mini Hollywood , and Fort Bravo / Texas Hollywood . While Smith was allowed to try riding the horse , most of the action shown in the episode was done by his stuntman . Composer Murray Gold mimicked Western @-@ style scores when creating the music for the episode .
= = Themes = =
James F. McGrath of the religious website Patheos found that " A Town Called Mercy " had strong religious themes and moral messages , writing that it " really is about mercy , about forgiveness , about war crimes , about vengeance , and about justice " . He interpreted Amy 's comment about how the Doctor 's behaviour was due to him being alone for too long to mean that " when we loosen our ties to other human beings , we can begin to treat matters of mercy and justice , and the fate of other persons , differently , impersonally " . McGrath also noted a " take @-@ home religious message " in the scene near the end where the town gathers in the church while the Gunslinger and the Doctor face off ; he felt that it emphasised the importance of valuing human life .
Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph wrote that the Western concept was " effectively window @-@ dressing for Toby Whithouse 's powerful morality tale , where not everything was quite as it seemed and went on to explore issues of morality , ethics , conscience and justice " . The A.V. Club reviewer Keith Phipps noted that the " never @-@ ending struggle between order and chaos " was common in Westerns , and the episode represented this with the question of " what should win out : Lawless revenge or civilized justice ? " . Ian Berriman of SFX interpreted the border around Mercy as a metaphor for the Doctor nearly " crossing [ the ] line " and " [ breaking ] his own moral code " . He likened the Doctor 's debate to that of the Fourth Doctor ( Tom Baker ) in Genesis of the Daleks ( 1975 ) and the Fifth Doctor ( Peter Davison ) in Resurrection of the Daleks ( 1984 ) . In addition , reviewers noted that the episode presented its characters with " shades of grey " , rather than black @-@ and @-@ white villains typically seen in the show .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" A Town Called Mercy " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One and BBC One HD on 15 September 2012 and on the same date on BBC America in the United States . Overnight ratings showed that it was watched by 6 @.@ 6 million viewers live , the highest overnight figure of the seventh series thus far . It was the third most @-@ watched programme of the day , and was also the most popular programme the next day on BBC iPlayer . It later came in third on the iPlayer chart for September with 1 @.@ 4 million requests , behind the first two episodes of the series . When final consolidated viewers were taking into account the figure rose to 8 @.@ 42 million , also beating " Asylum of the Daleks " to be the highest rated of the series . It also received an Appreciation Index of 85 , considered " excellent " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" A Town Called Mercy " received generally positive to mixed reviews from critics . IGN 's Matt Risely rated the episode 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , calling it " a weighty , progressive , sumptuous and entertaining adventure " . He praised Whithouse and Metzstein for setting the right mood and found the highlight to be the Doctor 's moral uncertainty . Dan Martin of The Guardian described it as " a complex morality dilemma fizzing with sharp dialogue " . He wrote that it was Gillan who " emerged as the real star of the episode " , citing Amy 's conversation with the Doctor about how travelling alone had affected him . The A.V. Club reviewer Keith Phipps gave the episode a B + , enjoying that it spent most of the time discussing the morality issue .
The Telegraph 's Fuller awarded " A Town Called Mercy " four out of five stars , calling it " an absorbing , thoughtful , adult piece of drama " . He praised Smith 's toned @-@ down performance and his conversations with Jex . Though he also praised the " well @-@ crafted " scene between the Doctor and Amy , he felt that the episode was " a waste of Gillan and Darvill 's talents " as the two did not feature much . Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffery also gave it four stars , commending the Western atmosphere and the way the Doctor 's darkness was handled . He also found Browder to bring an American authenticy to his role that a British actor would not have accomplished . However , like Fuller , he called Amy and Rory 's sidelined role " one of the few downsides " .
Slant Magazine reviewer Steven Cooper described it as " a very enjoyable episode " , though he noted that " the conclusion of the story is a slight let @-@ down after the excellence of what has preceded it " because the issues between the Doctor and Jex were left unresolved . Neela Debnath , writing for The Independent , praised the " brilliant twist " in having Kahler @-@ Jex be the villain rather than the Gunslinger . She found the Doctor holding Jex at gunpoint as " completely uncharacteristic " , but interpreted it as foreshadowing Amy and Rory 's departure . Likewise , Charlie Jane Anders from io9 felt that the Doctor 's decision to let Jex die was " out of character " . She criticised the Gunslinger for neither simply using its presumably advanced targeting systems to kill Jex or making the townspeople leave so that he would not have human shields . Additionally , according to her , the episode in general " felt [ ... ] like a Deep Space Nine episode transplanted to the Wild West " .
SFX reviewer Ian Berriman gave " A Town Called Mercy " three and a half out of five stars . He commented that the ethical debate made it " a surprisingly mature story " , but otherwise the Western tropes made it " occasionally feel a little over @-@ familiar " . He also felt it was missing " another twist or two " , as most of the episode was dedicated to figuring out what to do with Jex rather than discovering more about him . Berriman also had two " nitpicks " that arose with the plot ; the Gunslinger could just walk into the town and take Jex away , or the Doctor could take Jex away in the TARDIS . Dave Golder of the magazine labelled " A Town Called Mercy " as a " disappointing " science fiction Western episode , writing , " There are some great things about this episode ... But in a show that usually has a lot of fun reinventing TV tropes , too much of " A Town Called Mercy " feels a bit been @-@ there , done that . " Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times was more critical , writing that he did not " believe " or " feel " it . He felt that Westerns and Doctor Who were two things that " never quite gelled " and also criticised the " languorous pace " the fact that Rory had little to do . However , he did praise the " gorgeous " set and the " cleverly constructed a morality play " .
= Object permanence =
Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed ( seen , heard , touched , smelled or sensed in any way ) . This is a fundamental concept studied in the field of developmental psychology , the subfield of psychology that addresses the development of infants ' and children 's social and mental capacities . There is not yet scientific consensus on when the understanding of object permanence emerges in human development .
Jean Piaget , the Swiss psychologist who first studied object permanence in infants , argued that object permanence is one of an infant 's most important accomplishments , as without this concept , objects would have no separate , permanent existence . In Piaget 's theory of cognitive development infants develop this understanding by the end of the " sensorimotor stage , " which lasts from birth to about two years of age . Piaget thought that an infant 's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development , which was required for the infant to link visual , tactile and motor representations of objects . According to this view , it is through touching and handling objects that infants develop object permanence .
= = Early research = =
Child development expert Jean Piaget conducted experiments that collected behavioral tests on infants . Piaget studied object permanence by observing infants ' reactions when a favorite object or toy was presented and then was covered with a blanket or removed from sight . Object permanence is considered to be one of the earliest methods for evaluating working memory . An infant that has started to develop object permanence might reach for the toy or try and grab the blanket off the toy . Infants that have not yet developed this might appear confused . Piaget interpreted these behavioral signs as evidence of a belief that the object had ceased to exist . Reactions of most infants that had already started developing object permanence were of frustration because they knew it existed , but didn 't know where it was . However , the reaction of infants that had not yet started developing object permanence was more oblivious . If an infant searched for the object , it was assumed that they believed it continued to exist .
Piaget concluded that some infants are too young to understand object permanence , which explains why they do not cry when their mothers are gone ( " out of sight , out of mind " ) . A lack of object permanence can lead to A @-@ not @-@ B errors , where children reach for a thing at a place where it should not be . Older infants are less likely to make the A @-@ not @-@ B error because they are able to understand the concept of object permanence more than younger infants . However , researchers have found that A @-@ not @-@ B errors do not always show up consistently . They concluded that this type of error might be due to a failure in memory or the fact that infants usually tend to repeat a previous motor behavior .
= = Stages = =
In Piaget 's formulation , there are six stages of object permanence . These are :
0 – 1 months : Reflex Schema Stage – Babies learn how the body can move and work . Vision is blurred and attention spans remain short through infancy . They aren 't particularly aware of objects to know they have disappeared from sight . However , babies as young as 7 minutes old prefer to look at faces . The three primary achievements of this stage are : sucking , visual tracking , and hand closure .
1 – 4 months : Primary Circular Reactions – Babies notice objects and start following their movements . They continue to look where an object was , but for only a few moments . They ' discover ' their eyes , arms , hands and feet in the course of acting on objects . This stage is marked by responses to familiar images and sounds ( including parent 's face ) and anticipatory responses to familiar events ( such as opening the mouth for a spoon ) . The infant 's actions become less reflexive and intentionality emerges .
4 – 8 months : Secondary Circular Reactions – Babies will reach for an object that is partially hidden , indicating knowledge that the whole object is still there . If an object is completely hidden however the baby makes no attempt to retrieve it . The infant learns to coordinate vision and comprehension . Actions are intentional but the child tends to repeat similar actions on the same object . Novel behaviors are not yet imitated .
8 – 12 months : Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions – This is deemed the most important for the cognitive development of the child . At this stage the child understands causality and is goal directed . The very earliest understanding of object permanence emerges , as the child is now able to retrieve an object when its concealment is observed . This stage is associated with the classic A @-@ not @-@ B error . After successfully retrieving a hidden object at one location ( A ) , the child fails to retrieve it at a second location ( B ) .
12 – 18 months : Tertiary Circular Reaction – The child gains means @-@ end knowledge and is able to solve new problems . The child is now able to retrieve an object when it is hidden several times within his or her view , but cannot locate it when it is outside their perceptual field .
18 – 24 months : Invention of New Means Through Mental Combination – The child fully understands object permanence . They will not fall for A @-@ not @-@ B errors . Also , a baby is able to understand the concept of items that are hidden in containers . If a toy is hidden in a matchbox then the matchbox put under a pillow and then , without the child seeing , the toy is slipped out of the matchbox and the matchbox then given to the child , the child will look under the pillow upon discovery that it is not in the matchbox . The child is able to develop a mental image , hold it in mind , and manipulate it to solve problems , including object permanence problems that are not based solely on perception . The child can now reason about where the object may be when invisible displacement occurs .
= = Contradicting evidence = =
In more recent years , the original Piagetian object permanence account has been challenged by a series of infant studies suggesting that much younger infants do have a clear sense that objects exist even when out of sight . B
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ower showed object permanence in 3 @-@ month @-@ olds . This goes against Piaget 's coordination of secondary circular reactions stage because infants aren 't supposed to understand that a completely hidden object still exists until they are eight to twelve months old . The two studies below demonstrate this idea .
The first study showed infants a toy car that moved down an inclined track , disappeared behind a screen , and then reemerged at the other end , still on the track . The researchers created a " possible event " where a toy mouse was placed behind the tracks but was hidden by the screen as the car rolled by . Then , researchers created an " impossible event . " In this situation , the toy mouse was placed on the tracks but was secretly removed after the screen was lowered so that the car seemed to go through the mouse . Also in the 1991 study the researchers used an experiment involving two differently sized carrots ( one tall and one short ) in order to test the infants response when the carrots would be moved behind a short wall . The wall was specifically designed to make the short carrot disappear , as well as tested the infants for habituation patterns on the disappearance of the tall carrot behind the wall ( impossible event ) . Infants as young as 3 ½ months displayed greater stimulation toward the impossible event and much more habituation at the possible event . This indicated that they may have been surprised by the impossible event , which suggested they remembered not only that the toy mouse still existed ( object permanence ) but also its location . The same was true of the tall carrot in the second experiment . This research suggests that infants understand more about objects earlier than Piaget proposed .
There are primarily four challenges to Piaget 's framework :
Whether or not infants without disabilities actually demonstrate object permanence earlier than Piaget claimed .
There is disagreement about the relative levels of difficulty posed by the use of various types of covers and by different object positions .
Controversy concerns whether or not object permanence can be achieved or measured without the motor acts that Piaget regarded as essential .
The nature of inferences that can be made from the A @-@ not @-@ B error has been challenged . Studies that have contributed to this discussion have examined the contribution of memory limitations , difficulty with spatial localization , and difficulty in inhibiting the motor act of reaching to location A on the A @-@ not @-@ B error .
One criticism of Piaget 's theory is that culture and education exert stronger influences on a child 's development than Piaget maintained . These factors depend on how much practice their culture provides in developmental processes , such as conversational skills .
= = In animals = =
Experiments in non @-@ human primates suggest that monkeys can track the displacement of invisible targets , that invisible displacement is represented in the prefrontal cortex , and that development of the frontal cortex is linked to the acquisition of object permanence . Various evidence from human infants is consistent with this . For example , formation of synapses in the frontal cortex peaks during human infancy , and recent experiments using near infrared spectroscopy to gather neuroimaging data from infants suggests that activity in the frontal cortex is associated with successful completion of object permanence tasks .
However , many other types of animals have been shown to have the ability for object permanence . These include dogs , cats , and a few species of birds such as the carrion crow and food @-@ storing magpies . Dogs are able to reach a level of object permanence that allows them to find food after it has been hidden beneath one of two cups and rotated 90 ° . Similarly , cats are able to understand object permanence but not to the same extent that dogs can . Cats fail to understand that if they see something go into an apparatus in one direction that it will still be there if the cat tries to enter from another direction . A longitudinal study found that carrion crows were able to reach the same level of object permanence as humans . There was only one task , task 15 , that the crows were not able to master . Another study tested the comparison of how long it took food @-@ storing magpies to develop the object permanence necessary for them to be able to live independently . The research suggests that these magpies followed a very similar pattern as human infants while they were developing .
= = Recent studies = =
One of the areas of focus on object permanence has been how physical disabilities ( blindness , cerebral palsy and deafness ) and intellectual disabilities ( Down syndrome , etc . ) affect the development of object permanence . In a study that was performed in 1975 @-@ 76 , the results showed that the only area where children with intellectual disabilities performed more weakly than children without disabilities was along the lines of social interaction . Other tasks , such as imitation and causality tasks , were performed more weakly by the children without disabilities . However , object permanence was still acquired similarly because it was not related to social interaction .
Some psychologists believe that ' while object permanence alone may not predict communicative achievement , object permanence along with several other sensorimotor milestones , plays a critical role in , and interacts with , the communicative development of children with severe disabilities ' . This was observed in 2006 , in a study recognizing where the full mastery of object permanence is one of the milestones that ties into a child 's ability to engage in mental representation . Along with the relationship with language acquisition , object permanence is also related to the achievement of self @-@ recognition . This same study also focused specifically on the effects that Down syndrome has on object permanence . They found that the reason why the children that participated were so successful in acquiring object permanence , was due to their social strength in imitation . Along with imitation being a potential factor in the success , another factor that could impact children with Down syndrome could also be the willingness of the child to cooperate .
Other , more recent studies suggest that the idea of object permanence may not be an innate function of young children . While , in reference to Piaget 's theory , it has been established that young children develop object permanence as they age , the question arises : does this occur because of a particular perception that already existed within the minds of these young children ? Is object permanence really an inbred response to the neural pathways developing in young minds ? Studies suggest that a multitude of variables may be responsible for the development of object permanence rather than a natural talent of infants . Evidence suggests that infants use a variety of cues while studying an object and their perception of the object 's permanence can be tested without physically hiding the object . Rather , the object is occluded , slightly obstructed , from the infants view and they are left only other visual cues , such as examining the object from different trajectories . It was also found that the longer an infant focuses on an object may be due to detected discontinuities in their visual field , or the flow of events , with which the infant has become familiar .
= FN 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm =
The FN 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm is a small @-@ caliber , high @-@ velocity cartridge designed and manufactured by FN Herstal in Belgium . It is a bottlenecked centerfire cartridge that is somewhat similar to the .22 Hornet or .22 K @-@ Hornet . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm was developed in conjunction with the FN P90 personal defense weapon ( PDW ) and FN Five @-@ seven pistol , in response to NATO requests for a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge .
In 2002 and 2003 , NATO conducted a series of tests with the intention of standardizing a PDW cartridge as a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge . The tests compared the relative merits of the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge and the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm cartridge , which was created by Heckler & Koch as a competitor to the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm . The NATO group subsequently recommended the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge , citing superior performance in testing , but the German delegation objected and the standardization process was indefinitely halted .
By 2006 , FN 's 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms — the P90 personal defense weapon and Five @-@ seven pistol — were in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations throughout the world . In the United States , 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms are currently used by numerous law enforcement agencies , including the U.S. Secret Service .
In addition to being used in the FN P90 and FN Five @-@ seven firearms , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge has subsequently been used in a number of other weapons , such as the AR @-@ 57 and FN PS90 carbines . Excel Arms has developed four firearms chambered in 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm , and MasterPiece Arms offers three different firearms in 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge itself is produced in a number of varieties , two of which — the SS195LF and SS197SR — are currently offered by FN to civilian shooters .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge was designed in response to NATO requests for a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge . According to the NATO requirement , the new cartridge was to have greater range , accuracy , and terminal performance than the 9 × 19mm cartridge . Additionally , it was to be capable of penetrating body armor . FN Herstal responded to the NATO requirement by developing the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge and two associated weapons : the FN P90 personal defense weapon ( PDW ) and FN Five @-@ seven pistol .
The original 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge , called the SS90 , was introduced in 1990 . It used a 1 @.@ 5 gram ( 23 grain ) plastic @-@ core projectile , which was propelled at a muzzle velocity of roughly 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) when fired from the P90 . A United States patent application for the projectile design used in the SS90 was filed by FN 's Jean @-@ Paul Denis and Marc Neuforge in 1989 . U.S. Patent 5 @,@ 012 @,@ 743 ( " High @-@ Performance Projectile " ) was received in 1991 .
The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS90 cartridge was discontinued , and replaced , in 1993 , with the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS190 . The SS190 uses a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) shorter projectile with a weight of 2 @.@ 0 g ( 31 grains ) , which has , when fired from the P90 , a muzzle velocity of roughly 715 m / s ( 2 @,@ 350 ft / s ) . The shorter length of the SS190 projectile allows it to be more conveniently used in the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm FN Five @-@ seven pistol , which was also being developed at that time .
In 1993 , FN introduced a modified version of the P90 with a magazine adapted to use the SS190 cartridge . Several specialized 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm varieties were also developed alongside the SS190 , such as the L191 tracer round and the subsonic SB193 bullet for sound @-@ suppressed use . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm chambered FN Five @-@ seven pistol then went into production in 1998 .
= = = NATO evaluation = = =
In 2002 and 2003 , NATO conducted a series of tests with the intention of standardizing a PDW cartridge as a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum . The tests compared the relative merits of the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge and the HK 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm cartridge , which was created by German small arms manufacturer Heckler & Koch as a competitor to the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm . The results of the NATO tests were analyzed by a group formed of experts from Canada , France , the United Kingdom , and the United States , and the group 's conclusion was that the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm was " undoubtedly " the more efficient cartridge .
Among other points , the NATO group cited superior effectiveness ( 27 percent greater ) for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm against unprotected targets and equal effectiveness against protected targets . It also cited less sensitivity to extreme temperatures for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm , and cited a greater potential risk of barrel erosion with the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm . In addition , the group pointed out that 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm is close to the 5 @.@ 56 × 45mm NATO by its design and manufacture process , allowing it to be manufactured on existing production lines . The group also noted that 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms had existed for a longer period of time than 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm firearms , and that the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm FN Five @-@ seven pistol was already in production at that time , while the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm Heckler & Koch UCP pistol was a new concept .
However , the German delegation and others rejected the NATO recommendation that 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm be standardized , halting the standardization process indefinitely . As a result , both the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridges ( and the associated weapons ) have been independently adopted by various NATO countries , according to preference ; both the P90 and Five @-@ seven are currently in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations throughout the world .
= = = Present = = =
In 2004 , the SS192 hollow @-@ point cartridge was introduced to civilian shooters alongside the new IOM variant of the Five @-@ seven pistol . After being met with controversy , the SS192 variety was discontinued in the same year , and in 2005 the SS196SR variety was introduced using a 2 @.@ 6 g ( 40 grain ) Hornady V @-@ Max projectile . The SS196 was also quickly discontinued in favor of the newer SS195LF and SS197SR varieties , which are currently offered to civilian shooters for use in 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms , followed by the SS198LF variety , which is currently produced but is restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers .
FN 's 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition types were briefly manufactured by Olin @-@ Winchester , but today they are made by FN Herstal in Belgium and ( since 2006 ) Fiocchi in the United States . In 2009 , the National Rifle Association added 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms to its NRA Tactical Police Competition standards , allowing law enforcement agencies to compete in this event using 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms . Starting in 2012 , Federal began producing a new 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm round for civilian shooters , designated the AE5728A .
= = Design details = =
The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge was designed by FN Herstal specifically for use in the FN P90 personal defense weapon and FN Five @-@ seven pistol . Subsequently , it has been used in a number of other weapons , such as the FN PS90 carbine and the AR @-@ 57 , an upper receiver for M16 and AR @-@ 15 rifles . The ST Kinetics CPW can be configured for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge by changing the barrel and magazine groups . Excel Arms has developed four firearms chambered in 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm , and MasterPiece Arms offers three different 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms .
The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge weighs 6 @.@ 0 grams ( 93 grains ) — roughly half as much as a typical 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge — making extra ammunition less burdensome , or allowing more ammunition to be carried for the same weight . Since the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge also has a relatively small diameter , a relatively high number of cartridges can be contained in a magazine . The cartridge has a loud report and produces considerable muzzle flash ( when fired from a pistol ) , but it has roughly 30 percent less recoil than the 9 × 19mm cartridge , improving controllability . Due to its high velocity , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm also exhibits an exceptionally flat trajectory .
One of the design intents of the SS190 variety of this cartridge was that it have the ability to penetrate Kevlar protective vests — such as the NATO CRISAT vest — that will stop conventional pistol bullets . Fired from the P90 , the SS190 is capable of penetrating the CRISAT vest at a range of 200 m ( 219 yd ) , or a Level IIIA Kevlar vest at the same range . However , sporting variants of the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm are classified by the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives ( ATF ) as not armor @-@ piercing .
According to FN , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge has an effective range of 200 m ( 219 yd ) and a maximum range of 1 @,@ 800 m ( 1 @,@ 969 yd ) when fired from the P90 , and an effective range of 50 m ( 55 yd ) and a maximum range of 1 @,@ 510 m ( 1 @,@ 651 yd ) when fired from the Five @-@ seven . In testing , the SS190 and similar 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectiles consistently turn base over point ( " tumble " ) as they pass through ballistic gelatin and other media , using the 21 @.@ 6 @-@ mm ( .85 in ) projectile length to create a larger wound cavity . However , some are skeptical of the bullet 's terminal performance , and it is a subject of debate among civilian shooters in the United States .
The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectile potentially poses less risk of collateral damage than conventional pistol bullets , because the projectile design limits overpenetration , as well as risk of ricochet . The lightweight projectile also poses less risk of collateral damage in the event of a miss , because it loses much of its kinetic energy after traveling only 400 m ( 437 yd ) , whereas a conventional pistol bullet such as the 9 × 19mm retains significant energy beyond 800 m ( 875 yd ) . This range exceeds the engagement distances expected for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge 's intended applications , so the cartridge 's limited energy at long range is not conversely considered to be disadvantageous .
Since the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS190 projectile does not rely on fragmentation or the expansion of a hollow @-@ point bullet , the cartridge ( and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm firearms ) are considered suitable for military use under the Hague Convention of 1899 , which prohibits the use of expanding bullets in warfare .
FN 's 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge cases are covered with a special polymer coating for easier extraction with the PS90 carbine due to the high chamber pressures and lack of case tapering . In addition , this coating ensures proper feeding and function in the magazines .
= = Cartridge dimensions = =
The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm has a cartridge case capacity of 0 @.@ 90 ml ( 13 @.@ 85 grains H2O ) .
Americans define the shoulder angle at alpha / 2 ≈ 35 degrees . The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 1 : 228 @.@ 6 mm ( 1 : 9 in ) , 8 grooves , Ø lands
= 5 @.@ 53 mm , Ø grooves =
5 @.@ 62 mm , land width = 1 @.@ 63 mm and the recommended primer type is small rifle .
According to the official Commission Internationale Permanente pour l 'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives ( CIP ) guidelines the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm case can handle up to 345 MPa ( 50 @,@ 037 psi ) piezo pressure . In CIP @-@ regulated countries every rifle cartridge combination has to be proofed at 125 % of this maximum CIP pressure to certify for sale to consumers .
= = Cartridge types = =
SS90 prototype
The SS90 was an early prototype round used only in the earliest examples of the P90 . It used a lightweight 1 @.@ 5 @-@ g ( 23 grain ) full metal jacket bullet with a polymer core , which it propelled at a muzzle velocity of roughly 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The SS90 was abandoned in 1994 in favor of the heavier and 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) shorter SS190 projectile .
SS190 duty
The SS190 FMJ , a refinement of the SS90 , was introduced in 1993 . It offered superior performance over the prototype projectile as well as slightly reduced length . The latter change allowed it to be used more conveniently in the Five @-@ seven pistol , also being developed at that time . Fired from the P90 , the SS190 propels a 2 @.@ 0 @-@ g ( 31 grain ) bullet at a muzzle velocity of roughly 715 m / s ( 2 @,@ 350 ft / s ) . It has a steel penetrator and an aluminum core . The SS190 has been manufactured with a plain , black , and a black @-@ on @-@ white tip color . It is classified by the ATF as armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) handgun ammunition , and its sale is currently restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers .
In testing done by Houston Police Department SWAT , the SS190 fired from the P90 into bare ballistic gelatin exhibited penetration depths ranging from 28 to 34 cm ( 11 to 13 @.@ 5 in ) . In testing in 1999 by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) , the SS190 fired from the P90 at a distance of 25 m ( 27 yd ) exhibited an average penetration depth of 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 85 in ) in ballistic gelatin after passing through a Level II Kevlar vest .
L191 tracer
The L191 ( also formerly called the SS191 ) is a tracer cartridge designed for easier bullet spotting in dim light . Combustible chemicals packed in the rear of the L191 projectile create a light trail visible up to 200 m ( 219 yd ) . The L191 has been manufactured with red and red @-@ on @-@ black tips . The performance and trajectory of the L191 is identical to the SS190 . For this reason , it is also classified by the ATF as armor @-@ piercing handgun ammunition , and its sale is currently restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers .
SS192 hollow @-@ point
The SS192 was discontinued in late 2004 . It used a 1 @.@ 8 g ( 28 grain ) hollow point bullet with a copper jacket and an aluminum core . The projectile had a length of 21 @.@ 6 mm ( .85 in ) . It had an unmarked hollow nose with a depth of 7 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) and a 0 @.@ 8 @-@ mm ( 0 @.@ 03 in ) opening . The SS192 was classified by the ATF as not armor @-@ piercing , and in testing by FNH USA it did not penetrate a Level IIIA vest when fired from the Five @-@ seven .
SB193 subsonic
The SB193 ( also formerly called the SS193 ) is a speed subsonic cartridge featuring a 3 @.@ 6 @-@ g ( 55 grain ) Sierra Game King FMJBT ( FMJ boat tail ) projectile . The SB193 's low muzzle velocity eliminates the distinctive " crack " created by supersonic rounds , and when used in conjunction with a sound suppressor , the muzzle report is also reduced . Due to the greatly decreased muzzle velocity , the SB193 benefits from a slightly reduced recoil force of 1 @.@ 3 kgm / s . The SB193 can be identified by its white tip color . Its sale is currently restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers .
T194 training
The T194 training round was discontinued in 2002 . It could be considered an early version of the SS192 or SS195 . It used the same 1 @.@ 8 @-@ g ( 28 grain ) copper @-@ jacketed aluminum core bullet , propelled at the same muzzle velocity . It had a green tip .
SS195LF ( lead free )
The SS195LF is a commercially available cartridge that features a lead @-@ free primer and produces ballistics similar to the SS192 round , which it replaced in late 2004 . It uses the same 1 @.@ 8 @-@ g ( 28 grain ) copper @-@ jacketed aluminum core bullet as the SS192 , and it can be identified by the unmarked , hollow void at the tip and the silver @-@ colored primer . The SS195 is classified by the ATF as not armor @-@ piercing , and it is currently manufactured by FN Herstal in Belgium .
SS196SR ( sporting round )
The SS196SR was introduced in 2005 and it is now discontinued in favor of the SS197SR cartridge . It featured a lead core 2 @.@ 6 @-@ g ( 40 grain ) Hornady V @-@ Max bullet which it propelled at a muzzle velocity of roughly 500 m / s ( 1 @,@ 650 ft / s ) when fired from the Five @-@ seven . The polycarbonate tip used in the V @-@ Max bullet acted as a wedge , enhancing expansion of the bullet . The SS196 was classified by the ATF as not armor @-@ piercing , and in testing by FNH USA it did not penetrate a Level II vest when fired from the Five @-@ seven . The SS196 could be identified by its red polymer tip .
SS197SR ( sporting round )
The SS197SR is currently offered to civilian shooters in addition to the SS195LF . It uses the same lead core 2 @.@ 6 @-@ g ( 40 grain ) Hornady V @-@ Max projectile as the SS196SR , but it is loaded for a muzzle velocity roughly 30 @-@ m / s ( 100 ft / s ) higher . The projectile has a blue @-@ colored polymer tip instead of the red color used in the SS196 projectile tip . The SS197 has been manufactured by Fiocchi , under contract for FN Herstal , since 2006 and it is distributed in the United States by Federal Cartridge Company .
SS198LF ( lead free )
The SS198LF uses the same lead @-@ free projectile and primer as the SS195LF , but propels it at roughly a 30 @-@ m / s ( 100 ft / s ) higher muzzle velocity . It has a green painted tip , and its sale is currently restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers .
American Eagle ( AE5728A ) TMJ
Since 2012 , Federal Cartridge Company produces a 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm round under their American Eagle brand . Designated the AE5728A , this cartridge uses a 40 @-@ grain total metal jacket ( TMJ ) projectile , that is atypical in that it does not use a copper plated bullet ; sectioned pictures show a very thick full copper jacket . The AE5728A casings are of FN manufacture , and the muzzle velocity is slightly lower than that of the SS197SR .
Non @-@ FN ammunition
Elite Ammunition manufactures a wide variety of reloaded 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition offerings . Belgian ammunition manufacturer VBR @-@ Belgium has also developed specialized 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectiles designed for armor penetration and controlled fragmentation .
Handloading is possible with 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition , and 5 @.@ 7 @-@ mm ( .224 in ) bullets are widely available due to use in .223 Remington and 5 @.@ 56 × 45mm NATO cartridges . Handloaders have noted that the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge is very sensitive to small changes in powder charge or overall length ( OAL ) with a bullet inserted . Bullets weighing 2 @.@ 6 g ( 40 grains ) or less are recommended for optimal use in 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm applications , but the 1 : 231 mm ( 1 : 9 @.@ 1 in ) rifling twist rate ( distance the bullet must travel to complete one full revolution ) used in the firearms ' barrels will stabilize bullets weighing up to 4 @.@ 5 g ( 70 grains ) .
= = Specifications = =
Fired from the longer 40 @.@ 74 cm ( 16 @.@ 04 in ) barrel of the PS90 , the muzzle velocity of SS195LF is roughly 60 m / s ( 200 ft / s ) faster , and the muzzle velocity of SS197SR is roughly 45 m / s ( 150 ft / s ) faster . Fired from the shorter 12 @.@ 2 cm ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) barrel of the Five @-@ seven pistol , the muzzle velocity of SS195LF is roughly 90 m / s ( 300 ft / s ) slower , and the muzzle velocity of SS197SR is roughly 60 m / s ( 200 ft / s ) slower .
= A Newsboy Hero =
A Newsboy Hero is an American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . A standard melodrama , it has the alcoholic John Bailey return home in a drunken state . He strikes his wife and by this act drives his wife and child from the house . They go out into the snow and fall asleep , but are saved by a newspaper boy and taken home . John searches for them , but believes they are dead after reading a newspaper story and decides to commit suicide . He is saved by a member of the Salvation Army and then is reunited with his family . The only known credit in the production is that of Marie Eline as the couple 's child , Marie . The film was released on February 24 , 1911 , and it received mixed reviews by critics over its melodramatic plot , but the actors strong skills was the strongest redeeming factor in the negative reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The film is a melodrama focuses on a young working man named John Bailey ( alternatively Jack ) . His alcoholism had caused much strife in his home and his wife , May , prays and pleads for him to stop drinking . One night he returns home in a drunken state and strikes her . His wife decides to leave with their child , Marie and goes out into the world without help . They wander in the snow and become exhausted and fall asleep . They are saved from certain death by a cripple newspaper boy named Jim Sands . He brings them back to his home and they take refuge with Jim 's poor family . Realizing his mistake , John searches for his wife and child in vain until he sees a newspaper story ( claimed to be two weeks later ) about the death of a woman and child in the storm . Believing May and Marie are dead , he decides to commit suicide by drowning himself . He is saved by Jim , a member of the Salvation Army and decides that he has to atone for his sins . Jim learns of John and May 's relation and reunites family again .
= = Production = =
The only known credit in the production is that of Marie Eline as the child , Marie . Thanhouser films , as moral as they were , did not depict the actual violence which would be formally alluded to in the synopsis . The New York Dramatic Mirror 's reviewer would state that the male lead was drunk and stated that he did not drive them from the house . There was no depiction of any violence towards the wife or apparent mention by inter @-@ title of any physical abuse . The synopsis published describes what was not shown , but it also gives names that were not provided for audiences . Thanhouser 's advertising for the film included the tag line " And a child shall lead them " , which is a reference to Isaiah 11 : 6 .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on February 24 , 1911 . The film had mixed reviews from critics . The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer was thorough in the analysis of the film who did not like the production for its poor rehashed story and maudlin melodrama . The characters behavior was not logical and the series of events relied on deus ex machina elements , such as the Salvation Army suddenly decides to march down to the water 's edge , then stop and remain in the background so that they can save his soul at the opportune moment . The reviewer did state that the acting was good . The Billboard ' review agreed that the story was implausible , but agreed that the skill of the actors made it more plausible than it otherwise would have been . The Morning Telegraph and Walton of The Moving Picture News would praise the film for its pathos and heart . The film is presumed lost because the film is not known to be held in any archive or by any collector .
= Ziggurat ( video game ) =
Ziggurat , stylized as ZiGGURAT , is a retro @-@ style arcade shooter video game developed by Action Button Entertainment for iOS platforms . As the world 's last human fighting off incoming alien freaks from atop a ziggurat , the player uses simple touch controls to charge and shoot the enemies away , and dies if hit by an enemy . The game has 16 @-@ bit graphics style and an 8 @-@ bit chiptune soundtrack . Action Button designer Tim Rogers developed the game idea based on his experience with Angry Birds , which later led to his forming Action Button as a company with Ziggurat as its first release on February 17 , 2012 .
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised Ziggurat 's nuanced controls and minimalism . Time magazine picked the game as one of the best for the then new high @-@ resolution third generation iPad .
= = Gameplay = =
As the " Last Human on Earth " , the player fights off approaching enemies with their laser rifle . The player @-@ character , stationary atop a mountain peak ( ziggurat ) at the top of the world and end of time , attacks incoming mono @-@ eyed alien freaks and dies upon the first hit from any enemy . The player earns a score based on their number of aliens killed before succumbing . The aliens vary in size and shape , from " blue freaks " who pogo like the Tektites from Zelda , to stealth yellow freaks , to shielded , aggressive red freaks , to bullet @-@ sponge giant freaks .
There are two shooting modes : Precision and Slingshot . In Precision , players control the shot by sliding their fingers along the bottom of the screen , which calculates the arc and direction of the shot . In Slingshot , like Angry Birds , players draw back their shots like slingshots . The shot grows in power the longer the screen is held , and the shot is fired when the player lets go . Weak shots will also arc down with gravity , and strong shots will decrease in power if held too long . There are no power @-@ ups , no gamified micropayments , and no pause function , but there are achievements such as living to see the end of the universe . It also integrates " pro @-@ social " features like GameCenter and Twitter .
Ziggurat uses retro @-@ style 16 @-@ bit graphics and an 8 @-@ bit chiptune soundtrack . The player @-@ character is blonde and dressed in a red jumpsuit , and clouds pass by in parallax motion in the background . The sun 's position in the distance appears as a function of game 's duration . The chiptune soundtrack includes wailing solos , and its pitch appears to intensify with the game 's difficulty . The player 's death is accompanied by a " wince @-@ inducing digital screech " or siren and a " blood @-@ red screen " .
= = Development = =
Action Button Entertainment was founded by Tim Rogers . The studio consists of Rogers , Brent Porter , Michael Kerwin , and Nicholas Wasilewski , who have built all of the studio 's four games from Ziggurat through Videoball . Their games are consistently simple in their aesthetics and controls . Rogers cited Angry Birds as the inspiration for Ziggurat . He found the former " an incredible collision of game design concepts " that worked , though he wanted the game to be more of a " driving range " where he could throw birds at falling stuff , an idea which he refined into a Raiders of the Lost Ark @-@ themed game of slowly hurling projectiles that push back bats in a corridor with no limit of projectiles . When riding the Bay Area Rapid Transit from Oakland to San Francisco a year later , Rogers watched a man play Angry Birds as he perfected a level , whereupon Rogers decided to make his game idea . He asked his friend and indie developer Adam Saltsman for advice , who confirmed and encouraged Rogers 's interest in trying Flixel , the Adobe Flash tools used to make Saltsman 's Canabalt . Upon deciding that he lacked the expertise , he tweeted to recruit others on the project and received some responses that later fell through .
Rogers continued to work as a video game design consultant and met Bob Pelloni ( of Bob 's Game ) at the 2010 Game Developers Conference . The two worked on games ( including Ziggurat ) together . Rogers put out a call for artists on Twitter with a submissions request of " fan art of the Japanese box art of Phantasy Star II " , and Action Button artist Brent Porter replied in under an hour with an entry Rogers called " incredible " . In mid 2011 , Rogers decided to work on an iPhone game for a few weeks as a break from a larger project . While Pelloni was against the buttonless iPhone as a platform , Rogers said the team was convinced by his design document . He contacted an Internet acquaintance who had previously mocked up a design idea from Rogers 's Kotaku column , programmer Michael Kerwin , who came through in a week with a version without graphics or sound , which was later added . Rogers recorded " some insane and rough music " with his band , Large Prime Numbers , that Andrew Toups converted into an 8 @-@ bit soundtrack in the " original Nintendo sound format " that Rogers found " breathtaking " . His friend , QWOP creator Bennett Foddy deemed the game " sort of interesting " .
Six months passed as Rogers worked on a social game before he chose to make a few more changes : more enemy types and progression , graphics in the background , and so emailed people to continue development . Rogers described his own critical list of video games as having minimalist aesthetics with no overt story to tell other than through its game mechanics , and wanted the game to live up to those expectations . He fine @-@ tuned the game with gut @-@ driven decisions . For example , he applied a concept he called " sticky friction " from Super Mario Bros. 3 to the game 's controls . One of the final features was the " scream sound effect " Rogers made with his guitar and " crushed " for a distorted and quasi @-@ digital sound that he compared to those made by eccentric Japanese musicians whose records he owned .
Rogers explained that they did not add a pause option because he did not want non @-@ game icons in the screen and because ( like in Contra ) players would die too soon after resuming . He saw the game as simultaneously a " snow globe of an electric toy " and a " gosh darn airtight hardcore video game " homage to the Super Nintendo and Sega Genesis , and called Ziggurat a descendant of his hobbies : Ibara : Black Label and the Rubik 's Cube . Rogers added that the game contained nine hours of scripted events and that the Archenemy alien " is only the beginning " . Rogers produced a trailer for the game . It was released for iOS platforms on February 17 , 2012 . Two months later , Freshuu , the game 's publisher , signed Ziggurat as the first client for Gimme , an in @-@ game achievement to " real @-@ life rewards " incentive program . The game received two spikes in sales following positive reviews from journalists , and from a mock infomercial 's release on YouTube , all postrelease and not at the time of launch . Brandon Sheffield , writing for Game Developer , thought that Rogers handled the postrelease well since leaking details to the press before the game was available may have impacted sales .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . It won a Destructoid Editors ' Choice Award , and Time magazine picked the game as one of the best for the then new high @-@ resolution third generation iPad .
Edge compared the game to a more pleasurable version of Halo : Reach 's final scene . The magazine also compared the feeling of prioritization as a swarm of enemies appear to the feeling of clutter when stacking Tetris blocks haphazardly . Edge also called the red screen and sound effect that flashes upon the player 's death " brash and lo @-@ fi and unexpectedly poignant " , for which they noted Rogers 's interest in noise rock and credited the effect as " a beguiling personal signature " . Alternatively , Paste 's Joe Bernardi thought the sound did not accomplish what it intended . Joseph Leray of TouchArcade noticed how the guitar sound in Gears of War was reaffirming but the opposite in Ziggurat . Edge noted that nuances such as gravity 's influence on the arc of uncharged shots make Ziggurat more of a basketball or golf @-@ like sport skill than a " 2D Halo " . Edge awarded the game a 9 of 10 , adding that it " prized immediacy " in a manner that matched the iOS platform .
Eurogamer 's Martin Robinson said the game made him nostalgic for a score attack game from the early 90s that does not exist , and as such called Ziggurat " one of the finer simple score @-@ attack shooters ... on the App Store " and an expression of the golden age of the Super Nintendo and Sega Genesis . He called the game 's mechanics " fine @-@ tuned " and the gun 's abilities collated from the best elements of other video games . Danny Cowan of IndieGames.com likewise found the controls " very well suited " for touchscreens . He also praised the chained explosions and shot charging as " satisfying " , and compared the game to Missile Command in its allure . Robinson of Eurogamer said the game 's deserving peers were Geometry Wars and Robotron for their refined play styles that make players predict what enemies are about to act . TouchArcade 's Leray praised the game design and never reached a place where his skills plateaued . He advised against using the Slingshot mode controls .
Joe Bernardi of Paste put Ziggurat in a lineage of iOS games where the player tries to do a fun thing as much as possible before dying , including Canabalt , Bit Pilot , and Super Crate Box . He connected Ziggurat 's mechanics to Rogers 's longstanding interest in " infinite mode " without external rewards , and praised the charge time mechanics as " excellent " and the perfect awkward length to confuse muscle memory . Leray of TouchArcade praised its attention to detail , especially in the character sprites . Paste 's Bernardi called Action Button 's design restraint " admirable " and lauded the game 's balance . He noted its " extremely focused shallowness " as defining , like a Dorito , and called it " one of the best iOS games [ he had ] ever played " . Reviewing for ActionButton.net , indie developer Adam Saltsman called Ziggurat " French New Wave action videogame fan art " .
= Kentucky Railway Museum =
The Kentucky Railway Museum , now located in New Haven , Kentucky , United States , is a non @-@ profit railroad museum dedicated to educating the public regarding the history and heritage of Kentucky 's railroads and the people who built them . Originally created in 1954 in Louisville , Kentucky , the museum is at its third location , in extreme southern Nelson County . It is one of the oldest railroad stations in the United States .
The museum owns four steam locomotives , six diesel locomotives and over a hundred pieces of rolling stock . Four of the pieces are separately on the National Register of Historic Places : the Louisville and Nashville Steam Locomotive No. 152 , the Louisville and Nashville Combine Car Number 665 , the Mt . Broderick Pullman Lounge @-@ Obs @-@ Sleeping Car , and the Frankfort and Cincinnati Model 55 Rail Car .
= = History = =
The site of the current museum was built by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad from 1856 to 1857 , on their old line , which ran to Lebanon , Kentucky . The line was of vital importance to the Union cause , making it a frequent target of Confederate forces under John Hunt Morgan , and others , during the 1860s ; the nearby bridge was even destroyed . The railroad station on the site now is a 1990s replica of the station which was built at the site in 1910 .
The museum was chartered in 1954 by railroad enthusiasts from Louisville , through the Kentucky General Assembly , who wished to preserve steam locomotives and other rail paraphernalia . One of its very first displays was the Louisville and Nashville # 152 locomotive , a caboose , and a wooden coach . These first donations , including railroad track , were from the Monon Railroad , and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . The museum has moved twice since it was chartered , from its original location in Louisville . The first site was at 1837 East River Road , where the Louisville Soccer Fields are now located . This first location was 6 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 ha ) in size , and was fenced and lighted by the Louisville Parks Department . The site opened for the public on May 30 , 1958 , with its dedication taking place on September 30 , 1957 . The museum eventually left the first location because of flooding from the nearby Ohio River , and a general lack of necessary space . The worst of these floods was in March 1964 .
In December 1975 it was decided to move the museum to a larger and safer location . The museum was moved in 1977 to the Ormsby Village area at the corner of La Grange Road and Dorsey Lane on land leased from Jefferson County , and known as Ormsby Station . The Louisville and Nashville # 152 locomotive was left at River Road to be repaired . Ormsby Station was situated on 32 acres ( 13 ha ) . However , the county informed the museum that the lease would not be renewed in 1993 ; the land was in a highly @-@ valuable commercial area .
With the edict from Jefferson County , it became necessary to move to the current site in New Haven , which opened on July 4 , 1990 . The original New Haven location was 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) , with a building , and was donated by Lewis and Chester Simms , two New Haven businessmen , along with their wives ( Elizabeth Jo and Nora respectively ) . It used the last eighteen miles remaining of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad 's old Lebanon line , then under the control of CSX Transportation , which had taken control of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad in the 1970s . Train excursions began at the New Haven site in May 1991 . The move also inspired the renovation of the New Sherwood Hotel .
Many of the donations to move the museum from Louisville to New Haven were due to the efforts of Glenn Rutherford , a reporter for the Louisville Courier @-@ Journal . During the fund raising for the move Rutherford told many stories regarding the trains at the museum . He was singularly honored for his efforts in November 2003 .
The Kentucky Railway Museum faced vandalism concerns in its new location . In June 1992 it became necessary to build a razor wire perimeter fence after three juveniles ( of an average age of twelve ) damaged several of the historic cars and trains . Rich Collins , then the museum director , worried about the facility looking " like Fort Knox or a penal colony " .
In 1999 the Kentucky Railway Museum was given a grant by CSX Transportation to start a traveling exhibit .
There is one other heritage railroad in Nelson County : My Old Kentucky Dinner Train , which is based at the Old Louisville and Nashville Station in Bardstown , Kentucky .
= = Attractions = =
Among the steam locomotives is Louisville and Nashville Railroad # 152 , a 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 Pacific style that is believed to be the last operating steam locomotive from the L & N. The museum operates a heritage railroad and offers excursion trains on selected weekends in summer and fall . The line is a portion of the L & N 's former main line from Lebanon Junction to Corbin ; the museum operates the segment from Boston to New Haven , with the line having been abandoned east of the museum site . There is a large model train layout and a gift shop at New Haven , in a brick building that is a replica of the former L & N depot there .
= = = Locomotives = = =
The old Louisville and Nashville Steam Locomotive # 152 is one of the trains used to take passengers to Boston , Kentucky , and back . It was donated to the museum by Louisville and Nashville Railroad President William H. Kendall in 1957 . It is the oldest known remaining 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 Pacific to exist . It is also the " Official State Locomotive of Kentucky " , designated as such on March 6 , 2000 .
Another locomotive that dates back to the Kentucky Railway Museum 's early days is Monon Route 's Diesel Engine No. 32 . It was painted black and gold by Monon , and kept as such , to match the school colors of Purdue University , located in West Lafayette , Indiana . It was purchased by Monon in 1948 , and then acquired by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad in August 1971 . It became a display at the museum in 1972 .
= = = Rail Cars = = =
Several historic rail cars are at the facility .
The Louisville and Nashville Combine Car Number 665 was one of only two " two wood side steel " train cars ever made . It was designed for the times of the Jim Crow laws ; whichever end was the front during the trip would hold white passengers , while the rear held black passengers . It was given to the Kentucky Railway Museum by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad in 1958 . During the Civil War Centennial observances of the 1960s this car was pulled by the famous Civil War @-@ era steam locomotive The General , touring various parts of the Eastern U.S. rail network .
The Mt . Broderick Pullman Car was a four @-@ star hotel on rails , with polished brass restroom fixtures , and pull out beds . The Pullman Company sold the car to the museum in 1958 .
The other historic car at the facility on the National Register is the Frankfort and Cincinnati Model 55 Rail Car , also known as The Cardinal due to its red color . It is a gas @-@ powered motor rail car that formerly ran the Frankfort and Cincinnati Railroad 's " Whiskey Route " between Frankfort , Kentucky and Paris , Kentucky .
= = = Excursions = = =
Train rides leave regularly from the museum to Boston , Kentucky , and back , with picturesque views of the Rolling Fork River Valley along the way . The train crosses roads fourteen times on a single one @-@ way trip . The total trip is 22 miles ( 35 km ) and lasts approximately one hour . At various times special excursions will involve themes such as train robberies , haunted trains , Easter Bunny , Santa Claus , and Thomas the Tank Engine .
= = = Exhibits = = =
One of the buildings at the facility holds a model train display . The model trains are in glass covered dioramas , covering a total area of 3 @,@ 000 square feet ( 280 m2 ) . Dioramas include a German @-@ landscape featuring a village and carnival , and another depicting convicts working on placing rails .
= Winter service vehicle =
A winter service vehicle ( WSV ) , or snow removal vehicle , is used to clear thoroughfares of ice and snow . Winter service vehicles are usually based on a dump truck chassis , with adaptations allowing them to carry specially designed snow removal equipment . Many authorities also use smaller vehicles on sidewalks , footpaths , and cycleways . Road maintenance agencies and contractors in temperate or polar areas often own several winter service vehicles , using them to keep the roads clear of snow and ice and safe for driving during winter . Airports use winter service vehicles to keep both aircraft surfaces , and runways and taxiways free of snow and ice , which , besides endangering aircraft takeoff and landing , can interfere with the aerodynamics of the craft .
The earliest winter service vehicles were snow rollers , designed to maintain a smooth , even road surface for sleds , although horse @-@ drawn snowplows and gritting vehicles are recorded in use as early as 1862 . The increase in motor car traffic and aviation in the early 20th century led to the development and popularisation of large motorised winter service vehicles .
= = History = =
Although snow removal dates back to at least the Middle Ages , early attempts merely involved using a shovel or broom to remove snow from walkways and roads . Before motorised transport , snow removal was seen as less of a concern ; unpaved roads in rural areas were dangerous and bumpy , and snow and ice made the surface far smoother . Most farmers could simply replace their wagons with sleds , allowing the transport of heavy materials such as timber with relative ease . Early communities in the northern regions of the United States and Canada even used animal @-@ drawn snow rollers , the earliest winter service vehicles , to compress the snow covering roads . The compression increased the life of the snow and eased passage for sleds . Some communities even employed snow wardens to spread or " pave " snow onto exposed areas such as bridges , to allow sleds to use these routes .
However , with the increase in paved roads and the increasing size of cities , snow @-@ paving fell out of favour , as the resultant slippery surfaces posed a danger to pedestrians and traffic . The earliest patents for snowplows date back to 1840 , but there are no records of their actual use until 1862 , when the city of Milwaukee began operating horse @-@ drawn carts fitted with snowplows . The horse @-@ drawn snowplow quickly spread to other cities , especially those in areas prone to heavy snowfall .
The first motorised snowplows were developed in 1913 , based on truck and tractor bodies . These machines allowed the mechanisation of the snow clearing process , reducing the labor required for snow removal and increasing the speed and efficiency of the process . The expansion of the aviation industry also acted as a catalyst for the development of winter service vehicles during the early 20th century . Even a light dusting of snow or ice could cause an aeroplane to crash , so airports erected snow fences around airfields to prevent snowdrifts , and began to maintain fleets of vehicles to clear runways in heavy weather .
With the popularisation of the motor car , it was found that plowing alone was insufficient for removing all snow and ice from the roadway , leading to the development of gritting vehicles , which used sodium chloride to accelerate the melting of the snow . Early attempts at gritting were resisted , as the salt used encouraged rusting , causing damage to the metal structures of bridges and the shoes of pedestrians . However , as the number of motoring accidents increased , the protests subsided and by the end of the 1920s , many cities in the United States used salt and sand to clear the roads and increase road safety . As environmental awareness increased through the 1960s and 1970s , gritting once again came under criticism due to its environmental impact , leading to the development of alternative de @-@ icing chemicals and more efficient spreading systems .
= = Design = =
Winter service vehicles are usually based on a dump truck chassis , which are then converted into winter service vehicles either by the manufacturer or an aftermarket third @-@ party . A typical modification involves the replacement of steel components of the vehicle with corrosion resistant aluminium or fibreglass , waterproofing any exposed electronic components , replacement of the stock hopper with a specially designed gritting body , the addition of a plow frame , reinforcement of the wheels , bumpers to support the heavy blade , and the addition of extra headlamps , a light bar , and retroreflectors for visibility .
Other common changes include the replacement of the factory stock tires with rain tires or mud and snow tires and the shortening of the vehicle 's wheelbase to improve maneuverability . For smaller applications smaller trucks are used . In Canada pickup trucks are used with snow removal operations with a blade mounted in front and optional de @-@ icing equipment installed in the rear . Underbody scrapers are also used by some agencies and are mounted between axles , distributing plowing stresses on the chassis more evenly .
In most countries , winter service vehicles usually have amber light bars , which are activated to indicate that the vehicle is operating below the local speed limit or otherwise poses a danger to other traffic , either by straddling lanes or by spreading grit or de @-@ icer . In some areas , such as the Canadian province of Ontario , winter service vehicles use the blue flashing lights associated with emergency service vehicles , rather than the amber or orange used elsewhere . Many agencies also paint their vehicles in high @-@ contrast orange or yellow to allow the vehicles to be seen more clearly in whiteout conditions .
Some winter service vehicles , especially those designed for use on footpaths or pedestrian zones , are built on a far smaller chassis using small tractors or custom made vehicles . These vehicles are often multi @-@ purpose , and can be fitted with other equipment such as brushes , lawnmowers or cranes — as these operations are generally unable to run during heavy snowfalls , there is generally little overlap between the different uses , reducing the size of the fleet required by the agency or contractor .
Modern winter service vehicles will usually also have a satellite navigation system connected to a weather forecast feed , allowing the driver to choose the best areas to treat and to avoid areas in which rain is likely , which can wash away the grit used — the most advanced can even adapt to changing conditions , ensuring optimal gritter and plow settings . Most run on wheels , often with snow chains or studded tires , but some are mounted on caterpillar tracks , with the tracks themselves adapted to throw the snow towards the side of the road . Off @-@ road winter service vehicles mounted on caterpillar tracks are known as snowcats . Snowcats are commonly fitted with snowplows or snow groomers , and are used by ski resorts to smooth and maintain pistes and snowmobile runs , although they can also be used as a replacement for chairlifts .
Military winter service vehicles are heavily armoured to allow for their use in combat zones , especially in Arctic and mountain warfare , and often based on combat bulldozers or Humvees . Military winter service vehicles have been used by the United Nations , Kosovo Force , and the US Army in Central Europe during the Kosovo War , while during the Cold War , the Royal Marines and Royal Corps of Signals deployed a number of tracked vehicles in Norway to patrol the NATO border with the Soviet Union .
= = Operation = =
Winter service vehicles are operated by both government agencies and by private subcontractors . Public works in areas which regularly receive snowfall usually maintain a fleet of their own vehicles or pay retainers to contractors for priority access to vehicles in winter , while cities where snow is a less regular occurrence may simply hire the vehicles as needed . Winter service vehicles in the United Kingdom are the only road @-@ going vehicles entitled to use red diesel . Though the vehicles still use public highways , they are used to keep the road network operational , and forcing them to pay extra tax to do so would discourage private contractors from assisting with snow removal on public roads . Winter service vehicle drivers in the United States must hold a Class A or Class B commercial driver 's license . Although some agencies in some areas , such as the US state of Minnesota , allow winter service vehicle drivers to operate without any extra training , most provide supplemental lessons to drivers to teach them the most effective and safe methods of snow removal . Many require that trainee drivers ride @-@ along with more experienced drivers , and some even operate specially designed driving simulators , which can safely replicate dangerous winter driving conditions . Other organisations require that all staff have a recognised additional licence or certificate — the United Kingdom Highways Agency for example requires that all staff have both a City & Guilds qualification and a supplemental Winter Maintenance Licence .
Winter service vehicle drivers usually work part time , before and during inclement weather only , with drivers working a 12- to 16 @-@ hour shift . Main roads are typically gritted in advance , to reduce the disruption to the network . Salt barns are provided at regular intervals for drivers to collect more grit , and bedding is provided at road maintenance depots for drivers to use between shifts in heavy or prolonged storms .
Weather conditions typically vary greatly depending on altitude ; hot countries can experience heavy snowfall in mountainous regions yet receive very little in low @-@ lying areas , increasing the accident rate among drivers inexperienced in winter driving . In addition , road surface temperatures can fall rapidly at higher altitudes , precipitating rapid frost formation . As a result , gritting and plowing runs are often prioritised in favour of clearing these mountain roads , especially at the start and end of the snow season . The hazardous roads through mountain passes pose additional problems for the large winter service vehicles . The heavy metal frame and bulky grit makes hill climbing demanding for the vehicle , so vehicles have extremely high torque transmission systems to provide enough power to make the climb . Furthermore , because the tight hairpin turns found on mountain slopes are difficult for long vehicles to navigate , winter service vehicles for use in mountainous areas are shortened , usually from six wheels to four .
= = Equipment = =
= = = De @-@ icer = = =
De @-@ icers spray heated de @-@ icing fluid , often propylene glycol or ethylene glycol , onto icy surfaces such as the bodies of aircraft and road surfaces . These prevent ice from forming on the body of the aircraft while on the ground . Ice makes the surface of the wings rougher , reducing the amount of lift they provide while increasing drag . The ice also increases the weight of the aircraft and can affect its balance .
Aircraft de @-@ icing vehicles usually consist of a large tanker truck , containing the concentrated de @-@ icing fluid , with a water feed to dilute the fluid according to the ambient temperature . The vehicle also normally has a cherry picker crane , allowing the operator to spray the entire aircraft in as little time as possible ; an entire Boeing 737 can be treated in under 10 minutes by a single de @-@ icing vehicle .
In road snow and ice control , brine is often used as an anti @-@ icer rather than a de @-@ icer . A vehicle carries a tank of brine , which is sprayed on the road surface before or at the onset of the storm . This keeps snow and ice from adhering to the surface and makes mechanical removal by plows easier . Solid salt is also wetted with brine or other liquid deicer . This speeds de @-@ icing action and helps keep it from bouncing off the pavement into the gutter or ditch . Brine acts faster than solid salt and does not require compression by passing traffic to become effective . The brine is also more environmentally friendly , as less salt is required to treat the same length of road .
Airport runways are also de @-@ iced by sprayers fitted with long spraying arms . These arms are wide enough to cross the entire runway , and allow de @-@ icing of the entire airstrip to take place in a single pass , reducing the length of time that the runway is unavailable .
= = = Front @-@ end loader = = =
Front @-@ end loaders are commonly used to remove snow especially from sidewalks , parking lots , and other areas too small for using snowplows and other heavy equipment . They are sometimes used as snowplows with a snowplow attachment but commonly have a bucket or snowbasket , which can also be used to load snow into the rear compartment of a snowplow or dump truck . Front end loaders with large box @-@ like front end attachment are used to clear snow in parking lots in malls and other institutions .
= = = Gritter = = =
A gritter , also known as a sander , salt spreader or salt truck , is found on most winter service vehicles . Indeed , the gritter is so commonly seen on winter service vehicles that the terms are sometimes used synonymously . Gritters are used to spread grit ( rock salt ) , onto roads . The grit is stored in the large hopper on the rear of the vehicle , with a wire mesh over the top to prevent foreign objects from entering the spreading mechanism and hence becoming jammed . The salt is generally spread across the roadway by an impeller , attached by a hydraulic drive system to a small onboard engine . However , until the 1970s , the grit was often spread manually using shovels by men riding on the back of the truck , and some older spreading mechanisms still require grit be manually loaded into the impeller from the hopper .
Salt reduces the melting point of ice by freezing @-@ point depression , causing it to melt at lower temperatures and run off to the edge of the road , while sand increases traction by increasing friction between car tires and roadways . The amount of salt dropped varies with the condition of the road ; to prevent the formation of light ice , approximately 10 g / m2 ( 2 @.@ 0 lb / 1000 sq ft ; 0 @.@ 018 lb / sq yd ) is dropped , while thick snow can require up to 40 g / m2 ( 8 @.@ 2 lb / 1000 sq ft ; 0 @.@ 074 lb / sq yd ) of salt , independent of the volume of sand dropped . The grit is sometimes mixed with molasses to help adhesion to the road surface . However , the sweet molasses often attracts livestock , who lick the road .
Gritters are among the winter service vehicles also used in airports , to keep runways free of ice . However , the salt normally used to clear roads can damage the airframe of aircraft and interferes with the sensitive navigation equipment . As a result , airport gritters spread less dangerous potassium acetate or urea onto the runways instead , as these do not corrode the aircraft or the airside equipment .
Gritters can also be used in hot weather , when temperatures are high enough to melt the bitumen used in asphalt . The grit is dropped to provide a protective layer between the road surface and the tires of passing vehicles , which would otherwise damage the road surface by " plucking out " the bitumen @-@ coated aggregate from the road surface .
= = = Snow blower = = =
Snow blowers , also known as rotating snowplows or snow cutters , can be used in place of snowplows on winter service vehicles . A snow blower consists of a rapidly spinning auger which cuts through the snow , forcing it out of a funnel attached to the top of the blower . Snow blowers typically clear much faster than plows , with some clearing in excess of 5 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ; 5 @,@ 500 short tons ) of snow per hour , and can cut through far deeper snow drifts than a snowplow can . In addition , snow blowers can remove snow from the roadway completely , rather than piling it at the side of the road , making passage easier for other road users and preventing the windrow from blocking driveways .
= = = Jet @-@ powered snow blower = = =
Some railroads occasionally use air @-@ blowing machines , each powered by a jet engine to clear snow from tracks and switches . In addition to physically blowing snow with the force of the air , they melt recalictrant precipitation with exhaust temperatures over 1 @,@ 000 degrees Fahrenheit ( 538 ° C ) . Approximately 100 are believed to have been manufactured in the 1960s , 1970s , and 1980s ; they are used so rarely that they are generally maintained indefinitely rather than being replaced . For example , in the Boston area the MBTA uses two model RP @-@ 3 Portec RMC Hurricane Jet Snow Blowers , nicknamed " Snowzilla " to clear heavy snows from the Ashmont – Mattapan High Speed Line and Wellington Yard . The jet snow blowers can be faster and gentler than conventional removal methods , but consume a large amount of fuel .
= = = Snow groomer = = =
A snow groomer is a machine designed to smooth and compact the snow , rather than removing it altogether . Early snow groomers were used by residents of rural areas to compress the snow close to their homes , and consisted of a heavy roller hauled by oxen which compacted the snow to make a smooth surface for sledging . With the invention of the motor car , snow groomers were replaced by snowplows and snow blowers on public thoroughfares , but remained in use at ski resorts , where they are used to maintain smooth , safe trails for various wintersports , including skiing , snowboarding and snowmobiling . Snow groomers remained unchanged throughout the 20th century , with most consisting of heavy roller which could be attached to a tractor or snowcat and then hauled across the area to be groomed .
The development of more advanced electronic systems in the 1980s allowed manufacturers to produce snow groomers which could work on and replicate a much wider range of terrains , with the most modern even able to produce half @-@ pipes and ramps for snowboarding . Snow groomers are also used in conjunction with snow cannons , to ensure that the snow produced is spread evenly across the resort . However , snow groomers have a detrimental effect on the environment within the resort . Regular pressure from the grooming vehicle increases the infiltration rate of the soil while decreasing the field capacity . This increases the rate at which water can soak through the soil , making it more prone to erosion .
= = = Snow melter = = =
A snow melting vehicle works by scooping snow into a melting pit located in a large tank at the rear of the vehicle . Around the melting pit is a thin jacket full of warm water , heated by a powerful burner . The gases from the burner are bubbled through the water , causing some of the heated water to spill over into the melting pit , melting the snow instantly . The meltwater is discharged into the storm drains .
Because they have to carry the large water tank and fuel for the burner , snow melting machines tend to be much larger and heavier than most winter service vehicles , at around 18 metres ( 59 ft ) , with the largest being hauled by semi @-@ trailer tractor units . In addition , the complicated melting process means that snow melting vehicles have a much lower capacity than the equivalent plow or blower vehicle ; the largest snow melter can remove 500 metric tons of snow per hour , compared to the 5 @,@ 000 metric tons per hour capacity of any large snow blower .
Snow melters are in some ways more environmentally friendly than gritters , as they do not spray hazardous materials , and pollutants from the road surface can be separated from the meltwater and disposed of safely . In addition , because the snow is melted on board , the costs of transporting snow from the site are eliminated . On the other hand , snow melting can require large amounts of energy , which has its own costs and environmental impact .
= = = Snowplow = = =
Many winter service vehicles can be fitted with snowplows , to clear roads which are blocked by deep snow . In most cases , the plows are mounted on hydraulically @-@ actuated arms , allowing them to be raised , lowered , and angled to better move snow . Most winter service vehicles include either permanently fixed plows or plow frames : 75 % of the UK 's Highways Agency vehicles include a plow frame to which a blade can be attached . Winter service vehicles with both a plow frame and a gritting body are known as " all purpose vehicles " , and while these are more efficient than using dedicated vehicles , the weight of the hopper often decreases the range of the vehicle . Therefore , most operators will keep at least a few dedicated plowing vehicles in store for heavy storms .
In the event that specially designed winter service vehicles are not available for plowing , other service or construction vehicles can be used instead : among those used by various authorities are graders , bulldozers , skid loaders , pickup trucks and rubbish trucks . Front @-@ end loaders can also be used to plow snow . Either a snowplow attachment can be mounted on the loader 's arm in place of the bucket , or the bucket or snowbasket can be used to load snow into the rear compartment of a snowplow or dump truck , which then hauls it away . Snowplows are dangerous to overtake ; often , the oncoming lane may not be completely free of snow . In addition , the plow blade causes considerable spray of snow on both sides , which can obscure the vision of other road users .
= = = Snow sweeper = = =
A snow sweeper uses brushes to remove thin layers of snow from the pavement surface . Snow sweepers are used after plowing to remove any remaining material missed by the larger vehicles in areas with very low snow @-@ tolerance , such as airport runways and racing tracks , as the flexible brushes follow the terrain better than the rigid blades of snowplows and snow blowers . These brushes also allow the vehicle to be used on the tactile tiles found at traffic lights and tram stops , without damaging the delicate surface . Unlike other winter service vehicles , snow sweepers do not compress the snow , leaving a rough , high friction , surface behind them . This makes snow sweepers the most efficient method of snow removal for snow depths below 10 centimetres ( 4 in ) . Snow deeper than this however can clog the brushes , and most snow sweepers cannot be used to clear snow deeper than 15 centimetres ( 6 in ) . A more advanced version of the snow sweeper is the jet sweeper , which adds an air @-@ blower just behind the brushes , in order to blow the swept snow clear of the pavement and prevent the loosened snow from settling .
= = = Surface friction tester = = =
The surface friction tester is a small fifth wheel attached to a hydraulic system mounted on the rear axle of the vehicle , used to measure road slipperiness . The wheel , allowed to roll freely , is slightly turned relative to the ground so that it partially slides . Sensors attached to the axis of the wheel calculate the friction between the wheel and the pavement by measuring the torque produced by the rotation of the wheel . Surface friction testers are used at airports and on major roadways before ice formation or after snow removal . The vehicle can relay the surface friction data back to the control centre , allowing gritting and clearing to be planned so that the vehicles are deployed most efficiently . Surface friction testers often include a water spraying system , to simulate the effects of rain on the road surface before the rain occurs . The sensors are usually mounted to small compact or estate cars or to a small trailer , rather than the large trucks used for other winter service equipment , as the surface friction tester works best when attached to a lightweight vehicle .
= = Materials = =
To improve traction and melt ice or snow , winter service vehicles spread granular or liquid ice melting chemicals and grit , such as sand or gravel .
The most common chemical is rock salt , which can melt snow at low temperatures , but has some unwanted side effects . If the salt concentration becomes high enough , it can be toxic to plant and animal life and greatly accelerate corrosion of metals , so operators should limit gritting to an absolute minimum . The dropped salt is eventually washed away and lost , so it cannot be reused or collected after gritting runs . By contrast , the insoluble sand can be collected and recycled by street sweeping vehicles and mixed with new salt crystals to be reused in later batches of grit .
Sea salt cannot be used , as it is too fine and dissolves too quickly , so all salt used in gritting comes from salt mines , a non @-@ renewable source . As a result , some road maintenance agencies have networks of ice prediction stations , to prevent unnecessary gritting which not only wastes salt , but can damage the environment and disrupt traffic .
The US state of Oregon uses magnesium chloride , a relatively cheap chemical similar in snow @-@ melting effects to sodium chloride , but less reactive , while New Zealand uses calcium magnesium acetate , which avoids the environmentally harmful chloride ion altogether . Urea is sometimes used to grit suspension bridges , as it does not corrode iron or steel at all , but urea is less effective than salt , and can cost up to 7 times more weight @-@ for @-@ weight .
In some areas of the world , including Berlin , Germany , dropping salt is prohibited altogether except on the highest @-@ risk roads ; plain sand without any melting agents is spread instead . Although this protects the environment , it is more labour @-@ intensive , as more gritting runs are needed ; because the sand is insoluble , it tends to accumulate at the sides of the road , making it more difficult for buses to pull in at bus stops .
Grit is often mixed with hydrous sodium ferrocyanide as an anticaking agent which , while harmless in its natural form , can undergo photodissociation in strong sunlight to produce the extremely toxic chemical hydrogen cyanide . Although sunlight is generally not intense enough to cause this in polar and temperate regions , salt deposits must kept as far as possible from waterways to avert the possibility of cyanide @-@ tainted runoff water entering fisheries or farms .
Gritting vehicles are also dangerous to overtake ; as grit is scattered across the entire roadway , loose pieces can damage the paintwork and windows of passing cars . Loose salt does not provide sufficient traction for motorcycles , which can lead to skidding , especially around corners .
= K @-@ 232 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 232 is a 17 @.@ 263 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 27 @.@ 782 km ) north – south state highway in central Kansas connecting the towns of Wilson and Lucas . The highway was first established in 1962 and expanded over the following two years . K @-@ 232 is designated by the Kansas Department of Transportation as the Post Rock Scenic Byway . The scenic byway derives its name from the abundant limestone in the area which early settlers used as fence posts and in other construction in place of wood . The route was designated as a scenic byway both for the natural beauty of the area and unique towns located each end of the highway . Annual average daily traffic on the highway ranges from 238 to 340 , and the entire route is paved with partial design bituminous pavement .
= = History = =
K @-@ 232 's route was first designated as the part of the current highway between Interstate 70 and Old U.S. 40 ( then U.S. Route 40 ) in 1962 . The rest of the highway 's route was established over the following two years . K @-@ 232 has been paved since the highway was designated . Due to the area 's natural beauty and unique heritage , K @-@ 232 has been designated by the Kansas Department of Transportation as the Post Rock Scenic Byway , named for the abundance of limestone fenceposts found throughout the Smoky Hills region .
= = Route description = =
The highway begins at an intersection with Old U.S. 40 in Ellsworth County , on the eastern side of the city of Wilson . From there , it travels northward 1 @.@ 753 miles ( 2 @.@ 821 km ) along the eastern side of Wilson and through agricultural lands to a junction with Interstate 70 . After crossing Interstate 70 , K @-@ 232 turns and continues in a generally west of north direction across the Ellsworth / Lincoln county line . After crossing the county line , the highway continues on a slightly west of north heading until reaching Wilson Lake . Upon reaching Wilson Lake , K @-@ 232 travels along the eastern side of the lake , crossing into Russell County . K @-@ 232 then has a junction with K @-@ 181 at the southeastern end of Wilson Dam , turns northwest , and travels along the top of the dam . A short distance after crossing the dam , K @-@ 232 turns due north and travels through more rural land to its northern terminus at K @-@ 18 highway .
K @-@ 232 is not a part of the United States National Highway System . K @-@ 232 connects to the National Highway System at its junction with Interstate 70 . The entire route is paved with partial design bituminous pavement . Annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) in Ellsworth County ranges from 307 from Interstate 70 to the Ellsworth / Lincoln county line to 333 closer to the city of Wilson . In Lincoln County , AADT values are 308 for the first three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , 315 for the next one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , and 340 for the final one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before entering Russell County . In Russell County , AADT values range from 305 to 340 south of the junction with K @-@ 181 and from 238 to 280 between K @-@ 181 and the northern terminus at K @-@ 18 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Palestinian cuisine =
Palestinian cuisine consists of foods from or commonly eaten by Palestinians — which includes those living in Palestine , Israel , Jordan , refugee camps in nearby countries as well as by the Palestinian diaspora . The cuisine is a diffusion of the cultures of civilizations that settled in the region of Palestine , particularly during and after the Islamic era beginning with the Arab Ummayad conquest , then the eventual Persian @-@ influenced Abbasids and ending with the strong influences of Turkish cuisine , resulting from the coming of the Ottoman Turks . It is similar to other Levantine cuisines , including Lebanese , Syrian and Jordanian .
Cooking styles vary by region and each type of cooking style and the ingredients used are generally based on the climate and location of the particular region and on traditions . Rice and variations of kibbee are common in the Galilee . The West Bank engages primarily in heavier meals involving the use of taboon bread , rice and meat and coastal plain inhabitants frequent fish , other seafood , and lentils . The Gaza cuisine is a variation of the Levant cuisine , but is more diverse in seafood and spices . Gaza 's inhabitants heavily consume chili peppers too . Meals are usually eaten in the household but dining out has become prominent particularly during parties where light meals like salads , bread dips and skewered meats are served .
The area is also home to many desserts , ranging from those made regularly and those that are commonly reserved for the holidays . Most Palestinian sweets are pastries filled with either sweetened cheeses , dates or various nuts such as almonds , walnuts or pistachios . Beverages could also depend on holidays such as during Ramadan , where carob , tamarind and apricot juices are consumed at sunset . Coffee is consumed throughout the day and liquor is not very prevalent among the population , however , some alcoholic beverages such as arak or beer are consumed by Christians and less conservative Muslims .
= = History = =
The region of the southern Levant has a varied past and as such , its cuisine has contributions from various cultures . After the area was conquered by the Muslims , it became part of a Bilad al @-@ Sham under the name Jund Filastin . Therefore , many aspects of Palestinian cuisine are similar to the cuisine of Syria — especially in the Galilee . Modern Syrian @-@ Palestinian dishes have been generally influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups : the Arabs , the Persian @-@ influenced Arabs ( Iraqis ) and the Turks .
The Arabs that conquered Syria and Palestine initially had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice , lamb , yogurt and dates . This cuisine did not advance for centuries until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate , that established Baghdad as its capital and integrated elements of Persian cuisine into the existing Arab cuisine . The Arab geographer al @-@ Muqaddasi said this of Palestine 's foods :
From Palestine comes olives , dried figs , raisins , the carob fruit ... from Jerusalem comes cheeses and the celebrated raisins of the species known as Ainuni and Duri , excellent apples ... also pine nuts of the kind called ' Kuraish @-@ bite ' , and their equal is not found elsewhere ... from Sughar and Baysan come dates , the treacle called Dibs .
The cuisine of the Ottoman Empire — which incorporated Palestine in 1516 — was partially made up of what had become , by then a " rich " Arab cuisine . After the Crimean War , in 1855 , many other communities including Bosnians , Greeks , French and Italians began settling in the area especially in urban centers such as Jerusalem , Jaffa and Bethlehem . These communities ' cuisines contributed to the character of Palestinian cuisine , especially communities from the Balkans . Until around the 1950s @-@ 60s , the main ingredients for rural Palestinian cuisine was olive oil , oregano and bread baked in a simple oven called a taboon . Author G. Robinson Lees , writing in 1905 , observed that " The oven is not in the house , it has a building of its own , the joint property of several families whose duty is to keep it always hot . "
= = Regional cuisines = =
There are three primary culinary regions of Palestine — the Galilee , Gaza and the West Bank ( which has its own culinary subregions ranging from north to south ) . In the Galilee , bulgur and meat ( beef or lamb ) are primary ingredients that are often combined to form several variations of dishes ranging from a family @-@ sized meal to a side dish . However , in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip , the populations have a cooking style of their own . In the West Bank , meals are particularly heavy and contrast from the foods of the northern Levant . Main dishes involve rice , flatbreads and roasted meats . The staple food of the inhabitants in the Gaza Strip is fish due to its location on the Mediterranean seacoast . Their cuisine is similar to that of the Levant 's ; however , other spices are used more frequently . These generally include chili peppers , dill seed , garlic , and chard to flavor many of Gaza 's meals . Although the cuisine is diverse , generally Palestinians are not restricted to the foods of their specific region and there is constant culinary diffusion amongst them . Although , because of Gaza 's isolation from other Palestinian and Levantine Arab areas , their cooking styles are less known in the region .
= = = Galilee = = =
The cuisine of the Galilee is very similar to Lebanese cuisine , due to the extensive communication between the two regions before the establishment of Israel . The Galilee specializes in a number of meals based on the combination of bulgur , spices and meat , known as kubbi by Arabs . Kubbi bi @-@ siniyee is a combination of minced lamb or beef mixed with pepper , allspice and other spices wrapped in a bulgur crust , then baked . Kubbi bi @-@ siniyee could serve as the main dish during a Palestinian lunch . Kubbi neyee is a variation of kubbi , that is served as raw meat mixed with bulgur and a variety of spices . It is mostly eaten as a side dish and pita or markook bread is used for scooping the meat . Since the dish is raw , whatever is not eaten is cooked the next day in either the baked version or as fried kibbee balls .
A special occasion meal in the Galilee consists of Roasted Lamb or any other type of meat complemented by a mixture of rice with chopped lamb and flavored with an assortment of spices , usually garnished with chopped parsley and toasted nuts. shish kebab or lahme mashwi and shish taouk are grilled meats on skewers and are commonly eaten after an array of appetizers known as the maza .
The mezzeh consists of a wide variety of appetizers , usually including hummus ( sometimes topped with meat ) , baba ghannouj , labaneh , tabbouleh , olives and pickled vegetables . Akkawi cheese , a semi @-@ hard cheese common throughout the Middle East and among the Arab diaspora , originated in the city of Akka , from which the cheese receives its name .
= = = West Bank = = =
Musakhan is a common main dish that originated in the Jenin and Tulkarm area in the northern West Bank . It consists of a roasted chicken over a taboon bread that has been topped with pieces of fried sweet onions , sumac , allspice and pine nuts . Maqluba is an upside @-@ down rice and baked eggplant casserole mixed with cooked cauliflowers , carrots and chicken or lamb . The meal is known throughout the Levant but among Palestinians especially . It dates back to the 13th century .
Mansaf is a traditional meal in the central West Bank and Naqab region in the southern West Bank , having its roots from the Bedouin population of ancient Arabia . It is mostly cooked on occasions such as , during holidays , weddings or a large gathering . Mansaf is cooked as a lamb leg or large pieces of lamb on top of a taboon bread that has usually been smothered with yellow rice . A type of thick and dried cheesecloth yogurt from goat 's milk , called jameed , is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste . The dish is also garnished with cooked pine nuts and almonds . The classic form of eating mansaf is using the right hand as a utensil . For politeness , participants in the feast tear pieces of meat to hand to the person next to them .
In addition to meals , the West Bank 's many subregions have their own fruit @-@ based jams . In the Hebron area , the primary crops are grapes . Families living in the area harvest the grapes in the spring and summer to produce a variety of products ranging from raisins , jams and a molasses known as dibs . The Bethlehem area , Beit Jala in particular , and the village of Jifna are known regionally for their apricots and apricot jam as is the Tulkarm area for its olives and olive oil .
= = = Gaza = = =
The Gaza Strip 's cooking style is similar to culinary styles adopted by the rest of the Levant countries , and is also influenced by the Mediterranean coast . The staple food for the majority of the inhabitants in the area is fish . Gaza has a major fishing industry and fish is often served either grilled or fried after being stuffed with cilantro , garlic , red peppers and cumin and marinated in a mix of coriander , red peppers , cumin , and chopped lemons . Besides fish , as well as other types of seafood , Zibdieh , is a clay pot dish that consists of shrimp baked in a stew of olive oil , garlic , hot peppers , and peeled tomatoes . Crabs are cooked and then stuffed with a red hot pepper paste called shatta .
A dish native to the Gaza area is Sumaghiyyeh , consisting of water @-@ soaked ground sumac mixed with tahina . The mixture is added to sliced chard and pieces of stewed beef and garbanzo beans and additionally flavored with dill seeds , garlic and hot peppers . It is often eaten cool with khubz . Rummaniyya is prepared differently depending on the time of the year and is made up of unripened pomegranate seeds , eggplant , tahina , garlic , hot peppers and lentils . Fukharit adas is a slow @-@ cooked lentil stew flavored with red pepper flakes , crushed dill seeds , garlic , and cumin ; it is traditionally made during winter and early spring .
Qidra is a rice dish named after the clay vessel and oven it is baked in . Rice is cooked with pieces of meat inside of the vessel , often using lamb , whole garlic cloves , garbanzo beans , cardamom pods , and various other spices such as , turmeric , cinnamon , allspice , nutmeg and cumin . Plain rice cooked in meat or chicken broth and flavored with mild spices including cinnamon is known as fatteh ghazzawiyyeh . The rice is layered over a thin markook bread known as farasheeh , smothered in ghee and topped with stuffed chicken or lamb . The meal is eaten with green peppers and lemon sauce .
= = Types of meals = =
= = = Rice meals = = =
Rice is the basic ingredient in ceremonial dishes , and is a very important element of Palestinian meals . Rice dishes are usually the main dish of Palestinian dinner , because they consist of a variety of ingredients commonly found within the Palestinian land . Rice is usually not served alone or as a side dish ( see ruz ma lahma below ) , but rather it is incorporated within a larger dish or tabeekh ( dish ) , that would include soups , vegetables , and meat ( chicken or lamb ) . Meat is almost always present in Palestinian dishes .
Mansaf is a very popular dish that is usually served during important events , such as a traditional wedding , engagement , funeral , baptism and circumcision . It is a dish incorporating all the elements of Palestinian land , such as bread , laban ( yogurt ) soup , rice , nuts ( pine nuts ) , parsley and lamb , making it an important cultural dish . The meal is oftentimes served the traditional way in a large common plate , a sidr . The meal is usually eaten without the use of tableware , but rather each person sits beside each other eating from the same large plate .
Maqluba means " upside down " in Arabic , and it is a dish made with a meat , fried vegetables and rice . The dish is cooked with the meat at the bottom of a large pot , then layered with fried vegetables , such as potatoes , carrots , cauliflower and eggplant . Rice is then added to the dish as it completes cooking . When served , Maqluba is flipped upside down with the meat now at the top , hence the name . Maqluba is a popular dish , commonly served with salad and yogurt by Palestinians .
Quzi is a rich rice dish with chopped vegetables and roasted meat made in the Taboon served with it . The dish is seen as comparatively simpler in its cooking than other Palestinian dishes , because it is cooked with basic rice ( with diced vegetables ) and a meat served on top of it . The meal is served in a large sidr , similar to mansaf , decorated with chopped parsley and pine nuts or chopped almonds . Another variant of this is the Zarb which has bread dough instead of rice although this is due to the Jordanian influence in the region .
Ruz ma Lahma is generally the only rice side dish in most Arab and Palestinian cooking , with simply cooked rice , spices , ground beef and nuts . It is usually served with a full lamb , kharoof , as the main dish .
= = = Stew meals = = =
Stews are basic fare for every day family cooking and are always served with vermicelli rice or plain rice . They are popular because they provide a wide range of nutrients from the meat , the vegetables and the rice . The extra liquid is also essential in such dry climate . Stews are also economically beneficial , as they provide relatively small amount of meat into feeding large families , especially within the poorer population .
Mloukhiyeh is a stew made from Jew 's mallow . The Jew 's mallow is picked during harvest time , and is either frozen or dried . It is widely popular in the middle east , as it is commonly grown in dry climate areas . The stew is cooked with lemon juice and water , and served with cut lemons and rice . The meal can be served with either chicken or lamb however it can be served without either ( unlike many other Palestinian meals ) .
Adas is a healthy lentil soup , common in the Middle East . Unlike other parts of the Middle East , Palestinians do not incorporate yogurt or other ingredients into this soup . Rather , it is made with lentils and chopped onions and served with sliced onions and bread on the side .
= = = Bread meals = = =
Palestinians bake a variety of different kinds of breads : they include khubz , pita and markook and taboon . Khubz is an everyday bread and is very similar to pita . It often takes the place of utensils ; It is torn into bite size pieces and used to scoop various dips such as hummus or ful . Markook bread is a paper @-@ thin unleavened bread and when unfolded it is almost transparent . Taboon receives its name from the ovens used to bake them .
Musakhan is a widely popular Palestinian dish composed of roasted chicken , with fried onions , sumac , allspice , safron and pine nuts atop one or more taboons . The dish is usually eaten with the hands and served with cut lemon on the side . In April 2010 , Palestinians were entered into the Guinness Book of World Records for largest Musakhan dish .
Palestinian cuisine also includes many small pizza @-@ like foods , including Manakish , sfiha , fatayer , sambusac and ikras . Sfiha is a baked miniature flatbread , topped with lamb and cooked red peppers or tomatoes . Manakish is a baked flat bread , usually topped with za 'atar and olive oil . Sfiha are meat patties decorated with spices and peppers . Sambusac and fatayer are baked or sometimes fried doughs stuffed with minced meat and cooked onions or snobar ( pine nuts ) . Fatayer is usually folded into triangles and unlike sambusac , it could be filled with arabic cheese or za 'atar . Ikras is similar to sambusac and fatayer , by using dough stuffed with either meat or spinach , however they are not fried ( like sambusac ) , and are usually served as a meal rather than meal addition or side dish .
Sandwiches usually using markook or khubz , such as Shawarma and Falafel are also common bread meals . Shawarma can be served as a sandwich or meal with shaved meat and bread . Shawarma can be chicken or beef , and is adorned with a variety of garnishes . These can include pickles , hummus , or a garlic yogurt mix . Falafel , fried chickpeas , parsley and onion are fried into small patties and are adorned with similar toppings as shawarma .
= = = Mahashi = = =
Mahshi ( pl. mahshi ) dishes are composed of rice stuffed vegetables such as , eggplants , baby pumpkins , potatoes , carrots and marrows as well as a variety of leaf vegetables , primarily grape leaves , cabbage leaves and less often chard . Mahshi requires delicacy and time — the main reason it is prepared before the day it is cooked and served . Many female family members participate in the rolling and stuffing of the vegetables , relaxing the amount of individual effort required , with great attention to detail .
Waraq al- ' ainib ( stuffed grape leaves ) , is a mahshi meal reserved for large gatherings . The grape leaves are normally wrapped around minced meat , white rice and diced tomatoes , however meat is not always used . Dawali is an excellent representation of the attention to detail commonly found in Palestinian and Levant cuisine , with each piece being tightly wrapped to the size of cigarette morsels ( some families differ in their structure ) .It is then cooked and served as dozens of rolls on a large plate usually accompanied by boiled potato slices , carrots and lamb pieces . Kousa mahshi are zucchinis stuffed with the same ingredients as waraq al- ' ainib and usually served alongside it heavy meals . If made with a large number of zucchinis as well as dawali it is known as waraq al- ' ainib wa kousa .
= = = Dips and side dishes = = =
Bread dips and side dishes such as , hummus , baba ghanoush , mutabbel and labaneh are frequented during breakfast and dinner .
Hummus is a staple in Palestinian side dishes , in particular in hummus bi tahini , in which boiled , ground beans are mixed with tahini ( sesame paste ) and sometimes lemon juice . Hummus is often slathered in olive oil and sometimes sprinkled with paprika , oregano and pine nuts ; the latter are especially popular in the West Bank . Chick peas are also mixed with ful ( fava beans ) , resulting in an entirely different dish , mukhluta , with a distinct flavor and brownish color .
Baba ghanoush is an eggplant or aubergine salad or dip with several variants . The root of all the variants is broiled and mashed eggplant and tahini lathered with olive oil , which can then be flavored with either garlic , onions , peppers , ground cumin seeds , mint and parsley . Mutabbel is one of the spicier variants that receives its zest from green chili peppers .
Jibneh Arabieh or jibneh baida is a white table cheese served with any of the above dishes . Ackawi cheese is a common variation of jibneh baida . Ackawi cheese has a smoother texture and a mild salty taste . Labaneh is a pasty yogurt @-@ like cream cheese either served on a plate with olive oil and za 'atar — which is generally called labaneh wa za 'atar — or in a khubz sandwich .
= = = Salads = = =
The most served Palestinian salad is a simple type known as salatat bandura ( tomato salad ) , similar to Arab salad . It is composed of diced tomatoes and cucumbers combined with olive oil , parsley , lemon juice and salt . Depending on the area of Palestine , the recipe may include scallions and garlic as well .
Tabbouleh is a Mediterranean @-@ style table salad originating in the Levant . The salad is made from parsley pieces , bulgur , diced tomatoes , cucumbers and is sautéed with lemon juice and vinegar . In 2006 , the largest bowl of tabbouleh in the world was prepared by Palestinian cooks in the West Bank city of Ramallah .
Fattoush is a combination of toasted bread pieces and parsley with chopped cucumbers , radishes , tomatoes and scallions and flavored by sumac . Dagga is a Gazan salad usually made in a clay bowl and is a mix of crushed tomatoes , garlic cloves , red hot peppers , chopped dill and olive oil . Its seasoned with lemon juice immediately before being served .
Salatah arabieh or " Arab salad " is a salad used with most meals . Romaine lettuce , tomatoes and cucumbers are the main ingredients . Lettuce is cut into long strips , then chopped into thin strands , the tomatoes and cucumbers are chopped into cubes . Finely chopped parsley and mint give it a " particular zest " according to chef Ali Qleibo . A pinch of salt , the juice of a whole fresh lemon and several tablespoons of olive oil are used for final touch ups .
= = = Sweets = = =
Palestinian desserts include baklawa , halawa and kanafeh , as well as other semolina and wheat pastries . Baklawa is a pastry made of thin sheets of unleavened flour dough ( phyllo ) , filled with pistachios and walnuts sweetened by honey . Burma Til @-@ Kadayif , or simply Burma , especially popular in East Jerusalem , has the same filling as baklawa , but is cylndrical in shape and made with kanafeh dough instead of phyllo . Halawa is a block confection of sweetened sesame flour served in sliced pieces . Muhalabiyeh is a rice pudding made with milk and topped with pistachios or almonds .
Kanafeh , a well @-@ known dessert in the Arab World and Turkey . Made of several fine shreds of pastry noodles with honey @-@ sweetened cheese in the center , the top layer of the pastry is usually dyed orange with food coloring and sprinkled with crushed pistachios . Nablus , to the present day is famed for its kanafeh , partly due to its use of a white @-@ brined cheese called Nabulsi after the city . Boiled sugar is used as a syrup for kanafeh .
= = = Snack foods = = =
It is common for Palestinian hosts to serve fresh and dried fruits , nuts , seeds and dates to their guests . Roasted and salted watermelon , squash and sunflower seeds as well as , pistachios and cashews are common legumes .
Watermelon seeds , known as bizir al @-@ bateekh and pumpkin seeds , known as bizir abyad are eaten regularly during various leisurely activities : playing cards , smoking argeelah , conversing with friends or before and after meals .
= = Meal structure = =
Palestinian culture and life revolves around food in every aspect , whether it is an ordinary day or a special occasion such as a wedding or holiday . Meals are structured in a cyclical order by Palestinians and span into two main courses and several intermediate ones like coffee , fruits and sweets as well as dinner . Like in most Arab cultures , meals are a time to spend with family and could last 1 – 2 hours depending on the specific time of the day . Unlike other cultures , lunch is the primary course and breakfast and dinner are lighter in contents .
Fatur / Iftur ( lit . ' breakfast ' ) is a term for breakfast , usually consists of fried eggs , olives , labaneh , olive oil , za 'atar , or jams . Hummus bi tahini is also eaten primarily during this time the day .
Ghada is a term for lunch , usually late in the afternoon . Lunch is the heaviest meal of the day and main ingredients could include rice , lamb , chicken , cooked vegetables and forms of mahashi .
Asrooneh Derives from the word ' Aasr ( lit . ' afternoon ' ) is a term for the consumption of a variety of fruits and legumes after gheda .
'Asha is a term for supper , usually eaten anytime from 8 @-@ 10 pm . ' Asha is simpler than gheda and some foods consumed include fatayer , hummus bi tahini , a variety of salads and a Levantine @-@ style omelette called ijee .
'Hilew Sometimes after or just before ' asha as well as when hosting guests come various sweets . Baklawa is common and is usually purchased from pastry shops instead of made at home like muhallabiyeh .
Shay wa Kahwah Tea and coffee are served in throughout the day in before , after and between fatur , ghada and ' asha .
= = Dining out = =
Restaurants or mata 'im offer a brilliant array of cold appetizers known as the mezze . Notably , hummus bi tahini , mukhluta , sometimes nearly a dozen variations of eggplant salad , tabbouleh , fattoush , chili pepper and red cabbage salads and dishes made up by the chef are served . Kibbee balls and sfiha are the primary hot appetizers available . Heavy meals are rarely provided by restaurants , instead however , the entrées include shish kebab , shish taouk , rack of lamb and chicken breasts . Falafel shops or Mahal falafel offer mainly falafel and shawarma with several different contents . They also offer hummus or tabbouleh to be served with the meal .
Coffeehouses ( called al @-@ maqhah in Arabic ) serve hot beverages and soft drinks and are usually restricted to male customers — who take part in leisurely activities like playing cards or backgammon and smoking argileh ( Arabic for hookah ) . Sweet shops or mahal al hilaweyat , can be found in the souks of cities and major towns , they offer a wide range of sweets common with Palestinians , such as , kanafeh , baklawa and anise @-@ flavored cookies . Family @-@ run shops often serve at least one type of sweet that they themselves created . The city of Nablus in particular are world famous for their exquisite Arabic sweets , and have some of the oldest sweet shops in Palestine .
= = Beverages = =
= = = Soft drinks = = =
Soft drinks are also common in Palestinian homes and the city of Ramallah contains a Coca @-@ Cola and Faygo bottling plant , while Gaza , Hebron and Nablus have distribution centers . A Pepsi @-@ Cola plant in Gaza was shut down in 2007 .
Homemade fruit juices are also a common household drink during warm days and during Ramadan , the holy month for fasting by Muslims . In the Palestinian culture , coffee and tea is traditionally served to adults during a visit or gathering , while juice is served primarily to children . However , juices such as tamar hind or qamar deen are served during special occasions to everyone . Tamar hind , originally from Africa is a liquorice drink made by soaking or infusing liquorice sticks , and adding lemon juice . Qamar deen is traditionally served to break the Ramadan fast ( as is water ) , and is an iced drink made from a dry sheet of apricots soaked in water , and mixed with lemon juice or syrup .
Rose or mint water is a drink commonly added to Palestinian sweets and dishes . However , it is also a popular drink on its own , and is seen as refreshing in the heated summers . Herbs such as sage can also be boiled with water to create a drink that is sometimes used for medicinal purposes . A warm drink made from sweetened milk with salep garnished with walnuts , coconut flakes and cinnamon , is known as sahlab and is primarily served during the winter season .
= = = Coffee and tea = = =
Two hot beverages that Palestinians consume is coffee — served in the morning and throughout the day — and tea which is often sipped in the evening . Tea is usually flavored with na 'ana ( mint ) or maramiyyeh ( sage ) . The coffee of choice is usually Turkish or Arabic coffee . Arabic coffee is similar to Turkish coffee , but the former is spiced with cardamom and is usually unsweetened .
Among Bedouins and most other Arabs throughout the region of Palestine , bitter coffee , known as qahwah sadah ( Lit. plain coffee ) , was a symbol of hospitality . Pouring the drink was ceremonial ; it would involve the host or his eldest son moving clockwise among guests — who were judged by age and status — pouring coffee into tiny cups from a brass pot . It was considered " polite " for guests to accept only three cups of coffee and then end their last cup by saying daymen , meaning " always " , but intending to mean " may you always have the means to serve coffee " .
= = = Liquor = = =
A widely consumed liquor among Palestinian Christians , non @-@ religious Palestinians and many less @-@ stringently observant Muslims is Arak . Arak is a clear anise @-@ flavored alcoholic drink that is mixed with water to soften it and give it a creamy white color . It is consumed during special occasions such as holidays , weddings , and gatherings or with the mezze . Beer is also a consumed drink and the Palestinian town of Taybeh in the central West Bank contains one of the few breweries in Palestine . In addition to regular beer , the brewery produces non @-@ alcoholic beer for observant Muslims . The nearby town of Birzeit is also home to Shepherds Brewery .
= = Holiday cuisine = =
There is a sharp difference of Palestinian courses eaten on a daily basis in comparison to those reserved for holidays — which include family and religious occasions for both Muslims and Christians .
= = = Ramadan = = =
In the past , during the fasting month of Ramadan , the Musaher of a town would yell and beat his drum to wake up the town 's residents for suhoor ( lit . ' of dawn ' ) — usually very early in the morning , ranging from 4 @-@ 6 am . The meals eaten during this time are light and foods include labaneh , cheese , bread and fried or boiled eggs along with various liquids to drink . The muezzin 's call to dawn prayers signaled the beginning of sawm or fasting .
Breaking the day 's fasting traditionally begins with the brief consumption of dates and a chilled beverage . Palestinians make a variety of fruit @-@ based beverages , including the flavors , tamar Hindi or tamarind , sous or licorice , kharroub or carob and Qamar Eddine . Tamar Hindi is made by soaking tamarinds in water for a many hours , then straining , sweetening and mixing it with rose water and lemon juice . Kharroub is made similarly except instead of tamarind , carob is used . Qamar Eddine is made of dried apricots boiled into a liquid and chilled .
The term iftar has a different meaning in Ramadan where it is used to describe the ' breaking of fasting ' unlike its common meaning of breakfast in the morning . Iftar begins with soup , either made from lentils , vegetables or freekeh . Shurbat freekeh ( " freekeh soup " ) is made from cracked , green wheat cooked in chicken broth . There is a wide variety of meals served during iftar , ranging from small plates or bowls vegetable @-@ based courses or saniyyehs ( large plates or trays ) of a particular meat . Common small dishes on the dinner table are bamia — a name for okra in tomato paste , mloukhiyeh — a corchorus stew — or maqali , an array of fried tomatoes , aubergines , potatoes , peppers and zucchini . Pilaf or plain freekeh are normally served alongside the dinner meat . Each household prepares extra food to provide for their neighbors and the less fortunate — who must receive an equal version of the food eaten at home .
= = = Holiday sweets = = =
A common Palestinian dessert reserved only for Ramadan is qatayef , which could be provided by the numerous street vendors in several major Palestinian cities or towns as well as typical Palestinian households . Qatayef is the general name of the dessert as a whole , but more specifically , the name of the batter that acts as a base . The result of the batter being poured into a round hot plate appears similar to pancakes , except only one side is cooked , then folded . The pastry is filled with either unsalted goat cheese or ground walnuts and cinnamon . It is then baked and served with a hot sugar @-@ water syrup or sometimes honey .
Ka 'ak bi ' awja is a semolina shortbread pastry filled with ground dates called ' ajwa or walnuts . The dessert is a traditional meal for Christians during Easter , however , ka 'ak bi awja is also prepared towards the end of Ramadan , to be eaten during Eid al @-@ Fitr — a Muslim festival immediately following Ramadan , as well as during Eid al @-@ Adha . During Mawlid — the holiday honoring the birth of the Islamic prophet Muhammad — Zalabieh which consists of small , crunchy deep fried dough balls in dipped in syrup , is served . The dough is made from flour , yeast and water .
A special pudding called mughli is prepared for a new born child . The dessert is made of ground rice , sugar and a mixture of spices , garnished with almonds , pine nuts and walnuts . An infant 's new tooth is celebrated with bowls of sweetened wheat or barley and sweets served after a child 's circumcision include baklava and Burma . Christian families in mourning serve a sweet bun known as rahmeh . It is a food eaten in remembrance of the dead and as a gesture of blessing the soul of the deceased person . The Greek Orthodox Church offer a special tray with cooked wheat covered with sugar and candy after a memorial service .
= Flaming Pie =
Flaming Pie is the tenth solo studio album by Paul McCartney under his own name , first released in 1997 . His first studio album in over four years , it was mostly recorded following McCartney 's involvement in the highly successful Beatles Anthology project . The album was recorded in several locations over two years , 1995 and 1997 , featuring two songs dating from 1992 . The album featured several of McCartney 's family members and friends , most notably McCartney 's son , James McCartney . In Flaming Pie 's liner notes , McCartney said : " [ The Beatles Anthology ] reminded me of The Beatles ' standards and the standards that we reached with the songs . So in a way it was a refresher course that set the framework for this album . "
Flaming Pie peaked at number two in both the UK and US and was certified gold . The album , which was well received by critics , also reached the top 20 in many other countries . From its release up to mid @-@ 2007 , the album sold over 1 @.@ 5 million copies .
= = Background = =
" Calico Skies " , which Paul McCartney had written when Hurricane Bob had hit while McCartney was staying on Long Island in 1991 , and " Great Day " , which features backing vocal from his wife Linda McCartney , hailed from a 1992 session , recorded even before Off the Ground had come out . Starting from the mid @-@ 1990s for four years , McCartney was involved in The Beatles Anthology , a documentary on the history of the Beatles . The documentary was originally titled The Long and Winding Road , named after McCartney 's song of the same name . During 1995 , as the Anthology albums were starting to be released over a two @-@ year period , EMI did not want McCartney to release a solo album in the meantime . McCartney said that he " was almost insulted at first " before then realising that " it would be silly to go out against yourself in the form of the Beatles . So I fell in with the idea and thought , ' Great , I don 't even have to think about an album . ' " McCartney was occupied with working on Standing Stone in the interim .
= = Recording and structure = =
Beginning in February 1995 , McCartney teamed up with Jeff Lynne , Electric Light Orchestra lead singer and guitarist , an ardent Beatles fan . Lynne had previously worked with former Beatle George Harrison on his 1987 album Cloud Nine and in the Traveling Wilburys , and also co @-@ produced " Free as a Bird " and " Real Love " for the Anthology project . Intending to produce something pure and easy – and without elaborate productions – McCartney sporadically recorded the entire album in a space of two years , working not only with Lynne , but with Steve Miller , George Martin , Ringo Starr and his own son , James McCartney , who plays lead guitar on " Heaven on a Sunday " . McCartney wrote the song " Young Boy " while his wife Linda was making lunch for a New York Times feature on 18 August 1994 . McCartney and Miller started recording " Young Boy " on 22 February 1995 in Sun Valley , Idaho . They reconvened a few months afterwards in May at McCartney 's home studio , The Mill , recording – a song described as a " road song " – " If You Wanna " and the jam track " Used to Be Bad " in the process .
The duo also recorded the B @-@ side " Broomstick " and three unreleased tracks : " ( Sweet Home ) Country Girl " , " Soul Boy " , and an untitled song . Also in May , McCartney , by himself , recorded the unreleased tracks " Stella May Day " , for his daughter Stella McCartney , which would be used playing over loudspeakers at her fashion shows , and " Whole Life " with Dave Stewart . " Somedays " , which was written while McCartney was escorting Linda to Kent for a photo shoot , features an orchestration score by George Martin . " The Song We Were Singing " , which was about the times McCartney and his former @-@ songwriting partner John Lennon were at 20 Forthlin Road , was recorded in 3 / 4 time . " Little Willow " was written for the children of Starr 's first wife , Maureen Starkey Tigrett , who had recently died of cancer . " Souvenir " features the sound of a 78 rpm record towards the end of the track . The title track , recorded in a four @-@ hour session , is in similar style to the Beatles ' " Lady Madonna " .
In May 1996 , Starr and McCartney were working on a track that McCartney had started a decade previously , " Beautiful Night " , which featured vocals from Starr . Lynne showed up the next day and the trio , with McCartney on bass , Starr on drums , and Lynne on guitar , jammed , with the finished results being the track " Really Love You " , the first track credited to McCartney – Starkey . McCartney and Starr also recorded the B @-@ side " Looking for You " and an untitled song . " Heaven on a Sunday " , which was written while McCartney was in the US sailing on holiday , was recorded on 16 September 1996 , and features backing vocals by both Linda and James . Martin added orchestration to " Beautiful Night " , on 14 February 1997 at Abbey Road Studios . An unreleased song was recorded with Lynne producing , titled " Cello in the Ruins " , had its copyright registered in 1994 , despite work on the song only getting started a year later , in May 1995 . The track was nearly issued as a single for War Child 's The Help Album in 1995 , but ultimately shelved . This album was the last McCartney studio album to feature vocals and participation from Linda , who died of breast cancer in 1998 .
= = Release and reception = =
Upon its 1997 release , on 5 May in the UK on Parlophone and on 20 May in the US on Capitol , the critical reaction to Flaming Pie was strong , with McCartney achieving his best reviews since 1982 's Tug of War . With fresh credibility , even with young fans who had been introduced to him through the Anthology project , it debuted at number 2 in the UK in May , giving McCartney his best new entry since Flowers in the Dirt eight years before . It was kept off the top spot by the Spice Girls ' album Spice . Flaming Pie was also received positively in the United States , where it became McCartney 's first top 10
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album since Tug of War . Flaming Pie debuted at number 2 , with 121 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week , behind Spice , which sold just 16 @,@ 500 more copies that week .
In both the UK and the US , Flaming Pie was the most commercially successful new entry , and was certified gold in both countries . It was also certified gold in Norway . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album had sold over 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide up to June 2007 . The singles " Young Boy " , " The World Tonight " and " Beautiful Night " , all of which were released as picture discs , became UK hits , all making the top 40 in the sales charts . The only single in the US from the album was " The World Tonight " , released on 17 April 1997 , a top 30 entry on the Billboard mainstream rock listing . The album was also released on vinyl . To promote the album , McCartney held an online chat party , and the event entered the Guinness Book of World Records for the most people in an online chatroom at once .
In the World Tonight , a film about the making of the album , was broadcast in the UK on ITV , and on VH1 in the US , around the release of the album . Also broadcast was an hour @-@ long radio show about the album on 5 May 1997 on BBC Radio 2 . It received a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year , although Bob Dylan won the award with his back @-@ to @-@ form album Time Out of Mind . " Young Boy " and " The World Tonight " appeared in the 1997 Ivan Reitman comedy Fathers ' Day . The title Flaming Pie ( also given to one of the album 's songs ) is a reference to a humorous story John Lennon told in a story in Mersey Beat in 1961 on the origin of the Beatles ' name : " It came in a vision – a man appeared on a flaming pie and said unto them , ' from this day on you are Beatles with an A. ' "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Paul McCartney , except where noted .
" The Song We Were Singing " – 3 : 55
" The World Tonight " – 4 : 06
" If You Wanna " – 4 : 38
" Somedays " – 4 : 15
" Young Boy " – 3 : 54
" Calico Skies " – 2 : 32
" Flaming Pie " – 2 : 30
" Heaven on a Sunday " – 4 : 27
" Used to Be Bad " ( Duet with Steve Miller ) ( Steve Miller , McCartney ) – 4 : 12
" Souvenir " – 3 : 41
" Little Willow " – 2 : 58
" Really Love You " ( McCartney , Richard Starkey ) – 5 : 18
" Beautiful Night " – 5 : 09
" Great Day " – 2 : 09
= = = Other songs = = =
Also released on the singles were four songs ( all written by McCartney , except where noted ) , plus 6 Oobu Joobu mini episodes .
From " Young Boy " single
" Looking for You " ( McCartney , Richard Starkey ) – 4 : 38
Another jam with Starr and Lynne
Released as an exclusive bonus track on the album in 2007 when the iTunes Store added McCartney 's catalogue of music
" Oobu Joobu Part 1 " – 9 : 54
Features the song " I Love This House " ( 3 : 41 ) , a track from 1984 with David Gilmour
" Broomstick " – 5 : 09
Another track with Miller
" Oobu Joobu Part 2 " – 10 : 19
Features the song " Atlantic Ocean " ( 6 : 25 ) , from 1987
From " The World Tonight " single
" Oobu Joobu Part 3 " – 9 : 48
Features the song " Squid " ( 6 : 25 ) , an instrumental from 1987
" Oobu Joobu Part 4 " – 7 : 06
Features Paul 's solo version of " Don 't Break the Promise " ( 3 : 39 ) , later done with 10CC
From " Beautiful Night " single
" Love Come Tumbling Down " – 4 : 21
A song from 1987
" Oobu Joobu Part 5 " – 9 : 54
Features the original version of " Beautiful Night " ( 4 : 02 ) , done in 1986 .
" Same Love " – 3 : 53
Recorded in 1988
" Oobu Joobu Part 6 " – 8 : 33
Features the song " Love Mix " ( 3 : 02 ) , from 1987 that includes " Waiting for the Sun to Shine " which was written in late 1973 , and included as the chorus .
= = Personnel = =
Personnel per booklet .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Lurgan =
Lurgan ( from Irish : an Lorgain , meaning " the shin @-@ shaped hill " ) is a town in County Armagh , Northern Ireland . The town is near the southern shore of Lough Neagh and in the north @-@ eastern corner of the county . Formerly part of the Craigavon Borough Council area until it was merged in 2015 into the larger Armagh , Banbridge and Craigavon , Lurgan is about 18 miles ( 29 km ) south @-@ west of Belfast and is linked to the city by both the M1 motorway and the Belfast – Dublin railway line . It had a population of about 23 @,@ 000 at the 2001 Census .
Lurgan is characteristic of many Plantation of Ulster settlements , with its straight , wide planned streets and rows of cottages . It is the site of a number of historic listed buildings including Brownlow House and the former town hall .
Historically the town was known as a major centre for the production of textiles ( mainly linen ) after the industrial revolution and it continued to be a major producer of textiles until that industry steadily declined in the 1990s and 2000s . The development of the ' new city ' of Craigavon had a major impact on Lurgan in the 1960s when much industry was attracted to the area . The expansion of Craigavon 's Rushmere Retail Park in the 2000s has affected the town 's retail trade further .
= = History = =
The name Lurgan is an Anglicisation of the Irish name an Lorgain . This literally means " the shin " , but in placenames betokens a shin @-@ shaped hill or ridge ( i.e. one that is long , low and narrow ) . Earlier names of Lurgan include Lorgain Chlann Bhreasail ( Anglicised Lurganclanbrassil , meaning " shin @-@ shaped hill of Clanbrassil " ) and Lorgain Bhaile Mhic Cana ( Anglicised Lurg [ an ] vallivackan , meaning " shin @-@ shaped hill of McCann 's settlement " ) . The McCanns were a sept of the O 'Neills and Lords of Clanbrassil before the Plantation of Ulster period in the early 17th century .
About 1610 , during the Plantation and at a time when the area was sparsely populated by Gaelic peoples , the lands of Lurgan were given to the English lord William Brownlow and his family . Initially the Brownlow family settled near the lough at Annaloist , but by 1619 , on a nearby ridge , they had established a castle and bawn for their own accommodation , and " a fair Town , consisting of 42 Houses , all of which are inhabited with English Families , and the streets all paved clean through also to water Mills , and a Wind Mill , all for corn . "
Brownlow became MP for Armagh in the Irish Parliament in 1639 . During the Irish Rebellion of 1641 , Brownlow 's castle and bawn were destroyed , and he and his wife and family were taken prisoner and brought to Armagh and then to Dungannon in County Tyrone . The land was then passed to the McCanns and the O 'Hanlons . In 1642 , Brownlow and his family were released by the forces of Lord Conway , and as the rebellion ended they returned to their estate in Lurgan . William Brownlow died in 1660 , but the family went on to contribute to the development of the linen industry which peaked in the town in the late 17th century .
= = = An Gorta Mór / The Great Hunger = = =
A workhouse was built in Lurgan and opened in 1841 under the stipulations of the Poor Law which stated that each Poor Law Union would build a workhouse to give relief to the increasing numbers of destitute poor . In 1821 the population of Lurgan was 2 @,@ 715 , this increased to 4 @,@ 677 by 1841 . There were a couple of reasons for this large growth in population . Firstly the opportunities provided by the booming linen industry led many to abandon their meagre living in rural areas and migrate to Lurgan in the hope of gaining employment . Secondly the ever @-@ expanding town gave tradesmen the opportunity to secure work in the construction of new buildings such as Brownlow House .
The large numbers of poor workers migrating to the town inevitably resulted in over @-@ crowding and a very low standard of living . When the potato crop failed for a second time in 1846 the resulting starvation led to a quickly overcrowded workhouse which by the end of 1846 exceeded its 800 capacity . In an attempt to alleviate the problem a relief committee was established in Lurgan as they were in other towns . The relief committees raised money by subscription from local landowners , gentry and members of the clergy and were matched by funds from Dublin . With these monies food was bought and distributed to the ever @-@ increasing numbers of starving people at soup kitchens . In an attempt to provide employment and thereby give the destitute the means to buy food , Lord Lurgan devised a scheme of land- drainage on his estate .
The so @-@ called ' famine roads ' were not built in Lurgan to the same extent as the rest of Ireland , although land owners also provided outdoor relief by employing labourers to lower hills and repair existing road . During the period 1846 to 1849 the famine claimed 2 @,@ 933 lives in the Lurgan Union alone . The Lurgan workhouse was situated in the grounds of what is now Lurgan Hospital and a commemorative mural can be seen along the adjacent Tandragee Road .
= = = New city = = =
The town grew steadily over the centuries as an industrial market town , and in the 1960s , when the UK government was developing a programme of new towns in Great Britain to deal with population growth , the Northern Ireland government also planned a new town to deal with the projected growth of Belfast and to prevent an undue concentration of population in the city . Craigavon was designated as a new town in 1965 , intended to be a linear city incorporating the neighbouring towns of Lurgan and Portadown . The plan largely failed , and today , ' Craigavon ' locally refers to the rump of the residential area between the two towns . The Craigavon development , however , did affect Lurgan in a number of ways . The sort of dedicated bicycle and pedestrian paths that were built in Craigavon were also incorporated into newer housing areas in Lurgan , additional land in and around the town was zoned for industrial development , neighbouring rural settlements such as Aghacommon and Aghagallon were developed as housing areas , and there was an increase in the town 's population , although not on the scale that had been forecast .
The textile industry remained a main employer in the town until the late twentieth century , with the advent of access to cheaper labour in the developing world leading to a decline in the manufacture of clothing in Lurgan .
= = = The Troubles = = =
Lurgan and the associated towns of Portadown and Craigavon made up part of what was known as the " murder triangle " ; an area known for a significant number of incidents and fatalities during The Troubles . Today the town is one of the few areas in Northern Ireland where so @-@ called dissident republicans have a significant level of support . The legacy of the Troubles is continued tension between Roman Catholics and Protestants , which has occasionally erupted into violence at flashpoint ' interface areas ' .
= = Geography = =
Lurgan sits in a relatively flat part of Ireland by the south east shore of Lough Neagh . The two main formations in north Armagh are an area of estuarine clays by the shore of the lough , and a mass of basalt farther back . The earliest human settlements in the area were to the northwest of the present day town near the shore of the lough . When the land was handed to the Brownlow family , they initially settled near the lough at Annaloist , but later settled where the town was eventually built . The oldest part of the town , the main street , is built on a long ridge in the townland ( baile fearainn ) of Lurgan . A neighbouring hill is the site of Brownlow House , which overlooks Lurgan Park .
= = = Townlands = = =
Like the rest of Ireland , the Lurgan area has long been divided into townlands , whose names mostly come from the Irish language . Lurgan sprang up in the townland of the same name . Over time , the surrounding townlands have been built upon and they have given their names to many roads and housing estates . The following is a list of townlands within Lurgan 's urban area , alongside their likely etymologies :
Shankill parish :
Aghnacloy ( from Irish Achadh na Cloiche , meaning " field of the stone " )
Ballyblagh ( from Baile Bláthach meaning " flowery townland " )
Ballyreagh ( from Baile Riach meaning " greyish townland " )
Demesne ( an English name – this townland was carved out of Drumnamoe and others )
Derry ( from Doire meaning " oak grove " )
Dougher or Doughcorran ( from Dúchorr meaning " black round hill " and Dúchorrán meaning " small black round hill " )
Drumnamoe ( from Druim na mBó meaning " ridge of the cows " or Druim na Mothar meaning " ridge of the thickets " )
Knocknashane ( formerly Knocknashangan , from Cnoc na Seangán meaning " hill of the ants " )
Shankill ( from Seanchill meaning " old church " or Seanchoill meaning " old wood " )
Taghnevan ( formerly Tegnevan , from Teach Naomháin meaning " Naomhán 's house " )
Tannaghmore North & Tannaghmore South ( from an Tamhnach Mór meaning " the big grassland " )
Toberhewny ( from Tobar hAoine / Tobar Chainnigh / Tobar Shuibhne meaning " Friday well / Canice 's well / Sweeny 's well " )
Seagoe parish :
Aghacommon ( from Achadh Camán meaning " hurling field " )
Ballynamony ( from Baile na Móna meaning " townland of the bog " )
Silverwood ( an English name – formerly called Killinargit , from Coill an Airgid meaning " wood of the silver " )
= = = Climate = = =
Lurgan has a temperate climate in common with inland areas in Ireland . Summer temperatures can reach the 20s ° C and it is rare for them to go higher than 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . The consistently humid climate that prevails over Ireland can make temperatures feel uncomfortable when they stray into the high 20s ° C ( 80 – 85 ° F ) , more so than similar temperatures in hotter climates in the rest of Europe .
= = Governance = =
Lurgan is part of the Upper Bann constituency for the purpose of elections to the UK Parliament at Westminster . This has long been a safe unionist seat and the current MP is David Simpson of the Democratic Unionist Party .
Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont are elected from six @-@ member constituencies using proportional representation and using the same constituencies as for Westminster .
Lurgan town commissioners were first elected in 1855 , and they were replaced by Lurgan Urban District Council following the Local Government ( Ireland ) Act 1898 . This effectively ended landlord control of local government in Ireland . The town council was abolished when local government was reformed in Northern Ireland in 1973 under the Local Government ( Boundaries ) Act ( Northern Ireland ) 1971 and the Local Government Act ( Northern Ireland ) 1972 . These abolished the two @-@ tier system of town and county councils replacing it with the single @-@ tier system . Lurgan was placed under the jurisdiction of Craigavon Borough Council , and remained so until a new act streamlined and merged the various districts in 2015 . Today Lurgan forms part of the new Armagh , Banbridge and Craigavon District . The Lurgan area contains the following wards : Church , Donaghcloney , Knocknashane , Magheralin , Mourneview , Parklake , and Waringstown .
Lurgan Town Hall is owned by the new District Council but has not been used to conduct Council business since the Town Council was abolished in 1972 .
= = Demography = =
For census purposes , Lurgan is not treated as a separate entity by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency ( NISRA ) . Instead , it is combined with Craigavon , Portadown and Bleary to form the " Craigavon Urban Area " . A fairly accurate population count can be found by combining the data of the electoral wards that make up the Lurgan urban area . These are Church , Court , Drumnamoe , Knocknashane , Mourneview , Parklake , Taghnevan and Woodville .
On the day of the last census ( 27 March 2011 ) the combined population of these wards was 25 @,@ 093
Of this population :
15 @,@ 607 ( 62 @.@ 2 % ) were Catholic or from a Catholic background
8 @,@ 460 ( 33 @.@ 7 % ) were Protestant or from a Protestant background
1 @,@ 026 ( 4 @.@ 1 % ) were of other religious backgrounds or no religious background .
The town is divided along political / sectarian lines with entire housing areas being almost exclusively Catholic / nationalist or almost exclusively Protestant / unionist . The north end of the town centre is considered Catholic , the south end is considered Protestant , with the " invisible dividing line " crossing Market Street at Castle Lane and Carnegie Street . In the 1980s there were two Protestant enclaves in the north end of the town , Gilpinstown and Wakehurst . They have both since changed to become Catholic areas as Protestants gradually moved out .
= = Economy = =
Lurgan has historically been an industrial town in which the linen industry predominated as a source of employment during the Industrial Revolution , and is said to have employed as many as 18 @,@ 000 handloom weavers at the end of the 19th century , a figure significantly higher than the town 's resident population at the time . That particular branch of the textile industry declined as consumer tastes changed , but other textiles continued to be produced in the town providing a major source of employment until the 1990s and 2000s when the textile industry across the UK suffered a major decline as a result of outsourcing to low wage countries .
The large Goodyear fan @-@ belt factory at Silverwood Industrial Estate was a product of the Craigavon development when large tracts of land in Lurgan , Portadown , and areas in between were zoned off for exclusive industrial use . The Goodyear factory closed in 1983 after failing to make a profit , resulting in the loss of 750 jobs . The facility was later partly occupied by Wilson Double Deck Trailers and DDL Electronics . Silverwood Industrial Estate continues to host other manufacturing and light engineering firms . Other industrial areas in the town are Annesborough and Halfpenny Valley ( Portadown Road ) industrial estates ; areas in which growth has been limited compared to other industrial estates in the Craigavon Borough .
A key component of the Craigavon development was a central business district halfway between Lurgan and Portadown that would serve as the city centre for the whole of the new city . What was built was an office building , a court house , a civic building , and a small shopping centre alongside several acres of parkland that were developed around the newly created balancing lakes that also serve as part of the area 's drainage system . In the 1690s , the shopping centre was significantly expanded to form what is now Rushmere Retail Park , containing many major retail stores . This has had a detrimental effect on the retail trade in Lurgan in the same way that out @-@ of @-@ town shopping developments in other parts of Northern Ireland have damaged other traditional town centres . The town 's Chamber of Commerce is not functioning and has remained dormant despite numerous attempts to revive it .
= = Culture and community = =
= = = Cultural references = = =
There is a figure of speech used in Northern Ireland – to have a face as long as a Lurgan spade – meaning " to look miserable " . The origins of this expression are disputed . One theory is that a " Lurgan spade " was an under @-@ paid workman digging what is now the Lurgan Park lake . Another theory is that it could be from the Irish language lorga spád meaning the shaft ( literally " shin " ) of a spade .
The ballad Master McGrath concerns a greyhound of that name from Lurgan which became an Irish sporting hero . The dog was bought in Lurgan by the Brownlow family , and the song also mentions his owner Charles Brownlow , referred to in the lyrics as Lord Lurgan . Master McGrath won the Waterloo Cup hare coursing competition three times in 1868 , 1870 and 1871 at a time when this was a high profile sport . A post mortem found that he had a heart twice the size of what is normal for a dog of his size . He is remembered all over the town , including in its coat of arms . The dog was named McGrath after the kennel boy responsible for its care . A statue of him was unveiled at Craigavon Civic Centre in 1993 , over 120 years after his last glory in 1871 . A festival is also held yearly in his honour . A Lurgan pub was also named after Master McGrath , although it has been renamed in recent years .
= = = Community facilities = = =
Oxford Island is a nature reserve on the shore of Lough Neagh that includes Kinnego Marina and the Lough Neagh Discovery Center , which is an interpretive visitor centre offering information about the surrounding wildlife , conference facilities , and a café .
Lurgan Park , a few hundred yards from the main street , is the largest urban park in Northern Ireland and the second @-@ largest in Ireland after Phoenix Park , Dublin . It used to be part of the estate of Brownlow House , a 19th @-@ century Elizabethan @-@ style manor house . In 1893 , the land was purchased by Lurgan Borough Council and opened as a public park in 1909 by Earl Aberdeen , Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . It includes a sizeable artificial lake and an original Coalbrookdale fountain . Today the park is home to annual summer events such as the Lurgan Agricultural Show , and the Lurgan Park Rally , noted as the largest annual motor sport event in Northern Ireland and a stage in the Circuit of Ireland rally . Mount Zion House in Edward St , formerly the St Joseph 's Convent , is now a cross @-@ community centre run by the Shankill Lurgan Community Association / Community Projects . It is funded by the Department for Social Development , the EU Special Programme for Peace and Reconciliation , and the Physical and Social Environment Programme .
= = Landmarks = =
Lurgan town centre is distinctive for its wide main street , Market Street , one of the widest in Ireland , which is dominated at one end by Shankill Church in Church Place . A grey granite hexagonal temple @-@ shaped war memorial sits at the entrance to Church Place , topped by a bronze @-@ winged statue representing the spirit of Victorious Peace . A marble pillar at the centre displays the names of over 400 men from the town who lost their lives in the First World War .
The rows of buildings on either side of Market Street are punctuated periodically by large access gates that lead to the space behind the buildings , gates that are wide enough to drive a horse and cart through . The town 's straight planned streets are a common feature in many Plantation towns , and its industrial history is still evident in the presence of many former linen mills that have since been modified for modern use .
At the junction of Market Street and Union Street is the former Lurgan Town Hall , a listed building erected in 1868 . It was the first site of the town 's library in 1891 , was temporarily used as a police station in 1972 when it was handed to the Police Authority , and is today owned by the Mechanics ' Institute and is available for conferences and community functions .
Brownlow House , known locally as ' Lurgan Castle ' , is a distinctive mansion built in 1833 with Scottish sandstone in an Elizabethan style with a lantern @-@ shaped tower and prominent array of chimney pots . It was originally owned by the Brownlow family , and today is owned by the Lurgan Loyal Orange District Lodge . The adjacent Lurgan Park , now a public park owned by Craigavon Borough Council , used to be part of the same estate . The park is the venue for the Lurgan Park Rally .
= = = Religious sites = = =
The site of what is now Shankill cemetery served as a place of worship over the centuries . It began in ancient times as a simple double ring fort , the outline of which is still noticeable , and is today an historic burial site holding the remains of people who lived in the earliest days of the town 's existence , including the Brownlow family . Dougher cemetery is another old graveyard that was donated to the Catholic people by the Brownlows following passage of the Catholic Relief Act .
The two most prominent modern places of worship are Shankill Parish Church in Church Place and St Peter 's Church in North Street , the steeples of which are visible from far outside the town .
Shankill Parish Church belongs to the Church of Ireland . The original church was established at Oxford Island on the shore of Lough Neagh in 1411 , but a new church was built in Lurgan on the site of what is now Shankill Cemetery in 1609 as the town became the main centre of settlement in the area . It was eventually found to be too small given the growth of the town , and the Irish Parliament granted permission to build a replacement in 1725 one mile away on the ' Green of Lurgan ' , now known as Church Place , where it stands to this day . It is believed to be the largest parish church in Ireland .
Following passage of the Catholic Relief Act , Charles Brownlow granted a site to the Roman Catholic parish priest the Reverend William O 'Brien in 1829 for the construction of a church on Distillery Hill , now known as lower North Street . It was there that work began in 1832 on what is now St Peter 's Church . In 1966 , another Catholic church , St Paul 's , was built at the junction of Francis Street and Parkview Street . This was a radical departure from traditional church architecture with its grey plaster finish , copper roof , slim spire , hexagonal angles and modern design throughout . Many of its architectural features such as the copper roof and gray plaster finish are shared by the neighbouring St Paul 's School . It was designed to cope with the extra demand for worship space following the growth of the surrounding Taghnevan and Shankill housing estates .
The Lurgan Museum houses one of the largest collections of items relating to Irish History in the North of Ireland . The Museum has many photographs and artefacts connected with Lurgan life over the past 150 years . It houses an extensive collection relating to the periods known as " The Troubles " , " Operation Harvest " 1956 @-@ 62 , and " The 1916 Easter Rising " . This collection also has a popular section covering the social history of the area .
The first Methodist church was built in Nettleton 's Court , Queen Street in 1778 . It was found to be too small and a new church was built on High Street in 1802 , and replaced by a newer building in front of it in 1826 . This was extensively renovated in 1910 and stands to this day sporting a simple facade .
= = Education = =
It was the late 19th century that saw the development of formal education in Lurgan and a significant move away from the less organised hedge schools of before .
Today , schools in Lurgan operate under the Dickson Plan , a transfer system in north Armagh that allows pupils at age 11 the option of taking the Eleven Plus exam to enter grammar schools , with pupils in comprehensive junior high schools being sorted into grammar and non @-@ grammar streams . Pupils can get promoted to or demoted from the grammar stream during their time in those schools depending on the development of their academic performance , and at age 14 can take subject @-@ based exams across the syllabus to qualify for entry into a dedicated grammar school to pursue GCSEs and A @-@ levels .
As is common in Northern Ireland , most of the schools in Lurgan are attended mainly by children from one or other of the two main religious blocs reflecting the existence of deep @-@ seated sectarian and political divisions in society . Some schools are in the Catholic ' maintained ' sector , i.e. maintained by the Council for Catholic Maintained Schools , and others are controlled directly by the state . Directly @-@ controlled state schools generally have a predominantly Protestant intake .
= = = Primary education = = =
At primary level , schools attended by the Protestant / unionist community are Carrick Primary School , Dickson Primary School , and King 's Park Primary School .
The Model School was part of the national schools programme proposed in 1831 in which each county in Ireland would have at least one school that would serve as an example to other national schools in the area and as a teacher training establishment ( although teacher training did not take place at this particular school ) . Initially it had a multi @-@ denominational intake , offered such services as night classes and industry @-@ relevant vocational courses , and was enthusiastically supported by William Brownlow who is thought to have brought the school to the town . It was undermined , however , by church interests , which were opposed to its lack of ecclesiastical control , and criticism of the efficiency of its management , hence losing much of its earlier prestige as the premier educational establishment in the town . Over the years , the intake of Catholic / nationalist students steadily increased , due mainly to being situated in the Catholic side of Lurgan . The student body is now almost 100 % Catholic , with the last recorded Protestant pupil having left the school in 1999 .
Other Catholic primary schools are Carrick Primary School , Bunscoil Naomh Proinsias , St. Francis ' Primary School , St Teresa 's Primary School , St Anthony 's Primary School , Tannaghmore Primary School , and Tullygally Primary School .
= = = Post @-@ primary education = = =
At secondary level , schools attended by the Protestant community are Lurgan College , and Lurgan Junior High School ( formerly part of Lurgan College of Further Education ) .
Lurgan College , now a co @-@ ed 14 – 18 grammar school , was established in 1873 as an all @-@ boys school to provide what was known as ' classical education ' as opposed to the more practical vocational education on offer at the Model School . Its initial charter included a provision that " no person being in Holy Orders , or a minister of any religious denomination shall at any time interfere in the management of the said school , or be appointed to serve as master " and that no religious instruction was to take place during school hours .
Secondary schools attended by the Catholic / nationalist community were previously St Mary 's Junior High School , St Paul 's Junior High School , and St Michael 's Grammar School , which have emerged to become one school spanning the 3 sites , St Ronan 's College .
St Mary 's Intermediate School was built on Kitchen Hill after land was acquired from the Sisters of Mercy in 1955 and was opened in 1959 as an all @-@ girls school . The nearby all @-@ boys St Paul 's Intermediate School was opened in 1962 , and both of these schools are now known as junior high schools . Pupils attend these schools from age 11 to 13 , at which time they have the option of transferring to St Michael 's if they qualify . Those who do not qualify may stay on at St Paul 's and St Mary 's until minimum school leaving age at 16 and where the option of taking GCSE exams is available .
A significant number of people from Lurgan also attend the Catholic maintained Lismore Comprehensive School in Craigavon .
Lurgan Technical College was renamed Lurgan College of Further Education , and subsequently merged with Portadown CFE and Banbridge CFE into the larger Upper Bann Institute of Further and Higher Education ( UBIFHE ) . Further education in the region was consolidated further when this institution was merged with other FE colleges in Armagh , Newry and Kilkeel to form the Southern Regional College . The Lurgan campus is one of the few educational institutions in the area with a mixed denominational intake . It offers vocational courses as an alternative to A @-@ Levels , and adult education services .
= = = Special needs education = = =
Ceara School provides education for pupils aged 3 through 19 who have severe learning difficulties .
= = Sport and leisure = =
= = = Facilities = = =
Lurgan has a municipal swimming pool and leisure complex called Waves . This includes a swimming pool , squash courts , a gym , and offers such activities as pilates , circuit training , and spinning classes . Following a vote taken by Craigavon Borough Council on April 7 , 2010 , Waves is to be closed as will the Cascades Centre in Portadown , and both facilities are to be replaced by a large central swimming facility that will be built near the Craigavon balancing lakes . Lurgan has two 18 @-@ hole golf courses , an artificial ski slope and an equestrian centre for show jumping .
= = = Clubs = = =
Lurgan is home to the Association football clubs Glenavon F.C. , Dollingstown F.C. , Lurgan Celtic F.C. , and Lurgan Town F.C .. There are another thirteen clubs that play in the Mid Ulster Football Leagues . They are Derryhirk United , Hill Street , Lurgan Institute , Taghnevan Harps , Silverwood United , Tullygally , Lurgan BBOB , Lurgan United , Goodyear , Craigavon City , Lurgan Thistle , Celtic Club ( Lurgan No. 1 ) , Oxford Sunnyside F.C .. Loughgrove and Sheffield Thursday F.C. play in the Lonsdale league . Glenavon is the most prominent of these , playing in the IFA Premiership .
The GAA has a large presence in the area with Gaelic football being played by clubs Clan na Gael CLG ( based at Páirc Mhic Daibhéid ) , Clann Éireann GAC ( Páirc Chlann Éireann ) , Éire Óg CLG ( Pine Bank , Craigavon ) , Sarsfields GAC ( Páirc an tAth . Dhónaill Mhig Eoghain , Derrytrasna ) , St Mary 's GAC ( Aghagallon ) , St Michael 's GAC ( Magheralin ) , St Paul 's GFC ( Na Páirceanna Imeartha ) , St Peter 's GAC ( Páirc Naomh Peadar ) and Wolfe Tone GAC , Derrymacash ( Páirc na Ropairí ) .
Camogie is played by the St Enda 's club which shares the grounds of the Wolfe Tone club , and there is one hurling club in the town , Seán Treacy 's , which shares the grounds of Clann Éireann . Clann Éireann also has a handball club . All play in Armagh leagues and competitions except St Mary 's and St Michael 's ( Antrim ) .
Cricket has two clubs , Lurgan Cricket Club and Victoria Cricket Club . Cycling is promoted by three clubs , Apollo CT , Clann Éireann CC , and Lurgan Road Club . Rugby union is played by Lurgan RFC .
Tennis is played by Lurgan Tennis Club which is in Lurgan Park . Lurgan Golf Club is situated at The Demesne beside Lurgan Park and is an 18 hole challenging parkland course bordering on Lurgan lake .
= = Railway links = =
Lurgan railway station opened by the Ulster Railway on 18 November 1841 , connecting the town to Belfast Great Victoria Street in the east and Portadown and Armagh in the west . The Great Northern Railway of Ireland provided further access to the west of Ulster which was then closed in the 1950s and 1960s from Portadown railway station .
Presently Lurgan railway station is run by Northern Ireland Railways with direct trains to Belfast Great Victoria Street and as part of the Dublin @-@ Belfast railway line . The Enterprise runs through Lurgan from Dublin Connolly to Belfast Central , and a change of train may be required at Portadown to travel to Newry or Dublin Connolly .
Railway access at Sydenham links into George Best Belfast City Airport on the line to Bangor .
= = Road transport and public services = =
Lurgan is also situated by the M1 motorway connecting the town to Belfast . Bus services , provided by Translink , arrive and depart on a regular basis from bus stops on Market Street to Belfast , Portadown , Armagh , Dungannon , and surrounding areas .
Electricity is supplied by Northern Ireland Electricity which was privatised in 1993 and is now a subsidiary of ESB Group . The gasworks used to be in North St. , but there is no longer any town gas since it was abolished in Northern Ireland in the 1980s by the Thatcher government for being uneconomical , although it was restored to the greater Belfast area in 1996 . Water is supplied by Northern Ireland Water , a public owned utility .
= = Media = =
Lurgan is served by two weekly local newspapers . The Lurgan Mail , published by Johnston Publishing ( NI ) , reports news and sport from around the local area . The Lurgan and Portadown Examiner also reports local news and sport with an emphasis on photographs of local people at sporting and social events .
= = Notable people = =
= = = Living people = = =
Jocelyn Bell Burnell , Northern Irish astrophysicist , discovered the first radio pulsars .
Barry Douglas , classical pianist and conductor , has residences in Paris and Lurgan .
Jim Harvey , Lurgan @-@ born former professional footballer ; former assistant manager of the Northern Ireland football team , has also played for Glenavon , Arsenal and Tranmere Rovers .
Neil Lennon , manager of Bolton Wanderers , former manager of Glasgow Celtic and former captain of the Northern Ireland football team and Glasgow Celtic .
Stella McCusker ( born 1942 , Aghagallon ) won the Best Actress award at the 2010 Irish Theatre Awards .
Gayle Williamson , Miss Northern Ireland 2002 ; and Miss United Kingdom 2002
= = = Deceased people = = =
James Howard Calvert , born 4 May 1895 , lived at 41 Avenue Road Lurgan , Second Lieutenant , 6th Royal Irish Rifles , shot in the head and killed in April 1916 at the junction of Redmond 's Hill and Bishop Street Dublin during the Easter Rising
Edward Costello , who took part in the Easter Rising in April 1916 , received a fatal bullet wound to the head on the 25th of April and died in Jervis Street Hospital , Dublin .
John Cushnie was a broadcaster and panellist on the BBC radio 4 show Gardeners ' Question Time . He also presented the BBCNI TV show The Greenmount Garden .
Tommy Donaldson was a specialist racing bicycle builder . His premises were in 92 Union Street Lurgan . Tommy built bicycles for many well known names in the sport of competitive cycling . He died in the early 1990s .
Field Marshal Sir John Greer Dill ( 25 December 1881 – 4 November 1944 ) , a British commander in World War I and World War II and later a diplomat , was born in Lurgan in 1881 .
William Frederick McFadzean ( October 9 , 1895 – July 1 , 1916 ) , died when he threw himself on a box of primed grenades prior to the Battle of the Somme and was awarded the Victoria Cross .
Len Ganley MBE , a former world championship snooker referee , was a resident of the town .
Billy Hanna ( c . 1929 – 27 July 1975 ) founder and first commander of the Ulster Volunteer Force 's Mid @-@ Ulster Brigade , was a native of Lurgan . He was shot dead outside his home in the Mourneview estate by members of his own organisation .
Thomas Harte ( 14 May 1916 - 6 September 1940 ) was a member of the Irish Republican Army and participated in the failed " S @-@ Plan " campaign in Britain which lasted from 1939 - 1940 . He was executed in Dublin as part of a wider Dáil Éireann crackdown on IRA activity .
Jim Haughey ( 12 December 1909 - 12 September 1943 ) joined the XV International Brigade as part of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 . He later moved to Canada , joining the Royal Canadian Air Force in World War II , and was killed when his plane crashed during a training exercise in Devon , England .
Sammy Jones ( 11 June 1911 – 1993 ) , a former professional footballer who made over 100 appearances for Blackpool and received one cap for the Irish national team , was born in Lurgan in 1911 .
James Logan ( October 20 , 1674 – October 31 , 1751 ) , was born in Lurgan . He became an American colonial statesman and scholar , secretary to his friend William Penn , and was noted as a jurist , political philosopher , and botanist .
Margorie McCall was a local woman who was accidentally buried alive but revived by grave robbers in 1705 , and is today buried in the historic Shankill cemetery . Her gravestone reads " Lived once , buried twice " .
Richard McGhee ( 1851 – 7 April 1930 ) was an Irish Protestant Nationalist home rule politician . A Land League and trade union activist , he was a Member of Parliament ( MP ) in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland for more than 20 years .
Rosemary Nelson ( 4 September 1958 – 15 March 1999 ) was a human rights solicitor killed by a loyalist car bomb in 1999 .
Martin O 'Hagan , a journalist for The Sunday World newspaper , was murdered on the 28th of September 2001 in front of his wife near his own home in the town .
The boxer Isaac O 'Neil Weir or " Ike " Weir ( February 5 , 1867 – 12 September 1908 ) , a featherweight champion of the world known as the " Belfast Spider " , was born in Castle Lane . He was also famous for being a champion jockey , trick shooter , acrobat , traditional Irish dancer , for turning somersaults as he entered the ring and in the ring itself , and for other crowd @-@ pleasing comedic antics during fights . He died in 1908 in Massachusetts .
George William Russell ( April 10 , 1867 – July 17 , 1935 ) , who wrote under the pseudonym Æ , was an Anglo @-@ Irish supporter of the nationalist movement in Ireland . He was a critic , poet , painter , mystical writer , and was at the centre of a group of followers of theosophy in Dublin for many years . He was born in William Street , Lurgan .
Philip Felix Smith ( 5 October 1825 – 16 January 1906 ) was born in North Lurgan and was a recipient of the Victoria Cross . His birth is recorded in the parish of Shankill at St. Peter 's RC Church .
Norman Uprichard ( 20 April 1928 – 31 January 2011 ) was a goalkeeper who began his career playing Gaelic Football with St. Peter 's GAC . His decision to sign for Glenavon cost him a league medal under the GAA 's now @-@ defunct ' Rule 27 ' . He was finally awarded his medal by St. Peter 's in 2004 . He went on to play for Swindon Town , Portsmouth and Southend United at club level , and won 18 caps for Northern Ireland at international level .
= = = Government = = =
Craigavon Borough Council
Lurgan Forward – Lurgan Town Centre Management Company .
NI Statistics and Research Agency ( NISRA )
= = = Sport clubs = = =
Glenavon FC
Dollingstown FC
Lurgan Celtic FC
Lurgan Town Boys FC
Lurgan Cricket Club
Apollo Cycling Team
Clann Eireann Cycling Club
Clan na Gael CLG
Clann Eireann GAC
= = = Other links = = =
Chisholm , Hugh , ed . ( 1911 ) . " Lurgan " . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press .
= Cirque du Soleil =
Cirque du Soleil ( pronounced : [ siʁk dy sɔ.lɛj ] , " Circus of the Sun " ) is a Canadian entertainment company . It is the largest theatrical producer in the world . Based in Montreal , Quebec , Canada , and located in the inner @-@ city area of Saint @-@ Michel , it was founded in Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul in 1984 by two former street performers , Guy Laliberté and Gilles Ste @-@ Croix .
Initially named Les Échassiers ( [ lez ‿ e.ʃa.sje ] , " The Waders " ) , they toured Quebec in 1980 as a performing troupe . Their initial financial hardship was relieved in 1983 by a government grant from the Canada Council for the Arts , as part of the 450th anniversary celebrations of Jacques Cartier 's voyage to Canada . Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil was a success in 1984 , and after securing a second year of funding , Laliberté hired Guy Caron from the National Circus School to re @-@ create it as a " proper circus " . Its theatrical , character @-@ driven approach and the absence of performing animals helped define Cirque du Soleil as the contemporary circus ( " nouveau cirque " ) that it remains today .
Each show is a synthesis of circus styles from around the world , with its own central theme and storyline . Shows employ continuous live music , with performers rather than stagehands changing the props . After financial successes and failures in the late 1980s , Nouvelle Expérience was created – with the direction of Franco Dragone – which not only made Cirque du Soleil profitable by 1990 , but allowed it to create new shows .
Cirque du Soleil expanded rapidly through the 1990s and 2000s , going from one show to 19 shows in over 271 cities on every continent except Antarctica . The shows employ approximately 4 @,@ 000 people from over 40 countries and generate an estimated annual revenue exceeding US $ 810 million . The multiple permanent Las Vegas shows alone play to more than 9 @,@ 000 people a night , 5 % of the city 's visitors , adding to the 90 million people who have experienced Cirque du Soleil 's shows worldwide .
In 2000 , Laliberté bought out Gauthier , and with 95 % ownership , has continued to expand the brand . In 2008 , Laliberté split 20 % of his share equally between two investment groups Istithmar World and Nakheel of Dubai , in order to further finance the company 's goals . In partnership with these two groups , Cirque du Soleil had planned to build a residency show in the United Arab Emirates in 2012 directed by Guy Caron ( Dralion ) and Michael Curry . But since Dubai 's financial problems in 2010 caused by the 2008 recession , it was stated by Laliberté that the project has been " put on ice " for the time being and may be looking for another financial partner to bankroll the company 's future plans , even willing to give up another 10 % of his share . Several more shows are in development around the world , along with a television deal , women 's clothing line and the possible venture into other mediums such as spas , restaurants and nightclubs . Cirque du Soleil also produces a small number of private and corporate events each year ( past clients have been the royal family of Dubai and the 2007 Super Bowl ) .
The company 's creations have received numerous prizes and distinctions , including a Bambi Award in 1997 , a Rose d 'Or in 1989 , three Drama Desk Awards in 1991 , 1998 and 2013 , three Gemini Awards , four Primetime Emmy Awards , and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . In 2000 , Cirque du Soleil was awarded the National Arts Centre Award , a companion award of the Governor General 's Performing Arts Awards . In 2002 , Cirque du Soleil was inducted into Canada 's Walk of Fame .
In 2015 , TPG Capital , Fosun Capital Group and Caisse de depot et placement du Quebec purchased 90 % of Cirque du Soleil . The sale received regulatory approval from the Government of Canada on 30 June 2015 .
= = Origins = =
At age 18 , interested in pursuing some kind of performing career , Guy Laliberté quit college and left home . He toured Europe as a folk musician and busker . By the time he returned home to Canada in 1979 , he had learned the art of fire breathing . Although he became " employed " at a hydroelectric power plant in James Bay , his job ended after only three days due to a labour strike . He decided not to look for another job , instead supporting himself on his unemployment insurance . He helped organize a summer fair in Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul with the help of a pair of friends named Daniel Gauthier and Gilles Ste @-@ Croix .
Gauthier and Ste @-@ Croix were managing a youth hostel for performing artists named Le Balcon Vert at that time . By the summer of 1979 , Ste @-@ Croix had been developing the idea of turning the Balcon Vert , and the talented performers who lived there , into an organized performing troupe . As part of a publicity stunt to convince the Quebec government to help fund his production , Ste @-@ Croix walked the 56 miles ( 90 km ) from Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul to Quebec City on stilts . The ploy worked , giving the three men the money to create Les Échassiers de Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul . Employing many of the people who would later make up Cirque du Soleil , Les Échassiers toured Quebec during the summer of 1980 .
Although well received by audiences and critics alike , Les Échassiers was a financial failure . Laliberté spent that winter in Hawaii plying his trade while Ste @-@ Croix stayed in Quebec to set up a nonprofit holding company named " The High @-@ Heeled Club " to mitigate the losses of the previous summer . In 1981 , they met with better results . By that fall , Les Échassiers de Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul had broken even . The success inspired Laliberté and Ste @-@ Croix to organize a summer fair in their hometown of Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul .
This touring festival , called " La Fête Foraine " , first took place in July 1982 . La Fête Foraine featured workshops to teach the circus arts to the public , after which those who participated could take part in a performance . Ironically , the festival was barred from its own hosting town after complaints from local citizens . Laliberté managed and produced the fair over the next couple years , nurturing it into a moderate financial success . But it was in 1983 that the government of Quebec gave him a $ 1 @.@ 5 million grant to host a production the following year as part of Quebec 's 450th anniversary celebration of the French explorer Jacques Cartier 's discovery of Canada . Laliberté named his creation " Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil " .
= = Shows = =
The duration of each touring show was traditionally split into two acts of an hour each separated by a 30 @-@ minute interval ; however , as of 2014 , due to cost cutting issues , the shows have now been reduced to a shorter 55 @-@ minute first act followed by a 50 @-@ minute second act , still including a 30 @-@ minute interval . Permanent shows are usually 90 minutes in length without any intermission . This excludes Joyà ( the permanent show in Riviera Maya , Mexico ) , which is only 70 minutes in length . Typically touring shows as well as resident shows perform a standard 10 shows a week . Touring shows usually have one ' dark day ' ( with no performances ) while resident shows have two .
= = = Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil = = =
Originally intended to only be a one @-@ year project , Cirque du Soleil was scheduled to perform in 11 towns in Quebec over the course of 13 weeks running concurrent with the third La Fête Foraine . The first shows were riddled with difficulty , starting with the collapse of the big top after the increased weight of rainwater caused the central mast to snap . Working with a borrowed tent , Laliberté then had to contend with difficulties with the European performers . They were so unhappy with the Quebec circus 's inexperience that they had , at one point , sent a letter to the media complaining about how they were being treated .
The problems were only transient , however , and by the time 1984 had come to a close , Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil was a success . Having only $ 60 @,@ 000 left in the bank , Laliberté went back to the Canadian government to secure funding for a second year . While the Canadian federal government was enthusiastic , the Quebec provincial government was resistant to the idea . It was not until Quebec 's premier , René Lévesque , intervened on their behalf that the provincial government relented . The original big top tent that was used during the 1984 Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil tour can now be seen at Carnivàle Lune Bleue , a 1930s @-@ style carnival that is home to the Cirque Maroc acrobats .
= = = La Magie Continue = = =
After securing funding from the Canadian government for a second year , Laliberté took steps to renovate Cirque du Soleil from a group of street performers into a " proper circus " . To accomplish this he hired the head of the National Circus School , Guy Caron , as Cirque du Soleil 's artistic director . The influences that Laliberté and Caron had in reshaping their circus were extensive . They wanted strong emotional music that was played from beginning to end by musicians . They wanted to emulate the Moscow Circus ' method of having the acts tell a story . Performers , rather than a technical crew , move equipment and props on and off stage so that it did not disrupt the momentum of the " storyline " . Most importantly , their vision was to create a circus with neither a ring nor animals . The rationale was that the lack of both of these things draws the audience more into the performance .
To help design the next major show , Laliberté and Caron hired Franco Dragone , another instructor from the National Circus School who had been working in Belgium . When he joined the troupe in 1985 , he brought with him his experience in commedia dell 'arte techniques , which he imparted to the performers . Although his experience would be limited in the next show due to budget restraints , he would go on to direct every show up to , but not including Dralion .
By 1986 , the company was once again in serious financial trouble . During 1985 they had taken the show outside Quebec to a lukewarm response . In Toronto they performed in front of a 25 % capacity crowd after not having enough money to properly market the show . Gilles Ste @-@ Croix , dressed in a monkey suit , walked through downtown Toronto as a desperate publicity stunt . A later stop in Niagara Falls turned out to be equally problematic .
Several factors prevented the company from going bankrupt that year . The Desjardins Group , which was Cirque du Soleil 's financial institution at the time , covered about $ 200 @,@ 000 of bad checks . Also , a financier named Daniel Lamarre , who worked for one of the largest public relations firms in Quebec , represented the company for free , knowing that they didn 't have the money to pay his fee . The Quebec government itself also came through again , granting Laliberté enough money to stay solvent for another year .
= = = Le Cirque Réinventé = = =
In 1987 , after Laliberté re @-@ privatized Cirque du Soleil , it was invited to perform at the Los Angeles Arts Festival . Although they continued to be plagued by financial difficulties , Normand Latourelle took the gamble and went to Los Angeles , despite only having enough money to make a one @-@ way trip . Had the show been a failure , the company would not have had enough money to get their performers and equipment back to Montreal .
The festival turned out to be a huge success , both critically and financially . The show attracted the attention of entertainment executives , including Columbia Pictures , which met with Laliberté and Gauthier under the pretense of wanting to make a movie about Cirque du Soleil . Laliberté was unhappy with the deal , claiming that it gave too many rights to Columbia , which was attempting to secure all rights to the production . Laliberté pulled out of the deal before it could be concluded , and that experience stands out as a key reason why Cirque du Soleil remains independent and privately owned today .
In 1988 , Guy Caron left the company due to artistic differences over what to do with the money generated by Cirque du Soleil 's first financially successful tour . Laliberté wanted to use it to expand and start a second show while Caron wanted the money to be saved , with a portion going back to the National Circus School . An agreement was never met and Caron , along with a large number of artists loyal to him , departed . This stalled plans that year to start a new touring show .
Laliberté sought out Gilles Ste @-@ Croix as replacement for the artistic director position . Ste @-@ Croix , who had been away from the company since 1985 , agreed to return . The company went through more internal troubles , including a failed attempt to add Normand Latourelle as a third man to the partnership . This triumvirate lasted only six months before internal disagreements prompted Gauthier and Laliberté to buy out Latourelle . By the end of 1989 , Cirque du Soleil was once again in a deficit .
= = = Fascination = = =
With Saltimbanco finished and touring in the United States and Canada , Cirque du Soleil toured Japan in the summer of 1992 at the behest of the Fuji Television Network . Taking acts from Nouvelle Expérience and Cirque Réinventé , they created a show for this tour , titled Fascination . Although Fascination was never seen outside Japan , it represented the first time that Cirque du Soleil had produced a show that took place in an arena rather than a big top . It was also the first that Cirque du Soleil performed outside of North America .
= = = Knie Presents Cirque du Soleil = = =
Also in 1992 , Cirque du Soleil made its first collaboration with Switzerland 's Circus Knie in a production named Knie Presents Cirque du Soleil that toured for nine months from 20 March to 29 November 1992 through 60 cities in Switzerland , opening in Rapperswil and closing in Bellinzona . The production merged Circus Knie 's animal acts with Cirque du Soleil 's acrobatic acts . The stage resembled that of Cirque du Soleil 's previous shows La Magie Continue and Le Cirque Reinventé , but was modified to accommodate Circus Knie 's animals . The show also featured acts seen previously in Le Cirque Reinventé , including :
The prologue
Les Pingouins ( Korean plank )
Slack wire
Tower on Wheels
Trick cycling
= = = Other shows = = =
= = = Future productions = = =
Luna Petunia : It was announced on 11 October 2014 that in partnership with Saban Brands , Cirque du Soleil Media would produce an animated children 's ( pre @-@ school aged ) series called Luna Petunia and the showrunner was announced as children 's TV writer Bradley Zweig . The plot revolves around a little girl who plays in a dreamland where she learns how to make the impossible possible . It will be shown on Netflix around September – November 2016 .
The Wiz : In a collaboration with NBC , Cirque du Soleil will help produce both a live @-@ television broadcast and Broadway revival of The Wiz . The broadcast will premiere December 2015 on NBC , the revival following soon after in the 2016 @-@ 2017 season . Tony Award @-@ winning director Kenny Leon will direct both productions with Broadway writer / actor Harvey Fierstein , who will be contributing new material to the original Broadway book . Queen Latifah , Mary J. Blige , Stephanie Mills , Ne @-@ Yo , David Alan Grier , Common , Elijah Kelley , Amber Riley , and Uzo Aduba and newcomer Shanice Williams are set to star . Additional casting and creative team announcements will be made later .
Cirque du Soleil - Soda Stereo : In partnership with Argentine promoters PopArt and Triple , Cirque du Soleil is producing a new touring show based on the rock band Soda Stereo , which will premiere in May 2017 in Buenos Aires before touring Latin America ( including Chile , Mexico , Peru and Colombia ) , Miami , Los Angeles and other US cities . The show will also coincide with the release of a soundtrack album , created by surviving Soda Stereo members Zeta Bosio and Charly Alberti , and some producers who have worked with the band . It wil be directed by Michel Laprise and the director of creation will be Chantal Tremblay .
Cirque 2017 : On 5 December 2015 , Cirque du Soleil posted numerous job openings on their website for a new production nicknamed " Cirque 2017 " .
Hanzhou 2018 : On 15 June 2015 at the Shanghai International Film Festival , Cirque du Soleil announced their plans to develop a permanent show in the Xintiandi commercial complex in Hangzhou , China . The theater will seat 1400 spectators and Cirque du Soleil 's chief executive Daniel Lamarre has said that the show will have a “ local flavor ” but still be a “ Cirque show ” . It is scheduled to open in early 2018 with the development of the theatre on the site of an old warehouse of an old rail yard area currently underway .
Cirque du Soleil Theme Park : On 12 November 2014 , Cirque du Soleil , Grupo Vidanta , and Goddard Group announced plans for a theme park in Nuevo Vallarta , Mexico . The plans call for at least two lands , the Village of the Sun and the Village of the Moon , as well as an outdoor evening show accommodating as many as 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 spectators , and may include a water park and nature park elements . It is due to open some time in 2018 .
Dubai 2018 : On 10 November 2015 , Cirque du Soleil posted a job opening on their website for a new production nicknamed " Dubai 2018 " . A production had been originally scheduled to premiere in Dubai in 2011 , but due to financial instability that hit Cirque du Soleil around that time ( including their Middle Eastern investors Nakheel and Istithmar World pulling out of their partnership ) , they had postponed the show . The 2011 show was meant to be directed by Guy Caron ( director of Dralion and Kà ) and Michael Curry ( who specialises in puppetry / props ) , and was to be housed in a custom @-@ built theatre that would seat 1 @,@ 800 people on Palm Jumeirah ( one of three man @-@ made , palm @-@ shaped islands in Dubai ) . It is unclear whether these plans remain in place for the 2018 show .
= = Other works = =
= = = Projects = = =
Cirque du Monde : a social action project designed to reach marginalized youth .
Jukari Fit to Fly : A fitness program promoted cooperatively with Reebok .
Safewalls : An artistic project curated by Cirque du Soleil that is bringing time @-@ honoured circus posters into the 21st century by pairing up with renowned international street art and lowbrow artists .
Cultural Action Art Exhibitions : As part of its Cultural Action programs , Cirque du Soleil offers artists the opportunity to exhibit at its Montreal Headquarters and at its Las Vegas offices . Artists who have participated include : France Jodoin , Dominique Fortin @-@ Mues , Laurent Craste and Dominic Besner .
Desigual inspired by Cirque du Soleil : Cirque du Soleil partnered with Desigual fashion design in 2011 to develop a collection of clothing and accessories , which was made available at Desigual stores and Cirque du Soleil show boutiques .
Movi.Kanti.Revo : In association with Google , Cirque du Soleil released a Google Chrome extension in 2012 , meant to bring some of Cirque du Soleil 's imagination to the browser .
= = = Special events = = =
In April 2015 , Cirque du Soleil 's Special Events division , which had been responsible for coordinating various public and private events , formed a separate company called 45 Degrees . Led by Yasmine Khalil , the new company has continued to produce special events for Cirque du Soleil while expanding to offer creative content outside Cirque du Soleil as well .
= = = Lounges and nightclubs = = =
As of October 2015 , Cirque du Soleil renounced its intention to be involved in Las Vegas nightclubs and has since dissociated itself from all lounges and clubs listed below . These lounges are no longer affiliated with Cirque du Soleil .
Revolution is a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 500 m2 ) lounge concept designed for The Mirage resort in Las Vegas , in which cast members perform to the music of The Beatles . Cirque du Soleil drew inspiration from the Beatles ' lyrics to design some of the lounge 's features . For instance , the ceiling is decorated with 30 @,@ 000 dichroic crystals , representing " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " . The VIP tables use infrared technology that allows guests to create artwork , which is then projected onto amorphic columns .
Cirque du Soleil 's second lounge was the Gold Lounge , which is located in the Aria Resort and Casino in Las Vegas and is 3 @,@ 756 square feet ( 349 m2 ) . The design is reminiscent of Elvis ' mansion , Graceland , and black and gold are utilized extensively throughout the décor . The bar has the same shape as the bar in the Elvis mansion as well . The music played here changes throughout the night , including upbeat classic rock , commercial house music , upbeat Elvis remixes , minimal hip hop , Top 40 , and pop .
In May 2013 The Light Group opened the Light nightclub in collaboration with Cirque du Soleil at the Mandalay Bay Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas , costing $ 25 million . Light was the first time Cirque du Soleil worked as part of a nightclub . Among other features the club has a large wall of LED screens , and the room is illuminated with fog , lasers and strobes . DJs at the events include charting artists such as Kaskade and Tiesto , with prices ranging from $ 30 to $ 10 @,@ 000 for certain table placements .
= = = Diversification = = =
In October 2011 , Cirque du Soleil was reported to be interested in purchasing Maison Alcan , as part of a diversification strategy .
= = Grand chapiteau tours = =
Cirque du Soleil shows normally tour under a grand chapiteau ( i.e. big top ) for an extended period of time until they are modified , if necessary , for touring in arenas and other venues . The company 's grands chapiteaux are easily recognizable by their blue and yellow coloring . The infrastructure that tours with each show could easily be called a mobile village ; it includes the Grand Chapiteau , a large entrance tent , artistic tent , kitchen , school , and other items necessary to support the cast and crew .
The company 's tours have significant financial impacts on the cities they visit by renting lots for shows , parking spaces , selling and buying promotions , and contributing to the local economy with hotel stays , purchasing food , and hiring local help . For example , during its stay in Santa Monica , California , Koozå brought an estimated US $ 16 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 18 @,@ 419 @,@ 994 in 2015 ) to the city government and local businesses .
= = = Site = = =
The site takes around eight days to construct and three days to pack up .
Anywhere from 50 – 75 large tractor @-@ trailer containers are necessary to transport the vast amount of equipment . Totem , for example , requires 65 such containers to transport 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 180 long tons ; 1 @,@ 320 short tons ) .
Five generators are used to provide electricity to the site .
= = = Grand chapiteau = = =
Totem 's canvas tent is constructed by Les Voileries du Sud @-@ Ouest and weighs approximately 5 @,@ 227 @.@ 3 kilograms ( 11 @,@ 524 lb ) .
The tent is 19 metres high ( 62 ft ) and is 51 metres ( 167 ft ) in diameter .
A single performance can seat more than 2 @,@ 600 spectators .
= = = Other tents = = =
The Entrance Tent holds the concessions and merchandise .
The Tapis Rouge is for VIP guests ( up to 250 ) and is also available for private functions .
The Artistic Tent for the performers houses the wardrobe area , a fully equipped training area , and a physiotherapy room .
= = = Kitchen = = =
Used as the primary commons area , the kitchen serves 200 – 250 meals a day ( 6 days a week ) .
= = Discography = =
= = Filmography = =
Cirque du Soleil Images creates original products for television , video and DVD and distributes its productions worldwide .
Its creations have been awarded numerous prizes and distinctions , including two Gemini Awards and a Primetime Emmy Award for Cirque du Soleil : Fire Within ( in 2003 ) and three Primetime Emmy Awards for Dralion ( in 2001 ) .
= = Legal issues = =
= = = Suspension of artist due to HIV = = =
In November 2003 , a US federal discrimination complaint was filed against Cirque du Soleil by Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund on behalf of gymnast Matthew Cusick . The allegation was that in April 2002 , they fired Cusick because he tested HIV positive . Cusick had not yet performed , but had completed his training and was scheduled to begin working at Mystère just a few days after he was terminated . Even though company doctors had already cleared him as healthy enough to perform , Cirque du Soleil alleged that due to the nature of Cusick 's disease coupled with his job 's high risk of injury , there was a significant risk of his infecting other performers , crew or audience members . Cirque du Soleil said that they had several HIV @-@ positive employees , but in the case of Cusick , the risk of him spreading his infection while performing was too high to take the risk . A boycott ensued and Just Out ran a story on it with the headline " Flipping off the Cirque " .
An additional complaint was filed on Cusick 's behalf by the San Francisco Human Rights Commission . Their complaint stemmed from the issue that the City of San Francisco bans contracts ( or in this case land leases ) to discriminatory employers .
Although Cirque du Soleil 's position remains that this was a safety issue , not a discrimination issue , they settled with Cusick on 22 April 2004 . The terms of the settlement include that the company would initiate a companywide anti @-@ discrimination training program and alter its employment practices pertaining to HIV @-@ positive applicants . In addition , Matthew Cusick received $ 60 @,@ 000 in lost wages , $ 200 @,@ 000 in front pay , $ 300 @,@ 000 in compensatory damages and Lambda Legal received $ 40 @,@ 000 in attorney fees .
= = = Naming Rights = = =
Cirque du Soleil opposed Neil Goldberg and his company Cirque Productions over its use of the word " Cirque " in the late 1990s . Goldberg 's company was awarded a trademark on its name " Cirque Dreams " in 2005 .
In August 1999 , Fremonster Theatrical filed an application for the trademark Cirque de Flambé . This application was opposed by the owners of the Cirque du Soleil trademark in August 2002 , on the grounds that it would cause confusion and " [ dilute ] the distinctive quality " of Cirque du Soleil 's trademarks . A judge dismissed the opposition and the Cirque de Flambé trademark application was approved in 2005 .
= = = Justin Timberlake plagiarism accusations = = =
On 2 April 2016 , it was revealed that Cirque du Soleil was suing Justin Timberlake , the co @-@ authors and producers of the song ' Don 't Hold the Wall ' $ 800 @,@ 000 USD over copyright infringements with their song ' Steel Dreams ' from Quidam . The song from Timberlake 's ' 20 / 20 ' album ( released in 2013 ) has a section of melody as well as instrumentation ( between 4 : 03 to 4 : 20 in the song ) which bears heavy resemblance to the opening of Steel Dreams , which prompted the claims from Cirque that ' Don 't Hold the Wall ' includes " unauthorised use of the musical composition and sound recording " .
= = = HB2 Laws in North Carolina = = =
On April 15 , Cirque du Soleil announced the cancellation of all their 2016 touring shows to North Carolina citing the recent signing of the Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act by North Carolina governor Pat McCrory . This cancelations effected OVO in both Greensboro and Charlotte and of Toruk in Raleigh . The company announced in a press release that " Cirque du Soleil strongly believes in diversity and equality for every individual and is opposed to discrimination in any form . The new HB2 legislation passed in North Carolina is an important regression to ensuring human rights for all . " Cirque has been criticized for this decision and accused of taking a double standard , for cancelling the shows in North Carolina while many times they have performed their shows in countries like the United Arab Emirates which violates a number of fundamental human rights .
= = Fatalities = =
In 2009 , Oleksandr Zhurov , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old from Ukraine , fell off a trampoline while training at one of the company 's Montreal facilities . He died from head injuries sustained in the accident .
The first death during a performance occurred on June 29 , 2013 . Acrobat Sarah Guyard @-@ Guillot , from Paris , France , was killed after she fell ninety feet into an open pit at the MGM Grand during the Kà show . After the fall , everyone on the stage looked " visually scared and frightened " . Then the audience could hear her groans and screams from the floor .
= Superstar ( Madonna song ) =
" Superstar " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna from her twelfth studio album MDNA ( 2012 ) . It was released on December 3 , 2012 , in Brazil only as a special edition free CD with Brazilian newspaper Folha de S.Paulo. The song was written and produced by Madonna , Hardy " Indigo " Muanza and Michael Malih and is a dance @-@ pop track , which has electronic and pop influences . Instrumentation featured in " Superstar " includes guitars and drum machines . Lyrically , Madonna compares her boyfriend with famous men , such as John Travolta , Abraham Lincoln , Al Capone , among others and claims to be his " biggest fan " .
The accompanying artwork for the single was created by Brazilian graffiti artist Simone Sapienza , who won a contest sponsored by Johnnie Walker 's Keep Walking Project in Brazil . She was chosen by Madonna from ten finalists of the contest . " Superstar " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics , most of whom felt it would be a potential single and praised the production , while others dismissed the lyrical content . A music video for the track was shot , however it was controversial since Madonna wanted to dress as a " Terror Bride " , a combination of an Iraqi bridal veil and a US soldier 's uniform . Subsequently , the video was never released . " Superstar " was used in a television campaign for US TV channel Bravo , supporting its " Summer by Bravo " promotion including stars from its original programming .
= = Background and composition = =
" Superstar " was written and produced by Madonna , Hardy " Indigo " Muanza and Michael Malih and was recorded at MSR Studios in New York City . After the completion of MDNA , critics around the world were invited to Abbey Road Studios for an initial review of the album . Many critics noted that Madonna 's daughter Lourdes ' vocals appeared in " Superstar " , which was subsequently confirmed by the singer herself . When Madonna was talking to The Sun about her daughter 's collaboration , she said : " [ Lola ] just came over to the studio that day . Then I said , ' Oh , can you sing this part ? ' and she agreed to . " Further explanation about Lourdes ' singing on the track was given :
She has a very good voice . She 's quite shy about it and won 't admit it . Lots of people are knocking on my door to meet her about everything , movies , what @-@ not . But she 's not really interested in any of it . She just wants to go to school . She says to me , ' Mum , I just want to be a normal kid . I 'm not ready for any of that . ' I respect that , and if she ever wants to work with me on any level , I welcome it . But otherwise , I leave her to homework and school .
Musically , " Superstar " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song , that features influences of electronic and pop music . The track was mixed by Demacio ' Demo ' Castellon for The Demolition Crew , and recorded by Angie Teo . Editing for the track was completed by Stephen ' The Koz ' Kozmeniuk for The Demolition Crew . The song makes references to historical figures including Marlon Brando , James Dean , Al Capone , Bruce Lee , Julius Caesar , Abraham Lincoln and John Travolta . Billboard 's Keith Caulfied noted dubstep influences during the bridge , and like other songs on MDNA , " Superstar " takes time to change the composition into a fast @-@ paced track . According to Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph , the composition features a " shimmering ambiance built up from a ringing guitar loop and echoing tom @-@ tom pattern that might have been constructed from Beatles ' drum fills . " Along with the looping music , the lyrics are simple and obtuse in nature , which McCormick believed was done deliberately like " You can have the password to my phone / I 'll give you a massage when you get home " . There are also references to her older songs like " Into the Groove " ( 1985 ) with the line , " You 're Travolta getting into your groove " .
= = Artwork and release = =
The accompanying artwork for " Superstar " was created by Brazilian graffiti artist Simone Sapienza , known as Siss . It was directed by Binho Ribeiro and Giovanni Bianco . On the cover Madonna wears a shorts with a whip , while a phrase reads ; " The shorts says : ' let 's have dinner ! ' . The whip says , ' but you must pay for ' " . A contest sponsored by Keep Walking Brazil project selected 30 proposed covers , and Sapienza was chosen by Madonna after being among the ten finalists . The creator said she did not know she was participating in a cover contest and explained , " My work is connected to the status of women . I like strong women , who work hard for what they think is right . "
" Superstar " was released as a promotional single in Brazil on December 3 , 2012 . Readers of Brazilian newspaper Folha de S.Paulo received a free copy of the single together with their newspaper . The single features the original album version along with a remixed version by DJ Eddie Amador . The song was also used in a television campaign for US TV channel Bravo , supporting its " Summer by Bravo " promotion including stars from its original programming .
= = Critical reception = =
" Superstar " received generally mixed to favorable reviews from music critics . Becky Bain from Idolator called it a " sweet love song " and compared it as the sweeter , more simplified version of " Ray of Light " . Andy Gill from The Independent stated the song was an " obvious hit single " and compared the song to her 1990 release , " Vogue " . MuuMuse 's Bradley Stern complimented " the sugary @-@ sweet , instantly summer @-@ friendly " nature of the song , while Alexis Petridis from The Guardian described the composition of the track as " saccharine " . Dean Piper from the Daily Mirror felt the song was not one he was " immediately keen on – but the one that 's in my head . It 's lyrically very simple [ ... ] It 's a little rockier than the others and more conventional . " Sharing the same view , The Sun 's Gordon Smart called the song a " stand @-@ out " on MDNA . Priya Elan from NME was very positive towards the song , and described it , along with " Girl Gone Wild " , as " accomplishments " and " sound better than they have any right to . " While reviewing the album , Robert Copsey from Digital Spy noted that " Superstar " was the most " relaxed [ sounding ] song " compared to the rest of the track which he described as kind of " in @-@ yer @-@ face . " Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph described the song as " sweet and summery " . Writing for Popjustice , Brad O 'Mance rated the song 9 out of 10 and explained in detail :
The lyrical reference points in [ ' Superstar ' ] are all quite interesting — if you consider the youth @-@ obsessed reference collaborators of the first two singles and how uncomfortable it all feels . ' Superstar ' offers a glimpse of something far more comfortable in its own skin . All the reference points will mean very little to your average 17 @-@ year @-@ old . We suppose the idea is that they 're icons whose imagery transcends generations blah blah blah but after all the aggressive positioning of the first two singles it 's great to hear Madonna relaxing into this sort of song . The lyrics about being in love are a bit soppy but love makes you go a bit soppy sometimes .
Michael Roffman from Consequence of Sound was more critical towards the lyrical content , describing the song itself as " infantile " and her lyrics like they were " stripped from a fifth grader 's notebook at the history fair . " Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani gave it a mixed review , calling its lyrical content a " faux pas " . Another mixed reception came from writers of Virgin Media , who awarded it three stars out of five , and called it a " passable slice of electro @-@ hued chart @-@ pop . " Enio Chiola from PopMatters gave it a poor review for its lyrical content by calling it " badly written " , but stated that songs like " ' Superstar ' and ' Masterpiece ' indicates that Madonna isn 't just a blubbering mess of bitterness . " In his review of MDNA for Pitchfork Media , Matthew Perpetua said that the track , along with " B @-@ Day Song " from the album , are " mesmerizingly dumb lyrics " and are as " spiteful trolling rather than vapid pandering . " Gigwise listed the lyrics as one of the most embarrassing moments on MDNA .
= = Music video = =
Although no music video was officially confirmed or produced , media outlets reported that a music video for " Superstar " was to be shot in October 2012 . Madonna wanted to dress as a " Terror Bride " , which is a combination of an Iraqi bridal veil and a US soldier 's uniform . The dress was to be portrayed as a statement for oppression against women and warfare . However , the singer 's advisers talked her out of wearing the costume because they thought it would " put her life at risk " . Sources then stated " [ Madonna ] had the outfit ready to go . She was really proud of it and said it was her ' Terror Bride ' costume [ ... ] At first , when people started telling her it was madness , she just brushed it off , but when they mentioned that her actions could put her life at risk , she decided to ditch it from her video and certainly won 't be wearing it on stage . " Madonna said she was " really disappointed " about not wearing the outfit , but had put aside the idea for a future use .
= = Track listing = =
Keep Walking Brazil Special Edition CD single
" Superstar " – 3 : 55
" Superstar " ( Eddie Amador Remix ) – 6 : 18
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the MDNA album liner notes .
Madonna – vocals , songwriter , producer
Hardy " Indigo " Muanza – songwriter , producer
Michael Malih – songwriter , producer
Demacio ' Demo ' Castellon – audio mixing for The Demolition Crew
Angie Teo – recording at MSR Studios , New York City
Stephen ' The Koz ' Kozmeniuk – music editing for The Demolition Crew
Lourdes " Lola " Leon – background vocals
= = Charts = =
After the release of MDNA , " Superstar " debuted at number 150 on the South Korea International Downloads chart , with a total of 174 @,@ 917 streams and digital downloads .
= = Release history = =
= Cyclone Elita =
Cyclone Elita was an unusual tropical cyclone that made landfall on Madagascar three times . The fifth named storm of the 2003 – 04 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , Elita developed in the Mozambique Channel on January 24 , 2004 . It strengthened to become a tropical cyclone before striking northwestern Madagascar on January 28 . Elita weakened to tropical depression status while crossing the island , and after exiting into the southwest Indian Ocean , it turned to the west and moved ashore in eastern Madagascar on January 31 . After once again crossing the island , the cyclone reached the Mozambique Channel and re @-@ intensified . Elita turned to the southeast to make its final landfall on February 3 along southwestern Madagascar . Two days later , it underwent an extratropical transition ; the remnant system moved erratically before dissipating on February 13 .
Elita dropped heavy rainfall of more than 200 mm ( 8 inches ) , which damaged or destroyed thousands of houses in Madagascar . Over 50 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , primarily in Mahajanga and Toliara provinces . Flooding from the storm ruined more than 450 km ² ( 170 sq mi ) of agricultural land , including important crops for food . Across the island , the cyclone caused 33 deaths , with its impact further compounded by Cyclone Gafilo about two months later . Elsewhere , Elita brought rainfall and damage to Mozambique and Malawi , and its outer wind circulation produced rough seas and strong gusts in Seychelles , Mauritius , and Réunion .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of thunderstorms developed in the Mozambique Channel on January 25 , 2004 , about 95 km ( 60 mi ) west of Madagascar . Deep convection developed and organized around a mid- to low @-@ level circulation , and at 0600 UTC on January 26 , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) classified the system as Tropical Disturbance 06 , about 105 km ( 65 mi ) west of Maintirano , Madagascar . Six hours later , it was upgraded to Tropical Depression 06 , and later that day the depression was named Elita . At the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing advisories on the cyclone . Strengthening at first was slow , due to moderate wind shear limiting the convection to the northern portion of the cyclone . Initially , the storm tracked in an unusual northward motion toward the equator , which was caused by a ridge to its west .
Early on January 27 , Elita was upgraded to a moderate tropical storm , though later that day it weakened to tropical depression status . However , it quickly re @-@ attained tropical storm status early on January 28 , with convection increasing further . Elita turned east @-@ southeastward due to a ridge to its north , quickly intensifying as it approached land and developing a well @-@ defined eye on visible satellite imagery . It intensified to tropical cyclone status , or the equivalence of a minimal hurricane , at 1200 UTC on January 28 . Three hours later , Elita made landfall on Bombetoka Bay in northwestern Madagascar with wind gusts of over 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . The storm rapidly weakened to tropical depression status over land , though as it crossed the island convection re @-@ developed over the waters east of Madagascar . Elita reached the southwest Indian Ocean by January 30 , and its convection quickly organized into rainbands . It drifted southward a short distance offshore , slowly intensifying before attaining tropical storm status at 0000 UTC on January 31 . About six hours later , after turning to the west , Elita moved ashore near Mananjary with winds of about 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) , as reported by MFR .
The cyclone quickly weakened to tropical depression status as it tracked westward across Madagascar , and late on January 31 it emerged into the Mozambique Channel . Deep convection increased as it reached open waters , with outflow improving . A strengthening ridge to its north caused Elita to decelerate before turning to the east @-@ southeast . Late on February 2 , the JTWC assessed Elita with peak winds of 120 km / h ( 75 km / h ) , and shortly thereafter MFR reported the cyclone as attaining peak winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Early on February 3 , Elita moved ashore near Morondava at peak intensity . Weakening rapidly while crossing the island for a third time , the cyclone emerged into the southwest Indian Ocean as a tropical depression by 0000 UTC on February 4 . Despite initial forecasts of re @-@ intensification , Elita accelerated southeastward and lost its remaining convection , leaving its center exposed under the influence of a strong upper @-@ level trough . By February 5 , it had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , and its motion had halted due to weak steering currents . For about a week , the remnants of Elita meandered to the southeast of Madagascar before dissipating on February 13 .
Elita 's crossing of Madagascar three times is unusual , but not unprecedented ; Severe Tropical Storm Felicia in January 1970 and Storm Justine in March 1982 accomplished the same feat .
= = Impact = =
The Mozambique National Institute of Meteorology advised people living in Nampula , Zambezia , Sofala , and Inhambane Provinces to make preparations for strong winds and rainfall . In Nampula province , over 2000 buildings were destroyed . The most severe damage was to generally poorly built houses in Memba , Nacala @-@ a @-@ Velha , Mogincual , and Nampula city . In the latter city , an Islamic school was badly damaged , and in Nacla @-@ a @-@ Velha survivors had to spend the night of January 29 in the open . All in all , Elita impacted four provinces of Mozambique . Much of the impact was along the coast from Inhambane to Nampula . The inflow of the storm brought moisture from the Intertropical Convergence Zone through Malawi , which produced heavy rainfall of over 150 mm ( 6 in ) ; the rainfall destroyed more than 80 houses and a clinic in Karonga district . The storm brought rough seas , gusty winds , and some precipitation to the southwestern islands in Seychelles .
Upon making its first landfall on Madagascar , Elita dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 715 mm ( 28 @.@ 1 in ) including a 24 ‑ hour total of 222 mm ( 8 @.@ 74 in ) in Antsohihy . Wind gusts reached over 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) in Mahajanga . The passage of the cyclone left 5 @,@ 000 people homeless in the vicinity of its first landfall , with 90 percent of the buildings in northwestern Mahajanga Province damaged by the storm . At least two people were killed in the region . Throughout the country , Cyclone Elita destroyed or severely damaged 12 @,@ 408 homes , which left 55 @,@ 983 people homeless , primarily in Mahajanga and Toliara . This forced around 7 @,@ 000 people to seek shelter in either stadiums or in the remaining standing buildings . Additionally , a total of 510 schools and hospitals received major damage . The cyclone affected five of the six provinces of Madagascar , with roads and power being severely disrupted in some areas ; at least 39 bridges were damaged or destroyed . The cities of Maintirano and Soavinandriana were both severely damaged . In Midongy Atismo , heavy rainfall flooded 80 % of the town 's rice crop , and the corn and manioc crops were both similarly affected . These represent the staple foods of the population , and across the nation the storm damaged more than 450 km2 ( 170 sq mi ) of agricultural land . Throughout Madagascar , the cyclone killed at least 33 people and injured 129 others .
The extratropical remnants of Elita produced rough seas and strong winds on Mauritius and Réunion island , which caused one ship to sink .
= = Aftermath = =
On February 13 , 2004 , officials in Madagascar issued an appeal for international aid . By a month after the storm , the governments of France , the United States , Germany , and Japan sent a total of $ 287 @,@ 000 ( 2004 USD ) in assistance . The government of France sent a plane with food , medicine , and other equipment to the affected areas . The government of Germany sent aid to be used for foods and medicines . On February 27 , the government of Japan sent aid to the country , including tents , generators , and plastic sheets .
Officials distributed emergency relief items to the affected areas , including rice , sugar , soap , candles , matches and water purification tablets . In Morondava in Toliara Province , the government distributed 4 tons of rice seed , while in Ambatolampy in Antananarivo Province , the government sent 10 tons of rice ; additionally , the World Food Programme sent 80 tons of flour to the nation . The combined efforts of the United Nations and aid agencies repaired the schools and distributed meals to the families affected by the disaster . Workers in association with the Madagascar Red Cross set up a water system that provided about 45 @,@ 000 litres ( 11 @,@ 900 gallons ) of drinkable water per day .
The impact of Cyclone Elita was severely compounded by Cyclone Gafilo about two months later , which killed hundreds and left over 240 @,@ 000 people homeless .
= Finnegans Wake =
Finnegans Wake is a novel by Irish writer James Joyce . It is significant for its experimental style and reputation as one of the most difficult works of fiction in the English language . Written in Paris over a period of seventeen years , and published in 1939 , two years before the author 's death , Finnegans Wake was Joyce 's final work . The entire book is written in a largely idiosyncratic language , consisting of a mixture of standard English lexical items and neologistic multilingual puns and portmanteau words , which many critics believe were attempts to recreate the experience of sleep and dreams . Owing to the work 's expansive linguistic experiments , stream of consciousness writing style , literary allusions , free dream associations , and abandonment of narrative conventions , Finnegans Wake remains largely unread by the general public .
Despite the obstacles , readers and commentators have reached a broad consensus about the book 's central cast of characters and , to a lesser degree , its plot . However , a number of key details remain elusive . The book discusses , in an unorthodox fashion , the Earwicker family , comprising the father HCE , the mother ALP , and their three children Shem the Penman , Shaun the Postman , and Issy . Following an unspecified rumour about HCE , the book , in a nonlinear dream narrative , follows his wife 's attempts to exonerate him with a letter , his sons ' struggle to replace him , Shaun 's rise to prominence , and a final monologue by ALP at the break of dawn . The opening line of the book is a sentence fragment which continues from the book 's unfinished closing line , making the work a never @-@ ending cycle . Many noted Joycean scholars such as Samuel Beckett and Donald Phillip Verene link this cyclical structure to Giambattista Vico 's seminal text La Scienza Nuova ( " The New Science " ) , upon which they argue Finnegans Wake is structured .
Joyce began working on Finnegans Wake shortly after the 1922 publication of Ulysses . By 1924 installments of Joyce 's new avant @-@ garde work began to appear , in serialized form , in Parisian literary journals transatlantic review and transition , under the title " fragments from Work in Progress " . The actual title of the work remained a secret until the book was published in its entirety , on 4 May 1939 . Initial reaction to Finnegans Wake , both in its serialized and final published form , was largely negative , ranging from bafflement at its radical reworking of the English language to open hostility towards its lack of respect for the conventions of the novel .
The work has since , however , come to assume a preeminent place in English literature , despite its numerous detractors . Anthony Burgess has lauded Finnegans Wake as " a great comic vision , one of the few books of the world that can make us laugh aloud on nearly every page . " The prominent literary academic Harold Bloom has called it Joyce 's masterpiece , and wrote that " [ if ] aesthetic merit were ever again to center the canon [ Finnegans Wake ] would be as close as our chaos could come to the heights of Shakespeare and Dante . " In 1998 , the Modern Library ranked Finnegans Wake 77th on its list of the 100 best English @-@ language novels of the 20th century .
= = Background and composition = =
Having completed work on Ulysses , Joyce was so exhausted that he did not write a line of prose for a year . On 10 March 1923 he wrote a letter to his patron , Harriet Weaver : " Yesterday I wrote two pages — the first I have since the final Yes of Ulysses . Having found a pen , with some difficulty I copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet of foolscap so that I could read them . " This is the earliest reference to what would become Finnegans Wake .
The two pages in question consisted of the short sketch " Roderick O 'Conor " , concerning the historic last king of Ireland cleaning up after guests by drinking the dregs of their dirty glasses . Joyce completed another four short sketches in July and August 1923 , while holidaying in Bognor . The sketches , which dealt with different aspects of Irish history , are commonly known as " Tristan and Isolde " , " Saint Patrick and the Druid , " " Kevin 's Orisons " and " Mamalujo " . While these sketches would eventually be incorporated into Finnegans Wake in one form or another , they did not contain any of the main characters or plot points which would later come to constitute the backbone of the book . The first signs of what would eventually become Finnegans Wake came in August 1923 when Joyce wrote the sketch " Here Comes Everybody " , which dealt for the first time with the book 's protagonist HCE .
Over the next few years , Joyce 's method became one of " increasingly obsessional concern with note @-@ taking , since [ he ] obviously felt that any word he wrote had first to have been recorded in some notebook . " As Joyce continued to incorporate these notes into his work , the text became increasingly dense and obscure .
By 1926 Joyce had largely completed both Books I and III . Geert Lernout asserts that Book I had , at this early stage , " a real focus that had developed out of the HCE [ " Here Comes Everybody " ] sketch : the story of HCE , of his wife and children . There were the adventures of Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker himself and the rumours about them in chapters 2 – 4 , a description of his wife ALP 's letter in chapter 5 , a denunciation of his son Shem in chapter 7 , and a dialogue about ALP in chapter 8 . These texts [ ... ] formed a unity . " In the same year Joyce met Maria and Eugène Jolas in Paris , just as his new work was generating an increasingly negative reaction from readers and critics , culminating in The Dial 's refusal to publish the four chapters of Book III in September 1926 . The Jolases gave Joyce valuable encouragement and material support throughout the long process of writing Finnegans Wake , and published sections of the book in serial form in their literary magazine transition , under the title Work In Progress . For the next few years Joyce worked rapidly on the book , adding what would become chapters I.1 and I.6 , and revising the already written segments to make them more lexically complex .
However , by this time some early supporters of Joyce 's work , such as Ezra Pound and the author 's brother Stanislaus Joyce , had grown increasingly unsympathetic to his new writing . In order to create a more favourable critical climate , a group of Joyce 's supporters ( including Samuel Beckett , William Carlos Williams , Rebecca West and others ) put together a collection of critical essays on the new work . It was published in 1929 under the title Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress . In July 1929 , increasingly demoralised by the poor reception his new work was receiving , Joyce approached his friend James Stephens about the possibility of his completing the book . Joyce wrote to Weaver in late 1929 that he had " explained to [ Stephens ] all about the book , at least a great deal , and he promised me that if I found it madness to continue , in my condition , and saw no other way out , that he would devote himself heart and soul to the completion of it , that is the second part and the epilogue or fourth . " Apparently Joyce chose Stephens on superstitious grounds , as he had been born in the same hospital as Joyce , exactly one week later , and shared both the first names of Joyce himself and his fictional alter @-@ ego Stephen Dedalus . In the end , Stephens was not asked to finish the book .
In the 1930s , as he was writing Books II and IV , Joyce 's progress slowed considerably . This was due to a number of factors including the death of his father John Stanislaus Joyce in 1931 ; concern over the mental health of his daughter Lucia ; and his own health problems , chiefly his failing eyesight .
Finnegans Wake was published in book form , after seventeen years of composition , on 4 May 1939 . Joyce died two years later in Zürich , on 13 January 1941 .
= = = Chapter summaries = = =
Finnegans Wake comprises seventeen chapters , divided into four Books . Book I contains eight chapters , Books II and III each contain four , and Book IV consists of only one short chapter . The chapters appear without titles , and while Joyce never provided possible chapter titles as he had done for Ulysses , he did title various sections published separately ( see Publication history below ) . The standard critical practice , however , is to indicate book number in Roman numerals , and chapter title in Arabic , so that III.2 , for example , indicates the second chapter of the third book .
Given the book 's fluid and changeable approach to plot and characters , a definitive , critically agreed @-@ upon plot synopsis remains elusive ( see Critical response and themes : Difficulties of plot summary below ) . Therefore , the following synopsis attempts to summarise events in the book which find general , although inevitably not universal , consensus among critics .
= = = Book I = = =
The entire work forms a cycle : the last sentence — a fragment — recirculates to the beginning sentence : " a way a lone a last a loved a long the / riverrun , past Eve and Adam 's , from swerve of shore to bend of bay , brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs . " Joyce himself revealed that the book " ends in the middle of a sentence and begins in the middle of the same sentence . " The introductory chapter ( I.1 ) establishes the book 's setting as " Howth Castle and Environs " ( i.e. the Dublin area ) , and introduces Dublin hod carrier " Finnegan " , who falls to his death from a ladder while constructing a wall . Finnegan 's wife Annie puts out his corpse as a meal spread for the mourners at his wake , but he vanishes before they can eat him . A series of episodic vignettes follows , loosely related to the dead Finnegan , most commonly referred to as " The Willingdone Museyroom " , " Mutt and Jute " , and " The Prankquean " . At the chapter 's close a fight breaks out , whiskey splashes on Finnegan 's corpse , and “ the dead Finnegan rises from his coffin bawling for whiskey and his mourners put him back to rest ” , persuading him that he is better off where he is . The chapter ends with the image of the HCE character sailing into Dublin Bay to take a central role in the story .
I.2 opens with an account of " Harold or Humphrey " Chimpden receiving the nickname " Earwicker " from the Sailor King , who encounters him attempting to catch earwigs with an inverted flowerpot on a stick while manning a tollgate through which the King is passing . This name helps Chimpden , now known by his initials HCE , to rise to prominence in Dublin society as " Here Comes Everybody " . He is then brought low by a rumour that begins to spread across Dublin , apparently concerning a sexual trespass involving two girls in the Phoenix Park , although details of HCE 's transgression change with each retelling of events .
Chapters I.2 through I.4 follow the progress of this rumor , starting with HCE 's encounter with " a cad with a pipe " in Phoenix Park . The cad greets HCE in Gaelic and asks the time , but HCE misunderstands the question as an accusation , and incriminates himself by denying rumours the cad has not yet heard . These rumours quickly spread across Dublin , gathering momentum until they are turned into a song penned by the character Hosty called " The Ballad of Persse O 'Reilly " . As a result , HCE goes into hiding , where he is besieged at the closed gate of his pub by a visiting American looking for drink after hours . However HCE remains silent – not responding to the accusations or verbal abuse – dreams , is buried in a coffin at the bottom of Lough Neagh , and is finally brought to trial , under the name Festy King . He is eventually freed , and goes once more into hiding . An important piece of evidence during the trial – a letter about HCE written by his wife ALP – is called for so that it can be examined in closer detail .
ALP 's Letter becomes the focal point as it is analysed in detail in I.5. This letter was dictated by ALP to her son Shem , a writer , and entrusted to her other son Shaun , a postman , for delivery . The letter never reaches its intended destination , ending up in a midden heap where it is unearthed by a hen named Biddy . Chapter I.6 digresses from the narrative in order to present the main and minor characters in more detail , in the form of twelve riddles and answers .
In the final two chapters of Book I we learn more about the letter 's writer Shem the Penman ( I.7 ) and its original author , his mother ALP ( I.8 ) . The Shem chapter consists of " Shaun 's character assassination of his brother Shem " , describing the hermetic artist as a forger and a " sham " , before " Shem is protected by his mother [ ALP ] , who appears at the end to come and defend her son . " The following chapter concerning Shem 's mother , known as " Anna Livia Plurabelle " , is interwoven with thousands of river names from all over the globe , and is widely considered the book 's most celebrated passage . The chapter was described by Joyce in 1924 as " a chattering dialogue across the river by two washerwomen who as night falls become a tree and a stone . " These two washerwomen gossip about ALP 's response to the allegations laid against her husband HCE , as they wash clothes in the Liffey . ALP is said to have written a letter declaring herself tired of her mate . Their gossip then digresses to her youthful affairs and sexual encounters , before returning to the publication of HCE 's guilt in the morning newspaper , and his wife 's revenge on his enemies : borrowing a " mailsack " from her son Shaun the Post , she delivers presents to her 111 children . At the chapter 's close the washerwomen try to pick up the thread of the story , but their conversation is increasingly difficult as they are on opposite sides of the widening Liffey , and it is getting dark . Finally , as they turn into a tree and a stone , they ask to be told a Tale of Shem or Shaun .
= = = Book II = = =
While Book I of Finnegans Wake deals mostly with the parents HCE and ALP , Book II shifts that focus onto their children , Shem , Shaun and Issy .
II.1 opens with a pantomime programme , which outlines , in relatively clear language , the identities and attributes of the book 's main characters . The chapter then concerns a guessing game among the children , in which Shem is challenged three times to guess by " gazework " the colour which the girls have chosen . Unable to answer due to his poor eyesight , Shem goes into exile in disgrace , and Shaun wins the affection of the girls . Finally HCE emerges from the pub and in a thunder @-@ like voice calls the children inside .
Chapter II.2 follows Shem , Shaun and Issy studying upstairs in the pub , after having been called inside in the previous chapter . The chapter depicts " [ Shem ] coaching [ Shaun ] how to do Euclid Bk I , 1 " , structured as " a reproduction of a schoolboys ' ( and schoolgirls ' ) old classbook complete with marginalia by the twins , who change sides at half time , and footnotes by the girl ( who doesn 't ) " . Once Shem ( here called Dolph ) has helped Shaun ( here called Kev ) to draw the Euclid diagram , the latter realises that he has drawn a diagram of ALP 's genitalia , and " Kev finally realises the significance of the triangles [ .. and .. ] strikes Dolph . " After this " Dolph forgives Kev " and the children are given " [ e ] ssay assignments on 52 famous men . " The chapter ends with the children 's " nightletter " to HCE and ALP , in which they are " apparently united in a desire to overcome their parents . "
II.3 moves to HCE working in the pub below the studying children . As HCE serves his customers , two narratives are broadcast via the bar 's radio and television sets , namely " The Norwegian Captain and the Tailor 's Daughter " , and " How Buckley Shot the Russian General " . The first portrays HCE as a Norwegian Captain succumbing to domestication through his marriage to the Tailor 's Daughter . The latter , told by Shem and Shaun ciphers Butt and Taff , casts HCE as a Russian General who is shot by the soldier Buckley . Earwicker has been absent throughout the latter tale , having been summoned upstairs by ALP . He returns and is reviled by his customers , who see Buckley 's shooting of the General as symbolic of Shem and Shaun 's supplanting their father . This condemnation of his character forces HCE to deliver a general confession of his crimes , including an incestuous desire for young girls . Finally a policeman arrives to send the drunken customers home , the pub is closed up , and the customers disappear singing into the night as a drunken HCE , clearing up the bar and swallowing the dregs of the glasses left behind , morphs into ancient Irish high king Rory O 'Connor , and passes out .
II.4 , ostensibly portraying the drunken and sleeping Earwicker 's dream , chronicles the spying of four old men ( Matthew , Mark , Luke and John ) on Tristan and Iseult 's journey . The short chapter portrays " an old man like King Mark being rejected and abandoned by young lovers who sail off into a future without him " , while the four old men observe Tristan and Isolde , and offer four intertwining commentaries on the lovers and themselves which are " always repeating themselves " .
= = = Book III = = =
Book III concerns itself almost exclusively with Shaun , in his role as postman , having to deliver ALP 's letter , which was referred to in Book I , but never seen .
III.1 opens with the Four Masters ' ass narrating how he thought , as he was " dropping asleep " , he had heard and seen an apparition of Shaun the Post . As a result , Shaun re @-@ awakens , and , floating down the Liffey in a barrel , is posed fourteen questions concerning the significance and content of the letter he is carrying . However , Shaun , " apprehensive about being slighted , is on his guard , and the placating narrators never get a straight answer out of him . " Shaun 's answers focus on his own boastful personality and his admonishment of the letter 's author – his artist brother Shem . After the inquisition Shaun loses his balance and the barrel in which he has been floating careens over and he rolls backwards out of the narrator 's earshot , before disappearing completely from view .
In III.2 Shaun re @-@ appears as " Jaunty Jaun " and delivers a lengthy and sexually suggestive sermon to his sister Issy , and her twenty @-@ eight schoolmates from St. Brigid 's School . Throughout this book Shaun is continually regressing , changing from an old man to an overgrown baby lying on his back , and eventually , in III.3 , into a vessel through which the voice of HCE speaks again by means of a spiritual medium . This leads to HCE 's defence of his life in the passage " Haveth Childers Everywhere " . Book III ends in the bedroom of Mr. and Mrs. Porter as they attempt to copulate while their children , Jerry , Kevin and Isobel Porter , are sleeping upstairs and the dawn is rising outside ( III.4 ) . Jerry awakes from a nightmare of a scary father figure , and Mrs. Porter interrupts the coitus to go comfort him with the words " You were dreamend , dear . The pawdrag ? The fawthrig ? Shoe ! Hear are no phanthares in the room at all , avikkeen . No bad bold faathern , dear one . " She returns to bed , and the rooster crows at the conclusion of their coitus at the Book 's culmination .
= = = Book IV = = =
Book IV consists of only one chapter , which , like the book 's opening chapter , is mostly composed of a series of seemingly unrelated vignettes . After an opening call for dawn to break , the remainder of the chapter consists of the vignettes " Saint Kevin " , " Berkely and Patrick " and " The Revered Letter " . ALP is given the final word , as the book closes on a version of her Letter and her final long monologue , in which she tries to wake her sleeping husband , declaring " Rise up , man of the hooths , you have slept so long ! " , and remembers a walk they once took , and hopes for its re @-@ occurrence . At the close of her monologue , ALP – as the river Liffey – disappears at dawn into the ocean . The book 's last words are a fragment , but they can be turned into a complete sentence by attaching them to the words that start the book :
A way a lone a last a loved a long the / riverrun , past Eve and Adam 's , from swerve of shore to bend of bay , brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs .
= = Critical response and themes = =
= = = Difficulties of plot summary = = =
Commentators who have summarised the plot of Finnegans Wake include Joseph Campbell , John Gordon , Anthony Burgess , William York Tindall , and Philip Kitcher . While no two summaries interpret the plot in the same way , there are a number of central " plot points " upon which they find general agreement . However , a number of Joyce scholars question the legitimacy of searching for a linear storyline within the complex text . As Bernard Benstock highlights , " in a work where every sentence opens a variety of possible interpretations , any synopsis of a chapter is bound to be incomplete . " David Hayman has suggested that " For all the efforts made by critics to establish a plot for the Wake , it makes little sense to force this prose into a narrative mold . " The book 's challenges have led some commentators into generalised statements about its content and themes , prompting critic Bernard Benstock to warn against the danger of " boiling down " Finnegans Wake into " insipid pap , and leaving the lazy reader with a predigested mess of generalizations and catchphrases . " Fritz Senn has also voiced concerns with some plot synopses , saying " we have some traditional summaries , also some put in circulation by Joyce himself . I find them most unsatisfactory and unhelpful , they usually leave out the hard parts and recirculate what we already think we know . I simply cannot believe that FW would be as blandly uninteresting as those summaries suggest . "
The challenge of compiling a definitive synopsis of Finnegans Wake lies not only in the opacity of the book 's language , but also in the radical approach to plot which Joyce employed . Joyce acknowledged this when he wrote to Eugène Jolas that :
" I might easily have written this story in the traditional manner [ ... ] Every novelist knows the recipe [ ... ] It is not very difficult to follow a simple , chronological scheme which the critics will understand [ ... ] But I , after all , am trying to tell the story of this Chapelizod family in a new way .
This " new way " of telling a story in Finnegans Wake takes the form of a discontinuous dream @-@ narrative , with abrupt changes to characters , character names , locations and plot details resulting in the absence of a discernible linear narrative , causing Herring to argue that the plot of Finnegans Wake " is unstable in that there is no one plot from beginning to end , but rather many recognizable stories and plot types with familiar and unfamiliar twists , told from varying perspectives . " Patrick A. McCarthy expands on this idea of a non @-@ linear , digressive narrative with the contention that " throughout much of Finnegans Wake , what appears to be an attempt to tell a story is often diverted , interrupted , or reshaped into something else , for example a commentary on a narrative with conflicting or unverifiable details . " In other words , while crucial plot points – such as HCE 's crime or ALP 's letter – are endlessly discussed , the reader never encounters or experiences them first hand , and as the details are constantly changing , they remain unknown and perhaps unknowable . Suzette Henke has accordingly described Finnegans Wake as an aporia . Joyce himself tacitly acknowledged this radically different approach to language and plot in a 1926 letter to Harriet Weaver , outlining his intentions for the book : " One great part of every human existence is passed in a state which cannot be rendered sensible by the use of wideawake language , cutanddry grammar and goahead plot . " Critics have seen a precedent for the book 's plot presentation in Laurence Sterne 's famously digressive The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy , Gentleman , with Thomas Keymer stating that " Tristram Shandy was a natural touchstone for James Joyce as he explained his attempt " to build many planes of narrative with a single esthetic purpose " in Finnegans Wake " .
Book II is usually considered the book 's most opaque section , and hence the most difficult to synopsize . William York Tindall said of Book II 's four chapters " Than this [ ... ] nothing is denser . " Similarly , Patrick Parrinder has described Book II as the " worst and most disorienting quagmire [ .. ] in the Wake . "
Despite Joyce 's revolutionary techniques , the author repeatedly emphasized that the book was neither random nor meaningless ; with Ellmann quoting the author as having stated : " I can justify every line of my book . " To Sisley Huddleston he stated " critics who were most appreciative of Ulysses are complaining about my new work . They cannot understand it . Therefore they say it is meaningless . Now if it were meaningless it could be written quickly without thought , without pains , without erudition ; but I assure you that these 20 pages now before us [ i.e. chapter I.8 ] cost me twelve hundred hours and an enormous expense of spirit . " When the editor of Vanity Fair asked Joyce if the sketches in Work in Progress were consecutive and interrelated , Joyce replied " It is all consecutive and interrelated . "
= = = Themes = = =
Fargnoli and Gillespie suggest that the book 's opening chapter " introduces [ the ] major themes and concerns of the book " , and enumerate these as " Finnegan 's fall , the promise of his resurrection , the cyclical structure of time and history ( dissolution and renewal ) , tragic love as embodied in the story of Tristan and Iseult , the motif of the warring brothers , the personification of the landscape and the question of Earwicker 's crime in the park , the precise nature of which is left uncertain throughout the Wake . " Such a view finds general critical consensus , viewing the vignettes as allegorical appropriations of the book 's characters and themes ; for example , Schwartz argues that " The Willingdone Museyroom " episode represents the book 's " archetypal family drama in military @-@ historical terms . " Joyce himself referred to the chapter as a " prelude " , and as an " air photograph of Irish history , a celebration of the dim past of Dublin . " Riquelme finds that " passages near the book 's beginning and its ending echo and complement one another " , and Fargnoli and Gillespie representatively argue that the book 's cyclical structure echoes the themes inherent within , that " the typologies of human experience that Joyce identifies [ in Finnegans Wake ] are [ .. ] essentially cyclical , that is , patterned and recurrent ; in particular , the experiences of birth , guilt , judgment , sexuality , family , social ritual and death recur throughout the Wake . In a similar enumeration of themes , Tindall argues that " rise and fall and rise again , sleeping and waking , death and resurrection , sin and redemption , conflict and appeasement , and , above all , time itself [ ... ] are the matter of Joyce 's essay on man . "
Henkes and Bindervoet generally summarise the critical consensus when they argue that , between the thematically indicative opening and closing chapters , the book concerns " two big questions " which are never resolved : what is the nature of protagonist HCE ’ s secret sin , and what was the letter , written by his wife ALP , about ? HCE 's unidentifiable sin has most generally been interpreted as representing man 's original sin as a result of the Fall of Man . Anthony Burgess sees HCE , through his dream , trying " to make the whole of history swallow up his guilt for him " and to this end " HCE has , so deep in his sleep , sunk to a level of dreaming in which he has become a collective being rehearsing the collective guilt of man . " Fargnoli and Gillespie argue that although undefined , " Earwicker 's alleged crime in the Park " appears to have been of a " voyeuristic , sexual , or scatological nature " . ALP 's letter appears a number of times throughout the book , in a number of different forms , and as its contents cannot be definitively delineated , it is usually believed to be both an exoneration of HCE , and an indictment of his sin . Herring argues that " [ t ] he effect of ALP 's letter is precisely the opposite of her intent [ ... ] the more ALP defends her husband in her letter , the more scandal attaches to him . " Patrick A. McCarthy argues that " it is appropriate that the waters of the Liffey , representing Anna Livia , are washing away the evidence of Earwicker 's sins as [ the washerwomen speak , in chapter I.8 ] for ( they tell us ) she takes on her husband 's guilt and redeems him ; alternately she is tainted with his crimes and regarded as an accomplice " .
= = = A reconstruction of nocturnal life = = =
Throughout the book 's seventeen @-@ year gestation , Joyce stated that with Finnegans Wake he was attempting to " reconstruct the nocturnal life " , and that the book was his " experiment in interpreting ' the dark night of the soul ' . " According to Ellmann , Joyce stated to Edmond Jaloux that Finnegans Wake would be written " to suit the esthetic of the dream , where the forms prolong and multiply themselves " , and once informed a friend that " he conceived of his book as the dream of old Finn , lying in death beside the river Liffey and watching the history of Ireland and the world – past and future – flow through his mind like flotsam on the river of life . " While pondering the generally negative reactions to the book Joyce said :
I can 't understand some of my critics , like Pound or Miss Weaver , for instance . They say it 's obscure . They compare it , of course , with Ulysses . But the action of Ulysses was chiefly during the daytime , and the action of my new work takes place chiefly at night . It 's natural things should not be so clear at night , isn 't it now ?
Joyce 's claims to be representing the night and dreams have been accepted and questioned with greater and lesser credulity . Supporters of the claim have pointed to Book IV as providing its strongest evidence , as when the narrator asks “ You mean to see we have been hadding a sound night ’ s sleep ? ” , and later concludes that what has gone before has been “ a long , very long , a dark , very dark [ ... ] scarce endurable [ ... ] night . ” Tindall refers to Book IV as " a chapter of resurrection and waking up " , and McHugh finds that the chapter contains " particular awareness of events going on offstage , connected with the arrival of dawn and the waking process which terminates the sleeping process of [ Finnegans Wake ] . "
However , this conceptualisation of the Wake as a dream is a point of contention for some . Harry Burrell , representative of this view , argues that " one of the most overworked ideas is that Finnegans Wake is about a dream . It is not , and there is no dreamer . " Burrell argues that the theory is an easy way out for " critics stymied by the difficulty of comprehending the novel and the search for some kind of understanding of it . " However , the point upon which a number of critics fail to concur with Burrell 's argument is its dismissal of the testimony of the book 's author on the matter as " misleading ... publicity efforts " . Parrinder however , equally skeptical of the concept of the Wake as a dream , argues that Joyce came up with the idea of representing his linguistic experiments as a language of the night around 1927 as a means of battling his many critics , further arguing that " since it cannot be said that neologism is a major feature of the dreaming process , such a justification for the language of Finnegans Wake smacks dangerously of expediency . "
While many , if not all , agree that there is at least some sense in which the book can be said to be a " dream " , few agree on who the possible dreamer of such a dream might be . Edmund Wilson 's early analysis of the book , The Dream of H. C. Earwicker , made the assumption that Earwicker himself is the dreamer of the dream , an assumption which continued to carry weight with Wakean scholars Harry Levin , Hugh Kenner , and William Troy . Joseph Campbell , in A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake , also believed Earwicker to be the dreamer , but considered the narrative to be the observances of , and a running commentary by , an anonymous pedant on Earwicker 's dream in progress , who would interrupt the flow with his own digressions .
Ruth von Phul was the first to argue that Earwicker was not the dreamer , which triggered a number of similarly @-@ minded views on the matter , although her assertion that Shem was the dreamer has found less support .
The assertion that the dream was that of Mr. Porter , whose dream personality personified itself as HCE , came from the critical idea that the dreamer partially wakes during chapter III.4 , in which he and his family are referred to by the name Porter . Anthony Burgess representatively summarized this conception of the " dream " thus : " Mr. Porter and his family are asleep for the greater part of the book [ ... ] Mr. Porter dreams hard , and we are permitted to share his dream [ ... ] Sleeping , he becomes a remarkable mixture of guilty man , beast , and crawling thing , and he even takes on a new and dreamily appropriate name – Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker . "
Harriet Weaver was among the first to suggest that the dream was not that of any one dreamer , but was rather an analysis of the process of dreaming itself . In a letter to J.S. Atherton she wrote :
In particular their ascription of the whole thing to a dream of HCE seems to me nonsensical . My view is that Mr. Joyce did not intend the book to be looked upon as the dream of any one character , but that he regarded the dream form with its shiftings and changes and chances as a convenient device , allowing the freest scope to introduce any material he wished — and suited to a night @-@ piece .
Bernard Benstock also argued that " The Dreamer in the Wake is more than just a single individual , even if one assumes that on the literal level we are viewing the dream of publican H.C. Earwicker . "
Other critics have been more skeptical of the concept of identifying the dreamer of the book 's narrative . Clive Hart argues that " [ w ] hatever our conclusions about the identity of the dreamer , and no matter how many varied caricatures of him we may find projected into the dream , it is clear that he must always be considered as essentially external to the book , and should be left there . Speculation about the ' real person ' behind the guises of the dream @-@ surrogates or about the function of the dream in relation to the unresolved stresses of this hypothetical mind is fruitless , for the tensions and psychological problems in Finnegans Wake concern the dream @-@ figures living within the book itself . "
John Bishop has been the most vocal supporter of treating Finnegans Wake absolutely , in every sense , as a description of a dream , the dreamer , and of the night itself ; arguing that the book not only represents a dream in an abstract conception , but is fully a literary representation of sleep . On the subject Bishop writes :
The greatest obstacle to our comprehension of Finnegans Wake [ ... has been ... ] the failure on the part of readers to believe that Joyce really meant what he said when he spoke of the book as a " reconstruction of the nocturnal life " and an " imitation of the dream @-@ state " ; and as a consequence readers have perhaps too easily exercised on the text an unyielding literalism bent on finding a kind of meaning in every way antithetical to the kind of meaning purveyed in dreams
Bishop has also somewhat brought back into fashion the theory that the Wake is about a single sleeper ; arguing that it is not " the ' universal dream ' of some disembodied global everyman ,
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but a reconstruction of the night – and a single night – as experienced by ' one stable somebody ' whose ' earwitness ' on the real world is coherently chronological . " Bishop has laid the path for critics such as Eric Rosenbloom , who has proposed that the book " elaborates the fragmentation and reunification of identity during sleep . The masculine [ ... ] mind of the day has been overtaken by the feminine night mind . [ ... ] The characters live in the transformation and flux of a dream , embodying the sleeper ’ s mind . "
= = Characters = =
Critics disagree on whether discernible characters exist in Finnegans Wake . For example , Grace Eckley argues that Wakean characters are distinct from each other , and defends this with explaining the dual narrators , the " us " of the first paragraph , as well as Shem @-@ Shaun distinctions while Margot Norris argues that the " [ c ] haracters are fluid and interchangeable " . Supporting the latter stance , Van Hulle finds that the " characters " in Finnegans Wake are rather " archetypes or character amalgams , taking different shapes " , and Riquelme similarly refers to the book 's cast of mutable characters as " protean " . As early as in 1934 , in response to the recently published excerpt " The Mookse and the Gripes " , Ronald Symond argued that " the characters in Work in Progress , in keeping with the space @-@ time chaos in which they live , change identity at will . At one time they are persons , at another rivers or stones or trees , at another personifications of an idea , at another they are lost and hidden in the actual texture of the prose , with an ingenuity far surpassing that of crossword puzzles . " Such concealment of character identity has resulted in some disparity as to how critics identify the book 's main protagonists ; for example , while most find consensus that Festy King , who appears on trial in I.4 , is a HCE type , not all analysts agree on this – for example Anthony Burgess believes him to be Shaun .
However , while characters are in a constant state of flux — constantly changing names , occupations , and physical attributes — a recurring set of core characters , or character types ( what Norris dubs " ciphers " ) , are discernible . During the composition of Finnegans Wake , Joyce used signs , or so @-@ called “ sigla ” , rather than names to designate these character amalgams or types . In a letter to his Maecenas , Harriet Shaw Weaver ( March 1924 ) , Joyce made a list of these sigla . For those who argue for the existence of distinguishable characters , the book focuses on the Earwicker family , which consists of father , mother , twin sons and a daughter .
= = = Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker ( HCE ) = = =
Kitcher argues for the father HCE as the book 's main protagonist , stating that he is " the dominant figure throughout [ ... ] . His guilt , his shortcomings , his failures pervade the entire book " . Bishop states that while the constant flux of HCE 's character and attributes may lead us to consider him as an " anyman , " he argues that " the sheer density of certain repeated details and concerns allows us to know that he is a particular , real Dubliner . " The common critical consensus of HCE 's fixed character is summarised by Bishop as being " an older Protestant male , of Scandinavian lineage , connected with the pubkeeping business somewhere in the neighbourhood of Chapelizod , who has a wife , a daughter , and two sons . "
HCE is referred to by literally thousands of names throughout the book ; leading Terence Killeen to argue that in Finnegans Wake " naming is [ .. ] a fluid and provisional process " . HCE is at first referred to as " Harold or Humphrey Chimpden " ; a conflation of these names as " Haromphreyld " , and as a consequence of his initials " Here Comes Everybody " . These initials lend themselves to phrase after phrase throughout the book ; for example , appearing in the book 's opening sentence as " Howth Castle and Environs " . As the work progresses the names by which he may be referred to become increasingly abstract ( such as " Finn MacCool " , " Mr. Makeall Gone " , or " Mr. Porter " ) .
Some Wake critics , such as Finn Fordham , argue that HCE 's initials come from the initials of the portly politician Hugh Childers ( 1827 – 96 ) , who had been nicknamed " Here Comes Everybody " for his size .
Many critics see Finnegan , whose death , wake and resurrection are the subject of the opening chapter , as either a prototype of HCE , or as another of his manifestations . One of the reasons for this close identification is that Finnegan is called a " man of hod , cement and edifices " and " like Haroun Childeric Eggeberth " , identifying him with the initials HCE . Parrinder for example states that " Bygmester Finnegan [ ... ] is HCE " , and finds that his fall and resurrection foreshadows " the fall of HCE early in Book I [ which is ] paralleled by his resurrection towards the end of III.3 , in the section originally called " Haveth Childers Everywhere " , when [ HCE 's ] ghost speaks forth in the middle of a seance . "
= = = Anna Livia Plurabelle ( ALP ) = = =
Patrick McCarthy describes HCE 's wife ALP as " the river @-@ woman whose presence is implied in the " riverrun " with which Finnegans Wake opens and whose monologue closes the book . For over six hundred pages , however , Joyce presents Anna Livia to us almost exclusively through other characters , much as in Ulysses we hear what Molly Bloom has to say about herself only in the last chapter . " The most extensive discussion of ALP comes in chapter I.8 , in which hundreds of names of rivers are woven into the tale of ALP 's life , as told by two gossiping washerwomen . Similarly hundreds of city names are woven into " Haveth Childers Everywhere " , the corresponding passage at the end of III.3 which focuses on HCE . As a result , it is generally contended that HCE personifies the Viking @-@ founded city of Dublin , and his wife ALP personifies the river Liffey , on whose banks the city was built .
= = = The children : Shem , Shaun and Issy = = =
ALP and HCE have a daughter , Issy – whose personality is often split ( represented by her mirror @-@ twin ) . Parrinder argues that " as daughter and sister , she is an object of secret and repressed desire both to her father [ ... ] and to her two brothers . " These twin sons of HCE and ALP consist of a writer called Shem the Penman and a postman by the name of Shaun the Post , who are rivals for replacing their father and for their sister Issy 's affection . Shaun is portrayed as a dull postman , conforming to society 's expectations , while Shem is a bright artist and sinister experimenter , often perceived as Joyce 's alter @-@ ego in the book . Hugh Staples finds that Shaun " wants to be thought of as a man @-@ about @-@ town , a snappy dresser , a glutton and a gourmet ... He is possessed of a musical voice and is a braggart . He is not happy in his work , which is that of a messenger or a postman ; he would rather be a priest . " Shaun 's sudden and somewhat unexpected promotion to the book 's central character in Book III is explained by Tindall with the assertion that " having disposed of old HCE , Shaun is becoming the new HCE . "
Like their father , Shem and Shaun are referred to by different names throughout the book , such as " Caddy and Primas " ; " Mercius " and " Justius " ; " Dolph and Kevin " ; and " Jerry and Kevin " . These twins are contrasted in the book by allusions to sets of opposing twins and enemies in literature , mythology and history ; such as Set and Horus of the Osiris story ; the biblical pairs Jacob and Esau , Cain and Abel , and Saint Michael and the Devil – equating Shaun with " Mick " and Shem with " Nick " – as well as Romulus and Remus .
= = = Minor characters = = =
The book is also populated by a number of minor characters , such as the Four Masters , the twelve customers , the Earwickers ' cleaning staff Kate and Joe , as well as more obscure characters such as " McGrath " , Lily Kinsella , and the bell @-@ ringer " Fox Goodman " .
The most commonly recurring characters outside of the Earwicker family are the four old men known collectively as " Mamalujo " ( a conflation of their names : Matt Gregory , Marcus Lyons , Luke Tarpey and Johnny Mac Dougall ) . These four most commonly serve as narrators , but they also play a number of active roles in the text , such as when they serve as the judges in the court case of I.4 , or as the inquisitors who question Yawn in III.4. Tindall summarises the roles that these old men play as those of the Four Masters , the Four Evangelists , and the four Provinces of Ireland ( " Matthew , from the north , is Ulster ; Mark , from the south , is Munster ; Luke , from the east , is Leinster ; and John , from the west , is Connaught " ) . According to Finn Fordham , Joyce related to his daughter @-@ in @-@ law Helen Fleischmann that " Mamalujo " also represented Joyce 's own family , namely his wife Nora ( mama ) , daughter Lucia ( lu ) , and son Giorgio ( jo ) .
In addition to the four old men , there are a group of twelve unnamed men who always appear together , and serve as the customers in Earwicker 's pub , gossipers about his sins , jurors at his trial and mourners at his wake . The Earwicker household also includes two cleaning staff : Kate , the maid , and Joe , who is by turns handyman and barman in Earwicker 's pub . These characters are seen by most critics as older versions of ALP and HCE . Kate often plays the role of museum curator , as in the " Willingdone Museyroom " episode of 1 @.@ 1 , and is recognisable by her repeated motif " Tip ! Tip ! " Joe is often also referred to by the name " Sackerson " , and Kitcher describes him as " a figure sometimes playing the role of policeman , sometimes [ ... ] a squalid derelict , and most frequently the odd @-@ job man of HCE 's inn , Kate 's male counterpart , who can ambiguously indicate an older version of HCE . "
= = Language and style = =
Joyce invented a unique polyglot @-@ language or idioglossia solely for the purpose of this work . This language is composed of composite words from some sixty to seventy world languages , combined to form puns , or portmanteau words and phrases intended to convey several layers of meaning at once . Senn has labelled Finnegans Wake 's language as " polysemetic " , and Tindall as an " Arabesque " . Norris describes it as a language which " like poetry , uses words and images which can mean several , often contradictory , things at once " An early review of the book argued that Joyce was attempting " to employ language as a new medium , breaking down all grammatical usages , all time space values , all ordinary conceptions of context [ ... the theme is the language and the language the theme , and a language where every association of sound and free association is exploited . " Seconding this analysis of the book 's emphasis on form over content , Paul Rosenfeld reviewed Finnegans Wake in 1939 with the suggestion that " the writing is not so much about something as it is that something itself [ .. ] in Finnegans Wake the style , the essential qualities and movement of the words , their rhythmic and melodic sequences , and the emotional color of the page are the main representatives of the author 's thought and feeling . The accepted significations of the words are secondary . "
While commentators emphasize how this manner of writing can communicate multiple levels of meaning simultaneously , Hayman and Norris contend that its purpose is as much to obscure and disable meaning as to expand it . Hayman writes that access to the work 's " tenuous narratives " may only be achieved through " the dense weave of a language designed as much to shield as to reveal them . " Norris argues that Joyce 's language is " devious " and that it " conceals and reveals secrets . " Allen B. Ruch has dubbed Joyce 's new language " dreamspeak , " and describes it as " a language that is basically English , but extremely malleable and all @-@ inclusive , rich with portmanteau words , stylistic parodies , and complex puns . " Although much has been made of the numerous world languages employed in the book 's composite language , most of the more obscure languages appear only seldom in small clusters , and most agree with Ruch that the latent sense of the language , however manifestly obscure , is " basically English " . Burrell also finds that Joyce 's thousands of neologisms are " based on the same etymological principles as standard English . " However , the Wake 's language is not entirely unique in literature ; for example critics have seen its use of portmanteaus and neologisms as an extension of Lewis Carroll 's Jabberwocky .
Although Joyce died shortly after the publication of Finnegans Wake , during the work 's composition the author made a number of statements concerning his intentions in writing in such an original manner . In a letter to Max Eastman , for example , Joyce suggested that his decision to employ such a unique and complex language was a direct result from his attempts to represent the night :
In writing of the night I really could not , I felt I could not , use words in their ordinary connections . Used that way they do not express how things are in the night , in the different stages – the conscious , then semi @-@ conscious , then unconscious . I found that it could not be done with words in their ordinary relations and connections . When morning comes of course everything will be clear again [ ... ] I 'll give them back their English language . I 'm not destroying it for good .
Joyce is also reported as having told Arthur Power that " what is clear and concise can 't deal with reality , for to be real is to be surrounded by mystery . " On the subject of the vast number of puns employed in the work Joyce argued to Frank Budgeon that " after all , the Holy Roman Catholic Apostolic Church was built on a pun . It ought to be good enough for me " , and to the objection of triviality he replied " Yes . Some of the means I use are trivial – and some are quadrivial . " A great many of the book 's puns are etymological in nature . Sources tell us that Joyce relished delving into the history and the changing meanings of words , his primary source being An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language by the Rev. Walter W. Skeat ( Oxford , at the Clarendon Press ; 1879 ) . For example , one of the very first entries in Skeat is for the letter A , which begins : " ... ( 1 ) adown ; ( 2 ) afoot ; ( 3 ) along ; ( 4 ) arise ; ( 5 ) achieve ; ( 6 ) avert ; ( 7 ) amend ; ( 8 ) alas ; ( 9 ) abyss ... " Further in the entry , Skeat writes : " These prefixes are discussed at greater length under the headings Of , On , Along , Arise ... Alas , Aware , Avast ... " It seems likely that these strings of words prompted Joyce to finish the Wake with a sentence fragment that included the words : " ... a way a lone a last a loved a long ... " Samuel Beckett collated words from foreign languages on cards for Joyce to use , and , as Joyce 's eyesight worsened , wrote down the text from his dictation . Beckett described and defended the writing style of Finnegans Wake thus :
This writing that you find so obscure is a quintessential extraction of language and painting and gesture , with all the inevitable clarity of the old inarticulation . Here is the savage economy of hieroglyphics .
Faced with the obstacles to be surmounted in " understanding " Joyce 's text , a handful of critics have suggested readers focus on the rhythm and sound of the language , rather than solely on " meaning . " As early as 1929 , Eugène Jolas stressed the importance of the aural and musical dimensions of the work . In his contribution to Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress , Jolas wrote :
Those who have heard Mr. Joyce read aloud from Work in Progress know the immense rhythmic beauty of his technique . It has a musical flow that flatters the ear , that has the organic structure of works of nature , that transmits painstakingly every vowel and consonant formed by his ear .
The Canadian critic , historian and novelist Patrick Watson has also argued this point , writing that
Those people who say the book is unreadable have not tried reading it aloud . This is the secret . If you even mouth the words silently , suddenly what seemed incomprehensible ( Hubert Butler called it " Joyce 's learned gibberish , " ) leaps into referential meaning , by its sound , since page after page is rich in allusion to familiar phrases , parables , sayings of all kinds – and the joyous and totally brilliant wordplay , over and over again imperceivable until you actually listen to it – transforms what was an unrelievable agony into an adventure .
= = = Allusions to other works = = =
Finnegans Wake incorporates a high number of intertextual allusions and references to other texts ; Parrinder refers to it as " a remarkable example of intertextuality " containing a " wealth of literary reference . " Among the most prominent are the Irish ballad " Finnegan 's Wake " from which the book takes its name , Italian philosopher Giovanni Battista Vico 's La Scienza Nuova , the Egyptian Book of the Dead , the plays of Shakespeare , and religious texts such as the Bible and Qur 'an . These allusions , rather than directly quoting or referencing a source , normally enter the text in a contorted fashion , often through humorous plays on words . For example , Hamlet Prince of Denmark becomes " Camelot , prince of dinmurk " and the Epistle to the Hebrews becomes a " farced epistol to the hibruws " .
The book begins with one such allusion to Vico 's New Science :
riverrun , past Eve and Adam 's , from swerve of shore to bend of bay , brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs .
" Commodius vicus " refers to Giambattista Vico ( 1668 – 1744 ) , who proposed a theory of cyclical history in his work " La Scienza Nuova " ( The New Science ) . Vico argued that the world was coming to the end of the last of three ages , these being the age of gods , the age of heroes , and the age of humans . These ideas recur throughout Finnegans Wake , informing the book 's four @-@ part structure . Vico 's name appears a number of times throughout the Wake , indicating the work 's debt to his theories , such as “ The Vico road goes round and round to meet where terms begin . ” That a reference to Vico 's cyclical theory of history is to be found in the opening sentence which is a continuation of the book 's closing sentence – thus making the work cyclical in itself – creates the relevance of such an allusion .
One of the sources Joyce drew from is the Ancient Egyptian story of Osiris , and the Egyptian Book of the Dead , a collection of spells and invocations . Bishop asserts that " it is impossible to overlook the vital presence of the Book of the Dead in Finnegans Wake , which refers to ancient Egypt in countless tags and allusions . " At one of their last meetings , Joyce suggested to Frank Budgen that he write an article about Finnegans Wake , entitling it " James Joyce 's Book of the Dead " . Budgen followed Joyce 's advice with his paper " Joyce 's Chapters of Going Forth by Day " , highlighting many of the allusions to Egyptian mythology in the book .
The Tristan and Iseult legend – a tragic love triangle between the Irish princess Iseult , the Cornish knight Tristan and his uncle King Mark – is also oft alluded to in the work , particularly in Book II chapter 4 . Fargnoli and Gillespie argue that " various themes and motifs throughout Finnegans Wake , such as the cuckoldry of Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker ( a King Mark figure ) and Shaun 's attempts at seducing Issy , relate directly to Tristan and Isolde [ ... ] other motifs relating to Earwicker 's loss of authority , such as the forces usurping his parental status , are also based on Tristan and Isolde . "
The book also alludes heavily to Irish mythology , with HCE sometimes corresponding to Fionn mac Cumhaill , Issy and ALP to Gráinne , and Shem / Shaun to Dermot ( Diarmaid ) . Not only Irish mythology , but also notable real @-@ life Irish figures are alluded to throughout the text . For example , HCE is often identified with Charles Stewart Parnell , and Shem 's attack on his father in this way mirrors the attempt of forger Richard Pigott to incriminate Parnell in the Phoenix Park Murders of 1882 by means of false letters . But , given the flexibility of allusion in Finnegans Wake HCE assumes the character of Pigott as well , for just as HCE betrays himself to the cad , Pigott betrayed himself at the inquiry into admitting the forgery by his spelling of the word " hesitancy " as " hesitency " ; and this misspelling appears frequently in the Wake .
Finnegans Wake also makes a great number of allusions to religious texts . When HCE is first introduced in chapter I.2 , the narrator relates how " in the beginning " he was a " grand old gardener " , thus equating him with Adam in the Garden of Eden . Spinks further highlights this allusion by highlighting that like HCE 's unspecified crime in the park , Adam also " commits a crime in a garden " .
= = = Norwegian influence = = =
With Dublin , an early Viking settlement , as the setting for Finnegans Wake , it is perhaps not surprising that Joyce incorporated a number of Norwegian linguistic and cultural elements into the work ( notably Riksmål references for the most part ) . For example , one of the main tales of chapter II.3 concerns a Norwegian tailor , and a number of Norwegian words such as bakvandets , Knut Oelsvinger and Bygmester Finnegan ( the latter a reference to Ibsen 's Bygmeester Solness ) are used throughout . Indeed , most of Ibsen 's works , many of his characters and also some quotations are referenced in the Wake . While Joyce was working on Finnegans Wake , he wanted to insert references to Scandinavian languages and literature , hiring five teachers of Norwegian . The first one turned out to be the poet Olaf Bull . Joyce wanted to read Norwegian works in the original language , including Peter Andreas Munch 's Norrøne Gude- og Heltesagn ( Norse tales of gods and heroes ) . He was looking for puns and unusual associations across the barriers of language , a practice Bull well understood . Lines from Bull 's poems echo through Finnegans Wake , and Bull himself materializes under the name " Olaph the Oxman " , a pun on his surname .
= = Literary significance and criticism = =
The value of Finnegans Wake as a work of literature has been a point of contention since the time of its appearance , in serial form , in literary reviews of the 1920s . Initial response , to both its serialised and final published forms , was almost universally negative . Even close friends and family were disapproving of Joyce 's seemingly impenetrable text , with Joyce 's brother Stanislaus " rebuk [ ing ] him for writing an incomprehensible night @-@ book " , and former friend Oliver Gogarty believing the book to be a joke , pulled by Joyce on the literary community , referring to it as " the most colossal leg pull in literature since Macpherson 's Ossian " . When Ezra Pound , a former champion of Joyce 's and admirer of Ulysses , was asked his opinion on the text , he wrote " Nothing so far as I make out , nothing short of divine vision or a new cure for the clap can possibly be worth all the circumambient peripherization . " H.G. Wells , in a personal letter to Joyce , argued that " you have turned your back on common men , on their elementary needs and their restricted time and intelligence [ ... ] I ask : who the hell is this Joyce who demands so many waking hours of the few thousands I have still to live for a proper appreciation of his quirks and fancies and flashes of rendering ? " Even Joyce 's patron Harriett Weaver wrote to him in 1927 to inform him of her misgivings regarding his new work , stating " I am made in such a way that I do not care much for the output from your Wholesale Safety Pun Factory nor for the darknesses and unintelligibilities of your deliberately entangled language system . It seems to me you are wasting your genius . "
The wider literary community were equally disparaging , with D. H. Lawrence declaring , in reaction to the sections of the Wake being published individually as " Work in Progress " , " My God , what a clumsy olla putrida James Joyce is ! Nothing but old fags and cabbage @-@ stumps of quotations from the Bible and the rest , stewed in the juice of deliberate journalistic dirty @-@ mindedness – what old and hard @-@ worked staleness , masquerading as the all @-@ new ! " Vladimir Nabokov , who had also admired Ulysses , described Finnegans Wake as " nothing but a formless and dull mass of phony folklore , a cold pudding of a book , a persistent snore in the next room [ ... ] and only the infrequent snatches of heavenly intonations redeem it from utter insipidity . " In response to such criticisms , Transition published essays throughout the late 1920s , defending and explaining Joyce 's work . In 1929 , these essays ( along with a few others written for the occasion ) were collected under the title Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress and published by Shakespeare and Company . This collection featured Samuel Beckett 's first commissioned work , the essay " Dante ... Bruno . Vico .. Joyce " , along with contributions by William Carlos Williams , Stuart Gilbert , Marcel Brion , Eugene Jolas and others . As Margot Norris highlights , the agenda of this first generation of Wake critics and defenders was " to assimilate Joyce 's experimental text to an already increasingly established and institutionalized literary avant @-@ garde " and " to foreground Joyce 's last work as spearhead of a philosophical avant @-@ garde bent on the revolution of language " .
Upon its publication in 1939 , Finnegans Wake received a series of mixed , but mostly negative reviews . Louise Bogan , writing for Nation , surmised that while " the book 's great beauties , its wonderful passages of wit , its variety , its mark of genius and immense learning are undeniable [ ... ] , to read the book over a long period of time gives one the impression of watching intemperance become addiction , become debauch " and argued that " Joyce 's delight in reducing man 's learning , passion , and religion to a hash is also disturbing . " Edwin Muir , reviewing in Listener wrote that " as a whole the book is so elusive that there is no judging it ; I cannot tell whether it is winding into deeper and deeper worlds of meaning or lapsing into meaningless " , although he too acknowledged that " there are occasional flashes of a kind of poetry which is difficult to define but is of unquestioned power . " B. Ifor Evans , writing in the Manchester Guardian , similarly argued that , due to its difficulties , the book " does not admit of review " , and argued that , perhaps " in twenty years ' time , with sufficient study and with the aid of the commentary that will doubtless arise , one might be ready for an attempt to appraise it . " Taking a swipe at many of the negative reviews circulating at the time , Evans writes : " The easiest way to deal with the book would be [ ... ] to write off Mr. Joyce 's latest volume as the work of a charlatan . But the author of Dubliners , A Portrait of the Artist and Ulysses is not a charlatan , but an artist of very considerable proportions . I prefer to suspend judgement ... "
In the time since Joyce 's death , the book 's admirers have struggled against public perception of the work to make exactly this argument for Finnegans Wake . One of the book 's early champions was Thornton Wilder , who wrote to Gertrude Stein and Alice Toklas in August 1939 , a few months after the book 's publication : " One of my absorptions [ ... ] has been James Joyce 's new novel , digging out its buried keys and resolving that unbroken chain of erudite puzzles and finally coming on lots of wit , and lots of beautiful things has been my midnight recuperation . A lot of thanks to him " . The publication in 1944 of the first in @-@ depth study and analysis of Joyce 's final text — A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake by mythologist Joseph Campbell and Henry Morton Robinson — tried to prove to a skeptical public that if the hidden key or " Monomyth " could be found , then the book could be read as a novel with characters , plot , and an internal coherence . As a result , from the 1940s @-@ 1960s critical emphasis moved away from positioning the Wake as a " revolution of the word " and towards readings that stressed its " internal logical coherence " , as " the avant @-@ gardism of Finnegans Wake was put on hold [ and ] deferred while the text was rerouted through the formalistic requirements of an American criticism inspired by New Critical dicta that demanded a poetic intelligibility , a formal logic , of texts . " Slowly the book 's critical capital began to rise to the point that , in 1957 , Northrop Frye described Finnegans Wake as the “ chief ironic epic of our time ” and Anthony Burgess lauded the book as " a great comic vision , one of the few books of the world that can make us laugh aloud on nearly every page . "
In 1962 , Clive Hart wrote the first major book @-@ length study of the work since Campbell 's Skeleton Key , Structure and Motif in " Finnegans Wake " which approached the work from the increasingly influential field of structuralism . However through the 1960s it was to be French post @-@ structuralist theory that was to exert the most influence over readings of Finnegans Wake , refocussing critical attention back to the work 's radical linguistic experiments and their philosophical consequences . Jacques Derrida developed his ideas of literary " deconstruction " largely inspired by Finnegans Wake ( as detailed in the essay " Two Words for Joyce " ) , and as a result literary theory — in particular post @-@ structuralism — has embraced Joyce 's innovation and ambition in Finnegans Wake . Derrida tells an anecdote about the two books ' importance for his own thought ; in a bookstore in Tokyo ,
an American tourist of the most typical variety leaned over my shoulder and sighed : " So many books ! What is the definitive one ? Is there any ? " It was an extremely small book shop , a news agency . I almost replied , " Yes , there are two of them , Ulysses and Finnegans Wake .
The text 's influence on other writers has grown since its initial shunning , and contemporary American author Tom Robbins is among the writers working today to have expressed his admiration for Joyce 's complex last work :
the language in it is incredible . There 's so many layers of puns and references to mythology and history . But it 's the most realistic novel ever written . Which is exactly why it 's so unreadable . He wrote that book the way that the human mind works . An intelligent , inquiring mind . And that 's just the way consciousness is . It 's not linear . It 's just one thing piled on another . And all kinds of cross references . And he just takes that to an extreme . There 's never been a book like it and I don 't think there ever will be another book like it . And it 's absolutely a monumental human achievement . But it 's very hard to read .
More recently , Finnegans Wake has become an increasingly accepted part of the critical literary canon , although detractors still remain . As an example , John Bishop described the book 's legacy as that of " the single most intentionally crafted literary artifact that our culture has produced [ ... ] and , certainly , one of the great monuments of twentieth @-@ century experimental letters . " The section of the book to have received the most praise throughout its critical history has been " Anna Livia Plurabelle " ( Book I , chapter 8 ) , which Parrinder describes as being " widely recognized as one of the most beautiful prose @-@ poems in English . " In 1994 , in The Western Canon , Harold Bloom wrote of Finnegans Wake : " [ if ] aesthetic merit were ever again to center the canon [ it ] would be as close as our chaos could come to the heights of Shakespeare and Dante , " and in 1998 the Modern Library placed Finnegans Wake seventy @-@ seventh amongst its list of " Top 100 English @-@ language novels of the twentieth century . "
= = Publication history = =
Throughout the seventeen years that Joyce wrote the book , Finnegans Wake was published in short excerpts in a number of literary magazines , most prominently in the Parisian literary journals Transatlantic Review and Eugene Jolas 's transition . It has been argued that " Finnegans Wake , much more so than Ulysses , was very much directly shaped by the tangled history of its serial publication . " In late October 1923 in Ezra Pound 's Paris flat , Ford Madox Ford convinced Joyce to contribute some of his new sketches to the Transatlantic Review , a new journal that Ford was editing .
The eight page " Mamalujo " sketch became the first fragment from the book to be published in its own right , in Transatlantic Review 1 @.@ 4 in April 1924 . The sketch appeared under the title " From Work in Progress " , a term applied to works by Ernest Hemingway and Tristan Tzara published in the same issue , and the one by which Joyce would refer to his final work until its publication as Finnegans Wake in 1939 . The sketch appeared in the final published text , in radically altered form , as chapter 2 @.@ 4 .
In 1925 four sketches from the developing work were published . " Here Comes Everybody " was published as " From Work in Progress " in the Contact Collection of Contemporary Writers , edited by Robert McAlmon . " The Letter " was published as " Fragment of an Unpublished Work " in Criterion 3 @.@ 12 ( July 1925 ) , and as " A New Unnamed Work " in Two Worlds 1 @.@ 1 . ( September 1925 ) . The first published draft of " Anna Livia Plurabelle " appeared in Le Navire d 'Argent 1 in October , and the first published draft of " Shem the Penman " appeared in the Autumn – Winter edition of This Quarter .
In 1925 @-@ 6 Two Worlds began to publish redrafted versions of previously published fragments , starting with " Here Comes Everybody " in December 1925 , and then " Anna Livia Plurabelle " ( March 1926 ) , " Shem the Penman " ( June 1926 ) , and " Mamalujo " ( September 1925 ) , all under the title " A New Unnamed Work " .
Eugene Jolas befriended Joyce in 1927 , and as a result serially published revised fragments from Book I in his transition literary journal . This began with the debut of the book 's opening chapter , under the title " Opening Pages of a Work in Progress " , in April 1927 . By November chapters I.2 through I.8 had all been published in the journal , in their correct sequence , under the title " Continuation of a Work in Progress " . From 1928 Book 's II and III slowly began to emerge in transition , with a brief excerpt of II.2 ( " The Triangle " ) published in February 1928 , and Book III 's four chapters between March 1928 and November 1929 .
At this point , Joyce started publishing individual books of chapters from Work in Progress . In 1929 , Harry and Caresse Crosby , owners of the Black Sun Press , contacted James Joyce through bookstore owner Sylvia Beach and arranged to print three short fables about the novel 's three children Shem , Shaun and Issy that had already appeared in translation . These were " The Mookse and the Gripes " , " The Triangle " , and " The Ondt and the Gracehoper " . The Black Sun Press named the new book Tales Told of Shem and Shaun for which they paid Joyce US $ 2 @,@ 000 for 600 copies , unusually good pay for Joyce at that time . Their printer Roger Lescaret erred when setting the type , leaving the final page with only two lines . Rather than reset the entire book , he suggested to the Crosby 's that they ask Joyce to write an additional eight lines to fill in the remainder of the page . Caresse refused , insisting that a literary master would never alter his work to fix a printer 's error . Lescaret appealed directly to Joyce , who promptly wrote the eight lines requested . The first 100 copies of Joyce 's book were printed on Japanese velum and signed by the author . It was hand @-@ set in Caslon type and included an abstract portrait of Joyce by Constantin Brâncuși , a pioneer of modernist abstract sculpture . Brâncuși 's drawings of Joyce became among the most popular images of him .
Faber and Faber published book editions of " Anna Livia Plurabelle " ( 1930 ) , and " Haveth Childers Everywhere " ( 1931 ) , HCE 's long defence of his life which would eventually close chapter III.3. A year later they published Two Tales of Shem and Shaun , which dropped " The Triangle " from the previous Black Sun Press edition . Book 2 was published serially in transition between February 1933 and May 1938 , and a final individual book publication , Storiella as She Is Syung , was published by Corvinus Press in 1937 , made up of sections from what would become chapter II.2.
By 1938 virtually all of Finnegans Book was in print in the transition serialisation and in the booklets , with the exception of Book IV . However , Joyce continued to revise all previously published sections until Finnegans Wake 's final published form , resulting in the text existing in a number of different forms , to the point that critics can speak of Finnegans Wake being a different entity to Work in Progress . The book was finally published by Faber and Faber on 4 May 1939 , after seventeen years of composition .
In March 2010 , a new " critically emended edition " was published in a limited edition of 1 @,@ 000 copies by Houyhnhnm Press in conjunction with Penguin . This edition was published in a trade edition in 2012 . Edited by Danis Rose and John O 'Hanlon , is the " summation of thirty years ’ intense engagement by textual scholars Danis Rose and John O ’ Hanlon verifying , codifying , collating and clarifying the 20 @,@ 000 pages of notes , drafts , typescripts and proofs . " In the publisher 's words the new edition " incorporates some 9 @,@ 000 minor yet crucial corrections and amendments , covering punctuation marks , font choice , spacing , misspellings , misplaced phrases and ruptured syntax . " According to the publisher , " Although individually minor , these changes are nonetheless crucial in that they facilitate a smooth reading of the book ’ s allusive density and essential fabric . " An attempt to identify these " 9 @,@ 000 minor yet crucial corrections and amendments " is under way at the Finnegans Wake Extensible Elucidation Treasury ( FWEET ) .
= = Translations and derivative works = =
Despite its linguistic complexity , Finnegans Wake has been translated into other languages : French , German , Chinese , Japanese , Dutch , Korean , Portuguese , Polish , Greek and Turkish .
A musical play , The Coach with the Six Insides by Jean Erdman , based on the character Anna Livia Plurabelle , was performed in New York in 1962 . Parts of the book were adapted for the stage by Mary Manning as Passages from Finnegans Wake , which was in turn used as the basis for a film of the novel by Mary Ellen Bute . Danish visual artists Michael Kvium and Christian Lemmerz created a multimedia project called " the Wake " , an 8 hour long silent movie based on the book . A version adapted by Barbara Vann with music by Chris McGlumphy was produced by The Medicine Show Theater in April 2005 and received a favorable review in the 11 April 2005 edition of The New York Times .
André Hodeir composed a jazz cantata on Anna Plurabelle ( 1966 ) . John Cage 's Roaratorio : an Irish circus on Finnegans Wake combines a collage of sounds mentioned in Finnegans Wake , with Irish jigs and Cage reading his Writing for the Second Time through Finnegans Wake , one of a series of five writings based on the Wake . The work also sets textual passages from the book as songs , including The Wonderful Widow of Eighteen Springs and Nowth upon Nacht . Phil Minton set passages of the Wake to music , on his 1998 album Mouthfull of Ecstasy . In recent years Olwen Fouéré 's play riverrun , based on the theme of rivers in Finnegans Wake has received critical accolades around the world . Adam Harvey has also adapted Finnegans Wake for the stage , including collaborating with Martin Pearlman and the Boston Baroque . In 2015 Waywords and Meansigns : Recreating Finnegans Wake [ in its whole wholume ] set Finnegans Wake to music unabridged , featuring an international group of musicians and Joyce enthusiasts .
= = Cultural impact = =
Finnegans Wake is a difficult text , and it has been noted that Joyce did not aim it at the general reader ; however , certain aspects of the work have made an impact on popular culture beyond the awareness of it being difficult . In the academic field , physicist Murray Gell @-@ Mann named a type of subatomic particle as a quark , after the phrase " Three quarks for Muster Mark " on page 383 of Finnegans Wake , as he already had the sound " kwork " . Similarly , the comparative mythology term monomyth , as described by Joseph Campbell in his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces , was taken from a passage in Finnegans Wake . The work of Marshall McLuhan was greatly inspired by James Joyce , especially referencing Finnegans Wake throughout the collage book War and Peace in the Global Village . The novel also was the source of the title of Clay Shirky 's book Here Comes Everybody .
= Dub Jones ( American football ) =
William Augustus " Dub " Jones ( born December 29 , 1924 ) is a former American football halfback who played ten seasons in the National Football League ( NFL ) and the old All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) in the late 1940s and early 1950s , primarily for the Cleveland Browns . He shares the NFL record for touchdowns scored in a single game , with six .
Jones was born into an athletic family in Louisiana and played a variety of sports , including football , at his high school in Ruston . The team won the state championship in 1941 , his senior year . Jones attended Louisiana State University on a scholarship for a year before being transferred to Tulane University in New Orleans as part of a World War II @-@ era U.S. Navy training program . He played football at Tulane for two seasons before joining the Miami Seahawks of the new AAFC in 1946 .
The Seahawks traded Jones at the end of the 1946 season to the AAFC 's Brooklyn Dodgers , who subsequently sent him to the Browns before the 1948 season . That year , the Browns won all of their games and the AAFC championship . The team repeated as champions in 1949 , but the AAFC dissolved at the end of the year and the Browns joined the NFL . A tall flanker back who was both a running and receiving threat , Jones was a key part of Browns teams that won NFL championships in 1950 , 1954 and 1955 . He was twice named to the Pro Bowl , the NFL 's all @-@ star game , including in 1951 , when he set his touchdown record .
Jones retired after the 1955 season , but returned to the Browns as an assistant coach in 1963 . The Browns won the NFL championship the following year . Jones left football for good in 1968 and went back to Ruston , where he worked with one of his sons in a general contracting business . Jones is a member of the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame and the Greater New Orleans Sports Hall of Fame .
= = Early life and college = =
Jones was born in Arcadia , Louisiana , but moved with his mother and three brothers to nearby Ruston , Louisiana after his father died when he was three years old . He played Little League Baseball as a child and went to watch boxing matches and baseball and football games at the nearby Louisiana Tech University .
Jones attended Ruston High School starting in 1938 , and played football under head coach L.J. " Hoss " Garrett . He was small in stature and did not make the first team until his senior year in 1941 . Ruston 's Bearcats football team won its first @-@ ever state championship that year , with Jones playing left halfback and tailback . Jones also played baseball and basketball and boxed in high school .
After graduating , Jones got a scholarship to attend Louisiana State University ( LSU ) in Baton Rouge , where one of his brothers played football . He stayed there for a year before joining the U.S. Navy as American involvement in World War II intensified . The Navy transferred him to a V @-@ 12 training program at Tulane University in New Orleans , where he played as a halfback and a safety in 1943 and 1944 .
Jones carried the football for a total of 700 yards of rushing and scored four touchdowns in 1944 , his junior year , and was named an All @-@ American and an All @-@ Southeastern Conference player by sportswriters . He trained as a fireman aboard submarines while in the Navy , and in 1945 he played football for a military team at the Naval Submarine Base New London in New London , Connecticut . Before beginning his professional career , he played in the 1946 Chicago College All @-@ Star Game , a now @-@ defunct annual contest between the National Football League champion and a squad of the country 's best college players . Led by quarterback and future teammate Otto Graham , the college players beat the Los Angeles Rams 16 – 0 that year .
= = Professional career = =
Jones was selected by the Chicago Cardinals of the National Football League ( NFL ) with the second pick in the 1946 NFL Draft , but did not sign with the team as he pondered returning to LSU to finish his studies . When the Miami Seahawks of the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) offered him a $ 12 @,@ 000 contract , however , he accepted it and joined the team . The Seahawks won just three games in 1946 , the AAFC 's first season of play , and Jones was traded along with two other players to the Brooklyn Dodgers , another AAFC team , in December . The Seahawks , meanwhile , folded and were moved to Baltimore after the season because of poor attendance and shaky finances . Jones played sparingly for the Dodgers in the last three games of the 1946 season , rushing for 62 yards on 19 carries .
The Dodgers traded for Jones in part to replace Glenn Dobbs – a star tailback in Brooklyn 's single @-@ wing offense – because Dobbs was suffering from injuries . Jones himself was hurt early in the 1947 season , however , when he was hit by Bill Willis of the Cleveland Browns . Injuries to his knee , hip and clavicle forced him to sit out for several weeks . He broke his hand when he returned and had to play exclusively on defense for the rest of the season .
Paul Brown , the head coach of the Browns , was impressed with Jones 's defensive play for Brooklyn , and traded away the rights to University of Michigan star Bob Chappuis to acquire him in June 1948 . Jones began his career with the Browns as a defensive back , but was switched to halfback early in the 1948 season because his performance on defense wasn 't up to Brown 's standards . Jones played on offense alongside Graham , the team 's quarterback , and star fullback Marion Motley as the Browns won all of their games in 1948 and beat the Buffalo Bills for their third straight AAFC championship . He ended the year with 149 rushing yards on 33 carries .
Over the next two seasons , Jones developed into a star flanker , a position he helped invent . He was both a running threat and a receiver – his tall stature was well @-@ suited to receiving – and helped complement a passing attack that featured the Browns ' two main ends , Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie . Jones often went in motion behind the line of scrimmage before the snap at a time when few players did so , causing confusion and mismatches on defense . He had 312 rushing yards and 241 receiving yards in 1949 , when the Browns won another AAFC championship .
Jones came into his own in the 1950 season , when the Browns joined the NFL following the dissolution of the AAFC . Cleveland won the NFL championship against the Rams that year , helped by Jones 's skill receiving short passes underneath opponents ' coverage . Jones had 31 receptions and 11 rushing and receiving touchdowns in 1950 .
Jones continued to excel in 1951 , scoring 12 touchdowns and amassing a career @-@ high 1 @,@ 062 yards from scrimmage . He tied an NFL record in a November 25 game against the Chicago Bears by scoring six touchdowns in a single game , a record he shares with Ernie Nevers ( 1929 ) and Gale Sayers ( 1965 ) . The Browns finished the season with an 11 – 1 win @-@ loss record and advanced to the championship game , but lost this time to the Rams . Jones came in second in the NFL in touchdowns scored and was named to the Pro Bowl , the league 's all @-@ star game . He was also selected by sportswriters as a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro . " Dub has the speed , the guts and the know @-@ how of a great player , " Paul Brown said at the time , calling him " the most underrated player in the league . "
Jones made the Pro Bowl again in 1952 , when he had 952 total yards and six touchdowns . Cleveland advanced to the NFL championship for the third time in a row that year , losing 17 – 7 to the Detroit Lions . In 1953 , Jones 's production declined : he had just 401 total yards and no touchdowns , and he decided to retire after the Browns reached and lost another championship game . He went back to Ruston to work at a lumber business he ran in the offseason , but Brown asked him to return in 1954 , saying the team needed him . Jones played for two more years , winning two more championships with the Browns before retiring for good . He pulled his hamstring in an exhibition game before the 1955 season , an injury that caused him to miss several games and bothered him all season .
= = Later life and coaching career = =
Jones spent seven years working at his business in Ruston after leaving the Browns . He worked briefly as a special instructor for the Houston Oilers and an occasional advisor to college programs in Louisiana , but otherwise was out of football . He returned to the Browns as an assistant coach , however , in March 1963 after Paul Brown was fired by team owner Art Modell . Blanton Collier , Brown 's long @-@ time deputy , became head coach and put Jones in charge of the receivers . Jones and Collier had been close during his playing days , and Collier considered him an astute student of the game .
Under Collier , Jones supervised the offensive backfield and the ends , but was also the Browns ' offensive play @-@ caller . He directed the team from the press box on Collier 's behalf because Collier was hard of hearing and could not do so himself . The Browns won their first six games at the beginning of Jones 's coaching career in the 1963 season , although a late slump cost them a spot in the championship game . The team regrouped the following year , ending with a 10 – 3 – 1 win @-@ loss @-@ tie record and winning the NFL 's eastern division . Cleveland went on to win the championship game against the Baltimore Colts in 1964 . The Browns advanced to the championship game again the following year , but lost to the Green Bay Packers . During his tenure as a coach , Jones was the primary position coach for running backs Jim Brown and Leroy Kelly , both of whom are members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame . He also coached receiver Paul Warfield , another hall of fame member who helped propel the Browns to the 1964 championship .
Jones stayed with the Browns until early 1968 , when he quit and was replaced by Nick Skorich . The Browns had offered him a part @-@ time coaching job but made clear that he could not stay on as offensive coordinator ; Jones declined the reduced role . After leaving the Browns , Jones moved back to Ruston and did occasional scouting for the team at the nearby Grambling State University . He was also a volunteer coach of receivers on Grambling 's football team . Later in life , he worked for his son Tom 's general contracting business in Ruston .
Jones was inducted into the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 1982 and the Greater New Orleans Sports Hall of Fame in 1984 . He is the father of former NFL quarterback Bert Jones , who played 10 seasons in the 1970s and 1980s for the Baltimore Colts and Los Angeles Rams and won the NFL 's most valuable player award in 1976 . Jones and his wife , Schump , have seven children , including four sons who played college football .
= Rudolf Wolters =
Rudolf Wolters ( August 3 , 1903 – January 7 , 1983 ) was a German architect and government official , known for his longtime association with fellow architect and Third Reich official Albert Speer . A friend and subordinate of Speer , Wolters received the many papers which were smuggled out of Spandau Prison for Speer while he was imprisoned there , and kept them for him until Speer was released in 1966 . After Speer 's release , the friendship slowly collapsed , Wolters objecting strongly to Speer 's blaming of Hitler and other Nazis for the Jewish Holocaust and World War II , and they saw nothing of each other in the decade before Speer 's death in 1981 .
Wolters , who was born to a Catholic middle @-@ class family in the northern German town of Coesfeld , obtained his degree and doctorate in architecture from the Technical University of Berlin , forging a close friendship with Speer while a student . After receiving his doctorate , he had difficulty finding employment prior to the Nazi rise to power . From 1933 to 1937 , he worked for the Reichsbahn . In 1937 , Speer hired him as a department head , and Wolters soon took major responsibility for Hitler 's plan for the large scale reconstruction of Berlin . When Speer became Minister of Armaments and War Production in 1942 , Wolters moved to his department , remaining his close associate .
After Speer 's indictment and imprisonment for war crimes , Wolters stood by him . In addition to receiving and organizing Speer 's clandestine notes from Spandau , which later served as the basis of his best @-@ selling books of memoirs , Wolters quietly raised money for Speer . These funds were used to support Speer 's family and for other purposes , according to directions which Wolters received from his former superior . Following Speer 's release in 1966 , their friendship gradually deteriorated , until the two men became so embittered that Wolters allowed papers demonstrating Speer 's knowledge of the persecution of the Jews to become public in 1980 .
Wolters was involved in the reconstruction of West Germany following World War II , rebuilding his hometown of Coesfeld among many other projects . Wolters wrote several architectural books during the war , as well as a biography of Speer .
= = Early life = =
Wolters was born into a Catholic family in Coesfeld , Germany on August 3 , 1903 , the son of an architect who had married the daughter of a master carpenter in the shipbuilding trade . In his privately published memoirs , Segments of a Life , Wolters described his father as " a serious , conscientious and diligent man , always concerned about the future " . Wolters regarded his mother as " a highly practical woman , full of zest for life , who in hard times thought nothing of serving a delicious roast without letting on it was horsemeat " . Wolters passed a generally happy childhood , punctuated by the chaos of the war years , and by a childhood illness that resulted in his being taught at home for a year by two priests .
After passing his Abitur , or secondary school examination , he began his architectural studies at the Technical University of Munich in 1923 . Wolters noted the politicized atmosphere of his student days , stating , " My academic freedom began , one might say , to the sound of drums : the Hitler Putsch and its consequences to us students , most of whom were in agreement with it . " Wolters , by his own admission , was in broad sympathy with Nazi aims , though he never saw a need to join the Party .
In 1924 , Wolters met Albert Speer , who was a year behind him . Wolters transferred to the Technical University of Berlin later that year , followed by Speer in 1925 . Wolters sought to study under Professor Hans Poelzig , but there was no room in the course for the transfer student . Instead , Wolters studied under Heinrich Tessenow , as did Speer . Wolters obtained his degree in 1927 , and earned his doctorate at the school two years later . In class prize competition , Wolters generally finished second to Speer .
Wolters ' graduation coincided with the start of the Great Depression , and he had great difficulty finding a job , eventually settling for an unpaid position at Reichsbahn headquarters in Berlin in 1930 . Upon losing that position the following year , Wolters accepted a position with the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway 's urban planning division in Novosibirsk .
= = Nazi era = =
In 1933 , Wolters returned to Berlin , where he briefly worked as an assistant in Speer 's office before returning to the Reichsbahn , this time getting paid for his work . Speer had forged a close relationship with Hitler , and in late 1936 , Speer informed Wolters that the dictator would soon appoint Speer as Generalbauinspektor ( GBI ) or General Building Inspector for the Reich Capital , and suggested that Wolters resign his post with the railway and come work for him again . Wolters did so , beginning work at the GBI office in January 1937 as a Head of Department in the Planning Bureau . Wolters was one of a number of young , well @-@ paid assistants of Speer at the GBI , who were collectively nicknamed " Speer 's Kindergarten " . Most of the Kindergarteners were not Nazi Party members , since Speer found that Party duties interfered with working time , and the Kindergarten was expected to work long hours . Speer had Hitler 's permission to hire non @-@ Nazis , so the GBI became something of a political sanctuary .
Wolters later wrote of his views at this time :
I had viewed Hitler and his movement with some skepticism , but when the abolition of the multi @-@ party mess removed the obscenity of unemployment , and the first 1 @,@ 000 kilometers of autobahns opened up a new era of mobility , I too saw the light : this was the time when Churchill said he hoped Great Britain would have a man like Hitler in time of peril , and when high church dignitaries and distinguished academics paid the Führer homage .
Much of Wolters ' work at the GBI was connected to Hitler 's plan for the large scale reconstruction of Berlin . The dictator had placed Speer in charge of this plan . The centerpiece of the scheme was a grand boulevard , 4 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) long , dubbed by Speer as the Prachtstrasse ( Street of Magnificence ) or " North – South Axis " , for which the main design responsibility was delegated to Wolters . Wolters was also responsible for transport rings in the new Berlin , for museums , and for the GBI 's press office . In 1939 , Wolters became responsible for the architecture portion of the magazine , Die Kunst im Deutschen Reich ( Art in the German Reich ) .
Wolters made several trips abroad in connection with his duties for the GBI . He visited the United States to study advanced transport systems , and Paris for the 1937 international exposition there . In 1939 , Joseph Goebbels appointed him Exhibition Commissioner . Wolters took charge of organizing German architectural exhibits presented in other countries . Until 1943 , Wolters traveled to other European capitals , and in addition to his duties as commissioner , gathered political intelligence . On his return , Wolters passed along his insights to Speer and some of these thoughts reached Hitler 's ears .
In 1940 , Wolters , a longtime diarist , suggested to Speer that he begin keeping a Chronik , or chronicle of the GBI 's activities . Speer agreed , and instructed department heads to send Wolters raw material for the Chronik on a regular basis . Among other matters , the Chronik detailed the GBI 's responsibility for administering a 1939 amendment to the Nuremberg Laws which allowed Aryan landlords to evict Jewish tenants with virtually no notice . For example , the entry for August 1941 included this information : " According to a Speer directive a further action for the clearing of some five thousand Jewish flats is being started . " The November entry noted that " roughly 4 @,@ 500 Jews were evacuated " . The dispossessed Jews were sent to the occupied territories , with the newspapers reporting , as directed by Goebbels : " Over the past few days many Jews have hurriedly left Germany , leaving debts behind them . "
Wolters was given the additional task in 1941 of setting up a special section of the government publishing house which specialized in works of architecture . Wolters wrote several books on the Third Reich 's architectural works during the war years . He rejected the notion that Nazi architecture was an imitation of classical models : " Those who speak of neo @-@ classicism have not understood the spirit of our buildings . "
In February 1942 , following the death of Fritz Todt , Hitler appointed Speer as Minister of Armaments and War Production . Wolters followed Speer to his new ministry , becoming head of the Department of Culture , Media , and Propaganda of the Organization Todt . Wolters continued his Chronik in the new position .
In December 1943 , Speer put Wolters in charge of planning for the reconstruction of bombed German cities . Wolters organized a working group of about twenty architects and city planners , mostly from northern Germany . The work of this group , known as the Arbeitsstab Wiederaufbauplanung ( Task Force for Reconstruction Planning ) , would form the basis for the actual postwar reconstruction of Germany . Speer , who authorized the group , saw an opportunity to make German cities more habitable in the age of the automobile . The group sought solutions which would use the existing street system , rather than the grand ceremonial boulevards common in Nazi city planning . In addition , the Arbeitsstab issued extensive guidelines , ranging from the width of avenues that carried streetcar lines to the ratio of theatre seats to inhabitants .
Wolters rarely met Hitler , and only in the company of other members of Speer 's office . He later recorded ,
Of course , from these few experiences , I cannot judge Hitler 's personality , but having shared with Speer his virtually daily contacts with him , and being familiar with Hitler 's ideas , for example , on town planning , I think that commentators are making it easy for themselves now when , as they frequently do , they resort in their descriptions to simplistic epitaphs such as " buck private " , " wall painter " , " petit @-@ bourgeois philistine " , or " history 's greatest criminal " .
Wolters ' longtime secretary , Marion Riesser , was half @-@ Jewish , and Wolters protected her throughout the war . In late 1944 , word reached them that those with Jewish ancestry who remained free would be called up and used for cannon fodder . Wolters met with Riesser and the three other half @-@ Jews in the Speer organizations , telling them if it became necessary ( which it did not ) , the four would be transferred to essential war factories where they would be safe . Wolters told them , " With Albert Speer 's help one can do anything . "
In February 1945 , as the Nazi regime collapsed , Speer instructed Wolters to take other high @-@ ranking officials in his department , including Heinrich Lübke , and set up architectural offices in the north of Germany to work on large @-@ scale prefabricated housing . Speer expected to join them , but not then , as he anticipated that the Allies would want to use his expertise towards the reconstruction of Germany . This did not come to pass ; Speer was arrested and charged with war crimes .
= = After the war = =
= = = Architectural work = = =
As Speer had instructed , Wolters set up a small office in the North German town of Höxter with Lübke , who knew the town 's mayor . The new office was soon commissioned to rebuild a bridge which had been destroyed , contrary to Speer 's instructions to preserve infrastructure . Later in 1945 , the office was dissolved , and Wolters returned to his hometown of Coesfeld where he had been commissioned to rebuild the ruined city . Lübke instead turned to politics , rising quickly through the political ranks of postwar Germany . In 1959 , Lübke became President of the Federal Republic of Germany , a position in which he served almost ten years before he resigned over questions about what he may have known about forced labor while working in Speer 's department .
Wolters was forced to rebuild in Coesfeld almost from scratch . With the widespread destruction , he had to lay out lots and rebuild streets , all without delay . He built a road through the grounds of the local castle , and converted the building into a hotel and conference center . The versatility he showed in the rebuilding of Coesfeld led to other commissions from German cities , including Rheine , Borken and Anholt .
In 1947 and 1949 , Wolters organized meetings of the former Arbeitsstab members , many of whom were intensively involved in the postwar reconstruction efforts . In 1950 , Wolters won a competition to design the new police headquarters in Dortmund The Hotel Königshof in Bonn , rebuilt by Wolters , had previously been the leading hotel in the city . It reopened by hosting the President of Italy in 1956 on his state visit , and again became the leading hotel in the then @-@ capital of the Federal Republic , hosting heads of states ( including U.S. Presidents Kennedy , Nixon , and Reagan ) , state dinners , and events hosted by the Chancellor of Germany .
Wolters received so many commissions from the government of North Rhine @-@ Westphalia that he opened an additional office in Düsseldorf . In 1955 , Wolters won a competition to design the Industrie @-@ Kreditbank building in Düsseldorf . Two years later , he was again successful in that city in a competition to design the Galarie Conzen . Wolters was awarded a prize for his design to reconstruct Düsseldorf 's Altstadt ( Old City ) . His son , Fritz Wolters , also an architect , described him as a man who fought uncompromisingly for what he saw as the " whole " in urban planning , and once ended a discussion with a local committee with the remark that they had " rented his head , not his pencil " . Wolters also considered himself to be a " functionalist " , designing a number of concrete , flat roofed , modern hospitals .
In the 1960s , Wolters and his son shared an office until their architectural differences separated them , Fritz Wolters being more interested in the small details rather than in what he described as " epoch @-@ making " solutions . However , their personal relationship survived this professional separation . In 1978 , Wolters published a book on the town centre of Berlin , but despite suggestions from his son , he declined to include his views about Nazi architecture , and never did set forth such views to his colleagues .
= = = Association with Speer = = =
= = = = Spandau years = = = =
Wolters did not attend the Nuremberg trial ( he later described it as a " victor 's court " and as a " show trial " ) but wrote to Speer in January 1946 , during the trial : " I stand by you in misfortune as in the good days . I believe as before in your lucky star . " On August 10 , as the trial approached its conclusion , Speer , anticipating the likelihood of a death sentence , wrote to Wolters asking him to " collect my work together for later ages and to recount much of my life . I think it will be honored one day . " Despite his forebodings , Speer did not receive the death sentence , but on October 1 , 1946 , was given a sentence of twenty years in prison , and on July 18 , 1947 , was transferred to Spandau Prison to serve it .
Wolters and longtime Speer secretary Annemarie Kempf , while not permitted direct communication with Speer in Spandau , did what they could to help his family and carry out the requests Speer put in letters to his wife — the only written communication officially allowed Speer . Beginning in 1948 , Speer had the services of a sympathetic Dutch orderly to smuggle mail . In 1949 , Wolters opened a special bank account for Speer , the Schulgeldkonto or " School Fund Account " , and began fundraising among those architects and industrialists who had benefited from Speer 's activities during the war . At first the funds were used only to support Speer 's family , but as the amounts grew and Speer 's family became increasingly able to support itself , the money was used for everything from vacations for Speer 's Spandau conduit , Toni Proost , to bribes for those who might be able to secure Speer 's release . Once Speer became aware of the existence of the fund , he would often send detailed instructions about what to do with the money . Wolters raised a total of DM158,000 for Speer over the final seventeen years of his sentence .
In 1951 , with secret means of communications established , Wolters sent his first letter to Speer in five years . He suggested that Speer move ahead with his memoirs . In January 1953 , Speer began work on his draft memoirs , and over the next year lengthy missives , sometimes written on tobacco wrappings or candy wrappers but most often on toilet paper , made their way to Wolters ' office in Coesfeld . Marion Riesser , who had continued as Wolters ' secretary as he began private architectural practice , transcribed these notes into as many as forty closely typed pages per missive , and the draft totalled 1 @,@ 100 pages . Wolters objected that Speer called Hitler a criminal in the draft , and Speer presciently observed that he would likely lose a good many friends were the memoirs ever to be published . Wolters had come to believe that reports of Nazi genocide were exaggerated by a factor of at least ten , that Hitler had not been given credit for the things he did right and that Germany had been harshly treated by the Allies .
In the mid @-@ 1950s , Wolters quarrelled with Kempf who effectively dropped out of the network for a number of years , adding to the burden on Wolters and Riesser . While Speer 's pleas for his former associate and his former secretary to work together eventually brought about a healing of the breach , this was to some degree superficial as Kempf was aware that Wolters , even then , disagreed with Speer 's opinions . Wolters questioned Speer 's readiness to accept responsibility for the Nazi regime 's excesses and did not believe Speer had anything to apologise for , though the strength of his feelings on this point was kept from Speer — but not from Kempf and Riesser .
Wolters was tireless in his efforts on behalf of Speer and his family to such an extent that his son , Fritz , later expressed feelings of neglect . For Speer 's fiftieth birthday in March 1955 , Wolters gathered letters from many of Speer 's friends and wartime associates , and saw to it that they made their way inside the walls of Spandau in time for Speer 's birthday . Wolters gave Speer 's son Albert a summer job in his Düsseldorf office and a place to stay — in fact , Wolters hosted all six of the Speer children at one time or another . By prior arrangement , he and Speer tried to get in touch with each other by telepathy one New Year 's Eve — but both men fell asleep before midnight struck .
Wolters constantly sought Speer 's early release , which required the consent of the four occupying powers . He engaged Düsseldorf attorney , and later state minister , Werner Schütz to lobby high German officials to get them to advocate Speer 's release . Schütz , who refused to ask for his expenses , was unsuccessful even though Lübke , West German President for the last seven years of Speer 's incarceration , had worked under Speer . Wolters had more success fending off denazification proceedings against Speer , collecting many affidavits in Speer 's favor , including one from Tessenow whom Speer had shielded during the war . Those proceedings dragged on for years , and were eventually ended by order of Willy Brandt , a strong supporter of Speer 's .
As early as 1956 , Wolters feared the effect that disclosure of the GBI 's eviction of Jewish tenants might have on Speer . Wolters wrote to Kempf concerning the denazification proceedings , " I am only anxious about the matter of the clearance of Jew @-@ flats in Berlin . That could be a bullseye . And this is the point to which the defense should direct itself ... " In 1964 , Speer mentioned to Wolters in a letter that he would need the Chronik as a reference in revising his memoirs upon his release . Wolter 's response was to have Riesser retype the entire Chronik , leaving out any mention of the GBI 's involvement in the persecution of the Jews , without telling Speer what he was doing . Wolters later wrote that he did this to correct mistakes , to leave out extraneous matters , and " above all to delete certain parts on the basis of which Speer and one or another of his colleagues could still have been prosecuted . The Ludwigsburg Central office for ' war crimes ' was still at work and an end of the persecution of National Socialists was not in sight . "
In April 1965 , with only eighteen months left of Speer 's sentence , Wolters wrote to him of their prospective reunion , " [ I ] t will have been twenty years since I saw you last . What will there be between us old codgers , aside of course from happy memories of skiing tours in the long distant past [ ? ] ... Will you come to me mainly to take receipt of the promised gift I have held for you in our cellar — that long cured Westphalian ham , and those patiently waiting bottles of your favorite nectar : Johannisberger 1937 ? Could these things of the senses end up being all that there is between us ? I am so happy that the moment approaches , but my heart is heavy ... "
According to Riesser , she thought that Wolters " was frightened of the reality of Speer " . However , Kempf thought Wolters wished Speer ill . Speer was unaware of the depth of Wolters ' feelings , and later told his biographer @-@ to @-@ be Joachim Fest that Wolters was the closest friend he had . Speer added that during the Spandau years , Wolters performed invaluable services for him and that he did not know how he would have survived Spandau without Wolters ' assistance .
Throughout the latter part of Speer 's imprisonment , Wolters was a faithful correspondent , writing lengthy letters to Speer at least once a month , attempting to tell Speer everything that might interest him but nothing that might hurt him . When Speer invented the concept of his " world wide walk " , imagining his daily exercise around the prison yard to be segments in a long walk from Europe through Asia to North America , Wolters supplied Speer with details of what he would " see " . Speer later stated , " In a manner of speaking , Rudi Wolters accompanied me on these walks . " As midnight struck and October 1 , 1966 began , Speer was released from Spandau Prison . His last use of the clandestine message system was to have a telegram sent to Wolters , in which Speer jokingly asked Wolters to pick him up thirty @-@ five kilometres south of Guadalajara , Mexico , which he had " reached " after walking 31 @,@ 936 kilometres .
= = = = Deterioration of relationship = = = =
After spending two weeks with his family , Speer came to Coesfeld to visit Wolters in October 1966 . Shortly before Speer 's visit , Annemarie Kempf had visited Wolters in Coesfeld to ask him not to allow his differences with Speer to affect their first meeting . Wolters responded that he and Speer were " too far apart " . The visit was quickly marred by Speer 's insistence on inviting industrialist Ernst Wolf Mommsen to Wolters ' home instead of allowing a one @-@ on @-@ one reunion . According to Wolters ' son Fritz , his father was furious and hurt by the perceived slight . While the actual meeting was casual and cordial ( in addition to the long @-@ promised ham and wine , Wolters turned over all of the accumulated papers from Speer , the censored copy of the Chronik and the remaining balance of DM25,000 in the School Fund Account ) , Wolters later wrote , " I knew that day of that first still merry reunion that the Spandau friendship was over . As he stood there , in person , I saw him suddenly quite differently than I had previously . "
Wolters was perturbed by an interview with Speer published in Der Spiegel in November 1966 , in which Speer , while again taking responsibility for crimes of the Nazi era , blamed Hitler , rather than Germany , for starting World War II . Wolters wrote to Speer on November 30 , describing Speer 's assignment of blame as a " dangerous oversimplification made entirely from today 's perspective ... You will surely remember that in 1939 we were all of the opinion that Hitler was Germany . Although we were certainly depressed rather than enthusiastic about the war in Poland , we surely considered that the responsibility for it was to be found in the provocative conduct by the Poles , and it was the British who made of it a world war . " Wolters asked Speer to " concentrate wholly on what really happened , leaving aside what the world thinks of it now " .
Their relationship was further embittered by Speer 's failure to mention Wolters by name in Speer 's first book based on the Spandau material , Inside the Third Reich . Speer 's initial draft of the book , written while in Spandau , does mention his " old university friend , Dr. Rudolf Wolters , to whom was assigned the most essential task , the Prachtstrasse " in connection with the Berlin project . However , Wolters ' name appears nowhere in the published version , and no mention is made of Wolters ' help , essential to the writing and preservation of the draft memoir . Speer later told his future biographer , Gitta Sereny , that he did so to protect Wolters , since it might have been risky for Wolters to have been known to have assisted an imprisoned war criminal . Sereny notes in her biography of Speer that it would not have been in Speer 's interest to have publicized Wolter 's assistance , given the growing disagreement between them over Speer 's statements . Wolter 's son , Fritz , suggested that had Speer mentioned Wolters even once , " it would have made all the difference " , since it would have shown that Speer acknowledged the debt he owed Wolters for his efforts during his incarceration .
After the German edition of Inside the Third Reich was published in late 1969 , Speer proposed a visit to the embittered Wolters in Coesfeld . Wolters advised against it , sarcastically suggesting that he was surprised that the author did not " walk through life in a hair shirt , distributing his fortune among the victims of National Socialism , forswear all the vanities and pleasures of life and live on locusts and wild honey " . Nevertheless , Wolters expressed a willingness to meet , proposing ( rather pointedly ) a meeting at Wolters ' house on November 19 , Buß- und Bettag , the day of penance and prayer for German Protestants . Speer duly visited , and as the two sat down to lunch , enquired , " Where are the locusts ? "
With research concluded upon Inside the Third Reich , Speer had donated the edited Chronik to the German Federal Archives in Koblenz in July 1969 . David Irving compared the donated Chronik with a copy of the Chronik for 1943 in the Imperial War Museum in London , and discovered discrepancies . Irving asked the Archives and Speer the reason for the differences ( which were minor compared with previous years ) . Speer requested an explanation from Wolters , and Wolters admitted the censorship by letter in January 1970 , saying , " I wouldn 't have put it past the Ludwigsbergern [ German war crimes prosecutors ] to launch an additional prosecution against you on the pretext that this charge [ of evicting the Jews ] was not included in the Nuremberg Indictment . " Speer suggested that the pages of the Chronik dealing with the Jews should not exist , and informed the Archives that the original of the Chronik , from which the copy given to the Archives had been made , had disappeared . Wolters did not destroy the original as Speer had hinted .
Wolters ' anger towards Speer burst into the open in 1971 after Speer did a lengthy interview for Playboy , in which he again took responsibility for Nazi crimes and blamed Hitler and his associates for the war .
What is the matter with you that , that even after the unending admissions of guilt in [ Inside the Third Reich ] you cannot stop representing yourself ever more radically as a criminal for whom twenty years in prison was " too little " ? ... there appears to be a vast and incomprehensible discrepancy between your humble confessions and your present way of life . For the former would lead one to expect a Speer in sackcloth and ashes ; I , however , know you as a merry fellow who undertakes one lovely journey after another and who happily regales his old chums with tales of his literary and financial successes ... [ Y ] our accusations against your former colleagues ( Göring , Goebbels , Bormann , etc . ) who , being dead , cannot defend themselves are agony to me ... I hope and think that the day will come when you will no longer find it necessary to confess your guilt to all and sundry in order to persuade yourself of your virtue .
Wolters concluded his letter with a suggestion that they avoid seeing each other in future , a suggestion with which Speer concurred . In spite of this , Wolters ' wife Erika remained close friends with Margarete Speer , Albert Speer 's wife . The two men had Christmas presents delivered to each other every year ( Wolters sent Speer a ham , while receiving a pot of honey ) . Speer admitted that because he had had few friends , the estrangement hurt .
In 1975 , Wolters attempted a reconciliation , sending Speer a letter for his seventieth birthday in March . Speer responded emotionally , pledging to come visit Wolters at the slightest hint . Speer wrote again two months later , telling Wolters that " despite all inherent contradictions , I am very attached to you " . Nevertheless , the two men never met again .
Even in Speer 's second book of memoirs , Spandau : The Secret Diaries , Wolters ' name is not mentioned , and his hometown is changed ; the text refers to him as Speer 's " Coburg friend " . Speer sent Wolters a copy of the book anyway , though Speer stated that he thought it likely that Wolters would let it sit in his bookcase unread . Wolters responded sarcastically in a letter which he signed , " Duke of Coburg , " " I forgive you for not ' localizing ' me in the diaries after your modest restraint in [ Inside the Third Reich ] . The author of the [ Chronik ] , the temporary ' best friend ' , and the indefatigable contact for Spandau remains nonexistent . "
= = Later life and death = =
Wolters bequeathed his papers to the Federal Archives , ensuring the record would be corrected one day . However , in late 1979 , Speer was approached by Matthias Schmidt , a doctoral student , who sought answers to a number of questions for use in preparing his thesis . After answering Schmidt 's questions , Speer referred Schmidt to Wolters for further information . Wolters took a liking to Schmidt , and showed him both the original Chronik and the correspondence in which Wolters had informed Speer of the censoring of the record . When confronted by Schmidt with this information , Speer both denied knowledge of the censorship and stated that the correspondence was not genuine . While Speer pledged not to take legal action against Schmidt for using the disputed papers ( after obtaining his doctorate , Schmidt published his thesis as a book , Albert Speer : The End of a Myth ) , he made no such promise regarding Wolters . Speer published a formal revocation of a power of attorney he had given Wolters while in Spandau and disputed on legal grounds Wolters ' right to the Chronik and other papers . The dispute was only ended by Speer 's sudden death in London in September 1981 .
Wolters died in January 1983 after a long illness . According to his son Fritz , his final word was " Albert " . He had donated many of his papers to the Archives in 1982 ; after Wolters died , Riesser , as his literary executor , donated the remainder .
= = Books in German = =
Spezialist in Sibirien , Berlin : Wendt & Matthes Verlag , 1933 .
Die Neue Reichskanzlei : Architekt Albert Speer , with Heinrich Wolff . Munich : Zentralverlag der NSDAP , 1940 .
Neue deutsche Baukunst , with Albert Speer . Berlin : Volk und Reich , 1943 .
Albert Speer , Oldenburg : Stalling , 1943 .
Vom Beruf des Baumeisters , Berlin : Volk und Reich , 1944 .
Coesfeld Fragen und Antworten eines Städtebauers , Coesfeld : Kreisverwaltung , 1974 .
Stadtmitte Berlin , Tübingen : Wasmuth , 1978 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 8030 @-@ 0130 @-@ 6
= Jack Crossland =
John " Jack " Crossland ( 2 April 1852 – 26 September 1903 ) was an English professional cricketer who played for Lancashire between 1878 and 1887 . A right @-@ arm fast bowler , Crossland was recognised as one of the fastest bowlers in county cricket . However , he was also widely criticised for throwing , rather than bowling the ball . Were it not for this , he would have probably played for England against Australia in 1882 or 1884 .
Crossland was born in Nottinghamshire , but qualified to play for Lancashire due to residency . He made his first @-@ class debut for his adopted county in 1878 , but his bowling was most effective from 1881 until 1884 . His best year was 1882 , when he topped the national bowling averages , claiming 112 wickets at an average of just over ten . The presence of Crossland , and a number of other bowlers with suspect actions , in the Lancashire team resulted in some counties refusing to play fixtures against during the mid @-@ 1880s . During 1885 , a ruling from the Marylebone Cricket Club barred Crossland from playing for Lancashire as his qualification for the county had been breached by him living in Nottinghamshire during the winter . The ruling forced his retirement from county cricket , though he continued to appear in other matches for a few years following that .
In all , Crossland claimed 322 wickets in first @-@ class cricket at an average of 12 @.@ 48 . He claimed ten wickets in a match on six occasions . Primarily a tail @-@ end batsman , he scored 1 @,@ 172 runs with a top score of 51 .
= = Early career = =
Crossland was born in Sutton @-@ in @-@ Ashfield in Nottinghamshire on 2 April 1852 . Employed as a coal miner , he was one of a number of Nottinghamshire @-@ born cricketers who sought professional contracts in Lancashire . The Lancashire cricket leagues began paying the best players to appear for them , creating an exodus of cricketing talent to the county . Crossland first gained employment as a professional cricketer in 1876 , with Enfield Cricket Club . In a single innings match against Burnley that season , he took eight wickets and conceded 88 runs ( eight for 88 )
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hung in the school 's Rupp Arena .
= = Early life = =
Hayden was born in Stanford , Kentucky ; his father Joseph was a grocer , and his mother Annie ( née : Brown ) was a tutor . He moved to Paris , Kentucky at an early age and began playing basketball in the sixth grade , which he continued upon entering Paris High School . He was drafted into the United States Army during World War I , but the conflict ended before he was shipped out . He entered Transylvania University in 1918 , intending to become a minister , but switched to the University of Kentucky the following year to study industrial chemistry . While there , he played tennis and competed in the javelin throw , setting a school record .
= = Basketball career = =
Hayden joined the school 's basketball team for the 1919 @-@ 1920 season and was the squad 's leading scorer with 133 points in 12 games , leading to an average of 11 @.@ 8 points per game ; no other player on the team scored more than 56 points or had an average greater than 7 . While he slipped to 9 @.@ 71 points per game the following year ( and finished second in both points and average to rookie William King ) , he found success captaining the team to the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association Championship – the University of Kentucky 's first victory at a major basketball tournament . He was named an All @-@ American in 1921 , the first University of Kentucky basketball player to be so honored . He also had his highest @-@ scoring game ever that season , scoring 20 points against Georgetown College . He injured his knee in the high jump prior to his final 1921 @-@ 1922 season but still finished with an average of 4 @.@ 92 points per game , the third best average on the team that season and the fourth highest amount of points . At the peak of his playing career he was 5 ' 11 " , weighed 165 pounds , and was nicknamed " The Blond Adonis " . His overall career statistics saw him amass 333 points in 39 games – an average of about 8 @.@ 5 points per game .
After his graduation Hayden moved to Detroit to work for Dodge but returned to Kentucky after the first summer because of homesickness . During the 1922 @-@ 23 basketball season he coached at Kentucky Wesleyan College which was in Winchester at the time . In his one season at Kentucky Wesleyan he went 8 @-@ 1 . He then taught and coached at George Rogers Clark High School while taking a job in the insurance business in Richmond , Kentucky . In 1926 he was called to replace Ray Eklund as the head basketball coach at the University of Kentucky but was given only one week to prepare for the task with a team made up of unskilled members . The squad consisted primarily of football players , many of whom lacked the incentive to fully participate . The team finished with a 3 – 13 record , winning once against the University of Florida and twice against Centre College . When Harry Gamage was named the new head coach of the university 's football squad , he had Hayden replaced with John Mauer . The team would not have another losing season until 1988 – 89 under Eddie Sutton .
= = Later life = =
After his experiment with coaching , Hayden went returned to the insurance business and also worked as a banker , accountant , a hospital administrator , school teacher , and Kentucky state bank inspector . He also worked as the treasurer of a Methodist church until his mid @-@ 70s . He was a lifetime member of Rotary International and the Kappa Sigma Fraternity . He was married to Mary Hardin for 67 years until her death ; he would remarry to Edna Lytle . At the time of his death on January 9 , 2003 , at the age of 103 , his jersey was one of 41 retired jerseys hanging in Rupp Arena , ( with his name only , as the jerseys did not have numbers during his era ) , and he was the oldest living former University of Kentucky athlete . As of 2009 , he is the only one of the 49 University of Kentucky basketball All @-@ Americans to have been born in the 19th century , as well as probably being the shortest . He is a member of the Paris High School Greyhound Hall of Fame .
= = Head coaching record = =
= Beer =
Beer is the world 's most widely consumed and probably the oldest alcoholic beverage ; it is the third most popular drink overall , after water and tea . The production of beer is called brewing , which involves the fermentation of starches , mainly derived from cereal grains — most commonly malted barley , although wheat , maize ( corn ) , and rice are widely used . Most beer is flavoured with hops , which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative , though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included . The fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect , although this is often removed during processing , and replaced with forced carbonation . Some of humanity 's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer : the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours , and " The Hymn to Ninkasi " , a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer , served as both a prayer and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people .
Beer is sold in bottles and cans ; it may also be available on draught , particularly in pubs and bars . The brewing industry is a global business , consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries . The strength of beer is usually around 4 % to 6 % alcohol by volume ( abv ) , although it may vary between 0 @.@ 5 % and 20 % , with some breweries creating examples of 40 % abv and above . Beer forms part of the culture of beer @-@ drinking nations and is associated with social traditions such as beer festivals , as well as a rich pub culture involving activities like pub crawling , and pub games such as bar billiards .
= = History = =
Beer is one of the world 's oldest prepared beverages , possibly dating back to the early Neolithic or 9500 BC , when cereal was first farmed , and is recorded in the written history of ancient Iraq and ancient Egypt . Archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilizations . Approximately 5000 years ago , workers in the city of Uruk ( modern day Iraq ) were paid by their employers in beer . During the building of the Great Pyramids in Giza , Egypt , each worker got a daily ration of four to five liters of beer , which served as both nutrition and refreshment that was crucial to the pyramids ' construction .
The earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500 – 3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran . Some of the earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer ; examples include a prayer to the goddess Ninkasi , known as " The Hymn to Ninkasi " , which served as both a prayer as well as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people , and the ancient advice ( Fill your belly . Day and night make merry ) to Gilgamesh , recorded in the Epic of Gilgamesh , by the ale @-@ wife Siduri may , at least in part , have referred to the consumption of beer . The Ebla tablets , discovered in 1974 in Ebla , Syria , show that beer was produced in the city in 2500 BC . A fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC . Unlike sake , mould was not used to saccharify the rice ( amylolytic fermentation ) ; the rice was probably prepared for fermentation by mastication or malting .
Almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation . It is likely that many cultures , on observing that a sweet liquid could be obtained from a source of starch , independently invented beer . Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies and contributed to the building of civilizations .
Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC , and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale . The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today . Alongside the basic starch source , the early European beers might contain fruits , honey , numerous types of plants , spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs . What they did not contain was hops , as that was a later addition , first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot and again in 1067 by Abbess Hildegard of Bingen .
In 1516 , William IV , Duke of Bavaria , adopted the Reinheitsgebot ( purity law ) , perhaps the oldest food @-@ quality regulation still in use in the 21st century , according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water , hops and barley @-@ malt . Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale , although by the 7th century AD , beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries . During the Industrial Revolution , the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture , and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century . The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results .
Today , the brewing industry is a global business , consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries . As of 2006 , more than 133 billion liters ( 35 billion gallons ) , the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side , of beer are sold per year , producing total global revenues of $ 294 @.@ 5 billion ( £ 147 @.@ 7 billion ) .
In 2010 , China 's beer consumption hit 450 million hectolitres ( 45 billion litres ) , or nearly twice that of the United States , but only 5 percent sold were premium draught beers , compared with 50 percent in France and Germany .
= = Brewing = =
The process of making beer is known as brewing . A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery , though beer can be made in the home and has been for much of its history . A company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company . Beer made on a domestic scale for non @-@ commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made , though most homebrewed beer is made in the home . Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries , which from the late 19th century largely restricted brewing to a commercial operation only . However , the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963 , followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978 , allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby .
The purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called wort and to convert the wort into the alcoholic beverage known as beer in a fermentation process effected by yeast .
The first step , where the wort is prepared by mixing the starch source ( normally malted barley ) with hot water , is known as " mashing " . Hot water ( known as " liquor " in brewing terms ) is mixed with crushed malt or malts ( known as " grist " ) in a mash tun . The mashing process takes around 1 to 2 hours , during which the starches are converted to sugars , and then the sweet wort is drained off the grains . The grains are now washed in a process known as " sparging " . This washing allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the grains as possible . The process of filtering the spent grain from the wort and sparge water is called wort separation . The traditional process for wort separation is lautering , in which the grain bed itself serves as the filter medium . Some modern breweries prefer the use of filter frames which allow a more finely ground grist .
Most modern breweries use a continuous sparge , collecting the original wort and the sparge water together . However , it is possible to collect a second or even third wash with the not quite spent grains as separate batches . Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus a weaker beer . This process is known as second ( and third ) runnings . Brewing with several runnings is called parti gyle brewing .
The sweet wort collected from sparging is put into a kettle , or " copper " ( so called because these vessels were traditionally made from copper ) , and boiled , usually for about one hour . During boiling , water in the wort evaporates , but the sugars and other components of the wort remain ; this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer . Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage . Hops are added during boiling as a source of bitterness , flavour and aroma . Hops may be added at more than one point during the boil . The longer the hops are boiled , the more bitterness they contribute , but the less hop flavour and aroma remains in the beer .
After boiling , the hopped wort is now cooled , ready for the yeast . In some breweries , the hopped wort may pass through a hopback , which is a small vat filled with hops , to add aromatic hop flavouring and to act as a filter ; but usually the hopped wort is simply cooled for the fermenter , where the yeast is added . During fermentation , the wort becomes beer in a process which requires a week to months depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer . In addition to producing ethanol , fine particulate matter suspended in the wort settles during fermentation . Once fermentation is complete , the yeast also settles , leaving the beer clear .
Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages , primary and secondary . Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation , the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of secondary fermentation . Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity . When the beer has fermented , it is packaged either into casks for cask ale or kegs , aluminium cans , or bottles for other sorts of beer .
= = Ingredients = =
The basic ingredients of beer are water ; a starch source , such as malted barley , able to be saccharified ( converted to sugars ) then fermented ( converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide ) ; a brewer 's yeast to produce the fermentation ; and a flavouring such as hops . A mixture of starch sources may be used , with a secondary starch source , such as maize ( corn ) , rice or sugar , often being termed an adjunct , especially when used as a lower @-@ cost substitute for malted barley . Less widely used starch sources include millet , sorghum and cassava root in Africa , and potato in Brazil , and agave in Mexico , among others . The amount of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill .
Water
Beer is composed mostly of water . Regions have water with different mineral components ; as a result , different regions were originally better suited to making certain types of beer , thus giving them a regional character . For example , Dublin has hard water well @-@ suited to making stout , such as Guinness ; while the Plzeň Region has soft water well @-@ suited to making Pilsner ( pale lager ) , such as Pilsner Urquell . The waters of Burton in England contain gypsum , which benefits making pale ale to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as Burtonisation .
Starch source
The starch source in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer . The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain . Grain is malted by soaking it in water , allowing it to begin germination , and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln . Malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars . Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain . Darker malts will produce darker beers .
Nearly all beer includes barley malt as the majority of the starch . This is because its fibrous hull remains attached to the grain during threshing . After malting , barley is milled , which finally removes the hull , breaking it into large pieces . These pieces remain with the grain during the mash , and act as a filter bed during lautering , when sweet wort is separated from insoluble grain material . Other malted and unmalted grains ( including wheat , rice , oats , and rye , and less frequently , corn and sorghum ) may be used . Some brewers have produced gluten @-@ free beer , made with sorghum with no barley malt , for those who cannot consume gluten @-@ containing grains like wheat , barley , and rye .
Hops
Flavouring beer is the sole major commercial use of hops . The flower of the hop vine is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today . The flowers themselves are often called " hops " .
The first historical mention of the use of hops in beer was from 822 AD in monastery rules written by Adalhard the Elder , also known as Adalard of Corbie , though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century . Before the thirteenth century , and until the sixteenth century , during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring , beer was flavoured with other plants ; for instance , grains of paradise or alehoof . Combinations of various aromatic herbs , berries , and even ingredients like wormwood would be combined into a mixture known as gruit and used as hops are now used . Some beers today , such as Fraoch ' by the Scottish Heather Ales company and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie @-@ Lancelot company , use plants other than hops for flavouring .
Hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer . Hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt ; the bitterness of beers is measured on the International Bitterness Units scale . Hops contribute floral , citrus , and herbal aromas and flavours to beer . Hops have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer 's yeast over less desirable microorganisms and aids in " head retention " , the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last . The acidity of hops is a preservative .
Yeast
Yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer . Yeast metabolises the sugars extracted from grains , which produces alcohol and carbon dioxide , and thereby turns wort into beer . In addition to fermenting the beer , yeast influences the character and flavour .
The dominant types of yeast used to make beer are the top @-@ fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae and bottom @-@ fermenting Saccharomyces pastorianus . Brettanomyces ferments lambics , and Torulaspora delbrueckii ferments Bavarian weissbier .
Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood , fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts . A few styles such as lambics rely on this method today , but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast cultures .
Clarifying agent
Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents to beer , which typically precipitate ( collect as a solid ) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product . This process makes the beer appear bright and clean , rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as wheat beers .
Examples of clarifying agents include isinglass , obtained from swimbladders of fish ; Irish moss , a seaweed ; kappa carrageenan , from the seaweed Kappaphycus cottonii ; Polyclar ( artificial ) ; and gelatin . If a beer is marked " suitable for Vegans " , it was clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents .
= = Brewing industry = =
The brewing industry is a global business , consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries . More than 133 billion litres ( 35 billion gallons ) are sold per year — producing total global revenues of $ 294 @.@ 5 billion ( £ 147 @.@ 7 billion ) in 2006 .
The history of breweries in the 21st century has been one of larger breweries absorbing smaller breweries in order to ensure economy of scale . In 2002 South African Breweries bought the North American Miller Brewing Company to found SABMiller , becoming the second largest brewery , after North American Anheuser @-@ Bush . In 2004 the Belgian Interbrew was the third largest brewery by volume and the Brazilian AmBev was the fifth largest . They merged into InBev , becoming the largest brewery . In 2007 , SABMiller surpassed InBev and Anheuser @-@ Bush when it acquired Royal Grolsch , brewer of Dutch premium beer brand Grolsch in 2007 . In 2008 , when InBev ( the second @-@ largest ) bought Anheuser @-@ Busch ( the third largest ) , the new Anheuser @-@ Busch InBev company became again the largest brewer in the world . As of 2015 AB InBev remains the largest brewery , with SABMiller second , and Heineken International third .
A microbrewery , or craft brewery , produces a limited amount of beer . The maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a microbrewery varies by region and by authority , though is usually around 15 @,@ 000 barrels ( 1 @.@ 8 megalitres , 396 thousand imperial gallons or 475 thousand US gallons ) a year . A brewpub is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a pub or other eating establishment . The highest density of breweries in the world , most of them microbreweries , exists in the German Region of Franconia , especially in the district of Upper Franconia , which has about 200 breweries . The Benedictine Weihenstephan Brewery in Bavaria , Germany , can trace its roots to the year 768 , as a document from that year refers to a hop garden in the area paying a tithe to the monastery . The brewery was licensed by the City of Freising in 1040 , and therefore is the oldest working brewery in the world .
Brewing at home is subject to regulation and prohibition in many countries . Restrictions on homebrewing were lifted in the UK in 1963 , Australia followed suit in 1972 , and the US in 1978 , though individual states were allowed to pass their own laws limiting production .
= = Varieties = =
While there are many types of beer brewed , the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries . The traditional European brewing regions — Germany , Belgium , England and the Czech Republic — have local varieties of beer .
English writer Michael Jackson , in his 1977 book The World Guide To Beer , categorised beers from around the world in local style groups suggested by local customs and names . Fred Eckhardt furthered Jackson 's work in The Essentials of Beer Style in 1989 .
Top @-@ fermented beers are most commonly produced with Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a top @-@ fermenting yeast which clumps and rises to the surface , typically between 15 and 24 ° C ( 60 and 75 ° F ) . At these temperatures , yeast produces significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavour and aroma products , and the result is often a beer with slightly " fruity " compounds resembling apple , pear , pineapple , banana , plum , or prune , among others .
After the introduction of hops into England from Flanders in the 15th century , " ale " referred to an unhopped fermented beverage , " beer " being used to describe a brew with an infusion of hops .
The word ale comes from Old English ealu ( plural ealoþ ) , in turn from Proto @-@ Germanic * alu ( plural * aluþ ) , ultimately from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European base * h ₂ elut- , which holds connotations of " sorcery , magic , possession , intoxication " . The word beer comes from Old English bēor , from Proto @-@ Germanic * beuzą , probably from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European * bʰeusóm , originally " brewer 's yeast , beer dregs " , although other theories have been provided connecting the word with Old English bēow , " barley " , or Latin bibere , " to drink " . On the currency of two words for the same thing in the Germanic languages , the 12th @-@ century Old Icelandic poem Alvíssmál says , " Ale it is called among men , but among the gods , beer . "
Real ale is the term coined by the Campaign for Real Ale ( CAMRA ) in 1973 for " beer brewed from traditional ingredients , matured by secondary fermentation in the container from which it is dispensed , and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide " . It is applied to bottle conditioned and cask conditioned beers .
Pale ale
Pale ale is a beer which uses a top @-@ fermenting yeast and predominantly pale malt . It is one of the world 's major beer styles .
Stout
Stout and porter are dark beers made using roasted malts or roast barley , and typically brewed with slow fermenting yeast . There are a number of variations including Baltic porter , dry stout , and Imperial stout . The name " porter " was first used in 1721 to describe a dark brown beer popular with the street and river porters of London . This same beer later also became known as stout , though the word stout had been used as early as 1677 . The history and development of stout and porter are intertwined .
Mild
Mild ale has a predominantly malty palate . It is usually dark coloured with an abv of 3 % to 3 @.@ 6 % , although there are lighter hued milds as well as stronger examples reaching 6 % abv and higher .
Wheat
Wheat beer is brewed with a large proportion of wheat although it often also contains a significant proportion of malted barley . Wheat beers are usually top @-@ fermented ( in Germany they have to be by law ) . The flavour of wheat beers varies considerably , depending upon the specific style .
Lambic
Lambic , a beer of Belgium , is naturally fermented using wild yeasts , rather than cultivated . Many of these are not strains of brewer 's yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness . Yeast varieties such as Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Brettanomyces lambicus are common in lambics . In addition , other organisms such as Lactobacillus bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness .
Lager
Lager is cool fermented beer . Pale lagers are the most commonly consumed beers in the world . The name " lager " comes from the German " lagern " for " to store " , as brewers around Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars and caves during the warm summer months . These brewers noticed that the beers continued to ferment , and to also clear of sediment , when stored in cool conditions .
Lager yeast is a cool bottom @-@ fermenting yeast ( Saccharomyces pastorianus ) and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7 – 12 ° C ( 45 – 54 ° F ) ( the fermentation phase ) , and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0 – 4 ° C ( 32 – 39 ° F ) ( the lagering phase ) . During the secondary stage , the lager clears and mellows . The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of esters and other byproducts , resulting in a " cleaner " -tasting beer .
Modern methods of producing lager were pioneered by Gabriel Sedlmayr the Younger , who perfected dark brown lagers at the Spaten Brewery in Bavaria , and Anton Dreher , who began brewing a lager ( now known as Vienna lager ) , probably of amber @-@ red colour , in Vienna in 1840 – 1841 . With improved modern yeast strains , most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage , typically 1 – 3 weeks .
= = Measurement = =
Beer is measured and assessed by bitterness , by strength and by colour . The perceived bitterness is measured by the International Bitterness Units scale ( IBU ) , defined in co @-@ operation between the American Society of Brewing Chemists and the European Brewery Convention . The international scale was a development of the European Bitterness Units scale , often abbreviated as EBU , and the bitterness values should be identical .
= = = Colour = = =
Beer colour is determined by the malt . The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts . Pale lager and pale ale are terms used for beers made from malt dried with coke . Coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642 , but it was not until around 1703 that the term pale ale was used .
In terms of sales volume , most of today 's beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of Pilsen in the present @-@ day Czech Republic . The modern pale lager is light in colour with a noticeable carbonation ( fizzy bubbles ) and a typical alcohol by volume content of around 5 % . The Pilsner Urquell , Bitburger , and Heineken brands of beer are typical examples of pale lager , as are the American brands Budweiser , Coors , and Miller .
Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade . Other colourants — such as caramel — are also widely used to darken beers . Very dark beers , such as stout , use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer . Some have roasted unmalted barley .
= = = Strength = = =
Beer ranges from less than 3 % alcohol by volume ( abv ) to around 14 % abv , though this strength can be increased to around 20 % by re @-@ pitching with champagne yeast , and to 55 % abv by the freeze @-@ distilling process . The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice or beer style . The pale lagers that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4 – 6 % , with a typical abv of 5 % . The customary strength of British ales is quite low , with many session beers being around 4 % abv . Some beers , such as table beer are of such low alcohol content ( 1 % – 4 % ) that they are served instead of soft drinks in some schools .
The alcohol in beer comes primarily from the metabolism of sugars that are produced during fermentation . The quantity of fermentable sugars in the wort and the variety of yeast used to ferment the wort are the primary factors that determine the amount of alcohol in the final beer . Additional fermentable sugars are sometimes added to increase alcohol content , and enzymes are often added to the wort for certain styles of beer ( primarily " light " beers ) to convert more complex carbohydrates ( starches ) to fermentable sugars . Alcohol is a by @-@ product of yeast metabolism and is toxic to the yeast ; typical brewing yeast cannot survive at alcohol concentrations above 12 % by volume . Low temperatures and too little fermentation time decreases the effectiveness of yeasts and consequently decreases the alcohol content .
Strongest beer
The strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century . Vetter 33 , a 10 @.@ 5 % abv ( 33 degrees Plato , hence Vetter " 33 " ) doppelbock , was listed in the 1994 Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest beer at that time , though Samichlaus , by the Swiss brewer Hürlimann , had also been listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest at 14 % abv . Since then , some brewers have used champagne yeasts to increase the alcohol content of their beers . Samuel Adams reached 20 % abv with Millennium , and then surpassed that amount to 25 @.@ 6 % abv with Utopias . The strongest beer brewed in Britain was Baz 's Super Brew by Parish Brewery , a 23 % abv beer . In September 2011 , the Scottish brewery BrewDog produced Ghost Deer , which , at 28 % , they claim to be the world 's strongest beer produced by fermentation alone .
The product claimed to be the strongest beer made is Schorschbräu 's 2011 Schorschbock 57 with 57 @,@ 5 % . It was preceded by The End of History , a 55 % Belgian ale , made by BrewDog in 2010 . The same company had previously made Sink The Bismarck ! , a 41 % abv IPA , and Tactical Nuclear Penguin , a 32 % abv Imperial stout . Each of these beers are made using the eisbock method of fractional freezing , in which a strong ale is partially frozen and the ice is repeatedly removed , until the desired strength is reached , a process that may class the product as spirits rather than beer . The German brewery Schorschbräu 's Schorschbock , a 31 % abv eisbock , and Hair of the Dog 's Dave , a 29 % abv barley wine made in 1994 , used the same fractional freezing method . A 60 % abv blend of beer with whiskey was jokingly claimed as the strongest beer by a Dutch brewery in July 2010 .
= = Serving = =
= = = Draught = = =
Draught beer from a pressurised keg is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world . A metal keg is pressurised with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet . Some beers may be served with a nitrogen / carbon dioxide mixture . Nitrogen produces fine bubbles , resulting in a dense head and a creamy mouthfeel . Some types of beer can also be found in smaller , disposable kegs called beer balls .
In the 1980s , Guinness introduced the beer widget , a nitrogen @-@ pressurised ball inside a can which creates a dense , tight head , similar to beer served from a nitrogen system . The words draft and draught can be used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers containing a beer widget , or which are cold @-@ filtered rather than pasteurised .
Cask @-@ conditioned ales ( or cask ales ) are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers . These beers are termed " real ale " by the CAMRA organisation . Typically , when a cask arrives in a pub , it is placed horizontally on a frame called a " stillage " which is designed to hold it steady and at the right angle , and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature ( typically between 11 – 13 ° C or 52 – 55 ° F ) , before being tapped and vented — a tap is driven through a ( usually rubber ) bung at the bottom of one end , and a hard spile or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask , which is now uppermost . The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment , so it must be left for a suitable period to " drop " ( clear ) again , as well as to fully condition — this period can take anywhere from several hours to several days . At this point the beer is ready to sell , either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump , or simply being " gravity @-@ fed " directly into the glass .
Draught beer 's environmental impact can be 68 % lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences . A life cycle study of one beer brand , including grain production , brewing , bottling , distribution and waste management , shows that the CO2 emissions from a 6 @-@ pack of micro @-@ brew beer is about 3 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 6 pounds ) . The loss of natural habitat potential from the 6 @-@ pack of micro @-@ brew beer is estimated to be 2 @.@ 5 square meters ( 26 square feet ) . Downstream emissions from distribution , retail , storage and disposal of waste can be over 45 % of a bottled micro @-@ brew beer 's CO2 emissions . Where legal , the use of a refillable jug , reusable bottle or other reusable containers to transport draught beer from a store or a bar , rather than buying pre @-@ bottled beer , can reduce the environmental impact of beer consumption .
= = = Packaging = = =
Most beers are cleared of yeast by filtering when packaged in bottles and cans . However , bottle conditioned beers retain some yeast — either by being unfiltered , or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast . It is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly , leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle . However , some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast ; this practice is customary with wheat beers . Typically , when serving a hefeweizen wheat beer , 90 % of the contents are poured , and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass . Alternatively , the bottle may be inverted prior to opening . Glass bottles are always used for bottle conditioned beers .
Many beers are sold in cans , though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries . In Sweden in 2001 , 63 @.@ 9 % of beer was sold in cans . People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass . A technology developed by Crown Holdings for the 2010 FIFA World Cup is the ' full aperture ' can , so named because the entire lid is removed during the opening process , turning the can into a drinking cup . Cans protect the beer from light ( thereby preventing " skunked " beer ) and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles . Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer , then became commonly associated with less expensive , mass @-@ produced beers , even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles . Plastic ( PET ) bottles are used by some breweries .
= = = Temperature = = =
The temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker 's experience ; warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer but cooler temperatures are more refreshing . Most drinkers prefer pale lager to be served chilled , a low- or medium @-@ strength pale ale to be served cool , while a strong barley wine or imperial stout to be served at room temperature .
Beer writer Michael Jackson proposed a five @-@ level scale for serving temperatures : well chilled ( 7 ° C or 45 ° F ) for " light " beers ( pale lagers ) ; chilled ( 8 ° C or 46 ° F ) for Berliner Weisse and other wheat beers ; lightly chilled ( 9 ° C or 48 ° F ) for all dark lagers , altbier and German wheat beers ; cellar temperature ( 13 ° C or 55 ° F ) for regular British ale , stout and most Belgian specialities ; and room temperature ( 15 @.@ 5 ° C or 60 ° F ) for strong dark ales ( especially trappist beer ) and barley wine .
Drinking chilled beer began with the development of artificial refrigeration and by the 1870s , was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager . Chilling beer makes it more refreshing , though below 15 @.@ 5 ° C the chilling starts to reduce taste awareness and reduces it significantly below 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) . Beer served unchilled — either cool or at room temperature — reveal more of their flavours . Cask Marque , a non @-@ profit UK beer organisation , has set a temperature standard range of 12 ° – 14 ° C ( 53 ° – 57 ° F ) for cask ales to be served .
= = = Vessels = = =
Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels , such as a glass , a beer stein , a mug , a pewter tankard , a beer bottle or a can . The shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence the perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style . Breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion , as this increases sales .
The pouring process has an influence on a beer 's presentation . The rate of flow from the tap or other serving vessel , tilt of the glass , and position of the pour ( in the centre or down the side ) into the glass all influence the end result , such as the size and longevity of the head , lacing ( the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk ) , and the release of carbonation .
A beer tower is a beer dispensing device , usually found in bars and pubs , that consists of a cylinder attached to a beer cooling device at the bottom . Beer is dispensed from the beer tower into a drinking vessel .
= = Health effects = =
= = = Short @-@ term effects = = =
Beer contains ethyl alcohol , the same chemical that is present in wine and distilled spirits and as such , beer consumption has short @-@ term psychological and physiological effects on the user . Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person . The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk , the percentage of alcohol in the beer and the timespan over which the consumption took place , the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription , over @-@ the @-@ counter or street drugs , among other factors . Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration ( BAC ) of 0 @.@ 03 % -0.12 % typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria , increased self @-@ confidence and sociability , decreased anxiety , a flushed , red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination . A BAC of 0 @.@ 09 % to 0 @.@ 25 % causes lethargy , sedation , balance problems and blurred vision . A BAC from 0 @.@ 18 % to 0 @.@ 30 % causes profound confusion , impaired speech ( e.g. , slurred speech ) , staggering , dizziness and vomiting . A BAC from 0 @.@ 25 % to 0 @.@ 40 % causes stupor , unconsciousness , anterograde amnesia , vomiting ( death may occur due to inhalation of vomit ( pulmonary aspiration ) while unconscious and respiratory depression ( potentially life @-@ threatening ) . A BAC from 0 @.@ 35 % to 0 @.@ 80 % causes a coma ( unconsciousness ) , life @-@ threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning . As with all alcoholic drinks , drinking while driving , operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident ; many countries have severe criminal penalties against drunk driving .
= = = Long @-@ term effects = = =
The main active ingredient of beer is alcohol , and therefore , the health effects of alcohol apply to beer . Consumption of small quantities of alcohol ( less than one drink in women and two in men ) is associated with a decreased risk of cardiac disease , stroke and diabetes mellitus . The long term health effects of continuous , moderate or heavy alcohol consumption include the risk of developing alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease .
Alcoholism , also known as " alcohol use disorder " , is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems . It was previously divided into two types : alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence . In a medical context , alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present : a person drinks large amounts over a long time period , has difficulty cutting down , acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time , alcohol is strongly desired , usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities , usage results in social problems , usage results in health problems , usage results in risky situations , withdrawal occurs when stopping , and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use . Alcoholism reduces a person 's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States . No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine . A total of 3 @.@ 3 million deaths ( 5 @.@ 9 % of all deaths ) are believed to be due to alcohol .
Beers vary in their nutritional content . Brewer 's yeast is known to be a rich source of nutrients ; therefore , as expected , beer can contain significant amounts of nutrients , including magnesium , selenium , potassium , phosphorus , biotin , chromium and B vitamins . Beer is sometimes referred to as " liquid bread " .
It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a beer belly , rather than beer consumption . A 2004 study , however , found a link between binge drinking and a beer belly . But with most overconsumption , it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself . Several diet books quote beer as having an undesirably high glycemic index of 110 , the same as maltose ; however , the maltose in beer undergoes metabolism by yeast during fermentation so that beer consists mostly of water , hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars , including maltose .
= = Society and culture = =
In many societies , beer is the most popular alcoholic drink . Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking , such as playing cards , darts , or other pub games ; attending beer festivals ; engaging in zythology ( the study of beer ) ; visiting a series of pubs in one evening ; visiting breweries ; beer @-@ oriented tourism ; or rating beer . Drinking games , such as beer pong , are also popular . A relatively new profession is that of the beer sommelier , who informs restaurant patrons about beers and food pairings .
Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies and is consumed in countries all over the world . There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Syria , and in some African countries . Sales of beer are four times those of wine , which is the second most popular alcoholic drink .
A study published in the Neuropsychopharmacology journal in 2013 revealed the finding that the flavour of beer alone could provoke dopamine activity in the brain of the male participants , who wanted to drink more as a result . The 49 men in the study were subject to positron emission tomography scans , while a computer @-@ controlled device sprayed minute amounts of beer , water and a sports drink onto their tongues . Compared with the taste of the sports drink , the taste of beer significantly increased the participants desire to drink . Test results indicated that the flavour of the beer triggered a dopamine release , even though alcohol content in the spray was insufficient for the purpose of becoming intoxicated .
Some breweries have developed beers to pair with food . Wine writer Malcolm Gluck disputed the need to pair beer with food , while beer writers Roger Protz and Melissa Cole contested that claim .
= = Related drinks = =
Around the world , there are many traditional and ancient starch @-@ based drinks classed as beer . In Africa , there are various ethnic beers made from sorghum or millet , such as Oshikundu in Namibia and Tella in Ethiopia . Kyrgyzstan also has a beer made from millet ; it is a low alcohol , somewhat porridge @-@ like drink called " Bozo " . Bhutan , Nepal , Tibet and Sikkim also use millet in Chhaang , a popular semi @-@ fermented rice / millet drink in the eastern Himalayas . Further east in China are found Huangjiu and Choujiu — traditional rice @-@ based beverages related to beer .
The Andes in South America has Chicha , made from germinated maize ( corn ) ; while the indigenous peoples in Brazil have Cauim , a traditional beverage made since pre @-@ Columbian times by chewing manioc so that an enzyme ( amylase ) present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars ; this is similar to Masato in Peru .
Some beers which are made from bread , which is linked to the earliest forms of beer , are Sahti in Finland , Kvass in Russia and Ukraine , and Bouza in Sudan .
= = Chemistry = =
Beer contains the phenolic acids 4 @-@ hydroxyphenylacetic acid , vanillic acid , caffeic acid , syringic acid , p @-@ coumaric acid , ferulic acid and sinapic acid . Alkaline hydrolysis experiments show that the most of the phenolic acids are present as bound forms and only a small portion can be detected as free compounds .
Hops , and beer made with it , contain 8 @-@ prenylnaringenin which is a potent phytoestrogen . Hop also contains myrcene , humulene , xanthohumol , isoxanthohumol , myrcenol , linalool , tannins and resin . The alcohol 2M2B is a component of hops brewing .
Barley , in the form of malt , brings the condensed tannins prodelphinidins B3 , B9 and C2 .
Tryptophol , tyrosol and phenylethanol are aromatic higher alcohols found in beer as secondary products of alcoholic fermentation ( products also known as congeners ) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae .
= Christy Jenkins =
Christy Jenkins is a fictional character from the American television supernatural drama Charmed , which aired on the WB Television Network ( the WB ) from 1998 to 2006 . Charmed follows the supernatural adventures of the Charmed Ones , a trio of sisters known as the most powerful witches of all time . The character was created by executive producer Brad Kern and was portrayed by actress Marnette Patterson . Developed in response to the WB 's request for a new character , Christy was originally planned to expand the show in a new direction for a possible ninth season or spin @-@ off .
Introduced as Billie Jenkins 's long @-@ lost sister , she secretly collaborates with the demonic council known as the Triad with their plans to destroy the Charmed Ones . She possesses the powers of telepathy and pyrokinesis and is referred to as the key to the " Ultimate Power " due to her connection to Billie , who is prophesied to be the " Ultimate Power " . She eventually convinces Billie that the Charmed Ones are corrupt , and use their power to fulfill their own personal desires , rather than help for the greater good . Billie kills Christy in self @-@ defense after being unable to convince her to understand the Halliwell sisters were good , and to return home with her . The character is further referenced in the canonical comic books Charmed : Season 9 as well as in one of the novels . The exact nature of Christy 's morality has been the subject of debate among critics and fans .
After speculation as to whether the character would be featured in a spin @-@ off , it was confirmed that all future plans for the show were cancelled following the WB 's closure to launch CW Television Network ( The CW ) . Kern later felt that focusing the final season on Billie and Christy changed the show from its original meaning , while Patterson described the role as expanding her appreciation for science fiction . Critical response to the character was mixed : some critics praised her storyline with Billie , while others criticized Patterson 's acting , and the character 's development as a sign of the show 's declining quality .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept and creation = = =
The WB Television Network ( the WB ) renewed Charmed for an eighth season on condition that it incorporate new characters that could either sustain a ninth season or a spin @-@ off series because lead actors Alyssa Milano , Holly Marie Combs , and Rose McGowan did not want to renew their contracts for future seasons . Brian Krause , who played Leo Wyatt , expressed confusion at the direction of the final season , stating : " I don 't know if they were trying to groom talent to go on to something else " . During the WB 's merge with United Paramount Network ( UPN ) to form the CW in 2006 , network executives said there was not enough room for a Charmed spin @-@ off . In an interview with E ! ' s Kristin Veitch , Cuoco confirmed that a spin @-@ off involving her character would not be developed , saying " Charmed is done " . Executive producer Brad Kern initially called the sisterhood between Billie and Christy a " poetic " way to preserve the show 's focus on family . Patterson said that the opportunity to be featured on an established series was " really great " , saying : " it was great to be a part of a highly anticipated finale . " She added that she had " instant chemistry " with Cuoco , and that their connection made it easier to act out their storyline as sisters .
= = = Characterization and powers = = =
Christy has been described as a " source of fandom controversy " over the definition of her morality . Kern called Christy " a little traumatized " and " mysterious " , raising the question if she was " the sweet child " or someone " Stockholm Syndrome 'd and now believes in the demonic way " . He cited the nature versus nurture debate as one of the factors behind the development of the character . Brittany Spanos of Vulture.com viewed Christy as an evil witch because of her betrayal of Billie and the Charmed Ones , and SpoilerTV 's Gavin Hetherington identified her as the season 's big bad . In their book The Book of Three , authors Diana G. Gallagher and Paul Ruditis write that she was the Triad 's protégée . Ruditis , who later became the lead writer on Charmed Season 9 , viewed Billie as a pawn , instead of a proper villain , and questioned the lack of a strong , female antagonist on the show . Demain of Television Without Pity compared Christy 's identification as the key to the " Ultimate Power " to Buffy the Vampire Slayer character Dawn Summers ( Michelle Trachtenberg ) , who was also known as the Key .
Christy is the oldest of Carl and Helen Jenkins 's two daughters . Both of her parents are mortal , and her powers were inherited from her maternal grandmother , making her a carrier of the genes determining magical ability . As a witch , Christy possesses the basic ability to cast spells , perform rituals , brew potions , scry for lost people or objects through the use of a crystal pendent , and communicate with the dead . She also possesses an advanced form of telepathy , enabling her to hear and project her thoughts , as well as channeling other magical creatures ' powers . Carl and Helen Jenkins ( David Starzyk and Barbara Niven ) said Christy heard voices prior to her kidnapping , implying that this power was already active . As a firestarter , Christy had the power of pyrokinesis ; this power could be augmented by Billie 's projection powers to vanquish demons previously believed to be invincible .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
As a child , Christy was kidnapped by a demon called Reinhardt ( Brian Oerly ) as part of a plan by the demonic council known as the Triad ( Steven J. Oliver , Seren Oliver , and Leland Crooke ) to destroy the Charmed Ones : Piper Halliwell ( Holly Marie Combs ) , Phoebe Halliwell ( Alyssa Milano ) , and Paige Matthews ( Rose McGowan ) . Prior to her abduction , the Triad sent the demon Dumain ( Anthony Cistaro ) to pose as Christy 's imaginary friend and corrupt her . It is implied that Christy has some awareness about the Triad as her parents find the council 's symbol on the final page of her diary . During the fifteen years of her kidnapping , Christy is taught to believe that it is her destiny to unite with her sister Billie Jenkins and to stop the Charmed Ones since they have become corrupted by their selfish desires . After gaining the power to warp reality , Billie travels back in time to speak with an 11 @-@ year @-@ old Christy and track down her location . She rescues Christy off @-@ screen between the episodes " 12 Angry Zen " and " The Last Temptation of Christy " .
With the Halliwells ' help , Billie attempts to help Christy reintegrate back into everyday life and to gain control over her powers . Billie and the Halliwells are unaware of Christy 's collaboration with the Triad . At this time , Billie is identified as the " Ultimate Power " foreshadowed in earlier episodes as the season 's big bad , and Christy as the key to the " Ultimate Power " . The Triad arranges for Christy 's parents to be killed by a pair of Noxon demons ( John Rosenfeld and David S. Lee ) , believing prolonged contact with them could sway her morality to the side of good . Billie becomes angry and feels betrayed by the Halliwell sisters when they decide to interrogate the demons to gather more information about the " Ultimate Power " rather than killing them to avenge her parents ' deaths . Christy uses this moment to turn Billie against the Charmed Ones . Billie and Christy vanquish the Noxon demons , who were previously believed to be invincible , and the Halliwell sisters realize that Billie is the " Ultimate Power " .
Christy attempts to convince Billie that the Charmed Ones only use their powers for their own personal gain rather than to support the greater good , and it is their destiny to stop them . Billie agrees with Christy 's plans to kill the Halliwells after exploring the sisters ' dreams and believing their " inner @-@ truths " were driven by selfish desires . After turning the magical community against the Halliwells , Billie and Christy engage in the ultimate battle with the sisters , which destroys Halliwell Manor and kills Christy , Phoebe , and Paige . Billie uses her projection power to travel back in time to save Christy , but discovers that she was being manipulated by the Triad . She realizes that Christy is working with the Triad and begins to question her morality . Christy and Dumain steal the cupid Coop 's ( Victor Webster ) ring to travel back in time to warn the Triad about the outcome of the ultimate battle . Billie helps the sisters project back in time to vanquish the Triad and the past and present versions of Dumain . Billie attempts unsuccessfully to convince Christy to come back home with her . Christy throws a fireball at Billie and the Halliwell sisters , forcing Billie to telekinetically deflect it back at her and kill her .
= = = Literature = = =
Christy is also referenced in a novel and the comic books based on the Charmed television series . In " Trickery Treat " , Paige experiences guilt for being unable to prevent the massacre of the magic community because Christy puts her under a hex turning her inner truth into obsession . Charmed : Season 9 , a canonical comic book continuation of the television show written by Ruditis , reveals that Billie and Christy were not intended to be powerful enough to confront the Charmed Ones . The eldest sister Prue Halliwell 's bond to the Charmed Ones prophecy , even after death , restricted her sisters from reaching their true powers , and made them vulnerable to the Triad 's plot with Billie and Christy .
= = Reception = =
Throughout her run on Charmed , Christy Jenkins received mixed critical feedback . Sheldon Wiebe of the entertainment website Eclipsemagazine.com praised the Billie and Christy storyline for having a " dark undercurrent " reminiscent of the show 's first and second seasons . Vulture.com 's Brittany Spanos placed Christy as number three on its list of 161 " demons , warlocks , and baddies " as ranked by " scariness " . Jeffrey Robinson of DVD Talk felt that the Billie and Christy storyline was the strongest part of season eight . Demain of Television Without Pity praised Christy as an interesting character following the reveal that she was secretly working for the Triad , and parodied her as " Chrissssty " and " Ssssecretly Evil Chrissssty " from Cuoco 's pronunciation of the character 's name .
Alternatively , SpoilerTV 's Gavin Hetherington wrote he was " impartial " about Christy and opined that the Jenkins sisters were disappointing villains for the show 's final season compared to those of previous seasons . Nadim of the television and film review website Nad 's Reviews praised the concept of the Charmed Ones engaging in an ultimate battle with another set of sisters , but described its execution as a " downright embarrassing affair " . Jon Langmead of PopMatters described the familial relationship between Christy and Billie as weak in comparison to those from previous seasons . Langmead was critical of Patterson 's performance , saying she " huffs and puffs through her on @-@ camera time " . Digital Spy 's Hugh Armitage listed the Jenkins sisters as " the gruesome twosome " and one of the eight things that derailed the show . Armitage criticized Patterson for having " a habit of pulling ' evil ' faces when no one could see her like a pantomime villain " .
= Kepler @-@ 11e =
Kepler @-@ 11e is an exoplanet ( extrasolar planet ) discovered in the orbit of the sunlike star Kepler @-@ 11 . It is the fourth of six planets around Kepler @-@ 11 discovered by NASA 's Kepler spacecraft . Kepler @-@ 11e was found by using the transit method , in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured . Kepler @-@ 11e is most likely a gas giant like Neptune , having a density that is less than that of Saturn , the least dense planet in the Solar System . Its low density can probably be attributed to a large hydrogen and helium atmosphere . Kepler @-@ 11e has a mass eight times of Earth 's mass and a radius 4 @.@ 5 times that of Earth . The planet orbits its star every 31 days in an ellipse that would fit within the orbit of Mercury . Kepler @-@ 11e was announced on February 2 , 2011 with its five sister planets after it was confirmed by several observatories .
= = Name and discovery = =
At the time when Kepler @-@ 11 was first noted as a host to a potential transit event , the star was given the designation KOI @-@ 157 . It was later assigned the name " Kepler @-@ 11 " after the Kepler spacecraft , a NASA satellite tasked with discovering planets in transit of , or crossing in front of , their stars . This transit causes a slight and regular change in the host star 's brightness , which can then tested to prove the planet 's existence and , later , to extrapolate the orbital parameters of the planet . Kepler @-@ 11e is first given the designation by its host star , Kepler @-@ 11 . Since Kepler @-@ 11e was announced with five other planets , the letters added to the star are sorted by the planet 's distance from its star . Kepler @-@ 11e is the fourth planet from Kepler @-@ 11 , it is given the designation " e " .
Follow @-@ up confirmation observations were made by the Keck 1 telescope at the W.M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii , the Hale and Shane telescopes in California , the Harlan J. Smith and Hobby @-@ Eberly telescopes in west Texas , the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands , and by telescopes at the WIYN ( including MMT ) and Whipple observatories in Arizona . The Spitzer Space Telescope was also used . Kepler @-@ 11 's planetary system became the first discovered extrasolar system with more than three transiting planets , as well as the most compact and flattest system yet discovered , according to NASA . The planets of Kepler @-@ 11 , including Kepler @-@ 11e , were announced jointly at a press conference on February 2 , 2011 . The findings were published in the journal Nature on February 3 .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 11 is a G @-@ type star located in the Cygnus . It has a mass of .95 Msun and a radius of 1 @.@ 1 Rsun , and is thus almost the same mass and radius as the Sun . With an effective temperature of 5680 K , it is also almost as hot as the Sun , and with a metallicity of 0 , Kepler @-@ 11 is almost as metal @-@ rich as the Sun is . Metal @-@ rich stars tend to have easily detectable planets because higher metallicities tend to either facilitate the creation of gas giants or to promote planetary migration , in which the planet orbits more closely to its star . However , Kepler @-@ 11 is almost 1 @.@ 73 times older than the Sun , as it has an estimated age of eight billion years . Kepler @-@ 11 is 613 parsecs away from the Earth ; its distance contributes to its apparent magnitude of 14 @.@ 2 ( V ) . It , thus , cannot be seen with the naked eye . Other than Kepler @-@ 11e , Kepler @-@ 11 is the host star of the planets Kepler @-@ 11b , Kepler @-@ 11c , Kepler @-@ 11d , Kepler @-@ 11f , and Kepler @-@ 11g . The inner five planets in the system orbit in a tightly knit configuration that would fit within the orbit of planet Mercury , while Kepler @-@ 11g , compared to its inner sister planets , orbits at a much further distance .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 11e , which formed within the first few million years of the star system 's formation , has a mass 8 @.@ 4 times that of Earth 's , and radius 4 @.@ 52 times that of Earth 's . With a density of 0 @.@ 5 grams / cm3 , Kepler @-@ 11e has a density that is half of that of pure water at standard temperature and pressure and slightly less than the density of Saturn . Kepler @-@ 11e has a surface equilibrium temperature of 617 K , and is thus has an equilibrium temperature approximately 2 @.@ 4 times hotter than Earth 's . Kepler @-@ 11e orbits its star at a mean distance of .194 AU , making it the fourth planet from its star . It completes an orbit every 31 @.@ 995990 days . In comparison , Mercury orbits the Sun every 87 @.@ 97 days at a distance of .387 AU . Kepler @-@ 11e 's orbital inclination is 88 @.@ 8 ° , making it almost entirely edge @-@ on to its star as seen from Earth .
Because it isn 't as close to its star as its sister planets Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c , the Kepler team suggests that its light density may come from a large hydrogen and helium atmosphere that has not been blown away by the stellar wind .
= 1689 Boston revolt =
The 1689 Boston revolt was a popular uprising on April 18 , 1689 , against the rule of Sir Edmund Andros , the governor of the Dominion of New England . A well @-@ organized " mob " of provincial militia and citizens formed in the city and arrested dominion officials . Members of the Church of England , believed by Puritans to sympathize with the administration of the dominion , were also taken into custody by the rebels . Neither faction sustained casualties during the revolt . Leaders of the former Massachusetts Bay Colony then reclaimed control of the government . In other colonies , members of governments displaced by the dominion were returned to power .
Andros , commissioned governor of New England in 1686 , had earned the enmity of the local populace by enforcing the restrictive Navigation Acts , denying the validity of existing land titles , restricting town meetings , and appointing unpopular regular officers to lead colonial militia , among other actions . Furthermore , he had infuriated Puritans in Boston by promoting the Church of England , which was rejected by many Nonconformist New England colonists .
= = Background = =
In the early 1680s , King Charles II of England began taking steps to reorganize the colonies of New England . The charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was revoked in 1684 after its Puritan rulers refused to act on his demands for reforms in the colony , when Charles sought to streamline the administration of the small colonies and bring them more closely under crown control . He died in 1685 and his successor , the Roman Catholic James II , continued the process , which culminated in the creation of the Dominion of New England .
In 1686 , the former governor of New York , Sir Edmund Andros , was appointed as dominion governor . The dominion was composed of the territories of the Massachusetts Bay , Plymouth , Connecticut , New Hampshire , and Rhode Island colonies . In 1688 , its jurisdiction was expanded to include New York , and East and West Jersey .
Andros 's rule was extremely unpopular in New England . He disregarded local representation , denied the validity of existing land titles in Massachusetts ( which had been dependent on the old charter ) , restricted town meetings , and actively promoted the Church of England in largely Puritan regions . He also enforced the Navigation Acts , unfavored laws that threatened the existence of certain trading practices of New England . The royal troops stationed in Boston were often mistreated by their officers who were supporters of the governor and often either Anglican or Roman Catholic .
Meanwhile , in England , James became increasingly unpopular . The king alienated otherwise supportive Tories with his attempts to relax the Penal Laws , and in 1687 issued the Declaration of Indulgence , establishing some freedom of religion , a move opposed by the Anglican church hierarchy . He increased the power of the regular army , an action seen by many Parliamentarians as a threat to their authority , and placed Catholics in important military positions . James also attempted to place sympathizers in Parliament who he hoped would repeal the Test Act , which required a strict Anglican religious test for many civil offices . With the birth of his son and potential successor James in June 1688 , some Whigs and Tories set aside their political differences and conspired to replace James with his Protestant son @-@ in @-@ law , William , Prince of Orange . The Dutch prince , who had tried fruitlessly to get James to reconsider his policies , agreed to an invasion , and the nearly bloodless revolution that followed in November and December 1688 established William and his wife Mary as co @-@ rulers .
The religious leaders of Massachusetts , led by Cotton and Increase Mather , were opposed to the rule of Andros , and they organized dissent targeted to influence the court in London . After King James published the Declaration of Indulgence , Increase Mather sent an appreciation letter to the king regarding the declaration , and suggested to other Massachusetts pastors that they also express gratitude to the king as a means to gain favor and influence . Ten pastors agreed to do so , and they decided to send Increase Mather to England to press their case against Andros . Despite dominion secretary Edward Randolph 's repeated attempts to stop him ( including pressing criminal charges ) , Mather was clandestinely spirited aboard a ship bound for England in April 1688 . He and other Massachusetts agents were received by James , who promised in October 1688 that the colony 's concerns would be addressed . The events of the revolution , however , halted this attempt to gain redress .
The Massachusetts agents then petitioned the new monarchs and the Lords of Trade ( predecessors to the Board of Trade that oversaw colonial affairs ) for restoration of the Massachusetts charter . Mather furthermore convinced the Lords of Trade to delay notifying Andros of the revolution . He had already dispatched , to previous colonial governor Simon Bradstreet , a letter containing news of a report ( prepared before the revolution ) that the annulment of the Massachusetts charter had been illegal , and that the magistrates should " prepare the minds of the people for a change " . Rumors of the revolution apparently reached some individuals in Boston before official news arrived . John Nelson , a Boston merchant who would figure prominently in the revolt , wrote of the events in a letter dated late March , and the letter prompted a meeting of senior anti @-@ Andros political and religious leaders in Massachusetts .
Andros first received a warning of the impending revolt against his control while leading an expedition to fortify Pemaquid ( present @-@ day Bristol , Maine ) , intending to protect the area against French and Indian attacks . In early January 1688 / 9 , he received a letter from James describing the Dutch military buildup . On January 10 he issued a proclamation warning against Protestant agitation and prohibiting an uprising against the dominion . The military force he led in Maine was composed of British regulars and militia from Massachusetts and Maine . The militia companies were commanded by regulars , who imposed harsh discipline that alienated the militiamen from their officers . Alerted to the meetings in Boston , and in receipt of unofficial reports of the revolution , Andros returned there from Maine in mid @-@ March . Amid wild rumors that Andros had brought them to Maine as part of a so @-@ called " popish plot " , the militia there mutinied , and those from Massachusetts began to make their way home . When a copy of a proclamation announcing the revolution reached Boston in early April , Andros had the messenger arrested , but his news was distributed , emboldening the people . Andros wrote to his commander at Pemaquid on April 16 that " there is a general buzzing among the people , great with expectation of their old charter " , even as he prepared to have the returning deserters arrested and shipped back to Maine . The threat of arrests by their own colonial militia increased tensions between the people of Boston and the dominion government .
= = Revolt in Boston = =
At about 5 : 00 am on April 18 , militia companies began gathering outside Boston at Charlestown just across the Charles River and at Roxbury , located at the far end of the neck connecting Boston to the mainland . At about 8 : 00 am the Charlestown companies boarded boats and crossed the river , while the Roxbury companies marched down the neck and into the city . Simultaneously , conspirators from the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company entered the homes of the regimental drummers in the city , confiscating their equipment . Joined by a growing mob , the militia companies met up at about 8 : 30 and began arresting dominion and regimental leaders . They eventually surrounded Fort Mary , where Andros was quartered .
Among the first to be arrested was Captain John George of the HMS Rose , who came ashore between 9 : 00 and 10 : 00 , only to be met by a platoon of militia and the ship 's carpenter , who had joined the rebels . When George demanded to see an arrest warrant , the militiamen drew their swords and took him into custody . By about 10 : 00 , most of the dominion and military officials either had been arrested or had fled to the safety of Castle Island or other fortified outposts . Boston Anglicans , including a churchwarden and an apothecary , were rounded up by the mob . Sometime before noon an orange flag was raised on Beacon Hill , signaling another 1 @,@ 500 militiamen to enter the city . These troops formed up in the market square , where a declaration was read . In it , the leaders claimed to support " the noble Undertaking of the Prince of Orange " , and to rise up because of a " horrid Popish Plot " that had been uncovered .
The old Massachusetts colonial leadership , headed by ex @-@ governor Simon Bradstreet , then urged Governor Andros to surrender for his own safety , citing the mob of which they claimed to be " wholly ignorant " . He refused and instead tried to escape to the Rose . A boat that came ashore from the Rose was intercepted by militia , and Andros was forced back into Fort Mary . Negotiations ensued and Andros agreed to leave the fort to meet with the rebel council . Promised safe conduct , he was marched under guard to the townhouse where the council had assembled . There he was told ( as an anonymous account of the exchange described it ) that " they must and would have the Government in their own hands " , and that he was under arrest . He was taken to the home of dominion official John Usher , and held under close watch .
The Rose and Fort William on Castle Island refused to surrender immediately . On the 19th , when the ship 's crew on the Rose was told that the captain had planned to take the ship to France to join the exiled James , a struggle ensued , and the Protestants among the crew took down the ship 's rigging . After the troops on Castle Island saw this , they surrendered .
= = Aftermath = =
After Fort Mary fell on the 19th , Andros was moved there from Usher 's house . He was confined with Joseph Dudley and other dominion officials until June 7 , when he was transferred to Castle Island . A story circulated widely that he attempted an escape dressed in women 's clothing . This was disputed by the Anglican minister in Boston , Robert Ratcliff , who claimed that story and others had " not the least foundation of Truth " , and that they were " falsehoods , and lies " propagated to " render the Governour odious to his people " . Andros did make a successful escape from Castle Island on August 2 , after his servant bribed the sentries with liquor . He managed to flee to Rhode Island , but was recaptured soon thereafter and kept in what was virtually solitary confinement . He and others arrested in the wake of the revolt were held for 10 months before being sent to England for trial . Massachusetts agents in London refused to sign the documents listing the charges against Andros , so he was summarily acquitted and released . He later served as governor of Virginia and Maryland .
= = Dissolution of the dominion = =
When the other New England colonies in the dominion were informed of the overthrow of Andros , pre @-@ dominion colonial authorities moved to restore their former governments to power . Rhode Island and Connecticut resumed governance under their earlier charters , and Massachusetts resumed governance according to its vacated charter after being temporarily governed by a committee composed of magistrates , Massachusetts Bay officials , and a majority of Andros 's council . The committee was disbanded after some Boston leaders felt that radical rebels held too much sway over it . New Hampshire was temporarily left without formal government and was controlled by Massachusetts and its governor , Simon Bradstreet , who served as de facto ruler of the northern colony . Plymouth also resumed its previous form of governance .
During his captivity , Andros had been able to send a message to Francis Nicholson , his New York @-@ based lieutenant governor . Nicholson received the request for assistance in mid @-@ May , but most of his troops had been sent to Maine , and with rising tensions in New York , he was unable to take any effective action . Nicholson himself was overthrown by a faction led by Jacob Leisler , and he fled to England . Leisler governed New York until 1691 , when a detachment of troops arrived , followed by Henry Sloughter , commissioned governor by William and Mary . Sloughter had Leisler tried on charges of high treason ; he was convicted and executed .
After the suppression of Leisler 's Rebellion and the reinstatement of colonial governments in New England , no further effort was made by English officials to restore the " shattered " dominion . Once the fait accompli of Andros ' arrest was known , the discussion in London turned to dealing with Massachusetts and its revoked charter . Out of these discussions came the formation of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1691 , merging Massachusetts with the charterless Plymouth Colony and territories previously belonging to New York , including Nantucket , Martha 's Vineyard , the Elizabeth Islands , and parts of Maine . Increase Mather was unsuccessful in his attempts to restore the old Puritan rule : the new charter called for an appointed governor and religious toleration .
= Perijá tapaculo =
The Perijá tapaculo ( Scytalopus perijanus ) is a species of passerine bird in the family Rhinocryptidae ( tapaculos ) . Endemic to the Serranía del Perijá mountain range on the Colombia – Venezuela border , the Perijá tapaculo is found at altitudes of 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 225 metres ( 5 @,@ 200 – 10 @,@ 600 feet ) . It measures 10 to 12 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 7 inches ) , and its tail is around 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long . Specimens have long been stored in museums , but the species was only described in 2015 based on sixteen specimens found between July 2008 and February 2009 . It is considered endangered .
Adults have neutral grey heads , brown necks , brown @-@ sepia striped backs , and grey @-@ white bellies , breasts , and throats . Males have some buff markings on their breasts , and less sharp brown spots on their napes than females . The Perijá tapaculo is a secretive bird and therefore difficult to observe ; as a result its ecology is poorly known . It feeds on insects and reproduces between April and July . Its range is partially within Chamicero de Perijá Bird Reserve in Colombia and the Sierra de Perijá National Park in Venezuela .
= = Taxonomy = =
Tapaculos are the most primitive family of suboscines , divided into 12 genera containing 60 species . Scytalopus , the genus to which the Perijá tapaculo belongs , has an abundance of similar species , many of which are difficult to classify through appearance . Some individual species from other genera are like Scytalopus in size and plumage , but have different behaviour and morphological features . Vocal studies and mitochondrial DNA analysis are often used to differentiate between species within the genus ; a number of visually identical species previously classified as subspecies of the Magellanic tapaculo ( S. magellanicus ) have been identified through these methods , and the majority of subspecies within the genus have subsequently been reclassified as separate species .
Between 1941 and 1942 , American ornithologist Melbourne Armstrong Carriker collected 27 specimens of the Perijá tapaculo in six locations on the western side of the Serranía del Perijá . He identified them as specimens of the northern white @-@ crowned tapaculo ( S. atratus ) , despite size and colour differences , and sent them to the National Museum of Natural History in Washington , D.C. In 1953 , the specimens began to attract the attention of biologists , and were successively identified as the brown @-@ rumped tapaculo ( S. latebricola ) , the Caracas tapaculo ( S. caracae ) , and the Mérida tapaculo ( S. meridanus ) . Some further believed that the specimens could belong to an undescribed species , or constitute a subspecies of the pale @-@ bellied tapaculo ( S. griseicollis ) or the Mérida tapaculo based on morphological studies , but they were never classified as any of these .
In September 2006 , biologists Juan Pablo López and Alexander Cortés Diago found two specimens in a cloud forest at an altitude of 2 @,@ 450 m ( 8 @,@ 000 ft ) on the western side of the Serranía del Perijá in Colombia , but the information collected was insufficient to identify a new species . Between July 2008 and February 2009 , sixteen new specimens were collected in an area previously explored by Carriker . New vocal , morphological , genetic , and ecological studies of these specimens confirmed that they constituted a new species , Scytalopus perijanus , first described by Jorge Enrique Avendaño et al. on 11 March 2015 following a three @-@ year expedition , and accepted by the South American Classification Committee . The Latin word perijanus refers to the Serranía del Perijá mountain range , and the genus name Scytalopus comes from the Greek skutale ( stick ) and pous ( foot ) .
The type specimen of the Perijá tapaculo , an adult male , was found in the Serranía del Perijá near the El Cinco vereda of Manaure , Cesar Department , Colombia , at an altitude of 2 @,@ 450 m ( 8 @,@ 000 ft ) . Jorge Enrique Avendaño lured the specimen by playing a recording of its song on 10 July 2008 at the edge of a montane forest . Sequence analysis of the mitochondrial gene ND2 from the Perijá tapaculo showed that its nearest relatives are the brown @-@ rumped tapaculo , Caracas tapaculo , and Mérida tapaculo .
= = Description = =
The Perijá tapaculo is a small bird , 10 to 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) in length with an average mass of 17 to 18 grams ( around 0 @.@ 6 oz ) . The bill averages 6 @.@ 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 27 inches ) long , 2 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) wide , and 3 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) high . The legs are about 21 mm ( 0 @.@ 83 in ) long . The Perijá tapaculo 's tarsus averages 21 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 83 in ) long . The wings measure 57 @.@ 4 mm ( 2 @.@ 26 in ) on average and the tail is about 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long with between 8 and 12 rectrices .
The forehead , lores , crown , mantle , and scapular area are a neutral grey colour . There is a brown spot on the nape . The top of the tail is brown , and the bottom is faintly striped brown . The bird 's back and rump are striped brown @-@ sepia , and the throat , breast , and belly are grey @-@ white . Its lower belly and flanks are tawny . The iris is dark brown . Male specimens are distinguished by having less sharp brown spots on their napes , and the bottom of their breasts are mixed with a pale buff colour . The legs are brown on the back and whitish on the front . Young birds have a yellowish appearance with striped brown flanks .
The bird 's plumage colouration is most similar to the pale @-@ bellied tapaculo . The S. g. morenoi subspecies of the pale @-@ bellied tapaculo can be differentiated from the Perijá tapaculo by its entirely brown back and nape , and its different calls . Juveniles of this subspecies have a dull ventral plumage , while the Perijá tapaculo has a more yellow plumage . It also resembles the Caracas tapaculo but has a duller ventral colour .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Like other species in genus Scytalopus , the Perijá tapaculo is secretive and therefore difficult to observe . The call and song differ from those of most other species in the genus , and the latter is composed of two short churrs repeating up to 65 times at 0 @.@ 5 to 3 second intervals . The diet of the species is little known , but studies of the stomach contents of seven specimens suggested that they fed exclusively on insects .
Little is known about the reproduction of the species , but it is believed to nest between April and July . The species builds its globular nests in underground cavities about 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter and around 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) in height , lined with mosses , grasses , and plant roots around a central space about 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) wide . The nests are accessed by a short tunnel with a depth of 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) and a diameter of 4 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) . Young birds may leave the nest at the end of June . Like those of other Scytalopus species , male specimens have demonstrated involvement in parenting .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Perijá tapaculo is endemic to the Serranía del Perijá , a mountain range on the Colombia – Venezuela border known for its high rates of endemism . It has been observed in nineteen localities on both sides of the border between altitudes of 1 @,@ 600 and 3 @,@ 225 m ( 5 @,@ 200 and 10 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level ; in its northern range , there are no suitable forests below 1 @,@ 600 m ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) . The bird has been observed at 1 @,@ 800 – 3 @,@ 120 m ( 5 @,@ 900 – 10 @,@ 200 ft ) on the Venezuelan side , and at 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 225 m on the Colombian side .
The Perijá tapaculo lives in and on the edges of humid rainforests , as well as in elfin forests and amongst woody páramo shrubs in high @-@ mountain grassland areas , especially at altitudes of 2 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 m ( 8 @,@ 200 – 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Some specimens have been observed feeding in dense thickets within 1 m ( 3 ft ) of the ground , often near the forest . Others have been observed running through open grassy areas between bushes .
The species has not been identified as being sympatric with any other species of the genus Scytalopus . However , there is a possibility that its range overlaps with that of the S. atratus nigricans , which occupies a different micro @-@ habitat on the eastern side of the Serranía del Perijá at altitudes of 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 900 m ( 4 @,@ 900 – 6 @,@ 200 ft ) ; or that it may be found within the range of the pale @-@ bellied tapaculo in the lower reaches of the Serranía de Los Motilones mountain range , south of the Serranía del Perijá .
= = Threats and protection = =
Jorge Enrique Avendaño et al. wrote in the original description of the Perijá tapaculo that the size and quality of the species ' range are being reduced , although it can tolerate a certain level of fragmentation of its range . Its natural habitat covers about 5 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 sq mi ) . The description suggests that this species meets the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) criteria for an endangered species . The authors believe that to protect the Perijá tapaculo , conservation measures on the Colombian side of the border should reflect those on the Venezuelan side , as the forests of the Serranía del Perijá have been largely destroyed on the Colombian side by logging activities and forest clearance for agriculture .
On 28 January 2014 , prior to the formal description of the bird , the Chamicero de Perijá Bird Reserve was created by Fundación ProAves to maintain one of Colombia 's most fragile habitats . In addition to the Perijá tapaculo , several other Perijá @-@ endemic endangered species , such as the Perijá metaltail ( Metallura iracunda ) and Perijá thistletail ( Asthenes perijana ) are protected within this reserve 's 749 hectares ( 1 @,@ 850 acres ) . The Colombian section of the Serranía del Perijá is dangerous for scientific excursions due to the presence of the FARC guerrilla group in the region . In Venezuela , the Sierra de Perijá National Park covers 300 @,@ 000 hectares ( 740 @,@ 000 acres ) and partially protects the habitat of the Perijá tapaculo .
= Ron and Tammy =
" Ron and Tammy " is the eighth episode of the second season of Parks and Recreation , and the fourteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 5 , 2009 . In the episode , the library department tries to take control of a vacant lot where Leslie plans to build a park . Ron 's ex @-@ wife , one of Leslie 's directors , tries to use Ron to get her way . The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Troy Miller .
" Ron and Tammy " featured Megan Mullally , the real @-@ life wife of Parks actor Nick Offerman , in a guest appearance as Ron 's ex @-@ wife , Tammy . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was seen by 4 @.@ 93 million household viewers ; its rating of 2 @.@ 2 was the season 's highest to that point . " Ron and Tammy " received highly positive reviews and is widely considered one of the best Parks and Recreation episodes , with many commentators praising Offerman 's performance . Tammy later returned for the third season sequel episode , " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " and several subsequent episodes .
= = Plot = =
Andy ( Chris Pratt ) takes over as the shoeshiner at the Pawnee town hall , replacing " Old Gus " ( Jack Carter ) , who insults everybody during a farewell party . Later , Mark ( Paul Schneider ) breaks the bad news to Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) that the Pawnee library has placed a planning claim for Lot 48 , which Leslie has been working to turn into a park . Leslie and the rest of the parks department express hatred for the library , which Leslie declares a " diabolical , ruthless bunch of bureaucrats " , much to the confusion of Ann ( Rashida Jones ) . Ron ( Nick Offerman ) is particularly angry to learn his ex @-@ wife Tammy ( Megan Mullally ) , who he insists is evil incarnate , is the new library director .
Leslie decides to confront Tammy directly , only to find Tammy seems to be a friendly woman who instantly agrees to let Leslie have Lot 48 as a " professional courtesy " . Impressed , Leslie brings Tammy to the parks department so she can talk to Ron and work out their differences . Tammy and an agitated Ron go off to have coffee , and Donna ( Retta ) insists to Leslie that the arrangement is a mistake because the two act crazy when they are together . At a local diner , Ron and Tammy immediately start a very loud argument in front of the other patrons . Moments later , however , the two are publicly making out on the table in front of everyone . The two rush off to a motel , where they are removing their clothing before even entering the building .
Ann and her boyfriend Mark run into Andy , Ann 's ex @-@ boyfriend . Andy flirts with Ann in front of Mark , and openly admits he plans to win her back from him . Mark asks advice from Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) , who suggests Mark should take the high road ( although Tom tells the documentary crew that he never takes the high road , but tells everyone else to do so , so there is more room for him on " the low road " ) . Mark tries to have a gentlemanly discussion with Andy , who continues to insist he loves Ann , pointing to the many photos he has of her around his shoeshine station . Finally , Ann confronts Andy and tells him to stop discussing her with Mark , as well as to remove her photos from the wall .
A cheery and singing Ron ( who is wearing his " Tiger Woods " outfit , which is an outfit he wears after having sex ) openly discusses the details his sexual exploits with Tammy to an uncomfortable Leslie . Although she is initially pleased with the results of her meddling , Leslie soon realizes Tammy is using sex to manipulate Ron to give her control of Lot 48 . Leslie confronts Tammy , who admits to the plot and brags that this is how the library operates . Leslie tries to get Ron to break up with Tammy , but he insists he cannot confront her without Leslie 's help . The two go to the library , where Ron starts to cave in when Tammy flirts with him . Leslie tells Ron to do whatever will make him happy , even if it means giving up the lot . Ron , impressed that a woman would put his own needs first , decides instead to break up with Tammy and give the lot back to Leslie . After breaking the news to Tammy , he leaves the library with a push @-@ pin stuck in his forehead , and part of his mustache missing , and he and Leslie flee the library . The two share a drink , where Ron insults Tammy .
= = Production = =
" Ron and Tammy " was written by Mike Scully and directed by Troy Miller . The episode featured comedian and actress Megan Mullally in a guest appearance as Ron 's ex @-@ wife , Tammy . Mullally is the real @-@ life wife of Nick Offerman , who plays Ron . Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Michael Schur conceived the idea for the story , and asked Offerman whether he and Mullally would be opposed to her playing such a terrible character . Offerman was extremely responsive to the idea . Mullally said she enjoyed the script , particularly the dialogue of Ron describing Tammy , more than Tammy 's part herself . Offerman and Mullally improvised many of their on @-@ screen fights , as well as the varied methods of unusual kissing between the two characters . During the diner scene , in which Ron and Tammy switch between violent fighting and passionate kissing , Offerman accidentally pulled a diner table out of the wall after placing Mullally on top of it and kissing her . The scene was used in the final episode . Offerman said of filming the diner scenes , " At the end of doing that for a few hours , we said , you know that feels like it was five weeks worth of really good therapy . "
During a scene with Ron and Tammy start stripping while running into a motel room , Mullally removed her top and appeared topless during filming . Mullally improvised the move and did not tell the crew she planned to do it . She said of filming the scene , " I didn 't care , it was six in the morning , who cares , I didn 't know anybody . " Offerman said his favorite scene in the episode was the one in which Leslie tried to break up with Tammy for him . He particularly enjoyed the rapport between Poehler and Mullally , and said he " just wanted to pinch himself " to prevent from laughing . After reuniting with Tammy , Ron puts a framed photo on his wall of a brunette woman holding a plate of breakfast , which he said symbolizes his relationship with Tammy and the breakfast she made him after sex . In the pilot episode of Parks and Recreation , a photo of retired basketball coach Bobby Knight is on the wall . When it had to be removed for legal reasons , Parks and Recreation Schur searched an image library for " things we thought Ron would like " and found the breakfast photo . Schur said he thought it was perfect for the character , and it inspired the prop and the dialogue in the episode . The character Tammy later returned for the third season sequel episode , " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " .
Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , two deleted scenes from " Ron and Tammy " were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website . In the first two @-@ minute @-@ long clip , Ron describes Tammy to Leslie in increasingly horrible ways , and Leslie talks to Tammy about previous problem the two had , including an instance in which Tammy seduces Ron 's father . In the second 90 @-@ second clip , Tom directs customers to Andy 's shoeshine in exchange for a 40 percent commission , while Mark tries to get Ann to abandon her nursing patients to spend more time with him . Lawrence , a neighbor with a long @-@ standing feud with Andy , mocks him by giving him dozens of soiled shoes to clean .
= = Cultural references = =
The day after having sex with Tammy , Ron comes to work wearing a red shirt and black pants , which prompts Tom to observe that Ron always dresses like golf pro Tiger Woods after having sex . This joke was written before the story of Woods ' extramarital affairs scandal broke in the news in November 2009 . Andy is said to have auditioned for the reality television show Survivor and the television game show Deal or No Deal . During an audition tape , he is shown gutting a fish to prove he could perform on Deal or No Deal , even though the action is far more appropriate for Survivor . During one scene , to Leslie 's shock and confusion , Tammy said she would rather be Cleopatra , the last pharaoh of Egypt 's Ptolemaic dynasty , than Eleanor Roosevelt , the former First Lady and wife of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on November 5 , 2009 , " Ron and Tammy " was seen by 4 @.@ 93 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . Among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , the episode drew a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 6 share ; a share represents the percentage of households using a television at the time the program is airing . It was the highest rating to that point for the season , and a 10 percent jump from the previous episode , " Greg Pikitis " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Ron and Tammy " received critical acclaim and is widely considered one of the best episodes of Parks and Recreation . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said " Ron and Tammy " was the funniest episode of the season , particularly for the dead @-@ pan performance of Nick Offerman . Sepinwall also praised the parks employees ' hatred for the library , and the fact that minor characters Jerry and Donna are further developing . Matt Fowler of IGN called it a " particularly solid episode " , and he enjoyed seeing Leslie serve as the voice of reason . Fowler said the Andy subplot was less funny than the main plot , but it advanced Andy 's character . Steve Heisler from The A.V. Club praised the episode and the performance of Offerman , whom he said showed a deeper comedic range than in previous episodes . Heisler also praised Pratt and Poehler , who he said shined in showing a more sensible side . Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis called the episode " damn near perfect " and said it made her " fall truly , madly , deeply in love with Parks and Recreation . " Ross Luippold of The Huffington Post called " Ron and Tammy " one of the highlights of the season .
Steve Kandell of New York magazine called " Ron and Tammy " one of the moments when Parks and Recreation " found its voice and its footing " . Dose writer Kat Angus said " Ron and Tammy " solidified Parks and Recreation as " the funniest show on TV this season " . Angus praised Offerman 's performance and his pairing with Mullally . TV Guide writer Matt Roush , who had previously been very critical of Parks and Recreation , called " Ron and Tammy " " unquestionably the show ’ s best episode to date " . Roush particularly praised the comedic chemistry between Offerman and Mullally , who he said " make beautiful comic music together " . Time magazine reviewer James Poniewozik called it an " excellent episode " , and said it balanced well the show 's formula of comedy focused on people and small @-@ town government . H.T. " Hercules " Strong , a regular columnist with Ain 't it Cool News , praised Poehler and Mullally , and said the editing , particularly during the diner scene with Ron and Tammy , was worthy of an Emmy Award nomination . CNN associated producer Henry Hanks praised the " uproarious performances " of both Offerman and Mullally , while another CNN review of called Mullally 's guest performance " Emmy @-@ worthy " , and praised the performances of Offerman , Poehler and Pratt . It also said , " Poehler ’ s development of her character this season has been great to watch " .
= = DVD release = =
" Ron and Tammy " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode . It also included a commentary track for " Ron and Tammy " featuring Nick Offerman , Megan Mullally , and series co @-@ creators Michael Schur and Greg Daniels .
= Louis Ngwat @-@ Mahop =
Louis Clément Ngwat @-@ Mahop ( born 16 September 1987 ) is a Cameroonian footballer who plays for Austrian side SC Rheindorf Altach as a striker and a right winger . He started his career in his hometown 's club Dragon Club de Yaoundé before being signed by German giants FC Bayern Munich in 2006 . He played with them for one season , featuring mainly in matches of Bayern Munich II in the Regionalliga Süd . After being released by FC Bayern Munich in the summer of 2007 , due to issues that arose with his French passport , he signed for Austrian club Red Bull Salzburg . At first he was assigned to play in the Regionalliga West with the club 's reserve squad , Red Bull Salzburg Juniors , but he managed to make it to the first team . In total , Ngwat @-@ Mahop spent three and a half years with the Austrian club , managing to win the Austrian Bundesliga in no less than two occasions . In January 2011 he signed for Greek Superleague outfit Iraklis . He played for Karlsruher SC for the 2011 – 12 season before signing for Rheindorf Altach in 2012 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Ngwat @-@ Mahop was born in Yaoundé on 16 September 1987 , and grew up having Samuel Eto 'o as his idol . He started his career for Cameroonian minnows Dragon Club de Yaoundé , being one of the most notable players ever to come out of the club .
= = = Bayern Munich = = =
In May 2006 , he went on trial at Bayern Munich II . Hermann Gerland , the club 's manager , was impressed by Ngwat @-@ Mahop 's athleticism and assertiveness and recommended his signing . Gerland characterised Ngwat @-@ Mahop as a rough diamond . He made his debut for Bayern Munich II in the opening day of the 2006 – 07 Regionalliga season . He started the match , but he was brought out in the 62nd minute , in a match that Bayern II lost at home by a 0 – 2 scoreline by KSV Hessen Kassel . Ngwat @-@ Mahop scored his first goal for Bayern II on 12 August 2006 . It was the sole goal of the match , helping Bayern Munich II overcome the obstacle of Hoffenheim . Two weeks later he managed to score once again , taking the credit for opening the score in a 4 – 4 goal glut against SV Elversberg . Ngwat @-@ Mahop continued to play regularly in Bayern II until the end of the season , featuring in 33 matches , out of 34 , all as a starter . He also added five more to his tally , to reach a total of seven goals in the 2006 – 07 Regionalliga campaign .
While approaching the closing stages of the season , his good performances with Bayern Munich II made Ottmar Hitzfeld , the manager of Bayern 's first team , to call him to train with the professional squad . Due to the injuries of a lot of first team players , Ngwat @-@ Mahop was included in Bayern 's squad for a match against Borussia Mönchengladbach , although he did not get any playing time in that match . Ngwat @-@ Mahop was also included in Bayern 's squad for yet another match , this time against for an away contest against Energie Cottbus . In this match , on 12 May 2007 , he was brought in , to replace Ali Karimi in the 88th minute , wearing number 38 , to make his full professional debut for FC Bayern Munich , in what was an away 0 – 3 win for his team . That was his sole appearance in the Bundesliga for the 2006 – 07 season .
= = = Passport issue = = =
On 29 June 2007 , just before Bayern 's Asian tour in Hong @-@ Kong , Ngwat @-@ Mahop found out that he had lost his French passport and started the procedure to get a new one , so he could follow his team in the tour . Upon his request , French authorities found out that Ngwat @-@ Mahop 's passport had the same number as that of a woman residing in Paris . After the Bayern Munich officials were informed of the passport issue they decided to terminate his contract . After that Ngwat @-@ Mahop started travelling in France and Germany with the German police in his pursuit . Meanwhile , 1 . FC Saarbrücken , having just been relegated from Regionalliga Süd , sued Bayern for an alleged 1 million € losses due to its relegation . 1 . FC Saarbrücken asked FC Bayern Munich II to lose every game that Ngwat @-@ Mahop was included . This would result in Bayern 's II relegation instead of Saarbrücken . Saarbrücken finally lost the case in court , a case called ridiculous by Bayern 's president Uli Hoeneß .
= = = Red Bull Salzburg = = =
After being released by FC Bayern Munich Ngwat @-@ Mahop ended up as a trialist in Red Bull Salzburg . He managed to persuade FC Red Bull Salzburg 's manager Giovanni Trapattoni of his football skills and he signed a two @-@ year contract with the Austrian club . After the signing of his contract he was sent to Red Bull Salzburg Juniors to get playing time . There he made his debut in a 5 – 1 away defeat by FK Austria Wien II . In his second match with Red Bull Salzburg Juniors he handed two assists , to his teammates Vujic and Kitzbichler , to help them score the first and second goal of their team in a 2 – 2 home draw with SC @-@ ESV Parndorf . He scored his first goal for his team in an 1 – 3 away win against DSV Leoben in the 70th minute after an assist by Öbster . In his next match Ngwat @-@ Mahop scored once , in a 2 – 1 home win against Austria Lustenau . On 26 October , he netted a goal in the 80th minute of a 2 – 0 home win against Bad Aussee , to put the game beyond any doubt . In the next match against SK Schwadorf he proved himself a prolific forward by scoring the opening goal of the match , in the first minute , and serving the second to his teammate David Witteveen . Red Bull Salzburg Juniors finally lost the game by a 3 – 2 scoreline . Ngwat @-@ Mahop continued scoring for his team in 2 – 1 home win against FK Austria Wien II , by scoring the opening goal of the match . Ngwat @-@ Mahop featured in 13 matches and scored five goals for Red Bull Salzburg Juniors until the winter break . That resulted in him being called to play with FC Red Bull Salzburg 's first team . After playing in some friendly matches with Red Bull Salzburg during the winter break , he made his league debut for the club on 23 February 2008 , in a 3 – 1 away defeat from Austria Wien , as he replaced Alexander Zickler in the 52nd minute . Ngwat @-@ Mahop continued to feature regularly in Red Bull Salzburg 's playing squad until the end of the season , although mostly as a substitute . He also managed to score his first goal with Red Bull Salzburg in a 3 – 0 home win against Sturm Graz . At the end of the season he totalled one goal in 12 appearances . In April 2008 , Ngwat @-@ Mahop signed a contract extension with Red Bull Salzburg until the summer of 2011 .
Ngwat @-@ Mahop contributed greatly in his club 's season opener , as he scored the fourth goal and assisted the sixth , in Red Bull Salzburg 's 6 – 0 home devastation against SV Mattersburg . A few days later he added two more to his tally , as his club won Armenian club Banants by a 7 – 0 scoreline at home , for the first Qualifying round of the 2008 – 09 UEFA Cup . He once again scored in his club 's first leg match for the second Qualifying round of the 2008 – 09 UEFA Cup , against Lithuanian club FK Sūduva . He continued his scoring trends three days later for the first round of the ÖFB @-@ Cup , in a 1 – 4 away win against Pasching . It took him almost a month to find the net again , as he scored the last goal in his club 's 4 – 2 home win against Vöcklabrucker for the 2nd round of the ÖFB @-@ Cup .
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im Soltani and helped Iraklis to record its first away win in eleven months .
= = = Karlsruher SC = = =
In 2011 , he returned to Germany , signing with Karlsruher SC . He made his league debut on 10 September 2011 , where he scored the club 's second consulation goal , in a 2 – 4 away defeat against Fortuna Düsseldorf .
= = = Rheindorf Altach = = =
Being a free agent , Ngwat @-@ Mahop signed for Rheindorf Altach in the summer of 2012 . One day after his commitment with the club , on 7 August 2012 , he made his debut in an 1 – 4 home defeat against St. Pölten , where he even managed to score his first goal . Throughout the season he appeared in 33 matches ending up being the club 's second league goalscorer with 10 goals .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 6 May 2015 .
= = Honours = =
Red Bull Salzburg
Austrian Football Bundesliga : 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10
Rheindorf Altach
Austrian Football First League : 2013 – 14
= Plegmund =
Plegmund ( or Plegemund ; died 2 August either 914 or 923 ) was a medieval English Archbishop of Canterbury . He may have been a hermit before he became archbishop in 890 . As archbishop , he reorganised the Diocese of Winchester , creating four new sees , and worked with other scholars in translating religious works . He was canonised after his death .
= = Early life = =
Little is known of the early life of Plegmund except that he was of Mercian descent . A later tradition , dating 300 years after his death , stated that Plegmund lived as a hermit at Plemstall in Cheshire . His reputation as a scholar attracted the attention of King Alfred the Great , who was trying to revive scholarship . Some time before 887 , Alfred summoned Plegmund to his court . There he worked with three other scholars , Wærferth , Bishop of Worcester , Æthelstan and Wærwulf in working on translating Pope Gregory the Great 's treatise Pastoral Care into Old English .
= = Archbishop of Canterbury = =
Plegmund was selected for the see of Canterbury in 890 by King Alfred . Plegmund 's election to the Archbishopric of Canterbury is recorded in Manuscript E of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle : " Here Archbishop Plegmund was elected by God and all the people . " Fulk , Archbishop of Reims , praised the election of Plegmund , stating that he would help root out the last remnants of paganism in the people . However , there was a gap in time between the death of the previous Archbishop of Canterbury , Ethelred , and the consecration of Plegmund ; this may have been because the see had been offered to Grimbald , a Flemish monk and scholar , who refused it . Plegmund was granted his pallium by Pope Formosus .
During the 9th century , the see of Canterbury was at a low point . As such , one of Plegmund 's responsibilities was to re @-@ establish its authority , and , in an attempt to do this , between 909 and 918 he created new sees within the existing Diocese of Winchester in Crediton , Ramsbury , Sherborne and Wells . This meant that each future shire of Wessex had its own bishop ; of Crediton for Devon and Cornwall , of Ramsbury for Wiltshire , of Sherborne for Dorset and of Wells for Somerset , as well as the diocese of Winchester for Hampshire . To do this , Plegmund had to gain the approval of Pope Sergius III , who had annulled all of the acts of Pope Formosus , and in 908 Plegmund travelled to Rome so that he could be regranted his pallium . He was the first archbishop of Canterbury to visit Rome for nearly a century , and he returned with the relics of Saint Blaise .
Under Plegmund 's archbishopric , the quality of the Latin used by his scribes improved , surpassing the poor quality used by the scribes of the previous two archbishops , Ceolnoth and Æthelred . When Alfred died in 899 , Plegmund crowned his son Edward as king .
In addition to his religious duties , Plegmund was involved in matters of state and he attended the formal councils held by Edward the Elder in 901 , 903 , 904 and 909 . He dedicated the tall tower of the New Minster at Winchester in 909 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Plegmund died on 2 August 914 or 2 August 923 . After his death Plegmund was considered a saint , with a feast day of 2 August . However , his cult dates only from the 13th century .
= Huế Phật Đản shootings =
The Huế Phật Đản shootings were the deaths of nine unarmed Buddhist civilians on 8 May 1963 , in the city of Huế , South Vietnam , at the hands of the army and security forces of the Roman Catholic fundamentalist government of Ngô Đình Diệm . The army and police fired guns and launched grenades into a crowd of Buddhists who had been protesting against a government ban on the flying of the Buddhist flag on the day of Phật Đản , which commemorates the birth of Gautama Buddha . Diệm 's denial of governmental responsibility for the incident — he instead blamed the Việt Cộng — added to discontent among the Buddhist majority .
The incident spurred a protest movement by Buddhists against the religious discrimination perpetrated by the Roman Catholic @-@ dominated Diệm regime , known as the Buddhist crisis , and widespread large @-@ scale civil disobedience among the South Vietnamese . On 1 November 1963 , after six months of tension and growing opposition to the regime , generals from the Army of the Republic of Vietnam conducted a coup , which saw the removal and assassination of Diệm on 2 November 1963 .
= = Prelude = =
In a country where surveys of the religious composition estimated the Buddhist majority to be between 70 and 90 percent , the policies of the staunchly Catholic President Ngô Đình Diệm generated claims of religious bias . As a member of the Catholic Vietnamese minority , he is widely regarded by historians as having pursued pro @-@ Catholic policies that antagonized many Buddhists . Specifically , the government was regarded as being biased towards Catholics in public service and military promotions , as well as the allocation of land , business favors and tax concessions .
Diệm once told a high @-@ ranking officer , forgetting the man was of Buddhist descent , " Put your Catholic officers in sensitive places . They can be trusted . " Many officers in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam converted to Catholicism in the belief that their military prospects depended on it . Additionally , the distribution of firearms to village self @-@ defense militias intended to repel Việt Cộng guerrillas saw weapons only given to Catholics , with Buddhists in the army being denied promotion if they refused to convert to Catholicism . Some Catholic priests ran their own private armies , and in some areas forced conversions , looting , shelling and demolition of pagodas occurred . Some Buddhist villages converted en masse in order to receive aid or to avoid forcible resettlement by Diệm 's regime . The Catholic Church was the largest landowner in the country , and the " private " status that was imposed on Buddhism by the French , which required official permission to conduct public Buddhist activities , was not repealed by Diệm . Land owned by the Catholic Church was exempt from land reform measures . Catholics were also de facto exempt from the corvée labor that the government obliged all citizens to perform ; U.S. aid was disproportionately distributed to Catholic majority villages . Under Diệm , the Catholic Church enjoyed special exemptions in property acquisition , and in 1959 , he dedicated the country to the Virgin Mary . The white and gold Vatican flag was regularly flown at major public events in South Vietnam .
A rarely enforced 1958 law known as Decree Number 10 was invoked on 7 May 1963 to prohibit the display of religious flags . This disallowed the flying of Buddhist flags on Phật Đản , the birthday of Gautama Buddha . The invoking official was the deputy province chief in charge of security , Major Đặng Sỹ , a Catholic who was charged with maintaining public security and was commander of the Huế garrison . The application of the law caused indignation among Buddhists on the eve of the most important religious festival of the year , since a week earlier Catholics had been allowed to display Vatican flags to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the appointment of Diệm 's brother Thục as Archbishop of Huế . The celebrations had been bankrolled by Diệm 's regime through a national committee which asked the population to donate money to Thục 's jubilee . Buddhists complained that they had been forced to give a month 's wages to pay for the celebration . Enforcing the law , the authorities tore down thousands of Buddhist flags that had already been unfurled on homes and pagodas in preparation for Phật Đản . The origin of the order to enforce the law on the Buddhists has been attributed to Thục . Despite protestations from the Saigon representative to the central provinces , the order was enacted upon consultation with Saigon . Villages in the central region had converted en masse to Catholicism , with priests allowed special access to government facilities and funds . The designation of Buddhism as an " association " prevented it from acquiring land for the construction of pagodas .
= = Protest and shootings = =
On Phật Đản , thousands of Buddhists defied the ban on flag flying . More than 500 people marched across the Perfume River , carrying signs and placards , congregating at the Từ Đàm Pagoda before a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong demonstration , calling for religious equality , took place in the city centre as government security officials surrounded the area with armoured personnel carriers and civil guardsmen . The signs were in both Vietnamese and English to convey the message to western observers . Despite the ban on religious flags , Vatican flags hoisted on the bridge from the Catholic celebration were never taken down . The leading Buddhist activist monk Thích Trí Quang addressed the crowd and exhorted them to rise up against Catholic discrimination against Buddhism . He called the Buddhists to congregate outside the government radio station in the evening for a rally . Tension increased throughout the day with demonstrators chanting and displaying anti @-@ government slogans as the crowd grew . They expected to hear another speech from Thích Trí Quang , but the speech was withdrawn from broadcast by the government censor . The Armed Forces were called in to disperse the discontented crowd . After two explosions shook the ground , the crowd thought that the troops had resorted to using bombs . Major Sy reportedly fired into the air and his men responded by launching grenades into the crowd as fire hoses were unleashed on the demonstrators . His troops fired directly into the crowd . In the end nine were killed and four severely injured . Two of the dead , both children , had been crushed underneath armored personnel carriers . Some people of nine had been mutilated and decapitated .
= = Government reaction = =
Diệm and his government alleged that a Việt Cộng guerrilla had caused the incident by setting off the initial explosion , sparking a stampede . He initially refused to take any disciplinary action against the local authorities , claiming that they had acted properly . The government claimed that only percussion grenades had been used , not lethal fragmentation grenades . The force of the explosion cast doubt on whether the Việt Cộng would have had access to sufficiently powerful explosives . Another theory at the time was that a CIA agent had caused the blasts with the aim of fomenting sectarian tension and destabilising the Diệm regime . Eyewitness testimony disputed the official version of events , citing amateur footage , which showed government troops firing on the crowd . A local doctor concluded that there was no evidence of the fatal injuries being inflicted by plastic explosives ; he was subsequently jailed . Diệm refused to be swayed from his account of the incident , and ordered the bodies of the victims to be buried without autopsy . Thích Trí Quang spent the night riding through the streets of Huế with a loudspeaker , accusing the government of firing on the demonstrators . U.S. Ambassador Frederick Nolting , known for his policy of appeasement of Diệm , attempted to spread the responsibility . He claimed all parties were responsible , the demonstrators for ( as he alleged ) trying to take over the radio station , the government for deploying the army , which later opened fire , and " agitators " for throwing the explosives . When the government later ignored his version and refused to assign responsibility , Nolting called its actions " objective , accurate and fair . "
= = Buddhist reaction and protests = =
At 11 am on 9 May , Major Sỹ announced to nearly 800 youthful pro @-@ Buddhist demonstrators that " oppositionist agitators " had forced troops to take the severe measures to maintain order in the face of Việt Cộng agitation . The protesters showed their anger at such an improbable explanation by marching around the old citadel quarter of Huế , chanting anti @-@ Catholic and anti @-@ Diệm slogans . A government organised counter @-@ demonstration to condemn the " Việtcộng terrorist act " under the leadership of Diệm 's brother , Ngô Đình Nhu attracted almost nobody . Thích Trí Quang , who had traveled throughout the country protesting against religious inequality and the flag ban , began rallying Buddhists in central Vietnam . He called them to attend a public mass funeral for the Huế victims scheduled for 10 May . Such an emotion @-@ charged spectacle would have attracted thousands of spectators and placed pressure on Diệm 's regime to grant reforms , so the government announced a curfew and put all armed personnel on duty around the clock to " prevent VC infiltration " . A confrontation was averted when Thích Trí Quang persuaded the protesters to lay down their flags and slogans and observe the 9 pm curfew . The following day , tensions increased again as a crowd of around 6 @,@ 000 Buddhists attended Tu Dam Pagoda for the funerals and a series of meetings . Major Sy was present with ARVN troops and armed police . Slogans and speeches calling for religious equality and anti @-@ government sentiment were prevalent . Quang called on Buddhists to use unarmed struggle and follow Gandhian principles , saying " Carry no weapons ; be prepared to die ... follow Gandhi 's policies " . After Sy echoed Buddhist calls for compensation and expressed sorrow for the victims , the meeting dissolved without violence .
= = Buddhist demands for equality = =
On 10 May , Quang proclaimed a five @-@ point " manifesto of the monks " that demanded freedom to fly the Buddhist flag , religious equality between Buddhists and Catholics , compensation for the victims ' families , an end to arbitrary arrests , and punishment for the officials responsible .
On 13 May , a committee of Buddhist monks formalized their request to Diệm for the five demands . Although the signatories had couched the declaration as " requests " , they had expectations that these would be met . On 15 May , a delegation of six monks and two laymen met Diệm to present the document . After the meeting , the monks held a press conference at the Xá Lợi Pagoda . It was to be the first of many in which they attempted to publicise their cause to the foreign press corps . Diệm agreed to meet with a Buddhist delegation , but increased tension further by demeaning them . Initially , Diệm refused to pay compensation , believing it was a sign of weakness . He claimed there was no discrimination in South Vietnam and that all religions had been treated equally with respect to the flag issue . In regard to the classification of Buddhism as an " association " under Decree 10 , Diệm claimed it was an " administrative oversight " that would be fixed ( although no action was taken on the matter during his final six months of office ) ; Diệm labeled the Buddhists " damn fools " for demanding something that according to him , they already enjoyed . The government press release detailing the meeting also used the expression " damn fools " .
As the demonstrations continued , Ambassador Nolting managed to extract theoretical concessions from Diệm on 18 May . Diệm agreed a modest compensation package of USD $ 7000 for the families of the victims as a conciliatory gesture . Diệm also agreed to dismiss those responsible for the shootings . However , the publicly stated reason for this action was that the officials had failed to maintain order , rather than that they had been responsible for the deaths of the protesters . Despite these concessions , Diệm maintained that his government was not responsible for the deaths , resolutely continuing to blame the Việt Cộng . It was enough to satisfy Nolting , who immediately departed for his vacation . His absence allowed the remaining American diplomatic staff led by William Trueheart , Nolting 's deputy , to end Nolting 's policy of appeasing Diệm .
= = Trial = =
After the fall of the Diệm regime in a coup on 1 November 1963 , Đặng Sỹ faced a trial held under a government led by Nguyễn Khánh . Some of the accusations were that Sy 's men had fired on the crowd and crushed the victims with armoured cars , or that the grenades had been launched at his orders and caused the deaths . Sy later reportedly revealed that Archbishop Thục had personally given him the order to shoot the Buddhists but refused to testify against Thục , who was by that time living in exile in Rome . Sy was sentenced to life imprisonment and ordered to compensate the victims ' families . His lawyer contended that the court had been unable to establish the nature and source of the lethal explosions . The Defense Minister , General Trần Thiện Khiêm , a Catholic who had helped Khánh in his January 1964 coup , later claimed Khánh had rigged the trial to gain Quang 's support , and released Sy from prison ; Sy later emigrated to the United States . In 1970 , the Saigon @-@ based Catholic newspaper , Hòa Bình ran a story claiming that CIA agents had used a secret new explosive to foment trouble for Diệm 's regime whose relations with the United States were deteriorating .
= Montreal Canadiens =
The Montreal Canadiens ( French : Les Canadiens de Montréal ) are a Canadian professional ice hockey team based in Montreal , Quebec , that competes in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . They are members of the league 's Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference .
The club 's official name is le Club de hockey Canadien . The team is frequently referred to in English and French as the Habs . French nicknames for the team include Les Canadiens ( or Le Canadien ) , Le Bleu @-@ Blanc @-@ Rouge , La Sainte @-@ Flanelle , Le Tricolore , Les Glorieux ( or Nos Glorieux ) , Les Habitants , Le CH and Le Grand Club .
Founded in 1909 , the Canadiens are the longest continuously operating professional ice hockey team worldwide , and the only existing NHL club to predate the founding of the NHL . One of the oldest North American professional sports franchises , the Canadiens ' history predates that of every other Canadian franchise outside of football as well as every American franchise outside of baseball and the National Football League 's Arizona Cardinals . The franchise is one of the " Original Six " teams , a description used for the teams that made up the NHL from 1942 until the 1967 expansion . The team 's championship season in 1992 – 93 was the last time a Canadian team won the Stanley Cup .
The Canadiens have won the Stanley Cup more times than any other franchise . They have won 24 championships , 22 of them since 1927 , when NHL teams became the only ones to compete for the Stanley Cup . On a percentage basis , as of 2014 , the franchise has won 25 @.@ 3 % of all Stanley Cup championships contested after the Challenge Cup era , making it the second most successful professional sports team of the traditional four major sports of Canada and the United States , behind only the Boston Celtics .
Since 1996 , the Canadiens have played their home games at Centre Bell , originally known as Centre Molson . The team previously played at the Montreal Forum which housed the team for seven decades and all but their first two Stanley Cup championships .
= = History = =
The Canadiens were founded by J. Ambrose O 'Brien on December 4 , 1909 , as a charter member of the National Hockey Association , the forerunner to the National Hockey League . It was to be the team of the francophone community in Montreal , composed of francophone players , and under francophone ownership as soon as possible . The team 's first season was not a success , as they placed last . After the first year , ownership was transferred to George Kennedy of Montreal and the team 's fortunes improved over the next seasons . The team won its first Stanley Cup championship in the 1915 – 16 season . In 1917 , with four other NHA teams , the Canadiens formed the NHL , and they won their first NHL Stanley Cup during the 1923 – 24 season , led by Howie Morenz . The team moved from the Mount Royal Arena to the Montreal Forum for the 1926 – 27 season .
The club began the 1930s decade successfully , with Stanley Cup wins in 1930 and 1931 . The Canadiens and its then @-@ Montreal rival , the Montreal Maroons , declined both on the ice and economically during the Great Depression . Losses grew to the point where the team owners considering selling the team to interests in Cleveland , Ohio , though local investors were ultimately found to finance the Canadiens . The Maroons still suspended operations , and several of their players moved to the Canadiens .
Led by the " Punch Line " of Maurice " Rocket " Richard , Toe Blake and Elmer Lach in the 1940s , the Canadiens enjoyed success again atop the NHL . From 1953 to 1960 , the franchise won six Stanley Cups , including a record five straight from 1956 to 1960 , with a new set of stars coming to prominence : Jean Beliveau , Dickie Moore , Doug Harvey , Bernie " Boom Boom " Geoffrion , Jacques Plante and Richard 's younger brother , Henri .
The Canadiens added ten more championships in 15 seasons from 1965 to 1979 , with another dynastic run of four @-@ straight Cups from 1976 to 1979 . In the 1976 – 77 season , the Canadiens set two still @-@ standing team records — for most points , with 132 , and fewest losses , by only losing eight games in an 80 @-@ game season . The next season , 1977 – 78 , the team had a 28 @-@ game unbeaten streak , the second @-@ longest in NHL history . The next generation of stars included Guy Lafleur , Yvan Cournoyer , Ken Dryden , Pete Mahovlich , Jacques Lemaire , Pierre Larouche , Steve Shutt , Bob Gainey , Serge Savard , Guy Lapointe and Larry Robinson . Scotty Bowman , who would later set a record for most NHL victories by a coach , was the team 's head coach for its last five Stanley Cup victories in the 1970s .
The Canadiens won Stanley Cups in 1986 , led by rookie star goaltender Patrick Roy , and in 1993 , continuing their streak of winning at least one championship in every decade from the 1910s to the 1990s ( this streak came to an end in the 2000s ) . In 1996 , the Habs moved from the Montreal Forum , their home during 70 seasons and 22 Stanley Cups , to Centre Molson ( now called Centre Bell ) .
Following Roy 's departure in 1995 , the Canadiens fell into an extended stretch of mediocrity , missing the playoffs in four of their next ten seasons and failing to advance past the second round of the playoffs until 2010 . By the late 1990s , with both an ailing team and monetary losses exacerbated by a record @-@ low value of the Canadian dollar , Montreal fans feared their team would end up relocated to the United States . Team owner Molson Brewery sold control of the franchise and the Molson Centre to American businessman George N. Gillett Jr. in 2001 , with the right of first refusal for any future sale by Gillett and a condition that the NHL Board of Governors must unanimously approve any attempt to move to a new city . Led by president Pierre Boivin , the Canadiens returned to being a lucrative enterprise , earning additional revenues from broadcasting and arena events . In 2009 , Gillett sold the franchise to a consortium led by the Molson family which included The Woodbridge Company , BCE / Bell , the QFL Solidarity Fund , Michael Andlauer , Luc Bertrand and the National Bank Financial Group for $ 575 million , more than double the $ 275 million he spent on the purchase eight years prior .
During the 2008 – 09 season , the Canadiens celebrated their 100th anniversary with various events , including hosting both the 2009 NHL All @-@ Star Game , and the 2009 NHL Entry Draft . Said season also marked the Canadiens as the first team in NHL history to reach 3 @,@ 000 victories , reaching the milestone after their 5 – 2 victory over the Florida Panthers on December 29 , 2008 .
= = Team identity = =
The Canadiens organization operates in both English and French . For many years , public address announcements and press releases have been given in both languages , and the team Web site and social media outlets are in both languages as well .
= = = Crest and sweater design = = =
One of sport 's oldest and most recognizable logos , the classic ' C ' and ' H ' of the Montreal Canadiens was first used together in the 1917 – 18 season , when the club changed its name to " Club de hockey Canadien " from " Club athlétique Canadien " , before evolving to its current form in 1952 – 53 . The " H " stands for " hockey " , not " Habitants , " a popular misconception . According to NHL.com , the first man to refer to the team as " the Habs " was American Tex Rickard , owner of the Madison Square Garden , in 1924 . Rickard apparently told a reporter that the " H " on the Canadiens ' sweaters was for " Habitants " .
The team 's colours since 1911 are blue , red , and white . The home sweater is predominantly red in colour . There are four blue and white stripes , one across each arm , one across the chest and the other across the waistline . The main road sweater is mainly white with a red and blue stripe across the waist , red at the end of both arm sleeves red shoulder yokes . The basic design has been in use since 1914 and took its current form in 1925 , generally evolving as materials changed . Because of the team 's lengthy history and significance in Quebec , the sweater has been referred to as ' La Sainte @-@ Flanelle ' ( the holy flannel sweater ) .
The Canadiens used multiple designs prior to adopting the aforementioned design in 1914 . The original shirt of the 1909 – 10 season was blue with a white C. The second season had a red shirt featuring a green maple leaf with the C logo , and green pants . Lastly , the season before adopting the current look the Canadiens wore a " barber pole " design jersey with red , white and blue stripes , and the logo being a white maple leaf reading " CAC " , " Club athlétique Canadien " . All three designs were worn during the 2009 – 10 season as part of the Canadiens centenary .
The Canadiens ' colours are a readily identifiable aspect of French Canadian culture . In the short story " The Hockey Sweater " , Roch Carrier described the influence of the Canadiens and their jersey within rural Quebec communities during the 1940s . The story was later made into an animated short , The Sweater , narrated by Carrier . A passage from the short story appears on the 2002 issue of the Canadian five dollar bill .
= = = Motto = = =
Nos bras meurtris vous tendent le flambeau , à vous toujours de le porter bien haut .
To you from failing hands we throw the torch . Be yours to hold it high .
The motto is from the poem " In Flanders Fields " by John McCrae which was written in 1915 , the year the Canadiens won their first Stanley Cup championship . The motto appears on the wall of the Canadiens dressing room .
= = = Mascot = = =
Beginning in the 2004 – 05 NHL season , the Canadiens adopted Youppi as their official mascot , the first costumed mascot in their long history . Youppi was the longtime mascot for the Montreal Expos baseball team , but was dropped from the franchise when they moved to Washington , D.C. in 2004 and became the Washington Nationals . With the switch , Youppi became the first mascot in professional sports to switch leagues .
= = = Rivalries = = =
The Canadiens have developed strong rivalries with two fellow Original Six franchises , with whom they frequently shared divisions and competed in post @-@ season play . The oldest is with the Toronto Maple Leafs , who first faced the Canadiens as the Toronto Arenas in 1917 . The teams met 15 times in the playoffs , including five Stanley Cup finals . Featuring the two largest cities in Canada and two of the largest fanbases in the league , the rivalry is sometimes dramatized as being emblematic of Canada 's English and French linguistic divide . From 1938 to 1970 , they were the only two Canadian teams in the league .
The team 's other Original Six rival are the Boston Bruins , who since their NHL debut in 1924 have played the Canadiens more than any other team in both regular season play and the playoffs combined . The teams have played 34 playoff series , seven of which were in the finals .
The Canadiens also had an intraprovincial rivalry with the Quebec Nordiques during its existence from 1979 @-@ 1995 , nicknamed the " Battle of Quebec . "
= = Broadcasting = =
Montreal Canadiens games are broadcast locally in both the French and English languages . On radio , Canadiens games are broadcast in French by CHMP 98 @.@ 5 , and in English by CKGM , TSN Radio 690 , who acquired the English broadcast rights under a 7 @-@ year deal which began in the 2011 @-@ 12 season .
Regional television rights in French are currently held by Réseau des sports under a 12 @-@ year deal , effective as of the 2014 – 15 NHL season . A sister to the English @-@ language network TSN , RDS was the only French @-@ language sports channel in Canada until the 2011 launch of TVA Sports , and was also the previous national French rightsholder of the NHL ; as a result , the Canadiens forewent a separate regional contract , and allowed its games to be televised nationally as part of RDS 's national rights package .
With TVA Sports becoming the national French rightsholder in the 2014 – 15 season through a sub @-@ licensing agreement with Rogers Communications , RDS parent company Bell Media subsequently announced a 12 @-@ year deal to maintain regional rights to Canadiens games not shown on TVA Sports . As a result , games on RDS are blacked out outside of the Canadiens ' home market of Quebec , Atlantic Canada and parts of Ontario shared with the Ottawa Senators . At least 22 Canadiens games per season ( primarily through its Saturday night La super soirée LNH ) , including all playoff games , are televised nationally by TVA Sports .
Regional television rights in English are held by Sportsnet East in a 3 @-@ year deal announced by Rogers on September 2 , 2014 , with selected games ( three in its inaugural season ) airing on CJNT City Montreal . The remaining games are aired nationally through Rogers ' aforementioned NHL rights deal ( including additional games on Sportsnet , City , or on CBC during Hockey Night in Canada ) , thus giving Rogers rights to over all English @-@ language telecasts of the Canadiens . Regional Canadiens games on Sportsnet East and City are called by John Bartlett and Jason York . TSN previously held regional , English @-@ language television rights to the Canadiens from 2010 through 2014 . They were broadcast on a part @-@ time TSN feed with Dave Randorf on play @-@ by @-@ play ; these rights were not renewed by Bell Media past the 2013 – 14 season .
= = Seasons and records = =
= = = Season by season results = = =
This is a list of the last five seasons completed by the Canadiens . For the full season @-@ by @-@ season history , see List of Montreal Canadiens seasons .
Note : GP
= Games played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , T =
Ties , OTL
= Overtime Losses , Pts =
Points , GF
= Goals for , GA =
Goals against
= = Franchise individual records = =
= = = Franchise scoring leaders = = =
These are the top @-@ ten point @-@ scorers in franchise history . Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season .
Note : Pos
= Position ; GP =
Games Played ; G
= Goals ; A =
Assists ; Pts
= Points ; P / G =
Points per game
Sources : " Statistics | Historical Website of the Montreal Canadiens " . Montreal Canadiens . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 06 @-@ 27 . , " Hockey @-@ Reference.com " . 2010 @-@ 06 @-@ 17 .
= = = Records – skaters = = =
Career
Most seasons : 20 , Henri Richard
Most games : 1256 , Henri Richard
Most goals : 544 , Maurice Richard
Most assists : 728 , Guy Lafleur
Most points : 1246 ( 518G , 728A ) , Guy Lafleur
Most penalty minutes : 2248 , Chris Nilan
Most consecutive games played : 560 , Doug Jarvis
Season
Most goals in a season : 60 , Steve Shutt ( 1976 – 77 ) ; Guy Lafleur ( 1977 – 78 )
Most powerplay goals in a season : 20 , Yvan Cournoyer ( 1966 – 67 )
Most powerplay goals in a season , defenceman : 19 , Sheldon Souray ( 2006 – 07 ) *
Most assists in a season : 82 , Pete Mahovlich ( 1974 – 75 )
Most points in a season : 136 , Guy Lafleur ( 1976 – 77 )
Most penalty minutes in a season : 358 , Chris Nilan ( 1984 – 85 )
Most points in a season , defenceman : 85 , Larry Robinson ( 1976 – 77 )
Most points in a season , rookie : 71 , Mats Naslund ( 1982 – 83 ) ; Kjell Dahlin ( 1985 – 86 )
Most goals in a season , defenceman : 28 , Guy Lapointe ( 1974 – 75 )
* Indicates a league record .
Source : " Season records – Individual records – Skaters | Historical Website of the Montreal Canadiens " . Montreal Canadiens . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 12 @-@ 12 .
= = = Records – goaltenders = = =
Career
Most games played : 556 , Jacques Plante
Most shutouts : 75 , George Hainsworth
Most wins : 314 , Jacques Plante
Season
Most games in a season : 72 , Carey Price ( 2010 – 11 )
Most wins in a season : 44 , Carey Price ( 2014 – 15 )
Most shutouts in a season : 22 , George Hainsworth ( 1928 – 29 ) *
* Indicates a league record .
Source : " Season records – Individual records – goaltenders | Historical Website of the Montreal Canadiens " . Montreal Canadiens . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 12 @-@ 12 .
= = Current roster = =
Updated July 7 , 2016 .
= = Leaders = =
= = = Team captains = = =
= = = Head coaches = = =
Source : " Historical Website of the Montreal Canadiens " . Montreal Canadiens . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 12 @-@ 12 .
= = Honoured members = =
= = = Retired numbers = = =
The Canadiens have retired 15 numbers in honour of 18 players , the most of any team in the NHL . All of the honourees were born in Canada . Howie Morenz was the first honouree , on November 2 , 1937 .
= = = Hockey Hall of Fame = = =
Sixty @-@ two people associated with the Canadiens have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Thirty @-@ six of these players are from three separate notable dynasties : 12 from 1955 – 60 , 11 from 1964 – 69 and 13 from 1975 – 79 . Howie Morenz and Georges Vezina were the first Canadiens given the honour in 1945 , while Rogatien Vachon was the most recently inducted , in 2016 .
The following are members of the Hockey Hall of Fame in the Builders category . The first inductee was Vice @-@ President William Northy in 1945 . The most recent inductee was head coach Pat Burns in 2014 .
= HalloWeekends =
HalloWeekends is an annual Halloween event at Cedar Point amusement park in Sandusky , Ohio . It was introduced in 1997 , and takes place during the Halloween season , usually from the second Friday after Labor Day until the Sunday before Halloween . The event is open on Friday nights , Saturdays and Sundays . It is included free with park admission . As of 2014 , HalloWeekends features 11 haunted houses and nighttime scare zones , and there are several children 's attractions including a parade that takes place on the main midway . It is advised that children under 13 years old be accompanied by an adult . HalloWeekend 's yearly slogan is " All You Fear is Here ! " . Other Cedar Fair parks including Dorney Park , Valley Fair , and Worlds of Fun all have formerly used the HalloWeekends name . The name has changed to Halloween Haunt at all 3 parks . Cedar Point is the only Cedar Fair park that still uses the HalloWeekends name .
= = Overview = =
HalloWeekends debuted in 1997 and was only open for three weekends . It has since grown to be held on Friday nights , Saturdays and Sundays during seven weekends in September and October . However , not all of the rides and attractions are open on Friday nights . Attractions include Haunted Houses and Scare Zones . The park is decorated with 1 @,@ 735 bales of hay , 28 @,@ 800 cornstalks , 23 @,@ 000 pounds of pumpkins and other Halloween related items . Located underneath the Sky Ride on the Main Midway in front of Raptor is the Cedar Point Graveyard , also known as " The Land of the Lost Thrills " , which was added to HalloWeekends in 2004 and features tombstones of the park 's rides that have been retired from the 1960s onwards . Cars from retired rides are placed around the park . For example , cars from Frontier Lift and Mantis lie in the Cedar Point Graveyard , one from WildCat lies near Gemini and a car from Disaster Transport lies near Power Tower .
During HalloWeekends , the park offers an express ticketing system called Fright Lane for the haunt attractions , similar to Fast Lane . It offers front @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line access for one visit to Eternity Infirmary , CornStalkers , Eden Musee , Eerie Estate and Zombie High School , and unlimited visits through Fear Faire , Blood on the Bayou , Screamworks and Cut Throat Cove .
HalloWeekends has been ranked as one of the best Halloween events in the US . It was ranked fifth for " Best Halloween Event " in the Golden Ticket Awards between 2005 and 2008 . In addition , it was ranked fifth again in 2013 and 2014 .
= = Attractions = =
= = = Historical = = =
Cedar Fair , the park 's owner , acquired Knott 's Berry Farm — the first park with a Halloween Haunt — in 1997 , and implemented the event throughout the chain , starting with Cedar Point . At its debut , there were only two haunt attractions , Eerie Manor and Cedar Point Cemetery . Guests could travel on the Cedar Point Spooky Express through haunted lagoons and graveyards . The first new attraction , Toxic Tunnel of Terror , was introduced in 1998 . Camp Spooky debuted a year later with children 's activities in Camp Snoopy . In 2000 , Cedar Point Cemetery was re @-@ themed into Pharaoh 's Secret . The park added three attractions in 2001 , Eerie Manor was re @-@ themed into Undertaker U. , and Fright Zone and Magical House on Boo Hill were added .
Werewolf Canyon debuted in 2003 in Thunder Canyon . 2004 saw the addition of CarnEvil and Lair of the Vampire . Werewolf Canyon was also expanded that year . Fear Faire , with a medieval theme , was added in 2006 . In 2007 , the park added the Monster Midway Invasion Celebration Parade which goes from Gemini to the main midway . In 2008 , HalloWeekends received a major expansion . CornStalkers replaced Werewolf Canyon , Club Blood replaced Lair of the Vampire , CarnEvil was relocated to Camp Snoopy and Terror Island was added under Millennium Force . The area near Blue Streak was turned into a children 's area , Magical House on Boo Hill was relocated and a haybale maze was added . HalloWeekends was extended to eight weekends for the first time .
In 2009 , the park replaced Pharaoh 's Secret with Happy Jack 's Toy Factory and G.A. Boeckling 's Eerie Estate opened . Dr. D. Mented 's Asylum for the Criminally Insane was added in 2010 . For the 2011 HalloWeekends , Cedar Point renamed two attractions due to protests . Dr. D Mented 's Asylum for the Crimally Insane was renamed Eternity Infirmary and The Edge of Madness show became The Edge of Madness -- Six Feet Under . Screamworks replaced Fright Zone and Blood on the Bayou was added along the lagoons under Iron Dragon . When Disaster Transport closed in 2012 , so did Happy Jack 's Toy Factory . Terror Island was relocated under Maverick because the Dinosaurs Alive ! attraction was using the path for Terror Island . Its name was changed to Cut Throat Cove . A new haunted house called Eden Musee was built inside Mean Streak 's infield . For the 2013 event , Cedar Point introduced Zombie High School , which replaced Club Blood at the front of the park . Trick @-@ or @-@ Treat with the Dinosaurs , which takes place on Adventure Island , was also introduced for kids to collect candy from the dinosaurs .
= = = Current = = =
The outdoor attractions are run by the HalloWeekends ' Screamsters , a group of Cedar Point staff members who are commanded to scare visitors by The Overlord when night falls . The Overlord debuted in 2009 and he commands all the Screamsters to scare people at every opportunity . However , he did not appear for the 2013 season , Knott 's Scary Farm 's very own Sarah " The Green Witch " Morgan @-@ Marshall took over HalloWeekends as their new and 1st female leader of the Screamsters in 2014 . The Screamsters were introduced in 2005 , with 70 staff . As of 2013 , there are about 400 Screamsters , and 25 make @-@ up artists who provide their masks . Each Screamster has an individual character .
As of 2014 , HalloWeekends features 11 attractions , including six scare zones and five haunted houses . The outdoor attractions are Blood on the Bayou , Cut Throat Cove , Screamworks , Tombstone Terror @-@ tory , CarnEvil , and CornStalkers . The indoor attractions are G.A. Boeckling 's Eerie Estate , Zombie High School , Eden Musee , Hexed and Eternity Infirmary .
In March 2014 , the Halloween horror music duo , Midnight Syndicate , announced plans for a series of live multimedia concerts entitled Midnight Syndicate Live ! Legacy of Shadows that would run throughout the 2014 HalloWeekends event . They also announced that they would be teaming up with special effects artist , Robert Kurtzman ( From Dusk Till Dawn ) as well as director Gary Jones ( Axe Giant ) and Face Off contestants , Beki Ingram and David Greathouse . The show opened on September 12 to very positive reviews . The Akron Beacon Journal described it as " Part concert , part movie , part theater , part just plain creepy , " going on to call it " top @-@ notch and ambitious . "
= = Children 's attractions = =
The park features several attractions for children . Several live shows , including the Skeleton Crew acrobatics show that takes place in Celebration Plaza , are performed each day . The Monster Midway Invasion Celebration Parade , which travels along the Main Midway from Gemini to Pink 's on Saturdays , and travels the reverse route on Sundays , takes place at 4 pm . In 2013 , the park introduced Howl @-@ O @-@ Palooza in the Blue Streak plaza . It includes several Halloween attractions for children , including a haunted house named Magical House on Boo Hill , a haybale maze and a Kids ' Costume Contest . The Planet Snoopy children 's area is transformed into Planet Spooky .
= Follow the Leader ( Korn album ) =
Follow the Leader is the third studio album by the American nu metal band Korn . The album was released on August 18 , 1998 , through Immortal / Epic . This was their first album not produced by Ross Robinson . Instead , it was produced by Steve Thompson and Toby Wright .
The album peaked at number one on four charts , including the Billboard 200 with 268 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week of release , and is often credited with launching nu metal into the mainstream . The album received a 5 × Platinum certification in the United States on March 15 , 2002 as well as a 3 × Platinum in Australia and Canada . Its singles " Got the Life " , and " Freak on a Leash " , both charted on more than three charts , and their music videos are considered to be the first music videos retired from MTV , most notably the MTV show " Total Request Live " . The album generally received positive reviews by critics . Korn was praised by AllMusic saying the album is " an effective follow @-@ up to their first two alt @-@ metal landmarks . "
The Family Values Tour promoted the album , along with its five singles . The song " Freak on a Leash " was nominated for nine MTV Video Music Awards , and won for the Best Rock Video award , as well as Best Editing . The music video for " Freak on a Leash " won Best Short Form Music Video at the 2000 Grammy Awards . Follow the Leader has sold over 7 million copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan as of January 4 , 2013 and over 14 million copies worldwide , making it Korn 's most successful album .
= = Recording and production = =
By early 1998 , Korn returned to the studio to record Follow the Leader . Even though Korn was impressed by the work Ross Robinson had done on their previous albums , they decided to work with Steve Thompson and Toby Wright . Robinson did however work with singer Jonathan Davis as a vocal coach for the album . Korn was shown making the video on KornTV . The reason they exposed themselves making the album was because they wanted to let their fans see what they were doing in the studio and behind the scenes . Follow the Leader features numerous guest vocalists , including Ice Cube on " Children of the Korn " , Tre Hardson of The Pharcyde on " Cameltosis " and Limp Bizkit 's Fred Durst on " All in the Family " .
In a 2013 interview , the band revealed that they partied heavily during the production of Follow the Leader , with massive amounts of alcohol , drugs , and women in the studio . Davis explained further , saying that while recording the vocals for " It 's On " , there were " people getting blowjobs right behind me , there was girls banging each other in front of me , people getting boned in the closet right behind me , it was the craziest shit I 've ever seen in my life and I sang that song . " According to Davis , he only agreed to begin tracking vocals when producer Toby Wright met his demands for an eight @-@ ball ( a one @-@ eighth ounce of cocaine ) .
= = = Photography and illustration = = =
The artwork for Follow the Leader was done by Todd McFarlane Entertainment , with McFarlane and fellow Image Comics artists Greg Capullo ( penciller ) and Brian Hagelin ( colorist ) doing the album cover , and designer Brent Ashe handling the graphics work . According to drummer David Silveria , the band got interested in McFarlane after hearing that " Todd had actually referred to us as ' the Doors of the 90 's ' " , leading to them recording a song for Spawn , a film based on a comic book by McFarlane , and eventually approaching the artist to make an album cover for them . The cover art depicts a child hopscotching off a cliff and a gathering of kids waiting to follow , a concept that begun with bassist Reginald " Fieldy " Arvizu and sketched by a friend of Jonathan Davis before being submitted to McFarlane . It marked the third straight Korn cover featuring children in a disturbing context , which Davis explained by saying that " Children are always scared when they 're all happy and stuff . They 're the most beautiful thing in the world , but when you see it in our artwork , the way we 've placed it , it 's just kinda fuckin ' weird . " The " Freak on a Leash " music video features animated segments by McFarlane featuring this cover art .
= = Promotion = =
Follow the Leader is recognized as Korn 's mainstream breakthrough , and the album that launched nu metal into the mainstream . Follow the Leader was released August 18 , 1998 , and was awarded multi @-@ platinum certification for shipments in excess of five million copies , by the RIAA on March 15 , 2002 . In fall of 1998 , Korn started the Family Values Tour . According to Arvizu , the tour name was due to " so many of their friends who were like family to us played in bands " . The tour started on September 22 , 1998 , ending on October 31 , 1998 . The tour grossed over 6 @.@ 4 million ( 6 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 ) . Korn maintained a generally low ticket price , usually no more than thirty dollars . Korn toured with the band Limp Bizkit , as well as Ice Cube , Orgy , Incubus , and Rammstein . The tour was considered to be a major success , and promoted Follow the Leader to sales that were considered to have " skyrocketed " .
The album was also promoted through Concrete Marketing 's Concrete Corner program . The promotion saw 100 @,@ 000 copies of a compilation CD featuring tracks of breakthrough artists approved by Korn , as well as a previously unreleased Korn track , being shrink @-@ wrapped to the album at participating stores and given away for free with each purchase of the album . Band artists ( at the time ) featured on this CD included Kid Rock , Orgy , Powerman 5000 and Limp Bizkit . The album had five singles issued : " All in the Family " , " Got the Life " , " Freak on a Leash " , " Children of the Korn " , and " B.B.K. "
= = Composition = =
Follow the Leader is seventy minutes and eight seconds long . AllMusic said , " They write songs , but those wind up not being nearly as memorable as their lurching metallic hip @-@ hop grind . " Entertainment Weekly commented that Follow the Leader was Korn 's " gimmick " , while saying the album had " steely riffs " and " stomping beats " . Tower Records said the album " combines streamlined metal with ominous industrial touches and an undercurrent of hip @-@ hop rhythm , " and also said it was an " urban nightmare " . The album is considered to be nu metal , but also spans other genres such as alternative metal and heavy metal .
The album features 25 tracks , 12 of which last five seconds of silence , making the first 60 seconds of the album all silent . Winston @-@ Salem Journal writer Ed Bumgardner described Korn 's work as having " shaped rap , metal and punk into a sonic maelstrom that is brutal , aggressive - and reasonably musical " . The Daily News said that " the band shovels chunky beats into an already complex sound ... " Michael Mehle of Rocky Mountain News said , " For the uninitiated , the classic Korn sound comes rumbling out of the speakers on the first cut : It 's On ! grinds fuzzy guitars , thunderous beats and shouts of gut @-@ wrenching rage into an anthem for the alienated " , and gave other positive remarks . The Charlotte Observer said the album was dark , but humble . A Zeeland high school assistant principal said in an interview for a Michigan newspaper that the music is " indecent , vulgar , obscene and intends to be insulting " . She said this after giving a student a one @-@ day suspension for wearing a shirt with Korn on it .
= = Critical reception = =
Follow the Leader received generally positive reviews . Stephan Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave the album four out of five stars , saying that it " is an effective follow @-@ up to their first two alt @-@ metal landmarks . " Erlewine also said that the songs were " vehicles for the metal grind " . Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B – . Reviewer Jim Farber said that the lyrics " provide a new blend of metal and remnants of alt @-@ rock . " Jon Pareles from The New York Times said the album was " choppy " , and also said that lead singer Jonathan Davis was " wrestling with self @-@ hatred , violent impulses , parental execration , and a confused sexual identity ... " Robert Christgau of The Village Voice said that , although Korn " deny they 're metal " , they " nevertheless demonstrate that the essence of metal ... is self @-@ obliterating volume and self @-@ aggrandizing display . " Rolling Stone gave the album four out of five stars , while saying that Korn " have an ideal record for those long , black days when all you can do is say ' What the Fuck ! What the Fuck ! What the Fuck ! ' at bloody murder volume " . The album is featured in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
The album peaked at number one on four charts , including the Billboard 200 . Follow the Leader peaked at number five in the United Kingdom . The album received a 5 × Platinum certification in the United States , as well as a triple platinum in Australia and Canada . Follow the Leader also received a gold certification in the Netherlands . The album 's first charting single , " Got the Life " , released on July 24 , 1998 , peaked at number fifteen on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart , and received a gold certification in Australia . The album 's next charting single , " Freak on a Leash " , released in February 1999 , peaked at number six on the Alternative Songs chart , as well as number six on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 , and like " Got the Life " , received a gold certification in Australia . " Freak on a Leash " was nominated for nine MTV Video Music Awards , and won for the Best Rock Video award , as well as Best Editing .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Korn except " Earache My Eye " written by Tommy Chong , Gaye Delorme and Richard Marin . All guest appearances feature an extra writing credit by the guest .
The original physical release features 25 tracks . The music begins on track 13 and ends on track 25 , Starting the album with 12 hidden tracks consisting of five seconds of silence each , totaling 1 minute of silence out of respect for a deceased fan , who also had track 10 ( Justin ) named after him . Later prints move the silent tracks after the music . In interviews Jon Davis also mentioned he was very superstitious and did not want to end an album on track 13 .
" My Gift to You " stops at 7 : 12 and is followed by two minutes of silence . At 9 : 12 , a hidden track titled " Earache My Eye " starts playing after an anecdote from Fieldy during the studio session .
= = Credits = =
= = Charts = =
= Lost Our Lisa =
" Lost Our Lisa " is the twenty @-@ fourth episode in the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 10 , 1998 . The episode contains the last appearance of the character Lionel Hutz . When Lisa learns that Marge cannot give her a ride to the museum and forbids her to take the bus , she tricks Homer into giving her permission . After Lisa gets lost , Homer goes looking for her and the two end up visiting the museum together . The episode is analyzed in the books Planet Simpson , The Psychology of the Simpsons : D 'oh ! , and The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer , and received positive mention in I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide .
= = Plot = =
Bart and Milhouse visit a joke shop . Meanwhile , Marge and Lisa plan a trip to the Springsonian Museum so they can see the Egyptian Treasures of Isis exhibit and the Orb of Isis . Marge has to take Bart to a doctor instead , since he has superglued various novelty items to his face . Since this is Lisa 's last chance to see the exhibit , she phones Homer to ask him if she can take the bus . He seems uncertain , which prompts her to trick him into letting her take the bus .
However , once on the bus , Lisa realizes she is on the wrong bus and is dropped off in the middle on nowhere . During his lunch break at work , Homer has a conversation with Lenny and Carl . He tells them that he let Lisa ride the bus alone . Lenny and Carl point out the error of his judgment , and Homer leaves work to go look for her . He heads to the museum and ends up in downtown Springfield . He uses a cherrypicker to get up higher . Homer and Lisa spot each other , but the vehicle 's wheels creak backwards and it rolls down a hill . It slides off the edge of a pier at the harbor into a river . Lisa tells the drawbridge operator to close the bridge so Homer can grab on . His head is caught between the two closing halves and he survives with nothing more than a few tire marks across his forehead .
With Homer and Lisa re @-@ united , he tells her that it is all right to take risks in life . The two decide to go to the museum after all , by illegally entering since it is now closed . While there , they make a fascinating discovery that the Orb of Isis is a music box which had gone overlooked by scientists and museum staff . Lisa concludes that what her father said about risks was right – until the alarm goes off and guard dogs chase them out of the building .
= = Production = =
Writer Mike Scully came up with the idea for the plot because he used to live in West Springfield , Massachusetts and he would ask his parents if he could take the bus to Springfield , Massachusetts and they finally agreed to let him one day . The production team faced several challenges during development of this episode . The animators had to come up with a special mouth chart to draw Bart 's mouth with the joke teeth in . The pile of dead animals in the back of Cletus ' truck originally included dead puppies , but the animators thought it was too sad , so they removed them . Scully used to write jokes for Yakov Smirnoff so he called him up to get the signs in Russian . Dan Castellaneta had to learn proper Russian pronunciation so he could speak it during the chess scene in which he voiced the Russian chess player .
In the season 9 DVD release of the episode , The Simpsons animators use a telestrator to show similarities between Krusty and Homer in the episode . This episode contains the last showing of character Lionel Hutz . He is seen standing at the bus stop with Lisa , but does not speak . Due to Phil Hartman 's death , the recurring characters of Lionel Hutz and Troy McClure were retired .
= = Themes = =
In his book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner cites Lisa 's experiences on the bus as an example of " satirical laughs scored at the expense of Lisa 's idealism " . " Lost Our Lisa " is cited in The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer along with episodes " Lisa the Iconoclast " , " Lisa the Beauty Queen " , and " Lisa 's Sax " , in order to illustrate Homer 's " success bonding with Lisa " .
In The Psychology of the Simpsons : D 'oh ! , the authors utilize statements made by Homer in the episode to analyze the difference between heuristic and algorithmic decision @-@ making . Homer explains to Lisa , " Stupid risks are what make life worth living . Now your mother , she 's the steady type and that 's fine in small doses , but me , I 'm a risk @-@ taker . That 's why I have so many adventures ! " The authors of The Psychology of The Simpsons interpret this statement by Homer to mean that he " relies on his past experiences of taking massive , death @-@ defying risks and winding up okay to justify forging ahead in the most extreme circumstances " .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Lost Our Lisa " finished 45th in ratings for the week of May 4 – 10 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 7 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Ally McBeal , and King of the Hill .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood write positively of the episode in their book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide : " A smashing episode , loads of good jokes and clever situations ... and best of all , Lisa working intelligently . The teaming up of father and daughter has rarely been more enjoyable and lovely . Gives you a warm feeling . " A review of The Simpsons season 9 DVD release in the Daily Post notes that it includes " super illustrated colour commentaries " on " All Singing , All Dancing " and " Lost Our Lisa " .
= Euryoryzomys emmonsae =
Euryoryzomys emmonsae , also known as Emmons 's Rice Rat or Emmons ' Oryzomys , is a rodent from Amazonian Brazil in the genus Euryoryzomys of the family Cricetidae . Initially misidentified as E. macconnelli or E. nitidus , it was formally described in 1998 . A rainforest species , it may be scansorial , climbing but also spending time on the ground . It occurs only in a limited area south of the Amazon River in the state of Pará , a distribution that is apparently unique among the muroid rodents of the region .
Euryoryzomys emmonsae is a relatively large rice rat , weighing 46 to 78 g ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 oz ) , with a distinctly long tail and relatively long , tawny brown fur . The skull is slender and the incisive foramina ( openings in the bone of the palate ) are broad . The animal has 80 chromosomes and its karyotype is similar to that of other Euryoryzomys . Its conservation status is assessed as " Data Deficient " , but deforestation may pose a threat to this species .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1998 , Guy Musser , Michael Carleton , Eric Brothers , and Alfred Gardner reviewed the taxonomy of species previously lumped under " Oryzomys capito " ( now classified in the genera Hylaeamys , Euryoryzomys , and Transandinomys ) . They described the new species Oryzomys emmonsae on the basis of 17 specimens from three locations in the state of Pará in northern Brazil ; these animals had been previously identified as Oryzomys macconnelli ( now Euryoryzomys macconnelli ) and then as Oryzomys nitidus ( now Euryoryzomys nitidus ) . The specific name honors Louise H. Emmons , who , among other contributions to Neotropical mammalogy , collected three of the known examples of the species in 1986 , including the holotype . The new species was placed in what they termed the " Oryzomys nitidus group " , which also included O. macconelli , O. nitidus , and O. russatus .
In 2000 , James Patton , Maria da Silva , and Jay Malcolm reported on mammals collected at the Rio Juruá in western Brazil . In this report , they provided further information on the Oryzomys species reviewed by Musser and colleagues , including sequence data from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene . Their analysis reaffirmed that O. emmonsae was a distinct species and found that it was closest to O. macconnelli and O. russatus , differing from both by about 12 % in the cytochrome b sequence ; O. nitidus was more distantly related , differing by 14 @.@ 7 % . The average sequence difference between the three O. emmonsae studied was 0 @.@ 8 % .
In 2006 , an extensive morphological and molecular phylogenetic analysis by Marcelo Weksler showed that species then placed in the genus Oryzomys did not form a single , cohesive ( monophyletic ) group ; for example , O. macconnelli , O. lamia ( placed under O. russatus by Musser and colleagues ) and O. russatus clustered together in a single natural group ( clade ) , but were not closely related to the type species of Oryzomys , the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) . Later in 2006 , Weksler and colleagues described several new genera to accommodate species previously placed in Oryzomys , among which was Euryoryzomys for the " O. nitidus complex " , including O. emmonsae .
Thus , the species is now known as Euryoryzomys emmonsae . As a species of Euryoryzomys , it is classified within the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , which includes over a hundred species , mainly from South and Central America . Oryzomyini in turn is part of the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
= = Description = =
Euryoryzomys emmonsae is a fairly large , long @-@ tailed rice rat with long , soft fur . The hairs on the back are 8 to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) long . It generally resembles E. nitidus in these and other characters , but has a longer tail . E. macconnelli is slightly larger and has longer and duller fur . In E. emmonsae , the upperparts are tawny brown , but a bit darker on the head because many hairs have black tips . The hairs of the underparts are gray at the bases and white at the tips ; overall , the fur appears mostly white . In most specimens , there is a patch on the chest where the gray bases are absent . The longest of the vibrissae ( whiskers ) of the face extend slightly beyond the ears . The eyelids are black . The ears are covered with small , yellowish brown hairs and appear dark brown overall . The feet are covered with white hairs above and brown below . There are six pads on the plantar surface , but the hypothenar is reduced . The ungual tufts , tufts of hair which surround the bases of the claws , are well @-@ developed . The tail is like the body in color above , and mostly white below , but in the 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) nearest the tail tip it is brown below .
Compared to E. nitidus and E. macconnelli , the skull is relatively small and slender . It has broad and short incisive foramina ( perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars ) and lacks sphenopalatine vacuities which perforate the mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the end of the palate . The animal is similar to other members of the genus in the pattern of the arteries of the head . The alisphenoid strut , an extension of the alisphenoid bone which separates two foramina ( openings ) in the skull ( the masticatory @-@ buccinator foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium ) is rarely present ; its presence is more frequent in E. nitidus . The capsular process , a raising of the bone of the mandible ( lower jaw ) behind the third molar , houses the back end of the lower incisor in most Euryoryzomys , but is absent in E. emmonsae and E. macconnelli . Traits of the teeth are similar to those of E. nitidus and other Euryoryzomys .
The karyotype includes 80 chromosomes with a total of 86 major arms ( 2n
= 80 ; FN =
86 ) . The X chromosome is subtelocentric ( with one pair of long arms and one pair of short arms ) and the Y chromosome is acrocentric ( with only one pair of arms , or with a minute second pair ) . Among the autosomes ( non @-@ sex chromosomes ) , the four metacentric or submetacentric ( with two pairs of arms as long as or not much shorter than the other ) pairs of chromosomes are small , and the 35 pairs of acrocentrics range from large to small . Some of those have a minute second pair of arms and could also be classified as subtelocentric , which would raise FN to 90 . This karyotype is similar to other known karyotypes of members of Euryoryzomys .
In thirteen specimens measured by Musser , head and body length ranges from 120 to 142 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 6 in ) , tail length ( 12 specimens only ) from 130 to 160 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 3 in ) , hindfoot length from 32 to 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 4 in ) , ear length ( three specimens only ) from 23 to 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 to 0 @.@ 94 in ) , and body mass from 46 to 78 g ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 oz ) .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
The known distribution of Euryoryzomys emmonsae is limited to a portion of the Amazon Rainforest south of the Amazon River in the state of Pará , between the Xingu and Tocantins rivers , but the limits of its range remain inadequately known . No other South American rainforest muroid rodent is known to have a similar distribution . Musser and colleagues reported it from three locations and Patton and others added a fourth ; in some of those it occurs together with E. macconnelli or Hylaeamys megacephalus .
Specimens of E. emmonsae for which detailed habitat data are available were caught in " viny forest " , a microhabitat that often included much bamboo . All were captured on the ground , some in bamboo thickets and another under a log . Musser and colleagues speculated that E. emmonsae may be scansorial , spending time both on the ground and climbing in vegetation , like the similarly long @-@ tailed rice rat Cerradomys subflavus .
= = Conservation status = =
The IUCN currently lists Euryoryzomys emmonsae as " Data Deficient " because it is so poorly known . It may be threatened by deforestation and logging , but occurs in at least one protected area , the Floresta Nacional de Tapirape @-@ Aquiri .
= Liturgical calendar ( Lutheran ) =
The Lutheran liturgical calendar is a listing which details the primary annual festivals and events that are celebrated liturgically by various Lutheran churches . The calendars of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America ( ELCA ) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada ( ELCIC ) are from the 1978 Lutheran Book of Worship and the calendar of Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod ( LCMS ) and the Lutheran Church - Canada use the Lutheran Book of Worship and the 1982 Lutheran Worship . Elements unique to the ELCA have been updated from the Lutheran Book of Worship to reflect changes resulting from the publication of Evangelical Lutheran Worship in 2006 . The elements of the calendar unique to the LCMS have also been updated from Lutheran Worship and the Lutheran Book of Worship to reflect the 2006 publication of the Lutheran Service Book .
The basic element to the calendar is Sunday , which is a festival of Jesus ’ resurrection . However , Christian Churches have historically observed other festivals which commemorate events in the life of Jesus or of significant individuals in the history of the Church . The purpose of the liturgical calendar is to guide commemorations as a part of the daily worship of the Lutheran Church . There is some variation associated with the observance of the calendar , as each Lutheran Church creates its own calendar and each congregation must choose independently how many individuals will be commemorated within a given year and how many festivals and lesser festivals they will publicly celebrate , especially if they do not coincide with a Sunday .
= = Structure = =
The Lutheran calendar operates on two different cycles : the Temporal Cycle and the Sanctoral Cycle . The Temporal Cycle pivots on the festivals of Christmas and Easter . All Sundays , Seasons , and Festivals are related to these festivals . Because Easter varies in date each year based on the vernal equinox and the phases of the moon , it is called a moveable feast ( see : Computus ) . Dates affected by placement of Easter include Ash Wednesday and the start of Lent , the start of Easter itself , Pentecost , and Holy Trinity . Advent , the other pivotal season on the calendar , comes exactly four Sundays before the start of Christmas ( if Christmas falls on a Sunday , that day does not count ) , or the Sunday closest to St. Andrew 's Day ( November 30 ) . Like the other Western Church calendars , the first Sunday of Advent is also the first day of the liturgical year . The Sanctoral Cycle is the fixed daily commemorations of individuals and events not related to the Temporal Cycle of Sundays , Festivals , and Seasons . It is the Sanctoral Cycle which is sometimes thought of as being the “ Calendar of Saints ” of a Church .
Beyond their place in the Temporal or Sanctoral Cycles , the events commemorated on the Lutheran liturgical calendar fall into one of three different categories depending upon their liturgical priority : Festivals , Lesser Festivals , and Commemorations .
= = = Festivals = = =
The Festivals are Nativity , Epiphany , the Baptism of our Lord , the Transfiguration , the Annunciation , Palm Sunday , Easter , the Ascension , Pentecost , Holy Trinity , All Saints , and Christ the King . Most of these festivals are tied to the moveable feast of Easter . Festivals take precedence over all other days , including Sundays , have their own collects and Eucharistic proper prefaces . Of the festivals , Christmas is considered to be twelve days in length ( from December 25 until January 5 ) and Easter is fifty days in length ( from Easter Sunday up to and inclusive of Pentecost ) . For Easter , Sundays are considered to be another part of the festival . For the Ascension which , falling on fortieth day of Easter , will always be on a Thursday , the festival is sometimes transferred to the Seventh Sunday of Easter in addition to or in place of the normal part of the Easter festival for that day .
There is another type of day which , while not a festival , is considered to be equal with a festival . These days , called Days of Special Devotion , are Ash Wednesday and all the days of Holy Week , especially Good Friday . These particular days , like other festivals , automatically take precedence over any event on the calendar and sometimes even over other festivals . A good example of this would be in 2005 when Good Friday and the Annunciation fell on the same day ( March 25 ) . The Annunciation was transferred to March 28 , or the second day of Easter , to make room for Good Friday . The principle of the Church of Sweden is that the Annunciation is celebrated on the Sunday between 21 – 27 March ; although , should Good Friday or any other day of Holy Week , or Easter Sunday or Monday respectively , fall on 25 March , Annunciation is moved to the Sunday before Palm Sunday . ( For instance , in 2003 Annunciation was celebrated on 13 March ; 2008 ( when Easter Sunday was 23 March ) it was celebrated on the 9th . ) One unique feature of the ELCA calendar is that it has given congregations the options of two dates for the Transfiguration . Following most other Western Churches , the ELCA moved the Transfiguration from its August 6 date to the Last Sunday after Epiphany ( the Sunday immediately preceding Ash Wednesday ) as an option to the traditional Last Sunday after Epiphany in an effort to encourage a wider observance of the Transfiguration within congregations . However , the traditional date of August 6 was left on the calendar . Congregations were given the option of observing Transfiguration on the Last Sunday after the Epiphany and August 6 , thus leaving open the possibility that the Transfiguration could be commemorated twice within a calendar year . In Sweden , Transfiguration Day is celebrated on the seventh Sunday after Trinity Sunday , which is the eighth Sunday after Pentecost .
= = = Lesser Festivals = = =
These are days which are associated with the life of Christ or the Apostles and deserve attention in their own right . Lesser Festivals do not have priority over festivals and technically do not have precedence over ordinary Sundays . However , the Lutheran Book of Worship does permit the celebration of a Lesser Festival on Sundays where the normal color of the day would be green ( that is , seasons after Epiphany or after Pentecost ) or on the Sundays in Christmas . This is abrogated for patronal festivals ( that is , the day commemorating the saint or event for which a congregation is named ) provided that they do not take place in Lent , Advent , or Easter , in which case they must also be transferred to the next convenient weekday . Most Lesser Festivals have their own collects and a few , such as All Saints , have their own proper .
= = = Commemorations = = =
Commemorations are for individuals or events which have been noteworthy in the life of the Church and in the history of Lutheranism in particular . These days do not take precedence over any other festival day , and if there is a conflict between a commemoration and a festival of any other rank , the commemoration is generally transferred to the next open weekday . If a commemoration falls on a Sunday where the color of the day is green , the collect for which that individual or event belong to could be said before the daily collect / prayer of the day or in place of it . For example , if September 13 fell on a Sunday and there was a desire to commemorate St. John Chrysostom , the pastor would recite the common of theologians and then the prayer of the day or the common of theologians on its own . The person may also be mentioned by name in the prayers of the faithful in addition to recitation of the applicable collect . Finally , their lives might be summarized or their teachings related to the day 's lessons in some way .
In cases of conflict between commemorations ( for example , November 11 with St. Martin of Tours and Søren Kierkegaard ) , there is no order of precedence , and individual worship planners need to choose which commemoration , if any , to highlight . In some cases , several individuals are listed together ( June 14 with St. Basil the Great , St. Gregory the Theologian , and St. Gregory of Nyssa ) because of their close association with each other , and they are thus designed to be commemorated jointly , not as a choice between one or the other .
The schedule of commemorations within the ELCA has been specifically designed so that there is at least one person on the calendar from each century so as to emphasize the continuity of Christian tradition . Clearly , some centuries have more commemorations than others , the largest number of persons commemorated being in the first four centuries of Christian history and immediately following the Reformation . This leaves the space from the 5th to the 15th centuries and the 16th to the 20th centuries rather sparse ; nevertheless , it is an improvement over some calendars wherein only a very few persons , all from the patristic or Reformation periods , were commemorated . ¢ † ‡
= = Liturgical colors = =
The service books of Lutheran Churches designate specific colors for events which are listed on the liturgical calendars and the seasons which are a part of the Temporal Cycle . This color is sometimes known as “ the color of the day . ” The Lutheran Church generally follows the color scheme which is used by other churches in Western Christianity since Lutheranism has historically been linked with the Roman Catholic Church . The color of the day dictates the color of the vestments for all ministers and the color of paraments . White is the color designated for Festivals of Christ , with gold sometimes offered as an alternative for the first days of Easter . Festivals for which white is the color of the day include :
Christmas ( all twelve days )
Epiphany
The Baptism of our Lord ( First Sunday after Epiphany )
Transfiguration ( Last Sunday after Epiphany and / or August 6 )
Easter ( all days except Pentecost )
Holy Trinity
Christ the King
White is also used as the color for anyone commemorated on the calendar who was not martyred and is the color appointed for funerals regardless of whatever the color of the day might otherwise be . Purple is commonly used for the season of Lent . It is also optional for use during Advent , though blue is the preferred color for this season because of its hopeful connotations rather than the penitential character implied by purple and its association with Lent . Red is used for the commemorations of martyrs and is used on the Day of Pentecost . Scarlet is also used for Holy Week , though purple is also allowed . Black ( with purple as an alternative ) may be used on Ash Wednesday . The only day which does not have a color is Good Friday , when all the paraments are traditionally removed from the church . The color for Holy Saturday is white or gold since it is the day when the Great Vigil of Easter is celebrated , though until the vigil , the church would remain void of paraments .
= = Historical development = =
Liturgical calendars began to be developed in Christianity around the fourth century , with the church calendar as it is known today coming into full development in the period of the medieval sacramentaries . While Sunday had long been established in the weekly calendar , festivals such as Easter and Christmas were also a fixed part of the calendar by this time . The ninth century also saw the inclusion of numerous saints in the calendar ( a practice already begun by the second century ) , even to the point that normal Sunday propers were taking place over those normally appointed for Sunday . The Lutheran calendar owes much to the proliferation of commemorations of the medieval calendars of Western Christianity .
= = = Reformation era = = =
All of the Reformers attempted to reduce the number of individual commemorations and “ saint ’ s days ” , though this reduction was sometimes more drastic than others . In the case of the Lutheran churches , most of the saints ' days were removed ( with the exception of some New Testament personages ) , though the basic temporal cycle of the calendar remained more or less intact . In some instances , a celebration of the Reformation was added to October 31 , the first instance being the church order prepared by Johannes Bugenhagen , though other churches selected alternative dates , including June 25 , the anniversary of the presentation of the Augsburg Confession . The commemoration of the Reformation quickly died out before the Thirty Years War .
= = = = In Germany = = = =
The content of the liturgical calendar ( like the content of the liturgy itself ) was the responsibility of territory in which the church was found . Thus , there was a different order for Saxony , one for Prussia , one for Hesse , and one for Wittenberg , among others . Despite their differences , the calendars and liturgies maintained significant similarities between each other as well as the calendar of the Roman Catholic Church . The church year continued to begin with the First Sunday of Advent ( which was still fixed based on the traditional formula ) , and many of the festivals surrounding Christmas ( St. Stephen , St. John , the Holy Innocents ) remained in place , even if they were often ignored . Epiphany also continued to be celebrated as the visit of the Magi , though Martin Luther preferred to commemorate the baptism of Christ .
Brandenburg and Calenburg and Göttingen retained Lent and the fasting days associated with the season . They also retained the violet or black vestments for the penitential season . However , popular devotions such as the blessing of palms or the imposition of ashes were suppressed in most church orders , despite the fact that a number of them had retained Ash Wednesday as the start of Lent . Good Friday , while kept with solemnity , was often a celebration of Holy Communion , thus less somber than the contemporary Roman Catholic Church . And while Easter had been a common day of communion in the church before the reformation , “ the reformers tried to prevent too many communions on this day , and instead urged the faithful to receive it on various Sundays throughout the year . ” The Reformation also saw the development of a new “ festival ” connected to Easter , where the second Sunday became popularly known as “ Good Shepherd Sunday ” based on the opening of the psalm appointed for the day , Misericordia domini or “ Goodness of the Lord ” . In addition , Corpus Christi was commonly retained until about 1600 , owing to its significant popularity in the Medieval period .
While many saints were removed from liturgical calendars by the reformers , some were nevertheless retained . St. Ansgar was commemorated in Halberstadt and Nordligen with a special thanksgiving service on the Sunday after 3 February , no doubt because of the saint ’ s historic connection to the area . The same was true of Elizabeth of Thuringia in the Schweinfurth Order , and St. George was also commemorated in Nordlingen . Festivals of the apostles and evangelists were also found on Lutheran calendars of the era , but were not always observed if they fell on a day other than Sunday . Some of the Marian festivals , notably the Nativity of Mary ( September 8 ) and her Assumption ( August 15 ) were retained by Luther whereas the feasts of her conception and presentation in the Temple were suppressed “ because they were judged to have no scriptural or dogmatic interest . ”
= = = = In Scandinavian countries = = = =
When the Lutheran Reformation was brought to Sweden from Germany via Denmark after the election of Gustav Vasa in 1523 , the movement from the start had its own distinct characteristics . The development of Swedish liturgy was , in part , thanks to Olavus Petri , which is sometimes regarded as his most important work . His Swedish Mass , 1531 remained in use , with only slight modifications , until the twentieth century . The Swedish Mass draws from a number of different sources , though Luther ’ s Formulae Missae is apparent in regards to the Eucharistic structure This included revising the calendar along similar lines as those in Germany . Laurentius Petri further revised the Swedish Mass 1557 . In large part , the Swedish liturgy retained “ vestments , altars and frontals , gold and silver chalices and patens ” and many other “ popish ” customs . Following Laurentius ’ death in 1573 , King John III embarked on a separate , though similar , religious policy more conciliatory towards Catholicism . Much of his work was in the area of liturgy and his Nova Ordinantia reinstated much of the sanctoral cycle from the Old Swedish Mass , reviving the feasts of St. Mary Magdalene , St. Lawrence , Corpus Christi , and the Assumption and Nativity of the Virgin Mary . Many of John ’ s reforms were controversial .
= = = Modern era = = =
The majority of calendars between the start of the Reformation and the 20th century were quite minimal in their commemorations . Most included events such as the Annunciation or persons such as Saint Paul , these days often went unobserved despite scrupulous attention to the temporal cycle . Even further , the commemoration of some biblical persons of note ( including the Virgin Mary ) were often omitted entirely . During the 20th century , especially at the instigation of the liturgical movement , familiar saints began make a reemergence onto the calendar , along with newer names and events .
= = = = The calendar in Europe = = = =
Many of the changes to the calendar that had accompanied the Reformation remained in place during the subsequent centuries . In Saxony in the eighteenth century , in addition to chief festivals of Christmas , Easter , and Pentecost , a number of festivals were also celebrated with Vespers and Holy Communion , including Saint Stephen , Saint John , the Circumcision , Epiphany , Purification of Mary , the Annunciation , the Ascension , Holy Trinity , Nativity of Saint John the Baptist , the Visitation ( on July 2 ) , and Saint Michael ( on September 29 ) . When Holy Communion was celebrated , a chasuble was used in the color of the day , though especially at Lepzig , these colors were different from the ones normally used today . In the twentieth century , Lutherans in Europe came under the influence of the Liturgical Movement and many Lutheran churches adopted new calendars and rubrics similar to the Roman Calendar as revised by Vatican II . The Swedish Church also experienced a similar reform of its liturgy and calendar during this same period .
= = = = The calendar in North America = = = =
When Lutherans came to North America , they brought with them their disparate liturgical traditions . The Pennsylvania Ministerium composed the first liturgy for North America , including its calendar along somewhat minimal lines . However , since the last quarter of the nineteenth century , the calendar within North American Lutheran churches has been expanding . In 1868 , four chief festivals in the Church Book were Christmas , New Year ’ s Day , Epiphany , and Reformation Day , with Easter and Pentecost being considered a separate category because they invariably fell on Sunday . The Church Book also included several minor festivals , including festivals for all the Apostles , and the Annunciation . The Common Service Book ( 1918 ) also expanded the calendar to help congregations determine which days took priority over others in cases of coincidence . It added to the calendar the Sundays of Advent , Transfiguration ( last Sunday after Epiphany ) , Septuagesima , Sexagesima , Quinquagesima , Ash Wednesday , Sundays in Lent , all days in Holy Week , Ascension and the following Sunday , and Holy Trinity . It also included All Saints , and Saints Mark and Luke , both of which were omitted from the Church Book . The Service Book and Hymnal ( 1941 ) also moved the Transfiguration to August 6 and added Holy Innocents to the calendar .
The previous North American calendar of the ELCA was different from its European counterparts in that it does not give equal weight ( and sometimes gives no mention ) to persons who may be commemorated in Scandinavian regions . One example would be the absence of St. Lucia on December 13 , although she enjoys particular popularity in Sweden . But Lutheran calendars also differ amongst one another in North America , with some individuals commemorated on multiple calendars but on different days ( e.g. , St. Bernard of Clairvaux on August 19 in the LCMS and August 20 in the ELCA ) or individuals commemorated on one calendar and not the other ( e.g. , Martin Luther King , Jr. on January 15 for the ELCA and C. F. W. Walther on May 7 for the LCMS ) ; with the 2006 publication of Evangelical Lutheran Worship ( ELW ) as a replacement to the Lutheran Book of Worship ( LBW ) , some of these deficiencies in the ELCA calendar have been corrected . Within the ELCA , This Far by Faith and Libro de Liturgia y Cantico both prescribe calendars with additional commemorations specific to the ethnic communities they were intended to be used in ( African Americans and Latinos respectively ) . The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod has a different , somewhat minimized calendar when compared the LCMS and especially the ELCA .
= = Differences from other calendars = =
The Lutheran calendar is most similar to the calendar of The Episcopal Church and thus to the Anglican Calendar of Saints , though it also bears resemblance to the Roman Calendar of Saints because it commemorates many of the same individuals . However , the Lutheran calendar differs from both in two very significant ways , aside from its emphasis on commemorating persons important to the Lutheran tradition .
First , the Lutheran calendar , while commemorating many of the same events or persons , often does so on different days from either calendar ( St. Cyprian of Carthage on September 16 for Lutherans , but September 13 in the Episcopal Church ) . In other cases ( such as St. Valentine on February 14 ) , individuals who have long standing within Western Christianity are not mentioned in the Lutheran calendar , or are only mentioned in the calendars of some Lutheran churches . Furthermore , some Lutheran calendars ( such as that of the LCMS ) still venerate individuals whose commemorations have been suppressed in other Western Churches . Finally , the Lutheran calendar commemorates persons or events ( such as the presentation of the Augsburg Confession on June 25 ) which are not commemorated in any other Christian calendar because of their specific importance to the Lutheran Church . In general , like the Anglican counterpart , the Lutheran calendar has taken on many of the precedents established by the post @-@ Vatican II reforms of the liturgy in the Roman Catholic Church .
The other significant difference is that the Lutheran calendar commemorates a wider variety of individuals than does either of its counterparts . Included on the calendar are musicians and artists who are associated with the Church , but are not typically thought of as “ saints ” in the classical sense . The intent is to provide a wider venue for commemoration of outstanding individuals who have served the Church through their vocations rather than simply commemorating the outstanding among the religious .
The calendar for the ELCA is similar to many other Western Calendars in that it does not commemorate any persons from the Old Testament . The calendars of the Orthodox Churches have Old Testament individuals , and the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod has done the same . At one point there was a proposal to include a day on the Episcopal Church calendar ( which was taken into consideration by the Inter @-@ Lutheran Commission on Worship in developing the Lutheran Book of Worship ) for Old Testament saints following the octave of All Saints ( November 8 ) , but this idea was ultimately rejected as tokenism .
= = " Saints " in the liturgical calendar = =
There is also no use of the title " saint " for anyone other than biblical persons ( and even then the title is used with a certain degree of exclusivity ) . This is to prevent oddities of convention ( such as St. Nicolaus Copernicus ) as well as to underline the Lutheran emphasis on the priesthood of all believers . Nevertheless , individuals who typically have " saint " affixed to their given name are still referred to as such in common discourse ( so that Francis of Assisi would still be called " St. Francis " rather than just " Francis " ) .
In the New Testament , all Christians are referred to as saints . However , the use of " saint " as a title for an individual who had led a good and exemplary life or who had been martyred began to develop in Christianity . By the time of the Reformation , the use of " saint " was almost exclusively the restrictive , titular sense . One of the effects of the Reformation was to eliminate the abuses of the cult of saints , and as a result , it is a common misconception that Lutherans do not have ( or rather , do not venerate ) saints . However , the confessional documents of the Lutheran Church , particularly the Augsburg Confession , accept both the general and particular use of the word saints . In regards to the titular sense , the Augsburg Confession commends that " it should be taught among us that saints should be kept in remembrance so that our faith may be strengthened when we see what grace they received and how they were sustained in faith . Moreover , their good works are to be an example for us , each of us in his own calling . " Article XXI of The Apology to the Augsburg Confession goes further to describe three types of honor which are due to the saints and acknowledgment that the saints pray for the Church . However , the Augsburg Confession opposes prayer to saints , stating , " Scripture does not teach calling on the saints or pleading for help from them . For it sets before us Christ alone as mediator , atoning sacrifice , high priest , and intercessor . "
= Death of Abdulredha Buhmaid =
Abdulredha Mohamed Hasan Buhmaid ( or Buhamaid , Arabic : عبدالرضا محمد حسن بوحميد ) was a 28 @-@ year @-@ old Bahraini protester shot by a live bullet in the head on 18 February 2011 . He died in hospital three days later , the seventh death in the Bahraini uprising .
Buhmaid was among a group of protesters who on 18 February marched toward the Pearl Roundabout following the funeral procession of protester Ali Abdulhadi Mushaima , who was killed four days earlier . When the protesters neared Pearl Roundabout , the army opened fire . Buhmaid collapsed to the ground , and blood poured from his head after it was hit by a bullet . The army opened fire twice more . Protesters regrouped after each round of shooting . Riot police finally intervened and dispersed protesters . Over one hundred protesters were injured , some seriously . Buhmaid was taken to Salmaniya hospital where attempts to revive him failed over the course of three days . He died on the afternoon of 21 February .
Several witnesses including journalists and medics accused authorities of shooting directly at protesters , preventing some ambulances from reaching the site and firing at others . The government however , denied those statements . It stated that warning shots were fired in the air and accused protesters of faking injuries . An investigation by a government @-@ appointed commission of inquiry blamed the army for Buhmaid 's death . The incident marked the first time that the Royal Bahraini Army was used to confront civilians , and at the time was considered " the bloodiest " incident since protests erupted .
Following the incident , the government offered dialogue which the opposition said they will only take part in after the withdrawal of the army . The general labor union called for a general strike . Internationally , the attack on protesters was condemned by Barack Obama and Human Rights Watch . High Representative of European Union expressed her deep concerns and called for restrain and immediate dialogue . Britain revoked over forty arms licenses to Bahrain after an earlier announcement that it would review them and German president canceled a planned visit to the country . Buhmaid is remembered by the opposition as a martyr , leader and symbol of peacefulness .
= = Short biography = =
Buhmaid ( or Buhamaid , 28 ) was married and had three children . He lived in Malkiya , south west of Manama . According to his wife , he had strong ties with his brothers . In an interview with the Bahraini newspaper Al Wasat , she said he used to take part in any political event in his area . " He was hoping to be Malkiya 's first martyr and so he became " , she added .
= = Background = =
Inspired by the successful uprisings in Egypt and Tunisia , protests erupted in Bahrain on 14 February . During the day named as the Day of Rage , over 6 @,@ 000 people participated in fifty @-@ five demonstrations and political rallies in twenty @-@ five different locations throughout Bahrain . Security forces responded to protests by firing tear gas , rubber bullets , sound bombs and birdshot . More than thirty protesters were injured and Ali Mushaima died as a result of birdshot injury in his back . The following day , during the deceased funeral , another protester was killed the same way . Angry protesters marched to and occupied Pearl Roundabout . By nightfall , their numbers had swelled to over 10 @,@ 000 . On 16 February , thousands of protesters continued to occupy Pearl Roundabout .
On 17 February ( later referred to as the Bloody Thursday ) , police launched a pre @-@ dawn raid on sleeping protesters . Four protesters were killed and more than 300 were injured bringing the number of those killed in the events to six . Health workers and a journalist were allegedly attacked by security forces . The army was deployed following clearance of Pearl roundabout which then set up checkpoints and barriers . The Interior Ministry issued a warning to stay off the streets , and the army warned that it was ready to take " punitive measures " to restore order . Protesters resorted to Salmaniya Hospital 's car parks where thousands of them protested against the government . All 18 Members of Parliament from Al Wefaq , the only opposition political party represented in Parliament , submitted their resignations .
= = Incident = =
On 18 February , over 50 @,@ 000 participated in the funerals of crackdown victims . One was held in Al Daih , another in Karzakan . The largest however , was in Sitra . At about 4 : 46 in the afternoon , about a thousand protesters , most of them young men who participated in Al Daih funeral of Ali Abdulhadi Mushaima marched toward Manama , defying the government ban on gatherings . By 5 : 18 they had reached a road junction ; to the right was Salmaniya hospital and to the left Pearl Roundabout . They turned left after a short pause . On their way , they clashed with riot police who withdrew from the site . Protesters continued their march removing barriers set by police a day ago .
By 5 : 30 protesters were 80 to 200 meters away from army forces stationed in Pearl Roundabout which " were armed with M16 assault rifles , Dilmun rifles and Browning .50 calibre machine guns mounted on top of armoured vehicles " . The protest was peaceful and protesters were " holding their hands in the air and chanting ' peaceful , peaceful ' " . Some were holding flowers . As protesters continued marching , army troops opened fire .
Abdulredha Buhmaid was among the protesters . He was shot by a bullet in the head , collapsed to the ground and in the words of a witness , " blood was rushing from his head " . Others sustained severe injuries inflicted by gunshots , two of whom also fell to the ground . Several eyewitnesses said army troops " gave no warning " , but one witness said he heard them issue a warning several minutes after the initial shooting . Another witness said they heard a " faint voice of someone over a loudspeaker in the distance but could not make out what the speaker was saying " .
Most protesters ran after hearing gunshots and a helicopter chased them . After shooting stopped , protesters regrouped . One youth picked a rock and headed toward the army , only to be stopped by four other protesters . A witness interviewed by Physicians for Human Rights said that he and other protesters moved closer to army forces following the initial shooting . According to him he asked " Why do you shoot us ? We had our hands up . We are peaceful . What do you want from us ? " , one soldier replied " I want you to leave . If you do not turn back , I have orders to shoot " . Arriving ambulances started evacuating the injured when army opened fire again .
When the shooting stopped , about fifty protesters started praying on the road , and few stood in front facing the army with their hands in the air . The army opened fire for a third time . The period of each shooting was short , because " people immediately started running away " , witnesses said . After that , riot police intervened , firing tear gas and birdshot to disperse protesters , inflicting more injuries among them .
A cameraman working for the Associated Press said he saw " army units shooting anti @-@ aircraft weapons , fitted on top of armored personnel carriers , above the protesters in apparent warning shots and attempts to drive them back from security cordons " . Bahraini photojournalist Mazen Mahdi said that the army shot " live fire from machine guns " and that paramedics were blocked from helping the wounded . " The first was a warning shot in the air . But after that , they just opened fire at the people ... They shot at the ambulances when they came in " , he added .
A senior emergencies researcher and medics interviewed by Human Rights Watch confirmed that some of the twelve ambulances sent were prevented by security forces from reaching the site . The Daily Telegraph said ambulances and paramedics " were shot at " and that " several were detained and at least one ambulance was impounded " . Michael Slackman of The New York Times reported that he and a colleague were " shot at from a helicopter " shortly after army opened fire on protesters . Associated Press witnesses , The Daily Telegraph , and The New York Times mentioned that army personnel positioned in high buildings and helicopters fired on protesters . Jalal Firooz , resigned MP of Al Wefaq , Bahrain 's main opposition party , said he saw soldiers fire on protesters . A report by three local rights groups mentioned that " photos of the injuries suggest that army aimed at the upper body area " .
Riot police chased down protesters who fled to Salmaniya , Bahrain 's main hospital . Security forces backed off after initially advancing toward the hospital and firing tear gas into it . That night , over seven thousand protesters staged an anti @-@ government sit @-@ in in hospital parks , described by The Guardian as " the only place in Manama where they now feel safe to gather in numbers " . The incident marked the first time that the Royal Bahraini Army was used to confront civilians , and at the time was considered " the bloodiest " incident since protests erupted .
= = = Casualties = = =
At least 120 people were injured according to medical officials . Salmaniya hospital was " overwhelmed " with casualties , some of whom were taken to private hospitals . Doctors said that nine of the thirty @-@ two casualties who reached Salmaniya hospital were in critical condition . Some medics cried while treating the injured , some of whom had bullets still lodged into their bodies , X @-@ rays showed . A doctor interviewed by Al Jazeera English pleaded for help from " all countries in the world " . Describing the situation in hospital as a war , Dr. Ghassan said , " They are shooting at people 's heads . Not at the legs . People are having their brains blown out " . Two doctors said they treated patients who " seemed to be [ injured by ] live bullets rather than shotgun pellets , judging by the entry and exit holes " .
Buhmaid was taken to Salmaniya hospital . Blood was still " pouring from his head and he was unconscious " . He was " clinging to life " in intensive care unit where doctors " struggled to stop his bleeding " . " This is a bullet , gunshot wound , direct to his head and he 's bleeding profusely from his nose , from his ear , his brain is shattered into pieces " , said a doctor . Buhmaid 's " brain was destroyed , but his body was still alive " . His clinical death prompted a nurse on 20 February to smash a glass @-@ framed image of the Prime Minister . Remaining in ICU for three days , Buhmaid was medically declared to be dead early in the afternoon of 21 February , becoming the seventh victim of the uprising .
Listing him under " Deaths Attributed to Security Forces " , the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry appointed by King Hamad to investigate the events stated that Buhmaid 's death " may be attributed to the BDF [ army ] " while also referring to the contrary result of the military investigation .
= = = Government account = = =
On the night of 18 February , Fasial al @-@ Hamar , then the Minister of Health , issued a press release aired on the national TV which denied there had been any deaths . He said the situation at Salmaniya hospital was calm and that only seven people were being treated for minor injuries . He also warned against what he called " rumors " spread in some satellite channels and websites . Bahrain 's ambassador to the United States said that if army forces did fire live ammunition , " Probably they were warning shots only " . " The forces that were used were proportional according to the law , they were legal , they were necessary because they were stopping the shops . The economy was hurting , the national economy . We had to take action and action was taken by the law , " he added . However he admitted protesters did not use live rounds and promised that " Investigations will happen . And they will continue " .
The army said that protesters defied its orders to evacuate the area . According to its statement , after at least fifteen minutes of repeating the same orders , soldiers fired warning shots to the air . It also alleged that protesters were accompanied by " a line of ambulances " out of which they took blood bags to " feign that they had been injured " . Military prosecutors carried out an investigation and concluded that the trajectory of the bullet that killed Buhmaid were inconsistent with the bullet having been shot by the BDF , on the basis of an ordnance expert 's report that concluded the shot was fired from a high elevation .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the incident , the government offered dialogue with opposition and ordered army to withdraw from Pearl Roundabout . On 19 February , army troops were replaced by riot police . Hundreds of protesters moved to the site from different locations . A standoff between protesters and riot police was created , until the latter suddenly moved away . Thousands of protesters re @-@ occupied the site following police withdrawal .
= = = Funeral = = =
Buhmaid 's funeral was held on 22 February in his village , Malkiya . Over 9 @,@ 000 participated in the funeral procession which started from roundabout 13 in Hamad Town and ended in Malkiya graveyard . At the same day during afternoon , over 100 @,@ 000 participated in a protest dubbed " March of loyalty to martyrs " in honor of the seven victims of the uprising .
= = = Medics ' trial = = =
In May 2011 , 47 doctors , nurses , and dentists were charged for their actions during the uprising . One of the charges was conducting unnecessary operations to Buhmaid , which led to his death . In a press conference , Minister of Justice said " Buhmaid was shot in the head and he underwent a surgery in the presence of the media . His head had been open in an exaggerated manner , which led to his death " .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Domestic = = =
Buhmaid 's family said they were sad for his death , but their pride had overcome it . Appearing on the national TV , the crown prince authorized by his father , the king , offered unconditional dialogue with opposition . He offered " condolences to the people of Bahrain for the painful days they are living " and asked them to remain calm . Opposition activists demanded withdrawal of army and resignation of government for the dialogue to begin . " [ There is no ] serious will for dialogue because the military is in the streets " , said Matar Matar , resigned MP of Al Wefaq . The general labor union called for an indefinite general strike " unless the army is pulled out from the streets and peaceful demonstrations are permitted " .
= = = International = = =
Barack Obama criticized the government actions . In reference to government of Bahrain and Yemen , he said " The United States condemns the use of violence by governments against peaceful protesters in those countries and wherever else it may occur " . Catherine Ashton , the High Representative of European Union demanded " restraint " from all parties and said that report of violence " deeply concerned " her . She called for dialogue to begin " without delay " . The United Kingdom revoked forty four arm licenses to Bahrain , twenty of them open licenses . Foreign Office Minister Alistair Burt said " We are deeply concerned about the situation in Bahrain and the events which have led to the deaths of several protesters " .
German president canceled a planned trip to the country . " Freedom of assembly and freedom of speech in Bahrain have to be fully guaranteed " , a spokesman quoted him saying . Lawrence Cannon , then Canada 's Foreign Minister called the Bahraini government to " exercise restraint " and lunch an investigation into protesters ' deaths . " Canada urges Bahrain to respect its citizens ' rights to freedom of expression and assembly , and to engage in peaceful dialogue with its people to address their concerns " , he added .
Human Rights Watch condemned the attack . " The Bahraini army has done what the Egyptian army did not do and exactly what the United States and its other partners urged it not to do -- it has opened fire on its own people , " its Washington director said . Fareed Zakaria , CNN 's international affairs analyst , said that the crackdown on protesters was a " rash move that will enrage many of its people and cost the regime international prestige " . " This is a terrible mistake and they will pay a heavy price for it . The regime in Bahrain is doing something very rash and unwise ; it is trying to respond by using force and punitive measures . This is not going to work in the end " , he added .
= = Legacy = =
Buhmaid was the first person named a " field commander " by February 14 Youth Coalition , which also named their attempt to reoccupy Pearl Roundabout in the first anniversary of the uprising , " operation of the martyr leader Abdulredha Buhmaid " . His death was described by the online opposition newspaper , Bahrain Mirror , as a " legendary scene that will remain forever in the conscience of humanity " . A poster found in two articles of the aforementioned newspaper described Buhmaid as " the martyr who brought down an army with his peacefulness " .
Speaking to participants of a sit @-@ in front of United Nations building in Manama on 22 February 2012 , Ahlam al @-@ Khuza 'e of Al Wefaq said that shooting scene of Buhmaid was " the top manifestation of peacefulness " . On 29 February , opposition parties organized a gathering in Malkiya to honor Buhmaid . Thousands participated in the gathering including Isa Qassim , Bahrain Shias ' top religious figure .
= South India =
South India is the area encompassing the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Kerala , Tamil Nadu and Telangana as well as the union territories of Andaman and Nicobar , Lakshadweep and Puducherry , occupying 19 @.@ 31 % of India 's area ( 635 @,@ 780 km2 or 245 @,@ 480 sq mi ) . Covering the southern part of the peninsular Deccan Plateau , South India is bounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east , the Arabian Sea in the west and the Indian Ocean in the south . The geography of the region is diverse with two mountain ranges - the Western and Eastern Ghats , bordering the plateau heartland . Godavari , Krishna , Kaveri , Tungabhadra and Vaigai rivers are important non @-@ perennial sources of water . Bangalore , Chennai , Hyderabad , Coimbatore and Kochi are the largest urban areas .
Majority of the people in South India speak one of the four major Dravidian languages : Telugu , Tamil , Kannada and Malayalam . During its history , a number of dynastic kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history and culture in those regions . Major dynasties that were established in South India include the Cheras , Cholas , Pandyas , Pallavas , Satavahanas , Chalukyas , Rashtrakutas and Vijayanagara . European countries entered India through Kerala and the region was colonised by Britain and other nations .
After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence , the economies of South Indian states have registered higher than national average growth over the past three decades . While South Indian states have improved in some socio @-@ economic metrics , poverty continues to affect the region much like the rest of the country , although it has considerably decreased over the years . HDI in southern states is high and the economy has undergone growth at a faster rate than most northern states . Literacy rates in southern states is higher than the national average with approximately 80 % of the population capable of reading and writing . The fertility rate in South India is 1 @.@ 9 , the lowest of all regions in India .
= = Etymology = =
South India also known as Peninsular India has been known by several other names . The term " Deccan " referring to the area covered by the Deccan Plateau that covers most of peninsular India excluding the coastal areas is an anglicised form of the word Prakrit dakkhin derived from the Sanskrit word dakshina meaning south . Carnatic derived from " Karnād " or " Karunād " meaning high country has also been associated with South India .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient era = = =
Carbon dating on ash mounds associated with Neolithic cultures in South India date back to 8000 BCE . Artefacts such as ground stone axes , and minor copper objects have been found in the region . Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE , iron technology spread through the region ; however , there does not appear to be a fully developed Bronze Age preceding the Iron Age in South India . The region was in the middle of a trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu linking the Mediterranean and East Asia . Trade with Phoenicians , Romans , Greeks , Arabs , Syrians , Jews and Chinese began from the Sangam period ( c . 3rd century BC to c . 4th century AD ) . The region was part of the ancient Silk Road connecting the Asian continent in the East and the West .
Several dynasties such as the Cheras of Karuvur , the Pandyas of Madurai , the Cholas of Thanjavur , the Satavahanas of Amaravati , the Pallavas of Kanchi , the Kadambas of Banavasi , the Western Gangas of Kolar , the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta , the Chalukyas of Badami , the Hoysalas of Belur and the Kakatiyas of Orugallu ruled over the region from 6th century B.C. to 14th century A.D. The Vijayanagara Empire , founded in 14th century A.D. was the last Indian dynasty that ruled over the region . After repeated invasions from the Sultanate of Delhi and the fall of Vijayanagara empire in 1646 , the region was ruled by Deccan Sultanates , polygars and Nayak governors of Vijayanagara empire who declared independence .
= = = Colonial era = = =
The Europeans arrived in the 15th century and by the middle of the 18th century , the French and the British were involved in a protracted struggle for military control over South India . After the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War in 1799 and the end of the Vellore Mutiny in 1806 , the British consolidated their power over much of present @-@ day South India with the exception of French Pondichéry . The British Empire took control of the region from the British East India Company in 1857 . During the British colonial rule , the region was divided into the Madras Presidency , Hyderabad state , Mysore , Travancore , Kochi , Vizianagaram and a number of other minor princely states . The region played a major role in the Indian independence movement ; of the 72 delegates who participated in the first session of the Indian National Congress at Bombay in December 1885 , 22 hailed from South India .
= = = Post Independence = = =
After the independence of India in 1947 , the region was organised into four states : Madras State , Mysore State , Hyderabad State and Travancore @-@ Cochin . The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganised the states on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Kerala and Tamil Nadu . As a result of this Act , Madras State retained its name and Kanyakumari district was added to it from the state of Travancore @-@ Cochin . The state was subsequently renamed Tamil Nadu in 1968 . Andhra Pradesh was created through the merger of Andhra State with the Telugu @-@ speaking districts of the Hyderabad State in 1956 . Kerala emerged from the merger of Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara districts of the Madras State with Travancore @-@ Cochin . Mysore State was re @-@ organised with the addition of districts of Bellary and South Canara ( excluding Kasaragod talukNote 1 ) and the Kollegal taluk of Coimbatore district from the Madras State , the districts of Belgaum , Bijapur , North Canara and Dharwad from the Bombay State , the Kannada @-@ majority districts of Bidar , Raichur and Gulbarga from the Hyderabad State and the province of Coorg . Mysore State was renamed as Karnataka in 1973 . The Union territory of Puducherry was created in 1954 comprising the previous French enclaves of Pondichérry , Karaikal , Yanam and Mahé . The Laccadive Islands , which were divided between South Canara and Malabar districts of Madras State , were united and organised into the union territory of Lakshadweep . Telangana was created on 2 June 2014 by bifurcating Andhra Pradesh and it comprises ten districts of the erstwhile state of Andhra Pradesh .
^ Taluk is a smaller administrative division than a district
= = Geography = =
South India is a peninsula in the shape of an inverted triangle bound by the Arabian Sea on the west , by the Bay of Bengal on the east and Vindhya and Satpura ranges on the north . The Narmada river flows westwards in the depression between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges which define the northern spur of the Deccan plateau . The Western Ghats run parallel along the western coast and the narrow strip of land between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea forms the Konkan region . The Western Ghats continue south until Kanyakumari . The Eastern Ghats run parallel along the eastern coast and the strip of land between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal forms the Coromandel region . Both the ranges meet at the Nilgiri mountains . The Nilgiris run in a crescent approximately along the borders of Tamil Nadu with northern Kerala and Karnataka , encompassing the Palakkad and Wayanad hills and the Sathyamangalam ranges , extending on to the relatively low @-@ lying hills of the Eastern Ghats on the western portion of the Tamil Nadu – Andhra Pradesh border forming the Tirupati and Annamalai hills .
The low lying coral islands of Lakshadweep are situated off the south @-@ western coast of India . The Andaman and Nicobar islands lie far off the eastern coast of India . The Palk Strait and the chain of low sandbars and islands known as Rama 's Bridge separate the region from Sri Lanka , which lies off the south @-@ eastern coast . The southernmost tip of mainland India is at Kanyakumari where the Indian Ocean meets the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea .
The Deccan plateau is the elevated region bound by the mountain ranges . The plateau rises to 100 metres ( 330 ft ) in the north and to more than 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) in the south , forming a raised triangle within the downward @-@ pointing triangle of the Indian subcontinent 's coastline . It also slopes gently from West to East resulting in major rivers arising in the Western Ghats and flowing east into the Bay of Bengal . The volcanic basalt beds of the Deccan were laid down in the massive Deccan Traps eruption , which occurred towards the end of the Cretaceous period between 67 and 66 million years ago . Layer after layer was formed by the volcanic activity that lasted 30 @,@ 000 years and when the volcanoes became extinct , they left a region of highlands with typically vast stretches of flat areas on top like a table . The plateau is watered by east flowing rivers Godavari , Krishna , Kaveri and Vaigai . The major tributaries include Pennar , Tungabhadra , Bhavani and Thamirabarani .
= = Climate = =
The region has a tropical climate and depends on monsoons for rainfall . According to the Köppen climate classification , it has a non @-@ arid climate with minimum mean temperatures of 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) . The most humid is the tropical monsoon climate characterised by moderate to high year @-@ round temperatures and seasonal heavy rainfall above 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 79 in ) per year . The tropical climate is experienced in a strip of south @-@ western lowlands abutting the Malabar Coast , the Western Ghats and the islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar are also subject to this climate .
The tropical wet and dry climate , drier than areas with a tropical monsoon climate prevails over most of inland peninsular region except for a semi arid rain shadow east of the Western Ghats . Winter and early summer are long and dry periods with temperatures averaging above 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) , summer is exceedingly hot with temperatures in low @-@ lying areas exceeding 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) and the rainy season lasts from June to September with annual rainfall averaging between 750 and 1 @,@ 500 mm ( 30 and 59 in ) across the region . Once the dry northeast monsoon begins in September , most precipitation in India falls in Tamil Nadu , leaving other states comparatively dry . The hot semi @-@ arid climate predominates the land east of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills . The region , which includes Karnataka , inland Tamil Nadu and western Andhra Pradesh , gets between 400 and 750 millimetres ( 15 @.@ 7 and 29 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall annually with hot summers and dry winters with temperatures around 20 – 24 ° C ( 68 – 75 ° F ) . The months between March and May are hot and dry with mean monthly temperatures hover around 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) , with 320 millimetres ( 13 in ) precipitation and without artificial irrigation , this region is not suitable for agriculture .
The south – west Monsoon from June to September accounts for most of the rainfall in the region . The Arabian Sea branch of the south @-@ west monsoon hits the Western Ghats along the coastal state of Kerala and moves northwards along the Konkan coast with precipitation on coastal areas , west of the Western Ghats . The lofty Western Ghats prevent the winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau - hence the leeward region ( the region that deprived of winds ) receives very little rainfall . The Bay of Bengal branch of south @-@ west monsoon heads toward north east India , picking up moisture from the Bay of Bengal . The Coramandel coast does not receive much rainfall from the south @-@ west monsoon due to the shape of the land . Tamil Nadu and southeast Andhra Pradesh receive rains from the north – east Monsoon . The north @-@ east monsoon take place from November to early March when the surface high @-@ pressure system is strongest . The North Indian Ocean tropical cyclones occur throughout the year in Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea bringing devastating winds and heavy rainfall .
= = Flora and fauna = =
There is a wide diversity of plants and animals in South India , resulting from its varied climates and geography . Deciduous forests are found along the Western Ghats while tropical dry forests and scrub lands are common in the interior Deccan plateau . The southern Western Ghats have rainforests located at high altitudes called the South Western Ghats montane rain forests and the Malabar Coast moist forests are found on the coastal plains . The Western Ghats is one of the eight hottest biodiversity hotspots in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Important ecological regions of South India are the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve , located at the conjunction of the borders of Karnataka , Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the Nilgiri Hills and the Anamalai Hills in the Western Ghats . Bird sanctuaries including Vedanthangal , Ranganathittu , Kumarakom , Neelapattu and Pulicat are home to numerous migratory and local birds . Lakshadweep has been declared a bird sanctuary by the Wildlife Institute of India . Other protected ecological sites include the mangrove forests of Pichavaram in Tamil Nadu , the backwaters of Pulicat lake in Tamil Nadu and Vembanad , Ashtamudi , Paravur and Kayamkulam lakes in Kerala . The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 10 @,@ 500 km ² of ocean , islands and the adjoining coastline including coral reefs , salt marshes and mangroves . It is home to Endangered aquatic species including dolphins , dugongs , whales and sea cucumbers .
The region is home to one of the largest populations of endangered Indian elephant and Bengal Tiger in India . Elephant populations are found in eight fragmented sites in South India ; in northern Karnataka , along the Western Ghats , in Bhadra – Malnad , in Brahmagiri – Nilgiris – Eastern Ghats , in Nilambur – Silent Valley – Coimbatore , in Anamalai – Parambikulam , in Periyar – Srivilliputhur and Agasthyamalai The region is home to one @-@ third of the tiger population and more than half of the elephant population of India . There are 14 Project Tiger reserves and 11 Project Elephant reserves in the region . Other threatened and endangered species found in the region include grizzled giant squirrel , grey slender loris , sloth bear , nilgiri tahr , nilgiri langur , lion @-@ tailed macaque , and Indian leopard .
= = Demographics = =
As per the 2011 census of India , the estimated population of South India is 252 million , around one fifth of the total population of India . The region 's total fertility rate ( TFR ) was less than the population replacement level of 2 @.@ 1 for all states with Kerala and Tamil Nadu having the lowest TFRs in India at 1 @.@ 7 . As a result , the proportion of the population of South India to India 's total population has declined from 1981 to 2011 . The population density of the region is approximately 463 . Scheduled Castes and Tribes form 18 % of the population of the region . Agriculture is the major employer in the region with 47 @.@ 5 % of the population is involved in agrarian activities . About 60 % of the population lives in permanent housing structures . 67 @.@ 8 % of South India has access to tap water with wells and springs forming other major sources of water supply .
After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after the independence of India , the economies of South Indian states have registered growth higher than the national average over the past three decades . While South Indian states have improved in some of the socio @-@ economic metrics , poverty continues to affect the region as it does the rest of the country , although it has considerably decreased over the years . Basis the 2011 census , HDI in the southern states is high and the economy has grown at a faster rate than most northern states .
As per the 2011 census , the average literacy rate in South India is approximately 80 % , considerably higher than the Indian national average of 74 % with Kerala having the highest literacy rate of 93 @.@ 91 % . South India has the highest sex ratio with Kerala and Tamil Nadu being the top two states . The South Indian states rank amongst the top 10 in economic freedom , life expectancy , access to drinking water , house ownership and TV ownership . Poverty rate is at 19 % while that in the other Indian states is at 38 % . The per capita income is ₹ 19 @,@ 531 ( US $ 290 ) , which is more than double of the other Indian states ( ₹ 8 @,@ 951 ( US $ 130 ) ) . Of the three demographic related targets of the Millennium Development Goals set by the United Nations expected to be achieved by 2015 , Kerala and Tamil Nadu achieved the goals related to improvement of maternal health and of reducing infant mortality and child mortality by 2009 .
= = = Languages = = =
The largest linguistic group in South India is the Dravidian family of languages , a family of approximately 73 languages The major languages spoken include Tamil , Telugu , Kannada and Malayalam . Tulu is spoken by about 1 @.@ 5 million people in coastal Kerala and Karnataka and Konkani , an Indo @-@ Aryan language , is spoken by half a million people in the Konkan coast . English is also widely spoken in urban areas of South India . Urdu is spoken by around 12 million Muslims in southern India . Tamil , Telugu , Kannada , Malayalam and Konkani are listed amongst the 22 official languages of India as per the Official Languages Act ( 1963 ) . Tamil was the first language to be granted classical language status by the Government of India in 2004 . Other major languages declared classical were Kannada ( in 2008 ) , Telugu ( in 2008 ) and Malayalam ( in 2013 )
= = = Religion = = =
Hinduism is the major religion with about 80 % of the population adhering to it . About 11 % of the population follow Islam and 8 % follow Christianity . Evidence of prehistoric religion in South India comes from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals in Stone Age sites such as the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka . Hinduism , often regarded as the oldest religion in the world , traces its roots to prehistoric times in India . The main spiritual traditions of South India include both Shaivite and Vaishnavite branches of Hinduism , although Buddhist and Jain philosophies had been influential several centuries earlier . Ayyavazhi is spread significantly across the southern parts of South India . Islam was introduced to South India in the early 7th century by Arab traders in Malabar Coast of Kerala and spread during the rule of Deccan Sultanates from 17th to 18th century and the Muslims in Kerala of Arab descent are called Jonaka Mappila . Christianity was introduced to South India by Thomas the Apostle , who visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 CE and baptised Kerala 's Jewish settlements . Kerala is also home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world who are supposed to have arrived in the Malabar coast during the reign of King Solomon .
= = Economy = =
The economy of South India after the independence of the nation conformed to a socialist framework , with strict governmental control over private sector participation , foreign trade and foreign direct investment . Through 1960 to 1990 , the South Indian economies experienced mixed economic growth . In the 1960s , Kerala achieved above average economic growth while Andhra Pradesh 's economy declined during this period . Kerala experienced an economic decline in the 1970s while the economies of Tamil Nadu , Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka consistently exceeded national average growth rates after 1970 due to reform @-@ oriented economic policies compared to other Indian states . As of 2013 – 14 , the total Gross domestic product of the region is ₹ 27 @.@ 1 trillion ( US $ 400 billion ) . Tamil Nadu has the second highest GDP and is the second most industrialised state in the country after Maharashtra . As of March 2015 , there are 109 operational Special Economic Zones in South India , which is about 60 % of the country 's total .
Over 48 % of South India 's population is engaged in agriculture , which is largely dependent on seasonal monsoons . Some of the main crops cultivated in South India include paddy , sorghum , pearl millet , pulses , sugarcane , cotton , chilli and ragi . Areca , coffee , tea , rubber and spices are cultivated on the hilly regions . The staple food is rice ; the delta regions of Godavari , Krishna and Kaveri are amongst the top rice producing areas in the country . Frequent droughts have left farmers debt @-@ ridden , forcing them to sell their livestock and sometimes to commit suicide . The region accounts for 92 % of the total Coffee production in India . South India is also a major producer of cotton , tea , rubber , turmeric , mangoes and spices . Other major agriculture related produce include silk and poultry .
The other major industry is textiles with the region being home to nearly 60 % of the fibre textile mills in India . Bangalore , Chennai , Hyderabad , Coimbatore and Thiruvananthapuram are amongst the major IT hubs of India and Bangalore is also known as the Silicon Valley of India . The growth of information technology ( IT )
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hubs in the region have spurred economic growth and attracted foreign investments and job seekers from other parts of the country . Software exports from South India grossed over ₹ 640 billion ( US $ 9 @.@ 5 billion ) in fiscal 2005 – 06 . Chennai , known as the " Detroit of Asia " , accounts for about 35 % of India 's overall automotive components and automobile output . The region supplies two @-@ thirds of India 's requirements of motors and pumps and is one of the largest exporters of jewellery , wet grinders and auto components .
Tourism contributes significantly to the GDP of the region with four states - Tamil Nadu , Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh and Telangana - among the top 10 states for tourist arrivals and accounting for more than 50 % of domestic tourist visits .
= = Subdivisions = =
South India consists of the five southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh , Telangana , Karnataka , Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Puducherry , Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar . Puducherry and the five states have an elected state government each , while the Lakshadweep and Andaman islands are centrally administered by the President of India . Each sub @-@ region is further divided into districts . Each state is headed by a Governor , who is a direct appointee of the President of India , while the Chief Minister is the elected head of the state government and represents the state 's ruling party or coalition .
= = = States = = =
^ Note 1 Andhra Pradesh was divided into two states , Telangana and a residual Andhra Pradesh on 2 June 2014 . Hyderabad , located entirely within the borders of Telangana , is to serve as joint capital for both states for a period of time not exceeding ten years .
= = = Union territories = = =
= = Administration = =
South India elects 132 members to the Lok Sabha accounting for roughly one @-@ fourth of the total strength . The region has an allocation of 58 seats in Rajya Sabha out of the total 245 . Each state is headed by a Governor , who is a direct appointee of the President of India ; the Chief Minister is the elected head of the state government and represents the ruling party or coalition . Tamil Nadu , Kerala and Puducherry follow unicameral legislature while Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka and Telangana follow bicameral legislature .
State legislatures elect members for terms of five years . States with bicameral legislatures have an upper house ( Legislative Council ) with members not more than one @-@ third the size of the Assembly . Governors may suspend or dissolve assemblies and can administer when no party is able to form a government . Each state is organised into a number of districts , which are further subdivided into revenue divisions and taluks ( or tehsils ) for administration . Local bodies govern respective cities , towns and villages with each electing a mayor , municipal chairman and panchayat chairman respectively to head the same .
= = Politics = =
Politics in South India is characterised by a mix of regional and national political parties . Justice Party and Swaraj Party were the two major parties in the erstwhile Madras Presidency . The Justice Party eventually lost the 1937 elections to the Indian National Congress and Chakravarti Rajagopalachari became the Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency . During the 1920s and 1930s , the Self @-@ Respect Movement movement emerged in the Madras Presidency spearheaded by Theagaroya Chetty and E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker ( commonly known as Periyar ) . In 1944 Periyar , who had started the Self @-@ Respect Movement transformed the party into a social organisation , renaming the party Dravidar Kazhagam , and withdrew from electoral politics . The initial aim was the secession of Dravida Nadu from the rest of India on independence . After Independence , C. N. Annadurai , a follower of Periyar formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam in 1948 . The Anti @-@ Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu led to the rise of Dravidian parties which formed its first government in 1967 in Tamil Nadu . In 1972 , a split in the DMK resulted in the formation of the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam led by M. G. Ramachandran . Dravidian parties continue to dominate Tamil Nadu electoral politics ; the national parties usually aligned as junior partners to the major Dravidian parties , AIADMK and DMK .
Indian National Congress dominated the political scene in Tamil Nadu in 1950s and 1960s under the leadership of K. Kamaraj , who led the party after the death of Jawaharlal Nehru and ensured the selection of Prime Ministers Lal Bahadur Shastri and Indira Gandhi . Congress continues to be a major party in Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka and Kerala . The party ruled with minimal opposition for 30 years in Andhra Pradesh before the formation of Telugu Desam Party by Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao in 1982 . Two prominent party systems in Kerala are the United Democratic Front , led by the Indian National Congress and the Left Democratic Front , led by the Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) . For the past fifty years , these two coalitions have been alternately in power and E. M. S. Namboodiripad , the first elected chief minister of Kerala in 1957 is credited as the leader of the first democratically elected communist government in the world . Bharatiya Janata Party and Janata Dal are significant parties in Karnataka .
C. Rajagopalachari , the first Indian Governor General of India post independence , was from South India . The region has produced six Indian Presidents namely Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , V. V. Giri , Neelam Sanjiva Reddy , R. Venkataraman , K. R. Narayanan and APJ Abdul Kalam . Prime Ministers P. V. Narasimha Rao and H. D. Deve Gowda were from the region .
= = Culture and heritage = =
= = = Clothing = = =
South Indian women traditionally wear a sari , a garment that consists of a drape varying from 5 yards ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) to 9 yards ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) in length and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist , with one end draped over the shoulder , baring the midriff . Ancient Tamil poetry such as the Silappadhikaram describes women in exquisite drapery or sari . The sari is to be wrapped around the waist , with the loose end of the drape to be worn over the shoulder , baring the midriff as according to Indian philosophy , the navel is considered as the source of life and creativity . Madisar is a typical style worn by Brahmin ladies from Tamil Nadu . Women wear colourful silk sarees on special occasions such as marriages .
The men wear a dhoti , a 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) long , white rectangular piece of non @-@ stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes . It is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist . A colourful lungi with typical batik patterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside . People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing and western dress is popular in urban areas . Western @-@ style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools even in rural areas .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Rice is the staple diet , while fish is an integral component of coastal South Indian meals . Coconut and spices are used extensively in South Indian cuisine . The region has a rich cuisine involving both traditional non @-@ vegetarian and vegetarian dishes comprising rice , legumes and lentils . Its distinct aroma and flavour is achieved by the blending of flavourings and spices including curry leaves , mustard seeds , coriander , ginger , garlic , chili , pepper , cinnamon , cloves , green cardamom , cumin , nutmeg , coconut and rosewater . The traditional way of eating a meal involves being seated on the floor , having the food served on a banana leaf and using clean fingers of the right hand to take the food into the mouth . After the meal , the fingers are washed ; the easily degradable banana leaf is discarded or becomes fodder for cattle . Eating on banana leaves is a custom thousands of years old , imparts a unique flavor to the food and is considered healthy . Idli , dosa , uthappam , appam , pongal and paniyaram are popular dishes for breakfast . Rice is served with sambar , rasam and poriyal for lunch . Andhra cuisine is characterised by pickles and spicy curries . Chettinad cuisine is famous for non @-@ vegetarian items and Hyderabadi cuisine is popular for its biryani .
= = = Arts = = =
The traditional music of South India is known as Carnatic music , which includes rhythmic and structured music by composers like Purandara Dasa , Kanaka Dasa , Tyagayya , Annamacharya , Bhakta Ramadasu , Muthuswami Dikshitar , Shyama Shastri , Kshetrayya , Mysore Vasudevachar and Swathi Thirunal . The main instrument that is used in South Indian Hindu temples is the nadaswaram , a reed instrument played along with thavil , a type of drum instrument to create an ensemble . The motion picture industry has emerged as an important platform in South India over the years , portraying the cultural changes , trends , aspirations and developments experienced by its people . South India is home to several distinct dance forms such as Bharatanatyam , Kathakali , Kerala Natanam , Koodiyattam , Kuchipudi , Margamkali , Mohiniaattam , Oppana , Ottamthullal , Theyyam , Vilasini Natyam and Yakshagana . The dance , clothing and sculptures of South India exemplify the beauty of the body and motherhood .
= = = Cinema = = =
Films in regional languages are prevalent ; this includes Kannada cinema ( Karnataka ) , Malayalam cinema ( Kerala ) , Tamil cinema ( Tamil Nadu ) and Telugu cinema ( Andhra Pradesh ) . The first silent film in South India , Keechaka Vadham , was made by R. Nataraja Mudaliar in 1916 . In South India , the first Tamil talkie , Kalidas , was released on 31 October 1931 , barely seven months after India 's first talking picture Alam Ara Mudaliar also established South India 's first film studio in Madras . Swamikannu Vincent built the first cinema of South India in Coimbatore and introduced the concept of " tent cinema " , the first of whose kind was established in Madras and was known as " Edison 's Grand Cinemamegaphone " . Filmmakers K Balachandar , Balu Mahendra , Bharathiraaja and Mani Ratnam in Tamil cinema , Adoor Gopalakrishnan , Shaji N. Karun , John Abraham and G. Aravindan in Malayalam cinema , and K. N. T. Sastry and B. Narsing Rao in Telugu cinema produced realistic parallel cinema throughout the 1970s , Cinema has also exerted its influence on politics ; prominent film personalities like C N Annadurai , M G Ramachandran , M Karunanidhi , N. T. Rama Rao and Jayalalithaa have become Chief Ministers . As of 2014 , South Indian film industry contribute to 53 % of the total films produced in India .
= = = Literature = = =
South India has an independent literary tradition dating back over 2500 years ago . The first known literature of South India is the poetic Sangam literature , written in Tamil 2500 to 2100 years ago . The literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known as Tamil Sangams that were held in the ancient times on a now vanished continent far to the south of India . This literature includes the oldest grammar treatise Tholkappiyam and epics Silappatikaram and Manimekalai written in Tamil . References to Kannada literature appear from fourth century CE . Telugu literature adopted a form of Prakrit which in course of development became the immediate ancestor of Telugu . Distinct Malayalam literature came later in the 13th century .
= = = Architecture = = =
South India has two distinct styles of rock architecture , the Dravidian style of Tamil Nadu and the Vesara style of Karnataka . The temples considered of porches or mantapas preceding the door leading to the sanctum , gate @-@ pyramids or gopurams , which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples and pillared halls used for many purposes and are the invariable accompaniments of these temples . Besides these , a South Indian temple typically has a tank called the Kalyani or Pushkarni . The gopuram is a monumental tower , usually ornate at the entrance of any temple in Southern India . This forms a prominent feature of koils , Hindu temples of the Dravidian style . They are topped by the kalasam , a spherical stone finial , and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex . The origins of the gopuram can be traced back to early structures of the Pallavas and by the twelfth century , under the Pandya rulers , these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple 's outer appearance , eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the colossal size of the gopuram .
= = Transport = =
= = = Road = = =
South India has an extensive road network with 20 @,@ 573 km ( 12 @,@ 783 mi ) of National Highways and 46 @,@ 813 km ( 29 @,@ 088 mi ) of State Highways . The Golden Quadrilateral connects Chennai in the region with Mumbai via Bangalore and Kolkata via Vishakapatnam . Bus services are provided by state run transport corporations namely Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation , Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation , Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation , Telangana State Road Transport Corporation , Kerala State Road Transport Corporation and Puducherry Road Transport Corporation .
= = = Rail = = =
The Great Southern India Railway Company was founded in England in 1853 and registered in 1859 . Construction of track in Madras Presidency began in 1859 and the 80 miles ( 130 km ) link from Trichinopoly to Negapatam was opened in 1861 . The Carnatic Railway Company was founded in 1864 and opened a Madras @-@ Arakkonam @-@ Conjeevaram line in 1865 . The Great Southern India Railway was subsequently merged with the Carnatic Railway in 1874 to form the South Indian Railway Company . In 1880 , the Great Indian Peninsula Railway established by the British , built a railway network radiating inward from Madras . In 1879 , the Madras Railway constructed a railway line from Royapuram to Bangalore and the Maharaja of Mysore established Mysore State Railway to carryout extension from Bangalore to Mysore . Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway was founded on 1 January 1908 by merging the Madras Railway and the Southern Mahratta Railway .
On 14 April 1951 , the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway , the South Indian Railway and the Mysore State Railway were merged to form the Southern Railway , the first zone of Indian Railways . The South Central zone was created on 2 October 1966 as the ninth zone of Indian Railways and the South Western zone was created on 1 April 2003 . Most of the region is covered by the three zones with small portions of coasts covered by East Coast Railway and Konkan Railway . Metro rail is operated by Namma Metro in Bangalore , Chennai Metro in Chennai and Hyderabad Metro in Hyderabad . Chennai MRTS provides suburban rail services in Chennai and was the first elevated railway line in India . The Nilgiri Mountain Railway is a UNESCO World Heritage site .
= = = Air = = =
In March 1930 , a discussion initiated by pilot G. Vlasto led to the founding of Madras Flying Club which became a pioneer in pilot training South India . On 15 October 1932 , Indian aviator J. R. D. Tata flew a Puss Moth aircraft carrying mail from Karachi to Bombay ( currently Mumbai ) and the aircraft continued to Madras ( currently Chennai ) piloted by Neville Vincent , a former Royal Air Force pilot and friend of Tata .
There are 9 international airports , 2 customs airports , 15 domestic airports and 11 air bases in South India . Chennai airport serves as the regional headquarters of the Airports Authority of India for the southern region of India comprising the states of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Kerala , Tamil Nadu and Telangana and the union territories of Puducherry and Lakshadweep . Bangalore , Chennai , Hyderabad and Kochi are amongst the top 10 busiest airports in the country .
The Southern Air Command of Indian Air Force is headquartered at Thiruvananthapuram and the Training Command is headquartered at Bangalore . The Indian Air Force operates eleven air bases in Southern India including two in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . The Indian Navy operates airbases at Kochi , Arakkonam , Uchipuli , Vizag , Campbell Bay and Diglipur in the region .
^ Restricted international airport
= = = Water = = =
A total of 89 ports are situated along the coast : Tamil Nadu ( 15 ) , Karnataka ( 10 ) , Kerala ( 17 ) , Andhra Pradesh ( 12 ) , Lakshadweep ( 10 ) , Pondicherry ( 2 ) and Andaman & Nicobar ( 23 ) . Major ports include Chennai , Visakhapatnam , Mangalore , Tuticorin , Ennore and Kochi .
The Kerala backwaters are a network of interconnected canals , rivers , lakes and inlets , a labyrinthine system formed by more than 900 km of waterways . In the midst of this landscape , there are a number of towns and cities , which serve as the starting and end points of transportation services and backwater cruises .
The Eastern Naval Command and Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy are headquartered at Visakhapatnam and Kochi respectively . Indian Navy has its major operational bases in Visakhapatnam , Chennai , Kochi , Karwar and Kavaratti in the region .
= English language =
English is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua franca . English is either the official language or an official language in almost 60 sovereign states . It is the most commonly spoken language in the United Kingdom , the United States , Canada , Australia , Ireland , and New Zealand , and is widely spoken in some areas of the Caribbean , Africa , and South Asia . It is the third most common native language in the world , after Mandarin and Spanish . It is the most widely learned second language and an official language of the United Nations , of the European Union , and of many other world and regional international organisations .
English has developed over the course of more than 1 @,@ 400 years . The earliest forms of English , a set of Anglo @-@ Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo @-@ Saxon settlers in the fifth century , are called Old English . Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England . Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible , and the start of the Great Vowel Shift . Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire , modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid @-@ 20th centuries . Through all types of printed and electronic media , as well as the emergence of the United States as a global superpower , English has become the leading language of international discourse and the lingua franca in many regions and in professional contexts such as science , navigation , and law .
Modern English has little inflection compared with many other languages , and relies more on auxiliary verbs and word order for the expression of complex tenses , aspect and mood , as well as passive constructions , interrogatives and some negation . Despite noticeable variation among the accents and dialects of English used in different countries and regions – in terms of phonetics and phonology , and sometimes also vocabulary , grammar and spelling – English @-@ speakers from around the world are able to communicate with one another with surprising ease .
= = Classification = =
English is an Indo @-@ European language , and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages . Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages , and English and Frisian form the Anglo @-@ Frisian subgroup within West Germanic . Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related , and sometimes Low German , English , and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages . Modern English descends from Middle English , which in turn descends from Old English . Particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English ( Anglic ) languages , including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy ( Yola ) dialects of Ireland .
English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features ( different from other Indo @-@ European languages ) with other Germanic languages such as Dutch , German , and Swedish . These shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor , which linguists call Proto @-@ Germanic . Some shared features of Germanic languages are the use of modal verbs , the division of verbs into strong and weak classes , and the sound changes affecting Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European consonants , known as Grimm 's and Verner 's laws . Through Grimm 's law , the word for foot begins with / f / in Germanic languages , but its cognates in other Indo @-@ European languages begin with / p / . English is classified as an Anglo @-@ Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features , such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto @-@ Germanic ( see Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization ) .
English sing , sang , sung ; Dutch zingen , zong , gezongen ; German singen , sang , gesungen ( strong verb )
English laugh , laughed ; Dutch and German lachen , lachte ( weak verb )
English foot , Dutch voet , German Fuß , Norwegian and Swedish fot ( initial / f / derived from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European * p through Grimm 's law )
Latin pes , stem ped- ; Modern Greek πόδι pódi ; Russian под pod ; Sanskrit पद ् pád ( original Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European * p )
English cheese , Frisian tsiis ( ch and ts from palatalisation )
German Käse and Dutch kaas ( k without palatalisation )
English , like the other insular Germanic languages , Icelandic and Faroese , developed independently of the continental Germanic languages and their influences . English is thus not mutually intelligible with any continental Germanic language , differing in vocabulary , syntax , and phonology , although some , such as Dutch , do show strong affinities with English , especially with its earlier stages .
Because English through its history has changed considerably in response to contact with other languages , particularly Old Norse and Norman French , some scholars have argued that English can be considered a mixed language or a creole – a theory called the Middle English creole hypothesis . Although the high degree of influence from these languages on the vocabulary and grammar of Modern English is widely acknowledged , most specialists in language contact do not consider English to be a true mixed language .
= = History = =
= = = Proto @-@ Germanic to Old English = = =
The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo @-@ Saxon ( c . 550 – 1066 CE ) . Old English developed from a set of North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken along the coasts of Frisia , Lower Saxony , Jutland , and Southern Sweden by Germanic tribes known as the Angles , Saxons , and Jutes . In the fifth century , the Anglo @-@ Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain . By the seventh century , the Germanic language of the Anglo @-@ Saxons became dominant in Britain , replacing the languages of Roman Britain ( 43 – 409 CE ) : Common Brittonic , a Celtic language , and Latin , brought to Britain by the Roman occupation . England and English ( originally Englaland and Englisc ) are named after the Angles .
Old English was divided into four dialects : the Anglian dialects , Mercian and Northumbrian , and the Saxon dialects , Kentish and West Saxon . Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the ninth century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex , the West Saxon dialect became the standard written variety . The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon , and the earliest English poem , Cædmon 's Hymn , is written in Northumbrian . Modern English developed mainly from Mercian , but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian . A few short inscriptions from the early period of Old English were written using a runic script . By the sixth century , a Latin alphabet was adopted , written with half @-@ uncial letterforms . It included the runic letters wynn < ƿ > and thorn < þ > , and the modified Latin letters eth < ð > , and ash < æ > .
Old English is very different from Modern English and difficult for 21st @-@ century English speakers to understand . Its grammar was similar to that of modern German , and its closest relative is Old Frisian . Nouns , adjectives , pronouns , and verbs had many more inflectional endings and forms , and word order was much freer than in Modern English . Modern English has case forms in pronouns ( he , him , his ) and a few verb endings ( I have , he has ) , but Old English had case endings in nouns as well , and verbs had more person and number endings .
The translation of Matthew 8 : 20 from 1000 CE shows examples of case endings ( nominative plural , accusative plural , genitive singular ) and a verb ending ( present plural ) :
Foxas habbað holu and heofonan fuglas nest
Fox @-@ as habb @-@ að hol @-@ u and heofon @-@ an fugl @-@ as nest- ∅
fox @-@ NOM.PL have @-@ PRS.PL hole @-@ ACC.PL and heaven @-@ GEN.SG bird @-@ NOM.PL nest @-@ ACC.PL
" Foxes have holes and the birds of heaven nests "
= = = Middle English = = =
In the period from the 8th to the 12th century , Old English gradually transformed through language contact into Middle English . Middle English is often arbitrarily defined as beginning with the conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066 , but it developed further in the period from 1200 – 1450 .
First , the waves of Norse colonisation of northern parts of the British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries put Old English into intense contact with Old Norse , a North Germanic language . Norse influence was strongest in the Northeastern varieties of Old English spoken in the Danelaw area around York , which was the centre of Norse colonisation ; today these features are still particularly present in Scots and Northern English . However the centre of norsified English seems to have been in the Midlands around Lindsey , and after 920 CE when Lindsey was reincorporated into the Anglo @-@ Saxon polity , Norse features spread from there into English varieties that had not been in intense contact with Norse speakers . Some elements of Norse influence that persist in all English varieties today are the pronouns beginning with th- ( they , them , their ) which replaced the Anglo @-@ Saxon pronouns with h- ( hie , him , hera ) .
With the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , the now norsified Old English language was subject to contact with the Old Norman language , a Romance language closely related to Modern French . The Norman language in England eventually developed into Anglo @-@ Norman . Because Norman was spoken primarily by the elites and nobles , while the lower classes continued speaking Anglo @-@ Saxon , the influence of Norman consisted of introducing a wide range of loanwords related to politics , legislation and prestigious social domains . Middle English also greatly simplified the inflectional system , probably in order to reconcile Old Norse and Old English , which were inflectionally different but morphologically similar . The distinction between nominative and accusative case was lost except in personal pronouns , the instrumental case was dropped , and the use of the genitive case was limited to describing possession . The inflectional system regularised many irregular inflectional forms , and gradually simplified the system of agreement , making word order less flexible . By the Wycliffe Bible of the 1380s , the passage Matthew 8 : 20 was written
Foxis han dennes , and briddis of heuene han nestis
Here the plural suffix -n on the verb have is still retained , but none of the case endings on the nouns are present .
By the 12th century Middle English was fully developed , integrating both Norse and Norman features ; it continued to be spoken until the transition to early Modern English around 1500 . Middle English literature includes Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales , and Malory 's Le Morte d 'Arthur . In the Middle English period the use of regional dialects in writing proliferated , and dialect traits were even used for effect by authors such as Chaucer .
= = = Early Modern English = = =
The next period in the history of English was Early Modern English ( 1500 – 1700 ) . Early Modern English was characterised by the Great Vowel Shift ( 1350 – 1700 ) , inflectional simplification , and linguistic standardisation .
The Great Vowel Shift affected the stressed long vowels of Middle English . It was a chain shift , meaning that each shift triggered a subsequent shift in the vowel system . Mid and open vowels were raised , and close vowels were broken into diphthongs . For example , the word bite was originally pronounced as the word beet is today , and the second vowel in the word about was pronounced as the word boot is today . The Great Vowel Shift explains many irregularities in spelling , since English retains many spellings from Middle English , and it also explains why English vowel letters have very different pronunciations from the same letters in other languages .
English began to rise in prestige during the reign of Henry V. Around 1430 , the Court of Chancery in Westminster began using English in its official documents , and a new standard form of Middle English , known as Chancery Standard , developed from the dialects of London and the East Midlands . In 1476 , William Caxton introduced the printing press to England and began publishing the first printed books in London , expanding the influence of this form of English . Literature from the Early Modern period includes the works of William Shakespeare and the translation of the Bible commissioned by King James I. Even after the vowel shift the language still sounded different from Modern English : for example , the consonant clusters / kn gn sw / in knight , gnat , and sword were still pronounced . Many of the grammatical features that a modern reader of Shakespeare might find quaint or archaic represent the distinct characteristics of Early Modern English .
In the 1611 King James Version of the Bible , written in Early Modern English , Matthew 8 : 20 says :
The Foxes haue holes and the birds of the ayre haue nests
This exemplifies the loss of case and its effects on sentence structure ( replacement with Subject @-@ Verb @-@ Object word order , and the use of of instead of the non @-@ possessive genitive ) , and the introduction of loanwords from French ( ayre ) and word replacements ( bird originally meaning " nestling " had replaced OE fugol ) .
= = = Spread of Modern English = = =
By the late 18th century , the British Empire had facilitated the spread of English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance . Commerce , science and technology , diplomacy , art , and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language . English also facilitated worldwide international communication . As England continued to form new colonies , these in turn became independent and developed their own norms for how to speak and write the language . English was adopted in North America , India , parts of Africa , Australasia , and many other regions . In the post @-@ colonial period , some of the newly created nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others . In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has , along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC and other broadcasters , significantly accelerated the spread of the language across the planet . By the 21st century , English was more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been .
A major feature in the early development of Modern English was the codification of explicit norms for standard usage , and their dissemination through official media such as public education and state sponsored publications . In 1755 Samuel Johnson published his A Dictionary of the English Language which introduced a standard set of spelling conventions and usage norms . In 1828 , Noah Webster published the American Dictionary of the English language in an effort to establish a norm for speaking and writing American English that was independent from the British standard . Within Britain , non @-@ standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly stigmatised , leading to the quick spread of the prestige varieties among the middle classes .
In terms of grammatical evolution , Modern English has now reached a stage where the loss of case is almost complete ( case is now only found in pronouns , such as he and him , she and her , who and whom ) , and where SVO word @-@ order is mostly fixed . Some changes , such as the use of do @-@ support have become universalised . ( Earlier English did not use the word " do " as a general auxiliary as Modern English does ; at first it was only used in question constructions where it was not obligatory . Now , do @-@ support with the verb have is becoming increasingly standardised . ) The use of progressive forms in -ing , appears to be spreading to new constructions , and forms such as had been being built are becoming more common . Regularisation of irregular forms also slowly continues ( e.g. dreamed instead of dreamt ) , and analytical alternatives to inflectional forms are becoming more common ( e.g. more polite instead of politer ) . British English is also undergoing change under the influence of American English , fuelled by the strong presence of American English in the media and the prestige associated with the US as a world power .
= = Geographical distribution = =
As of 2010 , 359 million people spoke English as their first language . English is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers , after Mandarin and Spanish . However , when combining native and non @-@ native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world . English is spoken by communities on every continent and on oceanic islands in all the major oceans . The countries in which English is spoken can be grouped into different categories by how English is used in each country . The " inner circle " countries with many native speakers of English share an international standard of written English and jointly influence speech norms of English around the world . English does not belong to just one country , and it does not belong solely to descendants of English settlers . English is an official language of countries populated by few descendants of native speakers of English . It has also become by far the most important language of international communication when people who share no native language meet anywhere in the world .
= = = Three circles of English @-@ speaking countries = = =
Braj Kachru distinguishes countries where English is spoken with a three circles model . In his model , the " inner circle " countries are countries with large communities of native speakers of English , " outer circle " countries have small communities of native speakers of English but widespread use of English as a second language in education or broadcasting or for local official purposes , and " expanding circle " countries are countries where many learners learn English as a foreign language . Kachru bases his model on the history of how English spread in different countries , how users acquire English , and the range of uses English has in each country . The three circles change membership over time .
Countries with large communities of native speakers of English ( the inner circle ) include Britain , the United States , Australia , Canada , Ireland , and New Zealand , where the majority speaks English , and South Africa , where a significant minority speaks English . The countries with the most native English speakers are , in descending order , the United States ( at least 231 million ) , the United Kingdom ( 60 million ) , Canada ( 19 million ) , Australia ( at least 17 million ) , South Africa ( 4 @.@ 8 million ) , Ireland ( 4 @.@ 2 million ) , and New Zealand ( 3 @.@ 7 million ) . In these countries , children of native speakers learn English from their parents , and local people who speak other languages or new immigrants learn English to communicate in their neighbourhoods and workplaces . The inner @-@ circle countries provide the base from which English spreads to other countries in the world .
Estimates of the number of English speakers who are second language and foreign @-@ language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to more than 1 @,@ 000 million depending on how proficiency is defined . Linguist David Crystal estimates that non @-@ native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1 . In Kachru 's three @-@ circles model , the " outer circle " countries are countries such as the Philippines , Jamaica , India , Pakistan , Singapore , and Nigeria with a much smaller proportion of native speakers of English but much use of English as a second language for education , government , or domestic business , and where English is routinely used for school instruction and official interactions with the government . Those countries have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from an English @-@ based creole to a more standard version of English . They have many more speakers of English who acquire English in the process of growing up through day by day use and listening to broadcasting , especially if they attend schools where English is the medium of instruction . Varieties of English learned by speakers who are not native speakers born to English @-@ speaking parents may be influenced , especially in their grammar , by the other languages spoken by those learners . Most of those varieties of English include words little used by native speakers of English in the inner @-@ circle countries , and they may have grammatical and phonological differences from inner @-@ circle varieties as well . The standard English of the inner @-@ circle countries is often taken as a norm for use of English in the outer @-@ circle countries .
In the three @-@ circles model , countries such as Poland , China , Brazil , Germany , Japan , Indonesia , Egypt , and other countries where English is taught as a foreign language make up the " expanding circle " . The distinctions between English as a first language , as a second language , and as a foreign language are often debatable and may change in particular countries over time . For example , in the Netherlands and some other countries of Europe , knowledge of English as a second language is nearly universal , with over 80 percent of the population able to use it , and thus English is routinely used to communicate with foreigners and often in higher education . In these countries , although English is not used for government business , the widespread use of English in these countries puts them at the boundary between the " outer circle " and " expanding circle " . English is unusual among world languages in how many of its users are not native speakers but speakers of English as a second or foreign language . Many users of English in the expanding circle use it to communicate with other people from the expanding circle , so that interaction with native speakers of English plays no part in their decision to use English . Non @-@ native varieties of English are widely used for international communication , and speakers of one such variety often encounter features of other varieties . Very often today a conversation in English anywhere in the world may include no native speakers of English at all , even while including speakers from several different countries .
= = = Pluricentric English = = =
English is a pluricentric language , which means that no one national authority sets the standard for use of the language . But English is not a divided language , despite a long @-@ standing joke originally attributed to George Bernard Shaw that the United Kingdom and the United States are " two countries separated by a common language " . Spoken English , for example English used in broadcasting , generally follows national pronunciation standards that are also established by custom rather than by regulation . International broadcasters are usually identifiable as coming from one country rather than another through their accents , but newsreader scripts are also composed largely in international standard written English . The norms of standard written English are maintained purely by the consensus of educated English @-@ speakers around the world , without any oversight by any government or international organisation . American listeners generally readily understand most British broadcasting , and British listeners readily understand most American broadcasting . Most English speakers around the world can understand radio programmes , television programmes , and films from many parts of the English @-@ speaking world . Both standard and nonstandard varieties of English can include both formal or informal styles , distinguished by word choice and syntax and use both technical and non @-@ technical registers .
The settlement history of the English @-@ speaking inner circle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinctions and produce a koineised form of English in South Africa , Australia , and New Zealand . The majority of immigrants to the United States without British ancestry rapidly adopted English after arrival . Now the majority of the United States population are monolingual English speakers , although English has been given official status by only 30 of the 50 state governments of the US .
= = = English as a global language = = =
English has ceased to be an " English language " in the sense of belonging only to people who are ethnically English . Use of English is growing country @-@ by @-@ country internally and for international communication . Most people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons . Many speakers of English in Africa have become part of an " Afro @-@ Saxon " language community that unites Africans from different countries .
As decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s , former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies . For example , the view of the English language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating it with economic progress , and English continues to be an official language of India . English is also widely used in media and literature , and the number of English language books published annually in India is the third largest in the world after the US and UK . However English is rarely spoken as a first language , numbering only around a couple hundred @-@ thousand people , and less than 5 % of the population speak fluent English in India . David Crystal claimed in 2004 that , combining native and non @-@ native speakers , India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world , but the number of English speakers in India is very uncertain , with most scholars concluding that the United States still has more speakers of English than India .
Modern English , sometimes described as the first global lingua franca , is also regarded as the first world language . English is the world 's most widely used language in newspaper publishing , book publishing , international telecommunications , scientific publishing , international trade , mass entertainment , and diplomacy . English is , by international treaty , the basis for the required controlled natural languages Seaspeak and Airspeak are used as international languages of seafaring and aviation . English has replaced German as the dominant language of scientific research . It achieved parity with French as a language of diplomacy at the Treaty of Versailles negotiations in 1919 . By the time of the foundation of the United Nations at the end of World War II , English had become pre @-@ eminent and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations . It is one of six official languages of the United Nations . Many other worldwide international organisations , including the International Olympic Committee , specify English as a working language or official language of the organisation .
Many regional international organisations such as the European Free Trade Association , Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) , and Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) set English as their organisation 's sole working language even though most members are not countries with a majority of native English speakers . While the European Union ( EU ) allows member states to designate any of the national languages as an official language of the Union , in practice English is the main working language of EU organisations .
Although in most countries English is not an official language , it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language . In the countries of the EU , English is the most widely spoken foreign language in nineteen of the twenty @-@ five member states where it is not an official language ( that is , the countries other than the UK , Ireland and Malta ) . In a 2012 official Eurobarometer poll , 38 percent of the EU respondents outside the countries where English is an official language said they could speak English well enough to have a conversation in that language . The next most commonly mentioned foreign language , French ( which is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and Ireland ) , could be used in conversation by 12 percent of respondents .
A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of occupations and professions such as medicine and computing . English has become so important in scientific publishing that more than 80 percent of all scientific journal articles indexed by Chemical Abstracts in 1998 were written in English , as were 90 percent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996 and 82 percent of articles in humanities publications by 1995 .
The increased use of the English language globally has had an effect on other languages , leading to some English words being assimilated into the vocabularies of other languages . This influence of English has led to concerns about language death , and to claims of linguistic imperialism , and has provoked resistance to the spread of English ; however the number of speakers continues to increase because many people around the world think that English provides them with opportunities for better employment and improved lives .
Although some scholars mention a possibility of future divergence of English dialects into mutually unintelligible languages , most think a more likely outcome is that English will continue to function as a koineised language in which the standard form unifies speakers from around the world . English is used as the language for wider communication in countries around the world . Thus English has grown in worldwide use much more than any constructed language proposed as an international auxiliary language , including Esperanto .
= = Phonology = =
The phonetics and phonology of English differ between dialects , usually without interfering with mutual communication . Phonological variation affects the inventory of phonemes ( speech sounds that distinguish meaning ) , and phonetic variation is differences in pronunciation of the phonemes . This overview mainly describes the standard pronunciations of the United Kingdom and the United States : Received Pronunciation ( RP ) and General American ( GA ) ( See Section below on " Dialects , accents and varieties " ) . The phonetic symbols used below are from the International Phonetic Alphabet ( IPA ) .
= = = Consonants = = =
Most English dialects share the same 24 consonant phonemes . The consonant inventory shown below is valid for Californian American English , and for RP .
* Conventionally transcribed / r / .
In the table , when obstruents ( stops , affricates , and fricatives ) appear in pairs , such as / p b / , / tʃ dʒ / , and / s z / , the first is fortis ( strong ) and the second is lenis ( weak ) . Fortis obstruents , such as / p tʃ s / are pronounced with more muscular tension and breath force than lenis consonants , such as / b dʒ z / , and are always voiceless . Lenis consonants are partly voiced at the beginning and end of utterances , and fully voiced between vowels . Fortis stops such as / p / have additional articulatory or acoustic features in most dialects : they are aspirated [ pʰ ] when they occur alone at the beginning of a stressed syllable , often unaspirated in other cases , and often unreleased [ p ̚ ] or pre @-@ glottalised [ ˀp ] at the end of a syllable . In a single @-@ syllable word , a vowel before a fortis stop is shortened : thus nip has a noticeably shorter vowel ( phonetically , but not phonemically ) than nib [ nɪˑp ̬ ] ( see below ) .
lenis stops : bin [ b ̥ ɪˑn ] , about [ əˈbaʊt ] , nib [ nɪˑb ̥ ]
fortis stops : pin [ ˈpʰɪn ] , spin [ spɪn ] , happy [ ˈhæpi ] , nip [ ˈnip ̚ ] or [ ˈniˀp ]
In RP , the lateral approximant / l / , has two main allophones ( pronunciation variants ) : the clear or plain [ l ] , as in light , and the dark or velarised [ ɫ ] , as in full . GA has dark l in most cases .
clear l : RP light [ laɪt ]
dark l : RP and GA full [ fʊɫ ] , GA light [ ɫaɪt ]
All sonorants ( liquids / l , r / and nasals / m , n , ŋ / ) devoice when following a voiceless obstruent , and they are syllabic when following a consonant at the end of a word .
voiceless sonorants : clay [ ˈkɬɛɪ ̯ ] and snow [ ˈsn ̥ oʊ ]
syllabic sonorants : paddle [ pad.l ̩ ] , and button [ bʌt.n ̩ ]
= = = Vowels = = =
The pronunciation of vowels varies a great deal between dialects and is one of the most detectable aspects of a speaker 's accent . The table below lists the vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation ( RP ) and General American ( GA ) , with examples of words in which they occur from lexical sets compiled by linguists . The vowels are represented with symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet ; those given for RP are standard in British dictionaries and other publications .
In RP , vowel length is phonemic ; long vowels are marked with a triangular colon 〈 ː 〉 in the table above , such as the vowel of need [ niːd ] as opposed to bid [ bɪd ] . GA does not have long vowels .
In both RP and GA , vowels are phonetically shortened before fortis consonants in the same syllable , like / t tʃ f / , but not before lenis consonants like / d dʒ v / or in open syllables : thus , the vowels of rich [ rɪ ̆ tʃ ] , neat [ niˑt ] , and safe [ sĕɪ ̆ f ] are noticeably shorter than the vowels of ridge [ rɪdʒ ] , need [ niːd ] , and save [ seɪv ] , and the vowel of light [ lăɪ ̆ t ] is shorter than that of lie [ laɪ ] . Because lenis consonants are frequently voiceless at the end of a syllable , vowel length is an important cue as to whether the following consonant is lenis or fortis .
The vowels / ɨ ə / only occur in unstressed syllables and are a result of vowel reduction . Some dialects do not distinguish them , so that roses and comma end in the same vowel , a dialect feature called weak vowel merger . GA has an unstressed r @-@ coloured schwa / ɚ / , as in butter [ ˈbʌtɚ ] , which in RP has the same vowel as the word @-@ final vowel in comma .
= = = Phonotactics = = =
An English syllable includes a syllable nucleus consisting of a vowel sound . Syllable onset and coda ( start and end ) are optional . A syllable can start with up to three consonant sounds , as in sprint / sprɪnt / , and end with up to four , as in texts / teksts / . This gives an English syllable the following structure , ( CCC ) V ( CCCC ) where C represents a consonant and V a vowel . The consonants that may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted , as is the order in which they may appear . Onsets can only have four types of consonant clusters : a stop and approximant , as in play ; a voiceless fricative and approximant , as in fly or sly ; s and a voiceless stop , as in stay ; and s , a voiceless stop , and an approximant , as in string . Clusters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas . Clusters of obstruents always agree in voicing , and clusters of sibilants and of plosives with the same point of articulation are prohibited . Furthermore , several consonants have limited distributions : / h / can only occur in syllable initial position , and / ŋ / only in syllable final position .
= = = Stress , rhythm and intonation = = =
Stress plays an important role in English . Certain syllables are stressed , while others are unstressed . Stress is a combination of duration , intensity , vowel quality , and sometimes changes in pitch . Stressed syllables are pronounced longer and louder than unstressed syllables , and vowels in unstressed syllables are frequently reduced while vowels in stressed syllables are not . Some words , primarily short function words but also some modal verbs such as can , have weak and strong forms depending on whether they occur in stressed or non @-@ stressed position within a sentence .
Stress in English is phonemic , and some pairs of words are distinguished by stress . For instance , the word contract is stressed on the first syllable ( / ˈkɒntrækt / KON @-@ trakt ) when used as a noun , but on the last syllable ( / kənˈtrækt / kən @-@ TRAKT ) for most meanings ( for example , " reduce in size " ) when used as a verb . Here stress is connected to vowel reduction : in the noun " contract " the first syllable is stressed and has the unreduced vowel / ɒ / , but in the verb " contract " the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to / ə / . Stress is also used to distinguish between words and phrases , so that a compound word receives a single stress unit , but the corresponding phrase has two : e.g. to búrn óut versus a búrnout , and a hótdog versus a hót dóg .
In terms of rhythm , English is generally described as a stress @-@ timed language , meaning that the amount of time between stressed syllables tends to be equal . Stressed syllables are pronounced longer , but unstressed syllables ( syllables between stresses ) are shortened . Vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened as well , and vowel shortening causes changes in vowel quality : vowel reduction .
= = = Regional variation = = =
Varieties of English vary the most in pronunciation of vowels , and are categorised generally into two groups : British ( BrE ) and American ( AmE ) . Because North America was settled in the late 17th century , American and Canadian English had time to diverge greatly from other varieties of English during centuries when transoceanic travel was slow . Australian , New Zealand , and South African English , on the other hand , were settled in the 19th century , shortly before ocean @-@ going steamships became commonplace , so they show close similarities to the English of South East England . The English spoken in Ireland and Scottish English fall between these two groups . Some differences between the various dialects are shown in the table " Varieties of Standard English and their features " .
English has undergone many historical sound changes , some of them affecting all varieties , and others affecting only a few . Most standard varieties are affected by the Great Vowel Shift , which changed the pronunciation of long vowels , but a few dialects have slightly different results . In North America , a number of chain shifts such as the Northern Cities Vowel Shift and Canadian Shift have produced very different vowel landscapes in some regional accents .
Some dialects have fewer or more consonant phonemes and phones than the standard varieties . Some conservative varieties like Scottish English have a voiceless [ ʍ ] sound in whine that contrasts with the voiced [ w ] in wine , but most other dialects pronounce both words with voiced [ w ] , a dialect feature called wine – whine merger . The unvoiced velar fricative sound / x / is found in Scottish English , which distinguishes loch / lɔx / from lock / lɔk / . Accents like Cockney with " h @-@ dropping " lack the glottal fricative / h / , and dialects with th @-@ stopping and th @-@ fronting like African American Vernacular and Estuary English do not have the dental fricatives / θ , ð / , but replace them with dental or alveolar stops / t , d / or labiodental fricatives / f , v / . Other changes affecting the phonology of local varieties are processes such as yod @-@ dropping , yod @-@ coalescence , and reduction of consonant clusters .
General American and Received Pronunciation vary in their pronunciation of historical / r / after a vowel at the end of a syllable ( in the syllable coda ) . GA is a rhotic dialect , meaning that it pronounces / r / at the end of a syllable , but RP is non @-@ rhotic , meaning that it loses / r / in that position . English dialects are classified as rhotic or non @-@ rhotic depending on whether they elide / r / like RP or keep it like GA .
There is complex dialectal variation in words with the open front and open back vowels / æ ɑː ɒ ɔː / . These four vowels are only distinguished in RP , Australia , New Zealand and South Africa . In GA , these vowels merge to three / æ ɑ ɔ / , and in Canadian English they merge to two / æ ɑ / . In addition , the words that have each vowel vary by dialect . The table " Dialects and open vowels " shows this variation with lexical sets in which these sounds occur .
= = Grammar = =
Modern English grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo @-@ European dependent marking pattern with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word order , to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection , a fairly fixed SVO word order and a complex syntax . Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in English , such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut ( i.e. changing the vowel of the stem , as in the pairs speak / spoke and foot / feet ) and weak stems inflected through affixation ( such as love / loved , hand / hands ) . Vestiges of the case and gender system are found in the pronoun system ( he / him , who / whom ) and in the inflection of the copula verb to be . Typically for an Indo @-@ European language , English follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment . English distinguishes at least seven major word classes : verbs , nouns , adjectives , adverbs , determiners ( i.e. articles ) , prepositions , and conjunctions . Some analyses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns , and subdivide conjunctions into subordinators and coordinators , and add the class of interjections . English also has a rich set of auxiliary verbs , such as have and do , expressing the categories of mood and aspect . Questions are marked by do @-@ support , wh @-@ movement ( fronting of question words beginning with wh- ) and word order inversion with some verbs .
The seven word classes are exemplified in this sample sentence :
= = = Nouns and noun phrases = = =
English nouns are only inflected for number and possession . New nouns can be formed through derivation or compounding . They are semantically divided into proper nouns ( names ) and common nouns . Common nouns are in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns , and grammatically into count nouns and mass nouns .
Most count nouns are inflected for plural number through the use of the plural suffix -s , but a few nouns have irregular plural forms . Mass nouns can only be pluralised through the use of a count noun classifier , e.g. one loaf of bread , two loaves of bread .
Regular plural formation :
Singular : cat , dog
Plural : cats , dogs
Irregular plural formation :
Singular : man , woman , foot , fish , ox , knife , mouse
Plural : men , women , feet , fish , oxen , knives , mice
Possession can be expressed either by the possessive enclitic -s ( also traditionally called a genitive suffix ) , or by the preposition of . Historically the -s possessive has been used for animate nouns , whereas the of possessive has been reserved for inanimate nouns . Today this distinction is less clear , and many speakers use -s also with inanimates . Orthographically the possessive -s is separated from the noun root with an apostrophe .
Possessive constructions :
With -s : The woman 's husband 's child
With of : The child of the husband of the woman
Nouns can form noun phrases ( NPs ) where they are the syntactic head of the words that depend on them such as determiners , quantifiers , conjunctions or adjectives . Noun phrases can be short , such as the man , composed only of a determiner and a noun . They can also include modifiers such as adjectives ( e.g. red , tall , all ) and specifiers such as determiners ( e.g. the , that ) . But they can also tie together several nouns into a single long NP , using conjunctions such as and , or prepositions such as with , e.g. the tall man with the long red trousers and his skinny wife with the spectacles ( this NP uses conjunctions , prepositions , specifiers and modifiers ) . Regardless of length , an NP functions as a syntactic unit . For example , the possessive enclitic can , in cases which do not lead to ambiguity , follow the entire noun phrase , as in The President of India 's wife , where the enclitic follows India and not President .
The class of determiners is used to specify the noun they precede in terms of definiteness , where the marks a definite noun and a or an an indefinite one . A definite noun is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the interlocutor , whereas an indefinite noun is not specified as being previously known . Quantifiers , which include one , many , some and all , are used to specify the noun in terms of quantity or number . The noun must agree with the number of the determiner , e.g. one man ( sg . ) but all men ( pl . ) . Determiners are the first constituents in a noun phrase .
= = = = Adjectives = = = =
Adjectives modify a noun by providing additional information about their referents . In English , adjectives come before the nouns they modify and after determiners . In Modern English , adjectives are not inflected , and they do not agree in form with the noun they modify , as adjectives in most other Indo @-@ European languages do . For example , in the phrases the slender boy , and many slender girls , the adjective slender does not change form to agree with either the number or gender of the noun .
Some adjectives are inflected for degree of comparison , with the positive degree unmarked , the suffix -er marking the comparative , and -est marking the superlative : a small boy , the boy is smaller than the girl , that boy is the smallest . Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms , such as good , better , and best . Other adjectives have comparatives formed by periphrastic constructions , with the adverb more marking the comparative , and most marking the superlative : happier or more happy , the happiest or most happy . There is some variation among speakers regarding which adjectives use inflected or periphrastic comparison , and some studies have shown a tendency for the periphrastic forms to become more common at the expense of the inflected form .
= = = = Pronouns , case and person = = = =
English pronouns conserve many traits of case and gender inflection . The personal pronouns retain a difference between subjective and objective case in most persons ( I / me , he / him , she / her , we / us , they / them ) as well as a gender and animateness distinction in the third person singular ( distinguishing he / she / it ) . The subjective case corresponds to the Old English nominative case , and the objective case is used both in the sense of the previous accusative case ( in the role of patient , or direct object of a transitive verb ) , and in the sense of the Old English dative case ( in the role of a recipient or indirect object of a transitive verb ) . Subjective case is used when the pronoun is the subject of a finite clause , and otherwise the objective case is used . While already grammarians such as Henry Sweet and Otto Jespersen noted that the English cases did not correspond to the traditional Latin based system , some contemporary grammars , for example Huddleston & Pullum ( 2002 ) , retain traditional labels for the cases , calling them nominative and accusative cases respectively .
Possessive pronouns exist in dependent and independent forms ; the dependent form functions as a determiner specifying a noun ( as in my chair ) , while the independent form can stand alone as if it were a noun ( e.g. the chair is mine ) . The English system of grammatical person no longer has a distinction between formal and informal pronouns of address , and the forms for 2nd person plural and singular are identical except in the reflexive form . Some dialects have introduced innovative 2nd person plural pronouns such as y 'all found in Southern American English and African American ( Vernacular ) English or youse and ye found in Irish English .
Pronouns are used to refer to entities deictically or anaphorically . A deictic pronoun points to some person or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation — for example the pronoun I identifies the speaker , and the pronoun you , the addressee . Anaphorical pronouns such as that refer back to an entity already mentioned or assumed by the speaker to be known by the audience , for example in the sentence I already told you that . The reflexive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is identical to the subject of a phrase ( e.g. " he sent it to himself " or " she braced herself for impact " ) .
= = = = Prepositions = = = =
Prepositional phrases ( PP ) are phrases composed of a preposition and one or more nouns , e.g. with the dog , for my friend , to school , in England . Prepositions have a wide range of uses in English . They are used to describing movement , place , and other relations between different entities , but they also have many syntactic uses such as introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments of verbs . For example , in the phrase I gave it to him , the preposition to marks the recipient , or Indirect Object of the verb to give . Traditionally words were only considered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun they preceded , for example causing the pronouns to use the objective rather than subjective form , " with her " , " to me " , " for us " . But some contemporary grammars such as Huddleston & Pullum ( 2002 : 598 – 600 ) no longer consider government and case to be defining for the class of prepositions , rather defining prepositions as words that can function as the heads of prepositional phrases .
= = = Verbs and verb phrases = = =
English verbs are inflected for tense and aspect , and marked for agreement with third person singular subject . Only the copula verb to be is still inflected for agreement with the plural and first and second person subjects . Auxiliary verbs such as have and be are paired with verbs in the infinitive , past , or progressive forms . They form complex tenses , aspects , and moods . Auxiliary verbs differ from other verbs in that they can be followed by the negation , and in that they can occur as the first constituent in a question sentence .
Most verbs have six inflectional forms . The primary forms are a plain present , a third person singular present , and a preterite ( past ) form . The secondary forms are a plain form used for the infinitive , a gerund – participle and a past participle . The copula verb to be is the only verb to retain some of its original conjugation , and takes different inflectional forms depending on the subject . The first person present tense form is am , the third person singular form is and the form are is used second person singular and all three plurals . The only verb past participle is been and its gerund @-@ participle is being .
= = = = Tense , aspect and mood = = = =
English has two primary tenses , past ( preterit ) and non @-@ past . The preterit is inflected by using the preterit form of the verb , which for the regular verbs includes the suffix -ed , and for the strong verbs either the suffix -t or a change in the stem vowel . The non @-@ past form is unmarked except in the third person singular , which takes the suffix -s .
English does not have a morphologised future tense . Futurity of action is expressed periphrastically with one of the auxiliary verbs will or shall . Many varieties also use a near future constructed with the phrasal verb be going to .
Further aspectual distinctions are encoded by the use of auxiliary verbs , primarily have and be , which encode the contrast between a perfect and non @-@ perfect past tense ( I have run vs. I was running ) , and compound tenses such as preterite perfect ( I had been running ) and present perfect ( I have been running ) .
For the expression of mood , English uses a number of modal auxiliaries , such as can , may , will , shall and the past tense forms could , might , would , should . There is also a subjunctive and an imperative mood , both based on the plain form of the verb ( i.e. without the third person singular -s ) , and which is used in subordinate clauses ( e.g. subjunctive : It is important that he run every day ; imperative Run ! ) .
An infinitive form , that uses the plain form of the verb and the preposition to , is used for verbal clauses that are syntactically subordinate to a finite verbal clause . Finite verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb in the present or preterit form . In clauses with auxiliary verbs they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated as a subordinate clause . For example , he has to go where only the auxiliary verb have is inflected for time and the main verb to go is in the infinitive , or in a complement clause such as I saw him leave , where the main verb is to see which is in a preterite form , and leave is in the infinitive .
= = = = Phrasal verbs = = = =
English also makes frequent use of constructions traditionally called phrasal verbs , verb phrases that are made up of a verb root and a preposition or particle which follows the verb . The phrase then functions as a single predicate . In terms of intonation the preposition is fused to the verb , but in writing it is written as a separate word . Examples of phrasal verbs are to get up , to ask out , to back up , to give up , to get together , to hang out , to put up with , etc . The phrasal verb frequently has a highly idiomatic meaning that is more specialised and restricted than what can be simply extrapolated from the combination of verb and preposition complement ( e.g. lay off meaning terminate someone 's employment ) . In spite of the idiomatic meaning , some grammarians , including Huddleston & Pullum ( 2002 ) : 274 , do not consider this type of construction to form a syntactic constituent and hence refrain from using the term " phrasal verb " . Instead they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement , i.e. he woke up in the morning and he ran up in the mountains are syntactically equivalent .
= = = = Adverbs = = = =
The function of adverbs is to modify the action or event described by the verb by providing additional information about the manner in which it occurs . Many adverbs are derived from adjectives with the suffix -ly , but not all , and many speakers tend to omit the suffix in the most commonly used adverbs . For example , in the phrase the woman walked quickly the adverb quickly derived from the adjective quick describes the woman 's way of walking . Some commonly used adjectives have irregular adverbial forms , such as good which has the adverbial form well .
= = = Syntax = = =
Modern English syntax language is moderately analytic . It has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as resources for conveying meaning . Auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions , negative polarity , the passive voice and progressive aspect .
= = = = Basic constituent order = = = =
English word order has moved from the Germanic verb @-@ second ( V2 ) word order to being almost exclusively subject – verb – object ( SVO ) . The combination of SVO order and use of auxiliary verbs often creates clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sentence , such as he had hoped to try to open it .
In most sentences English only marks grammatical relations through word order . The subject constituent precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it . The example below demonstrates how the grammatical roles of each constituent is marked only by the position relative to the verb :
An exception is found in sentences where one of the constituents is a pronoun , in which case it is doubly marked , both by word order and by case inflection , where the subject pronoun precedes the verb and takes the subjective case form , and the object pronoun follows the verb and takes the objective case form . The example below demonstrates this double marking in a sentence where both object and subject is represented with a third person singular masculine pronoun :
Indirect objects ( IO ) of ditransitive verbs can be placed either as the first object in a double object construction ( S V IO O ) , such as I gave Jane the book or in a prepositional phrase , such as I gave the book to Jane
= = = = Clause syntax = = = =
In English a sentence may be composed of one or more clauses , that may in turn be composed of one or more phrases ( e.g. Noun Phrases , Verb Phrases , and Prepositional Phrases ) . A clause is built around a verb , and includes its constituents , such as any NPs and PPs . Within a sentence one clause is always the main clause ( or matrix clause ) whereas other clauses are subordinate to it . Subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause . For example , in the phrase I think ( that ) you are lying , the main clause is headed by the verb think , the subject is I , but the object of the phrase is the subordinate clause ( that ) you are lying . The subordinating conjunction that shows that the clause that follows is a subordinate clause , but it is often omitted . Relative clauses are clauses that function as a modifier or specifier to some constituent in the main clause : For example , in the sentence I saw the letter that you received today , the relative clause that you received today specifies the meaning of the word letter , the object of the main clause . Relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns who , whose , whom and which as well as by that ( which can also be omitted . ) In contrast to many other Germanic languages there is no major differences between word order in main and subordinate clauses .
= = = = Auxiliary verb constructions = = = =
English syntax relies on auxiliary verbs for many functions including the expression of tense , aspect and mood . Auxiliary verbs form main clauses , and the main verbs function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary verb . For example , in the sentence the dog did not find its bone , the clause find its bone is the complement of the negated verb did not . Subject – auxiliary inversion is used in many constructions , including focus , negation , and interrogative constructions .
The verb do can be used as an auxiliary even in simple declarative sentences , where it usually serves to add emphasis , as in " I did shut the fridge . " However , in the negated and inverted clauses referred to above , it is used because the rules of English syntax permit these constructions only when an auxiliary is present . Modern English does not allow the addition of the negating adverb not to an ordinary finite lexical verb , as in * I know not — it can only be added to an auxiliary ( or copular ) verb , hence if there is no other auxiliary present when negation is required , the auxiliary do is used , to produce a form like I do not ( don 't ) know . The same applies in clauses requiring inversion , including most questions — inversion must involve the subject and an auxiliary verb , so it is not possible to say * Know you him ? ; grammatical rules require Do you know him ?
Negation is done with the adverb not , which precedes the main verb and follows an auxiliary verb . A contracted form of not -n 't can be used as an enclitic attaching to auxiliary verbs and to the copula verb to be . Just as with questions , many negative constructions require the negation to occur with do @-@ support , thus in Modern English I don 't know him is the correct answer to the question Do you know him ? , but not * I know him not , although this construction may be found in older English .
Passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs . A passive construction rephrases an active construction in such a way that the object of the active phrase becomes the subject of the passive phrase , and the subject of the active phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique argument introduced in a prepositional phrase . They are formed by using the past participle either with the auxiliary verb to be or to get , although not all varieties of English allow the use of passives with get . For example , putting the sentence she sees him into the passive becomes he is seen ( by her ) , or he gets seen ( by her ) .
= = = = Questions = = = =
Both yes – no questions and wh @-@ questions in English are mostly formed using subject – auxiliary inversion ( Am I going tomorrow ? , Where can we eat ? ) , which may require do @-@ support ( Do you like her ? , Where did he go ? ) . In most cases , interrogative words ( wh @-@ words ; e.g. what , who , where , when , why , how ) appear in a fronted position . For example , in the question What did you see ? , the word what appears as the first constituent despite being the grammatical object of the sentence . ( When the wh @-@ word is the subject or forms part of the subject , no inversion occurs : Who saw the cat ? . ) Prepositional phrases can also be fronted when they are the question 's theme , e.g. To whose house did you go last night ? . The personal interrogative pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun to still show inflection for case , with the variant whom serving as the objective case form , although this form may be going out of use in many contexts .
= = = = Discourse level syntax = = = =
At the discourse level English tends to use a topic @-@ comment structure , where the known information ( topic ) precedes the new information ( comment ) . Because of the strict SVO syntax , the topic of a sentence generally has to be the grammatical subject of the sentence . In cases where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sentence , frequently the topic is promoted to subject position through syntactic means . One way of doing this is through a passive construction , the girl was stung by the bee . Another way is through a cleft sentence where the main clause is demoted to be a complement clause of a copula sentence with a dummy subject such as it or there , e.g. it was the girl that the bee stung , there was a girl who was stung by a bee . Dummy subjects are also used in constructions where there is no grammatical subject such as with impersonal verbs ( e.g. , it is raining ) or in existential clauses ( there are many cars on the street ) . Through the use of these complex sentence constructions with informationally vacuous subjects , English is able to maintain both a topic comment sentence structure and a SVO syntax .
Focus constructions emphasise a particular piece of new or salient information within a sentence , generally through allocating the main sentence level stress on the focal constituent . For example , the girl was stung by a bee ( emphasising it was a bee and not for example a wasp that stung her ) , or The girl was stung by a bee ( contrasting with another possibility , for example that it was the boy ) . Topic and focus can also be established through syntactic dislocation , either preposing or postposing the item to be focused on relative to the main clause . For example , That girl over there , she was stung by a bee , emphasises the girl by preposition , but a similar effect could be achieved by postposition , she was stung by a bee , that girl over there , where reference to the girl is established as an " afterthought " .
Cohesion between sentences is achieved through the use of deictic pronouns as anaphora ( e.g. that is exactly what I mean where that refers to some fact known to both interlocutors , or then used to locate the time of a narrated event relative to the time of a previously narrated event ) . Discourse markers such as oh , so or well , also signal the progression of ideas between sentences and help to create cohesion . Discourse markers are often the first constituents in sentences . Discourse markers are also used for stance taking in which speakers position themselves in a specific attitude towards what is being said , for example , no way is that true ! ( the idiomatic marker no way ! expressing disbelief ) , or boy ! I 'm hungry ( the marker boy expressing emphasis ) . While discourse markers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken registers of English , they are also used in written and formal registers .
= = Vocabulary = =
The vocabulary of English is vast , and counting exactly how many words English ( or any language ) has is impossible . The Oxford Dictionaries suggest that there are at least a quarter of a million distinct English words . Early studies of English vocabulary by lexicographers , the scholars who formally study vocabulary , compile dictionaries , or both , were impeded by a lack of comprehensive data on actual vocabulary in use from good @-@ quality linguistic corpora , collections of actual written texts and spoken passages . Many statements published before the end of the 20th century about the growth of English vocabulary over time , the dates of first use of various words in English , and the sources of English vocabulary will have to be corrected as new computerised analysis of linguistic corpus data becomes available .
= = = Word formation processes = = =
English forms new words from existing words or roots in its vocabulary through a variety of processes . One of the most productive processes in English is conversion , using a word with a different grammatical role , for example using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun . Another productive word @-@ formation process is nominal compounding , producing compound words such as babysitter or ice cream or homesick . A process more common in Old English than in Modern English , but still productive in Modern English , is the use of derivational suffixes ( -hood , -ness , -ing , -ility ) to derive new words from existing words ( especially those of Germanic origin ) or stems ( especially for words of Latin or Greek origin ) . Formation of new words , called neologisms , based on Greek or Latin roots ( for example television or optometry ) is a highly productive process in English and in most modern European languages , so much so that it is often difficult to determine in which language a neologism originated . For this reason , lexicographer Philip Gove attributed many such words to the " international scientific vocabulary " ( ISV ) when compiling Webster 's Third New International Dictionary ( 1961 ) . Another active word @-@ formation process in English is acronyms , words formed by pronouncing as a single word abbreviations of longer phrases ( e.g. NATO , laser ) .
= = = Word origins = = =
English , besides forming new words from existing words and their roots , also borrows words from other languages . This process of adding words from other languages is commonplace in many world languages , but English is characterised as being especially open to borrowing of foreign words throughout the last 1 @,@ 000 years . The most commonly used words in English are West Germanic . The words in English learned first by children as they learn to speak , particularly the grammatical words that dominate the word count of both spoken and written texts , are the Germanic words inherited from the earliest periods of the development of Old English . But one of the consequences of long language contact between French and English in all stages of their development is that the vocabulary of English has a very high percentage of " Latinate " words ( derived from French , especially , and also from Latin or from other Romance languages ) . French words from various periods of the development of French now make up one @-@ third of the vocabulary of English .
English has also borrowed many words directly from Latin , the ancestor of the Romance languages , during all stages of its development . Many of the words borrowed into English from Latin were earlier borrowed into Latin from Greek . Latin or Greek are still highly productive sources of stems used to form vocabulary of subjects learned in higher education such as the sciences , philosophy , and mathematics . English continues to gain new loanwords and calques ( " loan translations " ) from languages all over the world , and words from languages other than the ancestral Anglo @-@ Saxon language make up about 60 percent of the vocabulary of English . English has formal and informal speech registers , and informal registers , including child directed speech , tend to be made up predominantly of words of Anglo @-@ Saxon origin , while the percentage of vocabulary that is of Latinate origin is higher in legal , scientific , and academic texts .
= = = English loanwords and calques in other languages = = =
English has a strong influence on the vocabulary of other languages . The influence of English comes from such factors as opinion leaders in other countries knowing the English language , the role of English as a world lingua franca , and the large number of books and films that are translated from English into other languages . That pervasive use of English leads to a conclusion in many places that English is an especially suitable language for expressing new ideas or describing new technologies . Among varieties of English , it is especially American English that influences other languages . Some languages , such as Chinese , write words borrowed from English mostly as calques , while others , such as Japanese , readily take in English loanwords written in sound @-@ indicating script . Dubbed films and television programmes are an especially fruitful source of English influence on languages in Europe .
= = Writing system = =
Since the ninth century , English has been written in a Latin alphabet ( also called Roman alphabet ) . Earlier Old English texts in Anglo @-@ Saxon runes are only short inscriptions . The great majority of literary works in Old English that survive to today are written in the Roman alphabet . The modern English alphabet contains 26 letters of the Latin script : a , b , c , d , e , f , g , h , i , j , k , l , m , n , o , p , q , r , s , t , u , v , w , x , y , z ( which also have capital forms : A , B , C , D , E , F , G , H , I , J , K , L , M , N , O , P , Q , R , S , T , U , V , W , X , Y , Z ) .
The spelling system , or orthography , of English is multi @-@ layered , with elements of French , Latin , and Greek spelling on top of the native Germanic system . Further complications have arisen through sound changes with which the orthography has not kept pace . Compared to European languages for which official organisations have promoted spelling reforms , English has spelling that is a less consistent indicator of pronunciation and standard spellings of words that are more difficult to guess from knowing how a word is pronounced . There are also systematic spelling differences between British and American English . These situations have prompted proposals for spelling reform in English .
Although letters and speech sounds do not have a one @-@ to @-@ one correspondence in standard English spelling , spelling rules that take into account syllable structure , phonetic changes in derived words , and word accent are reliable for most English words . Moreover , standard English spelling shows etymological relationships between related words that would be obscured by a closer correspondence between pronunciation and spelling , for example the words photograph , photography , and photographic , or the words electricity and electrical . While few scholars agree with Chomsky and Halle ( 1968 ) that conventional English orthography is " near @-@ optimal " , there is a rationale for current English spelling patterns . The standard orthography of English is the most widely used writing system in the world . Standard English spelling is based on a graphomorphemic segmentation of words into written clues of what meaningful units make up each word .
Readers of English can generally rely on the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation to be fairly regular for letters or digraphs used to spell consonant sounds . The letters b , d , f , h , j , k , l , m , n , p , r , s , t , v , w , y , z represent , respectively , the phonemes / b , d , f , h , dʒ , k , l , m , n , p , r , s , t , v , w , j , z / . The letters c and g normally represent / k / and / ɡ / , but there is also a soft c pronounced / s / , and a soft g pronounced / dʒ / . The differences in the pronunciations of the letters c and g are often signalled by the following letters in standard English spelling . Digraphs used to represent phonemes and phoneme sequences include ch for / tʃ / , sh for / ʃ / , th for / θ / or / ð / , ng for / ŋ / , qu for / kw / , and ph for / f / in Greek @-@ derived words . The single letter x is generally pronounced as / z / in word @-@ initial position and as / ks / otherwise . There are exceptions to these generalisations , often the result of loanwords being spelled according to the spelling patterns of their languages of origin or proposals by pedantic scholars in the early period of Modern English to mistakenly follow the spelling patterns of Latin for English words of Germanic origin .
For the vowel sounds of the English language , however , correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are more irregular . There are many more vowel phonemes in English than there are vowel letters ( a , e , i , o , u , w , y ) . As a result of a smaller set of single letter symbols than the set of vowel phonemes , some " long vowels " are often indicated by combinations of letters ( like the oa in boat , the ow in how , and the ay in stay ) , or the historically based silent e ( as in note and cake ) .
The consequence of this complex orthographic history is that learning to read can be challenging in English . It can take longer for school pupils to become independently fluent readers of English than of many other languages , including Italian , Spanish , or German . Nonetheless , there is an advantage for learners of English reading in learning the specific sound @-@ symbol regularities that occur in the standard English spellings of commonly used words . Such instruction greatly reduces the risk of children experiencing reading difficulties in English . Making primary school teachers more aware of the primacy of morpheme representation in English may help learners learn more efficiently to read and write English .
English writing also includes a system of punctuation that is similar to the system of punctuation marks used in most alphabetic languages around the world . The purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud .
= = Dialects , accents , and varieties = =
Dialectologists distinguish between English dialects , regional varieties that differ from each other in terms of grammar and vocabulary , and regional accents , distinguished by different patterns of pronunciation . The major native dialects of English are often divided by linguists into the two general categories of the British dialects ( BrE ) and those of North America ( AmE ) .
= = = UK and Ireland = = =
As the place where English first evolved , the British Isles , and particularly England , are home to the most variegated pattern of dialects . Within the United Kingdom , the Received Pronunciation ( RP ) , an educated dialect of South East England , is traditionally used as the broadcast standard , and is considered the most prestigious of the British dialects . The spread of RP ( also known as BBC English ) through the media has caused many traditional dialects of rural England to recede , as youths adopt the traits of the prestige variety instead of traits from local dialects . At the time of the Survey of English Dialects , grammar and vocabulary differed across the country , but a process of lexical attrition has led most of this variation to disappear . Nonetheless this attrition has mostly affected dialectal variation in grammar and vocabulary , and in fact only 3 percent of the English population actually speak RP , the remainder speaking regional accents and dialects with varying degrees of RP influence . There is also variability within RP , particularly along class lines between Upper and Middle class RP speakers and between native RP speakers and speakers who adopt RP later in life . Within Britain there is also considerable variation along lines of social class , and some traits though exceedingly common are considered " non @-@ standard " and are associated with lower class speakers and identities . An example of this is H @-@ dropping , which was historically a feature of lower class London English , particularly Cockney , but which today is the standard in all major English cities — yet it remains largely absent in broadcasting and among the upper crust of British society .
English in England can be divided into four major dialect regions , Southwest English , South East English , Midlands English , and Northern English . Within each of these regions several local subdialects exist : Within the Northern region , there is a division between the Yorkshire dialects , and the Geordie dialect spoken in Northumbria around Newcastle , and the Lancashire dialects with local urban dialects in Liverpool ( Scouse ) and Manchester ( Mancunian ) . Having been the centre of Danish occupation during the Viking Invasions , Northern English dialects , particularly the Yorkshire dialect , retain Norse features not found in other English varieties .
Since the 15th century , Southeastern varieties centred around London , which has been the centre from which dialectal innovations have spread to other dialects . In London , the Cockney dialect was traditionally used by the lower classes , and it was long a socially stigmatised variety . Today a large area of Southeastern England has adopted traits from Cockney , resulting in the so @-@ called Estuary English which spread in areas south and East of London beginning in the 1980s . Estuary English is distinguished by traits such as the use of intrusive R ( drawing is pronounced drawring / ˈdrɔːrɪŋ / ) , t @-@ glottalisation ( Potter is pronounced with a glottal stop as Po 'er / poʔʌ / ) , and the pronunciation of th- as / f / ( thanks pronounced fanks ) or / v / ( bother pronounced bover ) .
Scots is today considered a separate language from English , but it has its origins in early Northern Middle English and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources , particularly Scots Gaelic and Old Norse . Scots itself has a number of regional dialects . And in addition to Scots , Scottish English are the varieties of Standard English spoken in Scotland , most varieties are Northern English accents , with some influence from Scots .
In Ireland , various forms of English have been spoken since the Norman invasions of the 11th century . In County Wexford , in the area surrounding Dublin , two highly conservative dialects known as Forth and Bargy and Fingallian developed as offshoots from Early Middle English , and were spoken until the 19th century . Modern Hiberno @-@ English however has its roots in English colonisation in the 17th century . Today Irish English is divided into Ulster English , a dialect with strong influence from Scots , and southern Hiberno @-@ English . Like Scots and Northern English , the Irish accents preserve the rhoticity which has been lost in most dialects influenced by RP .
= = = North America = = =
American English is generally considered fairly homogeneous compared to the British varieties . Today , American accent variation is in fact increasing , though most Americans still speak within a phonological continuum of similar accents , known collectively as General American ( GA ) , with its differing accents hardly noticed even among Americans themselves ( such as Midland and Western American English ) . Separate from GA are American accents with clearly distinct sound systems ; this historically includes Southern American English , English of the coastal Northeast ( famously including Eastern New England English and New York City English ) , and African American Vernacular English . Canadian English , except for the Maritime provinces , may be classified under GA as well , but it often shows unique vowel raising , as well as distinct norms for written and pronunciation standards . In GA and Canadian English , rhoticity ( or r @-@ fulness ) is dominant , with non @-@ rhoticity ( r @-@ dropping ) becoming associated with lower prestige and social class especially after World War II ; this contrasts with the situation in England , where non @-@ rhoticity has become the standard .
In Southern American English , the largest American " accent group " outside of GA , rhoticity now prevails , replacing the region 's historical non @-@ rhotic prestige , though social variation may still apply . Southern accents are often colloquially described as a " drawl " or " twang , " being recognised most readily by the Southern Vowel Shift that begins with glide @-@ deleting in the / aɪ / vowel ( e.g. pronouncing spy almost like spa ) , the " Southern breaking " of several front pure vowels into a gliding vowel or even two syllables ( e.g. pronouncing the word " press " almost like " pray @-@ us " ) , the pin – pen merger , and other distinctive features , many of which are actually recent developments of the 19th century or later .
Today spoken primarily by working- and middle @-@ class African Americans , African American Vernacular English ( AAVE ) is also largely non @-@ rhotic and likely originated among enslaved Africans and African Americans influenced primarily by the non @-@ rhotic , non @-@ standard English spoken by whites in the Old South . A minority of linguists , contrarily , propose that AAVE mostly traces back to African languages spoken by the slaves who had to develop a pidgin or Creole English to communicate with slaves of other ethnic and linguistic origins . After abolition , most African Americans settled in the inner cities of the North and here AAVE developed to a highly coherent and homogeneous variety . AAVE has often been stigmatised as a form of " broken " or " uneducated " English , as modern Southern American English also often is , but linguists today recognise both as fully developed varieties of English with their own norms shared by a large speech community .
= = = Australia and New Zealand = = =
Since 1788 English has been spoken in Oceania , and the major native dialect of Australian English is spoken as a first language by the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Australian continent , with General Australian serving as the standard accent . The English of neighbouring New Zealand has to a lesser degree become an influential standard variety of the language . Australian and New Zealand English are most closely related to British English , and both have similarly non @-@ rhotic accents , aside from some accents in the South Island of New Zealand . They stand out , however , for their innovative vowels : many short vowels are fronted or raised , whereas many long vowels have diphthongised . Australian English also has a contrast between long and short vowels , not found in most other varieties . Australian English grammar differs from British English only in few instances , one difference is the lack of verbal concord with collective plural subjects . New Zealand English differs little from Australian English , but a few characteristics sets its accent apart , such as the use of [ ʍ ] for wh- and its front vowels being even closer than in Australian English .
= = = Africa , the Caribbean , and South Asia = = =
English is spoken widely in South Africa and is an official or co @-@ official language in several countries . In South Africa , English has been spoken since 1820 , co @-@ existing with Afrikaans and various African languages such as the Khoe and Bantu languages . Today about 9 percent of the South African population speak South African English ( SAE ) as a first language . SAE is a non @-@ rhotic variety , which tends to follow RP as a norm . It is alone among non @-@ rhotic varieties in lacking intrusive r . There are different L2 varieties that differ based on the native language of the speakers . Most phonological differences from RP are in the vowels . Consonant differences include the tendency to pronounce / p , t , t ͡ ʃ , k / without aspiration ( e.g. / pin / pronounced [ pɪn ] rather than as [ pʰɪn ] as in most other varieties ) , while r is often pronounced as a flap [ ɾ ] instead of as the more common fricative .
Several varieties of English are also spoken in the Caribbean Islands that were colonial possessions of Britain , including Jamaica , and the Leeward and Windward Islands and Trinidad and Tobago , Barbados , the Cayman Islands , and Belize . Each of these areas are home both to a local variety of English and a local English based creole , combining English and African languages . The most prominent varieties are Jamaican English and Jamaican Creole . In Central America , English based creoles are spoken in on the Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua and Panama . Locals are often fluent both in the local English variety and the local creole languages and code @-@ switching between them is frequent , indeed another way to conceptualise the relationship between Creole and Standard varieties is to see a spectrum of social registers with the Creole forms serving as " basilect " and the more RP @-@ like forms serving as the " acrolect " , the most formal register .
Most Caribbean varieties are based on British English and consequently most are non @-@ rhotic , except for formal styles of Jamaican English which are often rhotic . Jamaican English differs from RP in its vowel inventory , which has a distinction between long and short vowels rather than tense and lax vowels as in Standard English . The diphthongs / ei / and / ou / are monophthongs [ eː ] and [ oː ] or even the reverse diphthongs [ ie ] and [ uo ] ( e.g. bay and boat pronounced [ bʲeː ] and [ bʷoːt ] ) . Often word final consonant clusters are simplified so that " child " is pronounced [ t ͡ ʃail ] and " wind " [ win ] .
As a historical legacy , Indian English tends to take RP as its ideal , and how well this ideal is realised in an individual 's speech reflects class distinctions among Indian English speakers . Indian English accents are marked by the pronunciation of phonemes such as / t / and / d / ( often pronounced with retroflex articulation as [ ʈ ] and [ ɖ ] ) and the replacement of / θ / and / ð / with dentals [ t ̪ ] and [ d ̪ ] . Sometimes Indian English speakers may also use spelling based pronunciations where the silent < h > found in words such as ghost is pronounced as an Indian voiced aspirated stop [ gʱ ] .
= Beautiful nuthatch =
The beautiful nuthatch ( Sitta formosa , sometimes called Callisitta formosa ) is a bird species in the family Sittidae . It is a large nuthatch , measuring 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) in length , that is not sexually dimorphic . Its coloration and markings are dramatic , the upper parts being black and azure , streaked with white and pale blue on the head and lined with the same colors on the wing feathers . The underparts are orange , and the eyebrow and throat are ochre . An irregular , dark eyestripe highlights its eye . S. formosa 's ecology is not fully described , but it is known to feed on small insects and larvae found on the trunks and epiphyte @-@ covered branches of trees in its range . Reproduction takes place from April to May ; the nest is placed in the hole of an oak , rhododendron , or other large tree . The nest is made of plant material and fur in which the bird typically lays four to six eggs .
Although the species is found in most of the countries making up the mainland of Southeast Asia , it appears to be rare throughout its range , its population being highly localized where it is found . The bird nests predominantly in mountain forests at an altitudinal range from 950 m ( 3 @,@ 120 ft ) up to nearly 2 @,@ 300 m ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) , with some seasonal height adjustment , down to around 300 m ( 980 ft ) in winter . Its apparent localization within its range makes rigorous estimates of its population difficult , but its habitat is threatened by deforestation and the species appear to be in decline . It has been classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature .
= = Taxonomy = =
The nuthatches constitute a genus – Sitta – of small passerine birds belonging to the family , Sittidae , typified by short , compressed wings and short , square 12 @-@ feathered tails , a compact body , longish pointed bills , strong toes with long claws , and behaviorally , by their unique head @-@ first manner of descending tree trunks . Most nuthatches have gray or bluish upperparts and a black eyestripe . Sitta is derived from the Ancient Greek name for nuthatches , σιττη , sittē . " Nuthatch " , first recorded in 1350 , is derived from " nut " and a word probably related to " hack " , since these birds hack at nuts they have wedged into crevices . The genus may be further divided into seven subgenera , of which the beautiful nuthatch is placed alone in Callisitta ( Bonaparte , 1850 ) , and the species is therefore sometimes called Callisitta Formosa .
The beautiful nuthatch was first described in 1843 by British zoologist Edward Blyth , from a specimen he examined in Darjeeling . Its kinship with other members of the genus is unclear . The bright blue color of its plumage invites a comparison to the blue nuthatch ( S. azurea ) , or other blue @-@ tinted nuthatch species such as the velvet @-@ fronted nuthatch ( S. frontalis ) , yellow @-@ billed nuthatch ( S. solangiae ) and the sulphur @-@ billed nuthatch ( S. oenochlamys ) , but its distribution being focused in the eastern Himalayas , and the uniqueness of its plumage , argues against the assumption . According to the International Ornithological Congress and ornithologist Alan P. Peterson , no subspecies have been identified .
In 2014 , Eric Pasquet , et al. published a phylogeny based on examination of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA of 21 nuthatch species . The position of the beautiful nuthatch within the genus was not established with certainty , having a far lower statistical association than others in the model . Nevertheless , under the findings the species appears closest evolutionarily to three clades of nuthatches : two nuthatches that prefer rocky environments , the western rock nuthatch ( S. neumayer ) and the eastern rock nuthatch ( S. tephronota ) ; species in the " europaea " group , including the Eurasian nuthatch ( S. europaea ) , Siberian nuthatch ( S. arctica ) , chestnut @-@ vented nuthatch ( S. nagaensis ) , Kashmir nuthatch ( S. cashmirensis ) , Indian nuthatch ( S. castanea ) , chestnut @-@ bellied nuthatch ( S. cinnamoventris ) and the Burmese nuthatch ( S. neglecta ) ; as well as the white @-@ tailed nuthatch ( S. himalayensis ) , and therefore , the white @-@ browed nuthatch ( S. victoriae ) . These close relatives are generally all species that plaster the entrance to their nest with mud .
= = Description = =
Described by Erik Matthysen in his 1998 treatise The Nuthatches as a bird that " deserves its name " , the beautiful nuthatch has highly distinctive plumage . Its upperparts are black and azure , and it is orange on the underparts . The crown and upper mantle are black , streaked with pale blue and white . The scapulars , back and rump are an azure blue . The greater and medium coverts are black , finely edged with white , forming two narrow wing bars ; the flight feathers are black and more or less lined with pale blue . The eyebrow and throat are white and buff and the eye is highlighted by an irregular , dark eyestripe . Under the wing , the white base of the primary coverts contrasts sharply with gray undertail @-@ coverts , a distinguishing trait when viewing the bird in flight . The iris is reddish @-@ brown or dark brown and the bill is black but for a whitish tinge at the base of the lower mandible . The lower parts are generally orange @-@ cinnamon . The legs and feet are yellowish @-@ brown , olive @-@ brown or greenish @-@ brown .
There is no sexual dimorphism . Juveniles are very similar to adults , but the streaks on the mantle are blue rather than white . The primary coverts of juveniles are also more closely lined with blue , and the underparts are paler overall , especially on the chest . Adults perform a complete moult after the breeding season , whereas juveniles only have a partial moult , in which they replace a variable number of rectrices .
The bird is large as compared with other members of the Sitta genus , measuring 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) in length . The folded wing measure 98 – 109 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) in males and 97 – 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) in females . The tail is 48 – 60 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) in males and 52 – 56 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) in females . The beak measures between 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) and 24 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) and the tarsus is 19 – 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 – 0 @.@ 87 in ) in length . The weight is not known .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
= = = Voice = = =
S. formosa 's vocalizations are not well known , but its song is described as " low and sweet in tone " . Its call is typical of nuthatches , and similar to that of the Eurasian nuthatch ( Sitta europaea ) , but less strident .
= = = Feeding = = =
The beautiful nuthatch forages alone , in pairs or in small groups of four to five individuals , though an unusual gathering of 21 individuals was observed in one tree in Bhutan . It often takes part in mixed @-@ species foraging flocks , and has been notably observed feeding with the Himalayan cutia ( Cutia nipalensis ) and the velvet @-@ fronted nuthatch ( Sitta frontalis ) – two other species that prospect for food on tree trunks . Other foraging flock partners surveyed are the long @-@ tailed broadbill ( Psarisomus dalhousiae ) , the lesser racket @-@ tailed drongo ( Dicrurus remifer ) , the maroon oriole ( Oriolus traillii ) and the white @-@ browed scimitar babbler ( Pomatorhinus schisticeps ) .
S. formosa forages from about the middle to the apex of tall trees , exploring the trunks and epiphyte @-@ covered branches ( lichens , mosses , orchids ) , for small insects , but also prospect on outermost branches . In Laos , individuals were observed feeding while perched on the larger branches of a Fokienia evergreen ( Fokienia hodginsii ) – a tree frequently enveloped in epiphytes . The bird has been described at times as the most timid of nuthatches . It prospects in a manner typical of many others in its genus , sometimes hanging upside down for an extended time surveying its surroundings . As compared with other nuthatch , the species has been described as working " unhurriedly " , as they peck at trunks , lichen and other epiphytes , searching for prey . Stomach contents of collected Chinese specimens consisted of beetles and insect larvae .
= = = Breeding = = =
Reproduction in the species has not been well studied . In the northeast of India , the breeding season is from April to May . The nest is placed off the ground , between two and eight meters high , and is often built in a hole of a ( living or dead ) oak or rhododendron tree , or sometimes in other large trees . Nests are constructed using leaves and bark , held together with hair , often that of bamboo rats . If the opening of the hole is too large , it is cemented with mud to reduce the entrance size . The bird usually lays four to six white eggs , speckled with red spots , that measure 20 @.@ 8 mm × 15 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 82 in × 0 @.@ 60 in ) . Beautiful nuthatch sexes are reported to share equally in nest building and incubation duties .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This species lives in the eastern Himalayas , and has been reported in several scattered sites across Southeast Asia , in the northwest of Vietnam and in central Laos . Its range stretches west into the northeast of India , where it was reported seen near Darjeeling in West Bengal , but not since 1933 . It is present in Bhutan , and in the Indian states of Sikkim ( in the town of Rangpo ) , in Meghalaya ( in the Khasi Hills ) , in Assam ( in the Dima Hasao district ) , in the south of Arunachal Pradesh , and in Manipur and Nagaland . Its presence in Bangladesh is uncertain but it is found further west in the north of Burma , in Chin State ( in the Chin Hills @-@ Arakan Yoma montane forests ) , the Sagaing Region , in Kachin State and in Shan State . Data on the bird from Laos is erratic , but there are reports of sightings north of Phou Kobo , and of large numbers of the species wintering in the center of the country in the pristine wilderness of Nakai – Nam Theun . There are also reports of sightings in the southeast of China ’ s Yunnan province , in northern Thailand and in northwestern Vietnam . Its residential and breeding range is estimated to cover 376 @,@ 000 km2 ( 145 @,@ 000 sq mi ) .
Beautiful nuthatches typically inhabit both the interior and outskirts of evergreen or semi @-@ evergreen mountain forests , though in northern Burma they have been recorded nesting in trees scattered across open areas . In central Laos , the bird was found associated with the Fokienia evergreen . They usually live at altitudes of 950 m ( 3 @,@ 120 ft ) and up to nearly 2 @,@ 300 m ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) during the warm seasons but may make seasonal vertical migration . In India , for example , the species spends the summer between 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) and 2 @,@ 100 m ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) , but was observed during winter at just 335 m ( 1 @,@ 099 ft ) in Sikkim and in northeastern Arunachal Pradesh at 460 m ( 1 @,@ 510 ft ) and between 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) and 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) . In Burma , they were observed at between 975 m ( 3 @,@ 199 ft ) and 1 @,@ 830 m ( 6 @,@ 000 ft ) , in China between 350 m ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) and 1 @,@ 975 m ( 6 @,@ 480 ft ) , in Laos between 1 @,@ 950 m ( 6 @,@ 400 ft ) and 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) and in Thailand , the only observation of the species was at a height of 2 @,@ 290 m ( 7 @,@ 510 ft ) .
= = Threats and protection = =
The beautiful nuthatch has always been rare and very localized throughout its distribution , perhaps due to very specific ecological requirements , though this has been questioned as not in keeping with the diversity of habitats in which S. Formosa has been observed . Although the species is less threatened at high elevations , its habitat has been reduced by deforestation , due to logging and forest clearance to make way for human habitation . In the center of Laos and northern Vietnam , Fokienia trees , which are a known beautiful nuthatch foraging source and nesting site , are harvested for their high commercial value . Research conducted in 2001 indicated a population comprising 2 @,@ 500 to 10 @,@ 000 adults , and between 3
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@,@ 500 and 15 @,@ 000 total individuals ; these numbers are in decline . The species has been classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= St Mary 's Church , Astbury =
St Mary 's Church is an Anglican parish church in the village of Newbold Astbury , Cheshire , England . It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building , and its architecture has been praised by a number of writers .
It is possible that a church was present on the site in the Saxon era , although the earliest fabric in the church is Norman . The present ground plan was established in the 13th and 14th centuries , from which time the church 's external appearance dates , apart from a major rebuilding in the later part of the 15th century , when the range of high windows or clerestory was added . All styles of English Gothic architecture , are represented in the church : Early English , Decorated , and Perpendicular . During the civil war , a group of Roundheads stabled their horses in the church . In the 19th century the interior of the church was restored by George Gilbert Scott ; some wall paintings were revealed , and stained glass was added .
The church has a number of special features . These include its exceptionally wide nave for a village church , and its trapezoidal shape . The tower is separate from the body of the church , joined to it by a passage with a porch . There are two other porches : the three @-@ storey west porch and the two @-@ storey south porch . Inside the church are medieval fittings and furniture and many memorials . The churchyard contains numerous gravestones from the 17th century and five listed structures , including a canopied tomb . St Mary 's continues to be an active church in the centre of its village . It provides the usual services of an Anglican church and runs a number of organisations catering for children and adults .
= = History = =
The origins of the church are unclear . The Domesday survey of 1086 records the presence of a priest at Astbury , but not a church . The discovery nearby of fragments of stone with apparent Saxon decoration , coffin lids , and the lower stages of a cross – all of which might date from before the Norman conquest – suggest that an earlier church may have been on the site . The earliest fabric in the present church is a round @-@ arched doorway . Architectural historian Andor Gomme dates this from about the middle of the 12th century and states that at that time the church would have been a simple rectangular building , and mainly timber @-@ framed . Gomme suggests further that in the middle of the 13th century the east end of the church would have been rebuilt in stone , with a chancel and sanctuary . Subsequently the rest of the body of the church was built , consisting of the nave and north and south aisles ; the work was completed in the 14th century . The tower was built towards the end of the 13th century , not in the usual position at the west end of the church but to the north of the west bay of the north aisle , separated from it by a distance of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . During the 14th century the south porch , with its priest 's room or treasury in the top storey , was added . It is not known whether the tower 's spire was built in the 14th or the 15th century .
Major rebuilding work took place in the later part of the 15th century . It is thought that it began with the south arcade , followed by the north arcade and the addition of a clerestory . The rebuilding was probably complete by about 1525 , although the north aisle may not have been completely re @-@ roofed until the early 17th century . The west porch was probably started in the 14th century , and the upper two storeys added in the following century . The nave roof was repaired in 1615 . During the civil war , while nearby Biddulph Hall was under siege , Sir William Brereton 's Roundheads stabled their horses in the church . They damaged the medieval glass windows and removed some of the church furniture , including the organ . There have been few significant changes since that time . The church was restored during the 19th century by Anthony Salvin , and later , in about 1857 , by George Gilbert Scott , who removed plaster from the walls and built a small gallery . During the Victorian era , the reredos and most of the stained glass were added .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The body of the church is constructed in yellow sandstone ashlar , and the tower in millstone grit , an unusual material for churches in Cheshire . The architectural historian Alec Clifton @-@ Taylor draws attention to the crispness of the details of the stonework in the tower 500 years after it was carved , compared to the sandstone , which is prone to weathering . The roof is metal . The church incorporates elements of Norman , Early English , Decorated , and Perpendicular architecture . The overall plan is that of a trapezium ; the west end is 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) wider than the east . The body of the church consists of a seven @-@ bay nave and chancel with no structural division , and north and south aisles . The aisles are rectangular , thus the narrowing takes place entirely within the nave and chancel . The west end of the nave , between the piers ( columns ) of the arcades , is 40 feet ( 12 @.@ 2 m ) wide . This is exceptionally wide for a parish church , and slightly wider than the nave of Chester Cathedral . The aisles extend along the sides of the chancel , forming north and south chapels . The tower stands to the north of the west bay of the body of the church , and is joined to it by a short passage with a porch on its east side . There are also porches on the west and south sides of the church .
The tower is in three stages and is supported by buttresses . In the lowest stage , on the west side , is a doorway in Romanesque style , on the north side is an ogee @-@ headed lancet window . On the left of the east side is a Perpendicular @-@ style porch . The middle stage has a two @-@ light window on the west side , above which is a circular clock face , and on the north and east sides are lancet windows . The top stage contains a two @-@ light louvred bell opening on each side . The parapet is plain , and projecting from it on the west side is a gargoyle . The spire is octagonal , with two tiers of lucarnes ( dormer windows ) . The north side of the church is divided by buttresses into four bays . The second bay from the east contains a priest 's door , above which is a lancet window . To the right of the door is a small trefoil @-@ headed window . The other bays contain two @-@ light windows with Early English tracery . Battlemented parapets run around the walls of the aisle walls and the clerestory . The clerestory has seven bays on either side , each containing a four @-@ light Perpendicular window . At the east end are three windows . The central window , at the end of the chancel , is Perpendicular with seven lights . This is flanked by two aisle windows with plate tracery , the one to the right having four lights , and that to the left five lights .
The southern side of the church has nine bays , again divided by buttresses . In the third bay from the west is a porch . The other bays each contain a two @-@ light window with trefoil heads . The porch is in two storeys , with angle buttresses and a battlemented parapet with gargoyles . The lower storey contains a doorway with a pointed arch , and the upper storey has a two @-@ light window . The doorway and window are set slightly to the west of the centre , as the east wall contains a stairway . Inside the porch are stone seats and the remains of two stoups ( holy water fonts ) . The staircase leading to the upper storey is composed of old gravestones . On the outer wall of the upper storey is a sundial . The west end of the church is in Perpendicular style , and has five bays . At its centre is another porch , this one with three storeys . At the west front are diagonal buttresses , and in the bottom storey is a double doorway , over which is a canopied niche containing the weathered image of a saint . In the middle storey is a three @-@ light window , in the top storey a two @-@ light window , and at the summit is a battlemented parapet . There are windows in the north and south faces of the top stage , and on the north side is an octagonal stair turret . Inside the porch are four corbels ( supporting brackets ) carved with musicians . On each side of the porch is a four @-@ light window . At the west end of the north aisle is a four @-@ light window , and a five @-@ light window is at the end of the south aisle .
= = = Interior = = =
The nave and chancel are divided from the aisles by seven @-@ bay arcades , the piers being without capitals . At the top of each pier , facing the nave , is a carved human face . The roofs are divided into panels and contain much carving , including bosses ( protrusions ) , shields , inscriptions and three pendants . The chapel at the west end of the south aisle is known as the Lady Chapel , and that on the north side is dedicated to Saint Mary . The church contains more medieval fittings and furniture than any other Cheshire church . Between the nave and the chancel is a screen , and there are parclose screens between the aisles and the chapels . The chancel screen , dated 1500 , is elaborately carved with representations of birds , roses , vines and foliage . It has ten bays with lierne vaulting . The chancel stalls and the carved wooden eagle lectern date from around the same period . The lectern is one of the oldest eagle lecterns in the United Kingdom . The stalls have hinged seats , and formerly had misericords ( shelves to support a standing person ) . Much of the furniture dates from the 17th century and is in Jacobean style . This includes the altar rails , the octagonal pulpit , the box pews , the reredos ( screen behind the altar ) in the Lady Chapel , and the font cover . The font itself is Perpendicular . The reredos in the chancel of 1866 was designed by the Manchester architect J. S. Crowther .
The royal arms of Charles II are in the north aisle . During the 1852 restoration whitewash was removed from the walls , revealing the royal arms of Henry VII , and paintings which include one of The Blessed Virgin knighting St George . Stained glass in the west windows of both aisles dates from around 1500 . Other glass comes from the Victorian era . This includes the east window from about 1858 , and the window at the east end of the north aisle from about 1861 , both by William Warrington , and the east window in the south aisle from about 1872 by Ward and Hughes . The two westernmost windows in the south aisle are by O 'Connor and dated 1871 . There are later windows from 1920 in the south wall of the Lady Chapel . In the north aisle is a small part of an Anglo @-@ Saxon circular cross @-@ shaft carved with interlace decoration dating from the late 10th or the 11th century .
There are 76 memorials in the church . These include the 14th @-@ century tomb of Ralph Davenport with the recumbent figure of a knight wearing plate armour with a gorget ( collar ) of mail ( armour consisting of linked metal rings ) and a conical helmet , a tomb chest of 1654 , and a recumbent effigy ( statue ) of Lady Egerton , who died in 1599 . The church also contains two sanctuary chairs and six old chests , one of which is iron @-@ bound and dates from the 13th century . There is a ring of eight bells , six of which were recast in 1925 by Taylor 's of Loughborough from the metal of the previous four 17th @-@ century bells . The other two bells were added in 1998 and were also supplied by Taylors . The organ was made by J. J. Binns for King 's Hall , Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent in 1912 . It was presented to the church by Stoke City Council in 1962 and was rebuilt and installed by Reeves and Merner . The parish registers begin in 1572 and the churchwardens ' accounts in 1711 , but the latter are incomplete .
= = External features = =
The churchyard contains 51 gravestones dating from the 17th century . The most important monument is the canopied tomb of a member of the Venables family , which dates from the late 13th century ; crocketed pinnacles on the canopy date from the 17th century . Formerly inside the church , the tomb contains two figures , male and female , with their hands clasped in prayer . The only one of its kind in Cheshire , it is listed Grade II * , and is a scheduled monument . There are two further notable memorials in the churchyard , one to the north and the other to the south of the Venables tomb . Both are in yellow sandstone , date from the medieval period , and include weathered recumbent effigies . The one to the north possibly depicts a cleric with his hands in prayer , and the one to the south is a knight in armour with a missing leg . The churchyard also contains a sundial , consisting of two octagonal steps that were originally the base of a 16th @-@ century cross supporting an 18th @-@ century octagonal pillar . In addition to being listed , it is also a scheduled monument . The gateway to the churchyard dates from the 17th century , and consists of a yellow sandstone arch with crocketed pinnacles and a battlemented parapet . All of these structures are listed as Grade II . The churchyard contains the war graves of 16 British servicemen , 15 of World War I , and one of World War II . A yew tree in the churchyard is believed to be over 1 @,@ 000 years old .
= = Assessment = =
The church was designated on 14 February 1967 by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building . Grade I listing means that the building is acknowledged to be " of exceptional interest , sometimes considered to be internationally important " . The architectural historian Raymond Richards , writing in 1947 , considered it to be one of the most beautiful churches in the county . The authors of the Buildings of England series call it " one of the most exciting Cheshire churches " . Clifton @-@ Taylor includes it in his list of " outstanding " English parish churches .
= = Present day = =
St Mary 's Church stands in an elevated position overlooking the village green on the south side of the village . It is an active Anglican parish church in the diocese of Chester , the archdeaconry of Macclesfield and the deanery of Congleton . The church holds traditional Anglican services and activities for younger people on Sundays . It runs a Prayer Group , a Toddler Group , and groups for other ages of children . The church publishes a monthly parish magazine .
= Laurence Harbor ( NJT station ) =
Laurence Harbor was a proposed station that was to be located along New Jersey Transit 's North Jersey Coast Line between the South Amboy and Aberdeen @-@ Matawan stations . The station was to be in the Laurence Harbor section of Old Bridge , New Jersey .
The station was first proposed in the 1980s , although no progress was made until August 2001 , when the transportation officials said the official station could be constructed within several years . After several years of proposals , along with the passing of a high opposer in 2003 , the station came up once again in 2008 . That year , the proposed Metropark South was brought back to the Old Bridge council by developer Michael Alfieri . His proposal also brought up the plans for new residential homes , commercial businesses along with the new station . The proposal was conditionally accepted in November of that year . As of 2009 , there is no forward on the actual station being constructed .
= = History = =
= = = 1985 proposal and 2001 proposal = = =
The idea for a station in Laurence Harbor was first proposed by developer in Michael Alfieri in 1985 . His original proposal in the community was to create and constructed a so @-@ called " Metropark South " , to consist of residential homes , commercial businesses , and a brand @-@ new train station . The proposal received approval , but only the residential portion of the proposal was ever built . This residential area , consisting of high @-@ class townhouses , is known as " Bridgepointe " . In August 2001 , several years after the partially constructed project was started , the staff at New Jersey Transit proposed the design and construction of a station at Laurence Harbor near Exit 120 on the Garden State Parkway , which would serve the North Jersey Coast Line . At that time , the tracks passed through Laurence Harbor between the South Amboy and Aberdeen @-@ Matawan stations . A spokesperson from New Jersey Transit reported that the state is working with Old Bridge Township ( where Laurence Harbor is a part ) to make preliminary designs . The costs for the designs began around $ 300 @,@ 000 ( 2001 USD ) for a two @-@ year study . The station was proposed to relieve major congestion on four of the major state highways in the community including Route 18 , Route 34 , Route 35 , and U.S. Route 9 . Old Bridge 's mayor , Barbara Cannon , gave full support for the new station , who previously passed a unanimous resolution for the proposal . The township also reported that this would help qualify Old Bridge as a city and receive more state funding .
A week later , the figures for a brand @-@ new station at Laurence Harbor were released , saying the station would take five years to construct , with costs ranging from $ 25 million – $ 30 million ( 2001 USD ) of funding from the state of New Jersey and the federal government . The station would also relieve the busy Aberdeen @-@ Matawan station , which at the time hosted about 3 @,@ 500 commuters daily . Most of the city council and mayor supported the deal , except for councilman Joseph Hoff . Hoff believed the train station was a good idea , but there were a number of outstanding issues before plans for one could go forward . Hoff stated that the additional truck traffic and the safety of the pedestrians in the area were also a concern . These concerns would also get worse when the Atrium II office complex would be completed on the western side of Exit 120 . Another major issue was the traffic congestion at Exit 120 itself , which at rush hour was " atrocious " . By November 2002 , the station had not received any studies on the general location were not conducted by New Jersey Transit . Although the proposal still had support by the community , several citizens , including Joseph Hoff , were still questioning it . Hoff cited that New Jersey Transit has not put any interest forward and would just end up becoming another parking lot rather than a tax revenue . He reported however , that if residential homes and commercial businesses were constructed , it would be beneficial to Laurence Harbor . The other issue that Hoff maintained , was that it would risk the lives of children heading to and from Laurence Harbor Memorial School by affecting the traffic in the area .
= = = 2008 proposal = = =
After the 2002 report by Joseph Hoff , the township councilman in opposition to the Laurence Harbor train station , the 74 @-@ year @-@ old politician himself died on November 20 , 2003 . The proposal for the new train station began to wane for sometime , until 2005 , when Aliferi , the designer and constructor of " Bridgepointe " returned to the township board . This time Aliferi proposed the continuation of construction for the two decade @-@ old project , with several community groups either opposing the plan , or raising concerns . The proposal was to include a seven @-@ story hotel , 83 single @-@ family homes , two parking garages and 15 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 400 m2 ) of retail space . The local highway , Laurence Parkway , would also receive improvements to better handle the new development . Concerns were also raised by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority , the agency that governs the Garden State Parkway , about the effects on the off @-@ ramp for Exit 120 . On February 8 , 2006 , the Old Bridge Township Council turned over on a 7 @-@ 0 vote for the new development . Aliferi sued the township , taking the case to the New Jersey Superior Court . A judge sided with Aliferi , citing that the developer can bring the proposal back to the council . On February 21 , 2007 , the proposal was rejected again , partially citing that Aliferi has no interest in building the hotel or the offices .
On November 17 , 2008 , Aliferi returned yet again to the Old Bridge Township Council . The council this time gave the go @-@ ahead for construction to begin with a condition . The council set that if Aliferi wants to construct it , he has to include commercial development before constructing residential homes to minimize community impact . Also before construction would begin , Aliferi would also have to return for a new General Development Permit ( GDP ) . The proposal for the hotel that Aliferi brought up , was held off due to the location , which was on depressed elevation . There was no official decision for a new train station , which was proposed several times during Aliferi 's plans .
= Final Fantasy Tactics =
Final Fantasy Tactics ( ファイナルファンタジータクティクス , Fainaru Fantajī Takutikusu ) is a tactical role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the Sony PlayStation video game console . It is the first game of the Final Fantasy Tactics series and was released in Japan in June 1997 and in the United States in January 1998 . The game combines thematic elements of the Final Fantasy video game series with a game engine and battle system unlike those previously seen in the franchise . In contrast to other 32 @-@ bit era Final Fantasy titles , Final Fantasy Tactics uses a 3D , isometric , rotatable playing field , with bitmap sprite characters .
Final Fantasy Tactics is set in a fictional medieval @-@ inspired kingdom called Ivalice created by Yasumi Matsuno . The game 's story follows Ramza Beoulve , a highborn cadet who finds himself thrust into the middle of an intricate military conflict known as The Lion War , where two opposing noble factions are coveting the throne of the kingdom . As the story progresses , Ramza and his allies discover a sinister plot behind the war .
A spinoff title , Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , was released for the Nintendo Game Boy Advance in 2003 and a sequel to that title , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift , was released in 2007 for the Nintendo DS . Various other games have also utilized the Ivalice setting , including Vagrant Story for the PlayStation and Final Fantasy XII for the PlayStation 2 . An enhanced port of Final Fantasy Tactics , Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions , was released in 2007 as part of Square Enix 's Ivalice Alliance project . Overall , the game received positive reviews from gaming magazines and websites and has become a cult classic since its release .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Final Fantasy Tactics differs in several key areas from other titles in the Final Fantasy series . Instead of a generic battle screen , with the player 's characters on one side and the enemies on the other , encounters take place on three @-@ dimensional , isometric fields . Characters move on a battlefield composed of square tiles ; movement and action ranges are determined by the character 's statistics and job class . Battles are turn @-@ based ; a unit may act when its CT ( Charge Time ) reaches 100 . Charge time is increased once every CT unit ( a measure of time in battles ) by an amount equal to the unit 's speed statistic . When CT reaches 100 or greater , the unit may act . During battle , whenever a unit performs an action successfully , it gains Experience Points ( EXP ) and Job Points ( JP ) .
Another difference is the manner in which random battles are encountered . Like other Final Fantasy games , random battles occur on the world map . However , in Final Fantasy Tactics , random battles only occur in pre @-@ set locations , marked in green on the world map . Passing over one of these spots may result in a random encounter . Another major aspect of battles is magical attacks . Certain magical attacks cause area of effect damage , and many of the more powerful magical attacks require several turns of charging . Hit Points of enemy units are also visible to the player ( except in the case of certain bosses ) , allowing the player to know exactly how much damage they still have to inflict on a particular unit .
Movement on the world map is limited to predefined paths connecting the towns and battle points . When the character icon is over a town , a menu can be opened with several options : " Bar " for taking sidequest job offers , " Shop " for buying supplies and equipment , and " Soldier Office " for recruiting new characters . Later in the game , some towns contain " Fur Shops " for obtaining items by way of poaching monsters .
Like several installments in the series , Final Fantasy Tactics features a character class system , which allows players to customize characters into various roles . The game makes extensive use of most of the original character classes seen in earlier Final Fantasy games , including Summoners , Wizards ( Black Mages ) , Priests ( White Mages ) , Monks , Lancers ( Dragoons ) , and Thieves . New recruits start out as either a Squire or a Chemist , the base classes for warrior and magician jobs , respectively . The game features twenty jobs accessible by normal characters .
Throughout the game , unique characters also join the party . As well , some characters join as " guests " , which are computer controlled characters that fight on your side . Many of the unique characters have custom classes that replace the base squire class . It 's also possible to recruit monsters into the party . Monsters have unique abilities , but cannot change jobs . Monsters can be captured from battles or bred from existing monsters .
In battle , JP are rewarded for every successful action . JP are used to learn new abilities within each job class . Accumulating enough JP results in a job level up ; new jobs are unlocked by attaining a certain level in the current job class ( for instance , to become a Priest or Wizard , the unit must first attain Job Level 2 as a Chemist ) , which also allows the character to gain more JP in that class in battles . Once all the abilities of a job class have been learned , the class is " Mastered " . A soldier in a specific Job always has its innate skill equipped ( Wizards always have " Black Magic , " Knights always have " Battle Skill " ) but a second job @-@ skill slot and several other ability slots ( Reaction , Support , and Movement ) can be filled with any skill the particular soldier has learned .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The story takes place in the kingdom of Ivalice , located in a peninsula surrounded by sea on the north , west and south , with a headland south of the landmass . Its geography features ranging landscapes , from plains to mountains ranges to deserts and forests . It is heavily populated by human beings , although intelligent monsters can be found living in less populated areas . Magic is predominant in the land , although ruins and artifacts indicated that past populace had relied on machinery , such as airships and robots .
Ivalice is a kingdom of seven territories ; Fovoham , Gallione , Limberry , Lionel , Zeltennia , the Holy Territory of Murond ( Mullonde in later versions ) , and the Royal Capital of Lesalie ( Lesalia in later versions ) , Ivalice 's neighbors are the kingdom of Ordalia in the east and Romanda , a military nation to the north , across the Rhana Strait . While the three nations share common royal bloodlines , major wars have taken place between them . An influential religious institution known as the Murond Glabados Church heads the dominant faith , centering around a religious figure known as Saint Ajora .
The story takes place after Ivalice ended its war with the two nations in what is known as the Fifty Years War , and is facing economic problems and political strife . Adding to its problems is the recent death of the king , whose heir is only an infant . A regent is needed to rule in place of the prince , and the kingdom is split between Prince Goltana , represented by the Black Lion , and Prince Larg , symbolized by the White Lion . The conflict leads to what is known in the game as the Lion War . Behind this backdrop is a revelation by the game 's historian Alazlam J. Durai , who seeks to reveal the story of an unknown character whose role in the Lion War was major but was covered up by the kingdom 's church . The setting is based around this character , named by default as Ramza , and revolves around his early life and the future conflicts he faced while the events that changed the kingdom unfold .
= = = Characters = = =
Central to the plot of the game are two main characters , Ramza Beoulve and Delita Heiral . The two characters are childhood friends , and while both are born of differing social classes ; Ramza a noble and Delita a commoner , both disregarded this fact and grew up together believing in justice and honor , as taught by Ramza 's father Balbanes . However , as the story progresses , the two characters faced many conflicts that changed their viewpoint on life ; Delita seeks to manipulate the upper class to achieve his dreams , while Ramza believes in justice and honor regardless of name and class .
The game 's plot is then portrayed through the eyes of Ramza Beoulve , who is the player character of the story . His exploits in the war introduced him to a number of characters ; each with their own roles and agenda concerning the war and the fictional world , Ivalice , that they inhabit . The most prominent factions at the beginning of the story are those of Prince Goltana and Prince Larg , both are nobles seeking to obtain control of the throne by being the guardian to the monarch 's young heir and were thus engaged in a war . The story progresses to include characters from the Murond Glabados Church , which have been controlling Ivalice silently and engineering the war in question .
As the game progresses , players are able to recruit generic player characters and customize them using the Job system of the Final Fantasy series . Several battles also feature " Guest " characters that are controlled via the game 's A.I. , which may be recruited later in the game according to the story proper . Aside from original characters , the developers have also incorporated cameo roles from other Square games . The characters were designed by Akihiko Yoshida , who was also in charge of the illustration and character designs of games such as Tactics Ogre , Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , Final Fantasy XII , and Vagrant Story .
= = = Story = = =
Final Fantasy Tactics begins with Ivalice just recovering from the Fifty Year War against Ordalia . The power vacuum caused by the death of its ruler , King Omdoria , soon sparks another conflict . Princess Ovelia and the younger Prince Orinas are both candidates to the throne , with the former supported by Prince Goltana of the Black Lion , and the latter by Queen Ruvelia and her brother , Prince Larg of the White Lion . This erupts into a full @-@ scale war known as the " Lion War " , with either side using whatever means possible to secure their place in the throne . This includes bearing an illegitimate child , killing other possible heirs , betrayal , assassination and false identities .
Throughout the game , nobles regard commoners and peasants as animals , and many commoners try to take revenge on the nobles , who abandoned them after the war . Most joined the so @-@ called Death Corps to fight against the nobles ' soldiers , and many die in vain . Ramza , part of the noble Beoulve family of knights , and Delita , his childhood friend who was an ordinary commoner , are witnesses to this phenomenon . Events such as meeting an arrogant noble named Algus , as well as the negligent killing of Delita 's sister Teta during an uprising , cause Delita and Ramza to abandon their ties to the nobility , both going separate ways .
Ramza joins a mercenary group , led by Gafgarion , who protects Princess Ovelia from being hunted by both sides . Delita joins Prince Goltana 's forces to rise up through the ranks and gain control over his own destiny . Ramza and Delita are reunited when Gafgarion attempts to take Ovelia to Prince Larg , though this proves futile . Agrias suggests visiting Cardinal Draclau of the Glabados Church to protect Ovelia , while Delita continues to work in the shadows , working with multiple sides to realize his ambitions . Along the way to Lionel Castle , Ramza meets Mustadio , a machinist in possession of a holy relic called the Zodiac Stone . Hunted by a trading company for the power it contains , Mustadio also seeks Draclau 's intervention .
However , soon after the encounter with Cardinal Draclau , Ramza discovers that an elaborate plot was set by the Murond Glabados Church . In their desire to control Ivalice , the Church , particularly the High Priest , Marge Funeral , uses the legend of the so @-@ called holy Zodiac Braves to gather the Zodiac Stones , and fuels the Lion War between Larg and Goltana . To stave off Ramza 's interference , Draclau uses the stone to transform into a legendary Lucavi demon , and Ramza has no choice but to slay him / it . As a result , Ramza is regarded a heretic of the Church , and he is approached by the Heretic Examiner Zalmo at Lesalia Imperial Capital .
While noble in name , the Beoulve family is susceptible to corruption , due to ambition . Dycedarg , the eldest sibling , conspires with Larg and the Church to ensure that the Beoulve family remains in power . However , his younger brother Zalbag is unaware of his dealings . Alma , Ramza 's younger sister , remains in church , unaffected by the situation until Ramza is branded a heretic in front of her . Ramza seeks to rescue her after her capture while helping Ramza escape the Heresy Examiners . Only Ramza and Alma share their father 's sense of justice .
Ramza is chased throughout the story by the Shrine Knights , the soldiers of the Church who are hunting the Zodiac Stones , although he gains allies , either by saving their lives , or by showing them the truth . Some individuals with knowledge of the Zodiac Stones attempt to conspire with the Shrine Knights for its power , though most fail . Ramza also acquires proof of the Church 's lies about Saint Ajora , a central figure in the religion , and attempts to use it along with the Zodiac Stone to reveal the organization 's plot .
During the course of the story , the two sides face off in a major battle that sees the deaths of many soldiers , including their leaders Larg and Goltana . Ramza manages to stop the bloodshed from continuing and rescues the general Cidolfas Orlandu , though the Church succeeds in eliminating the two Lions to secure its power over Ivalice . Deeper into the story , Ramza discovers that the Shrine Knights are in reality Lucavi , and the real conspirators behind the Church 's plot . The Lucavi are seeking to resurrect their leader Altima , who in the past was Saint Ajora , and they need much bloodshed and a suitable body to complete the resurrection . Alma is to serve as the host for Altima 's incarnation . While racing off to find her , Ramza encounters Dycedarg - now a Lucavi demon - and witnesses Zalbag 's death . Zalbag is then risen and converted into an undead servant , and frequently begs for death during the encounter .
At the end of the story , though Altima is resurrected , Ramza and his allies succeed in destroying her . Their final fates are unknown , although Olan does witness Ramza and Alma riding away from the kingdom on Chocobos at the end of the game . In the epilogue , Delita marries Ovelia and becomes the King of Ivalice . However , he fails to find true satisfaction as even Ovelia distrusts him , leading her to stab Delita . Ovelia in turn is stabbed by the agonizing Delita and dies . Delita then sorrowfully cries out to Ramza , asking if what they have done was worth what they received ( vilification for Ramza , and ostracization for Delita ) . Olan Durai , a witness who had many encounters with Ramza , attempts to reveal the Church 's evil plot with the " Durai Report . " However , his papers are confiscated and he is burned at the stake for heresy . The story ends many years later with the historian Alazlam J. Durai intent on revealing the truth of the Lion War and the Durai Report .
= = Development = =
Final Fantasy Tactics was produced mostly by the team that made Ogre Battle and Tactics Ogre , and was Yasumi Matsuno 's first project with Square following his departure from Quest in 1995 . In an interview with Akito Inoue , an assistant professor at the International University of Japan , Inoue mentions that Final Fantasy Tactics was made because of how casual gamers are usually put off by games with branching storylines found in other Matsuno 's titles such as Tactics Ogre .
Several historical and mythological references were altered by translators : for instance , the Norse World Tree , Yggdrasil , makes an appearance as Yugodorasil ; the word " breath " is consistently rendered as " bracelet " in attack names ; and Wiegraf 's name is nearly homonymous with a character from Beowulf but rendered differently . The in @-@ game tutorial function also shows examples of Engrish - poorly translated English - including lines such as " This was the darkened Items won 't appear . "
The game also includes references to several Final Fantasy specific characters , places , and situations from earlier games in the Final Fantasy series — Final Fantasy VII 's Cloud Strife is a playable character , and through the " Proposition " system in bars scattered around the world map , treasures and lost areas such as " Matoya Cave " ( a reference to the first Final Fantasy ) and various colors of materia can be found . To keep with tradition , Olan 's adoptive father , Cidolfas Orlandu , is nicknamed " T.G. Cid " , and chocobos are present in the game as well . Additionally , most of the monsters appear in one Final Fantasy game or another , although the Lucavi are entirely new monsters altogether .
= = = Music = = =
The original score for Final Fantasy Tactic was composed , arranged , and produced by Hitoshi Sakimoto and Masaharu Iwata . Matsuno approached his longtime friends Sakimoto and Iwata to compose the music soon after the initial release of Final Fantasy VII in January 1997 . Sakimoto composed 47 tracks for the game , and Iwata was left to compose the other 24 . The orchestral timbres of the game 's music were synthesized , with performance by Katsutoshi Kashiwabara and sound programming by Hidenori Suzuki . The album was first released on two Compact Discs by now @-@ defunct DigiCube on June 21 , 1997 , bearing the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10008 , and was re @-@ released by Square Enix on March 24 , 2006 , with the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10066 / 7 . It spans two discs and 71 tracks , covering a duration of 2 : 31 : 03 .
Some reviewers made comparison with Nobuo Uematsu 's Final Fantasy compositions , though the soundtrack received positive reviews from critics . Chudah 's Corner summarized its review by stating that the soundtrack is an " astoundingly memorable classic of videogame music " . This is also supported by other professional reviews , such as by an RPGFan reviewer that " don 't believe that any other soundtrack known to man surpasses it " , and a VGM World review who quotes that " the orchestral music is beautiful nonetheless " .
= = Reception = =
Final Fantasy Tactics sold nearly 825 @,@ 000 copies in Japan in the first half of 1997 , and ended the year at almost 1 @.@ 24 million copies sold . Since then , the total number of copies sold in Japan has reached approximately 1 @.@ 35 million . In the United States it reached an estimated sale of 750 @,@ 000 units as of year 2004 . As of March 31 , 2003 , the game had shipped 2 @.@ 27 million copies worldwide , with 1 @.@ 36 million of those copies being shipped in Japan and 910 @,@ 000 abroad . Since its release , rumors were circulated that the game was to be re @-@ released by Sony as a Greatest Hits title , the tentative date being around July 30 , 2001 . As of August , 2011 , the game had sold over 2 @.@ 4 million copies worldwide .
Final Fantasy Tactics received universal acclaim upon its release , and critical opinion of the game has improved further over time . Magazines such as Electronic Gaming Monthly acknowledged it as " Square 's first attempt into the strategy RPG genre " ; though being " uneven " , it is worthy of being called " a classic " . Game Informer called it " the most impressive strategy RPG yet . " Gaming websites such as GameSpot lauded the game 's battle sequences as challenging , requiring more strategic planning than ordinary RPGs . IGN noted that the plot was the strength of the game , being in @-@ depth and with numerous plot twists . During battle sequences , the story unfolds to create a serious atmosphere of the plot , even with simple and " cute " character design . The spells and summoning visuals were compared with Final Fantasy VII ' s detailed graphics .
Criticism is made on gameplay , plot and the localization effort . One of the reviews of RPGFan criticized the difficulty of the game as being inconsistent with each encounter against enemy units . The factors that influence the difficulty of the game include overpowered enemy units or party members , and time had to be taken to level up before any progress can be made . Though in @-@ depth , IGN also noted that the game 's plot was confusing at times , and that the item system was repetitive . The game 's localization effort was criticized by reviewers as poorly written , being rife with grammatical mistakes that almost stopped players from enjoying the storyline . General RPGFan review noted that the battlefield area was too small , hindering any possibilities for better strategy . The gameplay is summarized by one of the reviews as " strength vs. strength and proper spacing of troops when fighting magic users " .
IGN awarded the game the Editor 's Choice Award on 1998 , praising the in @-@ game graphics as " amazing " and the battle environments with its extra details as being " extremely well designed " . GameSpot has named Final Fantasy Tactics as one of its Greatest Games of All Time — the first Final Fantasy game to receive such an honour . However , its legacy remains fairly obscure compared to Final Fantasy VII , also released for the PlayStation that year . The game still entered many " best games of all time " lists , receiving 84th place in the " Top 100 Favorite Games of All Time " poll by Japanese magazine Famitsu during March 2006 , 19th in a 2005 list by GameFAQs users , 45th in Game Informer 's list , 43rd in Electronic Gaming Monthly 's , and 38th in IGN 's . Since its release , Final Fantasy Tactics has attracted a cult following . Fan communities dedicated to modding and balancing the game have appeared on the internet . These communities experience member activity as of 2011 , fourteen years after Final Fantasy Tactics ' original release .
Editorials from the gaming website RPGamer outlined several similarities between the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Glabados portrayed in Final Fantasy Tactics . One editorial noted that it was a controversial move by the developers , as the church institution " in fact worships a demon , and is evil from its god on down " . However , another editorial mentions that such controversies failed to point out that any powerful organized religion in a psudeo @-@ medieval fictional setting , good or ill , is going to be compared with Catholicism due to its importance in European history .
= = Versions and re @-@ releases = =
Final Fantasy Tactics saw several re @-@ releases . Final Fantasy Tactics was re @-@ released as part of the Square 's Millennium Collection . This series of games was only released in Japan , and each title is bought with a set of related merchandise . Final Fantasy Tactics was sold on June 29 , 2000 along with titles such as Saga Frontier , Saga Frontier 2 , Brave Fencer Musashi , Front Mission 3 , Ehrgeiz and Legend of Mana .
Four years after its release in 1997 , Final Fantasy Tactics was selected as part of the Sony Greatest Hits line of rereleases . Games released as Sony Greatest Hits were sold at a lower price . Final Fantasy Tactics also became part of Ultimate Hits , Square Enix 's main budget range available in Japan .
A PlayStation Portable version of Final Fantasy Tactics , entitled Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions was released on May 10 , 2007 , in Japan ; and is now released across all regions . It is the second game announced as part of the Ivalice Alliance . The game features an updated version of Final Fantasy Tactics , along with new features including in @-@ game cutscenes , new characters , and multiplayer capability . The updated mechanics contain a 16 : 9 widescreen support , new items , new jobs , and cel @-@ shaded full motion videos . The English version contains full voice acting during the cinematic cut scenes , whereas the Japanese version does not .
= = Legacy = =
The world of Final Fantasy Tactics has been featured in several other Square video games . After the game 's release , the development staff went on to develop Vagrant Story , which featured several subtle references to Final Fantasy Tactics . In an interview with the French video game magazine Joypad , Matsuno stated that both titles are set in the same fictional world of Ivalice .
Square released Final Fantasy Tactics Advance for the Nintendo Game Boy Advance in 2003 . The game setting and engine are similar to the ones of its predecessor , however the characters and plot are notably different ; the cast of characters is considerably smaller , and the plot is considerably simpler . Additionally , Final Fantasy Tactics Advance has a shorter main campaign , but more side missions and a secret campaign at the end of the game .
In 2006 , Final Fantasy XII was released , also set in the world of Ivalice . Square Enix announced at the end of the same year the Ivalice Alliance , a new series of games set in the world of Ivalice , during a Tokyo press conference . The first title released was Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings . An indirect sequel to Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , titled Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift , was released in Japan in 2007 and in the rest of the world in 2008 . It is also one of the titles released under the Ivalice Alliance game series , and takes place in the Ivalice universe .
= That Bass Tour =
That Bass Tour was the first headlining concert tour by American singer and songwriter Meghan Trainor . It was launched in support of her debut studio album Title ( 2015 ) , and visited North America , Europe , Asia , and Oceania . The tour was initially announced in November 2014 with North American dates being released at the same time , with Oceanic , European and Asian dates announced afterwards . The show was produced by Live Nation Entertainment . The set list featured the majority of the songs from Title , along with a cover of Mark Ronson 's " Uptown Funk " . Reviews for the tour were generally positive , with critics praising Trainor 's live performing ability .
= = Background and development = =
On November 3 , 2014 , Trainor announced her debut concert tour , That Bass Tour , to support her fourth studio album and major label debut , Title ( 2015 ) . Tour dates were released on the same day for North America , and tickets were released on November 8 , 2014 . Dates were also revealed for the United Kingdom and Australia in January 2015 . Live Nation Entertainment were announced to be the tour 's producers , and HP as its sponsor . The set list included fourteen songs from Trainor 's album Title along with a dance section featuring Mark Ronson 's " Uptown Funk " .
= = Synopsis = =
The show starts with a screen of lights in the background while Trainor enters the stage , and she then opens with " Dear Future Husband " . After performing another three songs , Trainor starts singing " Title " with only a ukulele and her guitarist . " Bang Dem Sticks " is later performed along with a drum solo , which is followed by a special dance segment , as a tribute to Mark Ronson 's song " Uptown Funk " featuring Bruno Mars . As the first song of the encore , she sings " What If I " which was accompanied by a disco ball . The show closes with " All About That Bass " , which Bill Brotherton of the Boston Herald said had " a loud sing @-@ along and had moms , dads and preteens dancing feverishly " . The show ends with large balloons and confetti falling from the ceiling .
= = Critical reception = =
Carlee Wright of USA Today praised the show , saying that Trainor was energetic during the show , and that she interacted with the crowd often , both between and during songs . She also said that Trainor " brought her A @-@ game " for the show and that she recommends buying tickets for the show . Annabel Ross from The Sydney Morning Herald rated the song three out of five stars , and described Trainor as a " pop star for all the family " in the review . The Hollywood Reporter 's Ashley Lee said that the show did not disappoint the crowd , and also praised Trainor 's vocals and her showmanship . David Pollock of The Independent praised the show and opined that it is " positively rich in visual spectacle and a sense of authentically live performance " . International Business Times 's Alicia Adejobi criticized Trainor 's dance routines in the " Uptown Funk " segment , saying that she 's not the " best dancer " .
Portland Tribune 's Nicole DeCosta said Trainor described Trainor as laid back and her dance moves as " G @-@ rated " , although Owen R. Smith from The Seattle Times said that the lyrical subjects of the songs on the show 's set list did not fit its young audience . Ashley Lee from The Hollywood Reporter said that the show 's venue was " intima [ te ] " , and that Trainor took advantage of this . John Aizlewood of the London Evening Standard wrote that Trainor had a " natural presence " in the show and that she " spread more than a little happiness " .
= = Set list = =
Set list for the March 13 , 2015 show .
" Dear Future Husband "
" Mr. Almost "
" Credit "
" No Good for You "
" Title "
" Walkashame "
" Close Your Eyes "
" 3am "
" Like I 'm Gonna Lose You "
" Bang Dem Sticks "
" Uptown Funk " ( Dance ) ( Mark Ronson song )
" My Selfish Heart "
" Lips Are Movin "
Encore :
" What If I "
" All About That Bass "
= = Shows = =
= Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 HD Remaster =
Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 HD Remaster ( ファイナルファンタジーX / X @-@ 2 HD リマスター , Fainaru Fantajī Ten / Ten Tsū HD Rimasutā ) , also stylized as Final Fantasy X | X @-@ 2 HD Remaster , is a high @-@ definition remaster of the role @-@ playing video games Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , originally developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) on the PlayStation 2 in 2001 and 2003 respectively . It also features story content previously only found in the International versions , and a new audio drama set a year after the events of X @-@ 2 . The Chinese studio Virtuos handled large parts of its development , while Square Enix assisted the process and published the collection . It was released for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita in Japan in December 2013 and in North America and Europe in March 2014 , and worldwide for PlayStation 4 in May 2015 , as well as for Windows PC in May 2016 .
The collection saw graphical and musical revisions and is based on the international versions of both games , making certain special features missing in the original releases accessible to North American players for the first time . The collection sold favorably in Japan and the west , and has received positive reviews in western territories . Many praised the graphical upgrade and the chance to play through the games on the new platforms . The collection did receive criticism for a few minor upgrade faults and uneven quality between the two , while some of the collection 's added content drew mixed opinions .
= = Content = =
The HD remaster covers both Final Fantasy X and its sequel Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . The first game follows the journey of the teenager Tidus who is transported to the world of Spira after an encounter with a creature known as Sin . He becomes one of the guardians of the summoner Yuna , protecting her on a pilgrimage to defeat Sin and finding out how the creature is linked to Tidus ' and Yuna 's late fathers . Gameplay relies on the Conditional Turn @-@ Based Battle system that allows for swapping party members in mid @-@ combat . Characters are leveled up by means of the Sphere Grid on which the player may choose a specific skill to learn or attribute to improve . The second game is set two years after the events of X and features Yuna as a treasure hunter in search of spheres leading her to Tidus . It reintroduces the series ' classic job system in the form of the Garment Grid : jobs can be acquired as dresspheres , costumes that give the player characters different abilities , throughout the game and may be changed in battle . X @-@ 2 includes multiple minigames such as Sphere Break and blitzball , the latter of which also featured prominently in X.
While the majority of the gameplay for X and X @-@ 2 remains unchanged , the games have undergone an extensive graphical update and a large amount of the music for X has been rearranged . All regional releases contain content from the International versions : X has the expert Sphere Grid and several optional bosses , while X @-@ 2 comes with extra dresspheres and new minigames . The Creature Creator system was added , whereby players can capture enemy monsters and certain non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) to train them and to have them fight alongside the party in battle , similar to the Pokémon series : these captured allies can also be fought and strengthened in a coliseum . Lastly , X @-@ 2 includes the " Last Mission " extra dungeon that plays in the style of a roguelike 3D game , having a grid @-@ based layout across which the characters move and take on enemies . Layouts are generated randomly and each opponent is allowed as many turns as the player has taken . As in the main game , the player characters can equip jobs in the form of dresspheres . Dialogue between the protagonists changes depending on which ending the player achieved in X @-@ 2 . The Eternal Calm movie that bridges the gap between X and X @-@ 2 is included in the collection as well . The collection allows for cross @-@ platform saving between the PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) and PlayStation Vita versions and both games have full trophy support .
Final Fantasy X : Will is an original audio drama included in the release , playing during the ending credits . It features multiple characters from the games , alongside two new characters : the narrator Chuami and her companion Kurgum . In the story , the two are sent to summon Yuna to investigate a mysterious phenomenon known as " Beckoning " , where the dead are being called back into existence . On their journey , they encounter a reborn Sin , who has apparently been beckoned . Over the course of the story , it is revealed that Tidus is suffering from some kind of weakness , and that Yuna and he appear to have broken up and Yuna is seeing someone else . The drama ends with Yuna preparing to face Sin again and Tidus , despite his weakness , deciding to follow her .
= = Development = =
The idea for a remaster originated from a reunion of the games ' original development team and voice cast during the making of Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 . Character designer Tetsuya Nomura , associate producer Hideki Imaizumi and a voice actor thought that they should create something to celebrate the tenth anniversary of X. Producer Yoshinori Kitase 's personal motivation was to have people too young to have played the games experience them , as his son was only old enough to know the characters of Tidus and Yuna from Dissidia Final Fantasy and its prequel . Another reason was that many did not have an opportunity to play the games since they were not compatible with the majority of PlayStation 3 models and neither available on the PlayStation Network unlike games from the original PlayStation like Final Fantasy VII and IX . Nomura entered negotiations with other old members of staff and got a remaster of X and X @-@ 2 approved , but the actual development process was delayed because much of the team was still busy with the creation of Final Fantasy XIII . The remaster was first announced at Tokyo Game Show 2011 , where it was assumed that the game would release to commemorate X 's tenth anniversary .
The bulk of the remastering work was outsourced to the Shanghai @-@ based studio Virtuos . Square Enix 's internal staff was responsible for reassembling the original assets , and helped with a part of redoing the high @-@ definition data . Among the returning original team members were Motomu Toriyama , Yusuke Naora , Toshitaka Matsuda and Masaki Kobayashi who supervised the production . X @-@ 2 art director Shintaro Takai remained in the same role for both remastered games . The Chinese side of development was headed by managing director Pan Feng . The team encountered problems in porting the games to PlayStation 3 and Vita as their graphics used many functionalities unique to the PlayStation 2 hardware . The loss and repair of some of the original assets posed another hurdle , with Kitase commenting that it might have been easier to recreate the data from the ground up .
The PlayStation 3 version supports display resolutions of 720p and 1080p – the former with and the latter without anti @-@ aliasing – while the Vita version runs at 720x408 pixels . Graphical features such as the water effects and lighting were improved . Other changes include the addition of bloom , the move from circular to dynamic shadows and tweaks to environmental geometry and texturing . The developers revised the 3D models for both games : most models merely received new textures but those of the playable characters were rebuilt completely with noticeable changes to their faces . The cutscenes and prerendered environments needed to be adjusted from a 4 : 3 to a 16 : 9 screen ratio , the process of which required lots of art and programming readjustments . For example , the widescreen display led to character models being visible in a cutscene although they were to appear only in a later shot ; these instances had to be corrected . Both the prerendered background images and cutscenes were cropped at the top and bottom to fit the new screen ratio . However , they received a bump in resolution to appear much clearer than in the PlayStation 2 version . The gameplay also needed to be duplicated while bringing it up to the standard of a high definition game , which was harder than the team thought .
Sixty tracks of the original Final Fantasy X soundtrack by Nobuo Uematsu , Masashi Hamauzu and Junya Nakano were rearranged . Hamauzu and Nakano took charge of most of the revised music , with Tsutomu Narita and Ryo Yamazaki also making select arrangements . The soundtrack for Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi was carried over from the original PlayStation 2 version . For the credits of the HD remaster , scenario writer Kazushige Nojima wrote the audio drama Final Fantasy X : Will as an appendix taking place two years after X @-@ 2 . Nojima and Nomura felt that it was a good opportunity to expand upon the universe of X. They opted for the audio drama format as the team did not want to create a solid visual impression , instead intending to leave it up to interpretation . The team wanted the audio drama to be the " direct opposite " to the upbeat feel and happy ending of X @-@ 2 . This wish for a more melancholy atmosphere resulted in them bringing Sin , the main antagonistic force in X , back into the story , as the team wanted to keep it involved in a similar fashion to Sephiroth , the main antagonist of Final Fantasy VII and its companion media . The drama 's open ending was also intentional , as Kitase " wanted to leave something up to the player 's imagination . "
= = Release = =
Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 HD Remaster was released as a collection for the PlayStation 3 and as separate releases of each game for the PlayStation Vita . Alongside the standard PlayStation Vita releases in Japan , there was a Twin Pack that bundled both games and a Resolution Box collection which additionally contained the handheld console . A dual release was decided against for the Vita versions due to the limited storage capacity of the cartridges . Play Arts Kai figurines of Tidus and Yuna were produced and the original soundtracks were re @-@ released . Two new Ultimania guide books were published for each game . Nojima wrote the tie @-@ in novel Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 @.@ 5 : Eien no Daishō that bridges the gap between Last Mission and Final Fantasy X : Will . A Collector 's Edition of the PlayStation 3 version was exclusively released in North America via Square Enix 's online store . It contained both games , an artwork book , a Blu @-@ ray disc for the rearranged soundtrack and five artwork lithographs . A special launch event is being held at Gallery Nucleus in Alhambra , California until March 27 , 2014 . It includes a signing event with Kitase and Naora , and an artwork auction with all profits going to the victims of Typhoon Haiyan . The PlayStation 4 port of the remaster , officially announced at a PlayStation conference in China on December 11 , 2014 , was originally leaked in Square Enix France 's online store earlier that same day . The PS4 release supports save transfers from the PS3 and Vita versions , remote play on the Vita , and switching between the original and remastered soundtracks .
= = Reception = =
The remaster has received favorable reviews . On Metacritic , the Vita version holds a score of 86 / 100 , the PS3 version an 85 / 100 , the PS4 version an 84 / 100 , and the PC version an 83 / 100 .
Reaction to the quality of the remaster was mostly positive . IGN 's Meghan Sullivan said that despite the game showing its roots , it " looks and sounds dramatically better " , though critiqued some textures , off @-@ putting facial close @-@ ups and lip @-@ synching problems carried over from the original . Gamespot 's Josiah Renaudin was generally positive , calling the visual upgrades " compelling reasons to revisit one of the most poignant entries in the long @-@ running series . " , although he found the uneven graphical upgrade companions between player characters and NPCs jarring . Reviewing the PlayStation 3 version , Destructoid 's Dale North generally praised the upgrade , although stated that the fixed camera had not aged well and some of the smaller , more detailed aspects of environments and models had not received a thorough HD treatment . Game Informer 's Kimberley Wallace generally praised the upgrade , but noted that character movements betrayed the game 's age . GamesRadar 's Ashley Reed called the environments better @-@ looking , but found the characters " oddly doll @-@ like " and noted graphical limitations carried over from the original . She found less of these problems in X @-@ 2 . Digital Spy 's Mark Langshaw praised the upgrade , but noted framerate dips and " ropey " animations . He also noted that the character models in X @-@ 2 were updated better than those in X. Reviewing the PS3 version , VideoGamer.com 's Daniel Cairns was highly positive , despite noting some lingering awkward moments . In his review of the Vita version , Ryan King of NowGamer generally praised the updates and polishing the game received . While the Vita version was similarly praised by the majority of reviewers , though Renaudin and Wallace noted that some dated textures stood out more .
The remastered soundtrack received mixed to positive reviews . North noted that the revamped music " might be less agreeable to fans of the original score . " , while praising the general improvement in the sound . Wallace found the soundtrack a mixed bag , with some tracks being improved by the remastering and others feeling uneven or losing their impact . Renaudin said that , while the soundtrack was crisper , fans of the original " might not immediately notice the acoustic alterations . " Eternal Calm , Last Mission and Will received mixed responses . Caires called Last Mission " a good little distraction " , but called Will " incomprehensible " . Sullivan didn 't enjoy Eternal Calm or Last Mission , while finding Will " incredibly weird and confusing . " , recommending players to stay clear of it . Wallace called Last Mission " a nice diversion , but not incredibly engaging . " , while North noted that it " may not have as much appeal to fans of your typical Final Fantasy game . "
Opinions for the original gameplay and story remained generally unchanged from the original games : the stories for X and X @-@ 2 received positive and mixed to positive reviews respectively , while the gameplay was generally praised . The new gameplay features for X and X @-@ 2 received mixed to positive reviews . Sullivan called the extra content " [ her ] favorite thing about this remastered version " , while Langshaw called the extra features , including Last Mission , " welcome inclusions . "
= = = Sales = = =
During its first week on sale in Japan , the PlayStation 3 and Vita versions of the game sold 185 @,@ 918 and 149 @,@ 132 copies respectively . The total sales for all versions in its first week was over 339 @,@ 000 copies . The individual PlayStation Vita versions of X and X @-@ 2 sold 31 @,@ 775 and 16 @,@ 355 respectively during their first two weeks . The two versions of HD Remaster were also successful in North America , selling 206 @,@ 000 units within a month of its release . The game was the fifth best @-@ selling game for PS3 and the top @-@ selling title for Vita on the PlayStation Network . The title 's overall sales were cited by Square Enix as a reason for its improved financial situation at the end of the 2013 / 14 fiscal year . As of July 2016 , the PC version of the game has sold about 200 @,@ 000 copies on Steam .
= = Legacy = =
The audio drama sparked speculation of a second sequel to X. In a February 2014 interview , Shinji Hashimoto said that the audio drama was simply meant to expand on the universe and did not mean a sequel was in development . Prior to this , Nojima stated that if there was enough demand , there could be developments , and that he would like to write the story for a second sequel . Later , speaking with Famitsu in a feature concerning industry rumors , Kitase denied that a second sequel was in development , and that both Eien no Daishō and the audio drama were simply intended as standalone continuations of the games ' universe .
= 1981 Canada Cup =
The 1981 Labatt Canada Cup was the second best @-@ on @-@ best ice hockey world championship and involved the world 's top six hockey nations . Tournament games were held in Edmonton , Winnipeg , Montreal and Ottawa . The Soviet Union defeated Canada in a single game final to win its first title , while Soviet goaltender Vladislav Tretiak was named most valuable player . Canada 's Wayne Gretzky led the tournament in scoring with 12 points .
This second edition of the Canada Cup was originally scheduled to be held in 1979 but was postponed due to disputes between the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association and Hockey Canada . It was postponed a second time in 1980 following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and Canada 's boycott of sporting events with the Soviet Union as a result . When finally held in 1981 , tournament organizer Alan Eagleson speculated it could be the last such event due to rising costs and disappointing attendance . Eagleson generated additional controversy when he refused to allow the Soviets to take the Canada Cup trophy with them to the Soviet Union .
= = Organization = =
At its congress in the summer of 1978 , the International Ice Hockey Federation approved proposals to hold the second and third Canada Cup tournaments in 1979 and 1982 . However , tensions between Canada 's rival governing bodies , the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association ( CAHA ) and Hockey Canada , increased after the latter body accused the CAHA of reneging on promises it had made regarding Hockey Canada 's control of international events involving professional players . Hockey Canada 's chief negotiator for international events , Alan Eagleson , accused the CAHA of attempting to sabotage the Canada Cup and threatened to cancel the tournament if the CAHA refused to compromise with his body .
The tournament was put in further jeopardy in January 1979 when General Motors withdrew as a major sponsor ; Eagleson argued GM withdrew as a result of the dispute with the CAHA . The disputes put the two bodies on the verge of severing all ties , a move that would have led to Hockey Canada refusing to release any professional or university player to any of Canada 's national teams . The tournament was ultimately postponed by a year until September 1980 .
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 and threatened boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow led organizers to consider again postponing the Canada Cup . While Eagleson initially favoured allowing the tournament to go ahead regardless of the political situation , he ultimately agreed that Hockey Canada should again postpone the Canada Cup after the Canadian Government joined the Olympic boycott . A brief effort to move the tournament to Sweden was quickly put down when Eagleson informed them that neither Hockey Canada nor the National Hockey League Players Association ( NHLPA ) would participate in such an event .
Undaunted , Eagleson and IIHF president Günther Sabetzki announced that the tournament had again been rescheduled for September 1981 . This time , the tournament went ahead as scheduled .
= = Teams = =
The Soviet Union treated the 1976 Canada Cup with disdain , but entered this tournament intent on re @-@ asserting themselves following their upset loss to the United States at the 1980 Winter Olympics . They were led by the KLM line of Vladimir Krutov , Igor Larionov and Sergei Makarov on offence , as well as the " Bobby Orr of the Soviet Union " , Vyacheslav Fetisov , and Alexei Kasatonov on defence , with the venerable Vladislav Tretiak in goal . With a strong mixture of veterans and young players , the Soviets entered the tournament as favourites .
Canada brought a considerably younger team as compared to their 1976 entry . Three defencemen – Ray Bourque , Paul Reinhart and Craig Hartsburg were under the age of 22 , while 20 @-@ year @-@ old Wayne Gretzky was expected to be the offensive catalyst . Gretzky 's pairing with Guy Lafleur was highly anticipated ( and they would combine with each other on 22 % of Team Canada 's goals ) , while the New York Islanders quartet of Mike Bossy , Bryan Trottier , Butch Goring and Clark Gillies were also expected to be offensive leaders .
With 17 National Hockey League ( NHL ) players on their roster , Sweden felt confident they could upset the Soviet Union and Canada by utilizing a system of strong team play . Kent Nilsson , coming off a 131 @-@ point season for the Calgary Flames , Thomas Steen , Ulf Nilsson and Börje Salming were expected to be the team 's leaders . With only five returning players from their appearance in the 1976 final and suffering from the defections of the Šťastný brothers – Peter , Marián and Anton – to Canada , the Czechoslovakian team entered the tournament in the midst of a rebuilding phase and were not considered contenders in 1981 .
The Americans , riding high following their gold medal victory at the 1980 Olympics were considered to have the potential of upsetting the stronger teams in the tournament . Mark Howe , Rod Langway and seven players from the Olympic team were expected to lead the United States . Tony Esposito was the American goaltender for the tournament . Esposito represented Canada at the 1972 Summit Series , but gained his American citizenship in time to represent his new nation . As in 1976 , Finland was expected to finish last in the six @-@ team tournament despite the fact that the Finnish hockey association considered the team sent to Canada among the best their nation had assembled .
= = Games = =
= = = Round robin = = =
The tournament opened on September 1 at Northlands Coliseum in Edmonton as the Americans defeated a disorganized Swedish team , 3 – 1 . Swedish coach Anders Parmström , upset at how his team underestimated the Americans , sat several of his top players for extended periods of the third period . At the Winnipeg Arena , a young Czechoslovak team battled the Soviet Union to a 1 – 1 draw in a game marked by rough play . The Soviets were forced to rely on the stellar goaltending of Vladislav Tretiak to preserve the tie . In the third game of the opening day , Canada 's " dream line " of Gretzky , Lafleur and Gilbert Perreault combined for ten points as Canada easily defeated Finland 9 – 0 . The second line of Gillies , Trottier and Bossy also combined to score ten points in the game .
Finland fared little better against Czechoslovakia two nights later , dropping a 7 – 1 result . Finnish goaltender Hannu Lassila was the star of the game , however , as he made several difficult saves to keep the Finns close through two periods . Despite outshooting Finland 26 – 9 , the Czechs managed only a 2 – 1 lead after 40 minutes before finally overcoming Lassila to score five goals in the third period . Sweden attempted to employ a physical style against the Soviet Union without success , as they surrendered five power play goals in a 6 – 3 loss . Canada then defeated the United States , 8 – 3 , in a game that was played much closer than the score indicated . The Americans appeared to be headed to a draw with Canada as the two teams were tied at three with nine minutes to play before a power play goal by Mike Bossy sparked a five @-@ goal outburst for the Canadians in the dying minutes of the game .
The Soviets then avenged their 1980 Olympic defeat to the United States with a 4 – 1 win , while the Swedes defeated Finland 5 – 0 . Ending the third night of play , Czechoslovakia was able to overcome a late two @-@ minute , two @-@ man disadvantage to emerge with a 4 – 4 tie against Canada in a game that was described as the best of the tournament . Canada then defeated Sweden 4 – 3 , but not before losing Perrault to a broken ankle . Perrault was Canada 's leading scorer over the first four games and was considered a contender to be named most valuable player at the time of his injury . The United States then overcame an early two @-@ goal deficit against the Czechs to win 6 – 2 while the Soviets easily defeated Finland 6 – 1
The final night of round robin play opened with a meaningless game between the United States and Finland . The Americans had already advanced to the playoff round while Finland had been eliminated . The game ended in a 4 – 4 draw and was most notable for Montreal Forum staff accidentally playing the Italian national anthem instead of the Finnish anthem prior to the start of the game . The Czechs then easily defeated Sweden , 7 – 1 , to advance to the playoff round and eliminate the Swedes . Canada and the Soviet Union closed out the round robin with a battle for first place . A five @-@ goal outburst by Canada in the third period broke a 2 – 2 tie and sent Canada into the playoffs as the top ranked team . Their 7 – 3 win was the most lopsided victory Canada had recorded against the Soviets in 20 years .
= = = Semi @-@ finals = = =
As the top team in the playoff round , Canada faced the fourth place Americans in the first semi @-@ final . Talk entering the game revolved around the defensive style of the United States and whether they could overcome Canada 's offensive game and upset the favoured nation in a one @-@ game , winner @-@ take @-@ all scenario . Early play favoured Canada , as they opened the scoring 2 : 01 into the game on a goal by defenceman Brian Engblom , then extended their lead five minutes later when a long shot by Bossy eluded Esposito in the American goal . Another goal by Bossy saw Canada end the first period with a 3 – 0 lead . The remaining 40 minutes of the game lacked emotion , and the two teams traded goals for a 4 – 1 Canadian victory .
The second place Soviet Union faced third ranked Czechoslovakia in the second semi @-@ final . Soviet coach Viktor Tikhonov was agitated following his nation 's 7 – 3 defeat to Canada to end the round robin , while the Czechs had grown increasingly confident of their ability as the tournament progressed . It was the Soviets , however , who scored three first period goals to take an early 3 – 0 lead . The young Czechoslovakian team pressured their opponents for much of the final 40 minutes , outshooting the Soviets 23 – 11 in the second and third periods combined . Tretiak withstood the pressure in the Soviet goal , however , allowing only one goal as the Soviet Union emerged with a 4 – 1 victory .
= = = Final = = =
Canada entered the final facing pressure to defeat the Soviets . The Soviet national team 's easy victory over the National Hockey League 's all @-@ stars in the 1979 Challenge Cup left the Canadians searching to regain command of their rivalry with the Soviets . Coach Scotty Bowman called it a " must win game " for Canada : " We really are favorites in the final . Nobody in this country will tolerate a loss . " The players also spoke of their desire to show the Russians that they were the world 's top hockey nation . During their pre @-@ game preparations , Tikhonov called upon his team to play the finest games of their lives : " Today you got to play so well that the entire Canadian population will talk about you afterwards and remember you for a long time . Play so well that the Canadian fans when they will leave Forum will wait for you when you get on the bus after the game and admire you . "
Canada held the early advantage of play , outshooting the Soviets 12 – 4 in the first period as their opponent was unable to generate offence . Despite their advantage , Canada was unable to put a puck past Tretiak , and the first period ended with no scoring . The Soviets counterattacked in the second period , opening the scoring five minutes in on a goal by Igor Larionov . Clark Gillies tied the game for Canada three minutes later , but Sergei Shepelev restored the Soviet lead three minutes after that . Shepelev added a powerplay goal late in the period to give the Soviets a 3 – 1 lead heading into the third period . The third period turned into a rout ; Shepelev completed a natural hat trick , and the Soviets scored three goals in the final four minutes to claim the championship by an 8 – 1 score .
Canadian goaltender Mike Liut became the scapegoat for Canada 's embarrassing loss . The game was one of the worst of his career , but Canada managed only four shots in the third period and never threatened the Soviets even though they entered the final 20 minutes down by only two goals . Tretiak , meanwhile , was named the tournament most valuable player on the strength of his goaltending throughout the event .
= = Legacy = =
The fate of the championship trophy itself was the subject of controversy after Canadian hockey officials accompanied by Montreal Police prevented the Soviet team from taking the trophy back to the Soviet Union . As he took the Cup from the Soviets at the airport , Eagleson claimed that the trophy was intended to remain in Canada at all times . The decision upset the Soviets who claimed that Eagleson 's decision was made " in violation of the traditions existing at international competitions " . George Smith , a truck driver from Winnipeg , organized a fundraising campaign that raised enough money to create a replica trophy that was gifted to Soviet officials at their Canadian embassy . Soviet officials praised the sportsmanship of the Canadian people as they accepted the replica .
Tournament organizer Allan Eagleson , lamenting the rapidly increasing costs of hosting such an event , speculated that the 1981 Canada Cup could be the last . Noting that some costs had increased up to 200 % over what was paid in 1976 , Eagleson speculated that a third Canada Cup might have to be held in a different format . Organizers were also disappointed in tournament attendance . The two games scheduled to be held in Quebec City were transferred to Ottawa after only 300 tickets were pre @-@ sold for the round robin game between Czechoslovakia and Sweden and 1 @,@ 000 for the semi @-@ final game . Low ticket sales also led to fears that the games scheduled for Winnipeg would also be moved , but the investments the television partners had made in rental equipment to broadcast the games from Winnipeg prevented a switch . Adding to Eagleson 's woes , Toronto Maple Leafs owner Harold Ballard refused to allow any games to be held in Maple Leaf Gardens as a result of his hatred of the Soviet Union .
Strong support in Montreal , and the response in Ottawa after the games were moved to the national capital left Eagleson increasingly confident in the tournament 's future . The 1981 Canada Cup turned a profit of about C $ 1 million to be split between Hockey Canada and the National Hockey League Players Association pension fund , one third that of the 1976 tournament . Shortly after the tournament ended , Eagleson confirmed he intended to hold a third Canada Cup . He noted that Canada 's loss in the final played a role in his decision : " As far as I am concerned personally , it 's probably preferable that we lost . I think if we had won , I 'd have said , ' To hell with it ' . "
= = Round @-@ robin standings = =
= = Game scores = =
= = = Round @-@ robin = = =
= = = Semi @-@ finals = = =
= = = Final = = =
= = Statistical leaders = =
= = = Scoring = = =
= = = Goaltending = = =
Minimum 120 minutes played
= = Awards = =
= Oslo Airport , Fornebu =
Oslo Airport , Fornebu ( IATA : FBU , ICAO : ENFB ) ( Norwegian : Oslo lufthavn , Fornebu ) was the main airport serving Oslo and Eastern Norway from 1 June 1939 to 7 October 1998 . It was then replaced by Oslo Airport , Gardermoen and the area has since been redeveloped . The airport was located at Fornebu in Bærum , 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from the city center . Fornebu had two runways , one 2 @,@ 370 @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 780 ft ) 06 / 24 and one 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) 01 / 19 , and a capacity of 20 aircraft . In 1996 , the airport had 170 @,@ 823 aircraft movements and 10 @,@ 072 @,@ 054 passengers . The airport served as a hub for Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) , Braathens SAFE and Widerøe . In 1996 , they and 21 other airlines served 28 international destinations . Due to limited terminal and runway capacity , intercontinental and charter airlines used Gardermoen . The Royal Norwegian Air Force retained offices at Fornebu .
The airport opened as a combined sea and land airport , serving both domestic and international destinations . It replaced the land airport at Kjeller and the sea airport at Gressholmen . In 1940 , it was taken over by the German Luftwaffe , but civilian air services began again in 1946 and it was then taken over by the Norwegian Civil Airport Administration . The airport at first had three runways , each at 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , but these were gradually expanded , first the north – south runway and finally the east – west one to the current length in 1962 . The same year the terminal moved south to the final location . A large @-@ scale expansion to the terminal was made during the 1980s .
= = Facilities = =
At the time of closing , the airport consisted of a single terminal with three satellites : two domestic and one international . The service building had three stories , one for arrival , one for departure and one for administration . Airplane capacity at the airport was 20 craft ; five planes parked at the international terminal could be served with jetbridges , while passengers had to walk outdoors to get to domestic planes . The airport terminals were 36 @,@ 000 square metres ( 390 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , of which 16 @,@ 000 square metres ( 170 @,@ 000 sq ft ) were for the public . In the main hall of the terminal were two murals made by Kai Fjell , both which have been preserved . The largest was the 310 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 300 sq ft ) Arrival and Departure which was completed in 1968 and covered three stories .
At the north part of the airport , located where the former main terminal was until 1964 , were the offices of the Air Force and Fred . Olsen Airtransport , the main hangar for Braathens SAFE , as well as mechanical facilities for SAS and Fred . Olsen . The fire station and snowplowing facilities were also located there , along with the main radar center . All the terminal buildings built until the early 1960s were still intact until the closing of the airport .
In 1989 , about 5 @,@ 500 people worked at Fornebu . Of these , 3 @,@ 600 worked for the airlines , including ground services . The airport administration had 350 employees , including administration , air control , fire fighters , meteorology and maintenance . The remaining 500 people worked for other public offices , including the police and customs , as well as service employees working for private companies involved with passenger services .
Fornebu had two runways : a main 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) east – west runway and a secondary 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) north – south . Only the main runway was used under ordinary weather conditions , with the north – south runway only being used if there was strong winds from the north and for general aviation , helicopters and ambulance aircraft . The main runway was equipped with instrument landing system category 1 . Under ordinary weather conditions , flights to Fornebu were to , as soon as possible , divert southwards along the Oslo Fjord to avoid noise pollution to residential areas . However , when necessary , a direct approach could be made eastwards from Drammen or westwards from Grefsenåsen . Until 1996 , Oslo Air Traffic Control Center ( Oslo ATCC ) was located at Fornebu . It had the responsibility to oversee all air traffic in southeastern Norway , bordering to Dovre in the north , almost to Stavanger in the west , halfway to Stockholm to the east and almost to Denmark in the south .
Since Fornebu is located on a peninsula , all transport to the airport needed to go via Lysaker . A branch from the motorway European Route E18 allowed access to the airport . Lysaker Station is on the Drammen Line , and was served by both local and regional trains , including services to Oslo Central Station . In addition , Stor @-@ Oslo Lokaltrafikk offered bus transport to the airport from Asker and Bærum , including Lysaker . A limited number of services were extended to Snarøya . An airport coach connected the airport to the city center .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
In 1996 , the airport had 170 @,@ 823 aircraft movement and 10 @,@ 072 @,@ 054 passengers , making it the busiest airport in the country . It served as the main hub for Braathens SAFE , one of three main hubs for SAS and as one of many for Widerøe .
Prior to 1 April 1994 , all air transport in Norway was restricted to airlines that had received concession from the ministry . On the primary domestic routes , the traffic was split between SAS and Braathens SAFE , although both had services to Trondheim and Stavanger . SAS had a monopoly to Bergen and Northern Norway ( Alta , Bardufoss , Bodø , Harstad / Narvik , Kirkenes , Longyearbyen and Tromsø ) , while Braathens SAFE had a monopoly to the other primary airports in Southern Norway ( Haugesund , Kristiansand , Kristiansund , Molde , Røros and Ålesund ) . Widerøe had a monopoly on the regional state @-@ supported routes ( Brønnøysund , Florø , Førde , Sandane , Sogndal and Ørsta / Volda ) , and also served Stord and Sandefjord .
Following Norway joining the European Economic Area ( EEA ) , the airline industry was deregulated , allowing any airline from any EEA member country to make domestic or international flights to Norway . However , by 1994 there was no available slots at Fornebu during the morning and evening rush hours , limiting the number of new routes that could be established . After the deregulation , Fornebu could not offer slots to new airlines , and SAS and Braathens could not establish as many competing routes as they wanted to . However , domestic services were provided by both SAS and Braathens SAFE to Stavanger , Bergen , Trondheim , Bodø , Harstad / Narvik , Tromsø and Longyearbyen . The remaining domestic airports were only served by the incumbent . In addition , Teddy Air offered services to Fagernes .
International services were provided by 21 airlines to 28 destinations . SAS had international flights to Amsterdam , Brussels , Billund , Copenhagen , Düsseldorf , Frankfurt , Helsinki , London @-@ Heathrow , Manchester , Munich , New York , Nice , Paris , Stockholm and Zurich . Braathens SAFE offered international services to Alicante , Billund , London @-@ Gatwick , Málaga , Newcastle and Stockholm . Lufthansa offered flights to Düsseldorf , Frankfurt , Hamburg and Munich . Other European airlines that provided services to their main hubs included Aeroflot ( Moscow @-@ Sheremetyevo ) , Air France ( Paris @-@ Charles de Gaulle ) , Air Malta ( Valletta ) , TAP Air Portugal ( Lisbon ) , AirUK ( London @-@ Stansted ) , Alitalia ( Milan ) , British Airways ( London @-@ Heathrow ) , Dan @-@ Air ( London @-@ Gatwick ) , Delta Air Lines ( New York @-@ JFK ) , Iberia ( Madrid ) and ( Barcelona ) , Icelandair ( Reykjavík ) , KLM ( Amsterdam ) , LOT Polish Airlines ( Warsaw ) , Pan Am ( New York @-@ JFK ) and Sabena ( Brussels ) .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Aviation in Oslo started in 1909 , when Carl Cederström of Sweden made exhibition flights from fields at Etterstad . Following this , the Norwegian Army decided that it needed a military land airport , and established itself at Kjeller , outside Oslo , in 1912 . Kjeller Airport served as the main airport for Norway until the 1930s , being the main base of the newly established Norwegian Army Air Service and the first place to have air services .
In 1918 , the first Norwegian airline , Det Norske Luftfartrederi , was established , and plans were made to start flying to Trondheim . The following year , civil aviation was discussed in the Norwegian Parliament for the first time . Norsk Luftfartsrederi wanted to start seaplane routes from Oslo , and applied to the state to be allowed to lease 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) of the island Lindøya for 99 years . The Oslo Port Authority recommended that the application be denied , since it was already in negotiations with the state to purchase the island and seaplane services would interfere with ship traffic . The ministry recommended a ten @-@ year lease . Sam Eyde , who was a member of parliament , recommended that the state should be responsible for all airports , and suggested a state @-@ owned seaplane airport be built at Gressholmen . However no money was granted for construction of the airport until 1926 , when Gressholmen Airport opened . Gressholmen was served by Norsk Luftfartsrederi and Deutsche Luft Hansa .
During the late 1920s and early 1930s , the politicians became less satisfied with the solution . Kjeller was considered too far away from the city center ( about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) , but along the mainline railway ) , while travel to Gressholmen needed to be made by ferry . The politicians also wanted to have a combined land- and seaplane airport , and it had become clear that serving Gressholmen was interfering with ship traffic . A committee was established to look into the matter . While considering many locations , it made detail surveys of only two places : Ekeberg , located southeast of the city center , and Fornebu , to the southwest .
= = = Construction = = =
At the time , Fornebu was a mostly unpopulated area . Until 1907 , a lumber mill was located at Snarøya on the southern tip . From 1921 , Snarøya had received a coach service , and had grown with many single dwellings . About 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) northeast of Fornebu is the town of Lysaker , which had a railway station on the Drammen Line . The committee decided to purchase 90 hectares ( 220 acres ) on the northern part of the peninsula . The Fornebu solution would be more expensive , but would yield a larger airport and better landing conditions . The formal decision to build the airport was taken in 1934 .
It was the Municipality of Oslo which built the airport , having bought the land from the Municipality of Bærum . Construction was to serve as work creation for the unemployed , and workers were selected based on how long they had been unemployed and the number of people in their family . Because the need for workplaces was greatest in the winter , most of the construction was done during the winters of 1935 , 1936 and 1937 . Not until 1937 was a normal 48 @-@ hour week throughout the year introduced . 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 35 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of rock was blasted and , along with garbage from Oslo , used to fill in the swamps and depressions . Because of the delays , plans were changed and three runways were built , two 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long and one 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) long . The airport was equipped with a control tower ; administration building ; a hangar with a workshop ; and a service building . Docks for seaplanes were constructed about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to the south , on the east shore of the peninsula .
In 1934 , there were three domestic airlines in Norway : Det Norske Luftfartsselskap ( DNL ) , Norske Luftruter and Widerøe 's Flyveselskap . All three applied to the state for subsidies to operate routes . DNL applied for a ten @-@ year concession with a NOK 500 @,@ 000 annual subsidy to fly Oslo – Kristiansand – Amsterdam , continuing northwards to Ålesund . Widerøe applied for NOK 265 @,@ 000 per year for a three @-@ year concession for the seaplane routes Oslo – Bergen and Bergen – Trondheim . Norske Luftruter applied for NOK 250 @,@ 000 per year for a route from Bergen to Copenhagen via Kristiansand and Oslo . The following year , parliament passed a long @-@ term plan for construction of airports , which would be located in Oslo , Telemark , Kristiansand , Stavanger , Bergen , Ålesund and Trondheim . In each case , the municipalities would have to purchase land and build the airport , but the state would reimburse 50 % of the investments . Due to the high cost burden on the municipalities , only Stavanger Airport , Sola and Kristiansand Airport , Kjevik were operational by the time Fornebu opened .
= = = Opening and war = = =
The first aircraft at Fornebu was a Lufthansa Junkers Ju 52 in September 1938 . It had flown a scheduled route to Kjeller , and the captain had continued to Fornebu to try the new airport . On 16 April 1939 , the seaplane section came into regular use . The first seaplane was a Ju 52 operated by DNL to Copenhagen . The official opening was on 1 June 1939 . The first aircraft to land after the official opening was a Douglas DC @-@ 2 operated by KLM from Amsterdam . The first departure was on the Danish airline Det Danske Luftfartsselskab , when a Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 took off to Copenhagen . The captain made a mistake , and took off from the parking space instead of the runway . In addition to these two routes , Luft Hansa started flights to Germany and DNL flew to Amsterdam . During the fall , DNL also flew from Perth , Scotland , via Oslo to Stockholm , but this route was soon canceled .
1940 diagram
As part of the invasion of Norway by Nazi Germany on 9 April 1940 , German Luftwaffe @-@ aircraft landed at Fornebu . There was no attempt by the civilian airport authorities to hinder this , such as driving cars onto the runway , although several German aircraft collided with each other during the landing . A KLM aircraft had a scheduled service that morning , and the captain was ordered to leave the passengers , take the crew and return to Oslo . On 12 April , the airport was bombed by the British Royal Air Force . On 14 April , the KLM captain was granted permission to fly back to Amsterdam with the crew , albeit without any passengers . The German military used Fornebu heavily during the war , but it was never of any strategic importance , since it was located far from any battle zones . During the war , the airport officially remained owned by the municipality . By orders of the German authorities , the main north – south runway was expanded to 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) , and all facilities not yet built were completed . However , during the war all other runways than the main north – south were taken out of use . At the north end of the runway , the Luftwaffe built several hangars and a prison camp . Prisoners were used to keep the runways free of snow during winter , by marching along them and stomping the snow down .
In May 1945 , as German forces were ousted from Norway , the airport was taken over by the Allies and the Royal Norwegian Air Force . None of the civilian airlines were in operation , and the Air Force started flying commercial flights . In addition to previous lines , a route was started to Northern Norway , although it had to be terminated for the winter . Due to the lack of qualified personnel , the international services had to be terminated as well . In early 1946 , management of the airport was transferred back to the municipality . Due to the technological development of aviation during the war , the runway needed to be expanded . The 1 @,@ 200 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) runway was sufficient for Douglas DC @-@ 3 aircraft , but insufficient for larger Douglas DC @-@ 4s . The latter were all used by American Overseas Airways , DNL on its North America routes and British European Airways on its route to London , which were all transferred to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen .
= = = Expansion = = =
On 1 November 1947 , Norsk Spisevognselskap established a restaurant at the airport . In 1946 , DNL launched plans to expand the north – south runway to 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) by taking into use the whole peninsula . In addition , it wanted a second east – west runway to be built . The state took over ownership of the airport — without compensation — in 1946 , albeit with the clause that if the airport ever should close , the real estate should be returned to the municipality . Stavanger Airport had been a candidate for intercontinental travel , but a state committee in 1949 decided that instead this should be shared between Fornebu and Gardermoen . Another committee was established in 1948 , and in 1950 it recommended that all airport services in the Oslo region should be concentrated at Gardermoen , and that a new motorway be built to the airport . Among politicians and planners , there were two main ideologies : The first , which dominated in political circles , stated that Fornebu 's close proximity to the city center was a key to reaching a market in Oslo and for the growth of the airlines . The second emphasized that , in the long run , Fornebu could not fulfill the requirements of a central airport , and that a better location should be established .
Following the political processes , the north – south runway was extended to 1 @,@ 600 metres ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) . With the completion of this , intercontinental traffic was moved from Gardermoen to Fornebu . In 1946 , Overseas Scandinavian Airlines System had been established between DNL , DDL and the Swedish Aerotransport . The same year , shipowner Ludvig G. Braathen established Braathens South American and Far East ( Braathens SAFE ) , which started with charter flights using DC @-@ 4s . The first civilian route was operated by KLM , who started the route Oslo – Kristiansand – Amsterdam in March 1946 . From 1 April , DNL operated a route to Copenhagen , followed a week later with the route via Stavanger to London , using DC @-@ 3s . The third DNL route was to Stockholm using Ju 52s , and the fourth via Gothenburg and Copenhagen to Zurich and Marseilles . In May , DNL started routes to Trondheim and Tromsø , and later onwards to Kirkenes . It also started a direct service to Copenhagen . In October , routes were established via Kristiansand to Amsterdam , Brussels and Paris . Finally , a route was started via Copenhagen to Praha and to Stavanger . In 1946 , DNL had 47 @,@ 000 passengers ( although not all flew through Fornebu ) . The company operated six DC @-@ 3s and five Ju 52s .
In 1947 , Icelandair started flights to Reykjavík and the same year British European Airways transferred its London route from Gardermoen to Fornebu . DNL bought three Short Sandringham flying boats which were put into service along the coast as the " Flying Coastal Express " . They remained in service from 1947 until May 1950 , but proved expensive in operation . In 1949 , Braathens SAFE introduced scheduled flights from Fornebu using DC @-@ 3s ; it had long @-@ haul flights to the Far East , with stops in Amsterdam , Geneva , Rome , Cairo , Basra , Karachi , Bombay , Calcutta and Bangkok before arriving in Hong Kong . Following the establishment of Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) in 1949 , all international concessions were transferred to that company , and Braathens SAFE started domestic services , although it kept its existing concessions on international routes until 1954 .
Braathens SAFE 's first domestic service was via Tønsberg Airport , Jarlsberg to Stavanger , and later a route to Trondheim . These were both operated with Heron aircraft . At first the Trondheim route was flown to Lade , but were quickly transferred to the current airport at Værnes . Loftleiðir started flights to Reykjavík in 1952 .
In 1953 , work started with expanding the north – south runway to 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) and building a new east – west runway which also was to become 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) . The same year a new commission was established , which in 1957 recommended that the east – west runway be expanded to 3 @,@ 300 metres ( 10 @,@ 800 ft ) and the north – south runway to 2 @,@ 150 metres ( 7 @,@ 050 ft ) . Local residents and politicians were opposed to the expansion plans , and Akershus County Council voted against them . The ministry then chose to expand the east – west runway to only 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) and leave the north – south runway untouched . The plans would allow the east – west runway to be expanded to 2 @,@ 800 metres ( 9 @,@ 200 ft ) in the future , if necessary . The north – south runway had difficult landing conditions ,
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in part because of the residential areas north of the line . From 1959 , the ministry denied jet aircraft from using the then longer runway . In the 1950s , SAS started using Convair 440s , while Braathens SAFE took into use Fokker F @-@ 27s . Both companies later also took into use Douglas DC @-@ 6s .
In 1952 , SAS started flights to Bodø Airport and in 1955 to Bergen Airport , Flesland . In 1955 , Braathens SAFE also started flights to Kristiansand and Farsund Airport , Lista , and the following year to Notodden Airport , Tuven . That year also saw some of its Trondheim flights land at Hamar Airport , and in 1957 at Røros Airport . In 1958 , Ålesund Airport , Vigra was opened and became served by Braathens SAFE . The Røros stops were terminated in 1958 , but reinstated in 1963 after the runway had been extended . The Hamar stops were permanently terminated in 1959 .
In 1960 , Finnair started flying to Helsinki , although direct flights were not introduced until 1971 . After 1962 , the east – west runway became the main runway . Along with the runway expansion , a new service building , with a capacity for 2 million passengers , was opened in 1964 . It was located about half a kilometer ( quarter of a mile ) south of the former terminal . Designed by Odd Nansens Arkitektkontor , it had two stories , one for arrivals and one for departures , and two wings , one for domestic and one for international flights . It included a central hall that had a panorama view over the aircraft . The expanded facilities allowed SAS to take into use Sud Aviation Caravelle jets on the Copenhagen routes , although they were also occasionally used to Bodø .
= = = Cramped quarters = = =
Three airports were opened in Finnmark in 1963 , all served by SAS : Alta Airport , Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen and Lakselv Airport , Banak . The following year , SAS also started flights to Tromsø Airport . In 1966 , Lufthansa started flights to Hamburg , and later also introduced services to Düsseldorf , Frankfurt and Munich . During the 1960s , SAS introduced Caravelles on most of the domestic routes .
During the 1970s , Douglas DC @-@ 8s were also taken into use . Pan American World Airways had flights to New York City from 1967 to 1973 and from 1976 to 1978 . Braathens SAFE started taking delivery of Boeing 737 @-@ 200s and Fokker F @-@ 28s in 1969 , and these gradually took over most of the domestic routes . In 1970 , Air France and Swissair started flying to Fornebu from Paris and Zurich , respectively . They were supplemented by Aeroflot 's Moscow route in 1972 .
In 1971 , a state committee recommended that Gardermoen be expanded to take a larger share of the traffic from Fornebu . At the same time , a new main airport was eventually to be built at Hobøl . From 1971 , charter flights were moved to Gardermoen , although SAS and Braathens SAFE were granted dispensation so they only needed to serve one Oslo airport . On 1 July 1971 , Widerøe also started serving domestic routes to Fornebu , with the opening of a regional airport in Sogn og Fjordane . These routes were served using de Havilland Canada Twin Otter and later de Havilland Canada Dash 7 aircraft , although regular services to all airports were not introduced until the late 1970s , with the introduction of the Dash 7 . The last four primary airports were opened during the 1970s . Braathens SAFE started flights to Kristiansund Airport , Kvernberget in 1972 , Molde Airport , Årø in 1972 and Harstad / Narvik Airport , Evenes in 1973 . In 1975 , SAS started flights to Haugesund Airport , Karmøy .
During the 1980s , the airport was again deemed too small . In 1983 , all charter flights operated by SAS and Braathens were forced to move to Gardermoen . Additional foreign services were introduced , namely Sabena to Brussels in 1985 , Dan @-@ Air to London @-@ Gatwick and Newcastle in 1986 and Alitalia to Milan in 1988 . During a period of reconstruction at Gardermoen , Trans World Airlines also served Fornebu , and the same year Pan American reintroduced its route to New York . Air Europe also started to fly from London @-@ Gatwick to Fornebu . An additional storey was added to the service building , allowing office space to be moved there and free up space for check @-@ in and traveler service on the two main storeys . Two satellites were built for the domestic terminal , one each for Braathens SAFE and SAS , allowing increased waiting area for travelers . The international terminal was expanded with a five @-@ gate pier with jetbridges . A multi @-@ story parking house was also built .
Norsk Air started serving Fornebu following the opening of Fagernes Airport , Leirin in 1987 . The route was closed within a year , but taken up again by Coast Air in 1990 . From 1996 , the route was taken over by Teddy Air .
In 1989 , Braathens SAFE started its first international scheduled service since 1960 , from Fornebu to Billund in Denmark . Two years later , the company started flying to Newcastle , after Dan @-@ Air had withdrawn from the route , and to Malmö in Sweden . That year also saw the start of Norway Airlines , who started a base at Fornebu and offered flights to London @-@ Gatwick , as well as to Stockholm , in cooperation with Transwede , and to Copenhagen , in cooperation with Sterling Airlines . In 1992 , both Norway Airlines and Dan @-@ Air went bankrupt , and Braathens SAFE started flights to London @-@ Gatwick . It terminated the Malmö route in 1994 . After the deregulation , Braathens SAFE also introduced flights to Alicante , Málaga , Rome and Stockholm . Widerøe introduced international services to Gothenburg and Berlin .
In 1994 , the domestic and international flights to the European Union were deregulated , and the number of international services increased and Fornebu received airlines such as Air Malta , Air Portugal , AirUK and LOT Polish Airlines . Other airlines to fly from Fornebu during the 1980s and 1990s includes Delta Air Lines , Northwest Orient and Tower Air . Domestically , Braathens SAFE introduced flights to Bergen , Bodø , Harstad / Narvik and Tromsø .
= = = Closing = = =
During the 1960s , a political debate started concerning whether or not a new main airport should be built for Oslo and Eastern Norway . A government report launched in 1970 , suggested surveys for five locations : Gardermoen , Hurum , Askim , Nesodden and Ås . Hobøl was preliminarily selected and areas reserved for a future airport . During the 1970s , the Labour Party became concerned that Hobøl was located too centrally in relation to the growth areas around Oslo , and instead wanted to use Gardermoen , in an attempt to force the population growth further north . Commercial interests and the airlines supported Hobøl . In 1983 , Parliament decided to abandon the plans for Hobøl and continue with a divided solution . Fornebu would be expanded , and all charter traffic be moved to Gardermoen . From 1988 , all international traffic would also be moved , making Fornebu a purely domestic airport .
Increased traffic in the mid @-@ 1980s changed the politician 's interests , and in 1988 Parliament voted to build a new main airport at Hurum , located on the same side of Oslo as Fornebu , but further away . However , new weather data showed that Hurum was unsuitable , and the location was discarded . There were accusations that the data was fabricated to manipulate the political decision . In 1992 , parliament made a final vote that started construction of a new airport at Gardermoen and mandated the closure of Fornebu .
Financing of the airport at Gardermoen would be done through a state loan issued to a limited company owned by the Civil Airport Administration . This company would build and operate Gardermoen , but from 1 January 1997 it also took over operation of Fornebu . After the last aircraft took off from Fornebu on 7 October 1998 , 300 people spent the night transporting 500 truckloads of equipment from Fornebu to Gardermoen . The new airport opened on the morning of 8 October 1998 .
Some locals wanted to keep Fornebu as a regional airport for the Oslo and Bærum area . The proposal was to keep part of the runway and terminals and allow aircraft such as the Bombardier Dash 8 , Fokker 50 and British Aerospace 146 to use the airport . Proponents argued that a similar role was filled by Stockholm @-@ Bromma Airport and Chicago 's Midway Airport .
The opening of Gardermoen had a strategic impact on aviation in Norway . Despite the deregulation of the market in 1994 , the lack of free slots at Fornebu made it impossible to have free competition , since no new airlines could establish themselves and no new international airlines could fly to Fornebu . Gardermoen allowed this to happen , and from 1 August 1998 , Color Air started with flights from Oslo , pressing down prices on domestic routes . Although the airline went bankrupt the following year , the losses for Braathens were so high that it was taken over by SAS . The gap was then filled by Norwegian Air Shuttle .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 26 May 1946 , a DNL Junkers Ju 52 en route to Stockholm crashed into the houses at Halden Terrasse after take @-@ off , due to a technical error on the aircraft . All people on board were killed , but no @-@ one on the ground .
In 1949 , a Dutch DC @-@ 3 crashed in Hurum while approaching Fornebu . All but one of the passengers , plus all the crew , died .
On 14 April 1963 , Vickers Viscount TF @-@ ISU Hrímfaxi of Icelandair Flugfélag Islands crashed at Nesøya on approach to Fornebu . All 12 people on board were killed .
On 23 December 1972 , Braathens SAFE Flight 239 , with a Fokker F @-@ 28 from Ålesund to Oslo , crashed in Asker during approach to Fornebu . Forty people were killed , while five people survived . This was the first @-@ ever fatal accident with a F @-@ 28 , and until 1989 the deadliest air accident in Norway .
Braathens SAFE Flight 139 occurred on 21 June 1985 , when a Boeing 737 @-@ 200 from Braathens SAFE en route from Trondheim Airport , Værnes to Fornebu was hijacked by a drunk student who demanded to talk to the prime minister and minister of justice . The plane landed at Fornebu , and the hijacker eventually surrendered his gun in exchange for more beer . No @-@ one was injured in the incident .
= 4 Vesta =
Vesta , minor @-@ planet designation 4 Vesta , is one of the largest objects in the asteroid belt , with a mean diameter of 525 kilometres ( 326 mi ) . It was discovered by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers on 29 March 1807 and is named after Vesta , the virgin goddess of home and hearth from Roman mythology .
Vesta is the second @-@ most @-@ massive and second @-@ largest body in the asteroid belt after the dwarf planet Ceres , and it contributes an estimated 9 % of the mass of the asteroid belt . It is slightly larger than Pallas , though significantly more massive . Vesta is the last remaining rocky protoplanet ( with a differentiated interior ) of the kind that formed the terrestrial planets . Numerous fragments of Vesta were ejected by collisions one and two billion years ago that left two enormous craters occupying much of Vesta 's southern hemisphere . Debris from these events has fallen to Earth as howardite – eucrite – diogenite ( HED ) meteorites , which have been a rich source of information about Vesta .
Vesta is the brightest asteroid visible from Earth . Its maximum distance from the Sun is slightly greater than the minimum distance of Ceres from the Sun , though its orbit lies entirely within that of Ceres .
NASA 's Dawn spacecraft entered orbit around Vesta on 16 July 2011 for a one @-@ year exploration and left orbit on 5 September 2012 en route to its final destination , Ceres . Researchers continue to examine data collected by Dawn for additional insights into the formation and history of Vesta .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
Heinrich Olbers discovered Pallas in 1802 , the year after the discovery of Ceres . He proposed that the two objects were the remnants of a destroyed planet . He sent a letter with his proposal to the English astronomer William Herschel , suggesting that a search near the locations where the orbits of Ceres and Pallas intersected might reveal more fragments . These orbital intersections were located in the constellations of Cetus and Virgo . Olbers commenced his search in 1802 , and on 29 March 1807 he discovered Vesta in the constellation Virgo — a coincidence , because Ceres , Pallas , and Vesta are not fragments of a larger body . Because the asteroid Juno had been discovered in 1804 , this made Vesta the fourth object to be identified in the region that is now known as the asteroid belt . The discovery was announced in a letter addressed to German astronomer Johann H. Schröter dated 31 March . Because Olbers already had credit for discovering a planet ( Pallas ; at the time , the asteroids were considered to be planets ) , he gave the honor of naming his new discovery to German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss , whose orbital calculations had enabled astronomers to confirm the existence of Ceres , the first asteroid , and who had computed the orbit of the new planet in the remarkably short time of 10 hours . Gauss decided on the Roman virgin goddess of home and hearth , Vesta .
= = = Name = = =
Vesta was the fourth asteroid to be discovered , hence the number 4 in its formal designation . The name Vesta , or national variants thereof , is in international use with two exceptions : Greece and China . In Greek , the name adopted was the Hellenic equivalent of Vesta , Hestia ( 4 Εστία ) ; in English , that name is used for 46 Hestia ( Greeks use the name " Hestia " for both , with the minor @-@ planet numbers used for disambiguation ) . In Chinese , Vesta is called the ' hearth @-@ god ( dess ) star ' , 灶神星 zàoshénxīng , in contrast to the goddess Vesta , who goes by her Latin name .
Upon its discovery , Vesta was , like Ceres , Pallas , and Juno before it , classified as a planet and given a planetary symbol . The symbol representing the altar of Vesta with its sacred fire and was designed by Gauss . In Gauss 's conception , this was drawn ; in its modern form , it is .
After the discovery of Vesta , no further objects were discovered for 38 years , and the Solar System was thought to have eleven planets . However , in 1845 , new asteroids started being discovered at a rapid pace , and by 1851 there were fifteen , each with its own symbol , in addition to the eight major planets ( Neptune had been discovered in 1846 ) . It soon became clear that it would be impractical to continue inventing new planetary symbols indefinitely , and some of the existing ones proved difficult to draw quickly . That year , the problem was addressed by Benjamin Apthorp Gould , who suggested numbering asteroids in their order of discovery , and placing this number in a disk ( circle ) as the generic symbol of an asteroid . Thus , the fourth asteroid , Vesta , acquired the generic symbol ④ . This was soon coupled with the name into an official number – name designation , ④ Vesta , as the number of minor planets increased . By 1858 , the circle had been simplified to parentheses , ( 4 ) Vesta , which were easier to typeset . Other punctuation , such as 4 ) Vesta and 4 , Vesta , was also used , but had more or less completely died out by 1949 . Today , either Vesta , or , more commonly , 4 Vesta , is used .
= = = Early measurements = = =
Photometric observations of Vesta were made at the Harvard College Observatory in 1880 – 1882 and at the Observatoire de Toulouse in 1909 . These and other observations allowed the rotation rate of Vesta to be determined by the 1950s . However , the early estimates of the rotation rate came into question because the light curve included variations in both shape and albedo .
Early estimates of the diameter of Vesta ranged from 383 ( in 1825 ) to 444 km . E.C. Pickering produced an estimated diameter of 513 ± 17 km in 1879 , which is close to the modern value for the mean diameter , but the subsequent estimates ranged from a low of 390 km up to a high of 602 km during the next century . The measured estimates were based on photometry . In 1989 , speckle interferometry was used to measure a dimension that varied between 498 and 548 km during the rotational period . In 1991 , an occultation of the star SAO 93228 by Vesta was observed from multiple locations in the eastern United States and Canada . Based on observations from 14 different sites , the best fit to the data was an elliptical profile with dimensions of about 550 km × 462 km . Dawn confirmed this measurement .
Vesta became the first asteroid to have its mass determined . Every 18 years , the asteroid 197 Arete approaches within 0 @.@ 04 AU of Vesta . In 1966 , based upon observations of Vesta 's gravitational perturbations of Arete , Hans G. Hertz estimated the mass of Vesta as ( 1 @.@ 20 ± 0 @.@ 08 ) × 10 − 10 solar masses . More refined estimates followed , and in 2001 the perturbations of 17 Thetis were used to estimate the mass of Vesta as ( 1 @.@ 31 ± 0 @.@ 02 ) × 10 − 10 solar masses .
= = Orbit = =
Vesta orbits the Sun between Mars and Jupiter , within the asteroid belt , with a period of 3 @.@ 6 Earth years , specifically in the inner asteroid belt , interior to the Kirkwood gap at 2 @.@ 50 AU . Its orbit is moderately inclined ( i
= 7 @.@ 1 ° , compared to 7 ° for Mercury and 17 ° for Pluto ) and moderately eccentric ( e =
0 @.@ 09 , compared to 0 @.@ 09 for Mars ) .
True orbital resonances between asteroids are considered unlikely ; due to their small masses relative to their large separations , such relationships should be very rare . Nevertheless , Vesta is able to capture other asteroids into temporary 1 : 1 resonant orbital relationships ( for periods up to 2 million years or more ) ; about forty objects have been identified . Decameter @-@ sized objects detected in the vicinity of Vesta by Dawn may be such quasi @-@ satellites rather than proper satellites .
= = Rotation = =
Its rotation is relatively fast for an asteroid ( 5 @.@ 342 h ) and prograde , with the north pole pointing in the direction of right ascension 20 h 32 min , declination + 48 ° ( in the constellation Cygnus ) with an uncertainty of about 10 ° . This gives an axial tilt of 29 ° .
= = = Coordinate systems = = =
There are two longitudinal coordinate systems in use for Vesta , with prime meridians separated by 150 ° . The IAU established a coordinate system in 1997 based on Hubble photos , with the prime meridian running through the center of Olbers Regio , a dark feature 200 km across . When Dawn arrived at Vesta , mission scientists found that the location of the pole assumed by the IAU was off by 10 ° , so that the IAU coordinate system drifted across the surface of Vesta at 0 @.@ 06 ° per year , and also that Olbers Regio was not discernible from up close , and so was not adequate to define the prime meridian with the precision they needed . They corrected the pole , but also established a new prime meridian 4 ° from the center of Claudia , a sharply defined crater 700 meters across , which they say results in a more logical set of mapping quadrangles . All NASA publications , including images and maps of Vesta , use the Claudian meridian , which is unacceptable to the IAU . The IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements recommended a coordinate system , correcting the pole but rotating the Claudian longitude by 150 ° to coincide with Olbers Regio . It was accepted by the IAU , though it disrupts the maps prepared by the Dawn team , which had been positioned so they would not bisect any major surface features .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Vesta is the second @-@ most @-@ massive body in the asteroid belt , though only 28 % as massive as Ceres. its density is lower than that of the four terrestrial planets , but higher than that of most asteroids and all of the moons in the Solar System except Io . Vesta 's surface area is about the same as that of Pakistan ( about 800 @,@ 000 square kilometers ) . It has a differentiated interior . Vesta is only slightly larger ( 525 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 2 km ) than 2 Pallas ( 512 ± 3 km ) in volume , but is about 25 % more massive .
Vesta 's shape is close to a gravitationally relaxed oblate spheroid , but the large concavity and protrusion at the southern pole ( see ' Surface features ' below ) combined with a mass less than 5 × 1020 kg precluded Vesta from automatically being considered a dwarf planet under International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) Resolution XXVI 5 . A 2012 analysis of Vesta 's shape and gravity field using data gathered by the Dawn spacecraft has shown that Vesta is currently not in hydrostatic equilibrium .
Temperatures on the surface have been estimated to lie between about − 20 ° C with the Sun overhead , dropping to about − 190 ° C at the winter pole . Typical daytime and nighttime temperatures are − 60 ° C and − 130 ° C respectively . This estimate is for 6 May 1996 , very close to perihelion , although details vary somewhat with the seasons .
= = Surface features = =
Prior to the arrival of the Dawn spacecraft , some Vestan surface features had already been resolved using the Hubble Space Telescope and ground @-@ based telescopes ( e.g. the Keck Observatory ) . The arrival of Dawn in July 2011 revealed the complex surface of Vesta in detail .
= = = Rheasilvia and Veneneia craters = = =
The most prominent of these surface features are two enormous craters , the 500 @-@ kilometre ( 310 mi ) -wide Rheasilvia crater , centered near the south pole , and the 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) wide Veneneia crater . The Rheasilvia crater is younger and overlies the Veneneia crater . The Dawn science team named the younger , more prominent crater Rheasilvia , after the mother of Romulus and Remus and a mythical vestal virgin . Its width is 95 % of the mean diameter of Vesta . The crater is about 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) deep . A central peak rises 23 km above the lowest measured part of the crater floor and the highest measured part of the crater rim is 31 km above the crater floor low point . It is estimated that the impact responsible excavated about 1 % of the volume of Vesta , and it is likely that the Vesta family and V @-@ type asteroids are the products of this collision . If this is the case , then the fact that 10 @-@ km fragments have survived bombardment until the present indicates that the crater is at most only about 1 billion years old . It would also be the site of origin of the HED meteorites . All the known V @-@ type asteroids taken together account for only about 6 % of the ejected volume , with the rest presumably either in small fragments , ejected by approaching the 3 : 1 Kirkwood gap , or perturbed away by the Yarkovsky effect or radiation pressure . Spectroscopic analyses of the Hubble images have shown that this crater has penetrated deep through several distinct layers of the crust , and possibly into the mantle , as indicated by spectral signatures of olivine .
The large peak at the center of Rheasilvia is 20 to 25 kilometres ( 12 – 16 mi ) high and 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) wide .
= = = Other craters = = =
Several old , degraded craters rival Rheasilvia and Veneneia in size , though none are quite so large . They include Feralia Planitia , shown at right , which is 270 km across . More @-@ recent , sharper craters range up to 158 kilometres ( 98 mi ) Varronilla and 196 kilometres ( 122 mi ) Postumia .
= = = = " Snowman craters " = = = =
The " snowman craters " is an informal name given to a group of three adjacent craters in Vesta 's northern hemisphere . Their official names from largest to smallest ( west to east ) are Marcia , Calpurnia , and Minucia . Marcia is the youngest and cross @-@ cuts Calpurnia . Minucia is the oldest .
= = = Troughs = = =
The majority of the equatorial region of Vesta is sculpted by a series of concentric troughs . The largest is named Divalia Fossa ( 10 – 20 km wide , 465 km long ) . Despite the fact that Vesta is a one @-@ seventh the size of the Moon , Divalia Fossa dwarfs the Grand Canyon . A second series , inclined to the equator , is found further north . The largest of the northern troughs is named Saturnalia Fossa ( ≈ 40 km wide , > 370 km long ) . These troughs are thought to be large @-@ scale graben resulting from the impacts that created Rheasilvia and Veneneia craters , respectively . They are some of the longest chasms in the Solar System , nearly as long as Ithaca Chasma on Tethys . The troughs may be graben that formed after another asteroid collided with Vesta , a process that can happen only in a body that , like Vesta , is differentiated . Vesta 's differentiation is one of the reasons why scientists consider it a protoplanet .
= = = Surface composition = = =
Compositional information from the visible and infrared spectrometer ( VIR ) , gamma @-@ ray and neutron detector ( GRaND ) , and framing camera ( FC ) , all indicate that the majority of the surface composition of Vesta is consistent with the composition of the howardite , eucrite , and diogenite meteorites . The Rheasilvia region is richest in diogenite , consistent with the Rheasilvia @-@ forming impact excavating material from deeper within Vesta . The presence of olivine within the Rheasilvia region would also be consistent with excavation of mantle material . However , olivine has only been detected in localized regions of the northern hemisphere , not within Rheasilvia . The origin of this olivine is currently uncertain .
= = = Features associated with volatiles = = =
Pitted terrain has been observed in four craters on Vesta : Marcia , Cornelia , Numisia and Licinia . The formation of the pitted terrain is proposed to be degassing of impact @-@ heated volatile @-@ bearing material . Along with the pitted terrain , curvilinear gullies are found in Marcia and Cornelia craters . The curvilinear gullies end in lobate deposits , which are sometimes covered by pitted terrain , and are proposed to form by the transient flow of liquid water after buried deposits of ice were melted by the heat of the impacts . Hydrated materials have also been detected , many of which are associated with areas of dark material . Consequently , dark material is thought to be largely composed of carbonaceous chondrite , which was deposited on the surface by impacts . Carbonaceous chondrites are comparatively rich in mineralogically bound OH .
= = Geology = =
There is a large collection of potential samples from Vesta accessible to scientists , in the form of over 1200 HED meteorites ( Vestan achondrites ) , giving insight into Vesta 's geologic history and structure . NASA Infrared Telescope Facility ( NASA IRTF ) studies of asteroid ( 237442 ) 1999 TA10 suggest that it originated from deeper within Vesta than the HED meteorites
Vesta is thought to consist of a metallic iron – nickel core 214 – 226 km in diameter , an overlying rocky olivine mantle , with a surface crust . From the first appearance of calcium – aluminium @-@ rich inclusions ( the first solid matter in the Solar System , forming about 4 @.@ 567 billion years ago ) , a likely time line is as follows :
Vesta is the only known intact asteroid that has been resurfaced in this manner . Because of this , some scientists refer to Vesta as a protoplanet . However , the presence of iron meteorites and achondritic meteorite classes without identified parent bodies indicates that there once were other differentiated planetesimals with igneous histories , which have since been shattered by impacts .
On the basis of the sizes of V @-@ type asteroids ( thought to be pieces of Vesta 's crust ejected during large impacts ) , and the depth of Rheasilvia crater ( see below ) , the crust is thought to be roughly 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) thick . Findings from the Dawn spacecraft have found evidence that the troughs that wrap around Vesta could be graben formed by impact @-@ induced faulting ( see Troughs section above ) , meaning that Vesta has more complex geology than other asteroids . Vesta could have been classified as a dwarf planet if it had retained a spherical shape , and it has other qualities that lead to the thought it could be a protoplanet . The only thing that knocked it out of the category of a dwarf planet was the formation of two large impact basins at its southern pole . At the time of these impacts Vesta was not warm and plastic enough to return to a shape in hydrostatic equilibrium .
= = = Regolith = = =
Vesta 's surface is covered by regolith distinct from that found on the Moon or asteroids such as Itokawa . This is because space weathering acts differently . Vesta 's surface shows no significant trace of nanophase iron because the impact speeds on Vesta are too low to make rock melting and vaporization an appreciable process . Instead , regolith evolution is dominated by brecciation and subsequent mixing of bright and dark components . The dark component is probably due to the infall of carbonaceous material , whereas the bright component is the original Vesta basaltic soil .
= = Fragments = =
Some small Solar System bodies are suspected to be fragments of Vesta caused by impacts . The Vestian asteroids and HED meteorites are examples . The V @-@ type asteroid 1929 Kollaa has been determined to have a composition akin to cumulate eucrite meteorites , indicating its origin deep within Vesta 's crust .
Vesta is currently one of only six identified Solar System bodies of which we have physical samples , coming from a number of meteorites suspected to be Vestan fragments . It is estimated that 1 out of 16 meteorites originated from Vesta . The other identified Solar System samples are from Earth itself , meteorites from Mars , and samples returned from the Moon , the comet Wild 2 , and the asteroid 25143 Itokawa .
= = Exploration = =
In 1981 , a proposal for an asteroid mission was submitted to the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . Named the Asteroidal Gravity Optical and Radar Analysis ( AGORA ) , this spacecraft was to launch some time in 1990 – 1994 and perform two flybys of large asteroids . The preferred target for this mission was Vesta . AGORA would reach the asteroid belt either by a gravitational slingshot trajectory past Mars or by means of a small ion engine . However , the proposal was refused by the ESA . A joint NASA – ESA asteroid mission was then drawn up for a Multiple Asteroid Orbiter with Solar Electric Propulsion ( MAOSEP ) , with one of the mission profiles including an orbit of Vesta . NASA indicated they were not interested in an asteroid mission . Instead , the ESA set up a technological study of a spacecraft with an ion drive . Other missions to the asteroid belt were proposed in the 1980s by France , Germany , Italy and the United States , but none were approved . Exploration of Vesta by fly @-@ by and impacting penetrator was the second main target of the first plan of the multi @-@ aimed Soviet Vesta mission , developed in cooperation with European countries for realisation in 1991 – 1994 but canceled due to the Soviet Union disbanding .
In the early 1990s , NASA initiated the Discovery Program , which was intended to be a series of low @-@ cost scientific missions . In 1996 , the program 's study team recommended a mission to explore the asteroid belt using a spacecraft with an ion engine as a high priority . Funding for this program remained problematic for several years , but by 2004 the Dawn vehicle had passed its critical design review and construction proceeded .
It launched on 27 September 2007 as the first space mission to Vesta . On 3 May 2011 , Dawn acquired its first targeting image 1 @.@ 2 million kilometers from Vesta . On 16 July 2011 , NASA confirmed that it received telemetry from Dawn indicating that the spacecraft successfully entered Vesta 's orbit . It was scheduled to orbit Vesta for one year , until July 2012 . Dawn 's arrival coincided with late summer in the southern hemisphere of Vesta , with the large crater at Vesta 's south pole ( Rheasilvia ) in sunlight . Because a season on Vesta lasts eleven months , the northern hemisphere , including anticipated compression fractures opposite the crater , would become visible to Dawn 's cameras before it left orbit . Dawn left orbit around Vesta on 4 September 2012 11 : 26 p.m. PDT to travel to Ceres .
NASA / DLR released imagery and summary information from a survey orbit , two high @-@ altitude orbits ( 60 – 70 m / pixel ) and a low @-@ altitude mapping orbit ( 20 m / pixel ) , including digital terrain models , videos and atlases . Scientists also used Dawn to calculate Vesta 's precise mass and gravity field . The subsequent determination of the J2 component yielded a core diameter estimate of about 220 km assuming a crustal density similar to that of the HED .
Dawn data can be accessed by the public at the UCLA website .
= = = Observations from Earth orbit = = =
= = = Observations from Dawn = = =
Vesta comes into view as the Dawn spacecraft approaches and enters orbit :
= = = = True @-@ color images = = = =
Detailed images retrieved during the high @-@ altitude ( 60 – 70 m / pixel ) and low @-@ altitude ( ~ 20 m / pixel ) mapping orbits are available on the Dawn Mission website of JPL / NASA .
= = Visibility = =
Its size and unusually bright surface make Vesta the brightest asteroid , and it is occasionally visible to the naked eye from dark skies ( without light pollution ) . In May and June 2007 , Vesta reached a peak magnitude of + 5 @.@ 4 , the brightest since 1989 . At that time , opposition and perihelion were only a few weeks apart .
Less favorable oppositions during late autumn 2008 in the Northern Hemisphere still had Vesta at a magnitude of from + 6 @.@ 5 to + 7 @.@ 3 . Even when in conjunction with the Sun , Vesta will have a magnitude around + 8 @.@ 5 ; thus from a pollution @-@ free sky it can be observed with binoculars even at elongations much smaller than near opposition .
= = = 2010 – 2011 = = =
In 2010 , Vesta reached opposition in the constellation of Leo on the night of 17 – 18 February , at about magnitude 6 @.@ 1 , a brightness that makes it visible in binocular range but generally not for the naked eye . Under perfect dark sky conditions where all light pollution is absent it might be visible to an experienced observer without the use of a telescope or binoculars . Vesta came to opposition again on 5 August 2011 , in the constellation of Capricornus at about magnitude 5 @.@ 6 .
= = = 2012 – 2013 = = =
Vesta was at opposition again on 9 December 2012 . According to Sky and Telescope magazine , this year Vesta came within about 6 degrees of 1 Ceres during the winter of 2012 and spring 2013 . Vesta orbits the Sun in 3 @.@ 63 years and Ceres in 4 @.@ 6 years , so every 17 years Vesta overtakes Ceres ( the last overtaking was in 1996 ) . On December 1 , 2012 , Vesta had a magnitude of 6 @.@ 6 , but decreasing to 8 @.@ 4 by May 1 , 2013 .
= = = 2014 = = =
Ceres and Vesta came within one degree of each other in the night sky in July 2014 .
= Sergei Prokofiev =
Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev ( / prəˈkɒfiɛf , proʊ- , -ˈkɔː- , -ˈkoʊ- , -jɛf , -jɛv , -iəf / ; Russian : Сергей Сергеевич Прокофьев , tr . Sergej Sergejevič Prokofjev ; 23 April 1891 – 5 March 1953 ) was a Russian and Soviet composer , pianist and conductor . As the creator of acknowledged masterpieces across numerous musical genres , he is regarded as one of the major composers of the 20th century . His works include such widely heard works as the March from The Love for Three Oranges , the suite Lieutenant Kijé , the ballet Romeo and Juliet – from which " Dance of the Knights " is taken – and Peter and the Wolf . Of the established forms and genres in which he worked , he created – excluding juvenilia – seven completed operas , seven symphonies , eight ballets , five piano concertos , two violin concertos , a cello concerto , a Symphony @-@ Concerto for cello and orchestra , and nine completed piano sonatas .
A graduate of the St Petersburg Conservatory , Prokofiev initially made his name as an iconoclastic composer @-@ pianist , achieving notoriety with a series of ferociously dissonant and virtuosic works for his instrument , including his first two piano concertos . In 1915 Prokofiev made a decisive break from the standard composer @-@ pianist category with his orchestral Scythian Suite , compiled from music originally composed for a ballet commissioned by Sergei Diaghilev of the Ballets Russes . Diaghilev commissioned three further ballets from Prokofiev – Chout , Le pas d 'acier and The Prodigal Son – which at the time of their original production all caused a sensation among both critics and colleagues . Prokofiev 's greatest interest , however , was opera , and he composed several works in that genre , including The Gambler and The Fiery Angel . Prokofiev 's one operatic success during his lifetime was The Love for Three Oranges , composed for the Chicago Opera and subsequently performed over the following decade in Europe and Russia .
After the Revolution , Prokofiev left Russia with the official blessing of the Soviet minister Anatoly Lunacharsky , and resided in the United States , then Germany , then Paris , making his living as a composer , pianist and conductor . During that time he married a Spanish singer , Carolina Codina , with whom he had two sons . In the early 1930s , the Great Depression diminished opportunities for Prokofiev 's ballets and operas to be staged in America and western Europe . Prokofiev , who regarded himself as composer foremost , resented the time taken by touring as a pianist , and increasingly turned to Soviet Russia for commissions of new music ; in 1936 he finally returned to his homeland with his family . He enjoyed some success there – notably with Lieutenant Kijé , Peter and the Wolf , Romeo and Juliet , and perhaps above all with Alexander Nevsky .
The Nazi invasion of the USSR spurred him to compose his most ambitious work , an operatic version of Leo Tolstoy 's War and Peace . In 1948 Prokofiev was criticized for " anti @-@ democratic formalism " and , with his income severely curtailed , was forced to compose Stalinist works , such as On Guard for Peace . However , he also enjoyed personal and artistic support from a new generation of Russian performers , notably Sviatoslav Richter and Mstislav Rostropovich : for the latter , he composed his Symphony @-@ Concerto , whilst for the former he composed his ninth piano sonata .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early childhood and first compositions = = =
Prokofiev was born in 1891 in Sontsovka ( now Krasne , Krasnoarmiisk Raion , Donetsk Oblast , eastern Ukraine ) , a remote rural estate in the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of the Russian Empire . His father , Sergei Alexeyevich Prokofiev , was an agronomist . Prokofiev 's mother , Maria ( née Zhitkova ) , came from a family of former serfs who had been owned by the Sheremetev family , under whose patronage serf @-@ children were taught theatre and arts from an early age . She was described by Reinhold Glière ( Prokofiev 's first composition teacher ) as " a tall woman with beautiful , clever eyes ... who knew how to create an atmosphere of warmth and simplicity about her . " After their wedding in the summer of 1877 , the Prokofievs had moved to a small estate in the Smolensk governorate . Eventually Sergei Alexeyevich found employment as a soil engineer , employed by one of his former fellow @-@ students , Dmitri Sontsov , to whose estate in the Ukrainian steppes the Prokofievs moved .
By the time of Prokofiev 's birth Maria , having previously lost two daughters , had devoted her life to music ; during her son 's early childhood she spent two months a year in Moscow or St Petersburg taking piano lessons . Sergei Prokofiev was inspired by hearing his mother practicing the piano in the evenings – mostly works by Chopin and Beethoven – and composed his first piano composition at the age of five , an ' Indian Gallop ' , which was written down by his mother : this was in the F Lydian mode ( a major scale with a raised 4th scale degree ) as the young Prokofiev felt ' reluctance to tackle the black notes ' . By seven , he had also learned to play chess . Much like music , chess would remain a passion , and he became acquainted with world chess champions José Raúl Capablanca , whom he beat in a simultaneous exhibition match in 1914 , and Mikhail Botvinnik , with whom he played several matches in the 1930s . At the age of nine he was composing his first opera , The Giant , as well as an overture and various other pieces .
= = = Formal education and controversial early works = = =
In 1902 , Prokofiev 's mother met Sergei Taneyev , director of the Moscow Conservatory , who initially suggested that Prokofiev should start lessons in piano and composition with Alexander Goldenweiser . When Taneyev was unable to arrange this , he instead organised that composer and pianist Reinhold Glière should spend the summer of 1902 in Sontsovka teaching Prokofiev . This first series of lessons culminated , at the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Prokofiev 's insistence , with the budding composer making his first attempt to write a symphony . The following summer Glière revisited Sontsovka to give further tuition . When decades later Prokofiev wrote about his lessons with Glière , he gave due credit to his teacher 's sympathetic method but complained that Glière had introduced him to " square " phrase structure and conventional modulations which he subsequently had to unlearn . Nonetheless , equipped with the necessary theoretical tools , Prokofiev started experimenting with dissonant harmonies and unusual time signatures in a series of short piano pieces which he called " ditties " ( after the so @-@ called " song form " – more accurately ternary form – they were based on ) , laying the basis for his own musical style .
Despite his growing talent , Prokofiev 's parents hesitated over starting their son on a musical career at such an early age , and considered the possibility of his attending a quality high school in Moscow . By 1904 , his mother had decided instead on Saint Petersburg , and she and Prokofiev visited the ( then ) capital to explore the possibility of their moving there for his education . They were introduced to composer Alexander Glazunov , a professor at the Conservatory , who asked to see Prokofiev and his music ; Glazunov was so impressed that he urged Prokofiev 's mother that her son apply to the Saint Petersburg Conservatory . By this point , Prokofiev had composed two more operas , Desert Islands and The Feast during the Plague , and was working on his fourth , Undina . He passed the introductory tests and entered the Conservatory that same year .
Several years younger than most of his class , he was viewed as eccentric and arrogant , and he annoyed a number of his classmates by keeping statistics on the errors made by fellow students . During this period , he studied under , among others , Alexander Winkler for piano , Anatoly Lyadov for harmony and counterpoint , Nikolai Tcherepnin for conducting , and Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov for orchestration ( though when Rimsky @-@ Korsakov died in 1908 , Prokofiev noted that he had only studied with him " after a fashion " – he was just one of many students in a heavily attended class — and regretted that he otherwise " never had the opportunity to study with him " ) . He also shared classes with the composers Boris Asafyev and Nikolai Myaskovsky , the latter becoming a relatively close and lifelong friend .
As a member of the Saint Petersburg music scene , Prokofiev developed a reputation as a musical rebel , while getting praise for his original compositions , which he performed himself on the piano . In 1909 , he graduated from his class in composition with unimpressive marks . He continued at the Conservatory , studying piano under Anna Yesipova and continuing his conducting lessons under Tcherepnin .
In 1910 , Prokofiev 's father died and Sergei 's financial support ceased . Fortunately he had started making a name for himself as a composer and pianist outside the Conservatory , making appearances at the St Petersburg Evenings of Contemporary Music . There he performed several of his more adventurous piano works , such as his highly chromatic and dissonant Etudes , Op. 2 ( 1909 ) . His performance of this impressed the organizers of Evenings sufficiently for them to invite Prokofiev to give the Russian premiere of Arnold Schoenberg 's Drei Klavierstücke , Op. 11 . Prokofiev 's harmonic experimentation continued with Sarcasms for piano , Op. 17 ( 1912 ) , which makes extensive use of polytonality . He composed his first two piano concertos around this time , the latter of which caused a scandal at its premiere ( 23 August 1913 , Pavlovsk ) . According to one account , the audience left the hall with exclamations of " ' To hell with this futuristic music ! The cats on the roof make better music ! ' " , but the modernists were in rapture .
In 1911 , help arrived from renowned Russian musicologist and critic Alexander Ossovsky , who wrote a supportive letter to music publisher Boris P. Jurgenson ( son of publishing @-@ firm founder Peter Jurgenson [ 1836 – 1904 ] ) ; thus a contract was offered to the composer . Prokofiev made his first foreign trip in 1913 , travelling to Paris and London where he first encountered Sergei Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes .
= = = The first ballets = = =
In 1914 , Prokofiev finished his career at the Conservatory by entering the so @-@ called ' battle of the pianos ' , a competition open to the five best piano students for which the prize was a Schreder grand piano : Prokofiev won by performing his own Piano Concerto No. 1 . Soon afterwards , he journeyed to London where he made contact with the impresario Sergei Diaghilev . Diaghilev commissioned Prokofiev 's first ballet , Ala and Lolli ; but when Prokofiev brought the work in progress to him in Italy in 1915 he rejected it as " non @-@ Russian " . Urging Prokofiev to write " music that was national in character " , Diaghilev then commissioned the ballet Chout ( The Fool , the original Russian @-@ language full title was Сказка про шута , семерых шутов перешутившего ( Skazka pro shuta , semerykh shutov pereshutivshavo ) , meaning " The Tale of the Buffoon who Outwits Seven Other Buffoons " ) . Under Diaghilev 's guidance , Prokofiev chose his subject from a collection of folktales by the ethnographer Alexander Afanasyev ; the story , concerning a buffoon and a series of confidence tricks , had been previously suggested to Diaghilev by Igor Stravinsky as a possible subject for a ballet , and Diaghilev and his choreographer Léonide Massine helped Prokofiev to shape this into a ballet scenario . Prokofiev 's inexperience with ballet led him to revise the work extensively in the 1920s , following Diaghilev 's detailed critique , prior to its first production . The ballet 's premiere in Paris on 17 May 1921 was a huge success and was greeted with great admiration by an audience that included Jean Cocteau , Igor Stravinsky and Maurice Ravel . Stravinsky called the ballet " the single piece of modern music he could listen to with pleasure , " while Ravel called it " a work of genius . "
= = = First World War and Revolution = = =
During World War I , Prokofiev returned to the Conservatory and studied organ in order to avoid conscription . He composed The Gambler based on Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's novel of the same name , but rehearsals were plagued by problems and the scheduled 1917 première had to be canceled because of the February Revolution . In the summer of that year , Prokofiev composed his first symphony , the Classical . This was his own name for the symphony , which was written in the style that , according to Prokofiev , Joseph Haydn would have used if he had been alive at the time . It is more or less Classical in style but incorporates more modern musical elements ( see Neoclassicism ) . This symphony was also an exact contemporary of Prokofiev 's Violin Concerto No. 1 in D major , Op. 19 , which was scheduled to premiere in November 1917 . The first performances of both works had to wait until 21 April 1918 and 18 October 1923 , respectively . He stayed briefly with his mother in Kislovodsk in the Caucasus . After completing the score of Seven , They Are Seven , a " Chaldean invocation " for chorus and orchestra , Prokofiev was " left with nothing to do and time hung heavily on my hands " . Believing that Russia " had no use for music at the moment " , Prokofiev decided to try his fortunes in America until the turmoil in his homeland had passed . He set out for Moscow and Petersburg in March 1918 to sort out financial matters and to arrange for his passport . In May he headed for the USA , having obtained official permission to do so from Anatoly Lunacharsky , the People 's Commissar for Education , who told him : " You are a revolutionary in music , we are revolutionaries in life . We ought to work together . But if you want to go to America I shall not stand in your way . "
= = = Life abroad = = =
Arriving in San Francisco after having been released from questioning by immigration officials on Angel Island on 11 August 1918 , Prokofiev was soon compared to other famous Russian exiles ( such as Sergei Rachmaninoff ) . His debut solo concert in New York led to several further engagements . He also received a contract from the music director of the Chicago Opera Association , Cleofonte Campanini , for the production of his new opera The Love for Three Oranges ; however , due to Campanini 's illness and death , the premiere was postponed . This delay was another example of Prokofiev 's bad luck in operatic matters . The failure also cost him his American solo career , since the opera took too much time and effort . He soon found himself in financial difficulties , and , in April 1920 , he left for Paris , not wanting to return to Russia as a failure .
In Paris Prokofiev reaffirmed his contacts with Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes . He also completed some of his older , unfinished works , such as the Third Piano Concerto . The Love for Three Oranges finally premièred in Chicago , under the composer 's baton , on 30 December 1921 . Diaghilev became sufficiently interested in the opera to request Prokofiev play the vocal score to him in June 1922 , while they were both in Paris for a revival of Chout , so he could consider it for a possible production . Stravinsky , who was present at the audition , refused to listen to more than the first act . When he then accused Prokofiev of " wasting time composing operas " , Prokofiev retorted that Stravinsky " was in no position to lay down a general artistic direction , since he is himself not immune to error " . According to Prokofiev , Stravinsky " became incandescent with rage " and " we almost came to blows and were separated only with difficulty " . As a result , " our relations became strained and for several years Stravinsky 's attitude toward me was critical . "
In March 1922 , Prokofiev moved with his mother to the town of Ettal in the Bavarian Alps , where for over a year he concentrated on an opera project , The Fiery Angel , based on the novel by Valery Bryusov . By this time his later music had acquired a following in Russia , and he received invitations to return there , but he decided to stay in Europe . In 1923 , Prokofiev married the Spanish singer Carolina Codina ( 1897 – 1989 , whose stage name was Lina Llubera ) before moving back to Paris .
In Paris , several of his works ( for example the Second Symphony ) were performed , but the audiences ' reception was now lukewarm and Prokofiev sensed that he " was evidently no longer a sensation " . However the Symphony appeared to prompt Diaghilev to commission Le pas d 'acier ( The Steel Step ) , a ' modernist ' ballet score intended to portray the industrialisation of the Soviet Union . It was enthusiastically received by Parisian audiences and critics .
In around 1924 , Prokofiev was introduced to Christian Science . He began to practice its teachings , which he believed to be beneficial to his health and to his fiery temperament , and to which , according to biographer Simon Morrison , he remained faithful for the rest of his life .
Prokofiev and Stravinsky restored their friendship , though Prokofiev particularly disliked Stravinsky 's " stylization of Bach " in such recent works as the Octet and the Concerto for Piano and Wind Instruments . However , Stravinsky himself described Prokofiev as the greatest Russian composer of his day , after himself .
= = = First visits to the Soviet Union = = =
In 1927 , Prokofiev made his first concert tour in the Soviet Union . Over the course of more than two months , he spent time in Moscow and Leningrad ( as Saint Petersburg had been renamed ) , where he enjoyed a very successful staging of The Love for Three Oranges in the Mariinsky Theatre . In 1928 , Prokofiev completed his Third Symphony , which was broadly based on his unperformed opera The Fiery Angel . The conductor Serge Koussevitzky characterized the Third as " the greatest symphony since Tchaikovsky 's Sixth . "
In the meantime , however , Prokofiev , under the influence of the teachings of Christian Science , had turned against the expressionist style and the subject matter of The Fiery Angel . He now preferred what he called a " new simplicity " , which he believed more sincere than the " contrivances and complexities " of so much modern music of the 1920s . During 1928 – 29 , Prokofiev composed what was to be the last ballet for Diaghilev , The Prodigal Son . When first staged in Paris on 21 May 1929 , with Serge Lifar in the title role , both audience and critics were particularly struck by the final scene in which the prodigal son drags himself across the stage upon his knees to be welcomed by his father . Diaghilev had recognised that in the music to this scene , Prokofiev had " never been more clear , more simple , more melodious , and more tender . " Only months later , Diaghilev was dead .
That summer , Prokofiev completed the Divertimento , Op. 43 ( which he had started in 1925 ) and revised his Sinfonietta , Op. 5 / 48 , a work started in his days at the Conservatory . In October that year , he had a car crash while driving his family back to Paris from their holiday : as the car turned over , Prokofiev pulled some muscles on his left hand . Prokofiev was therefore unable to perform in Moscow during his tour shortly after the accident , but he was able to enjoy watching performances of his music from the audience . Prokofiev also attended the Bolshoi Theatre 's " audition " of his ballet Le pas d 'acier , and was interrogated by members of the Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians ( RAPM ) about the work : he was asked whether the factory portrayed " a capitalist factory , where the worker is a slave , or a Soviet factory , where the worker is the master ? If it is a Soviet factory , when and where did Prokofiev examine it , since from 1918 to the present he has been living abroad and came here for the first time in 1927 for two weeks [ sic ] ? " Prokofiev replied , " That concerns politics , not music , and therefore I won 't answer . " The RAPM condemned the ballet as a " flat and vulgar anti @-@ Soviet anecdote , a counter @-@ revolutionary composition bordering on Fascism " . The Bolshoi had no option but to reject the ballet .
With his left hand healed , Prokofiev toured the United States successfully at the start of 1930 , propped up by his recent European success . That year Prokofiev began his first non @-@ Diaghilev ballet On the Dnieper , Op. 51 , a work commissioned by Serge Lifar , who had been appointed maitre de ballet at the Paris Opéra . In 1931 and 1932 , he completed his fourth and fifth piano concertos . The following year saw the completion of the Symphonic Song , Op. 57 , which Prokofiev 's friend Myaskovsky – thinking of its potential audience in the Soviet Union – told him " isn 't quite for us ... it lacks that which we mean by monumentalism – a familiar simplicity and broad contours , of which you are extremely capable , but temporarily are carefully avoiding . "
By the early 1930s , both Europe and America were suffering from the Great Depression , which inhibited both new opera and ballet productions , though audiences for Prokofiev 's appearances as a pianist were — in Europe at least — undiminished . However Prokofiev , who saw himself as a composer first and foremost , increasingly resented the amount of time that was lost to composition through his appearances as a pianist . Having been homesick for some time , Prokofiev began to build substantial bridges with the Soviet Union . Following the dissolution of the RAPM in 1932 , he acted increasingly as a musical ambassador between his homeland and western Europe , and his premieres and commissions were increasingly under the auspices of the Soviet Union . One such was Lieutenant Kijé , which was commissioned as the score to a Soviet film . Another commission , from the Kirov Theatre ( as the Mariinsky had now been renamed ) in Leningrad , was the ballet Romeo and Juliet , composed to a scenario created by Adrian Piotrovsky and Sergei Radlov following the precepts of " drambalet " ( dramatised ballet , officially promoted at the Kirov to replace works based primarily on choreographic display and innovation ) . Following Radlov 's acrimonious resignation from the Kirov in June 1934 , a new agreement was signed with the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow on the understanding that Piotrovsky would remain involved . However , the ballet 's original happy ending ( contrary to Shakespeare ) provoked controversy among Soviet cultural officials ; the ballet 's production was then postponed indefinitely when the staff of the Bolshoi was overhauled at the behest of the chairman of the Committee on Arts Affairs , Platon Kerzhentsev . Nikolai Myaskovsky , one of his closest friends , mentioned in a number of letters how he would like Prokofiev to stay in Russia .
= = = Return to Russia = = =
In 1936 , Prokofiev and his family settled permanently in Moscow . In that year he composed one of his most famous works , Peter and the Wolf , for Natalya Sats 's Central Children 's Theatre . Sats also persuaded Prokofiev to write two songs for children – " Sweet Song " , and " Chatterbox " ; these were eventually joined by " The Little Pigs " , published as Three Children 's Songs , Op. 68 . Prokofiev also composed the gigantic Cantata for the 20th Anniversary of the October Revolution , originally intended for performance during the anniversary year but effectively blocked by Kerzhentsev , who demanded at the work 's audition before the Committee on Arts Affairs , " Just what do you think you 're doing , Sergey Sergeyevich , taking texts that belong to the people and setting them to such incomprehensible music ? " The Cantata had to wait until 5 April 1966 for a partial premiere ( just over 13 years after the composer 's death ) .
Forced to adapt to the new circumstances ( whatever misgivings he had about them in private ) , Prokofiev wrote a series of " mass songs " ( Opp . 66 , 79 , 89 ) , using the lyrics of officially approved Soviet poets . In 1938 , Prokofiev collaborated with Eisenstein on the historical epic Alexander Nevsky . For this he composed some of his most inventive and dramatic music . Although the film had a very poor sound recording , Prokofiev adapted much of his score into a large @-@ scale cantata for mezzo @-@ soprano , orchestra and chorus , which was extensively performed and recorded . In the wake of Alexander Nevsky 's success , Prokofiev composed his first Soviet opera Semyon Kotko , which was intended to be produced by the director Vsevolod Meyerhold . However the première of the opera was postponed because Meyerhold was arrested on 20 June 1939 by the NKVD ( Joseph Stalin 's Secret Police ) , and shot on 2 February 1940 . Only months after Meyerhold 's arrest , Prokofiev was ' invited ' to compose Zdravitsa ( literally translated ' Cheers ! ' , but more often given the English title Hail to Stalin ) ( Op. 85 ) to celebrate Joseph Stalin 's 60th birthday .
Later in 1939 , Prokofiev composed his Piano Sonatas Nos. 6 , 7 , and 8 , Opp . 82 – 84 , widely known today as the " War Sonatas . " Premiered respectively by Prokofiev ( No. 6 : 8 April 1940 ) , Sviatoslav Richter ( No. 7 : Moscow , 18 January 1943 ) and Emil Gilels ( No. 8 : Moscow , 30 December 1944 ) , they were subsequently championed in particular by Richter . Biographer Daniel Jaffé argued that Prokofiev , " having forced himself to compose a cheerful evocation of the nirvana Stalin wanted everyone to believe he had created " ( i.e. in Zdravitsa ) then subsequently , in these three sonatas , " expressed his true feelings " . As evidence of this , Jaffé has pointed out that the central movement of Sonata No. 7 opens with a theme based on a Robert Schumann lied , ' Wehmut ' ( ' Sadness ' , which appears in Schumann 's Liederkreis , Op. 39 ) : the words to this translate " I can sometimes sing as if I were glad , yet secretly tears well and so free my heart . Nightingales ... sing their song of longing from their dungeon 's depth ... everyone delights , yet no one feels the pain , the deep sorrow in the song . " Ironically ( because , it appears , no one had noticed his allusion ) Sonata No. 7 received a Stalin Prize ( Second Class ) , and No. 8 a Stalin Prize First Class .
In the meantime , Romeo and Juliet was finally staged by the Kirov ballet , choreographed by Leonid Lavrovsky , on 11 January 1940 . To the surprise of all its participants , the dancers having struggled to cope with the music 's syncopated rhythms and almost having boycotted the production , the ballet was an instant success , and became recognised as the crowning achievement of Soviet dramatic ballet .
= = = War years = = =
Prokofiev had been considering making an opera out of Leo Tolstoy 's epic novel War and Peace , when news of the German invasion of Russia on 22 June 1941 made the subject seem all the more timely . Prokofiev took two years to compose his original version of War and Peace . Because of the war he was evacuated together with a large number of other artists , initially to the Caucasus where he composed his Second String Quartet . By this time his relationship with the 25 @-@ year @-@ old writer and librettist Mira Mendelson ( 1915 – 1968 ) had finally led to his separation from his wife Lina , although they were never technically divorced : indeed Prokofiev had tried to persuade Lina and their sons to accompany him as evacuees out of Moscow , but Lina opted to stay .
During the war years , restrictions on style and the demand that composers should write in a ' socialist realist ' style were slackened , and Prokofiev was generally able to compose in his own way . The Violin Sonata No. 1 , Op. 80 , The Year 1941 , Op. 90 , and the Ballade for the Boy Who Remained Unknown , Op. 93 all came from this period . In 1943 Prokofiev joined Eisenstein in Alma @-@ Ata , the largest city in Kazakhstan , to compose more film music ( Ivan the Terrible ) , and the ballet Cinderella ( Op. 87 ) , one of his most melodious and celebrated compositions . Early that year he also played excerpts from War and Peace to members of the Bolshoi Theatre collective . However , the Soviet government had opinions about the opera which resulted in many revisions . In 1944 , Prokofiev spent time at a composer 's colony outside Moscow in order to compose his Fifth Symphony ( Op. 100 ) . Prokofiev conducted its first performance on 13 January 1945 , just a fortnight after the triumphant premieres on 30 December 1944 of his Eighth Piano Sonata and , on the same day , the first part of Eisenstein 's Ivan the Terrible . With the premiere of his Fifth Symphony , which was programmed alongside Peter and the Wolf and the Classical Symphony ( these conducted by Nikolai Anosov ) , Prokofiev appeared to reach the peak of his celebrity as a leading composer of the Soviet Union . Shortly afterwards , he suffered a concussion after a fall due to chronic high blood pressure . He never fully recovered from this injury , and was forced on medical advice to restrict his composing activity .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
Prokofiev had time to write his postwar Sixth Symphony and his Ninth Piano Sonata ( for Sviatoslav Richter ) before the so @-@ called " Zhdanov Decree " . In early 1948 , following a meeting of Soviet composers convened by Andrei Zhdanov , the Politburo issued a resolution denouncing Prokofiev , Dmitri Shostakovich , Myaskovsky , and Khachaturian of the crime of " formalism " , described as a " renunciation of the basic principles of classical music " in favour of " muddled , nerve @-@ racking " sounds that " turned music into cacophony " . Eight of Prokofiev 's works were banned from performance : The Year 1941 , Ode to the End of the War , Festive Poem , Cantata for the Thirtieth Anniversary of October , Ballad of an Unknown Boy , the 1934 piano cycle Thoughts , and Piano Sonatas Nos 6 and 8 . Such was the perceived threat behind the banning of these works that even works that had avoided censure were no longer programmed : by August 1948 , Prokofiev was in severe financial straits , his personal debt amounting to 180 @,@ 000 rubles .
Meanwhile , on 20 February 1948 , Prokofiev 's wife Lina was arrested for ' espionage ' , as she had tried to send money to her mother in Spain . After nine months of interrogation , she was sentenced by a three @-@ member Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR to 20 years of hard labour . She was eventually released after Stalin 's death in 1953 and in 1974 left the Soviet Union .
Prokofiev 's latest opera projects , among them his desperate attempt to appease the cultural authorities , The Story of a Real Man , were quickly cancelled by the Kirov Theatre . This snub , in combination with his declining health , caused Prokofiev progressively to withdraw from public life and from various activities , even his beloved chess , and increasingly he devoted himself exclusively to his own work . After a serious relapse in 1949 , his doctors ordered him to limit his activities , limiting him to composing for only an hour a day .
In spring 1949 he wrote his Cello Sonata in C , Op. 119 , for the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Mstislav Rostropovich , who gave the first performance in 1950 , with Sviatoslav Richter . For Rostropovich , Prokofiev also extensively recomposed his Cello Concerto , transforming it into a Symphony @-@ Concerto , his last major masterpiece and a landmark in the cello and orchestra repertory today . The last public performance he attended was the première of the Seventh Symphony in 1952 . The music was written for the Children 's Radio Division .
= = = Death = = =
Prokofiev died at the age of 61 on 5 March 1953 , the same day as Joseph Stalin . He had lived near Red Square , and for three days the throngs gathered to mourn Stalin , making it impossible to carry Prokofiev 's body out for the funeral service at the headquarters of the Soviet Composers ' Union . He is buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow . He was an atheist .
The leading Soviet musical periodical reported Prokofiev 's death as a brief item on page 116 . The first 115 pages were devoted to the death of Stalin . Usually Prokofiev 's death is attributed to cerebral hemorrhage . He had been chronically ill for the prior eight years ; the precise nature of Prokofiev 's terminal illness remains uncertain .
Lina Prokofiev outlived her estranged husband by many years , dying in London in early 1989 . Royalties from her late husband 's music provided her with a modest income , and she acted as storyteller for a recording of her husband 's Peter and the Wolf ( currently released on CD by Chandos Records ) with Neeme Järvi conducting the Scottish National Orchestra . Their sons Sviatoslav ( 1924 – 2010 ) , an architect , and Oleg ( 1928 – 1998 ) , an artist , painter , sculptor and poet , dedicated a large part of their lives to the promotion of their father 's life and work .
= = Posthumous reputation = =
Arthur Honegger proclaimed that Prokofiev would " remain for us the greatest figure of contemporary music , " and the American scholar Richard Taruskin has recognised Prokofiev 's " gift , virtually unparalleled among 20th @-@ century composers , for writing distinctively original diatonic melodies . " Yet for some time Prokofiev 's reputation in the West suffered as a result of cold @-@ war antipathies , and his music has never won from Western academics and critics the kind of esteem currently enjoyed by Igor Stravinsky and Arnold Schoenberg , composers purported to have a greater influence on a younger generation of musicians .
Today Prokofiev may well be the most popular composer of 20th @-@ century music . His orchestral music alone is played more frequently in the United States than that of any other composer of the last hundred years , save Richard Strauss , while his operas , ballets , chamber works , and piano music appear regularly throughout the major concert halls world @-@ wide .
The composer received honours in his native Donetsk Oblast , when the Donetsk International Airport was renamed to be " Donetsk Sergey Prokofiev International Airport , " and when the Donetsk Musical and Pedagogical Institute was renamed in 1988 to " S.S. Prokofiev State Music Academy of Donetsk . "
= = Works = =
= = Recordings = =
Prokofiev was a soloist with the London Symphony Orchestra , conducted by Piero Coppola , in the first recording of his Piano Concerto No. 3 , recorded in London by His Master 's Voice in June 1932 . Prokofiev also recorded some of his solo piano music for HMV in Paris in February 1935 ; these recordings were issued on CD by Pearl and Naxos . In 1938 , he conducted the Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra in a recording of the second suite from his Romeo and Juliet ballet ; this performance was later released on LP and CD . Another reported recording with Prokofiev and the Moscow Philharmonic was of the First Violin Concerto with David Oistrakh as soloist ; Everest Records later released this recording on an LP . Despite the attribution , the conductor was Aleksandr Gauk . A short sound film of Prokofiev playing some of the music from his opera War and Peace and then explaining the music has been discovered .
= = Honours and awards = =
Six Stalin Prizes :
( 1943 ) , 2nd degree – for Piano Sonata No. 7
( 1946 ) , 1st degree – for Symphony No. 5 and Piano Sonata No. 8
( 1946 ) , 1st degree – for the music for the film " Ivan the Terrible " Part 1 ( 1944 )
( 1946 ) , 1st degree – for the ballet " Cinderella " ( 1944 )
( 1947 ) , 1st degree – for Violin Sonata No. 1
( 1951 ) , 2nd degree – for vocal @-@ symphonic suite " Winter bonfire " and the oratorio " On Guard for Peace " on poems by S. Marshak
Lenin Prize ( 1957 – posthumous ) – for Symphony No. 7
People 's Artist of RSFSR ( 1947 )
Order of the Red Banner of Labour
= = = Autobiography and diaries = = =
= = = Memoirs , essays , etc . = = =
= = = Biographies = = =
= = = Other monographs = = =
= = = Dictionary articles = = =
= Calakmul =
Calakmul ( / ˌkɑːlɑːkˈmuːl / ; also Kalakmul and other less frequent variants ) is a Maya archaeological site in the Mexican state of Campeche , deep in the jungles of the greater Petén Basin region . It is 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) from the Guatemalan border . Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands .
Calakmul was a major Maya power within the northern Petén Basin region of the Yucatán Peninsula of southern Mexico . Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign , to be read " Kaan " . Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Kingdom of the Snake or Snake Kingdom . This Snake Kingdom reigned during most of the Classic period . Calakmul itself is estimated to have had a population of 50 @,@ 000 people and had governance , at times , over places as far away as 150 kilometers . There are 6 @,@ 750 ancient structures identified at Calakmul ; the largest of which is the great pyramid at the site . Structure 2 is over 45 metres ( 148 ft ) high , making it one of the tallest of the Maya pyramids . Four tombs have been located within the pyramid . Like many temples or pyramids within Mesoamerica the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the existing temple to reach its current size . The size of the central monumental architecture is approximately 2 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 77 sq mi ) and the whole of the site , mostly covered with dense residential structures , is about 20 square kilometres ( 7 @.@ 7 sq mi ) .
Throughout the Classic Period , Calakmul maintained an intense rivalry with the major city of Tikal to the south , and the political manoeuvrings of these two cities have been likened to a struggle between two Maya superpowers .
Rediscovered from the air by biologist Cyrus L. Lundell of the Mexican Exploitation Chicle Company on December 29 , 1931 , the find was reported to Sylvanus G. Morley of the Carnegie Institute at Chichen Itza in March 1932 .
= = Etymology = =
Calakmul is a modern name ; according to Cyrus L. Lundell , who named the site , In Maya , ca means " two " , lak means " adjacent " , and mul signifies any artificial mound or pyramid , so Calakmul is the " City of the Two Adjacent Pyramids " . In ancient times the city core was known as Ox Te ' Tuun , meaning " Three Stones " . Another name associated with the site , and perhaps a larger area around it , is Chiik Naab ' . The lords of Calakmul identified themselves as k 'uhul kaanal ajaw , Divine Lords of the Snake , but the connection of the title to the actual site is ambiguous .
= = Location = =
Calakmul is located in Campeche state in southeastern Mexico , about 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) north of the border with Guatemala and 38 kilometres ( 24 mi ) north of the ruins of El Mirador . The ruins of El Tintal are 68 kilometres ( 42 mi ) to the southwest of Calakmul and were linked to both El Mirador and Calakmul itself by causeway . Calakmul was about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of the contemporary city of Oxpemul and approximately 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) southwest of La Muñeca . The city is located on a rise about 35 metres ( 115 ft ) above a large seasonal swamp lying to the west , known as the El Laberinto bajo ( a Spanish word used in the region to denote a low @-@ lying area of seasonal marshland ) . This swamp measures approximately 34 by 8 kilometres ( 21 @.@ 1 by 5 @.@ 0 mi ) and was an important source of water during the rainy season . The bajo was linked to a sophisticated water @-@ control system including both natural and artificial features such as gullies and canals that encircled a 22 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 5 sq mi ) area around the site core , an area considered as Inner Calakmul . The location of Calakmul at the edge of a bajo provided two additional advantages : the fertile soils along the edge of the swamp and access to abundant flint nodules . The city is situated on a promontory formed by a natural 35 @-@ metre ( 115 ft ) high limestone dome rising above the surrounding lowlands . This dome was artificially levelled by the Maya . During the Preclassic and Classic periods settlement was concentrated along the edge of the El Laberinto bajo , during the Classic period structures were also built on high ground and small islands in the swamp where flint was worked .
At the beginning of the 21st century the area around Calakmul remained covered by dense forest . During the 1st millennium AD the area received moderate and regular rainfall , although there is less surface water available than further south in Guatemala . Calakumul is now located within the 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 7 @,@ 300 km2 ) Calakmul Biosphere Reserve .
= = Population and extent = =
At its height in the Late Classic period the city is estimated to have had a population of 50 @,@ 000 inhabitants and to have covered an area of over 70 square kilometres ( 27 sq mi ) . The city was the capital of a large regional state with an area of about 13 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 5 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . During the Terminal Classic the city 's population declined dramatically and the rural population plummeted to 10 % of its former level .
The Late Classic population density of Calakmul has been calculated at 1000 / km ² ( 2564 per square mile ) in the site core and 420 / km ² ( 1076 per square mile ) in the periphery ( an area of 122 square kilometres ( 47 sq mi ) . Calakmul was a true urban city and not just an elite centre surrounded by commoner residences . The site core of Calakmul was known in ancient times as Ox Te ' Tuun ( " Three Stones " ) which may have been because of the triadic pyramid Structure 2 .
The Calakmul kingdom included 20 secondary centres , among which were large cities such as La Muñeca , Naachtun , Sasilha , Oxpemul and Uxul . The total population of these secondary centres has been estimated at 200 @,@ 000 . The kingdom also included a large number of tertiary and quaternary sites , mostly fairly small and consisting of a number of groups arranged around courtyards , although there are also larger rural sites situated on ridges along the edges of the bajos that include temples , palaces and stelae . The total rural population of the kingdom is calculated at 1 @.@ 5 million people . The entire population of the Calakmul kingdom , including the city itself and the rural population in the 13 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 5 @,@ 000 sq mi ) area of the regional state , is calculated at 1 @.@ 75 million people in the Late Classic period .
The Emblem Glyph of Calakmul has a greater distribution than the Emblem Glyph of any other Maya city . The Glyph is also found in more hieroglyphic texts than any other Emblem Glyph , including that of Tikal . Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign , to be read " Kaan " . Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Snake Kingdom . At times the city had governance over places as far away as 150 kilometers .
= = Known rulers = =
The kings of Calakmul were known as k 'uhul kan ajawob ( / k ’ uːˈχuːl kän äχäˈwoɓ / ) ( " Divine Lords of the Snake Kingdom " ) . This list is not continuous , as the archaeological record is incomplete . All dates AD .
= = Emblem Glyph = =
At Calakmul 's peak in the 7th century , the polity was known as Kan . Interesting to know is that the title Kan was used at another place before Calakmul became a regional powerhouse . The Preclassic political state in the Mirador Basin also used the title Kan . There is the idea that , after the collapse of the Mirador state , its refugees migrated north towards Calakmul , where they founded a new Kan polity . However , epigraphical studies of the monuments at Calakmul show that prior to the 7th century AD the emblem glyph of Calakmul had nothing to do with a snake , but with a bat . It seems that a different polity ruled there . The Kan emblem glyph , before being associated with Calakmul , is found ( once ) at Dzibanché , a site more towards the east . Perhaps during the late 6th / early 7th century , the polity at Dzibanché moved to Calakmul in order to establish a more strategically placed capital . After Calakmul 's power dwindled in the 8th century , after the rule of Yuknoom Took K 'awiil , it appears that the bat emblem glyph made its resurgence . Still , many uncertainties remain and new epigraphical studies have to be done to fill the gaps .
= = History = =
Calakmul has a long occupational history and excavations have revealed evidence from the Middle Preclassic right through to the Postclassic . The causeway network that linked Calakmul with the cities of El Mirador , Nakbe and El Tintal suggest strong political links between the four cities that may have begun in the Preclassic , when both Calakmul and El Mirador were important cities , and continued into the Classic period when Calakmul itself was the most powerful city in the region . Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands .
= = = Calakmul vs. Tikal = = =
The history of the Maya Classic period is dominated by the rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul , likened to a struggle between two Maya " superpowers " . Earlier times tended to be dominated by a single larger city and by the Early Classic Tikal was moving into this position after the dominance of El Mirador in the Late Preclassic and Nakbe in the Middle Preclassic . However Calakmul was a rival city with equivalent resources that challenged the supremacy of Tikal and engaged in a strategy of surrounding it with its own network of allies . From the second half of the 6th century AD through to the late 7th century Calakmul gained the upper hand although it failed to extinguish Tikal 's power completely and Tikal was able to turn the tables on its great rival in a decisive battle that took place in AD 695 . Half a century later Tikal was able to gain major victories over Calakmul 's most important allies . Eventually both cities succumbed to the spreading Classic Maya collapse .
The great rivalry between these two cities may have been based on more than competition for resources . Their dynastic histories reveal different origins and the intense competition between the two powers may have had an ideological grounding . Calakmul 's dynasty seems ultimately derived from the great Preclassic city of El Mirador while the dynasty of Tikal was profoundly affected by the intervention of the distant central Mexican metropolis of Teotihuacan . With few exceptions , Tikal 's monuments and those of its allies place great emphasis upon single male rulers while the monuments of Calakmul and its allies gave greater prominence to the female line and often the joint rule of king and queen .
= = = Preclassic = = =
Calakmul was already a large city in the Preclassic period . The early history of Calakmul is obscure , although a dynastic list has been pieced together that extends back into an ancestral past . This dynasty has been reconstructed in part from Late Classic ceramics from the region of great Preclassic cities of El Mirador and Nakbe . This may mean that Calakmul ultimately inherited its political authority from one of these cities , with its dynasty originating in the Late Preclassic in the Mirador Basin and relocating itself to Calakmul in the Classic period after the collapse of these cities .
= = = Early Classic = = =
Both Calakmul and Tikal were sizeable Preclassic cities that survived into the Classic Period . Early hieroglyphic texts from stelae found in Structure 2 record the probable enthronement of a king of Calakmul in AD 411 and also records a non @-@ royal site ruler in 514 . After this there is a gap in the hieroglyphic records that lasts over a century , although the Kaan dynasty experienced a major expansion of its power at this time . The lack of inscriptions recording the events of this period may be either due to the fact that the Kaan dynasty was located elsewhere during this time or perhaps that the monuments were later destroyed .
The earliest legible texts referring to the kings of the Kaan dynasty come from excavations of the large city of Dzibanche in Quintana Roo , far north of Calakmul . A hieroglyphic stairway depicts bound captives , their names and the dates they were captured together with the name of king Yuknoom Che 'en I , although the exact context of the king 's name is unclear - the captives may have been his vassals captured by an enemy or they may have been rulers captured by the king of Calakmul . The dates are uncertain but two of them may fall within the 5th century AD . The nearby Quintana Roo site of El Resbalón has a jumbled hieroglyphic text , including a date in 529 , that indicates that the city was within the control of the Kaan dynasty .
By the middle of the 6th century AD Calakmul was assembling a far @-@ reaching political alliance , activity that brought the city into conflict with the great city of Tikal . The influence of Calakmul extended deep into the Petén ; king Tuun K 'ab ' Hix of Calakmul oversaw the enthronement of Aj Wosal to the rulership of Naranjo in 546 . Another vassal of Tuun K 'ab ' Hix was taken captive by Yaxchilan on the banks of the Usumacinta River in 537 .
In 561 , the king now known as Sky Witness installed a ruler at the site of Los Alacranes . Sky Witness played a major part in the political events of the Maya region . He became the overlord of the city of Caracol , to the south of Naranjo , which had previously been a vassal of Tikal . In 562 , according to a damaged text at Caracol , Sky Witness defeated Tikal itself and sacrificed its king Wak Chan K 'awiil , thus ending his branch of the royal dynasty at Tikal . This catastrophic defeat began a 130 @-@ year hiatus for Tikal , reflecting an extended period of dominance by Calakmul . This event is used as a marker to divide the Early Classic from the Late Classic . Sky Witness is also mentioned at Okop , a site much further north in Quintana Roo . The last reference to Sky Witness occurs at Caracol and is dated to AD 572 . The text is damaged but probably records the death of this powerful king .
= = = Late Classic = = =
= = = = War with Palenque = = = =
Sky Witness was quickly succeeded by First Axewielder , who is mentioned in a text from Dzibanche celebrating the K 'atun @-@ ending of 573 . First Axewielder ruled for about six years . In 579 Uneh Chan became king of Calakmul . Uneh Chan engaged in an aggressive campaign in the western Maya region and attacked Palenque on 23 April 599 with his ally Lakam Chak , lord of the small city of Santa Elena 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) east of Palenque , defeating Palenque 's queen Lady Yohl Ik 'nal and sacking the city . The defeat is recorded on a series of hieroglyphic steps at Palenque itself and the event initiated a long @-@ lasting grudge against Calakmul . Lady Yohl Ik 'nal survived the battle and ruled for several more years , although she perhaps paid tribute to Calakmul .
Uneh Chan maintained his alliances with cities in the east and he is depicted on Caracol Stela 4 supervising an event involving king Yajaw Te ' K 'inich of that city that occurred before 583 . Calakmul again sacked Palenque on 7 April 611 under the personal direction of Uneh Chan . Palenque was now ruled by king Ajen Yohl Mat who had gained some sort of independence from Calakmul , provoking the new invasion . The immediate aftermath of this second victory over Palenque involved the deaths of the two most important nobles at the city , Ajen Yohl Mat himself and Janab Pakal , a high @-@ ranking member of the royal family and possibly co @-@ ruler . Janab Pakal died in March 612 and Ajen Yohl Mat a few months later . Their deaths so soon after the sacking of the city suggests that their demise was directly linked to Calakmul 's triumph . Palenque suffered a lengthy decline in its fortunes after this date before it was able to recover from its disastrous war with Calakmul . The wars against Palenque may have been undertaken by Uneh Chan in order to seize control of wealthy trade routes that passed through the western Maya region .
= = = = Rebellion at Naranjo = = = =
King Yuknoom Chan of Calakmul supervised an event at Caracol in 619 . Caracol Stela 22 records the accession of Tajoom Uk 'ab ' K 'ak ' to the Calakmul throne in 622 . Two stelae were erected at Calakmul in 623 but their texts are too badly damaged to reveal the names of the royal couple involved . Approximately at this time Naranjo , a vassal of Calakmul , broke away when its king Aj Wosal died relatively soon after the death of Uneh Chan of Calakmul . Naranjo was independent of Calakmul by at least AD 626 , when it was twice defeated by Caracol and Yuknoom Chan may have been attempting to bring Naranjo back under Calakmul control . His attempts were brought to an end by his death in 630 . In 631 Yuknoom Head , the new king of Calakmul , finally regained control of Naranjo . Texts relate that the king of Naranjo was already captive at Calakmul on the day that his city was overrun and his punishment on the very same day is described by the word k 'uxaj ( / k ’ uːˈʃäχ / ) meaning either " tortured " or " eaten " . Yuknoom Head conquered another city in March 636 , although the exact site is unknown .
= = = = Apogee = = = =
The Kaan dynasty was not originally established at Calakmul but rather re @-@ located there in the 7th Century from another city . Calakmul experienced its highest achievements during the reign of king Yuknoom Che 'en II , sometimes called Yuknoom the Great by scholars . Yuknoom Che 'en II was 36 years old when he came to the throne of Calakmul in AD 636 . A significant increase in the production of stelae at the city began with his reign and 18 stelae were commissioned by the king . Yuknoom Che 'en II was probably responsible for the construction of the palace complexes that form a major part of the site core .
= = = = = Calakmul and Dos Pilas = = = = =
In 629 Tikal had founded Dos Pilas in the Petexbatún region , some 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) to its southwest , as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River . B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four , in 635 , and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother , the king of Tikal . In AD 648 Calakmul attacked Dos Pilas and gained an overwhelming victory that included the death of a Tikal lord . B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil was captured by Yuknoom Che 'en II but , instead of being sacrificed , he was re @-@ instated on his throne as a vassal of the Calakmul king , and went on to attack Tikal in 657 , forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak , the then king of Tikal , to temporarily abandon the city . The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal , and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself . For some reason , B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal ; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas . Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672 , driving B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil into an exile that lasted five years . Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies , such as El Peru , Dos Pilas and Caracol . In 677 Calakmul counterattacked against Dos Pilas , driving Tikal out and reinstalled B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil on his throne . In 679 Dos Pilas , probably aided by Calakmul , gained an important victory over Tikal , with a hieroglyphic description of the battle describing pools of blood and piles of heads .
Troubles continued in the east , with renewed conflict between Naranjo and Caracol . Naranjo completely defeated Caracol in 680 but Naranjo 's dynasty disappeared within two years and a daughter of B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil founded a new dynasty there in 682 , indicating that Calakmul had probably intervened decisively to place a loyal vassal on the throne . The patronage of Yuknoom Che 'en II as overlord is recorded at a range of important cities , including El Peru where he oversaw the installation of K 'inich B 'alam as king and strengthened the tie with the marriage of a Calakmul princess to that king . The power of Calakmul extended as far as the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá , where Motul de San José is recorded as its vassal in the 7th century , although it was traditionally aligned with Tikal . Yuknoom Che 'en II commanded the loyalty of three generations of kings at Cancuen , 245 kilometres ( 152 mi ) to the south , and supervised the enthronement of at least two of them , in 656 and 677 . King Yuknoom Che 'en II was involved , directly or indirectly , in the crowning of a king at Moral to the west in Tabasco and one of Yuknoom 's nobles supervised a ritual at Piedras Negras on the Guatemalan bank of the Usumacinta River . Yuknoom Che 'en II died in his eighties , probably at the beginning of 686 . When he died , Calakmul was the most powerful city in the central Maya lowlands .
Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' succeeded Yuknoom Che 'en II , his crowning on 3 April 686 was recorded on monuments at Dos Pilas and El Peru . He was born in 649 and was likely to have been the son of his predecessor . He already held high office before he was named king and may have been responsible for the major successes of the latter part of Yuknoom Che 'en II 's reign . He retained the loyalty of K 'inich B 'alam of El Peru and B 'alaj Chan K 'awiil of Dos Pilas and gained that of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Chaak in 693 , when he was installed on the throne of Naranjo at the age of five . However , the texts on sculpted monuments do not reveal the full complexity of diplomatic activity , as revealed by a painted ceramic vase from Tikal , which depicts an ambassador of Calakmul 's king kneeling before the enthroned king of Tikal and delivering tribute . Just four years later , in August 695 , the two states were once again at war . Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' led his warriors against Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I in a catastrophic battle that saw the defeat of Calakmul and the capture of the image of a Calakmul deity named Yajaw Maan . It is unknown what happened to Yuknoom Yich 'aak K 'ak ' ; a stucco sculpture from Tikal shows a captive and the king is mentioned in the accompanying caption but it is not certain if the captive and the king are the same person . This event marked the end of Calakmul 's apogee , with diplomatic activity dropping away and fewer cities recognising Calakmul 's king as overlord . No stelae remain standing in the site core recording Yuknoom Yich 'aal K 'ak , although there are some in the Northeast Group and 2 broken stelae were buried in Structure 2 .
= = = = Later kings = = = =
The next ruler of Calakmul , Split Earth , is mentioned on a pair of carved bones in the tomb of Tikal king Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I. He was ruling by November 695 but it is not known if he was a legitimate member of the Calakmul dynasty or whether he was a pretender placed on the throne by Tikal .
The next known king used a number of name variants , and is referred to by different name segments within and outside of Calakmul . A partial reading of his name is Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil . He erected seven stelae to celebrate a calendrical event in 702 and is named at Dos Pilas in that year , presumably demonstrating that Dos Pilas was still a vassal of Calakmul . El Peru also continued as a vassal and Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil installed a new king there at an unknown date . La Corona received a queen from Yuknoom Took ' . Naranjo also remained loyal . Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil commissioned seven more stelae to mark the k 'atun @-@ ending of 731 . A new defeat at the hands of Tikal is evidenced by a sculpted altar at that city , probably dating to sometime between 733 and 736 , depicting a bound lord from Calakmul and possibly names Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil .
= = = = = Calakmul and Quiriguá = = = = =
After this the historical record of Calakmul becomes very vague , due both to the poor state of the heavily eroded monuments at the city itself and also its reduced political presence on the wider Maya stage . Wamaw K 'awiil is named at Quiriguá on the southern periphery of Mesoamerica . Quiriguá traditionally had been a vassal of its southern neighbour Copán , and in 724 Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil , king of Copán , installed K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat upon Quiriguá 's throne as his vassal . By 734 K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat had shown that he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copán when he started to refer to himself as k 'ul ahaw , holy lord , instead of using the lesser term ahaw , subordinate lord ; at the same time he began to use his own Quiriguá emblem glyph . This local act of rebellion appears to have been part of the larger political struggle between Tikal and Calakmul . In 736 , only two years later , K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat received a visit from Wamaw K 'awiil of Calakmul , while Copán was one of Tikal 's oldest allies . The timing of this visit by the king of Calakmul is highly significant , falling between the accession of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to the throne of Quiriguá as a vassal of Copán and the outright rebellion that was to follow . This strongly suggests that Calakmul sponsored Quiriguá 's rebellion in order to weaken Tikal and to gain access to the rich trade route of the Motagua Valley . It is likely that contact with Calakmul had been initiated soon after K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat acceded to the throne . In 738 K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat captured the powerful but elderly king of Copán , Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil . An inscription at Quiriguá , although difficult to interpret , suggests that the capture took place on 27 April 738 , when Quiriguá seized and burned the wooden images of Copán 's patron deities . The captured lord was taken back to Quiriguá and on 3 May 738 he was decapitated in a public ritual .
In the Late Classic , alliance with Calakmul was frequently associated with the promise of military support . The fact that Copán , a much more powerful city than Quiriguá , failed to retaliate against its former vassal implies that it feared the military intervention of Calakmul . Calakmul itself was far enough away from Quiriguá that K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat was not afraid of falling directly under its power as a full vassal state , even though it is likely that Calakmul sent warriors to help in the defeat of Copán . The alliance instead seems to have been one of mutual advantage : Calakmul managed to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal while Quiriguá gained its independence .
= = = = Collapse = = = =
Five large stelae were raised in 741 , although the name of the king responsible is illegible on all of them and he has been labelled as Ruler Y. Calakmul 's presence in the wider Maya area continued to wane , with two of the city 's major allies suffering defeats at the hands of Tikal . El Peru was defeated in 743 and Naranjo a year later and this resulted in the final collapse of Calakmul 's once powerful alliance network , while Tikal underwent a resurgence in its power .
In 751 Ruler Z erected a stela that was never finished , paired with another with the portrait of a queen . A hieroglyphic stairway mentions someone called B 'olon K 'awiil at about the same time . B 'olon K 'awiil was king by 771 when he raised two stelae and he was mentioned at Toniná in 789 . Sites to the north of Calakmul showed a reduction in its influence at this time , with new architectural styles influenced by sites further north in the Yucatán Peninsula .
A monument was raised in 790 although the name of the ruler responsible is not preserved . Two more were raised in 800 and three in 810 . No monument was erected to commemorate the important Bak 'tun @-@ ending of 830 and it is probable that political authority had alreadly collapsed at this time . Important cities such as Oxpemul , Nadzcaan and La Muñeca that were Calakmul 's vassals at one time now erected their own monuments , where before they had raised very few ; some continued producing new monuments until as late as 889 . This was a process that paralleled events at Tikal . However , there is strong evidence of an elite presence at the city continuing until AD 900 , possibly even later .
In 849 , Calakmul was mentioned at Seibal where a ruler named as Chan Pet attended the K 'atun @-@ ending ceremony ; his name may also be recorded on a broken ceramic at Calakmul itself . However , it is unlikely that Calakmul still existed as a state in any meaningful way at this late date . A final flurry of activity took place at the end of the 9th century or the beginning of the 10th . A new stela was erected , although the date records only the day , not the full date . The recorded day may fall either in 899 or 909 with the latter date the most likely . A few monuments appear to be even later although their style is crude , representing the efforts of a remnant population to maintain the Classic Maya tradition . Even the inscriptions on these late monuments are meaningless imitations of writing .
Ceramics dating to the Terminal Classic period are uncommon outside of the site core , suggesting that the population of the city was concentrated in the city centre in the final phase of Calakmul 's occupation . The majority of the surviving population probably consisted of commoners who had occupied the elite architecture of the site core but the continued erection of stelae into the early 10th century and the presence of high status imported goods such as metal , obsidian , jade and shell , indicate a continued occupation by royalty until the final abandonment of the city . The Yucatec @-@ speaking Kejache Maya who lived in the region at the time of Spanish contact in the early 16th century may have been the descendants of the inhabitants of Calakmul .
= = = Modern history = = =
Calakmul was first reported by Cyrus Lundell in 1931 . A year later he informed Sylvanus Morley of the site 's existence and the presence of more than 60 stelae . Morley visited the ruins himself on behalf of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1932 . In the 1930s surveys mapped the site core and recorded 103 stelae . Investigations stopped in 1938 and archaeologists did not return to the site until 1982 when William J. Folan directed a project on behalf of the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche , working at Calakmul until 1994 . Calakmul is now the subject of a large @-@ scale project of the National Institute of Anthropology and History ( INAH ) under the direction of Ramón Carrasco .
= = Site description = =
The site core of Calakmul covers an area of approximately 2 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 77 sq mi ) , an area that contains the remains of roughly 1000 structures . The periphery occupied by smaller residential structures beyond the site core covers an area of more than 20 square kilometres ( 7 @.@ 7 sq mi ) within which archaeologists have mapped approximately 6250 structures . Calakmul matches the great city of Tikal in size and estimated population , although the density of the city appears to have been greater than that city .
The stone used in construction at the site is a soft limestone . This has resulted in severe erosion of the site 's sculpture . The city of Calakmul was built in a strongly concentric fashion and can be divided into zones as one moves outwards from the centre of the site . The innermost zone covers an area of approximately 1 @.@ 75 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 68 sq mi ) It contains most of the monumental architecture and has 975 mapped structures , about 300 of which are built from vaulted stone masonry . About 92 structures were built on large pyramids laid out around plazas and courtyards . The city 's core was bordered on the north side by a 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) high wall that controlled access from the north and may also have had a defensive function .
Many commoners residences were built along the edge of El Laberinto swamp to the west of the site core , although some high @-@ status residences and public buildings were interspersed among these . The area between the residences was used for horticulture .
= = = Water control = = =
The site is surrounded by an extensive network of canals and reservoirs . There are five major reservoirs , including the largest example in the Maya world , measuring 242 by 212 metres ( 794 by 696 ft ) . This reservoir is filled by a small seasonal river during the rainy season and continues to hold enough water for it to be used by archaeologists in modern times .
Thirteen reservoirs have been identified at Calakmul . The combined capacity of all the reservoirs is estimated at over 200 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 44 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ) . This quantity of water could have supported 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 people ; there is no evidence that the reservoirs were used to irrigate crops .
Aguada 1 is the largest of the reservoirs and has a surface area of 5 hectares ( 540 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = = Causeways = = =
Eight sacbe ( causeways ) have been located around Calakmul . Two of these have been mapped , three have been identified visually on the ground and three more identified with remote sensing . They have been numbered as Sacbe 1 through to Sacbe 7 . The causeway network not only linked Calakmul with local satellite sites but also with more distant allies and rivals , such as the great cities of El Mirador , El Tintal and Nakbe . Those causeways that cross swampy land are elevated above the surrounding wetland and they now tend to support denser vegetation than the surrounding forest .
Sacbe 1 is 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) long and is lined and filled with stone . It is located within the mapped urban area of the site core . Sacbe 1 was first mapped in the 1930s by the Carnegie Institution of Washington .
Sacbe 2 is 70 metres ( 230 ft ) long . It has been mapped within the urban area of the site core . Sacbe 2 is built of packed earth and was discovered during the archaeological excavation of a nearby quarry . This causeway may have been built to transport stone from the quarry in order to build Structures 1 and 3 .
Sacbe 3 extends 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) northeast from the site core and is visible from the summit of Structure 1 . It was first discovered in 1982 .
Sacbe 4 runs 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) southeast from the site core , it is also visible from the summit of Structure 1 and was discovered in 1982 .
Sacbe 5 runs westwards from the main watering hole , across El Laberinto seasonal swamp and carries on for a total distance of 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) or more towards Sasilhá .
Sacbe 6 runs southwest across El Laberinto bajo and links Calakmul with El Mirador ( 38 @.@ 25 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 77 mi ) to the southwest ) and , beyond it , El Tintal ( an additional 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) .
Sacbe 7 is located south of Sacbe 6 . It is at least 5 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 2 mi ) long and runs across El Laberinto swamp .
Sacbe 8 is on the west side of the swamp and does not appear to cross it to the site core .
= = = Structures = = =
Structure 1 ( or Structure I ) is a 50 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 160 ft ) pyramid to the east of the site core . A number of stelae were erected at its base by Yuknoom Took ' K 'awiil in 731 . Because it was built on a low hill , Structure 1 appears to be higher than Structure 2 , although this is not the case .
Structure 2 ( or Structure II ) is a massive north @-@ facing pyramid temple , one of the largest in the Maya world . Its base measures 120 metres ( 390 ft ) square and it stands over 45 metres ( 148 ft ) high . In common with many temple pyramids in the Mesoamerican cultural region , the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the pre @-@ existing temple in order to increase its bulk . The core of the building ( Structure 2A ) is a triadic pyramid dating to the Late Preclassic period , with this ancient building still forming the highest point of the structure . In the Early Classic a massive extension was added to the front of the pyramid , covering an earlier stucco @-@ covered building on the north side . Three new shrines were built upon this extension ( Structures 2B , 2C and 2D ) , each of these shrines had its own access stairway . Structure 2B was the central shrine , 2C was to the east and 2D to the west . The facade possessed six large masks set between these stairways , three arranged vertically on each side of the central stairway . Structure 2 is similar in date , size and design to the El Tigre pyramid at El Mirador , and associated ceramics are also similar . At a later time buildings were erected along the base of the facade , each of these contained stelae . In the 8th century AD , Structure 2B was entombed under a large pyramid and a stepped facade covered the giant masks . Later another facade was built over this 8th century stepped frontage but it may never have been finished . In the Late Classic a nine @-@ room palace was built on top of the pyramid , supporting a roof comb that had painted stucco bas @-@ relief decoration . The rooms were arranged in three groups of three , each room positioned behind the next . The entire Late Classic palace measured 19 @.@ 4 by 12 metres ( 64 by 39 ft ) . The front two rows of rooms ( Rooms 1 through to 6 ) were used for food preparation , metates and hearths were found in each of them . Room 7 , the southwest room , was a sweatbath .
Structure 3 ( or Structure III , also known as the Lundell Palace ) is southeast of Structure 4 , on the east side of the Central Plaza . It is a building with multiple rooms .
Structure 4 ( or Structure IV ) is a group of three temples on the east side of the Central Plaza . It is divided into three sections , labelled Structures 4a , 4b and 4c . The central Structure 4b is built upon a substructure dating to the Preclassic period . Together with Structure 6 on the opposite side of the plaza , these buildings form an E @-@ Group that may have been used to determine the solstices
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" . NDH authorities , led by the Ustaše Militia , immediately launched a campaign of mass killings , expulsions and forced religious conversions to Catholicism targeting the Serbian Orthodox population living within the borders of the new state .
Despite Pavelić 's assurances of equality with the predominantly Catholic Croats , many Muslims quickly became dissatisfied with Ustaše rule . An Islamic leader reported that not one Muslim occupied an influential post in the administration . By early 1942 , fierce fighting had broken out between the Ustaše , Chetniks and Partisans in NDH territory . Some Ustaše militia units became convinced that the Muslims were communist sympathizers , and burned their villages and murdered many civilians . The Chetniks accused the Muslims of taking part in the Ustaše violence against Serbs and perpetrated similar atrocities against the Muslim population . The Muslims received little protection from the Croatian Home Guard , the regular army of the NDH , whom the Germans described as " of minimal combat value " . Local militias were raised , but these were also of limited value and only one , the Tuzla @-@ based Home Guard " Hadžiefendić Legion " led by Muhamed Hadžiefendić , was of any significance .
The Bosnian Muslims sought protection and independence from the NDH , and saw German support as a means to achieve those aims . Prominent Bosnian Muslims were friendly towards Germany , and Bosnians were generally nostalgic over the former period of Habsburg ( Austro @-@ Hungarian ) rule . This push was strongly opposed by Pavelić as counter to the territorial integrity of the NDH . By November 1942 , these Muslim autonomists were desperate to protect their people and wrote to Adolf Hitler asking that he annex Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Reich . While this idea did not receive Hitler 's approval , possibly because he did not want to create problems for Pavelić , Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler saw this as an opportunity to create a Waffen @-@ SS recruiting zone in the NDH to attract Bosnian Muslims . In early 1943 , Hitler authorised the raising of the first SS division to be recruited from a non @-@ Germanic people , the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) . The division was to be raised primarily from the Muslim population of the NDH .
= = History = =
The Germans wanted to recruit a second SS division from the Muslims of Bosnia , as part of Himmler 's goal to expand Waffen @-@ SS recruiting in the Balkans . His plan was to form two corps of two divisions , with one corps to operate in the Bosnian region of the Independent State of Croatia and the other in Albania . These corps would then be combined with the Volksdeutsche 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen and together would form a Balkan SS mountain army of five divisions . On 28 May 1944 , Hitler gave his formal approval for the creation of a 23rd SS Division , with its formation to begin on 10 June and training to be complete by the end of 1944 . Himmler followed the advice of the commander of the 13th SS Division Handschar , SS Brigadeführer and Generalmajor of Waffen @-@ SS ( Brigadier ) Karl @-@ Gustav Sauberzweig , and agreed to form the division in the neighbouring Bácska ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Bačka ) region annexed by Hungary instead of Bosnia . Sauberzweig believed that if the division was raised in the NDH , the Ustaše would undermine the morale of the recruits . The new division was named Kama after a small dagger used by Balkan shepherds .
Orders were given to the 13th SS Division to provide a cadre for the new division , and SS Standartenführer ( Colonel ) Helmuth Raithel , a regimental commander from the 13th SS Division , was appointed as the new division 's commanding officer . The formation of the division was delayed by Operation Vollmond to which the 13th SS Division was heavily committed , so formation did not begin until 19 June . On 21 June , Himmler promoted Sauberzweig to SS Gruppenführer and Generalleutnant of Waffen @-@ SS ( major general ) and appointed him to command the Bosnian corps , which was given the title IX Waffen Mountain Corps of the SS ( Croatian ) . The corps was to form at Bácsalmás in southern Hungary , where the 18th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Horst Wessel was deployed .
Beginning on 23 June , 54 officers , 187 non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) and 1 @,@ 137 enlisted men of the 13th SS Division that had been selected for transfer to the 23rd SS Division Kama were assembled in Bošnjaci in Posavina County of the NDH , and they were moved into Bácska on 15 July . They included three NCOs from every company of the 13th SS Division , and one cavalry squadron , one battery from each of its artillery battalions , as well as specialist troops . German officers and NCOs were also provided by Waffen @-@ SS replacement units . The divisional area lay along the Franzen Canal , with garrisons in Szenttamás ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Srbobran ) and Kúla ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Kula ) and on either side of the line Zombor @-@ Verbász ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Sombor @-@ Vrbas ) . The 10 @,@ 000 men for a full @-@ strength division were to be obtained from volunteers , from Muslim conscripts born in 1926 and 1927 ( with some exceptions ) , and if necessary , from the various Muslim militias in the NDH . The conscripts were subjected to the draft by the NDH government then transferred to German command along with the others , who were then transported to Waffen @-@ SS recruiting depots at Zombor and Bošnjaci . These men were to report by 15 September 1944 , but in mid @-@ August , Waffen @-@ SS recruiting officer SS Obergruppenführer ( Lieutenant General ) Gottlob Berger reported to Himmler that there would be insufficient reliable Muslim men available , and Catholic Croats would also have to be accepted into the 23rd SS Division . During Pavelić 's visit to Hitler in September 1944 , General Đuro Grujić , chief of Pavelić 's Military Office , indicated to the Germans that it would be difficult to recruit another 5 @,@ 000 men to complete the division after 5 @,@ 000 had already been assigned . Many Volksdeutsche from the NDH and a few from Hungary were recruited into the division to act as interpreters between the Bosnian Muslims and the German cadre and to enhance unit cohesion .
On 10 September the division reached a strength of 126 officers , 374 non @-@ commissioned officers and 3 @,@ 293 men , composed of German officers and Bosnian Muslim soldiers , a fraction of its prescribed strength of 19 @,@ 000 men . By this time , morale was waning within the new division just as it completed the final phase of its training in Hungary ; the war was not going well , and there were rumours that the Germans were going to abandon the Balkans and leave the Muslims to defend themselves . Faced with high rates of desertion from the 13th SS Division , Sauberzweig proposed a plan to disarm the Bosnians in both divisions , and on 18 September travelled to see Himmler . The Reichsführer @-@ SS instead opted for a plan to transport the 2 @,@ 000 Bosnians of the 23rd SS Division to the area of operations of the 13th SS Division in Bosnia and re @-@ organise both divisions there . Combat arms units from the 13th SS Division were to be brought under the direct control of IX Waffen Mountain Corps of the SS ( Croatian ) , which would also move to Bosnia . Issued on 24 September , the plan cancelled the formation of the 23rd SS Division , and directed SS Oberführer ( Senior Colonel ) Gustav Lombard to form and command a new SS infantry division using the German cadre and equipment of the 23rd SS Division , supplemented by ethnic Germans recruited from Hungary . The Bosnians of the 23rd SS Division were to be transported by rail back to the Gradište @-@ Županja @-@ Bošnjaci area for re @-@ organisation into a " new " Kama division .
The staff of IX Waffen Mountain Corps of the SS ( Croatian ) headquarters left Hungary , and on 3 October 1944 they arrived in the village of Andrijaševci , near Vinkovci . The headquarters became partially operational on 7 October . The Bosnians did not leave Bácska immediately , and for a short period were garrisoned alongside Lombard 's new 31st SS Volunteer Grenadier Division . In the meantime , the Red Army continued to advance into Hungary , and on 9 October 1944 a telegram was sent by the commander of Waffen @-@ SS forces in Hungary to IX SS Mountain Corps in Bosnia announcing that " battle ready units from SS Oberführer Lombard 's division and Bosnians from the Division Kama had been thrown into the fighting in Bacska " . The Bosnian elements were deployed along the Tisza ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Tisa ) river for a week or so as part of Kampfgruppe Syr in an attempt to slow the Soviet advance . As a result , the return of the Bosnians to the NDH was delayed .
The Bosnians were soon disengaged from the front line in Hungary and had begun the move to Bosnia to join the 13th SS Division when they mutinied on 17 October 1944 . Raithel quickly regained control , but the mutiny meant the re @-@ organisation of a " new " 23rd SS Division was abandoned . A small number of reliable Bosnians from the division were used as replacements in the 13th SS Division , and the 23rd SS Division was formally dissolved on 31 October 1944 . Despite its short existence , the 23rd SS is considered one of the thirty @-@ eight divisions fielded by the Waffen @-@ SS during World War II . After the division was disbanded , the numerical designator " 23rd " was given to the 23rd SS Volunteer Panzer Grenadier Division Nederland , and Raithel went on to command the 11th SS @-@ Gebirgsjäger Regiment " Reinhard Heydrich " of the 6th SS Mountain Division Nord against the United States Army in southern Germany during the final months of World War II .
= = Order of battle = =
The division 's final order of battle consisted of :
55th Waffen Gebirgsjäger ( Mountain Infantry ) Regiment of the SS ( 3rd Croatian )
56th Waffen Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the SS ( 4th Croatian )
23rd SS Mountain Artillery Regiment ( of four battalions )
23rd SS Reconnaissance Battalion
23rd SS Panzerjäger ( Anti @-@ tank ) Battalion
23rd SS Pioneer Battalion
23rd SS Mountain Signals Battalion
23rd SS Division Supply Battalion
23rd SS Medical Battalion
23rd SS Replacement Battalion
The division also included a workshop company , veterinary company and administrative section .
= = Uniform = =
The divisional insignia was a sun with 16 rays , the ancient symbol of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great . A divisional collar patch bearing the insignia was intended , but it is unlikely it was ever issued . During their formation and training in the Bácska region during the summer of 1944 , the soldiers often dressed in khaki tropical uniforms with shorts . The official headgear of the division was the SS M43 fez : a field gray model to be worn with service uniform and a red model for dress uniform . Members of the division that had previously served in the 13th SS Division often continued to wear the divisional collar patch of that division , which showed an arm holding a scimitar over a swastika . These non @-@ standard uniform items continued to be worn by members of the division after they became part of the 31st SS Division in October 1944 .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Documents = = =
= Shadows Fall =
Shadows Fall is an American heavy metal band from Springfield , Massachusetts , formed in 1995 . Although the band has experienced several line @-@ up changes , for most of its recording career , Shadows Fall has been composed of Brian Fair ( vocals ) , Jonathan Donais ( lead guitar ) , Matt Bachand ( rhythm guitar ) , Paul Romanko ( bass ) , and Jason Bittner ( drums ) .
Shadows Fall have released seven studio albums , two compilation albums , and two DVDs . The band 's first album featured Philip Labonte ( of All That Remains ) on vocals , although he was soon replaced by Fair . Shadows Fall 's first two studio albums featured David Germain playing drums , but in 2002 , Bittner joined the band full @-@ time . In February 2008 , the band was a Grammy Award nominee in the category Best Metal Performance for the song " Redemption " off the album Threads of Life . In late 2011 , the band entered the studio to begin recording their latest studio album . The album , Fire From the Sky , was released on May 15 , 2012 , and is the first to be produced by Adam Dutkiewicz since the band 's first studio release .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and Somber Eyes to the Sky ( 1995 – 1997 ) = = =
Shadows Fall was formed in 1995 by guitarists Jonathan Donais and Matt Bachand , then good friends from the local music scene . Bachand had previously been a founding member of a death metal band and Donais a member of the metalcore band Aftershock . By 1996 the band had found a complete lineup with the addition of Damien McPherson ( vocals ) , Mark Laliberte ( bass ) , and David Germain ( drums ) . Also in 1996 , Adam Dutkiewicz performed live drums to fill in for Germain . By late 1996 , the band recorded and released a demo titled Mourning a Dead World , of which only about 200 copies were produced . It consisted of the songs Lifeless , Suffer the Season , Fleshold , Forever Lost , A Souls Salvation , and Deadworld . McPherson decided to leave the band , and was replaced by Philip Labonte in 1997 . Around the same time , bass guitarist Paul Romanko , formally of the hardcore band Pushbutton Warfare , was recruited as a permanent replacement for Laliberte , who had originally joined on a temporary basis . Now with a more solid lineup , the band released its first EP , To Ashes , with Dutkiewicz playing as a session drummer . The band 's name , according to Bachand , comes from the title of a comic book published in the early 1990s .
Shadows Fall toured the New England area opening for artists such as Fear Factory and Cannibal Corpse . On November 30 , 1997 , the band released its first studio album Somber Eyes to the Sky , through Bachand 's recording label , Lifeless Records .
= = = Of One Blood ( 1998 – 2000 ) = = =
In 1998 , Labonte was asked to leave the band due to personal and artistic differences . He had ideas for a side project while a member of the band , and went on to form All That Remains . The band looked for a replacement vocalist and eventually recruited Milford , MA native Brian Fair of the pioneering metalcore band Overcast . The band had been friends with Fair for years . After a US Summer tour with Shai Hulud , Overcast disbanded and the band asked Fair if he would like to join Shadows Fall . While on tour Shadows Fall was signed to Century Media Records . The band recorded its second studio album Of One Blood with Fair on vocals in 2000 , and the release included re @-@ recorded songs from Somber Eyes to the Sky . In 2001 , David Germain decided to leave the band due to alcoholism , and was replaced by former Stigmata and Burning Human drummer Jason Bittner .
= = = The Art of Balance ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = =
Due to repeated comparisons with Gothenburg melodic death metal bands , Shadows Fall decided to change its style to find its own sound . Inspired by more thrash , hard rock and power ballad influences , the band recorded its third studio album , titled The Art of Balance . Released on September 17 , 2002 , the album peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Top Independent albums chart . Shadows Fall released three music videos to promote the album ; " Thoughts Without Words " , " Destroyer of Senses " , and " The Idiot Box " . The Art of Balance featured a cover of the Pink Floyd song " Welcome to the Machine . " Andy Hinds of Allmusic stated the album is " a modern heavy metal album that is both brutal and highly musical , traditional yet forward @-@ thinking " , but criticized the placement of " Welcome to the Machine " , stating the song " is stylishly well @-@ executed , but seems a tad out of place nonetheless . " Shadows Fall supported The Art of Balance by touring on Ozzfest in 2003 .
= = = The War Within ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = =
Shadows Fall released its fourth studio album The War Within on September 21 , 2004 . It was the first release to enter the Billboard 200 for the band at number 20 , and peaked at number one on the Top Independent albums chart . In promotion for the album , Shadows Fall released four music videos over the course of one year ; " The Power of I and I " , " What Drives the Weak " , " Inspiration on Demand " , and " Enlightened By the Cold " . The song " What Drives the Weak " received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Metal Performance in 2006 , however the award went to Slipknot for the song " Before I Forget " . " The Light That Blinds " was featured in the video game Guitar Hero II . Wade Kergan of Allmusic praised the album stating the band has " grown beyond the confines of the metal @-@ loving hardcore crowd anyway , with more in common now with the classic thrash of Metallica than the metal @-@ tinged hardcore of Coalesce " . In support of the album the band once again performed on Ozzfest , but this time as a mainstage act . As of 2008 , the album has sold almost 400 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
Shadows Fall released its first DVD The Art of Touring in November 2005 . The DVD included a live concert , backstage footage , and six music videos . The band released its final CD on Century Media Records , titled Fallout from the War on June 13 , 2006 . Released as a compilation album , it debuted at number 83 on the Billboard 200 . Fallout from the War included tracks recorded for The War Within that did not make it on to the album , b @-@ sides , re @-@ recordings , and cover songs . David Jeffries of Allmusic claimed the album is " a great informal introduction to the ferocious and melodic witches ' brew Shadows Fall always seems to nail . "
= = = Threads of Life ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = =
Shadows Fall signed a deal with Atlantic Records to distribute the band 's albums in the United States , and a deal with Roadrunner Records for international distribution . The band released its fifth studio album Threads of Life on April 3 , 2007 . " Redemption " , the first single from the CD was released on February 20 , 2007 through iTunes with an accompanying music video . " Redemption " received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Metal performance ; the award ceremony as held on February 10 , 2008 . Slayer 's " Eyes of the Insane " won the award . Thom Jurek of Allmusic stated Shadows Fall has " lost none of the fire , attack or attitude " on Threads of Life . Jurek also said the album featured " killer guitar breaks , big fat chugging riffs , power @-@ slam skin work , cattle prod bass , and cool little hooks and melodic touches on top of those bludgeoning riffs make Threads of Life a major label debut of merit , and a metal record worthy of celebrating . " Keith Bergman of Blabbermouth.net stated " Threads of Life is slick as hell . "
Shadows Fall toured in support of Threads of Life , including making appearances at the Jägermeister tour with Stone Sour and Lacuna Coil , the Operation Annihilation tour with Static @-@ X , 3 Inches of Blood , and Divine Heresy , and the Black Crusade tour with Trivium , Machine Head , Dragonforce , and Arch Enemy . The band was a part of the Soundwave tour in Australia and in Asia in February 2008 , along with Killswitch Engage , As I Lay Dying , and Bleeding Through .
= = = Retribution ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = =
Shadows Fall released their sixth album , Retribution , on September 15 , 2009 , through the band 's own label , Everblack Industries , which was created in conjunction with Warner Music Group 's ILG , Ferret Music and ChannelZERO Entertainment . It is being released in the UK via Spinefarm Records . The album was produced by Chris " Zeuss " Harris . Drummer Jason Bittner recently stated about the band 's new material , " The songs are a little more on the darker , angry side ... lots of heaviness , lots of crazy guitar , and LOTS of room for me to have some fun . There is no doubt in my mind that this will be the best performance of my career , so far , and I owe that to my guys for bringing me incredible riffs to write killer drum parts to . " As of the fall of 2009 the band was appearing on the ' Shock & Raw ' tour of North America with 2Cents , Otep & Five Finger Death Punch . After a South American tour , Shadows Fall will be playing on the Jägermeister Stage in the 2010 Rockstar Mayhem Festival in July and August 2010 . The band is also scheduled to support Lamb of God on their Australian tour in December 2009 Shadows Fall is pleased to announce their first and only New York City performance this year , taking place at Santos Party House on December 18 , 2010 with direct support from Thy will be done .
Shadows Fall released a live CD / DVD , Madness in Manila : Shadows Fall Live in The Philippines 2009 , on October 26 .
= = = Fire From the Sky and final tours ( 2012 – present ) = = =
In late 2011 , Shadows Fall entered the studio to begin recording their seventh studio album . While in the studio , they held live video streams to discuss the progress of the album and answer questions from fans . This album is the first to be produced by Adam Dutkiewicz since the band 's original studio release , Somber Eyes to the Sky . Fire From the Sky was released on May 15 , 2012 through Razor & Tie .
On January 11 , 2013 , it was announced that guitarist Jon Donais would be joining Anthrax on their upcoming Metal Alliance Tour and on August 13 , 2013 Donais was confirmed as a full Anthrax member .
On June 28 , 2014 , Shadows Fall performed with the bands Black Fast , Dead by Wednesday , Hallow Point , and Gray 's Divide in St. Louis , Missouri .
On August 25 , 2014 , the band announced several final tours to take place in Europe and North America so the band could take a hiatus from future extensive touring .
In December 2014 , it was announced drummer Jason Bittner would join Arizona thrash metal band Flotsam and Jetsam , and guitarist Matt Bachand would join Act of Defiance , along with the former members of Megadeth .
In August 2015 , the band will take part in a few reunion shows along the US East Coast , while all of its members are able to do so , before heading out with their respective other bands for late 2015 / 2016 touring .
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Compilation albums = = =
= = = Video albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = Nominations = = =
Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance – " What Drives the Weak " ( 2006 )
Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance – " Redemption " ( 2008 )
Boston Music Awards
= Emma Thompson =
Emma Thompson ( born 15 April 1959 ) is a British actress , a comedian , and a writer .
Thompson is known for her portrayals of reticent women and playing haughty or matronly characters with a sense of irony , often in period dramas and literary adaptations . She is considered one of Britain 's most accomplished actresses .
Born in London to English actor , Eric Thompson , and Scottish actress , Phyllida Law , Thompson was educated at Newnham College , University of Cambridge , where she became a member of the Footlights troupe . After appearing in several comedy programmes , she first came to prominence in 1987 , in two BBC TV series , Tutti Frutti and Fortunes of War , winning the BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress for her work in both series .
Thompson 's first film role came in the 1989 romantic comedy , The Tall Guy , and in the early 1990s she frequently collaborated with her then husband , actor , and director , Kenneth Branagh . The pair became popular in the British media , and co @-@ starred in several films including : Dead Again ( 1991 ) and Much Ado About Nothing ( 1993 ) .
In 1992 , Thompson won multiple acting awards , including an Academy Award and a BAFTA Award for Best Actress , for her work in the period drama , Howards End . In 1993 , she garnered dual Academy Award nominations for her roles in The Remains of the Day as a stately housekeeper , and In the Name of the Father as a lawyer .
Thompson scripted and starred in Sense and Sensibility ( 1995 ) , which earned her ( among other awards ) an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay , and a BAFTA Award for Best Actress . Other notable film and television credits include : the Harry Potter film series , Wit ( 2001 ) , Love Actually ( 2003 ) , Angels in America ( 2003 ) , Nanny McPhee ( 2005 ) , Stranger than Fiction ( 2006 ) , Last Chance Harvey ( 2008 ) , Men in Black 3 ( 2012 ) , and Brave ( 2012 ) . In 2013 , she received acclaim and several award nominations for her portrayal of P. L. Travers in Saving Mr. Banks .
Thompson is married to actor Greg Wise , with whom she lives in London . They have one daughter and an adopted son . She is an activist in the areas of human rights and environmentalism , and has received criticism for her outspoken nature . She has authored two books adapted from The Tale of Peter Rabbit .
= = Early life = =
Thompson was born in Paddington , London , on 15 April 1959 . A member of a show business family , her mother is the Scottish actress Phyllida Law , while her English father , Eric Thompson , was involved in theatre and the writer – narrator of the popular children 's television series The Magic Roundabout . Her godfather was the director and writer Ronald Eyre . She has one sister , Sophie Thompson , who also works as an actress . The family lived in West Hampstead in north London , and Thompson was educated at Camden School for Girls . She spent much time in Scotland during her childhood , and often visited Ardentinny where her grandparents and uncle lived .
In her youth , Thompson was intrigued by language and literature , a trait which she attributes to her father who shared her love of words . In 1977 , she began studying for an English degree at Newnham College , University of Cambridge . Thompson believes that it was inevitable that she would become an actress , commenting that she was " surrounded by creative people and I don ’ t think it would ever have gone any other way , really " . While there , she had a " seminal moment " that turned her to feminism and inspired her to take up performing . She explained in an interview in 2007 how she discovered the book The Madwoman in the Attic , " which is about Victorian female writers and the disguises they took on in order to express what they wanted to express . That completely changed my life . " She became a self @-@ professed " punk rocker " , with short red hair and a motorbike , and aspired to be a comedian like Lily Tomlin .
At Cambridge , Thompson was invited into Footlights , the university 's prestigious sketch comedy troupe , by its president , Martin Bergman , becoming its first female member . Also in the troupe were fellow actors Stephen Fry and Hugh Laurie , and she had a romantic relationship with the latter . Fry recalled that " there was no doubt that Emma was going the distance . Our nickname for her was Emma Talented . " In 1980 , Thompson served as the Vice President of Footlights , and co @-@ directed the troupe 's first all @-@ female revue , Women 's Hour . The following year , Thompson and her Footlights team won the Perrier Award at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe for their sketch show The Cellar Tapes .
In 1982 , Thompson 's father died as a result of circulatory problems at the age of 52 . The actress has commented that this " tore [ the family ] to pieces " , and " I can 't begin to tell you how much I regret his not being around " . She added , " At the same time , it 's possible that were he still alive I might never have had the space or courage to do what I 've done ... I have a definite feeling of inheriting space . And power . "
= = Acting career = =
= = = 1980s : Breaking through = = =
Thompson had her first professional role in 1982 , touring in a stage version of Not the Nine O 'Clock News . She then turned to television , where much of her early work came with her Footlights co @-@ stars Hugh Laurie and Stephen Fry . The regional ITV comedy series There 's Nothing To Worry About ! ( 1982 ) was their first outing , followed by the one @-@ off BBC show The Crystal Cube ( 1983 ) . There 's Nothing to Worry About ! later returned as the networked sketch show Alfresco ( 1983 – 84 ) , which ran for two series with Thompson , Fry , Laurie , Ben Elton , and Robbie Coltrane . She later collaborated again with Fry and Laurie on the acclaimed BBC Radio 4 series Saturday Night Fry ( 1988 ) .
In 1985 , Thompson was cast in the West End revival of the musical Me and My Girl , co @-@ starring Robert Lindsay . It provided a breakthrough in her career , as the production earned rave reviews . She played the role of Sally Smith for 15 months , which exhausted the actress ; she later remarked " I thought if I did the fucking " Lambeth Walk " one more time I was going to fucking throw up . " At the end of 1985 , she wrote and starred in her own one @-@ off special for Channel 4 , Emma Thompson : Up for Grabs .
Thompson achieved another breakthrough in 1987 , when she had leading roles in two television miniseries : Fortunes of War , a World War II drama co @-@ starring Kenneth Branagh , and Tutti Frutti , a dark @-@ comedy about a Scottish rock band with Robbie Coltrane . For these performances , Thompson won the British Academy Television Award for Best Actress . The following year , she wrote and starred in her own sketch comedy series for BBC , Thompson , but this was poorly received . In 1989 , she and Branagh — who had formed a romantic relationship — starred in a stage revival of Look Back in Anger , directed by Judi Dench and produced by Branagh 's Renaissance Theatre Company . Later that year , the pair starred in a televised version of the play .
Thompson 's first cinema appearance came in the romantic comedy The Tall Guy ( 1989 ) , the feature @-@ film debut from screenwriter Richard Curtis . It starred Jeff Goldblum as a West End actor , and Thompson played the nurse with whom he falls in love . The film was not widely seen , but Thompson 's performance was praised in The New York Times , where Caryn James called her " an exceptionally versatile comic actress " . She next turned to Shakespeare , appearing as Princess Katherine in Branagh 's screen adaptation of Henry V ( 1989 ) . The film was released to great critical acclaim .
= = = 1990 – 93 : A leading British actress = = =
Thompson and Branagh are considered by American writer and critic James Monaco to have led the " British cinematic onslaught " in the 1990s . She continued to experiment with Shakespeare in the new decade , appearing with Branagh in his stage productions of A Midsummer Night 's Dream and King Lear . Reviewing the latter , the Chicago Tribune praised her " extraordinary " performance of the " hobbling , stooped hunchback Fool " . Thompson returned to cinema in 1991 , playing a " frivolous aristocrat " in Impromptu , a period drama about the life of George Sand that starred Judy Davis and Hugh Grant . The film received positive reviews , and Thompson was nominated for Best Supporting Female at the Independent Spirit Awards . Her second release of 1991 was another pairing with Branagh , who also directed , in the Los Angeles @-@ based noir Dead Again . She played a woman who has forgotten her identity , and the thriller was number one at the US box office for two weeks . Early in 1992 , Thompson had a guest role in an episode of the American comedy series Cheers as Frasier Crane 's first wife .
A turning point in Thompson 's career came when she was cast opposite Anthony Hopkins and Vanessa Redgrave in the Merchant Ivory period drama Howards End ( 1992 ) , based on the novel by E. M. Forster . The film explored the social class system in Edwardian England , with Thompson playing an idealistic , intellectual , forward @-@ looking woman who comes into association with a privileged and deeply conservative family . She actively pursued the role by writing to director James Ivory , who agreed to an audition and then gave her the part . According to the critic Vincent Canby , the film allowed Thompson to " [ come ] into her own " , away from Branagh . Upon release , Roger Ebert wrote that she was " superb in the central role : quiet , ironic , observant , with steel inside . " Howards End was widely praised , a " surprise hit " , and received nine Academy Award nominations . Among its three wins was the Best Actress trophy for Thompson , who was also awarded a Golden Globe and BAFTA for her performance . Reflecting on the role , The New York Times writes that the actress " found herself an international success almost overnight . "
For her next two films , Thompson returned to working with Branagh . In Peter 's Friends ( 1992 ) , the pair starred with Stephen Fry , Hugh Laurie , Imelda Staunton , and Tony Slattery as a group of Cambridge alumni who are reunited ten years after graduating . The comedy was positively reviewed , and Desson Howe of The Washington Post wrote that Thompson was its highlight : " Even as a rather one @-@ dimensional character , she exudes grace and an adroit sense of comic tragedy . " She followed this with Branagh 's screen version of Much Ado About Nothing ( 1993 ) . The couple starred as Beatrice and Benedick , alongside a cast that also included Denzel Washington , Keanu Reeves , and Michael Keaton . Thompson was widely praised for the on @-@ screen chemistry with Branagh and the natural ease with which she played the role marking another critical success for Thompson . Her performance earned a nomination for Best Female Lead at the Independent Spirit Awards .
Thompson reunited with Merchant – Ivory and Anthony Hopkins to film The Remains of the Day ( 1993 ) , a film which has been described as a " classic " and the production team 's definitive film . Based on Kazuo Ishiguro 's novel about a housekeeper and butler in interwar Britain , the story is acclaimed for its study of loneliness and repression , though Thompson was particularly interested in looking at " the deformity that servitude inflicts upon people " , since her grandmother had worked as a servant and made many sacrifices . She has named the film as one of the greatest experiences of her career , considering it to be a " masterpiece of withheld emotion " . The Remains of the Day was a critical and commercial success , receiving eight Oscar nominations , including Best Picture and a second Best Actress nod for Thompson .
Along with her Best Actress nomination at the 66th Academy Awards , Thompson was also nominated in the Best Supporting Actress category , making her the eighth performer in history to be nominated for two Oscars in the same year . It came for her role as the lawyer Gareth Peirce in In the Name of the Father ( 1993 ) , a drama about the Guildford Four starring Daniel Day @-@ Lewis . The film was her second hit of the year , earning $ 65 million and critical praise , and was nominated for Best Picture along with The Remains of the Day .
= = = 1994 – 98 : Sense and Sensibility and Hollywood roles = = =
In 1994 , Thompson made her Hollywood debut playing a goofy doctor alongside Arnold Schwarzenegger and Danny DeVito in the blockbuster Junior . Although the male pregnancy storyline was poorly received by most critics , Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle praised the lead trio . She returned to independent cinema for a lead role in Carrington , which studied the platonic relationship between artist Dora Carrington and writer Lytton Strachey ( played by Jonathan Price ) . Roger Ebert remarked that Thompson had " developed a specialty in unrequited love " , and the TV Guide Film & Video Companion commented that her " neurasthenic mannerisms , which usually drive us batty , are appropriate here " .
Thompson 's Academy success continued with Sense and Sensibility ( 1995 ) , generally considered to be the most popular and authentic of the numerous film adaptions of Jane Austen 's novels made in the 1990s . Thompson — a lifelong lover of Austen 's work — was hired to write the film based on the period sketches in her series Thompson . She spent five years developing the screenplay , and took the role of the spinster sister Elinor Dashwood despite , at 35 , being 16 years older than the literary character . Directed by Ang Lee and co @-@ starring Kate Winslet , Sense and Sensibility received widespread critical praise and is one of the highest @-@ grossing films of Thompson 's career . Shelly Frome remarked that she displayed a " great affinity for Jane Austen 's style and wit " , and Graham Fuller of Sight and Sound saw her as the film 's auteur . Thompson received a third nomination for Best Actress and won the award for Best Adapted Screenplay , making her the only person in history to win an Oscar for both acting and writing . She also earned a second BAFTA Award for Best Actress and a Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay .
Thompson was absent from screens in 1996 , but returned the following year with Alan Rickman 's directorial debut , The Winter Guest . Set over one day in a Scottish seaside village , the drama allowed Thompson and her mother ( Phyllida Law ) to play mother and daughter on screen . She then returned to America to appear in an episode of Ellen , and her self @-@ parodying performance received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series .
For her second Hollywood role , Thompson starred with John Travolta in Mike Nichols 's Primary Colors ( 1998 ) , playing a couple based on Bill and Hillary Clinton . Thompson 's character , Susan , is described as that of an " ambitious , long @-@ suffering wife " who has to deal with her husband 's infidelity . The film was critically well received but lost money at the box office . According to Kevin O 'Sullivan of the Daily Mirror , Americans were " blown away " by her performance and accent , and top Hollywood producers became increasingly interested in casting her . Thompson rejected many of the offers , expressing concerns about living in Los Angeles behind walls with bodyguards , and stated " LA is lovely as long as you know you can leave " . She also admitted to feeling tired and jaded with the industry at this point , which influenced her decision to leave film for a year . Thompson followed Primary Colors by playing an FBI agent opposite Rickman in the poorly received thriller Judas Kiss ( 1998 ) .
= = = 2000s : Smaller roles = = =
When she became a mother in 1999 , Thompson made a conscious decision to reduce her workload , and in the following years many of her appearances were supporting roles . She was not seen on screen again until 2000 , with only a small part in the British comedy Maybe Baby , which she appeared in as a favour to its director , her friend Ben Elton .
For the HBO television film Wit ( 2001 ) , however , Thompson happily took the lead role in what she felt was " one of the best scripts to have come out of America " . Adapted from Margaret Edson 's Pulitzer Prize winning play , it focusses on a self @-@ sufficient Harvard University professor who finds her values challenged when she is diagnosed with ovarian cancer . Thompson was instrumental in bringing Mike Nichols to direct the project , and the pair spent months in rehearsal to get the complex character right . She was greatly drawn to the " daredevil " role , for which she had no qualms about shaving her head . Reviewing the performance , Roger Ebert was touched by " the way she struggles with every ounce of her humanity to keep her self @-@ respect " , and in 2008 he called it Thompson 's finest work . Caryn James of The New York Times also described it as " one of her most brilliant performances " , adding " we seem to be peering into a soul as embattled as its body . " The film earned Thompson nominations at the Golden Globes , Emmys and Screen Actors Guild Awards .
Thompson 's only credit of 2002 was a vocal performance in Disney 's Treasure Planet , an adaptation of Treasure Island , where she voiced Captain Amelia . The animation earned far less than its large budget and was considered a " box office disaster " . This failure was countered the following year by one of Thompson 's biggest commercial successes , Richard Curtis 's romantic comedy Love Actually . As part of an ensemble cast that included Liam Neeson , Keira Knightley , and Colin Firth , she played a middle @-@ class wife who suspects her husband ( played by Alan Rickman ) of infidelity . The scene in which her stalwart character breaks down was described by one critic as " the best crying on screen ever " , and in 2013 , Thompson mentioned that she gets commended for this role more than any other . She explained , " I 've had so much bloody practice at crying in a bedroom then having to go out and be cheerful , gathering up the pieces of my heart and putting them in a drawer . " Her performance received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actress .
Thompson continued with supporting roles in the 2003 drama Imagining Argentina , where she played a dissident @-@ journalist abducted by the country 's 1970s dictatorial regime . Antonio Banderas played the husband who tries to find her , in a film that most critics disliked . The film was booed and jeered at when it was screened at the Venice Film Festival and received a scathing article in The Guardian . Thompson had greater success that year when she worked with HBO for a second time in the acclaimed miniseries Angels in America ( 2003 ) . The show , also featuring Al Pacino and Meryl Streep , dealt with the AIDS epidemic in Reagan @-@ era America . Thompson played three small roles – a nurse , a homeless woman , and an angel – and was again nominated for an Emmy Award . In 2004 , she played the eccentric Divination teacher Sybill Trelawney in the third Harry Potter film , the Prisoner of Azkaban , her character described as a " hippy chick professor who teaches fortune @-@ telling " . She later reprised her role in the Order of the Phoenix ( 2007 ) and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ( 2011 ) , and has called her time on the popular franchise " great fun " .
The year 2005 saw the release of a project Thompson had been working on for nine years . Loosely based on the Nurse Matilda stories that she read as a child , Thompson wrote the screenplay for the children 's film Nanny McPhee – which centres on a mysterious , unsightly nanny who must discipline a group of children . She also took the lead role , alongside Colin Firth and Angela Lansbury , in what was a highly personal project . The film was a success , taking number one at the UK box office and earning $ 122 million worldwide . Commenting on Thompson 's screenplay , film critic Claudia Puig wrote that its " well @-@ worn storybook features are woven effectively into an appealing tale of youthful empowerment " . The following year , Thompson appeared in the surreal American comedy – drama Stranger than Fiction , playing a novelist whose latest character ( played by Will Ferrell ) is a real person who hears her narration in his head . Reviews for the film were generally favourable .
Following a brief , uncredited role in the post @-@ apocalyptic blockbuster I Am Legend ( 2007 ) , Thompson played the devoutly Catholic Lady Marchmain in a 2008 film adaptation of Brideshead Revisited . Critics were unenthusiastic about the film , but several picked Thompson out as its highlight . Mark Kermode said " Emma Thompson is to some extent becoming the new Judi Dench , as the person who kind of comes in for 15 minutes and is brilliant ... [ but then ] when she goes away , the rest of the movie has a real problem living up to the wattage of her presence " . Thompson was further acclaimed for her work in the London @-@ based romance Last Chance Harvey ( 2008 ) , where she and Dustin Hoffman played a lonely , middle @-@ aged pair who cautiously begin a relationship . Critics praised the chemistry between the two leads , and both received Golden Globe nominations for their performances . Thompson 's two 2009 films were both set in 1960s England , and in both she made cameo appearances : as a headmistress in the critically praised drama An Education and as a " tippling mother " in Richard Curtis 's The Boat that Rocked .
= = = 2010s : Veteran performer = = =
Five years after the original , Thompson returned to Nanny McPhee with 2010 's Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang . Her screenplay transported the story to Britain during the Second World War , and incorporated a new cast including Maggie Gyllenhaal . Building on the first film 's success , it was another UK box office number one and the sequel was widely seen as an improvement . The same year , Thompson reunited with Alan Rickman for the BBC television film The Song of Lunch , which focused on two unnamed characters meeting at a restaurant 15 years after ending their relationship . Thompson 's performance earned her a fourth Emmy Award nomination .
In 2012 , Thompson made a rare appearance in a big @-@ budget Hollywood film when she played the head Agent in Men in Black 3 – a continuation of the popular sci @-@ fi comedy franchise starring Will Smith . With a worldwide gross of $ 624 million , MIB3 is Thompson 's biggest commercial hit outside of the Harry Potter films . This mainstream success continued with the Pixar film Brave , in which Thompson voiced Elinor – the Scottish queen despairing at her daughter 's defiance against tradition . It was her second consecutive blockbuster release , and critics were generally kind to the film . Also in 2012 , Thompson played Queen Elizabeth II in an episode of Playhouse Presents , which dramatised an incident in 1982 when an intruder broke into the Queen 's bedroom . Her first film of 2013 was the fantasy romance Beautiful Creatures , in which she played an evil mother . The film aimed to capitalise on the success of The Twilight Saga , but was poorly reviewed and a box office disappointment . Film critic Peter Travers was critical of Thompson 's performance and " outrageously awful Southern accent " , and feared " the damage this crock may do to [ her ] reputation " .
Conversely , her next appearance was so successful that it led one journalist to write " Emma Thompson is back , firing on all cylinders . " Saving Mr. Banks depicted the making of Mary Poppins , and starred Thompson as P. L. Travers , curmudgeonly author of the source novel , and Tom Hanks as Walt Disney . The actress considered it the best screenplay she had read in years and was delighted to be offered the role . She considered it to be the most challenging of her career because she had " never really played anyone quite so contradictory or difficult before " , but found the inconsistent and complicated character " a blissful joy to embody " . The film was well @-@ received , grossed $ 112 million worldwide , and critics were unanimous in their praise for Thompson 's performance . The review in The Independent expressed thanks that her " playing of Travers is so deft that we instantly warm to her , and forgive her her snobbery " , while Total Film 's critic felt that Thompson brought depth to the " predictable " film with " her best performance in years " . Thompson was nominated for Best Actress at the BAFTAs , SAGs and Golden Globes , and received the Lead Actress trophy from the National Board of Review . Meryl Streep stated that she was " shocked " to see that Thompson did not receive an Academy Award nomination for the film .
The romantic @-@ comedy The Love Punch ( 2013 ) gave Thompson her second consecutive leading role , where she and Pierce Brosnan played a divorced couple who reunite to steal his ex @-@ boss 's jewellery . In March 2014 , she made her first stage appearance in 24 years – and her New York debut – in a Lincoln Center production of Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street . She appeared in the musical for five nights , and her " playful " performance of Mrs Lovett was highly praised ; the critic Kayla Epstein wrote that she " not only held her own against more experienced vocalists , but wound up running off with the show . " She received her sixth Emmy nomination for the televised version of the show .
In 2014 , Thompson provided the narration for Jason Reitman 's film Men , Women & Children , before seeing the release of a project she had been working on for many years . The drama Effie Gray , based on the true @-@ life story of art critic John Ruskin 's marriage , was written by Thompson but was subject to a copyright case before being cleared for cinemas . The American playwright Gregory Murphy claimed Effie Gray infringed on his play and screenplay The Countess , which deals with the same story and which Murphy says he submitted to Thompson and her husband Greg Wise to play the roles they subsequently played in Thompson 's film . In March 2013 a judge , after allowing Thompson to submit a second revised screenplay into evidence , ruled that the works were " quite dissimilar in their two approaches to fictionalising the same historical events , " but noted twelve significant similarities between Murphy 's play and screenplay and Thompson 's screenplay that could not be accounted for even after taking into consideration their " shared historical backgrounds . " Effie Gray was finally released in October 2014 , to a modest reception . Thompson appeared in the film , alongside her husband Greg Wise and actress Dakota Fanning , but declined to promote it , as did Mr. Wise .
Thompson 's first film of 2015 was A Walk in the Woods , a comedy adapted from the book by Bill Bryson , where she appeared opposite Robert Redford and Nick Nolte . She next starred with Robert Carlyle in his directoral debut The Legend of Barney Thomson . Her role was his 77 @-@ year @-@ old mother , a Glaswegian foul @-@ mouthed , chain @-@ smoking former prostitute . Neither film was a critical success , although the latter received some positive reviews and Empire magazine wrote that Thomson was " unforgettable " . Later that year , she had a supporting role in John Wells ' restaurant @-@ based film Burnt , alongside Bradley Cooper . In 2016 , she starred with Brendan Gleeson in the World War II @-@ drama Alone in Berlin , based on the story of Otto and Elise Hampel .
As of April 2016 , Thompson has three upcoming roles . In Bridget Jones 's Baby , for which she also co @-@ wrote the screenplay , she will play a doctor . The film is released in September . She will also appear as Mrs Potts in Disney 's upcoming live action film Beauty and the Beast , and has a supporting role as a hippy in Noah Baumbach 's dramedy Yeh Din Ka Kissa , both scheduled for 2017 .
= = Reception and acting style = =
Thompson is widely considered to be one of the finest actresses of her generation and one of Britain 's best @-@ known actresses , accepted in Hollywood . Early in her career , when she was closely associated with her first husband Kenneth Branagh , she was somewhat unpopular and considered a " luvvy " . The public warmed to her after the separation , and she became one of the key actresses of the 1990s . Her status has continued to grow ; in 2008 , journalist Sarah Sands stated that Thompson has improved with age and experience , and Mark Kermode and said of her performances , " There is something about her which is - you just trust her . You just think ' I 'm in proper hands here . ' ... She 's up there with the great , I mean really great , British female performers " .
Thompson is particularly known for playing reticent women , and Sands describes her as " the best actress of our times on suffering borne with poignant dignity " . According to Kate Kellaway of The Guardian , she specialises in playing " a good woman in a frock " . She also plays many haughty characters , with a " bracing , nanny @-@ like demeanour " , but she is noted for her ability to win the empathy of audiences . Thompson belongs to a group of highly decorated British actresses including Judi Dench , Kate Winslet and Helena Bonham Carter who are known for appearing in " heritage films " and typically showing " restraint , rendering emotions through intellect rather than feelings , and a sense of irony , which demonstrates the heroine 's superior understanding " . Projecting a typically " British image " , Thompson 's often dogmatic and tight @-@ jawed manner has also been compared to Maggie Smith .
With a background in comedy , Thompson 's performances are typically delivered with an ironic touch . Ang Lee , director of Sense and Sensibility stated that Thompson 's comedic approach may be her greatest asset as an actress , remarking , " Emma is an extremely funny lady . Like Austen , she 's laughing at her own culture while she 's a part of it . " Thompson has stated that the " most moving things are often also funny , in life and in art " which is present in her film work . She often brings her real personality to her roles , and Kellaway believes that her lack of conventional beauty contributes to her likeability as an actress .
= = Personal life = =
Thompson , although born in London , has confessed to feeling Scottish : " not only because I am half Scottish but also because I 've spent half my life here " . She frequently returns to Scotland and visits Dunoon in Argyll and Bute , where she owns a home .
Thompson 's first husband was the actor and director Kenneth Branagh , whom she met in 1987 while filming the television series Fortunes of War . The couple married in 1989 and proceeded to appear in several films together , with Branagh often casting her in his own productions . Dubbed a " golden couple " by the British media , the relationship received considerable press interest . The pair attempted to keep their relationship private , refusing to be interviewed or photographed together . In September 1995 , Thompson and Branagh announced that they had separated ; their statement to the press blamed their work schedules , but it later emerged that he had fallen in love with actress Helena Bonham Carter .
Thompson was living alone as the relationship with Branagh deteriorated , and entered into clinical depression . While filming Sense and Sensibility in 1995 , she began a relationship with her co @-@ star Greg Wise . Commenting on how she was able to overcome her depression , she told BBC Radio Four , " Work saved me and Greg saved me . He picked up the pieces and put them together again . " In 1999 , the couple had a daughter , Gaia , born when Thompson was 39 . The pregnancy was achieved through IVF treatment ; afterwards Wise and Thompson attempted to have another child using the same method . Three years of further IVF treatment were unsuccessful .
In 2003 , Thompson and Wise were married in Dunoon . The family 's permanent residence is in West Hampstead , London , on the same road where she lived in her youth . Also in 2003 , Thompson and her husband informally adopted a Rwandan orphan and former child soldier named Tindyebwa Agaba . They met at a Refugee Council event when he was 16 , and she invited him to spend Christmas at their home . " Slowly , " Thompson has commented , " he became a sort of permanent fixture , came on holiday to Scotland with us , became part of the family . " Tindy became a British citizen in 2009 .
= = = Views and activism = = =
Thompson has said of her religious views : " I 'm an atheist ... I regard religion with fear and suspicion . It 's not enough to say that I don 't believe in God . I actually regard the system as distressing : I am offended by some of the things said in the Bible and the Qur 'an and I refute them . " Despite this , she has said that she approves of the " guiding moral principles " of the Christian tradition " if applied properly " , and that she observes Christmas . She is politically liberal and a supporter of the Labour Party ; she told the BBC Andrew Marr Show in 2010 that she had been a member of the party " all my life . " She supports the socialist Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn .
Thompson has been a campaigner since her youth . Since becoming a public figure she has regularly voiced her views and been involved in many issues , prompting criticism that she is overly outspoken . In 2010 , The Daily Telegraph asked : " Emma Thompson : a national treasure or Britain 's most annoying woman ? " She has justified her assertiveness by saying , " what I feel is that we all need to speak up and a woman who has got a louder voice needs to shout very loudly indeed . "
She is particularly active in human rights work . As an ambassador for the charity ActionAid she has travelled to Uganda , Mozambique , Ethiopia , Liberia , and Burma . She is chair of the Helen Bamber Foundation for the Care of Victims of Torture , a patron of the Refugee Council , and has a therapy room in her office for traumatised refugees . Thompson is also an activist for Palestinians , having been a member of the British @-@ based ENOUGH ! coalition that seeks to end the " Israeli occupation of the Gaza Strip and West Bank . " She is a patron of the Elton John AIDS Foundation , and in 2009 Time named her a " European Hero " in recognition of " her work to highlight the plight of Aids sufferers in Africa . "
Aside from humanitarian work , Thompson is also an active environmentalist . She is a supporter of Greenpeace , and in January 2009 , as part of her campaign against climate change , she and three other members of the organisation bought land near the village of Sipson to deter the building of a third runway for Heathrow Airport . In August 2014 , Thompson and her daughter , Gaia , went on a Greenpeace " Save the Arctic " expedition to raise awareness of the dangers of drilling for oil . She is also an ambassador for the Galapagos Conservation Trust .
In May 2016 Thompson announced that she would be supporting the Women 's Equality Party in the 2016 London mayoral election . Writing in The Guardian she said , " I am backing the Women ’ s Equality party because I really do not want to die before closing the pay gap , which stands , in our great and supposedly modern capital city , at 23 % . "
= = Books = =
In 2012 , Thompson wrote The Further Tale of Peter Rabbit as an addition to the Peter Rabbit series by Beatrix Potter to commemorate the 110th anniversary of the publication of The Tale of Peter Rabbit . She was approached by the publishers to write it , the first authorised Peter story since 1930 and the only one not written by Potter . The book falls in the middle of the earlier series , rather than at the end , and takes Peter Rabbit outside of Mr. McGregor 's garden and into Scotland . It was a New York Times Best Seller . In 2013 , Thompson wrote a second book in the series titled The Christmas Tale of Peter Rabbit .
= = Filmography and awards = =
As of December 2015 Thompson has appeared in 40 films , 20 television programmes and eight stage productions . She has won and been nominated for many awards during her career , including five Academy Award nominations ( winning two ) , nine Golden Globe Award nominations ( winning two ) , seven BAFTA Award nominations ( winning three ) , and six Emmy Award nominations ( winning one ) .
= Duane Courtney =
Duane Jerome Courtney ( born 7 January 1985 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a defender for National League North club Corby Town .
Courtney started his career in the youth system of Derby County as a schoolboy and later played for Birmingham City as a trainee . He played for AFC Telford United in the 2004 – 05 season and after being named their Player of the Season he joined Burnley in the Football League . After making eight appearances for them in one season he was released and joined Welsh Premier League champions The New Saints in 2006 . He played for them for three seasons before returning to England with Conference Premier team Kidderminster Harriers in 2009 . He left Kidderminster after one season to sign for York City , who released him in 2011 . He then played for Tamworth but left after their relegation to the Conference North to join Alfreton Town in 2014 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Courtney joined the Derby County youth system as a schoolboy in 1999 before joining Birmingham City as a trainee in 2001 . He was also a reserve team player for Birmingham . He went on trial with Second Division team Colchester United in April 2004 after being recommended to the club by former Birmingham player Craig Fagan . Released by Birmingham in the summer of 2004 after not being offered professional terms , Courtney considered giving up football before joining Northern Premier League First Division team AFC Telford United in August following a trial . He scored for Telford in a 4 – 2 defeat to Kidsgrove Athletic in the FA Trophy preliminary round in October , which was the team 's first game in the competition . Courtney played in the 2 – 1 win over Kendal Town in the 2005 Northern Premier League First Division play @-@ off Final , seeing the club promoted to the Northern Premier League Premier Division . He received Telford 's Supporters ' Player of the Season , Manager 's Player of the Season and Players ' Player of the Season awards for the 2004 – 05 season and he signed a new one @-@ year contract in the summer of 2005 .
= = = Burnley = = =
He drew attention from Football League clubs and on 31 August 2005 he signed for Championship team Burnley on a two @-@ year contract for an initial fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 with a sell @-@ on clause after having a trial with the club , having opted not to join Wolverhampton Wanderers . He made his first team debut as a substitute in the 89th minute of a 1 – 0 victory at Leicester City on 18 October , which was followed by a stoppage time appearance in a 1 – 0 defeat at Aston Villa in the League Cup on 25 October . His first and only start for Burnley came in a 3 – 2 victory at Luton Town on 5 November , in which he gave a solid performance . Having struggled to break into the team Courtney finished the season with eight appearances , seven coming from the substitutes ' bench , and was placed on the transfer list in May 2006 . He rejected an offer from Conference National team Kidderminster Harriers in July 2006 on the advice of his agent and was eventually released by Burnley on 17 August after having his contract cancelled .
= = = The New Saints = = =
Following a trial with League Two team Bury , Courtney signed for Welsh Premier League champions The New Saints ( TNS ) on a free transfer on 20 September 2006 and he believed playing in this league was an " ideal shop window in which to develop his career and showcase his talent " . He finished the 2006 – 07 season with 29 appearances and three goals in all competitions and he was named in the Welsh Premier League Team of the Year for the season , having been a key member of the team that won the League and the FAW Premier Cup . Courtney played for TNS in both legs of their 4 – 4 draw on aggregate with FK Ventspils in the 2007 – 08 UEFA Champions League first qualifying round , a result that ended the team 's involvement in the tournament due to the away goal rule . He finished the 2007 – 08 season with 29 appearances and one goal in all competitions . Two further European appearances came in the 2008 – 09 season , playing in both legs of the 2 – 0 defeat on aggregate to FK Sūduva in the 2008 – 09 UEFA Cup first qualifying round . Courtney came on as a 90th @-@ minute substitute for TNS in the 2009 Welsh League Cup Final , which the side won with a 2 – 0 victory over Bangor City . He made 40 appearances and scored one goal in all competitions and the club announced in April 2009 that he would be released when his contract expired on 30 June , having made 98 appearances and scored five goals in all competitions for the club .
= = = Kidderminster Harriers = = =
After " composed performances " on trial in pre @-@ season , Courtney signed a one @-@ year contract with Conference Premier club Kidderminster Harriers on 20 July 2009 . He made his debut as a substitute in the 66th minute of a 1 – 0 victory over Hayes & Yeading United on 8 August 2009 , which was followed by his first start in a 1 – 0 defeat to Salisbury City on 11 August due to Liam Dolman not being fit . He played against Tamworth on 31 August 2009 despite an injury and although he was still suffering this injury he was able to play in the next game , a 2 – 0 defeat to Eastbourne Borough . Courtney commented in September 2009 that Kidderminster 's defence was taking time to gel , saying " We 've all played at a high standard , individually and collectively we are good , but there 's something missing . I think it 's communication between us , which is why we 're making mistakes . " His first and only goal for Kidderminster came with a low shot at Kettering Town in a 2 – 0 victory on 21 November 2009 and manager Mark Yates said " It was a good finish by Duane , he does it in training quite often " . He missed a game against AFC Wimbledon on 28 November 2009 due to illness and he returned to the team in a 0 – 0 draw with Tamworth on 1 December . He played for Kidderminster in their run to the FA Trophy semi @-@ final , in which they were beaten 5 – 1 on aggregate by Stevenage Borough . Courtney suffered an ankle injury against Cambridge United on 30 March 2010 and returned in the following game against Altrincham on 3 April , in which he was forced to be substituted due to his ankle . He did not miss any further playing time as he featured in the following game , a 1 – 1 draw with Rushden & Diamonds on 5 April 2010 . He finished the 2009 – 10 season with 49 appearances and one goal for Kidderminster .
= = = York City = = =
Following the signing of Lee Vaughan in the summer of 2010 , Courtney 's position at Kidderminster looked tenuous and the club stalled on a new contract as they were finalising their budget for the forthcoming season . He joined Conference Premier rivals York City on a one @-@ year contract on 24 May 2010 . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 defeat to former club Kidderminster as a 76th @-@ minute substitute on 14 August , the opening day of the 2010 – 11 season , and he conceded a penalty kick in the 89th minute that was scored by the opposition . His first start for the club came in a 1 – 1 draw at Wrexham on 11 September 2010 . Having made seven appearances for York , Courtney was made available for loan on 28 October 2010 . He went on trial with League Two club Cheltenham Town in January 2011 , who were managed by Yates , Courtney 's manager at Kidderminster . He impressed playing in central defence in Cheltenham 's reserve game against Coventry City . Courtney was released by York after his contract was cancelled on 21 January 2011 , after which he agreed to train with Cheltenham for one week . However , Cheltenham decided to not offer him a contract .
= = = Tamworth = = =
Courtney signed with Conference Premier club Tamworth on 3 February 2011 and he made his debut as a 75th @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat to Histon two days later . He finished the season with 18 appearances for Tamworth .
Courtney signed a new two @-@ year contract with Tamworth on 22 June 2011 , keeping him at the club until the summer of 2013 . On 1 January 2012 , he scored his first goal for the club with a shot into the bottom corner in a 2 – 2 draw with Alfreton Town . Courtney made 44 appearances and scored one goal in 2012 – 13 and won the club 's Players ' Player of the Year , Manager 's Player of the Year and Supporter 's Player of the Year awards . He made 23 appearances and scored two goals for Tamworth in the 2013 – 14 season , which finished with the club 's relegation to the Conference North , and he missed a number of matches due to hamstring problems .
= = = Alfreton Town = = =
Courtney signed for Conference Premier club Alfreton Town on 4 June 2014 and made his debut in a 2 – 0 away defeat to Forest Green Rovers on 16 August . He made 18 appearances in the 2014 – 15 season as the club was relegated after finishing 21st in the Conference Premier .
= = = Corby Town = = =
Courtney signed for newly promoted National League North club Corby Town on 14 June 2015 .
= = Style of play = =
Courtney primarily plays as a right @-@ back and is a versatile player , also being able to play at left back and centre @-@ back . He is an attacking player and has pace and athleticism . Courtney said of his play " I can run for 90 minutes up and down and get forward quite well , as well as getting back . I 'm strong , quick and quite good in the air for my height " in 2010 . York manager Martin Foyle described him as " exciting " and said " He 's got the energy to get forward " .
= = Personal life = =
Born in Oldbury , West Midlands , Courtney lived in nearby Birmingham with his partner and two children up until 2010 when he moved to York following his transfer to York City . However , he failed to settle in York and after leaving the club in 2011 he returned to live in Birmingham .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 28 March 2016 .
= = Honours = =
AFC Telford United
Northern Premier League First Division play @-@ offs : 2004 – 05
The New Saints
Welsh Premier League : 2006 – 07
Welsh League Cup : 2008 – 09
FAW Premier Cup : 2006 – 07
Individual
AFC Telford United Player of the Year : 2004 – 05
Tamworth Player of the Year : 2012 – 13
= Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace =
Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace is a 1999 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas , produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by 20th Century Fox . It is the first installment in the Star Wars prequel trilogy and stars Liam Neeson , Ewan McGregor , Natalie Portman , Jake Lloyd , Ian McDiarmid , Anthony Daniels , Kenny Baker , Pernilla August and Frank Oz .
The film is set thirty @-@ two years before the original film , and follows Jedi Master Qui @-@ Gon Jinn and his apprentice Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi as they protect Queen Amidala , in hopes of securing a peaceful end to a large @-@ scale interplanetary trade dispute . Joined by Anakin Skywalker — a young slave with unusually strong natural powers of the Force — they simultaneously contend with the mysterious return of the Sith .
Lucas began production of this film after he determined that film special effects had advanced to the level he wanted for the fourth film in the saga . Filming started on June 26 , 1997 , at locations including Leavesden Film Studios and the Tunisian desert . Its visual effects included extensive use of computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) ; many of its characters and settings were completely computerized . The film was Lucas 's first directorial effort after a 22 @-@ year hiatus following Star Wars in 1977 .
The Phantom Menace was released to theaters on May 19 , 1999 , sixteen years after the premiere of the previous Star Wars film , Return of the Jedi . The film 's premiere was extensively covered by media and was greatly anticipated because of the large cultural following the Star Wars saga had cultivated . Despite mixed reviews from critics , who tended to praise the visuals , action sequences , John Williams ' musical score , and the performances of Liam Neeson , Ewan McGregor , Pernilla August , Ray Park , and Ian McDiarmid , but criticize the writing , characterization and the majority of the acting ( particularly from Ahmed Best and Jake Lloyd ) , it grossed more than US $ 924 @.@ 3 million worldwide during its initial theatrical run , making it the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film worldwide at the time — behind Titanic . It became the highest @-@ grossing film of 1999 , the highest @-@ grossing Star Wars film ( until the release of Star Wars : The Force Awakens in 2015 ) , and is currently the seventeenth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film in North America unadjusted for inflation . A 3D reissue , which has earned an additional US $ 102 @.@ 7 million at the box office and brought the film 's overall worldwide takings to over US $ 1 billion , was released in February 2012 . The film was followed by two sequels , Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones in 2002 and Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith in 2005 .
= = Cast = =
Liam Neeson as Qui @-@ Gon Jinn , a Jedi Master and mentor to Obi @-@ Wan . When he discovers Anakin he insists that the boy be trained as a Jedi despite the Jedi Council 's protests . Lucas originally wanted to cast an American actor in the role , but cast Irishman Neeson because he considered that Neeson had great skills and presence . Lucas said Neeson was a " master actor , who the other actors will look up to , who has got the qualities of strength that the character demands " .
Ewan McGregor as Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , Qui @-@ Gon 's young Jedi apprentice . He holds Qui @-@ Gon in high regard but questions his motives at times . McGregor was cast from a shortlist of fifty actors , all of whom had to be compared to pictures of young Alec Guinness , who portrayed the elderly Obi @-@ Wan , to make a believable younger version . McGregor had a vocal coach to help his voice sound closer to Guinness ' . He also studied several of Guinness ' performances , from his early work and the Star Wars movies .
Natalie Portman as Queen Padmé Amidala : Amidala , the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Queen of Naboo , hopes to protect her planet from a blockade by the Trade Federation . Over 200 actors auditioned for the role . The Production notes stated ; " The role required a young woman who could be believable as the ruler of that planet , but at the same time be vulnerable and open " . Portman was chosen especially for her performances in Léon : The Professional ( 1994 ) and Beautiful Girls ( 1996 ) , which impressed Lucas . He stated , " I was looking for someone who was young , strong , along the lines of Leia [ and ] Natalie embodied all those traits and more " . Portman was unfamiliar with Star Wars before being cast , but was enthusiastic about being cast as a character she expected to become a role model . Portman said , " It was wonderful playing a young queen with so much power . I think it will be good for young women to see a strong woman of action who is also smart and a leader . "
Jake Lloyd as Anakin Skywalker , a 9 @-@ year @-@ old slave boy and a skilled pilot who dreams of becoming a Jedi . Hundreds of actors were tested before the producers settled on Lloyd who Lucas considered met his requirements of " a good actor , enthusiastic and very energetic " . Producer Rick McCallum said that Lloyd was " smart , mischievous and loves anything mechanical — just like Anakin . "
Ian McDiarmid as Senator Palpatine / Darth Sidious , a Senator of Naboo who is eventually elected Chancellor of the Republic . McDiarmid was surprised when Lucas approached him 16 years after Return of the Jedi to reprise the role of Palpatine because he had assumed that a younger actor would play the part in the prequel films .
Pernilla August as Shmi Skywalker , Anakin 's mother who is concerned for her son 's future and allows him leave with the Jedi . August , a veteran of Swedish cinema , was chosen after auditioning with Liam Neeson . She was afraid of being rejected because of her accent .
Frank Oz voices Yoda , the centuries @-@ old leader of the Jedi Council who is apprehensive about allowing Anakin to be trained . Yoda was mostly portrayed as a puppet designed by Nick Dudman based on Stuart Freeborn 's original design . Oz controlled the puppet 's mouth and other parts were controlled by puppeteers using remote controls . Lucas fitted Yoda 's filming around Oz 's schedule as he finished and promoted In & Out . A computer @-@ generated Yoda is featured in two distant shots . Warwick Davis portrays him in the scene in which Obi @-@ Wan becomes a Jedi Knight . Lucas said he originally wanted to use a full @-@ time digital Yoda , but the attempts did not work well enough . On the Blu @-@ ray release of The Phantom Menace , which was also used for the 3D reissue , a CG Yoda similar to the one from the other prequels is used instead .
Oliver Ford Davies as Sio Bibble , the governor of Naboo .
Hugh Quarshie as Captain Panaka , Queen Amidala 's chief of security at Theed Palace .
Ahmed Best as Jar Jar Binks , a clumsy Gungan exiled from his home and taken in by Qui @-@ Gon and Obi @-@ Wan . Best was hired after Gurland saw him on a Stomp
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klət / , or / ˈhækəlwɪt / ; 1553 – 23 November 1616 ) was an English writer . He is known for promoting the British colonisation of North America by the English through his works , notably Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America ( 1582 ) and The Principal Navigations , Voiages , Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation ( 1589 – 1600 ) .
Hakluyt was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church , Oxford . Between 1583 and 1588 he was chaplain and secretary to Sir Edward Stafford , English ambassador at the French court . An ordained priest , Hakluyt held important positions at Bristol Cathedral and Westminster Abbey and was personal chaplain to Robert Cecil , 1st Earl of Salisbury , principal Secretary of State to Elizabeth I and James I. He was the chief promoter of a petition to James I for letters patent to colonize Virginia , which were granted to the London Company and Plymouth Company ( referred to collectively as the Virginia Company ) in 1606 . The Hakluyt Society publishes scholarly editions of primary records of voyages and travels .
= = Family , early life and education = =
Hakluyt 's patrilineal ancestors were of Welsh extraction , rather than Dutch as is often suggested ; they appear to have settled in Herefordshire in England around the 13th century , and , according to antiquary John Leland , took their surname from the " Forest of Cluid in Randnorland " . Some of Hakluyt 's ancestors established themselves at Yatton , and must have ranked amongst the principal landowners of the county . A person named Hugo Hakelute , who may have been an ancestor or relative of Richard Hakluyt , was elected Member of Parliament for the borough of Yatton in 1304 or 1305 , and between the 14th and 16th centuries five individuals surnamed " de Hackluit " or " Hackluit " were sheriffs of Herefordshire . A man named Walter Hakelut was knighted in the 34th year of Edward I ( 1305 ) and later killed at the Battle of Bannockburn , and in 1349 Thomas Hakeluyt was chancellor of the diocese of Hereford . Records also show that a Thomas Hakeluytt was in the wardship of Henry VIII ( reigned 1509 – 1547 ) and Edward VI ( reigned 1547 – 1553 ) .
Richard Hakluyt , the second of four sons , was born in Eyton in Herefordshire in 1553 . Hakluyt 's father , also named Richard Hakluyt , was a member of the Worshipful Company of Skinners whose members dealt in skins and furs . He died in 1557 when his son was aged about five years , and his wife Margery followed soon after . Hakluyt 's cousin , also named Richard Hakluyt , of the Middle Temple , became his guardian .
While a Queen 's Scholar at Westminster School , Hakluyt visited his guardian , whose conversation , illustrated by " certain bookes of cosmographie , an universall mappe , and the Bible " , made Hakluyt resolve to " prosecute that knowledge , and kind of literature " . Entering Christ Church , Oxford , in 1570 with financial support from the Skinners ' Company , " his exercises of duty first performed " , he set out to read all the printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could find . He took his Bachelor of Arts ( B.A. ) on 19 February 1574 , and shortly after taking his Master of Arts ( M.A. ) on 27 June 1577 , began giving public lectures in geography . He was the first to show " both the old imperfectly composed and the new lately reformed mappes , globes , spheares , and other instruments of this art " . Hakluyt held on to his studentship at Christ Church between 1577 and 1586 , although after 1583 he was no longer resident in Oxford .
Hakluyt was ordained in 1578 , the same year he began to receive a " pension " from the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers to study divinity . The pension would have lapsed in 1583 , but William Cecil , 1st Baron Burghley , intervened to have it extended until 1586 to aid Hakluyt 's geographical research .
= = At the English Embassy in Paris = =
Hakluyt 's first publication was one that he wrote himself , Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America and the Ilands Adjacent unto the Same , Made First of all by our Englishmen and Afterwards by the Frenchmen and Britons ( 1582 ) .
Hakluyt 's Voyages brought him to the notice of Lord Howard of Effingham , and Sir Edward Stafford , Lord Howard 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . At the age of 30 , being acquainted with " the chiefest captaines at sea , the greatest merchants , and the best mariners of our nation " , he was selected as chaplain and secretary to accompany Stafford , now English ambassador at the French court , to Paris in 1583 . In accordance with the instructions of Secretary Francis Walsingham , he occupied himself chiefly in collecting information of the Spanish and French movements , and " making diligent inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne discoverie in America " . Although this was his only visit to Continental Europe in his life , he was angered to hear the limitations of the English in terms of travel being discussed in Paris .
The first fruits of Hakluyt 's labours in Paris were embodied in his important work entitled A Particuler Discourse Concerninge the Greate Necessitie and Manifolde Commodyties That Are Like to Growe to This Realme of Englande by the Westerne Discoueries Lately Attempted , Written in the Yere 1584 , which Sir Walter Raleigh commissioned him to prepare . The manuscript , lost for almost 300 years , was published for the first time in 1877 . Hakluyt revisited England in 1584 , and laid a copy of the Discourse before Elizabeth I ( to whom it had been dedicated ) together with his analysis in Latin of Aristotle 's Politicks . His objective was to recommend the enterprise of planting the English race in the unsettled parts of North America , and thus gain the Queen 's support for Raleigh 's expedition . In May 1585 when Hakluyt was in Paris with the English Embassy , the Queen granted to him the next prebendary at Bristol Cathedral that should become vacant , to which he was admitted in 1585 or 1586 and held with other preferments till his death .
Hakluyt 's other works during his time in Paris consisted mainly of translations and compilations , with his own dedications and prefaces . These latter writings , together with a few letters , are the only extant material out of which a biography of him can be framed . Hakluyt interested himself in the publication of the manuscript journal of René Goulaine de Laudonnière , the LivreL 'histoire notable de la Floride située ès Indes Occidentales in Paris in 1586 . The attention that the book excited in Paris encouraged Hakluyt to prepare an English translation and publish it in London under the title A Notable Historie Containing Foure Voyages Made by Certayne French Captaynes unto Florida ( 1587 ) . The same year , his edition of Peter Martyr d 'Anghiera 's De Orbe Nouo Decades Octo saw the light at Paris . This work contains an exceedingly @-@ rare copperplate map dedicated to Hakluyt and signed F.G. ( supposed to be Francis Gualle ) ; it is the first on which the name " Virginia " appears .
= = Return to England = =
In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Douglas Sheffield , Baroness Sheffield , after a residence in France of nearly five years . In 1589 he published the first edition of his chief work , The Principall Navigations , Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation , using eyewitness accounts as far as possible . In the preface to this he announced the intended publication of the first terrestrial globe made in England by Emery Molyneux .
Between 1598 and 1600 appeared the final , reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of The Principal Navigations , Voiages , Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation in three volumes . In the dedication of the second volume ( 1599 ) to his patron , Robert Cecil , 1st Earl of Salisbury , Hakluyt strongly urged the minister as to the expediency of colonizing Virginia . A few copies of this monumental work contain a map of great rarity , the first on the Mercator projection made in England according to the true principles laid down by Edward Wright . Hakluyt 's great collection has been called " the Prose Epic of the modern English nation " by historian James Anthony Froude .
On 20 April 1590 Hakluyt was instituted to the clergy house of Wetheringsett @-@ cum @-@ Brockford , Suffolk , by Lady Stafford , who was Dowager @-@ Baroness Sheffield . He held this position until his death , and resided in Wetheringsett through the 1590s and frequently thereafter . In 1599 , he became an adviser to the East India Company , and in 1601 he edited a translation from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvão 's The Discoveries of the World .
= = Later life = =
In the late 1590s Hakluyt became the client and personal chaplain of Robert Cecil , 1st Earl of Salisbury , Lord Burghley 's son , who was to be Hakluyt 's most fruitful patron . Hakluyt dedicated to Cecil the second ( 1599 ) and third volumes ( 1600 ) of the expanded edition of Principal Navigations and also his edition of Galvão 's Discoveries ( 1601 ) . Cecil , who was the principal Secretary of State to Elizabeth I and James I , rewarded him by installing him as prebendary of the Dean and Chapter of Westminster on 4 May 1602 . In the following year , he was elected archdeacon of the Abbey . These religious occupations have occasioned reconsideration of the role played by spiritual concerns in Hakluyt 's writings on exploration , settlement , and England 's relations with its Catholic rivals .
Hakluyt was married twice , once in or about 1594 and again in 1604 . In the licence of Hakluyt 's second marriage dated 30 March 1604 , he is described as one of the chaplains of the Savoy Hospital ; this position was also conferred on him by Cecil . His will refers to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of his death , and in another official document he is styled Doctor of Divinity ( D.D. ) .
Hakluyt was also a leading adventurer of the Charter of the Virginia Company of London as a director thereof in 1589 . In 1605 he secured the prospective living of Jamestown , the intended capital of the intended colony of Virginia . When the colony was at last established in 1607 , he supplied this benefice with its chaplain , Robert Hunt . In 1606 he appears as the chief promoter of the petition to James I for letters patent to colonize Virginia , which were granted on 10 April 1606 . His last publication was a translation of Hernando de Soto 's discoveries in Florida , entitled Virginia Richly Valued , by the Description of the Maine Land of Florida , Her Next Neighbour ( 1609 ) . This work was intended to encourage the young colony of Virginia ; Scottish historian William Robertson wrote of Hakluyt , " England is more indebted for its American possessions than to any man of that age . "
Hakluyt prepared an English translation of Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius ' Mare Liberum ( 1609 ) , a treatise that sought to demonstrate that the Dutch had the right to trade freely in the East Indies , contrary to Spanish and Portuguese claims of sovereignty over the seas , in the early 17th century . Helen Thornton has suggested that the translation was commissioned by Thomas Smythe who became treasurer of the Virginia Company in 1609 and was also Governor of the East India Company . In that year , Hakluyt was a consultant to the Company when it was renewing its charter . Grotius ' arguments supported England 's right to trade in the Indies . The translation may also have been part of the propaganda encouraging English people to settle in Virginia . In Mare Liberum , Grotius denied that the 1493 donation by Pope Alexander VI that had divided the oceans between Spain and Portugal entitled Spain to make territorial claims to North America . Instead , he stressed the importance of occupation , which was favourable to the English as they and not the Spanish had occupied Virginia . Grotius also argued that the seas should be freely navigable by all , which was useful since the England to Virginia route crossed seas which the Portuguese claimed . However , it is not clear why Hakluyt 's translation was not published in his lifetime . George Bruner Parks has theorized that publication at that time would have been inconvenient to England because after England had successfully helped Holland and Spain to negotiate the Twelve Years ' Truce during the Eighty Years ' War , the work would have supported English claims for free seas against Spain , but not its claims for closed seas against Holland . Hakluyt 's handwritten manuscript , MS Petyt 529 , in Inner Temple Library in London was eventually published as The Free Sea for the first time in 2004 .
In 1591 , Hakluyt inherited family property upon the death of his elder brother Thomas ; a year later , upon the death of his youngest brother Edmund , he inherited additional property which derived from his uncle . In 1612 Hakluyt became a charter member of the North @-@ west Passage Company . By the time of his death , he had amassed a small fortune out of his various emoluments and preferments , of which the last was the clergy house of Gedney , Lincolnshire , presented to him by his younger brother Oliver in 1612 . Unfortunately , his wealth was squandered by his only son .
Hakluyt died on 23 November 1616 , probably in London , and was buried on 26 November in Westminster Abbey ; by an error in the abbey register his burial is recorded under the year 1626 . A number of his manuscripts , sufficient to form a fourth volume of his collections of 1598 – 1600 , fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas , who inserted them in an abridged form in his Pilgrimes ( 1625 – 1626 ) . Others , consisting chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors , are preserved at the University of Oxford .
Hakluyt is principally remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of North America by the English through his writings . These works were a fertile source of material for William Shakespeare and other authors . Hakluyt also encouraged the production of geographical and historical writings by others . It was at Hakluyt 's suggestion that Robert Parke translated Juan González de Mendoza 's The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China and the Situation Thereof ( 1588 – 1590 ) , John Pory made his version of Leo Africanus 's A Geographical Historie of Africa ( 1600 ) , and P. Erondelle translated Marc Lescarbot 's Nova Francia ( 1609 ) .
= = Legacy = =
The Hakluyt Society was founded in 1846 for printing rare and unpublished accounts of voyages and travels , and continues to publish volumes each year .
In May 2008 , a major interdisciplinary conference called Richard Hakluyt 1552 – 1616 : Life , Times , Legacy , examining the significance of Hakluyt 's work , was jointly organized by the National Maritime Museum , the Centre for Travel Writing Studies , Nottingham Trent University and NUI Galway . A major aim of the conference was to lay the groundwork for and establish a network of scholars to prepare a new edition of Hakluyt 's Principal Navigations . Those leading this group include Nigel Rigby , Will Ryan ( President of the Hakluyt Society ) , and the project 's editors Daniel Carey ( NUI , Galway ) , Andrew Hadfield ( University of Sussex ) and Claire Jowitt ( NTU ) .
Westminster School named a house after him as recognition of achievement of an Old Westminster .
= = Works = =
= = = Authored = = =
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1582 ) . Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America and the Ilands Adjacent unto the Same , Made First of All by Our Englishmen and Afterwards by the Frenchmen and Britons : With Two Mappes Annexed Hereunto . London : [ Thomas Dawson ] for T. Woodcocke . Quarto . Reprint :
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1850 ) . John Winter Jones , ed . Divers Voyages Touching the Discovery of America and the Islands Adjacent [ Hakluyt Society ; 1st Ser . , no . 7 ] . London : Hakluyt Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 665 @-@ 37538 @-@ 5 .
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1584 ) . A Particuler Discourse Concerninge the Greate Necessitie and Manifolde Commodyties That Are Like to Growe to This Realme of Englande by the Westerne Discoueries Lately Attempted , Written in the Yere 1584 . [ London ? ] : [ s.n. ] Reprints :
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1831 ) . C [ harles ] Deane , ed . A Discourse Concerning Western Planting Written in the Year 1584 ( Maine Historical Society . Collections , etc . ; 2nd Ser . ) . Maine : Maine Historical Society .
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1993 ) . David B. Quinn & Alison M. Quinn , eds . A Particuler Discourse Concerninge the Greate Necessitie and Manifolde Commodyties that are Like to Growe to this Realme of Englande by the Westerne Discoueries Lately Attempted ... [ Hakluyt Society ; Extra Ser . , no . 45 ] . London : Hakluyt Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 904180 @-@ 35 @-@ 0 .
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1589 ) . The Principall Navigations , Voiages , and Discoveries of the English Nation : Made by Sea or Over Land to the Most Remote and Farthest Distant Quarters of the Earth at Any Time within the Compasse of These 1500 Years : Divided into Three Several Parts According to the Positions of the Regions Whereunto They Were Directed ; the First Containing the Personall Travels of the English unto Indæa , Syria , Arabia ... the Second , Comprehending the Worthy Discoveries of the English Towards the North and Northeast by Sea , as of Lapland ... the Third and Last , Including the English Valiant Attempts in Searching Almost all the Corners of the Vaste and New World of America ... Whereunto is Added the Last Most Renowned English Navigation Round About the Whole Globe of the Earth . London : Imprinted by George Bishop and Ralph Newberie , deputies to Christopher Barker , printer to the Queen 's Most Excellent Majestie . Folio . Reprint :
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1965 ) . The Principall Navigations Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation ... Imprinted at London , 1589 : A Photo @-@ Lithographic Facsimile with an Introduction by David Beers Quinn and Raleigh Ashlin Skelton and with a New Index by Alison Quinn [ Hakluyt Society ; Extra Ser . , nos . 39a & 39b ] . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press for Hakluyt Society & Peabody Museum of Salem . 2 vols .
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1598 – 1600 ) . The Principal Navigations , Voiages , Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation , Made by Sea or Overland ... at Any Time Within the Compasse of these 1500 [ 1600 ] Yeeres , & c . London : G. Bishop , R. Newberie & R. Barker . 3 vols . ; folio . Reprints :
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1884 – 1890 ) . E [ dmund ] Goldsmid , ed . The Principal Navigations , Voyages , Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation . Edinburgh : E. & G. Goldsmid . 16 vols .
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1903 – 1905 ) . The Principal Navigations Voyages Traffiques & Discoveries of the English Nation , etc . [ Hakluyt Society ; Extra Ser . , nos . 1 – 12 ] . Glasgow : James MacLehose & Sons for the Hakluyt Society . 12 vols .
= = = Edited and translated = = =
[ Cartier , Jacques ( 1580 ) . A Shorte and Briefe Narration of the Two Nauigations and Discoueries to the Northwest Partes called Newe Fraunce , first Translated out of French into Italian by ... Gio . Bapt . Ramutius , and now Turned into English by John Florio , etc . London : H [ enry ] Bynneman dvvelling in Thames streate , neere vnto Baynardes Castell . ] It seems likely that this work was not by Hakluyt : see " At the English Embassy in Paris " above .
Laudonnière , René de ; Richard Hakluyt , transl . ( 1587 ) . A Notable Historie Containing Foure Voyages made by Certaine French Captaynes unto Florida , wherein the Great Riches and Fruitefulnes of the Countrey , with the Maners of the People , hitherto Concealed , are Brought to Light ... Newly Translated Out of French into English by R. H. ... London : Thomas Dawson . Quarto .
Anglerius , Petrus Martyr ( 1587 ) . Richard Hakluyt , ed . De Orbe Nouo Petri Martyris Anglerii Mediolanensis Protonotarii et Caroli Quinti Senatoris Decades Octo , Diligenti Temporum Observatione et Utilissinis Annotationibus Illustratæ ... Paris : G. Auvray . Octavo .
Galvão , Antonio ( 1601 ) . Richard Hakluyt , ed . The Discoveries of the World from Their First Originall unto the Yeer ... 1555 ; Written in the Portugall Tongue by A. Galvano . London : G. Bishop . Quarto . Reprint :
Galvano , Antonio ( 1862 ) . Vice @-@ Admiral Bethune ( Charles Ramsay Drinkwater Bethune ) , ed . The Discoveries of the World , from Their First Original unto the Year of our Lord , 1555 . [ Edited by F. de Sousa Tavares . ] Corrected ... and published in England , by R. Hakluyt ... [ Hakluyt Society ; 1st Ser . , no . 30 ] . London : Hakluyt Society .
de Soto , Ferdinando ; Richard Hakluyt , transl . ( 1609 ) . Virginia Richly Valued , by the Description of the Maine Land of Florida , Her Next Neighbour : Out of the Foure Yeeres Travell and Discoverie ... of Don Ferdinando de Soto and Sixe Hundred Able Men in His Companie ... Written by a Portugall gentleman of Elvas , ... and Translated out of Portugese by Richard Hakluyt . London : F. Kyngston for M. Lownes . Quarto .
Grotius , Hugo ; William Welwod ; Richard Hakluyt , transl . ( 2004 ) . David Armitage , ed . The Free Sea . Indianapolis , Ind . : Liberty Fund . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86597 @-@ 431 @-@ 9 .
= = = Books = = =
Burrage , Henry S [ weetser ] , ed . ( 1906 ) . ... Early English and French Voyages , Chiefly from Hakluyt , 1534 – 1608 : With Maps and a Facsimile Reproduction . New York , N.Y. : Scribner 's .
Corbitt , David Leroy , ed . ( 1948 ) . Explorations , descriptions , and attempted settlements of Carolina , 1584 – 1590 . Raleigh : State Department of Archives and History .
Gray , Albert ( 1917 ) . An Address on the Occasion of the Tercentenary of the Death of Richard Hakluyt , 23 November 1916 : With a Note on the Hakluyt Family ( OB4 ) . London : Hakluyt Society .
Hakluyt , Richard ; Frank Knight ( 1964 ) . They Told Mr. Hakluyt : Being a Selection of Tales and Other Matter Taken from Richard Hakluyt 's " The Principal Navigations , Voyages , Traffics and Discoveries of the English Nation " , with Various Explanatory Notes by Frank Knight . London : Macmillan & Co .
Hakluyt , Richard ( 1880s ) . Henry Morley , ed . Voyager 's Tales , from the Collections of Richard Hakluyt . London : Cassell & Co .
Lynam , E [ dward ] [ William O 'Flaherty ] , ed . ( 1946 ) . Richard Hakluyt & His Successors : A Volume Issued to Commemorate the Centenary of the Hakluyt Society . London : Hakluyt Society .
Mancall , Peter C. ( 2007 ) . Hakluyt 's Promise : An Elizabethan 's Obsession for an English America . New Haven , Conn . ; London : Yale University Press .
Markham , Clements R [ obert ] ( 1896 ) . Richard Hakluyt : His Life and Work : With a Short Account of the Aims and Achievements of the Hakluyt Society : An Address , etc . ( OB1 ) . London : Hakluyt Society .
Neville @-@ Sington , P [ amela ] A. ; Anthony Payne ( 1997 ) . Richard Hakluyt and His Books : An Interim Census of Surviving Copies of Hakluyt 's Divers Voyages and Principal Navigations . London : Hakluyt Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 904180 @-@ 56 @-@ 5 .
Quinn , D [ avid ] B [ eers ] , ed . ( 1974 ) . The Hakluyt Handbook [ Hakluyt Society ; 2nd ser . , no . 144 ] . London : Hakluyt Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 20211 @-@ 4 . 2 vols .
A Reproduction of the Tablet Erected in Bristol Cathedral to the Memory of Richard Hakluyt Born 1522 , Died 1616 ( OB3 ) . London : Hakluyt Society . 1911 .
Sir Walter Raleigh and Richard Hakluyt : An Exhibition Held in the King 's Library , British Museum , July – September 1952 . [ London ] : British Museum . 1952 .
Watson , Foster ( 1924 ) . Richard Hakluyt . [ S.l. ] : The Sheldon Press .
= = = News reports = = =
O 'Toole , Fintan ( 10 March 2007 ) . " Virgin territories [ review of Peter C. Mancall 's Hakluyt 's Promise ] " . The Guardian ( Review ) ( London ) .
Porter , Henry ( 8 April 2007 ) . " America 's debt to a forgotten hero : As the 400th anniversary of Jamestown nears , its spiritual father is being unjustly ignored " . The Observer ( London ) .
Bridges , Roy ( 15 April 2007 ) . " Your letters : Hakluyt has not been forgotten " . The Observer ( London ) .
= The Plateau ( Fringe ) =
" The Plateau " is the third episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 46th episode overall . As one of the early Season 3 episodes that takes place entirely in the parallel universe , the episode centers on Olivia , conditioned to believe she is a member of the alternate Fringe team , trying to track down a mentally unstable man that can predict the team 's every move .
" The Plateau " was co @-@ written by Monica Owusu @-@ Breen and Alison Schapker , and directed by Brad Anderson . It featured the only appearance of guest actor Michael Eklund , who played the episode 's antagonist Milo Stanfield . It first aired on October 7 , 2010 to an estimated 5 @.@ 2 million viewers . Reviews of the episode were mostly positive , and many praised the storyline and Eklund 's performance .
= = Plot = =
Olivia ( Anna Torv ) , trapped in the parallel universe , has been conditioned with drugs to believe she is her doppelganger , " Fauxlivia " , by Walternate ( John Noble ) , and has been integrated into the alternate Fringe team , though she is haunted by images of Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) and Walter ( Noble ) from the prime universe .
She , Charlie ( Kirk Acevedo ) , and Lincoln ( Seth Gabel ) are called to the scene of an accident where a pedestrian has been run over by a bus , nearly duplicating events of a similar bus accident the day before , a statistical impossibility according to Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) . Olivia finds a ball @-@ point pen at the scene , a rarity in the parallel universe because of the adoption of digital interfaces . Evidence suggests that the discovery of the pen by a bystander created a sequence of reactions that led to the victim 's death . The next day , another pedestrian is wounded in a bus accident . As the Fringe team investigates the scene , finding another pen , a bystander is struck and killed by an ambulance . Olivia spots a suspicious man in the crowds , but he uses a seemingly random series of happenstance events to get away .
Olivia discovers ties between the three victims and a medical center . At the center , Dr. Levin ( Malcolm Stewart ) explains they help mentally challenged patients with experimental processes to boost their intelligence ; Olivia observes one set of patients uses pens as they are unable to cope with digital devices . When Olivia and Charlie discuss the victims with Dr. Levin , he is able to identify their culprit as Milo ( Michael Eklund ) , a patient taking an experimental drug to boost his IQ exponentially . Though released to care of his sole remaining family member Madeline ( Kacey Rohl ) , he was scheduled to return to reverse the process for his own health and safety . Dr. Levin identifies all three victims as those charged to return Milo to the center , the last victim only having been selected the day before . They visit Madeline , who worries for the safety of her brother . She explains that Milo is able to predict the outcome of numerous events to the smallest detail , and only by showing him a toy horse , a connection to their deceased parents , can she break Milo 's concentration . She provides Olivia and Charlie the location of the hotel that Milo is staying at .
As they return to the city , Olivia and Charlie discuss plans with Astrid on how to capture Milo , but realize that since he can predict their every move , any plan would be futile , and approach the hotel directly . Milo leads Olivia on a chase through a construction area including a marked zone where the air is too thin , expecting to crush her under a load of cement bricks . Olivia , unaware of the warning signs for the zone , races through it instead of stopping to put on a respirator , nearly asphyxiating herself , and dodges the bricks in time to capture Milo . At the center , Dr. Levin notes that Milo 's condition is too far advanced to reverse , and only a computer is able to keep up with his thoughts . Madeline sadly leaves the toy horse at Milo 's side .
That evening , Olivia has a vision of Peter ; the vision tries to break Olivia from the conditioning , explaining that her lack of knowledge of the parallel universe saved her life .
= = Production = =
In late March 2010 , Brothers & Sisters showrunners Monica Owusu @-@ Breen and Alison Schapker were hired as co @-@ executive producers for Fringe . The two had previously worked with Fringe co @-@ creators Roberto Orci , J.J. Abrams , and Alex Kurtzman on Alias , and again with Abrams on Lost . " The Plateau " marked the first Fringe episode they co @-@ wrote . Editor Timothy A. Good also joined the series , making " The Plateau " his first Fringe episode . Good called the episode one of two parts – the second half was the season 's eighteenth episode " Bloodline " , which Breen and Schapker also co @-@ wrote . The episode premise was inspired by executive producer J.H. Wyman 's son , who came up with the idea that a man could be smart enough to predict events . " The Plateau " marked the first appearance of a fringe case in the parallel universe .
The episode featured the return of guest stars Kirk Acevedo , Ryan McDonald , Seth Gabel , and Philip Winchester . New guest actors included Michael Eklund as the antagonist Milo Stanfield , Malcolm Stewart as Dr. Levin , and Kacey Rohl as Madeline . Eklund and other actors auditioned in Vancouver , and the producers reviewed tapes of their previous work . As executive producer Jeff Pinkner explains , " We got incredibly lucky casting Michael Eklund for this role ... he really created this character . " " The Plateau " was the first episode of the third season to feature " Alt @-@ Astrid " , the prime universe Astrid 's doppelganger . Actress Jasika Nicole depicted her to have autistic characteristics , as Nicole has a sister with the disorder . The producers decided this would be the one doppelganger to have actual genetic differences with their counterpart , with Nicole believing her two characters possessed the greatest contrast among all of the doppelgangers .
Former Fringe producer Brad Anderson served as the episodes director . The episode was shot in August 2010 , partly on Hastings Street in Vancouver . Anderson filmed the opening sequence in one day , which Owusu @-@ Bree praised as " unbelievable . " The crew employed a stunt double for some of Eklund 's more physical scenes , such as when he jumps onto a moving bus . Pinkner called the bus scene his favorite stunt on the series thus far . The hospital where Olivia and Charlie interview the drug trial doctor was filmed at the Toronto Public Library . There , the video the doctor showed them was added later by effects supervisor Jay Worth , forcing the actors to fake reactions to the images displayed .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children focusing on the science seen in " The Plateau " , with the intention of having " students learn about chain reactions , where small changes result in additional changes , leading to a self @-@ propagating chain of events . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its first broadcast on October 7 , 2010 , " The Plateau " was watched by an estimated 5 @.@ 2 million viewers , earning a 2 @.@ 0 / 5 ratings share for adults between the ages 18 and 49 . Time shifting viewing increased the episode 's ratings by 39 percent , finishing with a 2 @.@ 8 rating among adults .
= = = Reviews = = =
Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker called the episode " at once cool @-@ looking , heart @-@ tugging , and pretty simple " , especially when compared to previous episodes like " White Tulip " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Noel Murray graded the episode with an A , explaining " I can 't really find anything to complain about here . The direction was effectively moody and snappy , the performances were sharp , and the case was cool . " Murray praised the subtle characteristics of the parallel universe , the action scenes , and the use of split @-@ screens to visually show Milo 's predictions . MTV 's Josh Wigler believed that the episode " demonstrated how the mystery @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week format can still be compelling : by taking everything familiar and applying a stark new layer of paint . " Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times wrote " The third season of Fringe continues to get better with each episode . Most importantly , it has momentum . It 's moving forward with a distinct destination , and even though I know Fringe is heading somewhere , I have no idea where that might be , or what 's going to happen when we get there . Boy , if you 're not watching Fringe , you 're missing out . "
SFScope contributor Sarah Stegall thought the episode was similar to Flowers for Algernon , but was skeptical of the premise that Milo could predict every event before they happened . She criticized the decision to make Milo " coldly calculating " , writing " This is but another version of the tired cliché of the stoic intellectual , the intelligent person who has no heart or emotions . Why are we so afraid of smart people ? ... It always annoys me when science fiction writers , of all people , diss their own audience with the idea that intellectuals are dangerous . " Stegall was pleased to have the first " standalone " episode of the season , explaining that it was the first where she could " relax and enjoy ... the tying together of a standalone with a mythology theme was absolutely brilliant . " Fearnet contributor Alyse Wax enjoyed the episode , but also thought " the idea that [ drugs ] could turn someone into a cartoonish evil genius is pretty farfetched . "
Many critics praised Eklund and his character , with one calling Milo " spindly , intense , and nicely chilling " . In a January 2011 article , The Futon Critic rated " The Plateau " the twenty @-@ first best television episode of 2010 out of a list of fifty . The A.V. Club ranked Fringe the 15th best show of 2010 , in particular citing " The Plateau " as a justification . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " The Plateau " the thirteenth best episode of the series , explaining " The first half of Fringe 's celebrated third season alternated between episodes set in the over here and over there worlds . In a tough call , we say the best of the over there stand @-@ alones was this brainy thriller about a dude with a low I.Q. who got an intelligence boost via nootopic drugs , and found himself becoming smarter and smarter , and more and more humanly detached , and causing chaos and death by concocting intricate chain reaction events . " In a similar list , Den of Geek named it the eighth best episode of the series , explaining that " The Plateau " stood out as " the best of a good crop of episodes " among the parallel universe storylines because of its villain and its use of Lincoln Lee , Charlie , and Olivia in action . "
= Hurricane Alex ( 2004 ) =
Hurricane Alex was the first named storm , the first hurricane , and the first major hurricane of the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season . The first storm of the season , Alex formed unusually late in the season ; the fifth latest since 1954 . It developed from the interaction between an upper @-@ level low and a weak surface trough on July 31 to the east of Jacksonville , Florida . It moved northeastward , and strengthened to attain winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) before passing within 10 miles ( 16 km ) of the Outer Banks coast . Alex strengthened further and reached a peak of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) winds while off the coast of New England , one of only two hurricanes to reach Category 3 status north of 38 ° N. Alex caused a scare of a hurricane @-@ force direct hit in the Outer Banks of North Carolina , which had been devastated by Hurricane Isabel less than a year earlier .
The hurricane produced light damage in the Outer Banks , primarily from flooding and high winds . Over 100 houses were damaged , while numerous cars were disabled from the flooding . Damage totaled about $ 7 @.@ 5 million ( 2004 USD ) . Alex produced strong waves and rip tides along the East Coast of the United States , causing one death and several injuries .
= = Meteorological history = =
A weak surface trough , located to the west of an upper @-@ level low , developed convection to the east of the Bahamas on July 26 . A tropical wave entered the area two days later , resulting in an increase of convective organization and area . Although conditions were not favorable for tropical cyclone formation , it sped to the northwest and steadily organized , developing a surface area of low pressure on the 30th . On July 31 , the system continued to organize , and developed into Tropical Depression One while located 200 miles ( 320 km ) to the east of Jacksonville , Florida .
As the depression drifted erratically , the system remained weak due to its large circulation and lack of deep convection near the center . The center relocated to the south , closer to the center . An approaching upper @-@ level trough lessened the shear over the system , allowing the depression to intensify into Tropical Storm Alex on August 1 . The trough also caused Alex to increase its forward motion to the northeast . Deep convection continued to build over the center due to low shear and warm waters from the Gulf Stream , and Alex intensified into a hurricane on August 3 while located 75 miles ( 120 km ) southeast of Cape Fear , North Carolina . The cyclone continued to strengthen , and attained Category 2 status just hours after becoming a hurricane . The hurricane approached the Outer Banks of North Carolina , coming within 10 miles ( 16 km ) of Cape Hatteras later on the 3rd . The western portion of the eyewall passed over the Outer Banks , though the center remained offshore .
Alex turned to the east @-@ northeast after passing the Outer Banks in response to becoming embedded within the west @-@ southwesterly flow . The hurricane briefly weakened to a Category 1 , but restrengthened due to warm waters of the Gulf Stream . Water temperatures remained 3 @.@ 6 ° F ( 2 ° C ) above normal , resulting in Alex intensifying into a 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) major hurricane on August 5 while located 450 miles ( 710 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . Due to low vertical shear and favorable conditions , Alex remained a Category 3 hurricane until passing over cooler waters late on the 5th while 290 miles ( 465 km ) south of Newfoundland . Alex rapidly weakened , degrading into tropical storm status on August 6 . Later on the 6th , Alex became extratropical while 950 miles ( 1530 km ) east of Cape Race , Newfoundland , and lost its identity shortly thereafter .
= = Preparations = =
Initially , forecasters believed Alex would remain weak , and on the first advisory the storm was predicted to make landfall as a minimal tropical storm . However , when strengthening became evident , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane warning from Cape Lookout to Oregon Inlet about 20 hours before hurricane conditions were experienced . In addition , a tropical storm warning existed for much of the North Carolina coastline as Alex paralleled the state .
Despite Tropical Storm Warnings , 3 @,@ 500 tourists remained on the Outer Banks , though many planned to leave if Alex were to track closer or become stronger . No evacuations were ordered . Officials recommended residents to take precautions for the approaching hurricane . The National Weather Service in Morehead City issued a flash flood watch a day before the hurricane moved past the Outer Banks . The service also issued flash flooding warnings for Craven and Carteret Counties on the day of the hurricane 's closest approach . In preparation for the hurricane , the Cape Lookout National Seashore was closed and evacuated . The National Park Service also closed Cape Point Campground .
= = Impact = =
While drifting off the coast of Florida , Alex produced rip currents and strong waves along the North Carolina coast resulting in nine lifeguard rescues from the surf . Upon moving by the Outer Banks , a storm surge of up to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) occurred on the Pamlico Sound side of Buxton and Ocracoke Village . The flooding on Ocracoke Island was the worst since Hurricane Gloria nineteen years earlier . Elsewhere on the Outer Banks , waters rose 2 – 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal . Rainfall directly along the coast amounted to over 5 inches ( 127 mm ) , while Ocracoke experienced 7 @.@ 55 inches ( 192 mm ) . Maximum sustained winds peaked at 88 mph ( 124 km / h ) , and gusts peaked at 115 mph ( 169 km / h ) in Morehead City . Beach erosion was minor along much of North Carolina 's coastline , with the exception of Ocracoke Island where erosion was significant .
Cape Fear experienced minor beach erosion . The erosion , combined with high waves , washed out a portion of a roadway . The heavy rainfall in the Outer Banks disabled over 200 cars and flooded nearly 500 . Strong wind gusts left around 10 @,@ 000 buildings without power . Many places were not restored for two to three days after the storm . Wind and storm surge damaged over 100 houses and buildings . Damage amounted to about $ 7 @.@ 5 million ( 2004 USD ) . Two days after the storm passed , a man drowned off of Nags Head from strong rip currents and waves . This was the only direct casualty from the storm .
Alex 's outer rainbands produced heavy rainfall across Virginia , peaking at over 7 inches ( 178 mm ) in the center of the state . The rainfall caused localized flooding , but there was no reported damage in the state . In Rehoboth Beach , Delaware , rip currents produced by the storm injured three people . A few young children had to be rescued when they were trapped by a jetty . In New Jersey , the strong surf and rip currents hospitalized at least five swimmers .
Alex 's extratropical remnants sank the Pink Lady , a rowboat carrying four British rowers attempting to break the record for fastest crossing from St. John 's , Newfoundland to Falmouth , Cornwall . They were rescued by a Danish cargo ship , and injuries were limited to a mild concussion and a case of hypothermia . The rowers were roughly two weeks and 370 miles ( 595 km ) from their destination . The group had been on track to break the 1896 record of 54 days by 10 days .
= = Aftermath and records = =
On Ocracoke Island , officials ordered for the evacuation of the thousands of tourists who stayed , believing that keeping tourists on the island would hinder cleanup efforts . The tourists were evacuated in school buses to Hatteras Island , where they could rent a car if needed . Tourists were also evacuated by ferry to Swan Quarter , in Hyde County , where they boarded school buses and were taken to nearby Washington NC to rent available cars or find accommodations . The island was re @-@ opened to visitors on August 6 , three days after the storm passed through . Evacuation was ordered again on Friday of the following week when another storm threatened to hit the Outer Banks , but did not do so . Dare County officials requested aid from the National Guard for the cleanup process . The North Carolina Department of Transportation was ready to clear the roads once the storm exited the area .
Alex marked the fifth @-@ latest start to a hurricane season since 1954 . The latest start to a hurricane season since 1954 was Hurricane Anita of the 1977 season , forming on August 29 . Alex is only the second hurricane on record to have reached Category 3 strength north of 38 ° N latitude . The other storm was Hurricane Ellen in the 1973 Atlantic hurricane season ; Alex was the stronger of the two . It is also one of only five hurricanes to be at major hurricane ( Category 3 or higher ) status within Canadian waters since 1950 .
= Chadian – Libyan conflict =
The Chadian – Libyan conflict was a series of sporadic clashes in Chad between 1978 and 1987 between Libyan and Chadian forces . Libya had been involved in Chad 's internal affairs prior to 1978 and before Muammar Gaddafi 's rise to power in Libya in 1969 , beginning with the extension of the Chadian Civil War to northern Chad in 1968 . The conflict was marked by a series of four separate Libyan interventions in Chad , taking place in 1978 , 1979 , 1980 – 1981 and 1983 – 1987 . In all of these occasions Gaddafi had the support of a number of factions participating in the civil war , while Libya 's opponents found the support of the French government , which intervened militarily to save the Chadian government in 1978 , 1983 and 1986 .
The pattern of the war delineated itself in 1978 , with the Libyans providing armour , artillery and air support and their Chadian allies the infantry , which assumed the bulk of the scouting and fighting . This pattern was radically changed in 1986 , towards the end of the war , when most Chadian forces united in opposing the Libyan occupation of northern Chad with a degree of unity that had never been seen before in Chad . This deprived the Libyan forces of their habitual infantry , exactly when they found themselves confronting a mobile army , well provided now with anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ air missiles , thus cancelling the Libyan superiority in firepower . What followed was the Toyota War , in which the Libyan forces were routed and expelled from Chad , putting an end to the conflict .
Gaddafi initially intended to annex the Aouzou Strip , the northernmost part of Chad , which he claimed as part of Libya on the grounds of an unratified treaty of the colonial period . In 1972 his goals became , in the evaluation of historian Mario Azevedo , the creation of a client state in Libya 's " underbelly " , an Islamic republic modelled after his jamahiriya , that would maintain close ties with Libya , and secure his control over the Aouzou Strip ; expulsion of the French from the region ; and use of Chad as a base to expand his influence in Central Africa .
= = Events = =
= = = Occupation of the Aouzou Strip = = =
Libyan involvement with Chad can be said to have started in 1968 , during the Chadian Civil War , when the insurgent Muslim National Liberation Front of Chad ( FROLINAT ) extended its guerrilla war against the Christian President François Tombalbaye to the northerly Borkou @-@ Ennedi @-@ Tibesti Prefecture ( BET ) . Libya 's king Idris I felt compelled to support the FROLINAT because of long @-@ standing strong links between the two sides of the Chadian @-@ Libyan border . To preserve relations with Chad 's former colonial master and current protector , France , Idris limited himself to granting the rebels sanctuary in Libyan territory and to providing only non @-@ lethal supplies .
All this changed with the Libyan coup d 'état of 1 September 1969 that deposed Idris and brought Muammar Gaddafi to power . Gaddafi claimed the Aouzou Strip in northern Chad , referring to an unratified treaty signed in 1935 by Italy and France ( then the colonial powers of Libya and Chad , respectively ) . Such claims had been previously made when in 1954 Idris had tried to occupy Aouzou , but his troops were repelled by the French Colonial Forces .
Though initially wary of the FROLINAT , Gaddafi had come to see by 1970 the organization as useful to his needs . With the support of Soviet bloc nations , particularly East Germany , he trained and armed the insurgents , and provided them with weapons and funding . On 27 August 1971 Chad accused Egypt and Libya of backing a coup against then @-@ president Tombalbaye by recently amnestied Chadians .
On the day of the failed coup , Tombalbaye cut all diplomatic relations with Libya and Egypt , and invited all Libyan opposition groups to base themselves in Chad , and started laying claims to Fezzan on the grounds of " historical rights " . Gaddafi 's answer was to officially recognize on 17 September the FROLINAT as the sole legitimate government of Chad . In October , Chadian Foreign Minister Baba Hassan denounced Libya 's " expansionist ideas " at the United Nations .
Through French pressure on Libya and the mediation of Nigerien President Hamani Diori , the two countries resumed diplomatic relations on 17 April 1972 . Shortly after , Tombalbaye broke diplomatic relations with Israel and is said to have secretly agreed on 28 November to cede the Aouzou Strip to Libya . In exchange , Gaddafi pledged 40 million pounds to the Chadian President and the two countries signed a Treaty of Friendship in December 1972 . Gaddafi withdrew official support to the FROLINAT and forced its leader Abba Siddick to move his headquarters from Tripoli to Algiers . Good relations were confirmed in the following years , with Gaddafi visiting the Chadian capital N 'Djamena in March 1974 ; in the same month a joint bank was created to provide Chad with investment funds .
Six months after the signing of the 1972 treaty , Libyan troops moved into the Strip and established an airbase just north of Aouzou , protected by surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . A civil administration was set up , attached to Kufra , and Libyan citizenship was extended to the few thousand inhabitants of the area . From that moment , Libyan maps represented the area as part of Libya .
The exact terms by which Libya gained Aouzou remain partly obscure , and are debated . The existence of a secret agreement between Tombalbaye and Gaddafi was revealed only in 1988 , when the Libyan President exhibited an alleged copy of a letter in which Tombalbaye recognizes Libyan claims . Against this , scholars like Bernard Lanne have argued that there never was any sort of formal agreement , and that Tombalbaye had found it expedient not to mention the occupation of a part of his country . Libya was unable to exhibit the original copy of the agreement when the case of the Aouzou Strip was brought before the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) in 1993 .
= = = Expansion of the insurgency = = =
The rapprochement was not to last long , as on 13 April 1975 a coup d 'état removed Tombalbaye and replaced him with General Félix Malloum . As the coup was partly motivated by opposition to Tombalbaye 's appeasement of Libya , Gaddafi considered it a menace to his influence and resumed supplying the FROLINAT . In April 1976 , there was a Gaddafi @-@ backed attempted assassination of Malloum , and in the same year Libyan troops started making forays into central Chad in company of FROLINAT forces .
Libyan activism began generating concerns in the strongest faction into which the FROLINAT had split , the Command Council of the Armed Forces of the North ( CCFAN ) . The insurgents split on the issue of Libyan support in October 1976 , with a minority leaving the militia and forming the Armed Forces of the North ( FAN ) , led by the anti @-@ Libyan Hissène Habré . The majority , willing to accept an alliance with Gaddafi , was commanded by Goukouni Oueddei . The latter group soon renamed itself People 's Armed Forces ( FAP ) .
In those years , Gaddafi 's support had been mostly moral , with only a limited supply of weapons . All this started changing in February 1977 , when the Libyans provided Goukouni 's men with hundreds of AK @-@ 47 assault rifles , dozens of RPGs , 81 and 82mm mortars and recoilless cannons . Armed with these weapons , the FAP attacked in June the Chadian Armed Forces ' ( FAT ) strongholds of Bardaï and Zouar in Tibesti and of Ounianga Kébir in Borkou . Goukouni assumed with this attack full control of the Tibesti , because Bardaï , besieged since 22 June , surrendered on 4 July , while Zouar was evacuated . The FAT lost 300 men , and piles of military supplies fell into the hands of the rebels . Ounianga was attacked on 20 June , but was saved by the French military advisors present there .
As it had become evident that the Aouzou Strip was being used by Libya as a base for deeper involvement in Chad , Malloum decided to bring the issue of the Strip 's occupation before the UN and the Organisation of African Unity . Malloum also decided he needed new allies ; he negotiated a formal alliance with Habré , the Khartoum Accord , in September . This accord was kept secret until 22 January , when a Fundamental Charter was signed , following which a National Union Government was formed on 29 August 1978 with Habré as Prime Minister . The Malloum @-@ Habré accord was actively promoted by Sudan and Saudi Arabia , both of which feared a radical Chad controlled by Gaddafi . The two nations saw in Habré , with his good Muslim and anti @-@ colonialialist credentials , the only chance to thwart Gaddafi 's plans .
= = = Libyan escalation = = =
The Malloum @-@ Habré accord was perceived by Gaddafi as a serious threat to his influence in Chad , and he increased the level of Libyan involvement . For the first time with the active participation of Libyan ground units , Goukouni 's FAP unleashed the Ibrahim Abatcha offensive on 29 January 1978 against the last outposts held by the government in northern Chad : Faya @-@ Largeau , Fada and Ounianga Kebir . The attacks were successful , and Goukouni and the Libyans assumed control of the BET Prefecture .
The decisive confrontation between the Libyan @-@ FAP forces and the Chadian regular forces took place at Faya @-@ Largeau , the capital of the BET . The city , defended by 5 @,@ 000 Chadian soldiers , fell on 18 February after sharp fighting to a force of 2 @,@ 500 rebels , supported by possibly as many as 4 @,@ 000 Libyan troops . The Libyans do not seem to have directly participated in the fighting ; in a pattern that was to repeat itself in the future , the Libyans provided armor , artillery and air support . The rebels also were much better armed than before , displaying Strela 2 surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles .
Goukouni captured about 2 @,@ 500 prisoners in 1977 and 1978 ; as a result , the Chadian Armed Forces lost at least 20 % of its manpower . In particular , the National and Nomadic Guard ( GNN ) was decimated by the fall of Fada and Faya . Goukouni used these victories to strengthen his position in the FROLINAT : during a Libyan @-@ sponsored congress held in March in Faya , the insurgency 's main factions reunited themselves and nominated Goukouni as the secretary @-@ general .
Malloum 's reaction to the Goukouni – Gaddafi offensive was to sever diplomatic relations with Libya on 6 February and bring before the UN Security Council the issue of Libyan involvement . He raised again the question of Libya 's occupation of the Aouzou Strip ; on 19 February , however , after the fall of Faya , Malloum was forced to accept a ceasefire and withdraw the protest . Gaddafi halted the advance of Goukouni because of pressure from France , then an important supplier of Libya 's weapons .
Malloum and Gaddafi restored diplomatic relations on 24 February in Sabha , Libya , where an international peace conference was held which included as mediators Niger 's President , Seyni Kountché , and Sudan 's Vice @-@ President , Abu al @-@ Gasim Mohamed Ibrahim . Under severe pressure from France , Sudan and Zaire , Malloum was forced to sign the Benghazi Accord , which recognized the FROLINAT and agreed on a new ceasefire , on 27 March . The agreement called for the creation of a joint Libya – Niger military committee tasked with implementation ; through this committee , Chad legitimized Libyan intervention in its territory . The accord also contained a condition dear to Libya : the termination of all French military presence in Chad . The stillborn accord was for Gaddafi nothing more than a strategy to strengthen his protégé Goukouni ; it also weakened considerably Malloum 's prestige among southern Chadians , who saw his concessions as a proof of his weak leadership .
On 15 April , only a few days after signing the ceasefire , Goukouni left Faya , leaving there a Libyan garrison of 800 men . Relying on Libyan armor and airpower , Goukouni 's forces conquered a small FAT garrison and pointed towards N 'Djamena .
Against Goukouni stood freshly arrived French forces . Already in 1977 , after Goukouni 's first offensives , Malloum had asked for a French military return in Chad , but President Valéry Giscard d 'Estaing was at first reluctant to commit himself before the March 1978 legislative elections ; also , France was afraid of damaging its profitable commercial and diplomatic relations with Libya . However , the rapid deterioration of the situation in Chad resolved the President on 20 February 1978 to start Opération Tacaud , which by April brought 2 @,@ 500 troops to Chad to secure the capital from the rebels .
The decisive battle took place at Ati , a town 430 kilometres northeast of N 'Djamena . The town 's garrison of 1 @,@ 500 soldiers was attacked on 19 May by the FROLINAT insurgents , equipped with artillery and modern weapons . The garrison was relieved by the arrival of a Chadian task force supported by armor and , more importantly , of the French Foreign Legion and the 3rd Regiment of Marine Infantry . In a two @-@ day battle , the FROLINAT was repelled with heavy losses , a victory that was confirmed in June by another engagement at Djedaa . The FROLINAT admitted defeat and fled north , having lost 2 @,@ 000 men and left the " ultramodern equipment " they carried on the ground . Of key importance in these battles was the complete air superiority the French could count on , as the Libyan Air Force pilots refused to fight them .
= = = Libyan difficulties = = =
Only a few months after the failed offensive against the capital , major dissensions in the FROLINAT shattered all vestiges of unity and badly weakened Libyan power in Chad . On the night of 27 August , Ahmat Acyl , leader of the Volcan Army , attacked Faya @-@ Largeau with the support of Libyan troops in what was apparently an attempt by Gaddafi to remove Goukouni from the leadership of the FROLINAT , replacing him with Acyl . The attempt backfired , as Goukouni reacted by expelling all Libyan military advisors present in Chad , and started searching for a compromise with France .
The reasons for the clash between Gaddafi and Goukouni were both ethnic and political . The FROLINAT was divided between Arabs , like Acyl , and Toubous , like Goukouni and Habré . These ethnic divisions also reflected a different attitude towards Gaddafi and his Green Book . In particular , Goukouni and his men had shown themselves reluctant to follow Gaddafi 's solicitations to make The Green Book the official policy of the FROLINAT , and had first tried to take time , postponing the question until the complete reunification of the movement . When the unification was accomplished , and Gaddafi pressed again for the adoption of The Green Book , the dissensions in the Revolution 's Council became manifest , with many proclaiming their loyalty to the movement 's original platform approved in 1966 when Ibrahim Abatcha was made first secretary @-@ general , while others , including Acyl , fully embraced the Colonel 's ideas .
In N 'Djamena , the simultaneous presence of two armies — Prime Minister Habré 's FAN and President Malloum 's FAT — set the stage for the battle of N 'Djamena , which was to bring about the collapse of the State and the ascent to power of the Northern elite . A minor incident escalated on 12 February 1979 into heavy fighting between Habré and Malloum 's forces , and the battle intensified on 19 February when Goukouni 's men entered in the capital to fight alongside Habré . By 16 March , when the first international peace conference took place , an estimated 2 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 people had been killed and 60 @,@ 000 – 70 @,@ 000 forced to flee . The greatly diminished Chadian army left the capital in the rebels ' hands and reorganized itself in the south under the leadership of Wadel Abdelkader Kamougué . During the battle , the French garrison stood passively by , even helping Habré in certain circumstances , as when they demanded that the Chadian Air Force stop its bombings .
An international peace conference was held in Kano in Nigeria , in which Chad 's bordering states participated along with Malloum , Habré , and Goukouni . The Kano Accord was signed on 16 March by all those present , and Malloum resigned , replaced by a Council of State under the chairmanship of Goukouni . This was a result of Nigerian and French pressures on Goukouni and Habré to share power ; the French in particular saw this as part of their strategy to cut all ties between Goukouni and Gaddafi . A few weeks later , the same factions formed the Transitional Government of National Unity ( GUNT ) , kept together to a considerable extent by the common desire to see Libya out of Chad .
Despite signing the Kano Accord , Libya was incensed that the GUNT did not include any of the leaders of the Volcan Army and had not recognized Libyan claims on the Aouzou Strip . Since 13 April there had been some minor Libyan military activity in northern Chad , and support was provided to the secessionist movement in the south . However , a major response came only after 25 June , when the ultimatum of Chad 's neighbors for the formation of a new , more inclusive coalition government expired . On 26 June , 2 @,@ 500 Libyan troops invaded Chad , heading for Faya @-@ Largeau . The Chadian government appealed for French help . The Libyan forces were first stymied by Goukouni 's militiamen , and then forced to retreat by French reconnaissance planes and bombers . In the same month , the factions excluded by the GUNT founded a counter @-@ government , the Front for Joint Provisional Action ( FACP ) , in northern Chad with Libyan military support .
The fighting with Libya , the imposition by Nigeria of an economic boycott , and international pressure led to a new international peace conference in Lagos in August , to which all eleven factions present in Chad participated . A new accord was signed on 21 August , under which a new GUNT was to be formed , open to all factions . The French troops were to leave Chad and be replaced by a multinational African peace force . The new GUNT took office in November , with Goukouni President , Kamougué Vice @-@ President , Habré Defence Minister and Acyl Foreign Minister . Despite the presence of Habré , the new composition of the GUNT had enough pro @-@ Libyans to satisfy Gaddafi .
= = = Libyan intervention = = =
From the start , Habré isolated himself from the other members of the GUNT , which he treated with disdain . Habré 's hostility for Libya 's influence in Chad united itself with his ambition and ruthlessness : observers concluded that the warlord would never be content with anything short of the highest office . It was thought that sooner or later an armed confrontation between Habré and the pro @-@ Libyan factions would take place , and more importantly , between Habré and Goukouni .
Clashes in the capital between Habré 's FAN and pro @-@ Libyan groups became progressively more serious . On 22 March 1980 , a minor incident , as in 1979 , triggered the second battle of N 'Djamena . In ten days , the clashes between the FAN and Goukouni 's FAP , which both had 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 troops in the city , caused thousands of casualties and the flight of about half the capital 's population . The few remaining French troops , who left on 4 May , proclaimed themselves neutral , as did the Zairean peace force .
While the FAN was supplied economically and militarily by Sudan and Egypt , Goukouni received the armed support of Kamougué 's FAT and Acyl 's CDR shortly after the beginning of the battle , and was provided with Libyan artillery . On 6 June , the FAN assumed control of the city of Faya . This alarmed Goukouni , and he signed , on 15 June , a Treaty of Friendship with Libya . The treaty gave Libya a free hand in Chad , legitimising its presence in that country ; the treaty 's first article committed the two countries to mutual defence , and a threat against one constituted a threat against the other .
Beginning in October , Libyan troops , led by Khalifa Haftar and Ahmed Oun , airlifted to the Aouzou Strip operated in conjunction with Goukouni 's forces to reoccupy Faya . The city was then used as an assembly point for tanks , artillery and armored vehicles that moved south against the capital of N 'Djamena .
An attack started on 6 December , spearheaded by Soviet T @-@ 54 and T @-@ 55 tanks and reportedly coordinated by advisors from the Soviet Union and East Germany , brought the fall of the capital on 16 December . The Libyan force , numbering between 7 @,@ 000 and 9 @,@ 000 men of regular units and the paramilitary Pan @-@ African Islamic Legion , 60 tanks , and other armored vehicles , had been ferried across 1 @,@ 100 kilometers of desert from Libya 's southern border , partly by airlift and tank transporters and partly under its own power . The border itself was 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 100 kilometers from Libya 's main bases on the Mediterranean coast . Wright states that the Libyan intervention demonstrated an impressive logistical ability , and provided Gaddafi with his first military victory and a substantial political achievement .
While forced into exile and with his forces confined to the frontier zones of Darfur , Habré remained defiant . On 31 December he announced in Dakar he would resume fighting as a guerrilla against the GUNT .
= = = Libyan withdrawal = = =
On 6 January 1981 , a joint communiqué was issued in Tripoli by Gaddafi and Goukouni that Libya and Chad had decided " to work to achieve full unity between the two countries " . The merger plan caused strong adverse reaction in Africa , and was immediately condemned by France , which on 11 January offered to strengthen its garrisons in friendly African states and on 15 January placed its Mediterranean fleet on alert . Libya answered by threatening to impose an oil embargo , while France threatened to react if Libya attacked another bordering country . The accord was also opposed by all GUNT ministers present with Goukouni at Tripoli , with the exception of Acyl .
Most observers believe that the reasons behind Goukouni 's accepting the accord may be found in a mix of threats , intense pressure and the financial help promised by Gaddafi . Just before his visit to the Libyan capital , Goukouni had sent two of his commanders to Libya for consultations ; at Tripoli , Goukouni learned from Gaddafi that they had been assassinated by " Libyan dissidents " , and that if Goukouni did not want to risk losing Libyan favour and lose power , he should accept the merger plan .
The level of opposition caused Gaddafi and Goukouni to downplay the importance of the communiqué , speaking of a " union " of peoples , and not of states , and as a " first step " towards closer collaboration . But the damage had been done , and the joint communiqué badly weakened Goukouni 's prestige as a nationalist and a statesman .
In response to the increasing international pressure , Goukouni stated that Libyan forces were in Chad by government request , and that international mediators should accept the decision of Chad 's legitimate government . In a meeting held in May , Goukouni became more accommodating , declaring that while Libyan withdrawal was not a priority , he would accept the decisions of the OAU . Goukouni could not at the time renounce Libyan military support , necessary for dealing with Habré 's FAN , which was supported by Egypt and Sudan and funded through Egypt by the US Central Intelligence Agency .
Relations between Goukouni and Gaddafi started deteriorating . Libyan troops were stationed in various points of northern and central Chad , in numbers that had reached about 14 @,@ 000 troops by January – February 1981 . These forces created considerable annoyance in the GUNT by supporting Acyl 's faction in its disputes with the other militias , including the clashes held in late April with Goukouni 's FAP . There were also attempts to Libyanize the local population , which made many conclude that " unification " for Libya meant Arabization and the imposition of Libyan political culture , in particular of The Green Book .
Amid fighting in October between Gaddafi 's Islamic Legionnaires and Goukouni 's troops , and rumors that Acyl was planning a coup d 'état to assume the leadership of the GUNT , Goukouni demanded on 29 October the complete and unequivocal withdrawal of Libyan forces from Chadian territory , which , beginning with the capital , was to be completed by 31 December . The Libyans were to be replaced by an OAU Inter @-@ African Force ( IAF ) . Gaddafi complied , and by 16 November all Libyan forces had left Chad , redeploying in the Aouzou Strip .
Libya 's prompt retreat took many observers by surprise . One reason lay in Gaddafi 's desire to host the OAU 's annual conference in 1982 and assume the organization 's presidency . Another was Libya 's difficult situation in Chad where , without some popular and international acceptance for Libyan presence , it would have been difficult to take the concrete risk of causing a war with Egypt and Sudan , with US support . Gaddafi had not renounced the goals he had set for Chad , but he had to find a new Chadian leader , as Goukouni had proved himself unreliable .
= = = Habré takes N 'Djamena = = =
The first IAF component to arrive in Chad were the Zairean paratroopers ; they were followed by Nigerian and Senegalese forces , bringing the IAF to 3 @,@ 275 men . Before the peace @-@ keeping force was fully deployed , Habré had already taken advantage of Libya 's withdrawal , and made massive inroads in eastern Chad , including the important city of Abéché , that fell on 19 November . Next to fall was Oum Hadjer in early January 1982 , only 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) from Ati , the last major town before the capital . The GUNT was saved for the moment by the IAF , the only credible military force confronting Habré , which prevented the FAN from taking Ati .
In the light of Habré 's offensive , the OAU requested that the GUNT open reconciliation talks with Habré , a demand that was angrily refused by Goukouni ; later he was to say :
" The OAU has deceived us . Our security was fully ensured by Libyan troops . The OAU put pressure on us to expel the Libyans . Now that they have gone , the organization has abandoned us while imposing on us a negotiated settlement with Hissein Habre " .
In May 1982 , the FAN started a final offensive , passing unhindered by the peacekeepers in Ati and Mongo . Goukouni , increasingly angered with the IAF 's refusal to fight Habré , made an attempt to restore his relations with Libya , and reached Tripoli on 23 May . Gaddafi , however , burned by his experience the previous year , proclaimed Libya neutral in the civil war .
The GUNT forces made a last stand at Massaguet , 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) north of capital , but were defeated by the FAN on 5 June after a hard battle . Two days later Habré entered N 'Djamena unopposed , making him the de facto leader of Chad , while Goukouni fled the country , seeking sanctuary in Cameroon .
After occupying the capital , Habré consolidated power by occupying the rest of the country . In barely six weeks , he conquered southern Chad , destroying the FAT , Kamougué 's militia ; Kamougué 's hopes for Libyan help failed to materialize . The rest of the country was conquered , with the exception of the Tibesti .
= = = GUNT offensive = = =
Since Gaddafi had kept mostly aloof in the months prior to the fall of N 'Djamena , Habré hoped to reach an understanding with Libya , possibly through an accord with Acyl , who appeared receptive to dialogue . But Acyl died on 19 July , replaced by Acheikh ibn Oumar , and the CDR was antagonized by Habré 's eagerness to unify the country , which led him to overrun the CDR 's domains .
Therefore , it was with Libyan support that Goukouni reassembled the GUNT , creating in October a National Peace Government in the Tibesti town of Bardaï and claiming itself the legitimate government by the terms of the Lagos Accord . For the impending fight , Goukouni could count on 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 men taken from several militias , later merged in an Armée Nationale de Libération ( ANL ) under the command of a Southerner , Negue Djogo .
Before Gaddafi could throw his full weight behind Goukouni , Habré attacked the GUNT in the Tibesti , but was repelled both in December 1982 and in January 1983 . The following months saw the clashes intensify in the North , while talks , including visits in March between Tripoli and N 'Djamena , broke down . On 17 March , Habré brought the conflict before the UN , asking for an urgent meeting of the UN Security Council to consider Libya 's " aggression and occupation " of Chadian territory .
Gaddafi was ready now for an offensive . The decisive offensive began in June , when a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong GUNT force invested Faya @-@ Largeau , the main government stronghold in the North , which fell on 25 June . The GUNT force rapidly proceeded towards Koro Toro , Oum Chalouba and Abéché , assuming control of the main routes towards N 'Djamena . Libya , while helping with recruiting , training , and providing the GUNT with heavy artillery , only committed a few thousand regular troops to the offensive , and most of these were artillery and logistic units . This may have been due to Gaddafi 's desire that the conflict be read as a Chadian internal affair .
The international community , in particular France and the US , reacted adversely to the Libyan @-@ backed offensive . On the same day as the fall of Faya , French Foreign Minister Claude Cheysson warned Libya that France would " not remain indifferent " to a new Libyan involvement in Chad , and on 11 July the French government accused again Libya of direct military support to the rebels . French arms shipments were resumed on 27 June , and on 3 July a first contingent of 250 Zaireans arrived to strengthen Habré ; the United States announced in July military and food aid for 10 million dollars . Gaddafi suffered also a diplomatic setback from the OAU , that at the meeting held in June officially recognized Habré 's government and asked for all foreign troops to leave Chad .
Supplied by Americans , Zaireans and the French , Habré rapidly reorganized his forces ( now called Chadian National Armed Forces , or FANT ) . FANT marched north to confront the GUNT and the Libyans , who he met south of Abéché . Habré crushed Goukouni 's forces and started a vast counteroffensive that enabled him to retake in rapid succession Abéché , Biltine , Fada and , on 30 July , Faya @-@ Largeau , threatening to attack the Tibesti and the Aouzou Strip .
= = = French intervention = = =
Feeling that a complete destruction of the GUNT would be an intolerable blow for his prestige , and fearing that Habré would provide support for all opposition to Gaddafi , the Colonel called for a Libyan intervention in force , as his Chadian allies could not secure a definitive victory without Libyan armor and airpower .
Since the day after the fall of the town , Faya @-@ Largeau was subjected to a sustained air bombardment , using Su @-@ 22 and Mirage F @-@ 1s from the Aouzou air base , along with Tu @-@ 22 bombers from Sabha . Within ten days , a large ground force had been assembled east and west of Faya @-@ Largeau by first ferrying men , armor , and artillery by air to Sabha , Kufra and the Aouzou airfield , and then by shorter @-@ range transport planes to the area of conflict . The fresh Libyan forces amounted to 11 @,@ 000 mostly regular troops , and eighty combat aircraft participated in the offensive ; however , the Libyans maintained their traditional role of providing fire support , and occasional tank charges , for the assaults of the GUNT , which could count on 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 men on this occasion .
The GUNT @-@ Libyan alliance invested on 10 August the Faya @-@ Largeau oasis , where Habré had entrenched himself with about 5 @,@ 000 troops . Battered by multiple rocket launcher ( MRL ) , artillery and tank fire and continuous airstrikes , the FANT 's defensive line disintegrated when the GUNT launched the final assault , leaving 700 FANT troops on the ground . Habré escaped with the remnants of his army to the capital , without being pursued by the Libyans .
This was to prove a tactical blunder , as the new Libyan intervention had alarmed France . Habré issued a fresh plea for French military assistance on 6 August . France , also due to American and African pressures , announced on 6 August the return of French troops in Chad as part of Operation Manta , meant to stop the GUNT @-@ Libyan advance and more generally weaken Gaddafi 's influence in the internal affairs of Chad . Three days later several hundred French troops were dispatched to N 'Djamena from the Central African Republic , later brought to 2 @,@ 700 , with several squadrons of Jaguar fighter @-@ bombers . This made it the largest expeditionary force ever assembled by the French in Africa outside of the Algerian War .
The French government then defined a limit ( the so @-@ called Red Line ) , along the 15th parallel , extending from Mao to Abéché , and warned that they would not tolerate any incursion south of this line by Libyan or GUNT forces . Both the Libyans and the French remained on their side of the line , with France showing itself unwilling to help Habré retake the north , while the Libyans avoided starting a conflict with France by attacking the line . This led to a de facto division of the country , with Libya maintaining control of all the territory north of the Red Line .
A lull ensued , during which November talks sponsored by the OAU failed to conciliate the opposing Chadian
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@-@ Sarra . This attack was part of a plan to remove the threat of Libyan airpower before a renewed offensive on Aouzou .
The projected attack on Aouzou never took place , as the dimensions of the victory obtained at Maaten made France fear that the attack on the Libyan base was only the first stage of a general offensive into Libya proper , a possibility that France was not willing to tolerate . As for Gaddafi , being subjected to internal and international pressures , he showed himself more conciliatory , which led to an OAU @-@ brokered ceasefire on 11 September .
= = Aftermath = =
While there were many violations of the ceasefire , the incidents were relatively minor . The two governments immediately started complex diplomatic manoeuvres to bring world opinion on their side in case , as was widely expected , the conflict was resumed . However , the two sides were also careful to leave the door open for a peaceful solution . The latter course was promoted by France and most African states , while the Reagan Administration saw a resumption of the conflict as the best chance to unseat Gaddafi .
Steadily , relations among the two countries improved , with Gaddafi giving signs that he wanted to normalize relations with the Chadian government , to the point of recognizing that the war had been an error . In May 1988 , the Libyan leader declared he would recognize Habré as the legitimate president of Chad " as a gift to Africa " ; this led on 3 October to the resumption of full diplomatic relations between the two countries . The following year , on 31 August 1989 , Chadian and Libyan representatives met in Algiers to negotiate the Framework Agreement on the Peaceful Settlement of the Territorial Dispute , by which Gaddafi agreed to discuss with Habré the Aouzou Strip and to bring the issue to the ICJ for a binding ruling if bilateral talks failed . After a year of inconclusive talks , the sides submitted the dispute to the ICJ in September 1990 .
Chadian @-@ Libyan relations further improved when Libyan @-@ supported Idriss Déby unseated Habré on 2 December . Gaddafi was the first head of state to recognize the new government , and he also signed treaties of friendship and cooperation on various levels . Regarding the Aouzou Strip , however , Déby followed his predecessor , declaring that if necessary he would fight to keep the strip out of Libya 's hands .
The Aouzou dispute was concluded for good on 3 February 1994 , when the judges of the ICJ by a majority of 16 to 1 decided that the Aouzou Strip belonged to Chad . The court 's judgement was implemented without delay , the two parties signing an agreement as early as 4 April concerning the practical modalities for the implementation of the judgement . Monitored by international observers , the withdrawal of Libyan troops from the Strip began on 15 April and was completed by 10 May . The formal and final transfer of the Strip from Libya to Chad took place on 30 May , when the sides signed a joint declaration stating that the Libyan withdrawal had been effected .
Muammar Gaddafi was angered by the devastating counter @-@ attack on Libya and the ensuing defeat at the Battle of Maaten al @-@ Sarra . Forced to accede to a ceasefire , the defeat ended his expansionist projects toward Chad and his dreams of African and Arab dominance .
Given the French intervention on behalf of Chad and U.S. supply of satellite intelligence to FANT during the battle of Maaten al @-@ Sarra , Gaddafi blamed Libya 's defeat on French and U.S. " aggression against Libya " .
= Seth MacFarlane =
Seth Woodbury MacFarlane ( / ˈsɛθ ˈwʊdbɛri məkˈfɑːrlɪn / ; born October 26 , 1973 ) is an American television producer , filmmaker , actor , and singer , working primarily in animation and comedy , as well as live @-@ action and other genres . He is the creator of the TV series Family Guy ( 1999 – 2003 , 2005 – present ) , co @-@ creator of the TV series American Dad ! ( 2005 – present ) and The Cleveland Show ( 2009 – 13 ) , and writer @-@ director of the films Ted ( 2012 ) , its sequel Ted 2 ( 2015 ) , and A Million Ways to Die in the West ( 2014 ) .
MacFarlane is a graduate of the Rhode Island School of Design , where he studied animation . Recruited to Hollywood , he was an animator and writer for Hanna @-@ Barbera for several television series , including Johnny Bravo , Cow and Chicken , Dexter 's Laboratory , I Am Weasel , and Larry & Steve . As an actor , he has made guest appearances on series , such as Gilmore Girls , The War at Home and FlashForward . In 2008 , he created his own YouTube series titled Seth MacFarlane 's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy . He won several awards for his work on Family Guy , including two Primetime Emmy Awards and an Annie Award . In 2009 , he won the Webby Award for Film & Video Person of the Year . He occasionally speaks at universities and colleges throughout the United States , and he is a supporter of gay rights .
His first feature @-@ length comedy film Ted also features MacFarlane 's voice acting and performance @-@ capture as the titular walking and talking teddy bear , and became the highest @-@ grossing original R @-@ rated comedy . As a singer MacFarlane has performed at several venues , including Carnegie Hall and the Royal Albert Hall . MacFarlane has released three studio albums , in the same vein of his musical idol Frank Sinatra , beginning with Music Is Better Than Words in 2011 . He wrote the lyrics for the Academy Award @-@ nominated song " Everybody Needs a Best Friend " for Ted .
MacFarlane served as executive producer of Cosmos : A Spacetime Odyssey , an update of the 1980s Carl Sagan – hosted Cosmos series , hosted by Neil deGrasse Tyson . MacFarlane was instrumental in providing funding for the series , as well as securing studio support for it from other entertainment executives .
= = Early life and education = =
Seth Woodbury MacFarlane was born in Kent , Connecticut . His parents , Ronald Milton MacFarlane ( born 1946 ) and Ann Perry ( née Sager ; 1947 – 2010 ) , were born in Newburyport , Massachusetts . His sister is voice actress Rachael Ann MacFarlane ( born 1976 ) . He is of English , Scottish , and Irish descent , with roots in New England going back to the 1600s , including descent from Mayflower passenger William Brewster . MacFarlane 's parents met in 1970 , when they both lived and worked in Boston , Massachusetts , and married later that year . The couple moved to Kent in 1972 , where Ann began working in the Admissions Office at South Kent School . She later worked in the College Guidance and Admissions Offices at the Kent School , a selective college preparatory school where Ronald also was a teacher . During his childhood , MacFarlane developed an interest in illustration and began drawing cartoon characters Fred Flintstone and Woody Woodpecker , as early as two years old . By the age of five , MacFarlane knew that he would want to pursue a career in animation , and began by creating flip books , after his parents found a book on the subject for him . Four years later , aged nine , MacFarlane began publishing a weekly comic strip titled " Walter Crouton " for The Kent Good Times Dispatch , the local newspaper in Kent , Connecticut , which paid him five dollars per week . In one anecdote from the time , MacFarlane said in an October 2011 interview that as a child he was always " weirdly fascinated by the Communion ceremony " . He created a strip with a character kneeling at the altar taking Communion and asking " Can I have fries with that ? " The paper printed it and he got an " angry letter " from the local priest ; it led to " sort of a little mini @-@ controversy " in the town .
MacFarlane received his high school diploma in 1991 from the Kent School . While there , he continued experimenting with animation , and his parents gave him an 8 mm camera . MacFarlane went on to study film , video and animation at the Rhode Island School of Design ( RISD ) , where he earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree . As a student , he had originally intended to work for Disney , but changed his mind upon graduating . At RISD MacFarlane created a series of independent films , eventually meeting future Family Guy cast member Mike Henry , whose brother Patrick was MacFarlane 's classmate . During his time at RISD , MacFarlane performed stand @-@ up comedy . In his senior year at RISD MacFarlane created a thesis film titled The Life of Larry , which eventually would become the inspiration for Family Guy . MacFarlane 's professor submitted his film to the animation studio Hanna @-@ Barbera , where he was later hired .
= = Career = =
= = = Television career = = =
= = = = Hanna @-@ Barbera years = = = =
MacFarlane was recruited during the senior film festival by development executive Ellen Cockrill and President Fred Seibert . He went to work at Hanna @-@ Barbera ( then Hanna @-@ Barbera Cartoons ) based on the writing content of The Life of Larry , rather than on cartooning ability . He was one of only a few people hired by the company solely based on writing talent . He worked as an animator and writer for Cartoon Network 's Cartoon Cartoons series . He described the atmosphere at Hanna @-@ Barbera as resembling an " old @-@ fashioned Hollywood structure , where you move from one show to another or you jump from a writing job on one show to a storyboard job on another " . MacFarlane worked on four television series during his tenure at the studio : Dexter 's Laboratory , Cow and Chicken , I Am Weasel , and Johnny Bravo . Working as both a writer and storyboard artist , MacFarlane spent the most time on Johnny Bravo . He found it easier to develop his own style at Johnny Bravo through the show 's process of scriptwriting , which Dexter 's Laboratory , Cow and Chicken , and I Am Weasel did not use . As a part of the Johnny Bravo crew , MacFarlane met actors and voiceover artists such as Adam West and Jack Sheldon of Schoolhouse Rock ! fame . Meeting these individuals later became significant to the production and success of his Family Guy series .
He also did freelance work for Walt Disney Television Animation , writing for Jungle Cubs , and for Nelvana , where he wrote for Ace Ventura : Pet Detective . Through strict observation of writing elements such as story progression , character stakes and plot points , MacFarlane found the work for Disney was , from a writing standpoint , very valuable in preparation for his career ( particularly on Ace Ventura ) . MacFarlane also created and wrote a short titled Zoomates for Frederator Studios ' Oh Yeah ! Cartoons on Nickelodeon . In 1996 , MacFarlane created a sequel to The Life of Larry entitled Larry & Steve , which features a middle @-@ aged character named Larry and an intellectual dog , Steve . The short was broadcast as one of Cartoon Network 's World Premiere Toons . Executives at Fox saw both Larry shorts and negotiations soon began for a prime @-@ time animated series .
= = = = Family Guy = = = =
Although MacFarlane enjoyed working at Hanna @-@ Barbera , he felt his real calling was for prime @-@ time animation , which would allow a much edgier style of humor . He first pitched Family Guy to Fox during his tenure at Hanna @-@ Barbera . A development executive for Hanna @-@ Barbera , who was trying to get back into the prime @-@ time business at the time , introduced MacFarlane to Leslie Kolins and Mike Darnell , heads of the alternative comedy department at Fox . After the success of King of the Hill in 1997 , MacFarlane called Kolins once more to ask about a possible second pitch for the series . The company offered the young writer a strange deal : Fox gave him a budget of US $ 50 @,@ 000 to produce a pilot that could lead to a series ( most episodes of animated prime @-@ time productions cost at least US $ 1 million ) . Recalling the experience in an interview with The New York Times , MacFarlane stated , " I spent about six months with no sleep and no life , just drawing like crazy in my kitchen and doing this pilot " .
After six months , MacFarlane returned to Fox with a " very , very simply , crudely animated film – with just enough to get the tone of the show across " to present to the executives , who loved the pilot and ordered the series immediately . In July 1998 , the Fox Broadcast Company announced the purchase of Family Guy for a January 1999 debut . Family Guy was originally intended to be a series of shorts on MADtv , much in the same way The Simpsons had begun on The Tracey Ullman Show a decade earlier . Negotiations for the show 's MADtv connection fell through early on as a result of budgetary concerns . At age 24 , MacFarlane was television 's youngest executive producer .
Family Guy first aired January 31 , 1999 . MacFarlane 's work in animating Family Guy has been influenced by Jackie Gleason and Hanna @-@ Barbera along with examples from The Simpsons and All in the Family . In addition to writing three episodes , " Death Has a Shadow " , " Family Guy Viewer Mail 1 " and " North by North Quahog " , MacFarlane voices Family Guy 's main male characters – Peter Griffin , Stewie Griffin , Brian Griffin , and Glenn Quagmire as well as Tom Tucker , his son Jake Tucker , and additional characters . Bolstered by high DVD sales and established fan loyalty , Family Guy developed into a US $ 1 @-@ billion franchise . On May 4 , 2008 , after approximately two and a half years of negotiations , MacFarlane reached a US $ 100 @-@ million agreement with Fox to keep Family Guy and American Dad ! until 2012 . The agreement makes him the world 's highest paid television writer .
MacFarlane 's success with Family Guy has opened doors to other ventures relating to the show . On April 26 , 2005 , he and composer Walter Murphy created Family Guy : Live in Vegas . The soundtrack features a Broadway show tune theme , and MacFarlane voiced Stewie in the track " Stewie 's Sexy Party " . A fan of Broadway musicals , MacFarlane comments on using musicals as a component to Family Guy :
I love the lush orchestration and old @-@ fashioned melody writing ... it just gets you excited , that kind of music " , he said . " It 's very optimistic . And it 's fun . The one thing that 's missing for me from popular music today is fun . Guys like [ Bing ] Crosby , or [ Frank ] Sinatra , or Dean Martin , or Mel Tormé [ ... ] these are guys who sounded like they were having a great time .
In addition , a Family Guy video game was released in 2006 . Two years later , in August 2007 , he closed a digital content production deal with AdSense . MacFarlane takes cast members on the road to voice characters in front of live audiences . Family Guy Live provides fans with the opportunity to hear future scripts . In mid @-@ 2007 , Chicago fans had the opportunity to hear the then upcoming sixth season premiere " Blue Harvest " . Shows have been played in Montreal , New York City , Chicago , and Los Angeles .
On July 22 , 2007 , in an interview with The Hollywood Reporter , MacFarlane announced that he may start working on a feature film , although " nothing 's official " . In September 2007 , Ricky Blitt gave TV.com an interview confirming that he had already started working on the script . Then in TV Week on July 18 , 2008 , MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a theatrically released Family Guy feature film sometime " within the next year " . He came up with an idea for the story , " something that you could not do on the show , which [ to him ] is the only reason to do a movie " . He later went on to say he imagines the film to be " an old @-@ style musical with dialogue " similar to The Sound of Music , saying that he would " really be trying to capture , musically , that feel " . On October 13 , 2011 , MacFarlane confirmed that a deal for a Family Guy film had been made , and that it would be written by himself and series co @-@ producer Ricky Blitt . On November 30 , 2012 , MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a Family Guy film .
Despite its popularity , Family Guy has often been criticized . The Parents Television Council frequently criticizes the show for its content , once organized a letter @-@ writing campaign aimed at removing it from Fox 's lineup , and has filed complaints with the Federal Communications Commission alleging that some episodes of the show contained indecent content . MacFarlane has responded to the PTC 's criticism by saying , among other things , " That 's like getting hate mail from Hitler . They 're literally terrible human beings . " Family Guy has been cancelled twice , although strong fan support and DVD sales have caused Fox to reconsider . MacFarlane mentioned how these cancellations affected the lineup of writers each time Fox approved the show . " One of the positive aspects of Family Guy constantly being pulled off [ the air ] is that we were always having to restaff writers " .
During the sixth season , episodes of Family Guy and American Dad ! were delayed from regular broadcast due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike ( which MacFarlane participated in to support the writers while Fox aired three Family Guy episodes without MacFarlane 's permission ) . On February 12 , 2008 , the strike ended , and the series resumed airing regularly , beginning with " Back to the Woods " .
= = = = American Dad ! = = = =
MacFarlane has a second long @-@ running , successful adult animated series in American Dad ! which has been in production since early 2005 . To date , American Dad ! is MacFarlane 's only animated series never to have suffered an official cancellation , though it did undergo a network relocation from Fox to TBS on October 20 , 2014 , following the show 's 11th season . TBS announced on July 16 , 2013 , that they had picked up the series for a 15 @-@ episode 12th season . Reportedly , the purpose of the network relocation was originally to make room for new animated broadcasts on Fox 's now @-@ defunct " Animation Domination " lineup . It was reported that the relocation of American Dad ! allowed room for other shows , such as Mulaney and another animated series from Seth MacFarlane called Bordertown . Bordertown is slated to begin its run in the 2015 – 16 television season .
While MacFarlane regularly does extensive voice acting work for American Dad ! , he has left much of the show 's creative direction up to Weitzman and Barker . MacFarlane has credited this move with helping to give the series its own distinct voice and identity . Though , as announced on November 4 , 2013 , Barker departed American Dad ! after 10 seasons of serving as the show 's producer / co @-@ showrunner , resulting from creative differences as production for season 11 on TBS commenced . American Dad ! was first shown after Super Bowl XXXIX , debuting with the episode " Pilot . " This February 6 , 2005 series premiere was somewhat of an early sneak preview as the program would not begin airing regularly as part of Fox 's Animation Domination until May 1 , 2005 .
Because of atypical scheduling of the show 's first 7 episodes , American Dad ! has a controversial season number discrepancy in which many are divided as to how many seasons the program has had . Beyond division between media journalists and fans , there has been conflicting reports as to what season the show is in even between American Dad ! creators and the show 's official website — both from its original Fox website and now from TBS website . At Comic @-@ Con 2013 on July 20 , American Dad ! co @-@ creator Mike Barker hinted that an American Dad ! movie — centering on the Roger character and set from his birth planet — is in the works and partially written . What with Barker 's departure from the series however , it is unclear if any of these plans have been scrapped or modified in any way .
MacFarlane has described the initial seasons of American Dad ! as being similar to All in the Family , likening title character Stan Smith 's originally bigoted persona to Archie Bunker . MacFarlane has also stated that his inspiration to create American Dad ! derived from his and Weitzman 's exasperation with George W. Bush 's policies as former United States President . After the early couple of seasons however , the series discontinued using these elements of political satire and began to serve up its own very distinguished brand of entertainment and humor . MacFarlane was described as having difficulty understanding the series in its early going ; however , he heavily warmed up to the series after its early seasons once he felt the show truly came into its own . His fellow co @-@ creators have sensed this through MacFarlane 's greatly increased attention to the series after its early seasons . MacFarlane has also revealed to being a huge American Dad ! fan himself . He has taken note of the increasing fondness and excitement over the " Roger " character from fans via his Twitter .
The show focuses on the Smith family : Stan Smith , the insanely drastic , endangering , dog @-@ eat @-@ dog , rash and inconsiderate head of the household . He has an exaggeratedly large chin and masculine manner about him . As the family 's breadwinner , he works as a CIA officer and was initially portrayed in the series as an old @-@ fashioned conservative bigot but has since grown out of these traits ( the show known for its story arc elements and other distinguishing plot techniques ) ; Stan 's paradoxically moralistic yet simultaneously inappropriate , corrupt wife , Francine ; and their two children , new @-@ age hippie daughter Hayley and nerdy son Steve . Accompanied with the Smith family are three additional main characters , two of which are non @-@ human species : zany , shocking , blithely cruel and rascally alien Roger , who 's full of disguises / alter egos and has few if any limits on his behaviors . He was rescued by Stan from Area 51 ; Klaus , the man @-@ in @-@ a @-@ fish @-@ body pet . Klaus 's unenviable situation came about from a brain of an East German Olympic skier being shrunk and transplanted into a fish body ; and Jeff Fischer , Hayley 's boyfriend turned " whipped " husband , known for his infatuation with Hayley 's mom , Francine . Together , the Smiths and their three housemates run what is only at a first glance the typical middle @-@ class American lifestyle , but is anything but .
Seth MacFarlane provides the voices of Stan and Roger , basing Roger 's voice on Paul Lynde ( who played Uncle Arthur in Bewitched ) . His sister Rachael MacFarlane provides the voice of Hayley .
= = = = The Cleveland Show = = = =
MacFarlane developed a Family Guy spin @-@ off called The Cleveland Show , which focuses on the character of Cleveland Brown and his family . The idea for the show originated from a suggestion by Family Guy writer and voice of Cleveland , Mike Henry . Fox ordered 22 episodes and the series first aired on September 27 , 2009 . The show , which was picked up to air a first season consisting of 22 episodes , was picked up by Fox for a second season , consisting of 13 episodes , bringing the total number to 35 episodes . The announcement was made on May 3 , 2009 before the first season even premiered . Due to strong ratings , Fox picked up the back nine episodes of season 2 , making a 22 @-@ episode season and bringing the total episode count of the show to 44 . The series ended on May 19 , 2013 , with a total of 4 seasons and 88 episodes , and the character of Cleveland returned to Family Guy in the episode He 's Bla @-@ ack ! . This is the only animated series created by MacFarlane that does not have him voicing the main character .
Seth MacFarlane played Tim the Bear up until season 3 episode 10 . Jess Harnell voices Tim from season 3 episode 11 onwards .
= = = = Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy = = = =
On September 10 , 2008 , MacFarlane released a series of webisodes known as Seth MacFarlane 's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy with its animated shorts sponsored by Burger King and released weekly .
= = = = Television producing = = = =
MacFarlane was the executive producer of a live @-@ action sitcom starring Rob Corddry called The Winner . The show premiered on Fox on March 4 , 2007 . The plot has a man named Glen discussing the time he matured at 32 and has him pursuing his only love after she moves in next door . Glen meets her son and both become good friends . After only six episodes , the show was officially cancelled on May 16 , 2007 . However , at Family Guy Live in Montreal on July 21 , 2007 , Seth MacFarlane stated , " It is looking like there could be a future life for The Winner " . After MacFarlane 's statement , neither Fox nor MacFarlane has released any details of plans for the show to return . The show was mentioned in the Family Guy episode " Family Gay " , where all of the horses at a racing track are named after failed Fox shows , The Winner being one of them .
In August 2011 , Fox announced that they had ordered a 13 @-@ part updated series of Cosmos : A Spacetime Odyssey . MacFarlane co @-@ produced the series with Ann Druyan and Steven Soter . The new series is hosted by Neil deGrasse Tyson and began airing on the channel March 9 , 2014 , with repeats airing on the National Geographic Channel on the next night . Besides serving as one of the executive producers , MacFarlane also provided voices for characters during the animation portions of the series .
In 2013 , MacFarlane announced that he would be working on a live @-@ action sitcom called Dads . The series , which had been given the go @-@ ahead for a six @-@ episode season , revolves around Eli , played by Seth Green , and Warner , played by Giovanni Ribisi , two successful guys in their 30 's whose world is turned upside down when their dads move in with them . MacFarlane , Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild executive @-@ produced the series , with Sulkin and Wild writing . On May 7 , 2014 , Fox cancelled the series after its first season .
In 2014 , Starz announced that they had ordered a two @-@ season , 20 @-@ episode series called Blunt Talk . The series will follow an English newscaster who moves to Los Angeles with his alcoholic manservant and the baggage of several failed marriages to host a sanctimonious talk show . The show was created by Jonathan Ames and will also serve as showrunner . MacFarlane will serve as executive producer .
MacFarlane currently executive produces the animated series Bordertown . The series is set in Texas and follows a border patrol agent named Bud Buckwald and a Mexican immigrant named Ernesto Gonzales . The show satirizes America 's changing cultural landscape . MacFarlane first began work on the series in 2009 .
= = = = Television hosting = = = =
MacFarlane often participates as one of the " roasters " in the annual Comedy Central Roasts . MacFarlane is the only person to serve as roastmaster for more than one Comedy Central roast . In 2010 , he filled this role for The Comedy Central Roast of David Hasselhoff . The following year he was roastmaster of Comedy Central roasts of Donald Trump and Charlie Sheen .
On October 1 , 2012 , it was announced that MacFarlane would host the 85th Academy Awards on February 24 , 2013 . He also presented the nominees with actress Emma Stone , on January 10 , 2013 . In addition to hosting , MacFarlane was also nominated in the Academy Award for Best Original Song category for co @-@ writing the theme song " Everybody Needs a Best Friend " for his film Ted with Walter Murphy . Critical response to MacFarlane 's performance was mixed . Columnist Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly commented " By calling constant attention to the naughty factor , " MacFarlane created " an echo chamber of outrage , working a little too hard to top himself with faux @-@ scandalous gags about race , Jews in Hollywood , and the killing of Abraham Lincoln . " Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter praised MacFarlane 's performance saying that he did " impressively better than one would have wagered . " He also noted that he added " plenty of niceties with a little bit of the Ricky Gervais bite @-@ the @-@ hand @-@ that @-@ feeds @-@ you thing and worked the juxtaposition rather nicely . " He stirred up controversy in the form of a musical number titled " We Saw Your Boobs " .
On October 29 , 2014 , it was announced that MacFarlane would host the Breakthrough Prize ceremony . The event was held on Silicon Valley and televised on November 15 , 2014 on Discovery Channel and Science , and globally on November 22 , 2014 on BBC World News .
= = = Film career = = =
= = = = Ted = = = =
MacFarlane made his directorial live @-@ action film debut with the release of Ted in 2012 . He announced that he was directing it on an episode of Conan that aired on February 10 , 2011 . Along with directing the film , he also wrote the screenplay , served as producer , and starred as the title character .
Ted tells the story of John Bennett ( Mark Wahlberg ) and his talking teddy bear ( MacFarlane ) who keeps John and his girlfriend Lori Collins ( Mila Kunis ) from moving on with their lives . The film received generally favorable reviews from both critics and audiences , and was a box office success , opening with the highest weekend gross of all time for an original R @-@ rated comedy . Internationally , the movie is currently the highest @-@ grossing original R @-@ rated comedy of all time , beating The Hangover . A sequel , Ted 2 , was released on June 26 , 2015 .
= = = = A Million Ways to Die in the West = = = =
MacFarlane co @-@ wrote and starred in his second film , A Million Ways to Die in the West . Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild were also co @-@ writers for the film . The film follows a cowardly sheep farmer ( MacFarlane ) who loses a gunfight and sees his girlfriend leave him for another man . When a mysterious woman rides into town , she helps him find his courage . But when her outlaw husband arrives seeking revenge , the farmer must put his newfound courage to the test . The film was met with mixed to negative reviews from critics .
On January 27 , 2014 , MacFarlane announced that he wrote a companion novel based on the film 's script , which was released on March 4 , 2014 . An audio @-@ book version was also made available , narrated by Jonathan Frakes . MacFarlane wrote the book on weekends during shooting for the film , partially due to boredom .
= = = Music career = = =
= = = = Music Is Better Than Words = = = =
He signed a record deal with Universal Republic Records and released a big band / standards album in 2011 . MacFarlane 's debut studio album , Music Is Better Than Words , was released on September 27 , 2011 , drawing on his training in and attraction to " the Great American Songbook and particularly the early- to late- ' 50s era of orchestration " . The singer , asked about his experience with the music , said he did " old Nelson Riddle , Billy May charts [ with ] one of my composers , Ron Jones , [ who ] has a group called the Influence Jazz Orchestra that he performs with throughout L.A. " His album was nominated in the Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album category at the 54th Grammy Awards . Music Is Better Than Words received a score of 52 out of 100 on Metacritic 's compilation of music critic reviews .
= = = = Holiday for Swing = = = =
MacFarlane was featured on Calabria Foti 's 2013 single " Let 's Fall in Love " . In September 2013 , it was announced that MacFarlane was working on a Christmas album scheduled for release in 2014 . The album , which contains collaborations with Norah Jones and Sara Bareilles , is titled Holiday for Swing , and was released on September 30 , 2014 . The album was recorded between Christmas Day and New Year 's Eve 2013 in Los Angeles and in studio 2 at Abbey Road Studios in London . The album received mostly positive reviews .
= = = = No One Ever Tells You = = = =
MacFarlane released his third studio album on October 30 , 2015 . Titled No One Ever Tells You , it received mostly positive reviews , and earned MacFarlane a Grammy Award nomination for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album . Due to the success of his musical endeavors , MacFarlane will be honored by Barbara Sinatra at the 28th annual Frank Sinatra Celebrity Invitational on February 20 .
= = = Future projects = = =
In 2011 , it was announced that MacFarlane would be reviving The Flintstones for the Fox network , with the first episode airing in 2013 . MacFarlane said that he would provide the voice of Barney Rubble . However , at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in July 2012 , while promoting Ted , MacFarlane revealed that the project had been shelved due to the unimpressed response garnered by Fox .
Regarding Broadway , MacFarlane told The Hollywood Reporter , " If I did a Broadway musical , I 'd probably want to do something a little bit more old @-@ fashioned " , and went on saying " I wouldn 't necessarily do something that was as edgy as what they [ Matt Stone and Trey Parker ] have done . The challenge to me would be more along the lines of , gosh , can somebody write Oklahoma ! for 2011 ? " He has also said that , " The good thing about Broadway is that you don 't have to worry about an airdate . It gets done when it gets done . "
In late 2011 , it was confirmed that MacFarlane is working on another animated series with Alex Borstein and Gary Janetti . Currently not much is known about the series other than it will be about a family and will have a female lead role . Janetti stated that the series has not yet been greenlit by Fox .
On May 4 , 2016 , FOX picked up a sci @-@ fi comedy @-@ drama series to be created , executive @-@ produced by and star MacFarlane set 300 years in the future aboard the Orville , a not @-@ so @-@ top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line exploratory ship in Earth ’ s interstellar fleet . The series will premiere during the 2017 @-@ 2018 season .
= = = Guest appearances = = =
MacFarlane has appeared in sitcoms , comedy and news programs , independent films , and other animated shows . In 2002 , MacFarlane appeared in the Gilmore Girls episode " Lorelai 's Graduation Day " . Four years later on November 5 , 2006 , MacFarlane guest starred on Fox 's The War at Home as " Hillary 's Date " , an unnamed 33 @-@ year @-@ old man who secretly dates teenaged Hillary in the episode " I Wash My Hands of You " . MacFarlane also appeared as the engineer Ensign Rivers on Star Trek : Enterprise in the third season episode " The Forgotten " and the fourth season episode " Affliction " . During 2006 , MacFarlane had a role in the independent film Life is Short . He portrayed Dr. Ned , a psychologist who advises a short man ( played by Freaks and Geeks star Samm Levine ) to have relationships with taller women . He is a frequent guest on the radio talkshow Loveline , hosted by Dr. Drew Pinsky .
MacFarlane appeared on the November 11 , 2006 episode of Fox 's comedy show MADtv and performed a live action re @-@ enactment of a scene from the Family Guy episode " Fast Times at Buddy Cianci Jr . High " . In the scene , Peter and Lois suspect Chris of murdering his teacher 's husband . As a reaction , a terrified Meg jumps out the window . A version with MacFarlane as Peter , Nicole Parker as Kathy Griffin as Lois , Ike Barinholtz as Dane Cook as Chris , Nicole Randall Johnson as Queen Latifah as Meg , and Keegan @-@ Michael Key as Snoop Dogg as Stewie was recorded over the original cartoon . MacFarlane served as a host to the Canadian Awards for the Electronic & Animated Arts 's Second Annual Elan Awards on February 15 , 2008 .
MacFarlane has also appeared on news shows and late night television shows such as Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and Late Show with David Letterman . On January 19 , 2007 , MacFarlane appeared on Countdown with Keith Olbermann on MSNBC to discuss Stephen Colbert 's appearance on The O 'Reilly Factor and Bill O 'Reilly 's return appearance on The Colbert Report . MacFarlane introduced the segment by saying in Stewie 's voice " Oh , wait Bill . Hold still , allow me to soil myself on you . Victory is mine ! " Three months later on March 24 , 2007 , MacFarlane was interviewed on Fox 's Talkshow with Spike Feresten , and closed the show by singing the Frank Sinatra song " You Make Me Feel So Young " . He also provided Stewie 's voice when he appeared as a brain tumor @-@ induced hallucination to Seeley Booth in an episode of Bones , writing his own dialogue for the episode . On May 8 , 2009 , MacFarlane was a guest on Real Time with Bill Maher .
Other than Family Guy and American Dad ! , MacFarlane voices characters in other cartoon shows and films . He voiced Wayne " The Brain " McClain in an episode of Aqua Teen Hunger Force . He has also voiced various characters on Adult Swim 's Robot Chicken , including a parody of Lion @-@ O and Emperor Palpatine as well as Peter Griffin in the Season 2 premiere – he even parodied himself in the Season 4 premiere , in which he renewed the show simply by mentioning it in a Family Guy @-@ like cutaway after its fictitious cancellation at the end of Season 3 . He also played the villain " The Manotaur " in Bob Boyle 's animated kids series Yin Yang Yo ! . In addition , MacFarlane voiced Johann Kraus in the 2008 film Hellboy II : The Golden Army . He also had a guest appearance in the animated film Futurama : Into the Wild Green Yonder where he sings " That Was Then ( And This is Too ) " , the opening theme . He had also starred in a commercial for Hulu in which he plays an alien presenting Hulu as an " evil plot to destroy the world " , progressively as his famous Family Guy and American Dad ! characters . He also lent his voice to the series finale movie of the Comedy Central series , Drawn Together .
MacFarlane also played Ziggy in the 2010 film Tooth Fairy . In August 2010 , he appeared as a guest voice @-@ over in a sci @-@ fi themed episode of Disney 's Phineas and Ferb entitled " Nerds of a Feather " . On September 15 , 2012 , MacFarlane hosted the season premiere of Saturday Night Live , with musical guest Frank Ocean . The episode was MacFarlane 's first appearance on the show . MacFarlane had a cameo in the 2013 film Movie 43 . MacFarlane collaborated with Matt Groening on an episode of The Simpsons and Futurama .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style = = =
In 2009 , he appeared as a vocalist at the BBC Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in Prom 22 A Celebration of Classic MGM Film Musicals . In 2010 , he reappeared at the Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in a Christmas concert special . In 2012 , it was announced he would again appear at the Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in a concert celebrating Broadway musicals . Regarding his musical passion , MacFarlane has said , " I love and am fascinated by exciting orchestration — what you can do with a band that size — and I think in many ways it 's a lost art . " MacFarlane 's sound of music is predominantly traditional pop , easy listening , jazz , vocal , vocal jazz , show tunes , swing , and big band He will occasionally use musical comedy for either his shows or movies .
In 2015 , MacFarlane again appeared at The Proms as a vocalist with the John Wilson Orchestra , this time in a Sinatra programme .
= = = Voice and influences = = =
MacFarlane has a baritone voice . He is a pianist and singer who , in his early years , trained with Lee and Sally Sweetland , the vocal coaches of Barbra Streisand and Frank Sinatra . In an interview with NPR , MacFarlane commented on their vocal training , to which he said " They really drill you , " he said . " They teach you the old @-@ style way of singing , back when you had no electronic help . ... [ They teach you to ] show your teeth . If you look at old photos of Sinatra while he 's singing , there 's a lot of very exposed teeth . That was something that Lee Sweetland hit on day in and day out , and correctly so , because it just brightens the whole performance . " His comedy influences include people like Woody Allen , Jackie Gleason , Mel Brooks , and the creators of Monty Python . While his musical influences include people like Frank Sinatra , Dean Martin , Vic Damone , Johnny Mercer , Bing Crosby , Bobby Darin , Gordon MacRae , and the Rat Pack .
= = Activism = =
= = = Political views = = =
MacFarlane is a supporter of the Democratic Party . He has donated over US $ 200 @,@ 000 to various Democratic congressional committees and to the 2008 presidential campaign of then @-@ U.S. Senator Barack Obama . He has stated that he supports the legalization of cannabis . MacFarlane serves on the board of directors of People for the American Way , a progressive advocacy organization .
In 2015 MacFarlane revealed support for Bernie Sanders in the 2016 U.S. presidential election , and he introduced Sanders onstage at a Los Angeles rally .
= = = = LGBT issues = = = =
MacFarlane is passionate about his support for gay rights . He said it is " infuriating and idiotic " that two gay partners " have to go through this fucking dog and pony act when they stop at a hotel and the guy behind the counter says , ' You want one room or two ? ' " He went on to say , " I 'm incredibly passionate about my support for the gay community and what they 're dealing with at this current point in time " . MacFarlane continued , " Why is it that Johnny Spaghetti Stain in fucking Georgia can knock a woman up , legally be married to her , and then beat the shit out of her , but these two intelligent , sophisticated writers who have been together for 20 years can 't get married ? "
MacFarlane , in recognition of " his active , passionate commitment to humanist values , and his fearless support of equal marriage rights and other social justice issues " , was named the Harvard Humanist of the Year in 2011 .
However MacFarlane was criticized for his portrayal of transsexualism in the Family Guy episode " Quagmire 's Dad " . Gay novelist Brent Hartinger found the episode 's inclusion of transphobic remarks from Peter and Lois Griffin — as well as a scene of Brian vomiting profusely upon discovering his new girlfriend to be Glenn Quagmire 's father – to be " shockingly insensitive " . Hartinger continued , " Frankly , it 's literally impossible for me to reconcile last night 's episode with MacFarlane 's words , unless I come to the conclusion that the man is pretty much a complete idiot " . The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation , a LGBT media watchdog organization , shared " serious concerns being voiced from members of the community " about the episode . MacFarlane said he was " surprised " by the negative reaction to " Quagmire 's Dad " , saying that " it seemed that [ gay commentators ] were not picking up on the fact that it was a very sympathetic portrayal of a transsexual character " . He further added , " Look , Brian happens to be a heterosexual character , as I am . If I found out that I had slept with a transsexual , I might throw up in the same way that a gay guy looks at a vagina and goes , ' Oh , my God , that 's disgusting . ' "
= = = Speaking engagements = = =
MacFarlane is a frequent speaking guest on college campuses . On April 16 , 2006 , he was invited by Stanford University 's ASSU Speakers ' Bureau to address an audience of over 1 @,@ 000 at Memorial Auditorium . MacFarlane was invited by Harvard University 's class of 2006 to deliver the " class day " address on June 7 , 2006 . He spoke as himself , and also as Peter Griffin , Stewie Griffin and Glenn Quagmire . He also has delivered speeches at George Washington University , Washington University in St. Louis , the University of Texas , the University of Missouri , University of Toledo , Bowling Green State University , and Loyola Marymount University .
= = = 2007 – 08 Writers Guild of America strike = = =
During the 2007 – 08 Writers Guild of America strike , MacFarlane publicly sided with the Writers Guild , and fully participated in the strike . Official production of Family Guy was halted for most of December 2007 and various periods afterwards . Fox continued producing episodes without MacFarlane 's final approval , and although he refused to work on the show during the strike , his contract with Fox required him to contribute to any episodes it subsequently produced . Rumors of continued production on Family Guy prompted the statement from MacFarlane that " ..... it would just be a colossal dick move if they did that " . During the strike , MacFarlane wrote an inside joke into an episode of Family Guy about Jon Stewart 's choice to return to the air and undermine the writers of The Daily Show , causing Stewart to respond with an hour @-@ long call in which he questioned how MacFarlane could consider himself the " moral arbiter " of Hollywood . The strike ended on February 12 , 2008 .
= = = The Seth MacFarlane Collection of the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Archive = = =
MacFarlane donated money to create The Seth MacFarlane Collection of the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Archive at the Library of Congress . MacFarlane said , " The work of Carl Sagan has been a profound influence in my life , and the life of every individual who recognizes the importance of humanity 's ongoing commitment to the exploration of our universe [ ... ] The continuance of our journey outward into space should always occupy some part of our collective attention , regardless of whatever Snooki did last week . "
= = Personal life = =
In a 2004 interview with The Daily Princetonian , MacFarlane noted his similarities to Brian Griffin from Family Guy , revealing , " I have some Brian type issues from time to time – looking for the right person – but I date as much as the next guy " .
On July 16 , 2010 , MacFarlane 's mother , Ann Perry Sager , died after a long battle with cancer . Her death was reported by Larry King on his show Larry King Live , who acknowledged a conversation he had with her during an interview with her son in May 2010 .
= = = September 11 , 2001 experience = = =
On the morning of September 11 , 2001 , MacFarlane was scheduled to return to Los Angeles on American Airlines Flight 11 from Boston . Suffering from a hangover after the previous night 's celebrations that followed his speech at his alma mater , the Rhode Island School of Design , and with an incorrect departure time ( 8 : 15 a.m. instead of 7 : 45 a.m. ) from his travel agent , he arrived at Logan International Airport about ten minutes too late to board the flight as the gates had been closed . Fifteen minutes after departure , American Airlines Flight 11 was hijacked , and at 8 : 46 a.m. it was flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center , killing everyone on board . MacFarlane said ,
The only reason it hasn 't really affected me as it maybe could have is I didn 't really know that I was in any danger until after it was over , so I never had that panic moment . After the fact , it was sobering , but people have a lot of close calls ; you 're crossing the street and you almost get hit by a car ..... this one just happened to be related to something massive . I really can 't let it affect me because I 'm a comedy writer . I have to put that in the back of my head .
= = = Lawsuits = = =
On October 3 , 2007 , Bourne Co . Music Publishers filed a lawsuit accusing Family Guy of infringing its copyright on the song " When You Wish upon a Star " , through a parody song entitled " I Need a Jew " appearing in the episode " When You Wish Upon a Weinstein " . Bourne Co . , which holds the copyright , alleged the parody pairs a " thinly veiled " copy of their music with antisemitic lyrics . Named in the suit were MacFarlane , 20th Century Fox Film Corp. , Fox Broadcasting Co . , Cartoon Network , and Walter Murphy ; the suit sought to stop the program 's distribution and asked for unspecified damages . Bourne argued that " I Need a Jew " uses the copyrighted melody of " When You Wish Upon a Star " without commenting on that song , and that it was therefore not a First Amendment @-@ protected parody per the ruling in Campbell v. Acuff @-@ Rose Music , Inc . On March 16 , 2009 , United States District Judge Deborah Batts held that Family Guy did not infringe on Bourne 's copyright when it transformed the song for comical use in an episode .
In December 2007 , Family Guy was again accused of copyright infringement when actor Art Metrano filed a lawsuit regarding a scene in Stewie Griffin : The Untold Story , in which Jesus performs Metrano 's signature magic parody act , involving absurd faux magical hand gestures while humming the distinctive tune " Fine and Dandy " . MacFarlane , 20th Century Fox , Steve Callaghan , and Alex Borstein were all named in the suit . In July 2009 , a federal district court judge rejected Fox 's motion to dismiss , saying that the first three fair use factors involved — " purpose and character of the use " , " nature of the infringed work " , and " amount and substantiality of the taking " — counted in Metrano 's favor , while the fourth — " economic impact " — had to await more fact @-@ finding . In denying the dismissal , the court held that the reference in the scene made light of Jesus and his followers — not Metrano or his act . The case was settled out of court in 2010 with undisclosed terms .
On July 16 , 2014 , MacFarlane was hit with a lawsuit from the production company of a series of Internet videos called Charlie the Abusive Teddy Bear claiming that Ted infringes on the copyright of its videos due to the Ted bear largely matching the background story , persona , voice tone , attitude , and dialogue of the Charlie bear . The case was settled out of court on March 23 , 2015 , with undisclosed terms .
= = Accolades = =
MacFarlane has won two Emmy awards for his work on Family Guy and has been nominated seventeen times . He has been nominated for three Grammy awards for his work in Family Guy : Live in Vegas , Music Is Better Than Words , and Family Guy . He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for co @-@ writing the opening song " Everybody Needs a Best Friend " from his film Ted with the film 's composer Walter Murphy .
He has received numerous awards from other organizations , including the Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production and the Saturn Award for Best Television Presentation for the Family Guy episode titled " Blue Harvest " , the MTV Movie Award for Best On @-@ Screen Duo and the Empire Award for Best Comedy for Ted . In 2015 , he will receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Filmography = =
Stewie Griffin : The Untold Story ( 2005 )
Hellboy II : The Golden Army ( 2008 )
Futurama : Into the Wild Green Yonder ( 2009 )
The Drawn Together Movie : The Movie ! ( 2010 )
Tooth Fairy ( 2010 )
Trek Nation ( 2011 )
Ted ( 2012 )
Movie 43 ( 2013 )
A Million Ways to Die in the West ( 2014 )
Ted 2 ( 2015 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = = Studio albums = = = =
= = = = Soundtrack albums = = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = = As main artist = = = =
= = = = As featuring artist = = = =
= = Written works = =
MacFarlane , Seth ( 2014 ) . A Million Ways to Die in the West . New York : Ballantine Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 39167 @-@ 1 .
= Benjamin G. Humphreys Bridge =
The Benjamin G. Humphreys Bridge was a two @-@ lane cantilevered truss bridge carrying U.S. Route 82 / U.S. Route 278 across the Mississippi River between Lake Village , Arkansas and Greenville , Mississippi . It was the first bridge to connect the two towns . The bridge was named for Benjamin G. Humphreys II , a former United States Congressman from Greenville .
Hailed as progressive when it opened in 1940 , it became functionally obsolete as vehicle and river traffic increased . Because of its narrow two lanes with no shoulders , the bridge often became blocked by accidents or by the crossing of large vehicles like farm equipment . Due to its location near a sharp bend in the Mississippi River , the bridge became a hazard to river traffic ; barges and towboats frequently collided with it . In 1994 , a study concluded that a new bridge was needed and the old one should be torn down .
A new bridge , the Greenville Bridge , was built as a replacement further downriver from the sharp bend . It opened in 2010 . In 2011 , work began to remove the Benjamin G. Humphreys Bridge .
= = Description = =
The Benjamin G. Humphreys Bridge , very modern in its time , was a two lane , steel cantilevered truss bridge that carried US 82 / 278 over the Mississippi River , and connected the towns of Lake Village , Arkansas and Greenville , Mississippi by road for the first time . Prior to the bridge , local vehicles and local freight could only cross the river by ferry . It was named after Benjamin G. Humphreys , a US Congressman from Greensville who co @-@ authored a flood control bill in 1917 establishing a national flood control program on the Mississippi , and promoted the concept of flood control to contain the river .
The bridge opened on October 4 , 1940 to great fanfare . Its main span width was 840 feet ( 260 m ) , the highway bridge with the longest span on the Mississippi River . The width of the roadway was 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) — two lanes of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) each — with no shoulders .
= = History = =
In the late 1930s , talk started on the construction of a bridge to cross the Mississippi River at Greenville . In 1936 , a group called the Arkansas @-@ Mississippi @-@ Alabama US 82 Association was formed to raise funds for the bridge . In 1937 , Milton C. Smith ( the mayor at that time ) worked with John A. Fox , ( the secretary of the Washington County Chamber of Commerce ) , to get Congress to pass a law authorizing the bridge . The bill authorizing the bridge was signed into law in August 1937 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . In 1938 , Smith applied for money from the Works Progress Administration to fund the estimated $ 4 @.@ 5 million it would take to build the bridge . The Works Progress Administration agreed to the proposal in September 1938 , and construction started on the bridge a few months later .
The Benjamin G. Humphreys Bridge was built by the company now known as HNTB and opened to much fanfare in 1940 as the " pathway to progress " for the Mississippi Delta . It was a through @-@ truss design and had a span of 840 feet ( 256 meters ) . Until 1943 , this was the longest bridge for vehicles on the Mississippi River . Over time , the bridge supported increasing volumes of highway traffic and vehicles hitting the bridge . In the 1950s , an Air Force plane crashed into the bridge . Though the bridge remained structurally sound , it was becoming functionally obsolete . It had only two narrow highway lanes and no shoulders . An accident or the crossing of very large vehicles such as a large combine could force the bridge to close .
With river traffic increasing , damage from barge collisions increased . By 1972 , the Greenville Bridge was hit more times by barges than any other bridge on the Mississippi . The bridge was located close to a sharp bend in the Mississippi ; towboats and barges had difficulty making the sharp turn and regaining their course in time to avoid a collision with the bridge . Over the years many have not been able to make the turn quickly and have hit it . The bridge had become a danger to river traffic .
A 1994 engineering study by the Mississippi Department of Transportation explored alternatives to upgrading the crossing of US 82 and issued a report that explored a four @-@ lane crossing at Greenville . It concluded the best of several alternatives it identified was to build a new bridge 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) downriver from the old one , and to remove the old bridge . Additional studies evaluated the type of bridge to build , and by 1995 the cable @-@ stayed bridge was chosen as the best design to fit the river and soil conditions , as well as providing sufficient clearance for river navigation . Engineering plans were completed in 1999 for the Greenville Bridge , its replacement .
= = Destruction = =
The new Greenville Bridge opened to traffic on August 4 , 2010 . In 2011 the massive process of removing the old bridge by cutting into small sections to be recycled was begun , and was expected to be completed by September 2012 . At times the river has been closed to traffic to aid the demolition . The job is dangerous and two workers have died .
= Special Troops Battalion , 10th Mountain Division ( United States ) =
The 10th Mountain Division Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion is a special troops battalion of the United States Army headquartered at Fort Drum , New York . It is the organization for the command elements of the 10th Mountain Division . The Battalion contains the Division 's senior command structure , including its Headquarters and Headquarters Company , as well as communications , intelligence , operational and support elements as well as the Division Band which provide services to any units assigned to the Headquarters at a time .
Activated to oversee division elements prior to World War II , the battalion fought in Italy for a year . After the war it served as the command element for the 10th when it was a training unit . Due to reorganizations in the Army , the Special Troops Battalion was not reactivated with the 10th Mountain Division in 1985 , and instead remained inactive while the division served in numerous contingencies throughout the 1990s . Reactivated during another reorganization in 2004 , the Special Troops Battalion supported the 10th Mountain Division command elements when they deployed to both Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq . During this service , it has received several commendations for its multiple deployments . In October 2009 , the Special Troops Battalion was redesignated to Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion , 10th Mountain Division ( Light Infantry ) .
= = Organization = =
The 10th Mountain Division Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion is subordinate to the 10th Mountain Division , and is a permanent formation of the division , as the 10th Mountain Division 's command elements are all contained within HHBN . It is organized under the same uniform structure that all Special Troops Battalions in the United States Army conform to .
The battalion consists of five companies ; the division 's Headquarters and Headquarters Company , known as Headquarters Support Company ; Intelligence Sustainment Company , a Military Intelligence company ; Division Signal Company , a Signal company ; Operations Company and the 10th Mountain Division Band . These companies provide services for the other elements under the 10th Mountain Division 's command . As such , all of the formations are mountain warfare qualified .
= = History = =
The Special Troops Battalion was activated on 6 November 1944 , as an organizational structure for the command elements of the 10th Mountain Division . It was activated at Camp Swift , Texas , while the division was staging in preparation for deployment to Europe during World War II .
= = = World War II = = =
The 10th Light Division ( Alpine ) was constituted on 10 July 1943 , and activated two days later at Camp Hale , Colorado . The division was centered around regimental commands ; the 85th Infantry Regiment , 86th Infantry Regiment , and 87th Infantry Regiment . Also assigned to the division were the 604th , 605th , and 616th Field Artillery battalions , the 110th Signal Company , the 710th Ordnance Company , the 10th Quartermaster Company , the 10th Reconnaissance Troop , the 126th Engineer Battalion , the 10th Medical Battalion , and the 10th Counter @-@ Intelligence Detachment . The 10th Light Division was unique in that it was the only division in the Army with three field artillery battalions instead of four .
The division trained for one year at the 9 @,@ 200 @-@ foot @-@ high Camp Hale . Soldiers trained to fight and survive under the most brutal mountain conditions , traveling on skis and show shoes , and sleeping in the snow without tents . On 22 June 1944 , the division was shipped to Camp Swift , Texas to prepare for maneuvers in Louisiana , which were later canceled . A period of acclimation to a low altitude and hot climate was necessary to prepare for this training . On 6 November 1944 , the 10th Division was redesignated the 10th Mountain Division . It was at this point that the Special Troops Battalion was activated . That same month the blue and white " Mountain " tab was authorized for the division 's new shoulder sleeve insignia .
= = = = Italy = = = =
The battalion and its division sailed for Italy in late 1944 , arriving in Italy on 6 January 1945 . It was the last US Army Division to enter combat in World War II .
The battalion provided command for the division as it immediately entered combat near Cutigliano and Orsigna . Preliminary defensive actions were followed on 19 February 1945 by Battle of Monte Castello in conjunction with troops of a Brazilian Expeditionary Force .
The unit made concerted attacks on the Monte Della Torraccia @-@ Mount Belvedere sector , and the peaks were cleared after several days of heavy fighting . In early March the division fought its way north of Canolle and moved to within 15 miles ( 24 km ) of Bologna . Maintaining defensive positions for the next three weeks , the division jumped off again in April , captured Mongiorgio on 20 April , and entered the Po Valley , seizing the strategic points Pradalbino and Bomporto . The 10th crossed the Po River on 23 April , reaching Verona on 25 April , and ran into heavy opposition at Torbole and Nago . After an amphibious crossing of Lake Garda , it secured Gargnano and Porto di Tremosine on 30 April , as German resistance in Italy ended . After the German surrender in Italy on 2 May 1945 , the division went on security duty , receiving the surrender of various German units and screening the areas of occupation near Trieste , Kobarid , Bovec and Log pod Mangartom , Slovenia until V @-@ E Day , the end of the war in Europe .
= = = = Demobilization = = = =
Originally , the battalion and division were to be sent to the Pacific theater to take part in Operation Downfall , the invasion of mainland Japan . However , Japan surrendered in August 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The division returned to the US two days after the surrender . All of its combat elements , as well as the Special Troops Battalion , were demobilized and deactivated on 30 November 1945 , at Camp Carson , Colorado .
= = = Cold War = = =
In June 1948 , the division was rebuilt and activated at Fort Riley , Kansas to serve as a training division . Without its " Mountain " tab , the division served at the 10th Infantry Division for the next ten years . The battalion was also rebuilt and delegated to commanding the training units . The division was charged with processing and training replacements in large numbers . This mission was expanded with the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 . By 1953 , the division had trained 123 @,@ 000 new Army recruits at Fort Riley .
In 1954 , the division was converted to a combat division once again , though it did not regain its " Mountain " status . Using equipment from the deactivating 37th Infantry Division , the 10th Infantry Division was deployed to Germany , replacing the 1st Infantry Division at Würzburg , serving as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization defensive force . The division served in Germany for four years , until it was rotated out and replaced by the 3rd Infantry Division . On 1 July 1957 , the battalion was redesignated as the 10th Administration Company . However , the company moved with the division to Fort Benning , Georgia , and was deactivated on 14 June 1958 .
= = = Reactivation = = =
In 1985 , when the 10th Mountain Division was reactivated again , the Special Troops Battalion was not made a part of the organizational structure , in accordance with the new format of US Army Divisions per the 1963 Reorganization Objective Army Divisions plan .
Upon the return of the division headquarters and 1st Brigade from Afghanistan after supporting Operation Enduring Freedom , the 10th Mountain Division began the process of transformation into a modular division . On 16 September 2004 , the division headquarters finished its transformation , which returned the Special Troops Battalion to active service . The 1st Brigade became the 1st Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division , while the 3rd Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division was activated for the first time . In January 2005 , the 4th Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division was activated at Fort Polk , Louisiana . 2nd Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division would not be transformed until September 2005 , pending a deployment to Iraq . Around that time , the Special Troops Battalion received its heraldry , including a coat of arms and a distinctive unit insignia .
The division headquarters and 3rd Brigade Combat Team redeployed to Afghanistan in 2006 , staying in the country until 2007 . The division and brigade served in the eastern region of the country , along the border with Pakistan , fulfilling a similar role as it did during its previous deployment . During this time , the deployment of the brigade was extended along with that of the 4th Brigade Combat Team , 82nd Airborne Division , however , it was eventually replaced by the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team which was rerouted from Iraq .
After a one @-@ year rest , the headquarters of the 10th Mountain Division was deployed to Iraq for the first time in April 2008 , along with the 4th Brigade Combat Team . The division headquarters served as the command element for southern Baghdad , while the 4th BCT operated in North Baghdad . The 10th Mountain participated in larger scale operations such as Operation Phantom Phoenix . The headquarters of the 10th Mountain Division is currently deployed to Afghanistan in support of OEF XV and transitioning to the Resolute Support Mission in Afghanistan .
= = Honors = =
The 10th Mountain Division Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion was awarded two campaign streamers in World War II and four campaign streamers in the War on Terrorism for a total of six campaign streamers and two unit decorations in its operational history . Some of the division 's brigades received more or fewer decorations depending on their individual deployments .
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= A Glorious Way to Die =
A Glorious Way to Die : The Kamikaze Mission of the Battleship Yamato , April 1945 is a 1981 military history book by Russell Spurr about the suicide mission of the Japanese battleship Yamato against the American Pacific Fleet during the Battle of Okinawa near the end of World War II . Yamato was the largest battleship in the world , and Japan sacrificed her in a final , desperate attempt to halt the Allied advance on the Japanese archipelago . The book was published in 1981 in the United States by Newmarket Press , and in the United Kingdom by Sidgwick & Jackson .
Spurr , a British journalist and editor of the Hong Kong @-@ based Far Eastern Economic Review , interviewed Japanese and Americans involved with Yamato 's last mission , and drew on Japanese naval documents and records to write the book . He tells the story from both the Japanese and American points of view .
A Glorious Way to Die was generally well received by critics and historians . American author and journalist Charles Kaiser wrote in The New York Times that the book 's strength is " its ability to re @-@ create the fear the Japanese engendered with their desperation tactics " , which resulted in American perception that they were all prepared to fight to the death . A reviewer in the Canadian journal Pacific Affairs commended Spurr 's " well @-@ balanced treatment of historical evidence and his workmanship in reconstructing the tragic event " , and said that the book " deserves wide reading " .
= = Background = =
During World War II Russell Spurr was a lieutenant in the Royal Indian Navy fighting the Japanese in Burma . After the war , in February 1946 , Spurr was part of the Commonwealth occupation force stationed in the Japanese naval base of Kure in southern Japan . There he noticed a huge drydock standing empty , and after querying what it had been used for , he learnt that it was where Yamato had been built . Spurr had been isolated in Burma for several years and had never heard of Yamato , but he became interested in her story and started collecting information about the battleship .
After returning to England , Spurr worked as a journalist . In 1952 The London Daily Express sent him to Japan as its China and Far East correspondent , but he found that he had little time to resume his pursuit of information on the fate of Yamato . In the mid @-@ 1970s Spurr returned to the Far East again , this time as a writer for the Far Eastern Economic Review . He began conducting interviews about Yamato with former Japanese naval commanders and survivors of the battleship 's last mission . He also gained access to Japanese naval documents and records seized by the United States , plus US interrogation transcripts . For the American side of the story , he interviewed US naval commanders and personnel involved in the sinking of Yamato . Satisfied with what he had , Spurr began writing the book in the late 1970s , over 30 years after he first found out about the battleship .
In his introduction to the book , Spurr said that he made no attempt to " gloss over the facts , unpalatable though they may be to either side . " He added , " The result , I trust , presents more than the story of a ship or a sortie , but offers some insight into the agonizing dilemma of a misguided , courageous people who persisted in continuing a hopeless war . "
= = Synopsis = =
In A Glorious Way to Die , Russell Spurr recounts the final mission of Japanese battleship Yamato . He describes the events that led to the decision by the Japanese at Combined Fleet headquarters to send Yamato , the pride of the Imperial Japanese Navy , on a suicide mission against the American Pacific Fleet during the Battle of Okinawa near the end of World War II . Spurr tells the story of Yamato 's last mission from both the Japanese and the American point of view , dramatised in a third @-@ person narrative .
Construction of Yamato began in secrecy at the Kure naval base in 1937 . She was completed soon after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 , but had already been rendered obsolete by the Japanese themselves after their successful carrier @-@ based attacks at Pearl Harbor and elsewhere . Yamato , the largest battleship in the world , with nine 18 @.@ 1 @-@ inch guns with a range of over 22 miles , became , in the words of a Milwaukee Journal Sentinel reviewer , a " 70 @,@ 000 @-@ ton white elephant the Japanese did not quite know what to do with " .
In March 1945 , after the Americans had invaded Okinawa and all but eliminated the Japanese Navy , a final kamikaze mission called Operation Ten @-@ Go ( Operation Heaven One ) was conceived by Japanese commanders at Combined Fleet to repulse the Allied advance on the Japanese archipelago . The plan was to send Yamato with eight support destroyers and a cruiser to Okinawa . Yamato would only be given enough fuel to reach Okinawa , and would have no air cover as all available airplanes would be used for a series of kamikaze attacks on US aircraft carriers . At Okinawa Yamato and her support craft would beach themselves and assist the island defenders . Without air cover there was little chance of Yamato reaching her destination , but , according to American author and journalist Charles Kaiser , the Japanese high command were " perfectly prepared to sacrifice the remnants of [ their ] fleet to avoid the stigma of surrender " .
Not all Japanese naval officers agreed with Combined Fleet 's decision to sacrifice Yamato , and while they had no choice but to comply , some committed one act of defiance by secretly supplying the battleship and the rest of her fleet with enough fuel to return home . Yamato set sail for Okinawa from the Kure naval base on March 29 , 1945 , and on April 7 , 1945 the Americans intercepted the Japanese fleet , 200 miles from Okinawa . Using 280 bombers and torpedo planes in three waves of attacks from nine aircraft carriers , the Americans sank the battleship and five of her support ships within three hours . After Yamato went down , the Americans machine @-@ gunned survivors in the water . Spurr explains the reason for their hatred of the Japanese :
The Americans felt no compunction about slaughtering their helpless foes . They had always fought a blatantly racial war in the Pacific – and so had the Japanese . Headline @-@ seeking brass hats openly declared that killing Japs was no worse than killing lice . Reports of Japan 's atrocities against war prisoners and even the unnatural fanaticism of the Kamikaze combined to convince the Americans that these were inhuman freaks , deserving little mercy . The apogee of brutalization was to be reached , four months later , at Hiroshima .
After the US planes left the area , the remaining Japanese support ships picked up what survivors they could from the water and returned to Kure . According to Spurr , of Yamato 's total crew of 3332 , only 269 survived . The Americans lost 12 men in their attack on the Japanese fleet .
= = Reception = =
Roger Jaynes , writing in the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel described A Glorious Way to Die as " a dramatic absorbing account of Yamato 's last mission " . His only complaint was that the book takes too long to " get into " , and that the first 90 pages , most of which deal with background information , should have been heavily condensed . But once " Yamato finally leaves port " , Jaynes said the book is " a chilling account of how more than 3 @,@ 000 Japanese sailors obediently sailed to their deaths , knowing they had no air cover and that the American planes were waiting " .
In a review of the book in The New York Times , Richard F. Shepard called it a " compelling story " . He said that Spurr tells this " naval saga " , which had degenerated into a " racial conflict " , from the point of view of the people involved , " people who had little time for moralizing or preachments , anything but getting on with the killing " . American author and journalist Charles Kaiser , also writing in The New York Times , said that the book 's strength is " its ability to re @-@ create the fear the Japanese engendered with their desperation tactics " and the resulting American perception that they were all prepared to fight to the death . Kaiser added that younger readers may have a better understanding from this book of what led to US President Truman 's decision to use the atomic bomb against Japan , " even if they [ ... ] question the morality of that decision " .
A reviewer at the Internet Bookwatch said the book is not just " a dry historical record " , but is " aptly presented " , well researched and " a worthy addition to World War II history shelves " . Kirkus Reviews called the book " A gripping recreation of the last ten days in the life of HIJMS Yamato " . It said that Spurr gives the battleship , which " live [ s ] on as a legend in Japan " , " appropriately big @-@ picture treatment " , and explains Japan 's " predilection for self @-@ immolation " and its kamikaze philosophy . Kearney Smith , recounting his brother 's experiences on a US Landing Craft Support ship in the Battle of Okinawa in Aboard LCS 11 in World War II : A Memoir by Lawrence B. Smith , also said that Spurr 's book " give [ s ] lots of insight into the matter of kamikaze attacks " .
In a review in the Canadian journal Pacific Affairs , Kyozo Sato noted that the book highlights the Imperial Navy 's " fatal lack of foresight " in recognizing the role air support and aircraft carriers would play in naval warfare , and persisted with the construction of Yamato . It also investigates " the politics and mentality of the Japanese leadership and the morale and spirit of the fighting men and the nation " . He said that Spurr 's hope that his book will help explain why Japan refused to surrender , " is a modest aspiration for his well @-@ balanced treatment of historical evidence and his workmanship in reconstructing the tragic event " . Sato 's opinion of the book was that it " deserves wide reading " .
In 1981 , A Glorious Way to Die was selected by the Military Book Club and was a Literary Guild alternate selection .
= = Works citing this book = =
Rasor , Eugene L. ( 1996 ) . The Southwest Pacific Campaign , 1941 – 1945 : Historiography and Annotated Bibliography . Greenwood Press. p . 233 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 28874 @-@ 6 .
Rose , Lisle Abbott ( 2007 ) . Power at Sea Volume 2 : The Breaking Storm , 1919 – 1945 . University of Missouri Press. pp. 438 , 492 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8262 @-@ 1694 @-@ 6 .
Rottman , Gordon ( 2002 ) . World War 2 Pacific Island Guide . Greenwood Publishing Group. p . 467 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 31395 @-@ 0 .
Rottman , Gordon ( 2012 @-@ 09 @-@ 18 ) . Okinawa 1945 : The Last Battle . Osprey Publishing. p . 94 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78200 @-@ 462 @-@ 2 .
Smith , Kearney ( 2011 @-@ 01 @-@ 01 ) . Aboard LCS 11 in World War II : A Memoir by Lawrence B. Smith . Xlibris Corporation. p . 96 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4568 @-@ 4595 @-@ 7 .
= Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy =
" Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy " is the tenth television episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 4 , 1994 . In the episode , Homer and Marge 's sex life is struggling , but Grampa perks things up with a homemade revitalizing tonic . He and Homer go on the road to sell their elixir , and Grampa reveals that Homer ’ s conception was unintentional . Homer is upset with his father and decides to spend more time with his children , but his over @-@ parenting does not work that well on them . Homer goes back to the old farmhouse he grew up in for inspiration and meets back up with his father , but their loving reunion is soured when the house goes up in flames .
The episode was directed by Wes Archer and written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein . After its initial airing on Fox , the episode was later released as part of a 1999 video collection : The Simpsons – Too Hot For TV , and released again on the 2003 DVD edition of the same collection . The episode features cultural references to songs such as " Foggy Mountain Breakdown " and " Celebration " , as well as a reference to the 1963 film The Nutty Professor . " Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy " received positive reception from television critics , and acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 .
= = Plot = =
When Homer and Marge 's marriage declines due to their fading sex life , Grampa pieces together a tonic that is guaranteed to put the sparks back into their relationship . The effectiveness of the tonic results in Homer and Abe going into business together , selling " Simpson and Son ’ s Revitalizing Tonic " to the public utilizing a medicine show . They travel from town to town selling the product , but after visiting the farmhouse where Homer grew up , the two get into an argument . Abe yells at Homer in the car , saying that if he had not taken the tonic years ago , Homer would not have been born , finally shouting " You were an accident ! " Homer stops the car and hisses " Get out ! " , not accepting Abe 's apology and saying in an " OUT " . Abe steps out of the car and says he hopes Homer will forgive him , but Homer drives away and leaves his father there , later telling Marge he cannot forgive what his father said and then resolves to be a better father . However , things don 't go well for either Homer or Abe : Homer 's rushed efforts to bond with Bart and Lisa lead them to note that he 's just as " half @-@ assed " at doing too much as he was at being a non @-@ presence for them , while Abe 's attempt to use Barney as the new " Son " fails instantly .
Bart attempts to figure out why all of the adults disappear after they buy the " Simpson and Son 's Tonic " . They come up with a few conspiracy theories , all of which are unrelated with the tonic . Lisa , however , sarcastically offers up the possibility of all the adults having to be home before dark due to being reverse vampires , which frightens the rest of the children more than their other ideas .
Depressed at having failed to be a good father even when he is trying , Homer goes back to the farmhouse to think . He sees old photographs , including one of himself as a child on Christmas morning , where he thinks his father was not even there on Christmas when he finally got to meet Santa Claus . Homer then realizes that it was really his father in a Santa costume , proving that Abe did actually care for him . Homer quickly reunites with Abe , who by coincidence has also gone to the farmhouse to reflect . Both of them accidentally set fire to different parts of the building , starting with Homer accidentally setting fire to the photo and Abe throwing a bottle of his tonic into a fireplace , and bump into one another on the front porch while fleeing the blaze . They both admit they are screw @-@ ups and they finally reconcile .
= = Production = =
The episode was directed by Wes Archer , and was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein . It was originally intended to deal with Homer and Marge 's problematic sex life , but later developed into a story about the relationship between Homer and Grampa . Dan Castellaneta provides the voices for both Homer and Grampa . Castellaneta therefore had to talk to himself when he recorded the voices of the two characters in their interactions for this episode . Castellaneta says that it is hard for him to do Grampa 's voice because it is " wheezy and airy " .
Homer and Marge spend the night at an inn , called the Aphrodite Inn , to spice up their sex life . The inn was partly based on the Madonna Inn , which as in the episode features different kinds of sex @-@ oriented rooms with unusual names that are supposed to spice up your love life . The design of the old farmhouse was inspired by the house featured in the 1993 film Flesh and Bone . Bart 's obsession with conspiracy theories was inspired by the writers observation that children around his age go through a stage where they become " addicted " to information about UFOs and paranormal phenomena . Bill Oakley himself had gone through the same thing when he was around 10 years old .
= = Cultural references = =
Al Gore , former Vice President of the United States , is shown celebrating Lisa 's purchase of his book , Sane Planning , Sensible Tomorrow , by listening to " Celebration " by Kool & the Gang . " Foggy Mountain Breakdown " is played during a chase scene , reminiscent of a recurring theme of the 1967 landmark film Bonnie and Clyde . A parody of The X @-@ Files ' theme song is played in the background of a scene after Lisa purchases a copy of Gore 's book Sane Planning , Sensible Tomorrow . When Professor Frink takes the tonic , he transforms into a suave man with a deep voice , which is a reference to Jerry Lewis transforming into Buddy Love in The Nutty Professor . Grampa , within proper context , successfully pronounces the word pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis . Milhouse 's conspiratorial revelation and his line about being through the looking glass is quoted from the movie , JFK .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy " finished 58th in the ratings for the week of November 28 to December 4 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 . The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , said it was " an amazing episode , in which Homer actually has an argument with someone , rather than backing down . As he and his father drift further apart , so the family are at a loss at what to do . You can 't help but feel sorry for Grampa as a piece of Simpson family history goes up in flames " . Nate Meyers at Digitally Obsessed praised Dan Castellaneta 's role in the episode and said : " Dan Castellaneta 's work as both Homer and Grampa Simpson in [ the episode ] is full of emotion and brilliant comic timing . Watch the closing scene carefully as Homer returns to his childhood home , because Castellaneta gracefully dances between a tender father @-@ son relationship and flat @-@ out comedy " . Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said he " didn ’ t remember this as a very good episode , but it actually turns out to be quite strong . The initial plot in which Homer and Marge can ’ t get it together offers plenty of funny moments , and the scenes in which Homer battles with his dad offer depth and much humor . It ’ s also hard to beat the children 's fears of the reverse vampires " .
= = Merchandise = =
" Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy " originally aired on Fox in the United States on December 4 , 1994 . The episode was selected for release in a 1999 video collection of selected episodes titled : The Simpsons – Too Hot For TV . Other episodes included in the collection set were " The Cartridge Family " , " Natural Born Kissers " , and " Treehouse of Horror IX " . It was included in The Simpsons season 6 DVD set , which was released August 16 , 2005 – The Simpsons – The Complete Sixth Season . The episode was again included in the 2003 DVD release of the " Too Hot For TV " set .
= Desolate North =
Desolate North is the debut studio album by the funeral doom metal band Celestiial , first released by Bindrune Recordings on June 6 , 2006 . It comprises the five tracks from Celestiial 's demo , Ashen , combined with three more tracks recorded separately . It was written , performed and recorded entirely by Tanner Anderson , the member of Celestiial , and was never written to be an album or to be performed . The Bindrune CD release is out @-@ of @-@ print , but Desolate North is still available digitally and in LP @-@ format , the latter having been released by music distributor Handmade Birds in 2011 .
The album received mixed reviews — some critics claimed it was fresh and a new sound , while others argued it was very similar to music already available . Desolate North has an extremely slow rhythm and has only limited vocals . The music is interspersed with various woodland sounds , such as running water and footsteps . The natural imagery used on the album is reminiscent of that used in black metal , but the music is closer to ambient .
= = Recording = =
The album was recorded in three parts . First , Anderson recorded the music for Ashen . This was done in a wooden loft in the corner of the rehearsal space used by Azrael , of whom Anderson was , at the time , a member . Anderson has said that he does not remember how long this recording took him , as he slept there after finishing the work . He described that space as perfect for the recording , as there was nothing there to distract him .
As the entire album was recorded and played by Anderson , the only option was to record the music in layers . First , he recorded the drums , using a drum kit . However , he was unhappy with the way they sounded , and so re @-@ recorded on a drum machine . The next layers to be recorded were the guitar , bass and vocals , with other sounds being added later .
The other three songs on Desolate North one was recorded at the same place in early 2005 , and the other two , the harp pieces , were recorded at Anderson 's home . He has said how this was the most difficult part of the recording . As it happened , Anderson misplaced his microphone stand and so recorded those two songs with the microphone tucked under his chin . Despite the hindrance , Anderson claimed that the microphone picked up everything , and he was happy with the result .
Anderson has described the process as giving the album a " raw " sound , and he has hypothesized that it is because of the raw sound of the album that critics have described his work as having influences from black metal . Although the album 's production was criticised by Ignacio Coluccio of Maelstrom , Kim Kelly , of Pivotal Alliance , praised the album for its high quality recording , explaining that it " is not raw , necro black metal at all " .
= = Release = =
A small number of copies of Ashen were sent to various people . Marty Rytkonen , of Bindrune Recordings , was the only person attached to a record label to receive one , and Celestiial was then taken on by Bindrune . Anderson was very happy with this , as he had been an avid reader of Worm Gear ( a magazine attached to the label ) when he was younger . Despite the fact that Anderson had not written Desolate North with the intention of it ever being released , in 2006 , it was released by Bindrune Recordings . The CD version released by Bindrune Recordings is now out of print . However , in 2011 , the album was rereleased in vinyl LP format by Handmade Birds , and the album remains available in digital format .
= = Musical style = =
Desolate North has been described as taking " the template of the funeral doom genre ... and disembowel [ ing ] the formula even further " . The album makes use of minimal vocals , instead relying on electronics , guitars , and syncopated drums ( with liberal use of cymbals ) . These sounds are also backed up by more traditional instruments , such as harps and Native American flutes . Additionally , sampled sounds — including footsteps , water , birdsong and wind — are used .
Celestiial is a funeral doom metal band . However , Desolate North has been described as taking the genre in new directions with comparisons to ambient , goth , experimental , and dark folk music being made . The music has also been described as meditative and medieval .
Anderson admits that there may be death metal influences in the vocals , but says that it was not a conscious design , and that the music does not have any other similarities to death metal . He claims that there are no black metal influences . He says that describing Celestiial 's music as folk is a bad idea , as folk is such a broad , vague description as to make it meaningless . He says that what he is creating is neither folk , nor traditional , and even the harp songs are not traditional works , though they are influenced by the traditional music of the United Kingdom and traditional Irish music .
= = Imagery = =
Desolate North uses imagery very much based around nature , with natural sounds sampled in the music , and imagery involving woodland , and , as one reviewer put it , " the scary places that we all fear when the lights are out " . Bindrune recordings describes this affinity for nature by saying that " Celestiial was created to mirror mysticism in nature . "
Brandon Stosuy , of Pitchfork Media , talked of a black metal influence in the album 's imagery . Anderson responded to the claim of black metal influence by stating that he does not know why people compare his music to black metal ; he hypothesized that it is simply the raw production of the music , or the double ' i ' in the band name .
Anderson was once asked about whether there were any pagan beliefs in Celestiial . He responded that Celestiial " is romanticized Paganism with very real Pagan values behind it " . He talked of how Celestiial celebrated paganism and the natural world , but that paganism is often viewed as something that it is not .
= = Reception = =
Desolate North received mixed reviews . The album garnered positive reviews from a number of ezines , with comparisons to founders of the genre , such as Disembowelment . AllMusic reviewer Eduardo Rivadavia , however , felt that Desolate North compared negatively with the efforts of more prominent bands , concluding that " Celestiial could be a hell of a lot worse , but they could be much better , too . " Scott Seward of Decibel Magazine felt that the music compared well to similar bands , said that Anderson " makes beautiful sounds out of the darkness that others would rather run from " .
Reviewers disagreed on the originality of the music — while Seward claimed that it was new and inventive , Murat Batmaz , of Maelstrom , said that it was very typical funeral doom metal . Negative reviews and comments talked about the poor production and guitars , and the lack of speed in the music , combined with the monotony of the sound . Seward felt that the album " is not ' heavy ' music in the least , if we ’ re talking volume and crunch " , but that " it is ' heavy ' music if we ’ re talking about the end product : a deep and pervasively creepy atmosphere that is compelling in its use of silence and hushed reverence for the forest floor " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Tanner Anderson .
= 1996 Oman cyclone =
The 1996 Oman cyclone ( also known as Cyclone 02A ) was a tenacious and deadly system that caused historic flooding in the southern Arabian Peninsula . It originated from a disturbance in the Gulf of Aden , the first such tropical cyclogenesis on record . After moving eastward , the system interacted with the monsoon trough and became a tropical storm on June 11 . Later that day , it turned toward Oman and struck the country 's southeast coast . It weakened over land , dissipating on June 12 , although it continued to produce rainfall – heavy at times – over the next few days .
Offshore Oman , the storm 's rough waves disabled an oil tanker and damaged a fishing boat , killing one person in the latter incident . Striking Oman , the storm produced significant rainfall totals well above the monthly average , peaking at 234 mm ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) in the Dhofar region . Strong winds where the storm moved ashore damaged buildings and the local water plant . The rains washed out roads and isolated villages , killing two people due to drowning in Al @-@ Ghubra . However , the effects were more severe in Yemen , where the floods were considered the worst on record . The storm produced the heaviest rainfall in 70 years , reaching 189 mm ( 7 @.@ 4 in ) in Ma 'rib . Flood waters washed away or damaged 1 @,@ 068 km ( 664 mi ) of roads and 21 bridges , some of them dating back 2 @,@ 000 years to the Roman era . The storm washed away the topsoil or otherwise wrecked 42 @,@ 800 ha ( 106 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields , accounting for US $ 100 million in agriculture damage . At least 1 @,@ 820 houses were destroyed , many of them built on wadis , or dry river beds . Overall damage was estimated at US $ 1 @.@ 2 billion , and there were 338 deaths in Yemen . The World Bank assisted in a project to rebuild the damaged infrastructure in Yemen and to mitigate against future floods .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 31 , a weak circulation persisted over the warm waters of the Gulf of Aden between Yemen and Somalia . Its origins were unknown , possibly the convergence of the sea breeze along the coast of Somalia with the monsoon flow . The system produced convection , or thunderstorms , along both coasts of the body of water . As it moved east @-@ northeastward along the coast of Yemen and Oman , the disturbance brought dry air from the north , which decreased the convection . It moved farther offshore on June 7 into the open Arabian Sea , where it interacted with the south @-@ west monsoon and developed more convection .
The area of thunderstorms persisted about 1 @,@ 480 km ( 920 mi ) northeast of Somalia by June 9 . It became circular as the circulation became more defined , fueled by the instability from the monsoon trough . Wind shear was expected to prevent significant development , although the system organized enough that the Joint Typhoon Warning Center issued a tropical cyclone formation alert on June 10 . On the next day , the agency initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 02A about 160 km ( 100 mi ) from the Oman coastline . This marked the first occasion that a tropical cyclone originated from a system in the Gulf of Aden .
After becoming a tropical storm , the system 's structure became more aligned as it developed an anticyclone aloft . Fueled by water temperatures of 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) , the cyclone intensified further . At 03 : 00 UTC on June 11 , the Omani city of Fahud recorded sustained winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) , and a station on Masirah Island recorded a pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . On this basis , the JTWC estimated that the storm attained peak winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . However , a nearby ship reported sustained winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , and the well @-@ defined structure on satellite imagery suggested winds as strong as 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Moving northwestward , the cyclone made landfall around 09 : 00 UTC on June 11 about 130 km ( 80 mi ) southwest of Masirah Island in southeastern Oman , at a location named Ras Madrakah . It quickly weakened over the desert terrain and dry air , and the circulation dissipated by June 12 over the central portion of the country . However , the remnants turned to the southwest , steered by a northerly flow . It entered the Rub ' al Khali , or Empty Quarter , of Saudi Arabia late on June 12 , and continued slowly westward . The storm 's interaction with the monsoon brought the intertropical convergence zone northward into Oman and Yemen , bringing unusually heavy rainfall until the system gradually wound down .
The IMD – the official warning agency for the basin – did not track the cyclone . In general , tropical cyclone forecast models failed to predict that the storm would form .
= = Impact = =
The precursor to the storm dropped heavy rainfall in Oman , reaching 29 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) in Khaftawt on May 31 . The storm later produced intense precipitation across the coast and desert regions of the country . Masirah recorded 48 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall over 36 hours , compared to the average monthly average of 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) , while Salalah reported 36 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) , or 600 % of the average June rainfall . However , the heaviest rainfall occurred on June 11 and into the following day , when the system drew moisture into mountainous parts of the Dhofar region . A station called Jebel Ashor recorded 234 mm ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) over 48 hours , including 143 mm ( 5 @.@ 6 in ) on June 11 . Farther north , heavy rainfall occurred in the Al Hajar Mountains , where 201 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) was recorded , mostly over eight hours ; there , 71 @.@ 8 mm ( 2 @.@ 83 in ) of precipitation was recorded over two hours .
Offshore the Arabian Peninsula , the cyclone produced rough waves that disabled an oil tanker ; the crew was rescued by the Omani Coast Guard after being stranded for a few days . A fishing boat was damaged after being washed ashore near Ras Madrakah , killing one person in the crew of nine . Near where the storm moved ashore , the storm 's strong winds heavily damaged the village of Ras Madrakah . Considered the worst storm in memory , the cyclone wrecked workshops and buildings , including damaging the roof of the desalination plant , leaving residents without water for several days . Strong winds of over 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) knocked down 20 trees in Rima that were planted to provide shade for government buildings . Across the storm 's track through Oman , the rains replenished water levels in aquifers , while also washing out roads and isolating villages . This lack of transportation prevented prompt repair work . The Jiddat al @-@ Harasis desert was flooded for over a month due to the storm , killing two people due to drowning in Al @-@ Ghubra . The floods provided grazing for the endangered oryx population , although many livestock were killed . Three airports in the country were closed due to floods up to four days .
Damage was heaviest in Yemen , where the storm 's remnants dropped the heaviest rainfall in 70 years . Ma 'rib recorded 189 mm ( 7 @.@ 4 in ) of rainfall , and the capital Sana 'a reported 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) of precipitation . Widespread flooding affected much of Yemen , the worst on record for the country . Damage was heaviest in three governorates – Hadhramaut , Shabwah , and Ma 'rib – with lesser effects in three other governorates . The waters washed away or damaged 1 @,@ 068 km ( 664 mi ) of roads and 21 bridges , including the primary road crossing Hadhramaut . Some of the damaged roads were built 2 @,@ 000 years prior under the Roman Empire . Primary highways were damaged in 16 locations . Thousands of cars and other vehicles were inundated , necessitating boat travel to transport injured residents . About 2 @,@ 300 m ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) of power lines was cut . The floods washed away 113 power poles , and four main generators were affected , causing widespread outages . Storm debris contaminated also many drinking wells and damaged 1 @,@ 357 water pumps damaged . About 80 % of Shabwah Governorate lost water access , forcing some residents to drink from contaminated wadis , or formerly dry river beds . About one @-@ third of gabions – structures to help with flood control – were damaged or destroyed , as were 634 dykes .
Many Yemeni villages were isolated , and the entirety of Ahwar and Qaishan provinces were inaccessible within Abyan Governorate . The floods destroyed 1 @,@ 820 houses , many of them washed away , and many others were damaged , leaving 22 @,@ 842 families homeless . The storm washed away the topsoil or otherwise wrecked 42 @,@ 800 ha ( 106 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields . The storm also knocked over 37 @,@ 000 fruit trees and killed 13 @,@ 000 livestock , accounting for about US $ 100 million in agriculture damage . About 70 % of arable land in Shabwah Governorate was washed away . The floods littered about 25 km ( 16 mi ) of irrigation canals with sand . Many of the houses and fields were built on wadis which were swept away when water levels rose . The floods also damaged or destroyed 43 health facilities and 53 schools . Overall , 338 people were killed by the floods in Yemen , and damage was estimated at US $ 1 @.@ 2 billion , according to the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters . However , Yemen 's General Secretariat for Natural Disasters and Relief estimated damage at US $ 200 million , which accounted for 12 % of the country 's GDP .
= = Aftermath = =
After the worst of the floods ended , the Yemeni government created a Flood Relief High Committee to coordinate incoming aid and relief distribution . The Ministry of Health coordinated the transportation and storage of goods . Workers quickly repaired roads and airports . In Shabwah , CARE and Oxfam repaired damaged pumps and wells to restore access to clean water , and the German government sent a team to restore water access in Ma 'rib Governorate . The widespread destruction of crop fields caused many tribes to abandon their ancestral land . Many of the residents left homeless either stayed with families or relatives , or resided in temporary shelters , where there were reports of malaria , typhoid , and diarrhea . The government provided building materials to rebuild houses . In the immediate aftermath , the local Red Cross chapter distributed about 1 @,@ 300 blankets , 200 tents , and 200 sets of cooking tools . Stagnant waters in Yemen caused a locust outbreak in August 1996 that affected Saudi Arabia for the next three months . Officials used over 350 @,@ 000 l ( 92 @,@ 000 US gal ) of pesticide in response to the outbreak . The heavy rural damage depressed the regional economy in 1996 and 1997 .
On June 17 , the government of Yemen issued an appeal for international aid , while also declaring four governorates as disaster areas . After the severe flooding occurred , 20 countries and various international organizations provided money or relief goods to Yemen , amounting to US $ 14 million . Yemen 's needs were determined by a survey between officials in the Ministry of Electricity and workers in the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs . Several departments within the United Nations provided assistance as well toward a crop assessment , drugs , and wheat flour . The World Health Organization provided medical supplies to the country . The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies provided 3 million water tablets , along with cash and general supplies . The European Commission ( precursor to the European Union ) donated about US $ 186 @,@ 000 to the Yemeni Red Cross , and other European countries – France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom – also provided assistance . Other countries in the Middle East also sent supplies to Yemen . Neighboring Oman sent 28 metric tons of food , and Qatar sent US $ 1 @.@ 2 million worth of food , blankets , and tents . Syria sent US $ 5 million worth of food aid . As part of a plan toward preventing future floods , the World Bank provided US $ 14 @.@ 5 million to rebuild roads , power and water plants , and regrowing lost crops .
In the months after the floods , the government of Yemen sought help from the International Development Association to prevent future floods from being as damaging . The government created an Emergency Flood Rehabilitation Project that was geared toward more long term solutions . Thousands of farmers benefited from the improved irrigation and from the employment opportunities . Roads and bridges were rebuilt to a higher construction standard using local builders and contractors , the first such occurrence in the country using competitive bidding . The project was completed in December 2001 at a cost of US $ 31 @.@ 59 million ; the International Development Association paid US $ 27 @.@ 44 million , and Yemen 's government provided the rest of the funding .
= HMS Anne ( 1915 ) =
HMS Anne was a seaplane carrier of the Royal Navy used during World War I. Converted from the captured German freighter Aenne Rickmers , the ship 's two aircraft conducted aerial reconnaissance , observation and bombing missions in the Eastern Mediterranean and Red Sea during 1915 – 17 even though the ship was not commissioned into the Royal Navy until mid @-@ 1915 . She was decommissioned in late 1917 and became a Merchant Navy collier for the last year of the war . Anne was sold off in 1922 and had a succession of owners and names until she was scrapped in 1958 .
= = Description = =
Anne was 367 feet 1 inch ( 111 @.@ 89 m ) long , had a beam of 47 feet 7 inches ( 14 @.@ 5 m ) , and a draught of 27 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 31 m ) . She was rated at 4 @,@ 083 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The ship had one propeller shaft powered by one triple @-@ expansion steam engine that used steam generated by an unknown number of coal @-@ fired boilers . Anne had a maximum speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .
= = Career = =
The merchant ship SS Aenne Rickmers was built by Rickmers of Bremerhaven in 1911 . On the outbreak of war in August 1914 , she was seized whilst in Port Said , Egypt and was requisitioned for service under the Red Ensign of the British Merchant Marine in January 1915 to operate seaplanes . No special modifications were made to the ship ; the aircraft were stowed on the aft hatch covers and handled with her cargo booms . Aenne Rickmers operated two French Nieuport floatplanes that had been off @-@ loaded by the French seaplane carrier Foudre ; they were flown by French pilots with British observers .
For the first two months of 1915 , the ship and her aircraft supported Allied operations in Syria , Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula . Aside from reconnaissance duties , they delivered and recovered Allied agents as well as observed for ships performing coastal bombardments . On 4 March , Aenne Rickmers was ordered to join several Allied ships that were going to bombard Smyrna , Turkey . A week later , she was torpedoed by the Turkish torpedo boat Demir Hisar . The ship was hit by one torpedo in the Number 1 cargo hold ; this was full of timber which limited water ingress and saved her from sinking . Aenne Rickmers arrived at Mudros the following day to begin repairs , but the repair crew was withdrawn a week later to work on the damaged battlecruiser HMS Inflexible . The seaplane carrier HMS Raven II ( another merchant conversion ) arrived on 20 March to load her aircraft and crew , leaving only a five @-@ person skeleton crew behind . During a storm on 6 April , the ship dragged her anchors and ran aground on a sandy beach . She was temporarily repaired there and refloated on
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0 from North American Airlines for the same purpose . In 2008 , British heavy metal band Iron Maiden chartered and customized a 757 ( nicknamed " Ed Force One " , and of which singer Bruce Dickinson was the pilot ) for their " Somewhere Back in Time World Tour " . Since the 2000s , Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban has used his personal 757 @-@ 200 to transport team members between games .
= = Operators = =
The largest 757 operators are Delta Air Lines , FedEx Express and United Airlines ; Delta Air Lines is the largest overall , with a 757 fleet of 138 aircraft as of 2015 . American Airlines ' 757 fleet of 142 aircraft was the largest until 2007 , when the carrier retired Pratt & Whitney PW2000 @-@ powered models acquired from TWA in order to standardize around a Rolls @-@ Royce RB211 @-@ powered fleet . Delta subsequently acquired 17 former American Airlines 757s , and in October 2008 gained 45 more 757s from its merger with Northwest Airlines .
The cargo carrier with the most 757s is FedEx Express , which operated a 757 @-@ 200SF fleet of 96 aircraft in July 2015 . The largest operator of the 757 @-@ 200PF is UPS Airlines , with 75 aircraft in July 2015 . DHL Aviation and its affiliated companies , DHL Air UK , DHL Latin America , European Air Transport Leipzig , and Blue Dart Aviation , combined operate 43 cargo 757s of various types in 2015 .
Joint launch customer British Airways operated the 757 @-@ 200 for 27 years before retiring the type in November 2010 . To celebrate the fleet 's retirement , the airline unveiled one of its last three 757 @-@ 200s in a retro style livery on October 4 , 2010 , matching the color scheme that it introduced the aircraft into service with in 1983 . Subsequently , the type remained in operation with the company 's subsidiary , OpenSkies .
A total of 738 aircraft ( all 757 variants ) were in airline service in July 2015 with operators Delta Air Lines ( 138 ) , FedEx Express ( 96 ) , United Airlines ( 91 ) , American Airlines ( 84 ) , UPS Airlines ( 75 ) , Icelandair ( 26 ) , DHL Air ( 21 ) , and other airlines with fewer aircraft of the type . Over the duration of the 757 program , 1 @,@ 049 aircraft were ordered and delivered , and 1 @,@ 050 examples were built . The prototype 757 was not delivered and remained with the manufacturer for testing purposes .
= = Orders and deliveries = =
Data from Boeing , through the end of production
= = Incidents and accidents = =
As of October 2015 , the 757 has been involved in 29 aviation occurrences , including 8 hull @-@ loss accidents . Seven crashes and 11 hijackings have resulted in 574 occupant fatalities . The first fatal event involving the aircraft occurred on October 2 , 1990 , when a hijacked Xiamen Airlines 737 collided with a China Southern Airlines 757 on the runways of Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport , China , killing 46 of the 122 people on board . Two 757 @-@ 200s were hijacked in the September 11 attacks ; hijackers crashed American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon in Arlington , Virginia , killing all 64 on board and 125 on the ground , and United Airlines Flight 93 was also hijacked and crashed near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , killing all 44 on board .
Accidents involving human error include American Airlines Flight 965 , which crashed into a mountain in Buga , Colombia , on December 20 , 1995 , killing 151 passengers and eight crew members with four survivors , and the mid @-@ air collision of DHL Flight 611 near Überlingen , Baden @-@ Württemberg , Germany , on July 1 , 2002 , with the loss of two on board plus 69 on a Bashkirian Airlines Tupolev Tu @-@ 154 . American Airlines Flight 965 was blamed on navigational errors by the crew , while DHL Flight 611 involved air traffic control errors . Accidents attributed to pilot disorientation due to improperly maintained instruments include Birgenair Flight 301 on February 6 , 1996 , in Puerto Plata , Dominican Republic , with the loss of all 189 passengers and crew , and Aeroperú Flight 603 on October 2 , 1996 , off the coast of Pasamayo , Peru , with the loss of all 70 on board . In the Birgenair accident , investigators found that the aircraft had been stored without the necessary covers for its pitot tube sensors , thus allowing insects and debris to collect within , while in the Aeroperú accident , protective tape covering static vent sensors had not been removed .
Two private aircraft crashes were blamed on wake turbulence emanating from 757s . On December 18 , 1992 , a Cessna Citation crashed near Billings Logan International Airport in Montana , killing all six aboard , and on December 15 , 1993 , an IAI Westwind crashed near John Wayne Airport in California , killing all five aboard . Both airplanes had been flying less than three nautical miles ( 5 @.@ 56 km ) behind a 757 . The FAA subsequently increased the required separation between small aircraft and 757s from four to five nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 41 to 9 @.@ 26 km ) .
On September 14 , 1999 , Britannia Airways Flight 226A crash landed near Girona @-@ Costa Brava Airport , Spain , during a thunderstorm ; the 757 's fuselage broke into several pieces . All 245 occupants evacuated successfully . On October 25 , 2010 , American Airlines Flight 1640 , a 757 flying between Miami and Boston , safely returned to Miami after suffering the loss of a two @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) fuselage section at an altitude of approximately 31 @,@ 000 feet . After investigating the incident , the FAA ordered all 757 operators in the U.S. to regularly inspect upper fuselage sections of their aircraft for structural fatigue .
= = Aircraft on display = =
One complete aircraft , Delta Air Lines ' 757 @-@ 200 registered N608DA , has been retired and is on display at the Delta Flight Museum in Atlanta , Georgia . The aircraft was the sixty @-@ fourth example built . Prior to being moved to its permanent location , the aircraft was repainted in its originally delivered livery ; it is now on static display at the museum entrance . The National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , D.C. features a 757 @-@ 200 fuselage section as part of its " How Things Fly " exhibition at its National Mall gallery . Visitors are able to walk through the cabin . The fuselage was donated by Boeing and was previously part of a test aircraft ; the interior fittings were donated by United Airlines and installed into the aircraft section for exhibition purposes .
= = Specifications = =
Sources : Boeing 757 airport planning report , Boeing 757 specifications and Boeing 757 winglet data
Note : 1Speed is at altitude , not sea level . See NASA Mach number calculator page for explanation about Mach number and example calculations .
= Bruce Davidson ( equestrian ) =
Bruce Oram Davidson ( born December 31 , 1949 , in Rome , New York ) is an American equestrian who competes in the sport of eventing . He grew up in a family uninterested in horses , but began to compete in Pony Club events after a family friend introduced him to riding . He began college at Iowa State University , but left in his third year to train full @-@ time with the United States Equestrian Team . In 1974 he married , and his two children were born in 1976 and 1977 . His son , Bruce Davidson , Jr . , has followed in his footsteps to become a top eventing rider .
At 18 , Davidson tried out for the United States eventing team and was accepted . He won his first medal as a member of the silver @-@ medal @-@ winning US team at the 1972 Summer Olympics . After that , Davidson went to win gold at the 1976 and 1984 Olympics and silver in 1996 , participating unsuccessfully in 1988 . He has also competed repeatedly at both the World Equestrian Games and the Pan American Games , winning medals at both , as well as winning repeatedly at the top @-@ level Badminton Horse Trials and Rolex Kentucky Three Day events . In the 1980s and early 1990s , Davidson was a consistently top @-@ level rider on both the American and international eventing scenes . He is also known for his horse breeding and training abilities .
= = Personal life = =
In 1949 , Davidson was born to Francis and Annette Davidson , the former a businessman and the latter a concert pianist . He was the third of four children , and had little opportunity to be around horses until his family moved to Westport , Massachusetts , when he was a child . A family friend introduced Davidson to horses , and he began attending Pony Club events . He bought , trained and sold horses until he found a championship horse in Irish Cap , the horse that took him to his first gold medal at the 1974 World Eventing Championship . Davidson went to college at Iowa State University with a veterinary major , but left in his third year to train with the United States Equestrian Team ( USET ) .
In 1974 , Davidson married Carol Hannum , a top rider and daughter of Nancy Hannum , who owns extensive property in Pennsylvania surrounding Davidson 's Chesterland Farm . In 1976 , Davidson 's son , Bruce " Buck " Oram Davidson , Jr . , was born , followed by a daughter , Nancy Fraser Davidson , in 1977 . In 2006 , Davidson 's first grandson , Oram , was born to Nancy . Buck Davidson is also an internationally competitive event rider , competing in high @-@ level events such as the Rolex Kentucky Three Day along with his father .
In 2002 , at a competition in Massachusetts , Davidson 's horse suffered a fall in a freak accident . The horse , High Scope , broke his neck and died instantly , while Davidson was taken to the intensive care unit at Massachusetts Memorial Hospital . After being treated for injuries , Davidson was released . In 2010 , Davidson missed that year 's Rolex Three Day Event in Kentucky after undergoing surgery to repair herniated discs in his back .
= = Career = =
= = = Competition = = =
At 18 , Davidson participated in a tryout for aspiring eventers run by Neil Ayer and Jack le Goff , who were trying to build the United States team to an international level . He had talent , and according to LeGoff , " He didn 't know which diagonal he was posting when he came to me . Two years later , he was riding in the Olympics . " Davidson was chosen , and began training with the USET in a four @-@ year , seven @-@ day @-@ a @-@ week program in Gladstone , New Jersey .
Davidson won team eventing medals at Olympic Games in 1972 , 1976 , 1984 and 1996 , and also competed at the 1988 Games . In the 1972 Games , at age 22 , he took individual eighth , while the American team won silver . At the 1976 Summer Olympics , the team won gold while Davidson came in tenth individually . In 1984 , Davidson , who finished 13th individually , was the lowest scoring member of the gold @-@ medal @-@ winning United States team . At the 1988 Games , Davidson took 18th , while the American team did not finish the competition . In 1996 , Davidson did not compete as an individual , but the American team again took silver .
Outside of the Olympics , Davidson also competed repeatedly at the Eventing World Championships and the Pan @-@ American Games . He took both an individual and a team gold at the 1974 World Championships , and another individual gold at the 1978 Championships . Davidson 's victory at the 1974 Championships aboard Irish Cap made him the first American ever to win the event , and his win in 1978 aboard Might Tango made him the first rider of any nationality to win back @-@ to @-@ back championships . In this event , the inexperienced Might Tango was Davidson 's backup horse after Irish Cap went lame , leading to a scenario which Sports Illustrated likened to " a junior high school quarterback leading USC to victory in the Rose Bowl " . Might Tango 's inexperience led to increased tiredness and rumors that the activity made him go into shock , but Davidson replied that the horse was just " very tired " and praised him for his stamina . The United States also took a team bronze at the 1978 championships . In 1990 , Davidson took an individual bronze at the World Championships in Stockholm , Sweden . In 1998 , Davidson competed at the World Equestrian Games in Rome , where he took an individual 21st place , as well as helping the US to a team 4th .
At the 1975 Pan American Games , he took both the individual and the team silver ; he followed this up by an individual gold and a team silver at the 1995 Games .
He has also ridden at the Badminton Horse Trials , where he is one of only two Americans to win that event , and he also holds the honor of having the most wins at the Rolex Three Day Event with six victories . Through his 1974 World Championship victory , Davidson is credited with helping to create the Rolex event , as this victory allowed the US to host the 1978 World Championships . The 1978 event turned into an annual competition that eventually became the Rolex Kentucky Three @-@ Day , which was the first and continues to be the only four @-@ star eventing competition in the United States . Davidson has competed at the event almost every year since it began .
In 1993 and 1995 , Davidson held the top place in the world eventing rankings compiled by the FEI , and between 1980 and 1995 , he was annually named the leading rider for the United States Eventing Association .
= = = Other = = =
In 2002 , Davidson was named as one of the 50 most influential horsemen of the 20th century by the equine magazine The Chronicle of the Horse . In 2009 , Davidson was inducted to the United States Eventing Association Hall of Fame , along with his horse Irish Cap . In 2003 , another horse ridden by Davidson , Plain Sailing , had also been inducted .
Davidson is also known for his success in finding and training the horses that he rides at the international level . Irish Cap was purchased at the age of five years , JJ Babu and Dr. Peaches as yearlings and Might Tango as a two @-@ year @-@ old ex @-@ racehorse – all ended as championship horses . He is currently a Thoroughbred breeder , and at his Chesterland Farm he says that " the ultimate in the sport is to breed , train and win , to carry the whole system right on through . "
= Typhoon Dujuan ( 2003 ) =
Typhoon Dujuan , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Onyok , was the strongest tropical cyclone to strike the Pearl River delta since Typhoon Hope in 1979 . The 13th storm and 7th typhoon of the 2003 Pacific typhoon season , Dujuan developed on August 27 to the east of Taiwan . It initially moved to the northwest , slowly intensifying into a tropical storm while drawing moisture and rainfall over the Philippines . On the island of Luzon , one person was killed and areas were flooded . Dujuan quickly intensified after turning and moving quicker to the west @-@ northwest , developing an eye . It reached peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) on September 1 , and shortly thereafter passed just south of Taiwan . There , Dujuan left 590 @,@ 000 people without power , killed three , and caused NT $ 200 million ( NWD , $ 115 million USD ) in crop damage . While moving through the South China Sea , the typhoon developed concentric eyewalls . Dujuan weakened to severe tropical storm status before making landfall on September 2 in southern China , just east of Hong Kong near Shenzhen , Guangdong . The storm dissipated the next day after causing 40 deaths and ¥ 2 @.@ 3 billion ( CNY , $ 277 million USD ) in damage . Most of the deaths were in Shenzhen where the storm moved ashore , and the city experienced a near @-@ total power outage .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 25 , an area of convection persisted on satellite imagery on August 25 . The thunderstorms pulsed and became better organized by August 27 . That day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression formed southeast of the Japanese island of Okinotorishima , or about 520 km ( 325 mi ) northwest of Guam . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also estimated a tropical cyclone formed on August 27 . With a ridge to the north , the depression tracked slowly to the southwest . The system gradually organized while developing improved outflow to the south , although a tropical upper tropospheric trough to the north caused wind shear . On August 29 , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Dujuan , although the JTWC had upgraded a day prior . That day , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) began issuing advisories as the storm approached the region , naming it Onyok .
Shortly after it was named , Dujuan quickly intensified after an upper level low to the northwest improved outflow to the north . On August 30 , the ridge to the north built eastward , causing the storm to slow and turn more to the northwest . That day , an eye developed in center , and the JMA upgraded Dujuan to typhoon status . Subsequently , the typhoon accelerated to the west @-@ northwest and later to the west . On September 1 , the JMA estimated Dujuan attained peak 10 – minute sustained winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . Around the same time , the JTWC assessed peak 1 – minute winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) , making it the equivalent of a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . While near peak intensity , the center of Dujuan passed about 45 km ( 30 mi ) south of the southern tip of Taiwan . While moving westward through the South China Sea , the typhoon weakened slightly after its peak intensity due to an eyewall replacement cycle . Radar from the Hong Kong Observatory indicated an inner eye about 20 km ( 12 mi ) in diameter , and an outer eye about 100 km ( 60 mi ) in diameter . At around 1200 UTC on September 2 , Dujuan made landfall just east of Hong Kong , near Shenzhen . The JMA estimated the typhoon had weakened into a severe tropical storm by the time of landfall , while the JTWC estimated winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . It was considered the strongest typhoon to strike the Pearl River Delta since Typhoon Hope in 1979 . Dujuan rapidly weakened while continuing westward through China , dissipating on September 3 over Guangxi .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Although the center passed north of Luzon in the Philippines , Dujuan interacted with the monsoon to produce heavy rainfall over the country . Flash flooding in Metro Manila covered roads , causing traffic jams . Dangerous conditions caused many schools to close . The typhoon destroyed one house , and one person was killed in the country . While in the vicinity , Dujuan produced gusts of 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) on Yonaguni , a Japanese subdivision of Okinawa . Strong winds and high waves disrupted marine and airline traffic , with two flights canceled . Rainfall on Okinawa reached about 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) .
On August 31 , officials in Taiwan issued a sea warning , advising for boats to avoid the Bashi Channel . Schools in southern Taiwan were closed , and transport was disrupted . The Ministry of National Defense canceled a military exercise due to the storm . In Taiwan , the typhoon dropped heavy rainfall that reached 628 mm ( 24 @.@ 7 in ) in Pingtung County , and several other locations reported over 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . Sustained winds reached 176 km / h ( 109 mph ) on Orchid Island offshore southeastern Taiwan , where gale force winds were recorded for 13 hours and gusts reached 271 km / h ( 168 mph ) . The typhoon was so strong that it destroyed the anemometer there . On the island of Taiwan , winds peaked at 87 km / h ( 54 mph ) at Dongshi , while gusts peaked at 184 km / h ( 114 mph ) in a mountainous region of Nantou County . The typhoon left about 590 @,@ 000 people without power at some point on the island . Transport was disrupted , and there was about NT $ 200 million ( TWD , $ 115 million USD ) . Dujuan killed three people and injured eight in southern Taiwan ; one was a drowning in the Penghu islands , and another occurred when a man was blown out of his window in Taipei .
Before Dujuan made its final landfall , the Hong Kong Observatory initially issued a standby warning signal , and eventually raised it to a number 9 signal , the second @-@ highest out of 10 , for the first time since Typhoon York in 1999 . The threat of the storm caused 360 flights to be canceled or delayed at Hong Kong International Airport , and the Hong Kong Stock Exchange was closed . Officials opened 27 shelters for residents , housing over 120 people . Winds in the territory briefly reached typhoon status , or 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , at Lau Fau Shan . Rainfall reached over 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) on Lantau Island . Dujuan caused minor flooding and two small landslides In Hong Kong , the typhoon knocked down 85 trees and caused a power outage affecting 300 people in Yuen Long . Dujuan injured 24 people in the territory , and four fishermen were missing and presumed drowned after their boat sank . Despite the close passage , damage was minor in Hong Kong . During the height of the storm , three people stole $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( USD ) worth of jewelry , watches , and clothing from a store .
On the Chinese mainland , Dujuan produced 183 mm ( 7 @.@ 2 in ) of rainfall in Puning in Guangdong , of which 131 mm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) fell in 24 hours . In Fujian province , winds reached 144 km / h ( 90 mph ) in Quanzhou , and in Guangdong , winds peaked at 179 km / h ( 112 mph ) in Shenzhen . In Shenzen near where Dujuan made landfall , 90 % of residents lost power , after strong winds knocked down power lines , although it was quickly restored . Also in the city , 20 people were killed , 16 of whom due to the collapse of a half @-@ finished building that they were constructing . Officials had opened 272 emergency shelters before the storm 's arrival , housing 4 @,@ 950 people . In Huizhou , nine people were killed , and another three people died in Shanwei from the storm . Across Guangdong , the typhoon damaged roads , water and power systems , and telecommunication networks . About 139 @,@ 000 ha ( 340 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops were damaged in the province , and 54 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed . In Macau , 30 flights were delayed at Macau International Airport , and two bridges were closed . In Fuzhou in Fujian province , the storm knocked down 500 trees . Overall damage in China was estimated at ¥ 2 @.@ 3 billion ( CNY , $ 277 million USD ) , and across Guangdong , the typhoon injured about 1 @,@ 000 people and killed 40 people .
= Clara Clemens =
Clara Langhorne Clemens Samossoud , formerly Clara Langhorne Clemens Gabrilowitsch ( June 8 , 1874 – November 19 , 1962 ) , was the daughter of Samuel Clemens , who wrote as Mark Twain . She was a contralto concert singer and , as her father 's only surviving child , managed his estate and guarded his legacy after his death . She was married twice — first to Ossip Gabrilowitsch , then ( after Gabrilowitsch 's death ) to Jacques Samossoud . She wrote biographies of Gabrilowitsch and of her father . In her later life she became a Christian Scientist .
= = Childhood = =
Clara was the second of three daughters born to Samuel Clemens and his wife Olivia Langdon Clemens in Elmira , New York . Her older sister , Susy , died when Clara was 22 . Her only brother , Langdon , died as an infant before she was born . Her younger sister was Jean . Clara had a serious accident as a child , while riding a toboggan she ended up being hurled into a great oak tree . This resulted in a severe leg injury that almost led to amputation .
= = Early career = =
She spent the period from September 1897 to May 1899 living in Vienna with her parents . While there , she cultivated her voice for the purpose of going on the concert stage . Her voice was characterized as unusually sweet and attractive . She also studied piano in 1899 under Teodor Leszetycki . In December 1900 , she was invited by the people of Hartford to perform at a grand concert given by the Boston Symphony Orchestra . She studied for several years under masters in Europe , before making her professional debut in Florence . Her American debut , assisted by violinist Marie Nichols , as a contralto concert singer was on the evening of September 22 , 1906 at the Norfolk Gymnasium. in Norfolk , Connecticut where in 1905 she rented Edgewood , Clemens used the proceeds from the concert to purchase a memorial window for her mother in the Norfolk Church of the Transfiguration , Episcopal . Charles Edmund " Will " Wark ( 1876 @-@ 1954 ) , a classical pianist originally from Cobourg , Ontario , Canada , became Clemens piano accompanist from the winter of 1906 to late in 1908 . Clemens and Nichols also continued to perform together , including a series of concerts in London and Paris in 1908 . On May 30 , Clemens debuted in London at a benefit concert , raising money for American girls to attend Oxford and Cambridge Universities .
= = Accident and marriage = =
At 10 : 00am on December 20 , 1908 in Danbury , Clemens went for a sleigh ride with Russian concert pianist Ossip Gabrilowitsch who was staying with her father at his residence , Innocence at Home , in Redding . While passing through Redding Glen , the horse took fright at a wind @-@ whipped newspaper and bolted with driver Gabrilowitsch losing control . At the top of a hill , next to a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) drop , the sleigh overturned , throwing Clemens out . Gabrilowitsch leaped to the ground and caught the horse by the head , stopping it as it was about to plunge over the bank , dragging Clemens with her dress caught in a runner . Having only sprained his right ankle , Gabrilowitsch returned Clemens to home , unharmed except for the shock of the accident . Twain biographer Michael Shelden doubted the truth of this heroic tale and supplied a motive for why the story might have been planted in the press , namely , to quiet rumors that Clara was having an affair with Charles E. Wark , her former accompanist , a married man .
Clemens had been introduced to Gabrilowitsch in 1899 in Vienna by Theodor Leschetizky who was also training Gabrilowitsch . At noon on October 6 , 1909 , she subsequently married Gabrilowitsch in the drawing room at Stormfield , the Clemens home with Rev. Dr. Joseph H. Twitchell presiding . ( Twitchell was a great friend of her father . ) Her father said that the engagement was not new , having been " made and dissolved twice six years ago . " He also said that the marriage was sudden because Gabrilowitsch had just recovered from a surgical operation he had undergone in the summer and they were about to head off to their new house in Berlin where he would begin his European season . Her sister , Jean Clemens , drowned in the bathtub on December 24 , 1909 after having an epileptic seizure . On April 21 , 1910 , her father died and left his entire estate to her in a will dated August 17 , 1909 which provided for quarterly payments of interest to keep it " free from any control or interference from any husband she may have . " On July 9 , she announced that she was giving practically the entire library of her father , comprising nearly 2 @,@ 500 books , to the Mark Twain Free Library . On August 19 , 1910 , her only child was born in Connecticut at Stormfield .
Nina Gabrilowitsch ( 1910 @-@ 1966 ) , the last known lineal descendant of Mark Twain , died January 16 , 1966 in a Los Angeles hotel . She had been a heavy drinker , and bottles of pills and alcohol were found in her room .
= = Later life = =
On April 23 , 1926 , she played the title role in a dramatization of Joan of Arc written by her father at Walter Hampden 's theater . This adaptation and her performance were not very well received by critics . It was again produced in 1927 , opening on April 12 and for a series of special morning and afternoon performances at the Edyth Totten Theatre .
Gabrilowitsch was conductor of the Detroit Symphony Orchestra from 1918 until 1935 , when he fell ill . He entered the Henry Ford Hospital on March 25 , 1935 , where he stayed until September 28 , 1935 , at which point he was released to his home to convalesce . He subsequently died at his home on September 14 , 1936 , aged 58 .
On May 11 , 1944 , Clara and Jacques Samossoud , a Russian born symphony conductor 20 years her junior , were married in her Hollywood home . She died at age eighty @-@ eight in San Diego , California .
Clara explored eastern religions for a few years , and then eventually became a Christian Scientist , although there is some question as to her seriousness and commitment to it . She authored a book on the subject : Awake to a Perfect Day , published by Citadel Press , NYC , 1956 After originally objecting to the release of her father 's Letters from the Earth in 1939 , she changed her stance shortly before her death in 1962 and allowed them to be published . She also published biographies of both her father ( My Father , Mark Twain in 1931 ) and of her first husband ( My Husband : Gabrilowitsch in 1938 ) .
= Lindsay Hassett =
Arthur Lindsay Hassett MBE ( 28 August 1913 – 16 June 1993 ) was a cricketer who played for Victoria and Australia . The diminutive Hassett was an elegant middle @-@ order batsman , described by Wisden as , " ... a master of nearly every stroke ... his superb timing , nimble footwork and strong wrists enabled him to make batting look a simple matter " . His sporting career at school singled him out as a precocious talent , but he took a number of seasons to secure a regular place in first @-@ class cricket and initially struggled to make large scores . Selected for the 1938 tour of England with only one first @-@ class century to his name , Hassett established himself with three consecutive first @-@ class tons at the start of the campaign . Although he struggled in the Tests , he played a crucial role in Australia 's win in the Fourth Test , with a composed display in the run @-@ chase which sealed the retention of the Ashes . Upon returning to Australia , he distinguished himself in domestic cricket with a series of high scores , becoming the only player to score two centuries in a match against Bill O 'Reilly — widely regarded as the best bowler in the world .
However , the eruption of World War II interrupted Hassett 's progress . With first @-@ class cricket cancelled , he enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force , serving in the Middle East and New Guinea before being chosen to captain the Australian Services cricket team that played the " Victory Tests " in England during the months immediately following Victory in Europe Day . Hassett was the only capped Test player in the team and his men unexpectedly drew the series 2 – 2 against an English team consisting of Test cricketers . Hassett 's leadership was intrinsic to the success of the team , which toured and helped to re @-@ establish the game in England , India and Australia in the aftermath of the war .
At the advanced age of 32 , Hassett began his Test cricket career in earnest and became a more sedate , cautious player who often frustrated spectators with his slow scoring . From 1946 – 47 onwards , he served as Don Bradman 's vice @-@ captain for three series , including the Invincibles tour of England in 1948 . He then succeeded the retired Bradman as Australian captain in 1949 and presided over a successful team that gradually aged and declined . After an unbeaten tour of South Africa that saw a 4 – 0 triumph in the Tests , Hassett led the Australians to 4 – 1 home win over England in the 1950 @-@ 51 Ashes series . The solitary loss in the Fifth Test was the first Australian Test defeat since the resumption of cricket after World War II . Australia 's dominance of world cricket waned and , in Hassett 's final season at home in 1952 – 53 , it drew 2 – 2 against a South African team that was expected to be weak opposition . In 24 Test matches as captain , Hassett oversaw 14 wins and suffered defeat only four times , but it was the last of the four losses that blighted his record . Defeated in the last match of the 1953 series against England , Hassett 's team lost The Ashes , ending Australia 's 19 @-@ year ascendancy . At the age of 40 , he promptly retired following a final testimonial match after returning to Australia . A cheerful character with a poker face that aided his captaincy , Hassett was known for his ability as an ambassador for Australia , his sense of humour and diplomatic skills . Richie Benaud wrote of him : " There are others who have made more runs and taken more wickets , but very few have ever got more out of a lifetime . "
= = Early years = =
The youngest of nine children ( six boys and three girls ) , Hassett was born in Newtown , a suburb of Geelong , Victoria 's second @-@ largest city . His father Edward was a real estate agent who served as the secretary of the Geelong Permanent Building Society and was a keen club cricketer . The Hassett boys played three @-@ a @-@ side cricket matches in the backyard where Lindsay imitated his idol , the Test batsman Bill Ponsford . Along with two of his brothers , Lindsay attended Geelong College and made the First XI at the age of 14 . During his five years in the team , he amassed 2 @,@ 335 runs and was captain for three years . This total included an innings of 245 against Scotch College . In addition , he led the school 's football team for three seasons and won the Victorian Public Schools singles championship at tennis . An elder brother , Richard , played for Victoria in the early 1930s as a leg spinner .
While still at school , Hassett played for the South Melbourne First XI in Melbourne 's district cricket competition during the 1930 – 31 season . A month after his debut for South , he was selected for his first representative match ; batting for the Victorian Country XI against the touring West Indies team , he scored 147 not out . After being overlooked for further state honours for a season , he made his first @-@ class debut against South Australia in February 1933 , but his highest score in four innings for the season was 12 and he aggregated only 25 runs . He was overlooked for the entirety of the next two seasons . Recalled in 1935 – 36 , Hassett consolidated his place in the team through consistency rather than tall scores , scoring 212 runs at 30 @.@ 28 , including two fifties , 73 and 51 .
The following season , he led Victoria 's batting averages , scoring 503 runs at 71 @.@ 85 . Despite his success , Hassett was unable to register his maiden first @-@ class century , although he did manage seven consecutive fifties in nine innings for the season , including a 93 against Queensland and 83 against arch @-@ rivals New South Wales in a consistent run that helped Victoria to the Sheffield Shield title .
In 1937 – 38 , Hassett made 693 first @-@ class runs including a century and five fifties at an average of 53 @.@ 30 , including another 90 against Queensland . Despite having only one first @-@ class century to his name , 127 not out against the touring New Zealanders at the MCG in the first match of the season , he " scraped " into Australia 's team for the 1938 tour of England .
= = Test debut = =
Hassett allayed doubt about his selection when he began the tour with innings of 43 , 146 , 148 and 220 not out , against Worcestershire , Oxford University , Leicestershire and Cambridge University respectively as Australia won their first four matches by an innings . He added 57 and 98 in the next two matches against the Marylebone Cricket Club and Hampshire , and despite failing to pass 30 in the next four innings , he was selected to make his Test debut at Nottingham in the first match of the series . Hassett had an ignominious debut , scoring one and two in a high @-@ scoring draw in which almost 1 @,@ 500 runs were scored for the loss of only 24 wickets on a " batting paradise " . He maintained his county form between Tests , adding 118 against Lancashire before scoring his only half @-@ century in the Tests , adding 56 and 42 at Lord 's in the drawn Second Test .
The Third Test was abandoned without a ball being bowled due to rain , and Hassett prepared for what would be the decisive Fourth Test by scoring 94 and 127 in consecutive matches against Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire . The match at Headingley in Leeds was Australia 's only Test victory , which was enough to ensure a drawn series and the retention of The Ashes . In a low @-@ scoring match in a batsman @-@ friendly series , Australia , chasing a target of only 105 runs to win , had slumped to 3 / 50 when Hassett came to the crease as an approaching storm threatened to either end the game or make the pitch difficult to bat on . Hassett calmly hit 33 runs from 36 balls , to guide the tourists to a five @-@ wicket victory , much to the relief of his captain Don Bradman , who was so nervous about the outcome that he could not watch the play . The innings earned Hassett a reputation of being calm under pressure , and Bradman later wrote that Hassett was a " masterful player " in a crisis .
After the match @-@ winning innings , Hassett failed to pass 31 in his next six innings before Australia lost the Fifth Test by an innings and 579 runs , the heaviest defeat in Test history . He made 42 and 10 in the record @-@ breaking match , and added a pair of half @-@ centuries against Sussex thereafter . As he finished third in the batting averages for the tour , with 1 @,@ 589 runs at 52 @.@ 97 , and the dry summer resulted in pitches mostly favourable to batting , Wisden found his Test performances , in which he made 199 runs at 24 @.@ 88 , anomalous :
Hassett , adding together the runs he made and the runs he saved , was one of the most useful men on the side . He never quite fulfilled the promise of a sensational start ... He appeared to make his strokes very late and , although adopting almost a two @-@ eyed stance , had , so far as could be seen , no technical faults ... there was a good deal of surprise that he did not come off in the big matches although it must not be forgotten that his second innings at Leeds counted a lot in Australia 's victory .
= = Rivalry with O 'Reilly = =
Benefiting from his experience in England , Hassett scored five centuries in his nine matches for 1938 – 39 and finished second in the first @-@ class aggregates for the season . This included a run of seven matches in the middle of the season in which he scored five centuries and four fifties and ended the season with 967 runs at 74 @.@ 38 . He made 211 not out and 102 in two matches against South Australia , whose attack was led by Clarrie Grimmett , the world record holder for the most career Test wickets . Hassett also scored centuries in both matches against Queensland and another against Western Australia . In the first match against Queensland , he scored 104 in the first innings before adding 73 in the second innings to steer the Victorians to a narrow three @-@ wicket victory .
This period of Hassett ’ s career was notable for his battles with Australia 's leading Test bowler , Bill O 'Reilly , when the latter appeared for New South Wales ( NSW ) . O 'Reilly conceded that Hassett played his bowling better than any other batsman . Hassett 's method was predicated on counter @-@ attacking : whenever O 'Reilly bowled his famed wrong ' un , he could read this delivery in its flight ( whereas most other batsmen could not ) and he advanced down the pitch to hit the ball over the fielders on the leg side . The disparate demeanours and physiques of the two men accentuated their rivalry . Ray Robinson wrote that O 'Reilly , " ... towered nine inches above him ; it would have looked more apt for Hassett to sell him a newspaper than contend with his bowling . " The phlegmatic Hassett sometimes goaded the irascible O 'Reilly , which few batsmen were game to do . On one occasion , he repeatedly mis @-@ hit O 'Reilly 's bowling , prompting an irritated O 'Reilly to ask if he had a middle to his bat . Hassett replied , " I don 't need one with you , Tige . " It was a long , defensive innings of 81 against NSW ( including O 'Reilly ) in 1937 that first brought Hassett to the attention of the national selectors . During an interval in the match , O 'Reilly told his teammates : " Nobody has ever kept me out like that little bastard . "
In the 1938 – 39 season , O ’ Reilly removed Hassett twice in three innings in matches between the two states . Their rivalry culminated in two encounters on the SCG at the conclusion of the 1939 – 40 season . The first , between Victoria and NSW , effectively decided the winner of the Sheffield Shield ; Victoria had won the first match between the two teams for the season . By scoring 122 in both innings , Hassett became the only player to score two centuries in a match against a team containing O 'Reilly . Nevertheless , NSW won the game and the shield , before playing against a Rest of Australia combination . Batting for the Rest of Australia , Hassett almost repeated his feat by making 136 and 75 , but this was not enough to stop NSW , who demonstrated their strength with another victory . Hassett had scored five half @-@ centuries in the five preceding matches of the season , including three in four innings against Grimmett ’ s South Australia , and ended the Australian summer with 897 runs at 74 @.@ 75 . He lost his wicket to O 'Reilly in a first @-@ class match only three times .
= = War years and the Services team = =
On 23 September 1940 , Hassett enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) ; despite his enlistment he remained active in cricket and played four first @-@ class matches in the following 1940 – 41 season , scoring 384 runs at 54 @.@ 86 including a century against South Australia , before his posting to the Middle East in early @-@ 1941 . As a member of the 2 / 2nd Heavy Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , attached to the Australian 7th Division , he was stationed at Haifa in the British Mandate of Palestine ( now Israel ) . During his time in the army , Hassett became popular among his colleagues because of his " blithe spirit " . He was offered a commission as an officer , but declined . Hassett maintained his connection to cricket by captaining an AIF team against service teams from other Empire countries serving in the region , playing matches in Egypt and Palestine . Following the outbreak of war in the Pacific , the Australian 6th and 7th Divisions were recalled to Australia . He married during his brief return to Melbourne in May 1942 , before his unit was deployed to Port Moresby in New Guinea to fight against Imperial Japan .
In 1945 , with the cessation of hostilities in Europe , Hassett was selected to lead the Australian Services cricket team on a tour of England . Officially a military unit , the team 's commanding officer was Squadron Leader Stan Sismey of the Royal Australian Air Force , although Hassett was the on @-@ field captain . They went on to play 64 matches in nine months of cricket in four countries . The focal point of the campaign was a series of matches against England known as the " Victory Tests " , which began in May . Australian cricket administrators would not accredit the three @-@ day matches as official Test matches , arguing that there were not enough Test @-@ level players among the servicemen ; Hassett was the only player who had Test experience , and only nine others had played first @-@ class cricket . As a result , Australia were not expected to be able to seriously challenge the hosts , who had many of their pre @-@ war Test players .
The Victory Tests were expected to usher in a new post @-@ war era , which it hoped would be more aggressive and attractive . The last Anglo @-@ Australian Test series before the war had featured a large number of draws due to defensive play . Australia unexpectedly drew the series 2 – 2 , and Hassett wrote at the end of the series that " This is cricket as it should be ... These games have shown that international cricket can be played as between real friends — so let 's have no more talk of " war " in cricket " . The series was regarded as an outstanding success , with a total attendance of 367 @,@ 000 watching the bright and attacking play . In the five Victory Tests , Hassett made 277 runs at 27 @.@ 70 , including two fifties . The Services and Australian Imperial Force teams played separate matches in England during the season , which lasted until September , although only one other Services match was given first @-@ class status . Hassett scored three centuries in matches for the Services .
Due to the unexpectedly strong success of the Victory Tests , the government of Australia ordered the team to delay their demobilisation . With the team raising so much money for war charities , the government directed them to travel home via India and Ceylon for further fundraising matches for the Red Cross .
Hassett enjoyed greater success on the Services tour of India , although the Australians had little to celebrate as a team . It was a tougher proposition for Hassett ’ s men , as all but one of the nine matches were against first @-@ class opposition , and many of the players regarded the local umpires as being deliberately biased in favour of the home teams . After arriving in October , conflict hit the team after a series of ineffective displays . The team , mostly made up of RAAF personnel , had been ill with food poisoning and dysentery , and travelled across the Indian subcontinent via long and bumpy train journeys for the first month . The airmen wanted to travel by air , and tried to ask Hassett and manager Keith Johnson for air travel . When this was refused , they threatened to abandon the tour or replace infantryman Hassett with either Keith Carmody or Keith Miller — who were RAAF fighter pilots — if their wish was not granted . With incumbent Australian captain Bradman likely to miss the upcoming tour of New Zealand , the Services leader would be one of the frontrunners for the national captaincy . Miller refused to plot against Hassett and the dispute ended when Sismey arranged for a RAAF plane already in India to transport the team ; after a month in India , their first flight came in late November .
In the opening match of the tour , a draw against North Zone , Hassett made 73 . In a high @-@ scoring match in hot conditions against the Prince 's XI in Delhi , he struck 187 and 124 not out in Australia 's 8 / 424 declared and 5 / 304 . The team was scheduled to play East Zone in Calcutta , but the city was gripped in deadly riots as independence activists agitated against British rule . Australia batted first and made only 107 , before East Zone replied with 131 . Led by Hassett 's 125 , Australia posted 304 to leave the hosts a target of 281 . On the final day , pro @-@ independence rioters broke through the security presence and invaded the pitch for the second time during the match , while East Zone were batting . East Zone batsman Denis Compton told the rioters to talk to Hassett , saying that the Australian skipper controlled proceedings . Hassett smiled at the leader of the irate demonstrators and asked " You wouldn 't happen to have a cigarette , would you , old boy ? " The rioters calmed down and play resumed .
Australia struggled in the three representative matches against India . Hassett made 53 in the first match in Mumbai , and although the Australians took a 192 @-@ run first innings lead , the hosts managed to hold on for a draw . The second match in Calcutta was an evenly @-@ contested draw , before India won the deciding match . Hassett top @-@ scored with 143 in Australia ’ s 339 , but the hosts took a first innings lead of 186 to set up a six @-@ wicket win . Hassett ended with 235 runs at 47 @.@ 00 in the three international matches , but did not taste victory in any of his seven matches on Indian soil . He scored 57 as Australia defeated Ceylon by an innings in Colombo before returning to Australia mid December . As time had passed , the players had become increasingly tired by the long campaign , and morale began to drop as waited for their return to their families and civilian life .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Johnson 's team arrived in Australia late in 1945 , but the armed services and Australian Board of Control ordered them to play another series against the various Australian states . The fixtures were meant to revive cricket following the war and were also used as a lead @-@ up to the international tour to New Zealand in March 1946 . As a result , Hassett could not appear for Victoria during the 1945 – 46 season . The Services performed poorly ; after playing consecutive draws against Western Australia and South Australia , they were crushed by an innings by both Victoria and New South Wales , before drawing against Queensland and Tasmania , the smallest state . Hassett ’ s team was saved by the clock against Queensland when the time ran out with the hosts four runs short of their target , but their fortunes were reversed in the final match when Tasmania hung on with only one wicket in hand to salvage a draw .
Hassett ended the Australian summer with 312 runs at 39 @.@ 00 , including three fifties . During the entire Services campaign , he scored 1 @,@ 434 runs at 49 @.@ 44 in 18 first @-@ class matches and top @-@ scored for the Australians ’ whole campaign with 187 . His aggregate was only 13 behind that of all rounder Keith Miller .
Based on his form for the Services , Hassett was selected in the Australian team for a brief five @-@ match tour of New Zealand in February and March 1946 . As the military men played poorly in Australia , the national selectors concluded that their achievements against England must have been against weak opposition , and only Hassett and Miller were selected for the Australian tour of New Zealand .
Despite speculation that he would lead the team , as Bradman had made himself unavailable due to concerns over fitness and his ability to play at his pre @-@ war world @-@ leading standards , the Australian Board of Control appointed Bill Brown as captain and O 'Reilly as Brown 's deputy . In the Board 's ballot for the leadership positions , Hassett received only one of the 13 votes , although it was enough to make him the third on @-@ tour selector . One motive speculated for his being overlooked was that he had rested himself from the match against Victoria because he was tired of the long periods in the military away from his family and decided instead to spend the time in Melbourne with his wife and young daughter ; this supposedly drew the ire of the Victorian Cricket Association .
On the tour , Hassett made first @-@ class centuries against Auckland ( 121 ) and Wellington ( 143 ) and scored 19 in the one @-@ off match against New Zealand — retrospectively accredited as a Test — played at Basin Reserve in Wellington on a poor rain @-@ affected pitch that saw the contest finished within two days . The match ended in an easy victory for Australia when New Zealand was bowled out for 42 and 54 , but the tour attracted big crowds and made a record profit . Hassett scored 351 runs at 70 @.@ 20 for the whole tour . By the time he returned home from the tour , Hassett had played cricket continuously for almost twelve months .
= = = Sheet anchor role = = =
The following season , Hassett returned to serve his state and became Victorian captain for the first time . In the warm @-@ up matches ahead of the Tests , he hit 57 , 57 and 28 against the touring MCC team . He then scored 114 and 36 not out against South Australia in his last match before the beginning of the Ashes series . After a long deliberation , and against medical advice , the 38 @-@ year @-@ old Bradman decided to resume as Test captain . As Brown was injured and O 'Reilly had retired , Hassett was appointed vice @-@ captain . The First Test at Brisbane revealed a more circumspect Hassett . He made 128 ( from 395 balls in 392 minutes ) , his maiden Test century , and shared a 276 @-@ run partnership with Bradman , the cornerstone of Australia 's match @-@ winning score of 645 . Although the crowd continually barracked Hassett for his slow scoring , Ray Robinson felt that he played a crucial " anchoring " role in support of Bradman , who initially struggled with his timing , controversially survived an appeal for a catch by Jack Ikin , then limped through the latter stages of his innings with a strained muscle . Hassett later joked that one of his brothers had his wedding on the day , and was waiting for the batting to finish before starting the ceremony , but could wait no more and proceeded , only to come back after the marriage had been completed to find that just one run had been scored in the intervening period and that his brother was still only on 97 .
Australia went on to start the post @-@ war Ashes era with a crushing win by an innings and 332 runs . Hassett made 34 as Australia won the Second Test by an innings , and the Third Test was his first Test on his home ground at the MCG . He made only 12 and 9 as England held on for a draw with three wickets in hand .
Hassett 's other major innings of the series was 78 from 227 balls in the drawn Fourth Test at Adelaide . He added 189 runs with Arthur Morris after Australia , in reply to England 's first innings of 460 , were 2 / 18 . At one point , the umpire denied an appeal by Norman Yardley for lbw against Hassett , prompting a frustrated Neville Cardus to write , " ... he deserved to be [ given out ] ; the sight of a cricketer of his gifts continuing to deny his eye and technique in a Test match was enough to make any umpire go mad and , like the judge in Chesterton 's story , administer justice instead of law . " Hassett ended the Tests with 47 in the second innings as Australia stumbled to a five @-@ wicket win on a deteriorating and spinning pitch in the Fifth Test in Sydney , in pursuit of 214 . He finished the series with 332 runs at 47 @.@ 43 and had difficulty against the leg spinner Doug Wright , who dismissed him five times in seven innings . He had added 126 for Victoria against Wally Hammond ’ s Englishmen just a week earlier .
Despite his slow scoring in the Tests , Hassett was dynamic in the Shield matches for Victoria . In two matches for Victoria between the Third and Fourth Tests , Hassett hit 200 against Queensland and 190 against NSW ; in both innings he scored at a rate of almost 50 runs per hour . Victoria won both their matches against arch @-@ rivals NSW convincingly , by an innings and 288 runs respectively , and won the Sheffield Shield , having secured victory in each of the four matches that Hassett played in . Hassett was highly productive throughout the whole season , ending with 1 @,@ 213 runs at 71 @.@ 35 .
India embarked on its first tour of Australia in the summer of 1947 – 48 , and the hosts won the first series between the two countries 4 – 0 . After failing to pass 50 in the first two Tests , Hassett hit 80 in a rain @-@ affected Third Test win , and then his highest Test score , 198 not out in an innings win in the Fourth Test in Adelaide , finishing the series with 332 runs at 110 @.@ 67 . Hassett was rested from the Fifth and final Test as Australia sought to try out new players such as Sam Loxton ahead of the tour of England . He remained in strong form for Victoria , scoring 118 and 204 against South Australia and Queensland respectively , but his state were unable to retain their title , losing three and winning two matches when Hassett was available . He ended the season with 893 runs at 68 @.@ 69 .
= = = Invincibles tour = = =
Ten years after his first tour of England , Hassett was included in the 1948 team as Bradman 's deputy . Hassett was one of three on @-@ tour selectors along with Bradman and Arthur Morris . Considered one of the strongest Australia teams to tour England , the team became known as The Invincibles because it went undefeated through 34 matches , an unprecedented feat . As matches often started the day after the previous fixture , Australia employed a rotation policy and Hassett led the tourists in nine of the 34 matches while Bradman was rested . Under Hassett 's watch , Australia won seven matches , five of these by an innings , while both draws were rain @-@ affected fixtures in which more than half the playing time was lost .
Hassett had two close encounters as captain , both on damp pitches before the First Test when Australia 's unbeaten record was challenged . Against Yorkshire in the third match of the tour , Australia came the closest to losing for the entire tour . In a low @-@ scoring match in which neither team posted more than 101 , Australia was set 60 for victory , Hassett elected not to ask for the pitch to be rolled . Former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton said that Hassett " might have made an initial mistake in not having the pitch rolled because whenever there was rain about in England the heavy roller seemed to knock any nonsense [ erratic bounce and sideways movement ] out of the pitch " . Australia lost quick wickets and Hassett came in with the score at 2 / 5 . After being involved in a run out , he fell to leave Australia at 5 / 20 . Australia lost another wicket to be 6 / 31 , effectively seven down with Sam Loxton incapacitated by injury , but scraped hom without further loss after both batsmen at the crease were dropped . It would have been their first defeat against an English county since 1912 . In the 11th match of the tour against Hampshire , Australia ceded a first innings lead for the first time on tour . On a drying pitch , Australia were dismissed for 117 in reply to the home side 's 195 . Australia had made a solid start , before Hassett fell for 26 , sparking a collapse of 8 / 47 to be all out for 117 . Hampshire were then bowled out for 103 , leaving Australia a target of 182 , which they reached to seal an eight @-@ wicket win .
The two matches aside , Hassett had a productive lead @-@ in to the Tests , scoring 110 against Surrey and two fifties . One of these came in a match against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and was basically a full @-@ strength Test team . It was a chance to gain a psychological advantage before the Tests . Australia batted first and Hassett made 51 in an innings win . Fingleton hailed Hassett 's display as " the prettiest half century we saw in the whole summer . There was not effort in his play . The ball sped quietly and quickly in all directions . "
In the First Test at Trent Bridge , Hassett came in on the second day with Australia at 4 / 185 in reply to England 's 165 . Australia had been scoring slowly due to England 's use of leg theory . Hassett almost holed out early when he edged a ball just wide of the wicket @-@ keeper . Hassett and Bradman were heckled for their slow batting but they remained unhurried in the face of England 's stifling tactics Australia had plenty of time after bowling out their opponents easily . Hassett had a period of 20 minutes without scoring .
Early on the third day , Bradman fell for 138 with the score at 5 / 305 . Yardley again pinned Hassett down with more leg theory . Laker bowled with one slip , while Young had none and employed a pure ring field . The scoring was slow during this passage of play — Young delivered 11 consecutive maiden overs and his 26 @-@ over spell conceded only 14 runs . The injured Ray Lindwall came out to join Hassett at 7 / 365 without a runner . Hassett — who had scored only 30 runs in the first 75 minutes of the morning — swept Laker for four and then hit him for the first six of the match . Hassett added 53 in the two hours of the morning session to reach lunch at 94 . Australia were unhurried and remained patient in the face of Yardley 's defensive tactics because they had bowled England out on the first day and there was still sufficient time to force a result . After the break , Hassett reached his first Test century on English soil. from 305 minutes . He then accelerated , adding a further 37 runs in 49 minutes , before being bowled by Bedser , having struck 20 fours and a six . This ended an eighth @-@ wicket partnership of 107 with Lindwall with the score at 8 / 473 ; Australia ended at 509 to take a 344 @-@ run first innings lead . In the second innings , Hassett hit the winning run to end with an unbeaten 21 in an eight @-@ wicket win .
The First Test set the tone for the series , and ahead of the next Test , Hassett top scored with 127 and took five catches in an innings win over Northamptonshire . Hassett scored 47 and a duck in the Second Test at Lord 's , having been dropped three times in the first innings as Australia went on to a 409 @-@ run win . Hassett then struck 139 against Surrey , his second century against the county in as many matches . Hassett and Australia were in difficulty in the Third Test at Old Trafford . Hassett made 38 as Australia scored 221 in reply to 363 . In England 's second innings , Hassett twice dropped Cyril Washbrook in the same position from the same shot . After the third day 's play , Washbrook shouted Hassett a drink ; England were in a strong position , 316 runs ahead with seven wickets in hand . Luckily for Australia and Hassett , the pair of missed chances from the England opener late in the day cost little . Washbrook remained unbeaten on 85 as England declared without further addition after the entire fourth day and the final morning had been lost to rain . Hassett was not required as Australia batted for 61 overs to ensure a draw .
Hassett had a new role as the teams headed to Headingley for the Fourth Test . He would improvise and open with Morris , as regular opener Sid Barnes was injured . Hassett dropped Len Hutton — who went on to score 81 — on 25 . Hassett struggled to make an impact in the unfamiliar role , scoring 13 and 17 . However , the other Australian batsmen stepped up and scored 3 / 404 in 330 minutes on the final day to set a new world record for the highest successful Test runchase , ensuring an unassailable 3 – 0 series lead . Hassett scored two fifties in the lead @-@ up to the Fifth Test , where he returned to his customary role with the return of Barnes . Hassett took a diving catch in the first innings and scored 37 in an innings win . Australia thus won the series convincingly 4 – 0 and Hassett finished the series with 310 runs at 44 @.@ 29 .
After the Tests , seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat. played in four of the matches and was in fine form , hitting three consecutive centuries . Against the Gentlemen of England at Lord 's , Hassett made 200 not out against a team that featured eight Test players . He then made 103 against Somerset and 151 against the South of England . Australia won the first two and were denied by rain in the third .
Hassett ended the first @-@ class matches with 1 @,@ 563 runs at 74 @.@ 22 and seven centuries . He had the third highest aggregate behind Bradman and Morris and the second highest average . In recognition of his performances in England , he was named one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1949 . Wisden opined that " in addition to his playing ability Hassett 's cheerfulness and leadership , which extended to off @-@ the @-@ field relaxation as well as in the more exacting part of the programme , combined to make him an ideal vice @-@ captain able to lift a considerable load off Bradman 's busy shoulders " .
= = = Captain of Australia = = =
By virtue of his performances with the Services team and his seniority in Australian cricket , Hassett appeared certain to succeed Bradman as captain ; his only rival for the position was NSW captain Arthur Morris , the third selector during the tour of England . The season , which was purely domestic with no touring Test team , started with Bradman 's testimonial match , in which Hassett led a team against the retiring Australian leader . Hassett scored 35 and 102 and the match ended with the scores tied . Bradman 's outfit managed to fall short of the victory by the smallest possible margin , ending one run short of their target with one wicket remaining at the end of the final over . Hassett continued his liking for the Queensland attack , scoring 104 and 205 in Victoria ’ s two matches against their northern opponents for the year . Victoria did not do so well as a team , winning two and losing one of the six matches in which Hassett played , as New South Wales took the title . The summer finished with Hassett captaining a team against an eleven led by Morris . The match was designated as a trial for the selection of the Australian team to tour South Africa the following summer . Hassett scored 73 and 159 and top @-@ scored in both innings ; Morris 66 and 12 . However , Hassett ’ s effort was not enough to stop an eight @-@ wicket defeat after Morris ’ s men took a 377 @-@ run first innings lead . Morris and Hassett were the first and third highest run @-@ scorers for the 1948 – 49 season . Hassett ended the season with 855 runs at 61 @.@ 07 .
The day after the match , the chosen touring team was passed to the Board of Control for a decision on the captaincy . The 7 – 6 result in favour of Hassett provoked Ray Robinson to write that the deciding vote , cast for Hassett by the Board chairman Dr Allen Robertson ( from Victoria ) , " ... save [ d ] the Board from an act of disgusting ingratitude " and that , " ... once again Hassett 's notable achievements with the Services team had been devalued . " The main reason given for the administrators ' less than unanimous endorsement of Hassett was his religion . As an Irish Catholic , Hassett was subjected to the sectarian bias of some Australian cricket officials , an attitude that was common among the Anglo @-@ Saxon Protestant ruling class of the time , and so narrowly became the first Catholic captain since Percy McDonnell in 1888 .
The team itself was significantly different from the Invincibles squad . Bradman had retired ; Sid Barnes , Don Tallon , Ernie Toshack and Bill Brown were unavailable , while the omission of Keith Miller caused a furore . Miller later joined the tour after an injury sustained in a car crash sidelined Bill Johnston for an extended period at the start of the tour . However , Johnston recovered , and both he and Miller took their places in all five Tests , eliminating any disadvantage caused by the controversial initial omission of the latter .
Matching Bradman 's feat , Hassett led his team through South Africa undefeated and claimed the Test series 4 – 0 , winning 14 out of 21 matches . Although he was hampered by recurrent problems with his tonsils , the success of the tour was attributed to Hassett 's , " ... unobtrusive yet dominant personality . " He scored 889 first @-@ class runs at 68 @.@ 38 on the tour , including four centuries . In the lead @-@ up to the Tests , Hassett scored 100 and 96 , and he led Australia to four consecutive wins , three by an innings and the other by ten wickets .
The opening Test began at Johannesburg on Christmas Eve 1949 . Batting first , Australia started poorly when both opening batsmen failed to score , before Hassett " transformed the course of the game with a hundred of considerable quality . " He compiled 112 ( in 261 minutes ) of the 198 runs added while he was at the crease ; Australia amassed 413 then bowled South Africa out twice to win by an innings . He then scored 57 and enforced the follow on in an eight @-@ wicket win in the Second Test .
Hassett ’ s winning run looked at an end when Australia was exposed to a sticky wicket in the Third Test . The hosts had reached 2 / 240 at the end of the first day before rain hit and made the pitch extremely difficult for batting . The next day , Hassett had to waste time to keep South Africa batting on the poor surface so that Australia ’ s batsmen would not be exposed to the worst conditions . He then told his bowlers to perform badly so that the hosts would not realise how difficult the pitch was and declare so that Australia would have to face the sticky wicket . Despite Hassett ’ s subterfuge , the pitch was so poor that South Africa fell to be 311 all out , but Australia had gained extra time . The tourists made only 75 , but then dismissed the hosts for 99 , Hassett using defensive tactics to slow the scoring and keep South Africa batting as the pitch slowly improved . Australia chased down the target of 336 with five wickets in hand to secure a highly unlikely win . The local newspaper , The Natal Mercury said that " Renowned for their fighting qualities as a cricketers , the occasion brought the best out of the Australians ... That indomitable spirit to win through , no matter what the circumstances may be , was in most marked evidence . "
Hassett ’ s perfect record as Test captain ended in the Fourth Test , when he made 53 in a high @-@ scoring draw . He then " reached peak form " in the final Test at Port Elizabeth . He top @-@ scored with 167 as the match unfolded in a similar manner to the First Test , with a similar result . Australia made 7 / 549 declared and then won by an innings and 259 runs after enforcing the follow on .
As a leader , Hassett was regarded as an outstanding success . In that era , the tours were accompanied by much ceremony , and captains were expected to make many appearances with dignatories at dinner parties and make speeches . He had his players participate in cultural activities such as dancing and singing with indigenous tribesmen , and reached out to the local children , interspersing his presentations with self @-@ deprecating jibes . As the team ’ s boat departed for home , Hassett tossed his remaining money away among the local children . The Australian High Commission hailed him as the most effective Australian diplomat to have visited South Africa . Of his on @-@ field performances , the historian Chris Harte wrote that " Hassett ’ s captaincy impressed from the start . His warmth of personality and sense of fun contrasted with Bradman ’ s efficient but cold methods . It was a happy tour with the players remembering particularly the hospitality offered to them . "
= = = Success at home = = =
Hassett started the 1950 – 51 season strongly ; after making 19 against England for Victoria , he struck 113 and 179 against South Australia and New South Wales in his two other matches before the Tests .
The England team that visited Australia for the 1950 – 51 Ashes series had a poor start to their tour , but at Brisbane on the opening day of the First Test , " ... surprised even themselves by dismissing Australia for 228 on a good pitch . " However , rain intervened to negate England 's advantage , and when the contest resumed two days later , England batted on a sticky wicket . The English captain Freddie Brown conceded a first @-@ innings lead of 160 runs by declaring with his team 's score on 7 / 68 to force Australia to bat in unfavourable conditions . The Australian batsmen fared worse in the difficult conditions and Hassett gambled by declaring at 7 / 32 , setting England 193 to win . Hassett himself had only managed eight and three for the match . During the 70 minutes remaining before stumps , Australia took six English wickets ( which meant that 20 wickets fell for 102 runs in the day 's play ) , and went on to win the match by 70 runs the following day . Hassett returned to his normal form away from the sticky wicket , scoring 127 and 28 not out against Queensland between Tests . It was his third century in as many matches for Victoria .
In the Second Test at Melbourne , " Australia owed much to the imperturbable Hassett " , as he top @-@ scored with 52 in the first innings . Australia won another low @-@ scoring match by 28 runs ; Freddie Brown was the only other player to post a half century in the match and no team passed 200 . Hassett then stroked 70 in the Third Test , which Australia won by an innings to take an unassailable 3 – 0 series lead , before Australia won their fifth Test in a row in the next match in Adelaide .
Before the final Test , Hassett 's run @-@ scoring peaked when he stroked 232 against Brown 's men in a drawn match for Victoria . In the Fifth Test at the MCG , he top @-@ scored with 92 before his dismissal to a one @-@ handed diving catch sparked a collapse and Australia managed only 217 batting first . The tourists took a first innings lead and Hassett made 48 in Australia ’ s second innings of 197 . England made the 95 needed for victory , and the eight @-@ wicket loss was Australia 's first Test defeat since the resumption of international cricket after World War II , ending a streak of 25 Tests without defeat . Hassett and Brown described the series as the friendliest they had been involved in , but despite the success on the field , the series was poorly attended and revenue was down by around 25 % from the corresponding tour four years earlier , mainly due to the absence of Bradman to spark public interest .
Hassett was the second @-@ highest run @-@ scorer of the series , hitting 366 runs at 40 @.@ 67 . Only England 's Len Hutton ( 533 runs at 88 @.@ 83 ) was better . Hassett ended the first @-@ class season with 1 @,@ 423 runs at 64 @.@ 68 , including four centuries and five fifties , topping the run @-@ scoring aggregates . He played in seven shield matches without defeat , winning five to help Victoria to another title .
Wisden , taking into consideration Australia 's post @-@ war record and the West Indies ' success during their 1950 tour of England , declared the 1951 – 52 series between the two sides to be , " the unofficial cricket championship of the world " . Hassett went into the First Test at Brisbane without playing a first @-@ class match for the season due to the scheduling . However , this was negated by the fact that the tourists only had one match of comparable standard before the Tests , prompting Hassett to make some unusually blunt comments , saying that " The West Indies have suffered from sheer stupidity in the organisation of their tour " . Like many of the Australians , he struggled to pick the action of West Indian leg spinner Sonny Ramadhin . He was out for only six in the first innings , as Australia eked out a 10 @-@ run lead . He then managed 35 as Australia scraped home in the second innings by three wickets to 7 / 236 . He had been dismissed by Ramadhin both times , bowled and lbw , unable to pick which way the ball was spinning . Between Tests , Hassett had an opportunity to rectify this problem when Victoria hosted the Caribbean tourists , but Ramadhin prevailed again , dismissing him for 12 in his only innings . Having worked out how to pick Ramadhin 's variations , he compiled 132 and 46 not out in a seven @-@ wicket win in the Second Test at Sydney . Hassett 's century was part of a 235 @-@ run partnership with Keith Miller , an Australian Test record for any wicket against the West Indies . Ramadhin ended with 1 / 196 and was demoralised . Between Tests , Hassett 's Victorians faced New South Wales in consecutive matches . Hassett scored 92 in the first encounter , a high @-@ scoring draw , and his team had the upper hand in the latter , forcing their opponents to hold on with only three wickets remaining .
Hassett missed the next Test with a strained muscle ; this led to a bureaucratic restriction that hindered his deputy Morris . Having been injured on the eve of the Test , Hassett ’ s withdrawal forced the selectors to call in batsman Phil Ridings at late notice , but some of the board members could not be contacted to ratify the decision . This meant that Hassett had to be replaced by a spare bowler who was already in the squad . In Hassett ’ s absence , Australia ’ s thin batting line @-@ up collapsed on a damp pitch hostile to batsmen and lost . Returning for the Fourth Test at the MCG , Australia ’ s batsmen again struggled ; Hassett made 15 and his team conceded a lead of 56 on the first innings . His team was set a second innings target of 260 runs to win . Hassett made 102 but found little support from the other batsmen . When he was dismissed with the score at 8 / 218 , the West Indies appeared set to level the series . However , an unbeaten last wicket partnership of 38 runs between tailenders Doug Ring and Bill Johnston gave Australia an unlikely victory and the series 3 – 1 . It was reported that Hassett , who had just taken a shower after being dismissed , was so mesmerised by the efforts of Ring and Johnston that the watched the final moments of the match naked from the change rooms .
Ahead of the final Test of the series , Hassett 's Victorians suffered a four @-@ wicket defeat in their second match of the season against the West Indies , Hassett scoring 56 and 43 . Australia completed an emphatic 4 – 1 result by winning the final encounter , even though they were bowled out for 116 on the first day of the match , before fighting back to dismiss the tourists for 78 . Hassett 's second innings score of 64 took his total to 402 runs ( at an average of 57 @.@ 43 ) , making him the leading run @-@ scorer for the series . Hassett ended the season with a dominant 229 against South Australia , setting up an innings win , dwarfing the 222 and 166 made by his opponents combined . Despite this , New South Wales claimed the Sheffield Shield for the season , and Hassett ended the summer with 855 runs at 61 @.@ 07 .
= = = Australia 's decline and the Ashes lost = = =
In 1952 – 53 , South Africa 's cricket authorities were hesitant to send their inexperienced team to Australia , fearing that the Test series would be uncompetitive . The Australian Board of Control 's concern that — after losing money on the previous season 's tour by the West Indies — the series would be another financial disaster resulted in South Africa offering an indemnity of ₤ 10 @,@ 000 against any losses . Hassett began the season with two consecutive Sheffield Shield losses before the Tests , although he did manage 91 against South Australia before facing South Africa . He scored 123 in the return match later in the season and Victoria recorded two wins under his watch , against Queensland .
Australia won the opening game of the rubber in an unexpectedly close match in Brisbane by 96 runs , Hassett making 55 and 17 . South Africa struck back and gained their first Test victory over Australia for 41 years , taking the Second Test at Melbourne by 82 runs . Australia recovered momentum by convincingly winning the Third Test by an innings , but Hassett 's form had been mediocre in all three encounters , totalling 76 runs in five innings . In the Fourth Test at Adelaide , he played his only significant innings for the series , scoring 163 and sharing a 275 @-@ run stand with Colin McDonald . With Australia heading for a victory that would give them the series , Ray Lindwall and Miller suffered injuries and were unable to bowl in the second innings . This compelled Hassett to delay his second innings declaration : South Africa then forced a draw by batting out 73 ( eight @-@ ball ) overs against the depleted bowling attack with four wickets in hand . In anticipation of the forthcoming tour of England , Australian selectors made a fateful decision to rest Lindwall and Miller for the last Test when Hassett won the toss and elected to bat . He scored 40 runs in a total of 520 that gave Australia apparent command of the match . However , South Africa again fought back ; after scoring 435 , the tourists bowled Australia out for 209 , Hassett making 30 . They then won the match by chasing a target of 297 runs in their second innings . Hassett bowled the final over and the tourists ’ Roy McLean took three fours from the first five balls to reach their target and square the series . Hassett ended the Tests with 309 runs at 38 @.@ 63 and the entire season with 779 runs at 38 @.@ 95 , a substantially lower return compared to previous Australian summers .
For the first time in 20 years , Australia had failed to win a Test series at home , the last being the infamous Bodyline series of 1932 – 33 . Wisden called the 2 – 2 result , " ... the biggest cricket shock for many years . " The absence of Lindwall and Miller in the later part of the series exposed the limitations of the other Australian bowlers and did not augur well for the future . Hassett made it known that the tour of England in 1953 would be his farewell to the game . The selectors included only two specialist opening batsmen in the team , which caused problems when McDonald was injured and Morris struggled for form . This forced Hassett to play as an opener in the Tests ; while Morris ’ s old partner Barnes was in England to report on the tour as a reporter , his history of criticising cricket administrators meant that officialdom would call him into the squad to cover for McDonald . There were also tensions among the team off the field . The more experienced members of the team from Hassett ’ s generation were World War II veterans , and were happy to be alive and tended to enjoy drinking and partying , while the younger members tended to be teetotallers . This led to a divide as the seniors regularly halted the team bus for drinking stops at the roadside pubs , leaving their younger teammates waiting . Some of the non @-@ drinkers said that because of the frequent visits at pubs , the team bus only travelled approximately 15 km each hour .
Hassett struggled in two warm @-@ up matches against Tasmania before the Australians left for England , and despite winning both fixtures , it was not to be a happy tour on the field . In the first match on English soil , against East Molesey , Bill Johnston , Australia ’ s leading wicket @-@ taker in 1948 , broke down with a serious knee injury . Hassett struggled in the opening first @-@ class matches in England , passing 40 only once in six innings . In the last match before the Tests , against Sussex , he hit an unbeaten 108 . Australia 's progress before the Tests was constantly curtailed by bad weather . Of the six first @-@ class matches that Hassett played , three did not reach the second innings , although Australia did manage two victories .
In the First Test at Trent Bridge , Hassett hit 115 in a rain @-@ affected match that ended in a draw . Over the next month , he struggled in the county matches , scoring only 30 runs in
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total . The Australians were to be frustrated in the next three Tests . In the Second Test at Lord ’ s , Hassett made 104 , top @-@ scoring in Australia ’ s 346 despite being hindered by a bandaged right arm and cramps . England took a 26 @-@ run first innings lead , but Australia replied with 368 . Hassett ’ s bowlers reduced England to 3 / 12 but they hung on to deny Australia victory . The Third Test was another wet affair . Hassett made 26 as Australia scored 318 and took a 42 @-@ run first innings lead , but they then collapsed to be 8 / 35 . Australia was saved from defeat by the rain , which meant that less than 14 hours of play was possible .
In the Fourth Test , the Australians worked themselves into a position to win the match and thus retain the Ashes . Hassett made 37 as his team compiled 266 and took a 99 @-@ run first innings lead . The tourists looked set for victory and retention of The Ashes at the start of the final day , but time @-@ wasting and defiant defence from the English batsmen left Australia a target of 177 in the last two hours . This would have required a scoring rate much higher than in the first four days of the match . Hassett made only four , but Australia had made 111 in 75 minutes and were on schedule for a win . At that point , English medium @-@ pacer Trevor Bailey began bowling with the wicket @-@ keeper more than two metres down the leg side in order to deny the Australians an opportunity to hit the ball , but the umpires did not penalise them as wides . The match ended in a draw with Australia at 4 / 147 when time ran out . English wicket @-@ keeper Godfrey Evans said that " they were right " in claiming that Bailey 's bowling was " the worst kind of negative cricket " and that he had " cheated [ them ] of victory " . The match was also marred by a series of umpiring decisions made by Frank Chester against the Australians , leading Hassett to request that he not be appointed for the Fifth Test , something the English cricket authorities granted .
This meant that the fate of the Ashes would be determined by the final match at The Oval . Hassett warmed up with consecutive half @-@ centuries against Surrey and Warwickshire . In the second innings of the latter match , he made 21 not out , holding the team together as Australia stumbled to 5 / 53 in pursuit of 166 for victory when time ran out .
In Australia ’ s tour matches at The Oval , the pacemen had been effective , and Hassett and Morris thought that things would be similar in the Tests . As a result , leg spinner Ring was omitted . Hassett made 53 as Australia made 275 batting first . England then took a 31 @-@ run lead and Hassett was out for only 10 in the second innings as Australia fell for only 162 , as the local spinners Jim Laker and Tony Lock cut down the Australians on a turning surface . The hosts then reached the target safely with eight wickets in hand to claim a 1 – 0 victory , thus winning the Ashes for the first time since the infamous Bodyline tour of 1932 – 33 . Hassett was in fine form after the Tests , scoring 148 against Somerset , 65 against Kent , 106 against South , and 74 and 25 against TN Pearce 's XI in the remaining first @-@ class matches in England . Australia managed to win the matches against Kent and South by an innings , but it was too late to save the Ashes . Nevertheless , Harte said that " Hassett ’ s leadership throughout had been sparkling " .
Hassett made one final first @-@ class appearance upon returning to Australia , in a testimonial match against Morris 's XI . He made 126 in the first innings , his final century , but could manage only three in the second as his team went down by 121 runs . Nevertheless , the match sent him into retirement ₤ 5 @,@ 503 wealthier , and with more first @-@ class centuries than any Australian except Bradman .
= = Style and personality = =
The diminutive Hassett was an elegant middle @-@ order batsman , known for his wide range of strokes , timing , quick footwork and strong wrists . However , as his career progressed and his seniority in the Australian team increased , he became a more cautious player who often frustrated spectators with sedate scoring , particularly after World War II . Despite this , Hassett remained an aggressive and adventurous strokemaker in matches for Victoria . He had a poker face , and this benefited him as a captain , as even his teammates sometimes found it hard to discern his mood or thinking . During his 24 Test matches in charge , he won 14 games and suffered defeat only four times , but it was the last of the four losses that blighted his record . Hassett was a very occasional right @-@ arm medium pace bowler , averaging one over per first @-@ class match . He took 18 wickets in 216 matches , and never took more than two in a single innings . He never took a wicket at Test level and bowled less than 19 overs .
Hassett ’ s most distinctive trait was his fun @-@ loving personality . He was famed for his practical jokes , sense of humour — particularly his self @-@ deprecating quips — and wit , such as in his calming talk to the rioters in Calcutta in 1945 . He remained jovial during his speeches even after Australia suffered defeats . After bowing out of Test cricket in 1953 with a loss , he said that England " earned the victory from the very first ball — to the second last over anyway " , referring to an over that he bowled when defeat became inevitable .
During the 1938 tour of England , Hassett smuggled a “ wet , muddy , and complaining ” mountain goat ( put a waistcoat on the goat , according to some sources ) into the bedroom he shared with Stan McCabe and O 'Reilly while the team was staying at Grindleford , after they had fallen asleep . They awoke to unexpected smells and bleating . During the 1948 tour of England , he was reported to have unnerved his teammates and tempted fate by bringing a toy duck into the dressing room , and held up play during a county match by hiding the ball in a pile of sawdust . During the same summer , Hassett and a few teammates were being chauffeured back to London after a function . It was after midnight , but Hassett asked the driver to stop at a random mansion along the road . He then rang the bell and told the startled householder that he " just thought we 'd pop in " . The owner happened to recognise Hassett and received the cricketers . In the Third Test of the same tour , after dropping two hooked catches from Washbrook , Hassett responded by borrowing a policeman ’ s helmet , before motioning to Ray Lindwall to bowl another bouncer . During the 1953 tour of England , a waiter spilled a dessert on Hassett 's jacket . Initially declining the waiter 's multiple offers to have his jacket taken away for cleaning , Hassett acquiesced and while taking off his jacket , noticed a spot on his trousers . He then silently pointed to the spot , removed his trousers and handed them to the waiter , before continuing to eat his meal in his underpants .
Aside from the humorous side of his personality , Hassett was also known for his diplomatic skills as a leader and his affability , particularly his ability to endear himself to hosts and public while representing Australia overseas . Richie Benaud wrote of Hassett : " There are others who have made more runs and taken more wickets , but very few have ever got more out of a lifetime . " Teammate Keith Miller said that Hassett had " more genuine friends in all walks of life than any other cricketer " .
= = Outside cricket = =
After returning from World War II , Hassett operated a sports store in Melbourne ; one of his staff members was Victorian Test teammate Neil Harvey . After retiring from cricket , Hassett joined the Australian Broadcasting Commission as a radio commentator in 1956 , remaining in that position until 1981 . During his time in the commentary booth , he was known for his self @-@ deprecating humour and frequently made fun of his conservative approach to batting during the latter half of his career . Hassett was known for his disapproval of some of the aspects of the modern evolution of cricket , particularly the more aggressive player conduct that contrasted with the more sedate and gentlemanly style of his era .
He served on the executive committee of the Anti @-@ Cancer Council of Victoria , along with fellow former South Melbourne , Victorian and Test cricketer Laurie Nash . Hassett ran for election as South Melbourne ’ s delegate to the VCA in December 1953 , but was defeated . During the 1954 – 55 Ashes series in Australia , he wrote for The Daily Telegraph .
In 1942 , Hassett married Tessie Davis , a Geelong accountant , and they had two daughters . His nephew John Shaw went on to play for Victoria in the 1950s and 1960s . A batsman , Shaw was a regular member of the state team and was selected for an Australian Second XI that toured New Zealand in 1959 – 60 . The MCG has a function room named after Hassett , as does the VCA , which launched a monthly luncheon club in December 1990 named in his honour . In the first year of its operation , more than 500 people joined and a profit in excess of AUD12,000 was made ; this money was reinvested in the VCA 's promotion of junior cricket .
In his final years , Hassett moved to Batehaven on the south coast of New South Wales to pursue his love of fishing . He died there in 1993 .
= = Test match performance = =
= Agnosticism =
Agnosticism is the view that the truth values of certain claims – especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether God , the divine , or the supernatural exist – are unknown and perhaps unknowable .
According to the philosopher William L. Rowe , " agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist . " Agnosticism is a doctrine or set of tenets rather than a religion as such .
Thomas Henry Huxley , an English biologist , coined the word " agnostic " in 1869 . Earlier thinkers , however , had written works that promoted agnostic points of view , such as Sanjaya Belatthaputta , a 5th @-@ century BCE Indian philosopher who expressed agnosticism about any afterlife ; and Protagoras , a 5th @-@ century BCE Greek philosopher who expressed agnosticism about " the gods " . The Nasadiya Sukta in the Rigveda is agnostic about the origin of the universe .
= = Defining agnosticism = =
Agnosticism is of the essence of science , whether ancient or modern . It simply means that a man shall not say he knows or believes that which he has no scientific grounds for professing to know or believe . Consequently Agnosticism puts aside not only the greater part of popular theology , but also the greater part of anti @-@ theology . On the whole , the " bosh " of heterodoxy is more offensive to me than that of orthodoxy , because heterodoxy professes to be guided by reason and science , and orthodoxy does not .
That which Agnostics deny and repudiate , as immoral , is the contrary doctrine , that there are propositions which men ought to believe , without logically satisfactory evidence ; and that reprobation ought to attach to the profession of disbelief in such inadequately supported propositions .
Agnosticism , in fact , is not a creed , but a method , the essence of which lies in the rigorous application of a single principle ... Positively the principle may be expressed : In matters of the intellect , follow your reason as far as it will take you , without regard to any other consideration . And negatively : In matters of the intellect do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable .
Being a scientist , above all else , Huxley presented agnosticism as a form of demarcation . A hypothesis with no supporting objective , testable evidence is not an objective , scientific claim . As such , there would be no way to test said hypotheses , leaving the results inconclusive . His agnosticism was not compatible with forming a belief as to the truth , or falsehood , of the claim at hand . Karl Popper would also describe himself as an agnostic . According to philosopher William L. Rowe , in this strict sense , agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist .
Others have redefined this concept , making it compatible with forming a belief , and only incompatible with absolute certainty . George H. Smith , while admitting that the narrow definition of atheist was the common usage definition of that word , and admitting that the broad definition of agnostic was the common usage definition of that word , promoted broadening the definition of atheist and narrowing the definition of agnostic . Smith rejects agnosticism as a third alternative to theism and atheism and promotes terms such as agnostic atheism ( the view of those who do not believe in the existence of any deity , but do not claim to know if a deity does or does not exist ) and agnostic theism ( the view of those who do not claim to know of the existence of any deity , but still believe in such an existence ) .
Most recently , the terms apathetic and pragmatic agnosticism have been coined with regard to the view that there is no proof of either the existence or non @-@ existence of any deity , but since any deity that may exist appears unconcerned for the universe or the welfare of its inhabitants , the question is largely academic and that their existence therefore has little to no impact on personal human affairs and should be of little theological interest .
= = = Etymology = = =
Agnostic ( from Ancient Greek ἀ- ( a- ) , meaning " without " , and γνῶσις ( gnōsis ) , meaning " knowledge " ) was used by Thomas Henry Huxley in a speech at a meeting of the Metaphysical Society in 1869 to describe his philosophy , which rejects all claims of spiritual or mystical knowledge .
Early Christian church leaders used the Greek word gnosis ( knowledge ) to describe " spiritual knowledge " . Agnosticism is not to be confused with religious views opposing the ancient religious movement of Gnosticism in particular ; Huxley used the term in a broader , more abstract sense . Huxley identified agnosticism not as a creed but rather as a method of skeptical , evidence @-@ based inquiry .
In recent years , scientific literature dealing with neuroscience and psychology has used the word to mean " not knowable " . In technical and marketing literature , " agnostic " can also mean independence from some parameters — for example , " platform agnostic " or " hardware agnostic " .
= = = Qualifying agnosticism = = =
Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume contended that meaningful statements about the universe are always qualified by some degree of doubt . He asserted that the fallibility of human beings means that they cannot obtain absolute certainty except in trivial cases where a statement is true by definition ( e.g. tautologies such as " all bachelors are unmarried " or " all triangles have three corners " ) .
= = = Types = = =
Strong agnosticism ( also called " hard " , " closed " , " strict " , or " permanent agnosticism " )
The view that the question of the existence or nonexistence of a deity or deities , and the nature of ultimate reality is unknowable by reason of our natural inability to verify any experience with anything but another subjective experience . A strong agnostic would say , " I cannot know whether a deity exists or not , and neither can you . "
Weak agnosticism ( also called " soft " , " open " , " empirical " , or " temporal agnosticism " )
The view that the existence or nonexistence of any deities is currently unknown but is not necessarily unknowable ; therefore , one will withhold judgment until evidence , if any , becomes available . A weak agnostic would say , " I don 't know whether any deities exist or not , but maybe one day , if there is evidence , we can find something out . "
= = History = =
= = = Greek philosophy = = =
Agnostic thought , in the form of skepticism , emerged as a formal philosophical position in ancient Greece . Its proponents included Protagoras , Pyrrho , Carneades , Sextus Empiricus and , to some degree , Socrates , who was a strong advocate for a skeptical approach to epistemology .
Pyrrho said that we should refrain from making judgment as we can never know the true reality . According to Pyrrho , having opinion was possible , but certainty and knowledge are impossible . Carneades was also a skeptic in relation to all knowledge claims . He proposed a probability theory , however . According to him , certainty could never be attained . Protagoras rejected the conventional accounts of the gods . He said :
Concerning the gods , I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be . Many things prevent knowledge including the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life .
= = = Hindu philosophy = = =
Throughout the history of Hinduism there has been a strong tradition of philosophic speculation and skepticism .
The Rig Veda takes an agnostic view on the fundamental question of how the universe and the gods were created . Nasadiya Sukta ( Creation Hymn ) in the tenth chapter of the Rig Veda says :
= = = Hume , Kant , and Kierkegaard = = =
Aristotle , Anselm , Aquinas , and Descartes presented arguments attempting to rationally prove the existence of God . The skeptical empiricism of David Hume , the antinomies of Immanuel Kant , and the existential philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard convinced many later philosophers to abandon these attempts , regarding it impossible to construct any unassailable proof for the existence or non @-@ existence of God .
In his 1844 book , Philosophical Fragments , Kierkegaard writes :
Let us call this unknown something : God . It is nothing more than a name we assign to it . The idea of demonstrating that this unknown something ( God ) exists , could scarcely suggest itself to Reason . For if God does not exist it would of course be impossible to prove it ; and if he does exist it would be folly to attempt it . For at the very outset , in beginning my proof , I would have presupposed it , not as doubtful but as certain ( a presupposition is never doubtful , for the very reason that it is a presupposition ) , since otherwise I would not begin , readily understanding that the whole would be impossible if he did not exist . But if when I speak of proving God 's existence I mean that I propose to prove that the Unknown , which exists , is God , then I express myself unfortunately . For in that case I do not prove anything , least of all an existence , but merely develop the content of a conception .
Hume was Huxley 's favourite philosopher , calling him " the Prince of Agnostics " . Diderot wrote to his mistress , telling of a visit by Hume to the Baron D 'Holbach , and describing how a word for the position that Huxley would later describe as agnosticism didn 't seem to exist , or at least wasn 't common knowledge , at the time .
The first time that M. Hume found himself at the table of the Baron , he was seated beside him . I don 't know for what purpose the English philosopher took it into his head to remark to the Baron that he did not believe in atheists , that he had never seen any . The Baron said to him : " Count how many we are here . " We are eighteen . The Baron added : " It isn 't too bad a showing to be able to point out to you fifteen at once : the three others haven 't made up their minds . "
= = = Thomas Henry Huxley = = =
Agnostic views are as old as philosophical skepticism , but the terms agnostic and agnosticism were created by Huxley to sum up his thoughts on contemporary developments of metaphysics about the " unconditioned " ( William Hamilton ) and the " unknowable " ( Herbert Spencer ) . Though Huxley began to use the term " agnostic " in 1869 , his opinions had taken shape some time before that date . In a letter of September 23 , 1860 , to Charles Kingsley , Huxley discussed his views extensively :
I neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man . I see no reason for believing it , but , on the other hand , I have no means of disproving it . I have no a priori objections to the doctrine . No man who has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about a priori difficulties . Give me such evidence as would justify me in believing in anything else , and I will believe that . Why should I not ? It is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter ...
It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities . I know what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse squares , and I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions ...
That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true . But the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal subtleties . I have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non @-@ ego , noumena and phenomena , and all the rest of it , too often not to know that in attempting even to think of these questions , the human intellect flounders at once out of its depth .
And again , to the same correspondent , May 6 , 1863 :
I have never had the least sympathy with the a priori reasons against orthodoxy , and I have by nature and disposition the greatest possible antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel school . Nevertheless I know that I am , in spite of myself , exactly what the Christian would call , and , so far as I can see , is justified in calling , atheist and infidel . I cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us in the relation of a Father [ who ] loves us and cares for us as Christianity asserts . So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas , immortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments , what possible objection can I — who am compelled perforce to believe in the immortality of what we call Matter and Force , and in a very unmistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds — have to these doctrines ? Give me a scintilla of evidence , and I am ready to jump at them .
Of the origin of the name agnostic to describe this attitude , Huxley gave the following account :
When I reached intellectual maturity and began to ask myself whether I was an atheist , a theist , or a pantheist ; a materialist or an idealist ; Christian or a freethinker ; I found that the more I learned and reflected , the less ready was the answer ; until , at last , I came to the conclusion that I had neither art nor part with any of these denominations , except the last . The one thing in which most of these good people were agreed was the one thing in which I differed from them . They were quite sure they had attained a certain " gnosis " – had , more or less successfully , solved the problem of existence ; while I was quite sure I had not , and had a pretty strong conviction that the problem was insoluble . And , with Hume and Kant on my side , I could not think myself presumptuous in holding fast by that opinion ...
So I took thought , and invented what I conceived to be the appropriate title of " agnostic " . It came into my head as suggestively antithetic to the " gnostic " of Church history , who professed to know so much about the very things of which I was ignorant . ... To my great satisfaction the term took .
In 1889 , Huxley wrote :
Therefore , although it be , as I believe , demonstrable that we have no real knowledge of the authorship , or of the date of composition of the Gospels , as they have come down to us , and that nothing better than more or less probable guesses can be arrived at on that subject .
= = = William Stewart Ross = = =
William Stewart Ross wrote under the name of Saladin . He championed agnosticism in opposition to the atheism of Charles Bradlaugh as an open @-@ ended spiritual exploration . In Why I am an Agnostic ( c . 1889 ) he claims that agnosticism is " the very reverse of atheism " .
= = = Robert G. Ingersoll = = =
Robert G. Ingersoll , an Illinois lawyer and politician who evolved into a well @-@ known and sought @-@ after orator in 19th @-@ century America , has been referred to as the " Great Agnostic " .
In an 1896 lecture titled Why I Am An Agnostic , Ingersoll related why he was an agnostic :
Is there a supernatural power — an arbitrary mind — an enthroned God — a supreme will that sways the tides and currents of the world — to which all causes bow ? I do not deny . I do not know — but I do not believe . I believe that the natural is supreme — that from the infinite chain no link can be lost or broken — that there is no supernatural power that can answer prayer — no power that worship can persuade or change — no power that cares for man .
I believe that with infinite arms Nature embraces the all — that there is no interference — no chance — that behind every event are the necessary and countless causes , and that beyond every event will be and must be the necessary and countless effects .
Is there a God ? I do not know . Is man immortal ? I do not know . One thing I do know , and that is , that neither hope , nor fear , belief , nor denial , can change the fact . It is as it is , and it will be as it must be .
In the conclusion of the speech he simply sums up the agnostic position as :
We can be as honest as we are ignorant . If we are , when asked what is beyond the horizon of the known , we must say that we do not know .
= = = Bertrand Russell = = =
Bertrand Russell 's pamphlet , Why I Am Not a Christian , based on a speech delivered in 1927 and later included in a book of the same title , is considered a classic statement of agnosticism . He calls upon his readers to " stand on their own two feet and look fair and square at the world with a fearless attitude and a free intelligence " .
In 1939 , Russell gave a lecture on The existence and nature of God , in which he characterized himself as an atheist . He said :
The existence and nature of God is a subject of which I can discuss only half . If one arrives at a negative conclusion concerning the first part of the question , the second part of the question does not arise ; and my position , as you may have gathered , is a negative one on this matter .
However , later in the same lecture , discussing modern non @-@ anthropomorphic concepts of God , Russell states :
That sort of God is , I think , not one that can actually be disproved , as I think the omnipotent and benevolent creator can .
In Russell 's 1947 pamphlet , Am I An Atheist or an Agnostic ? ( subtitled A Plea For Tolerance in the Face of New Dogmas ) , he ruminates on the problem of what to call himself :
As a philosopher , if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic , because I do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one can prove that there is not a God . On the other hand , if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think I ought to say that I am an Atheist , because when I say that I cannot prove that there is not a God , I ought to add equally that I cannot prove that there are not the Homeric gods .
In his 1953 essay , What Is An Agnostic ? Russell states :
An agnostic thinks it impossible to know the truth in matters such as God and the future life with which Christianity and other religions are concerned . Or , if not impossible , at least impossible at the present time .
Are Agnostics Atheists ?
No . An atheist , like a Christian , holds that we can know whether or not there is a God . The Christian holds that we can know there is a God ; the atheist , that we can know there is not . The Agnostic suspends judgment , saying that there are not sufficient grounds either for affirmation or for denial .
Later in the essay , Russell adds :
I think that if I heard a voice from the sky predicting all that was going to happen to me during the next twenty @-@ four hours , including events that would have seemed highly improbable , and if all these events then produced to happen , I might perhaps be convinced at least of the existence of some superhuman intelligence .
= = = Leslie Weatherhead = = =
In 1965 Christian theologian Leslie Weatherhead published The Christian Agnostic , in which he argues :
... many professing agnostics are nearer belief in the true God than are many conventional church @-@ goers who believe in a body that does not exist whom they miscall God .
Although radical and unpalatable to conventional theologians , Weatherhead 's agnosticism falls far short of Huxley 's , and short even of weak agnosticism :
Of course , the human soul will always have the power to reject God , for choice is essential to its nature , but I cannot believe that anyone will finally do this .
= = = Charles Darwin = = =
Raised in a religious environment , Charles Darwin studied to be an Anglican clergyman . While eventually doubting parts of his faith , Darwin continued to help in church affairs , even while avoiding church attendance . Darwin stated that it would be " absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist " . Although reticent about his religious views , in 1879 he wrote that " I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God . – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind . "
= = Demographics = =
Demographic research services normally do not differentiate between various types of non @-@ religious respondents , so agnostics are often classified in the same category as atheists or other non @-@ religious people .
A 2010 survey published in Encyclopædia Britannica found that the non @-@ religious people or the agnostics made up about 9 @.@ 6 % of the world 's population . A November – December 2006 poll published in the Financial Times gives rates for the United States and five European countries . The rates of agnosticism in the United States were at 14 % , while the rates of agnosticism in the European countries surveyed were considerably higher : Italy ( 20 % ) , Spain ( 30 % ) , Great Britain ( 35 % ) , Germany ( 25 % ) , and France ( 32 % ) .
A study conducted by the Pew Research Center found that about 16 % of the world 's people , the third largest group after Christianity and Islam , have no religious affiliation . According to a 2012 report by the Pew Research Center , agnostics made up 3 @.@ 3 % of the US adult population . In the U.S. Religious Landscape Survey , conducted by the Pew Research Center , 55 % of agnostic respondents expressed " a belief in God or a universal spirit " , whereas 41 % stated that they thought that they felt a tension " being non @-@ religious in a society where most people are religious " .
According to the 2011 Australian Bureau of Statistics , 22 % of Australians have " no religion " , a category that includes agnostics . Between 64 % and 65 % of Japanese and up to 81 % of Vietnamese are atheists , agnostics , or do not believe in a god . An official European Union survey reported that 3 % of the EU population is unsure about their belief in a god or spirit .
= = Criticism = =
Agnosticism is criticized from a variety of standpoints . Some religious thinkers see agnosticism as limiting the mind 's capacity to know reality to materialism . Some atheists criticize the use of the term agnosticism as functionally indistinguishable from atheism ; this results in frequent criticisms of those who adopt the term as avoiding the atheist label .
= = = Theistic = = =
Theistic critics claim that agnosticism is impossible in practice , since a person can live only either as if God did not exist ( etsi deus non @-@ daretur ) , or as if God did exist ( etsi deus daretur ) .
Religious scholars such as Laurence B. Brown criticize the misuse of the word agnosticism , claiming that it has become one of the most misapplied terms in metaphysics . Brown raises the question , " You claim that nothing can be known with certainty ... how , then , can you be so sure ? "
= = = = Christian = = = =
According to Pope Benedict XVI , strong agnosticism in particular contradicts itself in affirming the power of reason to know scientific truth . He blames the exclusion of reasoning from religion and ethics for dangerous pathologies such as crimes against humanity and ecological disasters . " Agnosticism " , said Ratzinger , " is always the fruit of a refusal of that knowledge which is in fact offered to man ... The knowledge of God has always existed " . He asserted that agnosticism is a choice of comfort , pride , dominion , and utility over truth , and is opposed by the following attitudes : the keenest self @-@ criticism , humble listening to the whole of existence , the persistent patience and self @-@ correction of the scientific method , a readiness to be purified by the truth .
The Catholic Church sees merit in examining what it calls " partial agnosticism " , specifically those systems that " do not aim at constructing a complete philosophy of the unknowable , but at excluding special kinds of truth , notably religious , from the domain of knowledge " . However , the Church is historically opposed to a full denial of the capacity of human reason to know God . The Council of the Vatican declares , " God , the beginning and end of all , can , by the natural light of human reason , be known with certainty from the works of creation " .
Blaise Pascal argued that even if there were truly no evidence for God , agnostics should consider what is now known as Pascal 's Wager : the infinite expected value of acknowledging God is always greater than the finite expected value of not acknowledging his existence , and thus it is a safer " bet " to choose God .
Peter Kreeft and Ronald Tacelli cited 20 arguments for God 's existence , asserting that any demand for evidence testable in a laboratory is in effect asking God , the supreme being , to become man 's servant .
= = = Atheistic = = =
According to Richard Dawkins , a distinction between agnosticism and atheism is unwieldy and depends on how close to zero a person is willing to rate the probability of existence for any given god @-@ like entity . About himself , Dawkins continues , " I am agnostic only to the extent that I am agnostic about fairies at the bottom of the garden . " Dawkins also identifies two categories of agnostics ; " Temporary Agnostics in Practice " ( TAPs ) , and " Permanent Agnostics in Principle " ( PAPs ) . Dawkins considers temporary agnosticism an entirely reasonable position , but views permanent agnosticism as " fence @-@ sitting , intellectual cowardice " .
= = Related concepts = =
Ignosticism is the view that a coherent definition of a deity must be put forward before the question of the existence of a deity can be meaningfully discussed . If the chosen definition is not coherent , the ignostic holds the noncognitivist view that the existence of a deity is meaningless or empirically untestable .
A.J. Ayer , Theodore Drange , and other philosophers see both atheism and agnosticism as incompatible with ignosticism on the grounds that atheism and agnosticism accept " a deity exists " as a meaningful proposition that can be argued for or against .
= The Cookbook =
The Cookbook is the sixth studio album by American rapper Missy Elliott , released by The Goldmind Inc. and Atlantic Records on July 4 , 2005 , in the United States . The album is notable for the fact that Timbaland , who produced the vast majority of material on Elliott 's past albums , only produced two tracks .
Three singles were released from the album ; the first , " Lose Control " , was released on May 27 , 2005 , and peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and charted well internationally . The second single , " Teary Eyed " , was released on August 8 , 2005 , and failed to chart on any Billboard chart and charted low in other countries . The third single , " We Run This " , was released on February 21 , 2006 , and peaked at number forty @-@ eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and charted moderately well internationally .
The album received generally favorable reviews from critics and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 . It was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , selling 657 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and received a Grammy nomination for Best Rap Album , ultimately losing to Kanye West 's Late Registration . The music video for " Lose Control " , directed by Dave Meyers won the Grammy for Best Short Form Music Video .
= = Background = =
The title The Cookbook derived of Elliott feeling " no two records are going to sound alike ; each record has its own spices and herbs . Each record is cooking up a hot recipe for a hot album . " The black and white cover features Elliott posing with a vintage microphone in a 1920s juke joint . She explained the cover , saying , " I wanted people to see I was taking music back to the roots — not just hip hop , but our ancestors . Whether they was on railroad tracks or cooking in somebody 's kitchen , they was always singing . "
In an interview with Billboard magazine , Elliott said , " I really do think this is my best album . I was in a really great space with this album . I wasn 't in a great space with some of the other albums I 've done . " She went on to say , " I played Lil ' Kim the album the other day , and she told me it was incredible and that there was not one song on it that she didn 't like . "
= = Recording = =
In January 2005 , it was revealed Elliott had been working on a new album . Two months later , Ciara confirmed she would appear on the album , singing and rapping on the potential first untitled single at the time . Elliott worked on The Cookbook with such producers as The Neptunes , Rich Harrison and Scott Storch . The album included only two songs produced by Timbaland , who produced most or all songs on Elliott 's previous albums . She explained , " Me and Tim , this like our sixth album , so if we go any further left , we gonna be on Mars somewhere . We 've done everything it is to do . I think both of us came to a spot where we didn 't know where to go with each other . " She said Timbaland was very involved with the album , supporting or opposing certain producers . Elliott went on to say , " I was eight songs deep and I let Tim listen and he was like , ' Nah , you 're going in the wrong direction . You trippin ' . ' I had to go back in the studio and come up with new records . [ When he heard those ] , he was like , ' This is the Missy people are listening to . ' "
= = Singles = =
The first , " Lose Control " , was released on May 27 , 2005 , and peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , number six on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and number two on the Billboard Pop 100 . The single also peaked at number two on the New Zealand RIANZ Singles Chart and in the top ten in four other countries . A Dave Meyers @-@ directed promotional video accompanied the song ; it was the most played video on BET and MTV2 and second most played video in the United States . It went on to win a Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video , while the song itself received a nomination for Best Rap Song .
The second single , " Teary Eyed " , was released on August 8 , 2005 ; it failed to chart except in Australia and Switzerland . The music video for the song was directed by Antti J. Jokinen and was filmed " like a movie " . It features Elliott responding to a relationship that had gone wrong .
The third single , " We Run This " , was released on February 21 , 2006 , and peaked at number 48 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 39 on the Billboard Pop 100 and peaked in the top forty in Australia , Ireland and the United Kingdom . An edited version of the song was used as the theme song for the gymnastics @-@ themed film Stick It , as well as for the music video , which was directed by Dave Meyers . The video features a cameo by gold @-@ medalist Dominique Dawes as Elliott 's gymnastics coach , with scenes from the film being used throughout the video . The song received a Grammy nomination for Best Rap Solo Performance .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Cookbook received positive reviews from most music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 74 , based on 28 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Rich Juzwiak of Stylus Magazine gave the album an A rating , stating " Her adventurous and , yes , massive , persona is allowed to wander wherever it wants on The Cookbook , be it avant or common . " Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote , " The Cookbook is a convincing return to form .... Sounding as unique and startling and formidable as ever , Missy Elliott is clearly not a woman to be messed with . " John Bush of AllMusic noted that " Elliott forces a few rhymes , plays to type with her themes , and uses those outside producers to follow trends in hip @-@ hop .... What 's different here is how relaxed Elliott is , how willing she seems to simply go with what comes naturally and sounds best . " Q stated " If not Elliott 's most inventive album , The Cookbook is certainly her most colourful and entertaining " .
However , Ben Sisario of Blender wrote , " For every killer raise @-@ your @-@ hands hook there is a snoozer of an SWV @-@ esque torch ballad , and she can 't seem to tell the difference . " He went on to say , " Almost half the songs are treacly Kleenex soul ballads ; even the titles ... bring a cringe . " Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols found that " her souffle of hip @-@ hop , soul , R & B , funk and dance music falls a bit flat " . Rolling Stone 's Brian Hiatt called The Cookbook Elliott 's " least cohesive , most conventional album yet . " Entertainment Weekly 's Margeaux Watson viewed that " she 's clearly lost without Timbaland " , calling him " the main ingredient of her original flavor " . Steve Horowitz of PopMatters noted that it " does have a few duds " and found some of the " offensive lyrics " as flaws , but wrote that " While not every cut is a winner , Elliott does a fairly consistent job of gaining the listener 's attention through her outrageous lyrics and performance style " .
Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal found the album " Even more bipolar than usual " , with Elliott " jolting from uber @-@ hypeness to soul @-@ crushing balladry . Fortunately , supported by an array of producers both grizzly and green , her invaluable unpredictability is alternately harnessed and given new life on this album , despite its uneven and transitional nature . " Joan Morgan of The Village Voice complimented Elliott 's " ability to capture the ain 't @-@ afraid @-@ to @-@ sweat flava " and stated " Elliott mines the best of hip @-@ hop 's old @-@ school elements for throwback tracks that are engagingly sparse and elemental " . In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , critic Robert Christgau gave The Cookbook an A- rating , indicating " the kind of garden @-@ variety good record that is the great luxury of musical micromarketing and overproduction " . Christgau called it a " benchmark album " and commented that " Elliott showcases the musical health of African American pop [ ... ] Elliott 's disinclination to give it up to gangsta 's thrill cult or black pop 's soft @-@ focus porn , plus her proven ability to work a good beat when she gets one , leads her naturally to a collection that ebbs and flows , peaks and dips , and pokes fun at any canon of taste you got " .
The album was nominated at the 2006 Grammy Awards for Best Rap Album , but lost to Kanye West 's Late Registration .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , selling 176 @,@ 000 copies in the first week of release . It has sold 657 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . The Cookbook peaked in the top thirty in Australia , Belgium , Germany , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Norway and Switzerland .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Sample credits = = =
" Partytime " contains a sample from " Whammer Jammer " by The J. Geils Band
" Irresistible Delicious " contains a sample from " Lick the Balls " by Slick Rick
" Lose Control " contains a sample from " Clear " by Cybotron and " Body Work " by Hot Streak
" My Struggles " contains a sample from " What 's the 411 ? " by Mary J. Blige
" We Run This " contains a sample from " Apache " by The Sugarhill Gang
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Chandra Levy =
Chandra Ann Levy ( April 14 , 1977 – c . May 1 , 2001 ) was an American intern at the Federal Bureau of Prisons in Washington , D.C. , who disappeared in May 2001 . She was presumed murdered after her skeletal remains were found in Rock Creek Park in May 2002 . The case attracted attention from the American news media for years .
The police investigation revealed she was having an affair with Congressman Gary Condit , a married Democrat then serving his fifth term representing California 's 18th congressional district , and a senior member of the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence . Condit was never named as a suspect by police and was eventually cleared of involvement . However , after a cloud of suspicion was raised by the intense media focus on the missing intern and the later revelation of the affair , he was not re @-@ elected in 2002 , with the Levy issue cited as a contributory factor .
The circumstances surrounding Levy 's death were unclear for eight years . On March 3 , 2009 , D.C. authorities obtained a warrant to arrest Ingmar Guandique , an illegal immigrant from El Salvador . He had been convicted of assaulting two other women in Rock Creek Park around the time of Levy 's disappearance . Prosecutors alleged that Guandique had attacked and tied up Levy in a remote area of the park and left her to die of dehydration or exposure . In November 2010 Guandique was convicted of murdering Levy ; he was sentenced in February 2011 to 60 years in prison . In June 2015 , Guandique was granted a new trial and in March 2016 , the date was set to October 11 , 2016 .
= = Life and background = =
Levy was born in Cleveland , Ohio , to Robert and Susan Levy ; the family moved to Modesto , California , where she attended Grace M. Davis High School . Her parents are members of Congregation Beth Shalom , a Conservative Jewish synagogue . She attended San Francisco State University , where she earned a degree in journalism . After interning for the California Bureau of Secondary Education and working in the office of Los Angeles Mayor Richard Riordan , she began attending the University of Southern California to earn a master 's degree in public administration .
As part of her final semester of study , Levy moved to Washington , D.C. , to become a paid intern with the Federal Bureau of Prisons . In October 2000 she began her internship at the bureau 's headquarters , where she was assigned to the public affairs division . Her supervisor , bureau spokesperson Dan Dunne , was impressed with Levy 's work , especially her handling of media inquiries regarding the upcoming execution of Timothy McVeigh , convicted of bombing the Oklahoma City Federal Building . Levy 's internship was abruptly terminated in April 2001 because her academic eligibility was found to have expired in December 2000 . She had already completed her master 's degree requirements and was scheduled to return to California in May 2001 for graduation .
= = Murder case = =
= = = Disappearance and search = = =
Levy was last seen on May 1 , 2001 . The Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia was first alerted on May 6 , when Levy 's parents called from Modesto to report that they had not heard from their daughter in five days . Police called hospitals and visited Levy 's apartment in Dupont Circle that day , finding no indication of foul play . On May 7 , Levy 's father told the police that his daughter had been having an affair with a U.S. congressman , and said the next day that he believed the congressman to be U.S. Representative Gary Condit . Levy 's aunt also called the police and told them that Chandra had confided in her about the affair . Police obtained a warrant on May 10 to conduct a formal search of Levy 's apartment . Investigators found her credit cards , identification and mobile phone left behind in her purse , along with partially packed suitcases . The answering machine was full , with messages left by her relatives and two from Condit . A police sergeant tried to examine Levy 's laptop computer and inadvertently corrupted the internet search data , as he was not a trained technician .
Computer experts took a month to reconstruct the data to determine that the laptop was used on the morning of May 1 to search for websites related to Amtrak , Baskin @-@ Robbins , Condit , Southwest Airlines , and a weather report from The Washington Post . The last search at 12 : 24 p.m. was for the location of the Pierce @-@ Klingle Mansion , a historic house in Rock Creek Park that is used as the park 's administrative office . On July 25 , 2001 , three D.C. police sergeants and 28 police cadets searched along Glover Road in the park but failed to find evidence related to Levy . Later , a second attempt found nothing .
= = = Relationship with Condit = = =
Controversy surrounding Levy 's disappearance drew the attention of the American news media . Levy 's parents and friends held numerous vigils and news conferences in an attempt to " bring Chandra home . " Condit , a married man who represented the congressional district in which the Levy family resided , at first denied that he had had an affair with her . Though police stated that Condit was not a suspect , Levy 's family said they felt Condit was being evasive and possibly hiding information about the matter .
Unidentified police sources alleged that Condit had admitted to an affair with Levy during an interview with law enforcement officers on July 7 , 2001 . Condit described her to police as a vegetarian who avoided drinking and smoking . He thought that Levy was going to return to Washington , DC after her graduation and was surprised to find out that the lease on her apartment had ended . Investigators searched Condit 's apartment on July 10 . They questioned flight attendant Anne Marie Smith , who claimed that Condit told her she did not need to speak to the Federal Bureau of Investigation about his personal life . Federal officials began investigating Condit for possible obstruction of justice as Smith was also involved in an affair with him . ( She was not acquainted with Levy . ) Upset by leaks to the media , Condit refused to submit to a polygraph test by the D.C. police ; his attorney asserted that Condit passed a test administered by a privately hired examiner on July 13 . He avoided answering direct questions during a televised interview on August 23 , with news anchor Connie Chung on the ABC News program Primetime Thursday . Intensive coverage continued until news of the September 11 attacks superseded the media 's coverage of the Levy case .
In a nationwide Fox News / Opinion Dynamics poll of 900 registered voters conducted in July 2001 , 44 percent of American respondents thought that Condit was involved in Levy 's disappearance and 27 percent felt that he should resign . Fifty @-@ one percent of the respondents believed that he was acting as if he were guilty ; 13 percent felt that he should run again for office . A poll sample taken from Condit 's congressional district held a more favorable view of Condit . On March 5 , 2002 , Condit lost the Democratic primary election for his Congressional seat to his former aide , then @-@ Assemblyman Dennis Cardoza , with the Levy controversy being cited as a contributing factor . He was subpoenaed to appear on April 1 , 2002 , before a District of Columbia grand jury investigating the disappearance . The date was kept a carefully guarded secret to avoid further leaks . Condit left Congress at the end of his term on January 3 , 2003 .
= = = Discovery of remains = = =
District of Columbia Police Chief Charles H. Ramsey announced on May 22 , 2002 , that skeletal remains matching Levy 's dental records had been discovered by a man walking his dog and looking for turtles in Rock Creek Park . Detectives found bones and personal items scattered , but not buried , in a forested area along a steep incline . A sports bra , sweat shirt , leggings and tennis shoes were among the evidence that was recovered . Though police had previously searched over half the 1 @,@ 754 @-@ acre main section of the park ( 2 @.@ 74 mi2 , 7 @.@ 10 km2 ) , the wooded slope where Levy 's remains were eventually found had not been searched as it was very remote : about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the Pierce @-@ Klingle Mansion and about four miles ( 6 km ) from Levy 's apartment .
After a preliminary autopsy was performed , District of Columbia police announced that there was sufficient evidence to open a homicide investigation . On May 28 , D.C. medical examiner Jonathan L. Arden officially declared Levy 's death a homicide , but said , " There 's less to work with here than I would like . It 's possible we will never know specifically how she died . " Arden found damage to her hyoid bone , suggesting possible strangulation , but did not deem it to be conclusive evidence of such a cause of death . On June 6 , after the police completed their search , private investigators hired by the Levys found her shin bone with some twisted wire about 25 yards ( 23 m ) from the other remains . Police chief Ramsey said , " It is unacceptable that these items were not located . "
= = = Memorial services = = =
On May 28 , 2002 , the Levy family organized a memorial service at the Modesto Centre Plaza that drew over 1 @,@ 200 people , some from as far as Los Angeles . Speakers at the 90 @-@ minute ceremony included Levy 's brother , grandmother , great @-@ aunt and friends . In a eulogy delivered in Hebrew and English by Rabbi Paul Gordon , Levy was described as " a good person taken from us much too soon . " About a year later , on May 27 , 2003 , Levy 's remains were buried in Lakewood Memorial Park Cemetery at Hughson , California , near her home town of Modesto . Attended by about 40 of Levy 's friends and family members , the private ceremony concluded with the release of 12 white doves .
= = = Identification of the prime suspect = = =
In September 2001 , D.C. police and federal prosecutors were contacted by the lawyer of an informant , held in a D.C. jail , who claimed to have knowledge of Levy 's killer . The informant , whose identity was protected for his safety , said that Ingmar Guandique , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old illegal immigrant from El Salvador also being held in the jail , told him that Condit paid him $ 25 @,@ 000 to kill Levy . Investigators ruled out the story about Condit , because Guandique had already admitted to assaulting two other women in the same park where Levy 's remains were found . Guandique failed to show up for work on the day of Levy 's disappearance . His former landlady recalled that his face appeared scratched and bruised at around that time . The investigators on the Levy case did not interview the other Rock Creek Park victims . Police chief Ramsey avoided calling Guandique a suspect and described him as a " person of interest " , telling reporters not to make " too big a deal " about him . Assistant chief Terrance W. Gainer said that if Guandique had been considered a suspect , D.C. police would have been after him " like flies on honey . "
Guandique denied attacking Levy . On November 28 , the FBI had the informant take a polygraph test , which he failed . A polygraph test on Guandique , administered on February 4 , 2002 , returned inconclusive results that were officially ruled " not deceptive " . Because neither the informant nor Guandique was fluent in English , D.C. chief detective Jack Barrett said that he would have preferred polygraph tests to have been administered by bilingual examiners , who were unavailable at the time . When Judge Noel Anketell Kramer was asked about Guandique 's potential connection to the Levy homicide , she responded , " This is such a satellite issue . To me it doesn 't have anything to do with this case . " Kramer sentenced Guandique to 10 years in prison for his attacks on two other women at Rock Creek Park . Guandique was sent to the U.S. Penitentiary , Big Sandy near Inez , Kentucky , and was later transferred to the U.S. Penitentiary at Victorville , California .
The Levy homicide remained listed as a " cold case " until 2006 , when Cathy L. Lanier succeeded Ramsey as D.C. police chief . Lanier replaced the lead detective on the case with three veteran investigators who had more homicide experience . In 2007 , the editors of the Washington Post assigned a new team of reporters to take a year to re @-@ examine the Levy case . The resulting series of articles , published during the summer of 2008 , focused on the past failure of the police to fully investigate Guandique 's connection to the attacks in Rock Creek Park . In September 2008 , investigators searched Guandique 's federal prison cell in California and found a photo of Levy that he had saved from a magazine . Police interviewed acquaintances of Guandique and witnesses of the other Rock Creek Park incidents .
On March 3 , 2009 , the Superior Court of the District of Columbia issued an arrest warrant for Guandique . He was returned to the custody of the District of Columbia Department of Corrections on April 20 via the Federal Transfer Center in Oklahoma City . Two days later , Guandique was charged in D.C. with Levy 's murder . He was indicted by a grand jury on six counts : kidnapping , first @-@ degree murder committed during a kidnapping , attempted first @-@ degree sexual abuse , first @-@ degree murder committed during a sexual offense , attempted robbery , and first @-@ degree murder committed during a robbery . Guandique pleaded not guilty at his arraignment , where a trial date was initially set for January 27 , 2010 . His lawyers argued that Guandique 's federal prison cell was outside the jurisdiction of a court @-@ ordered search . After errors in processing contaminated some of the gathered evidence with DNA from employees of the prosecution , the start date of the trial at the Moultrie Courthouse was moved to October 4 , 2010 .
= = = Trial of Guandique = = =
On October 18 , 2010 , jury selection commenced in the Superior Court of the District of Columbia before Judge Gerald I. Fisher . Assistant U.S. Attorney Fernando Campoamor @-@ Sanchez presented the names of potential witnesses for the trial , including FBI agent Brad Garrett and the two women whom Guandique was convicted of assaulting . At the start of the trial , the prosecution 's case was expected to take around four weeks and the defense was expected to take one day . On October 25 and 26 , Halle Shilling and Christy Wiegand testified about being attacked by Guandique while independently jogging in Rock Creek Park . Wiegand recounted that Guandique grabbed her from behind , dragged her down a ravine and held a knife against her face .
On October 26 , 2010 , Levy 's then @-@ 64 @-@ year @-@ old father , Robert , took the stand and refuted statements about his past suspicions of Condit . Robert Levy testified that he told authorities during the early years of the investigation that his daughter Chandra would have been too cautious to jog in the woods alone , but said that he no longer believed this to be true . He said that he also told police that his daughter and Condit had a five @-@ year plan between them to get married . In retrospect , Robert Levy admitted : " I just said whatever came to mind just to point to him as the villain . " Levy added that he had been convinced that Condit was “ guilty until we learned about this character here ” , referring to Guandique . On November 1 , Condit testified at the trial and was asked on at least three occasions if he and Chandra Levy had been involved in a sexual relationship . He replied , " I am not going to respond to that question out of privacy for myself and Chandra . " FBI biologist Alan Giusti testified that semen found on underwear from Levy 's apartment contained sperm matching Condit 's DNA profile .
Prosecution witness Armando Morales , who shared a cell with Guandique at the U.S. Penitentiary in Kentucky , testified that Guandique was concerned about being transferred between prisons in 2006 because of inmate violence against suspected rapists . Morales stated that Guandique , a fellow member of the Mara Salvatrucha gang , confided to him that he had killed Levy while trying to rob her , but said that he did not rape her . The prosecution rested their case on November 10 , while dropping two out of the six charges against Guandique : sexual assault and murder associated with that assault . On November 15 , the defense rested its case without calling Guandique to the stand . Other prison witnesses called by the defense refuted Morales ' testimony . Jose Manuel Alaniz said that Guandique made no mention of rape or murder while sharing a cell with both Alaniz and Morales at the penitentiary in Kentucky . Alaniz admitted under cross @-@ examination that he " didn 't want to be too nosy " and was often asleep at the prison while recovering from a gunshot wound . The prosecution dropped two more charges because the statute of limitations had passed : kidnapping and attempted robbery . During closing arguments for the remaining charges of first @-@ degree murder committed during a kidnapping and during a robbery , prosecutor Amanda Haines contended that Guandique bound and gagged Levy after attacking her , leaving her to die of dehydration or exposure in the park . Defense attorney Santha Sonenberg countered with the lack of any DNA evidence connecting Guandique to the crime scene . Calling the prosecution 's case " fiction " , Sonenberg suggested that Levy had been murdered elsewhere , with her dead body being dumped in the park .
The jury began deliberations on November 17 , 2010 . Scheduled proceedings of the case met delays because of increased security at the courthouse . After two days of deliberations , all but one juror had voted to convict Guandique . On the third day , the jury asked Judge Gerald Fisher to clarify the definition of assault . Fisher responded that any physical injury could legally be considered an assault , regardless of how small . On November 22 , 2010 , the jury found Guandique guilty of both remaining counts of first @-@ degree murder . After the trial , a juror said the testimony of Morales was decisive in reaching the verdict . The conviction was called a " miracle " for having been reached with only circumstantial evidence . Gladys Weatherspoon , who had previously represented Guandique in the 2001 assault cases , stated that she was troubled by the jury 's verdict : " I just think they were going to convict anyway .... They felt bad for that woman , the mom . She 's sitting in there every day . " At a post @-@ trial press conference , Susan Levy said , " There 's always going to be a feeling of sadness . I can surely tell you , it ain 't closure . " Since the conclusion of the trial , Susan Levy has acted to keep photographic evidence of her daughter 's remains sealed from the news media .
= = = = Sentencing and appeals = = = =
On February 1 , 2011 , Guandique 's attorneys requested a new trial on the grounds that the verdict had been improperly attained . The 17 @-@ page filing claimed that the prosecutors had appealed to the emotions of the jury , using " references to facts not in evidence . " The motion also alleged that one juror , who did not take notes , had breached the judge 's instructions not to be " influenced by another juror 's notes . " The prosecution opposed a retrial , arguing that the issue regarding the notes was no more than a technicality that did not have a significant effect on the verdict .
Guandique faced a minimum penalty of 30 years to a maximum of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole . In seeking the maximum possible sentence , the prosecutors stated that Guandique " is unable to control himself and thus , will always remain a danger to women . " A memo submitted by the prosecution in February 2011 cited Guandique 's harassment of female staff in prison , including soliciting a nurse and masturbating in front of guards . Assistant U.S. Attorney Fernando Campoamor @-@ Sanchez disclosed that he had traveled to El Salvador with a detective to investigate allegations that Guandique had fled his native country because of suspected attacks against local women dating back to 1999 . During the sentencing hearing on February 11 , Guandique said to Levy 's family , " I am sorry for what happened to your daughter , " and insisted on his innocence . Before Judge Gerald Fisher reminded Susan Levy to address the court instead of the defendant , Levy said to him , " Did you really take her life ? Look me in my eyes and tell me . " Fisher denied Guandique 's motion for retrial and handed down a sentence of 60 years in prison , stating that Guandique " will be a danger for some time . He 's a sexual predator . "
Guandique repeated his innocence during his sentencing . He has maintained his innocence in the years since the trial .
On February 25 , 2011 , public defender James Klein filed an appeal of Guandique 's conviction with the District of Columbia Court of Appeals . According to the court 's annual report , appeals take an average of 588 days to reach resolution . Guandique will not be eligible for parole until he is at least 80 years old . In December 2012 and January 2013 , a set of secret hearings was made known to the public , but the subject of the meetings was sealed by the judge . After a third hearing in February , the judge in the case unsealed transcripts from the previous hearings which revealed that Klein was seeking a new trial based on new evidence in the case . A fourth hearing was scheduled for April 2013 .
= = = = New trial ordered = = = =
On May 22 , 2015 , prosecutors dropped their opposition to a new trial . On June 3 , 2015 , the defense said a new witness , a neighbor , called 911 at 4 : 37 a.m. on the last day Levy was alive to report hearing a ' blood @-@ curdling scream ' , possibly coming from Levy 's apartment . On June 4 , 2015 , Judge Gerald Fisher granted a motion for the new trial . Guandique 's attorneys suggested that Morales fabricated Guandique 's confession to gain favor with law enforcement . On June 12 , 2015 , Judge Robert E. Morin set the retrial of Guandique for March 1 , 2016 but in March , the trial date was moved to October 11 , 2016 .
In November 2015 , prosecutors told a D.C. Superior Court judge that their office failed to turn over documents to the defense before the defendant ’ s first trial . In December 2015 , defense attorneys argued in new court filings that the charges should be dismissed because of prosecutorial errors .
= = = Media coverage = = =
The disappearance of Chandra Levy became a national topic of the news media in the summer of 2001 , with 63 percent of Americans closely following the case . The media swamped Levy 's parents from the moment they decided to go to Washington , D.C. in search of their daughter . According to Condit , there were about a hundred reporters camped out in front of his apartment during the morning of September 11 , 2001 , but they all left after news spread about the terrorist attacks . Media critics and cable news executives later cited the Levy case , as well as the concurrent sensationalist coverage of a string of shark attacks , as a reflection of the manner of news coverage in the United States before the September 11 attacks had taken priority .
In 2002 , D.C. newspaper Roll Call first reported the possible connection of Ingmar Guandique to the case , with little effect on the news media 's focus on Condit . Conservative commentator Michelle Malkin noted the lack of headlines that an illegal immigrant had been questioned in the Levy case . She said that in her review of 115 news items from the Lexis @-@ Nexis database , not a single mention of Guandique referred to his status as a " criminal illegal alien . " She called the " glaring omission " of his status " a newsworthy act of negligence . " She wrote that only the very conservative Human Events reported that the Immigration and Naturalization Service had approved his working legally while applying for temporary protected status . That application was ultimately denied , but not before he had assaulted two other women at Rock Creek Park .
In 2005 , investigative journalist Dominick Dunne said on Larry King Live that he believed Gary Condit knew more information about the Levy case than he had been disclosing . Condit filed two lawsuits against Dunne , forcing him into an undisclosed financial settlement on one of them . In 2008 , U.S. District Judge Peter Leisure dismissed the other suit that alleged slander , because " The context in which Dunne 's statements were made demonstrates that they were part of a discussion about ' speculation ' in the media and inaccurate media coverage . "
During the summer of 2008 , The Washington Post ran a 13 @-@ part series billed , in part , as " a tale of the tabloid and mainstream press pack journalism that helped derail the investigation . " The two investigative reporters behind the Post series , Scott Higham and Sari Horwitz , wrote a book detailing their investigation . The book , Finding Chandra , was published in May 2010 . Commentators , including The Washington Post Metro reporter Robert Pierre , wrote that emphasis on a glamorous white murder victim , when " about 200 people are killed in this city every year , most of them black and male , " was " absolutely absurd and dare I say , racist , at its core . "
The media were criticized for their " rush to judgment " in suggesting , sometimes blatantly , that Condit was guilty of the murder , especially in the early days of the investigation . Some of the reporters camped in front of Condit 's Washington apartment house were quoted as saying that they would remain there " until he resigns . " When Ingmar Guandique was convicted in November 2010 of murdering Levy , Condit 's lawyer Bert Fields remarked , " It 's a complete vindication but that comes a little late . Who gives him his career back ? "
= = Impact = =
Levy 's death has had a lasting impact , due in part to the efforts of her family and friends . Levy 's disappearance came after a number of other high @-@ profile cases that led to the creation of resources for missing young adults . For example , Levy 's parents quickly turned for help to the Carole Sund / Carrington Memorial Reward Foundation , a nonprofit group that was established in Modesto after three female hikers disappeared from a 1999 trip to Yosemite National Park and were later found slain . That foundation , which offered the Levys staff support and contributed towards a cash reward for information about Chandra 's disappearance , was merged into the Laci & Conner Search and Rescue Fund in 2009 ; Susan Levy had previously participated in the efforts to find Laci Peterson , another missing woman from Modesto . In 1997 , when Kristen Modafferi mysteriously disappeared from the San Francisco Bay Area just three weeks after her 18th birthday , her parents turned to their congresswoman for help they were ineligible to receive from the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children . As a result , Congress enacted " Kristen 's Law " in October 2000 , which established the National Center for Missing Adults ( NCMA ) within the U.S. Department of Justice to coordinate such missing person cases . By the time Levy disappeared , institutions were in place to provide her family with support and to assist in a nationwide search to locate her . Although the Levy family moved quickly to mobilize all such available resources , including offering a cash reward for information , hiring their own investigators , and seeking media attention , those efforts to locate Chandra Levy or find her killer were overshadowed by the speculation surrounding her possible relationship with Condit . Susan Levy later joined with Donna Raley , the mother of another young woman who disappeared in 1999 from Modesto , to form " Wings of Protection " , a support group for people with missing loved ones . The Mary Ann Liebert company , publishers of the Journal of Women 's Health and Gender @-@ Based Medicine , presented their annual Criterion Award in May 2002 to Susan Levy for her work with " Wings of Protection . "
Newsweek magazine stated that the media may have become more skeptical of " herd mentality " and open to alternative suspects after the Levy case . The D.C. police claimed that they would have discovered Levy 's body earlier , if not for a miscommunication regarding the scope of the search . Commanders had ordered a search within 100 yards ( 91 m ) of each road and trail in Rock Creek Park , but searches were focused within 100 yards of roads only , resulting in the body remaining undiscovered for a longer period of time . Both the Chief of Detectives , Jack Barrett , and the Chief of Police , Charles H. Ramsey , have since left the force in D.C. Ramsey became head of the Philadelphia Police Department ; Barrett , who became an analyst for an intelligence support firm in Arlington , Virginia , stated in hindsight that the media had imposed " enormous amounts of pressure " on the D.C. police . Morales , who is serving time for conspiracy to distribute methamphetamine and crack cocaine , is scheduled to be released on August 5 , 2016 . Condit retired from politics and moved with his wife to Phoenix , Arizona , to manage real estate and open two Baskin @-@ Robbins franchises , which have since closed .
= Fly Like a Bird =
" Fly Like a Bird " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , first released on February 13 , 2006 by Island Records as the sixth single from her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . Written and produced by Carey and James " Big Jim " Wright , the song is influenced by Gospel , soul , and R & B music genres . Its arrangement is built on piano chords and guitar melodies , and features Carey 's pastor Clarence Keaton , who recites two Biblical verses during the song 's introduction and bridge . Carey described " Fly Like a Bird " as the most personal and religious track from The Emancipation of Mimi , with its lyrics featuring a veritable prayer to God : " Fly like a bird , take to the sky , I need you now Lord , carry me high ! " .
At the time of its release , " Fly Like a Bird " received acclaim from music critics . While many praised Carey 's strong vocal performance throughout its climax , many pinpointed on its lyrical content and compared it to Carey 's debut song , " Vision of Love " . Released as the final single from its parent album , the song was only sent to adult contemporary and gospel radio stations , during the same time " Say Somethin ' " was commissioned to mainstream channels . Carey performed the song on several high profile industry events , including the 48th annual Grammy Awards , the Shelter from the Storm : A Concert for the Gulf Coast concert charity benefit , and Idol Gives Back . Additionally , Carey included the song on the set @-@ lists for all her succeeding tours since its release .
= = Background and recording = =
Following record @-@ breaking success throughout the 1990s , Carey departed from Columbia Records after the release of Rainbow ( 1999 ) . Almost a year later , she signed an unprecedented $ 100 million five @-@ album record contract with Virgin Records , and began work on a film and soundtrack project titled Glitter . Prior to its release on September 11 , 2001 , Carey suffered an " emotional and physical breakdown " , and was subsequently hospitalized over a period of several weeks . Glitter became a box @-@ office bomb , earning less than eight million dollars , and receiving scathing reviews . The soundtrack , while faring slightly better , failed to reach the critical or commercial heights of Carey 's previous releases , and eventually lead to the annulment of her record contract with Virgin .
Following the events , as well as the release of Carey 's succeeding album , Charmbracelet ( 2002 ) , she began working on new material for The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . Aside from the dance @-@ influenced tracks and the ballads , Carey created a concept , in which a song 's lyrics would reach out to God . She created the song 's choral lyrics , melody and main instrumentation , before calling James " Big Jim " Wright for a collaboration . During their meeting , Wright helped Carey arrange the song 's chord structure , as well as produce the introduction , while Carey finished the rest of the lyrics . Once completing " Fly Like a Bird " , Carey had her pastor , Clarence Keaton , read two verses from the Bible on the song , " Weeping may endure for the night , but joy comes in the morning " during the introduction , and " He said ' He 'll never forsake you , or leave you alone ' Trust him " . According to Carey , the song , as well as the Biblical verses , were included on her " comeback album " because they helped her get through many difficult situations in the past . She described moments that were difficult growing up , during which she reached out to God , as well as during her breakdown , when she used such verses to give her faith . Carey explained how although the verses helped her greatly , no one had ever said them to her . For this reason , she wanted to make sure they were there for fans and listeners to hear , in order to give them faith and assurance lest they be in a grave situation .
= = = Release = = =
Following the extended chart success of The Emancipation of Mimi , " Fly Like a Bird " was released as a promotional single from the project . Simultaneously promoted alongside " Say Somethin ' , the song was released on March 13 , 2006 to urban , urban AC and gospel stations , while the latter to mainstream Top 40 channels . Tom Ferguson from Billboard did not agree with releasing both singles concurrently , as he had given " Say Somethin ' " a negative review . According to Ferguson , while the latter had radio appeal , its " scantily produced drum 'n'bass " only distracted , concluding " ' Fly Like A Bird ' is a classic : why muddy the water with this release . "
= = Composition = =
" Fly Like a Bird " is a mid @-@ tempo ballad , drawing influence from Gospel , soul and R & B music genres . It incorporates music from several musical instruments , including the organ , bass drum and trumpet . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 54 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B minor with Carey 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of B2 in a background note to the high @-@ note of A6 . The song 's chorus has a chord progression of F ♯ m7 @-@ Bm @-@ G / A @-@ Bmaj7 in the verses , while changing into Gmaj7 during the bridge . Lyrically , " Fly Like a Bird " boasts a prayer in which the protagonist asks God for help during difficult times , and to carry them " higher and higher " . Cintra Wilson from LA Weekly described the song 's lyrics in depth , as well as where she felt the yearning lyrics stemmed from :
'Fly Like A Bird ' , is a kitchen @-@ sink , hyper @-@ produced gospel number , but is really quite moving . There is a real , human yearning for mercy in it — Mariah ’ s true cry for help from a place of near @-@ suicidal despair : ' Sometimes this life can be so cold / ( Lord ) I pray you 'll come and carry me home ' . But there ’ s a lot of hope and faith in this wounded voice : Carey keeps , with touching conviction , a firm grip on the idea that some higher , divine intelligence out there loves her , even if nobody else does ; even if she is lost to herself . It comes across emotionally , because her heart is fully in it — Mimi has been beaten , humiliated , heartbroken ; joys have been slapped out of her hands quicker than she could appreciate them . She ’ s deeply confused , and God , she really needs help . Hell : We ’ ve all been there .
Entertainment Weekly 's Tom Sinclair described the song as a " veritable prayer that explicitly references God " , and highlighted the lines " Sometimes this life can be so cold / I pray you 'll come and carry me home , Carry me higher , higher , higher . " According to Carey , the song holds deep lyrical meaning for herself , as well as her fans . She compared it to older emotional ballads from her career , and described the sentiment they held for many fans " Usually , I 'll have an introspective bleak @-@ outlook @-@ on @-@ life song . In the past it 's been ' Petals ' or ' Close My Eyes ' . Those were the ones that the hard @-@ core fans related to most . But this has a hopefulness to it . That 's why it 's one of my favorites , too . " Additionally , Carey outed Keaton 's verse during the song 's introduction as her favorite part of the song , and included it as a guide for fans , due to the help it had given her in the past :
'To me the most important thing is the message he says in the beginning of the song , ' she notes . ' Weeping may endure for a night , but joy comes in the morning . ' I felt like a lot of people may not hear that message and a lot of people need to . It wasn 't to be preachy . A lot of times people will hear songs that I write that are not the typical songs people look at as ' Mariah Carey songs.'
= = Critical reception = =
" Fly Like a Bird " received acclaim from music critics , many of whom praised Carey 's gospel @-@ flavored vocal performance , as well as the song 's lyrical content . Critic Jim DeRogatis from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called Carey 's voice as " one @-@ in @-@ a @-@ million " , and wrote " she 's never been shy about showing off with frequently annoying octave @-@ spanning trills – and her instrument seems to be intact ; witness the display of bravado on ' Fly Like a Bird ' . " When describing the song , Dina Passaro from Newsday wrote " This songstress is back and better than ever ! " and claimed Carey " sounds awesome and tears it apart " . Tom Ferguson from Billboard called the track a " classic " , and wrote " the re @-@ crowned diva delivers a consummate vocal . " Similarly , in a separate review for the song , Ferguson went into detail regarding Carey 's performance in " Fly Like a Bird " :
The Emancipation of Mimi spawns yet another career @-@ redefining hit in the sweet , soulful " Fly Like a Bird " , an honest @-@ to @-@ God religious mantra about redemption . Set against a low @-@ key , organ @-@ spiced groove that recalls mid- ' 70s R & B , Carey opens with a pretty , wispy vocal and buoyant harmonies throughout the first chorus before she waves her arms , parts the clouds and wails to the heavens as a mile @-@ high wall of gospel background vocals joins in for the crescendo . The flight of ' Bird ' from humble call for deliverance into a frenzied ecclesiastic hymn is utterly spine @-@ tingling . A joyful noise .
Entertainment Weekly 's Tom Sinclair outed the song as a " heart @-@ on @-@ my @-@ sleeve number " , and called it the " crux of the album " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt the song " made Mariah likeable again " and wrote " [ it 's ] an inspirational ballad that 's equal parts ' Butterfly ' and ' Hero ' . " A writer from the Sarasota Herald @-@ Tribune compared it to Carey 's debut single , " Vision of Love " , and called it one of the best cuts from The Emancipation of Mimi . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic gave the song a mixed review , criticizing the condition of Carey 's voice , " As good as those Wright @-@ helmed cuts are , they are also the times that the mixes slip and don 't hide the flaws in Mariah 's voice , and it sounds as airy , thin , and damaged as it did on Charmbracelet . "
= = Commercial performance = =
During April 2006 , " Fly Like a Bird " was released to US urban and adult contemporary radio stations , at the same time " Say Somethin ' " ( featuring Snoop Dogg , the sixth single from The Emancipation of Mimi ) , was released to pop and rhythmic radio stations . " Fly Like a Bird " failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , instead reaching number four on Billboards Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which represents the twenty @-@ five songs below the Hot 100 's number 100 position that have not yet appeared on the Hot 100 . It peaked at number nineteen on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and topped the Hot Adult R & B Airplay chart for six weeks . The song experienced longevity in the urban market , reaching its peak on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart in its twenty @-@ fourth week .
= = Music video = =
Following the radio premiere of " Say Somethin ' " , as well as the video release , MTV News reported that Carey would film a music video for " Fly Like a Bird " at the end of March 2006 . According to Carey , the video had already been conceptualized by mid @-@ March , with a script featuring Carey , Keaton and a church choir as the main focuses . In a later interview , Carey said , " We don 't have a lot of time to do it . It 's not a big @-@ budget thing . But it doesn 't need to be . It just needs to be about the song , capturing the song and the emotion of it . " While plans for the video 's filming were made , a final version was never released or commissioned .
= = Live performances = =
Following the European promotional tour for The Emancipation of Mimi , Carey launched the stateside release of the album on Good Morning America , in the form of an interview and five @-@ piece outdoor concert . The concert , taking place in Times Square , and featuring the largest crowd in the plaza since the 2004 New Year 's Eve celebration , Carey performed the first three singles from the album , as well as " Fly Like a Bird " and " Make It Happen " ( 1991 ) . Months later , following the tragic events involving Hurricane Katrina in the Gulf Coast throughout August 2005 , she was featured as a head @-@ lining performer at the Shelter from the Storm : A Concert for the Gulf Coast concert charity benefit . Carey , wearing a non @-@ formal ensemble of a pink tank @-@ top and blue jeans , performed " Fly Like a Bird " alongside a large church choir . According to Nielsen Media Research , the special was viewed by over twenty @-@ four million United States citizens , airing on over twelve different cable channels and in ninety @-@ five countries . Following the beginning of 2006 , and the continued charting of the album , Carey was nominated for eight Grammy Awards , the most she had received in one night throughout her career . Due to the continued success of The Emancipation of Mimi , Carey decided to return to the Grammy stage for the 48th annual ceremony , held on February 8 , 2006 , for the first time since 1996 . The performance opened with a pre @-@ taped video of Carey discussing the importance of religion and God in her life , and how it helped her get through difficult times as a child and adult . Following the video , she appeared on stage wearing a white Chanel evening gown , and began with a shortened version of " We Belong Together " . Following its completion , the spotlight focused on Carey 's now @-@ deceased pastor Clarence Keaton , who opened " Fly Like a Bird " with a passage from the Bible , also featured in the studio recording of the song . Mid @-@ way through the song , a black temporary wall was removed , revealing a large choir , who joined Carey for the song 's gospel climax . After completing her performance , " Fly Like a Bird " induced the night 's only standing ovation , prompting Teri Hatcher , who was presenting the next award , to exclaim " It 's like we 've all just been saved . "
Critics raved about Carey performance following the completion of the ceremony , with Jon Pareles from The New York Times saying " once she was worked up , she moaned , growled and swooped to the high and low extremes of her voice in " Fly Like a Bird " . A writer from USA Today complimented her recital of both songs , writing " Carey certainly earned the right to savor the spotlight this year . But the diva made room for Walker 's booming baritone in ' Bird ' , her fluttering homage to Minnie Ripperton . " Gary Susman from Entertainment Weekly called Carey the " comeback queen " and wrote " Its what her voice did , soaring into the rafters like only Carey 's can . " Roger Friedman from Fox News outed the performance as " the number that sent the audience into a frenzy " . On April 9 , 2008 , reality competition American Idol aired its second annual charity event , titled Idol Gives Back . Backed up by Randy Jackson on the bass , Carey appeared on stage as the last head @-@ lining performer of the evening . Mid @-@ way through the performance , a large church choir walked on stage in blue garbs , and provided the gospel climax for the song . Ann Powers from the Los Angeles Times called the song an " inspirational show @-@ stopper " and felt Carey 's vocal 's were " patented impossible notes " . In regards to the performance , Katie Byrne from MTV News wrote " Carey was at her over @-@ the @-@ top best , with a full gospel choir and the high notes that made her famous . " Aside from several televised performances , Carey included " Fly Like a Bird " on the set @-@ lists of all her tours following its release . During Carey 's The Adventures of Mimi Tour ( 2006 ) stop at Madison Square Garden , the song was dedicated to Ol ' Dirty Bastard , who died in 2004 from an accidental drug overdose . The performance had to be re @-@ done , as Carey 's pastor , Clarence Keaton , missed his cue for the Biblical verses , and was forced to be found backstage and ushered to the spotlight . Four years later , Carey performed the song throughout her Angels Advocate Tour , only dedicating it to Keaton , who died on July 3 , 2009 . Editor and journalist Thomas Kintner from the Hartford Courant felt that during her live recital of " Fly Like a Bird " , Carey " displayed power and sky @-@ scraping pitch " .
= = Track listing = =
United States CD single ( Promo )
" Fly Like a Bird " – 3 : 53
" My Saving Grace " – 4 : 10
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the The Emancipation of Mimi liner notes .
Vocals – Mariah Carey
Songwriting – Mariah Carey , James " Big Jim " Wright
Production – Mariah Carey , James " Big Jim " Wright
Background vocals – Mariah Carey , Mary Ann Tatum , Melonie Daniels , Trey Lorenz , Sherry Tatum , Courtney Bradley , Rev. Dr. Clarence Keaton
Engineers – Brian Garten , Dana Jon Chapelle
Assistant engineer – Jason Finkel , Michael Leedy , Manuel Farolfi , Riccardo Durante
Mixer – Phil Tan ( mixed at Right Track Studios , NYC )
Mastering – Herb Powers
Additional keyboards – Loris Holland
= = Charts = =
= Sigismunda mourning over the Heart of Guiscardo =
Sigismunda mourning over the Heart of Guiscardo , fully titled Sigismunda mourning over the Heart of Guiscardo , her murder 'd Husband , is an oil painting by British artist William Hogarth . Finished in 1759 , it was the principal piece of the eight works he displayed in an exhibition in 1761 . It was the final and most ambitious of his attempts to secure for himself a reputation as a genre painter . It depicts a dramatic moment in one of the novelle in Boccaccio 's Decameron . While Hogarth had expected this work to be acclaimed as a masterpiece of dramatic painting , the work was met with criticism and ridicule . In the catalogue of the exhibition of Hogarth 's works at the Tate Gallery in 2007 , the criticism was described as " some of the most damning critical opprobrium the artist ever suffered " .
= = Analysis = =
Sigismunda mourning over the Heart of Guiscardo illustrates a scene from the first tale on Day 4 of The Decameron , a medieval collection of short stories ( novelle ) by Italian author and poet , Giovanni Boccaccio .
Seated at an ornate wooden table , wearing a pearl tiara and flowing silk , is Sigismunda ( called Ghismonda in Boccaccio 's original tale ) , the heroine of one of the novelle . It is probable that Hogarth modelled her on his wife , Jane . She clasps a golden goblet containing the heart of her murdered husband , Guiscardo .
Guiscardo was a servant and page in the court of Sigismunda 's father , Prince Tancred of Salerno . When Sigismunda 's father discovered that Guiscardo and Sigismunda had wed secretly , he angrily ordered his men to murder the low @-@ born Guiscardo , and had Guiscardo 's heart delivered to Sigismunda in a golden cup . Despite having committed to die without shedding a tear , she weeps as she realises her father has murdered her husband . She adds poison to the cup containing Guiscardo 's heart , and commits suicide by drinking it .
Hogarth claimed to have long been interested in the story of Sigismunda , which had appeared in England in several versions by the mid @-@ 18th century . It had become popular after being translated in John Dryden 's 1699 volume of Fables , Ancient and Modern , and adapted for the English stage by James Thomson in 1745 .
= = Commissioning = =
The painting was one of Hogarth 's last works , commissioned in 1758 by Sir Richard Grosvenor . James Caulfeild , 1st Earl of Charlemont had previously commissioned a painting from Hogarth , allowing Hogarth to select the subject and price .
For Lord Charlemont , Hogarth chose to paint the satirical Piquet , or Virtue in Danger ( also known as The Lady 's Last Stake , after a 1708 play by Colley Cibber ) , which , with echoes of Marriage à @-@ la @-@ Mode , shows an army officer offering an aristocratic lady a chance to recover the fortune she has just lost by gambling ( with the implication that if she loses again , she will have to take him as her lover ) . After Grosvenor saw this painting in Hogarth 's studio in 1758 , he asked Hogarth to paint a picture for him as well , under the same terms .
Hogarth chose a more serious topic for Grosvenor 's painting . He is said to have painted Sigismunda mourning over the Heart of Guiscardo with the aim of proving that he could equal works of the " Old Italian Masters " , and intending the painting to be one of his masterpieces . In the leg of the table in the painting , a turbaned , pug @-@ nosed figure is carved , emerging from the ornate decoration , which is reminiscent of Hogarth 's self @-@ portrait The Artist Painting the Comic Muse from around 1757 , and is perhaps Hogarth 's attempt to insert himself bodily into the picture , thereby making an overt connection between himself and the Old Masters . In 1758 , Sir Thomas Sebright , 5th Baronet had paid £ 405.5s in an Old Master auction for a painting of Sigismunda supposedly by Correggio . Hogarth doubted the attribution and was later proved correct : the painting is now considered to be by Francesco Furini . Nevertheless , Hogarth priced his Sigismunda in line with what was paid for the " Correggio " version and commensurate with the time he had spent creating it – at least two hundred days ( although it appears he was also working on finishing Piquet during this period ) – and this may have contributed to Grosvenor 's eventual loss of interest . When Hogarth presented the piece to Grosvenor , he rejected it , ostensibly because it was " so striking and inimitable , that the constantly having it before one 's eyes would be too often occasioning melancholy ideas to arise in one 's mind " ; in disgust , Hogarth released him from their bargain .
= = Reception = =
Hogarth exhibited the painting at the Society of Artists in Spring Gardens in 1761 . Although press reports – perhaps placed by Hogarth and his supporters – were enthusiastic , Sigismunda mourning over the Heart of Guiscardo was attacked by critics who marked Hogarth 's attempt to emulate the drama depicted in older Italian paintings as foolhardy and ridiculous . Many critics were repulsed by the shocking contrast between the melancholy beauty of Sigismunda and the grotesquely bloody organ that she delicately touched . It was said that Hogarth placed an attendant next to the painting to note the remarks made by the viewers ; changes to the painting suggest that he may have responded to these criticisms by altering his work , although it is impossible to ascertain whether many of the changes were made before or after the painting was exhibited .
One of the fiercest critics of Hogarth 's work was the critic and writer Horace Walpole . Walpole , who had admired the " Correggio " , compared Hogarth 's portrayal of Sigismunda to that of a " maudlin fallen virago " , and saw in it :
None of the somber grief , no dignity of suppressed anguish , no involuntary tear , no settled meditation on the fate she meant to meet , no amourous warmth turned holy by despair
John Wilkes dismissed it as " not human " . More predictably , in his Epistle to William Hogarth , Charles Churchill sympathised with Sigismunda as the " helpless victim of a dauber 's hand " .
After ten days of the exhibition , Hogarth replaced the painting with another of his canvases , Chairing the Member , the fourth and last piece in his Humours of an Election series .
Hogarth was unable to sell the painting , but he considered selling engravings based on it . A subscription ticket for the engraving of Sigismunda depicting Time Smoking a Picture was made , and some subscriptions were sold before being recalled , but by March 1761 Hogarth had abandoned the project , having failed to find an engraver to produce the plates . Hogarth instructed his widow not to sell the canvas for less than £ 500 . On Jane Hogarth 's death in 1789 , the painting passed to her cousin , Mary Lewis . She sold it by auction at Greenwood 's in 1790 for 56 guineas to the publisher John Boydell , who exhibited it in his Shakespeare Gallery . Benjamin Smith made an engraving which was published in 1795 . The painting was sold for 400 guineas at Christie 's in 1807 , and had been acquired by J.H. Anderdon by 1814 . He bequeathed it to the Tate Gallery in 1879 .
= = Alterations = =
A number of alterations are visible to the naked eye as pentimenti . A piece of paper draped over the edge of the table is clearly visible in outline , despite having been painted over with detailing of the table itself . Sigismunda 's index finger which was bent towards and perhaps touching the heart has been straightened , but the outline of the tip is still visible on the surface of the heart . A looped cord in the top right @-@ hand corner is poorly concealed under the topmost layer of paint . It is also known that , to attempt to appease critics , Hogarth repainted the fingers of Sigismunda so that the blood that was previously there would no longer be visible .
= Sardines ( Inside No. 9 ) =
" Sardines " is the first episode of British dark comedy anthology series Inside No. 9 . Written by Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , it premiered on BBC Two and BBC Two HD on 5 February 2014 . The episode features a stand @-@ alone plot revolving around a group of adults , who are non @-@ recurring characters , playing sardines at an engagement party . Rebecca , the bride @-@ to @-@ be , finds a boring man named Ian in a wardrobe ; he introduces himself as a colleague of Jeremy , Rebecca 's fiancé . The pair are subsequently joined by family , friends and colleagues of Rebecca and Jeremy . As more people enter the room and step into the wardrobe , secrets shared by some of the characters are revealed , with various allusions to incestuous relationships , child sexual abuse and adultery . The humour is both dark and British , with references to past unhappiness and polite but awkward interactions .
The story takes place entirely in the bedroom of a country house , with much of the filming taking place inside the wardrobe . Pemberton and Shearsmith wrote the episode with the intention of evoking a feeling of claustrophobia in viewers . In addition to the writers , the episode starred Katherine Parkinson , Tim Key , Luke Pasqualino , Ophelia Lovibond , Anne Reid , Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt , Anna Chancellor , Marc Wootton , Ben Willbond and Timothy West . The cast and writing were praised by television critics , and the episode was chosen as pick of the day in a number of publications . On its first showing , " Sardines " was watched by 1 @.@ 1 million viewers , which was 5 @.@ 6 % of the audience .
= = Development and production = =
Writers Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , who had previously worked together on The League of Gentlemen and Psychoville , took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from " David and Maureen " , episode 4 of the first series of Psychoville , which was in turn inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope . " David and Maureen " took place entirely in a single room , and it was filmed in only two shots . The writers were keen to explore other stories in this bottle episode or TV play format , and Inside No. 9 allowed them to do this . At the same time , the concept of Inside No. 9 was a " reaction " to Psychoville , with Shearsmith saying that " We 'd been so involved with labyrinthine over @-@ arcing , we thought it would be nice to do six different stories with a complete new house of people each week . That 's appealing , because as a viewer you might not like this story , but you 've got a different one next week . "
The format of the series also pays homage to Tales of the Unexpected , The Twilight Zone and Alfred Hitchcock Presents . Pemberton and Shearsmith returned to writing more macabre stories , according to the latter , as they " always feel slightly unfulfilled if [ they ] write something that 's purely comedic , it just feels too frivolous and light " . During the filming of " Sardines " , Shearsmith professed excitement to be working on Inside No. 9 , saying that " being in the middle of filming a third series of Psychoville would be utterly depressing " . Pemberton and Shearsmith aimed for a simpler experience than Psychoville , describing " Sardines " by saying the episode is " just about some good actors in a wardrobe with a good story " . As each episode of Inside No. 9 features new characters , the writers were able to attract actors who might have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . In addition to Pemberton and Shearsmith , " Sardines " starred Katherine Parkinson , Tim Key , Luke Pasqualino , Ophelia Lovibond , Anne Reid , Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt , Anna Chancellor , Marc Wootton , Ben Willbond and Timothy West . West had previously starred in Tales of the Unexpected , and Shearsmith said that , due to this prior appearance , " it was a great nod " to have West in the episode . " Sardines " has more characters than any other episode of the first series , and these characters were written before casting took place . Pemberton recalls the fun he had in selecting a cast for the episode , aiming to bring together a very varied group of actors who would work well as a group .
Pemberton described the concept of " Sardines " as " a simple idea " , and he was happy that the pair did not " have to worry about the consequences of it " , due to the format of the series . The writers were inspired by a large wardrobe in their workspace . They had already written several other episodes for the series , and confinement was a recurring theme ; the possibility of putting characters into a wardrobe gave them the opportunity to develop the theme to a more extreme level . The story was not initially about the game of sardines . Pemberton said that the writers " talked about various ideas of why [ the characters ] were in a wardrobe " , but that the pair " were certainly not working out [ their ] Freudian psychobabble " . A list of characters was written before the script , and the script included the introduction of a new character every three pages .
" Sardines " was written so that a feeling of claustrophobia would develop as the story progressed ; Pemberton said that " our first consideration was , ' Can we get 12 people in a wardrobe ? ' So when we did the script read @-@ through , the designer bought a wardrobe off eBay and we checked whether we could all get in it and shut the door " . Writers for Broadcast described seeing the assortment of actors " crammed inside an imposing wardrobe " during filming as " an arresting spectacle " . The story is filmed from within a single bedroom , with much of it taking place inside the wardrobe . Filming presented a particular challenge , as the aim was to give the impression that the viewer was in the wardrobe with the characters , and not to " cheat " by giving the impression that the viewer was outside the wardrobe looking in . The episode was filmed with two wardrobes ; one complete one , and one " faked " one . The complete prop was used to film the characters entering the wardrobe , while the other was in a different room for close @-@ up shots from " within " the wardrobe . For director David Kerr , the difficulty was sustaining the illusion that everything was happening in a single place , ideally without viewers even realising that there was a technical challenge involved . The episode was filmed mostly in sequence , meaning more actors arrived as the filming continued , reflecting the fact that more characters arrive as the episode progresses . Kerr aimed for a particularly " immersive " filming style on the episode , with extensive use of wide angle shots . He aimed to avoid " leading " the audience with regards to the more important characters , by , for instance , " not giving [ them ] coverage " earlier in the episode .
= = Plot = =
Rebecca and Jeremy host their engagement party at Rebecca 's family 's stately home . The guests play the parlour game sardines , a variation of hide @-@ and @-@ seek in which one person hides and the other players have to join them in their hiding place once they are found . Rebecca finds Ian ( who works with Jeremy ) in a bedroom wardrobe . As they wait for more people to arrive , Ian mistakenly calls her " Rachel " . A young man , Lee , enters the room but does not find the pair , though they are later found and joined by Rebecca 's prudish brother Carl , and then Carl 's flamboyant partner Stuart . Jeremy 's ex @-@ girlfriend Rachel finds the group and joins them . Ian mentions that Jeremy frequently talks about " you " , but it is unclear whether he is talking to Rebecca or Rachel . To Rebecca 's annoyance , Stuart , Rachel and Ian briefly leave the wardrobe for a break . Stuart enters the en suite where Geraldine is sat on the toilet . In the wardrobe , Carl and Rebecca talk ; the former is uncomfortable , and , when Rebecca asks why , he tells her to " look where we are " .
Ian , Rachel and Geraldine join Rebecca and Carl . Geraldine says that the room is normally locked , but Rebecca rebukes her . Stuart rejoins the group after using the toilet . As the group talk , Mark and his wife , Liz , enter the bedroom , unaware of the people hiding in the wardrobe . The pair talk candidly before beginning foreplay and lying down on the bed . Geraldine shouts to alert them , and those in the wardrobe pretend they did not hear Mark and Liz 's conversation . Mark and Liz reluctantly enter the wardrobe . As the doors close , Rachel 's boyfriend Lee enters the room , but as the wardrobe has become more cramped , Stuart and Lee hide under the bed and Ian moves to the en suite bathroom . Stuart and Carl argue , and it is revealed that Carl has a fear of intimacy . When " Stinky " John enters the room , both those in the wardrobe and under the bed claim there is no room , so he hides behind a curtain . Jeremy enters the room and tells Rebecca he is going to pick up another guest from the train station , but as he turns to leave he mistakenly calls her " Rachel " . Andrew , Rebecca 's father , enters and becomes annoyed when he sees people hiding in different places . He forces Jeremy , Stuart , Lee and Stinky John into the wardrobe with everyone else and follows them in .
The people in the wardrobe are uncomfortable , not least because of John 's odour . Geraldine passes around mints as Andrew tells Mark that he no longer has contact with Dicky Lawrence , a potential business contact of Mark 's . Andrew sings the " sardine song " , but Carl angrily stops him . Andrew and Geraldine reminisce about a scout jamboree held in the house many years ago , but Geraldine remembers that a boy named Phillip Harrison , nicknamed " Little Pip " , said Andrew did " terrible things " , and that the police were involved . Carl says how Andrew paid Pip 's family to move away , and Andrew counters by claiming he did nothing to Pip and was only teaching him how to wash himself . Carl implies that he and John were not as lucky as Pip , and John says he can smell carbolic soap . There is silence , and Stuart points out no one else is looking for them , but they realise Ian has not yet returned from the bathroom . Jeremy says Ian is the person he was going to pick up from the station , but when Mark claims Ian is already at the party , Jeremy reveals the person Mark is referring to is not Ian . Outside , " Ian " locks the wardrobe and sprays it with lighter fluid while singing the sardine song . Carl realises Ian is actually Phillip , and the episode ends with Phillip leaning against the wardrobe , a lighter in his hand .
= = Cast = =
= = Analysis = =
The episode is , in effect , a one @-@ scene , one @-@ act , play . Writing in The Times , Andrew Billen observed that Aristotle " ruled that plays should take place over a single day in a single place " , while " Sardines " takes place " over half an hour in a single wardrobe " . The use of the wardrobe is reminiscent of Beckettian absurd theatre , and presented particular cinematographic challenges . For Ryan Lambie , writing for entertainment website Den of Geek , the single @-@ camera setup and Kerr 's direction gave the episode " the tense look of an early Hitchcock film , all low angles and illuminating shafts of light " .
The characters bring their respective agendas , relationships and backstories into the wardrobe . The various interconnected plotlines are seeded towards the start of the episode , and more is gradually revealed before they are resolved . " Sardines " starts as comedic , before becoming darker ; as more characters arrive , their relatively cordial interactions become more unpleasant . The increasingly claustrophobic environment serves to heighten the tension .
The comedy is black , with the most overt humour coming from Stuart , a flamboyant character played by Shearsmith . The humour is also extremely British . Tropes of Britishness identified by PopMatters critic David Upton include the dated clothing , and interaction between Katherine and Tim at the start of the episode . Despite not knowing each other , they converse courteously , which " smacks of more refined days " ; the conversation is a " portrayal of social awkwardness " . With the introduction of the noticeably younger Lee , there is a clash of customs , illustrating the differing norms of the respective generations . This " 1940s aesthetic " and the fact the story took place in a single location tied the episode to " a golden age of plays on British television " . Broadcaster and writer Mark Radcliffe felt that the script " could be a really arresting stage play " .
As is typical of Shearsmith and Pemberton 's work , " Sardines " addresses dark topics . Writing in The Daily Telegraph , Paul Kendall identified some of Shearsmith and Pemberton 's " regular tropes " utilised in the episode ; namely " a bunch of misfits , uncomfortable silences and allusions to dark crimes in the distant past " . Billen felt that the treatment of dark issues was reminiscent of the work of Alan Ayckbourn . Particular themes addressed in the episode include murder , incestuous relationships , child sexual abuse , vengeance and adultery . As the episode progresses , secrets related to these themes are revealed to be the explanation for apparently innocuous tendencies , such as Carl 's dislike for the sardine song and John 's aversion to soap .
= = Reception = =
" Sardines " was well received by television critics . Kendall , Billen , Keith Watson and Dan Owen , writing for The Daily Telegraph , the Metro , MSN and The Times , respectively , all gave the episode four out of five stars , while , writing for The Arts Desk , Veronica Lee gave it five out of five . The episode was labelled " pick of the day " in The Times , The Sunday Times , The Observer and the Daily Record .
Reviewers responded positively to the cast . Kendall described the acting as " top notch " and Owen said that all cast @-@ members " played their roles to perfection " , while Jane Simon , writing for The Daily Mirror , said that " every twinge of awkwardness and discomfort is played to perfection as the mood turns darker " . Harry Venning , writing for The Stage , described the cast as " impressively stellar " , and also commended the writers ' performances . Comedy critic Bruce Dessau said that the " cast alone is almost recommendation enough " , while another reviewer said that if " a bomb dropped on the cupboard where they were hiding , a good portion of the acting talent in this country would be wiped out . " Key 's portrayal of Ian and Parkinson 's portrayal of Rebecca were particularly praised .
Journalists also lauded the script , with Kendall labelling the dialogue " perfectly pitched " , Dessau calling it " tightly written " and without wastage , and Owen praising the way each character was " delivered into the story at the exact right moment " . Brad Newsome , writing for The Sydney Morning Herald ( the episode having been shown in Australia on BBC First in 2015 ) , said that the episode was " deftly written " , and Venning said the " lean , mean narrative didn 't just twist and turn , it folded back upon itself to provide a totally unexpected , profoundly disturbing and deeply satisfying denouement " . On The Arts Desk , Lee praised the direction of Kerr , saying that he delivered " a pitch @-@ perfect piece with no character overwritten or line overplayed " .
Dean , writing for The Independent , commended the writers ' " weaving together of the morbid with the laugh @-@ out loud " , and Mike Bradley , writing in The Observer , called the episode " wickedly funny " ; similarly , Newsome said the episode displayed " a wicked sense of humour " . Dessau concurred on the darkness and quality of humour . Watson was more ambivalent , saying the episode offered " more of a knowing chuckle than an outright belly laugh " .
Watson wrote that " the chief joy [ of the episode ] was the stealthy way the atmospheric story was built up layer by layer " . In The Times , Billen described " Sardines " as " a disciplined comedy , but a little bit of discipline , as one of the League 's perverts might say , never did anyone any harm " . With the exception of the ending , Billen " loved it " . A separate review in The Times , however , praised the twist ending ; " this isn 't just an inspired set @-@ up performed by a stellar cast – it builds to a macabre and horribly imagined climax . " Owen was ambivalent about the ending of " Sardines " , saying that it " worked very well in terms of narrative , but perhaps it landed with too much softness " . Mark Jones , writing in The Guardian , gave a more mixed review overall , describing " Sardines " as a " slow burner , but a decent introduction to a series " . Newsome called the episode a " gem of an opener " .
= = = Viewing figures = = =
On its first showing , " Sardines " was seen by 1 @.@ 1 million viewers , which was 5 @.@ 6 % of the British audience . This was lower than the premiere of Psychoville , but higher than the audience towards the end of the second series . " Sardines " immediately followed the first episode of the two @-@ part Royal Cousins at War , a BBC documentary . This had stronger viewing figures , with 2 million viewers ( 8 @.@ 6 % of the audience ) . Nonetheless , " Sardines " was more highly viewed than is typical for the slot . Despite this strong start for the series , the viewing figures for Inside No. 9 later dipped ; the average viewing for the series was 904 @,@ 000 people , or 4 @.@ 9 % of the audience , lower than the slot average of 970 @,@ 000 ( 5 @.@ 1 % of the audience ) .
= Yuffie Kisaragi =
Yuffie Kisaragi ( ユフィ ・ キサラギ , Yufi Kisaragi ) is a video game character from Square Enix 's Final Fantasy series . Designed by Tetsuya Nomura , she was first introduced in the 1997 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII as a young female ninja princess and thief . She can become one of the game 's player characters after finishing a special sidequest . Yuffie reappears in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII series , expanding her background and showing her after the events of the original game .
Yuffie has also been featured in other Square Enix games , most notably the Kingdom Hearts crossover series , voiced by Yumi Kakazu in the Japanese versions of the games . In the English versions , Christy Carlson Romano provides her voice for Kingdom Hearts and Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , and Mae Whitman is Yuffie 's voice for Kingdom Hearts II and Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII . The character has achieved a high level of popularity in Japan , but the English @-@ language media reception has been more mixed .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy VII = = =
One of two secret characters in the 1997 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII , Yuffie is a 16 @-@ year @-@ old ninja and a thief who fights with oversized shuriken that she can throw like a boomerang . A fiercely patriotic daughter of Godo Kisaragi ( ゴドー ・ キサラギ , Godō Kisaragi ) , the leader of Wutai ( ウータイ , Ūtai ) , a culture based on real @-@ world East Asia , Yuffie feels her country has lost its former glory and become nothing more than a resort town . After losing the war against Shinra Electric Power Company , Godo began to turn Wutai into a tourist attraction . This did not suit Yuffie , who began running off , stealing the magical Materia from unaware travelers in hope to someday become strong enough to change this situation . Sneaky and arrogant , Yuffie has a tomboyish and charismatic personality and obsessively steals and collects Materia . She also tends to be short @-@ tempered and is prone to motion sickness . Gameplay @-@ wise , Yuffie possesses the special Materia " Throw " , enabling her to throw almost any item from the player 's inventory at enemies during combat , and when leveled up , the ability " Coin " becomes available , allowing her to throw the party 's Gil currency at the enemy .
Yuffie is introduced when she ambushes the protagonist Cloud Strife and his allies in either the Gongaga jungle or the forests south of Junon , appearing as " Mystery Ninja " . If the player defeats her in combat and then chooses the correct series of dialogue choices , she introduces herself and joins the player 's party as one of player characters . However , once in Wutai Village , Yuffie steals the party 's Materia and hides , but is kidnapped by a Midgar crime lord , the lecherous Don Corneo . When the group rescues Yuffie , she returns the stolen Materia and continues working with the party . In another sidequest , she proves herself by fighting the bosses of Wutai 's five story pagoda , the last of these battles against Godo . These fights , and the sequence of conversations following , enable both father and daughter to understand the other 's actions and to come to a mutual respect . At Godo 's request , Cloud officially takes Yuffie ( who obtains her level 4 Limit Break special attack , called " All Creation " ) with him on his quest .
If Yuffie is present at the end of disc one , when Aerith Gainsborough is murdered by the party 's nemesis Sephiroth , the player can witness an uncharacteristic display of emotion from the character , as she breaks down in Cloud 's arms after failing to control her sobs . Yuffie 's loyalty to the team is called into question after Cloud temporarily disbands his party ahead of their final confrontation with Sephiroth ; when Yuffie is the last to return Barret Wallace suspects her of abandoning the team in light of her earlier treachery at Wutai . When Yuffie returns to the group she subsequently rebukes Barrett for his judgement .
= = = Compilation of Final Fantasy VII = = =
In the 2005 computer animated film Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , Yuffie reunites with her Final Fantasy VII allies to fight against the summon creature Bahamut SIN . In the On the Way to a Smile novella " Case of Yuffie " , which is set between the end of Final Fantasy VII and the beginning of Advent Children , the disease Geostigma spreads to Wutai , and Yuffie sets out to find a cure .
In the 2004 action role @-@ playing game Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , set six years before Final Fantasy VII , Yuffie encounters Shinra 's agents called the Turks in Wutai and unknowingly works with them against the eco @-@ terrorist group AVALANCHE . In the 2006 third @-@ person shooter game Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , set one year after Advent Children , Yuffie leaves home and joins the World Regenesis Organization , where she is placed in charge of espionage and intelligence gathering . Yuffie infiltrates Mako Reactor Zero deep within the ruins of Midgar and shuts it off when the ex @-@ Turk Vincent Valentine defeats the Shinra remnant Deepground . The nine @-@ year @-@ old Yuffie also makes brief appearances in the 2007 prequel action role @-@ playing game Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII , where she fights against Shinra following their invasion and takeover of Wutai . After meeting Zack Fair , she enlists his help to find treasures in several side missions .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Outside the Final Fantasy series , Yuffie has also been featured in the Kingdom Hearts series since 2002 . In the first Kingdom Hearts , a younger Yuffie acts as a supporting character in Traverse Town , helping to defeat the Heartless who had destroyed her world . Yuffie 's appearance in 2004 's Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories is a projection from Sora 's memories in Traverse Town . In 2005 's Kingdom Hearts II , she aids Leon and the others as part of the Hollow Bastion Restoration Committee , this time appearing in her Advent Children attire . In both Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II , Yuffie is additionally featured as an opponent in the Olympus Coliseum , while 2008 's Kingdom Hearts coded features a virtual simulation of Yuffie . She also appears in the manga adaptations of Kingdom Hearts , Kingdom Hearts II and Chain of Memories published by Gangan Comics and Tokyopop .
Yuffie is an unlockable playable character in the PlayStation version of the 1998 fighting game Ehrgeiz : God Bless the Ring , appearing alongside other characters from Final Fantasy VII . She is also one of the playable characters in the 2006 board video game Itadaki Street Portable for the PlayStation Portable , in a chibi @-@ style design that is similar to her model during the exploration gameplay mode of Final Fantasy VII , and in the 2013 action puzzle mobile game Pictlogica Final Fantasy , also in a chibi form . She was the first DLC character released for the 2014 rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy : Curtain Call .
Yuffie also makes unplayable appearances in some video games . In the 2008 action role @-@ playing / fighting game hybrid Dissidia Final Fantasy , she is a tutor of the in @-@ game manuals and an unlockable friend card in this game . Yuffie is a " Legend " type assist character in the 2012 social role @-@ playing mobile game Final Fantasy Airborne Brigade , depicted in her Final Fantasy VII , Advent Children and Kingdom Hearts outfits . She appears as one of three summonable support characters in the 2014 racing mobile game Final Fantasy VII G @-@ Bike . She is also featured on various cards in Final Fantasy Trading Card Game ( 2011 ) and Final Fantasy Artniks ( 2012 ) .
Two large Yuffie action figures were released by Square Enix as part of the Final Fantasy VII Play Arts Vol . 2 series in 2008 ( in her original game attire ) , and Final Fantasy VII Movie Advent Children Series 2 in 2009 ( in her film attire ) . Other merchandise include a small super deformed figurine version as she appears in Itadaki Street Portable , from 2009 's Final Fantasy Trading Arts Mini Vol . 4 , a 1997 plush doll and a keyholder figurine by Banpresto , a 2001 garage kit figure by Kotobukiya , and a wallscroll poster in Final Fantasy Poster Vol . 5 . Her theme music in Final Fantasy VII , " Descendant of Shinobi " , is included in a vocal form on the album Final Fantasy Song Book : Mahoroba as " Walking in the Road , After the Rain " by Nobuo Uematsu and Yuji Hasegawa .
= = Creation and development = =
During early development of Final Fantasy VII , Yuffie was envisioned as a 25 @-@ year @-@ old ex @-@ SOLDIER now working as a bounty hunter , seeking both the game 's protagonist Cloud Strife and its antagonist Sephiroth , while also having a bounty on her own head . Her job class was originally listed as " ninja ( assassin ) " and she was intended to be a daughter of the long @-@ deceased Kasumi Kisaragi . The Wutai sidequest present in the final incarnation of the game was significantly different . Her age and description was different for each of the several wanted posters ; what Yuffie looks like , as her level , is determined on the last wanted poster viewed . She would also encounter the party in a random encounter , or attack Cloud when he is sleeping in an inn . The Wutai scenario required Yuffie to be recruited to complete it .
Having a close attachment to Yuffie 's character , Final Fantasy VII event planner Jun Akiyama was responsible for the large number of cutscenes featuring her and her actions during fights . Mae Whitman , who voiced Yuffie in the English versions of Kingdom Hearts II and Dirge of Cerberus , said she was not " aware of the extent to which people were familiar with her character already . " In a 2012 interview , Whitman recalled Yuffie as " bubbly and bright and nice . But still super cool ! "
= = Reception = =
Yuffie Kisaragi has received a notably positive reception in Japan , having placed as the 42nd best PlayStation character in the 2007 " Den @-@ Play Awards " by Dengeki PlayStation . In 2010 , readers of Japanese magazine Famitsu voted her as the 48th best video game character of all time .
Electronic Gaming Monthly included " seeing Yuffie once again " as one of the greatest moments of Kingdom Hearts while giving it their Role @-@ Playing Game of the Year 2002 award . David Smith from IGN ranked Yuffie seventh on the 2008 list of top ten Final Fantasy VII characters , stating that she " belongs in the Wacky Sidekicks wing of the RPG hall of fame ; " although commenting that Yuffie can sometimes be " a pain in the neck , " Smith said that she became such an appealing sidekick character that Square would go on to use the " Yuffie formula " with Rikku from Final Fantasy X. In a 2013 poll by Square Enix , Yuffie was voted the 14th most popular Final Fantasy female character , sharing that spot with Beatrix from Final Fantasy IX .
According to Edge , Yuffie , being one of characters that are " are brands in and of themselves " , " created a new anime stereotype -- the , uh , giddy girl ninja . " WomanGamers.com gave the character an overall score of 7 @.@ 0 / 10 , opining that while " a 16 year old ninja girl was a nice refreshing change [ ... ] it would have been nice if her character had matured and developed through this story . " In 2012 , Becky Cunningham of Cheat Code Central ranked her as the fourth top ninja in video games , stating that despite her " cocky , brash , and slightly abrasive personality , " Yuffie is " also a compassionate person with an impressive goal , " serving " as both comic relief and unlikely hero , a seemingly self @-@ centered sneak thief who always does the right thing in the end . " In 2013 , Liam Gilchrist of What Culture included her ten memorable Final Fantasy characters that deserve their own game , possibly " a Thief @-@ esque title , but more suitable for younger players . " In a 2014 poll by Spanish magazine Hobby Consolas , Yuffie was voted one of eight best ninja characters in video games . Márcio Pacheco Alexsandro of Brazil 's Game Hall placed Yuffie at fifth spot on his 2014 list of top female ninja characters in games , commenting on her close resemblance to Makimachi Misao from Rurouni Kenshin . In 2012 Jef Rouner of the Houston Press listed Yuffie 's reaction to Aerith 's death as one of the five most " heartbreaking " missable scenes in the Final Fantasy franchise ; which he felt rivalled the emotional impact of anything found in the main narrative .
UGO.com featured her in the 2011 list of 25 most sexy ninja girls in all media for her appearance in Advent Children , adding " that third @-@ dimension certainly adds something . " In his review for Advent Children , James Mielke of 1UP.com called her " as cutely jailbait as ever ; " the film itself was called " Ogling Legal @-@ Age Yuffie " by Geson Hatchett of Hardcore Gamer . In 2015 , Indonesian television Liputan 6 ranked her seventh in their list of the sexiest Oriental characters in gaming .
However , some of the reception was more negative . In her character profile , IGN wrote called her " both impressively useful and incredibly annoying . " In 2010 , Scott Sharkey of 1UP.com placed her in the category " The Perky Idiot " alongside Rikku and Selphie while discussing the top five character types in the Final Fantasy series . That same year , GamesRadar 's Mikel Reparaz included the appearance of Yuffie among the other Final Fantasy VII characters in Ehrgeiz on the list of the 55 best character cameos in video game history , but called her " hyper @-@ annoying " . In 2013 , Kyle Lowe of Complex ranked her as the fifth most annoying classic video game character . Joe Juba of Game Informer included her among " Final Fantasy 's particular breed of annoying female companions , like Selphie and Vaan . " Lisa Foiles of The Escapist included this " crazy , hyperactive teenager " on her 2014 list of top five annoying princesses in video games , calling her " just a definition of annoying . "
= Forrest Highway =
Forrest Highway is a 95 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 59 mi ) highway in Western Australia 's Peel and South West regions , extending Perth 's Kwinana Freeway from east of Mandurah down to Bunbury . Old Coast Road was the original Mandurah – Bunbury route , dating back to the 1840s . Part of that road , and the Australind Bypass around Australind and Eaton , were subsumed by Forrest Highway . The highway begins at Kwinana Freeway 's southern terminus in Ravenswood , continues around the Peel Inlet to Lake Clifton , and heads south to finish at Bunbury 's Eelup Roundabout . There are a number of at @-@ grade intersections with minor roads in the shires of Murray , Waroona , and Harvey including Greenlands Road and Old Bunbury Road , both of which connect to South Western Highway near Pinjarra .
The settlement of Australind by the Western Australian Land Company in 1840 – 41 prompted the first real need for a good quality road to Perth . A coastal Australind – Mandurah route was completed by 2 November 1842 . Though the road was rebuilt by convicts in the 1850s , its importance was already declining . With a new road via Pinjarra at the foothills of the Darling Scarp completed in 1876 , and the opening of the Perth − Bunbury railway in 1893 , few people travelled up the old coastal road . In the late 1930s there was a proposal to re @-@ establish the road as a tourist route , which could also reduce traffic on the main road along the foothills , but it was put on hold due to World War II . Improvements to Old Coast Road started in the early 1950s , but with little progress made until 1954 when the Main Roads Department approved £ 1000 worth of works . The name " Old Coast Road " was formally adopted on 27 January 1959 , and a sealed road was completed in September 1969 .
Since the 1980s , the state government has been upgrading the main Perth to Bunbury route , by extending Kwinana Freeway south from Perth , and constructing a dual carriageway on Old Coast Road north of Bunbury , including bypasses around Australind and Dawesville . A bypass was also planned around Mandurah , which underwent detailed environmental reviews and assessments in the 1990s and early 2000s . Construction of the New Perth Bunbury Highway project , which became Forrest Highway and the final Kwinana Freeway extension , began in December 2006 , and the new highway was opened on 20 September 2009 . Within one year of opening , the number of road accidents in the area had decreased significantly , but tourism and businesses in the towns on bypassed routes were also affected . There are few services alongside the highway , although as of June 2015 a pair of roadhouses are planned near Greenlands Road . In June 2014 , Forrest Highway was extended
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south to Bunbury by renaming much of Old Coast Road as well as Australind Bypass as part of the highway .
= = Route description = =
Forrest Highway is the southern section of State Route 2 , continuing south from Kwinana Freeway at a folded diamond interchange with Pinjarra Road . All other intersections with the highway are at @-@ grade , with cross roads intersected via two closely spaced T junctions . The highway , which is controlled and maintained by Main Roads Western Australia , has two lanes in each direction separated by a wide median strip , and a speed limit of 110 kilometres per hour ( 70 mph ) . The road travels south for six kilometres ( 4 mi ) , over the Murray River and through rural farmland in and beyond South Yunderup . The highway then veers south @-@ west , meeting Greenlands Road at a pair of staggered T junctions , and continues towards the Harvey Estuary over a distance of nine kilometres ( 6 mi ) before intersecting Mills Road , at another pair of closely spaced T junctions . The road curves back to the south , reaching Old Bunbury Road after ten kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . Forrest Highway meanders across the Spearwood dune system for ten and a half kilometres ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) , through a series of large curves , before it reaches Old Coast Road at Lake Clifton , an alternative coastal route to Mandurah .
Forrest Highway continues south for 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) , to the west of Myalup State Forest and two to three kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 9 mi ) east of Lake Preston . A further 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) takes the highway to the northern edge of Leschenault . In these sections , the highway passes turnoffs to Preston Beach , Myalup and Binningup . The countryside for this part is mostly tuart , jarrah and marri forest , with some wetland vegetation and some cleared farming land . The highway then heads south @-@ east , going inland to bypass the developed areas east of the Leschenault Inlet . After five and a half kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) Forrest Highway crosses the Brunswick River , continues southwards towards the Collie River for another five and a half kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) . It crosses the river , then curves around Eaton to head westward to the Eelup Roundabout , which it reaches after travelling for nine kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) and crossing the adjacent Preston River . The signalised roundabout provides access into Bunbury , as well as to Robertson Road , a ring road that connects to South Western Highway and Bussell Highway .
When the highway was first opened in 2009 , the average daily weekday traffic volume north of Old Bunbury Road was 9 @,@ 680 . By April 2011 , it had increased to 10 @,@ 660 vehicles . In 2012 up to 14 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the highway , and 17 @,@ 000 by 2014 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Following the establishment of the Swan River Colony , the earliest report of exploration of the district around what is now Bunbury is from Lieutenant H. W. Bunbury in December 1836 . The route he – and later others – took was slow and hazardous , taking four days to cover around 80 miles ( 130 km ) , and crossing four rivers . The route began with passage from Perth to Pinjarra , before turning south @-@ west and passing through low , open scrubland , and a medium @-@ timbered area with low marshes . The first river to cross was the Harvey River , which could only be forded by horses at a single point , near the river mouth . Continuing south @-@ westward , the northern tip of Leschenault Estuary was reached , and its shores followed before curving around into Bunbury . The last stretch of approximately 12 miles ( 19 km ) was the most dangerous for many years , as it required precarious crossings at the Collie and Preston Rivers .
In an initial attempt to settle the area , the government declared the land open for pastoral settlement by ordinary settlers , but little progress was made . By 1840 , the population was just fifty @-@ three , and most of those were in or near Bunbury ( then known as Port Leschenault ) . The settlement of Australind by the Western Australian Land Company in 1840 – 41 prompted the first real need for a good quality road to Perth . Throughout much of 1842 , there was much debate and discussion over providing a new route to Bunbury . A coastal route from Fremantle had been proposed , while an alternative proposal published on 11 May was a new route from Pinjarra to Bunbury , via an upstream crossing of the Harvey River , where a bridge could easily be built . The coastal route would have required a ferry to cross the Murray River 's estuary , and would not go through Pinjarra , a significant settlement in the area ; however , it would be shorter , had more water along the route , and would go through the village of Mandurah , which had a population of twenty @-@ nine people from six families .
In a letter dated 12 June 1842 in the Colonial Secretary 's Records , Marshall Clifton , Chief Commissioner of the Western Australian Land Company , wrote of the need for an improved Perth – Fremantle – Bunbury road . On a special trip he took in the previous October to look for a new route , two surveyors gave their approval to the proposed coastal route , with a ferry across the estuary . Governor John Hutt approved of the idea of a road , but thought a ferry would be impractical , at least during winter , and that the lack of public funds made it impossible . Clifton continued to write letters to the Colonial Secretary advocating the construction of a road .
= = = 19th century road = = =
During the winter of 1842 , the existing route became impassable , and Clifton undertook the creation of the proposed coastal route . He sent his company 's men to clear the path and make a road . The first report of the new road was on 19 October , praising the new route but deriding the almost impassable obstacles presented by the large rivers en route . The Australind – Mandurah route was completed by 2 November , and the speed of the new route allowed almost daily communication . It could be travelled in 32 hours , with a ferry to cross the estuary at Mandurah . The ferry was operated , and later owned , by nearby resident Mrs Lyttleton , as the government was not interested at that time in owning or leasing out the ferry . The government later appropriated the ferry on 2 February 1843 , and imposed standardised tolls for passengers and livestock . Ten years later , the ferry service was made available to the public free of charge .
The road was rebuilt by convicts in the 1850s , but by that decade , the importance of the coast road was diminishing . For most of its length , the road went through well @-@ timbered , sandy limestone country of little value to agriculture , and settlers in the vicinity of the road were scarce . In contrast , settlements had spread and prospered in the foothills of the Darling Scarp , and on 1 July 1853 , Colonial Secretary Frederick Barlee announced a new proposal for a Perth – Pinjarra – Bunbury route along the foothills , with a one chain ( 66 ft ; 20 m ) width , mostly following the alignment of previous tracks . Between 1864 and 1876 , two parties of convicts were involved in the making of the road .
From 30 June 1868 , the government discontinued the ferry 's operation and the position of caretaker , leaving travellers to work the ferry themselves . The news was not well received , with newspaper letters complaining of the great inconvenience to the users of the shorter coastal route . As a result , the government reappointed a caretaker on 30 March 1869 . In 1894 the ferry was finally abandoned in favour of a 600 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 180 m ) wooden bridge adjacent to old ferry jetties , which was built by contract at a cost of £ 1700 . However , following the completion of the Perth – Bunbury railway in 1893 , few people travelled up the coast road . While the adjacent land was still privately owned , it was uninhabited .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Within the first few years of the twentieth century , the road had become known as " the old coast road " , or simply Old Coast Road . In 1907 , the road was described as being seldom used , except by tramps , runaway sailors , and swagmen , with very few settlers in the area . For the next three decades , there was little interest in the road , other than maintaining it in a usable condition . By 1918 it had become almost impassable , so the Harvey Road Board decided to spend £ 300 to reconstruct a 30 @-@ chain ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ; 600 m ) length . A few years later , in 1921 , the section from Lake Clifton to Mandurah was reopened by Jack Ochiltree , so as to be suitable for motor vehicles , and in 1926 the section from Bunbury to Lake Preston was similarly suitable .
The establishment of a tourist route along the coastal road between Australind and Mandurah was proposed in the late 1930s by the Harvey Road Board . The Bunbury Road Board supported the idea , with the beauty and pleasure of the route discussed at a meeting of the road board in January 1939 ; the lack of a proper road surface was seen as the only obstacle . Traffic was predicted to grow over the next five years to an extent that would justify a second route to Perth , particularly as the traffic volume on the existing inland road was already heavy and causing accidents . The Minister for Works , Harry Millington , considered the proposal in July 1939 , and by early 1940 a number of rumours emerged regarding the imminent commencement of works ; however , the Main Roads Department had no intention to undertake them . The Harvey Road Board decided to refrain from pursuing the matter until World War II had concluded . By 1943 , vegetation was overgrowing the road , making it difficult to spot in places , and in December 1946 about 200 yards ( 180 m ) was inundated by water one @-@ foot ( 30 cm ) deep . Negotiations between Main Roads and the road boards recommenced in 1947 , and by October 1948 the provision of a suitable road was costed at £ 280 @,@ 000 . Given that a good quality road already linked Perth and Bunbury , and there was likely to be little immediate benefit , Main Roads did not consider the proposal to be warranted .
At a February 1949 conference of officials from local governments in the South West region it was decided to once more pursue the reopening of the coastal route , due to the amount of traffic on the existing Perth – Bunbury road . Over the next year the proposal was supported by the Bunbury Chamber of Commerce , South West Zone Development Committee , and Bunbury Municipal Council . Reasons for supporting the proposal included " defence , land settlement , relieving the main highway , and tourist advantages " . It was also a political issue leading up to the 1950 state election , as well as afterwards . The summer of 1950 had seen a shortage of milk in Perth , leading to the consideration of turning undeveloped land along Old Coast Road into pastures for dairy farming . After inspecting the land on 17 May 1950 , the Agriculture Minister advocated for Old Coast Road to be reopened , to develop the adjacent land which was well suited to milk production .
= = = New construction in the 1950s = = =
An official inspection in October 1950 reported that it would not be difficult to improve the old road into a reasonable track , which would then have a better chance of attracting assistance from Main Roads . The Mandurah Road Board spent £ 1200 on the road , while the Harvey Road Board requested a £ 500 grant from Main Roads for their portion of the road . Two years later little progress had been made , and Main Roads therefore refused to fund feeder roads to connect to Old Coast Road . By May 1952 , works had halted as Main Roads believed that the existing , winding route around the estuary was too prone to flooding . Settlers in the area recalled it never flooding previously , and the Mandurah Road Board was concerned that should a new road be built , they would still have to maintain the old road for access to properties . The road was inspected by the Premier , Deputy @-@ Commissioner of Main Roads J. D. Leach , and the district engineer H. A. Smith . They indicated that a new road would likely closely follow the old road , but that a detailed survey would be needed . Nearby limestone deposits would be suitable for the road 's foundation , with the cost estimated at £ 11 per chain .
Mandurah had grown rapidly as a tourist destination in the post war period , and on 17 May 1953 a new bridge connecting Old Coast Road to Mandurah was opened . Construction of the new bridge , adjacent to the old bridge , began in September 1951 , and was designed with reinforced concrete piles . The old wooden bridge had rapidly deteriorated due to the presence of marine organisms , and needed considerable attention to maintain it in a usable condition . The opening ceremony was attended by the Chairman of the Mandurah Road Board , W. Anderson , Leader of the Opposition , Ross McLarty , Minister for Works , John Tonkin ; Commissioner of Main Roads , Digby Leach ; C. H. Henning , MLC ; engineer in charges of bridges , Ernest Godfrey ; local government representatives , and a number of schoolchildren who were given a half @-@ day off school .
No further work had been done on Old Coast Road by 1954 , as the road boards in the area had insufficient funds . More pressure for a new road came from the Education Department , which saw the need for a school bus in the area , but could not provide the service due to the poor condition of Old Coast Road . Leach , who was by then the Commissioner , indicated that Main Roads would likely approve requests for grants to improve Old Coast road from the road boards in the area , and that provision for funding had been made in the 1954 – 55 budget . Work was finally cleared to commence in September 1954 with Main Roads approving the Mandurah Road Board 's schedule of works , including £ 1000 for the following works on Old Coast Road :
" New construction 18 ft [ 5 @.@ 5 m ] wide southwards from Yeedong @-@ rd , and new construction 12 ft [ 3 @.@ 7 m ] wide along the eastern boundary of Location 1130 from the end of the existing construction to the northern boundary of Reserve 2851 . "
The name " Old Coast Road " was formally adopted on 27 January 1959 , and a sealed road was completed in September 1969 .
= = = Perth Bunbury Highway = = =
Since the 1980s , the state government has been committed to constructing and upgrading the Perth Bunbury Highway , a route along coastal roads , including Old Coast Road south of Mandurah . The ultimate design is for a freeway or expressway @-@ standard road , but with staged construction initially providing a dual carriageway .
= = = = Australind Bypass = = = =
The 20 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 12 @.@ 7 mi ) Australind Bypass was constructed in the 1980s to relieve pressure on Old Coast Road , and improve local amenity . The bypass travelled to the east and south of Australind and Eaton , to connect to Bunbury 's Eelup Roundabout via an alignment previously part of Jubilee Road . There were slight deviations in the route to protect remnant paperbark trees , tuarts , acacia , and aquatic plants , as well as a site of aboriginal importance , identified by botanical and aboriginal heritage surveys . Australind Bypass was built in two stages by the Bunbury Division of Main Roads . The first stage opened on 11 December 1987 , and was a 4 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) length from Eelup Roundabout to Eaton Drive , plus a 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) link from the bypass ( north of the rail line ) and the Collie River bridge on Old Coast Road . Stage two , the remaining 15 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 8 mi ) to reconnect with Old Coast Road , was completed ahead of schedule in December 1998 .
Australind Bypass was opened on 16 December 1988 by Federal Transport Minister Bob Brown , who helped complete the final seal , together with the Mayor of Bunbury Ern Manea . State Transport Minister Bob Pearce planted a roadside tree to commemorate the opening of the bypass , which was also attended by the Commissioner of Main Roads Albert Tognolini , and Mitchell MLA David Smith , Minister for Community Service , Justice and the South West . Vintage cars led a procession from the on @-@ site opening ceremony to a reception held in Bunbury . The new road was designed to be easily made into a dual carriageway when required ; this was completed nine years later , with the Australind Bypass duplication project officially opened by Mitchell MLA Dan Sullivan on 18 December 1997 .
= = = = Dual carriageway sections = = = =
In addition to the Australind Bypass , much of Old Coast Road was upgraded to a dual carriageway . A 7 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 5 mi ) second carriageway through Halls Head and Falcon was opened in 1989 . Two further dual carriageway sections , from Harvey to Myalup , and around Glen Iris , opened on 17 June 1996 . The dual carriageway was extended up to Lake Clifton c . December 2000 . Construction of the dual carriageway Dawesville Bypass around eastern Dawesville , south of Mandurah , began in late 2000 , and was opened in July 2001 .
= = = New Perth Bunbury Highway = = =
While Old Coast Road 's dual carriageway was advancing north from Bunbury , and Kwinana Freeway was progressively being extended south from Perth , the alignment through Mandurah was constrained by existing development . Keeping the existing alignment would result in a traffic bottleneck through Mandurah . To overcome this problem , Main Roads began planning for a new route east of the Peel Inlet in the 1980s .
The proposed Perth Bunbury Highway Peel deviation , part of which later became an extension to Kwinana Freeway , underwent a public environmental review in 1997 , and an environmental assessment by the Environmental Protection Authority ( EPA ) in 2000 . The relevant environment factors considered by the EPA were vegetation communities , declared rare and priority flora , wetlands , and traffic noise . Main Roads proposed management plans for each factor . Only clearing of vegetation critical for road construction would be undertaken , and more vegetation would be replaced than the amount impacted , using local native species . A survey for declared rare and priority flora found no rare species , and only one priority species , Lasiopetalum membranaceum , near the southern end of the project . Road construction would impact one conservation class wetland , but no protected wetlands . To minimise impact , road drainage would be designed to contain spills and prevent direct discharges into the surrounding environment . Noise levels would be contained to an acceptable limit in the road design , in accordance with the Main Roads traffic noise policy . The EPA concluded that the road could be designed and managed to an acceptable standard . Main Roads ' 2006 plan for environmental management of the project included numerous aspects , which for the northern segment of the project exceeded the environmental approval requirements . Specific plans were developed regarding fauna , topsoil management , construction , foreshores , and both Aboriginal and European heritage .
Construction of the highway and freeway extension began in December 2006 , with the whole project then called the New Perth Bunbury Highway . The work was undertaken by a partnership of Main Roads , Leighton Contractors , WA Limestone and GHD , known as the Southern Gateway Alliance . The project consisted of a 32 @-@ kilometre ( 20 mi ) freeway @-@ standard extension as far as South Yunderup Road in South Yunderup , and a 38 @-@ kilometre ( 24 mi ) highway @-@ standard dual carriageway to Old Coast Road at Lake Clifton . Taking traffic around the eastern side of the Peel @-@ Harvey Estuary prior to joining the existing dual carriageway on Old Coast Road reduced the journey time from Perth to Bunbury . The final road names were not known until early 2009 , when Transport Minister Simon O 'Brien revealed that the section south of Pinjarra Road would be known as Forrest Highway , with the section to the north to become part of Kwinana Freeway . The highway 's name commemorates Sir John Forrest , the state 's first premier . The Kwinana Freeway extension and Forrest Highway were opened on 20 September 2009 , with a ceremony held at the interchange between the freeway , highway , and Pinjarra Road . The roads were officially opened by Premier Colin Barnett , Senator Chris Evans , Transport Minister Simon O 'Brien , Member for Canning Don Randall , and the previous Transport Minister Alannah MacTiernan . The $ 705 million project ( equivalent to $ 808 million in 2013 ) was jointly funded by the state and federal governments , which contributed $ 375 million and $ 330 million respectively ( equivalent to $ 430 million and $ 378 million in 2013 ) . At the time it opened , it was Western Australia 's largest ever road infrastructure project .
= = = Forrest Highway after opening = = =
One year after Forrest Highway opened , the number of road accidents on the main roads in the area had decreased by 60 % . Traffic on South Western Highway had reduced by 50 % north of Pinjarra , and by 20 % to the south , and there was an 82 % reduction along Old Coast Road within a month of the new highway opening . However , tourism in towns along the former routes was affected by the reduced traffic flow , with businesses losing as much as 60 % of their trade .
Forrest Highway has been criticised for the lack of roadside facilities . In January 2014 , it was described as " the busiest , most unserviced , long stretch of highway in the nation " by MP Murray Cowper , Member for Murray @-@ Wellington . With toilets only available at the John Tognela Rest Area near the southern end of the highway , travellers have reportedly stopped alongside the highway or side roads to urinate and change nappies . A farming family with property adjacent to the highway was willing to invest in a roadhouse near Herron Point , but Main Roads required roadhouses to be built on both sides of the highway . According to Cowper , traffic volume would need to increase from 17 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 vehicles per day to justify such an investment .
A few months later , in April 2014 , a Perth developer had begun constructing twin roadhouses five kilometres ( 3 mi ) south of Greenlands Road , approximately halfway between Perth and Bunbury . The property was purchased in 2004 , before construction began on the highway , with the intention of developing the site when there was a viable amount of traffic . The main tenant will be a national fuel retailer , with food and beverage retailers and other amenities to be located on both sides of the highway . The facilities were initially expected to be completed by the end of 2014 , but work was put on hold due to a legal dispute between the developer and landowner . The dispute was resolved and development resumed in June 2015 , with completion expected by Easter 2016 , according to Cowper .
On 5 June 2014 , the Geographic Names Committee decide to rename the roads that connect Forrest Highway to Bunbury – part of Old Coast Road as well as Australind Bypass – as part of the highway . The renaming had been proposed in 2013 due to public confusion over the three names used for the route to Bunbury : Forrest Highway to Lake Clifton , Old Coast Road from there to north of Australind , and then Australind Bypass . Emergency services had difficulty locating incidents due to the confusion . The renaming followed similar changes to Main Roads ' internal @-@ use designations in May 2011 , which deprecated Perth Bunbury Highway ( Highway H2 ) in favour of Melville Mandurah Highway ( Highway H2 ) for the portion north of Mandurah , Lakeland Lake Clifton Road ( Main Road M74 ) for the Mandurah to Lake Clifton section together with Mandjoogoordap Drive , and an extension of Forrest Highway ( Highway H57 ) for the Lake Clifton to Bunbury portion . Changes to the road signs were expected to be completed by mid @-@ July . The renaming was considered unusual , as it affected a significant length of a major road , which was the address of eleven residential properties .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Old Coast Road = =
While much of Old Coast Road was renamed Forrest Highway in 2014 , bypassed sections of the former Perth Bunbury Highway near Mandurah and Australind have retained the name Old Coast Road , and have significance as part of numbered road routes .
= = = Mandurah – Lake Clifton = = =
Old Coast Road starts at the intersection of Mandurah Terrace and Pinjarra Road in Mandurah . It crosses the Mandurah estuary into Halls Head via the 184 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 604 ft ) Mandurah Bridge . The road heads south @-@ west as a two @-@ lane road serving the canal estate in eastern Halls Head . After 1 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) Old Coast Road intersects Mandurah Road at a T junction . Mandurah Road and Old Coast Road south @-@ westbound form a continuous dual carriageway , and from here Old Coast Road is part of National Route 1 . The road then proceeds through Mandurah 's southern suburbs of Falcon and Wannanup for 8 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 4 mi ) before bridging the Dawesville Channel . After 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) , Old Coast Road turns south to run through eastern Dawesville as a single carriageway ; about 500 metres ( 0 @.@ 31 mi ) to the west the dual carriageway also travels south as Dawesville Bypass . The two routes meet again after three and a half kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) . Old Coast Road is briefly a dual carriageway for 700 metres ( 0 @.@ 43 mi ) before reducing to a 28 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 17 mi ) two @-@ lane road through Bouvard , Herron and Lake Clifton . The road terminates at a T junction with Forrest Highway .
= = = Leschenault – Pelican Point = = =
While Forrest Highway bypasses Australind , there is a turn off for Old Coast Road and Tourist Drive 260 at Leschenault . The road heads south through the residential suburb for three and a half kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) before going through a 1 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 87 mi ) reverse curve . Now at the eastern edge of the Leschenault Inlet , Old Coast Road enters Australind and travels along the shoreline for nine and a half kilometres ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) . The road crosses the Collie River , and 600 metres ( 0 @.@ 37 mi ) later there is a roundabout with Estuary Drive and Hamilton Road . The tourist drive follows Estuary Drive to Bunbury , while Old Coast Road continues south for 1 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 87 mi ) to rejoin Forrest Highway at the south @-@ eastern edge of Pelican Point .
= Pau Gasol =
Pau Gasol Sáez ( Catalan pronunciation : [ ˈpaw ɣəˈzɔɫ ] , Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈpau ɣaˈsol ] ; born July 6 , 1980 ) is a Spanish professional basketball player for the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He is a six @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star , and a four @-@ time All @-@ NBA selection , twice on the second team and twice on the third team . He has won two NBA championships , both with the Los Angeles Lakers . He was the NBA Rookie of the Year in 2002 with the Memphis Grizzlies , one of only two non @-@ American NBA players to win that award . He is the older brother of fellow NBA player Marc Gasol .
Gasol was selected by the Atlanta Hawks with the third overall pick in the first round of the 2001 NBA draft , but his rights were traded to Memphis . He currently holds the Grizzlies franchise records for field goals made and attempted , free throws made and attempted , offensive , defensive , and total rebounds , blocked shots , turnovers , and points . After seven seasons with the team , Gasol was traded to the Lakers in 2008 . In 2014 , he signed with the Chicago Bulls . Gasol has won two Olympic silver medals , a FIBA World Cup and three EuroBasket titles with the Spanish national basketball team .
= = Early career = =
Pau Gasol was born in Barcelona . He began playing basketball as a center with his school team , Alvirne , and he eventually signed with Cornellà . When he was sixteen , he began playing for Barcelona 's junior team . He also won both the 1998 Albert Schweitzer Tournament and the 1998 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 18 Championship . After moving to the senior team of Barcelona , Gasol played just 25 total minutes in the Spanish ACB League 1998 – 99 season , and averaged 13 @.@ 7 minutes per game in the ACB the next year . However , in his final season in the ACB , Gasol averaged 12 @.@ 4 points and 5 @.@ 8 rebounds in 24 @.@ 7 minutes per game . Barcelona was victorious in the Spanish National Cup championship game in 2001 , and Gasol was named Most Valuable Player . After entering the NBA draft , Gasol was selected third overall in the first round in the 2001 NBA draft by the Atlanta Hawks , who traded his draft rights to the Memphis Grizzlies in exchange for Shareef Abdur @-@ Rahim .
= = NBA career = =
= = = Memphis Grizzlies ( 2001 – 2008 ) = = =
In Gasol 's first season with the Grizzlies , he won the Rookie of the Year Award , and was named to the All @-@ Rookie first team . He averaged 17 @.@ 6 points and 8 @.@ 9 rebounds per game , and was also the only team member to play in all 82 games that season . Gasol led the team in scoring ( 19 @.@ 0 points per game ) in his second year with the Grizzlies , and for the second year in a row , played in all 82 games . Gasol missed the first game of his career , during his third year , with a foot injury on April 5 , 2004 , which snapped his string of 240 consecutive games played . He grabbed the 1,500th rebound of his career on November 12 , 2003 , against the Orlando Magic and scored his 3,000th career point on October 31 , 2003 , against the Boston Celtics . Despite having 22 points in Game 4 against the San Antonio Spurs , the highest by a Memphis players in the playoffs , his team was eliminated in the first round , not winning a single game against San Antonio . This was both the Grizzlies and Gasol 's first trip to the NBA Playoffs . He scored 31 points and blocked four shots on January 11 , 2005 , against the Indiana Pacers to earn 5 @,@ 000 points and 500 blocks in his career , becoming the 10th fastest player to reach 5 @,@ 000 points / 500 blocks since 1973 – 74 . He also helped his team make it to the playoffs for the second time in his career , but they were eliminated in the first round and did not win a single game against the Phoenix Suns .
In his fifth year with the Grizzlies , he became the franchise ’ s all @-@ time leading rebounder on March 24 against the New York Knicks when he grabbed his 3,072nd rebound in a Grizzlies uniform . He made 29 consecutive free throw attempts from January 24 to 28 , tying the second best mark in Grizzlies history , including two straight games going 12 – 12 from the line , tying the best single @-@ game mark in franchise history . Gasol and the Grizzlies returned to the 2006 NBA Playoffs | playoffs ] ] for the third time in his and his team 's history . Once again , they were eliminated in the first round and did not win a single game against the Dallas Mavericks .
On February 9 , 2006 , making his first appearance , Gasol was selected to play in the 2006 NBA All @-@ Star Game in Houston , Texas as a reserve center for the Western Conference . At the time , he was one of four players ranked among Western Conference forwards in the top ten in points , rebounds , assists and blocked shots . He was the first Spanish basketball player as well as the first Grizzlies player to ever make it to the All @-@ Star Game .
Gasol missed the first 23 games of the 2006 – 07 NBA season due to a broken foot suffered near the end of Spain 's semifinal win over Argentina in the 2006 FIBA World Championship . He would go on to be named Most Valuable Player of the tournament , which Spain won . He had a season @-@ high 34 points ( most by a Grizzly that season ) , and eight rebounds and tied a career @-@ high and franchise record with eight blocks on January 29 against the Sacramento Kings , and surpassed Shareef Abdur @-@ Rahim as the franchise 's all @-@ time leader in free throw attempts on January 31 against the Dallas Mavericks . He became the all @-@ time franchise leader in field goals made on February 6 against the Houston Rockets , and became the all @-@ time franchise leader in minutes played on February 7 at Dallas . He surpassed Shareef Abdur @-@ Rahim ( 7 @,@ 801 points ) as the Grizzlies ' all @-@ time leading scorer on March 7 , 2007 , against the Toronto Raptors ( 7 @,@ 809 points at the time ) . On January 24 , 2007 , Gasol recorded his second career triple @-@ double against the hosting Utah Jazz , garnering 17 points , 13 rebounds , and 12 assists . He also registered 2 blocks and one steal .
= = = Los Angeles Lakers ( 2008 – 2014 ) = = =
On February 1 , 2008 , Gasol was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers along with a 2010 second round draft pick for Kwame Brown , Javaris Crittenton , Aaron McKie , the rights to Marc Gasol ( Pau 's younger brother ) , and 2008 and 2010 first round draft picks . There has been some controversy surrounding the trade . Chris Wallace denied in an ESPN article that he had been ordered by owner Michael Heisley to make the Grizzlies more attractive to a potential buyer . Wallace said , " No one put pressure on me to do this , and Michael Heisley has actually been reluctant to move Pau . " He also said that they had been " trolling " the waters for a while and dealt with a number of teams . He selected the Lakers deal because " it didn 't get any better than this . " When Gasol departed the Grizzlies , he held twelve franchise records , including games played , minutes played , field goals made , free throws made and attempted , offensive , defensive , and total rebounds , blocked shots , turnovers , and points . Per game statistics , he leads Memphis in defensive and total rebounds along with blocked shots . On February 5 , he made his first Lakers appearance in a game against the New Jersey Nets , during which he scored 24 points and had 12 rebounds in a 105 – 90 win over the Nets . On March 14 , Gasol sprained his ankle in a game against the New Orleans Hornets , stepping on the foot of teammate Vladimir Radmanović in the first quarter . Gasol was expected to miss the remaining three games of the Lakers ' road trip after x @-@ rays came up negative . Gasol returned to the starting lineup on April 2 against the Portland Trail Blazers and played nearly thirty @-@ two minutes , registering 10 points , six rebounds and seven assists . He admitted to feeling limited with the swelling in his ankle still present . Gasol helped the Lakers finish the regular season with the best record in the Western Conference ( 57 – 25 ) , with him in the starting lineup the Lakers went 22 – 5 . Kobe Bryant has also stated that playing with Gasol clicked from the start .
In the Lakers ' opening game of the playoffs , he contributed 36 points , 16 rebounds , 8 assists and 3 blocked shots . When the Lakers swept the Denver Nuggets in the first round , it was Gasol 's first trip to the second round in four tries . His previous team , the Grizzlies , failed to reach the playoffs for the second year in a row . He contributed 17 points and 13 rebounds in Game 6 against the Utah Jazz to help the Lakers advance to the conference finals . On May 31 , he recorded a career high 19 rebounds in a series @-@ clinching win against the San Antonio Spurs , and he became the first Spaniard to reach the NBA Finals . Gasol scored 14 @.@ 7 points per game on .532 shooting in the 2008 Finals against the Boston Celtics , which was below his scoring average of 18 @.@ 9 during the regular season , However , he led the Lakers in rebounding with 10 @.@ 2 per game throughout the championship series , up from his regular @-@ season average of 8 @.@ 4 . Los Angeles lost in six games against Boston in the Finals , including a 131 – 92 loss in Game 6 . In the Playoffs , Gasol was the second leading Laker in points ( 16 @.@ 9 ) , rebounds ( 9 @.@ 3 ) and assists per game ( 4 @.@ 0 ) . He was the leader in blocks per game ( 1 @.@ 90 ) and was tied with Lamar Odom with the most postseason double @-@ doubles ( 10 ) .
On January 2 , 2009 , in a win against the Utah Jazz , Gasol scored his 10,000th career point . Gasol earned his second All @-@ Star appearance as a reserve for the Western Conference squad during the 2008 – 09 NBA season , his first as a Laker . He was also named Western Conference Player of the Month after helping the Lakers to an 11 – 2 record for the month of February that included road wins over Boston and Cleveland . He finished the regular season with averages of 18 @.@ 9 points , 9 @.@ 6 rebounds , 3 @.@ 5 assists , and 1 block per game . Gasol then won his first NBA championship ring when the Lakers defeated the Orlando Magic in the 2009 Finals .
On December 24 , 2009 , Gasol signed a 3 @-@ year extension with the Lakers worth $ 64 @.@ 7 million . Gasol earned his third All @-@ Star appearance as a reserve for the Western Conference and finished the regular season with averages of 18 @.@ 3 points , 11 @.@ 3 rebounds , 3 @.@ 4 assists , and 1 @.@ 7 blocks . In Game 6 of the first round , Gasol grabbed 18 rebounds and his last @-@ second putback eliminated the Oklahom City Thunder . In the conference semifinals against the Utah Jazz , he averaged 23 @.@ 5 points and 14 @.@ 5 rebounds , and finally in the conference finals against the Phoenix Suns , he averaged 19 @.@ 7 points with 7 @.@ 2 rebounds . In Game 7 of the NBA Finals against the Boston Celtics , Gasol scored 19 points , ( 6 – 16 FGM @-@ A , 7 – 13 FTM @-@ A ) grabbed 18 rebounds and recorded two blocks as the Lakers repeated as champions . In 2010 , he was chosen as the 15th @-@ smartest athlete in sports by Sporting News .
Challenged by Lakers ' coach Phil Jackson to be more assertive while Bryant recovered from offseason knee surgery , Gasol started the season 's first week averaging 25 @.@ 3 points on 52 @.@ 5 percent shooting , 10 @.@ 3 rebounds , and five assists per game as the Lakers started 3 – 0 . He was named Western Conference Player of the Week . He earned his third straight All @-@ Star selection and his season averages of 19 points and 10 rebounds were nearly identical to what he had put up as a Laker the previous three seasons . Pau 's play also merited him All @-@ NBA second team honors for the first time in his career . In the playoffs , Gasol only averaged 13 points on 42 % shooting over 10 games , and the Lakers were swept by the Dallas Mavericks in the second round . Gasol had the worst post season performance of his career . Lakers Hall of Famer and ESPN analyst Magic Johnson cited Gasol as a possible trade option for the Lakers to acquire Magic center Dwight Howard . Gasol ignored the false reports about his relationship status with his girlfriend as the cause of his poor performance and has accepted the criticism of his play as valid . During the 2011 – 12 NBA season , Gasol and teammate Lamar Odom were subjected to trade rumors involving former New Orleans Hornets guard Chris Paul . After the trade fell through , Gasol vowed that it would not affect the way he played . Odom , on the other hand , was angry at the Laker organization and was traded to the 2010 – 11 NBA champion Dallas Mavericks for a future first round pick . After Lakers co @-@ captain Derek Fisher was traded in March 2012 , Gasol joined Bryant as co @-@ captains of the team . He won the 2011 – 12 seasonlong NBA Community Assist Award .
After a 1 – 4 start to the 2012 – 13 season , the Lakers replaced head coach Mike Brown with Mike D 'Antoni . Gasol was struggling after seven games under D 'Antoni , averaging 10 @.@ 1 points and 8 @.@ 0 rebounds while shooting 38 @.@ 8 percent , and he was benched in the fourth quarter in multiple games . The team had difficulties getting Gasol involved in D 'Antoni 's offense , which historically had not had post players playing forward . Gasol ranked only 27th in the league in post @-@ up points with 2 @.@ 7 per game , down from prior seasons when he was fifth in 2010 – 11 and ninth in 2011 – 12 . On November 18 , 2012 , in a win against the Houston Rockets , Gasol scored his 15,000th career point . Bothered by tendinitis in both knees since training camp , Gasol sat out eight games in December before returning to the starting lineup . Later , he was diagnosed with plantar fasciitis , but continued playing . General manager Mitch Kupchak told Lakers season @-@ ticket holders the team needed Gasol to be more involved . On January 7 , 2013 , Gasol received a blow to the face from Denver 's JaVale McGee in the fourth quarter of a 112 – 105 loss . He suffered a concussion , forcing him to miss the next five games . In his first game back , he came off the bench after having started his first 345 games with the Lakers . In the next game , he returned to the starting lineup and scored 25 points against Toronto , only his second 20 @-@ point game of the season . However , in the next game on January 21 , D 'Antoni moved Gasol to a reserve role and started Earl Clark , a change the coach considered permanent . On February 5 against the Brooklyn Nets , Gasol tore the plantar fascia of his right foot . Gasol had tweaked the fascia in the first half , but played through the soreness until he felt it pop when he tried to block a shot by Brook Lopez towards the end of the game . He returned over six weeks later on March 22 after missing 20 games , with D 'Antoni returning him to the starting lineup over Clark . After a two @-@ game adjustment period , Gasol 's play was solid , and Bryant insisted that Gasol receive the ball in the post . D 'Antoni stated that Gasol had played well since January , and attributed the forward 's earlier struggles to injuries and the team 's evolving offensive system . " I have a lot more confidence in him now , and he 's playing great , " D 'Antoni said . He finished the season with career lows in points ( 13 @.@ 7 ) and field @-@ goal percentage ( .466 ) , and his rebounds ( 8 @.@ 6 ) were his lowest since his first season with Los Angeles . He was limited to career @-@ low 49 games . However , he had three triple @-@ doubles in his last seven games including the playoffs . Gasol was owed $ 19 @.@ 3 million in 2013 – 14 in the final year of his contract , which would cost the Lakers around $ 50 million including luxury taxes . He became a free agent after the season .
= = = Chicago Bulls ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = =
On July 18 , 2014 , Gasol signed with the Chicago Bulls . He said after he was introduced : " It was a gut feeling . I thought Chicago was going to be the best fit for me . It 's a great challenge , but I 'm driven by challenge . I look forward to it . "
On January 1 , 2015 , Gasol recorded a career @-@ high 9 blocks , along with 17 points and 9 rebounds , in the 106 @-@ 101 win over the Denver Nuggets . Ten days later , he scored a career @-@ high 46 points on 17 @-@ of @-@ 30 shooting in a 95 @-@ 87 win over the Milwaukee Bucks . On April 9 , 2015 , he recorded a league @-@ best 51st double @-@ double of the season with 16 points and 15 rebounds in an 89 @-@ 78 win over the Miami Heat . He recorded his 54th double @-@ double of the season in the regular season finale on April 15 against the Atlanta Hawks to finish as the league @-@ leader in double @-@ doubles in 2014 – 15 .
On December 5 , 2015 , Gasol became the 116th player to reach 1 @,@ 000 regular @-@ season games . He had 13 points and 11 rebounds against the Charlotte Hornets for his ninth double @-@ double of the season . On January 25 , 2016 , he recorded his first career first quarter double @-@ double with 13 points and 10 rebounds . He finished the game with 19 points and 17 rebounds , as the Bulls were defeated by the Miami Heat 89 – 84 . On February 9 , Gasol was named as Jimmy Butler 's replacement on the 2016 Eastern Conference All @-@ Star squad . On February 27 , he recorded his eighth career triple @-@ double and first as a Bull with 22 points , 16 rebounds and a career @-@ high 14 assists in a 103 – 95 loss to the Portland Trail Blazers . At 35 years old , he became the oldest player to record a triple @-@ double since Kobe Bryant did so at 36 years old in 2014 . On March 7 , he recorded his second triple @-@ double of the season with 12 points , 17 rebounds and 13 assists in a 100 – 90 win over the Milwaukee Bucks , becoming just the fourth player 35 years or older with multiple triple @-@ doubles in a season , joining Jason Kidd , Kobe Bryant and Paul Pierce . On April 2 , in a loss to the Detroit Pistons , he became the 38th NBA player to reach 10 @,@ 000 career rebounds . He also became the 36th with 10 @,@ 000 points and 10 @,@ 000 rebounds .
= = = San Antonio Spurs ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On July 14 , 2016 , Gasol signed with the San Antonio Spurs .
= = Spanish national team = =
Gasol 's first competition with the senior Spain national basketball team was the 2001 EuroBasket tournament , having previously won the 1998 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 18 Championship and 1999 FIBA Under @-@ 19 World Championship with Spanish junior teams . Being considered , against his own will , the leader of the team , Gasol ended up with the bronze medal in the competition . Gasol has since had much success with the Spanish team , winning the 2006 FIBA World Championship and the 2009 and 2011 EuroBasket tournaments , being chosen as the Most Valuable Player in the first two ; he also won silver medals at the 2003 and 2007 EuroBasket , and the 2008 and 2012 Olympic Games . Gasol was also the highest @-@ scoring player of the 2004 Summer Olympics , and Spain 's flag bearer at the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics , replacing the injured Rafael Nadal . In 2014 , Gasol was named to the All @-@ tournament team of the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup . In the 2015 FIBA Eurobasket , Gasol was named the MVP of the competition after some amazing performances , averaging 25 @.@ 6 points and 8 @.@ 8 rebounds per game ( he was the competition leader for points per game , and 4th in rebounds per game ) . During the knockout matches of the competition , Gasol inspired the Spanish side which was missing many of its stars like Ricky Rubio , Juan Carlos Navarro , Alex Abrines and his brother Marc Gasol . Remembered will be his incredible showing at the semi @-@ final against France , where he scored 40 points , half of his team 's total . The 35 @-@ year @-@ old NBAer was also named the competition 's leader for blocked shots per game ( 2 @.@ 3 ) .
= = Player profile = =
Gasol is very athletic and quick for a 7 @-@ footer ( 213 cm ) , allowing him to play both the power forward and center positions , much like fellow European players Toni Kukoč and Dirk Nowitzki . He is a refined scorer in the post and midrange ; his overall game is near @-@ ambidextrous and makes it difficult for opposing teams to defend . Gasol uses a variety of midrange jumpers , hook shots , up @-@ and @-@ under moves , and shot fakes to score very efficiently . In addition , his foot speed relative to his size allows him to run the fast break and finish effectively . He is also a skilled passer for a big man , earning 3 @.@ 3 assists per game over his career . Defensively , he is an above @-@ average shot blocker with a career average of 1 @.@ 6 blocks per game . Former Lakers teammate Kobe Bryant said of Gasol , " You 'd be hard @-@ pressed to find a big [ man ] with his skill set in the history of the game . "
Gasol is a double @-@ double machine , having recorded over 550 double @-@ doubles in his NBA career . On April 2 , 2016 , he became the 36th player in NBA history to reach the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ point / 10 @,@ 000 @-@ rebound mark .
= = Career statistics = =
Note : The Euroleague is not the only competition in which the player participated for the team during the season . He also played in domestic competition , and regional competition if applicable .
= = = NBA = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = = Euroleague = = =
= = Awards & honors = =
= = = FC Barcelona = = =
Spanish King 's Cup champion ( 2001 )
Most Valuable Player of the Spanish King 's Cup ( 2001 )
Spanish League champion ( 1999 , 2001 )
Spanish League Finals MVP ( 2001 )
All @-@ Euroleague Second Team ( 2001 )
= = = NBA = = =
2 × NBA champion ( 2009 , 2010 )
2 × All @-@ NBA Second Team selection ( 2011 , 2015 )
2 × All @-@ NBA Third Team selection ( 2009 , 2010 )
6 × NBA All @-@ Star ( 2006 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2015 , 2016 )
NBA Rookie of the Year Award ( 2002 )
NBA All @-@ Rookie First Team ( 2002 )
= = = European Player of the Year awards = = =
2x Mr. Europa ( 2004 , 2009 )
3x Euroscar Award ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 )
2x FIBA Europe Player of the Year ( 2008 , 2009 )
2x All @-@ Europeans Player of the Year ( 2009 , 2010 )
= = = Spanish national team = = =
Gold medal at the FIBA Europe Under @-@ 18 Championship ( 1998 )
Gold medal at the FIBA Under @-@ 19 World Championship ( 1999 )
Bronze medal at the FIBA Europe Under @-@ 20 Championship ( 2000 )
Bronze medal at the EuroBasket 2001
Silver medal at the EuroBasket 2003
Gold medal at the 2006 FIBA World Championship
Most Valuable player of the 2006 FIBA World Championship
Silver medal at the EuroBasket 2007
Silver medal at 2008 Olympic Basketball Tournament
Gold medal at the EuroBasket 2009
Gold medal at the EuroBasket 2011
Silver medal at 2012 Olympic Basketball Tournament
Gold medal at the EuroBasket 2015
= = Personal life = =
Gasol 's mother , Marisa , was a medical doctor , and his father , Agustí , was a nurse administrator . When Pau was born , his family was living in Cornellà , but he was born in Barcelona , at Sant Pau Hospital , where both of his parents worked . When he was six years old , his family moved to another Barcelona suburb , Sant Boi de Llobregat , where he spent the remainder of his childhood . His parents moved to the Memphis suburb of Germantown , Tennessee , after he signed with the Grizzlies , and enrolled his younger brothers Marc and Adrià in Lausanne Collegiate School in Memphis . They planned to move to the Los Angeles area when Pau was traded to the Lakers , with Agustí accepting a job with a health @-@ care company in that area ; although the Grizzlies obtained the rights to Marc 's services as part of the trade , he was expected to re @-@ sign with his Spanish team Akasvayu Girona . However , when Marc decided to sign with the Grizzlies , their parents chose to stay in Germantown . Agustí now works from home for the same company , while Marisa now volunteers at St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital .
Since being traded to the Lakers , Gasol lives in Redondo Beach , across the street from the shoreline .
In 2009 , Gasol , along with several other NBA players , joined the Hoops for St. Jude charity program benefitting the St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital .
Gasol was never interested in football , but loved basketball . The first sport he played was actually rugby , before switching to basketball . He is described as " a family boy and the perfect student , a tad shy , and a bit of a joker . "
He originally did not want to make sports his career . On the day that Magic Johnson announced his HIV @-@ positive status in 1991 , the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Gasol , who had heard the news in school , decided that he wanted to be a doctor and find a cure for AIDS . He enrolled in medical school at the University of Barcelona , but left as his basketball career at FC Barcelona advanced . He remains strongly interested in medicine . Gasol regularly visits Childrens Hospital of Los Angeles , a standard stop for athletes making charitable visits in the L.A. area , but does not limit his business to visiting young patients . On one visit , he asked a group of doctors well @-@ informed questions about their treatment of children with scoliosis . In April 2010 , Gasol was scheduled to sit in on a spinal surgery , wearing surgical scrubs , with Dr. David Skaggs , the hospital 's chief of orthopedic surgery . Skaggs has said , " We talk to him now almost like he is a surgical colleague . "
Gasol canceled his original plans to observe a surgery when he came down with a low @-@ grade fever the day before the operation , not wishing to risk infecting anyone at the hospital . He was able to reschedule his observation for June 2010 , witnessing Skaggs lead a team operating on a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl from Colorado with scoliosis .
Gasol also has a broad range of intellectual and cultural interests . He has taught himself Italian and French to go along with his childhood languages of Catalan and Spanish plus English . While with the Lakers , he and Kobe Bryant spoke to one another during games in Spanish to keep opponents from knowing their plans . Gasol also regularly reads historical novels , plays the works of French classical composers on his keyboard , and attends concerts and operas ; he is a friend of Spanish tenor Plácido Domingo , and often visits him backstage after performances .
His younger brother Marc , who is 216 centimetres ( 7 ft 1 in ) tall and 127 kilograms ( 280 lb ) , is also a professional basketball player , currently playing for the Memphis Grizzlies . Marc was drafted by the Los Angeles Lakers , 48th overall , in the 2007 NBA draft and his rights were traded to the Memphis Grizzlies , as part of the deal that sent Gasol to the Lakers . Their youngest brother Adrià played for Lausanne 's basketball team ; his coach at Lausanne said , " He 's built like Pau , with a mean streak like Marc , " although he was not at the time considered a major basketball prospect . After returning to Spain for his final two years of high school basketball , Adrià enrolled at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) in August 2012 and joined the UCLA basketball team as a walk on .
Gasol denied false reports that he had broken up with his girlfriend , Silvia Lopez Castro , in the exit interviews after his poor performance in the 2011 NBA Playoffs .
= Walter Payton =
Walter Jerry Payton ( July 25 , 1954 – November 1 , 1999 ) was an American football running back who played for the Chicago Bears of the National Football League ( NFL ) for thirteen seasons . Payton was known around the NFL as " Sweetness " . He is remembered as one of the most prolific running backs in the history of the NFL . Payton , a nine @-@ time Pro Bowl selectee , once held the league 's record for most career rushing yards , touchdowns , carries , yards from scrimmage , all @-@ purpose yards , and many other categories . His eight career touchdown passes are just second to Frank Gifford an NFL record for non @-@ quarterbacks . He was elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1993 . Hall of Fame NFL player and coach Mike Ditka described Payton as the greatest football player he had ever seen — but even greater as a human being .
Payton began his football career in Mississippi , and went on to have an outstanding collegiate football career at Jackson State University where he was an All @-@ American . He started his professional career with the Chicago Bears in 1975 , who selected him as the 1975 Draft 's fourth overall pick . Payton proceeded to win two NFL Most Valuable Player Awards and won Super Bowl XX with the 1985 Chicago Bears . After struggling with the rare liver disease primary sclerosing cholangitis for several months , Payton died on November 1 , 1999 , aged 46 , from cholangiocarcinoma . His legacy includes the Walter Payton Award , the Walter Payton Man of the Year Award , and a heightened awareness of the need for organ donations .
= = Early life = =
Payton was one of three children born to Peter and Alyne Payton in West Point , Mississippi . His father was a factory worker who had played semi @-@ professional baseball . Payton was an active member of the Boy Scouts , Little League , and his local church . At John J. Jefferson High School , Payton played drums in the marching band , participated in the track team and sang in the school choir . Outside of school , he played drums in jazz @-@ rock groups .
His brother Eddie was on the football team , and Payton did not play partly to avoid competing with him . After Eddie graduated , the football coach asked Payton to try out for the team , and he agreed on condition that he be allowed to continue playing in the band .
Once he began to play football , as a junior , he achieved instant success as a running back , running 65 yards for a touchdown on his first high school carry . At 5 ft 10 in ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) , he was not especially large , but his speed and strength made him one of the team 's featured players . Jefferson High School was integrated with neighboring Columbia High School that year ; Payton and his teammates were upset that their head coach , Charles L. Boston , had become an assistant and Payton boycotted some of the spring practices in protest , but returned during the fall season . He then earned statewide honors as a member of Mississippi 's all @-@ state team , leading Columbia to an unexpected 8 @-@ 2 season . His performance helped ease the local tensions surrounding desegregation . Tommy Davis , Columbia ’ s football coach , claimed that he could always count on Payton when the team needed to score . Payton ’ s statistics proved that that was no exaggeration : he scored in every game during his junior and senior years . He was named to the all @-@ conference team three years in a row . Payton also led the Little Dixie Conference in scoring his senior year and made the all @-@ state team . In addition to excelling at football , Payton averaged 18 points a game for Columbia ’ s basketball team , leaped three @-@ quarters of an inch short of 23 feet in the long jump , played some baseball , and continued to drum in the school band .
= = College career = =
Though Payton had established himself as one of Mississippi 's best running back prospects , he received no invitations from Southeastern Conference colleges or universities , which were accepting only a few black players at the time . After originally committing to Kansas State University , he decided to pursue his collegiate career at the historically black , Jackson State University , Jackson , Mississippi , where his older brother Eddie played football ( contrary to popular belief , he was never recruited by the University of Kansas , according to then coach Don Fambrough as Payton claimed in his autobiography ) .
While attending Jackson State , Payton played alongside many future professional football players , including Jerome Barkum , Robert Brazile , and Jackie Slater . As a member of the Jackson State Tigers , Payton rushed for more than 3 @,@ 500 yards , averaging 6 @.@ 1 yards per carry . Also , he broke the scoring record by rushing for 65 touchdowns during his college career , although this is not an official NCAA record , as they do not recognize individual scoring records . In 1973 , Payton was selected for the All @-@ American Team . The following year he was named Black College Player of the Year . Payton graduated in 1975 with a Bachelor 's degree in Communications .
He acquired the nickname " Sweetness " in college . The nickname 's origin is ambiguous : it is variously said to have stemmed from his personality , from his athletic grace , or as a sarcastic description of his aggressive playing style . In 1996 , Payton was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame . On January 18 , 2010 , it was announced that Payton would be one of eleven members of the inaugural class inducted into the Black College Football Hall of Fame on February 20 , 2010 .
= = = Breakout performance = = =
On October 1 , 1972 during Walter Payton ’ s sophomore year , he set a then @-@ best SWAC scoring record by scoring 7 touchdowns and running two points after for 46 points as Jackson State crushed Lane College , 72 − 0 . Payton scored on TD runs of 6 , 8 , 2 , 3 , 1 , 2 , and 31 yards in the blowout win .
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = 1975 – 1982 = = =
The Chicago Bears drafted Walter Payton in the first round of the 1975 NFL Draft , as the fourth overall pick . The Bears had endured several losing seasons after the retirement of the iconic Gale Sayers in 1972 . Payton 's first game was not particularly successful ; he was held to zero net rushing yards on eight attempts . His best performance of the season was the final game against the New Orleans Saints , where he rushed for 134 yards on 20 carries . Payton finished the season with only 679 yards and seven touchdowns . However , Payton led the league in yards per kickoff returns .
Payton was eager to improve his performance . During the 1976 NFL season , Payton rushed for 1 @,@ 390 yards and scored 13 touchdowns . After the season , he was selected to play in the 1977 Pro Bowl , where he was declared the Pro Bowl MVP . The next year , he rushed for 1 @,@ 852 yards and scored 16 touchdowns , becoming the league ’ s leading scorer for the season . He earned numerous awards that season , including the Associated Press and Pro Football Writers of America 's Most Valuable Player awards . A memorable game of the 1977 NFL season was against the Minnesota Vikings on November 20 . He rushed for a then @-@ record 275 yards , breaking the previous record of 273 yards held by O. J. Simpson . In that record @-@ setting game against the Vikings , Payton was suffering with a 101 @-@ degree fever and intense flu . His longest run was for 58 yards , and he caught one pass for 6 yards . His record stood for 23 years until Corey Dillon of the Cincinnati Bengals ran for 278 yards on October 22 , 2000 — a record that has since been broken by Jamal Lewis ( 295 yards ) on September 14 , 2003 , and Adrian Peterson ( 296 yards ) on November 4 , 2007 . By the end of the decade , Payton had received additional accolades for his exploits as a blocker , receiver , emergency punter , and quarterback .
= = = 1983 – 1986 = = =
The Bears struggled to assemble consecutive winning seasons , landing only two playoff berths since his arrival . The lack of success prompted the Bears ' management to replace Neill Armstrong with Mike Ditka for the season that began in the Fall of 1982 . Ditka , a tight end during the 1960s and 1970s who would also join the Pro Football Hall of Fame , led the Bears to a 3 – 6 ( strike @-@ shortened ) record in 1982 . He led the Bears to an 8 – 8 finish in 1983 and to a 10 – 6 finish in 1984 . Payton continued his success by rushing for more than 1 @,@ 400 yards in both seasons . On October 7 , 1984 against the New Orleans Saints , Payton broke Jim Brown 's career rushing record of 12 @,@ 312 yards . In 1985 , Payton rushed for more than 1 @,@ 500 yards , helping the Bears establish the league 's second @-@ best offense . The Bears ' 46 defense of that season would go on to become one of the best in NFL history , setting a record for fewest points allowed .
Payton performed with his teammates in the widely released 1985 music video The Super Bowl Shuffle . The Bears went on to a 15 – 1 record that culminated in a 46 @-@ 10 victory over the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XX . Although Payton 's offensive prowess had assisted the Bears throughout the 1985 season , he did not score any touchdowns in the postseason and the New England Patriots prevented him from reaching the end zone in the Super Bowl . According to quarterback Jim McMahon , he was targeted by two or three defenders on every play , and others stated that Payton 's mere presence allowed others to shine , given that at least 2 people were targeting Payton on every play . In a later interview , Ditka stated that one of his major regrets was Payton 's lack of a touchdown in this game .
= = = 1986 − 1987 = = =
Payton , who was a 12 @-@ year veteran , amassed 1 @,@ 333 yards in the 1986 NFL season . The Bears won the NFC Central Division , but lost to the Washington Redskins 27 – 13 in the divisional round . At the end of the 1986 season , he announced that he would retire after completing the 1987 NFL season . During his last season with the Bears , Payton split carries with his successor , Neal Anderson , and rushed for only 533 yards . Payton 's career ended with another loss to the Washington Redskins in the divisional round of the playoffs by the score of 21 – 17 on January 10 , 1988 . Over his entire career , Payton rushed for 16 @,@ 726 yards , which broke the record for most rushing yards by any NFL player in history , and scored 110 touchdowns . He caught 492 passes for 4 @,@ 538 yards and 15 touchdowns . Payton set several team records , including most career rushing yards , receptions , touchdowns , and touchdown passes by a running back . His jersey number was retired by the Bears , and he was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1993 . The only game he missed in his 13 @-@ year career was in his rookie season of 1975 .
= = Playing style = =
Payton 's motto was " Never Die Easy " , which is also the title of his posthumously published autobiography . Payton attributed this motto to Bob Hill , his coach at Jackson State . In practice , this meant that Payton refused to deliberately run out @-@ of @-@ bounds and always delivered some punishment to his tacklers before being forced off the field or forced down .
One of Payton 's signature maneuvers was the " stutter @-@ step " , a high @-@ stepping , irregularly paced run . He developed this as a way to distract his pursuers during long runs , saying that it startled them into thinking and gave him some advantage over players who were actually faster runners . In his autobiography , he likened the stutter step to a kind of " option play " : when he was stutter @-@ stepping , defenders would have to commit to a pursuit angle based upon whether they thought he would accelerate after the stutter @-@ step , or cut — he would read this angle and do the opposite of what the defender had committed to .
He re @-@ invented the practice of stiff @-@ arming his tacklers , which had gone out of favor among running backs in the 1970s . At times , he used his high school experience as a long jumper to leap over his opponents , landing on his head in the end zone to gain a touchdown in a game against the Buffalo Bills . His running gait was somewhat unusual , as his knees were minimally bent , and the motion was largely powered from the hip . This may have given his knees , a football player 's most vulnerable joints , some protection , although he underwent arthroscopic surgery on both knees in 1983 . He referred to this procedure as an 11 @,@ 000 @-@ yard checkup .
After scoring touchdowns , Payton declined to celebrate ; instead , he would often hand the ball to his teammates or the official . He disapproved of the growing practice of touchdown celebrations ; he preferred post @-@ game antics such as rushing into the locker room and locking his teammates out in the cold while taking a long shower . Although Payton would have won the respect of his peers and coaches by his running alone , he made 492 receptions and over 4 @,@ 000 yards over his career and was a consistent threat in the passing game .
= = Personal life = =
Throughout his life Walter Payton had claimed his date of birth as July 25 , 1954 , a date which is cited in many of his early biographies . However , while researching his biography of Payton , Sports Illustrated 's Jeff Pearlman discovered his actual date of birth to be July 25 , 1953 . Pearlman found Payton 's earliest use of the later date during his pursuit of the Heisman Trophy at Jackson State .
Payton married Connie Norwood in 1976 . During his rookie year he resided in a home on the north side of Arlington Heights , Illinois . The couple had two children , Jarrett Payton ( born 1980 ) and Brittney ( born December 26 , 1985 ) and resided in South Barrington , Illinois .
A 2011 biography by Jeff Pearlman describes a tumultuous personal life very different from his positive public image . According to Pearlman 's biography , Payton was a consistent adulterer , and a multiple drug user . His drug use began with painkillers provided to him by the Chicago Bears to cope with the punishment he absorbed during games , and continued after his football career ended . Payton did not cope well with life after his career , especially with issues of boredom and loneliness . His wife and family contend that the book is filled with factual misstatements , and paints too bleak a picture of his life . However , many reviewers of Pearlman 's work have found it to have been " exhaustively " researched and documented by hundreds of interviews . The ghostwriter for Payton 's autobiography called the book " an incredible , thoughtful , deep and profound read . It ’ s exceptional work . "
= = Civic Awards = =
Walter Payton was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln ( the State ’ s highest honor ) by the Governor of Illinois in 1987 in the area of Sports .
= = Investments = =
In 1995 , Payton , along with many other investors , sought to bring an NFL expansion team to St. Louis , Missouri , and Payton expressed his interest in becoming the first minority owner in NFL history . Although the NFL strongly favored a franchise in St. Louis , their efforts were thwarted because of internal dissension among the investment group members leading the NFL to award franchises to investment groups in Jacksonville , Florida ( Jacksonville Jaguars ) and Charlotte , North Carolina ( Carolina Panthers ) . St. Louis eventually received a team when the Los Angeles Rams moved to the city in 1995 .
Payton pursued various business ventures in retirement , including becoming co @-@ owner of Dale Coyne Racing in the CART IndyCar World Series . He also drove in several Trans @-@ Am Series events , including a 1993 race at Road America in which his car overturned and caught fire . He suffered burns but escaped serious injury .
In 1995 , he and several partners purchased a Chicago , Burlington and Quincy Railroad roundhouse in Aurora , Illinois . The property became known as " Walter Payton 's Roundhouse " , hosting a restaurant , brewery , banquet and meeting facility , and museum . In 1999 the property received an award from the National Trust for Historic Preservation . The beers brewed at the Roundhouse received awards in the 2000s . Payton appeared on a 1987 episode of Saturday Night Live ( co @-@ hosting with fellow football player Joe Montana ) . In 1994 , he made an appearance at Summerslam in the corner of Razor Ramon .
= = Illness and death = =
In February 1999 , Payton announced that he had a rare autoimmune liver disease known as primary sclerosing cholangitis , which may have led to his cholangiocarcinoma ( bile duct cancer ) . He spent his final months as an advocate for organ transplants , appearing in many commercials to encourage others to donate organs , although by the time his first appeal was recorded , his illness was already too far advanced for transplantation to have been a viable option . In April of that year , Payton made a final public appearance at a Chicago Cubs game with Mike Ditka , where he threw the game 's ceremonial first pitch . Author Don Yaeger worked with him during the last weeks of his life to create his autobiography , Never Die Easy .
On November 1 , 1999 , Payton died from the complications that arose from his illness . During the same week , the NFL held special ceremonies in each game to commemorate his career and legacy . In addition , the Chicago Bears wore special # 34 patches on their jerseys to honor Payton . His body was cremated after his death .
Speakers at Payton 's public funeral service , held in Soldier Field , included Jesse Jackson ; then National Football League Commissioner Paul Tagliabue ; former teammate Dan Hampton ; his widow Connie Payton ; and his children , Jarrett and Brittney . Among the 1 @,@ 000 mourners at the private service were John Madden ; Illinois Governor George Ryan ; Chicago 's mayor Richard M. Daley ; former teammates Matt Suhey , Mike Singletary , Roland Harper , and Jim McMahon ; the Bears ' equipment manager and building superintendent ; and many other people representing a wide social , political , and economic spectrum .
= = Legacy = =
Payton 's legacy continues through the charitable Walter and Connie Payton Foundation . His own appeals — and after his death , his foundation 's — for greater awareness of the need for organ donations are widely credited with bringing national attention to the problem . After his appeals , donations in Illinois skyrocketed , and the regional organ bank of Illinois was overwhelmed with calls . In response , the City of Chicago inserted organ donation requests into city @-@ vehicle @-@ registration mailings in early 2000 , and by August 2000 , 13 @,@ 000 people had signed on to the program . The foundation continues to run a program that Payton organized to donate toys to underprivileged children across the Chicago area each Christmas . The family established the Walter Payton Cancer Fund in 2002 .
Many modern NFL running backs have cited Payton as a source of inspiration . Emmitt Smith tearfully paid homage to Payton after breaking Payton ’ s rushing record . LaDainian Tomlinson , who set numerous records during the 2006 NFL season , named Payton as one of his foremost mentors and inspirations . Ahman Green , a former player for the Bears ' rival Green Bay Packers , is said to have idolized Payton , viewing the highlight film " Pure Payton " before each game . Walter 's son , Jarrett Payton , was a running back for the Tennessee Titans , NFL Europe 's Amsterdam Admirals , CFL 's Montreal Alouettes and IFL 's Chicago Slaughter . During his tenure at the University of Miami , Jarrett wore a # 34 jersey to honor his father 's memory . In 2009 , Jarrett married on March 4 , which was intentionally set to coincide with Payton 's jersey number .
The city of Chicago has honored Payton ’ s memory in several ways . In 1999 , the city created a special city sticker that featured Payton . The profits from the sales of these stickers along with the special license plate created by the State of Illinois are given to support organ @-@ donor programs across Illinois . Also , the city named a high school , Walter Payton College Prep , in his honor . In September 2007 , the University of Illinois at Chicago Medical Center opened the Walter Payton Liver Center after a generous donation from Payton 's family , who were pleased with the care he received there . Chicago Metra commuters have long been witness to a simple " # 34 Sweetness " , painted on a bridge piling of the Air Line on the south end of the Chicago Union Station yards . The CBS sitcom Mike and Molly honored Payton in 2011 with " The Walter Payton Elementary School " .
Until its sale to Two Brothers Brewing in 2011 , Walter Payton 's Roundhouse continued to draw hundreds of thousands of visitors annually to the Aurora , Illinois site . A plaque now hangs on the building commemorating Payton . There are two athletic awards named after Payton . The NCAA gives the " Walter Payton Award " to the best offensive player from a Division I FCS ( still often known by its former designation of Division I @-@ AA ) football team . The NFL hands out the " Walter Payton Man of the Year " award for player achievements in community service during a particular season . The wellness center at Jackson State University is also named in honor of him , known as " The Walter Payton Recreation and Wellness Center . "
The Chicago Bears honored Payton 's career and life on November 1 , 2009 by airing a special tribute video during halftime . The video consisted of highlight clips from Payton 's career and interview segments from Mike Ditka , Virginia McCaskey , Richard Dent , and many other members of the Bears organization . Payton 's wife , daughter , son , and mother were present to watch the video , which aired on Soldier Field 's Jumbotron .
After Payton 's death , Nickol Knoll Hill , an old landfill site turned into a golf course in Arlington Heights , Illinois , was renamed " Payton 's Hill " . There are two plaques on the hill to remind visitors of the hill that it was where Payton used to train in the 1970s / 80s . Payton did his morning run at the hill every day . Pictures and memorabilia of Payton cover the walls of the golf course club house .
= = Career statistics = =
Payton was the NFL 's all @-@ time leader in rushing yards and all @-@ purpose yards prior to the 2002 NFL season , when Emmitt Smith broke his record . He also held the single game rushing record until the 2000 NFL season , when it was broken by Corey Dillon . Payton led the league in rushing yards and touchdowns in the 1977 NFL season . Also , he was among the top @-@ ten players for rushing attempts during his entire career , including 1976 , 1977 , and 1978 , leading the category in 1979 . As of 2013 , he is the NFL 's second all @-@ time leading rusher , and is ranked fourth in rushing touchdowns scored . Along with Frank Gifford , Payton threw six interceptions , more than any other non @-@ quarterback position in NFL history . He also passed for eight touchdowns , which is second to Gifford ( 14 ) for non @-@ quarterbacks .
= = = Career totals = = =
= = = Statistics by season = = =
= = NFL records = =
= = = Service = = =
Consecutive regular season starts by a running back : 170 , from 000000001975 @-@ 12 @-@ 07 @-@ 0000December 7 , 1975 to 000000001987 @-@ 09 @-@ 20 @-@ 0000September 20 , 1987
Payton missed only one game in his career for a coach 's decision , despite being eligible .
= = = Rushing attempts = = =
Consecutive seasons leading the league in rushing attempts : 4 ( 1976 – 1979 )
= = = Rushing yards gained = = =
Rushing yards gained , career : 16 @,@ 726
Broken by Emmitt Smith
Seasons with 1 @,@ 000 or more yards rushing : 10 ( 1976 – 1981 , 1983 – 1986 )
Payton played in only nine games during the 1982 season because of the players ' strike .
Broken by Emmitt Smith
Rushing yards gained , game : 275 ( on 40 carries ) , Chicago Bears vs. Minnesota Vikings , 000000001977 @-@ 11 @-@ 20 @-@ 0000November 20 , 1977
Record first broken by Corey Dillon on 000000002000 @-@ 10 @-@ 22 @-@ 0000October 22 , 2000
Games with 100 or more yards rushing , career : 77
Consecutive games with 100 or more yards rushing : 9 , from 000000001985 @-@ 10 @-@ 13 @-@ 0000October 13 , 1985 to 000000001985 @-@ 12 @-@ 08 @-@ 0000December 8 , 1985
Broken by Barry Sanders
= = = Rushing touchdowns = = =
Rushing touchdowns , career : 110
First broken by Marcus Allen ; record now held by Emmitt Smith
= = = Yards from scrimmage gained = = =
Yards from scrimmage gained , career : 21 @,@ 264
Broken by Jerry Rice
Games with 100 or more yards from scrimmage gained , career : 108
= = = All @-@ purpose attempts = = =
All @-@ purpose attempts , career : 4 @,@ 368
Broken by Emmitt Smith
All @-@ purpose attempts , season : 400 ( 1979 )
Broken by Eric Dickerson in 1983
= = = All @-@ purpose yards gained = = =
All @-@ purpose yards gained , career : 21 @,@ 803
Games with 150 or more all @-@ purpose yards gained , career : 46
Tied by Barry Sanders
= = = Touchdown passes = = =
Touchdown passes , non @-@ quarterback , career : 8
= JFK ( film ) =
JFK is a 1991 American historical legal @-@ conspiracy thriller film directed by Oliver Stone . It examines the events leading to the assassination of President John F. Kennedy and alleged cover @-@ up through the eyes of former New Orleans district attorney Jim Garrison ( Kevin Costner ) .
Garrison filed charges against New Orleans businessman Clay Shaw ( Tommy Lee Jones ) for his alleged participation in a conspiracy to assassinate the President , for which Lee Harvey Oswald ( Gary Oldman ) was found responsible by a government investigation : the Warren Commission .
The film was adapted by Stone and Zachary Sklar from the books On the Trail of the Assassins by Jim Garrison and Crossfire : The Plot That Killed Kennedy by Jim Marrs . Stone described this account as a " counter @-@ myth " to the Warren Commission 's " fictional myth . "
The film became embroiled in controversy . Upon JFK 's theatrical release , many major American newspapers ran editorials accusing Stone of taking liberties with historical facts , including the film 's implication that President Lyndon B. Johnson was part of a coup d 'état to kill Kennedy . After a slow start at the box office , the film gradually picked up momentum , earning over $ 205 million in worldwide gross . JFK was nominated for eight Academy Awards ( including Best Picture ) and won two for Best Cinematography and Best Film Editing . It was the most successful of three films Stone made about the American Presidency , followed later by Nixon with Anthony Hopkins in the title role and W. with Josh Brolin as George W. Bush .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with newsreel footage , including the farewell address in 1961 of outgoing President Dwight D. Eisenhower , warning about the build @-@ up of the " military @-@ industrial complex " . This is followed by a summary of John F. Kennedy 's years as president , emphasizing the events that , in Stone 's thesis , would lead to his assassination . This builds to a reconstruction of the assassination on November 22 , 1963 . New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison subsequently learns about potential links to the assassination in New Orleans . Garrison and his team investigate several possible conspirators , including private pilot David Ferrie ( Joe Pesci ) , but are forced to let them go after their investigation is publicly rebuked by the federal government . Kennedy 's suspected assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is killed by Jack Ruby , and Garrison closes the investigation .
The investigation is reopened in 1966 after Garrison reads the Warren Report and notices what he believes to be multiple inaccuracies . Garrison and his staff interrogate several witnesses to the Kennedy assassination , and others involved with Oswald , Ruby , and Ferrie . One such witness is Willie O 'Keefe ( Kevin Bacon ) , a male prostitute serving five years in prison for soliciting , who reveals he witnessed Ferrie discussing a coup d 'état . As well as briefly meeting Oswald , O 'Keefe was romantically involved with a man called " Clay Bertrand " . Jean Hill ( Ellen McElduff ) , a teacher who says she witnessed shots fired from the grassy knoll , tells the investigators that Secret Service threatened her into saying three shots came from the book depository , revealing changes that were made to her testimony by the Warren Commission . Garrison 's staff also test the single bullet theory by aiming an empty rifle from the window through which Oswald was alleged to have shot Kennedy . They conclude that Oswald was too poor a marksman to make the shots , indicating someone else , or multiple marksmen , were involved .
Garrison meets a high @-@ level figure in Washington D.C. who identifies himself as " X " ( Donald Sutherland ) . He suggests a conspiracy at the highest levels of government , implicating members of the CIA , the Mafia , the military @-@ industrial complex , Secret Service , FBI , and Kennedy 's vice @-@ president & then president Lyndon Baines Johnson as either co @-@ conspirators or as having motives to cover up the truth of the assassination . X explains that the President was killed because he wanted to pull the United States out of the Vietnam War and dismantle the CIA . X encourages Garrison to keep digging and prosecute New Orleans based international businessman Clay Shaw for his alleged involvement . Upon interrogating Shaw , the businessman denies any knowledge of meeting Ferrie , O 'Keefe or Oswald , but he is soon charged with conspiring to murder the President .
Some of Garrison 's staff begin to doubt his motives and disagree with his methods , so leave the investigation . Garrison 's marriage is strained when his wife Liz ( Sissy Spacek ) complains that he is spending more time on the case than with his own family . After a sinister phone call is made to their daughter , Liz accuses Garrison of being selfish and attacking Shaw only because of his homosexuality . In addition , the media launches attacks on television and in newspapers attacking Garrison 's character and criticizing the way his office is spending taxpayers ' money . Some key witnesses become scared and refuse to testify while others , such as Ferrie , are killed in suspicious circumstances . Before his death , Ferrie tells Garrison that he believes people are after him , and reveals there was a conspiracy around Kennedy 's death .
The trial of Clay Shaw takes place in 1969 . Garrison presents the court with further evidence of multiple killers and dismissing the single bullet theory , and proposes a Dealey Plaza shots scenario involving three assassins who fired six total shots and framing Oswald for the murders of Kennedy and officer J. D. Tippit but the jury acquits Shaw after less than one hour of deliberation . The film reflects that members of that jury stated publicly that they believed there was a conspiracy behind the assassination , but not enough evidence to link Shaw to that conspiracy . Shaw died of lung cancer in 1974 , but in 1979 Richard Helms testified that Clay Shaw had been a part @-@ time contact of the Domestic Contacts Division of the CIA . The end credits claim that records related to the assassination will be released to the public in 2029 .
= = Cast = =
Kevin Costner as Jim Garrison . For the role , Stone sent copies of the script to Costner , Mel Gibson , and Harrison Ford . Initially , Costner turned Stone down . However , the actor 's agent , Michael Ovitz , was a big fan of the project and helped Stone convince the actor to take the role . Before accepting the role , Costner conducted extensive research on Garrison , including meeting the man and his enemies . Two months after finally signing on to play Garrison in January 1991 , his film Dances with Wolves won seven Academy Awards and so his presence greatly enhanced JFK 's bankability in the studio 's eyes .
Kevin Bacon as Willie O 'Keefe , a composite character who testifies that Bertrand and Shaw are the same person and that he knew Ferrie , and had met Oswald .
Tommy Lee Jones as Clay Shaw / Clay Bertrand . A flamboyantly gay , chain @-@ smoking , New Orleans businessman whom Garrison investigates to find a link between him and President Kennedy 's assassination . Jones was originally considered for another role that was ultimately cut from the film and it was Stone who decided to cast him as Shaw . In preparation for the film , Jones interviewed Garrison on three different occasions and talked to others who had worked with Shaw and knew him .
Joe Pesci as David Ferrie . Stone originally wanted James Woods to play Ferrie , but Woods wanted to play Garrison . Stone also approached Willem Dafoe and John Malkovich , who both turned down the role .
Laurie Metcalf as New Orleans Assistant District Attorney Susie Cox
Gary Oldman as Lee Harvey Oswald , a former U.S. Marine who defected to the Soviet Union and later returned . He was arrested on suspicion of killing Dallas police officer J.D. Tippit . According to Oldman , very little was written about Oswald in the script . Stone gave him several plane tickets , a list of contacts and told him to do his own research . Oldman met with Oswald 's wife , Marina , and her two daughters to prepare for the role .
Michael Rooker as New Orleans Assistant District Attorney Bill Broussard
Jay O. Sanders as Lou Ivon
Sissy Spacek as Liz Garrison , Jim Garrison 's wife .
Beata Poźniak as Marina Oswald Porter . Oswald 's wife . Poźniak studied 26 volumes of the Warren Report and spent time living with Marina Oswald . Since the script contained few lines for the Oswalds , Poźniak interviewed acquaintances of the Oswalds in order to improvise her scenes with Gary Oldman .
Jack Lemmon as Jack Martin , an American private investigator living in New Orleans . He worked with Guy Banister at Banister 's private investigation office . He was the one who implicated Ferrie to Garrison about Kennedy 's assassination .
Walter Matthau as Russell B. Long , an American politician who served in the U.S. Senate as a Democrat from Louisiana from 1948 until 1987 . He inspires Garrison in 1966 to re @-@ open the investigation of President Kennedy 's assassination .
Donald Sutherland as X , a shadowy colonel in the U.S. Air Force , author , banker , and critic of U.S. foreign policy , especially the Central Intelligence Agency 's activities . He advises Garrison about the U.S. government 's involvement in President Kennedy 's assassination . The character is loosely based on L. Fletcher Prouty .
Edward Asner as Guy Banister , a career member of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and a private investigator . He was an avid anti @-@ communist , member of the Minutemen , the John Birch Society , Louisiana Committee on Un @-@ American Activities , and publisher of the Louisiana Intelligence Digest .
Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as Jack Ruby , an American nightclub operator from Dallas , Texas . He was convicted on March 14 , 1964 for Oswald 's murder on November 24 , 1963 , two days after Oswald was arrested for Kennedy 's assassination .
John Candy as Dean Andrews Jr . , an eccentric New Orleans lawyer who was allegedly contacted by Shaw to represent Oswald in the assassination case .
Sally Kirkland as Rose Cheramie , a Dallas prostitute who was allegedly beaten up by Jack Ruby 's bodyguards . She 's taken to a clinic where she pleads to the doctors that the Mafia is planning on killing President Kennedy .
Wayne Knight as Numa Bertel
Vincent D 'Onofrio as Bill Newman , an eyewitness
Many actors were willing to waive their normal fees because of the nature of the project and to lend their support . Martin Sheen provided the opening narration . The real Jim Garrison , a severe critic of the Warren Commission , played Chief Justice of the United States Earl Warren himself , during the scene in which he questions Jack Ruby in a Dallas jail . Alleged assassination witness Beverly Oliver , who claims to be the " Babushka Lady " seen in the Zapruder film , also appeared in a cameo role inside Ruby 's club . Sean Stone , Oliver Stone 's son , plays a secondary role as Garrison 's oldest son Jasper . Perry R. Russo , one of the sources for the fictional character " Willie O 'Keefe , " appeared in a cameo role as " angry bar patron . "
Dutch investigative journalist Willem Oltmans , who worked as a reporter for Dutch TV broadcaster NOS in the 1960s , had established ties to Kennedy 's closest circle of advisers . After Kennedy 's assassination , Oltmans interviewed Lee Harvey Oswald 's mother , Marguerite . Further investigation led him to Oswald 's alleged CIA babysitter George de Mohrenschildt . According to Oltmans , de Mohrenschildt , who had ties to the CIA , was the assassination 's architect . In 1977 , de Mohrenschildt agreed to disclose information to Oltmans , but disappeared from their meeting place and was found dead in Florida a few weeks later . Intent on irony , Oltmans played de Mohrenschildt in the film .
= = Production = =
Zachary Sklar , a journalist and a professor of journalism at the Columbia School of Journalism , met Garrison in 1987 and helped him rewrite a manuscript that he was working on about Kennedy 's assassination . He changed it from a scholarly book in the third person to " a detective story – a whydunit " in the first person . Sklar edited the book and it was published in 1988 . While attending the Latin American Film Festival in Havana , Cuba , Stone met Sheridan Square Press publisher Ellen Ray on an elevator . She had published Jim Garrison 's book On the Trail of the Assassins . Ray had gone to New Orleans and worked with Garrison in 1967 . She gave Stone a copy of Garrison 's book and told him to read it . He did and quickly bought the film rights with $ 250 @,@ 000 of his own money to prevent talk going around the studios about projects he might be developing .
Kennedy 's assassination had always had a profound effect on Stone : " The Kennedy murder was one of the signal events of the postwar generation , my generation . " Stone met Garrison and grilled him with a variety of questions for three hours . Garrison stood up to Stone 's questioning and then got up and left . His pride and dignity impressed the director . Stone 's impressions from their meeting were that Garrison " made many mistakes . He trusted a lot of weirdos and followed a lot of fake leads . But he went out on a limb , way out . And he kept going , even when he knew he was facing long odds . "
Stone was not interested in making a film about Garrison 's life , but rather the story behind the conspiracy to kill Kennedy . He also bought the film rights to Jim Marrs ' book Crossfire : The Plot That Killed Kennedy . One of the filmmaker 's primary goals with JFK was to provide a rebuttal to the Warren Commission 's report that he believed was " a great myth . And in order to fight a myth , maybe you have to create another one , a counter @-@ myth . " Even though Marrs ' book collected many theories , Stone was hungry for more and hired Jane Rusconi , a recent Yale University graduate , to lead a team of researchers and assemble as much information about the assassination as possible while the director completed post @-@ production on Born on the Fourth of July . Stone read two dozen books on the assassination while Rusconi read between 100 and 200 books on the subject .
By December 1989 , Stone began approaching studios to back his film . While in pre @-@ production on The Doors , he met with three executives at Warner Bros. who wanted him to make a film about Howard Hughes . However , Warren Beatty owned the rights and so Stone pitched JFK . Studio president and Chief Operating Officer Terry Semel liked the idea . He had a reputation for making political and controversial films , including All the President 's Men , The Parallax View and The Killing Fields . Stone made a handshake deal with Warner Bros. whereby the studio would get all the rights to the film and put up $ 20 million for the budget . The director did this so that the screenplay wouldn 't be widely read and bid on , and he also knew that the material was potentially dangerous and wanted only one studio to finance it . Finally , Stone liked Semel 's track record of producing political films .
= = = Screenplay = = =
When Stone set out to write the screenplay , he asked Sklar ( who also edited Marrs ' book ) to co @-@ write it with him and distill the Garrison and Marrs ' books and Rusconi 's research into a script that would resemble what he called " a great detective movie . " Stone told Sklar his vision of the film :
I see the models as Z and Rashomon , I see the event in Dealey Plaza taking place in the first reel , and again in the eighth reel , and again later , and each time we 're going to see it differently and with more illumination .
Although he did employ ideas from Rashomon , his principal model for JFK was Z :
Somehow I had the impression that in Z you had the showing of the crime and then the re @-@ showing of the crime throughout the picture until it was seen another way . That was the idea of JFK – that was the essence of it : basically , that 's why I called it JFK . Not J dot F dot K dot . JFK . It was a code , like Z was a code , for he lives , American @-@ style . As it was written it became more fascinating : it evolved into four DNA threads .
Stone broke the film 's structure down into four stories : Garrison investigating the New Orleans connection to the assassination ; the research that revealed what Stone calls , " Oswald legend : who he was and how to try to inculcate that " ; the recreation of the assassination at Dealey Plaza ; and the information that the character of " X " imparts on Garrison , which Stone saw as the " means by which we were able to move between New Orleans , local , into the wider story of Dealey Plaza . " Sklar worked on the Garrison side of the story while Stone added the Oswald story , the events at Dealey Plaza and the " Mr. X " character . Sklar spent a year researching and writing a 550 triple @-@ spaced page screenplay and then Stone rewrote it and condensed it closer to normal screenplay length . Stone and Sklar used composite characters , most notably the " Mr. X " character played by Donald Sutherland . This was a technique that would be criticized in the press . He was a mix of Richard Case Nagell and retired Air Force colonel Fletcher Prouty , another adviser for the film and who was a military liaison between the CIA and the Pentagon . Meeting Prouty was , for Stone , " one of the most extraordinary afternoons I 've ever spent . Pretty much like in the movie , he just started to talk . " According to Stone ,
I feel this was in the spirit of the truth because Garrison also met a deep throat type named Richard Case Nagell , who claimed to be a CIA agent and made Jim aware of a much larger scenario than the microcosm of New Orleans .
The screenplay 's early drafts suggested a four and a half @-@ hour film with a potential budget of $ 40 million – double what Stone had agreed to with Warner Bros. The director knew film mogul Arnon Milchan and met with him to help finance the film . Milchan was eager to work on the project and launch his new company , Regency Enterprises , with a high profile film like JFK . Milchan made a deal with Warner Bros. to put up the money for the film . Stone managed to pare down his initial revision , a 190 @-@ page draft , to a 156 @-@ page shooting script .
There were many advisers for the film , including Gerald Hemming , a former Marine who claimed involvement in various CIA activities , and Robert Groden , a self @-@ proclaimed photographic expert and longtime JFK assassination researcher and author .
= = = Principal photography = = =
The story revolves around Costner 's Jim Garrison , with a large cast of well @-@ known actors in supporting roles . Stone was inspired by the casting model of the documentary epic The Longest Day , which he had admired as a child : " It was realistic , but it had a lot of stars ... the supporting cast provides a map of the American psyche : familiar , comfortable faces that walk you through a winding path in the dark woods . "
Cinematographer Robert Richardson was a week and a half into shooting City of Hope for John Sayles when he got word that Stone was thinking about making JFK . By the time principal photography wrapped on City of Hope , Richardson was ready to make Stone 's film . To prepare , Richardson read up on various JFK assassination books starting with On the Trail of the Assassins and Crossfire : The Plot That Killed Kennedy .
The original idea was to film the opening sequence in 1 @.@ 33 : 1 aspect ratio in order to simulate the TV screens that were available at the time of the assassination , then transition to 1 @.@ 85 : 1 when Garrison began his investigation , and finally switch to 2 @.@ 35 : 1 for scenes occurring in 1968 and later . However , because of time constraints and logistics , Richardson was forced to abandon this approach .
Stone wanted to recreate the Kennedy assassination in Dealey Plaza . His producers had to pay the Dallas City Council a substantial amount of money to hire police to reroute traffic and close streets for three weeks . He only had ten days to shoot all of the footage he needed and so he used seven cameras ( two 35 mm and five 16 mm ) and 14 film stocks . Getting permission to shoot in the Texas School Book Depository was more difficult . They had to pay $ 50 @,@ 000 to put someone in the window from which Oswald was supposed to have shot Kennedy . They were allowed to film in that location only between certain hours with only five people on the floor at one time : the camera crew , an actor and Stone . Co @-@ producer Clayton Townsend has said that the hardest part was getting the permission to restore the building to the way it looked back in 1963 . It took five months of negotiation .
The production spent $ 4 million to restore Dealey Plaza to 1963 conditions . Stone utilized a variety of film stocks . Richardson said , " It depends whether you want to shoot in 35 or 16 or Super 8 . In many cases the lighting has to be different . " For certain shots in the film , Stone employed multiple camera crews shooting at once , using five cameras at the same time in different formats . Richardson said of Stone 's style of direction , " Oliver disdains convention , he tries to force you into things that are not classic . There 's this constant need to stretch . " This forced the cinematographer to use lighting in diverse positions and rely very little on classic lighting modes . The shoot lasted 79 days with filming finished five months before the release date .
= = = Editing = = =
JFK marked a fundamental change in the way that Stone constructed his films : a subjective lateral presentation of the plot , with the editing 's rhythm carrying the story . Stone brought in Hank Corwin , an editor of commercials , to help edit the film . Stone chose him because his " chaotic mind " was " totally alien to the film form . " Stone remembers that Corwin irritated the more traditional editors working on the film because his " concepts are very commercial sixty @-@ seconds @-@ get @-@ your @-@ attention @-@ fragment @-@ your @-@ mind @-@ make @-@ you @-@ rethink @-@ it . But he had not developed the long form yet . And so a lot of his cuts were very chaotic . " Stone employed extensive use of flashbacks within flashbacks for a specific effect . He said in an
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Christmas Day , the Los Angeles Times ran a critical article entitled " Suppression of the Facts Grants Stone a Broad Brush . " New York Newsday followed suit the next day with two articles – " The Blurred Vision of JFK " and " The Many Theories of a Jolly Green Giant . " A few days later , the Chicago Sun @-@ Times followed suit with " Stone 's Film Trashes Facts , Dishonors J.F.K. " Jack Valenti , then president and chief executive of the Motion Picture Association of America , denounced Stone 's film in a seven @-@ page statement . He wrote , " In much the same way , young German boys and girls in 1941 were mesmerized by Leni Riefenstahl 's Triumph of the Will , in which Adolf Hitler was depicted as a newborn God . Both JFK and Triumph of the Will are equally a propaganda masterpiece and equally a hoax . Mr. Stone and Leni Riefenstahl have another genetic linkage : neither of them carried a disclaimer on their film that its contents were mostly pure fiction . " Stone recalls in an interview , " I can 't even remember all the threats , there were so many of them . "
TIME magazine ranked it the fourth best film of 1991 , while including it in Top 10 Historically Misleading Films . Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun @-@ Times went on to name Stone 's film as the best film of the year and one of the top ten films of the decade , as well as one of The Great Movies . The Sydney Morning Herald named JFK as the best film of 1991 . Entertainment Weekly ranked it the 5th Most Controversial Movie Ever .
Ebert 's colleague Richard Roeper was less complimentary : " One can admire Stone 's filmmaking skills and the performances here while denouncing the utter crapola presented as ' evidence ' of a conspiracy to murder . " Roeper applauded the film 's " dazzling array of filmmaking techniques and a stellar roster of actors " but criticized Stone 's narrative : " As a work of fantastical fiction , JFK is an interesting if overblown vision of a parallel universe . As a dramatic interpretation of events , it 's journalistically bankrupt nonsense . "
Harry Connick Sr. , the New Orleans district attorney who defeated Garrison in 1973 , criticized Stone 's view of the assassination : " Stone was either unaware of the details and particulars of the Clay Shaw investigation and trial or , if he was aware , that didn 't get in his way of what he perceived to be the way the case should have been . " In his book Reclaiming History : The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy , a history of the assassination published 16 years after the film 's release , Vincent Bugliosi devoted an entire chapter to Garrison 's prosecution of Shaw and Stone 's subsequent film . Bugliosi lists thirty @-@ two separate " lies and fabrications " in Stone 's film and describes the film as " one continuous lie in which Stone couldn 't find any level of deception and invention beyond which he was unwilling to go . " David Wrone stated that " 80 percent of the film is in factual error " and rejected the premise of a conspiracy involving the CIA and the so @-@ called military @-@ industrial complex as " irrational . " Warren Commission investigator David Belin called the film " a big lie that would make Adolf Hitler proud " .
= = = Box office = = =
JFK was released in theaters on December 20 , 1991 . Box office started slow but picked up momentum and by the first week in January 1992 , it had grossed over $ 50 million worldwide . Stone started to get support for his film . Warner Brothers executives pointed out that because of the film 's long running time , it had fewer screenings . The studio undertook a $ 15 million marketing campaign promoting Stone 's film .
On its first week of release , JFK tied with Beauty and the Beast for fifth place in the U.S. box office and its critics began to say it was a flop . However , JFK eventually earned over $ 200 million worldwide , and $ 70 million in the United States during its initial run . Garrison 's estate subsequently sued Warner Bros. for a share of the film 's profits , alleging a book @-@ keeping practice known as " Hollywood accounting . " The lawsuit contends that JFK made in excess of $ 150 million worldwide but the studio claimed that the film did not earn any money under its " net profits " accounting formula . The suit also claims that Garrison 's estate didn 't receive any of the net profits income . He should have been paid more than $ 1 million .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
JFK was nominated for eight Academy Awards including Best Picture , Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Tommy Lee Jones ) , Best Director ( Oliver Stone ) , Best Original Score ( John Williams ) , Best Sound ( Michael Minkler , Gregg Landaker and Tod A. Maitland ) , Best Cinematography ( Robert Richardson ) , Best Film Editing , and Best Adapted Screenplay ( Stone and Zachary Sklar ) . It won two awards , for Best Cinematography and Best Film Editing .
Stone was nominated for an award for Outstanding Directing by the Directors Guild of America but didn 't win . He also won a Golden Globe for Best Director and in his acceptance speech , he said , " A terrible lie was told to us 28 years ago . I hope that this film can be the first step in righting that wrong . "
Entertainment Weekly ranked JFK as one of the 25 " Powerful Political Thrillers " .
= = = Cultural impact = = =
In 1992 , the television show Seinfeld pastiched the " Magic Bullet Theory " featured in JFK in an episode ( " The Boyfriend " ) wherein Kramer and Newman believe that they had been spat at by New York Met Keith Hernandez , who later reveals that there had been a second spitter , Roger McDowell . Wayne Knight , who plays Newman , is also in JFK as a member of Garrison 's team . He would be one of the two men to model the shooting in court to prove the implausibility of the " magic bullet , " not unlike how Jerry disproves Newman and Kramer 's theory of the " magic loogie . " In each case , Knight played the second victim in the sequence , John Connally and Newman , respectively .
= = Legislative impact = =
The final report of the Assassination Records Review Board ( ARRB ) partially credited concern over the conclusions in JFK with the passage of the President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992 , also known as the JFK Act .
The ARRB stated that the film " popularized a version of President Kennedy 's assassination that featured U.S. government agents from the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , and the military as conspirators . " While describing the film as " largely fictional " , the ARRB acknowledged Stone 's point that official records were to be sealed from the public until 2029 , and his suggestion that " Americans could not trust official public conclusions when those conclusions had been made in secret . " By ARRB law , all existing assassination @-@ related documents will be made public by 2017 .
= = Home video = =
JFK has been released on VHS , LaserDisc , and several times on DVD . The film 's only version ever released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the United States is the 206 @-@ minute " Director 's Cut " . The theatrical cut has been released on DVD in only a few foreign territories , including the UK . In 2001 , the " Director 's Cut " was released as part of the Oliver Stone Collection box set with the film on one disc and supplemental material on the second . Stone contributed several extras to this edition , including an audio commentary , two multimedia essays , and 54 minutes ' worth of deleted / extended scenes with optional commentary by Stone . In 2003 , a two @-@ DVD " Special Edition " was released with all of the extras on the 2001 edition in addition to a 90 @-@ minute documentary entitled , Beyond JFK : The Question of Conspiracy .
The film was released on Blu @-@ ray on November 11 , 2008 . The disc features many of the extras included on the previous DVD releases , including the Beyond JFK : The Question of Conspiracy documentary .
= Station to Station =
Station to Station is the tenth studio album by English musician David Bowie , released by RCA Records in 1976 . Commonly regarded as one of his most significant works , Station to Station was the vehicle for his last distinct performance persona , the Thin White Duke . The album was recorded after he completed shooting Nicolas Roeg 's The Man Who Fell to Earth , and the cover artwork featured a still from the movie . During the sessions Bowie was heavily dependent on drugs , especially cocaine , and later claimed that he recalled almost nothing of the production .
Musically , Station to Station was a transitional album for Bowie , developing the funk and soul music of his previous release , Young Americans , while presenting a new direction towards synthesisers and motorik rhythms that was influenced by German electronic bands such as Neu ! and Kraftwerk . This trend culminated in some of his most acclaimed work , the so @-@ called " Berlin Trilogy " , recorded with Brian Eno in 1977 – 79 . Bowie himself said that Station to Station was " a plea to come back to Europe for me " . The album 's lyrics reflected his preoccupations with Friedrich Nietzsche , Aleister Crowley , mythology and religion .
Blending funk and krautrock , romantic balladry and occultism , Station to Station has been described as " simultaneously one of Bowie 's most accessible albums and his most impenetrable " . Preceded by the single " Golden Years " , it made the top five in both the UK and US charts . In 2003 , the album was ranked No. 323 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
According to biographer David Buckley , the Los Angeles @-@ based David Bowie , fuelled by an " astronomic " cocaine habit and subsisting on a diet of peppers and milk , spent much of 1975 – 76 " in a state of psychic terror " . Stories — mostly from one interview , pieces of which found their way into Playboy and Rolling Stone — circulated of the singer living in a house full of ancient Egyptian artefacts , burning black candles , seeing bodies fall past his window , having his semen stolen by witches , receiving secret messages from The Rolling Stones , and living in morbid fear of fellow Aleister Crowley aficionado Jimmy Page . Bowie would later say of L.A. , " The fucking place should be wiped off the face of the earth " .
It was on the set of his first major film , The Man Who Fell to Earth , that Bowie began writing a pseudo @-@ autobiography called The Return of the Thin White Duke . He was also composing music on the understanding that he was to provide the picture 's soundtrack , though this would not come to fruition . ( At Bowie 's recommendation , John Phillips of the Mamas and the Papas would write and produce all the original music for the film instead . ) Director Nicolas Roeg warned the star that the part of Thomas Jerome Newton would likely remain with him for some time after production completed . With Roeg 's agreement , Bowie developed his own look for the film , and this carried through to his public image and onto two album covers over the next twelve months , as did Newton 's air of fragility and aloofness .
The Thin White Duke became the mouthpiece for Station to Station and , often during the next six months , for Bowie himself . Impeccably dressed in white shirt , black trousers and waistcoat , the Duke was a hollow man who sang songs of romance with an agonised intensity , yet felt nothing — " ice masquerading as fire " . The persona has been described as " a mad aristocrat " , " an amoral zombie " , and " an emotionless Aryan superman " . For Bowie himself , the Duke was " a nasty character indeed " .
= = Production = =
Station to Station was recorded in late 1975 at Cherokee Studios , Los Angeles . In 1981 , NME editors Roy Carr and Charles Shaar Murray surmised that it was cut — " in 10 days of feverish activity " — when Bowie decided that there was no hope of his producing a soundtrack for The Man Who Fell to Earth . More recent scholarship contends that the album was recorded over a couple of months — with the sessions beginning in late September or early October 1975 and ending in late November — so that it was in the can before Bowie began his abortive sessions on the soundtrack .
At various times to be titled The Return of the Thin White Duke , or Golden Years , Station to Station was co @-@ produced by Harry Maslin , Bowie 's associate for " Fame " and " Across the Universe " on Young Americans . Tony Visconti , who after a three @-@ year absence had recently returned to the Bowie fold mixing Diamond Dogs and co @-@ producing David Live and Young Americans , was not involved due to competing schedules . However , the recording did cement the band line @-@ up that would see Bowie through the rest of the decade , with bassist George Murray joining Young Americans drummer Dennis Davis and rhythm guitarist Carlos Alomar .
The recording process developed with this team set the pattern for Bowie 's albums up to and including Scary Monsters ( And Super Creeps ) in 1980 : backing tracks laid down by Murray , Davis and Alomar ; saxophone , keyboard and lead guitar overdubs ( here by Bowie , Roy Bittan and Earl Slick , respectively ) ; lead vocals ; and finally various production tricks to complete the song . According to Bowie , " I got some quite extraordinary things out of Earl Slick . I think it captured his imagination to make noises on guitar , and textures , rather than playing the right notes . " Alomar recalled , " It was one of the most glorious albums that I 've ever done ... We experimented so much on it " . Harry Maslin added , " I loved those sessions because we were totally open and experimental in our approach " .
Bowie himself remembered almost nothing of the album 's production , not even the studio , later admitting , " I know it was in LA because I 've read it was " . The singer was not alone in his use of cocaine during the sessions , Carlos Alomar commenting , " if there 's a line of coke which is going to keep you awake till 8 a.m. so that you can do your guitar part , you do the line of coke ... the coke use is driven by the inspiration . " Like Bowie , Earl Slick had somewhat vague memories of the recording : " That album 's a little fuzzy — for the obvious reasons ! We were in the studio and it was nuts — a lot of hours , a lot of late nights . "
The sleeve front cover used a black @-@ and @-@ white still from The Man Who Fell to Earth , in which Bowie , as the character Thomas Jerome Newton , steps into the space capsule that will return him to his home planet . Bowie had insisted on the cropped black @-@ and @-@ white image as he felt that in the original coloured full @-@ size image the sky looked artificial ; when Rykodisc reissued Bowie 's catalogue in the early 1990s the colour version was used . The back cover showed Bowie sketching the Kabbalah Sephirot with chalk — something he had been doing on the set of the film .
= = Style and themes = =
Station to Station is often cited as a transitional album in Bowie 's career . Nicholas Pegg , author of The Complete David Bowie , called it a " precise halfway point on the journey from Young Americans to Low " , while for Roy Carr and Charles Shaar Murray , it " effectively divides the ' 70s for David Bowie . It ties off the era of Ziggy Stardust and plastic soul , and introduces the first taste of the new music that was to follow with Low . "
In terms of Bowie 's own output , Station to Station 's Euro @-@ centric flavour had its musical antecedents in tracks like " Aladdin Sane 1913 @-@ 1938 @-@ 197 ? " and " Time " ( 1973 ) , while its funk / disco elements were a development of the soul / R & B sound of Young Americans ( 1975 ) . More recently Bowie had begun to soak up the influence of krautrock and electronic music by bands like Neu ! , Can , and Kraftwerk . Thematically the album revisited concepts dealt with in songs such as " The Supermen " from The Man Who Sold the World ( 1970 ) and " Quicksand " from Hunky Dory ( 1971 ) : Nietzsche 's ' Overman ' , the occultism of Aleister Crowley , Nazi fascination with Grail mythology , and the Kabbalah . Pegg considered the album 's theme to be a clash of " occultism and Christianity " .
AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that , " at its heart , Station to Station is an avant @-@ garde art @-@ rock album , most explicitly on " TVC 15 " and the epic sprawl of the title track . " The musical style of " Golden Years " , the first track recorded for the album , built on the funk and soul of Young Americans but with a harsher , grinding edge . It has been described as carrying with it " an air of regret for missed opportunities and past pleasures " . Bowie said that it was written for — and rejected by — Elvis Presley , while Bowie 's wife at the time Angie claimed it was penned for her . Though a top ten single on both sides of the Atlantic , it was rarely performed live on the subsequent Station to Station tour . " Stay " was another riff @-@ driven funk piece , " recorded very much in our cocaine frenzy " , according to Alomar . Its lyrics have been variously interpreted as reflecting on " the uncertainty of sexual conquest " , and as an example of " the Duke 's spurious romanticism " .
The Christian element of the album was most obvious in the hymn @-@ like " Word on a Wing " , though for some commentators religion , like love , was simply another way for the Duke to " test his numbness " . Bowie himself has claimed that in this song , at least , " the passion is genuine " . When performing it live in 1999 , the singer described it as coming from " the darkest days of my life ... I 'm sure that it was a call for help " . The closing ballad , " Wild Is the Wind " , was the album 's sole cover , and has been praised as one of the finest vocal performances of Bowie 's career . Bowie was inspired to record it after he met singer / pianist / songwriter Nina Simone ( whose version is on the eponymous 1966 album ) .
The spectre of The Man Who Fell to Earth 's Thomas Jerome Newton sprawled in front of dozens of television monitors is said to have partly inspired the album 's most upbeat track , " TVC15 " . Supposedly also about Iggy Pop 's girlfriend being eaten by a TV set , it has been called " incongruously jolly " and " the most oblique tribute to The Yardbirds imaginable " .
The title track has been described as heralding " a new era of experimentalism " for Bowie . " Station to Station " was in two parts : a slow , portentous piano @-@ driven march , introduced by the sound of an approaching train juxtaposed with Earl Slick 's agitated guitar feedback , followed by an up @-@ tempo rock / blues section . In 1999 Bowie told UNCUT magazine , " Since Station To Station the hybridization of R & B and electronics had been a goal of mine " . Despite the noise of a train in the opening moments , Bowie says that the title refers not so much to railway stations as to the Stations of the Cross , while the line " From Kether to Malkuth " relates to mystical places in the Kabbalah , mixing Christian and Jewish allusions . Fixation with the occult was further evident in such phrases as " white stains " , the name of a book of poetry by Aleister Crowley . The lyrics also gave notice of Bowie 's recent drug use ( " It 's not the side effects of the cocaine / I 'm thinking that it must be love " ) . With its krautrock influence , it was the album 's clearest foretaste of Bowie 's subsequent ' Berlin Trilogy ' .
Speaking to Creem magazine in 1977 , Bowie proclaimed that Station to Station was " devoid of spirit ... Even the love songs are detached , but I think it 's fascinating . "
= = Singles and unreleased tracks = =
Every song on Station to Station eventually appeared on a single . " Golden Years " was released in November 1975 , two months before the album . Bowie allegedly got drunk to perform it on TV for the American show Soul Train , resulting in the film clip seen on music video programmes . It reached No. 8 in the UK and No. 10 in the US ( where it charted for sixteen weeks ) but , like " Rebel Rebel " ' s relationship to Diamond Dogs ( 1974 ) , was a somewhat unrepresentative teaser for the album to come .
The title track was released as a promo 7 @-@ inch single in January 1976 . The single was exclusively released in France and featured a shortened version of the track , lasting just over three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes , on the a @-@ side as well as the album version of " TVC 15 " on the b @-@ side . The single did not chart in any countries .
" TVC 15 " was released in edited form as the second single in May 1976 , reaching No. 33 in the UK and No. 64 stateside . " Stay " , also shortened and appearing the same month , was issued as a companion 45 to RCA 's Changesonebowie greatest hits collection , though it did not appear on the compilation ( Changesonebowie was itself packaged as a uniform edition to Station to Station , featuring a black @-@ and @-@ white cover and similar lettering ) . In November 1981 , as Bowie 's relationship with RCA was winding down , " Wild Is the Wind " was issued as a single to push the Changestwobowie compilation . Backed with " Word on a Wing " and accompanied by a video shot especially for the release , it made No. 24 in the UK and charted for ten weeks .
Another song purportedly recorded during the album sessions at Cherokee Studios , a cover of Bruce Springsteen 's " It 's Hard to Be a Saint in the City " , went unreleased at the time but was issued in 1990 on the Sound + Vision box set . Harry Maslin and Carlos Alomar have claimed that they never recorded the song during the Cherokee sessions , while Tony Visconti believes that the song most likely consisted of overdubs to a track originally cut at Olympic and Island Studios during the Diamond Dogs sessions , with Aynsley Dunbar on drums , Herbie Flowers on bass and Mike Garson on keyboards . The song would later be re @-@ released on The Best of David Bowie 1974 / 1979 .
= = Release and reception = =
Station to Station was released in January 1976 . Billboard considered that Bowie had " found his musical niche " following songs like " Fame " and " Golden Years " but that " the 10 @-@ minute title cut drags " . NME called it " one of the most significant albums released in the last five years " and named it the second greatest album of the year . Both found the meaning of the lyrics difficult to fathom . In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A rating , indicating " a great record both of whose sides offer enduring pleasure and surprise . You should own it " . Christgau wrote that Bowie " can merge Lou Reed , disco , and Huey Smith " and found the album a progression from his previous albums , stating " Miraculously , Bowie 's attraction to black music has matured ; even more miraculously , the new relationship seems to have left his hard @-@ and @-@ heavy side untouched " .
Rolling Stone writer Teri Moris applauded the album 's ' rockier ' moments but discerned a move away from the genre , finding it " the thoughtfully professional effort of a style @-@ conscious artist whose ability to write and perform demanding rock & roll exists comfortably alongside his fascination for diverse forms ... while there 's little doubt about his skill , one wonders how long he 'll continue wrestling with rock at all " . Circus , noting that Bowie was " never one to maintain continuity in his work or in his life " , declared that Station to Station " offers cryptic , expressionistic glimpses that let us feel the contours and palpitations of the masquer 's soul but never fully reveal his face . " The review also found various allusions to earlier Bowie efforts , such as the " density " of The Man Who Sold the World , the " pop feel " of Hunky Dory , the " dissonance and angst " of Aladdin Sane , the " compelling percussion " of Young Americans , and the " youthful mysticism " of " Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud " , concluding that " it shows Bowie pulling out on the most challenging leg of his winding journey " .
Station to Station was Bowie 's highest @-@ charting album in the US until 2013 's The Next Day , reaching No. 3 and remaining for 32 weeks . It was certified gold by the RIAA on 26 February 1976 . In the UK , it charted for seventeen weeks , peaking at No. 5 , the last time one of his studio albums placed lower in his home country than in America .
= = Aftermath = =
With the Station to Station sessions completed in December 1975 , Bowie started work on a soundtrack for The Man Who Fell to Earth with Paul Buckmaster as his collaborator . Bowie expected to be wholly responsible for the film 's music but found that " when I 'd finished five or six pieces , I was then told that if I would care to submit my music along with some other people 's ... and I just said " Shit , you 're not getting any of it " . I was so furious , I 'd put so much work into it . " Notwithstanding , Harry Maslin argued that Bowie was " burned out " and couldn 't complete the work in any case . The singer eventually collapsed , admitting later , " There were pieces of me laying all over the floor " . In the event , only one instrumental composed for the soundtrack saw the light of day , evolving into " Subterraneans " on his next studio album , Low .
After abandoning the soundtrack album , Bowie went on tour in support of Station to Station , commencing 2 February 1976 and completing on 18 May 1976 . Kraftwerk 's " Radioactivity " was employed as an overture to the shows , accompanying footage from Luis Buñuel 's and Salvador Dalí 's surrealist film Un Chien Andalou . The staging featured Bowie , dressed in the Duke 's habitual black waistcoat and trousers , a pack of Gitanes placed ostentatiously in his pocket , moving stiffly among " curtains of white light " , an effect that spawned the nickname ' the White Light Tour ' . In 1989 Bowie reflected , " I wanted to go back to a kind of Expressionist German @-@ film look ... and the lighting of , say , Fritz Lang or Pabst . A black @-@ and @-@ white movies look , but with an intensity that was sort of aggressive . I think for me , personally , theatrically , that was the most successful tour I ’ ve ever done . " The Station to Station tour was the source of one of the artist 's best @-@ known bootlegs , culled from an FM radio broadcast of his 23 March 1976 concert at Nassau Coliseum .
Bowie drew criticism during the tour for his alleged pro @-@ fascist views . In a 1974 interview he had declared , " Adolf Hitler was one of the first rock stars ... quite as good as Jagger ... He staged a country " , but managed to avoid condemnation . On the Station to Station tour , however , a series of incidents attracted publicity , starting in April 1976 with his detention by customs in Eastern Europe for possession of Nazi memorabilia . The same month he was quoted in Stockholm as saying that " Britain could benefit from a Fascist leader " . Bowie would blame his addictions and the persona of the Thin White Duke for his lapses in judgment . The controversy culminated on 2 May 1976 , shortly before the tour completed , in the so @-@ called ' Victoria Station incident ' in London , when Bowie arrived in an open @-@ top Mercedes convertible and apparently gave a Nazi salute to the crowd that was captured on film and published in NME . Bowie claimed that the photographer simply caught him in mid @-@ wave , a contention backed by a young Gary Numan who was among the throng that day : " Think about it . If a photographer takes a whole motor @-@ driven film of someone doing a wave , you will get a Nazi salute at the end of each arm @-@ sweep . All you need is some dickhead at a music paper or whatever to make an issue out it ... " The stigma remained , however , to the extent that the lines " To be insulted by these fascists / It 's so degrading " from Scary Monsters ' opening track " It 's No Game " , four years later , were interpreted as an attempt to bury the incident once and for all .
= = Legacy = =
Station to Station was a milestone in Bowie 's transition to his late 1970s ' Berlin Trilogy ' . Bowie himself has said of the album , " As far as the music goes , Low and its siblings were a direct follow @-@ on from the title track " , while Brian Eno opined that Low was " very much a continuation from Station to Station " . It has also been described as " enormously influential on post @-@ punk " . Roy Carr and Charles Shaar Murray wrote in 1981 , " If Low was Gary Numan 's Bowie album , then Station to Station was Magazine 's . " However , Stylus declared in 2004 that " just as few had anticipated Bowie ’ s approach , few copied it ... for the most part this is an orphaned , abandoned style " .
More than twenty years after its release , Bowie considered both Station to Station and Low " great , damn good " albums , but due to his disconnected state during its recording , listened to Station to Station " as a piece of work by an entirely different person " . He elaborated :
In 1999 , music biographer David Buckley described Station to Station as a " masterpiece of invention " that " some critics would argue , perhaps unfashionably , is his finest record " . The same year , Eno called it " one of the great records of all time " . In 2003 , the album was ranked No. 323 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . A year later , The Observer ranked the album No. 80 on its list of the 100 greatest British albums .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by David Bowie , except where noted .
= = = CD releases = = =
The album has been released several times on CD , the first being in 1985 by RCA , with the original black @-@ and @-@ white cover art . The album was released again in 1991 by Rykodisc , with two , live bonus tracks . A 1999 rerelease by EMI featured 24 @-@ bit digitally remastered sound and no bonus tracks . The 1991 and 1999 rereleases used colour cover art . EMI Japan replicated the original , black @-@ and @-@ white artwork on a 2007 release . The album was released by EMI in Special and Deluxe Editions in 2010 , both of which presented the album in a mini @-@ LP @-@ replica sleeve , within a larger box .
= = = 2010 reissues = = =
A deluxe edition was released in 2010 , including a Dolby 5 @.@ 1 mix of the album and the entire 1976 Nassau Coliseum show on two CDs . On 1 July 2010 , Bowie 's official website announced the contents of the reissues , which was then released on 20 September .
= = = = Special edition and digital download = = = =
The special edition features three CDs in a special CD sized packaging , including a 16 @-@ page booklet and three photocards . The digital download edition includes the same audio content and a bonus track .
2010 transfer of Station to Station from the original stereo analogue master ; CD in mini @-@ LP @-@ replica sleeve .
Recorded live at the Nassau Coliseum , Uniondale , New York , U.S. on 23 March 1976 ; CDs in gatefold wallet .
Recorded live at the Nassau Coliseum , Uniondale , New York , U.S. on 23 March 1976 .
= = = = Deluxe edition = = = =
The deluxe edition features five CDs , one DVD and three 12 " LPs in a sturdy box lined with studio @-@ style acoustic foam reminiscent of the sleeve photo background . It also includes a 24 @-@ page booklet , a poster and two folders of replica collectible material .
CD 1 : Station to Station 2010 transfer
CD 2 : Station to Station 1985 CD master
CD 3 : Station to Station single edits five track EP
" Golden Years "
" TVC 15 "
" Stay "
" Word on a Wing " ( First time on CD )
" Station to Station " ( Previously unreleased version )
CD 4 & 5 : Live Nassau Coliseum ' 76
DVD
Station to Station ( Original analogue master , 96 kHz / 24 bit LPCM stereo )
Station to Station ( New Harry Maslin mix , 96 kHz / 24 bit DTS 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mix )
Station to Station ( New Harry Maslin mix , 48 kHz / 24 bit Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 AC3 surround sound mix )
Station to Station ( New Harry Maslin mix , 48 kHz / 24 bit LPCM stereo )
LP 1 : Heavyweight 12 " of Station to Station from the original stereo analogue master in replica sleeve
LP 2 & 3 : Heavyweight 12 " s of Live Nassau Coliseum ' 76 in gatefold sleeve
24 @-@ page booklet including text and rare photographs
David Bowie on Stage 1976 replica collectibles folder ( for example , a backstage pass )
1976 Fan Club Folder replica collectibles folder ( for example , two badges / pins )
Fold @-@ out Poster
= = Personnel = =
= = = Musicians = = =
David Bowie – vocals , guitar , tenor and alto saxophone , Moog synthesiser , Mellotron
Carlos Alomar – guitar
Roy Bittan – piano
Dennis Davis – drums
George Murray – bass guitar
Warren Peace – backing vocals
Earl Slick – guitar
On Live Nassau Coliseum ' 76 :
David Bowie - vocals
Stacey Heydon - lead guitar , backing vocals
Carlos Alomar - rhythm guitar , backing vocals
George Murray - bass , backing vocals
Tony Kaye - keyboards
Dennis Davis - drums , percussion
= = = Production = = =
David Bowie – producer
Harry Maslin – producer
Steve Shapiro – photography
= = Charts = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= Uttar Pradesh =
Uttar Pradesh ( / ˈʊtər prəˈdɛʃ / , Hindi : उत ् तर प ् रदेश literally " Northern Province " ) , abbreviated as UP , is the most populous state in the Republic of India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world . It was created on 1 April 1937 as the United Provinces , and was renamed Uttar Pradesh in 1950 . Lucknow is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh . Ghaziabad , Kanpur , Gorakhpur , Allahabad , Raebareli , Moradabad , Bareilly , Aligarh , Sonbhadra , and Varanasi are known for their industrial importance in the state . On 9 November 2000 , a new state , Uttarakhand , was carved out from the Himalayan hill region of Uttar Pradesh . The state in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent has over 200 million inhabitants .
The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the west , Haryana and Delhi to the northwest , Uttarakhand and Nepal to the north , Bihar to the east , Madhya Pradesh to the south and touches the states of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh to the south east . It covers 243 @,@ 290 square kilometres ( 93 @,@ 933 sq mi ) , equal to 6 @.@ 88 % of the total area of India , and is the fourth largest Indian state by area . Hindi is the official and most widely spoken language in its 75 districts . Uttar Pradesh is the third largest Indian state by economy , with a GDP of ₹ 9 @,@ 763 billion ( US $ 150 billion ) . Agriculture and service industries are the largest parts of the state 's economy . The service sector comprises travel and tourism , hotel industry , real estate , insurance and financial consultancies .
Uttar Pradesh was home to powerful empires of ancient and medieval India . The two major rivers of the state , the Ganges and Yamuna , join at Allahabad and then flow as the Ganges further east . The state has several historical , natural , and religious tourist destinations , such as , Agra , Varanasi , Piprahwa , Raebareli , Kaushambi , Kanpur , Ballia , Shravasti , Gorakhpur , Unnao , Chauri Chaura situated in Gorakhpur , Kushinagar , Lucknow , Jhansi , Allahabad , Budaun , Meerut , Mathura , Jaunpur and Muzaffarnagar .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
Modern human hunter @-@ gatherers have been in Uttar Pradesh since between around 85 and 73 thousand years ago . There have also been pre @-@ historical finds in Uttar Pradesh from the Middle and Upper Paleolithic dated to 21 – 31 thousand years old and Mesolithic / Microlithic hunter @-@ gatherer 's settlement , near Pratapgarh , from around 10550 – 9550 BC . Villages with domesticated cattle , sheep , and goats and evidence of agriculture began as early as 6000 BC , and gradually developed between c . 4000 and 1500 BC beginning with the Indus Valley Civilization and Harappa Culture to the Vedic period ; extending into the Iron Age .
= = = Ancient and Classical period = = =
The kingdom of Kosala , in the Mahajanapada era , was located within the regional boundaries of modern @-@ day Uttar Pradesh . According to Hindu legend , the divine king Rama of the Ramayana epic reigned in Ayodhya , the capital of Kosala . Krishna , another divine king of Hindu legend , who plays a key role in the Mahabharata epic and is revered as the eighth reincarnation ( Avatar ) of the Hindu god Vishnu , is said to have been born in the city of Mathura , in Uttar Pradesh . The aftermath of the Mahabharata yuddh is believed to have taken place in the area between the Upper Doab and Delhi , ( in what was Kuru Mahajanapada ) , during the reign of the Pandava king Yudhishthira . The kingdom of the Kurus corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in North @-@ west India , around 1000 BC .
Most of the invaders of south India passed through the Gangetic plains of what is today Uttar Pradesh . Control over this region was of vital importance to the power and stability of all of India 's major empires , including the Maurya ( 320 – 200 BC ) , Kushan ( AD 100 – 250 ) , Gupta ( 350 – 600 ) , and Gurjara @-@ Pratihara ( 650 – 1036 ) empires . Following the Huns invasions that broke the Gupta empire , the Ganges @-@ Yamuna Doab saw the rise of Kannauj . During the reign of Harshavardhana ( 590 – 647 ) , the Kannauj empire reached its zenith . It spanned from Punjab in the north and Gujarat in the west to Bengal in the east and Odisha in the south . It included parts of central India , north of the Narmada River and it encompassed the entire Indo @-@ Gangetic plain . Many communities in various parts of India claim descent from the migrants of Kannauj . Soon after Harshavardhana 's death , his empire disintegrated into many kingdoms , which were invaded and ruled by the Gurjara @-@ Pratihara empire , which challenged Bengal 's Pala Empire for control of the region . Kannauj was several times invaded by the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty from the 8th century to the 10th century .
= = = Medieval and Early Modern period = = =
In the 16th century , Babur , a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley ( modern @-@ day Uzbekistan ) , swept across the Khyber Pass and founded the Mughal Empire , covering India , along with modern @-@ day Afghanistan , Pakistan and Bangladesh The Mughals were descended from Persianised Central Asian Turks ( with significant Mongol admixture ) . In the Mughal era , Uttar Pradesh became the heartland of the empire . Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun ruled from Delhi . In 1540 an Afghan , Sher Shah Suri , took over the reins of Uttar Pradesh after defeating the Mughal king Humanyun . Sher Shah and his son Islam Shah ruled Uttar Pradesh from their capital at Gwalior . After the death of Islam Shah Suri , his prime minister Hemu became the de facto ruler of Uttar Pradesh , Bihar , Madhya Pradesh , and the western parts of Bengal . He was bestowed the title of Hemchandra Vikramaditya ( title of Vikramāditya adopted from vedic times ) at his formal coronation took place at Purana Quila in Delhi on 7 October 1556 . Hemu died in the Second Battle of Panipat , and Uttar Pradesh came under Emperor Akbar 's rule . Akbar ruled from Agra and Fatehpur Sikri . In the 18th century , after the fall of Mughal authority , the power vacuum was filled by the Maratha Empire , in the mid 18th century , the Maratha army invaded the Uttar Pradesh region , which resulted in Rohillas losing control of Rohillkhand to the Maratha rulers Raghunath Rao and Malharao Holkar . The conflict between Rohillas and Marathas came to an end on 18 December 1788 with the arrest of Ghulam Qadir , the grandson of Najeeb @-@ ud @-@ Daula , who was defeated by the Maratha general Mahadaji Scindia . In 1803 , following the Second Anglo @-@ Maratha War , when the British East India Company defeated the Maratha Empire , much of the region came under British suzerainty .
= = = Modern period = = =
= = = = British India @-@ era = = = =
Starting from Bengal in the second half of the 18th century , a series of battles for north Indian lands finally gave the British East India Company accession over the state 's territories . Ajmer and Jaipur kingdoms were also included in this northern territory , which was named the " North @-@ Western Provinces " ( of Agra ) . Although UP later became the fifth largest state of India , NWPA was one of the smallest states of the British Indian empire . Its capital shifted twice between Agra and Allahabad .
Due to dissatisfaction with British rule , a serious rebellion erupted in various parts of North India ; Bengal regiment 's sepoy stationed at Meerut cantonment , Mangal Pandey , is widely credited as its starting point . It came to be known as the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . After the revolt failed , the British attempted to divide the most rebellious regions by reorganising the administrative boundaries of the region , splitting the Delhi region from ' NWFP of Agra ' and merging it with Punjab , while the Ajmer- Marwar region was merged with Rajputana and Oudh was incorporated into the state . The new state was called the ' North Western Provinces of Agra and Oudh ' , which in 1902 was renamed as the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh . It was commonly referred to as the United Provinces or its acronym UP .
In 1920 , the capital of the province was shifted from Allahabad to Lucknow . The high court continued to be at Allahabad , but a bench was established at Lucknow . Allahabad continues to be an important administrative base of today 's Uttar Pradesh and has several administrative headquarters . Uttar Pradesh continued to be central to Indian politics and was especially important in modern Indian history as a hotbed of the Indian independence movement . Uttar Pradesh hosted modern educational institutions such as the Benaras Hindu University , Aligarh Muslim University and the Darul Uloom Deoband . Nationally known figures such as Chandra Shekhar Azad were among the leaders of the movement in Uttar Pradesh , and Motilal Nehru , Jawaharlal Nehru , Madan Mohan Malaviya and Gobind Ballabh Pant were important national leaders of the Indian National Congress . The All India Kisan Sabha ( AIKS ) was formed at the Lucknow session of the Congress on 11 April 1936 , with the famous nationalist Swami Sahajanand Saraswati elected as its first President , in order to address the longstanding grievances of the peasantry and mobilise them against the zamindari landlords attacks on their occupancy rights , thus sparking the Farmers movements in India . During the Quit India Movement of 1942 , Ballia district overthrew the colonial authority and installed an independent administration under Chittu Pandey . Ballia became known as " Baghi Ballia " ( Rebel Ballia ) for this significant role in India 's independence movement .
= = = = Post @-@ independence = = = =
After India 's independence , the United Provinces were renamed " Uttar Pradesh " in 1950 . The state has provided seven of India 's prime ministers and is the source of the largest number of seats in the Lok Sabha . Despite its political influence , its poor record in economic development and administration , organised crime and corruption have kept it amongst India 's backward states . The state has been affected by repeated episodes of caste and communal violence . In December , 1992 the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya was demolished by radical activists , leading to widespread violence across India . In 1999 , northern districts of the state were separated to form the state of Uttarakhand .
= = Geography = =
Uttar Pradesh , with a total area of 243 @,@ 290 square kilometres ( 93 @,@ 935 sq mi ) , is India ’ s fourth largest state in terms of land area . It is situated on the northern spout of India and shares an international boundary with Nepal . The Himalayas border the state on the north , but the plains that cover most of the state are distinctly different from those high mountains . The larger Gangetic Plain region is in the north ; it includes the Ganges @-@ Yamuna Doab , the Ghaghra plains , the Ganges plains and the Terai . The smaller Vindhya Range and plateau region is in the south . It is characterised by hard rock strata and a varied topography of hills , plains , valleys and plateaus . The Bhabhar tract gives place to the terai area which is covered with tall elephant grass and thick forests interspersed with marshes and swamps . The sluggish rivers of the bhabhar deepen in this area , their course running through a tangled mass of thick undergrowth . The terai runs parallel to the bhabhar in a thin strip . The entire alluvial plain is divided into three sub @-@ regions . The first in the eastern tract consisting of 14 districts which are subject to periodical floods and droughts and have been classified as scarcity areas . These districts have the highest density of population which gives the lowest per capita land . The other two regions , the central and the western are comparatively better with a well @-@ developed irrigation system . They suffer from waterlogging and large @-@ scale user tracts . In addition , the area is fairly arid . The state has more than 32 large and small rivers ; of them , the Ganges , Yamuna , Saraswati , Sarayu , Betwa , and Ghaghara are larger and of religious importance in Hinduism .
Cultivation is intensive . The valley areas have fertile and rich soil . There is intensive cultivation on terraced hill slopes , but irrigation facilities are deficient . The Siwalik Range which forms the southern foothills of the Himalayas , slopes down into a boulder bed called ' bhadhar ' . The transitional belt running along the entire length of the state is called the terai and bhabhar area . It has rich forests , cutting across it are innumerable streams which swell into raging torrents during the monsoon .
= = = Climate = = =
Uttar Pradesh has a humid subtropical climate and experiences four seasons . The winter in January and February is followed by summer between March and May and the monsoon season between June and September . Summers are extreme with temperatures fluctuating anywhere between 0 ° C and 50 ° C in parts of the state . The Gangetic plain varies from semiarid to sub @-@ humid . The mean annual rainfall ranges from 650 mm in the southwest corner of the state to 1000 mm in the eastern and southeastern parts of the state . Primarily a summer phenomenon , the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian monsoon is the major bearer of rain in most parts of state . It is the south @-@ west monsoon which brings most of the rain here , although rain due to the western disturbances and north @-@ east monsoon also contribute small quantities towards the overall precipitation of the state .
The rain in U.P. can vary from an annual average of 170 cm in hilly areas to 84 cm in Western U.P. Given the concentration of most of this rainfall in the four months of the monsoon , excess rain can lead to floods and shortage to droughts . As such , these two phenomena , floods and droughts , commonly recur in the state . The climate of the Vindhya Range and plateau is subtropical with a mean annual rainfall between 1000 and 1200 mm , most of which comes during the monsoon . Typical summer months are from March to June , with maximum temperatures ranging from 30 to 38 ° C ( 86 to 100 ° F ) . There is low relative humidity of around 20 % and dust @-@ laden winds blow throughout the season . In summers , hot winds called loo blow all across Uttar Pradesh .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The state has an abundance of natural resources . In 2011 the recorded forest area in the state was 16 @,@ 583 km2 ( 6 @,@ 403 sq mi ) which is about 6 @.@ 88 % of the state 's geographical area . In spite of rapid deforestation and poaching of wildlife , a diverse flora and fauna continue to exist in the state . Several species of trees , large and small mammals , reptiles , and insects are found in the belt of temperate upper mountainous forests . Medicinal plants are found in the wild and are also grown in plantations . The Terai @-@ Duar savanna and grasslands support cattle . Moist deciduous trees grow in the upper Gangetic plain , especially along its riverbanks . This plain supports a wide variety of plants and animals . The Ganges and its tributaries are the habitat of large and small reptiles , amphibians , fresh @-@ water fish , and crabs . Scrubland trees such as the babool and animals such as the chinkara are found in the arid Vindhyas .
Tropical dry deciduous forests are found in all parts of the plains . Since much sunlight reaches the ground , shrubs and grasses are also abundant . Large tracts of these forests have been cleared for cultivation . Tropical thorny forests , consisting of widely scattered thorny trees , mainly babool are mostly found in the southwestern parts of the state . These forests are confined to areas which have low annual rainfall ( 50 – 70 cm ) , a mean annual temperature of 25 @-@ 27 ° C and low humidity .
Uttar Pradesh is known for its extensive avifauna . The most common birds which are found in the state are doves , peafowl , junglefowl , black partridges , house sparrows , songbirds , blue jays , parakeets , quails , bulbuls , comb ducks , kingfishers , woodpeckers , snipes , and parrots . Bird sanctuaries in the state include Bakhira Sanctuary , National Chambal Sanctuary , Chandra Prabha Sanctuary , Hastinapur Sanctuary , Kaimoor Sanctuary , and Okhla Sanctuary .
Other animals in the state include reptiles such as lizards , cobras , kraits , and gharials . Among the wide variety of fishes , the most common ones are mahaseer and trout . Some animal species in Uttar Pradesh have gone extinct in recent years , while others , like the lion from the Gangetic Plain and the rhinoceros from the Terai region , have become endangered . Many species are vulnerable to poaching despite regulation by the government .
= = Divisions , districts and cities = =
Uttar Pradesh is divided into 75 districts under these 18 divisions :
The following is a list of top six districts from state of Uttar Pradesh by rank in India .
Each district is governed by a district collector or District Magistrate , who is an Indian Administrative Service officer appointed Government of Uttar Pradesh and reports to Divisional Commissioner of the division in which his district falls . Each district is divided into subdivisions , governed by a sub @-@ divisional magistrate , and again into Blocks . Blocks consists of panchayats ( village councils ) and town municipalities . These blocks consists of urban units viz. census towns and rural units called gram panchayat .
Uttar Pradesh has more metropolitan cities than any other state in India . The absolute urban population of the state is 44 @.@ 4 million , which constitutes 11 @.@ 8 % of the total urban population of India , the second highest of any state . According to the 2011 census , there are 15 urban agglomerations with a population greater than 500 @,@ 000 . There are 14 municipal corporations , while Noida is specially administered by a statuary authority .
In 2011 , state 's cabinet ministers headed by the then Chief Minister Mayawati announced the separation of Uttar Pradesh into four different states of Purvanchal , Bundelkhand , Avadh Pradesh and Paschim Pradesh with twenty eight , seven , twenty three and seventeen districts respectively , later the proposal was turned down when Mulayam Singh Yadav lead Samajwadi Party came to power in the 2012 election .
= = Demographics = =
Uttar Pradesh has a large population and a high population growth rate . From 1991 to 2001 its population increased by over 26 % . Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in India , with 199 @,@ 581 @,@ 477 people on 1 March 2011 . The state contributes 16 @.@ 16 % of India 's population . The population density is 828 people per square kilometre , making it one of the most densely populated states in the country .
The sex ratio in 2011 , at 908 women to 1000 men , was lower than the national figure of 933 . The state 's 2001 – 2011 decennial growth rate ( including Uttrakhand ) was 20 @.@ 09 % , higher than the national rate of 17 @.@ 64 % . Uttar Pradesh has a large number of people living below the poverty line . Estimates released by the Planning Commission for the year 2009 @-@ 10 revealed that Uttar Pradesh had 59 million people below the poverty line , the most for any state in India .
As per 2011 census , Uttar Pradesh , the most populous state in India , is home to the maximum number of Hindu and Muslim population . The religion @-@ wise percentage of the population in 2011 was Hindus 79 @.@ 69 , Muslims 19 @.@ 25 , Sikhs 0 @.@ 30 , Jains 0 @.@ 11 , Buddhists 0 @.@ 10 , Christians 0 @.@ 18 and Others 0 @.@ 30 . The literacy rate of the state at the 2011 census was 70 % , which was below the national average of 74 % . The literacy rate for men is 79 % and for women 59 % . In 2001 the literacy rate in Uttar Pradesh stood at 56 @.@ 27 % overall , 67 % for men and 43 % for women .
Hindi and Urdu are the official languages of Uttar Pradesh . Most people in Uttar Pradesh speak a dialect of Hindustani , which in its written forms is referred to as Urdu or Hindi depending on the script employed . People of Uttar Pradesh regard their language a very important part of their cultural identity . Both Hindi and Urdu are spoken by both Hindus and Muslims .
A large number of other dialects exist . Five distinct dialect regions have been identified . The western part of the state , Rohilkhand and the upper Doab , is home to the speakers of Khari Boli ( The dialect used for standard Hindi and standard Urdu ) . The lower Doab , which is referred as Braj Bhumi , or the land of Braj , is home to the speakers of Braj Bhasha . Further south , the Bundelkhand region people speaks Bundelkhandi . In central Uttar Pradesh , people speak the Awadhi dialect and Bhojpuri is spoken in the east , Bhojpuri speakers have a similar culture to those living in the neighbouring state of Bihar . Indian states are defined on the languages they speak , however , a large state like UP contains many linguistic and ethnic groups and therefore lacks a cohesive , statewide identity .
= = Government and politics = =
Since Uttar Pradesh sends the largest number of legislators to the national Parliament , it is often considered to be one of the most important states with respect to Indian politics . The state contributes 80 seats to the Lok Sabha and 31 seats to the Rajya Sabha of the Indian Parliament . Uttar Pradesh has been called India 's under @-@ achiever , because it has provided India with eight prime ministers while remaining a poor state . The state 's legislative body is divided into two significant parts : Uttar Pradesh Vidhan Parishad and Uttar Pradesh Vidhan Sabha . The state is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy , a feature the state shares with other Indian states . The Governor is the head of state and is appointed by the President of India . The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor , and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister . In the 2012 election , the largest number of seats went to the Samajwadi Party with 224 seats . At the local level , the state has a large number of village councils ( panchayats ) , which are similar to those found in other Indian states . The administration in each district is headed by a District Magistrate who belongs to the Indian Administrative Service and is assisted by a number of officers belonging to state services .
Judges and judicial officers are appointed non @-@ politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government . This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions . The Superintendent of Police ( India ) , an officer belonging to the Indian Police Service and assisted by the officers of the Uttar Pradesh Police Service , is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining law and order and related issues in each district . The Deputy Conservator of Forests , an officer belonging to the Indian Forest Service , also serves the government . Sectoral development in the districts is looked after by the district head of each development department such as the Department of Public Works , Health , Education , Agriculture , Animal Husbandry , etc .
The judiciary in the state consists of the Allahabad High Court in Allahabad , the Lucknow Bench of Allahabad High Court , district courts namely the District court of Auraiya , the district court of Kanpur Dehat and district courts in each districts as Uttar Pradesh Judiciary , session courts in each district or Sessions Division , lower courts and judges at the taluka level . The President of India appoints the chief justice of the High Court of the Uttar Pradesh judiciary on the advice of the chief justice of the Supreme Court of India as well as the Governor of Uttar Pradesh . Other judges are appointed by the chief justice of the high court of the judiciary of Uttar Pradesh on the advice of the Chief Justice . Subordinate Judicial Service is another vital part of the judiciary of Uttar Pradesh . The subordinate judiciary or the district courts are categorised into two divisions viz . Uttar Pradesh civil judicial services and Uttar Pradesh higher judicial service . While the Uttar Pradesh civil judicial services comprises the Civil Judges ( Junior Division ) / Judicial Magistraes and civil judges ( Senior Division ) / Chief Judicial Magistrate , the Uttar Pradesh higher judicial service comprises civil and sessions judges . The Subordinate judicial service of the judiciary at Uttar Pradesh is controlled by the District Judge . The district court of Etawah and district court of Kanpur Dehat of Uttar Pradesh serves as the subordinate judicial service of the state . Justice ( retd . ) Sanjay MIshra was appointed as the new Lokayukta of Uttar Pradesh .
= = Crime = =
According to the National Crime Records Bureau , Uttar Pradesh has the highest number of crimes among any state in India , but due to its high population , the actual per capita crime rate is low . Because of this , the NCRB states that UP is the third safest state in the country to live in . The value of human development index in Uttar Pradesh has steadily increased over time . Uttar Pradesh has the second largest Civil police force with 107 @,@ 840 members , accounting for 9 @.@ 5 % of the total civil police in the country .
= = = Terror attacks = = =
Since 2006 , there have been a number of terrorist attacks , including explosions in a landmark holy place , a court and a temple . The 2006 Varanasi bombings were a series of bombings that occurred across the Hindu holy city of Varanasi on 7 March 2006 . At least 28 people were killed and as many as 101 others were injured . The blasts occurred simultaneously shortly after 18 : 00 IST . The first blast took place at 18 : 20 in the crowded Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple near the Banaras Hindu University . Other blasts followed at the Varanasi Cantonment Railway Station near the waiting area next to the travel office . Initially , another blast was reported inside the stationary Shivganga Express bound for Delhi .
In the afternoon of 23 November 2007 , within a span of 25 minutes , six consecutive serial blasts occurred in the Lucknow , Varanasi , and Faizabad courts , in which 28 people were killed and several others injured . The blasts came a week after the Uttar Pradesh police and central security agencies busted Jaish @-@ e @-@ Mohammed terrorists who had planned to abduct Rahul Gandhi . The Indian Mujahidin has claimed responsibility of these blasts in an email sent to TV stations five minutes before the blast . The first blast occurred in the premises of the Varanasi civil court and collectorate between 13 : 05 and 13 : 07 . Two successive blasts occurred in the Faizabad district court around 13 : 12 and 13 : 15 , closely followed by one at Lucknow at 13 : 32 . Bombs were explicitly targeted at the lawyers who were working in the courts .
On 7 December 2010 , another blast occurred at Sheetla Ghat , adjacent to the main Dashashwamedh Ghat , in which more than 38 people were killed and several others injured . The blast came a day after the anniversary of the 1992 Babri Masjid demolition , in which a mosque was demolished at Ayodhya leading to nationwide religious riots that killed over 2 @,@ 000 people .
= = Economy = =
In terms of net state domestic product ( NSDP ) , Uttar Pradesh holds the third largest economy ( 2011 – 2012 ) in India , with an NSDP of ₹ 7 @,@ 080 billion ( US $ 110 billion ) . Agriculture is the leading occupation in Uttar Pradesh . Wheat is the state 's principal food crop and sugarcane is the main commercial crop . About 70 % of India 's sugar comes from Uttar Pradesh . State industries are localised in the Kanpur region , the fertile purvanchal lands and the Noida region . The Mughalsarai is home to a number of major locomotive plants . Major manufacturing products include engineering products , electronics , electrical equipment , cables , steel , leather , textiles , jewellery , frigates , automobiles , railway coaches , and wagons . More small @-@ scale industrial units are situated in Uttar Pradesh than in any other state , with 12 percent of over 2 @.@ 3 million units . With 359 manufacturing clusters cement is top sector of SMEs in UP .
The Uttar Pradesh Financial Corporation ( UPFC ) was established in the year 1954 under the SFCs Act of 1951 mainly to develop small and medium scale industries in the state . UPFC provides financial assistance to new and existing units undergoing diversification , modernisation , expansion , or acquisition of fixed assets such as land , buildings , and machinery . The UPFC also provides working capital to existing units with a sound track record and to new units under a single window scheme . As of July 2012 , due to financial constraints and directions from the state government , lending activities have been suspended except for State Government Schemes . Nevertheless , unemployment , corruption and an inconsistent electricity supply remain among the major problems of the state . The state also has " marked income inequality " .
In 2009 – 10 , the tertiary sector of the economy ( service industries ) was the largest contributor to the gross domestic product of the state , contributing 44 @.@ 8 % of the state domestic product compared to 44 % from the primary sector ( agriculture , forestry , and tourism ) and 11 @.@ 2 % from the secondary sector ( industrial and manufacturing ) . During the 11th five @-@ year plan ( 2007 – 2012 ) , the average gross state domestic product ( GSDP ) growth rate was 7 @.@ 28 % , lower than 15 @.@ 5 % , the average for all states of the country . The state ’ s per capita GSDP was ₹ 29 @,@ 417 ( US $ 440 ) , lower than the national per capita GSDP of ₹ 60 @,@ 972 ( US $ 910 ) . The state 's total financial debt stood at ₹ 2 @,@ 000 billion ( US $ 30 billion ) in 2011 . Labour efficiency is higher at an index of 26 than the national average of 25 . The economy also benefits from the state 's tourism industry .
The state is attracting foreign direct investment which has mostly come in the software and electronics fields ; Noida and Lucknow are becoming a major hub for the information technology ( IT ) industry and houses the headquarters of most of the major corporate , media and financial institutions . Sonebhadra , a district in eastern Uttar Pradesh , has large @-@ scale industries . Its southern region is known as the " Energy Capital of India " . In May 2013 Uttar Pradesh had the largest number of mobile subscribers in the country , a total of 121 @.@ 60 million mobile phone connections out of 861 @.@ 66 million in India , according to the telecom regulator , Telecom Regulatory Authority of India TRAI .
= = Transportation = =
The world 's longest railway platform is at Gorakhpur Railway Station ( NER ) which is about 1 @.@ 34 km long . The state has the largest railway network in the country and the sixth highest railway density . As 0f 2011 , there were 8 @,@ 546 km ( 5 @,@ 310 mi ) of rail in the state . Allahabad is the headquarters of the North Central Railway and Gorakhpur is the headquarters of the North Eastern Railway . Other than Zonal Headquarters of Allahabad and Gorakhpur , Lucknow and Moradabad serve as divisional Headquarters of the Northern Railway Division . Lucknow Swarna Shatabdi Express , the second fastest shatabdi train , connects the Indian capital of New Delhi to Lucknow . This was the first train in India to get the new German LHB coaches . The railway stations of Lucknow NR , Kanpur Central , Varanasi Junction , Agra Cantt , Gorakhpur and Mathura Junction were included in the Indian Railways list of 50 world @-@ class railway stations .
The state has a large , multimodal transportation system with the largest road network in the country . The state is well connected to its nine neighbouring states and almost all other parts of India through the national highways ( NH ) . It boasts 42 national highways , with a total length of 4 @,@ 942 km ( 9 @.@ 6 % of the total NH length in India ) . The Uttar Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation was established in 1972 to provide economical , reliable , and comfortable transportation in the state with connecting services to adjoining states and boasts as being the only State Transport Corporation that runs in profit in the entire nation . All cities are connected to state highways , and all district headquarters are being connected with four lane roads which carry traffic between major centres within the state . One of them is Agra Lucknow Expressway , which is a 302 km ( 188 mi ) controlled @-@ access highway being constructed by Uttar Pradesh Expressways Industrial Development Authority ( UPEIDA ) to reduce vehicular traffic in already congested roads . This expressway is country ’ s largest Greenfield Expressway which would cut the travel time between Lucknow and Agra from 6 hours to 3 @.@ 30 hours . Other district roads and village roads provide villages accessibility to meet their social needs as also the means to transport agriculture produce from village to nearby markets . Major district roads provide a secondary function of linking between main roads and rural roads . Uttar Pradesh has the highest road density in India , ( 1 @,@ 027 km per 1000 km2 ) and the largest surfaced urban @-@ road network in the country ( 50 @,@ 721 km ) .
The state has excellent civil aviation infrastructure with Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport in Lucknow and Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport in Varanasi , providing international service. and four domestic airports located at Agra , Allahabad , Gorakhpur and Kanpur . The Lucknow Airport is the second busiest airport in North India after the Indira Gandhi International Airport , New Delhi . The state has also proposed creating the Taj International Airport at Kurikupa near Hirangaon , Tundla in Firozabad district . An international Airport is also proposed at Kushinagar .
The Lucknow Metro is being constructed in the city of Lucknow as an alternative mode of transport . The capital city is witnessing a swift rise in the number of immigrants and this has called for the transformation of Public modes of transport . Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav in February 2013 gave the final clearance for Lucknow Metro and the commencement of civil works started on 27 September 2014 . With the use of advance signalling based on CBTC , French Multinational Alstom is manufacturing the Metro Train in South India . The whole system has been designed with 100 seconds headway in mind . The first phase of construction is expected to be operational by December 2016 . Lucknow Metro Rail Corporation ( LMRC ) has been recently awarded for ‘ Best Metro for Excellence in Innovative Designs ’ in the fifth Annual Metro Rail Summit 2016 .
= = Sports = =
Popular sports in Uttar Pradesh are both traditional and modern sports of mainly European origin . Athletes from the state have included the field hockey player Dhyan Chand , Olympic shooter Nawab Mian , volleyball player Sanjiv Balian , and the wrestler Anuj .
Traditional sports , now played mostly as a pastime , include wrestling , swimming , kabaddi , and track- or water @-@ sports played according to local traditional rules and without modern equipment . Some sports are designed to display martial skills such as using a sword or ' Pata ' ( stick ) . Due to lack of organised patronage and requisite facilities , these sports survive mostly as individuals ' hobbies or local competitive events . Among modern sports , field hockey is popular and Uttar Pradesh has produced some of the finest players in India , including Dhyan Chand and , more recently , Nitin Kumar and Lalit Kumar Upadhyay .
Recently , cricket has become more popular than field hockey . Uttar Pradesh won its first Ranji Trophy tournament in February 2006 , beating Bengal in the final . It can also boast of routinely having 3 or 4 players on the national side . Green Park Stadium in Kanpur , the only internationally recognised cricket stadium in the state , has witnessed some of India 's most famous victories . Uttar Pradesh Cricket Association ( UPCA ) has headquarters in Kanpur . Faizabad Sports Complex is another sports venue in Uttar Pradesh which includes Faizabad International Sports Stadium . Greater Noida Cricket Stadium is another newly built international cricket stadium .
Shobhit Sharma is the captain and founder of Sportybrat Cricket Club , Finland .
The Buddh International Circuit hosted India ’ s inaugural F1 Grand Prix race on 30 October 2011 . The 5 @.@ 14 km long circuit was designed by German architect and racetrack designer Herman Tilke to compete with other world @-@ class race circuits .
= = Education = =
Uttar Pradesh has a long tradition of education , although historically it was primarily confined to the elite class and religious schools . Sanskrit @-@ based learning formed the major part of education from the Vedic to the Gupta periods . As cultures travelled through the region they brought their bodies of knowledge with them , adding Pali , Persian , and Arabic scholarship to the community . These formed the core of Hindu @-@ Buddhist @-@ Muslim education until the rise of British colonialism . The present schools @-@ to @-@ university system of education owes its inception and development in the state ( as in the rest of the country ) to foreign Christian missionaries and the British colonial administration . Schools in the state are either managed by the government or by private trusts . Hindi is used as a medium of instruction in most of the schools except those affiliated to the CBSE or the Council for ICSE boards . Under the 10 + 2 + 3 plan , after completing secondary school , students typically enroll for 2 years in a junior college , also known as pre @-@ university , or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with the Uttar Pradesh Board of High School and Intermediate Education or a central board . Students choose from one of three streams , namely liberal arts , commerce , or science . Upon completing the required coursework , students may enroll in general or professional degree programs .
Uttar Pradesh has more than 30 universities , including 5 central universities , 20 state universities , 8 deemed universities , 2 IITs , 1 IIM in Lucknow , 1 NIT in Allahabad and several polytechnics , engineering colleges and industrial training institutes . Prestigious institutes like the Aligarh Muslim University , Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences , Indian Institute of Technology ( Kanpur ) , Indian Institute of Technology ( BHU ) , the Indian Institute of Management ( Lucknow ) , Indian Institute of Information Technology ( Allahabad ) , Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology ( Allahabad ) , and the Harcourt Butler Technological Institute are known worldwide for their quality education and research in their respective fields . The presence of such institutions provides the students of the state with ample opportunities for higher education . Other universities in the state include Gautam Buddha University , Banaras Hindu University , Purvanchal University , Deen Dayal Upadhyay Gorakhpur University , University of Allahabad , Indian Veterinary Research Institute Bareilly , IMT Ghaziabad , Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University , M.J.P. Rohilkhand University , Narendra Dev University of Agriculture and Technology , Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University , and King George 's Medical University .
The Integral University , a state level institution , was established by the Uttar Pradesh Government to provide education in different technical , applied science , and other disciplines . The Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies was founded as an autonomous organisation by the national ministry of culture . Jagadguru Rambhadracharya Handicapped University is the only university established exclusively for the disabled in the world . A large number of Indian scholars are educated at different universities in Uttar Pradesh . Notable scholars who were born , worked or studied in the geographic area of the state include Harivansh Rai Bachchan , Motilal Nehru , Harish Chandra and Indira Gandhi .
= = Tourism = =
Uttar Pradesh ranks first in domestic tourist arrivals with more than 71 million , owing to its rich and varied topography , vibrant culture , festivals , monuments , ancient places of worship , and viharas . Millions gather at Allahabad to take part in the Magh Mela festival on the banks of the Ganges . This festival is organised on a larger scale every 12th year and is called the Kumbha Mela , where over 10 million Hindu pilgrims congregate in one of the largest gatherings of people in the world .
The historically important towns of Sarnath and Kushinagar is near to gorakhpur and are located not far from Varanasi . Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon after his enlightenment at Sarnath and died at Kushinagar ; both are important pilgrimage sites for Buddhists . Also at Sarnath are the Pillars of Ashoka and the Lion Capital of Ashoka , both important archaeological artefacts with national significance . At a distance of 80 km from Varanasi , Ghazipur is famous not only for its Ghats on the Ganges but also for the tomb of Lord Cornwallis , the 18th century Governor of East India Company ruled Bengal Presidency . The tomb is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India . The state also has a bird sanctuary in Etah district called Patna Bird Sanctuary .
Lucknow , the capital of the state , has several beautiful historical monuments . It has also preserved the damaged complex of the Oudh @-@ period British Resident 's quarters , which are being restored . Uttar Pradesh gives access to three World Heritage Sites : the Taj Mahal , Agra Fort , and the nearby Fatehpur Sikri . Varanasi is an ancient city famous for its ghats . To promote tourism , the Directorate of Tourism was established in the 1972 with a Director General who is an I.A.S. officer . In 1974 the Uttar Pradesh State Tourism Development Corporation was established to look after the commercial tourist activities .
To boost the tourism in the state from within the country and other parts of the world , the Government of Uttar Pradesh established a ' Uttar Pradesh Heritage Arc ' covering the cities of Agra , Lucknow and Varanasi . To promote this newly created ensemble , the government organised an ' Uttar Pradesh Travel Mart ' in 2015 , hosted by the city of Lucknow which was attended by 80 delegates from 27 countries of the world .
= = Culture = =
= = = Language and literature = = =
Several texts and hymns of the Vedic literature were composed in Uttar Pradesh . The festival of Guru Purnima is dedicated to Sage Vyasa , and also known as Vyasa Purnima as it is the day which is believed to be his birthday and also the day he divided the Vedas . There is a long literary and folk Hindi language tradition in the state . In the 19th and 20th century , Hindi literature was modernised by authors such as Jaishankar Prasad , Maithili Sharan Gupt , Munshi Premchand , Suryakant Tripathi Nirala , Babu Gulabrai , Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan ' Agyeya ' , Rahul Sankrityayan , Harivansh Rai Bachchan , Dharamvir Bharati , Subhadra Kumari Chauhan , Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi , Swami Sahajanand Saraswati , Dushyant Kumar , Hazari Prasad Dwivedi , Acharya Kuber Nath Rai , Bharatendu Harishchandra , Kamleshwar Prasad Saxena , Shivmangal Singh Suman , Mahadevi Varma , and Vibhuti Narain Rai .
The state is sometimes called the ' Hindi heartland of India ' . Hindi became the language of state administration with the Uttar Pradesh Official Language Act of 1951 . A 1989 amendment to the act added Urdu as another native language of the state . Linguistically , the state spreads across the Central , East @-@ Central , and Eastern zones of the Indo @-@ Aryan languages , the major native languages of the state being Awadhi , Bhojpuri , Bundeli , Braj Bhasha , Kannauji and the vernacular form of Khariboli .
= = = Music and dance = = =
Uttar Pradesh has produced musicians , including Anup Jalota , Baba Sehgal , Girija Devi , Gopal Shankar Misra , Hari Prasad Chaurasia , Kishan Maharaj , Vikash Maharaj Naushad Ali , Ravi Shankar , Shubha Mudgal , Siddheshwari Devi , Talat Mehmood , and Ustad Bismillah Khan . The Ghazal singer Begum Akhtar was a native of Uttar Pradesh . The region 's folk heritage includes songs called rasiya ( especially popular in Braj ) , which celebrate the divine love of Radha and Krishna . Other forms of music are kajari , sohar , qawwali , rasiya , thumri , birha , chaiti , and sawani . Traditional dance and musical styles are taught at the Bhatkhande Music Institute University in Lucknow , named after the musician Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande .
Kathak , a classical dance form , owes its origin to the state of Uttar Pradesh . The dance form is connected to classical Hindustani music where the rhythmic nimbleness of the feet is accompanied by the Tabla or Pakhawaj . Four of the six schools of this dance form , Lucknow gharana , Ajrara gharana , Farukhabad gharana and Benares gharana , are situated in Uttar Pradesh .
= = = Fairs and festivals = = =
Diwali ( celebrated between mid @-@ October and mid @-@ December ) and Rama Navami are popular festivals in Uttar Pradesh . Kumbh Mela , organised in the month of Maagha ( Feb @-@ March ) , is a major festival held every twelve years in rotation at Allahabad , Haridwar , Ujjain , on the river Ganges and Nasik on the Godavari river . Lath mar Holi is a local celebration of the Hindu festival of Holi . It takes place well before the actual Holi in the town of Barsana near Mathura . Taj Mahotsav , held annually at Agra , is a colourful display of the culture of the Braj area . Buddha Purnima , which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha , is a major Hindu and Buddhist festival , while Christmas is celebrated by the minority Christian population . Other festivals are Vijayadashami , Makar Sankranti , Vasant Panchami , Ayudha Puja , Ganga Mahotsava , Janmashtami , Sardhana Christian Fair , Maha Shivaratri , Mahavir Jayanti , Moharram , Bārah Wafāṭ , Eid , Bakreed , Chhath puja , Lucknow Mahotsav , Kabob and Hanuman Jayanti .
= = = Cuisine = = =
A typical day @-@ to @-@ day traditional vegetarian meal of Uttar Pradesh , like any other North Indian thali , consists of roti ( flatbread ) , chawal , dal , sabji , raita and papad . Many people still drink the traditional drink chaach ( traditional Butter milk ) with meals . On festive occasions , usually ' tava ' ( flat pan for roti ) is considered inauspicious , and instead fried foods are consumed . A typical festive thali consists of Puri , Kachauri , sabji , pulav , papad , raita , salad and desserts ( such as sewai or Kheer ) .
Many communities have their own particular style of cuisines , such as the Jains , Kayasths and Muslims . There are also certain sub @-@ regional delicacies . Awadhi cuisine is world famous for dishes such as kebab , biryani , keema and nihari . Sweets occupy an important place in the Hindu diet and are eaten at social ceremonies . People make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products , including khurchan , peda , gulabjamun , petha , makkhan malai , and chamcham . The chaat in Lucknow and Banarasi Paan is known across India for its flavour and ingredients .
Awadhi cuisine is from the city of Lucknow . The cuisine consists of both vegetarian and non @-@ vegetarian dishes . Awadh has been greatly influenced by Mughal cooking techniques , and the cuisine of Lucknow bears similarities to those of Central Asia , Kashmir , Punjab and Hyderabad ; and the city is known for Nawabi foods . The bawarchis and rakabdars of Awadh gave birth to the dum style of cooking or the art of cooking over a slow fire , which has become synonymous with Lucknow today . Their spread consisted of elaborate dishes like kebabs , kormas , biryani , kaliya , nahari @-@ kulchas , zarda , sheermal , roomali rotis , and warqi parathas . The richness of Awadh cuisine lies not only in the variety of cuisine but also in the ingredients used like mutton , paneer , and rich spices including cardamom and saffron .
Mughlai cuisine is a style of cooking developed in the Indian subcontinent by the imperial kitchens of the Mughal Empire . It represents the cooking styles used in North India , especially Uttar Pradesh . The cuisine is strongly influenced by the cuisine of Central Asia , and has in turn strongly similarities to the regional cuisines of Kashmir and the Punjab region . The tastes of Mughlai cuisine vary from extremely mild to spicy , and is often associated with a distinctive aroma and the taste of ground and whole spices .
= = = Dress = = =
The people of Uttar Pradesh dress in a variety of traditional and Western styles . Traditional styles of dress include colourful draped garments – such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men – and tailored clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta @-@ pyjama for men . Men often sport head @-@ gear like topi or pagri . Sherwani is a more formal male dress and is frequently worn along with chooridar on festive occasions . European @-@ style trousers and shirts are also common among the men .
= = Media = =
A number of newspapers and periodicals are published in Hindi , English , and Urdu . The Pioneer was founded in Allahabad in 1865 by George Allen . Amar Ujala , Dainik Bhaskar , Dainik Jagran , and Hindustan Dainik have a wide circulation , with local editions published from several important cities . Major English language newspapers which are published and sold in large numbers are The Telegraph , The Times of India , Hindustan Times , The Hindu , The Statesman , The Indian Express , and Asian Age . Some prominent financial dailies like The Economic Times , Financial Express , Business Line , and Business Standard are widely circulated . Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi , Nepali , Gujarati , Odia , Urdu , and Punjabi are also read by a select readership .
Doordarshan is the state @-@ owned television broadcaster . Multi system operators provide a mix of Hindi , English , Bengali , Nepali and international channels via cable . Hindi 24 @-@ hour television news channels are NDTV India , DD News , Zee News Uttar Pradesh , Jan TV , IBN @-@ 7 , and ABP News . All India Radio is a public radio station . There are 32 private FM stations available in major cities like Lucknow , Kanpur , Varanasi , Allahabad , Agra , and Noida . Cell phone providers include Vodafone , Airtel , BSNL , Reliance Communications , Telenor , Aircel , Tata Indicom , Idea Cellular , and Tata DoCoMo . Broadband internet is available in select towns and cities and is provided by the state @-@ run BSNL and by private companies . Dial @-@ up access is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers .
= Pon de Replay =
" Pon de Replay " is the debut single recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna , from her debut studio album Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) . It was written and produced by Vada Nobles , Alisha Brooks , Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers . Her debut single , the song was released on May 24 , 2005 as the lead single from the album . Prior to signing a six album record deal with Def Jam Recordings , " Pon de Replay " was one of three songs which was recorded for her demo tape to be sent to record labels . It is a dance @-@ pop , dancehall and R & B song that features elements of pop and reggae . The lyrics revolve around Rihanna asking a DJ to turn the volume of her favorite songs up louder . The name means " play it again " in Bajan Creole , one of Barbados ' two official languages .
" Pon de Replay " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who praised the song 's composition and its choice as the singer 's debut single . The song was a commercial success , peaking at number one in New Zealand and on the US Billboard Dance Club Songs chart . It also reached number two on both the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and the UK Singles Chart , whilst achieving top five positions in eight other countries including Austria , Belgium , Denmark , and Switzerland . It was certified two times Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America denoting shipments of over 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Little X , and features Rihanna in a club with her friends , who ask the DJ to play their favorite song repeatedly .
= = Background = =
Prior to signing a record deal with Def Jam Recordings , Rihanna was discovered in her home country of Barbados by American record producer Evan Rogers , who made the necessary arrangements for her to fly to New York . There , she recorded a collection of demos for a demo tape to be sent to record labels . One of the demos recorded was that of " Pon de Replay " , which was written and produced by Carl Sturken , Evan Rogers and Vada Nobles in 2004 . The first to respond to the demo tape was Jay @-@ Z , who had recently been appointed as president and CEO of Def Jam Recordings , where Rihanna auditioned for him and music executive L.A. Reid , in his office . Looking back on the audition and meeting Jay @-@ Z , Rihanna explained during an interview how she felt before walking into the room , saying : " That 's when I really got nervous ... I was like : ' Oh God , he 's right there , I can 't look , I can 't look , I can 't look ! ' I remember being extremely quiet . I was very shy . I was cold the entire time . I had butterflies . I 'm sitting across from Jay @-@ Z. Like , Jay @-@ Zee . I was star @-@ struck . " During the audition , Rihanna performed Whitney Houston 's cover of " For the Love of You " , " Pon de Replay " and " The Last Time " , the latter two of which would go on to be included on her debut album , Music of the Sun . Initially , Jay @-@ Z was skeptical about signing Rihanna , because he felt " Pon de Replay " was too big for her , saying " when a song is that big , it 's hard [ for a new artist ] to come back from . I don 't sign songs , I sign artists " . " Pon de Replay " was released via iTunes on July 26 , 2005 , through Def Jam Recordings .
= = Composition = =
" Pon de Replay " is a dance @-@ pop , dancehall and R & B song that infuses a reggae style . According to the digital music sheet published at musicnotes.com , the song is written in the key of F @-@ sharp minor and is set in common time with a moderated dance groove , with a metronome of 100 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of F ♯ 3 to the high note of C ♯ 5 . Lyrically , the song is about asking the DJ to play the protagonist 's favorite song , as well as the fulfillment of dancing in a club . Doug Rule of Metro Weekly commented on the lyric " Hey Mr. DJ , won 't you turn the music up ? " and that it follows in the footsteps of recent songs which also incorporated " Hey Mr. DJ " , including Madonna 's " Music " and Jennifer Lopez 's " Play " .
In an interview with Kidzworld , Rihanna explained the lyrical content of the song , saying : " It 's just language that we speak in Barbados . It 's broken English . Pon is on , de means the , so it 's just basically telling the DJ to put my song on the replay . " Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic wrote about the song 's composition and musical influences , " [ Pon de Replay ] is driven by booming dancehall @-@ lite beats and a reggae vocal cadence ( and title spelling ) , it 's a simple dance @-@ pop song at its core , with standard English @-@ language singing as well as a can 't @-@ miss singalong hook . " Barry Walters of Rolling Stone also commented on the song 's composition and concurred with Birchmeier 's opinions of the song , writing that the song is " a poppy piece of dancehall reggae with slapping , syncopated beats recalling big @-@ band jazz " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised the song , and compared it to Beyoncé Knowles 's 2003 chart topper " Baby Boy " , because of how both songs feature " a dancehall @-@ pop mixture " . Rolling Stone called the song " sexy and savvy " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Pon de Replay " debuted at # 97 on June 11 , 2005 , and ascended into the top 10 of the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at # 9 in the issue dated July 16 , 2005 , and became the " Greatest Airplay Gainer " that week . In the issue dated July 30 , 2005 , the song peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 , being held off of the top spot by Mariah Carey 's " We Belong Together " , which spent a total of 14 non @-@ consecutive weeks at number one . " Pon de Replay " spent a total of 12 weeks inside the top ten of the Hot 100 and 23 weeks on the chart in total . The song also peaked at number one the US Billboard Dance Club Songs and Digital Songs charts , number two on the US Mainstream Top 40 chart , and 24 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The song was also certified two times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on December 19 , 2012 , denoting shipments of over 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
In New Zealand , the song debuted at number 37 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on August 15 , 2005 , and peaked at number one in its ninth week on the chart , after having been locked at number two for four weeks previous . The song spent a total of seven weeks inside the top five chart positions and 16 weeks on the chart in total . In Australia , " Pon de Replay " debuted at number 13 on the Australian Singles Chart on September 25 , 2005 , and peaked at number six in its ninth week on the chart . The song spent a total of 10 weeks in the top ten chart positions and twenty @-@ two weeks on the chart in total and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , denoting shipments of over 70 @,@ 000 copies .
Elsewhere , the song achieved moderate commercial success in Europe , peaking inside the top ten of eight different charts . In Switzerland , the song debuted at number eight on the Swiss Music Charts on September 11 , 2005 , and peaked at number three for three consecutive weeks . The song spent a total of 41 weeks on the chart . The song also debuted at number four on the Norwegian Singles Chart and peaked at number three in its fifth week ; the song spent a total of 15 weeks on the chart . " Pon de Replay " also peaked inside the top five in Denmark , Austria and Sweden , peaking at numbers four , five and five , respectively . " Pon de Replay " also peaked inside the top ten in Italy and Finland , peaking at numbers six and eight , respectively . However , the song was less successful in other territories , peaking at number 15 in The Netherlands and number 18 in France and Spain , respectively . In the United Kingdom , " Pon de Replay " debuted and peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart on September 3 , 2005 , behind Oasis 's " The Importance of Being Idle " , which debuted at number one . The song stayed at the number two position for a further week , and stayed inside the top ten for four weeks .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Pon de Replay " was directed by Little X. The video is set in a nightclub and begins with Rihanna and two of her friends arriving at a nightclub where the atmosphere appears lackluster ; due to the low volume of the music ( referencing the song 's lyrics ) , the people in the club seem bored and are not dancing . Subsequently , Rihanna vows to make the DJ turn up the music , thus stepping up onto a platform , wearing a silver belly top with baggy jeans , beginning to perform to the song , causing the DJ , played by DJ Cipha Sounds , to turn the music up . With this , the people previously bored now begin dancing to Rihanna 's track , including Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall , who also makes a cameo appearance . Scenes of people dancing in the club are shown , with intercut images being juxtaposed of Rihanna leaning against a wall with the word " Bar " in LED lights . She dons a light blue short dress , singing to the lyrics of the song . Rihanna can be seen belly dancing on the stage , with neon green laser lights broadcast above her . After Rihanna gets the crowd moving , she runs off of the platform onto a dance floor , where the crowd later join her . The video 's final scenes show the people in the club all gathered on the middle of the dance floor , performing various dance moves . These include a line of people featuring Rihanna , and male performers who make a human bicycle from their bodies .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Alamogordo , New Mexico =
Alamogordo / ˌæləməˈɡɔːrdoʊ / is the county seat and economic center of Otero County in south @-@ central New Mexico , United States . A city in the Tularosa Basin of the Chihuahuan desert , it is bordered on the east by the Sacramento Mountains and to the west by White Sands National Monument . It is the city nearest to Holloman Air Force Base . The population was 30 @,@ 403 as of the 2010 census . Alamogordo is known for its connection with the Trinity test , the first explosion of an atomic bomb , and also for the Atari video game burial of 1983 .
Humans have lived in the Alamogordo area for at least 11 @,@ 000 years . The present settlement , established in 1898 to support the construction of the El Paso and Northeastern Railroad , is an early example of a planned community . The city was incorporated in 1912 . Tourism became an important economic factor with the creation of White Sands National Monument in 1934 . During the 1950 @-@ 60s , Alamogordo was an unofficial center for research on pilot safety and the developing United States ' space program .
Alamogordo is a charter city with a council @-@ manager form of government . City government provides a large number of recreational and leisure facilities for its citizens , including a large park in the center of the city , many smaller parks scattered through the city , a golf course , Alameda Park Zoo , a network of walking paths , Alamogordo Public Library , and a senior citizens ' center . Gerald Champion Regional Medical Center is a nonprofit shared military / civilian facility that is also the hospital for Holloman .
= = History = =
Tularosa Basin has been inhabited for at least 11 @,@ 000 years . There are signs of previous inhabitants in the area such as the Clovis culture , the Folsom culture , the peoples of the Archaic period , and the Formative stage . The Mescalero Apache were already living in the Tularosa Basin when the Spanish came in 1534 , and Mescalero oral history says they have always lived there . The Spanish built a chapel at La Luz ( about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the future site of Alamogordo ) in 1719 , although La Luz was not settled until about 1860 .
The city of Alamogordo was founded in June 1898 , when the El Paso and Northeastern Railroad , headed by Charles Bishop Eddy , extended the railway to the town . Eddy influenced the design of the community , which included large wide thoroughfares and tree @-@ lined irrigation canals . Charles Eddy 's brother John Arthur Eddy named the new city Alamogordo ( " large / fat cottonwood " in Spanish ) after a grove of fat cottonwoods he remembered from the Pecos River area . When Alamogordo was laid out in 1898 , the east @-@ west streets were given numerical designations , while north @-@ south streets were named after states . The present @-@ day White Sands Boulevard was then called Pennsylvania Avenue .
Several government buildings in Alamogordo were constructed by the Works Progress Administration , a government program created in 1935 in response to the Great Depression . These include the Otero County Administration Building at 1101 New York Avenue , a Pueblo style building originally constructed as the main U.S. Post Office in 1938 . The building is listed in the National Register of Historic Places . The main entrance portico features frescoes by Peter Hurd completed in 1942 . The Post Office moved out in 1961 , and the building was used by a succession of Federal agencies and was known as the Federal Building . The last Federal agency to occupy it was the United States Forest Service who used it as the headquarters of the Lincoln National Forest until October 2008 , when that agency moved to a newly constructed building . Ownership of the building was transferred to Otero County government and many government offices were moved from the Courthouse to the new Administration Building in February 2009 . Alamogordo briefly made international news in late 2001 when Christ Community Church held a public book burning of books in the Harry Potter series , and several other series , on December 30 .
= = Geography = =
As of 2010 , Alamogordo had a total area of 19 @.@ 3 square miles ( 50 @.@ 0 km2 ) , all of it land . The city is located at an elevation of 4 @,@ 336 feet ( 1 @,@ 322 m ) on the western flank of the Sacramento Mountains and on the eastern edge of the Tularosa Basin . It is in the Rio Grande rift and in the northernmost part of the Chihuahuan Desert . Tectonic activity is low in the Tularosa Basin . Plants native to the area are typical of the southern New Mexico foothills and include creosote bush , mesquite , saltbush , cottonwood , desert willow , and many species of cactus and yucca .
The Tularosa Basin is a closed basin , that is , no water flows out of it . Because of this and because of the geology of the region , water in the basin is hard : it has very high total dissolved solids concentrations , in excess of 3 @,@ 000 mg / L. The Brackish Groundwater National Desalination Research Facility , a Bureau of Reclamation laboratory doing research and development on desalination of brackish water , is located in Alamogordo . The gypsum crystals of White Sands National Monument are formed in Lake Lucero . Water drains from the mountains carrying dissolved gypsum and collects in Lake Lucero . After the water dries , the winds pick up the gypsum crystals and distribute them over the basin .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 35 @,@ 582 people , 13 @,@ 704 households , and 9 @,@ 728 families residing in the city . There were 15 @,@ 920 housing units . The racial makeup of the city was 75 @.@ 4 % White ; 5 @.@ 6 % African American , 1 @.@ 1 % Native American , 1 @.@ 5 % Asian , 0 @.@ 2 % Pacific Islander , 12 @.@ 1 % from some other race , and 4 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 32 @.@ 0 % of the population .
There were 13 @,@ 704 households out of which 36 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 55 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 11 @.@ 7 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 29 @.@ 0 % were non @-@ families . 25 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8 @.@ 8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 57 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 07 .
In the city the population was spread out with 28 @.@ 7 % under the age of 18 , 9 @.@ 2 % from 18 to 24 , 29 @.@ 7 % from 25 to 44 , 19 @.@ 9 % from 45 to 64 , and 12 @.@ 7 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 34 years . For every 100 females there were 97 @.@ 6 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 94 @.@ 1 males .
In 1999 the median income for a household in the city was $ 30 @,@ 928 , and the median income for a family was $ 35 @,@ 673 . Males had a median income of $ 28 @,@ 163 versus $ 18 @,@ 860 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 14 @,@ 662 . About 13 @.@ 2 % of families and 16 @.@ 5 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 23 @.@ 9 % of those under age 18 and 11 @.@ 8 % of those age 65 or over .
Alamogordo 's and Otero County 's July 1 , 2008 , population were estimated at 35 @,@ 757 and 62 @,@ 776 respectively by the United States Census Bureau 's Population Estimates Program .
= = Economy = =
Alamogordo is the economic center of Otero County , with nearly half the Otero County population living within the city limits . Alamogordo today has very little manufacturing and has a primarily service and retail economy , driven by tourism , a large nearby military installation and a concentration of military retirees . In 2006 the per capita income in Otero County was $ 22 @,@ 377 versus per capita income in New Mexico of $ 29 @,@ 346 .
= = = Economic history = = =
Alamogordo was founded as a company town to support the building of the El Paso and Northeastern Railroad , a portion of the transcontinental railway that was being constructed in the late 19th century . Initially its main industry was timbering for railroad ties . The railroad founders were also eager to found a major town that would persist after the railroad was completed ; they formed the Alamogordo Improvement Company to develop the area , making Alamogordo an early example of a planned community . The Alamogordo Improvement Company owned all the land , platted the streets , built the first houses and commercial buildings , donated land for a college , and placed a restrictive covenant on each deed prohibiting the manufacture , distribution , or sale of intoxicating liquor .
Tourism became an important part of the local economy from the creation of White Sands National Monument in 1934 . Construction began on the Alamogordo Army Air Field ( the present @-@ day Holloman Air Force Base ) in 1942 , and the Federal government has been a strong presence in Alamogordo ever since . Education has also been an important part of the local economy . In addition to the local school system , Alamogordo is home to the New Mexico School for the Blind and Visually Impaired , founded in 1903 , and a branch of New Mexico State University founded in 1958 . The largest non @-@ government employer in the city is the Gerald Champion Regional Medical Center with 650 employees in 2008 .
= = = Military impact = = =
Holloman Air Force Base , located approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of the city limits , is the largest employer of Alamogordo residents , and has a major effect on the local economy . According to some estimates , Holloman accounts for half of the Alamogordo economy . According to the 49th Fighter Wing Public Affairs office , as of January 2008 Holloman directly employs 6 @,@ 111 personnel with a gross payroll of $ 266 million . It indirectly creates another 2 @,@ 047 jobs with a payroll of $ 77 million . The estimated amount spent in the community , including payroll , construction projects , supplies , services , health care , and education , is $ 482 million .
An estimated 6 @,@ 700 military retirees live in the area . Counting both USAF and German Air Force personnel there are 1 @,@ 383 active military and 1 @,@ 641 military dependents living on base and 2 @,@ 765 active military and 2 @,@ 942 military dependents living off base .
Future Combat Systems is a wide @-@ ranging modernization project of the US Army . Much of the work will be done at Fort Bliss , with some at White Sands Missile Range and some at Holloman Air Force Base . Alamogordo is expected to get some economic benefit due to its proximity to these three bases .
= = = Economic development = = =
Otero County Economic Development Council is a nonprofit organization founded in 1984 . Its focus has generally been on job creation and recruiting and expanding businesses in Otero County , including helping them satisfy business regulations in New Mexico and lining up funding . Its role expanded in 2000 , when Alamogordo passed an Economic Development Gross Receipts Tax . OCEDC continues to work to attract businesses , but now it also helps develop the incentive packages that will be paid by the new tax , and a portion of the tax receipts go to fund OCEDC 's operating expenses . Formal economic development plans have been adopted by Alamogordo and by Otero County .
OCEDC has recruited several new employers by using financial incentives . A 1 @-@ 800 @-@ Flowers call center opened in November 2001 and received $ 1 @.@ 25 million in city rent abatements , a 50 % reduction in property taxes from Otero County , and $ 940 @,@ 000 in plant training funds from the State of New Mexico . A Sunbaked Biscuits cookie factory opened in 2006 and received $ 800 @,@ 000 in job @-@ training incentives from the state . When the company went out of business in 2007 , Marietta Baking took over the cookie factory and received interest @-@ free loans , job @-@ training incentives , and partial forgiveness of indebtedness for job creation . A branch office of PreCheck Inc . , a company performing background checks of health @-@ care workers , opened in 2006 . PreCheck received $ 2 @.@ 4 million in high @-@ wage job creation tax credits , $ 1 @.@ 5 million in job @-@ training subsidies , $ 1 @.@ 5 million in capital outlay money for roads and infrastructure , a $ 625 @,@ 000 allocation from City of Alamogordo for upgrading sewer lines in the area , and 20 @.@ 8 aces of land from Heritage Group , a developer .
The Otero County Film Office , an office of Otero County Economic Development Council , promotes film @-@ making in Otero County by publicizing potential locations in the county and New Mexico 's film financial incentive programs and by recruiting extras for film productions . It sponsors the Desert Light Film Competition for middle and high school students to encourage learning about the film industry . The 2007 film Transformers spent $ 5 @.@ 5 million in New Mexico and $ 1 million in Alamogordo .
= = Arts and culture = =
There are two amateur theatrical groups in Alamogordo . Alamogordo Music Theatre produces two musical productions annually at the Flickinger Center for Performing Arts . The NMSU @-@ A Theatre on the Hill produces an annual spring performance for young audiences at the Rohovec Fine Arts Center on the New Mexico State University at Alamogordo campus , and an annual Fall performance for general audiences .
= = = Annual cultural events = = =
The Earth Day Fair is held annually on the last Saturday in April at Alameda Park Zoo . It features a butterfly release , a science fair , activities for children , and information booths from local health agencies and nonprofits .
Otero County Fair is held annually in early August at the County Fairgrounds at the corner of White Sands Boulevard and Fairgrounds Road in Alamogordo . It features a rodeo , animal judging , food and game booths , and carnival rides . Nonprofit and government agencies set up information booths in the exhibit hall .
The Cottonwood Arts and Crafts Festival is put on each Labor Day Weekend in Alameda Park by the Alamogordo Chamber of Commerce . It is primarily a showplace for vendors of handmade items , but also features music , entertainment , and food .
White Sands Balloon Invitational is held annually in late September . Hot air balloons launch from the Riner @-@ Steinhoff Soccerplex on First Street or from White Sands National Monument and float over the Tularosa Basin .
Oktoberfest is celebrated annually in late September , hosted by the German Air Force at Holloman Air Force Base . The public is invited , and shuttle buses run between Alamogordo and the base .
= = = Visitor attractions = = =
New Mexico Museum of Space History is a state museum with the International Space Hall of Fame .
Flickinger Center for Performing Arts , located at 1110 New York Avenue , is a 590 @-@ seat theater created in 1988 from a re @-@ purposed movie theater . It hosts concerts and live theatrical performances by touring groups , and is the venue for the local amateur group Alamogordo Music Theater .
Alamogordo Museum of History ( formerly Tularosa Basin Historical Society Museum ) collects artifacts related to the history of Alamogordo and the Tularosa Basin . It is a private museum , operated by the Tularosa Basin Historical Society . Among notable items in the collection is a 47 @-@ star US Flag ; New Mexico was the 47th state admitted to the Union , and US flags were made with 47 stars only for one month , until Arizona was admitted . The Museum shop has a large collection of local history books . The Historical Society also publishes its own series of monographs on local history , Pioneer . The Museum had planned to move from its location at 1301 N. White Sands Boulevard to a historic adobe building at the corner of White Sands Boulevard and Tenth Street by the end of 2008 , but as of July 2009 this plan has stalled due to lack of money to renovate the building .
American Armed Forces Museum is a museum on U.S. Route 82 near Florida Avenue that opened in 2011 . It collects and displays all kinds of military memorabilia from all wars and military engagements .
The Shroud Exhibit And Museum , located in White Sands Mall , showcases a full @-@ sized back @-@ lit photographic transparency of the Shroud of Turin , a religious relic believed by some to be the burial cloth of Jesus Christ . They also feature a working VP8 Image Analyzer , the only one in the world where one can walk in and interact with this old analog computer . This town was founded the same year ( 1898 ) that Secundo Pia took the first photograph of the Shroud which started the modern investigation into the Shroud . This is highlighted in the museum . In 1977 in Albuquerque , they held the conference that resulted in the 1978 study of the Shroud with more scientists from New Mexico than any other state . The displayed photograph was created from the 1978 photographs made by Barrie M. Schwortz as part of the Shroud of Turin Research Project ( STURP ) . The displays include historical background materials , scientific information , kiosks with a variety of information , videos available for viewing and an exhibit of electronic image analysis of the shroud , among other interesting artifacts .
The Alameda Park Zoo , the oldest zoo in the U.S. Southwest , is located in the city . Several Union @-@ Apache battles were fought near Oliver Lee Memorial State Park .
= = Sports = =
The Alamogordo Desert Dawgs are an amateur football team formed in 2008 . They are part of the New Mexico Football Alliance . The Desert Dawgs are organized as a limited liability company owned by Kenneth Mitchell , and have local sponsors underwriting expenses . The team has an agreement with Alamogordo Public Schools by which the Desert Dawgs practice and play home games at Alamogordo High School 's Tiger Stadium and the school district receives 20 % of the home gate . Tiger Stadium is nicknamed " The Dawg Pound " when the Desert Dawgs play there . Several of the team members are airmen from nearby Holloman Air Force Base . The White Sands PupFish were the first ever professional baseball team in Alamogordo . They play in the Pecos League of Professional Baseball Clubs and started in the 2011 Season .
The Lady of the Mountain Run is held in December at the Griggs Sportsplex . The race consists of a half marathon , 10K , 5K , or corporate cup relay , and raises money for the needs @-@ based Lady of the Mountain Scholarship Fund at NMSU @-@ Alamogordo . Fun run / walks are popular in Alamogordo , although most are one @-@ shot affairs put on as part of some larger event . One recurring event is Walk Out West , a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) walk held each October in Alameda Park Zoo . It incorporates a health fair , live music , and fun events for kids . An offshoot of this is Dance Otero , an informal approach to ballroom dancing as a form of physical exercise that meets throughout the year . Both programs are run through Otero PATH , a local nonprofit that encourages preventive measures for good health .
There are a number of annual sports events . The Tommy Padilla Memorial Basketball Tournament is an annual event held in March . It is an adult tournament that raises money for scholarships for Alamogordo High School students . The Gus Macker 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 Basketball Tournament is a national program that holds a tournament in Alamogordo each year in May . Prior to 2008 it was hosted by the Alamogordo Chamber of Commerce , and since then by the City of Alamogordo . The City receives 72 % of the entry fees and 5 % of the gross proceeds taken in by vendors . The event is held annually at Washington Park in conjunction with Saturday in the Park and Armed Forces Day . In 2009 more than 233 teams participated in the tournament . Several golf tournaments are held each year at Desert Lakes Golf Course , including the Robert W. Hamilton Charity Golf Classic .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Alamogordo has numerous small parks scattered through the city , and a few larger ones . Mentioned here are some of the more notable parks .
Alameda Park is a city park lying on the west side of White Sands Boulevard between Tenth Street and Indian Wells Road . Most of the park is shaded by cottonwood trees . At the south end of the park is Alameda Park Zoo and at the north end is The Toy Train Depot , a railroad and toy train museum .
Washington Park is a city park in the center of town , bounded by Washington and Oregon Avenues and running from First Street to Indian Wells Road . City Hall and several other city buildings are located in the park . At the north end of the park is Kids Kingdom , a children 's play area with a giant jungle gym .
There are public athletic fields at the Jim R. Griggs Sports Complex , located at the corner of Florida Avenue and Fairgrounds Road , and the Travis C. Hooser Ballfield Complex ( also called Walker Field ) located at the corner of U.S. Route 70 and Walker Road .
The Alamogordo Family Recreation Center , at 1100 Oregon Avenue , is a city @-@ owned facility offering a weight room , swimming pool ( open year round ) , and basketball gym . There are outdoor tennis courts north of the building . The Alamogordo Senior Center is a city facility for senior citizens that provides a social center and an exercise room and serves congregate meals and Meals on Wheels .
Desert Lakes Golf Course is a city @-@ owned golf course located at the south end of town on Hamilton Road at Desert Lakes Road . It is an 18 @-@ hole course . The clubhouse houses a restaurant and a pro shop . There is a PGA golf pro on duty at the course .
Not inside the city but nearby are several national and state parks . The Oliver Lee Memorial State Park is about 10 miles south on U.S. Route 54 , offers camping , hiking , and picnicking . The White Sands National Monument , a U.S. National Monument , is located about 15 miles ( 24 km ) southwest of Alamogordo along U.S. Route 70 . The area is in the mountain @-@ ringed Tularosa Basin valley area and comprises the southern part of a 275 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 710 km2 ) field of white sand dunes composed of gypsum crystals . The Lincoln National Forest , whose headquarters are in Alamogordo , is a mountainous area that starts about 10 miles ( 16 km ) northeast of Alamogordo and offers hiking , fishing , and camping . The Sidney Paul Gordon Shooting Range , located about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of town at 19 Rock Cliff Road in La Luz , is a supervised range with rifle , pistol , and archery ranges . Several competitions are held at the range each month .
= = Government = =
Alamogordo was incorporated in 1912 . It is a charter city ( also called a home rule city ) , and the charter is included as Part I of the Code of Ordinances . It has a Council @-@ manager government form of government ( called Commission / Manager in New Mexico ) . There are seven city commissioners , each elected from a district within the city , on staggered 4 @-@ year terms . The city manager is considered the chief executive officer of the city and is tasked to enforce and implement the City Council 's directives and policy . The mayor is a member of the City Council . As of 2015 , Susie Galea holds the position of mayor .
Alamogordo 's fiscal year ends on June 30 each year ; thus Fiscal Year 2008 runs from July 1 , 2007 , through June 30 , 2008 . The FY 2008 budget projects income of $ 61 @,@ 454 @,@ 402 and expenditures of $ 73 @,@ 655 @,@ 777 . Sources of City government income and their percentages of the whole were : gross receipts tax ( 31 % ) , miscellaneous ( 23 % ) , grants ( 22 % ) , user fees ( 19 % ) , and property tax ( 5 % ) .
= = Education = =
New Mexico State University Alamogordo is a two @-@ year community college established in 1958 . It currently has approximately 1 @,@ 800 students . There are two high schools , three middle schools , and 11 elementary schools in the Alamogordo Public School District . Prior to 2008 there were two private schools in Alamogordo : Legacy Christian Academy and Father James B. Hay Catholic School . A third private school , Imago Dei Academy , opened in August 2008 and provides a classical Christian education . Kindergarten through eighth grade is taught with plans to gradually expand to the 12th grade .
The German government operates the Deutsche Schule ( German School ) for children of German Air Force personnel stationed at the German tactical training center at Holloman Air Force Base . The New Mexico School for the Blind and Visually Impaired is a state school located in Alamogordo .
Alamogordo Public Library serves Alamogordo and Otero County . New Mexico State University Alamogordo 's library is also open to the public .
= = Media = =
The main newspaper in Alamogordo is Alamogordo Daily News ( ADN ) , owned by MediaNews Group . ADN is published six days a week ; on Monday , when it does not appear , subscribers receive the El Paso Times . ADN also publishes Hollogram , a free weekly newspaper distributed at the nearby Holloman Air Force Base and covering happenings on base . There are no alternative newspapers published in Alamogordo but The Ink , a free Las Cruces monthly newspaper devoted to the arts , is distributed in the city . The city government publishes City Profile , a monthly print newsletter that is mailed to all households in the city and is published electronically on the city web site , and Communiqué , a blog with city news .
One television station , KVBA @-@ LP , broadcasts from Alamogordo . It has a religious format , and a weekly local news magazine broadcast Thursday through Saturday . Cable television service is provided by Baja Broadband .
There are two commercial radio broadcast companies , WP Broadcasting and Burt Broadcasting ; each operates several stations in several formats . There are two " listener @-@ supported " radio stations that do not carry advertising but depend on sponsorships and donations . KLAG has a gospel music radio format and some live coverage of local events , including many remote broadcasts from civic events . KALH @-@ LP is a low @-@ power FM station that carries a variety radio format , network news on the hour , and local news on some hours . Neither station is an NPR affiliate . The local NPR outlet is KRWG @-@ FM in Las Cruces , which reaches Alamogordo through a local relay transmitter .
Several major motion pictures were filmed in or near Alamogordo . The 2007 film Transformers was shot primarily at White Sands Missile Range , with additional filming at Holloman Air Force Base , both in the Alamogordo area . Its 2009 sequel Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen also prominently featured these two military bases . The 2009 film Year One was shot partly at White Sands National Monument , near Alamogordo . Alamogordo was one of the fourteen cities profiled in the 2005 documentary 14 Days in America . The Otero County Film Office maintains a list of films shot partly or wholly in Alamogordo and Otero County .
In May 2013 , Alamogordo 's City Commission approved a deal for Canada @-@ based film production company Fuel Industries to excavate the Atari landfill site . Fuel Entertainment partnered with Xbox Entertainment Studios and Lightbox to make a documentary about the 1983 massive game burial of Atari games , said to be one of the gaming culture 's greatest urban legends . On April 26 , 2014 , video game archaeologists began sifting through years of trash from the old Alamogordo landfill . The first batch of E.T. games was discovered after about three hours of digging , and hundreds more were found in the mounds of trash and dirt scooped by a backhoe . In the deal between the City of Alamogordo and Fuel Entertainment regarding the excavation , Fuel Entertainment was to be given 250 games or 10 percent of what was found .
= = Infrastructure and transportation = =
The city is accessible through three U.S. Highways and scheduled commercial air service at Alamogordo @-@ White Sands Regional Airport .
= = = Major highways = = =
The major intercity surface routes from Alamogordo are U.S. Highways 54 , 70 , and 82 , all of which are four @-@ lane roads . The major north @-@ south street within the city is White Sands Boulevard . The Charlie T. Lee Memorial Relief Route , which is designated as U.S. Route 54 and 70 , is a bypass road constructed to the west of the city in 2001 to relieve congestion on White Sands Boulevard .
U.S. Route 70 and U.S. Route 54 traverses through the north and south ends of the city . At the south end of the city , White Sands Boulevard is a major named street that merges into U.S. Route 54 / Charles T. Lee Memorial Relief Route , running south to El Paso , Texas . In the south part of the city , U.S. Route 70 splits from U.S. Route 54 in a southwestern direction towards Holloman Air Force Base , White Sands National Monument , White Sands Missile Range , and Las Cruces . At the north end of the city , White Sands Boulevard and the Charles T. Lee Memorial Relief Route become a merged U.S. Route 54 and U.S. Route 70 running north to Tularosa . U.S. Route 82 starts at the same point and runs east to Cloudcroft and the mountain communities of Otero County , and then to Artesia . Meanwhile , in Tularosa , U.S. 70 and U.S. 54 both split in which U.S. 70 heads east through the mountains , and towards Ruidoso and Roswell , while U.S. 54 heads north towards Carrizozo and keeps going north until it heads east again starting in Vaughn .
= = = Other transportation = = =
Alamogordo @-@ White Sands Regional Airport is the municipal airport located in the Alamogordo area . It is primarily used for general aviation . There is no longer scheduled commercial service from New Mexico Airlines , previously operated under a subsidy from the Essential Air Service program .
Greyhound Lines offers intercity bus service to Alamogordo . There is daily shuttle van service between Alamogordo and El Paso International Airport .
Z @-@ Trans is the mass transit system , providing paratransit and scheduled service within the city center and to White Sands Mall , Holloman Air Force Base and Inn of the Mountain Gods Resort & Casino in Mescalero . Z @-@ Trans is unusual in that it is privately owned ( by Zia Therapy Center , a non @-@ profit ) , although it does get some local and state subsidies .
The Alamogordo city government is building a network of bike routes and walking routes . More information and maps are in the Alamogordo Comprehensive Plan . The New Mexico Rails @-@ to @-@ Trails Association operates a Rails to Trails project to convert old railroad beds to walking trails . Its trail system in Otero County , the Cloud Climbing Rail Trail , is planned to eventually surround Alamogordo .
= = = Utilities = = =
Electric power is supplied within the city by PNM Resources . PNM also provides electrical power in the Tularosa Basin , while Otero County Electric Cooperative , a member cooperative of Tri @-@ State Generation and Transmission Association and of Touchstone Energy , serves other areas of the county . Natural gas is supplied within the city by New Mexico Gas Company . Severn Trent operates both the water and sewage treatment facilities for the City of Alamogordo . Severn Trent maintains all water storage facilities , booster pump stations , city wells and treats the waste water to be re @-@ used by the city to water the parks , Desert Lakes Golf Course and is sold to construction companies for dust control . Rural houses have individual wells .
Alamogordo has a dark sky ordinance to reduce the amount of light pollution in the night skies . The ordinance was passed in 1990 to promote the growth and scientific productivity of Apache Point Observatory . City streetlights are high @-@ pressure sodium vapor lamps .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Gerald Champion Regional Medical Center is a private not @-@ for @-@ profit 99 @-@ bed general hospital that serves the Alamogordo area . The hospital is a shared military / civilian facility that is also the hospital for nearby Holloman Air Force Base .
The Otero County Community Health Council prepares a detailed health profile each year with many facts and figures about health in Otero County . Otero County is ranked in the middle of most health rankings within the state . New Mexico is near the bottom of most national rankings , for example it was 38th in the United Health Foundation 2007 report , but has been slowly improving ( it was 40th in 2005 ) . When health @-@ promoting features are considered , instead of the healthiness of the population , Alamogordo is ranked as one of the 50 healthiest places to live in the United States , among six in New Mexico . Civic boosters such as the Chamber of Commerce publicize this ranking .
= = Notable people = =
Among scientists , Edward Condon , a physicist and a past director of National Institute of Standards and Technology , was born in Alamogordo . Alan Hale , an astronomer and co @-@ discoverer of Comet Hale @-@ Bopp , grew up in Alamogordo and lives in nearby Cloudcroft .
Among politicians , Edwin L. Mechem , a past governor and United States Senator from New Mexico , was born in Alamogordo , as was Cindy Chavez , a past member of the San Jose , California City Council .
Edward Lee Howard , a former CIA case agent who allegedly gave classified material to the Russians and later defected to the Soviet Union , is an Alamogordo native .
Marilyn D. Trotter , perennial New Mexico state fiddle champion and Alamogordo native , formerly performed with the Flying J Wranglers in Alto , New Mexico .
In sports , professional soccer player Adam Frye , jockey Donna Barton Brothers , and former professional American football cornerback Conrad Hamilton were all born in Alamogordo .
Alexis Duprey , crowned Miss New Mexico in 2013 and again in 2015 , is from Alamogordo . Mai Shanley , who became Miss USA 1984 , represented the city as Miss New Mexico USA .
= Johnny Broderick =
Johnny Broderick ( January 16 , 1896 ( some sources say 1894 , 1895 , or 1897 ) – January 16 , 1966 ) was a New York City Police Department detective who became known in the 1920s and 1930s as one of the city 's toughest officers , patrolling the Broadway theater district and policing strikes as head of the NYPD 's Industrial Squad , sometimes personally beating gangsters and suspects .
In his career as a detective between 1923 and 1947 , Broderick built a reputation for physical courage , for assaulting gangsters like Jack " Legs " Diamond and " Two @-@ Gun " Crowley , and for facing down armed gunmen in a prison break at The Tombs prison .
Broderick was a " celebrity detective " whose exploits were a favorite of gossip columnists and the press . He and his sometime partner Johnny Cordes were probably the best known officers in the NYPD in the era between the two world wars . A character based on Broderick was the subject of the 1936 film Bullets or Ballots , with the Broderick character played by Edward G. Robinson . He was also portrayed in a comic book about police , and a film , TV series and Broadway musical based on his life were once contemplated .
Broderick won eight medals for valor during his career , but he was dogged by accusations of excessive force . The Industrial Squad under his command was accused of brutality toward strikers and corruption , with Broderick himself accused of taking bribes , and he once beat a prisoner in his custody so badly that he was permanently crippled . He would sometimes beat up innocent people , and brutality complaints against him were futile . He was finally forced into retirement by Mayor William O 'Dwyer for associating with gangsters .
= = Early life = =
John Joseph Broderick was born on Manhattan 's East 25th Street , in the impoverished Gashouse District , the son of Margaret Kendall and Michael Broderick . At the age of 12 he left parochial school to drive a brick truck , and then a coal truck , to support his mother after the death of his father . He served in the U.S. Navy in World War I and worked as a bodyguard for Samuel Gompers , the labor leader . He joined the New York City Fire Department in April 1922 , but found that boring . Having taken both the Fire and Police Department examinations , in January of the following year he joined the New York City Police Department .
In their 2001 book NYPD , James Lardner and Thomas A. Reppetto describe Broderick as a " Gashouse district tough guy " and " former labor slugger . "
= = Career = =
Broderick joined the NYPD on January 16 , 1923 , and he became a detective third grade on April 2 of that year , obtaining in less than four months a promotion that would usually take five years . The New York Herald Tribune called his swift appointment as detective " extraordinary luck or influence or both . " He continued to rise rapidly in rank . He was promoted to detective second grade in May 1925 and detective first grade in March 1926 . The Daily News reported years later that " no few of Detective Broderick 's contemporaries [ felt ] that he plainly had an angel somewhere in
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Shea praised the visuals , boss battles and collectable swords , but found few other activities outside combat , which itself lacked depth . GamePro 's Andy Burt called the visuals " gorgeous " and praised the combat and multiple storylines , but found its linearity and occations where combat got " bogged down " hampered the experience . GameTrailers praised its combat and visuals , calling it " one of the better action titles on the [ Wii ] " . Keza MacDonald , writing for Eurogamer , noted that " like many beautiful things , [ Muramasa : The Demon Blade ] is a little lacking in substance " , saying that its lack of depth undermined other aspects . Micheal Cunningham of RPGamer called it " a great game " to see and play despite its plain story . RPGFan 's Dennis Rubinshteyn shared several points in common with reviewers about the story and repetition , while again praising the graphics and sound design .
Rebirth also had a positive reception , with Metacritic giving it a score of 78 / 100 based on 26 critic reviews . In its review , Famitsu praised it for being a good remake , although one reviewer was disappointed at the lack of new content . Chris Carter of Destructoid said that people who had already played the original version would not find much new content , while newcomers would likely be enchanted by it . Juba , reviewing Rebirth for Game Informer , said that the game was " exactly what developer Vanillaware intended it to be : a better @-@ looking version of the 2009 release " , while noting that this had no fixed the game 's original faults as noted by him . IGN 's Colin Moriarty called Rebirth a " faithful port " , praising the improved localization and generally enjoying playing despite backtracking hampering the experience . Adrian den Ouden of RPGamer also praised the localization and shared points of praise and criticism with the previous reviewer . Stephen Meyerink of RPGFan , who had not played the Wii original , called Rebirth " a gorgeous , action @-@ packed , fairly lengthy adventure that looks , sounds , and plays better than ever " . Chris Holzworth of Electronic Gaming Monthly was impressed by the visuals and indifferent about the story , and recommended playing it on a higher difficulty setting .
= = = Sales = = =
On its debut in Japan , The Demon Blade reached # 2 in game sales charts , coming in behind Sengoku Basara : Battle Heroes with 29 @,@ 000 units sold . Sales of the title were higher than anticipated , resulting in several stores in Japan being sold out within two weeks of its release . The game had sold 47 @,@ 000 units by November 2009 . In North America , NPD Group reported that the game had sold 35 @,@ 000 units during its first month of release . In a feature on notable video games in 2009 , GamesTM stated that The Demon Blade sold " extremely well " , besting established Western franchise releases such as Dead Space : Extraction . Ignition Entertainment , the game 's North American publisher , confirmed that the September sales for The Demon Blade had fallen within the NPD Group 's estimates , and had met their sales expectations . In a 2010 interview , publisher Marvelous Entertainment stated that , despite positive reception from both critics and players , Muramasa : The Demon Blade had suffered from low sales in Japan , North America and Europe . This was put down to it being a non @-@ traditional game and the falling relevance of the Wii hardware .
In its first week of release , Rebirth debuted at # 5 , selling 45 @,@ 660 physical units . Within the first month following its release in Japan , the game topped 100 @,@ 000 shipments , with at least 67 @,@ 800 physical retail sales , and the remainder as digital copies distributed on the PlayStation Network . Muramasa Rebirth ranked as the seventh most downloaded digital Vita game on the Japanese PlayStation Network in 2013 . In both North America and Europe , the game ranked high on PSN download charts : it ranked as the fifth best @-@ selling Vita title in North America , while in Europe it debuted at # 5 before climbing to # 4 by December 2013 .
= U.S. Route 31 in Michigan =
US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) is a part of the United States Numbered Highway System that runs from Alabama to the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . In Michigan , it is a state trunkline highway that runs from the Indiana – Michigan state line at Bertrand Township north to its terminus at Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) south of Mackinaw City . Along its 356 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 573 @.@ 7 km ) route , US 31 follows the Michigan section of the St. Joseph Valley Parkway as well as other freeways and divided highways northward to Ludington . North of there , the trunkline is a rural undivided highway through the Northern Michigan tourist destinations of Traverse City and Petoskey before terminating south of Mackinaw City . Along its route , US 31 has been dedicated in memory of a few different organizations , and sections of it carry the Lake Michigan Circle Tour ( LMCT ) moniker . Four bridges used by the highway have been recognized for their historic character as well .
The first highways along the route of the modern US 31 corridor were the West Michigan Pike , an auto trail from 1913 , and later a pair of state trunklines ( the original M @-@ 11 and M @-@ 58 ) in 1919 . These state highways were redesignated US 31 on November 11 , 1926 , when the US Highway System was approved . Since then , the highway has been realigned in places . The highway crossed the Straits of Mackinac by ferry for about a decade in the 1920s and 1930s before the Mackinac Bridge was built , connecting to US 2 north of St. Ignace . Later , sections were converted into freeways starting in the 1950s . These segments opened through the subsequent decades with the last one opening in 2003 . Future plans by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) are to finish the St. Joseph Valley Parkway and bypass Grand Haven .
= = Route description = =
Between Lake Michigan Beach and the northern terminus south of Mackinaw City , most of US 31 forms a portion of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour ( LMCT ) except where the various business loops run between the main highway and Lake Michigan . Additionally , much of the highway from the Indiana – Michigan state line to Ludington is built to freeway standards . Two notable exceptions are a short segment along Napier Avenue between the St. Joseph Valley Parkway and I @-@ 94 near Benton Harbor , and between Holland and Ferrysburg . The remainder of US 31 is a two- or four @-@ lane highway with some sections in cities comprising five lanes . The entire length of the highway is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the US 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = = St. Joseph Valley Parkway and I @-@ 196 = = =
US 31 and the St. Joseph Valley Parkway crosses into Michigan from Indiana southwest of Niles and parallels the St. Joseph River as the two run northward through southwest Michigan . The freeway passes through farmland before crossing US 12 at the first of a set of three interchanges located between Niles on the east and Buchanan on the west . US 31 crosses the river north of the interchange with Niles – Buchanan Road . North of the Walton Road interchange , the freeway turns northwesterly to recross the St. Joseph River near Lake Chapin south of Berrien Springs . The parkway curves around the west side of town before crossing the river for a third time . As US 31 continues northward parallel to the river , it enters the eastern fringes of the Benton Harbor – St. Joseph area . Traffic is forced to exit the freeway at the interchange with Napier Road although the freeway continues northward for less than 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) .
After separating from its freeway , US 31 turns west along Napier Avenue for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before meeting I @-@ 94 and merging with it . I @-@ 94 / US 31 runs concurrently on a northeasterly course through a partial interchange with Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) before meeting the southern end of I @-@ 196 in Benton Charter Township . At this trumpet interchange , I @-@ 196 / US 31 runs north from I @-@ 94 and passes to the west of the Point O 'Woods Golf & Country Club . It continues northward in rural Berrien County through farm fields . The trunkline turns northwesterly near the Lake Michigan Hills Golf Course and crosses the Paw Paw River . Past the river , the freeway turns northeasterly and runs roughly parallel to the Lake Michigan shoreline several miles inland . At the community of Lake Michigan Beach , I @-@ 196 / US 31 meets the northern terminus of M @-@ 63 at exit 7 , and the LMCT joins the freeway for the first time . North of this interchange , the freeway parallels a county road ( A @-@ 2 , the Blue Star Highway ) that is the former route of US 31 .
Further north , I @-@ 196 / US 31 crosses into Van Buren County and assumes the Gerald R. Ford Freeway name . The inland side of the freeway is forested while the lakeward side is predominantly either forest or fields . As it approaches South Haven , the freeway passes near the Palisades Nuclear Generating Station and Van Buren State Park . North of the power plant and park , the freeway turns farther inland to bypass the city of South Haven . There is an interchange on the south side of town that provides access to BL I @-@ 196 and M @-@ 140 . The freeway crosses over M @-@ 43 without an interchange and then intersects the other end of the business loop about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) later . It crosses the Black River near the Van Buren – Allegan county line .
In Allegan County , I @-@ 196 / US 31 passes a pair of golf courses and continues northward through farm fields . Near the community of Glenn , A @-@ 2 crosses over the freeway and runs parallel to it on the east . The two roads trade places again when I @-@ 196 / US 31 turns northeasterly on the south side of the twin cities of Saugatuck and Douglas . The freeway crosses over a section of Kalamazoo Lake , a wider section of the Kalamazoo River that flows between the two towns . A @-@ 2 crosses back to the eastern side of the freeway north of Saugatuck , and I @-@ 196 / US 31 continues north @-@ northeasterly toward Holland .
On the south side of Holland , US 31 and I @-@ 196 separate as the Interstate turns northeasterly around the city to continue to Grand Rapids . US 31 follows the BL I @-@ 196 freeway northward into Holland around the north side of the West Michigan Regional Airport . The business loop has an interchange for A @-@ 2 ( Blue Star Highway ) and Washington Avenue before the freeway ends in the southern reaches of Holland . The trunkline then runs as a divided highway northward , bypassing downtown Holland to the east and intersecting M @-@ 40 . Northeast of downtown Holland , BL I @-@ 196 leaves US 31 and the LMCT at an interchange to follow an expressway along the route of Chicago Drive while US 31 turns northwesterly on its own expressway alignment .
= = = West Michigan = = =
Northwest of Holland , the highway runs as a four @-@ lane expressway and divided highway parallel , but inland from , the Lake Michigan shoreline . This section of US 31 runs through a mix of farm fields and forests as it runs to the community of Agnew . There , US 31 intersects the western end of M @-@ 45 ( Lake Michigan Drive ) before continuing into the southern end of Grand Haven . In that city , the highway follows a four @-@ lane boulevard with a grass median . On the northern edge of the city of Grand Haven , US 31 crosses the Grand River on a bascule bridge that opens about 450 – 500 times per year . North of the structure , US 31 transitions into a freeway at the interchange with the western end of M @-@ 104 in Ferrysburg . This freeway continues northward through the suburban edges of the Muskegon area and meets the western end of I @-@ 96 near the Muskegon County Airport in Norton Shores .
At this interchange with I @-@ 96 , US 31 has its southernmost business loop as U.S. Route 31 Business runs westerly and northward into downtown Muskegon . The main freeway continues through the suburban eastern edge of the city through several interchanges , including one with M @-@ 46 ( Apple Avenue ) . Just south of the Muskegon River , the business loop merges back into the main freeway . US 31 crosses the river and turns northwesterly through forests . The freeway passes to the east of Michigan 's Adventure , an amusement park , and crosses the White River near the communities of Whitehall and Montague ; a business loop curves off to the west to connect the two communities with the freeway . In this area , US 31 runs through the southern portion of the Manistee National Forest as well .
As the freeway continues northward , US 31 intersects the western end of M @-@ 20 in New Era in Oceana County . The landscape in this area is dominated by forest land as the trunkline crosses the Hart @-@ Montague Trail State Park , a linear state park that follows a bike trail in the area . North of the trail crossing , US 31 has a business spur for Hart that runs east into that town ; north of this interchange , the freeway crosses the Pentwater River near the community of Pentwater which also has its own business loop .
North of Pentwater , US 31 crosses into Mason County and passes Bass Lake and the Ludington Pumped Storage Power Plant , which uses a reservoir next to the freeway to generate electricity . Just north of that reservoir , the freeway turns to the northeast and Ludington 's business spur runs off to the northwest . US 31 curves around the east side of Ludington , crossing the Pere Marquette River . Due east of downtown , the freeway ends and US 31 turns east to merge with US 10 . The concurrent highways follow a four @-@ lane roadway to Scottville . On the west side of that town , US 31 separates from US 10 , turning northward to bypass Scottville .
= = = Northwest Michigan = = =
US 31 runs due north through Northwest Michigan forest land bypassing Freesoil to the west . Northwest of that town , the highway crosses the Big Sable River before entering Manistee County . Across the county line , the trunkline runs northwesterly parallel to Manistee Lake as US 31 enters Manistee . The highway follows Cypress Street to a drawbridge over the Manistee River and then Cleveland Street on the northern side . As the trunkline rounds the northern shore of Manistee Lake , it passes the SS City of Milwaukee , a car ferry preserved as a museum . From there , the highway runs northeasterly , intersecting the western end of M @-@ 55 ( Caberfae Highway ) . Next to the Little River Casino , the highway intersects the southern end of M @-@ 22 ( Orchard Highway ) , and the LMCT separates from US 31 .
The highway continues on a northeasterly course running inland along Chippewa Highway to the community of Bear Lake . US 31 rounds the east side of the community 's namesake body of water on Lake Street and exits town on Pleasanton Highway . The trunkline continues northward and northeasterly through Pleasanton and crosses into Benzie County . Over the county line , it follows Benzie Highway northward to an intersection with M @-@ 115 ( Cadillac Highway ) . The two merge and run north into Benzonia , following Michigan Avenue in town . Near the south shore of Crystal Lake , M @-@ 115 turns westward toward Frankfort and US 31 follows Michigan Avenue into Beulah , running around the eastern end of the lake . Near the eastern end of Platte Lake , US 31 turns to run easterly into Honor before crossing into Grand Traverse County .
Across the county line , US 31 continues eastward , passing north of the community of Interlochen . At Interlochen Corners , it intersects M @-@ 137 . The highway then angles northeasterly north of Duck Lake and south of Silver Lake . A few miles farther east , US 31 meets M @-@ 37 at a location known as Chums Corners . The two highways join and run northward through the unincorporated community . It passes Wuerfel Park , the home stadium for the Traverse City Beach Bums , a minor @-@ league baseball team . From there , US 31 / M @-@ 37 runs downhill into Garfield Township . In this area , the highway passes through a cluster of retail stores and car dealerships near the Grand Traverse Mall . North of the intersection with 14th Street , the trunkline follows Division Street into Traverse City . From there it runs to the east of Grand Traverse Commons , the former Traverse City State Hospital , before US 31 / M @-@ 37 meets Grandview Parkway next to the West Arm of the Grand Traverse Bay .
At that intersection , the trunkline meets the northern end of M @-@ 22 , which is running concurrently with M @-@ 72 along the parkway . As US 31 / M @-@ 37 turns east to run along the bay north of downtown , the highway merges with M @-@ 72 and picks up the LMCT again . Grandview Parkway runs between the Boardman River and the bay . Near the mouth of the river , US 31 / M @-@ 37 / M @-@ 72 turns to follow Front Street along the remainder of the bay 's shoreline . At Garfield Avenue , M @-@ 37 turns northward to run up the Old Mission Peninsula , and US 31 / M @-@ 72 continues across the base of the peninsula to the East Arm of the Grand Traverse Bay . The highway runs north of the Cherry Capital Airport near the east arm as it angles southeasterly to Traverse City State Park . East of the park , the trunkline exits suburban Traverse City and rounds the bay to run northward along its eastern shore . In the community of Acme , M @-@ 72 turns eastward while US 31 continues north past the Grand Traverse Resort .
About nine miles ( 14 km ) north of Acme , US 31 crosses into Antrim County as it runs between Elk Lake and the Grand Traverse Bay . Between towns , the landscape is mostly agricultural lands with mixed patches of forest . A few miles north of the county line , the trunkline passes through Elk Rapids and crosses a channel connecting the Spencer Bay portion of Elk Lake to Lake Michigan . North of this crossing , US 31 continues northeasterly , running on an isthmus between Torch Lake and Grand Traverse Bay . The highway passes through Eastport at the northern end of Torch Lake and intersects the western end of M @-@ 88 . Further north , US 31 runs through Atwood and crosses into Charlevoix County .
= = = North to the Straits Area = = =
As US 31 curves around to the northeast and east in Charlevoix County , it follows a section of the Lake Michigan shoreline that is not considered to be part of any bay . The highway continues through Northern Michigan agricultural areas to the southeast of Charlevoix . Once it enters the city , the trunkline intersects the northern end of M @-@ 66 and follows a series of city streets to a drawbridge over the channel that connects Lake Charlevoix to Lake Michigan . South of the structure it is Bridge Street , and north of the bridge it is Michigan Avenue . The highway turns eastward to exit town on Petoskey Avenue and follow the Lake Michigan shoreline . Near the community of Bay Shore , US 31 crosses into Emmet County . The trunkline continues past the Bay Harbor development on Charlevoix Avenue into the city of Petoskey .
Once in Petoskey , US 31 intersects the northern end of US 131 ( Spring Street ) and turns northward along Spring Street through downtown . The highway curves around to follow Mitchell Street to cross the Bear River and then follow Bay View Road . US 31 runs along the Little Traverse Bay through the eastern end of Petoskey and into Bay View . From there , it intersects the southern end of M @-@ 119 and passes through a pair of small towns , Conway and Oden , that border inland lakes like Round Lake and various bays of Crooked Lake .
North of Oden , US 31 runs through Ponshewaing before entering the village of Alanson . There the highway intersects the western end of M @-@ 68 and runs parallel to the Crooked River , part of the Inland Waterway . North of town , US 31 runs through the town of Brutus before entering Pellston . The highway runs past the Pellston Regional Airport and continues due north to Levering . From there , US 31 turns northwesterly and then northeasterly on Mackinaw Highway to round Lake Paradise in the community of Carp Lake . North of the lake , US 31 follows a limited @-@ access highway into Cheboygan County . Less than 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) east of the county line , US 31 connects to I @-@ 75 in a partial interchange . At this interchange , northbound traffic defaults onto northbound I @-@ 75 and US 31 terminates .
= = History = =
= = = Predecessor highways = = =
The first major overland transportation corridors in the future state of Michigan were the Indian trails . Only one of these followed part of the path of US 31 ; the Mackinac Trail roughly paralleled the route of US 31 from Petoskey northward .
In the age of the auto trail , the roads that later formed US 31 through Michigan were given a few different highway names . The West Michigan Lake Shore Highway Association was founded on January 10 , 1912 , and the group reorganized on May 30 , 1913 , as the West Michigan Pike Association . Their auto trail was marked by a series of concrete markers eight feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) tall along the 400 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 640 km ) roadway from the Indiana state line northward to Mackinaw City .
The highway was also a part of the Western Mainline of the Dixie Highway in Michigan , another auto trail that was built starting in 1915 . In 1916 , the northern junction between the West Michigan Pike and the East Michigan Pike , which served as the connection for the two mainlines of the Dixie Highway in Michigan in Mackinaw City , was marked with a stone monument at the junction of Central Avenue and Huron Street . By the middle of 1921 , the trail used about 413 miles ( 665 km ) of roadways along its western branch parallel to Lake Michigan . Michigan led all other states in the Dixie Highway Association by 1922 at improvements to its sections of the roadway .
The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , one of the system 's divisions corresponded to US 31 . Division 5 followed a course from Niles northward to Mackinaw City . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and the future US 31 corridor was assigned two numbers . From the state line north through Niles to St. Joseph , it carried the original M @-@ 58 designation and from there northward it was the original M @-@ 11 .
= = = US Highway System era = = =
The American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) approved the United States Numbered Highway System on November 11 , 1926 , and the MSHD designated US 31 in Michigan according to AASHO 's plan to run northward from the Indiana state line and along the Lake Michigan shoreline to Mackinaw City . A section in the Benton Harbor – St. Joseph area overlapped US 12 and the modern concurrency with US 10 was also in place . By the end of the next year , the highway was extended across the Straits of Mackinac on the state car ferries to connect to US 2 in the Upper Peninsula north of St. Ignace . In 1930 , Muskegon was bypassed ; the new highway east of downtown was numbered US 31A .
By the end of 1936 , the last section of US 31 in the state was paved near Charlevoix , making the entire highway in Michigan a hard @-@ surfaced road . Early the next year , the route of US 2 was realigned to run into St. Ignace ; after the change , US 2 and US 31 ran concurrently . Later that year , a set of curves were straightened out south of Ludington and the routes of US 31 and a US 31A between Saugatuck and Holland were switched , and US 31 was realigned to bypass downtown Ludington .
In 1938 , the southern end of US 31 was given a second designation when US 33 was extended into the state from Indiana to terminate in St. Joseph . Later that year , the US 31A in the Holland area was decommissioned . The next year , the US 31 concurrency was removed from US 2 in the Upper Peninsula and the former highway no longer crossed the Straits of Mackinac , terminating instead in Mackinaw City . By the early 1940 , the Muskegon Bypass was given the US 31 designation , and the route downtown was redesignated US 31A .
During World War II , a bypass of downtown South Haven was built ; the former route of US 31 through the heart of the city was designated Bus . US 31 at that time . After the war , the route of US 31 north of Charlevoix was realigned to follow the shoreline ; this section opened by the middle of 1949 . The route of the highway between Holland and West Olive was changed to run on a more angular course northwesterly in 1950 . A few years later , a bypass to the south and east of Holland opened and the former route through down was redesignated as a business loop in 1954 .
= = = Freeway era = = =
On November 1 , 1957 , the Mackinac Bridge opened to traffic . For the opening of the bridge , the highways coming into Mackinaw City from the south were realigned to connect to it ; US 31 terminated at the southern approach to the Mackinac Bridge . In November 1960 , sections of I @-@ 75 's freeway opened from Indian River north to the southern Mackinac Bridge approaches , and US 31 was rerouted to follow segments of that freeway from the current northern terminus south of Mackinaw City northward . By the end of the decade , another freeway segment opened along the Muskegon Bypass as well . The next year , US 33 was extended northward along US 31 from St. Joseph for about 10 miles ( 16 km ) .
In 1962 , a section of freeway along US 31 was opened between I @-@ 94 and the Berrien – Van Buren county line . This section was originally designated as part of I @-@ 96 / US 31 ; the former route near the lakeshore became just US 33 . The MSHD petitioned federal highway officials to switch the Interstate designations west of Grand Rapids , reversing the I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 196 numbers to their current configurations . After the designation switch was approved in 1963 , an additional 35 miles ( 56 km ) was opened from the northern end of the freeway near Benton Harbor to Holland as I @-@ 196 / US 31 . The freeway was also extended northward from Muskegon to the Muskegon – Oceana county line north of Montague in 1963 .
When I @-@ 196 was completed between Holland and Grandville in 1974 , the BL I @-@ 196 designation was applied along US 31 and Bus . US 31 . The next year , the US 31 freeway was extended northward into Oceana County to New Era . In 1976 , this freeway was lengthened further to Hart . The section of I @-@ 196 / US 31 in all but Berrien County was dedicated as the " Gerald R. Ford Freeway " in July 1978 . Also that year , the US 31 freeway was extended to the southern side of Pentwater .
At the end of the 1970s and into the early 1990s , US 31 gained additional freeway segments on both ends of the highway . The first section of the St. Joseph Valley Parkway was completed in 1979 and ran from the Indiana state line north to US 12 . The freeway was extended northward from Pentwater to the Oceana – Mason county line in 1980 . Construction of the Niles Bypass was finished in 1987 , bringing the parkway north to Walton Road northwest of Niles . Bus . US 31 was created along the former routing in Niles . The northern freeway was extended further into Mason County in two stages . In 1989 , it was expanded to the south side of Ludington . The next year , Ludington was bypassed , completing the freeway to its current northern end at US 10 east of town . One more bypass , this time a non @-@ freeway routing to the west of Scottville , opened in 1991 . The Berrien Springs Bypass was completed in late 1992 . Since then , MDOT built a 9 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) freeway segment north from Berrien Springs to Napier Avenue that was opened on August 27 , 2003 , at a cost of $ 97 million ( equivalent to $ 137 million in 2015 ) . The last change to the routing of US 31 occurred in August 2004 when the route of Bus . US 31 in Holland was turned back to local control ; BL I @-@ 196 was rerouted to follow US 31 around downtown instead of following the former business loop through it .
Starting in 1996 , Traverse City @-@ area residents and tourists requested a freeway bypass the city . These residents decided to not build the highway . In 2001 , The idea was revived , but MDOT abandoned these plans in June of that year .
= = Future = =
= = = Completion of the St. Joseph Valley Parkway = = =
The MSHD started studies for a freeway routing of US 31 from the state line northward to I @-@ 94 in 1967 . The first section northward to Niles was approved in 1972 , and the remainder of the route was approved in 1981 . Since then , MDOT re @-@ evaluated the St. Joseph Valley Parkway extension east of Benton Harbor , due to environmental , economic , and historical site issues . One of the environmental concerns that was studied relates to the habitat of an endangered species , the Mitchell 's Satyr butterfly , which has its habitat in the area of the proposed freeway . The 40 @-@ acre ( 16 ha ) habitat is home to the second @-@ largest population of the rare butterfly . The freeway between Niles and Benton Harbor was planned as a series of five segments when approved in 1981 . Since that approval , the butterfly was discovered in the Blue Creek Fen in the late 1980s , and it was listed as an endangered species in 1992 . This listing stalled MDOT 's planning and construction of the fifth freeway segment north of Berrien Springs . The United States Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) issued an opinion two years later that the project would jeopardize the species . MDOT was given permission to modify the previously approved freeway to cross the Blue Creek on longer bridges ; the USFWS also required that any construction be done from elevated platforms , among other restrictions . In the interim , MDOT proceeded with construction of the southern portion of the last freeway segment , completing it northward from Berrien Springs to the Napier Avenue interchange in August 2003 .
A revised environmental impact study to account for the butterfly 's habitat in the northern area of the freeway was approved in 2004 . The study compared the original routing for this extension that involved connecting directly to I @-@ 196 at I @-@ 94 with an alternate route that involved an indirection connection via the BL I @-@ 94 interchange and an I @-@ 94 concurrency near Benton Harbor . The study recommended using a version of the alternate connection to avoid the Blue Creek Fen , both to save money and decrease impact to the Mitchell 's Satyr . At the time the freeway segment opened in 2003 , MDOT expected the remaining segment would not take much longer to complete , but since then , funding has not been available . MDOT did not include construction of the extension was not included for this reason in the department 's 2014 – 18 highway projects plan released in 2013 , although most of the design work and land acquisition has been completed . Until the missing freeway segment is built , US 31 follows a stretch of Napier Avenue , which was upgraded in conjunction with the St. Joseph Valley Parkway opening to that point , westward to I @-@ 94 . The US 31 / I @-@ 94 / BL I @-@ 94 interchange will be converted to a cloverleaf interchange and additional lanes will be added to I @-@ 94 as well . The St. Joseph Valley Parkway name has already been applied to this unbuilt section . MDOT 's 2017 – 21 plan draft released in July 2016 split the remaining work into three phases . The department has listed funding for only the first two of these three phases , and construction is anticipated to start in 2021 .
= = = Bypassing Grand Haven = = =
As of 2014 , travelers had to use either US 31 through Grand Haven or 68th Avenue through Eastmanville to cross the Grand River in Ottawa County . A new highway , part of a long @-@ range plan to build a US 31 bypass of Grand Haven , provides a river crossing almost equidistant between the two , greatly reducing drive times between areas north and south of the river . A drive from Nunica to Robinson is a 20 @-@ mile ( 32 km ) trip ; the new highway provides a route closer to seven miles ( 11 km ) in length . Called M @-@ 231 , this highway is a scaled @-@ down bypass of US 31 through Grand Haven , even though it will not physically connect to US 31 . By January 4 , 2013 , MDOT had completed work for this highway , including a bridge over North Cedar Drive , additional ramps at the I @-@ 96 and M @-@ 104 interchange , and reconstruction and widening of M @-@ 104 near I @-@ 96 . The department had also completed a reconfiguration of the intersection between M @-@ 104 and Cleveland Drive and widening the bridge that carries M @-@ 104 over I @-@ 96 . The expected date of completion for M @-@ 231 was set for sometime in 2016 pending funding availability . MDOT planned to build 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) of the new highway starting in 2013 , including the bridges over the Grand River and Little Robinson Creek . The 2005 SAFETEA @-@ LU transportation bill provided funding earmarked for the project by US Representative Pete Hoekstra from Holland as well as matching funds from the state 's Michigan Jobs Today program . The total cost of the project was expected to be near $ 150 million . On October 30 , 2015 , the highway opened to traffic .
= = Memorial designations and tourist routes = =
The sections of the route of US 31 in Michigan has been dedicated several times to various organizations . The route of US 33 in the state , which at the time was concurrent with US 31 , was dedicated as the Blue & Gray Trail in 1938 to honor veterans of the American Civil War . The Blue Star Memorial Highway designation was applied to the highway to honor those serving in the military . The designation was dedicated on October 10 , 1948 by the State Highway Commissioner Charles Ziegler .
In 1917 , the Upper Peninsula Development Bureau created a tourist route that is a predecessor of the modern Great Lakes Circle Tours ( GLCT ) . The Great Lakes Automobile Route was a series of roads on both the Upper and Lower peninsulas of Michigan . It included US 31 between Manistee and the Benton Harbor – St. Joseph area . The concept did not last a year ; the American entry into World War I and a lack of focus on a single route consigned the idea into obscurity . The idea of a tourist route around the Great Lakes was revived in 1986 as a pet project of Michigan First Lady Paula Blanchard . MDOT and its counterparts in Wisconsin , Minnesota and Ontario created the GLCT scheme which includes the LMCT that follows US 31 from Lake Michigan Beach northward to Manistee and from Traverse City north to the terminus near Mackinaw City excluding locations where business loops run closer to the lake at South Haven , Muskegon , Whitehall – Montague and Pentwater .
A group of area residents has initiated an effort to have the former West Michigan Pike designated what is now called a Pure Michigan Byway . If successful , the designation would prioritize the area for historic preservation grants . A Preserve America grant funded a survey from June 2007 through September 2010 , the results of which were a set of reports through the Michigan State Historic Preservation Office on the historical nature of the West Michigan Pike . In 2011 , the group was in the process of securing resolutions from municipalities along the highway in support of the designation . According to officials working on the byway , it can take up to seven years to complete the process . As of December 22 , 2014 , MDOT had not yet received an application for the designation , which is now only supposed to run as far north as Ludington , although the initial proposals had the byway continuing to Mackinaw City .
= = Historic bridges = =
MDOT maintains a listing of the historic bridges in the state ; along US 31 , the department has listed four structures . In downtown Charlevoix , the US @-@ 31 – Island Lake Outlet Bridge carries the highway over a channel dredged between Lake Michigan and Round Lake that also connects to Lake Charlevoix . Built from 1947 through 1949 , it is the fifth bridge at the location . It is a double @-@ leaf bascule bridge . In Petoskey , the highway crosses Bear Creek on a concrete girder bridge built in 1930 . At 265 feet ( 81 m ) in length , it is the fourth longest such bridge in Michigan . In Manistee , the Manistee River is spanned by a double @-@ leaf bascule bridge built in 1933 . North of Hart in Pentwater Township , the 270 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 82 m ) US 31 – Pentwater River Bridge is a long @-@ span steel bridge that crosses the Pentwater River . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 20 , 1999 . It carries Oceana Drive along a former routing of US 31 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Meteorological history of Hurricane Jeanne =
The meteorological history of Hurricane Jeanne lasted for about two weeks in September 2004 . Hurricane Jeanne was the eleventh tropical cyclone , tenth named storm , seventh hurricane , and sixth major hurricane of the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed from a tropical wave on September 13 near the Lesser Antilles , and encountered favorable enough conditions to reach tropical storm status . Jeanne strengthened further in the eastern Caribbean Sea , becoming a strong tropical storm and developing an eye before striking Puerto Rico on September 15 . Remaining well @-@ organized , it attained hurricane status before hitting the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic on September 16 .
Hurricane Jeanne steadily weakened while crossing eastern Hispaniola , and on September 17 it briefly weakened to tropical depression status after reaching open waters . Its original circulation dissipated as a new one reformed closer to the main area of thunderstorms . Turning northward , Jeanne slowly reorganized and again reached hurricane status on September 20 . It executed a clockwise loop to the west , weakening due to upwelling upon reaching its path again . Jeanne encountered favorable conditions as it continued westward , and it reached major hurricane status before crossing the northern Bahamas on September 25 . The next day , it struck Martin County , Florida in nearly the same location as Hurricane Frances just weeks before . Jeanne weakened over land while turning the northwest , deteriorating to tropical depression status over Georgia on September 27 . It turned northeastward , becoming extratropical on September 28 before dissipating on September 29 after merging with a cold front .
The hurricane produced heavy rainfall across its path , including in Haiti where precipitation caused devastating mudslides ; over 3 @,@ 000 deaths were reported in the country . Heavy rainfall also occurred during its landfalls on Puerto Rico and Florida , resulting in river flooding . In its strongest landfall , the hurricane produced strong winds across an area earlier affected by Hurricane Frances and , in some locations , by Hurricane Charley . Late in its duration , the combination of moisture from Jeanne and cool air resulted in a tornado outbreak that extended from Georgia through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states .
= = Formation and first landfall = =
The origins of Hurricane Jeanne were from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 7 . Containing a scattered area of moderate convection , the wave tracked westward at 12 – 17 mph ( 19 – 28 km / h ) , located to the south of a large ridge . The system initially showed no signs of development , with unfavorably dry air persisting across the region . On September 11 , convection became slightly better organized , and the next day broad cyclonic turning became evident . However , overall development was hindered by upper @-@ level wind shear from Hurricane Ivan in the Caribbean Sea , as well as from an upper @-@ level low to the north of the wave .
Late on September 12 , while approaching the northern Lesser Antilles , convection increased and became better organized around an area of increased cyclonic turning . Environmental conditions became more favorable , allowing for the development of a low pressure area and for banding features to increase . Late on September 13 , with the formation of a broad low @-@ level circulation , it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Eleven about 70 mi ( 110 km ) east @-@ southeast of Guadeloupe .
Upon first becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was located to the south of the subtropical ridge , resulting in a west @-@ northwest track which brought the center over Guadeloupe . The circulation was initially broad , and dry air temporarily entrained the northwest quadrant of the storm . However , environmental conditions were favorable enough for further development , with a deepening trough to its west providing beneficial flow . Banding features improved around the circulation , and the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Jeanne on September 13 about 135 mi ( 220 km ) southeast of Saint Croix . While crossing the Lesser Antilles , the storm brought locally heavy rainfall , with a total of 12 inches ( 305 mm ) reported in Guadeloupe .
Tropical Storm Jeanne quickly organized over the eastern Caribbean Sea , developing a tight inner core and well @-@ defined outflow as it tracked over warm water temperatures of about 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) . Initially , the storm was forecast to attain hurricane status before crossing Puerto Rico . However , its organization deteriorated by early on September 15 , with radar imagery tracking a low @-@ level circulation moving away from the convection . The temporary weakening was due increased shear and dry air . At 1600 UTC on September 15 , Jeanne made landfall near Guayama , Puerto Rico with winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) , and as it moved ashore it was in the process of developing an eye . Across the territory , the storm produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 23 @.@ 75 inches ( 605 mm ) on Vieques Island . Rainfall across the region resulted in moderate to severe river flooding , with several river stations in Puerto Rico reporting historical levels . Light winds , generally around tropical storm force , affected the region as well .
= = Second landfall and reorganization = =
Tropical Storm Jeanne remained over Puerto Rico for about eight hours , during which it maintained its eye feature and well @-@ defined inner core of convection . It intensified over the Mona Passage , and attained hurricane status as it struck the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic on September 16 . Continuing slowly west @-@ northwestward near the coast , Jeanne quickly weakened to tropical storm status , and by 24 hours after landfall its convection had deteriorated as the eye feature dissipated . Late on September 17 , it emerged into the Atlantic Ocean as a tropical depression , after having dropped torrential rainfall across Hispaniola . Catastrophic flooding and mudslides were experienced in Haiti , including in the coastal city of Gonaïves , and over 3 @,@ 000 deaths were reported in the country .
On September 17 , while it was over Hispaniola , the National Hurricane Center issued a forecast that predicted Jeanne to make landfall near Savannah , Georgia in about five days . However , the forecast noted uncertainty in regards to the steering currents , which depended on the movement of the remnants of Hurricane Ivan and a ridge building behind it . After it left the nation as a tropical depression , the original center of circulation tracked westward away from the convection and dissipated . However , a new circulation developed closer to the convection , and Jeanne regained tropical storm status on September 18 . By then , the mid @-@ level circulation associated with Hurricane Ivan had combined with a trough to weaken the ridge located across the western Atlantic Ocean ; this caused Jeanne to track northward through the Turks and Caicos Islands .
As it tracked northward , the storm failed to organize at first , due to the influence of an upper @-@ level low to its south . The circulation became broad and elongated , as well as removed from the deepest convection . However , after moving away from the low , the convection became better organized and more associated with the convection . After some initial slow organization continued , an area of deep convection developed over the center midday on September 20 . An eye developed within the convection , and late on September 20 Jeanne re @-@ attained hurricane status about 350 mi ( 570 km ) east @-@ northeast of the Abaco Islands in the Bahamas .
While intensifying as a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center faced difficulties in the future track of Jeanne , based on two major divergences between computer hurricane models . One scenario involved the storm accelerating east @-@ northeastward to the south of a trough , following the path of Hurricane Karl to its east . The other scenario involved Jeanne turning southeastward and looping westward due to a building ridge . By early on September 20 , the official forecast followed the first scenario , though later that day , officials changed the forecast to indicate the turn to the south .
= = Peak intensity and final landfall = =
Hurricane Jeanne steadily intensified as it turned eastward , developing a 52 mi ( 83 km ) wide eye . A motion to the southeast began on September 22 , and around the same time it reached winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , making it a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . At the same time , the National Hurricane Center forecast to turn westward and later northwestward , with its projected five @-@ day track within 60 mi ( 100 km ) of Cape Fear , North Carolina . The westernmost outlier during one model run was the NOGAPS model , which predicted a continued westward motion across central Florida . The official forecast changed early on September 23 to bring Jeanne across northeastern Florida , though initially the cyclone was predicted to turn northeastward and hit South Carolina as a hurricane .
By September 23 , Jeanne had begun a slow westward motion , with its previously well @-@ defined eye becoming ragged . It moved slowly over waters it traversed just four days prior , causing upwelling ; this is the process in which a stationary storm causes the water temperatures to decrease by bringing the cooler , deeper waters to the surface . As a result , Jeanne weakened to a minimal hurricane midday on September 23 , though it was forecast to re @-@ intensify and attain major hurricane status . By early on September 24 , the winds had decreased to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) ; its convection weakened in intensity , and the eyewall eroded due to dry air entrainment . However , as Jeanne moved toward an area of warmer waters , deep convection redeveloped around the eye . Its favorable upper @-@ level environment allowed the outflow to become better defined , with a large eye and nearby dry air being the primary restraining factors for development . At 1200 UTC on September 25 , Jeanne attained major hurricane status , and two hours later it made landfall on Abaco Island .
After it had been previously forecast to turn northwestward and track along the northeastern Florida coast , the forecast shifted 24 hours prior to moving ashore to a landfall point in the east @-@ central portion of the state ; the change was due to the persistence of the ridge to its north . The hurricane moved over Grand Bahama Island , and in the Bahamas it produced wind gusts of up to 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) . As it approached the Florida coastline it did not strengthen much further , due to an eyewall replacement cycle ; this is the process in which an outer eyewall forms , causing the original eye to shrink and dissipate due to lack of moisture . At 0400 UTC on September 26 , Jeanne made landfall with peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) on the southern end of Hutchinson Island near Stuart , Florida , with an eye 50 mi ( 85 km ) in diameter . The hurricane moved ashore in almost the same location as Hurricane Frances , which made landfall 21 days prior .
Upon moving inland in east @-@ central Florida , the hurricane produced a storm tide of up to 10 feet ( 3 m ) in St. Lucie County . In New Smyrna Beach , the storm tide washed away much of the beach to the east of the city seawall . Overall impact from the storm tide was less than expected , due to the storm hitting at low tide . Jeanne produced peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) in a very small north of the center near Sebastian , though the National Hurricane Center noted the possibility of the strongest winds remaining over water . The National Weather Service office in Melbourne recorded sustained winds of 91 mph ( 147 km / h ) , which was the strongest official sustained wind reading ; stronger readings were not available due to widespread power outages along its track . Wind gusts peaked at 128 mph ( 206 km / h ) in Fort Pierce . In addition to the winds , the hurricane dropped heavy rainfall in the vicinity of its eyewall , peaking at 11 @.@ 97 inches ( 304 mm ) in Kenansville . The rainfall caused freshwater flooding , as well as increased levels along the St. Johns River . The hurricane also produced several eyewall mesovortices and tornadoes near where it moved ashore .
= = Dissipation = =
As Hurricane Jeanne moved inland , its inner eyewall dissipated , and its outer eyewall quickly became less distinct . It turned west @-@ northwestward over the state , curving around the western periphery of the ridge to its northeast . By 14 hours after landfall , Jeanne weakened to tropical storm status near the Tampa Bay area . In western Florida , offshore winds produced a tide of 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) below normal in Cedar Key ; however , after the storm passed the area , the onshore winds produced above normal tides . Despite initial forecasts that it would emerge into the Gulf of Mexico , the storm remained over land and continued to slowly weaken . Early on September 27 , dry air became entrained into the southern periphery of the circulation , which diminished the thunderstorms to the south . After turning northward , Jeanne entered southern Georgia and weakened into a tropical depression .
As it moved northward , Jeanne continued to drop moderate to heavy rainfall , including over 7 inches ( 175 mm ) in southern Georgia . A cold front across the region caused the depression to accelerate northeastward , combining moisture from the Gulf of Mexico with cool and stable air over the Carolinas . This combination produced severe thunderstorms across the region , spawning six tornadoes in Georgia , eight in South Carolina , and eight in North Carolina .
After crossing into Virginia , Jeanne transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by September 29 near Washington , D.C. In Wilmington , Delaware , the storm spawned an F2 tornado . Across the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England , moisture from the storm produced light to heavy rainfall , with totals of over 7 inches ( 175 mm ) near Philadelphia and Nantucket . Subsequent to becoming extratropical , the remnants of Jeanne turned eastward , exited into the Atlantic Ocean , and merged with a cold front .
= Mirror symmetry ( string theory ) =
In algebraic geometry and theoretical physics , mirror symmetry is a relationship between geometric objects called Calabi – Yau manifolds . The term refers to a situation where two Calabi – Yau manifolds look very different geometrically but are nevertheless equivalent when employed as extra dimensions of string theory .
Mirror symmetry was originally discovered by physicists . Mathematicians became interested in this relationship around 1990 when Philip Candelas , Xenia de la Ossa , Paul Green , and Linda Parkes showed that it could be used as a tool in enumerative geometry , a branch of mathematics concerned with counting the number of solutions to geometric questions . Candelas and his collaborators showed that mirror symmetry could be used to count rational curves on a Calabi – Yau manifold , thus solving a longstanding problem . Although the original approach to mirror symmetry was based on physical ideas that were not understood in a mathematically precise way , some of its mathematical predictions have since been proven rigorously .
Today mirror symmetry is a major research topic in pure mathematics , and mathematicians are working to develop a mathematical understanding of the relationship based on physicists ' intuition . Mirror symmetry is also a fundamental tool for doing calculations in string theory , and it has been used to understand aspects of quantum field theory , the formalism that physicists use to describe elementary particles . Major approaches to mirror symmetry include the homological mirror symmetry program of Maxim Kontsevich and the SYZ conjecture of Andrew Strominger , Shing @-@ Tung Yau , and Eric Zaslow .
= = Overview = =
= = = Strings and compactification = = =
In physics , string theory is a theoretical framework in which the point @-@ like particles of particle physics are replaced by one @-@ dimensional objects called strings . These strings look like small segments or loops of ordinary string . String theory describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other . On distance scales larger than the string scale , a string will look just like an ordinary particle , with its mass , charge , and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string . Splitting and recombination of strings correspond to particle emission and absorption , giving rise to the interactions between particles .
There are notable differences between the world described by string theory and the everyday world . In everyday life , there are three familiar dimensions of space ( up / down , left / right , and forward / backward ) , and there is one dimension of time ( later / earlier ) . Thus , in the language of modern physics , one says that spacetime is four @-@ dimensional . One of the peculiar features of string theory is that it requires extra dimensions of spacetime for its mathematical consistency . In superstring theory , the version of the theory that incorporates a theoretical idea called supersymmetry , there are six extra dimensions of spacetime in addition to the four that are familiar from everyday experience .
One of the goals of current research in string theory is to develop models in which the strings represent particles observed in high energy physics experiments . For such a model to be consistent with observations , its spacetime must be four @-@ dimensional at the relevant distance scales , so one must look for ways to restrict the extra dimensions to smaller scales . In most realistic models of physics based on string theory , this is accomplished by a process called compactification , in which the extra dimensions are assumed to " close up " on themselves to form circles . In the limit where these curled up dimensions become very small , one obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions . A standard analogy for this is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose . If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance , it appears to have only one dimension , its length . However , as one approaches the hose , one discovers that it contains a second dimension , its circumference . Thus , an ant crawling on the surface of the hose would move in two dimensions .
= = = Calabi – Yau manifolds = = =
Compactification can be used to construct models in which spacetime is effectively four @-@ dimensional . However , not every way of compactifying the extra dimensions produces a model with the right properties to describe nature . In a viable model of particle physics , the compact extra dimensions must be shaped like a Calabi – Yau manifold . A Calabi – Yau manifold is a special space which is typically taken to be six @-@ dimensional in applications to string theory . It is named after mathematicians Eugenio Calabi and Shing @-@ Tung Yau .
After Calabi – Yau manifolds had entered physics as a way to compactify extra dimensions , many physicists began studying these manifolds . In the late 1980s , Lance Dixon , Wolfgang Lerche , Cumrun Vafa , and Nick Warner noticed that given such a compactification of string theory , it is not possible to reconstruct uniquely a corresponding Calabi – Yau manifold . Instead , two different versions of string theory called type IIA string theory and type IIB can be compactified on completely different Calabi – Yau manifolds giving rise to the same physics . In this situation , the manifolds are called mirror manifolds , and the relationship between the two physical theories is called mirror symmetry .
The mirror symmetry relationship is a particular example of what physicists call a duality . In general , the term duality refers to a situation where two seemingly different physical theories turn out to be equivalent in a nontrivial way . If one theory can be transformed so it looks just like another theory , the two are said to be dual under that transformation . Put differently , the two theories are mathematically different descriptions of the same phenomena . Such dualities play an important role in modern physics , especially in string theory .
Regardless of whether Calabi – Yau compactifications of string theory provide a correct description of nature , the existence of the mirror duality between different string theories has significant mathematical consequences . The Calabi – Yau manifolds used in string theory are of interest in pure mathematics , and mirror symmetry allows mathematicians to solve problems in enumerative algebraic geometry , a branch of mathematics concerned with counting the numbers of solutions to geometric questions . A classical problem of enumerative geometry is to enumerate the rational curves on a Calabi – Yau manifold such as the one illustrated above . By applying mirror symmetry , mathematicians have translated this problem into an equivalent problem for the mirror Calabi – Yau , which turns out to be easier to solve .
In physics , mirror symmetry is justified on physical grounds . However , mathematicians generally require rigorous proofs that do not require an appeal to physical intuition . From a mathematical point of view , the version of mirror symmetry described above is still only a conjecture , but there is another version of mirror symmetry in the context of topological string theory , a simplified version of string theory introduced by Edward Witten , which has been rigorously proven by mathematicians . In the context of topological string theory , mirror symmetry states that two theories called the A @-@ model and B @-@ model are equivalent in the sense that there is a duality relating them . Today mirror symmetry is an active area of research in mathematics , and mathematicians are working to develop a more complete mathematical understanding of mirror symmetry based on physicists ' intuition .
= = History = =
The idea of mirror symmetry can be traced back to the mid @-@ 1980s when it was noticed that a string propagating on a circle of radius <formula> is physically equivalent to a string propagating on a circle of radius <formula> in appropriate units . This phenomenon is now known as T @-@ duality and is understood to be closely related to mirror symmetry . In a paper from 1985 , Philip Candelas , Gary Horowitz , Andrew Strominger , and Edward Witten showed that by compactifying string theory on a Calabi – Yau manifold , one obtains a theory roughly similar to the standard model of particle physics that also consistently incorporates an idea called supersymmetry . Following this development , many physicists began studying Calabi – Yau compactifications , hoping to construct realistic models of particle physics based on string theory . Cumrun Vafa and others noticed that given such a physical model , it is not possible to reconstruct uniquely a corresponding Calabi – Yau manifold . Instead , there are two Calabi – Yau manifolds that give rise to the same physics .
By studying the relationship between Calabi – Yau manifolds and certain conformal field theories called Gepner models , Brian Greene and Ronen Plesser found nontrivial examples of the mirror relationship . Further evidence for this relationship came from the work of Philip Candelas , Monika Lynker , and Rolf Schimmrigk , who surveyed a large number of Calabi – Yau manifolds by computer and found that they came in mirror pairs .
Mathematicians became interested in mirror symmetry around 1990 when physicists Philip Candelas , Xenia de la Ossa , Paul Green , and Linda Parkes showed that mirror symmetry could be used to solve problems in enumerative geometry that had resisted solution for decades or more . These results were presented to mathematicians at a conference at the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute ( MSRI ) in Berkeley , California in May 1991 . During this conference , it was noticed that one of the numbers Candelas had computed for the counting of rational curves disagreed with the number obtained by Norwegian mathematicians Geir Ellingsrud and Stein Arild Strømme using ostensibly more rigorous techniques . Many mathematicians at the conference assumed that Candelas 's work contained a mistake since it was not based on rigorous mathematical arguments . However , after examining their solution , Ellingsrud and Strømme discovered an error in their computer code and , upon fixing the code , they got an answer that agreed with the one obtained by Candelas and his collaborators .
In 1990 , Edward Witten introduced topological string theory , a simplified version of string theory , and physicists showed that there is a version of mirror symmetry for topological string theory . This statement about topological string theory is usually taken as the definition of mirror symmetry in the mathematical literature . In an address at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1994 , mathematician Maxim Kontsevich presented a new mathematical conjecture based on the physical idea of mirror symmetry in topological string theory . Known as homological mirror symmetry , this conjecture formalizes mirror symmetry as an equivalence of two mathematical structures : the derived category of coherent sheaves on a Calabi – Yau manifold and the Fukaya category of its mirror .
Also around 1995 , Kontsevich analyzed the results of Candelas , which gave a general formula for the problem of counting rational curves on a quintic threefold , and he reformulated these results as a precise mathematical conjecture . In 1996 , Alexander Givental posted a paper that claimed to prove this conjecture of Kontsevich . Initially , many mathematicians found this paper hard to understand , so there were doubts about its correctness . Subsequently , Bong Lian , Kefeng Liu , and Shing @-@ Tung Yau published an independent proof in a series of papers . Despite controversy over who had published the first proof , these papers are now collectively seen as providing a mathematical proof of the results originally obtained by physicists using mirror symmetry . In 2000 , Kentaro Hori and Cumrun Vafa gave another physical proof of mirror symmetry based on T @-@ duality .
Work on mirror symmetry continues today with major developments in the context of strings on surfaces with boundaries . In addition , mirror symmetry has been related to many active areas of mathematics research , such as the McKay correspondence , topological quantum field theory , and the theory of stability conditions . At the same time , basic questions continue to vex . For example , mathematicians still lack an understanding of how to construct examples of mirror Calabi – Yau pairs though there has been progress in understanding this issue .
= = Applications = =
= = = Enumerative geometry = = =
Many of the important mathematical applications of mirror symmetry belong to the branch of mathematics called enumerative geometry . In enumerative geometry , one is interested in counting the number of solutions to geometric questions , typically using the techniques of algebraic geometry . One of the earliest problems of enumerative geometry was posed around the year 200 BCE by the ancient Greek mathematician Apollonius , who asked how many circles in the plane are tangent to three given circles . In general , the solution to the problem of Apollonius is that there are eight such circles .
Enumerative problems in mathematics often concern a class of geometric objects called algebraic varieties which are defined by the vanishing of polynomials . For example , the Clebsch cubic ( see the illustration ) is defined using a certain polynomial of degree three in four variables . A celebrated result of nineteenth @-@ century mathematicians Arthur Cayley and George Salmon states that there are exactly 27 straight lines that lie entirely on such a surface .
Generalizing this problem , one can ask how many lines can be drawn on a quintic Calabi – Yau manifold , such as the one illustrated above , which is defined by a polynomial of degree five . This problem was solved by the nineteenth @-@ century German mathematician Hermann Schubert , who found that there are exactly 2 @,@ 875 such lines . In 1986 , geometer Sheldon Katz proved that the number of curves , such as circles , that are defined by polynomials of degree two and lie entirely in the quintic is 609 @,@ 250 .
By the year 1991 , most of the classical problems of enumerative geometry had been solved and interest in enumerative geometry had begun to diminish . According to mathematician Mark Gross , " As the old problems had been solved , people went back to check Schubert 's numbers with modern techniques , but that was getting pretty stale . " The field was reinvigorated in May 1991 when physicists Philip Candelas , Xenia de la Ossa , Paul Green , and Linda Parkes showed that mirror symmetry could be used to count the number of degree three curves on a quintic Calabi – Yau . Candelas and his collaborators found that these six @-@ dimensional Calabi – Yau manifolds can contain exactly 317 @,@ 206 @,@ 375 curves of degree three .
In addition to counting degree @-@ three curves on a quintic three @-@ fold , Candelas and his collaborators obtained a number of more general results for counting rational curves which went far beyond the results obtained by mathematicians . Although the methods used in this work were based on physical intuition , mathematicians have gone on to prove rigorously some of the predictions of mirror symmetry . In particular , the enumerative predictions of mirror symmetry have now been rigorously proven .
= = = Theoretical physics = = =
In addition to its applications in enumerative geometry , mirror symmetry is a fundamental tool for doing calculations in string theory . In the A @-@ model of topological string theory , physically interesting quantities are expressed in terms of infinitely many numbers called Gromov – Witten invariants , which are extremely difficult to compute . In the B @-@ model , the calculations can be reduced to classical integrals and are much easier . By applying mirror symmetry , theorists can translate difficult calculations in the A @-@ model into equivalent but technically easier calculations in the B @-@ model . These calculations are then used to determine the probabilities of various physical processes in string theory . Mirror symmetry can be combined with other dualities to translate calculations in one theory into equivalent calculations in a different theory . By outsourcing calculations to different theories in this way , theorists can calculate quantities that are impossible to calculate without the use of dualities .
Outside of string theory , mirror symmetry is used to understand aspects of quantum field theory , the formalism that physicists use to describe elementary particles . For example , gauge theories are a class of highly symmetric physical theories appearing in the standard model of particle physics and other parts of theoretical physics . Some gauge theories which are not part of the standard model , but which are nevertheless important for theoretical reasons , arise from strings propagating on a nearly singular background . For such theories , mirror symmetry is a useful computational tool . Indeed , mirror symmetry can be used to perform calculations in an important gauge theory in four spacetime dimensions that was studied by Nathan Seiberg and Edward Witten and is also familiar in mathematics in the context of Donaldson invariants . There is also a generalization of mirror symmetry called 3D mirror symmetry which relates pairs of quantum field theories in three spacetime dimensions .
= = Approaches = =
= = = Homological mirror symmetry = = =
In string theory and related theories in physics , a brane is a physical object that generalizes the notion of a point particle to higher dimensions . For example , a point particle can be viewed as a brane of dimension zero , while a string can be viewed as a brane of dimension one . It is also possible to consider higher @-@ dimensional branes . The word brane comes from the word " membrane " which refers to a two @-@ dimensional brane .
In string theory , a string may be open ( forming a segment with two endpoints ) or closed ( forming a closed loop ) . D @-@ branes are an important class of branes that arise when one considers open strings . As an open string propagates through spacetime , its endpoints are required to lie on a D @-@ brane . The letter " D " in D @-@ brane refers to a condition that it satisfies , the Dirichlet boundary condition .
Mathematically , branes can be described using the notion of a category . This is a mathematical structure consisting of objects , and for any pair of objects , a set of morphisms between them . In most examples , the objects are mathematical structures ( such as sets , vector spaces , or topological spaces ) and the morphisms are functions between these structures . One can also consider categories where the objects are D @-@ branes and the morphisms between two branes <formula> and <formula> are states of open strings stretched between <formula> and <formula> .
In the B @-@ model of topological string theory , the D @-@ branes are complex submanifolds of a Calabi – Yau together with additional data that arise physically from having charges at the endpoints of strings . Intuitively , one can think of a submanifold as a surface embedded inside the Calabi – Yau , although submanifolds can also exist in dimensions different from two . In mathematical language , the category having these branes as its objects is known as the derived category of coherent sheaves on the Calabi – Yau . In the A @-@ model , the D @-@ branes can again be viewed as submanifolds of a Calabi – Yau manifold . Roughly speaking , they are what mathematicians call special Lagrangian submanifolds . This means among other things that they have half the dimension of the space in which they sit , and they are length- , area- , or volume @-@ minimizing . The category having these branes as its objects is called the Fukaya category .
The derived category of coherent sheaves is constructed using tools from complex geometry , a branch of mathematics that describes geometric curves in algebraic terms and solves geometric problems using algebraic equations . On the other hand , the Fukaya category is constructed using symplectic geometry , a branch of mathematics that arose from studies of classical physics . Symplectic geometry studies spaces equipped with a symplectic form , a mathematical tool that can be used to compute area in two @-@ dimensional examples .
The homological mirror symmetry conjecture of Maxim Kontsevich states that the derived category of coherent sheaves on one Calabi – Yau manifold is equivalent in a certain sense to the Fukaya category of its mirror . This equivalence provides a precise mathematical formulation of mirror symmetry in topological string theory . In addition , it provides an unexpected bridge between two branches of geometry , namely complex and symplectic geometry .
= = = Strominger @-@ Yau @-@ Zaslow conjecture = = =
Another approach to understanding mirror symmetry was suggested by Andrew Strominger , Shing @-@ Tung Yau , and Eric Zaslow in 1996 . According to their conjecture , now known as the SYZ conjecture , mirror symmetry can be understood by dividing a Calabi – Yau manifold into simpler pieces and then transforming them to get the mirror Calabi – Yau .
The simplest example of a Calabi – Yau manifold is a two @-@ dimensional torus or donut shape . Consider a circle on this surface that goes once through the hole of the donut . An example is the red circle in the figure . There are infinitely many circles like it on a torus ; in fact , the entire surface is a union of such circles .
One can choose an auxiliary circle <formula> ( the pink circle in the figure ) such that each of the infinitely many circles decomposing the torus passes through a point of <formula> . This auxiliary circle is said to parametrize the circles of the decomposition , meaning there is a correspondence between them and points of <formula> . The circle <formula> is more than just a list , however , because it also determines how these circles are arranged on the torus . This auxiliary space plays an important role in the SYZ conjecture .
The idea of dividing a torus into pieces parametrized by an auxiliary space can be generalized . Increasing the dimension from two to four real dimensions , the Calabi – Yau becomes a K3 surface . Just as the torus was decomposed into circles , a four @-@ dimensional K3 surface can be decomposed into two @-@ dimensional tori . In this case the space <formula> is an ordinary sphere . Each point on the sphere corresponds to one of the two @-@ dimensional tori , except for twenty @-@ four " bad " points corresponding to " pinched " or singular tori .
The Calabi – Yau manifolds of primary interest in string theory have six dimensions . One can divide such a manifold into 3 @-@ tori ( three @-@ dimensional objects that generalize the notion of a torus ) parametrized by a 3 @-@ sphere <formula> ( a three @-@ dimensional generalization of a sphere ) . Each point of <formula> corresponds to a 3 @-@ torus , except for infinitely many " bad " points which form a grid @-@ like pattern of segments on the Calabi – Yau and correspond to singular tori .
Once the Calabi – Yau manifold has been decomposed into simpler parts , mirror symmetry can be understood in an intuitive geometric way . As an example , consider the torus described above . Imagine that this torus represents the " spacetime " for a physical theory . The fundamental objects of this theory will be strings propagating through the spacetime according to the rules of quantum mechanics . One of the basic dualities of string theory is T @-@ duality , which states that a string propagating around a circle of radius <formula> is equivalent to a string propagating around a circle of radius <formula> in the sense that all observable quantities in one description are identified with quantities in the dual description . For example , a string has momentum as it propagates around a circle , and it can also wind around the circle one or more times . The number of times the string winds around a circle is called the winding number . If a string has momentum <formula> and winding number <formula> in one description , it will have momentum <formula> and winding number <formula> in the dual description . By applying T @-@ duality simultaneously to all of the circles that decompose the torus , the radii of these circles become inverted , and one is left with a new torus which is " fatter " or " skinnier " than the original . This torus is the mirror of the original Calabi – Yau .
T @-@ duality can be extended from circles to the two @-@ dimensional tori appearing in the decomposition of a K3 surface or to the three @-@ dimensional tori appearing in the decomposition of a six @-@ dimensional Calabi – Yau manifold . In general , the SYZ conjecture states that mirror symmetry is equivalent to the simultaneous application of T @-@ duality to these tori . In each case , the space <formula> provides a kind of blueprint that describes how these tori are assembled into a Calabi – Yau manifold .
= = = Popularizations = = =
Yau , Shing @-@ Tung ; Nadis , Steve ( 2010 ) . The Shape of Inner Space : String Theory and the Geometry of the Universe 's Hidden Dimensions . Basic Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 465 @-@ 02023 @-@ 2 .
Zaslow , Eric ( 2005 ) . " Physmatics " . arXiv : physics / 0506153 .
Zaslow , Eric ( 2008 ) . " Mirror Symmetry " . In Gowers , Timothy . The Princeton Companion to Mathematics . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 11880 @-@ 2 .
= = = Textbooks = = =
Aspinwall , Paul ; Bridgeland , Tom ; Craw , Alastair ; Douglas , Michael ; Gross , Mark ; Kapustin , Anton ; Moore , Gregory ; Segal , Graeme ; Szendröi , Balázs ; Wilson , P.M.H. , eds . ( 2009 ) . Dirichlet Branes and Mirror Symmetry . American Mathematical Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8218 @-@ 3848 @-@ 8 .
Cox , David ; Katz , Sheldon ( 1999 ) . Mirror symmetry and algebraic geometry . American Mathematical Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8218 @-@ 2127 @-@ 5 .
Hori , Kentaro ; Katz , Sheldon ; Klemm , Albrecht ; Pandharipande , Rahul ; Thomas , Richard ; Vafa , Cumrun ; Vakil , Ravi ; Zaslow , Eric , eds . ( 2003 ) . Mirror Symmetry ( PDF ) . American Mathematical Society . ISBN 0 @-@ 8218 @-@ 2955 @-@ 6 .
= The Concert in Central Park =
The Concert in Central Park is the first live album by American folk rock duo Simon & Garfunkel , released in February 1982 on Warner Bros. Records . It was recorded in September 1981 at a free benefit concert in Central Park , New York City , where the pair performed in front of more than 500 @,@ 000 people . Proceeds went toward the redevelopment and maintenance of the run @-@ down green space in the middle of Manhattan . This concert and album marked the start of a short @-@ lived reunion for Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel . The concept of a benefit concert in Central Park had been proposed by Parks Commissioner Gordon Davis and promoter Ron Delsener . Television channel HBO agreed to carry the concert , and worked with Delsener to decide on Simon and Garfunkel as the appropriate act for this event . Besides hit songs from their years as a duo , their set @-@ list included material from their solo careers , and covers . The show consisted of 21 songs , though two were not used in the live album . Among the songs performed were the classics " The Sound of Silence " , " Mrs. Robinson " , and " The Boxer " ; the event concluded with a reprise of Simon 's song , " Late in the Evening " . Ongoing personal tensions between the duo led them to decide against a permanent reunion , despite the success of the concert and a subsequent world tour .
The album and a film were released the year after the concert . Simon and Garfunkel 's performance was praised by music critics and the album was commercially successful ; it peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 album charts and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The video recordings were initially broadcast on HBO , and were subsequently made available on VHS and DVD .
= = Idea and arrangement = =
= = = A concert for the park = = =
New York City 's Central Park , an oasis that functions as the city 's " green lung " , was in a state of deterioration in the mid @-@ 1970s . Though Central Park had been designated a National Historic Landmark in 1962 , at the start of the 1980s , the city lacked the financial resources to spend an estimated US $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to restore or even to maintain the park . The nonprofit Central Park Conservancy was founded in 1980 , and began a successful campaign to raise renovation funds .
In the early 1980s , Parks Commissioner Gordon Davis , responsible for New York City 's green areas , and Ron Delsener , one of the city 's most influential concert promoters , developed the idea of helping Central Park financially with a free open @-@ air concert , under the legal guidance of Bob Donnelly . The city would use profits from merchandising , television , and video rights to renovate the park . Earlier park performances by Elton John and James Taylor showed that this concept could be a success . Davis authorized the project , and Delsener entered discussions with cable TV channel HBO to decide who would perform .
They decided on Simon & Garfunkel , a group that had formed in New York City in the 1960s , and had been one of the most successful folk rock groups through the late 60s / early 70s . Simon & Garfunkel had broken up at the height of their popularity and shortly after the release of their fifth studio album , Bridge Over Troubled Water , which is deemed to be their artistic peak and which topped the 1970 Billboard charts for ten weeks . They had grown apart artistically and did not get along well with each other . In the following eleven years , both continued musical careers as solo artists , and worked together only sporadically on single projects . Garfunkel made brief guest appearances at Simon 's concerts , which were always successful .
Delsener presented the plan to Paul Simon in the summer of 1981 . Simon was enthusiastic about the idea , but questioned whether it could be financially successful , especially given the poor audience attendance of his last project , the autobiographical movie One @-@ Trick Pony . Simon 's confidence had declined and he had sought treatment for depression . He questioned whether he and Art Garfunkel could work together , but contacted Garfunkel , who was vacationing in Switzerland . Garfunkel was excited about the idea , and immediately returned to the US .
From the promoter 's viewpoint , Simon and Garfunkel were ideal choices . Not only were they likely to draw a large crowd to the concert , they also had roots in the city - both had grown up and gone to school in Forest Hills , Queens . Music critic Stephen Holden pointed out that , unlike artists who had left in pursuit of lifestyles offered by other locales , the two had always been a part of New York City . Both gained inspiration from the cityscape and the cultural variety of New York , and spoke of these influences in their songs .
= = = Planning and rehearsals = = =
Planning and rehearsals for the concert took about three weeks in a Manhattan theater . The rehearsals were characterized by past tensions that resurfaced between the performers under the intense time pressure . Paul Simon later said : " Well , the rehearsals were just miserable . Artie and I fought all the time . " An early concept was for each singer to give a solo performance , with Simon allotted the greater amount of time , and to conclude with the duo performing their joint works . This idea was rejected because , according to Garfunkel , " It didn 't seem right to either of us that Paul should be the opening act for Simon & Garfunkel , and for him to follow Simon & Garfunkel didn 't make show @-@ business sense " . The two decided to perform most of the show together , with room for each to showcase some solo material . Simon , who had resumed songwriting after a long hiatus , interrupted a series of studio recording sessions for the concert preparations . He used the live show as an opportunity to test one of his new songs in front of an audience . Garfunkel also planned to present a new song , " A Heart in New York " , from his soon @-@ to @-@ be released album Scissors Cut .
The two differed on the presentation of the concert . Garfunkel wanted to recreate the duo 's mid @-@ 1960s live performances , using only their voices backed by Simon 's acoustic guitar . Simon felt that this was impossible , as an injury had rendered him incapable of playing guitar for the full length of a concert , and his newer material was typically arranged for larger ensembles that often included horns and amplified instruments such as electric piano and electric guitar . Garfunkel initially agreed to hire a second guitarist , but later rejected the idea . A group of eleven musicians was assembled for the concert , most of whom were experienced studio musicians and had played on albums involving Simon or Garfunkel . These included David Brown ( guitar ) , Pete Carr ( guitar ) , Anthony Jackson ( bass guitar ) , Rob Mounsey ( synthesizer ) , John Eckert ( trumpet ) , John Gatchell ( trumpet ) , Danny Cahn ( trumpet ) , Dave Tofani ( saxophone ) , Gerry Niewood ( saxophone ) , Grady Tate ( drums , percussion ) , and Richard Tee ( keyboard , piano ) .
The musical arrangements for the concert were written by Paul Simon and David Matthews . Some songs differed significantly from their original versions ; for example , " Me and Julio Down by the Schoolyard " featured more prominent Latin elements and included a salsa break , while the folk rock " Kodachrome " was set as a harder rock song and played together with the Chuck Berry classic " Maybellene " as a medley . The military rhythm of " 50 Ways to Leave Your Lover " was replaced with a Latin arrangement that included brass .
Garfunkel had difficulties in the rehearsals . Both men easily recalled their songs from the 1960s , but Garfunkel had to learn the harmonies and arrangements for Simon 's solo songs , as modified for the reunion concert . He was also uncomfortable that Simon had rewritten some of the lyrics for their old songs . Despite the need to adapt to Simon and his style , Garfunkel enjoyed some of the songs , and was glad to perform a duet version of Simon 's " American Tune " .
The fact that the Central Park show would feature the two men performing together on stage was kept secret until an announcement was published in New York newspapers only a week before the concert . These news reports and the Michael Doret @-@ designed posters named the musicians individually and did not bill them as " Simon & Garfunkel " , but the event was nevertheless interpreted as a reunion . The two stated in interviews that further collaboration was not planned .
= = The concert = =
The concert took place on Saturday , September 19 , 1981 , on the Great Lawn , the central open space of Central Park . The first spectators , many carrying chairs or picnic blankets , arrived at daybreak to secure a good spot . The Parks Department originally expected about 300 @,@ 000 attendees . Although rain fell throughout the day and continued until the start of the concert , an estimated 500 @,@ 000 audience members made this the seventh @-@ largest concert attendance in the United States in history .
The stage backdrop depicted an urban rooftop with water tank and air outlet , symbolic of New York 's skyline . At twilight , the backing band went onstage , followed by New York 's mayor , Ed Koch , who announced , " Ladies and gentlemen , Simon and Garfunkel ! " The duo entered through a side stage door , took center stage amid audience applause , looked at each other and shook hands , and began the concert with their 1968 hit " Mrs. Robinson " .
After the second song , " Homeward Bound " , Simon delivered a short speech which began , " Well , it 's great to do a neighborhood concert . " He then thanked the police , the fire department , the park administration and finally Ed Koch . The audience booed at the mention of Koch , who had suggested permanent closure of the park , but they applauded as Simon continued and the irony in his reference became clear .
Simon & Garfunkel played twenty @-@ one songs in total : ten by the duo , eight by Simon , one by Garfunkel , a cover of The Everly Brothers ' " Wake Up Little Susie " , and the medley version of " Maybellene " . Each performer sang three songs alone , including one new song apiece . Garfunkel sang the Simon & Garfunkel classic " Bridge Over Troubled Water " and " April Come She Will " , and " A Heart in New York " , a song written by Gallagher and Lyle that appeared on his album Scissors Cut , which had been released the previous month . Simon 's solo performances were the title song of his 1975 album Still Crazy After All These Years , the number @-@ one single " 50 Ways to Leave Your Lover " , and the unreleased " The Late Great Johnny Ace " , which would appear on his 1983 album Hearts and Bones .
" The Late Great Johnny Ace " was interrupted when an audience member ran to the stage and shouted at Simon : " I need to talk to you ! " The man was carried away by security , and Simon finished the song . The incident provoked associations to the song 's lyrics , in which Simon speaks as a first @-@ person narrator concerning the deaths of Johnny Ace , John F. Kennedy and John Lennon . Lennon 's murder by an obsessed fan had taken place less than a year previously , not far from the concert site . Despite this association , Simon said that he was not afraid of any on @-@ stage incidents . In May 1982 as a guest on Late Night with David Letterman , he explained that while it is not unusual for fans , for example , to jump onto the stage with flowers , this action was new to him , but also felt that the man simply appeared intoxicated . His greater concern was that the song 's premiere was ruined .
Lyrics referring to the New York area produced audience applause , such as Garfunkel 's ode to his home city , " A Heart in New York " , which describes from a New Yorker 's point of view the first glimpse of the city when returning there by air :
New York , lookin ' down on Central Park , where they say you should not wander after dark
Applause broke out during " The Sound of Silence " , when the narrative voice refers to a large crowd of people in the dark :
And in the naked light I saw ten thousand people maybe more
After the 17th song , " The Boxer " , which contained an additional stanza not included in the album version , Simon & Garfunkel thanked the audience and left the stage , but returned to deliver an encore of three songs – " Old Friends / Bookends Theme " , " The 59th Street Bridge Song ( Feelin ' Groovy ) " and " The Sound of Silence " . Simon then said that their planned use of pyrotechnics had been disallowed , and told the crowd , " Let 's have our own fireworks ! " Many spectators sparked lighters . The duo then introduced the members of the backing band and gave a final encore , a reprise of " Late in the Evening " .
= = = Set list = = =
= = Release = =
A recording of the concert was released five months later , on February 16 , 1982 . The audio tracks were put through album postproduction , but it was noted by Rolling Stone magazine that they were not completely polished , and preserved the roar and the fuzziness of live rock music heard through a loudspeaker . Two songs were removed from the album version : the interrupted " Late Great Johnny Ace " , and the encore reprise of " Late in the Evening " . The album was an international success . It peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 chart , and was certified 2 × Multi @-@ Platinum with sales of over 2 million copies in USA . The album sold more than 1 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 copies in France , where it was certified Diamond . It was also successful in seven other countries , including France and New Zealand . Originally the album was released as a double LP and as a single Compact Cassette . In 1988 it was issued as a single CD . Various reissues in different formats have been released , including , alongside the DVD , a 2 @-@ CD @-@ release also containing the two missing songs from the original album . The Concert was recorded by Roy Halee on the Record Plant NY Black Truck with David Hewitt Director , assisted by Phil Gitomer , Steve Barash and , John Mathias .
= = = Track listing = = =
The song " The Late Great Johnny Ace " and the reprise of " Late in the Evening " were not included in the original release of the live album but are included on the DVD .
= = = Video release = = =
Film of the concert was produced for television broadcast and the home video market . It was produced by James Signorelli , and directed by Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg , a specialist in music documentaries who had worked on The Beatles ' film Let It Be , and executive produced by Lorne Michaels , who had recently departed the NBC @-@ TV comedy / variety series Saturday Night Live . Simon himself financed the US $ 750 @,@ 000 cost of the staging and the video recording . It is unknown how much HBO paid for the television and video rights of the recording ; US $ 1 million according to some sources , over US $ 3 million according to others . The film includes the two songs that had not appeared on the album , and with an 87 @-@ minute duration , is 12 minutes longer than the album .
HBO televised the film , Simon and Garfunkel : The Concert in Central Park , on February 21 , 1982 , five days after the album was released . The film was later released for sale in VHS , CED Videodisc , Laserdisc , and DVD formats . It sold more than 50 @,@ 000 copies in the US , where it earned Gold certification for a music longform video .
= = Critical reception = =
The concert and recordings were positively received by music critics . Stephen Holden praised the performance in The New York Times the day after the concert ; he subsequently praised the live album in Rolling Stone magazine . He wrote that Simon and Garfunkel were successful in reviving their sound , that the backing band was " one of the finest groups of musicians ever to play together at a New York rock concert " , and the rearrangements of Simon 's solo material were improvements over the originals . Despite the risks in performing so many acoustic ballads in an open @-@ air concert on a cool night , the songs " were beautifully articulated , in near @-@ perfect harmony . "
An October 1981 review in Rolling Stone called the concert " one of the finest performances of [ 1981 ] " , one that " vividly recaptured another time , an era when well @-@ crafted , melodic pop bore meanings that stretched beyond the musical sphere and into the realms of culture and politics . " This reviewer noted that Garfunkel 's voice was noticeably restrained in high passages , though still harmonious , and that the evening 's only weak spot was the " Kodachrome " / " Maybellene " medley , because neither singer could raise the right level of emotion for the rock songs . A Billboard reviewer wrote in March 1982 , " This 19 song , two record set gloriously recaptures the past with sterling renditions of most of the duo 's classics as well as a few of Simon 's solo compositions filled out by Garfunkel 's harmony . " However , Robert Christgau of The Village Voice dismissed the album as " a corporate boondoggle — a classy way for Warner Bros. artist Simon to rerecord , rerelease , and resell the catalogue CBS is sitting on . " He felt Simon had been better off without Garfunkel since 1971 and quipped , " live doubles are live doubles , nostalgia is nostalgia , wimps are wimps , and who needs any of ' em ? "
= = Aftermath = =
The duo were disappointed with their performance , particularly Garfunkel , who felt that he sang poorly . Simon said that he did not immediately realize the magnitude of the event : " I didn 't get what had happened – how big it was – until I went home , turned on the television and saw it on all the news ... and later that night on the front pages of all the newspapers . Then I got it . "
In May 1982 , Simon & Garfunkel went on a world tour with stops in Japan , Germany , Denmark , Sweden , Switzerland , the Netherlands , Ireland , France , Great Britain , New Zealand , the US and Canada . The European leg of their tour began on May 28 , 1982 , at the Stadion am Bieberer Berg in Offenbach am Main . This was their first performance in Germany , and had an attendance of around 40 @,@
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team , however , was upset by the 6 – 3 New York Jets in the second round of the 1982 @-@ 83 NFL Playoffs . The 1984 Raiders went 11 – -5 and also made the 1984 @-@ 85 NFL playoffs . The Raiders teams of Muransky 's years went 31 – 10 in the regular season and 4 – 2 in the playoffs under Flores .
= = = USFL Orlando Renegades = = =
After playing for the Raiders , Muransky signed with the Orlando Renegades of the USFL . He played and started 14 of the Renegades 18 games under Lee Corso . The team was not as successful as the Raiders and went 5 – 13 . When the league folded , he decided to retire and enter the business world .
= = Business career = =
After his football career ended , Muransky worked briefly as a sportscaster at WYTV in Youngstown . He later became CEO and chairman of his in @-@ laws ' insurance agency , Gallagher Pipino , Inc . He is married to the former Christine Pipino and has three children : Eddie , Deloran and Donielle .
= = = Work with Eddie DeBartolo and the Edwards trial = = =
In the late 1990s and early 2000s , Muransky became the most trusted advisor and business partner of Edward J. DeBartolo Jr . , heir to a real estate empire and former owner of the San Francisco 49ers . For a time , Muransky was the CEO of the DeBartolo Property Group , and the two partnered in numerous business ventures , including a chain of ice cream franchises known as " Ed and Eddie 's Homemade Ice Cream , " real estate ventures and pizza . DeBartolo ventured into the casino business against the wishes of his sister , Denise DeBartolo York and hired family contact , Muransky to head DeBartolo Entertainment . Eventually , Muransky who is said to have a keen business sense , became DeBartolo 's most trusted advisor , which caused a rift with Carmen Policy , 49ers president .
In 1997 , Muransky became involved in DeBartolo 's efforts to open a riverboat gambling casino in Louisiana . The project required approval of the state gambling board and resulted in a highly publicized bribery scandal that ended with the conviction of former Louisiana Governor Edwin Edwards on 17 counts , including racketeering , extortion , mail fraud , and wire fraud . In order to secure licensing of the casino , Edwards and associates allegedly solicited bribes from DeBartolo , including a briefcase filled with $ 400 @,@ 000 . Of the many who claimed that they were extortion victims , DeBartolo was the only one who claimed to have been extorted directly by Edwards . Muransky was able to describe his relationship with DeBartolo but could not provide testimony about private meetings between DeBartolo and Edwards .
Muransky testified under a grant of immunity as a government witness in the March 2000 trial of Edwards . Among other things , Muransky testified to the following : he " had a violent reaction " when DeBartolo told him that Edwards demanded money during a meeting in Baton Rouge in 1997 ; he " went ballistic " when DeBartolo told him about the $ 400 @,@ 000 payment and the requests by the former governor that he be given one percent of the gross at the boat or 25 cents for every patron ; he told jurors he felt he needed to protect DeBartolo from Edwards because DeBartolo lacked the keen business acumen of his late father , Edward J. DeBartolo , Sr. ; he discussed DeBartolo 's exasperation at Edwards ' solicitation of cash . According to Muransky , DeBartolo complained about Edwards and his associates : " They don 't quit . " ; and when asked if there was anyone else in DeBartolo 's organization making $ 50 @,@ 000 per month ( an amount allegedly requested by Edwards ) , Muransky testified : " Maybe Steve Young , Jerry Rice , " referring to the star player on the 49ers .
= = = Post @-@ trial business = = =
DeBartolo had Muransky placed on the board of directors of the DeBartolo Corporation after reaching a plea agreement which left him ( DeBartolo ) a convicted felon and precluded him from serving on the corporate board . Eventually , after DeBartolo became involved in the corruption , he turned over control of the 49ers to his sister . DeBartolo and Muransky reportedly went through an acrimonious breakup in 2002 . Following the break with DeBartolo , Muransky moved with his family back to Youngstown .
In 2007 , Muransky , as owner of Muransky Co. and Southwoods Surgical Center in Boardman , Ohio , filed for monetary damages and dissolution of a joint venture intended to open a full @-@ service , for @-@ profit hospital in southern Mahoning County . Muransky told The Vindicator : " I 'm very disappointed for this community . There was an absolute opportunity to grow the health system ... In a few years , we are going to find ourselves having to drive to Akron and Pittsburgh and Cleveland for health care because it is no longer available here . I 'm dumbfounded it has come to this . " Muransky said one of the reasons he came back to Youngstown was to use his skills to give back to the community .
Ed also serves as Founder , Chairman and CEO of Chestnut Land Company , the holding company for Auntie Anne ’ s Soft Pretzel franchises operating throughout the United States . He successfully operates almost 70 stores under this franchise name , with locations in 15 states .
= H.A.T.E.U. =
" H.A.T.E.U. " ( acronym for " Having A Typical Emotional Upset " ) is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her twelfth studio album , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) . It was written and produced by Carey , Tricky Stewart , and The @-@ Dream . It was released as the third single from the album on November 1 , 2009 , for radio airplay in the United States . It is a down @-@ tempo R & B love song about Carey wishing for the love and pain she feels from a break @-@ up to turn into hate so she can get over the relationship . The song garnered a positive response from music critics , with many ranking it amongst the best on the album . The song 's music video was directed by Brett Ratner in Malibu , and features Carey in a variety of swimsuits walking along the beach . She has performed the track live on Today and Late Show with David Letterman . " H.A.T.E.U. " reached number 72 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
= = Production = =
" H.A.T.E.U. " was written and produced by Mariah Carey , Tricky Stewart , and The @-@ Dream for Carey 's twelfth studio album , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) . It was one of the first songs to be written for the album . It was copyright 2009 by Rye Songs , which is administered by Songs of Universal ( BMI ) / WB Music Publishing ( ASCAP / Songs of Peer / March 9 Publishing ( ASCAP ) . It was recorded by Chris " Tex " O 'Ryan and Brian Garten The Boom Boom Room in Burbank and Honeywest Studios in New York City . They were assisted by Luis Navarro and Keith Gretlein . It was mixed by Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler ( for Penua Project / Innersound Management ) at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , and was assisted by Giancarlo Lino .
On May 20 , 2009 , L.A. Reid hosted an event called the Island Def Jam Spring Collection , where he " unveiled his latest muses " . He premiered " H.A.T.E.U. " by Carey as well as music videos by Kanye West , The @-@ Dream , and Fabolous . A low @-@ quality snippet of the song leaked onto the internet the following day , three months before the album 's initial release date of August 25 .
= = Composition = =
A down @-@ tempo R & B love song , " H.A.T.E.U. " is an acronym for " Having A Typical Emotional Upset " . Lyrically , the song is about reaching the point following a break @-@ up where Carey no longer feels love or pain and it turns into hate . The refain consists of Carey repeating the lyrics " I can 't wait to hate you " . The singer employs her lower register in a " narcotized vocal haze " which places emphasis on the pain and struggling endured between two people who are no longer in a relationship together .
In an interview for YouTube posted on December 24 , 2009 , Carey elaborated on the lyrical meaning , saying that it " really hits people in their hearts because it 's like ... everybody has experienced when you love somebody , and they let you go , but you can 't let them go . So ' I can 't wait to hate you ' is a strong statement " . Michaelangelo Matos of The A.V. Club compared the seagull chirp " vocal acrobatic " sung by Carey during the track 's climax to the whistle notes she sings on her 1991 single " Emotions " .
= = Release and remixes = =
The song was released as the album 's third single to contemporary hit / Top 40 , rhythmic contemporary , and urban contemporary radio stations in the United States on November 1 , 2009 . Carey revealed that she intended to re @-@ release Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel as a remix album in early 2010 , titled Angels Advocate , consisting of remixes of the standard songs with new featured artists , including Mary J. Blige , Snoop Dogg , Trey Songz , R. Kelly , T @-@ Pain , Gucci Mane , and OJ da Juiceman .
OJ da Juiceman confirmed that he had recorded his verse for a remix of " H.A.T.E.U. " in November 2009 . In an interview for MTV News , he revealed his shock at being telephoned by Jermaine Dupri to record some vocals for the remix of " H.A.T.E.U " alongside Gucci Mane and Big Boi . Juiceman said that his verse took ten minutes to record . It contains a sample of " My Boo " by Ghost Town DJ 's . A writer for DJ Booth wrote that the remixes produced by Dupri sped up the slow tempo of the original version and added some percussion . He continued to write that while the remix is not superior to the original , but it is catchier and more likely to receive radio airplay .
" Angels Cry " and " Up Out My Face " from Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel were released as remix singles , with Ne @-@ Yo featured on the former and Nicki Minaj on the latter . A release date of February 23 , 2010 was slated , and then pushed back to March 9 . It was then further pushed back to March 30 . However , it was confirmed in March 2010 that production of Angels Advocate had halted and the project had been shelved indefinitely . Island Def Jam stated that the singer was instead working on a new project and " new surprises " . Metro revealed that Carey was either recording a new studio album or possibly a Christmas album . Jason Nevins produced a remix called " H.A.T.E.U. " ( Jason Nevins " Loves U " Remix ) for the Just Dance 3 soundtrack released in June 2010 .
= = Critical reception = =
" H.A.T.E.U. " received positive reviews from critics . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that " H.A.T.E.U. " has an " ease " about it which is similar to previous single releases by Carey . Bill Lamb of About.com described the track as " sad " and placed it in his list of the album 's top four tracks . Rap @-@ Up also included " H.A.T.E.U. " in their top four tracks of the album .
The Seattle Times writer Mesfin Fekadu described the song as " a beautiful heartbreak ballad " . Melinda Newman of HitFix commented that despite the name of the song , it is not a rant , and that it is a " bittersweet " ballad about love . Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy thought that the track was " one of the prettiest and most effective " on the album . Michael Cragg of musicOMH felt that Carey achieved a balance of " simplicity with urgency " on the track .
A writer for DJ Booth noted that Carey 's confidence on the lead single " Obsessed " bordered on aggression , and that the residual energy from the track carried over to other songs on the album , including " H.A.T.E.U. " and " Up Out My Face " , whereby she was " ready for war " . Kathy Iandoli of HipHopDX criticized Carey 's vocals , writing : " An attempted whistle @-@ tone at the close of ' H.A.T.E.U. ' doesn 't necessarily indicate that Carey ’ s pipes are rusting , but perhaps she 's succeeding more with less blustery vocals these days " .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " H.A.T.E.U. " was directed by Brett Ratner in Malibu . It was made available to download on iTunes on December 8 , 2009 .
The video starts with Carey walking down some steps onto the beach wearing a black bathing suit and high heel shoes , which she takes off when she gets to the bottom and walks onto the sand . Carey is seen in different shots standing next to a cliff @-@ face as well as in the middle of the beach for the majority of the video . For the bridge , Carey is seen in multiple different shots as she walks along the shoreline , which changes as the last verse takes place , where her outfit changes from a black bathing suit to a different style white bathing suit whilst the sun sets in the background . As the video comes to an end , the scenery has changed to nighttime , and Carey is wearing another black bathing suit with a black jacket standing against a rock @-@ face . Carey then inscribes into the sand " H.A.T.E.U. " using her fingers , which she underlines as the video fades to black . The video is also inter @-@ cut throughout with shots of the scenery on the beach . Rap @-@ Up described the video as " picturesque " . Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy wrote that it is a " slow @-@ mo , beachwear fashion show " . He continued , " Equally depressed by the end of a relationship and inspired by the scenery , Mimi spends a few minutes suggestively touching herself and staring into the middle distance . What becomes of the broken @-@ hearted ? "
= = Live performances = =
On October 2 , 2009 , Carey performed a four @-@ track set list on NBC 's Today . She began with her 1992 single " Make It Happen " , followed by " Obsessed " and " I Want to Know What Love Is " . She concluded with " H.A.T.E.U. " On November 13 , 2009 , Carey performed the track on the Late Show with David Letterman .
= = Charts = =
= = Radio release history = =
= H @-@ 33 ( Michigan county highway ) =
H @-@ 33 is a county @-@ designated highway in the Upper Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan between Gould City and McMillan that was previously M @-@ 135 , a former state trunkline highway . The roadway follows Manistique Lakes Road from Gould City at a junction with US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) near Lake Michigan north to M @-@ 28 near McMillan . The northern section of the highway is also called County Road 135 ( CR 135 ) in Luce County .
From 1929 until 1960 , the road was part of the state highway system as M @-@ 135 . The northern end of the highway always contained a section that ran concurrently with M @-@ 98 , another state highway in the area . For a period in the 1950s , M @-@ 135 had a different northern terminus separate from M @-@ 98 's endpoint . A few years before both highways were removed from the highway system , M @-@ 135 was moved to use M @-@ 98 's terminus with M @-@ 28 . Since the 1970s , M @-@ 135 has been a part of the county @-@ designated highway system and assigned the number H @-@ 33 , a moniker it has borne since .
= = Route description = =
H @-@ 33 begins at an intersection with US 2 just west of Gould City . From there the route travels due north through woodlands on Manistique Lakes Road , passing by Mitten and South Manistique lakes . The road crosses Norton and Strom creeks near South Manistique Lake before entering the community of Curtis . In that town , H @-@ 33 intersects the eastern end of H @-@ 42 . North of Curtis , H @-@ 33 passes Manistique Lake as the road crosses the Mackinac – Luce county line . North of the line , H @-@ 33 has also been designated CR 135 by the Luce County Road Commission .
Continuing north , the roadway enters the community of Helmer where it meets a junction with the eastern terminus of the eastern H @-@ 44 ( CR 98 , Ten Curves Road ) near North Manistique Lake . The roadway also crosses Locke Creek , which flows into that lake . After H @-@ 33 leaves Helmer , it continues northward to a junction with North Road Lake Road ( CR 438 ) and Sampsell Road ( CR 417 ) . Manistique Lakes Road turns to the east , replacing North Round Lake Road , and H @-@ 33 follows suit . The road continues to a junction with M @-@ 28 just south of McMillan near East Lake . There H @-@ 33 terminates near farms and several small business .
= = History = =
In 1929 , M @-@ 135 was designated , creating the concurrency along the last several miles of M @-@ 98 . In late 1949 or early 1950 , M @-@ 28 was realigned to take an angled route southeasterly out of McMillan . The east – west section of the previous M @-@ 28 routing was added to M @-@ 98 while the north – south segment was added to M @-@ 135 . By the middle of 1958 , M @-@ 135 was shifted to follow M @-@ 98 , removing the roadway section added to its routing previously ; this change made M @-@ 98 and M @-@ 135 concurrent north of Helmer all the way to M @-@ 28 once again . M @-@ 135 was removed from the state trunkline system in late 1960 or early 1961 , and the designation was decommissioned at that time . The M @-@ 135 designation has not been reused since . The routing was then assigned as County Road H @-@ 33 after October 5 , 1970 , The road has retained that designation ever since .
= = Major intersections = =
= Music of the Katamari Damacy series =
Katamari Damacy ( 塊魂 , lit . " Clump Spirit " ) is a third @-@ person puzzle @-@ action video game that was published and developed by Namco for the PlayStation 2 video game console . The success of the game led to the release of five sequels in Japan and other territories : We Love Katamari , Me & My Katamari , Beautiful Katamari , Katamari Damacy Mobile , I Love Katamari , and Katamari Forever . It also inspired a spin @-@ off game , a Tetris @-@ like Korogashi Puzzle Katamari Damacy . The music of the Katamari Damacy series refers to the soundtracks to all of these games , five of which have been released as albums . Katamari Fortissimo Damacy , a soundtrack album for the original game , was released by Columbia Music Entertainment in 2004 , Katamari wa Damacy was released as a soundtrack album for We Love Katamari by Columbia Music Entertainment in 2005 , and Katamari Original Soundtrack Damacy was released in 2006 as a soundtrack album for Me & My Katamari by the same publisher and also included tracks from We Love that were not included in its album . Katamari Suteki Damacy was released by Columbia Music Entertainment in 2007 as a soundtrack album for Beautiful Katamari , and the latest album , Katamari Damacy Tribute Original Soundtrack : Katamari Takeshi , was released in 2009 by Columbia Music Entertainment as the soundtrack album for Katamari Forever . The soundtracks to the other Katamari games have been composed of tracks from previous games in the series , and have not had separate album releases .
Both the soundtracks and their associated albums have been well received by reviewers , who have cited the " catchiness " and " quirkiness " of the music as their most notable features . The soundtrack to Katamari Damacy won both IGN 's and GameSpot 's " Soundtrack of the Year 2004 " awards , while the theme song to We Love Katamari was awarded Best Original Vocal / Pop Song at the 4th Annual Game Audio Network Guild awards in 2006 . None of the other soundtracks have been nominated for any awards . They were still well received by reviewers , with the music of the PlayStation Portable game Me & My Katamari receiving the weakest reviews due to its extensive reuse of songs from previous games in the series .
= = Katamari Damacy = =
Katamari Damacy is a third @-@ person puzzle @-@ action video game that was published and developed by Namco for the PlayStation 2 in 2004 . The music in the game was widely hailed as imaginative and original , and was considered one of its top selling points . Its eclectic composition featured elements of traditional electronic video game music , as well as heavy jazz and samba influences . The tracks were composed by multiple composers , with Yuu Miyake composing the most at seven and acting as the sound director ; other composers for the game were Asuka Sakai , Akitaka Tohyama , Yoshihito Yano , Yuri Misumi , and Hideki Tobeta . Many of the tracks feature vocals from popular J @-@ pop singers such as Yui Asaka and anime voice actors such as Nobue Matsubara and Ado Mizumori . Miyake has stated that they chose the artists by looking for " Japanese singers who were well @-@ known in Japan but nobody had heard from in awhile [ sic ] for whatever reason " . Miyake wanted to use vocal songs because he felt that they were necessary " to make music that only Katamari Damacy could do , really fun music " . He has said that game director Keita Takahashi did not give detailed directions on the sound design of the game , allowing Miyake and his team to instead create whatever they felt would fit best .
The artists were chosen after the lyrics were written , and were selected based on how well Miyake and Takahashi felt they would " gel with the world of Katamari Damacy and the content of the song lyrics " . They were also chosen to create a " pretty silly , goofy selection of singers " that would appeal to " a broad spectrum of people from different generations " . Once the lyrics and singers had been chosen , the music was written specifically for each artist with the intention of creating songs that were " familiar " but not " trendy " so that they would not seem dated in the future . The " humming " in the opening song , described by Miyake as " na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ Katamari " , was included as an experiment by Miyake to try to create a " memorable " theme associated with the game , in response to criticisms that modern game music was not as memorable as that of older games . Miyake says that " Cherry Tree Times " is his favorite piece from the series .
Katamari Fortissimo Damacy ( 塊フォルテッシモ魂 , Katamari Forutesshimo Damashii , lit . " Clump Fortissimo Spirit " ) is the soundtrack album to the game . It includes all of the tracks featured in the game , as well as an additional track , " Katamari March Damacy " , a bonus song that was not included in the game . The album has 21 tracks that span a duration of 1 : 15 : 13 . It was released on May 19 , 2004 by Columbia Music Entertainment with the catalog number COCX @-@ 32760 .
The soundtrack to Katamari Damacy won both IGN 's and GameSpot 's " Soundtrack of the Year 2004 " awards . It was also nominated for " Outstanding Achievement in Original Musical Composition " at the 8th annual Interactive Achievement Awards in February 2005 . In GameSpot 's review of the game , they described the soundtrack as based around a " singular , extremely catchy theme " that appeared as pop , jazz , and humming throughout the " insidiously infectious " music . IGN 's review of the game said that " not since Mario created its everlasting tune have we heard tracks so catchy and so genuine " . The soundtrack album was praised in a review by Square Enix Music Online , who said that in addition to the music being " outside the box " , the soundtrack " fits with the graphics and game play in every way possible " , is " extremely pleasing to the ears " , and " could very well be a great album with no game attached " . He described the music as " fun " , " catchy " , and " quirky " and highly recommended the album . The album reached # 191 on the Japanese Oricon charts .
= = We Love Katamari = =
We Love Katamari ( みんな大好き塊魂 , Minna Daisuki Katamari Damashii , roughly " Everyone Loves Clump Spirit " ) , is the sequel to Katamari Damacy published by Namco for the PlayStation 2 in 2005 . It features music from Namco composers Yuu Miyake , Akitaka Tohyama , Asuka Sakai , Hideki Tobeta , and Katsuro Tajima , all of whom except for Tajima had composed for the previous soundtrack . Like the previous soundtrack , it also features a plethora of Japanese artists , including DOKAKA , Illreme , Arisa , KIRINJI , YOU , Karie Kahimi , Maki Nomiya and Shigeru Matsuzaki . The music has been described as covering styles ranging from swing and techno to J @-@ pop and " other kooky sounds " . Sound director Yuu Miyake has stated that he wanted to use only non @-@ Japanese musicians in contrast to the first game using only Japanese artists , but was unable due to a " lack of foreign friends and ability to negotiate " . He has stated that his goal for the soundtrack was to take what his team had done for the first game and raise the quality , creating a " more grown @-@ up feeling " . He originally wanted to additionally take the music " far beyond imagination " and fans ' expectations , but was stymied by a lack of resources .
Katamari wa Damacy ( 塊は魂 , Katamari wa Damashii ) is the official soundtrack album for the game . It does not include all the music from the game , omitting many of the instrumental tracks heard throughout the game . These omissions were later added on the second disc of the soundtrack album of Me & My Katamari . The album was published by Columbia Music Entertainment on July 20 , 2005 with the catalog number COCX @-@ 33273 ; its 18 tracks span a duration of 1 : 19 : 53 .
We Love Katamari was nominated for the " best audio " award at the 2005 British Academy of Film and Television Arts awards . While the soundtrack as a whole did not win any awards like its predecessor , " Katamari on the Swing " won the award for Best Original Vocal / Pop Song at the 4th Annual Game Audio Network Guild awards in 2006 . The album reached # 100 on the Japanese Oricon charts . GameSpot 's review of the game termed the music " utterly avant @-@ garde " and a " completely off @-@ the @-@ wall soundtrack that has the same key themes as the first game " , though " decidedly less focused on catchiness " than that of the first game and more " experimental " . Square Enix Music Online , in their review of the soundtrack album , said that it " pretty much lives up to the original 's reputation " and is full of " lots of great original compositions that fit with the concept " . While they said that the soundtrack has " more flaws and it 's a bit less memorable " than the soundtrack to Katamari Damacy , it was still " just as fun and as quirky as the last " .
= = Me & My Katamari = =
Me & My Katamari ( 僕の私の塊魂 , Boku no Watashi no Katamari Damashii , lit . " Our Clump Spirit " ) is the third game in the series , and was released on the PlayStation Portable by Namco in 2005 . Its soundtrack was primarily composed of tracks from the previous two games , and has been described as " ranging from smoky lounge music to bleepy Japanese pop songs " . The new tracks were composed by Yuu Miyake , Yuri Misawa , Hideki Tobeta , Yoshihito Yano , Akitaka Tohyama , and Naoki Tohyama ; Misawa and Tohyama were new composers to the series , while Miyake reprised his role from the previous two games as sound director .
Katamari Original Soundtrack Damacy ( 塊オリジナルサウンドトラック魂 , Katamari Orijinaru Saundotorakku Damashii ) is the soundtrack album for the game . In addition to the new tracks , it includes previously unreleased tracks from We Love Katamari as tracks 10 @-@ 17 on the first disc . Its second disc is made up of orchestral arrangements of previous tracks , tracks from other Namco games , three ambient noise tracks , two taiko drum tracks , and one a cappella track . The album was released by Columbia Music Entertainment on December 26 , 2005 with the catalog numbers COCX @-@ 33517 ~ 8 . Its 37 tracks have a total length of 1 : 48 : 55 .
In their review of the game , GameSpot called the music " catchy and eclectic " , though they disapproved of the amount of reused tracks from previous Katamari games . IGN was more ambivalent , saying that while they had no complaints about the music , they also saw " nothing to really praise either " . Square Enix Music Online , in their review of the album , said that the album 's " lack of humorous vocal tracks and high quality experimental instrumentals " meant that it did not match up to the previous soundtracks in the series . They additionally felt that the second disc did not add much to the album , and that on the whole the new Me & My Katamari tracks were not strong or numerous enough to make the purchase worthwhile . Unlike the previous two soundtracks in the series , the soundtrack to Me & My Katamari did not win any awards .
Track list
= = Beautiful Katamari = =
Beautiful Katamari ( ビューティフル塊魂 , Byūtifuru Katamari Damashii , lit . " Beautiful Clump Spirit " ) , is a video game produced by Namco Bandai for the Xbox 360 in 2007 . Like previous games in the series , its music was composed by a large number of composers : Yuri Misumi , Yuu Miyake , Hiroto Sasaki , Akitaka Tohyama , and Yoshito Yano returned as previous composers for the series , and were joined by Rio Hamamoto , Yuji Masubuchi , Keiichi Okabe , Hiroto Sasaki , Tetsuya Uchida , and Ryo Watanabe . Yuu Miyake did not reprise his role as sound director for the game ; this role was instead filled by Tetsuya Uchida . The music for Beautiful Katamari has been described as " the same sort of mix of J @-@ pop , techno @-@ infused jazz , and ambient electro " as that of the original game . Unlike Me & My Katamari , the majority of the music for the game was original , though a few tracks from earlier in the series were remixed .
Katamari Suteki Damacy ( 塊ステキ魂 , Katamari Suteki Damashii , lit . " Clump Lovely Spirit " ) is the soundtrack album for the game . The album has 17 tracks and has a length of 1 : 10 : 04 ; it was published by Columbia Music Entertainment on November 21 , 2007 with the catalog number COCX @-@ 34602 .
GameSpot , in their review of the game , termed the music " one of the quirkiest and most oddly listenable soundtracks in gaming " , and said that it fit the mood of the game as well as the soundtrack to the first two games . Square Enix Music Online , in their review of the soundtrack album , said that while it had " a lot of original worth " , that it was not any better than the first two soundtrack albums of the series and instead came across as more of the same . They termed the album overall as a " bit underwhelming " and marred by a few " dud " tracks . The album reached # 253 on the Japanese Oricon charts .
= = Katamari Forever = =
Katamari Forever , known in Japan as Katamari Damacy TRIBUTE ( 塊魂TRIBUTE , lit . " Katamari Damashii Tribute " ) , was released for the PlayStation 3 in 2009 by Namco Bandai . The music for the game includes a number of remixed tracks from previous iterations of the series , using a combination of " electric " and " organic " sounds according to the sound director Yuu Miyake . Miyake employed the help of over 20 other Japanese artists and remixers to help the soundtrack , which was designed to act as part of a " musical trilogy " with the soundtrack to Katamari Damacy and We Love Katamari . This was accomplished by choosing tracks from those games that were either fan or staff favorites and having them remixed by both Japanese and non @-@ Japanese artists , though Miyake notes that the majority of the artists were Japanese as he did not know many non @-@ Japanese musicians , the same problem that kept non @-@ Japanese artists out of the first two soundtracks of the " trilogy " . Miyake has stated that focusing so much on using music from earlier in the series made it very challenging to still allow each artist to explore their creativity , and does not intend to repeat this strategy if a new game is ever made .
Katamari Damacy Tribute Original Soundtrack : Katamari Takeshi ( 「 塊魂トリビュート 」 オリジナル ・ サウンドトラック ) is the soundtrack album for the game . It was released on August 19 , 2009 by Columbia Music Entertainment with the catalog numbers COCX @-@ 35745 ~ 6 . Its 36 tracks on two discs span a duration of 2 : 38 : 21 . The musical styles used in the soundtrack have been described as an " eclectic mix of sunny J @-@ pop , throbbing dance music , jolly jazz , and more " .
GameSpot , in their review of the game , said that Katamari Forever " carries on the series ' tradition of wildly catchy soundtracks " and said that the remixes of the older songs " sound terrific " . PALGN concurred , calling it a " great soundtrack " . The album was received warmly by reviewers such as Square Enix Music Online , who said that it was full of " fresh , diverse , and often downright weird remixes " . Describing it as much more of a spiritual successor to the original game 's soundtrack than the prior sequels , they said that it kept the " upbeat , humorous , and sentimental feel " of the songs in the original while taking them in new directions . The album reached # 158 on the Japanese Oricon charts .
= = Touch My Katamari = =
Touch My Katamari , known in Japan as Katamari Damacy No @-@ Vita ( 塊魂ノビータ , Katamari Damashī Nobīta ) , is a video game produced by Namco Bandai Games for the PlayStation Vita in 2011 . As has become commonplace for the series , its music was composed by a large number of composers : a large team headed by Taku Inoue included series veteran Yuu Miyake , Ken Inaoka , BAKUBAKU DOKIN , Akitaka Tohyama , Hiroyuki Kawada , Yoshihito Yano , Yuichi Nakamura , Hiroshi Okubo , and Trine . The music includes both original pieces as well as many remixes of pieces from prior games , such as a new version of " Lonely Rolling Star " . Inoue was charged by Miyake with making the music of the game " newer and fresher " , as Miyake was tired of the series repeating the same concepts , and Inoue attempted to impart his own style into the original pieces and to use new styles of arrangements .
The music was released in several forms . First , as a soundtrack album , Katamari Damacy Novita Original Soundtrack : Katamori Damacy ( 塊魂ノ ･ ビ ～ タ オリジナルサウンドトラック 「 かたもりだましい 」 ) , which contains 16 tracks and has a length of 1 : 12 : 12 . It was published by Columbia Music Entertainment on December 21 , 2011 with the catalog number COCX @-@ 37131 . An additional two digital @-@ only publications of songs from the game , titled Kamatari Damacy - Touch My Katamari Original Sound Track 2 and Katamari Aventur Damacy - Touch My Katamari Original Sound Track 3 , were released on April 10 , 2012 and November 20 , 2012 , with eleven and three songs and lengths of 33 : 01 and 10 : 10 , respectively .
Christopher Huynh of Video Game Music Online ( formerly Square Enix Music Online ) , in their review of Katamori Damacy , felt that the soundtrack had the energy of the first few soundtracks in the series , while providing a more cohesive experience by not including " filler " tracks like previous albums .
= Ramone Moore =
Ramone Edward Moore , Jr . ( born May 27 , 1989 ) is an American professional basketball player .
He attended South Philadelphia High School , where he was coached by George Anderson . Moore led the Philadelphia Public League in scoring as a senior and earned Public League MVP honors . He enrolled at Temple as a non @-@ scholarship student and redshirted his freshman year . As a redshirt sophomore , he was the Atlantic 10 Sixth Man of the Year . As a junior , he was an All @-@ Atlantic 10 Second Team selection after leading the team in scoring and more than doubling his points per game average .
= = Early life and high school career = =
Moore was born on May 27 , 1989 in Philadelphia , the son of Ramone Moore , Sr. and Stephanie Pugh . The younger Moore spent his childhood on the basketball court , playing until nightfall to hone his skills . He attended South Philadelphia High School , the alma mater of basketball players Nate Blackwell and Lionel Simmons . He played on the school basketball team , the Rams , and was coached by George Anderson . As a junior , he was named All @-@ Philadelphia Public League honorable mention .
In Moore 's senior year , he led the Public League in scoring with 25 @.@ 1 points per game and was named Public League Most Valuable Player . He finished his career at South Philadelphia High with 1 @,@ 186 points . He was on the All @-@ State Second Team and the Philadelphia Daily News named him to their All @-@ City Team . In addition , Moore participated in the All @-@ Star Labor Classic . Hoop Scoop named him the 166th best player in the Class of 2007 . On January 9 , 2007 , Moore committed to Temple University over the University of Nebraska . He said that he originally wanted to move out of the city , but Nebraska was simply too far . Ultimately , his relationship with Temple coach Fran Dunphy , who began recruiting Moore at a summer Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) event , proved to be the deciding factor . Moore said that he " not only know what kind of coach [ Dunphy ] ' s going to be , but he 's going to help turn me into a man . "
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
To improve his academic profile , Moore planned to attend American Christian School in Aston , Pennsylvania , but a new NCAA rule was instituted that limited the number of core classes able to be taken at a prep school . Lacking the required number of credits to receive an athletic scholarship , he enrolled at Temple as a non @-@ scholarship student and sat out his freshman year as a redshirt . In his freshman debut the following year , he scored 11 points against East Tennessee State . Moore followed that performance up with a double @-@ double of 11 points and 10 rebounds versus the College of Charleston , and a season @-@ high 13 points in a loss to Clemson . As a freshman , Moore averaged 4 @.@ 5 points and 2 @.@ 3 rebounds per game in 13 @.@ 2 minutes of playing time . After his 13th game , he was suspended due to Temple eligibility rules and did not play in the remainder of the season .
= = = Sophomore = = =
In his sophomore season , Moore played 34 games , starting five , and averaged 7 @.@ 6 points and 3 @.@ 0 rebounds per game . In the November 17 game against Georgetown , with Temple maintaining a one point lead with 23 seconds left , Moore missed the front end of a one @-@ and @-@ one foul shot . Afterwards , Greg Monroe of Georgetown hit a layup to give the Hoyas a 46 – 45 victory . The following game against Siena , Moore was at the foul line with a one @-@ point lead and , with 22 seconds left , hit both free throws to hand Temple a 73 – 69 victory . He increased his scoring average to 9 @.@ 8 points per game in conference play , receiving more minutes due to a head injury to teammate Juan Fernandez . On February 20 , 2010 , he scored a season @-@ high 24 points in an overtime victory over city rival Saint Joseph 's , and made a critical fullcourt layup with 1 @.@ 5 seconds left to send the game into overtime . Moore helped Temple to a 29 – 5 record and a third consecutive Atlantic 10 conference tournament title and an automatic bid to the NCAA Tournament . He was named Atlantic 10 Sixth Man of the year .
= = = Junior = = =
Prior to his junior season , Moore participated in workouts in Houston with Houston Rocket and former Villanova Wildcat Kyle Lowry . The workouts focused on three point shooting , and Moore improved his percentages from 12 @.@ 5 percent as a sophomore to 38 @.@ 3 percent as a junior . His averages increased as well , to 15 @.@ 2 points per game , a team high , and 4 @.@ 2 rebounds per game , while also being the only Temple player to start all 34 games . On December 9 , 2010 , Moore scored a season @-@ high 30 points in a 68 – 65 upset of Georgetown . He shot 12 @-@ for @-@ 18 in the game , which was coach Fran Dunphy 's 400th career victory . During the season , Moore scored in double @-@ digits in 15 straight games .
Moore led Temple to a 26 – 8 record and a seven seed in the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . He had 23 points as they defeated tenth @-@ seeded Penn State in the Round of 64 , 66 – 64 . Moore finished with 17 points against San Diego State , but the Owls fell in double overtime . He was named to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 Second Team at the conclusion of the regular season and was a Philadelphia Big Five First Team honoree . He was recognized as an All @-@ Fourth District second @-@ team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All ‐ America teams . Since the Atlantic 10 Conference was its own district , this is equivalent to being named second team All @-@ Atlantic 10 by the NABC . Moore considered entering the 2011 NBA Draft to receive NBA evaluations , but decided not to fill out the paperwork .
= = = Senior = = =
Moore was a Preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team selection as a senior . He changed his jersey number from 23 to 10 in honor of his cousin Zaire , who died in a car crash in the summer of 2011 at the age of 10 . He told that he wants to be an NBA player , but that he 's ready to play even elsewhere .
He was named to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team at the conclusion of the regular season . He was recognized as an All @-@ Fourth District first @-@ team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All @-@ America teams . According to the Sporting News , Moore was the Player of the Year in the Atlantic 10 .
= = Professional career = =
On December 19 , 2012 , Moore was acquired by the Springfield Armor of the NBA D @-@ League after he had stints in Italy for Pallacanestro Biella and Israel for Hapoel Tel Aviv B.C ..
On August 29 , 2013 , Moore 's rights were acquired by the Delaware 87ers in the 2013 NBA Development League Expansion Draft .
In September 2013 , he signed with Alba Fehérvár in Hungary .
= = Statistics = =
= = = NCAA = = =
= Bart the Lover =
" Bart the Lover " is the sixteenth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 13 , 1992 . In the episode Mrs. Edna Krabappel , Bart 's teacher , feels increasingly isolated and , looking for a companion , places a personal ad in the newspaper . Bart , who was given a month 's detention for breaking the class fish tank with his yo @-@ yo , decides to get revenge by responding to the ad . He creates a new adult male alter ego named Woodrow , inspired by a picture of former President Woodrow Wilson , and Mrs. Krabappel becomes infatuated with " Woodrow " . Meanwhile , Ned Flanders asks Homer to cut down on his swearing , so Homer starts using a swear jar .
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Carlos Baeza . Vitti had wanted an episode centered on Mrs. Krabappel that examined what it was like to have Bart as a student . It was the first episode of the show to feature her in a prominent role . The subplot where Homer tries to clean up his language was written partially in response to the many complaints the show had been getting about the amount of cursing on the show . Woodrow 's voice was performed by Harry Shearer , who did an impression of Ricardo Montalbán . The picture Bart sends Edna is of NHL and WHA star Gordie Howe . The writers had originally wanted to use a picture of American football player Johnny Unitas , but were unable to get the rights to use his image for free .
In its original airing on the Fox Network during February sweeps , the episode had a 12 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating , finishing the week ranked 29th , up from the season 's average . Marcia Wallace , the voice of Mrs. Krabappel , won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for her role in the episode .
= = Plot = =
Springfield Elementary School teacher Mrs. Edna Krabappel feels increasingly lonely , and , searching for love , places a personal ad in the newspaper . A yo @-@ yo craze sweeps through the school after a group of four demonstrate the potential of the toys . Bart breaks the class fish tank with his yo @-@ yo , and is given one month of detention by Mrs. Krabappel . While snooping in her desk to take back his yo @-@ yo , he discovers her personal ad and decides to get revenge on her , by pulling a prank and responding by mail . He creates a new adult male alter ego named Woodrow , after former President Woodrow Wilson . Mrs. Krabappel responds by sending a suggestive photograph . Bart writes a response to Edna using lines from an old love letter Homer had sent Marge .
Meanwhile , Marge notices that their dog Santa 's Little Helper needs a new dog house . She wants to buy one , but Homer says that he can save money by building one instead . His infuriating attempts at constructing the dog house cause him to curse loud enough for Todd Flanders to overhear . Todd says " hell no " and " damn " at the dinner table , so his father Ned tries to find out where he learned such language - with possibilities being bumper stickers , comic books , Grandma , television and his elder brother Rod . Ned discovers that Homer is the source when he and his kids hear him curse in frustration after getting his jacket stuck to a piece of wood in another failed attempt to build a dog house . He complains to Homer , who in turn criticizes Ned 's mustache . Ned promises to shave off his mustache in return for Homer 's curtailing uses of profanity . When Homer claims that it is too late for him to stop , Marge disagrees and reveals her own experience with her father 's cursing that lead her mother to use a swear jar . Homer promises to put money in a " swear jar " - 25 cents for each curse . The next couple of days he keeps his word to put money inside the jar for every time he uses profanity in frustration ( this including accidentally placing a 20 dollar note in the church collection plate , failing to knock down all the pins while bowling , seeing a newly clean shaven Ned who got hired as a spokesman in a commercial , failing yet again to build a dog house and having a beehive fall on him while sleeping in a hammock ) until it gets to the point where he instead speaks calmly upon being injured ; " I 'm not going to swear , but I am going to KICK THIS DOGHOUSE DOWN ! " . Homer 's constant cursing puts more than enough money in the swear jar to purchase a dog house for Santa 's Little Helper , along with an added bonus ; Duff Beer for Homer for at least committing .
Edna asks " Woodrow " for a photograph , so Bart searches through a book called NHL Stars of 1969 and sends her a picture of hockey star Gordie Howe . Bart , as Woodrow , writes Mrs. Krabappel more letters , telling her what she wants to hear . He then sends a letter asking for them to meet at the Gilded Truffle . Bart sees Mrs. Krabappel waiting for Woodrow . Bart decides to watch a movie thinking Krabappel thinks " Woodrow " is on his way to meet her . But on his way back home he sees Mrs. Krabappel still waiting at the empty restaurant , all alone and on the verge of tears . Bart feels guilty to see her so sad .
Bart talks to Mrs. Krabappel after class and starts to feel worse about what he did when he is unable to console her . He confesses to the family what he has done , and , realizing the truth would humiliate her , they all write a poetic and loving letter to tell her why Woodrow must leave which makes Mrs. Krabappel feel better . On Bart 's last day of detention , Mrs. Krabbapel suggest they spend it outside and Bart agrees .
= = Production = =
The script for " Bart the Lover " was written by Jon Vitti , who wanted an episode centered on Mrs. Krabappel that examined what it was like to have Bart as a student . Executive producer Mike Reiss pitched the idea of having Bart answer Mrs. Krabappel 's personal ad . It was the first episode of the show to feature Mrs. Krabappel in a prominent role . The subplot where Homer tries to clean up his language was written partially in response to the many complaints the show had been getting about the language on the show . Near the end of the episode , there is a montage where Homer has a series of bad experiences that cause him to curse , although the scene always cuts out before he can be heard swearing . While recording Homer 's lines for that sequence , Dan Castellaneta was told to include the cursing . According to Mike Reiss , by coincidence , some eight @-@ year @-@ old children were allowed to visit the studio the day those lines were recorded . Reiss recalls that " their eyes were as big as saucers " after hearing Homer curse . The ending of the episode was largely pitched by James L. Brooks , who wanted a scene where the entire family got together to write Woodrow 's final letter to Edna .
The episode was directed by Carlos Baeza . In the background of the classroom , there are several portraits of past United States presidents . These were added for the scene where Bart tries to think of a name for his fictional letter writer , and sees a portrait of Woodrow Wilson . Woodrow 's voice was performed by Harry Shearer , who did an impression of Ricardo Montalbán . The picture Bart sends Edna is of NHL and WHA star Gordie Howe . The writers had originally wanted to use a picture of American football player Johnny Unitas , but were unable to get the rights to use his image for free . Howe , their second choice , was suggested by Al Jean , who had been a Detroit Red Wings fan growing up . At the end of the episode , Howe 's NHL and WHA statistics are shown because the writers decided to try something different in filling a slight time under @-@ run .
During the opening sequence in which Bart 's class watch a film about zinc , a character in the film tries to shoot himself in the head . The Fox censors objected to this , so the producers had to claim that the character was not aiming at his head . For the name of the yo @-@ yo trick that Bart performs for Milhouse , the writers had wanted to use a term that was slang for masturbation . They proposed several names to the censors , and " Plucking the Pickle " was the term they deemed acceptable .
= = Cultural references = =
The 1950s educational film at the beginning of the episode is a reference to old science movies that were often shown in classes when the writers were in school , specifically it was a parody of the 1940s educational short film " A Case of Spring Fever " ( later featured on Mystery Science Theater 3000 ) . The Twirl King yo @-@ yo champions are based on groups that companies like Duncan sent to schools to perform tricks . King Crimson guitarist Adrian Belew 's name appears on a paper Edna Krabappel is grading during detention . Todd Flanders watches a television show that features Gomer Pyle from Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C .. Bart sees the fictional movie Ernest Needs A Kidney , based on the character Ernest P. Worrell . Rod and Todd Flanders sing the song " Bringing in the Sheaves " , because the writers liked having them sing " obscure religious songs " .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing on the Fox Network during February sweeps , the episode had a 12 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating and was viewed in approximately 11 @.@ 88 million homes . It finished the week of February 10 – 16 , 1992 ranked 29th , up from the season 's average rank of 39th . The Simpsons was the second highest rated show on Fox that week , after Married ... with Children .
Marcia Wallace , the voice of Mrs. Krabappel , won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for her role in the episode . She was one of six voice @-@ actors from The Simpsons to win the award that year . She is one of three guest stars on the show to win the award . The other two are Jackie Mason , who shared the award in 1992 , and Kelsey Grammer who won in 2006 for voicing Sideshow Bob .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . It was named the eighth best episode of The Simpsons by Sarah Culp of The Quindecim . Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict said " Bart the Lover " represent The Simpsons " at its apex as a well tuned talent machine grinding out the good stuff with surprising accuracy and skill . " Gibron added that the episode shows that the made @-@ up romance between Mrs. Krabappel and Woodrow " works because it 's so painfully true . [ ... ] How the kiss @-@ off to Mrs. Krabappel is created and handled shows that The Simpsons has heart to add to its humor . " Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a 5 / 5 rating . He thought the intertwining of the two plots in the episode " works very well , creating a fast paced story . Bart 's alias , Woodrow , is a delight to hear in voice @-@ overs and Homer 's antics produce many laughs . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said " Bart the Lover " stands out as a " very strong episode " because it " steers clear of most potentially sappy material and offers a lively piece . [ ... ] The ' B ' story in which Homer tries not to swear also swings and creates some great moments . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said they " loved " Homer 's suggestion for the kiss @-@ off letter from Woodrow : " Dear Baby . Welcome to Dumpsville , population : you . P.S. I am gay . " In 2000 , the staff of the Star Tribune listed their top ten episodes . " Bart the Lover " was listed at number four .
In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed an education film seen in the episode among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " , writing : " ' Thank goodness I still live in a world of telephones , car batteries , handguns and many things made of zinc , ' says Jimmy , a character in an educational film . When confronted with a world without zinc he attempts suicide but fails , as his zinc @-@ free gun cannot work . " In 2002 , Bill Brioux of The Canadian Press ranked the episode and its use of Gordie Howe as the top reference to Canada on the show . In 2004 , ESPN released a list of the Top 100 Simpsons sport moments , ranking Gordie Howe 's image in the episode at number 34 .
In 2013 a Wired article described the episode as " the best Krabappel ( and arguably the best Simpsons ) episode " .
= Kakha Kaladze =
Kakhaber " Kakha " Kaladze ( Georgian : კახაბერ ( კახა ) კალაძე [ kʼaxabɛr kʼalad ͡ zɛ ] ; born 27 February 1978 ) is a Georgian politician and retired footballer , who played as a defender . A versatile player , he was capable of playing both as a centre @-@ back and as a left @-@ back . He played for the Georgia national team from 1996 to 2011 . He was voted Georgian Footballer of the Year in 2001 – 2003 , and 2006 and was considered as one of Georgia 's most important players .
Kaladze started his football career in 1993 at Umaglesi Liga club Dinamo Tbilisi and made 82 appearances in a five @-@ year spell . In 1998 , he moved to the Ukrainian club Dynamo Kyiv and made 71 appearances until 2001 , when he was signed by the Italian Serie A club Milan . He has won one Serie A , three Ukrainian Premier League and five Umaglesi Liga titles . With Milan , he won the Champions League on two occasions , the UEFA Super Cup once and the FIFA Club World Cup once . After captaining his country 50 times in 84 appearances , Kaladze announced his retirement from the Georgian national team on 11 December 2011 .
Born in Samtredia , a town in Imereti Province , Kaladze comes from a footballing family as his father played for Lokomotiv Samtredia and was also president of the team for some time . His brother was kidnapped in a high @-@ profile case in 2001 and officially declared dead in 2006 , resulting in two men being sentenced to prison for a combined total of 30 years . Outside of football , he owns a company called Kala Capital and an organisation called Kala Foundation , as well as being an ambassador for SOS Children 's Villages . He is married to Anouki Areshidze , with whom he has three children with .
Kaladze became involved in the politics of Georgia as a member of the opposition Georgian Dream – Democratic Georgia party , founded by Bidzina Ivanishvili in February 2012 . He was elected to the Parliament of Georgia on 1 October 2012 and approved as Deputy Prime Minister as well as Minister of Energy in the cabinet of Bidzina Ivanishvili on 25 October 2012 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Kaladze started his career playing as a striker for his local club Lokomotiv Samtredia , where his father was president , until former Georgia international footballer David Kipiani requested Kakha to join Dinamo Tbilisi . At Dinamo , he played in 82 domestic league games and scored one goal . He made his top @-@ flight debut as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old with Dinamo during the 1993 – 94 campaign . Kaladze claims that a good performance against Italy while playing for Georgia in a match that ended 0 – 0 brought him to the attention of Dynamo Kyiv ; he later said , " In that game I was up against Christian Vieri and I marked him well . "
A fee equivalent to € 280 @,@ 000 was enough to take him to the Ukrainian Premier League and Dynamo Kiev in January 1998 , where he signed a four @-@ year deal . Here he scored six goals in 71 league games over the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons he spent there . The Ukrainian club had been under the ownership of Hryhoriy Surkis and the late Valeriy Lobanovskyi had just been installed as manager ; they would go on to win eight consecutive league titles . Kaladze also appeared in both legs of the semi @-@ final of the 1998 – 99 Champions League against Bayern Munich , which Dynamo Kyiv lost 4 – 3 on aggregate . En route to the semi @-@ finals , they beat teams like Real Madrid , Barcelona and Arsenal . He won eight league titles in a row during his time at both Dinamo Tbilisi and Dynamo Kyiv .
= = = A.C. Milan = = =
In 2001 , Kaladze became the most expensive Georgian footballer in history when Milan paid € 16 million to bring him to Italy . He cited an injury to Aleksei Gerasimenko as his reason for leaving . At first , Kaladze was tried in different positions and faced competition for places in defense from players such as Jaap Stam and Cafu . In the 2002 – 03 season , however , he made 46 appearances in all competitions , including 27 Serie A appearances . That year , Milan won the Champions League , where they beat Juventus on penalties in the final ( despite Kaladze missing his penalty ) and the Coppa Italia , where they beat Roma 6 – 3 on aggregate in the final . After Kaladze 's double success , the Georgian postal service issued a special stamp bearing the player 's image . He is the first Georgian player to win a Champions League title .
Kaladze was limited to just six league appearances and 11 total appearances in the 2003 – 04 season . In the next season , Kaladze played just 19 Serie A matches and five in the Champions League as Milan finished as runners @-@ up in both competitions . He was an unused substitute in that season 's Champions League final , where Milan lost on penalties to Liverpool after a 3 – 3 draw . He was said to be frustrated with his lack of first @-@ team options and a move to Chelsea , in exchange for Hernán Crespo or for £ 4 million , was widely reported . Kaladze himself said , " I have agreed everything with the Chelsea management . Now it is necessary to wait for them to reach an agreement with Milan and I think I could become a Chelsea player next week . " Chelsea opted to sign Asier del Horno instead and Kaladze later declared himself " glad " that the deal fell through . On 30 June 2005 , he extended his contract with Milan until 2010 and again on 4 September 2006 , this time until 2011 . In 2005 – 06 , an injury to Paolo Maldini meant that Kaladze was moved back into the centre of defence , his favoured position . Milan finished third that season , although they would have finished second if there were no 2006 Italian football scandal which resulted in a 30 @-@ point deduction .
In the 2006 – 07 Serie A campaign , Kaladze scored a goal against Sampdoria which turned out to be his only goal of the season . Milan finished in fourth place with an eight @-@ point deduction relating to the previous season 's scandal . Kaladze won his second Champions League title on 23 May 2007 after Milan beat Liverpool 2 – 1 in the final ; he came on as a 79th @-@ minute substitute in that match . He later picked up the FIFA Club World Cup in December that year where Milan beat Boca Juniors 4 – 2 in the final , though Kaladze was one of two players to be sent off in that match . He had established himself as a first @-@ team regular in the 2007 – 08 season , making 32 appearances , but had only featured sparingly in the 2008 – 09 season due to a knee ligament injury sustained in a UEFA Cup match against Zürich . Kaladze 's performance in the 15 February 2009 Milan derby was described as a " horror show " on the Channel 4 website which started a dispute over an alleged smear campaign between Kaladze and the Georgian newspaper Lelo , who used the quote , " Milan really does need a new centre @-@ back after Kakha Kaladze ’ s horror show in the derby . " Milan finished third in the league that season , ten points behind Serie A champions Inter Milan ; Kaladze believed this was caused by the many injuries suffered by the Milan squad .
= = = Genoa = = =
On 31 August 2010 , Kaladze signed with Genoa ; Milan later revealed that it was a free transfer . In the 2010 – 11 season , he played 26 matches and scored one goal , which came against Parma on 30 January 2011 . He was named as second @-@ best defender of the 2010 – 11 Serie A by La Gazzetta dello Sport , being surpassed only by his former teammate , Milan 's Thiago Silva . On 12 May 2012 , Kaladze announced his retirement from football .
= = International career = =
Kaladze won his first cap against Cyprus in a friendly match on 27 March 1996 , coming on as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute for Mikhail Kavelashvili . Later that year , he was sent off for the first time in his international career against Lebanon in a friendly match . He subsequently featured in his country 's qualifying campaigns for the 1998 , 2002 , 2006 and 2010 FIFA World Cups , and the 2000 , 2004 and 2008 UEFA European Championships . Georgia , however , have never qualified for the FIFA World Cup or the UEFA European Championship since they split from the Soviet Union . His competitive debut was against Poland on 14 June 1997 in a 1998 World Cup qualifier ; Georgia lost the match 4 – 1 . Just two matches later , Kaladze was sent off for the second time playing for Georgia , along with Georgi Kinkladze , against Moldova in another 1998 World Cup qualifier . Georgia finished in fourth place in the group and failed to qualify . In qualifying for Euro 2000 , Georgia finished at the bottom of the group ( Group 2 ) in sixth place , with just one win . Kaladze occasionally captained the side during these qualifiers in the absence of Georgi Nemsadze .
The qualifiers for the 2002 World Cup ended with Georgia finishing in third place , ahead of Hungary and Lithuania . Kaladze played in all of the matches and often missed the friendlies in between . Kaladze only played in three matches during the Euro 2004 qualifiers , where Georgia finished in last place in the group . He did , however , feature in a 1 – 0 victory over neighbouring Russia , a victory considered to be one of Georgia 's greatest successes . Kaladze played in all but one of the 2006 World Cup qualifying matches , where Georgia finished sixth in the group , with Kazakhstan being the only team to finish below them . He played fewer matches during the qualification for Euro 2008 and once again Georgia failed to qualify as they finished in sixth place despite starting their campaign with a 6 – 0 win over the Faroe Islands .
He scored his first ever international goal against Latvia on 6 February 2008 in a friendly which Georgia lost 3 – 1 . On 5 September 2009 , Kaladze scored two own goals in a 2010 World Cup qualifying match against Italy within the space of 11 minutes . The match ended 2 – 0 to Italy . Kaladze was the captain of the national team , until 11 December 2011 , when he announced his retirement .
= = = International goal = = =
Scores and results list Georgia 's goal tally first .
= = Advertising = =
As many footballers , Kaladze appeared in various publicity and advertising capacities , capitalizing on his popularity as an Italian club footballer .
= = Personal life = =
In 2001 , Kakha Kaladze 's brother Levan , a medical student , was kidnapped in Georgia , with a ransom of $ 600 @,@ 000 demanded . Georgia 's president at the time , Eduard Shevardnadze , promised that " everything is being done to locate him " . Despite this assurance , the only time that Levan was ever seen was in a video where he was shown blindfolded and begging for help . Following the kidnapping , Kaladze threatened to take up Ukrainian citizenship , but reverted his decision , stating , " There was a time when I thought about quitting the national side completely , but I couldn 't do it out of respect for the Georgian people and the fans who come and give us such support . " Roughly four years later , on 6 May 2005 , Georgian police officers found eight dead bodies in the Svaneti region and it was speculated that Levan was among the dead . On 21 February 2006 , Levan was officially identified among the deceased , after tests from FBI experts . The local media claimed that the ransom was paid by Kaladze 's family , although another source says that Kaladze 's father attempted to meet the kidnappers , who fled as they believed he was followed by the police . Two men were sentenced to prison for the murder : David Asatiani for 25 years and Merab Amisulashvili for five years . On 14 July 2009 , Kaladze 's wife Anouki gave birth to their first @-@ born son in Milan . The couple named their son Levan , in memory of Kaladze 's brother .
Kaladze has also been active in charitable causes and is a FIFA ambassador for the SOS Children 's Villages . Through his Kala Foundation , a charitable organisation established in 2008 , Kaladze raised € 50 @,@ 000 to benefit South Ossetian refugees during the Russian invasion of Georgia . Kaladze also plans to release an autobiography with the proceeds going to the Kala Foundation .
= = Political career = =
= = = Business ventures = = =
Along with his football career , Kaladze is an investor in Georgia , Italy , Ukraine and Kazakhstan . Kaladze owns Kala Capital , an investment company established in 2008 in Georgia with a focus on energy businesses , and whose chief executive is former Georgian Prime Minister Zurab Noghaideli .
Kaladze 's other businesses include the Buddha Bar in Kiev that opened in 2008 . Kaladze is also the owner of a restaurant called Giannino , founded in 1899 by Giannino Bindi , which is based in Milan . The restaurant has had a Michelin star under Davide Oldani .
Kala Capital owned 45 percent of the Georgia Hydropower Construction Company company SakHidroEnergoMsheni , a joint stock company incorporated in Georgia in 1998 . His candidacy as Minister of Energy and Natural Resources in October 2012 was therefore overshadowed by concerns about a serious risk that a conflict of interests might arise . Reports on the same day indicated that Kaladze might refuse the energy portfolio or sell off his shares in Georgia Hydropower Construction Company within 10 days of his appointment .
= = = Political office and conflict of interests = = =
Kaladze became involved in the politics of Georgia as a member of the opposition Georgian Dream – Democratic Georgia party founded by billionaire Bidzina Ivanishvili in February 2012 . He was elected to the Parliament of Georgia on 1 October 2012 . He was approved as Deputy Prime Minister as well as Minister of Energy in the cabinet of Bidzina Ivanishvili on 25 October 2012 . The appointment was met with skepticism in professional energy circles . More importantly , it stirred an intense debate on a conflict of interest arising from Kaladze 's business interests in the Georgia Hydropower Construction Company , in which Kala Capital owned 45 percent . Kala Capital sold the shares to GMC Group in November 2012 but concerns whether his indirect commercial interests had been abandoned remain .
= = Career statistics = =
1European competitions include the UEFA Champions League , UEFA Cup , and UEFA Super Cup2Other tournaments include the Supercoppa Italiana and FIFA Club World Cup
= = = International = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Player = = =
Dinamo Tbilisi
Georgian League : 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95 , 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97 , 1997 – 98
Georgian Cup : 1994 , 1995 , 1996 , 1997
Dynamo Kyiv
Ukrainian Premier League : 1998 – 99 , 1999 – 2000 , 2000 – 01
Ukrainian Cup : 1998 , 1999 , 2000
Milan
Serie A : 2003 – 04
Coppa Italia : 2002 – 03
Italian Supercup : 2004
UEFA Champions League : 2003 , 2007
UEFA Super Cup : 2003 , 2007
FIFA Club World Cup : 2007
= = = = Individual = = = =
Georgian Footballer of the Year : 5
2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2006 , 2011
Source : Eurosport at Yahoo
= Consciousness =
Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness , or , of being aware of an external object or something within oneself . It has been defined as : sentience , awareness , subjectivity , the ability to experience or to feel , wakefulness , having a sense of selfhood , and the executive control system of the mind . Despite the difficulty in definition , many philosophers believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is . As Max Velmans and Susan Schneider wrote in The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness : " Anything that we are aware of at a given moment forms part of our consciousness , making conscious experience at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives . "
Western philosophers , since the time of Descartes and Locke , have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness and pin down its essential properties . Issues of concern in the philosophy of consciousness include whether the concept is fundamentally coherent ; whether consciousness can ever be explained mechanistically ; whether non @-@ human consciousness exists and if so how can it be recognized ; how consciousness relates to language ; whether consciousness can be understood in a way that does not require a dualistic distinction between mental and physical states or properties ; and whether it may ever be possible for computing machines like computers or robots
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the Panic of 1873 , he was financially successful enough to build a grand new home in Indianapolis in 1874 . He continued to make speeches on behalf of Republican candidates and policies .
In 1876 , the original Republican nominee for governor dropped out of the race and Harrison accepted the Republicans ' invitation to take his place on the ticket . He centered his campaign on economic policy and favored deflating the national currency . He was ultimately defeated in a plurality by James D. Williams , losing by 5 @,@ 084 votes out of a total 434 @,@ 457 cast . Following his defeat , Harrison was able to build on his new prominence in the state . When the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 reached Indianapolis , he helped to mediate between the workers and management and to preserve public order .
When United States Senator Morton died in 1878 , the Republicans nominated Harrison to run for the seat , but the party failed to gain a majority in the state legislature , which at that time elected senators ; the Democratic majority elected Daniel W. Voorhees instead . In 1879 President Hayes appointed Harrison to the Mississippi River Commission , which worked to develop internal improvements on the river . As a delegate to the 1880 Republican National Convention the following year , he was instrumental in breaking a deadlock on candidates , and James A. Garfield won the nomination .
= = = United States Senator = = =
After Harrison led the Republican delegation at the National Convention , he was considered a presumptive Senate candidate . He gave speeches in favor of Garfield in Indiana and New York , further raising his profile in the party . When the Republicans retook the state legislature , Harrison 's election to the Senate was threatened by his intra @-@ party rival Judge Walter Q. Gresham , but Harrison was ultimately chosen . After Garfield 's election as president in 1880 , his administration offered Harrison a cabinet position which he declined in favor of continued service as senator .
Harrison served in the Senate from March 4 , 1881 , to March 4 , 1887 and chaired the U.S. Senate Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard ( 47th Congress ) and the U.S. Senate Committee on Territories ( 48th and 49th Congresses ) .
In 1881 , the major issue confronting Senator Harrison was the budget surplus . Democrats wished to reduce the tariff and limit the amount of money the government took in ; Republicans instead wished to spend the money on internal improvements and pensions for Civil War veterans . Harrison took his party 's side and advocated for generous pensions for veterans and their widows . He also supported , unsuccessfully , aid for education of Southerners , especially the children of the freedmen ; he believed that education was necessary to help the black population rise to political and economic equality with whites . Harrison opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 , which his party supported , as he thought it violated existing treaties with China .
In 1884 , Harrison and Gresham competed for influence at the 1884 Republican National Convention . ; the delegation ended up supporting James G. Blaine , the eventual nominee . In the Senate , Harrison achieved passage of his Dependent Pension Bill , only to see it vetoed by President Grover Cleveland . His efforts to further the admission of new western states were stymied by Democrats , who feared that the new states would elect Republicans to Congress .
In 1885 , the Democrats redistricted the Indiana state legislature , which resulted in an increased Democratic majority in 1886 , despite an overall Republican majority statewide . Harrison was thereby defeated in his bid for reelection ; this resulted after a deadlock in the state senate , with the legislature eventually choosing Democrat David Turpie . Harrison then returned to Indianapolis and his law practice , but stayed active in state and national politics .
= = Election of 1888 = =
= = = Nomination = = =
The initial favorite for the Republican nomination was the previous nominee , James G. Blaine of Maine . After Blaine wrote several letters denying any interest in the nomination , his supporters divided among other candidates , with John Sherman of Ohio as the leader among them . Others , including Chauncey Depew of New York , Russell Alger of Michigan , and Harrison 's old nemesis Walter Q. Gresham , now a federal appellate court judge in Chicago , also sought the delegates ' support at the 1888 Republican National Convention . Blaine did not publicly endorse any of the candidates as a successor ; however , on March 1 , 1888 he privately wrote that " the one man remaining who in my judgment can make the best one is Benjamin Harrison . "
Harrison placed fourth on the first ballot , with Sherman in the lead , and the next few ballots showed little change . The Blaine supporters shifted their support among candidates they found acceptable , and when they shifted to Harrison , they found a candidate who could attract the votes of many other delegations . He was nominated as the party 's presidential candidate on the eighth ballot , by a count of 544 to 108 votes . Levi P. Morton of New York was chosen as his running mate .
= = = Election over Cleveland = = =
Harrison 's opponent in the general election was incumbent President Grover Cleveland . He reprised a more traditional front @-@ porch campaign , abandoned by his immediate predecessors ; he received visiting delegations to Indianapolis and made ninety plus pronouncements from his home town . The Republicans campaigned heavily in favor of protective tariffs , turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North . The election focused on the swing states of New York , New Jersey , Connecticut , and Harrison 's home state of Indiana . Harrison and Cleveland split these four states , with Harrison winning in New York and Indiana . Voter turnout was 79 @.@ 3 % , reflecting a large interest in the campaign ; nearly eleven million votes were cast . Although Harrison received 90 @,@ 000 fewer popular votes than Cleveland , he carried the Electoral College 233 to 168 . Allegations were made against Republicans for engaging in irregular ballot practices ; an example was described as Blocks of Five . On October 31 the Indiana Sentinel published a letter allegedly written by Harrison 's friend and supporter , William Wade Dudley , to bribe voters in " blocks of five " to ensure Harrison 's election . Harrison neither defended nor repudiated Dudley , but allowed him to remain on the campaign for the remaining few days . After the election Harrison never spoke to Dudley again .
Although he had made no political bargains , his supporters had given many pledges upon his behalf . When Boss Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania , who rebuffed for a Cabinet position for his political support during the convention , heard that Harrison ascribed his narrow victory to Providence , Quay exclaimed that Harrison would never know " how close a number of men were compelled to approach ... the penitentiary to make him President . " Harrison was known as the Centennial President because his inauguration celebrated the centenary of the first inauguration of George Washington in 1789 . In congressional elections , the Republicans increased their membership in the House of Representatives by nineteen seats .
= = Presidency 1889 – 1893 = =
= = = Inauguration and cabinet = = =
Harrison was sworn into office on Monday , March 4 , 1889 by Chief Justice Melville Fuller . At 5 ' 6 " tall , he was only slightly taller than Madison , the shortest president , but much heavier ; he was the fourth ( and last ) president to sport a full beard Harrison 's Inauguration ceremony took place during a rainstorm in Washington D.C .. Outgoing U.S. President Grover Cleveland attended the ceremony and held an umbrella over Harrison 's head as he took the oath of office .
His speech was brief – half as long as that of his grandfather , William Henry Harrison , whose speech holds the record for the longest inaugural address of a U.S. president . In his speech , Benjamin Harrison credited the nation 's growth to the influences of education and religion , urged the cotton states and mining territories to attain the industrial proportions of the eastern states and promised a protective tariff . Concerning commerce , he said , " If our great corporations would more scrupulously observe their legal obligations and duties , they would have less call to complain of the limitations of their rights or of interference with their operations . " Harrison also urged early statehood for the territories and advocated pensions for veterans , a statement that was met with enthusiastic applause . In foreign affairs , Harrison reaffirmed the Monroe Doctrine as a mainstay of foreign policy , while urging modernization of the Navy and a merchant marine force . He gave his commitment to international peace through noninterference in the affairs of foreign governments .
John Philip Sousa 's Marine Corps band played at the Inaugural Ball inside the Pension Building with a large crowd attending . After moving into the White House , Harrison noted , quite prophetically , " There is only a door – one that is never locked – between the president 's office and what are not very accurately called his private apartments . There should be an executive office building , not too far away , but wholly distinct from the dwelling house . For everyone else in the public service there is an unroofed space between the bedroom and the desk . "
Harrison acted quite independently in selecting his cabinet , much to the dismay of the Republican bosses . He began by delaying the presumed nomination of James G. Blaine as Secretary of State so as to preclude Blaine 's involvement in the formation of the administration , as had occurred in President Garfield 's term . In fact , other than Blaine , the only Republican boss initially nominated was Redfield Proctor , as Secretary of War . Senator Shelby Cullom 's comment symbolizes Harrison 's steadfast aversion to use federal positions for patronage : " I suppose Harrison treated me as well as he did any other Senator ; but whenever he did anything for me , it was done so ungraciously that the concession tended to anger rather than please . " Harrison 's selections shared particular alliances – such as their service in the Civil War , Indiana citizenship and membership in the Presbyterian Church . Nevertheless , Harrison with these choices had alienated pivotal Republican operatives from New York to Pennsylvania to Iowa and prematurely compromised his political power and future . Harrison 's normal schedule provided for two full cabinet meetings per week , as well as separate weekly one @-@ on @-@ one meetings with each cabinet member .
In June 1890 , Harrison 's Postmaster General John Wanamaker and several Philadelphia friends , purchased a large new cottage at Cape May Point , for Harrison 's wife Caroline . Many believed the cottage gift appeared to be improper and amounted to a bribe for a cabinet position . Harrison made no comment on the matter until after two weeks when he said he had always intended to purchase the cottage once Caroline gave approval . On July 2 , perhaps a little tardily to avoid suspicion , Harrison gave Wanamaker a check for $ 10 @,@ 000 to pay for the cottage .
= = = Civil service reform and pensions = = =
Civil service reform was a prominent issue following Harrison 's election . Harrison had campaigned as a supporter of the merit system , as opposed to the spoils system . Although some of the civil service had been classified under the Pendleton Act by previous administrations , Harrison spent much of his first months in office deciding on political appointments . Congress was widely divided on the issue and Harrison was reluctant to address the issue in hope of preventing the alienation of either side . The issue became a political football of the time and was immortalized in a cartoon captioned " What can I do when both parties insist on kicking ? " Harrison appointed Theodore Roosevelt and Hugh Smith Thompson , both reformers , to the Civil Service Commission , but otherwise did little to further the reform cause .
Harrison quickly saw the enactment of the Dependent and Disability Pension Act in 1890 , a cause he had championed while in Congress . In addition to providing pensions to disabled Civil War veterans ( regardless of the cause of their disability ) , the Act depleted some of the troublesome federal budget surplus . Pension expenditures reached $ 135 million under Harrison , the largest expenditure of its kind to that point in American history , a problem exacerbated by Pension Bureau commissioner James R. Tanner 's expansive interpretation of the pension laws . An investigation into the Pension Bureau by Harrison 's Secretary of Interior John W. Noble found evidence of lavish and illegal handouts under Tanner . Harrison , who privately believed that appointing Tanner had been a mistake , due to his apparent loose management style and tongue , asked Tanner to resign and replaced him with Green B. Raum . Raum was also accused of accepting loan payments in return for expediting pension cases . Harrison , having accepted a dissenting Congressional Republican investigation report that exonerated Raum , kept him in office for the rest of his administration .
One of the first appointments Harrison was forced to reverse was that of James S. Clarkson as an assistant postmaster . Clarkson , who had expected a full cabinet position , began sabotaging the appointment from the outset , gaining the reputation for " decapitating a fourth class postmaster every three minutes " . Clarkson himself stated , " I am simply on detail from the Republican Committee ... I am most anxious to get through this task and leave . " He resigned in September 1890 .
= = = Tariff = = =
The tariff levels had been a major political issue since before the Civil War , and they became the most dominant matter of the 1888 election . The high tariff rates had created a surplus of money in the Treasury , which led many Democrats ( as well as the growing Populist movement ) to call for lowering them . Most Republicans preferred to maintain the rates , spend the surplus on internal improvements and eliminate some internal taxes .
Representative William McKinley and Senator Nelson W. Aldrich framed the McKinley Tariff that would raise the tariff even higher , including making some rates intentionally prohibitive . At Secretary of State James Blaine 's urging , Harrison attempted to make the tariff more acceptable by urging Congress to add reciprocity provisions , which would allow the President to reduce rates when other countries reduced their rates on American exports . The tariff was removed from imported raw sugar , and sugar growers in the United States were given a two cent per pound subsidy on their production . Even with the reductions and reciprocity , the McKinley Tariff enacted the highest average rate in American history , and the spending associated with it contributed to the reputation of the Billion @-@ Dollar Congress .
= = = Antitrust laws and the currency = = =
Members of both parties were concerned with the growth of the power of trusts and monopolies , and one of the first acts of the 51st Congress was to pass the Sherman Antitrust Act , sponsored by Senator John Sherman of Ohio . The Act passed by wide margins in both houses , and Harrison signed it into law . The Sherman Act was the first Federal act of its kind , and marked a new use of federal government power . While Harrison approved of the law and its intent , his administration was not particularly vigorous in enforcing it . However , the government successfully concluded a case during Harrison 's time in office ( against a Tennessee coal company ) , and had initiated several other cases against trusts .
One of the most volatile questions of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver , or by gold alone . The issue cut across party lines , with western Republicans and southern Democrats joining together in the call for the free coinage of silver , and both parties ' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard . Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold , taxpayers paid their government bills in silver , while international creditors demanded payment in gold , resulting in a depletion of the nation 's gold supply . Owing to worldwide deflation in the late 19th century , however , a strict gold standard had resulted in reduction of incomes without the equivalent reduction in debts , pushing debtors and the poor to call for silver coinage as an inflationary measure .
The silver coinage issue had not been much discussed in the 1888 campaign and Harrison is said to have favored a bimetallist position . However , his appointment of a silverite Treasury Secretary , William Windom , encouraged the free silver supporters . Harrison attempted to steer a middle course between the two positions , advocating a free coinage of silver , but at its own value , not at a fixed ratio to gold . This failed to facilitate a compromise between the factions . In July 1890 , Senator Sherman achieved passage of a bill , the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , in both houses . Harrison thought that the bill would end the controversy , and he signed it into law . The effect of the bill , however , was the increased depletion of the nation 's gold supply , a problem that would persist until the second Cleveland administration resolved it .
= = = Civil rights = = =
After regaining the majority in both Houses of Congress , some Republicans , led by Harrison , attempted to pass legislation to protect black Americans ' civil rights . Harrison 's Attorney General , William H. H. Miller , through the Justice Department , ordered the prosecutions for violation of voting rights in the South ; however , white juries often failed to convict or indict violators . This prompted Harrison to urge Congress to pass legislation that would " secure all our people a free exercise of the right of suffrage and every other civil right under the Constitution and laws . " Harrison endorsed the proposed Federal Elections Bill written by Representative Henry Cabot Lodge and Senator George Frisbie Hoar in 1890 , but the bill was defeated in the Senate . Following the failure to pass the bill , Harrison continued to speak in favor of African American civil rights in addresses to Congress . Most notably , on December 3 , 1889 , Harrison had gone before Congress and stated :
The colored people did not intrude themselves upon us ; they were brought here in chains and held in communities where they are now chiefly bound by a cruel slave code ... when and under what conditions is the black man to have a free ballot ? When is he in fact to have those full civil rights which have so long been his in law ? When is that quality of influence which our form of government was intended to secure to the electors to be restored ? ... in many parts of our country where the colored population is large the people of that race are by various devices deprived of any effective exercise of their political rights and of many of their civil rights . The wrong does not expend itself upon those whose votes are suppressed . Every constituency in the Union is wronged .
He severely questioned the states ' civil rights records , arguing that if states have the authority over civil rights , then " we have a right to ask whether they are at work upon it . " Harrison also supported a bill proposed by Senator Henry W. Blair , which would have granted federal funding to schools regardless of the students ' races . He also endorsed a proposed constitutional amendment to overturn the Supreme Court ruling in the Civil Rights Cases ( 1883 ) that declared much of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional . None of these measures gained congressional approval .
= = = National forests = = =
In March 1891 Congress enacted and Harrison signed the Land Revision Act of 1891 . This legislation resulted from a bipartisan desire to initiate reclamation of surplus lands that had been , up to that point , granted from the public domain , for potential settlement or use by railroad syndicates . As the law 's drafting was finalized , Section 24 was added at the behest of Harrison by his Secretary of the Interior John Noble , which read as follows :
That the President of the United States may , from time to time , set apart and reserve , in any State or Territory having public land bearing forests , in any part of the public lands wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth , whether of commercial value or not , as public reservations , and the President shall , by public proclamation , declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof .
Within a month of the enactment of this law Harrison authorized the first forest reserve , to be located on public domain adjacent to Yellowstone Park , in Wyoming . Other areas were so designated by Harrison , bringing the first forest reservations total to 22 million acres in his term .
= = = Native American policy = = =
During Harrison 's administration , the Lakota Sioux , previously confined to reservations in South Dakota , grew restive under the influence of Wovoka , a medicine man , who encouraged them to participate in a spiritual movement called the Ghost Dance . Many in Washington did not understand the predominantly religious nature of the Ghost Dance , and thought it was a militant movement being used to rally Native Americans against the government . On December 29 , 1890 , troops from the Seventh Cavalry clashed with the Sioux at Wounded Knee . The result was a massacre of at least 146 Sioux , including many women and children ; the dead Sioux were buried in a mass grave . In reaction Harrison directed Major General Nelson A. Miles to investigate and ordered 3500 federal troops to South Dakota ; the uprising was brought to an end . Wounded Knee is considered the last major American Indian battle in the 19th century . Harrison 's general policy on American Indians was to encourage assimilation into white society and , despite the massacre , he believed the policy to have been generally successful . This policy , known as the allotment system and embodied in the Dawes Act , was favored by liberal reformers at the time , but eventually proved detrimental to American Indians as they sold most of their land at low prices to white speculators .
= = = Technology and naval modernization = = =
During Harrison 's time in office , the United States was continuing to experience advances in science and technology . Harrison was the earliest President whose voice is known to be preserved . That thirty @-@ six @-@ second recording was originally made on a wax phonograph cylinder in 1889 by Gianni Bettini . Harrison also had electricity installed in the White House for the first time by Edison General Electric Company , but he and his wife would not touch the light switches for fear of electrocution and would often go to sleep with the lights on .
Over the course of his administration Harrison marshaled the country 's technology to clothe the nation with a credible naval power . When he took office there were only two commissioned warships in the Navy . In his inaugural address he said , " construction of a sufficient number of warships and their necessary armaments should progress as rapidly as is consistent with care and perfection . " Harrison 's Secretary of the Navy Benjamin F. Tracy spearheaded the rapid construction of vessels , and within a year congressional approval was obtained for building of the warships Indiana , Texas , Oregon and Columbia . By 1898 , with the help of the Carnegie Corporation , no less than ten modern warships , including steel hulls and greater displacements and armaments , had transformed the United States into a legitimate naval power . Seven of these had begun during the Harrison term .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
= = = = Latin America and Samoa = = = =
Harrison and Secretary of State Blaine were often not the most cordial of friends , but harmonized in an aggressive foreign policy and commercial reciprocity with other nations . Blaine 's persistent medical problems warranted more of a hands @-@ on effort by Harrison in the conduct of foreign policy . In San Francisco , while on tour of the United States in 1891 , Harrison proclaimed that the United States was in a " new epoch " of trade and that the expanding navy would protect oceanic shipping and increase American influence and prestige abroad . The First International Conference of American States met in Washington in 1889 ; Harrison set an aggressive agenda including customs and currency integration and named a bipartisan delegation to the conference , led by John B. Henderson and Andrew Carnegie . The conference failed to achieve any diplomatic breakthrough , due in large part to an atmosphere of suspicion fostered by the Argentinian delegation . It did succeed in establishing an information center that became the Pan American Union . In response to the diplomatic bust , Harrison and Blaine pivoted diplomatically and initiated a crusade for tariff reciprocity with Latin American nations ; the Harrison administration concluded eight reciprocity treaties among these countries . On another front , Harrison sent Frederick Douglass as ambassador to Haiti , but failed in his attempts to establish a naval base there .
In 1889 , the United States , the United Kingdom and Germany were locked in a dispute over control of the Samoan Islands . Historian George H. Ryden 's research indicates Harrison played a key role in determining the status of this Pacific outpost by taking a firm stand on every aspect of Samoa conference negotiations ; this included selection of the local ruler , refusal to allow an indemnity for Germany , as well as the establishment of a three power protectorate , a first for the U.S .. These arrangements facilitated the future dominant power of the U.S. in the Pacific ; Secretary of State Blaine was absent due to complication of lumbago .
= = = = European embargo of U.S. pork = = = =
Throughout the 1880s various European countries had imposed a ban on importation of United States pork out of an unconfirmed concern of trichinosis ; at issue was over one billion pounds of pork products with a value of $ 80 million ( annually ) . Harrison engaged Whitelaw Reid , minister to France , and William Walter Phelps , minister to Germany , to restore these exports for the country without delay . Harrison also successfully asked the congress to enact the Meat Inspection Act to eliminate the accusations of product compromise . The president also partnered with Agriculture Secretary Rusk to threaten Germany with retaliation – by initiating an embargo in the U.S. against Germany 's highly demanded beet sugar . By September 1891 Germany relented , and was soon followed by Denmark , France and Austria @-@ Hungary .
= = = = Crises in Aleutian Islands and Chile = = = =
The first international crisis Harrison faced arose from disputed fishing rights on the Alaskan coast . Canada claimed fishing and sealing rights around many of the Aleutian Islands , in violation of U.S. law . As a result , the United States Navy seized several Canadian ships . In 1891 , the administration began negotiations with the British that would eventually lead to a compromise over fishing rights after international arbitration , with the British government paying compensation in 1898
In 1891 , a diplomatic crisis emerged in Chile , otherwise known as the Baltimore Crisis . The American minister to Chile , Patrick Egan , granted asylum to Chileans who were seeking refuge during the 1891 Chilean Civil War . Egan , previously a militant Irish immigrant to the U.S. , was motivated by a personal desire to thwart Great Britain 's influence in Chile ; his action increased tensions between Chile and the United States , which began in the early 1880s when Secretary Blaine had alienated the Chileans in the War of the Pacific .
The crisis began in earnest when sailors from the USS Baltimore took shore leave in Valparaiso and a fight ensued , resulting in the deaths of two American sailors and the arrest of three dozen others . The Baltimore 's captain , Winfield Schley , based on the nature of the sailors ' wounds , insisted the sailors had been bayonet @-@ attacked by Chilean police without provocation . With Blaine incapacitated , Harrison drafted a demand for reparations . The Chilean Minister of Foreign Affairs Manuel Matta replied that Harrison 's message was " erroneous or deliberately incorrect , " and said that the Chilean government was treating the affair the same as any other criminal matter .
Tensions increased to the brink of war – Harrison threatened to break off diplomatic relations unless the United States received a suitable apology , and said the situation required , " grave and patriotic consideration " . The president also remarked , " If the dignity as well as the prestige and influence of the United States are not to be wholly sacrificed , we must protect those who in foreign ports display the flag or wear the colors . " The Navy was also placed on a high level of preparedness . A recuperated Blaine made brief conciliatory overtures to the Chilean government which had no support in the administration ; he then reversed course , joined the chorus for unconditional concessions and apology by the Chileans , who ultimately obliged , and war was averted . Theodore Roosevelt later applauded Harrison for his use of the " big stick " in the matter .
= = = = Annexation of Hawaii = = = =
In the last days of his administration , Harrison dealt with the issue of Hawaiian annexation . Following a coup d 'état against Queen Liliuokalani , the new government of Hawaii led by Sanford Dole petitioned for annexation by the United States . Harrison was interested in expanding American influence in Hawaii and in establishing a naval base at Pearl Harbor but had not previously expressed an opinion on annexing the islands . The United States consul in Hawaii John L. Stevens recognized the new government on February 1 , 1893 and forwarded their proposals to Washington . With just one month left before leaving office , the administration signed a treaty on February 14 and submitted it to the Senate the next day with Harrison 's recommendation . The Senate failed to act , and President Cleveland withdrew the treaty shortly after taking office .
= = = Cabinet = = =
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = = = Supreme Court = = = =
Harrison appointed four justices to the Supreme Court of the United States . The first was David Josiah Brewer , a judge on the Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit . Brewer , the nephew of Justice Field , had previously been considered for a cabinet position . Shortly after Brewer 's nomination , Justice Matthews died , creating another vacancy . Harrison had considered Henry Billings Brown , a Michigan judge and admiralty law expert , for the first vacancy and now nominated him for the second . For the third vacancy , which arose in 1892 , Harrison nominated George Shiras . Shiras 's appointment was somewhat controversial because his age — sixty — was older than usual for a newly appointed Justice . Shiras also drew the opposition of Senator Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania because they were in different factions of the Pennsylvania Republican party , but his nomination was nonetheless approved . Finally , at the end of his term , Harrison nominated Howell Edmunds Jackson to replace Justice Lamar , who died in January 1893 . Harrison knew the incoming Senate would be controlled by Democrats , so he selected Jackson , a respected Tennessee Democrat with whom he was friendly to ensure his nominee would not be rejected . Jackson 's nomination was indeed successful , but he died after only two years on the Court .
= = = = Other courts = = = =
In addition to his Supreme Court appointments , Harrison appointed ten judges to the courts of appeals , two judges to the circuit courts , and 26 judges to the district courts . Because Harrison was in office when Congress eliminated the circuit courts in favor of the courts of appeals , he and Grover Cleveland were the only two Presidents to have appointed judges to both bodies .
= = = States admitted to the Union = = =
When Harrison took office , no new states had been admitted in more than a decade , owing to Congressional Democrats ' reluctance to admit states that they believed would send Republican members . Early in Harrison 's term , however , the lame duck Congress passed bills that admitted four states to the union : North Dakota and South Dakota on November 2 , 1889 , Montana on November 8 , and Washington on November 11 . The following year two more states held constitutional conventions and were admitted – Idaho on July 3 and Wyoming on July 10 , 1890 . The initial Congressional delegations from all six states were solidly Republican . More states were admitted under Harrison 's presidency than any other since George Washington 's .
= = = Vacations and travel = = =
Harrison attended the three @-@ day grand Centennial Celebration of the country in New York City on April 30 , 1889 . He made the following remarks " We have come into the serious but always inspiring presence of Washington . He was the incarnation of duty and he teaches us today this great lesson : that those who would associate their names with events that shall outlive a century can only do so by high consecration to duty . Self @-@ seeking has no public observance or anniversary . "
The Harrisons made many trips out of the capital , which included speeches at most stops – including Philadelphia , New England , Indianapolis and Chicago . The President typically made his best impression speaking before large audiences , as opposed to more intimate settings . The most notable of his presidential trips , theretofore unequaled , was a five @-@ week tour of the west in the spring of 1891 , aboard a lavishly outfitted train . Harrison enjoyed a number of short trips out of the capital — usually for hunting — to nearby Virginia or Maryland .
During the hot Washington summers , the Harrisons took refuge in Deer Park , Maryland and Cape May Point , New Jersey . In 1890 , John Wanamaker joined with other Philadelphia devotees of the Harrisons and made a gift to them of a summer cottage at Cape May . Harrison , though appreciative , was uncomfortable with the appearance of impropriety ; a month later , he paid Wanamaker $ 10 @,@ 000 as reimbursement to the donors . Nevertheless , Harrison 's opponents made the gift the subject of national ridicule , and Mrs. Harrison and the president were vigorously criticized .
= = = Reelection campaign in 1892 = = =
The treasury surplus had evaporated and the nation 's economic health was worsening – precursors to the eventual Panic of 1893 . Congressional elections in 1890 had gone against the Republicans ; and although Harrison had cooperated with Congressional Republicans on legislation , several party leaders withdrew their support for him because of his adamant refusal to give party members the nod in the course of his executive appointments . Specifically , Thomas C. Platt , Mathew S. Quay , Thomas B. Reed and James Clarkson quietly organized the Grievance Committee , the ambition of which was to initiate a dump @-@ Harrison offensive . They solicited the support of Blaine , without effect however , and Harrison in reaction resolved to run for re @-@ election – seemingly forced to choose one of two options – " become a candidate or forever wear the name of a political coward " .
It was clear that Harrison would not be re @-@ nominated unanimously . Many of Harrison 's detractors persisted in pushing for an incapacitated Blaine , though he announced that he was not a candidate in February 1892 . Some party leaders still hoped to draft Blaine into running , and speculation increased when he resigned at the 11th hour as Secretary of State in June . At the convention in Minneapolis , Harrison prevailed on the first ballot , but encountered significant opposition .
The Democrats renominated former President Cleveland , making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier . The tariff revisions of the past four years had made imported goods so expensive that now many voters shifted to the reform position . Many westerners , traditionally Republican voters , defected to the new Populist Party candidate , James Weaver , who promised free silver , generous veterans ' pensions , and an eight @-@ hour work day . The effects of the suppression of the Homestead Strike rebounded against the Republicans as well , although the federal government did not take action .
Harrison 's wife Caroline began a critical struggle with tuberculosis earlier in 1892 and two weeks before the election , on October 25 , it took her life . Their daughter Mary Harrison McKee assumed the role of First Lady after her mother 's death . Mrs. Harrison 's terminal illness and the fact that both candidates had served in the White House called for a low key campaign , and resulted in neither of the candidates actively campaigning personally .
Cleveland ultimately won the election by 277 electoral votes to Harrison 's 145 , and also won the popular vote by 5 @,@ 556 @,@ 918 to 5 @,@ 176 @,@ 108 ; this was the most decisive presidential election in 20 years .
= = Post @-@ presidency and death = =
After he left office , Harrison visited the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in June 1893 . After the Expo , Harrison returned to his home in Indianapolis . Harrison had been elected a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States in 1882 , and was elected as commander ( president ) of the Ohio Commandery on May 3 , 1893 .
For a few months in 1894 , Harrison lived in San Francisco , California , where he gave law lectures at Stanford University . In 1896 some of Harrison 's friends in the Republican party tried to convince him to seek the presidency again , but he declined . He traveled around the nation making appearances and speeches in support of William McKinley 's candidacy for president .
From July 1895 to March 1901 Harrison served on the Board of Trustees of Purdue University , where Harrison Hall , a dormitory , was named in his honor . He wrote a series of articles about the Federal government and the presidency which were republished in 1897 as a book titled This Country of Ours . In 1899 Harrison attended the First Peace Conference at The Hague .
In 1896 , Harrison at age 62 remarried , to Mary Scott Lord Dimmick , the widowed 37 @-@ year @-@ old niece and former secretary of his deceased wife . Harrison 's two adult children , Russell , 41 years old at the time , and Mary ( Mamie ) McKee , 38 , disapproved of the marriage and did not attend the wedding . Benjamin and Mary had one child together , Elizabeth ( February 21 , 1897 – December 26 , 1955 ) .
In 1900 , Harrison served as an attorney for the Republic of Venezuela in their British Guiana boundary dispute with the United Kingdom . An international trial was agreed upon ; he filed an 800 @-@ page brief and traveled to Paris where he spent more than 25 hours in court on their behalf . Although he lost the case , his legal arguments won him international renown .
Harrison developed what was thought to be influenza ( then referred to as grippe ) in February 1901 . He was treated with steam vapor inhalation and oxygen , but his condition worsened . He died from pneumonia at his home on Wednesday , March 13 , 1901 , at the age of 67 . Harrison is interred in Indianapolis 's Crown Hill Cemetery , next to Caroline . After her death , Mary Dimmick Harrison was buried next to him .
= = Historical reputation and memorials = =
According to historian R. Hal Williams , Harrison had a " widespread reputation for personal and official integrity " . Closely scrutinized by Democrats , Harrision 's reputation was largely intact when he left the White House . Having an advantage few 19th Century Presidents had , Harrison 's own party , the Republicans , controlled Congress , while his administration actively advanced a Republican program of a higher tariff , moderate control of corporations , protecting African American voting rights , a generous Civil War pension , and compromising over the controversial silver issue . Historians have not raised " serious questions about Harrison 's own integrity or the integrity of his administration . "
Following the Panic of 1893 , Harrison became more popular in retirement . His legacy among historians is scant , and " general accounts of his period inaccurately treat Harrison as a cipher " . More recently ,
historians have recognized the importance of the Harrison administration — and Harrison himself — in the new foreign policy of the late nineteenth century . The administration faced challenges throughout the hemisphere , in the Pacific , and in relations with the European powers , involvements that would be taken for granted in the twentieth century .
Harrison 's presidency belongs properly to the 19th century , but he " clearly pointed the way " to the modern presidency that would emerge under William McKinley . The bi @-@ partisan Sherman Anti @-@ Trust Act signed into law by Harrison remains in effect over 120 years later and was the most important legislation passed by the Fifty @-@ first Congress . Harrison 's support for African American voting rights and education would be the last significant attempts to protect civil rights until the 1930s . Harrison 's tenacity at foreign policy was emulated by politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt .
Harrison was memorialized on several postage stamps . The first was a 13 @-@ cent stamp issued on November 18 , 1902 . The engraved likeness of Harrison was modeled after a photo provided by Harrison 's widow . In all Harrison has been honored on six U.S. Postage stamps , more than most other U.S. Presidents . Harrison also was featured on the five @-@ dollar National Bank Notes from the third charter period , beginning in 1902 .
In 1908 , the people of Indianapolis erected the Benjamin Harrison memorial statue , created by Charles Niehaus and Henry Bacon , in honor of Harrison 's lifetime achievements as military leader , U.S. Senator , and President of the United States . The statue occupies a site in University Park overlooking the Birch Bayh Federal Building and United States Courthouse across New York Avenue .
In 1942 , a Liberty Ship , the SS Benjamin Harrison , was named in his honor . In 1951 , Harrison 's home was opened to the public as a library and museum . It had been used as a dormitory for a music school from 1937 to 1950 . The house was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1964 . In 2012 , a dollar coin with his image , part of the Presidential $ 1 Coin Program , was issued .
Fort Benjamin Harrison , located in Lawrence , Indiana , a northeastern suburb of Indianapolis , was constructed in 1903 to 1908 and named in his honor . The base was closed in 1991 and the site has been redeveloped to include residential neighborhoods , a golf course , and Fort Harrison State Park .
= Pseudoplectania nigrella =
Pseudoplectania nigrella , commonly known as the ebony cup , the black false plectania , or the hairy black cup , is a species of fungi in the family Sarcosomataceae . The fruit bodies of this saprobic fungus are small blackish cups , typically up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) broad , that grow in groups on soil , often amongst pine needles and short grass near coniferous trees . Pseudoplectania nigrella has a worldwide distribution , and has been found in North America , the Caribbean , Britain , Europe , India , Madagascar , New Zealand , and Japan . The fungus produces a unique chemical compound , plectasin , that has attracted research interest for its ability to inhibit the growth of the common human pathogenic bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Christian Hendrik Persoon named the species Peziza nigrella in his Systema Mycologia in 1801 , and it was sanctioned under this name in Elias Magnus Fries ' Systema Mycologicum in 1821 . In 1870 , German mycologist Fuckel transferred it to his newly described genus Pseudoplectania , and made it the type species . The species was ulteriorly placed in Crouania by Friedrich August Hazslinszky von Hazslin , and in Plectania by Petter Karsten ( 1885 ) , but neither placement is considered correct .
The fungus is commonly known as the " ebony cup " , the " black false plectania " , or the " hairy black cup " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies ( technically called apothecia ) typically grow in groups , or sometimes crowded closely together , with small stems or missing them entirely . Initially , the fruit bodies are closed and roughly spherical , but as they develop they expand to become cup @-@ shaped , or almost flat . The inner surface of the cups bear the reproductive spore @-@ bearing layer , or hymenium ; it is brownish @-@ black , with an edge that is often wavy and curved slightly inwards , and covered with fine hairs . The cups may reach up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter . The hairs are long but usually closely coiled and twisted , which gives to the exterior of the cup a slightly tomentose appearance of nearly uniform thickness throughout their entire length . They are pale brown and 4 – 6 µm in diameter .
The asci are roughly cylindrical with a long stem @-@ like base ; the entire ascus is often as long as 300 – 325 µm and about 15 µm in diameter at the thickest point . The spores are round , smooth , translucent ( hyaline ) , and have diameters of about 12 – 14 µm . They are filled with many small oil droplets . The paraphyses ( sterile filamentous hyphae in the hymenium ) are enlarged at their tips and filled with brown colored matter , about 4 µm thick .
= = = Similar species = = =
Pseudoplectania sphagnophila resembles P. nigrella , but has a more deeply and persistently cup @-@ shaped fruit body , a short but distinct stem , and only grows amongst sphagnum moss . Plectania melastoma has elliptical to spindle @-@ shaped spores measuring 20 – 28 by 8 – 12 µm , while P. milleri has elliptical spores , and the margin of its cups have star @-@ shaped points .
= = = Edibility = = =
Pseudoplectania nigrella is considered inedible . It has no distinctive taste or odor .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
This species is saprobic , and is found growing in groups on the ground or on moss @-@ covered decaying wood , especially amongst fallen pine needles . In North America , fruit bodies appear in the spring and summer , and are fairly common ; in Britain , the fungus fruits from winter to spring , and is rare . Its small size and dark color makes it easy to overlook .
Pseudoplectania nigrella has a worldwide distribution , and has been found in North America , the Caribbean , Europe , India , Madagascar , New Zealand , Israel , and Japan .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Defensins are antibiotics made from peptides and are typically found in animals and higher plants . Plectasin , found in Pseudoplectania nigrella , is the first defensin to be isolated from a fungus . Plectasin has a chemical structure resembling defensins found in spiders , scorpions , dragonflies and mussels . In general , defensins have commonalities in their molecular structure , such as cysteines in the peptide stabilized with disulfide bonds . In particular , defensins from P. nigrella , invertebrates , and plants and share a conformation that has been named the CSαβ motif . In laboratory tests , plectasin was especially active in inhibiting the growth of the common human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae , including strains resistant to conventional antibiotics . Plectasin has a low toxicity in mice , and cured them of peritonitis and pneumonia caused by S. pneumoniae as efficiently as vancomycin and penicillin , suggesting that it may have therapeutic potential . In 2010 , Chinese scientists announced a method for high @-@ level production of plectasin using an E. coli protein expression system .
= New York Dolls ( album ) =
New York Dolls is the debut studio album by American hard rock band the New York Dolls . It was released on July 27 , 1973 , by Mercury Records . The band formed in 1971 and developed a following while playing regularly in lower Manhattan . However , they were unappealing to record companies because of their onstage cross @-@ dressing and vulgarity , while most record producers were reluctant to work with them . For shock value , the band was photographed in exaggerated drag on the album cover .
After signing a two @-@ record deal with Mercury , the New York Dolls recorded their self @-@ titled first album at The Record Plant in New York City with producer Todd Rundgren , who was known for his sophisticated pop sound and held a lukewarm opinion of the band . They incorporated carefree rock and roll and Brill Building pop influences in the album 's hard rock songs , while the lyrics were written mostly by lead singer David Johansen and touched on themes such as urban youth , teen alienation , adolescent romance , and authenticity .
New York Dolls received widespread acclaim from critics when it was first released but sold poorly and had a divisive effect on listeners . The band toured the United States to promote the record , but they were difficult to market and developed a reputation for rock @-@ star excesses . Despite its commercial failure , the album was an influential precursor to the 1970s punk rock movement and has since been named in various publications as one of the greatest debut records in rock music and one of the greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
In 1971 , vocalist David Johansen formed the New York Dolls with guitarists Johnny Thunders and Rick Rivets , bassist Arthur Kane , and drummer Billy Murcia ; Rivets was replaced by Sylvain Sylvain in 1972 . The band was meant to be a temporary project for the members , who were club @-@ going youths that had gone to New York City with different career pursuits . As Sylvain recalled , " We just said ' Hey , maybe this will get us some chicks . ' That seemed like a good enough reason . " He and Murcia originally planned to work in the clothing business and opened a boutique on Lexington Avenue that was across the street from a toy repair shop called the New York Dolls Hospital , which gave them the idea for their name . The group soon began playing regularly in lower Manhattan and earned a cult following within a few months with their reckless style of rock music . Nonetheless , record companies were hesitant to sign them because of their onstage cross @-@ dressing and blatant vulgarity . In October 1972 , they garnered the interest of critics when they opened for English rock band the Faces at the Empire Pool in Wembley . However , on the New York Dolls ' first tour of England that year , Murcia died after consuming a lethal combination of alcohol and methaqualone . They enlisted Jerry Nolan as his replacement , while managers Marty Thau , Steve Leber , and David Krebs still struggled to find the band a record deal .
After returning to New York , the New York Dolls played to capacity crowds at venues such as Max 's Kansas City and the Mercer Arts Center in what Sylvain called a determined effort to " fake it until they could make it " : " We had to make ourselves feel famous before we could actually become famous . We acted like we were already rock stars . Arthur even called his bass ' Excalibur ' after King Arthur . It was crazy . " Their performance at the Mercer Arts Center was attended by journalist and Mercury Records publicity director Bud Scoppa , and Paul Nelson , an A & R executive for the label . Scoppa initially viewed them as an amusing but inferior version of the Rolling Stones : " I split after the first set . Paul stuck around for the second set , though , and after show he called me and said , ' You should have stayed . I think they 're really special . ' Then , after that , I fell in love with them anyway . " In March 1973 , the group signed a two @-@ album deal with a US $ 25 @,@ 000 advance from Mercury . According to Sylvain , some of the members ' parents had to sign for them because they were not old enough to sign themselves .
For the New York Dolls ' debut album , Mercury wanted to find a record producer who could make the most out of the group 's sound and the hype they had received from critics and fans in New York . At the band 's first board meeting in Chicago , Johansen fell asleep in Mercury 's conference room while record executives discussed potential producers . He awoke when they mentioned Todd Rundgren , a musician and producer who by 1972 had achieved unexpected rock stardom with his double album Something / Anything ? and its hit singles " I Saw the Light " and " Hello It 's Me " . Rundgren had socialized at venues such as Max 's Kansas City and first saw the New York Dolls when his girlfriend at the time , model Bebe Buell , brought him there to see them play .
Known for having refined pop tastes and technologically savvy productions , Rundgren had become increasingly interested in progressive rock sounds by the time he was enlisted to produce the New York Dolls ' debut album . Consequently , his initial impression of the group was that of a humorous live act who were technically competent only by the standards of other unsophisticated New York bands . " The Dolls weren 't out to expand any musical horizons " , said Rundgren , although he enjoyed Thunders ' " attitude " and Johansen 's charismatic antics onstage . Johansen referred to Rundgren as " an expert on second rate rock ' n ' roll " , but also said the band was " kind of persona non grata , at the time , with most producers . They were afraid of us , I don 't know why , but Todd wasn 't . We all liked him from Max 's ... Todd was cool and he was a producer . " Sylvain , on the other hand , felt the decision to enlist him was based on availability , time , and money : " It wasn 't a long list . Todd was in New York and seemed like he could handle the pace . " Upon being hired , Rundgren declared that " the only person who can produce a New York record is someone who lives in New York " .
= = Recording and production = =
Mercury booked the New York Dolls at The Record Plant in New York City , where they recorded their self @-@ titled debut album in April 1973 . Rundgren was originally concerned that they had taken " the worst sounding studio in the city at that time " because it was the only one available to them with the short time given to record and release the album . He later said that expectations for the band and the festive atmosphere of the recording sessions proved to be more of a problem : " The Dolls were critics ' darlings and the press had kind of adopted them . Plus , there were lots of extra people around , socializing , which made it hard to concentrate . " New York Dolls was recorded in eight days on a budget of only $ 17 @,@ 000 . With a short amount of studio time and no concept in mind for the album , the band chose which songs to record based on how well they had been received at their live shows . In Johansen 's own words , " we went into a room and just recorded . It wasn 't like these people who conceptualize things . It was just a document of what was going on at the time . "
In the studio , the New York Dolls dressed in their usual flashy clothes . Rundgren , who did not approve of their raucous sound , at one point yelled at them during the sessions to " get the glitter out of your asses and play " . Sylvain recalled Rundgren inviting Buell and their Chihuahua to the studio and putting the latter atop an expensive mixing console , while Johansen acknowledged that his recollections of the sessions have since been distorted by what he has read about them : " It was like the 1920s , with palm tree décor and stuff . Well , that 's how I remember it , anyway . " He also said Rundgren directed the band from the control room with engineer Jack Douglas and hardly spoke to them while they recorded the album . According to Scopa , the group 's carefree lifestyle probably conflicted with Rundgren 's professional work ethic and schedule : " He doesn 't put up with bullshit . I mean , [ the band ] rarely started their live sets before midnight , so who knows ? Todd was very much in charge in the studio , however , and I got the impression that everybody was looking to him . "
Although Sylvain said Rundgren was not an interfering producer , he occasionally involved himself to improve a take . Sylvain recalled moments when Rundgren went into the isolation booth with Murcia when he struggled keeping a beat and drummed out beats on a cowbell for him to use as a click track . During another session , he stopped a take and walked out of the control room to plug in Kane 's bass cabinet . Scoppa , who paid afternoon visits to the studio , overheard Rundgren say , " Yeah , that 's all you needed . Okay , let 's try it again ! " , and ultimately found the exchange funny and indicative of Rundgren 's opinion of the band : " Todd was such a ' musician ' while they were just getting by on attitude and energy . But as disdainful as he appeared to be at some points he got the job done really well . " Rundgren felt Johansen 's wild singing often sounded screamed or drunken but were eloquent in the sense that Johansen demonstrated a " propensity to incorporate certain cultural references into the music " , particularly on " Personality Crisis " . While recording the song , Johansen walked back into the control room and asked Rundgren if his vocals sounded " ludicrous enough " .
Because the New York Dolls had little money , Sylvain and Thunders played the austerely designed and affordable Gibson Les Paul Junior guitars on the record . They jokingly referred to them as " automatic guitars " due to their limited sound shaping features . To amplify their guitars , they ran a Marshall Plexi standalone amplifier through the speaker cabinets of a Fender Dual Showman , and occasionally used a Fender Twin Reverb . Some songs were embellished with additional instruments , including Buddy Bowser 's brassy saxophone on " Lonely Planet Boy " . Johansen sang into distorted guitar pickups for additional vocals and overdubbed them into the song . He also played an Asian gong for " Vietnamese Baby " and harmonica on " Pills " . For " Personality Crisis " , Sylvain originally played on The Record Plant 's Yamaha grand piano before Rundgren added his own piano flourishes to both that song and " Private World " . Rundgren also contributed to the background vocals heard on " Trash " and played synthesizers on " Vietnamese Baby " and " Frankenstein ( Orig . ) " , which Sylvain recalled : " I remember him getting those weird sounds from this beautiful old Moog synthesizer he brought in . He said it was a model that only he and The Beatles had . "
New York Dolls was mixed in less than half a day . Rundgren felt the band seemed distracted and disinterested at that point , so he tried unsuccessfully to ban them from the mixing session . For the final mix , he minimized the sound of Nolan 's drumming . In retrospect , Rundgren said the quality of the mix was poor because the band had hurried and questioned him while mixing the record : " It 's too easy for it to become a free @-@ for @-@ all , with every musician only hearing their own part and not the whole . They all had other places to be , so rather than split , they rushed the thing and if that wasn 't enough they took it to the crappy mastering lab that Mercury had put them in . " Thunders famously complained to a journalist that Rundgren " fucked up the mix " on New York Dolls , adding to stories that the two had clashed during the album 's recording . Both Johansen and Scoppa later said they did not see any conflict between the two and that Thunders ' typically foolish behavior was misinterpreted . Johansen later praised Rundgren for how he enhanced and equalized each instrument , giving listeners the impression that " [ they 're ] in a room and there 's a band playing " , while Sylvain said his mix accurately captured how the band sounded live .
= = Music and lyrics = =
New York Dolls features 10 original songs and 1 cover — the 1963 Bo Diddley song " Pills " . Johansen described the album as " a little jewel of urban folk art " . Rundgren , on the other hand , said the band 's sensibilities were different from " the urban New York thing " because they had been raised outside Manhattan and drew on carefree rock and roll and Brill Building pop influences such as the Shangri @-@ Las : " Their songs , as punky as they were , usually had a lot to do with the same old boy @-@ girl thing but in a much more inebriated way . " Johansen quoted the lyric " you 'd best believe I 'm in love L @-@ U @-@ V " from the Shangri @-@ Las ' " Give Him a Great Big Kiss " ( 1964 ) when he opened " Looking for a Kiss " , which tells a story of adolescent romantic desire hampered by peers who use drugs . On " Subway Train " , he used lyrics from the American folk standard " Someone 's in the Kitchen with Dinah " . In the opinion of critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine , the album 's rowdy hard rock songs also revamped riffs from Chuck Berry and the Rolling Stones , resulting in music that sounded edgy and threatening in spite of the New York Dolls ' wittingly kitsch and camp sensibilities . " Personality Crisis " featured raunchy dual guitars , boogie @-@ woogie piano , and a histrionic pause , while " Trash " was a punky pop rock song with brassy singing .
Several songs on New York Dolls function as what Robert Hilburn deemed " colorful , if exaggerated , expressions of teen alienation " . Robert Christgau remarked that because many of Manhattan 's white youths were wealthy and somewhat artsy , only ill @-@ behaved young people from the outer boroughs such as the band members could " capture the oppressive excitement Manhattan holds for a half @-@ formed human being " . " Private World " , an escapist plea for stability , was co @-@ written by Kane , who rarely contributed as a songwriter and felt overwhelmed as a young adult in the music business . Johansen , the band 's main lyricist , said " Frankenstein ( Orig . ) " was about " how kids come to Manhattan from all over , they 're kind of like whipped dogs , they 're very repressed . Their bodies and brains are disoriented from each other ... it 's a love song . " According to critic Frank Kogan , the titular monster in the song was the personification of New York City and its ethos — " the ostentation and the terror , the dreams and the fear " — while Johansen asking listeners if they " could make it with Frankenstein " involved more than sexual slang : " David was asking if you — if I — could make it with the monster of life , whether I could embrace life in all its pain and dreams and disaster . " Sylvain jokingly said " Frankenstein ( Orig . ) " was titled with a qualifier because rock musician Edgar Winter had released his 1973 song of the same name before the band could record their own : " Our song ' Frankenstein ' was a big hit in our live show ... Now , his thing didn 't sound at all like ours , but I 'm sure he stole our title . "
Although the New York Dolls exhibited tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek qualities , Gary Graff observed a streetwise realism in the album 's songs . In Christgau 's opinion , Johansen 's colloquial and morally superior lyrics were imbued with humor and a sense of human limits in songs whose fundamental theme was authenticity . This theme was explored in stories about lost youths , as on " Subway Train " , or in a study of a specific subject , such as the " schizy imagemonger " on " Personality Crisis " . He argued that beneath the band 's decadent and campy surface were lyrics about " the modern world ... one nuclear bomb could blow it all away . Pills and personality crises weren 't evils — easy , necessary , or whatever . They were strategies and tropisms and positive pleasures " . According to journalist Steve Taylor , " Vietnamese Baby " dealt with the impact of the Vietnam War at the time on everyday activities for people , whose fun was undermined by thoughts of collective guilt .
On songs such as " Subway Train " and " Trash " , Johansen used ambiguity as a lyrical mode . In Kogan 's opinion , Johansen sang in an occasionally unintelligible manner and wrote in a perplexing , fictional style that was lazy yet ingenious , as it provided his lyrics an abundance of " emotional meaning " and interpretation : " David never provides an objective framework , he 's always jumping from voice to voice , so you 're hearing a character addressing another character , or the narrator addressing the character , or the character or the narrator addressing us , all jammed up together so you 're hearing bits of conversation and bits of subjective description in no kind of chronological order . But as someone says in ' Vietnamese Baby ' : ' Everything connects . ' " In " Trash " , Johansen undercut his vaguely pansexual beliefs with the possibility of going to " fairyland " if he took a " lover 's leap " with the song 's subject .
= = Release and reception = =
New York Dolls was released on July 27 , 1973 , in the United States and on October 19 in the United Kingdom . Its controversial cover featured the band dressed in exaggerated drag , including high wigs , messy make @-@ up , high heels , and garters . The photo was used for shock value , and on the back of the album , the band is photographed in their usual stage wear . To announce the album 's release , Mercury published an advertisement slogan that read " Introducing The New York Dolls : A Band You 're Gonna Like , Whether You Like It Or Not " , while other ads called them " The Band You Love to Hate " . Two double A @-@ sided , 7 " singles were released — " Trash " / " Personality Crisis " in July and " Jet Boy " / " Vietnamese Baby " in November 1973 — neither of which charted .
New York Dolls was not a success with consumers and only reached number 116 on the American Top LPs , while in the UK , it failed to chart altogether . The record sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies at the time and fell well short of expectations in the press . According to Rolling Stone in 2003 , it ultimately sold fewer than 500 @,@ 000 copies . Music journalist Phil Strongman said that its commercial failure could be attributed to the New York Dolls ' divisive effect on listeners , including writers from the same magazine . In a feature story on the band for Melody Maker , Mark Plummer dismissed their playing as the poorest he had ever seen , while the magazine 's reporter Michael Watts viewed them as an encouraging , albeit momentary , presence in what he felt was a lifeless rock and roll scene at the time . In Creem magazine 's readers poll , the album earned the band awards in the categories of " Best New Group of the Year " and " Worst New Group of the Year " .
New York Dolls nonetheless received widespread acclaim from contemporary critics . In a rave review for NME , Nick Kent said the band 's raunchy style of rock and roll was vividly recorded by Rundgren on an album that , besides Iggy and the Stooges ' Raw Power ( 1973 ) , served as the only one " so far to fully define just exactly where 1970s rock should be coming from " . Trouser Press founder and editor Ira Robbins viewed New York Dolls as an innovative record and found the band 's music brilliantly chaotic and well produced by Rundgren . Ellen Willis , writing for The New Yorker , said it was by far the year 's most compelling hard rock album and that at least half of its songs were immediate classics , particularly " Personality Crisis " and " Trash " , which she called " transcendent " . In Newsday , Christgau hailed the New York Dolls as " the best hard rock band in the country and maybe the world right now " , writing that their " special genius " was combining the shrewd songwriting savvy of early @-@ 1960s popular music with the anarchic sound of late @-@ 1960s heavy metal . He believed the record 's frenzied approach , various emotions , and wild noise conveyed Manhattan 's harsh , deviant thrill better than the Velvet Underground . In a less enthusiastic review , Rolling Stone critic Tony Glover believed the band 's impressive live sound was mostly preserved on the album , but he was slightly critical of production flourishes and overdubs , feeling they made some lyrics incomprehensible and some choruses too sonorous . Although he was surprised Rundgren 's production worked well with the group 's raunchy sound on most of the songs , Glover ultimately asked whether or not " the record alone will impress as much as seeing them live ( they 're a highly watchable group ) . "
After the album 's release , the New York Dolls toured the US as a supporting act for English rock band Mott the Hoople . Reviews complimented their songwriting , Thunders and Sylvain 's guitar interplay , and noted their campy fashion and the resemblance of Johansen and Thunders to Mick Jagger and Keith Richards . However , some critics panned them as an unserious group of amateurs who could not play or sing . During their appearance on The Old Grey Whistle Test in England , the show 's host Bob Harris dismissed their music as " mock rock " in his on @-@ air comments . They also developed a reputation for rock @-@ star excesses , including drugs , groupies , trashed hotel rooms , and public disturbances , and according to Ben Edmonds of Creem , became " the most walked @-@ out @-@ on band in the history of show business " . Strongman wrote that the band and the album were difficult to market because of their kitschy style and how Murcia 's death had exacerbated their association with hard drugs , which " wasn 't altogether true in the early days " . Nonetheless , they remained the most popular band in New York City , where their Halloween night concert at the Waldorf Astoria in 1973 drew hundreds of young fans and local television coverage .
= = Legacy and influence = =
New York Dolls has since been often cited as one of the greatest debut albums in rock music , one of the genre 's most popular cult records , and a foundational work for the late 1970s punk rock movement . It was a pivotal influence on many of the rock and roll , punk , and glam rock groups that followed , including the Ramones , Kiss , the Sex Pistols , The Damned , and Guns N ' Roses . According to The Mojo Collection ( 2007 ) , the record ignited punk rock and could still inspire more movements because of the music 's abundant attitude and passion , while Encyclopedia of Popular Music writer Colin Larkin deemed it " a major landmark in rock history , oozing attitude , vitality and controversy from every note " . Chuck Eddy named it one of the records crucial to the evolution of rock music . In 101 Albums That Changed Popular Music ( 2009 ) , Chris Smith wrote that the New York Dolls pioneered punk 's aesthetic of amateurish musicianship on the album , which undermined the musical sophistication that had developed over the past decade in popular music and had been perfected months earlier on Pink Floyd 's The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) . In The Guardian 's list of " 1000 albums to hear before you die " , the newspaper credited the record for serving as " an efficacious antidote to the excesses of prog rock " .
In a retrospective review for AllMusic , Erlewine — the website 's senior editor — claimed that New York Dolls was a more quintessential proto @-@ punk album than any of the Stooges ' releases because of how it " plunders history while celebrating it , creating a sleazy urban mythology along the way " . David Fricke argued that it was a more definitive glam rock album than David Bowie 's Ziggy Stardust ( 1972 ) or anything by Marc Bolan because of how the band " captured both the glory and sorrow of glam , the high jinx and wasted youth , with electric photorealism " . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Joe Gross called it an " absolutely essential " record and " epic sleaze , the sound of five young men shaping the big city in their own scuzzy image " . Sylvain attributed its influence on punk rock to how Rundgren recorded his guitar through the left speaker and Thunders ' guitar on the right side , an orientation which he said younger bands such as the Ramones and the Sex Pistols adopted . Rundgren was amused by how the record became considered a precursor to the punk movement : " The irony is that I wound up producing the seminal punk album , but I was never really thought of as a punk producer , and I never got called by punk acts . They probably thought I was too expensive for what they were going for . But the Dolls didn 't really consider themselves punk . "
New York Dolls has frequently been named one of the greatest albums of all @-@ time ; according to Acclaimed Music , it is the 155th most ranked record on critics ' all @-@ time lists . In 1978 , it was ranked as the 199th greatest record ever in Paul Gambaccini 's book Rock Critics ' Choice : The Top 200 Albums , which polled a number of leading music journalists and record collectors . Christgau , one of the critics polled , named it the 15th best album of the 1970s in The Village Voice the following year . New York Dolls was included in Neil Strauss 's 1996 list of the 100 most influential alternative records , and the Spin Alternative Record Guide ( 1995 ) named it the 70th best alternative album . In 2002 , it was included on a list published by Q of the 100 best punk records , while Mojo named it both the 13th greatest punk album and the 49th greatest album of all time . In 2003 , Rolling Stone placed the record at number 213 on its 500 greatest albums list and " Personality Crisis " at number 271 on its 500 greatest songs list . In 2007 , Mojo polled a panel of prominent recording artists and songwriters for the magazine 's list of " 100 Records That Changed the World " , in which New York Dolls was voted the 39th most influential and inspirational record ever . English singer Morrissey named it his favorite album in a list for The Quietus in 2010 . According to Paul Myers , the record " struck such a chord with Morrissey that he was not only moved to form his own influential group , The Smiths ... but would eventually convince the surviving Dolls to reunite [ in 2004 ] " . In 2013 , New York Dolls was placed at number 355 on NME 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = New York Dolls = = =
David Johansen – gong , harmonica , vocals
Arthur " Killer " Kane – bass guitar
Jerry Nolan – drums
Sylvain Sylvain – piano , rhythm guitar , vocals
Johnny Thunders – lead guitar , vocals
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Buddy Bowser – saxophone
Jack Douglas – engineering
David Krebs – executive production
Steve Leber – executive production
Paul Nelson – executive production
Dave O 'Grady – makeup
Todd Rundgren – additional piano , Moog synthesizer , production
Ed Sprigg – engineer
Alex Spyropoulos – piano
Marty Thau – executive production
Toshi – photography
= = Release history = =
Information is adapted from Nina Antonia 's Too Much Too Soon : The New York Dolls ( 2006 ) .
= Harold Davidson =
Harold Francis Davidson ( 14 July 1875 – 30 July 1937 ) , generally known as the Rector of Stiffkey , was a Church of England priest who in 1932 , after a public scandal , was convicted of immorality by a church court and defrocked . Davidson strongly protested his innocence and to raise funds for his reinstatement campaign he exhibited himself in a barrel on the Blackpool seafront . He performed in other sideshows of a similar nature , and died after being attacked by a lion in whose cage he was appearing in a seaside spectacular .
Before his ordination in 1903 , Davidson had a brief career on the London stage as an entertainer . As a young curate he became actively involved with charitable activity among London 's poor , an interest he maintained following his appointment in 1906 as rector of the rural Norfolk parish of Stiffkey . After the First World War , in which he served as a naval chaplain , he devoted himself primarily to his London work . Styling himself the " Prostitutes ' Padre " , his declared mission was the rescue of young girls he considered in danger of falling into vice . In this role he approached and befriended hundreds of girls and , although there was little direct evidence of improper behaviour , Davidson was frequently found in compromising situations . His neglect of his local duties over many years strained relations with his parishioners in Stiffkey ; after a formal complaint , the Bishop of Norwich instituted disciplinary proceedings through a consistory court . Davidson 's defence was severely compromised by his eccentric conduct , and was damaged beyond repair when the prosecution produced a photograph of him with a near @-@ naked teenage girl .
Davidson 's later career as a showman earned him much notoriety but little money . His attempts at legal redress were unsuccessful , despite recognition even in church circles that he had not been fairly treated by the consistory court . After his death the case continued to attract public interest for decades , through fictional , stage and screen versions of the story . His descendants have continued to assert his innocence of any wrongdoing , and later commentators have generally accepted that however unwise and inappropriate his behaviour , his basic motives were genuine and that he did not deserve the humiliations he endured .
= = Family background and childhood = =
Harold Davidson was born on 14 July 1875 in Sholing , near the south coast port of Southampton , to the Reverend Francis Davidson and his wife Alice . Francis Davidson was the vicar of St Mary 's , Sholing , a post he had held since 1866 ; as many as 27 members of the Davidson family were or had been Anglican clergy . Alice Davidson , née Hodgskin , was a great @-@ niece of the educationist and Rugby School headmaster Thomas Arnold . Sholing was a poor parish , with a mixed population of dock labourers and itinerant workers many of whom had little interest in churchgoing . Francis Davidson , described by Harold Davidson 's earliest biographer , Tom Cullen , as " a tiny man ... with a luxuriant beard that gave him the appearance of a gnome " , served the parish for 48 years . Although he could be pugnacious when necessary , according to a former parishioner he was a true pastor , willing to offer help whatever the circumstances .
Davidson 's family assumed that he would follow his father in becoming a priest and he was brought up strictly . When he was six he began attending Banister Court School in Southampton , an establishment founded initially for the sons of Merchant Navy officers . In 1890 Harold was sent to live with two maiden aunts in Croydon while he attended the Whitgift School . Here he became an enthusiastic amateur actor , encouraged by his friendship with a fellow @-@ pupil , Leon Quartermaine , who later won recognition on the stage and in films . In February 1894 the pair appeared together in a school production of the farce Sent to the Tower . Under his aunts ' influence , Davidson became a part @-@ time worker at Toynbee Hall , an East End charity founded by Samuel and Henrietta Barnett which attracted many volunteers from schools and universities . Because of these distractions he neglected his school work and failed to win a scholarship that would enable him to attend Oxford University and study for holy orders . In the face of his father 's disapproval , he decided to pursue a career as a stage comedian .
= = Theatre , Oxford and ordination = =
Davidson 's principal theatrical genre was that of the " drawing @-@ room entertainer " ; Cullen describes this kind of performance as " [ a ] n answer to the demand of a rising middle class which was neither cultured nor resourceful , but which wanted desperately to be diverted " . Within a few months of leaving Whitgift in 1894 , Davidson appeared on the London stage , at Steinway Hall in Lower Seymour Street , performing a comic routine . He was reasonably successful and in the next few years found provincial engagements with Masonic lodges , literary societies and similar social organisations . Cullen suggests that his greatest triumph was as a comic actor in a touring production of Brandon Thomas 's popular farce Charley 's Aunt . Davidson played the part of Lord Fancourt Babberley , who masquerades as the rich aunt of a fellow @-@ Oxford undergraduate — a frenetic role for which Cullen believes Davidson was eminently suitable .
During his theatrical days , Davidson maintained high standards of personal morality , observed strict teetotalism and gave regular Bible readings to the elderly in the towns in which he performed on tour . He later gave an account of an incident from November 1894 when he was performing in London . While walking along the Thames Embankment in a thick fog , he said , he encountered a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl who was about to throw herself into the Thames . After preventing her suicide attempt , Davidson learned that she had run away from home near Cambridge , was penniless and without shelter . He paid her fare home : " Her pitiful story made a tremendous impression on me ... I have ever since ... kept my eyes open for opportunities to help that kind of girl . "
In 1898 Davidson finally bowed to his father 's wish that he should study for holy orders , after the intervention of the Reverend Basil Wilberforce , grandson of the abolitionist William Wilberforce and a friend of the Davidson family . Wilberforce was an alumnus of Exeter College , Oxford , and used his influence to secure Davidson a place there despite the latter 's lack of qualifications . At Oxford , Davidson 's behaviour was notably eccentric ; he displayed considerable energy but disregarded rules , was persistently unpunctual and regularly failed his examinations . He continued to appear on the stage when he could , and decorated the walls of his rooms with autographed pictures of actresses . By 1901 his academic inadequacies were such that he was required to leave Exeter College , although he was allowed to continue studying for his degree at Grindle 's Hall , a cramming establishment . He finally passed his examinations in 1903 , at the age of 28 , and that year was ordained by the Bishop of Oxford — after some reluctance on the part of the bishop to accept so unpromising a candidate .
In 1901 , when Annie Horniman 's travelling theatrical company visited Oxford , Davidson fell in love with one of the company 's leading actresses , Moyra ( " Molly " ) Cassandra Saurin , an attractive blonde and blue @-@ eyed woman from County Meath in Ireland . The couple were quickly engaged , but the relationship was stormy and was several times broken off . There was no question of marriage until Davidson was fully established in his new profession . His first church appointment was a curacy at Holy Trinity Church , Windsor , Berkshire , with an additional role as assistant chaplain to the Household Cavalry at Combermere Barracks . In 1905 he was transferred to London as curate at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields , where his enthusiasm and industry drew approving comments .
= = Rector of Stiffkey = =
= = = Early years = = =
Davidson 's appointment in 1906 as rector of the Norfolk parish of Stiffkey with Morston came through the patronage of the 6th Marquess Townshend , whose family had a long history of public and political service in the county .. The appointment was probably given in recognition of Davidson 's role in reconciling the fierce opposition of the Townshend family to the marquess 's proposed marriage to Gladys Sutherst , the daughter of a bankrupt Yorkshire businessman ; as curate of St Martin 's , Davidson had officiated at the wedding on 8 August 1905 . The Stiffkey living was
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= Skylon ( spacecraft ) =
Skylon is a design for a single @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit spaceplane by the British company Reaction Engines Limited ( REL ) , using SABRE , a combined @-@ cycle , air @-@ breathing rocket propulsion system , potentially reusable for 200 flights . In paper studies , the cost per kilogram of payload carried to low Earth orbit in this way is hoped to be reduced from the current £ 1 @,@ 108 / kg ( as of December 2015 ) , including research and development , to around £ 650 / kg , with costs expected to fall much more over time after initial expenditures have amortised . In 2004 , the developer estimated the total lifetime cost of the programme to be about $ 12 billion .
The vehicle design is for a hydrogen @-@ fuelled aircraft that would take off from a purpose @-@ built runway , and accelerate to Mach 5 @.@ 4 at 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) altitude using the atmosphere 's oxygen before switching the engines to use the internal liquid oxygen ( LOX ) supply to take it into orbit . Once in orbit it would release its payload ( of up to 15 tonnes ) . The vehicle will be unpiloted , but also be certified to carry passengers . All payloads could be carried in a standardised container compartment . The relatively light vehicle would then re @-@ enter the atmosphere and land on a runway , being protected from the conditions of re @-@ entry by a ceramic composite skin . When on the ground , it would undergo inspection and necessary maintenance . If the design goal is achieved , it should be ready to fly again within two days .
As of 2012 , only a small portion of the funding required to develop and build Skylon had been secured . The research and development work on the SABRE engine design is proceeding under a small European Space Agency ( ESA ) grant . In January 2011 , REL submitted a proposal to the British government to request additional funding for the project and in April REL announced that they had secured $ 350 million of further funding contingent on a test of the engine 's precooler technology being successful . Testing of the key technologies was successfully completed in November 2012 , allowing Skylon 's design to advance to its final phase . On 16 July 2013 the British government pledged £ 60M to the project : this investment will provide support at a " crucial stage " to allow a full @-@ scale prototype of the SABRE engine to be built .
If all goes to plan , the first ground @-@ based engine tests could happen in 2019 , and Skylon could be performing unmanned test flights by 2025 . It could carry 15 tonnes of cargo to a 300 km equatorial orbit on each trip , and up to 11 tonnes to the International Space Station , almost 45 % more than the capacity of the European Space Agency 's ATV vehicle .
= = Research and development programme = =
= = = Background and early work = = =
Skylon is based on a previous project of Alan Bond , known as HOTOL . The development of HOTOL began in 1982 , at a time when space technology was moving towards reusable launch systems such as the Space Shuttle . In conjunction with British Aerospace and Rolls @-@ Royce , a promising design emerged to which the British government contributed £ 2 million . However , in 1988 , the government withdrew further funding , and development was terminated . Following this setback , Bond decided to set up his own company , Reaction Engines Limited , with the hope of continuing development with private funding .
After securing more funding in the 1990s , the initial design underwent radical revision and , since 2000 , Reaction Engines has been working with the University of Bristol to develop an engine design vital to the success of Skylon . The STRICT / STERN designs resulting from this programme were deemed a great success . The next stage of development will be to construct a full @-@ sized working prototype of the SABRE Engine .
There are several differences compared with HOTOL . Whereas HOTOL would have launched from a rocket sled , to save weight , Skylon uses a conventional retractable undercarriage . Skylon 's revised engine design , the SABRE engine , is expected to offer higher performance . HOTOL 's rear mounted engine gave the vehicle intrinsically poor in @-@ flight stability . Early attempts to fix this problem had ended up sacrificing much of HOTOL 's payload potential , and contributed to the failure of the project . Skylon solves this by placing engines at the end of its wings , but further forward and much closer to the vehicle 's centre of mass longitudinally .
= = = Project brief = = =
REL intends ultimately to operate as a for @-@ profit commercial enterprise , manufacturing Skylon vehicles for multiple international customers ; these customers will operate their fleets directly , with support from REL . While REL intends to manufacture some components directly , such as the engine precooler , other components have been designed by partner companies and a consortium of various aerospace firms is expected to handle full production of Skylon . According to Management Today , Skylon has been discussed as a possible replacement for NASA 's Space Shuttle .
In service , Skylon could potentially lower satellite launch costs from the current £ 15 @,@ 000 / kg to £ 650 / kg , according to evidence submitted to the UK parliament by Reaction Engines Ltd . Funding for the project from the British government has often been difficult to obtain . Speaking on the topic of Skylon in 2011 , David Willetts , the UK Minister of State for Universities and Science , stated :
The European Space Agency is funding proof of concept work for Skylon from UK contributions . This work is focusing on demonstrating the viability of the advanced British engine technology that would underpin the project . Initial work will be completed in mid 2011 and if the trial is successful , we will work with industry to consider next steps .
= = = Funding and engine development = = =
An unsuccessful request for funding from the British government was issued in 2000 . This involved a proposal offering a potentially large return on investment . Subsequent discussions with the British National Space Centre ( which later became the UK Space Agency ) led to a major funding agreement in February 2009 between the British National Space Centre , European Space Agency ( ESA ) and REL for € 1 million ( $ 1 @.@ 28 million ) to produce a demonstration engine for Skylon by 2011 .
The Technology Demonstration Programme will last approximately 2 @.@ 5 years and will benefit from another € 1 million from ESA . This programme will take Reaction Engines Ltd from a Technology Readiness Level ( TRL ) of 2 / 3 up to 4 / 5 . The former UK Minister for Science and Innovation in 2009 , Lord Drayson , commented on Skylon in a speech : " This is an example of a British company developing world @-@ beating technology with exciting consequences for the future of space . "
As of 2012 , the funding required to develop and build the entire craft has not yet been secured , and so current research and development work is focused on the engines , under an ESA grant of € 1 million . In January 2011 , REL submitted a proposal to the British Government requesting additional funding for the Skylon project . On 13 April 2011 , REL announced that the Skylon design had passed several rigorous independent reviews . On 24 May 2011 , ESA publicly declared the design to be feasible , having found " no impediments or critical items " in the proposal .
The major milestone of the commencement of static testing of the engine precooler and the SABRE engine was achieved in June 2011 , marking the start of Phase 3 in the Skylon development programme . An REL spokesperson announced that they had secured $ 350 million of further funding , contingent on successful completion of the full @-@ sized precooled jet engine test in June 2011 . Engine testing was initiated in June 2011 , and was expected to continue to the end of that year . However , testing was delayed until April 2012 .
On 9 May 2011 , REL stated that a preproduction prototype of the Skylon could be flying by 2016 , and the proposed route would be a suborbital flight between the Guiana Space Centre near Kourou in French Guiana and the North European Aerospace Test Range , located in northern Sweden . Pre @-@ orders are expected in the 2011 – 2013 time frame coinciding with the formation of the manufacturing consortium . On 8 December 2011 , Alan Bond , speaking at the 7th Appleton Space Conference , stated that Skylon would enter into service by 2021 @-@ 2022 instead of 2020 as previously envisaged .
In April 2012 , REL announced that the first phase of the precooler test programme had been successfully completed . On 10 July 2012 , REL announced that the second of three series of tests has been completed successfully . The test facilities underwent upgrades to allow the third and final phase of testing to proceed . On 13 July 2012 , ESA Director @-@ General Jean @-@ Jacques Dordain told Space News that ESA would hold talks with REL to develop a further " technical understanding " .
Following a successful propulsion system test that was audited by ESA 's propulsion division in mid @-@ 2012 , the company announced that it would begin a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year project to develop and build a test rig of the Sabre engine to prove the engine 's performance across its air @-@ breathing and rocket modes . In November 2012 , it was announced that a key test of the engine precooler had been successfully completed , and that ESA had verified the precooler 's design . The project 's development is now allowed to advance to its next phase , which involves the construction and testing of a full @-@ scale prototype engine . In June 2013 , George Osborne , The Chancellor of the Exchequer stated on his Twitter account that the British government would be giving £ 60 million towards the further development of the SABRE engine . Osborne 's tweet stated : " Just seen SABRE -a rocket engine that cools air from 1000 degrees to -150 in fraction of a second . We 're backing the future with £ 60m funding " . The first grant of £ 50 million was approved by the European Commission in August 2015 . The second grant of £ 10 million was approved by the European Space Agency in July 2016 .
In October 2015 , BAE Systems entered into an agreement with Reaction Engines where it would invest £ 20 @.@ 6 million in Reaction Engines to acquire 20 % of its share capital and help develop the SABRE engine .
= = Technology and design = =
= = = Overview = = =
Skylon is a fully reusable single stage to orbit ( SSTO ) vehicle , able to achieve orbit without staging . Proponents of SSTO claim that staging causes a number of problems due to its complexity that includes being difficult or impossible to recover and reuse many parts , leading to great expense , and therefore believe that SSTO designs hold the promise of reducing the cost of space @-@ flight . It is intended for Skylon to take off from a specially strengthened runway , fly to low earth orbit , re @-@ enter the atmosphere , and land upon a runway like a conventional aeroplane .
The design of the Skylon C2 features a large cylindrical payload bay , 13 m ( 42 ft 8 in ) long and 4 @.@ 8 m ( 15 ft 9 in ) in diameter . It is designed to be comparable with current payload dimensions , and able to support the containerisation of payloads that Reaction Engines hopes for in the future . To an equatorial orbit , Skylon could deliver 15 t ( 33 @,@ 000 lb ) to a 300 km ( 190 mi ) altitude or 11 t ( 24 @,@ 000 lb ) to an 800 km ( 500 mi ) altitude . Using interchangeable payload containers , Skylon could be fitted to carry satellites or fluid cargo into orbit , or , in a specialised habitation module , up to 30 astronauts in one launch .
Because the engine uses the atmosphere as reaction mass at low altitude , it will have a high specific impulse ( around 2 @,@ 800 seconds ) , and burn about one fifth of the propellant that would have been required by a conventional rocket . Therefore , it would be able to take off with much less total propellant than conventional systems . This , in turn , means that it does not need as much lift or thrust , which permits smaller engines , and allows conventional wings to be used . While in the atmosphere , using wings to counteract gravity drag is more fuel @-@ efficient than simply expelling propellant ( as in a rocket ) , again reducing the total amount of propellant needed .
The payload fraction would be significantly greater than normal rockets and the vehicle should be fully reusable ( 200 times or more ) .
= = = SABRE engines = = =
One of the most significant features of the Skylon design is the engine , called SABRE . The engines are designed to operate much like a conventional jet engine to around Mach 5 @.@ 5 ( 1 @,@ 700 m / s ) , 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) altitude , beyond which the air inlet closes and the engine operates as a highly efficient rocket to orbital speed . The proposed SABRE engine is not a scramjet , but a jet engine running combined cycles of a precooled jet engine , rocket engine and ramjet . Originally the key technology for this type of precooled jet engine did not exist , as it required a heat exchanger that was ten times lighter than the state of the art . Research conducted since then has achieved the necessary performance .
Operating an air @-@ breathing jet engine at velocities of up to Mach 5 @.@ 5 poses numerous engineering problems . Several previous engines proposed by other designers worked well as jet engines but performed poorly as rockets . This engine design aims to be a good jet engine within the atmosphere , as well as being an excellent rocket engine outside . The problem with operating at Mach 5 @.@ 5 has been that the air coming into the engine rapidly heats up as it is compressed into the engine ; due to certain thermodynamic effects , this greatly reduces the thrust that can be produced by burning fuel . Attempts to avoid these issues typically make the engine much heavier ( scramjets / ramjets ) or greatly reduce the thrust ( conventional turbojets / ramjets ) . In either case the end result is an engine that has a poor thrust to weight ratio at high speeds , resulting in an engine that is too heavy to assist much in reaching orbit .
The SABRE engine design aims to avoid this by using some of the liquid hydrogen fuel to cool helium in a closed @-@ cycle precooler , which quickly reduces the temperature of the air at the inlet . The air is then used for combustion much like in a conventional jet , and once the helium has left the pre @-@ cooler it is further heated by the products of the pre @-@ burner , giving it enough energy to drive the turbine and the liquid hydrogen pump . Because the air is cooled at all speeds , the jet can be built of light alloys and the weight is roughly halved . Additionally , more fuel can be burnt at high speed . Beyond Mach 5 @.@ 5 , the air would become unusably hot despite the cooling , so the air inlet closes and the engine relies solely on on @-@ board liquid oxygen and hydrogen fuel as in a normal rocket .
= = = Fuselage and structure = = =
The fuselage of Skylon is expected to be a carbon @-@ fiber @-@ reinforced polymer space frame ; a light and strong structure that supports the weight of the aluminium fuel tanks and to which the ceramic skin is attached . Multiple layers of reflective foil thermal insulation fill the spaces of the frame .
The currently proposed Skylon model C2 will be a large vehicle , with a length of 82 metres ( 269 ft ) and a diameter of 6 @.@ 3 metres ( 21 ft ) . Because it will use a low @-@ density fuel , liquid hydrogen , a great volume is needed to contain enough energy to reach orbit . The propellant is intended to be kept at low pressure to minimise stress ; a vehicle that is both large and light has an advantage during atmospheric reentry compared to other vehicles due to a low ballistic coefficient . Because of the low ballistic coefficient , Skylon would be slowed at higher altitudes where the air is thinner . As a result , the skin of the vehicle would reach only 1 @,@ 100 K ( 830 ° C ) . In contrast , the smaller Space Shuttle was heated to 2 @,@ 000 K on its leading edge , and so employed an extremely heat @-@ resistant but fragile silica thermal protection system . The Skylon design does not require such a system , instead opting for using a far thinner yet durable reinforced ceramic skin . However , due to turbulent flow around the wings during re @-@ entry , some parts of Skylon would need to be actively cooled .
= = = = Wheels and runway = = = =
At a gross takeoff weight of 275 tonnes , of which 220 tonnes is propellant , the vehicle is capable of placing 12 tonnes into an equatorial low Earth orbit . A reinforced runway will be needed to tolerate the high equivalent single wheel load . It will possess a retractable undercarriage with high pressure tyres and water @-@ cooled brakes . If problems were to occur just before a take @-@ off the brakes would be applied to stop the vehicle , the water boiling away to dissipate the heat . Upon a successful take @-@ off , the water would be jettisoned , thus reducing the weight of the undercarriage , in the C1 design 1200 kg of water allows the weight of the brakes alone to be reduced from over 3000 kg to around 415 kg . During landing , the empty vehicle would be far lighter , and hence the water would not be needed .
= = Specifications ( Skylon D1 ) = =
Data from the Skylon User Manual
General characteristics
Crew : None , remote controlled from ground
The proposed Skylon Personnel / Logistics Module ( SPLM ) has provision for a Captain .
Capacity : 0
up to 24 passengers in the SPLM
Potential for up to 30 passengers ( in a special passenger module )
Payload : 15 @,@ 000 kg nominal ( 33 @,@ 000 lb nominal ) 17 @,@ 000 kg ( 37 @,@ 000 lb ) to equatorial 160 km ( 99 mi ) orbit from equatorial launch site
approx 2 @,@ 800 kg ( 6 @,@ 200 lb ) to 98 ° ( sun @-@ synchronous ) 600 km ( 373 mi ) orbit from equatorial launch site
Length : 83 @.@ 133 m ( 272 @.@ 75 ft )
Wingspan : 26 @.@ 818 m ( 87 @.@ 99 ft )
Height : approx 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft )
Empty weight : 53 @,@ 400 kg ( 117 @,@ 000 lb )
Loaded weight : 325 @,@ 000 kg ( 717 @,@ 000 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × SABRE 4 synergistic combined cycle rocket engine , 2 @,@ 000 kN ( 450 @,@ 000 lbf ) each
Fuselage diameter : 6 @.@ 3 m ( 20 @.@ 67 ft )
Performance
Maximum speed : Orbital ( air @-@ breathing Mach 5 @.@ 14 , rocket Mach 27 @.@ 8 )
Service ceiling : 28 @,@ 500 m air @-@ breathing , 90 km SABRE ascent , 600 km exoatmospheric ( 93 @,@ 500 ft air breathing , 56 mi rocket ascent , 373 mi exoatmospheric )
Specific impulse : 4 @,@ 100 seconds ( 40 @,@ 000 N @-@ s / kg ) -9,200 seconds ( 90 @,@ 000 N @-@ s / kg ) air @-@ breathing , 460 seconds ( 4 @,@ 500 N @-@ s / kg ) rocket , 465 @.@ 2 seconds ( 4 @,@ 562 N @-@ s / kg ) orbital
SABRE engine thrust / weight ratio : up to 14 atmospheric
= Janet ( album ) =
Janet ( stylized as janet . ) is the fifth studio album by American recording artist Janet Jackson , released on May 18 , 1993 , by Virgin Records America . Prior to its release , Jackson was at the center of a high @-@ profile bidding war over her recording contract . In 1991 , her original label A & M sought to renew her contract , while others , such as Atlantic , Capitol , and Virgin all vied to sign her . After meeting with Virgin owner Richard Branson , she signed with the label for a $ 40 million contract , making her the world 's then @-@ highest paid musical act .
Criticism that her success in the music industry was attributed to being a member of the Jackson family and a producer @-@ dependent artist led her to write all lyrics for the album , in addition to co @-@ producing every song and co @-@ writing each of their arrangements with the songwriting / production duo Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis . Its title , read " Janet , period . " , is meant to disassociate her public image from her family , dropping her surname . While pop and R & B had been standard components in her music , she broadened her compositions by incorporating hip hop , opera , house and jazz , eliminating the rigid , industrial sound of her previous records . Although she earned a reputation as an advocate for sexual abstinence with her 1986 single " Let 's Wait Awhile " , the theme of Janet is sexual intimacy — an abrupt departure from her conservative image . Much of the acclaim for the album focused on her lyrics that emphasized the female perspective on sexuality and the demand for practicing safe sex . Academics have argued the erotic imagery in her music videos released to promote the album 's singles have contributed to a higher degree of sexual freedom among women .
The album topped the record charts in the United States , Australia , New Zealand and the UK . In the US , it became the singer 's third consecutive album to top the Billboard 200 and her first to debut at number one . Selling 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , it set a record for the highest first week sales for a female artist at that time . Certified sixfold platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , it has sold over seven million copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan and an estimated 20 million copies worldwide . It cemented her as an international icon and sex symbol , and is listed by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as one of the 200 Definitive Albums of All Time .
Producing six top ten hits on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart , Janet remains one of only seven albums in the chart 's history to achieve that feat , and being the third consecutive album to produce five or more singles on top 10 , making her the only artist in history to have three albums with 5 or more singles in the top 10 . " That 's the Way Love Goes " became Jackson 's most successful single in the US , staying atop the Hot 100 for eight weeks , as well as topping the singles charts in Australia , Canada , and New Zealand . It received two Grammy Award nominations in 1994 , winning Best R & B Song . Her ballad " Again " — written for the 1993 feature film Poetic Justice — also topped the Hot 100 and garnered nominations for the Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Original Song . The MTV @-@ sponsored Janet World Tour supporting the album received critical acclaim for Jackson 's elaborate stage performances , reinforcing her reputation as one of the preeminent artists of the MTV generation .
= = Background = =
Rumors of a multimillion @-@ dollar bidding war over Jackson 's recording contract began to circulate in spring 1991 . Jet magazine reported : " A recording company has offered in excess of $ 50 million to sign superstar Janet Jackson to a recording contract , making the 24 @-@ year @-@ old singer / songwriter / dancer / actress the key player in one of the hottest bidding wars among today 's major record companies . " Reports indicated that Capitol , Virgin and Atlantic were all bidding for Jackson 's contract , as her ties to A & M would soon expire ; by March , she had signed with Virgin . The New York Times declared " Janet Jackson has signed what is believed to be the most lucrative contract in the history of recording . The 24 @-@ year @-@ old singer , songwriter and actress signed an exclusive contract with Virgin Records it was announced yesterday . " Her new contract guaranteed a twenty @-@ two percent royalty payment , in addition to her then @-@ historic signing bonus . Chuck Philips of the Los Angeles Times reported that it had been the largest bidding war in recent memory and that " [ o ] ne reason the bidding was so heavy , various industry observers have noted , was that Jackson @-@ at just 24 @-@ is still a relatively fresh face on the pop scene and that her dance @-@ pop style is ideal for today 's pop / video climate . " In addition , her potential as an international superstar proved to be the primary motivation for the label 's investment . Jeff Ayeroff , co @-@ managing director of Virgin in the US stated : " Janet is a world @-@ class artist and we expect her growth to be enormous . " Chairman Richard Branson spoke with Jackson privately to seal the deal . He commented : " A Rembrandt rarely becomes available ... When it does , there are many people who are determined to get it . I was determined . "
Stephen Holden of The New York Times criticized the contract amount , considering it a gamble for Virgin . He stated that Jackson " is a producer @-@ dependent artist — i.e. , someone who relies on others to make her sound interesting and trendy . She also lacks a sharply defined personality , both as an artist and celebrity . Where singers like Ms. Houston and Mariah Carey have commanding vocal power , Ms. Jackson 's is a relatively indistinguishable studio voice . " Richard Branson rebutted this argument stating " Ms. Jackson has met with great success working with the production team of Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , just as her brother Michael Jackson has experienced his greatest successes with the producer Quincy Jones . It is interesting that Mr. Holden doesn 't mention this similar ' liability ' when discussing Michael Jackson . To say that Ms. Jackson is ' dependent ' on her producer is a shortsighted observation . She is a formidable talent who stands on her own . " Michael Jackson would break his sister 's record only days later , when he signed a $ 60 million contract with Sony Music Entertainment . Both sibling 's contracts garnered considerable criticism . Los Angeles Times reported that " A & M Records President Al Cafaro , whose company lost the fierce bidding battle over Janet Jackson to Virgin Records , said record companies may be vesting too much importance in individual performers " as the funds used as advances to the Jacksons could have launched recording careers for numerous unknown talents . Cliff Burnstein of Q @-@ Prime management commented that recording artists demands for advances upon signing would begin to escalate from that point forward .
Prior to her first release with Virgin , Jackson was asked by Jam and Lewis to record a song for the sound track to the feature film Mo ' Money , released in 1992 by their label Perspective Records . Jon Bream of the Star Tribune reported : " For most movie soundtracks , producers negotiate with record companies , managers and lawyers for the services of big @-@ name singers . Like the Hollywood outsiders that they are , Edina @-@ based Jam and Lewis went directly to such stars as Janet Jackson , Michael Jackson , Luther Vandross , Bell Biv Devoe , Color Me Badd and Johnny Gill . " Jackson , Jackson and Vandross recorded the duet or trio " The Best Things in Life Are Free " , which peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the Hot R & B Singles chart . Shortly afterward , Jackson began filming for her first feature length role in John Singleton 's Poetic Justice . Although she was encouraged by a major studio executive to take on a film in which she could portray a singer , she insisted on finding a different role . She explained : " About that same time John Singleton asked me to read his new script . John and I became buddies — I loved Boyz N the Hood — so I thought he was just asking my advice . I was shocked and honored to learn the screenplay had been written with me in mind . ' Would you play Justice ? ' he wanted to know . Yes ! I 'd finally found a role — a dramatic nonsinging role — that was right . " Released in July 1993 , Poetic Justice debuted at number one at the box office , grossing $ 11 @,@ 728 @,@ 455 ; it grossed a grand total of $ 27 @,@ 515 @,@ 786 .
= = Conception = =
After writing songs with themes of independence for Control and social injustice for Rhythm Nation 1814 , Jackson desired to devote her new album to love and relationships , describing the theme of her new album as " intimacy " and that " [ s ] exual communication is the name of the game . " She stated in an interview with David Wild for Rolling Stone that " [ w ] hile I was doing Rhythm Nation , I was thinking about how things were so hard , so regimented and so black and white ... I thought I 'd do something on the sexy side — which is hard for me since I grew up as a tomboy and don 't really think of myself that way . But I think this album is more on the feminine tip . " She also commented on how her experience acting in Poetic Justice played a role in taking a new direction with her music . Speaking with biographer David Ritz , she stated that " Rhythm Nation was a heavy record , and Poetic Justice was a heavy movie . I wanted to do something lighter but also daring ... When I wrote the album , I was still in a poetic frame of mind , inspired by Maya 's beautiful language . You can hear that inspiration or the interludes and especially on the song ' New Agenda . ' This time I felt much freer expressing myself . "
= = Titling = =
Despite the critical and commercial success of her two previous albums , Jackson continued to receive numerous comparisons to her brother Michael , often with doubts that she held staying power in the music industry . When Edna Gundersen of USA Today questioned her about the subject , she responded : " Certain people feel I 'm just riding on my last name ... That 's why I just put my first name on janet. and why I never asked my brothers to write or produce music for me . " Virgin Records expressed the album title " punctuates the declaration of strength the singer , songwriter and producer boldly expresses on this moving collection of songs which explore love , sensuality , the power of sisterhood and her own evolving self @-@ identity . " Thomas Harrison , author of Music of the 1990s ( 2011 ) wrote that " [ t ] he conscious decision was made , by the company and / or Jackson , to put her into the same league as other one @-@ named artists , such as Madonna , Bono , and Prince , or at least to put her on the same standing as others in the industry who are often called by one name , such as Whitney , Mariah , Diana , Dolly , and Garth among others . Jackson could now , in a sense , stand on her own and not be seen as a product of the family entertainment machine . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant magazine recounted the title of the album ultimately " announced the singer as completely independent of her male @-@ dominated family [ and ] it positioned her as the person in charge of her sound . "
= = Production = =
The album was produced at Flyte Tyme studios in Edina , Minnesota . Songs on the album , with the exception of " What 'll I Do " , were written by Janet Jackson , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , and mixed by Steve Hodge and Dave Rideau ; " What 'll I Do " was written and produced by Jackson and Jellybean Johnson . Jackson took a larger role in songwriting and production than she did on her previous albums . She explained that " [ a ] ll my records are personal , and janet , is the most personal of them all . That 's why this time around it was important for me to write all the lyrics and half of the melodies . " Jam described the record as being " a more mature album musically . " David Ritz noted that Jackson and her producers took risks by experimenting with musical influences that had not appeared in their previous work . He explained : " She asked Kathleen Battle and Public Enemy 's Chuck D to contribute — an opera diva and a hardcore rapper , two artists one would not associate with Janet — and somehow pulled if off . Beyond Jam and Lewis , there 's now a recognizable Janet Jackson production style that 's gutsy and , in some cases , even eccentric . "
" That 's The Way Love Goes " contains a sample loop of " Papa Don 't Take No Mess " written by James Brown , Fred Wesley , Charles Bobbit , and John Starks . The song " Again " , was originally just an experimental sound the production duo was considering . While Jackson found its melody compelling , the trio did not give the song serious contemplation until the film producers from Poetic Justice requested a ballad for the film 's soundtrack . Jackson subsequently wrote the lyrics for " Again " and shaped them around Jam 's melody . The song was arranged by Lee Blaskey and accompanied by members of the Minnesota Orchestra and the St. Paul Chamber Orchestra .
= = Release and promotion = =
= = = Rolling Stone cover = = =
In September 1993 , Jackson appeared topless on the cover of Rolling Stone magazine with the hands of her then @-@ husband René Elizondo , Jr. covering her breasts . The photograph is the original full @-@ length version of the cropped image used on the cover of the Janet album , shot by Patrick Demarchelier . In the cover story , " Sexual Healing " by David Ritz , Jackson explained , " sex has been an important part of me for several years . But it just hasn 't blossomed publicly until now . I 've had to go through some changes and shed some old attitudes before feeling completely comfortable with my body . Listening to my new record , people intuitively understand the change in me " . Ritz likened Jackson 's transformation to Marvin Gaye as he stated , " just as Gaye moved from What 's Going On to Let 's Get It On , from the austere to the ecstatic , Janet , every bit as serious @-@ minded as Marvin , moved from Rhythm Nation to Janet , her statement of sexual liberation " .
The image was cropped to show only Jackson 's face on the album cover , and midriff in the interior booklet . The full version appears as the cover of the limited edition double disc edition of the album , as well as the video compilation Janet released later that year . Sonia Murray of The Vancouver Sun later reported , " Jackson , 27 , remains clearly established as both role model and sex symbol ; the Rolling Stone photo of Jackson ... became one of the most recognizable , and most lampooned , magazine covers of the year " .
= = = Singles = = =
" That 's the Way Love Goes " , the album 's lead single entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number fourteen and peaked at number one . The single was certified gold by the RIAA on November 12 , 1993 . Virgin records intended for " If " to be the lead single for the album , but Jackson , Jam and Lewis disagreed . " That 's the Way Love Goes " remained at number one for eight weeks — the most successful chart performance of any member of the Jackson family . The single earned a Grammy Award for Best R & B Song . " If " was released as the album 's second single and peaked at number four on the Hot 100 , receiving gold certification on September 28 , 1993 . " Again " , peaked at number one on the Hot 100 on December 11 , 1993 and topped the chart for two weeks . The single was certified gold and then doubled to platinum by the RIAA on December 17 , 1993 . The single earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Song . " Because of Love " reached number ten , but was not certified by the RIAA . " Any Time , Any Place " peaked at number two on the Hot 100 and was certified gold on July 11 , 1994 . " You Want This " , the album 's final commercial single for the United States , peaked at number eight on the Hot 100 and was awarded gold certification on December 6 , 1994 . The album has a hidden track , " Whoops Now " , which was released as a single in selected territories in 1995 .
= = = Videography = = =
Jackson 's music video for " If " was staged as a futuristic Asian nightclub , with spy cameras monitoring the intimate interactions of patrons within their private boudoirs . The video is an elaborate metaphor for the single 's message of sexual fantasy , desire and voyeurism . The video was directed by Dominic Sena , who previously worked with Jackson on music videos for Rhythm Nation 1814 . René Elizondo , Jr. directed the videos for " That 's The Way Love Goes " , and " Again " . Videos for " Any Time , Any Place " and " You Want This " were directed by Keir McFarlane .
= = = Janet World Tour = = =
Jackson embarked on her second world tour in support of her debut album with the Virgin Records label . Costumes and wardrobe for the tour were designed by stylist Tanya Gill , with outfits " rang [ ing ] from pipebone vests with high @-@ heeled moccasin boots to zoot suits top @-@ hats to circus @-@ ringmaster bustiers . " With a show encompassing over 100 costumes , a team of over 50 costume makers was led by wardrobe supervisor , Helen Hiatt . The tour 's debut concert was held on November 24 , 1993 in Cincinnati , Ohio . Jackson held a four show engagement at Madison Square Garden which began on December 17 , 1993 , with the final performance held on New Year 's Eve . Michael Snyder of the San Francisco Chronicle described Jackson 's stage performance at the San Jose Arena in February 1994 , as what erased the line between " stadium @-@ size pop music concerts and full @-@ scale theatrical extravaganzas " .
The one @-@ hour @-@ and @-@ 45 @-@ minute performance was so tightly choreographed — down to two built @-@ in pauses for " tears " at overwhelming waves of crowd adoration and a contrived bit of seductive repartee with a handsome , buffed hunk plucked from the front row for the ode to lust , " Any Time , Any Place " — that it breezed by like a glitzy Vegas revue or a television variety show .
Her performances also garnered criticism . Renee Graham of The Boston Globe commented that her stage show at Great Woods Center for the Performing Arts on June 20 , 1994 , proved her limited vocal range as " [ t ] he numerous costume changes , pyrotechnics and the dancing all but overshadowed her razor @-@ sharp seven @-@ piece band and three back @-@ up singers " , asserting Jackson was a better performer and entertainer than she was a vocalist . However , the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch 's Steve Pick observed Jackson 's stage show at the Riverport Amphitheatre on July 12 , 1994 , made the Janet album 's numerous hit singles more effective with her " larger @-@ than @-@ life stage persona " .
= = = Formats = = =
A limited 2 disc edition of the album was released shortly after the album 's release , the limited edition is in the form of a hard @-@ covered book . The book 's cover is an unedited version of the album 's cover art , the book contains pictures of Jackson and lyrics of the songs from the album . The end of the book contains 2 CD 's , the second CD is a compilation of rare remixes of songs from the album
= = Commercial reception = =
Janet debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums charts , it was the first time in history a female artist debuted at number one of the SoundScan era ; with the largest first week sales in history for a female artist at the time with 350 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week . The album also gained much success worldwide , debuting at number one in the United Kingdom , New Zealand , and Australia . It also debuted in the top 10 in Sweden , The Netherlands , Canada ( with 65 @,@ 000 copies sold at the first week ) and Switzerland .
Janet was first certified gold by the RIAA on August 8 , 1993 denoting 500 @,@ 000 units shipped within the United States . The same day , the album 's certification was raised to 3 × platinum , denoting 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units shipped . On November 17 , 1993 , Janet received 4 × platinum certification and was later awarded 5 × platinum on December 17 , 1993 . The following year on April 12 , 1994 , the album was certified 6 × platinum . Other certifications include a Double Gold certification in Finland , a 2 × Platinum certification in the UK And Australia , a Platinum in New Zealand and a Gold certification in Norway .
According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album has sold 7 @,@ 035 @,@ 000 million copies in the United States since its release , and has achieved worldwide sales of 20 million copies .
= = Critical reception = =
Rolling Stone magazine declared " [ a ] s princess of America 's black royal family , everything Janet Jackson does is important . Whether proclaiming herself in charge of her life , as she did on Control ( 1986 ) , or commander in chief of a rhythm army dancing to fight society 's problems ( Rhythm Nation 1814 , from 1989 ) , she 's influential . And when she announces her sexual maturity , as she does on her new album , Janet . , it 's a cultural moment . " Claiming the album should bring her critical praise , the magazine concludes its review with the statement " [ t ] he princess of America 's black royal family has announced herself sexually mature and surrendered none of her crown 's luster in the process . Black women and their friends , lovers and children have a victory in Janet . " Robert Christgau originally gave the album an " honorable mention " in consumer guide for The Village Voice , wherein he complimented its erotic songs and cited " Funky Big Band " , " Throb " , and " Be a Good Boy " as highlights . Billboard magazine gave a positive review , stating " [ d ] estined to be an instant smash , Ms. Jackson 's latest is a glamorous assortment of styles — pop , dance , R & B , rock , jazz , rap — each delivered with consummate skill and passion . Janet is described as " a career @-@ defining record earning Janet the right to operate on a first @-@ name basis . "
Michael Snyder of the San Francisco Chronicle lauded the album 's content , stating " [ t ] his 75 @-@ minute opus , her first effort under a megabuck contract with the Virgin label , could be the make @-@ out album of the ' 90s ... a silken soul odyssey , charting one woman 's journey to emotional and sexual fulfillment through 10 songs and a series of spoken @-@ word and ambient snippets . " Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian declared the album 's " luxuriant collection of house , soul and pop is her best yet . Cod @-@ Madonna throwaways like Throb aside , there are surprises all over the place . Public Enemy 's Chuck D counterweights Jackson 's sugared vocal to stunning effect on a black @-@ pride anthem , New Agenda ; soprano Kathleen Battle turns the heavyweight funk of This Time into something eerie and beautiful . "
Robert Johnson of San Antonio Express @-@ News praised Jackson and her producers for taking a chance on a new sound . He wrote : " Under the enormous pressure of her $ 40 million deal with Virgin Records , Jackson had to deliver something big enough to put her on a first @-@ name basis with the world ... ' janet . ' isn 't perfect , but it should be enough to make her the Queen of Pop . " " Dammit , Janet ! , " marveled Melody Maker . " The last Jackson hero ( ine ) has carried peacock feathers to the dance . Holier than Mahalia . " " janet. will please most people , " remarked The Daily Telegraph , " because it is crammed with the sort of tender , joyous pop music that lingers long after smarter records have been forgotten . "
Steve Pick of St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch stated that although Jackson may not be the greatest singer or songwriter , but she has nonetheless " created and projected a persona that is irresistible . Part of it is a sexual allure , but more of it is the way she demands and receives attention . " John Mackie with The Vancouver Sun reported the album gives Jackson an " incredible style " , proclaiming Janet as " the best commercial album so far this year , an album that could well vault her past the stumbling Madonna as Queen of the charts . Heck , she might even outsell Michael with this one . " " While her brother loops the loop on Planet Pepsi , it 's hard to imagine the spotlight ever shifting to his sassy sis , " remarked NME , " but this modern hunk of an album should redress some of the balance . "
Jay Cocks of TIME magazine offered a mixed review , stating " [ f ] or all its sass , there is something a little too careful about this album : the rhythms are too studied and studiobound , the sexiness slightly forced . It 's as if Jackson , aware that this was her premier effort under a new , $ 40 million record deal , felt weighed down by the burden of proving herself . When , however , she kicks loose on What 'll I Do , a nifty , ' 60s @-@ style soul stirrer , it 's clear that Jackson 's got nothing to prove to anyone , including herself . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times compares Jackson to her brother Michael and Madonna , stating " Jackson 's real strength , abetted by Jam and Lewis , is the way she tops dance @-@ club rhythms with pop melodies . Less up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ second than Madonna but still effective , the Jackson team has obviously been listening to the competition . Madonna 's ' Justify My Love ' echoes in ' That 's the Way Love Goes , ' and ' If ' resembles Michael Jackson 's ' Why You Wanna Trip on Me , ' starting with screaming guitar and a chanted verse , rising to a sweet melody . " He also comments that despite its shortcomings , " [ t ] he album 's not about being real ; it 's about seamlessness and ingenuity , about giving the public something it can use . For a superstar , Jackson is downright selfless , but she gets the job done . "
Chris Willman of the Los Angeles Times gave an unfavorable review . Although sex in popular music is considered a standard concept , Willman states the only reason the album would cause a reaction is because of Jackson 's well @-@ known conservative nature . He comments : " So be it . Jackson 's first album in four years is destined for a long ride at No. 1 , not because it 's any great piece of work , but largely for its aphrodisiacal aspirations . " David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that " [ i ] f musical variety and daring lyrics were all that mattered , janet. would make the grade . But the album has a lot to prove . It is the first delivery under her $ 40 million contract with Virgin , and its title — which translates as ' Janet , period ' — is meant as a declaration of independence from her oddball siblings ... She still sounds like a young woman from a male @-@ dominated family who is searching for her identity and voice . Mostly , though , janet. sounds like a mess — period . " David Sinclair of The Times wrote : " In the steamy , post @-@ Madonna climate of the 1990s , Jackson is not about to let thoughts of love get in the way of the mechanics of lust , and like many of her superstar contemporaries she tends to confuse sex with soul . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Jackson received five nominations for the 1994 American Music Awards : Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist , Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist , Favorite Pop / Rock Album and Favorite Soul / R & B Album for Janet , and Favorite Soul / R & B Single for " That 's the Way Love Goes " . The same year she received two Grammy Award nominations — Best R & B Vocal Performance , Female and Best R & B Song for " That 's The Way Love Goes " — winning Best R & B Song . Several critics asserted she was unjustly overlooked in the Grammy 's three major categories : Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Album of the Year . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune stated , " Jackson again was denied a nomination for album of the year , even though ' janet ' ( Virgin ) has remained in the Top 10 since its release last summer and has been critically acclaimed . " He adds that " the oversight is doubly vexing , because [ Jackson ] — in a songwriting and production partnership with Jimmy Jam ( aka James Harris III ) and Terry Lewis — is not just a multiplatinum pop act but an artist who has reshaped the sound and image of rhythm and blues over the last decade . " Kot laid blame to the oversight on the fact that many believed her to be a producer @-@ dependent artist — an opinion he found to be in error . Similarly , producer Jimmy Jam stated : " It 's easy to say that the two albums she did before she met us weren 't successful and when she got with us she became successful ... ' Control ' was the first album she actually had input . I think that 's just as significant as the fact we ( Jam and Lewis ) did the record . "
= = = Retrospective reviews = = =
Later reviews were generally positive . In a retrospective review , Christgau gave Janet an " A – " and said that although the costly production by Jam & Lewis makes the music sound " more pornographic than obscene " , " this achievement is Janet 's , period ... Better nose than Michael , better navel than Madonna , better sex than either . " Laura Sinagra wrote in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) that with janet , Jackson " took more risks " lyrically than on her previous albums . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine notes that the album " was at the forefront of the increasingly popular sampling trend in the ' 90s , with one song even employing three different samples as its foundation . Some make perfect sense on a thematic as well as sonic level , like Kool & the Gang 's " Kool It ( Here Comes the Fuzz ) " and Stevie Wonder 's " Superwoman , Where Were You When I Needed You " on " New Agenda , " or the orchestral flourish from Diana Ross & the Supremes ' " Someday We 'll Be Together " on " If , " which seems to exist for the sole purpose of providing the impetus behind one of the greatest dance @-@ break routines in music video history . " Commenting on the album 's broad range , he states : " The mother of eclectic , genre @-@ hopping records by Christina Aguilera , Gwen Stefani , and Fergie , janet. incorporates new jack swing , house , pop , rock , hip @-@ hop , jazz , and even opera , but the album 's range of styles isn 't jarring in the least ... Janet has never been one thing and janet. is a feminist statement , to be sure . " Alex Henderson of Allmusic offered a positive review , saying " [ a ] nyone who expected Jackson to top Rhythm Nation — her crowning achievement and an incredibly tough act to follow — was being unrealistic . But with janet . , she delivered a respectable offering that , although not as strong as either Control or Nation , has many strong points . "
= = Legacy = =
Although Jackson has reached superstar status in the United States , she has yet to achieve the same level of response internationally . According to Nacy Berry , vice chairman of Virgin Records , Janet marked the first time the label " had centrally coordinated and strategized a campaign on a worldwide basis " which ultimately brought her to a plateau of global recognition . Her historic multimillion @-@ dollar contract made her the highest @-@ paid artist in history , until brother Michael renegotiated his contract with Sony Music Entertainment only days later . Sonia Murry noted that she remained " the highest @-@ paid female in pop ... a whirlwind of fashion , personality and slick musical packaging rivaled only by Madonna and Whitney Houston in today 's pop pantheon . " James Robert Parish , author of Today 's Black Hollywood ( 1995 ) wrote : " She confirmed her status as today 's Queen of Pop when , not long ago , she signed a $ 35- $ 40 million recording contract with Virgin Records . " Music critic Nelson George noted that while surpassing Michael would be next to impossible , Janet had assuredly reached iconic status . He explained : " What worked for Michael 10 years ago is working for her now ... Michael was clearly the voice of the ' 80s , those that grew up with him since Motown . And with the themes ( independence , social consciousness and up @-@ front yet responsible sexuality ) that she 's addressing in her albums and the popularity she 's enjoying , she could very well be the voice of the ' 90s . "
Rolling Stone 's The ' 90s : The Inside Stories from the Decade That Rocked ( 2010 ) documented that she had achieved some level of growth with each of her records , and that with Janet , " [ u ] sing soul , rock and dance elements , as well as opera diva Kathleen Battle , [ she ] unleashed her most musically ambitious record , guided as always , by producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis . " Richard J. Ripani author of The New Blue Music : Changes in Rhythm & Blues , 1950 @-@ 1999 ( 2006 ) noted that she had led the incorporation of rap into mainstream R & B with a select group of artists , in that " rap music no longer sounded so musically distant to many R & B listeners because many of its traits were commonly heard in songs by mainstream artists such as Janet Jackson , Mary J. Blige , Keith Sweat , and others . " Vibe magazine observed that " R & B was omnipresent in 1993 . It was a year in which Janet Jackson , at 27 , topped the Billboard pop album charts for six straight summer weeks , with her critically lauded , six @-@ times @-@ platinum janet . " It became one of only five albums in the history of the Billboard 200 — along with Whitney Houston 's Whitney ( 1987 ) , Norah Jones 's Feels Like Home ( 2004 ) , Taylor Swift 's Fearless ( 2008 ) , and Susan Boyle 's I Dreamed a Dream ( 2009 ) — to debut at number one and remain at the top of the chart for a minimum of six consecutive weeks . It is also only one of seven albums — including Michael Jackson 's Thriller ( 1982 ) and Bad ( 1987 ) , Bruce Springsteen , Born in the U.S.A. ( 1984 ) , George Michael 's , Faith ( 1987 ) , Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 ( 1989 ) and Katy Perry 's , Teenage Dream ( 2010 ) to yield a minimum of six top ten hit singles on the Hot 100 .
The release of Janet signaled the singer 's transformation from conservative teen role model to adult sex symbol . In You 've Come A Long Way , Baby : Women , Politics , and Popular Culture ( 1996 ) , Lilly J. Goren observed that " [ Her ] 1993 album Janet moved away from politically driven lyrics to songs about love and sex @-@ lyrics that could capitalize on her new sexy , more scantily clad image in MTV music videos . Jackson 's evolution from politically aware musician to sexy diva marked the direction that society and the music industry were encouraging the dance @-@ rock divas to pursue . " Reporter Edna Gunderson commented : " The woman whose hourglass torso and sensual gyrating have made her MTV 's reigning sex kitten is today a vision of wholesome beauty . " Professor and social critic Camille Paglia expressed : " Janet 's unique persona combines bold , brash power with quiet sensitively and womanly mystery . Her latest music is lightning and moonglow . "
Her music videos contributed to a higher degree of sexual freedom among young women , as Jean M. Twenge , author of Generation Me : Why Today 's Young Americans are More Confident , Assertive , Entitled — and More Miserable Than Ever Before ( 2007 ) wrote : " In Alfred Kinsey 's studies in the 1950s , only 3 % of the young women had received oral sex from a man . By the mid @-@ 1990s , however , 75 % of women aged 18 @-@ 24 had experienced cunnilingus . Music videos by female artists have contributed to the trend , with both Mary J. Blige and Janet Jackson heavily implying male @-@ on @-@ female oral sex in music videos by pushing down on a man 's head until he 's in exactly the right position . " Similarly , Paula Kamen in Her Way : Young Women Remake the Sexual Revolution ( 2000 ) states that " [ i ] n the early to mid @-@ 1990s , oral sex even reached mainstream music as politically charged demand of truly liberated women , " citing TLC , Mary J. Blige and Janet Jackson as examples of female artists simulating cunnilingus in their videos . Rolling Stone wrote that " she celebrated becoming an erotic being ... [ showing ] young women a way to have their sexual freedom and their dignity , to have their cake and eat it too . " She was named Best Female Singer and Female Sex Symbol by Rolling Stone for the year 1993 in pop music . Goren adds that later pop stars such as Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera and Pink would rely on image , sex appeal and choreography as much as musical talent .
= = Accolades = =
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" That 's the Way Love Goes " contains samples from " Papa Don 't Take No Mess " , written by James Brown , Fred Wesley , Charles Bobbit and John Starks and performed by J. Brown .
" You Want This " contains samples from :
" Love Child " , written by R. Dean Taylor , Frank Wilson , Pam Sawyer , Deke Richards and performed by Diana Ross & the Supremes .
" Jungle Boogie " , written by Robert Bell , Ronald Bell , Claydes Smith , Robert Mickens , Donald Boyce , Richard Allen Westfield , Dennis Thomas and George Brown and performed by Kool & the Gang .
" If " contains samples from " Someday We 'll Be Together " , written by Johnny Bristol , Harvey Fuqua and Jackey Beavers and performed by Diana Ross & the Supremes .
" New Agenda " contains samples from :
" School Boy Crush " , written by Hamish Stuart , Onnie McIntyre , Alan Gorrie , Steve Ferrone , Molly Duncan and Roger Bell and performed by Average White Band .
" Kool It ( Here Comes the Fuzz ) " , written by Gene Redd , Woodrow Sparrow , Robert Bell , Ronald Bell , Westfield , Mickens , G. Brown , Thomas and Smith and performed by Kool & the Gang .
" Superwoman ( Where Were You When I Needed You ) " , written and performed by Stevie Wonder .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = End of decade charts = = =
= = = Chart procession = = =
= Calvin Johnson =
Calvin Johnson Jr . ( born September 29 , 1985 ) is a retired American football wide receiver who played his entire career for the Detroit Lions of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He was drafted by the Lions second overall in the 2007 NFL Draft . He played college football at Georgia Tech , where he was recognized as an All @-@ American twice .
On March 14 , 2012 , Johnson signed an eight @-@ year , US $ 132 million contract extension with the Lions , one of the largest sports contracts ever . Johnson has a rare combination of size ( 6 ft 5 in and 239 lb ) , hands , speed ( 40 @-@ yard dash in 4 @.@ 35 seconds ) , strength , leaping ability , body control and hand @-@ eye coordination . His nickname " Megatron , " a Transformers character , was given to him by former Lions wide receiver Roy Williams , and the name caught on with fans .
On December 22 , 2012 , Johnson broke Jerry Rice 's single @-@ season record for receiving yards , which had previously been 1 @,@ 848 , and Johnson finished the 2012 season with 1 @,@ 964 yards , an average of almost 123 yards per game . In that same game versus the Atlanta Falcons , Johnson also set the NFL records for consecutive 100 @-@ yard games ( 8 ) and consecutive games with 10 or more receptions ( 4 ) . He also tied Hall of Famer Michael Irvin 's record for most 100 @-@ yard games in a season with 11 .
= = Early years = =
Johnson was born to Calvin and Arica Johnson on September 29 , 1985 in Newnan , Georgia . Johnson was 6 feet tall in middle school , and 6 feet 4 inches in 10th grade . He attended Sandy Creek High School in Tyrone , Georgia and was a student , a letterman in football , and a baseball standout . In football , he was a three @-@ year starter as a wide receiver . As a sophomore , he made 34 receptions for 646 yards and 10 touchdowns . As a junior , Johnson caught 40 passes for 736 yards and eight touchdowns . His number , 81 , was retired on October 22 , 2010 .
Johnson was rated among the nation 's top 10 wide receivers and top 100 players by virtually every recruiting analyst . He was tabbed the No. 4 wide receiver and No. 15 player in the nation by TheInsiders.com , and named to the Super Southern 100 by the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , the Rivals 100 by Rivals.com , TheInsiders.com Hot 100 , the SuperPrep All @-@ America 275 and the Prep Star Top 100 Dream Team .
He was also rated the No. 1 player in Georgia , No. 12 in the Southeast and No. 37 in the nation by Rivals.com , the No. 7 wide receiver in the nation by SuperPrep , and first @-@ team all @-@ state selection ( Class AAAA ) by the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution . Finally , he was tabbed to the AJC 's preseason Super 11 . By the time he was a junior , he was ranked as within the top 10 wide receivers and the top 100 players in the nation by almost every writer .
= = College career = =
Johnson attended the Georgia Institute of Technology , where he played for coach Chan Gailey 's Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team from 2004 to 2006 . Despite Georgia Tech being interested in his playing both football and baseball , Johnson 's mother refused to allow Johnson to play both sports after determining that the year @-@ round athletic schedule would be too demanding . In his career at Georgia Tech wearing number 21 , Johnson made a case for being the greatest Georgia Tech player of all time . Johnson had 178 receptions in his career , good for 2 @,@ 927 yards and 28 touchdowns . He ranks first in school history in career receiving yards , second in receptions , first in touchdown receptions , and first in career 100 @-@ yard receiving games with 13 .
As a freshman in 2004 , Johnson was a first @-@ team All @-@ Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) selection . Johnson was the Jackets ' leading receiver with 48 catches for 837 yards and seven scores , which were Georgia Tech freshman records . Johnson ended his freshman campaign against Syracuse University in the Champs Sports Bowl , where he recorded a touchdown . 2005 was Johnson 's sophomore year , when he earned first @-@ team All @-@ American honors . He also earned All @-@ ACC honors for the second straight year and was semifinalist for the Fred Biletnikoff Award . He led Tech with 54 catches for 888 yards and six scores .
Johnson entered his 2006 junior season in the running for the Biletnikoff Award and Heisman Trophy . Although Johnson finished tenth in the Heisman voting , he won the Biletnikoff as the best college wide receiver . Johnson was honored as the ACC Player of the Year , was a first @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection for the third consecutive year , and was recognized as a unanimous first @-@ team All @-@ American . Johnson tallied 1 @,@ 202 yards on 76 catches . Johnson 's 15 touchdowns in 2006 was a new Georgia Tech single @-@ season record . Against the West Virginia Mountaineers in the Toyota Gator Bowl , Johnson had nine catches for 186 yards and two touchdowns , albeit in a losing effort .
= = = College record = = =
Georgia Tech career receiving yards – 2 @,@ 927
= = = College awards and honors = = =
First @-@ team Freshman All @-@ American 2004
All @-@ American 2005 and 2006
First @-@ Team All @-@ Atlantic Coast Conference , 2004 , 2005 and 2006
ACC Rookie of the Year , 2004
ACC Player of the Year , 2006
Four @-@ time ACC Rookie of the Week
Biletnikoff Award , 2006
Paul Warfield Trophy , 2006
10th 2006 Heisman Vote - 43 total votes ( 76 rec , 1202 yds , 15 @.@ 8 avg , 15 TD )
= = = Academic activities = = =
During the 2006 summer , Johnson , who majored in management with a background in building construction , was given the option of working on either constructing environmentally friendly luxury condos , or a project building solar latrines to improve sanitation in Bolivia . Johnson chose the latter , as he wanted to help the less fortunate . The " solar latrines " use the sun ’ s rays to safely transform bacteria @-@ laden waste into fertilizer .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2007 NFL Draft = = =
Johnson was SI.com 's Midseason NFL Draft Projection # 1 pick , though Johnson had stated that he intended to earn his degree from Georgia Tech . On January 8 , 2007 , Johnson declared himself eligible for the NFL Draft , bypassing his senior season at Georgia Tech . He was regarded as the best athlete to come out of the draft and was the # 1 player on most draft boards . Johnson was said by ESPN to be able to be productive as a rookie , much like receiver Randy Moss was as a rookie . In a mid @-@ February workout with speed and conditioning coach Mark Pearsall , Johnson clocked a 4 @.@ 33 @-@ second 40 @-@ yard dash , recorded an 11 @-@ foot standing broad jump , and had a vertical leap of 43 inches .
Johnson surprised many when he weighed in at 239 pounds at the combine , 12 pounds more than expected , although he claims that this season he played " at about 235 and I got up to 238 " and that his weight was not a problem . Johnson had told the media that he would not run the 40 @-@ yard dash at the combine but would wait until his March 15 workout at Georgia Tech . Johnson ran a 4 @.@ 35 and wowed scouts with his jump drill results , his receiving skills , and his 11 ft 7 in ( 3 @.@ 53 m ) broad jump , which is " best broad jump I can ever remember an NFL prospect having , " according to Gil Brandt . Johnson is the only player 6 @-@ foot @-@ 5 or taller , regardless of position , to run a 40 @-@ yard dash in under 4 @.@ 40 seconds at the combine since 2006 .
Johnson was selected by the Detroit Lions as the second pick overall in the 2007 NFL Draft . This is the highest a Georgia Tech Yellow Jacket has ever been drafted . The Lions were expected to trade Johnson , most likely to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , but the team announced that they were keeping him . The next day , the Detroit Tigers invited him to throw out the first pitch .
= = = Detroit Lions = = =
= = = = 2007 season = = = =
Johnson attended Reebok 's NFL Rookie Premiere in Los Angeles . The Lions , being told by the league that Johnson would have to skip the minicamp to attend , rescheduled the camp to accommodate Johnson . On August 3 , 2007 , Johnson signed a six @-@ year deal with the Detroit Lions after holding out for eight days , and passed his physical in time to be on the field for the start of that morning 's practice . He was represented by agent James " Bus " Cook . The contract is worth up to US $ 64 million , with $ in guaranteed money , making Johnson the third highest @-@ paid player in Lions history ( the highest at the time , since passed by Matthew Stafford and Ndamukong Suh ) and the highest @-@ paid receiver ( in guaranteed money ) in the NFL .
Although he did not start the game , Johnson had an impressive NFL debut on Sunday , September 9 , 2007 , catching 4 passes for 70 yards and his first career touchdown in Detroit 's 36 – 21 win over the Oakland Raiders . He sustained a lower back injury after making a catch over two Philadelphia Eagles defenders on September 23 , 2007 . He scored his first NFL rushing touchdown against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on October 21 , 2007 on a 32 @-@ yard reverse play . Fellow teammate Roy Williams nicknamed Johnson " Megatron " , due to his large hands being similar to that of the towering Decepticon . The nickname caught on well with fans . Williams later changed the nickname to " Bolt " after Jamaican sprinting phenom Usain Bolt , comparing the two athletes ' similar height and running abilities . Johnson finished the 2007 season with 756 yards and 5 total touchdowns .
In 2008 , Johnson said he could " still feel " the lower @-@ back injury that bothered him throughout his rookie season . Johnson took five weeks off after the 2007 season and was taking part in the Lions ' offseason program . " I know it 's there but it doesn 't hurt , " he said . Johnson revealed that he needed Vicodin to play through the final three months of the 2007 season . He needed the medication to help him play with a bone bruise in his back . " I was on meds the rest of the season , " he said . " I was taking Vicodin twice a game just to get through the game . I stayed hurt the whole season , probably because I was trying to come back too soon . " Johnson averaged 15 @.@ 8 yards on 48 catches in the 2007 season .
= = = = 2008 season = = = =
Johnson and the Lions faced the Atlanta Falcons on the road on September 7 , 2008 , to begin the season . As the official starting wide receiver behind Roy Williams , Johnson led the team in receptions and yards , collecting 7 catches for 107 yards , which included one 38 @-@ yard catch @-@ and @-@ run in the Lions ' 34 – 21 loss . During week 2 versus the Green Bay Packers , he had two key touchdowns late in the game , which sparked a large comeback , though the Lions eventually lost the game , 48 – 25 . Both touchdowns catches included a run after the catch ( the first catch going for 38 yards and the second going for 47 yards , both over the middle ) displaying Johnson 's speed and breakaway ability . He ended the game with 6 receptions for 129 yards and 2 touchdowns . In the following two games , losses to San Francisco and Chicago , Johnson failed to score a touchdown or gain over 50 yards receiving . However , against the Minnesota Vikings , Johnson had 4 receptions for 85 yards and his third touchdown of the season .
On October 14 before the week 6 trade deadline , Roy Williams was traded to the Dallas Cowboys for a first , a 3rd and a 7th @-@ round pick in the 2009 NFL Draft , making Johnson the Lions ' starting wide receiver and the last big threat on the offense . In his first game without Roy Williams alongside him in the week 7 game against the Houston Texans , Johnson caught only 2 passes , totaling 154 yards receiving ; the first pass didn 't come until Dan Orlovsky threw a pass up for grabs at the end of the first half which Johnson caught for 58 yards and the second pass came on a 96 @-@ yard touchdown catch @-@ and @-@ run . With Williams gone and starting quarterback Jon Kitna lost to injury for the season , the Texans defense had little to do to stop the Lions ' offense but shut down Johnson , winning the game 28 – 21 .
Johnson set a career high for receptions in a game during the week @-@ 9 match @-@ up against their division rivals , the Chicago Bears , with 8 receptions that garnered 94 yards and one touchdown , although still losing the game 27 – 23 . During week 10 , formerly retired All @-@ Pro quarterback Daunte Culpepper was signed to a one @-@ year contract with the Lions in hopes to spur the offense and earned the starting job for the next two games . Johnson ended his first game with Culpepper at quarterback with 2 receptions for 92 yards in a 38 – 14 loss to the Jacksonville Jaguars . In Johnson 's 4th game with Culpepper , he had 5 catches for 66 yards . During the week 14 match @-@ up against the division rival Minnesota Vikings , Johnson passed the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard receiving mark for the first time in his career after collecting 3 catches for 84 yards and one touchdown , ending the week with 1 @,@ 055 yards receiving and 9 touchdowns on the season .
Johnson and the 2008 Detroit Lions finished the first ever 0 – 16 season in NFL history after a 31 – 21 loss to the Green Bay Packers in week 17 . Despite the Lions ' failures and the fact that five different quarterbacks played during the year , Johnson finished as one of the strongest wide receivers statistically for the season , finishing fifth in receiving yards ( 1 @,@ 331 ) and 7th in receiving yards per game ( 83 @.@ 2 ) , and leading the league in receiving touchdowns ( 12 ) , despite the fact that the entire Lions team only passed for 18 touchdowns . However , Johnson missed the Pro Bowl , with most experts attributing the snub to the Lions ' dismal winless season ( he was named an alternate instead ) .
= = = = 2009 season = = = =
After 2008 , Detroit 's front office and coaching personnel were essentially overhauled by the team ownership . Matt Millen , the team 's incumbent general manager and CEO since 2001 , was terminated on September 28 , 2008 . His replacement , Martin Mayhew , ultimately terminated head coach Rod Marinelli in the off @-@ season . Marinelli was replaced by Jim Schwartz , then defensive coordinator of the Tennessee Titans . Schwartz ultimately revamped the entire Detroit offensive ( and defensive ) philosophies — hiring Scott Linehan and Gunther Cunningham , respectively . Detroit held the first pick in the 2009 NFL Draft , and selected Matthew Stafford out of the University of Georgia . Stafford was named the team 's starting quarterback out of training camp , but he battled various injuries throughout the season . Much of the 2008 Detroit roster was released by the new regime , and the 2009 team was viewed as somewhat of a work @-@ in @-@ progress , but Johnson still finished the 2009 season with 67 receptions 984 yards and five TDs , while completely missing two games .
= = = = 2010 season = = = =
In a week 1 game against the Chicago Bears , Johnson caught a pass with 31 seconds left in regulation in the end zone for what looked like a game @-@ winning touchdown . However , referee Gene Steratore ruled the catch incomplete , saying that Johnson had not maintained possession of the ball through the entire process of the catch . The Lions lost the game , 19 – 14 .
Johnson amassed 77 receptions for 1 @,@ 120 yards and 12 TDs during 2010 . He was also selected to the first Pro Bowl of his career . Following the 2010 season , Johnson was the recipient of the Lions / Detroit Sports Broadcasters Association / Pro Football Writers Association ( Detroit Chapter ) Media @-@ Friendly Good Guy Award .
= = = = 2011 season = = = =
In 2011 , Johnson had his second best statistical season of his NFL career , reaching a career @-@ high 1 @,@ 681 receiving yards and 16 touchdowns . In a week @-@ 4 game against the Dallas Cowboys , Johnson helped rally the Lions from a 24 @-@ point deficit to a 34 – 30 victory by catching two touchdown passes in the fourth quarter , including a famous catch in which Johnson beat the Cowboys ' triple coverage in the end zone . This performance gave Johnson 8 touchdown receptions through the first four games of the season and tied Cris Carter for most consecutive games with multiple touchdown receptions at 4 . In a Week 17 game against the Green Bay Packers , Johnson had a career @-@ best 244 receiving yards in a 45 – 41 loss . Johnson and the Lions clinched a playoff spot for the first time since 1999 , and the first time in Johnson 's career , after a 38 – 10 beating of the San Diego Chargers on Christmas Eve .
However , Detroit would ultimately lose on the road against the Packers the following week ( New Year 's Day ) and would find themselves on the road again in a 2012 NFC Wild Card game against the heavily favored New Orleans Saints in the playoff bracket . Always tough to play against at the Superdome , the Saints wore down the Detroit defense and New Orleans would go on to a win 45 – 28 . In the game , Johnson caught 12 passes for 211 receiving yards and two touchdowns — breaking Detroit 's playoff record of 150 receiving yards in a playoff game previously held by Brett Perriman and Leonard Thompson .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
On March 14 , 2012 , Johnson signed an 8 @-@ year extension worth US $ 132 million with the Detroit Lions , with US $ 60 million guaranteed , making Johnson the highest @-@ paid receiver in the league . Johnson beat out 42 other players and eliminated Cam Newton to win the Madden NFL 13 cover athlete on April 25 , 2012 , on SportsNation . From week 9 – 16 , he recorded consecutive games with 125 receiving yards or more , which broke the NFL record previously held by Pat Studstill . On December 22 , 2012 against the Atlanta Falcons , Johnson broke Jerry Rice 's single @-@ season receiving yards record of 1 @,@ 848 yards . Johnson was also named a starter for the NFC in the Pro Bowl played in Honolulu , Hawaii . Johnson finished with 72 yards against Chicago in week 17 , missing out on 2000 by just 36 yards . Johnson finished the season leading the league in receptions ( 122 ) and receiving yards ( 1 @,@ 964 ) . Johnson is the only player in the Super Bowl era ( since 1967 ) to average 120 yards per game in a season when he averaged 122 @.@ 8 yards per game in 2012 .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
On October 27 , 2013 , in a 31 – 30 win over the Dallas Cowboys , Johnson caught 14 of 16 passes thrown in his direction ; he finished the game with 329 receiving yards and one touchdown . In addition to breaking the Lions ' franchise record of 302 receiving yards set by Cloyce Box on Dec. 3 , 1950 , it was the highest receiving yardage ever in a regulation @-@ length game and the second @-@ highest overall single @-@ game yardage in NFL history , behind Flipper Anderson 's 336 @-@ yard performance in a 1989 overtime win ( Anderson accumulated 40 of those yards in overtime ) . In this same game , Calvin also tied Lance Alworth for the most career games with at least 200 yards receiving ( 5 ) .
In a Week 10 game against the Chicago Bears , Johnson had two TD receptions . The second one gave him the Lions all @-@ time record for touchdown catches ( 63 ) , breaking the old mark previously held by Herman Moore . Johnson was named to the 2014 Pro Bowl , but an injury forced him to withdraw .
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
In the Thanksgiving Day game against the Chicago Bears ( November 27 ) , Johnson became the fastest player to reach 10 @,@ 000 receiving yards in NFL history , eclipsing the mark in the second quarter of his 115th game . He was named to his fifth Pro Bowl in a row , the most by any Lion since Barry Sanders was named to 10 straight pro bowls .
= = = = 2015 season = = = =
Much like Week 1 in Chicago five years back , in Week 4 at Seattle , Johnson was involved in another controversial play . This time , late in the fourth quarter , Seahawks safety Kam Chancellor punched the ball out of Johnson 's hands while he was trying to score . K.J. Wright then batted the ball out of the end zone for a touchback . The NFL later admitted the referees should have penalized Wright for illegal batting . The Seahawks won 13 – 10 .
In Week 5 against Arizona , Johnson caught his 671st pass , breaking Herman Moore 's franchise record . However , the Lions were the victims of a 42 – 17 loss to the Cardinals .
In Week 6 , Johnson caught 6 passes for 166 yards in an overtime victory over Chicago . This gave the Lions their first victory of the season after an 0 – 5 start . In Week 12 , against Philadelphia , Johnson caught eight passes for 93 yards and three touchdowns to help lead the Lions to their third straight victory and lift their record to 4 – 7 .
In Week 8 against the Kansas City Chiefs in the NFL International Series on November 1 , 2015 , Johnson became the fastest player to reach 11 @,@ 000 receiving yards in NFL history , in his 127th game .
Johnson finished the season with 88 receptions for 1 @,@ 214 yards ( 13 @.@ 8 average ) , and nine touchdowns , reaching 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yards receiving for the sixth consecutive year , and seventh time in nine @-@ years . Johnson was named to the Pro Bowl for the sixth consecutive year , however declined to attend . His 1 @,@ 214 yards in 2015 are the most ever in a player 's final season in the NFL , while his 88 receptions are the second most in a player 's final season , trailing Sterling Sharpe 's 94 in 1994 .
= = = Retirement = = =
On March 8 , 2016 , Johnson announced his retirement from the NFL after nine seasons . His 11 @,@ 619 receiving yards rank third in a player 's first nine seasons , trailing only Torry Holt ( 11 @,@ 864 ) and Jerry Rice ( 11 @,@ 776 ) . Since Johnson was drafted by the Lions with the second overall pick in the 2007 NFL draft , no player has more receiving yards , receiving touchdowns or 100 @-@ yard games ( 46 ) than Johnson through the 2015 season . Among those who have played in 100 career games in NFL history , no player has averaged more receiving yards per game than Johnson . Johnson 's average of 86 @.@ 1 receiving yards per game is 8 @.@ 7 yards better than the next @-@ closest player on that list : Holt . From 2011 to 2013 , Johnson caught 302 passes for 33 touchdowns . His 5 @,@ 137 receiving yards over that time are the most by any player over a three @-@ year stretch in NFL history .
= = = NFL records = = =
Most receiving yards in a single season : 1 @,@ 964 yards ( 2012 )
Seasons with 1 @,@ 600 yards receiving ( 2 , tied with Marvin Harrison , Torry Holt , and Antonio Brown )
Most consecutive games with at least 100 receiving yards ( 8 )
Most consecutive games with at least 10 receptions ( 4 )
Most 100 receiving yard games in a single season ( 11 , tied with Michael Irvin )
Most receiving yards in a five @-@ game span ( 861 yards )
Most receiving yards in a six @-@ game span ( 962 yards )
Fastest to 10 @,@ 000 NFL receiving yards ( 115 games )
Fastest to 11 @,@ 000 NFL receiving yards ( 127 games )
= = = Lions franchise records = = =
Most receiving touchdowns in a single season : 16 ( 2011 )
Most receiving touchdowns , career : 83
Most receiving yards , career : 11 @,@ 619
Most receptions in a single game : ( 14 , 10 / 27 / 2013 vs. Dallas , tied with Herman Moore )
Most receptions , career : 731
Most seasons with 10 + receiving touchdowns : 4
Most career 70 + yard receptions : 8
Most games with multiple touchdowns in one half : 12
Most receiving yards in a single game in regulation ( 329 ) . This is the 2nd most overall in NFL history behind Flipper Anderson ( 336 ) .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) = = =
= = = National Football League ( NFL ) = = =
= = Personal life = =
Johnson is a Christian . Johnson has a tattoo of the crucifixion of Jesus on his left arm and a Christian cross on his right arm . Johnson is part of a weekly Bible study group with other Lions players .
Johnson is funding a film called Real Love . The film is " a coming @-@ of @-@ age story about a girl trying to stay true to her virginity and her religion " and " ... a message [ Johnson ] wants to get out there . "
= Miami Showband killings =
The Miami Showband killings ( also called the Miami Showband Massacre ) was an attack by the Ulster Volunteer Force ( UVF ) , a loyalist paramilitary group , on 31 July 1975 . It took place on the A1 road at Buskhill in County Down , Northern Ireland . Five people were killed , including three members of The Miami Showband , who were then one of Ireland 's most popular cabaret bands .
The band was travelling home to Dublin late at night after a performance in Banbridge . Halfway to Newry , their minibus was stopped at what appeared to be a military checkpoint , where gunmen in British Army uniforms ordered them to line up by the roadside . At least four of the gunmen were serving soldiers from the British Army 's Ulster Defence Regiment ( UDR ) but , unbeknownst to the band , all were members of the UVF . While two of the gunmen ( both soldiers ) were hiding a time bomb on the minibus , it exploded prematurely and killed them . The other gunmen then opened fire on the dazed band members , killing three and wounding two . It is believed the bomb was meant to explode en route , killing the band and framing them as IRA bomb @-@ smugglers , and possibly leading to stricter security measures at the border .
Two serving British soldiers and one former British soldier were found guilty of the murders and received life sentences ; they were released in 1998 . Those responsible for the attack belonged to the Glenanne gang ; a secret alliance of loyalist militants , rogue police officers and British soldiers . There are also allegations that British military intelligence agents were involved . According to former Intelligence Corps agent Captain Fred Holroyd , the killings were organised by British intelligence officer Robert Nairac , together with the UVF 's Mid @-@ Ulster Brigade and its commander Robin " The Jackal " Jackson . The Historical Enquiries Team , which investigated the killings , released their report to the victims ' families in December 2011 . It confirmed that Jackson was linked to the attack by fingerprints .
The massacre dealt a blow to Northern Ireland 's live music scene , which had brought young Catholics and Protestants together . In a report published in the Sunday Mirror in 1999 , Colin Wills called the Miami Showband attack " one of the worst atrocities in the 30 @-@ year history of the Troubles " . Irish Times diarist Frank McNally summed up the massacre as " an incident that encapsulated all the madness of the time " .
= = Background = =
= = = Political situation in Northern Ireland = = =
The conflict in Northern Ireland , known as " the Troubles " , began in the late 1960s . The year 1975 was marked by an escalation in sectarian attacks and a vicious feud between the two main loyalist paramilitary groups , the Ulster Volunteer Force ( UVF ) and the Ulster Defence Association ( UDA ) . On 4 April 1974 the proscription against the UVF had been lifted by Merlyn Rees , Secretary of State for Northern Ireland . This meant that both it and the UDA were legal organisations . The UVF would be once more banned by the British government on 3 October 1975 .
In May 1974 unionists called a general strike to protest against the Sunningdale Agreement – an attempt at power @-@ sharing , setting up a Northern Ireland Executive and a cross @-@ border Council of Ireland , which would have given the Government of Ireland a voice in running Northern Ireland . During that strike on 17 May , the UVF carried out the Dublin and Monaghan car bombings , which killed 33 civilians . The Provisional IRA were suspected by British police of bombing two pubs in the English city of Birmingham the following November , resulting in 21 deaths .
UK Home Secretary Roy Jenkins introduced the Prevention of Terrorism Act , which gave the government unprecedented powers against the liberty of individuals in the United Kingdom in peacetime . At Christmas 1974 the IRA declared a ceasefire , which theoretically lasted throughout most of 1975 . This move made loyalists apprehensive and suspicious that a secret accord was being conducted between the British government and the IRA , and that Northern Ireland 's Protestants would be " sold out " . Their fears were slightly grounded in fact , as the MI6 officer Michael Oatley was involved in negotiations with a member of the IRA Army Council , during which " structures of disengagement " from Ireland were discussed . This had meant the possible withdrawal of British troops from Northern Ireland . The existence of these talks led unionists to believe that they were about to be abandoned by the British government and forced into a united Ireland ; as a result , the loyalist paramilitary groups reacted with a violence that , combined with the tit @-@ for @-@ tat retaliations from the IRA ( despite their ceasefire ) , made 1975 one of the " bloodiest years of the conflict " .
In early 1975 Merlyn Rees set up elections for the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention at which all of Northern Ireland 's politicians would plan their way forward . These were held on 1 May 1975 and the United Ulster Unionist Council ( UUUC ) , which had won 11 out of 12 Northern Irish seats in the February 1974 general election , won a majority again . As the UUUC would not abide any form of power @-@ sharing with the Dublin government , no agreement could be reached and the convention failed , again marginalising Northern Ireland 's politicians and the communities they represented .
= = = Robin Jackson and the Mid @-@ Ulster UVF = = =
The UVF Mid @-@ Ulster Brigade operated mainly around the Portadown and Lurgan areas . It had been set up in Lurgan in 1972 by part @-@ time Ulster Defence Regiment ( UDR ) sergeant and permanent staff instructor Billy Hanna , who made himself commander of the brigade . His leadership was endorsed by the UVF 's leader Gusty Spence . The brigade was described by author Don Mullan as one of the most ruthless units operating in the 1970s . At the time of the attack the Mid @-@ Ulster Brigade was commanded by Robin Jackson , also known as " The Jackal " . Jackson had assumed command of the Mid @-@ Ulster UVF just a few days before the Miami Showband attack , after allegedly shooting Hanna dead outside his home in Lurgan on 27 July 1975 . According to authors Paul Larkin and Martin Dillon , Jackson was accompanied by Harris Boyle when he killed Hanna . Hanna was named by former British Intelligence Corps operative Colin Wallace as having organised and led the 1974 Dublin and Monaghan bombings , along with Jackson . Journalist Joe Tiernan suggested that Hanna was shot for refusing to participate in the Miami Showband attack and that he had become an informer for the Gardaí in exchange for immunity from prosecution for the Dublin bombings . Dillon suggested that because a large number of joint UDR / UVF members were to be used for the planned Miami Showband ambush , Hanna was considered to have been a " security risk " , and the UVF decided he had to be killed before he could alert the authorities .
Jackson was an alleged RUC Special Branch agent who was said by Yorkshire Television 's The Hidden Hand : The Forgotten Massacre programme to have had links to both the Intelligence Corps and Captain Robert Nairac . A report in the Irish Times implicated Jackson in the Dublin bombings . More than 100 killings have been attributed to him by the Pat Finucane Centre , the Derry @-@ based civil rights group .
= = = The Miami Showband = = =
The Miami Showband was a popular Dublin @-@ based cabaret band , enjoying fame and , according to journalist Peter Taylor , " Beatle @-@ like devotion " from fans on both sides of the Irish border . A typical Irish showband was based on the popular six- or seven @-@ member dance band . Its basic repertoire included cover versions of pop songs that were currently in the charts and standard dance numbers . The music ranged from rock and country and western to Dixieland jazz . Sometimes the showbands played traditional Irish music at their performances .
Originally called the Downbeats Quartet , the Miami Showband was reformed in 1962 by rock promoter Tom Doherty , who gave them their new name . With Dublin @-@ born singer Dickie Rock as frontman , the Miami Showband underwent many personnel changes over the years . In December 1972 , Rock left the band to be briefly replaced by two brothers , Frankie and Johnny Simon . That same year keyboardist Francis " Fran " O 'Toole ( from Bray , County Wicklow ) had won the Gold Star Award on RTÉ 's Reach For the Stars television programme . In early 1973 , Billy MacDonald ( aka " Billy Mac " ) took over as the group 's frontman when the Simon brothers quit the band . The following year , Fran O 'Toole became the band 's lead vocalist after Mick Roche ( Billy Mac 's replacement ) was sacked . O 'Toole was noted for his good looks and popularity with female fans. was described by the Miami Showband 's former bass guitarist , Paul Ashford , as having been the " greatest soul singer " in Ireland . Ashford had been asked to leave the band in 1973 , for complaining that performing in Northern Ireland put their lives at risk . He was replaced by Johnny Brown , who in turn was replaced by Dave Monks until Stephen Travers eventually became the band 's permanent bass player . In late 1974 , the Miami Showband 's song Clap Your Hands and Stomp Your Feet ( featuring O 'Toole on lead vocals ) reached number eight in the Irish charts .
The 1975 line @-@ up comprised four Catholics and two Protestants . They were : lead vocalist and keyboard player Fran O 'Toole ( 28 , Catholic ) , guitarist Anthony " Tony " Geraghty ( 24 , Catholic ) from Dublin , trumpeter Brian McCoy ( 32 , Protestant ) from Caledon , County Tyrone , saxophonist Des McAlea ( aka " Des Lee " ) , 24 , a Catholic from Belfast , bassist Stephen Travers ( 24 , Catholic ) from Carrick @-@ on @-@ Suir , County Tipperary and drummer Ray Millar ( Protestant ) from Antrim . O 'Toole and McCoy were both married ; each had two children . Geraghty was engaged to be married .
Their music was described as " contemporary and trans @-@ Atlantic " , with no reference to the Northern Ireland conflict . By 1975 they had gained a large following , playing to crowds of people in dance halls and ballrooms across the island . The band had no overt interest in politics nor in the religious beliefs of the people who made up their audience . They were prepared to travel anywhere in Ireland to perform for their fans .
According to the Irish Times , at the height of the Irish showband 's popularity ( from the 1950s to the 1970s ) , up to as many as 700 bands travelled to venues all over Ireland on a nightly basis .
= = Ambush = =
= = = Bogus checkpoint = = =
Five members of the Dublin @-@ based band were travelling home after a performance at the Castle Ballroom in Banbridge , County Down on Thursday 31 July 1975 . Ray Millar , the band 's drummer , was not with them as he had chosen to go to his home town of Antrim to spend the night with his parents . The band 's road manager , Brian Maguire , had already gone ahead a few minutes earlier in the equipment van . At about 2 : 30am , when the band was seven miles ( 11 km ) north of Newry on the main A1 road , their Volkswagen minibus ( driven by trumpeter Brian McCoy with Stephen Travers in the front seat beside him ) reached the townland of Buskhill . Near the junction with Buskhill Road they were flagged down by armed men dressed in British Army uniforms waving a red torch in a circular motion . During " The Troubles " it was normal for the British Army to set up checkpoints at any time .
Assuming it was a legitimate checkpoint , McCoy informed the others inside the minibus of a military checkpoint up ahead and pulled in at the lay @-@ by as directed by the armed men . As McCoy rolled down the window and produced his driving licence , gunmen came up to the minibus and one of them said in a Northern Irish accent , " Goodnight , fellas . How are things ? Can you step out of the van for a few minutes and we 'll just do a check " . The unsuspecting band members got out and were politely told to line up facing the ditch at the rear of the minibus with their hands on their heads . More uniformed men appeared from out of the darkness , their guns pointed at the minibus . About 10 gunmen were at the checkpoint , according to author and journalist Martin Dillon .
After McCoy told them they were the Miami Showband , Thomas Crozier ( who had a notebook ) asked the band members for their names and addresses , while the others bantered with them about the success of their performance that night . As Crozier took down the information , a car pulled up and another uniformed man appeared on the scene . He wore a uniform and beret noticeably different from the others . He spoke with an educated English accent and immediately took charge , ordering a man who appeared to have been the leader of the patrol , to tell Crozier to obtain their names and dates of birth instead of addresses .
The jocular mood of the gunmen abruptly ceased . At no time did this new soldier speak to any of the band members nor did he directly address Crozier . He relayed all his instructions to the gunman in command . Travers , the band 's new bass player , assumed he was a British Army officer , an opinion shared by McCoy . Just after the arrival of this mysterious soldier , McCoy nudged Travers , who was standing beside him , and reassured him by saying " Don 't worry Stephen , this is British Army " . Travers thought that McCoy , a Protestant from Northern Ireland , was familiar with security checkpoints and had reckoned the regular British Army would be more efficient than the Ulster Defence Regiment ( UDR ) , who had a reputation for unprofessional and unpredictable behaviour , especially towards people from the Republic .
McCoy , son of the Orange Order 's Grand Master for County Tyrone , had close relatives in the security forces ; his brother @-@ in @-@ law was a former member of the B Specials which had been disbanded in 1970 . Travers described McCoy as a " sophisticated , father @-@ type figure . Everybody was respectful to Brian " . McCoy 's words , therefore , were taken seriously by the other band members , and anything he said was considered to be accurate .
= = = Explosion = = =
At least four of the gunmen were soldiers from the UDR , the locally recruited infantry regiment of the British Army in Northern Ireland . Martin Dillon suggested in The Dirty War , that at least five serving UDR soldiers were present at the checkpoint . All the gunmen were members of the UVF 's Mid @-@ Ulster Brigade , and had been lying in wait to ambush the band , having set up the checkpoint just minutes before .
Out of sight of the band members , two of the gunmen placed a ten @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) time bomb in the rear of the minibus . The UVF 's plan was that the bomb would explode once the minibus had reached Newry , killing all on board . However , Martin Dillon alleged that the bomb was meant to go off in the Irish Republic . He suggested that had all gone according to plan , the loyalist extremists would have been able to clandestinely bomb the Republic of Ireland , yet claim that the band were republican bomb @-@ smugglers carrying explosives on behalf of the IRA . They had hoped to embarrass the Government of Ireland , as well as to draw attention to its level of control of the border . This may have resulted in the Irish authorities enforcing tighter controls over the border , thus restricting IRA operations . Dillon opined that another reason the UVF decided to target the Miami Showband was because Irish nationalists held them in high regard ; to attack the band was to strike the nationalists indirectly .
Stephen Travers heard the gunmen rummaging in the back of the minibus , where he kept his guitar . Concerned it might be damaged , he approached the two gunmen and told them to be careful . Asked whether he had anything valuable inside the case , Travers replied no . The gunman turned him round , punched him in the back and pushed him on the shoulder back into the line @-@ up .
When the two gunmen closed the rear door , clumsy soldering on the clock used as a timer caused the device to explode prematurely , blowing the minibus apart and killing soldiers Harris Boyle ( aged 22 , a telephone wireman from Portadown ) and Wesley Somerville ( aged 34 , a textile worker from Moygashel ) instantly . Hurled in opposite directions , they were both decapitated and their bodies dismembered . What little that remained intact of their bodies was burnt beyond recognition ; one of the limbless torsos was completely charred . →
= = = Shootings = = =
Following the explosion , the remaining gunmen opened fire on the dazed band members , who had all been knocked down into the field below the level of the road from the force of the blast . The order to shoot was given by the patrol 's apparent leader , James McDowell , to eliminate witnesses to the bogus checkpoint and subsequent bombing . Three of the musicians were killed : lead singer Fran O 'Toole , trumpeter Brian McCoy , and guitarist Tony Geraghty .
Brian McCoy was the first to die , having been hit in the back by nine rounds from a 9mm Luger pistol in the initial volley of gunfire . Fran O 'Toole attempted to run away , but was quickly chased down by the gunmen who had immediately jumped down into the field in pursuit . He was then machine @-@ gunned 22 times , mostly in the face , as he lay supine on the ground . Tony Geraghty also attempted to escape ; but he was caught by the gunmen and shot at least four times in the back of the head and back . Both men had pleaded for their lives before they were shot ; one had cried out , " Please don 't shoot me , don 't kill me " .
Bassist Stephen Travers was seriously wounded by a dum @-@ dum bullet which had struck him when the gunmen had first begun shooting . He survived by pretending he was dead , as he lay beside the body of McCoy . Saxophone player Des McAlea was hit by the minibus 's door when it was blown off in the explosion , but was not badly wounded . He lay hidden in thick undergrowth , undetected by the gunmen . He also survived . However , the flames from the burning hedge ( which had been set on fire by the explosion ) soon came dangerously close to where he lay ; he was forced to leave his hiding spot . By this time the gunmen had left the scene , assuming everyone else had been killed . Travers later recalled hearing one of the departing gunmen tell his comrade who had kicked McCoy 's body to make sure he was not alive : " Come on , those bastards are dead . I got them with dum @-@ dums " . McAlea made his way up the embankment to the main road where he hitched a lift to alert the RUC at their barracks in Newry .
= = = Forensic and ballistic evidence = = =
When the RUC arrived at the site they found five dead bodies , a seriously injured Stephen Travers , body parts , the smouldering remains of the destroyed minibus , debris from the bomb blast , bullets , spent cartridges , and the band members ' personal possessions , including clothing , shoes , and a photograph of the group , strewn across the area . They also discovered a stolen white Ford Escort registration number 4933 LZ , which had been left behind by the gunmen , along with two guns , ammunition , green UDR berets and a pair of glasses later traced to James McDowell , the gunman who had ordered the shootings .
One of the first RUC men who arrived at Buskhill in the wake of the killings was scenes of crime officer James O 'Neill . He described the scene as having " just the smell of utterly death about the place ... burning blood , burning tyres " . He also added that " that bomb was definitely placed there with a view to killing all in that band " .
The only identifiable body part from the bombers to survive the blast ( which had been heard up to four miles away ) was a severed arm belonging to Wesley Somerville . It was found 100 yards from the site with a " UVF Portadown " tattoo on it .
The RUC 's investigative unit , the Assassination or " A " Squad of detectives , was set up to investigate the crime and to discover the identities of the UVF gunmen who perpetrated the killings . Afterwards , as Travers recovered in hospital , the second survivor Des McAlea gave the police a description of McDowell as the gunman with a moustache and wearing dark glasses who appeared to have been the leader of the patrol . Some time after the attack , RUC officers questioned Stephen Travers at Dublin Castle . He subsequently stated they refused to accept his description of the different @-@ coloured beret worn by the soldier with the English accent . The UVF gunmen had worn green UDR berets , whereas the other man 's had been lighter in colour .
The dead bombers were named by the UVF , in a statement issued within 12 hours of the attack . Harris Boyle and Wesley Somerville were UDR soldiers as well as holding the rank of major and lieutenant , respectively , in the UVF . In 1993 Boyle was named by The Hidden Hand programme as one of the Dublin car bombers .
The stolen Ford Escort belonged to a man from Portadown , who according to Captain Fred Holroyd , had links with one of the UVF bombers and the driver of the bomb car which had been left to explode in Parnell Street , Dublin on 17 May 1974 . He was also one of the prime suspects in the sectarian killing of Dorothy Traynor on 1 April 1975 in Portadown .
Ballistic evidence indicates that the 10 @-@ member gang took at least six guns with them on the attack . An independent panel of inquiry commissioned by the Pat Finucane Centre has established that among the weapons actually used in the killings were two Sterling 9mm submachine guns and a 9mm Luger pistol serial no . U 4 . The submachine guns , which had been stolen years earlier from a former member of the B Specials , were linked to prior and later sectarian killings , whereas the Luger had been used to kill leading IRA member , John Francis Green , the previous January . In a letter to the Independent Commission of Inquiry into the Bombing of Kay 's Tavern dated 22 February 2004 , the Northern Ireland Office stated that : " The PSNI [ The Police Service of Northern Ireland ] have confirmed that a 9mm Luger pistol was ballistically traced both to the murder of John Francis Green and to the Miami Showband murders . " In May 1976 , Robin Jackson 's fingerprints were discovered on the metal barrel of a home @-@ made silencer constructed for a Luger . Both the silencer and pistol – which was later established to have been the same one used in the Miami Showband killings – were found by the security forces at the home of Edward Sinclair . Jackson was charged with possession of the silencer but not convicted , the trial judge having reportedly said : " At the end of the day I find that the accused somehow touched the silencer , but the Crown evidence has left me completely in the dark as to whether he did that wittingly or unwittingly , willingly or unwillingly " . The Luger was destroyed by the RUC on 28 August 1978 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Reactions = = =
Within 12 hours of the attack the UVF 's Brigade Staff ( Belfast leadership ) issued a statement . It was released under the heading Ulster Central Intelligence Agency – Miami Showband Incident Report :
A UVF patrol led by Major Boyle was suspicious of two vehicles , a minibus and a car parked near the border . Major Boyle ordered his patrol to apprehend the occupants for questioning . As they were being questioned , Major Boyle and Lieutenant Somerville began to search the minibus . As they began to enter the vehicle , a bomb was detonated and both men were killed outright . At the precise moment of the explosion , the patrol came under intense automatic fire from the occupants of the other vehicle . The patrol sergeant immediately ordered fire to be returned . Using self @-@ loading rifles and sub @-@ machine guns , the patrol returned fire , killing three of their attackers and wounding another . The patrol later recovered two Armalite rifles and a pistol . The UVF maintains regular border patrols due to the continued activity of the Provisional IRA . The Mid @-@ Ulster Battalion has been assisting the South Down @-@ South Armagh units since the IRA Forkhill boobytrap which killed four British soldiers . Three UVF members are being treated for gunshot wounds after last night but not in hospital .
It would appear that the UVF patrol surprised members of a terrorist organisation transferring weapons to the Miami Showband minibus and that an explosive device of some description was being carried by the Showband for an unlawful purpose . It is obvious , therefore , that the UVF patrol was justified in taking the action it did and that the killing of the three Showband members should be regarded as justifiable homicide . The Officers and Agents of the Ulster Central Intelligence Agency commend the UVF on their actions and tender their deepest sympathy to the relatives of the two Officers who died while attempting to remove the bomb from the minibus .
Harris Boyle and Wesley Somerville were given UVF paramilitary funerals conducted by Free Presbyterian minister William McCrea , a Democratic Unionist Party ( DUP ) politician .
The killings shocked both Northern Ireland and Ireland and put a serious strain on Anglo @-@ Irish relations . The Irish Times reported that on the night following the attack , the British ambassador Sir Arthur Galsworthy was summoned to hear the Government of Ireland 's strong feelings regarding the murder of the three band members . The government held the view that the British Government had not done enough to stop sectarian assassinations in Northern Ireland .
Following the post @-@ mortems , funerals were held for the three slain musicians ; they received
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" After Pearl Jam finished the recording of Vitalogy , drummer Dave Abbruzzese was fired . The band cited political differences between Abbruzzese and the other members ; for example , Abbruzzese disagreed with the Ticketmaster boycott . He was replaced by Jack Irons , a close friend of Vedder and the former and original drummer of the Red Hot Chili Peppers . Irons made his debut with the band at Neil Young 's 1994 Bridge School Benefit , but he was not officially announced as the band 's new drummer until its 1995 Self @-@ Pollution satellite radio broadcast , a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour @-@ long pirate broadcast out of Seattle which was available to any radio stations that wanted to carry it .
Vitalogy was released first on November 22 , 1994 on vinyl and then two weeks later on December 6 , 1994 on CD and cassette . The CD became the second @-@ fastest @-@ selling in history , with more than 877 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that " thanks to its stripped @-@ down , lean production , Vitalogy stands as Pearl Jam 's most original and uncompromising album . " Many of the songs on the album appear to be inspired by the pressures of fame . The song " Spin the Black Circle " , an homage to vinyl records , won a Grammy Award in 1996 for Best Hard Rock Performance . Vitalogy also included the songs " Not for You " , " Corduroy " , " Better Man " , and " Immortality " . " Better Man " ( sample ) , a song originally written and performed by Vedder while in Bad Radio , reached number one on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart , spending a total of eight weeks there . Considered a " blatantly great pop song " by producer Brendan O 'Brien , Pearl Jam was reluctant to record it and had initially rejected it from Vs. due to its accessibility .
The band continued its boycott against Ticketmaster during its 1995 tour for Vitalogy , but was surprised that virtually no other bands joined in . Pearl Jam 's initiative to play only at non @-@ Ticketmaster venues effectively , with a few exceptions , prevented it from playing shows in the United States for the next three years . Ament later said , " We were so hardheaded about the 1995 tour . Had to prove we could tour on our own , and it pretty much killed us , killed our career . " In the same year Pearl Jam backed Neil Young , whom the band had noted as an influence , on his album Mirror Ball . Contractual obligations prevented the use of the band 's name anywhere on the album , but the members were all credited individually in the album 's liner notes . Two songs from the sessions were left off Mirror Ball : " I Got Id " and " Long Road " . These two tracks were released separately by Pearl Jam in the form of the 1995 EP , Merkin Ball .
= = = No Code and Yield ( 1996 – 99 ) = = =
Following the round of touring for Vitalogy , the band went into the studio to record its follow @-@ up , No Code . Vedder said , " Making No Code was all about gaining perspective . " Released in 1996 , No Code was seen as a deliberate break from the band 's sound since Ten , favoring experimental ballads and noisy garage rockers . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that " No Code displays a wider range of moods and instrumentation than on any previous Pearl Jam album . " The lyrical themes on the album deal with issues of self @-@ examination , with Ament stating , " In some ways , it 's like the band 's story . It 's about growing up . " Although the album debuted at number one on the Billboard charts , it quickly fell down the charts . No Code included the singles " Who You Are " ( sample ) , " Hail , Hail " , and " Off He Goes " . As with Vitalogy , very little touring was done to promote No Code because of the band 's refusal to play in Ticketmaster 's venue areas . A European tour took place in the fall of 1996 . Gossard stated that there was " a lot of stress associated with trying to tour at that time " and that " it was growing more and more difficult to be excited about being part of the band . "
Following the short tour for No Code , the band went into the studio in 1997 to record its follow @-@ up . The sessions for the band 's fifth album represented more of a team effort between all members of the group , with Ament stating that " everybody really got a little bit of their say on the record ... because of that , everybody feels like they 're an integral part of the band . " On February 3 , 1998 , Pearl Jam released its fifth album , Yield . The album was cited as a return to the band 's early , straightforward rock sound . Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly stated that the band has " turned in an intermittently affecting album that veers between fiery garage rock and rootsy , acoustic @-@ based ruminations . Perhaps mindful of their position as the last alt @-@ rock ambassadors with any degree of clout , they 've come up with their most cohesive album since their 1991 debut , Ten . " Lyrically , Yield continued with the more contemplative type of writing found on No Code , with Vedder saying , " What was rage in the past has become reflection . " Yield debuted at number two on the Billboard charts , but like No Code soon began dropping down the charts . It included the singles " Given to Fly " and " Wishlist " . The band hired comic book artist Todd McFarlane to create an animated video for the song " Do the Evolution " from the album , its first music video since 1992 . A documentary detailing the making of Yield , Single Video Theory , was released on VHS and DVD later that year .
In April 1998 , Pearl Jam once again changed drummers . Jack Irons left the band due to dissatisfaction with touring and was replaced with former Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron on an initially temporary basis , but he soon became a permanent replacement for Irons . Pearl Jam 's 1998 Yield Tour in North America marked the band ’ s return to full @-@ scale touring . The band 's anti @-@ trust lawsuit against Ticketmaster had proven to be unsuccessful and hindered live tours . Many fans had complained about the difficulty in obtaining tickets and the use of non @-@ Ticketmaster venues , which were judged to be out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way and impersonal . For this tour and future tours , Pearl Jam once again began using Ticketmaster in order to " better accommodate concertgoers . " The 1998 summer tour was a big success , and after it was completed the band released Live on Two Legs , a live album which featured select performances from the tour .
In 1998 , Pearl Jam recorded " Last Kiss " , a cover of a 1960s ballad made famous by J. Frank Wilson and the Cavaliers . It was recorded during a soundcheck and released on the band 's 1998 fan club Christmas single . The following year , the cover was put into heavy rotation across the country . By popular demand , the cover was released to the public as a single in 1999 , with all of the proceeds going to the aid of refugees of the Kosovo War . The band also decided to include the song on the 1999 charity compilation album , No Boundaries : A Benefit for the Kosovar Refugees . " Last Kiss " peaked at number two on the Billboard charts and became the band 's highest @-@ charting single .
= = = Binaural and the Roskilde tragedy ( 2000 – 01 ) = = =
Following its full @-@ scale tour in support of Yield , the band took a short break , but then reconvened toward the end of 1999 and commenced work on a new album . On May 16 , 2000 , Pearl Jam released its sixth studio album , Binaural . It was drummer Matt Cameron 's studio recording debut with the band . The title is a reference to the binaural recording techniques that were utilized on several tracks by producer Tchad Blake , known for his use of the technique . Binaural was the first album since the band 's debut not produced by Brendan O 'Brien , although O 'Brien was called in later to remix several tracks . Gossard stated that the band members " were ready for a change . " Jon Pareles of Rolling Stone said , " Apparently as tired of grunge as everyone except Creed fans , Pearl Jam delve elsewhere . " He added , " The album reflects both Pearl Jam 's longstanding curse of self @-@ importance and a renewed willingness to be experimental or just plain odd . " The album is lyrically darker than the band 's previous album Yield , with Gossard describing the lyrics as " pretty sombre . " Binaural included the singles " Nothing as It Seems " ( sample ) , one of the songs featuring binaural recording , and " Light Years " . The album sold just over 700 @,@ 000 copies and became the first Pearl Jam studio album to fail to reach platinum status .
Pearl Jam decided to record every show on its 2000 Binaural Tour professionally , after noting the desire of fans to own a copy of the shows they attended and the popularity of bootleg recordings . The band had been open in the past about allowing fans to make amateur recordings , and these " official bootlegs " were an attempt to provide a more affordable and better quality product for fans . Pearl Jam originally intended to release them to only fan club members , but the band 's record contract prevented it from doing so . Pearl Jam released all of the albums in record stores as well as through its fan club . The band released 72 live albums in 2000 and 2001 , and twice set a record for most albums to debut in the Billboard 200 at the same time .
Pearl Jam 's 2000 European tour ended in tragedy on June 30 , with an accident at the Roskilde Festival in Denmark . Nine fans were crushed underfoot and suffocated to death as the crowd rushed to the front . After numerous requests for the crowd to step back , the band stopped playing and tried to calm the crowd when the musicians realized what was happening , but it was already too late . The two remaining dates of the tour were canceled and members of the band contemplated retiring after this event . Pearl Jam was initially blamed for the accident , but was later cleared of responsibility .
A month after the European tour concluded , the band embarked on its two @-@ leg 2000 North American tour . On performing after the Roskilde tragedy , Vedder said that " playing , facing crowds , being together — it enabled us to start processing it . " On October 22 , 2000 , the band played the MGM Grand in Las Vegas , celebrating the tenth anniversary of its first live performance as a band . Vedder took the opportunity to thank the many people who had helped the band come together and make it to ten years . He noted that " I would never do this accepting a Grammy or something . " After concluding the Binaural Tour , the band released Touring Band 2000 the following year . The DVD featured select performances from the North American legs of the tour .
Following the events of the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks , Vedder and McCready were joined by Neil Young to perform the song " Long Road " from the Merkin Ball EP at the America : A Tribute to Heroes benefit concert . The concert , which aired on September 21 , 2001 , raised money for the victims and their families .
= = = Riot Act ( 2002 – 05 ) = = =
Pearl Jam commenced work on a new album following a year @-@ long break after its full @-@ scale tour in support of Binaural . McCready described the recording environment as " a pretty positive one " and " very intense and spiritual . " Regarding the time period when the lyrics were being written , Vedder said , " There 's been a lot of mortality ... It 's a weird time to be writing . Roskilde changed the shape of us as people , and our filter for seeing the world changed . " Pearl Jam released its seventh album , Riot Act , on November 12 , 2002 . It included the singles " I Am Mine " and " Save You " . The album featured a much more folk @-@ based and experimental sound , evident in the presence of B3 organist Boom Gaspar on songs such as " Love Boat Captain " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said " Riot Act is the album that Pearl Jam has been wanting to make since Vitalogy — a muscular art rock record , one that still hits hard but that is filled with ragged edges and odd detours . " The track entitled " Arc " was recorded as a vocal tribute to the nine people who died at the Roskilde Festival in June 2000 . Vedder only performed this song nine times on the 2003 tour , and the band left the track off all released bootlegs .
In 2003 , the band embarked on its Riot Act Tour , which included tours in Australia and North America . The band continued its official bootleg program , making every concert from the tour available in CD form through its official website . A total of six bootlegs were made available in record stores : Perth , Tokyo , State College , Pennsylvania , two shows from Madison Square Garden , and Mansfield , Massachusetts . At many shows during the 2003 North American tour , Vedder performed Riot Act 's " Bu $ hleaguer " , a commentary on President George W. Bush , with a rubber mask of Bush , wearing it at the beginning of the song and then hanging it on a mic stand to allow him to sing . The band made news when it was reported that several fans left after Vedder had " impaled " the Bush mask on his mic stand at the band 's Denver , Colorado show .
In June 2003 , Pearl Jam announced it was officially leaving Epic Records following the end of its contract with the label . The band stated it had " no interest " in signing with another label . The band 's first release without a label was the single for " Man of the Hour " , in partnership with Amazon.com. Director Tim Burton approached Pearl Jam to request an original song for the soundtrack of his new film , Big Fish . After screening an early print of the film , Pearl Jam recorded the song for him . " Man of the Hour " , which was later nominated for a Golden Globe Award , can be heard in the closing credits of Big Fish .
The band released Lost Dogs , a two @-@ disc collection of rarities and B @-@ sides , and Live at the Garden , a DVD featuring the band 's July 8 , 2003 concert at Madison Square Garden through Epic Records in November 2003 . In 2004 , Pearl Jam released the live album , Live at Benaroya Hall , through a one @-@ album deal with BMG . 2004 marked the first time that Pearl Jam licensed a song for usage in a television show ; a snippet of the song " Yellow Ledbetter " was used in the final episode of the television series Friends . Later that year , Epic released rearviewmirror ( Greatest Hits 1991 – 2003 ) , a Pearl Jam greatest hits collection spanning 1991 to 2003 . This release marked the end of Pearl Jam 's contractual agreement with Epic Records .
Pearl Jam played a show at Easy Street Records in Seattle in April 2005 ; recordings from the show were compiled for the Live at Easy Street album and released exclusively to independent record stores in June 2006 . The band embarked on a Canadian cross @-@ country tour in September 2005 , kicking off the tour with a fundraising concert in Missoula , Montana for Democratic politician Jon Tester , then playing the Gorge Amphitheater before crossing into Canada . After touring Canada , Pearl Jam proceeded to open a Rolling Stones concert in Pittsburgh , then played two shows at the Borgata casino in Atlantic City , New Jersey , before closing the tour with a concert in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The official bootlegs for the band 's 2005 shows were distributed via Pearl Jam 's official website in MP3 form . Pearl Jam also played a benefit concert to raise money for Hurricane Katrina relief on October 5 , 2005 , at the House of Blues in Chicago , Illinois . On November 22 , 2005 , Pearl Jam began its first Latin American tour .
= = = Move to J Records and Pearl Jam ( 2006 – 08 ) = = =
The work for Pearl Jam 's follow @-@ up to Riot Act began after its appearance on the 2004 Vote for Change tour . The time period between the two albums was the longest gap between Pearl Jam 's studio albums to date and the new album was its first release for a new label . Clive Davis announced in February 2006 that Pearl Jam had signed with his label , J Records , which like Epic , is part of Sony Music Entertainment ( then known as Sony BMG ) , though J has since folded into RCA Records . The band 's eighth studio album , Pearl Jam , was released on May 2 , 2006 . A number of critics cited Pearl Jam as a return to the band 's early sound , and McCready compared the new material to Vs. in a 2005 interview . Ament said , " The band playing in a room — that came across . There ’ s a kind of immediacy to the record , and that ’ s what we were going for . " Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly said that " in a world full of boys sent to do a man 's job of rocking , Pearl Jam can still pull off gravitas . " Current socio @-@ political issues in the United States are addressed on the album . " World Wide Suicide " , a song criticizing the Iraq War and U.S. foreign policy , was released as a single and topped the Billboard Modern Rock chart ; it was Pearl Jam 's first number one on that chart since " Who You Are " in 1996 , and first number one on any chart in the United States since 1998 when " Given to Fly " reached number one on the Mainstream Rock chart . Pearl Jam also included the singles " Life Wasted " and " Gone " .
To support Pearl Jam , the band embarked on its 2006 world tour . It toured North America , Australia and notably Europe ; Pearl Jam had not toured the continent for six years . The North American tour included three two @-@ night stands opening for Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers . The band served as the headliners for the Leeds and Reading festivals , despite having vowed to never play at a festival again after Roskilde . Vedder started both concerts with an emotional plea to the crowd to look after each other . He commented during the Leeds set that the band 's decision to play a festival for the first time after Roskilde had nothing to do with " guts " but with trust in the audience .
In 2007 , Pearl Jam recorded a cover of The Who 's " Love , Reign o 'er Me " for the Mike Binder film , Reign Over Me ; it was later made available as a music download on the iTunes Music Store . The band embarked on a 13 @-@ date European tour , and headlined Lollapalooza in Grant Park , on August 5 , 2007 . The band released a CD box set in June 2007 , entitled Live at the Gorge 05 / 06 , that documents its shows at The Gorge Amphitheatre , and in September 2007 a concert DVD , entitled Immagine in Cornice , which documents the band 's Italian shows from its 2006 tour was released .
In June 2008 , Pearl Jam performed as the headline act at the Bonnaroo Music Festival . The Bonnaroo appearance took place amidst a twelve @-@ date tour in the Eastern United States . In July 2008 , the band performed at the VH1 tribute to The Who alongside Foo Fighters , Incubus and The Flaming Lips . In the days prior to Election Day 2008 , Pearl Jam digitally released through its official website a free documentary film , entitled Vote for Change ? 2004 , which follows the band 's time spent on the 2004 Vote for Change tour .
= = = Reissues and Backspacer ( 2009 – 12 ) = = =
In March 2009 , Ten was reissued in four editions , featuring such extras as a remastering and remix of the entire album by Brendan O 'Brien , a DVD of the band 's 1992 appearance on MTV Unplugged , and an LP of its September 20 , 1992 concert at Magnuson Park in Seattle . It was the first reissue in a planned re @-@ release of Pearl Jam 's entire catalog that led up to the band 's 20th anniversary in 2011 . A Pearl Jam retrospective film directed by Cameron Crowe titled Pearl Jam Twenty was also planned to coincide with the anniversary . In 2011 , Vs. and Vitalogy were reissued in the spring time in deluxe form .
Pearl Jam began work for the follow @-@ up to Pearl Jam in early 2008 . In 2009 , the band began to build on instrumental and demo tracks written during 2008 . The band 's ninth studio album , Backspacer , was its first to be produced by Brendan O 'Brien since Yield . Backspacer debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard music charts , the band 's first album to do so since No Code in 1996 , and has sold 635 @,@ 000 copies as of July 2013 , according to Nielsen SoundScan . The music on the record features a sound influenced by pop and new wave . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that " prior to Backspacer , Pearl Jam wouldn 't or couldn 't have made music this unfettered , unapologetically assured , casual , and , yes , fun . " Regarding the lyrics , Vedder said , " I 've tried , over the years , to be hopeful in the lyrics , and I think that 's going to be easier now . " " The Fixer " was chosen as the album 's first single . Pearl Jam did not re @-@ sign its record deal with J Records , and the band released the album through its own label Monkeywrench Records in the United States and through Universal Music Group internationally . Pearl Jam reached a deal with Target to be the exclusive big @-@ box store retailer for the album in the United States . The album also saw release through the band 's official website , independent record stores , online retailers , and iTunes . In an interview in September 2009 McCready revealed that Pearl Jam was scheduled to finish the Backspacer outtakes within six months , and told San Diego radio station KBZT that the band may release an EP in 2010 consisting of those songs , while Vedder instead suggested that the songs may be used for the band 's next studio album .
In August 2009 , Pearl Jam headlined the Virgin Festival , the Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival , and played five shows in Europe and three in North America . In October 2009 , Pearl Jam headlined the Austin City Limits Music Festival . Later in October on Halloween night , the band played in what was the last performance at the Philadelphia Spectrum . An additional leg consisting of a tour of Oceania took place afterwards . In May 2010 , the band embarked on a month @-@ long tour starting with the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival . The tour headed to the East Coast and ended May 21 , 2010 at Madison Square Garden in New York . A European tour took place in June and July 2010 , where the band performed in Northern Ireland for the first time at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast . In late October 2010 , Pearl Jam performed at the 24th Annual Bridge School Benefit Concert at the Shoreline Amphitheater in Mountain View , California . A live album , titled Live on Ten Legs , was released on January 17 , 2011 . It is a compilation of live tracks from their 2003 to 2010 world tours , and is a follow @-@ up to Live on Two Legs , which consisted of songs recorded during their 1998 North American tour .
In March 2011 , bassist Jeff Ament told Billboard that the band had 25 songs and they 'd be heading into the studio in April to begin recording the follow @-@ up to Backspacer . On May 16 , 2011 , the band confirmed that they would play the Labor Day weekend at the Alpine Valley Music Theatre , East Troy , Wisconsin , followed by ten shows in Canada .
On September 8 , 2011 , the band released a new song titled " Olé " . On November 18 , the band released Toronto 9 @.@ 11 @.@ 11 — a free live album available through the launch of Google Music .
On November 21 , 2011 , as part of their PJ20 World Tour , Pearl Jam visited Costa Rica for the first time to a 30 @,@ 000 crowd of fans at the National Stadium . The following month , the band announced a tour of Europe , which started in June 2012 .
= = = Lightning Bolt ( 2013 – present ) = = =
On July 11 , 2013 , the band announced that their tenth studio album Lightning Bolt would be released internationally on October 14 , 2013 and on the next day in the United States , along with releasing the first single " Mind Your Manners " . The band played a two @-@ leg tour in North America during October and November , followed by headlining the Big Day Out festival in Australia and New Zealand in 2014 . The second single , " Sirens " , was released on September 18 , 2013 . After selling 166 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , Lightning Bolt became Pearl Jam 's fifth album to reach number one on the Billboard 200 . At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2015 , the album won the award for Best Recording Package . In November 2015 the band played a nine @-@ date tour of Latin America . In January 2016 , the band announced a tour of the United States and Canada , including appearances at the New Orleans Jazz Festival and Bonnaroo .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Compared with the other grunge bands of the early 1990s , Pearl Jam ’ s style is noticeably less heavy and harkens back to the classic rock music of the 1970s . Pearl Jam has cited many punk rock and classic rock bands as influences , including The Who , Led Zeppelin , Neil Young , Kiss and the Ramones . Pearl Jam ’ s success has been attributed to its sound , which fuses " the riff @-@ heavy stadium rock of the ' 70s with the grit and anger of ' 80s post @-@ punk , without ever neglecting hooks and choruses . " Gossard 's rhythm guitar style is known for its sense of beat and groove , while McCready 's lead guitar style , influenced by artists such as Jimi Hendrix , has been described as " feel @-@ oriented " and " rootsy . "
Pearl Jam has broadened its musical range with subsequent releases . As he had more influence on the band 's sound , Vedder sought to make the band 's musical output less catchy . He said , " I felt that with more popularity , we were going to be crushed , our heads were going to pop like grapes . " By 1994 ’ s Vitalogy , the band began to incorporate more punk influences into its music . The band ’ s 1996 album , No Code , was a deliberate break from the musical style of Ten . The songs on the album featured elements of garage rock , worldbeat , and experimentalism . After 1998 ’ s Yield , which was somewhat of a return to the straightforward rock approach of the band 's early work , the band dabbled with experimental art rock on 2000 's Binaural and folk rock elements on 2002 ’ s Riot Act . The band ’ s 2006 album , Pearl Jam , was cited as a return to the band ’ s early sound . The band 's 2009 album , Backspacer , contains elements of pop and new wave .
Critic Jim DeRogatis describes Vedder 's vocals as a " Jim Morrison @-@ like vocal growl . " Greg Prato of AllMusic said , " With his hard @-@ hitting and often confessional lyrical style and Jim Morrison @-@ esque baritone , Vedder also became one of the most copied lead singers in all of rock . " Vedder 's lyrical topics range from personal ( " Alive " , " Better Man " ) to social and political concerns ( " Even Flow " , " World Wide Suicide " ) . His lyrics have often invoked the use of storytelling and have included themes of freedom , individualism , and sympathy for troubled individuals . When the band started , Gossard and McCready were clearly designated as rhythm and lead guitarists , respectively . The dynamic began to change when Vedder started to play more rhythm guitar during the Vitalogy era . McCready said in 2006 , " Even though there are three guitars , I think there 's maybe more room now . Stone will pull back and play a two @-@ note line and Ed will do a power chord thing , and I fit into all that . "
= = Legacy = =
While Nirvana had brought grunge to the mainstream in the early 1990s with Nevermind , Pearl Jam 's debut Ten outsold it in the United States , and the band became " the most popular American rock & roll band of the ' 90s " according to AllMusic . Pearl Jam has been described as " modern rock radio 's most influential stylists – the workmanlike midtempo chug of songs like " Alive " and " Even Flow " just melodic enough to get moshers singing along . " The band inspired and influenced a number of bands , ranging from Silverchair to Puddle of Mudd and The Strokes . The band has also been credited for inspiring the indie rock scene of 90s @-@ era urban Pakistan , that has since evolved into a rich rock music culture in the country .
Pearl Jam has been praised for its rejection of rock star excess and its insistence on backing causes it believes in . Music critic Jim DeRogatis said in the aftermath of the band 's battle with Ticketmaster that it " proved that a rock band which isn 't comprised of greed heads can play stadiums and not milk the audience for every last dime ... it indicated that idealism in rock ' n ' roll is not the sole province of those ' 60s bands enshrined in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . " Eric Weisbard of Spin said in 2001 , " The group that was once accused of being synthetic grunge now seem as organic and principled a rock band as exists . " In a 2005 USA Today reader 's poll , Pearl Jam was voted the greatest American rock band of all time . In April 2006 , Pearl Jam was awarded the prize for " Best Live Act " in Esquire 's Esky Music Awards . The blurb called Pearl Jam " the rare superstars who still play as though each show could be their last . " Pearl Jam 's fanbase following has been compared to that of the Grateful Dead 's , with Rolling Stone magazine stating that Pearl Jam " toured incessantly and became one of rock 's great arena acts , attracting a fanatical , Grateful Dead @-@ like cult following with marathon , true @-@ believer shows in the vanishing spirit of Bruce Springsteen , the Who and U2 . "
When asked about Pearl Jam 's legacy in a 2000 interview , Vedder said , " I think at some point along the way we began feeling we wanted to give people something to believe in because we all had bands that gave that to us when we needed something to believe in . That was the big challenge for us after the first record and the response to it . The goal immediately became how do we continue to be musicians and grow and survive in view of all this ... The answers weren ’ t always easy , but I think we found a way . "
= = Campaigning and activism = =
Throughout its career , Pearl Jam has promoted wider social and political issues , from pro @-@ choice sentiments to opposition to George W. Bush 's presidency . Vedder acts as the band 's spokesman on these issues . The band has promoted an array of causes , including awareness of Crohn 's disease , which Mike McCready suffers from , Ticketmaster venue monopolization and the environment and wildlife protection , among others . Guitarist Stone Gossard has been active in environmental pursuits , and has been an advocate of Pearl Jam 's carbon neutral policy , offsetting the band 's environmental impact . Vedder has advocated for the release of the West Memphis 3 for years and Damien Echols , a member of the three , shares a writing credit for the song " Army Reserve " ( from Pearl Jam ) .
The band , and especially frontman Eddie Vedder , have been vocal supporters of the pro @-@ choice movement . In 1992 , Spin printed an article by Vedder , entitled " Reclamation " , which detailed his views on abortion . In an MTV Unplugged concert the same year , Vedder stood on a stool and wrote " PRO @-@ CHOICE ! " on his arm in protest when the band performed the song " Porch " . The band are members of a number of pro @-@ choice organizations , including Choice USA and Voters for Choice .
As members of Rock the Vote and Vote for Change , the band has encouraged voter registration and participation in United States elections . Vedder was outspoken in support of Green Party presidential candidate Ralph Nader in 2000 , and Pearl Jam played a series of concerts on the Vote for Change tour in October 2004 , supporting the candidacy of John Kerry for U.S. President . In a Rolling Stone feature showcasing the Vote for Change tour 's performers , Vedder told the magazine , " I supported Ralph Nader in 2000 , but it 's a time of crisis . We have to get a new administration in . "
Vedder sometimes comments on politics between songs , often to criticize U.S. foreign policy , and a number of his songs , including " Bu $ hleaguer " and " World Wide Suicide " , are openly critical of the Bush administration . At Lollapalooza 2007 , Vedder spoke out against BP Amoco dumping effluent in Lake Michigan , and at the end of " Daughter " , he sang the lyrics " George Bush leave this world alone / George Bush find yourself another home " . In the beginning of the second encore Vedder invited Iraq war veteran Tomas Young , the subject of the documentary Body of War , onto the stage to urge an end to the war . Young in turn introduced Ben Harper , who contributed vocals to " No More " and " Rockin ' in the Free World " . The band later discovered that some of the Bush @-@ related lyrics were excised from the AT & T webcast of the event , and questioned whether that constitutes censorship . AT & T later apologized and blamed the censorship on contractor Davie Brown Entertainment .
Pearl Jam has performed numerous benefit concerts in aid of charities . For example , the band headlined a Seattle concert in 2001 to support the United Nations ' efforts to combat world hunger . The band added a date at the Chicago House of Blues to its 2005 tour to help the victims of Hurricane Katrina ; the concert proceeds were donated to Habitat for Humanity , the American Red Cross and the Jazz Foundation of America .
In 2011 , Pearl Jam was named 2011 Planet Defenders by Rock The Earth for their environmental activism and their large @-@ scale efforts to decrease their own carbon emissions .
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Ten ( 1991 )
Vs . ( 1993 )
Vitalogy ( 1994 )
No Code ( 1996 )
Yield ( 1998 )
Binaural ( 2000 )
Riot Act ( 2002 )
Pearl Jam ( 2006 )
Backspacer ( 2009 )
Lightning Bolt ( 2013 )
= Solomon ( Byzantine general ) =
Solomon ( Greek : Σολόμων ) was an East Roman ( Byzantine ) general from northern Mesopotamia , who distinguished himself as a commander in the Vandalic War and the reconquest of North Africa in 533 – 534 . He spent most of the next decade in Africa as its governor general , combining the military post of magister militum with the civil position of praetorian prefect . Solomon successfully confronted the large @-@ scale Moorish rebellion , but was forced to flee following an army mutiny in spring of 536 . His second tenure in Africa began in 539 and it was marked by victories over the Moors , which led to the consolidation of the Byzantine position . A few years of prosperity followed , but were cut short by the rekindled Moorish revolt and Solomon 's defeat and death at the Battle of Cillium in 544 .
= = Biography = =
Solomon was born , probably circa 480 / 490 , in the fortress of Idriphthon in the district of Solachon , near Dara in the province of Mesopotamia . He was a eunuch as a result of an accident during his infancy , not from deliberate castration . Solomon had a brother , Bacchus , who became a priest . Bacchus fathered three sons , Cyrus , Sergius and Solomon , who later became military officers in Africa under their uncle ; Sergius also succeeded Solomon as governor of Africa after the latter 's death . Little is known of Solomon 's early career , except that he served under the dux Mesopotamiae Felicissimus , perhaps as early as the latter 's installment to the post in 505 / 506 . Certainly by 527 , when he came to the service of General Belisarius , Solomon was considered an experienced officer . It is perhaps at this time that he was named Belisarius 's domesticus , or chief @-@ of @-@ staff , the post with which he is mentioned by the historian Procopius in 533 , before the onset of the campaign against the Vandal Kingdom of North Africa .
= = = First tenure in Africa = = =
Before the expedition sailed from Constantinople , Solomon was named as one of the nine commanders of the foederati regiments . He is not mentioned in Procopius 's narrative during the subsequent campaign , but he probably participated in the decisive Battle of Ad Decimum on 13 September 533 , which opened the road for the Vandal capital of Carthage . Following the capture of Carthage , Belisarius sent Solomon back to Constantinople to inform Emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) of the campaign 's progress . Solomon remained in the capital until the spring of 534 , when Justinian sent him back to Africa to recall Belisarius and replace him as military commander of the new praetorian prefecture of Africa ( magister militum Africae ) . Belisarius 's departure coincided with a general uprising of the Moorish tribes of the interior , before the Byzantines had time to strengthen their hold on the province . As a result , Belisarius left most of his privately raised bucellarii behind , and Emperor Justinian sent additional reinforcements . Soon ( sometime in autumn of 534 ) Emperor Justinian also invested Solomon with the civil office of praetorian prefect as well , replacing the aged Archelaus .
In the meantime , the Moors had invaded Byzacena and defeated the local Byzantine garrison , killing its commanders , Gainas and Rufinus . After diplomatic entreaties over the winter failed , and with his forces bolstered to some 18 @,@ 000 men ( as estimated by Charles Diehl ) following the arrival of reinforcements , in spring 535 Solomon led his troops into Byzacena . The Moors , under their chiefs Cutzinas , Esdilasas , Iourphouthes and Mesidinissas had encamped at a location called Mammes . Solomon attacked them there and defeated them . The Byzantine army returned to Carthage , but there news came that the Moors , reinforced , had again attacked and overrun Byzacena . Solomon immediately marched out and met them at Mount Bourgaon , where the Moors had erected a fortified camp and awaited his attack . Solomon divided his forces and sent 1 @,@ 000 men to attack the Moors from behind , scoring a decisive victory : the Moors broke and scattered , suffering great casualties . Those who survived fled to Numidia , where they joined the forces of Iaudas , the leader of the tribes of Mount Aurasium . With Byzacena secured , and urged by his own Moorish allies Massonas and Ortaias , Solomon now turned to Numidia . He cautiously advanced to Aurasium and challenged Iaudas to battle , but after three days , distrusting the loyalty of his allies , Solomon returned his army to the plains . He left part of the army to keep watch on the Moors and established a series of fortified posts along the roads linking Byzacena with Numidia . Solomon then spent the winter preparing a new expedition against Aurasium and also against the Moors of Sardinia , but his designs were interrupted by a major army mutiny in spring 536 .
The revolt was caused by dissatisfaction of some of the soldiers , who had taken Vandal wives , with Solomon : the soldiers demanded the property once owned by their wives as their own , but Solomon refused , since this land had been confiscated by imperial decree . A first plot to assassinate Solomon in Easter failed and the conspirators fled into the countryside , but soon open rebellion broke out among the army in Carthage as well . The soldiers acclaimed one of Solomon 's subalterns , Theodore , as its leader , and began looting the city . Solomon managed to find refuge in a church , and under the cover of night , with the aid of Theodore , he departed the city by boat for Missua , accompanied among others by the historian Procopius . From there , Solomon and Procopius sailed to Sicily , which had just been conquered by Belisarius , while Solomon 's lieutenant Martin was dispatched to try and reach the troops at Numidia , and Theodore instructed to hold Carthage . Upon hearing about the mutiny , Belisarius , with Solomon and 100 picked men , set sail for Africa . Carthage was being besieged by 9 @,@ 000 rebels , including many Vandals , under a certain Stotzas . Theodore was contemplating capitulation when Belisarius appeared . The news of the famous general 's arrival were sufficient for the rebels to abandon the siege and withdraw westwards . Belisarius immediately gave pursuit and caught up and defeated the rebel forces at Membresa . The bulk of the rebels , however , was able to flee , and continued to march towards Numidia , where the local troops decided to join them . Belisarius himself was forced to return to Italy due to trouble there , and Emperor Justinian appointed his cousin Germanus as magister militum to deal with the crisis . Solomon returned to Constantinople .
= = = Second tenure in Africa = = =
Germanus was successful in winning the confidence of many soldiers , re @-@ establishing discipline and defeating the mutineers at the Battle of Scalas Veteres in 537 . With imperial control over the army restored , Solomon was sent back to Africa to replace Germanus in 539 , again combining in his person the posts of magister militum and praetorian prefect ( in the meantime , he had also been raised to the rank of patricius and named an honorary consul ) . Solomon further reinforced his control of the army by weeding out unreliable soldiers , sending them to Belisarius in Italy and to the East ; by expelling all remaining Vandals from the province ; and by initiating a massive programme of fortification across the region .
In 539 AD Solomon [ ... ] devoted the energies of the state to an enormous building programme that fortified the Byzantine province of Africa . The open cities and villa @-@ dotted countryside of the past was transformed into a medieval landscape of small walled towns surrounded by fortified manor houses [ ... ] at the same time sewer systems were overhauled , aqueducts reconnected , harbours cleared and grandiose churches erected to dominate the new urban centres [ ... ] The three great rectangular military fortresses , which were constructed on the south @-@ western frontier zone of Tebessa , Thelepte and Ammaedara , would have required over a million laboring days in their construction .
In 540 , Solomon led his army again against the Moors of Mount Aurasium . Initially , the Moors attacked and besieged the Byzantine advance guard , under Guntharis , at their camp in Bagai , but Solomon with the main army came to the rescue . The Moors had to abandon the attack and retreated to Babosis on the foothills of Aurasium , where they pitched camp . Solomon attacked them there and defeated them . The surviving Moors fled south to Aurasium or west into Mauretania , but their leader Iaudas sought refuge in the fortress of Zerboule . Solomon and his troops plundered the fertile plains around Thamugad , gathering the rich harvest for themselves , before moving onto Zerboule . Once there , they found Iaudas gone , having fled to the remote fortress of Toumar . The Byzantines moved up to besiege Toumar , but the siege proved problematic because of the barren terrain , and in particular the lack of water . While Solomon was considering how best to attack the inaccessible fortress , a minor skirmish between the two forces gradually escalated into a full @-@ scale and confused battle , as more and more soldiers from both sides joined in . The Byzantines emerged victorious , while the Moors fled from the field . Shortly after , the Byzantines also captured the fort at the so @-@ called " Rock of Geminianus " , where Iaudas had sent his wives and treasure . This victory left Solomon in control of Aurasium , where he built a number of fortresses . With Aurasium secured , effective Byzantine control was established in the provinces of Numidia and Mauretania Sitifensis . Aided by the captured treasure of Iaudas , Solomon extended his fortification programme in these two provinces : some two @-@ dozen inscriptions testifying to his building activity survive from the area . The Moorish rebellion seemed beaten for good , and contemporary chroniclers are unanimous in declaring the next few years as a golden era of peace and prosperity . In the words of Procopius , " all the Libyans who were subjects of the Romans , coming to enjoy secure peace and finding the rule of Solomon wise and very moderate , and having no longer any thought of hostility in their minds , seemed the most fortunate of all men " .
This tranquility lasted until 542 / 543 when the great plague arrived in Africa and caused many casualties , especially among members of the army . In addition , in early 543 the Moors in Byzacena became restive . Solomon executed the brother of the chieftain Antalas , whom he held responsible for the disturbances , and ceased the subsidies granted to Antalas , alienating the powerful and hitherto loyal chieftain . At the same time , Solomon 's nephew Sergius , newly named governor of Tripolitania as a token of Emperor Justinian 's gratitude ( along with his brother Cyrus in the Pentapolis ) , caused the outbreak of hostilities with the tribal confederation of the Leuathae when his men killed 80 of their leaders at a banquet . Although in a subsequent battle near Leptis Magna he was victorious , in early 544 Sergius was forced to travel to Carthage and seek his uncle 's aid . The rebellion spread quickly from Tripolitania to Byzacena , where Antalas joined it . Joined by his three nephews , Solomon marched against the Moors as they assembled , meeting them near Theveste . Last @-@ minute diplomatic overtures to the Leuathae failed , and the two armies clashed at Cillium , on the border of Numidia and Byzacena . The Byzantine army was riven by disunity , with many soldiers refusing to fight or doing so only reluctantly . The contemporary poet Flavius Cresconius Corippus even accused Guntharis of treason , alleging that he withdrew from the line with his troops , causing a general and disorderly Byzantine retreat . Solomon and his bodyguard stood their ground and resisted but at last they were forced to retreat . Solomon 's horse stumbled and fell in a ravine , wounding its rider . With the aid of his guards , Solomon remounted , but they were quickly overcome and slain .
Solomon was succeeded by his nephew Sergius , who proved completely inadequate in dealing with the situation . The Moors launched a general revolt and inflicted a severe defeat on the Byzantines in Thacia in 545 . Sergius was recalled , while the army mutinied again , this time under Guntharis , who captured Carthage and installed himself there as an independent ruler . His usurpation did not last long as he was assassinated by Artabanes , but it was not until the arrival of John Troglita in late 546 and his subsequent campaigns that the province was to be pacified and brought again securely under Byzantine imperial control .
= Sycorax =
Sycorax / ˈsɪkəræks / is an unseen character in William Shakespeare 's play The Tempest ( 1611 ) . She is a vicious and powerful witch and the mother of Caliban , one of the few native inhabitants of the island on which Prospero , the hero of the play , is stranded .
According to the backstory provided by the play , Sycorax , while pregnant with Caliban , was banished from her home in Algiers to the island on which the play takes place . Memories of Sycorax , who dies several years before the main action of the play begins , define several of the relationships in the play . Relying on his filial connection to Sycorax , Caliban claims ownership of the island . Prospero constantly reminds Ariel of Sycorax 's cruel treatment in order to maintain the sprite 's service .
Scholars generally agree that Sycorax , a foil for Prospero , is closely related to the Medea of Ovid 's Metamorphoses . Postcolonialist writers and critics see Sycorax as giving voice to peoples , particularly women , recovering from the effects of colonization . Later versions of The Tempest , beginning with William Davenant 's eighteenth @-@ century adaptation , have given Sycorax a vocal role in the play , but maintained her image as a malevolent antagonist to Prospero .
= = Role in the play = =
In The Tempest , Prospero describes Sycorax as an ancient and foul witch native to Algiers , and banished to the island for practicing sorcery " so strong / That [ she ] could control the Moon " . Prospero further relates that many years earlier , sailors had brought her to the island , while she was pregnant with her bestial son , Caliban , and abandoned her there , as by some ambiguous reason , she was spared being put to death . She proceeded to enslave the spirits there , chief among them Ariel , whom she eventually imprisoned in a pine tree for disobedience . Sycorax birthed Caliban and taught him to worship the demonic god Setebos . She dies long before the arrival of Prospero and his daughter , Miranda . Caliban grows to hate Prospero 's presence and power on the island , claiming that the land belongs to him since it was his mother 's before Prospero appeared .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Silent Sycorax = = =
Sycorax 's silent role plays an important part in postcolonial interpretations of The Tempest . Because she is native to Algiers and her story is only heard through others ( Prospero , Ariel , and Caliban ) , she is championed by some scholars as a representation of the silenced African woman . Postcolonial authors have also claimed her ; for example , Kamau Brathwaite , in his 1994 work Barabajan Poems , includes " Sycorax 's book " as a counterpart to " Prospero 's book " ( mentioned in Act 5 of Shakespeare 's play ) . In an attempt to give voice to unspoken indigenous cultures , Brathwaite 's poems outline the history of the Caribbean through Sycorax 's eyes . Sycorax is presented as Brathwaite 's muse , possessing him and his computer in order to give full voice to the history of the silenced , who in Brathwaite 's philosophy are not only Caribbean natives , but any culture underrepresented during the colonial period .
Other postcolonial scholars have argued that Shakespeare 's audiences would have connected Sycorax with the threat of Islamic expansionism . Islam had successfully conquered and colonized much of the Middle East and some of southern Europe during the Middle Ages . The Algerian Sycorax may represent Christian Europe 's fear of Islam and its growing political power . This interpretation inverts the traditional postcolonial interpretations of The Tempest , however . If Sycorax is viewed as an Islamic expansionist , then she herself is the colonizer , not Prospero ( who becomes merely a re @-@ colonizer of the island ) . However , Sycorax 's portrayal as an absent , silent woman still allows the play to solidify the idea of European over Islamic power .
Interpretations of Sycorax as silenced focus not only on her race but her gender as well . Most of what is said about her in the play is said by Prospero . However , as scholars point out , Prospero has never met Sycorax — all he learned about her he learned from Ariel — and his suspicion of women makes him an unreliable source of information . Skeptical of female virtue in general , he refuses to accept Caliban 's prior claim to the island , accusing him of being a bastard " got by the devil himself / Upon thy wicked dam . "
= = = Sycorax and Prospero = = =
In The Tempest , Shakespeare presents two powerful sorcerers , Sycorax and Prospero , who have both controlled the island . Initially it appears that the two characters are a contrasting pair : the benevolent Prospero and the rapacious Sycorax . However , upon closer analysis , the differences between the two characters disappear and the similarities grow . For example , Prospero , like Sycorax , coerces Ariel into doing his bidding , using the sprite to regain his inheritance as a Duke , and tortures Caliban with magic the way Sycorax tortured Ariel . Also , both Prospero and Sycorax were exiled from their respective homelands and both have children , which was possibly the reason why they were both spared being executed . The fine line between Sycorax 's black magic and Prospero 's white blurs even further during his renunciation of magic in Act V , a speech which has strong parallels to one given by the dark witch Medea in the Metamorphoses . In comparing himself to Medea , Prospero is implicitly comparing himself to Sycorax . Emphasizing the relationship between Prospero and Sycorax demonstrates the ambiguity of Prospero 's supposedly benevolent character .
= = = Sycorax as mother = = =
Sycorax has been described as the matriarchal figure of The Tempest . Modernist authors such as Sylvia Plath and Ted Hughes have alluded to Sycorax in their writing in order to illustrate destructive feminine power . As Hughes writes , " ... the difficult task of any poet in English [ is ] to locate the force which Shakespeare called Venus in his first poems and Sycorax in his last . " By emphasizing the female power found in characters such as Sycorax , Plath and Hughes hoped to counteract what they saw as the patriarchal nature of canonical Western literature . Feminist critics , however , have maintained that matriarchal readings of Sycorax are shallow , as they often find importance only in Sycorax 's motherhood rather than her thoughts , feelings , and past life .
= = = Ethnicity = = =
Some critics have seen both Caliban and Sycorax as instances of indeterminate racial or ethnic identity . Leah Marcus argues that the phrase " ... blue @-@ eyed hag " , suggests racial uncertainty because " as a blue @-@ eyed Algerian Sycorax would have failed to fit our racial stereotypes in a number of interesting ways . We tend not to think of Africans as blue eyed , even though North Africans of ' Argier ' and elsewhere sometimes are . " Most critics have interpreted the phrase " blue eyed " to be a reference to blueish rings around the eyes , indicating tiredness or pregnancy , on the grounds that this was the most common meaning of the term at the time . However both Marcus and Diane Purkiss suggest that a reference to race might be implied , suggesting that Sycorax 's ethnicity cannot be clearly defined , as although she was born in Algiers , her parentage is not known .
= = = Avoiding execution = = =
Scholars have wondered what it was that Sycorax did to avoid execution , as described in Act one , Scene two by Prospero : " for one thing she did / They [ the Algerians ] would not take her life . " Charles Lamb , a Romantic writer fascinated by Shakespeare and his works , and particularly intrigued by this question , found in John Ogilby 's " Accurate Description of Africa " ( 1670 ) two versions of a story about Emperor Charles V 's invasion of Algiers in 1541 , relating that a witch ( not named in the source text ) had advised the commander of the city not to surrender , predicting the destruction of the besieging fleet , which was accomplished nine days later by a " dreadful tempest " . The principal version given claims that she was " richly remunerated " but the alternative version , " to palliate the shame and the reproaches that are thrown upon them for making use of a witch , " attributes the storm to the prayers of a holy man named Cidy Utica .
Later scholars , however , have argued that Sycorax was saved from execution because she was pregnant . This was not uncommon , as many female criminals in Shakespeare 's day got pregnant in order to avoid execution .
= = Sycorax in later versions of the play = =
Sycorax has been conceptualized in a variety ways by adapters and directors of The Tempest . In John Dryden and William Davenant 's version of The Tempest ( 1670 ) , Sycorax is survived by two children , Caliban and a daughter also named Sycorax . This second Sycorax makes sexual advances toward Trinculo , the drunken sailor , and ( according to Trinculo ) also has incestuous relations with her brother Caliban . Die Geisterinsel , a 1778 version of the play in German , includes a living Sycorax , a witch who has full power during the night , while Prospero rules the day . In this play , she is the one who causes the tempest and shipwreck , not Prospero ; Prospero is extremely wary of her actions as each night approaches , as she has power over those who sleep . Several times he struggles to keep Miranda awake to protect her from Sycorax 's power . In Eugène Scribe 's French 1846 version , Sycorax is alive but imprisoned behind some rocks out of sight . She spends most of the play trying to convince her son , Caliban , to free her . Peter Brook 's 1968 British version of the play portrayed Sycorax as an ugly witch , including her in a birth scene in which the equally ugly Caliban is born .
Film versions of The Tempest have portrayed Sycorax in flashbacks of the island 's history . In Derek Jarman 's 1979 version , Sycorax is shown leading Ariel around by a chain and breast feeding an adult Caliban . Peter Greenaway 's Prospero 's Books ( 1991 ) depicts Sycorax as a bald , naked woman covered in peacock feathers ; Steven Dillon suggests that Greenaway 's vision of Sycorax was inspired by Jarman 's .
= = Sycorax in later literature = =
In Ernest Renan 's play Caliban the anti @-@ hero states that Sycorax went to " all the devils " but left him as rightful ruler of the island . Marina Warner reimagined the witch in her 1992 book Indigo , in which Sycorax is a healer and dyer of indigo who uses her magic to help slaves . Her attempts to give up sorcery fail , because " she cannot abjure , give up , control the force by which she is possessed " .
J.B. Aspinall 's novel Sycorax ( 2006 ) places the origin of the story with a 14th @-@ century peasant woman from Yorkshire . The Indian poet Suniti Namjoshi in Sycorax : New Fables and Poems imagines Sycorax returning to the island after Prospero and the others have left ( including Caliban ) . Namjoshi has stated , " The Sycorax in my poem is still alive . . . She is still defiant , still fierce , but she is old and knows that death is no longer so far away that it need not be thought of ... I wanted to follow Sycorax , keep her company , as it were , up to the final moment " .
Sycorax is also revived in the " Baroque pastiche " opera The Enchanted Island , devised by Jeremy Sams , in the first production of which she was played by Joyce DiDonato .
= = Sycorax in music = =
The Decemberists ' 2006 album The Crane Wife features the song " The Island / Come and See " which references " Sycorax and Patagon / watching in parralax " .
= Okęcie Airport incident =
The Okęcie Airport incident ( Polish : Afera na Okęciu ) was a dispute between players and technical staff of the Poland national football team on 29 November 1980 , starting at the team hotel in Warsaw and climaxing at Okęcie Airport . An incident of footballing insubordination at a time when strike action and other forms of civil resistance were intensifying in communist Poland , it caused a domestic press storm , which led first to the suspension of several prominent players , then the resignation of the team manager , Ryszard Kulesza .
Józef Młynarczyk , the team 's goalkeeper , was hungover when the time came to leave the hotel for the airport , having not been to sleep following a night on the town with a friend . Kulesza and one of his assistants , Bernard Blaut , decided to leave Młynarczyk behind , much to the indignation of some players , including Stanisław Terlecki , Zbigniew Boniek , Włodzimierz Smolarek and Władysław Żmuda . Terlecki , a stridently pro @-@ Western intellectual with a reputation for mocking the communist establishment , was particularly angered , and himself drove Młynarczyk to the airport , where the players continued their protests . Kulesza eventually relented and allowed Młynarczyk to travel with the team .
The Polish media took hold of the story and vociferously attacked the rebellious players over the following days . Meanwhile , Terlecki again defied the communist authorities by arranging for the players to meet Pope John Paul II . The Polish Football Association sent Terlecki , Młynarczyk , Boniek and Żmuda home and imposed various bans preventing them from playing at the international and club level over the next year . Terlecki and Boniek in particular were condemned by the association as insubordinate " rabble @-@ rousers " . Smolarek received a more modest , suspended ban . Kulesza resigned in protest at the sanctions imposed on the players , saying they were too harsh . Most of the banned players were reinstated during 1981 , but Terlecki was not — he emigrated to the United States in June that year and although he returned home five years later , he never played for Poland again .
= = Background = =
In June 1976 , a series of protests took place across communist Poland soon after the government announced plans to increase sharply the fixed prices charged nationwide for many basic commodities . Violent incidents occurred in Płock , Radom and Ursus as the protests were forcibly put down , and the planned price hikes were cancelled . These demonstrations and the events surrounding them brought the Polish workforce and intellectual political opposition together , and by 1980 , a campaign of civil resistance for political change was intensifying strongly . Industrial strike action in Lublin in July 1980 — the so @-@ called Lublin July — preceded the formation of Solidarity ( Solidarność ) in the port city of Gdańsk during the following months . This was the first non @-@ communist trade union in an Eastern bloc country . The government took several steps to obstruct Solidarity 's emergence , enforcing press censorship and cutting off telephone connections between the coast and the hinterland , but despite these efforts four out of every five Polish workers were members of the union by late 1980 .
Poland 's national football team , managed by Ryszard Kulesza , was then regarded as one of the world 's best , having finished third at the 1974 World Cup . In November 1980 it was ranked sixth in the world by the Elo rating system . Late that month , the team was preparing for a 1982 World Cup qualifying match away against Malta on 7 December . The squad 's departure was scheduled for 29 November , 10 days before the game , so the players could attend a training camp in Italy , then contest a warm @-@ up match against a team representing the Italian league .
One of Poland 's key players at the time was Stanisław Terlecki , a forward whose club was ŁKS Łódź . The son of university lecturers , Terlecki held a degree in history from the University of Łódź , as well as fervent anti @-@ communist political views and a strident attitude regarding their display . He was known for openly mocking the establishment with subversive abandon , and regularly made jokes in public about communist authority figures and organisations , prompting the ire of the Polish Football Association ( PZPN ) and the Warsaw police force . The first Polish international player with a university degree in anything other than physical education , he eschewed the Polish sports magazines read by many of his team @-@ mates on road trips in favour of Western news journals such as Newsweek and Time . Like many Polish intellectuals , he sympathised with movements such as Solidarity ; following their example , he twice attempted to unionise Polish footballers during the late 1970s . The PZPN blocked both attempts , banning Terlecki from all organised football each time ; first for six months , then for a year .
= = Incident = =
= = = Main incident = = =
Late on 28 November 1980 , the night before the team 's departure for Italy , goalkeeper Józef Młynarczyk and forward Włodzimierz Smolarek , both of Widzew Łódź , left the team hotel in Warsaw , the Hotel Vera , without permission . According to Smolarek they did this to get some dinner because they did not like the food at the hotel . They met a friend of Młynarczyk 's , sports journalist Wojciech Zieliński , at the Adria nightclub . According to Andrzej Iwan , another member of the team , the main topic of conversation was Zieliński 's estranged wife , who had been caught prostituting herself around Warsaw , and had since moved to Italy . Several Poland players knew her , and Młynarczyk had just been to Italy to play for Widzew Łódź against Juventus . According to Iwan , the journalist encouraged Młynarczyk to drink as they talked , hoping the goalkeeper might have news of her . Smolarek left the club around 02 : 00 , but Młynarczyk and Zieliński stayed until about three hours later .
A senior national team official , Colonel Roman Lisiewicz of the Polish Army , said he saw the goalkeeper and the journalist reach the hotel in a taxi soon after 05 : 00 — but rather than going to his room , Młynarczyk then left again with Zieliński before returning again around 07 : 00 . Tired and hungover , Młynarczyk joined the rest of the players for breakfast , and according to Terlecki spent most of the meal getting worked up about possible managerial retribution . Młynarczyk was in such bad shape that he was unable to carry his own bags ; Smolarek took them for him . Next to the team bus , one of Kulesza 's assistants , Bernard Blaut , confronted Smolarek and told him that Młynarczyk was to stay behind .
Smolarek , Terlecki and two other Polish players — Zbigniew Boniek and Władysław Żmuda , both of Widzew Łódź — angrily objected and nearly came to blows with Blaut . Grzegorz Lato , one of the team 's forwards , did not join the protest but later said that he had not thought Młynarczyk drunk enough to warrant exclusion . The team eventually left without Terlecki or Młynarczyk . Terlecki , whose own car was to hand , drove himself and Młynarczyk to the airport , where the confrontation continued .
Terlecki tried to stop the many pressmen at the airport from photographing Młynarczyk by running around , yelling , and snatching cameras and microphones from their hands . Meanwhile , the other players attempted to talk Kulesza around , telling him that Młynarczyk had serious personal problems . Kulesza eventually relented and allowed the goalkeeper to travel with the team .
= = = Press storm ; players meet the Pope = = =
Among the journalists at the airport were Jacek Gucwa of Polish Television , Bogdan Chruścicki of Polish Radio , and Remigiusz Hetman of the weekly football journal Piłka Nożna . News about the incident quickly spread across the country , partly because of Terlecki 's outlandish actions in the reporters ' presence — Iwan later reflected that Terlecki had " made so much commotion it was impossible to sweep everything under the carpet " . Boniek corroborates this version of events : " Terlecki was massively to blame . He brought Młynarczyk to the airport in his own car , then pulled the plug powering a TV camera out of the wall . " Grzegorz Majchrzak , a historian of the Polish Institute of National Remembrance , questions Boniek 's words , positing that he might have distorted events in an attempt to distance himself from Terlecki .
The government attempted to use the scandal as a popular distraction , aiming to deflect attention from the strikes and other industrial action . A number of journalists attacked the players who had supported Młynarczyk ; the Przegląd Sportowy sports magazine ran the headline " No Mercy for Those Guilty of the Scandal at the Airport " while Tempo , another journal , was similarly severe , proclaiming " This Cannot Be Tolerated " . Piłka Nożna condemned the " magnificent men ... who think they can do what they want " , but at the same time questioned the conduct of the team 's non @-@ playing staff .
In the Italian capital , Terlecki continued to defy the establishment . The players were under strict instructions not to associate with the Vatican while in Rome , but Terlecki arranged for them to meet Pope John Paul II , who was himself Polish . Seeing this as a second act of defiance , the PZPN promptly sent Terlecki , Młynarczyk , Boniek and Żmuda home , escorted by General Marian Ryba of the Polish Army , who was also the football association president . Lech Poznań 's Piotr Mowlik replaced Młynarczyk for the match against Malta , which Poland won 2 – 0 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Hearings and suspensions = = =
Ryba announced on 1 December 1980 that he intended to bar the dissenting players from the Poland squad . When the rest of the team returned to Poland , Terlecki once again attempted to form a footballers ' union . Securing the support of 16 other Poland international players , he wrote a letter to the PZPN declaring their intention to do so , leading the authorities to order them to face a tribunal . Only Terlecki , Boniek , Żmuda and Młynarczyk continued to endorse the letter when challenged in court .
On 15 December , PZPN officials attempted to reconstruct the night 's events , asking various players and staff to give accounts of what had happened . Several journalists were present . The stories told contradicted each other in several places , notably regarding how much Młynarczyk had had to drink . The team 's technical staff said that he had been obviously intoxicated when they had seen him , while the goalkeeper insisted he had taken only " three glasses of champagne and a sip of beer " with his friend . Another point of contention regarded the conversation at the airport , which had caused Kulesza to yield . It was generally agreed that the players had talked the manager around by telling him that Młynarczyk had personal problems , but the non @-@ playing staff now accused them of emotional blackmail . The players said their intention had been to explain the goalkeeper 's off @-@ field issues to help the manager make a more informed decision .
Terlecki 's answers at this meeting under the questioning of General Ryba , a former military prosecutor , were typically provocative ; when the general asked what time Terlecki had left the hotel on 29 November , the ŁKS forward said 08 : 00 . " Are you sure it was 08 : 00 ? " Ryba pressed — " Are you sure it wasn 't 08 : 02 ? " The player replied that he wasn 't : " No . Maybe it was even 08 : 03 . I don 't know this time exactly , because I have one of your Russian watches . "
A week later , the PZPN announced its final verdict . The only versions of events accepted for consideration were those recounted by Kulesza and Blaut ; those of all the players and of the team physiotherapist and sport psychologist were dismissed . Żmuda and Młynarczyk were barred from playing for either Poland or their clubs for eight months , and Terlecki and Boniek for twelve . Smolarek received a two @-@ month ban , which was suspended for six months . Citing their previous records of insubordination and misconduct , the PZPN called Terlecki and Boniek " rabble @-@ rousers " .
= = = Reactions = = =
Kulesza left his job soon afterwards ; according to Majchrzak , he resigned in protest at the players ' punishments , which he thought were too harsh . Officials at Widzew Łódź accused the PZPN of bias , saying the association had not supervised the players properly and should shoulder some of the blame . Directors at Widzew and ŁKS Łódź briefly considered resigning their PZPN memberships and organising their own league championship , but did not . The national team players ' council , at that time comprising Marek Dziuba , Paweł Janas and Wojciech Rudy , wrote an open letter expressing surprise at what they saw as excessive sanctions against Terlecki , Boniek , Żmuda and Młynarczyk . They admitted the goalkeeper 's conduct had been far from exemplary , but contended that the incident was only minor , and had been exacerbated by disproportionately prominent and negative press coverage .
Despite being without some of their top players , Widzew Łódź were crowned champions of Poland at the end of the 1980 – 81 season . Ryba left his post in April 1981 , along with a number of his contemporaries , described by Stefan Szczepłek , a sports journalist and football historian , as " honest officials , together with some football @-@ friendly Polish Army officers " . In their place came a number of communist officials , most prominently Włodzimierz Reczek , an erstwhile Politburo member , who took over as head of the football association despite a reputation for not liking the sport .
Młynarczyk , Boniek and Żmuda had their bans cancelled early . Żmuda and Młynarczyk returned in the 1 – 0 home win over East Germany on 2 May 1981 , and Boniek was reinstated four months later . The players ' recall was partly due to the efforts of Kulesza 's replacement , Antoni Piechniczek , to secure their return . According to Majchrzak , Boniek and Żmuda apologised for their actions before the General Committee for Physical Culture and Sport of the Polish People 's Republic , the PZPN 's governing body , but kept this from Terlecki , who appealed to have his ban lifted several times , but to no avail .
= = Legacy = =
Terlecki openly participated in students ' strikes at his old university in Łódź and across Poland over the next few months , providing food to the students by the car @-@ load . ŁKS cancelled his registration in early 1981 . Majchrzak stresses that Terlecki was the only player involved in the incident not to regain his place in the Poland team , and claims that this was down to an intense grudge held against him by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Secret Police ( SB ) . Terlecki developed his own theory that the media circus following the airport incident had been deliberately engineered by the SB to head the players off forming their own trade union . There were several other incidents of drunkenness involving Młynarczyk , Majchrzak writes , but this was the only occasion when any player was punished for it . In October 1981 , when the team travelled to Argentina , Młynarczyk arrived at Okęcie " completely drunk " , according to Iwan , but far from reprimanding him , team staff gave him even more alcohol during the flight to help ease the pain of his broken finger .
Poland qualified for the 1982 World Cup with a perfect record , and performed strongly in the competition , losing to Italy in the semi @-@ finals but beating France in a play @-@ off to claim third place . Kulesza became the manager of Tunisia , and later founded a coaching school in Warsaw .
Saying he was " being treated like a leper " , Terlecki emigrated to the United States in June 1981 , and joined the Pittsburgh Spirit of the Major Indoor Soccer League . He pursued a new life in America with great vigour . Terlecki 's on @-@ field displays in the U.S. were widely praised — in three seasons with Pittsburgh he became the club 's all @-@ time top goalscorer — but managers reportedly had trouble " harness [ ing ] Terlecki 's fiery temper " , and his wife Ewa became intensely homesick . Terlecki announced his intention to move back to Poland in 1985 , saying that he believed the political situation had improved and that he wished to reunite his family . He returned home the following year , and resumed his career in Polish club football . He expressed a desire to play for the national team again , but was never selected .
= New York State Route 333 =
New York State Route 333 ( NY 333 ) was an east – west state highway located in southeastern Steuben County , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of the route was at an intersection with County Route 11 ( CR 11 ) and CR 24 in Risingville , a hamlet within the town of Thurston . Its eastern terminus was at a junction with NY 415 in the town of Campbell . In between , NY 333 passed through the hamlet of Thurston . The route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and remained unchanged until April 1 , 1997 , when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Steuben County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . NY 333 was subsequently redesignated as County Route 333 .
= = Route description = =
NY 333 began at an intersection with CR 11 and CR 24 in Risingville , an isolated hamlet within the Steuben County town of Thurston . It headed eastward , following Michigan Creek along the base of a valley surrounding the waterway . Due to the terrain of the area , NY 333 intersected only a handful of roads , one of which was Cranberry Lake Road ( CR 2 ) , a north – south highway that met NY 333 midway between the hamlets of Risingville and Thurston . The route continued onward , turning northeastward toward Thurston Pond and the small hamlet of Thurston at the eastern edge of the small lake . Here , NY 333 curved back to the east as it met Savona – Thurston Road ( CR 12 ) in the western half of the community .
East of Thurston hamlet , NY 333 continued to run along the base of the Michigan Creek valley into the town of Campbell , where the valley met a larger valley surrounding the Cohocton River . The route proceeded eastward across the width of the latter valley , crossing over the river on its way into the riverside hamlet of Campbell , the largest community along NY 333 . It proceeded eastward through the hamlet along Main Street to an interchange with the Southern Tier Expressway ( then @-@ NY 15 and NY 17 ) just east of the community . NY 333 ended just east of the Southern Tier at a junction with NY 415 . The right @-@ of @-@ way also terminated at the junction .
= = History = =
NY 333 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York as a spur connecting U.S. Route 15 ( US 15 , now NY 415 ) in Campbell to the hamlet of Risingville in the town of Thurston . It remained unchanged until April 1 , 1997 , when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Steuben County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . In the switch , NY 333 and nearby NY 432 , both maintained by the state , were given to Steuben County in exchange for maintenance of NY 415 from Meads Creek Road in Coopers Plains ( northwest of Painted Post ) to Babcock Hollow Road in Bath as well as for maintenance of Hamilton Street ( the original routing of NY 17 ) between US 15 and Gang Mills . NY 333 was redesignated as CR 333 as a result .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Steuben County .
= Bacliff , Texas =
Bacliff is a census @-@ designated place ( CDP ) in north @-@ central Galveston County , Texas , United States , 16 miles ( 26 km ) northwest of Galveston . The population was 8 @,@ 619 at the 2010 census . Bacliff , originally called Clifton @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea , began as a seaside resort town . Located on the western shore of Galveston Bay , Bacliff , along with San Leon and Bayview , are the largest unincorporated communities on the Galveston County mainland .
The Bacliff CDP is home to the Kenneth E. Little Elementary school and Bayshore Park , created from land donated by Texas Genco .
= = History = =
Bacliff was established in 1910 by local landowners G.C. Perkins and W.Y. Fuqua as Clifton @-@ by @-@ the Sea . The area was developed as a seaside weekend resort , and included parks , hotels , summer homes , and a bathhouse and open air pavilion built on a pier over the water . Telephone service came to Clifton @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea in 1913 , and Grand Avenue ( FM 646 ) became the main street . Hurricanes , Galveston 's recovery after the Hurricane of 1900 , and rapid transportation diminished Clifton @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea 's popularity .
The hurricane of 1915 destroyed many of the improvements to the area , but by 1924 the bathhouse and pavilion had been restored and summer residents returned to the community . A fire destroyed the pavilion in 1929 and it was rebuilt and hosted numerous summer concerts by both the Galveston and Houston orchestras . The hurricane of 1943 caused major damage to the area and the bathhouse and pavilion were not rebuilt .
In 1933 , Clifton @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea was home to 50 residents and 2 businesses , and from 1940 @-@ 1949 it was home to 100 residents and 4 businesses . After World War II the area expanded as it became home for workers of the nearby petrochemical plants . The expansion of the area required the establishment of a post office in 1948 . The U.S. Postal Service refused to allow the name Clifton @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea to be used due to its length , and the name Clifton was already in use by another Texas town , so the residents chose the same name as the subdivision at the center of business , Bay Cliff , as a replacement . However , the name was misspelled on the postal paperwork as Bacliff . The new name had only seven letters so it was admissible .
" Gator " Miller , publisher of small newspapers such as the monthly magazine Seabreeze and the entertainment magazine Night Moves , said that in the 1950s the Galveston Daily News bought a large parcel of land and awarded free lots to subscribers ; people who canceled subscriptions lost their homesites , which were given to other subscribers . Miller said that this resulted in confused titles and a lack of large business ; Miller said that a retailer would not wish to buy land in Bacliff and then discover that an individual claimed title to the land .
In 1964 , Houston Lighting and Power began construction on two 450 MW electric generating units in Bacliff as part of the company 's Project Enterprise expansion . The units were of supercritical boiler design , which was then a new technology . The power plant , originally known as the Bacliff Plant , was renamed the P. H. Robinson plant , in honor of company president Perk H. Robinson . The plant eventually grew to four units with a total electrical generating capacity of 2 @,@ 211 MWh .
In the 1970s and 1980s there was a dispute over the valuation of the power plant between HL & P and the Dickinson Independent School District ( DISD ) . In 1979 HL & P said the plant was worth $ 238 million but DISD 's board of equalization said it was worth over $ 242 million . A legal dispute ensued between the two agencies .
During the 1980s , three ( 3 ) measures to incorporate the Bacliff area failed by wide margins . In April 1985 , residents of Bacliff , Bayview , and San Leon considered an incorporation proposal to become the City of Bayshore . Judge Ray Holbrook signed an order for the election to take place on April 6 , 1985 , freeing the area , which had a population of 11 @,@ 000 , from the extraterritorial jurisdiction of League City and Texas City . Residents rejected the incorporation proposal . The vote was tallied with 1 @,@ 268 against and 399 in favor . Proponents wanted a local police force and the ability to pass ordinances . Opponents said that the tax base was too small to support municipal services including police and road and drainage improvements .
By 1986 , the community became a bedroom community for workers commuting to jobs in the area ; during that year the Bacliff community had 4 @,@ 851 residents and 19 businesses .
In 1986 , residents in Bacliff and Bayview considered incorporating into a general law city . Supporters said that incorporation would establish more local control over affairs , an area police department , and the ability to pass ordinances . Opponents said that the area 's tax base could not sufficiently support municipal service , including police protection and road and drainage improvements . At the time the area of 3 @.@ 6 square miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) considering incorporation had 7 @,@ 000 people . Galveston County Judge Ray Holbrook signed an order setting the date of the election as Saturday , August 9 , 1986 and releasing the area from the extraterritorial jurisdiction of Kemah , League City , and Texas City . In 1986 , the Bacliff and Bayview area received water and sewer services from two municipal utility districts ; if the incorporation measure had passed the districts would have likely remained . Donna Maples , vice president of the Bacliff @-@ Bayview Community Association , supported the incorporation measure . The officials overseeing the election described turnout as " heavy . " Officials announced that the incorporation proposal failed on a 770 to 163 count . In 2000 Bacliff and San Leon formed a nine member board to prepare the communities for incorporation . At that time Bacliff and San Leon had a combined population of 10 @,@ 000 . The board was to have three members from the Bacliff area , three members from the San Leon area , and three at large members . It was prompted after the City of Texas City suddenly annexed several commercial parcels along Texas State Highway 146 between Kemah and Dickinson Bayou in the year 2000 . The board hoped to convince Texas City to reverse the annexation .
In 2003 , the P. H. Robinson power plant was mothballed by Texas Genco . The plant was mothballed due to the proliferation of newer gas @-@ fired merchant plants in Texas . Robinson Units 1 @-@ 4 had 2 @,@ 213 MW . The plant was decommissioned in 2009 and demolished in 2012 . In 2013 , NRG began construction on a 6 unit electrical generation " peaking plant " . This plant was scheduled to be in service by June 1 , 2014
After Hurricane Ike hit Texas in September 2008 , Galveston County officials offered a debris removal program to residents in unincorporated areas , including Bacliff . Flooding from hurricane Ike was minimized due in part to Bacliff 's relatively high elevation of 16 feet .
= = Geography and climate = =
Bacliff is a Census class code U5 , populated area located at 29 ° 30 ' 24 " N , 94 ° 59 ' 31 " W.
According to the United States Census Bureau , the CDP has a total area of 2 @.@ 7 square miles ( 7 @.@ 0 km2 ) , of which 2 @.@ 5 square miles ( 6 @.@ 6 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 15 square miles ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ) , or 5 @.@ 85 % , is water . Bacliff is east of League City , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of Kemah , 16 miles ( 26 km ) northeast of Galveston , and 36 miles ( 58 km ) southeast of Downtown Houston . Most of the area is along the Galveston Bay , east of Texas State Highway 146 .
The Bacliff , San Leon , and Bayview communities form the " Bayshore " area .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 8 @,@ 619 people , 3 @,@ 022 households , and 2 @,@ 095 families residing in the CDP . This represented a growth of approximately 23 @.@ 8 % since the 2000 census . The population density was 3 @,@ 405 @.@ 4 people per square mile . The racial makeup of the CDP was 74 @.@ 3 % White , 3 @.@ 5 % African American , 0 @.@ 7 % Native American , 2 @.@ 8 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 15 @.@ 9 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 7 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 37 @.@ 1 % of the population .
There were 3 @,@ 022 households , out of which 34 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 47 @.@ 9 % were married couples living together , 14 @.@ 2 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 30 @.@ 7 % were non @-@ families . 24 @.@ 1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 6 @.@ 9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 87 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 41 .
In the CDP the population was spread out with 18 @.@ 7 % under the age of 18 years , 7 @.@ 5 % from 18 to 24 years , 31 @.@ 3 % from 25 to 44 years , 22 @.@ 5 % from 45 to 64 , and 8 @.@ 8 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 32 @.@ 6 years . For every 100 females there were 100 @.@ 3 males .
As of 2012 most residents of Bacliff are commuters . As of 2012 Bacliff , Bayview , and San Leon together make up the largest unincorporated community in the mainland portion of Galveston County by population .
In 2008 Phale Cassady Le , an outreach coordinator of Boat People SOS Houston , said that in Bacliff and San Leon there were between 150 and 200 Vietnamese families with origins in crab , oyster , and shrimp fishing operations . According to Le , most of the Vietnamese have no house or boat insurance , and even if they did have this insurance , their English is not well developed enough to read the terms of the policies . Many families had hand @-@ made boats that were constructed over several years as the owner made more and more money . Nick Cenegy of The Galveston County Daily News said that the Vietnamese community in Bacliff and San Leon had a " tradition of self @-@ reliance and wariness of outsiders . "
The Vietnamese first moved into the Galveston Bay Area in the 1970s and established shrimping businesses with borrowed money . By the early 1980s , many native residents in the area became angered and a conflict started between the groups . Because media groups portrayed White residents as , in the words of Bob Burtman of the Houston Press , " bigoted rednecks , " many residents had a suspicion of the media ; Burtman said that the media had exaggerated the importance of Ku Klux Klan involvement in that conflict . Due to the conflict , local residents had also gained anti @-@ government feelings that were present in 1997 . That year , Burtman said " For the most part , the Vietnamese and Texan shrimpers have ironed out their differences , though mistrust remains . "
= = Crime = =
As of 2008 ( Originally started in 1995 ) Bacliff had the 4th Street Bloods ( 4SB ) , a street gang consisting of mostly White Americans . The name of the gang originates from its headquarters in Bacliff . Documents filed in federal court stated that the gang was formed by six people in the mid @-@ 1990s . Cindy George of the Houston Chronicle said " The gang purportedly makes money by selling powdered and crack cocaine as well as methamphetamine . " To identify themselves , members wore red and had tattoos that read " 4th Street Playa " and " Kliff Side " .
In 2008 the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) Texas City Safe Street Task Force , the Galveston County Sheriff 's Office , and other agencies started an investigation into the gang . That year , 10 people were arrested , accused of drug charges . In 2011 the Federal Government of the United States arrested four men from Bacliff , accusing to be a part of the gang and charging them crimes related to crack cocaine distribution . In 2011 12 people accused of being members faced drug charges . In 2012 a federal judge in Houston sentenced four 4SB men to prison . They had pleaded guilty to their crimes .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Utilities = = =
Two municipal utility districts serve the Bacliff CDP . Some sections of the Bacliff CDP are served by the Bacliff Municipal Utility District ( MUD ) , while other sections are served by the Bayview MUD . In November 2011 the Bacliff MUD requested and received an 8 @.@ 95 million dollar bond issue for the expansion of water services which are currently provided to about 2 @,@ 700 water taps . This bond issue will be funded by Bacliff residents through increased property taxes . In addition to water / sewer service , the Bacliff MUD became responsible for administering trash collection as of February 2016 . The Bacliff Volunteer Fire Department provides fire protection services . In 2010 , under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act , the fire department got a $ 356 @,@ 320 loan and a $ 191 @,@ 854 grant from the United States Department of Agriculture Rural Development . The department used it to buy a newly built pumper fire truck .
As of January 2014 Bacliff resident James Wistinghausen was the General Manager of the Bacliff MUD and the Fire Chief for the Bacliff Volunteer Fire Department .
= = = County , state , and federal representation = = =
The community is within the boundaries of Galveston County Commissioners ' Court Precinct 1 . As of 2014 , Ryan Dennard is the Commissioner of the precinct . The Galveston County Sheriff 's Office is the primary provider of law enforcement for Bacliff . In November 2012 , Rick Sharp was elected constable of Precinct 1 , replacing Pam Matranga . The Galveston County Precinct 1 Justice of the Peace court is located in Bacliff , as of April , 2015 the Justice of the Peace was Alison Cox On January 26 , 2016 a new Law Enforcement Center , located on Grand Avenue at 12th St , was opened . This building was a former illegal gambling hall and was confiscated by Galveston County , it now serves as a local base of operations for the Galveston County Sheriff 's Department and Galveston County Precinct 1 Constable 's office .
Bacliff is located in District 23 of the Texas House of Representatives . As of 2016 , Wayne Faircloth represents the district . Bacliff is within District 11 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2016 Larry Taylor represents that district .
Bacliff is in Texas 's 14th Congressional district . As of 2016 , Randy Weber represents the district . The United States Postal Service Bacliff Post Office is located at 415 Grand Avenue .
In 1994 Republican Party strength grew in Bacliff .
= = = Media = = =
Bacliff has one local newspaper which has been published weekly in Bacliff and distributed free of charge since 1986 , The Eagle Point Press Also circulated in Bacliff on a monthly basis is The Seabreeze News , which is published in San Leon
= = Economy = =
Bacliff , like San Leon , and Bayview , originated as a fishing community . In 2012 T.J. Aulds of the Galveston County Daily News stated that much of the area 's economic influence moved to the corridor along Texas State Highway 146 , and that the economy adjusted with the growth of retail food service outlets and bars . Like San Leon and Bayview , many residents in Bacliff commute to work in Houston .
Bacliff CDP had 3 @,@ 147 employed civilians as of the 2000 Census , including 1 @,@ 360 females . Of the civilian workers , 2 @,@ 435 ( 77 @.@ 4 % ) were private for profit wage and salary workers . Of them 56 ( 1 @.@ 8 % of the total Bacliff CDP civilian workforce ) were employees of their own corporations , 82 ( 2 @.@ 6 % ) were private non @-@ profit wage and salary workers , 151 ( 4 @.@ 8 % ) worked for local governments , 144 ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) were state government workers , 53 ( 1 @.@ 7 % ) were federal workers , 268 ( 9 @.@ 3 % ) were self @-@ employed , and 14 of them ( less than 1 % of the total Bacliff CDP workforce ) worked in agriculture , forestry , fishing , or hunting . 14 ( Less than 1 % ) were unpaid family workers .
= = Education = =
Some of the areas within the Bacliff CDP fall under the boundary of Dickinson Independent School District ( DISD ) , while northern areas are zoned to Clear Creek Independent School District ( CCISD ) . The CCISD part of the community north of Bay Avenue is within the Board of Trustee District 5 , represented by Dee Scott as of 2014 .
The DISD portion is zoned to Kenneth E. Little Elementary School in the Bacliff community in unincorporated Galveston County .
The current 92 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 8 @,@ 500 m2 ) facility , on a 20 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) campus , has 33 classrooms and capacity for about 750 students . The architect of the building was Bay Architects and the construction company was Falcon Group Construction . Construction began in the year 2000 and completion was scheduled for June 2001 . The cost was $ 7 @.@ 5 million . Classrooms are arranged in pods organized by grade level . Each pod has a commons area . The school has a lighthouse motif reflecting its proximity to the Galveston Bay . The school entrance has a frosted dome , pyramidal skylight . The previous school building was located on the same site . Portions of the original building were to be demolished after students moved into the new school facility .
Residents of the DISD portion are also zoned to Barber Middle School in Dickinson , McAdams Junior High School in Dickinson , and Dickinson High School in Dickinson . CCISD pupils are zoned to Stewart Elementary School ( formerly Kemah Elementary School ) in unincorporated Galveston County , League City Intermediate School in League City , and Clear Falls High School in League City . Previously residents were zoned to Clear Creek High School in League City .
Residents are zoned to the College of the Mainland , a community college in Texas City .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Along the Galveston Bay Bacliff has several boat ramps .
The Galveston County Department of Parks and Senior Services operates several recreational facilities in Bacliff . The Bacliff Community Center is at 4503 11th Street . The 28 @-@ acre ( 110 @,@ 000 m2 ) Bayshore Park at 5437 East Farm to Market Road 646 ( FM 646 ) has five baseball fields , one boat ramp , one historic site , ten picnic areas , one pier , one playground , and five practice backstops . The 25 @-@ acre ( 10 ha ) park was originally owned by Texas Genco for 35 years ; the county operated the park according to an agreement . In 2005 Texas Genco donated the park to the county . Many anglers and their families use Bayshore Park as a place of recreation . In 2014 Galveston County purchased and cleared a new 64 acre tract in Bacliff which will become a new park for the Bayshore area .
The Bacliff Boat Ramp is located behind Clifton 's Seaside Diner , while the Bayshore Park Boat Ramp is located on Farm to Market Road 646 , aka Bayshore Drive . The nearest full service marina is the Eagle Point fishing camp , located off East Bayshore Drive in San Leon . In March 2012 the Galveston County Commissioners Court voted unanimously to approve a $ 25 @,@ 000 earnest money contract associated with the purchase of approximately 64 @.@ 06 acres of vacant land in Bacliff for $ 1 @.@ 285 million for a new County park .
As of 2012 the most popular restaurant in Bacliff is Clifton ’ s Seaside Diner , which refers to Bacliff 's original name . T.J. Aulds of The Galveston County Daily News said that Bacliff , San Leon , and Bayview " are known for great spots to eat seafood . "
As of 1991 Bacliff , along with Kemah and Seabrook , houses pleasure boats from NASA employees due to its proximity to the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center .
= = Notable residents = =
Floyd Tillman
= Hurricane Darby ( 2004 ) =
Hurricane Darby was the first Eastern Pacific major hurricane since Hurricane Kenna in 2002 . The sixth tropical cyclone , fourth named storm , and second hurricane of the 2004 Pacific hurricane season , Darby developed from a tropical wave that emerged from the west coast of Africa on July 12 . After crossing into the Eastern Pacific , the storm became a tropical depression on June 26 . The system steadily intensified , and became a hurricane on 000 UTC July 28 . Darby peaked as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , though it quickly deteriorated due to cooler waters and increasing wind shear . While Darby dissipated on August 1 , the remnants of the tropical cyclone affected the Hawaiian Islands . The system produced high waves and heavy rainfall that led to extensive flash flooding . Numerous roads were closed , while minor landslides and rockslides were reported . Despite the effects , no fatalities or severe damages occurred .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged from the west coast of Africa on July 12 and entered the Atlantic Ocean . The wave progressed westward , crossing the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea before crossing into the Eastern Pacific on July 20 . The west began to exhibit signs of development on July 23 . The next day , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted an associated area of showers and thunderstorms , indicating that gradual development was possible . The system had become better organized and on July 25 , the NHC continued to remark upon the potential for the weak low pressure area — accompanied by disorganized convective activity — to develop . On July 26 , the system became better @-@ organized , and under favorable conditions it was upgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC , while located about 760 miles ( 1 @,@ 220 km ) to the south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . Under the steering currents of a subtropical ridge of high pressure , the depression continued moving westward .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression contained a somewhat well @-@ defined low @-@ level center of circulation , as well as convective banding . Based on Dvorak classifications , the storm was upgraded to a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on July 27 ; as the fourth tropical storm of the 2004 season , it was named Darby by the NHC . Darby continued to intensify , with established outflow and a well @-@ defined banding feature . Later that day , forecasters predicted the storm to peak as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Darby was upgraded to a hurricane at 0000 UTC on July 28 , at which time it began to turn towards the northwest . An eye , embedded within the deep convection , developed later in the day . Darby attained Category 2 intensity at around 1800 UTC , and it rapidly strengthened to Category 3 , becoming the first Eastern Pacific major hurricane since Hurricane Kenna of the 2002 season .
Shortly after peaking in intensity , Darby moved over coolers waters and began to deteriorate . The eye became less well @-@ defined and the associated convection started weakening . Increasingly colder waters and growing wind shear continued to affect Darby , and the cyclone weakened to a tropical storm on July 30 . The low @-@ level center of circulation became exposed from the thunderstorm activity , and the storm quickly degenerated into a swirl of clouds , although it maintained tropical storm strength . On July 31 , it weakened to a tropical depression . Darby soon crossed into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , and it dissipated as a tropical cyclone on August 1 . However , its remnants continued westward under the low @-@ level trade winds , and dropped heavy rainfall on Hawaii several days after the cyclone dissipated .
= = Impact = =
Upon reaching the Hawaiian Islands , the remnants of Darby contributed to heavy rainfall and high winds , prompting the issuance of flash flood watch . Along the eastern shores of Kauai , Oahu , Molokai , Maui , and the Island of Hawaii , the system generated 4 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) swells . The Honolulu Airport reported a daily record of 2 @.@ 92 inches ( 74 mm ) of rainfall , breaking the previous record of 0 @.@ 96 inches ( 24 mm ) set in 1948 . Elsewhere , parts of Maui reported in excess of 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of precipitation , while 4 @.@ 6 inches ( 120 mm ) fell on Oahu . The rainfall was beneficial in some areas , where dry conditions had persisted . Although crop damage from the storm system was limited , some farming operations were postponed and some coffee and not trees were damaged . Along the eastern shores of several Hawaiian Islands , the storm system triggered surf of 4 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) .
The heavy rainfall resulted in flash flooding throughout several areas . On Oahu , roads and some structures were flooded , and minor landslides were reported . On the island , telephone and electrical service were disrupted . At one location , a large boulder rolled down a hillside and struck a fire hydrant ; firefighters were called to shut it off . On Kauai , the Wailua River exceeded flood stage on August 4 . Small stream and drainage ditch flooding was reported in the Kau District of Hawaii . Excessive runoff around Kailua @-@ Kona resulted in extensive flooding that forced the closure of five schools , submerged several roads , and triggered rockslides . Due to high water , several roads , including part of the Piilani Highway on Maui , were temporarily shut down . A portion of the Kamehameha Highway was also closed after being submerged under waters of up to 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) deep . Despite the flooding , neither Darby nor its remnant moisture caused any casualties or severe property damage .
= The Testament of Dr. Mabuse =
The Testament of Dr. Mabuse ( German : Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse ) is a 1933 German crime film directed by Fritz Lang . The movie is a sequel to Lang 's silent film Dr. Mabuse the Gambler ( 1922 ) and features many cast and crew members from Lang 's previous films . The film features Rudolf Klein @-@ Rogge as Dr. Mabuse who is in an insane asylum where he is found frantically writing his crime plans . When Mabuse 's criminal plans begin to be implemented , Inspector Lohmann ( played by Otto Wernicke ) tries to find the solution with clues from gangster Thomas Kent ( Gustav Diessl ) , the institutionalized Hofmeister ( Karl Meixner ) and Professor Baum ( Oscar Beregi Sr. ) who becomes obsessed with Dr. Mabuse .
The Testament of Dr. Mabuse was based on elements of author Norbert Jacques ' novel Mabuse 's Colony . It was Lang 's second sound film for Nero @-@ Film and was his final collaboration with his wife and screenwriter Thea von Harbou . To promote the film to a foreign market , a French @-@ language version of the film was made by Lang with the same sets but different actors with the title Le Testament du Dr. Mabuse .
When Adolf Hitler rose to power , Joseph Goebbels became Minister of Propaganda and banned the film in Germany , suggesting that the film would decrease the audience 's confidence in its statesmen . The French @-@ language and German @-@ language versions of the film were released in Europe while several versions of the film were released in the United States to mixed reception with each re @-@ release . The sequel The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse ( 1960 ) was also directed by Lang . Modern reception of the film is favorable with critics , while the film has influenced filmmakers including Claude Chabrol and Artur Brauner .
= = Plot = =
In a noisy print shop , a disgraced police detective named Hofmeister ( Karl Meixner ) escapes from pursuing criminals ' attacks . Hofmeister telephones his former superior Inspector Karl Lohmann ( Otto Wernicke ) and explains frantically that he has discovered a huge criminal conspiracy . Before he can disclose the identity of responsible criminal , the lights go out , shots are fired , and Hofmeister becomes mad . Hofmeister vanishes only to be found later singing every time he feels watched , and he is institutionalized at Professor Baum 's asylum .
Professor Baum ( Oscar Beregi , Sr. ) introduces the case of Dr. Mabuse ( Rudolf Klein @-@ Rogge ) , the criminal mastermind and hypnotist who ten years earlier went mad . Mabuse spends his days frantically writing detailed plans for crimes while a criminal gang is committing them according to " the plans of the Doctor " , with whom they confer only from behind a curtain . When Baum 's colleague Dr. Kramm ( Theodor Loos ) by chance discovers that recent crimes implement Mabuse 's writings , Kramm is shot by the gang 's execution squad , Hardy and Bredow . A clue scratched in a glass window pane at Hofmeister 's crime scene causes Lohmann to suspect Mabuse . On arrival at the asylum , Baum reveals that Mabuse has died . When Lohmann disparagingly talks about " Mabuse the criminal " , Baum emphatically speaks about " Mabuse the genius " .
Baum continues to study Mabuse 's writings and seems to confer with the ghostly Dr. Mabuse . The spirit of Mabuse speaks about an " unlimited reign of crime " and merges with the Professor 's silhouette . During the same night , a hidden figure confers with sections of his organisation , preparing various crimes such as an attack on a chemical plant , robbing a bank , counterfeiting , poisoning water and destroying harvests . One of the gang members , Thomas Kent ( Gustav Diesel ) , is conflicted between his criminal work , which he needs to do for money , and his affection for a young woman named Lilli ( Wera Liessem ) . Lilli , devoted to Kent , begs him to confide in her . Kent confesses his past and his current situation to her . The two decide to inform the police but are abducted and locked in the strange meeting room with the curtain . The hidden figure announces their death when they discover that the curtained alcove contains only a loudspeaker and that there is a time @-@ bomb . After several escape attempts have failed , they flood the place to lessen the impact of the explosion and break free when the time @-@ bomb goes off .
Meanwhile the police are besieging a flat where several gangsters , including Hardy and Bredow , are staying . After a shootout , Hardy commits suicide while the other gangsters surrender . As Bredow testifies that they assassinated Dr. Kramm in the vicinity of the asylum , Lohmann arranges a confrontation between the gangsters and the Professor , which proves inconclusive . On Kent and Lilli 's arrival , Baum 's shocked reaction to Kent makes Lohmann suspicious . Lohmann and Kent visit the asylum , where they discover that Baum is the mastermind and has planned an attack on a chemical plant that night . Lohmann and Kent go to the exploding plant where they discover Baum watching from afar . Baum flees to the asylum with Lohmann and Kent pursuing . Mabuse 's spirit leads Baum to Hofmeister in his cell where he introduces himself as Dr. Mabuse , ending Hofmeister 's shock . Baum tries to kill Hofmeister but is stopped by guards , just as Lohmann and Kent arrive . The final scene shows the insane Baum in the cell , tearing Mabuse 's writings to shreds .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Norbert Jacques wrote the original Dr. Mabuse books in the style of other popular thrillers in Europe at the time , such as Nick Carter , Fantomas , and Fu Manchu . Jacques expanded the traits of these books to include critiques on Weimar Germany . During 1930 , Jacques was approached by a film producer to develop a story for a new Dr. Mabuse film with a female villain . This caused Jacques to start writing a new novel called Mabuse 's Colony . In the novel , a character named Frau Kristine obtains a copy of Mabuse 's testament which outlines plans for a future world of terrorism and crime that she uses .
At this time , Lang and his wife Thea von Harbou were developing the film M. Von Harbou and Lang were friends with Jacques since creating the first Mabuse film Dr. Mabuse the Gambler and went on vacation with each other . Lang asked Jacques for help with the screenplay for M and asked for suggestions for a new Mabuse project . Jacques sent Lang his unfinished work for Mabuse 's Colony . Lang used the idea of Mabuse 's will from the story and began working on an outline to what would become The Testament of Dr. Mabuse .
Using the outline that Lang proposed , Jacques signed a contract during July 1931 for the movie to be written by von Harbou and directed by Lang based on Lang 's own outline . The film was released in tandem with Jacques 's book . Jacques ' contributions are not mentioned in the film . The Testament of Dr. Mabuse is a direct sequel to Dr. Mabuse the Gambler and is related to the film M which features the Inspector Lohmann character .
= = = Preproduction = = =
Many members of the cast and crew had worked with Lang on his earlier films . Rudolf Klein @-@ Rogge returned to play Dr. Mabuse as he did in Dr. Mabuse the Gambler . Klein @-@ Rogge acted in Lang 's earlier films including Destiny , Die Nibelungen , Metropolis and Spies . Otto Wernicke reprises his role as Inspector Lohmann from Lang 's M. Klaus Pohl plays Lohmann 's assistant Muller . Pohl acted in Lang 's Woman in the Moon and in an uncredited role in M.
The Testament of Dr. Mabuse was Lang 's second film for the company Nero @-@ Film and producer Seymour Nebenzal . The film would be the last film collaboration between Lang and his wife Thea von Harbou , who had worked with Lang on all his directorial efforts since Destiny . Lang 's relationship with von Harbou was ending and the two would file divorce papers during 1933 . Cinematographer Fritz Arno Wagner returned to work with Lang . Their film credits together include M , Spies and Destiny .
= = = Filming = = =
Lang filmed The Testament of Dr. Mabuse at the end of 1932 and the beginning of 1933 , desiring to have the film viewed worldwide . In his film , where gun @-@ play , fires , or explosions are needed , Lang often used real weapons . In the opening scene during a power outage , a stunt actor did the gun play . Cinematographer Fritz Arno Wagner stated that he spent most of the production in a state of panic due to the way Lang would endanger his crew . The film is generally filmed in a realistic style with the exception of Mabuse 's ghostly appearances throughout the film . Lang admitted later in interviews that if he could re @-@ do the film , he would not have included these supernatural scenes .
Wagner filmed the explosion scenes at the factory on location during nighttime . These explosion scenes were the first scenes of the film to be filmed before returning to the studio to film the rest of the film . The film crew had three weeks to prepare for the factory scene by clearing trees and bringing in some artificial trees to match Lang 's idea for the scene . The explosion was triggered by Lang himself .
During the early years of sound films before dubbing and subtitling , one way to present a film to a foreign audience was to record the film with a translated screenplay with foreign @-@ language cast . As this was a time consuming and expensive procedure , most filmmakers who did this tended to only make one alternative language feature . Producer Seymour Nebenzal felt that creating this alternative version would enhance international sales for The Testament of Dr. Mabuse . The French @-@ language screenplay was adapted by René Sti . Lang was fluent in French and directed The Testament of Dr. Mabuse in both French and German . Actor Karl Meixner played Hofmeister in both versions of the film as he was bilingual . Rudolf Klein @-@ Rogge also features as Mabuse in the French version with his lines being dubbed . The French version , titled Le Testament du Dr. Mabuse , was edited by Lothar Wolff in France while the film was still in production .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
For the film , Lang commissioned a composer for the first time . Hans Erdmann created the opening theme and the music played during Professor Baum 's madness . The soundtrack in the film is deceptive . As in Lang 's M , the film 's music and sound are a
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the race . As Villeneuve approached to pass his rival , Schumacher attempted to provoke an accident , but got the short end of the stick , retiring from the race . Villeneuve went on and scored four points to take the championship . Schumacher was punished for unsportsmanlike conduct for the collision and was disqualified from the Drivers ' Championship .
In 1998 , Finnish driver Mika Häkkinen became Schumacher 's main title competition . Häkkinen won the first two races of the season , gaining a 16 @-@ point advantage over Schumacher . Schumacher then won in Argentina and , with the Ferrari improving significantly in the second half of the season , Schumacher took six victories and had five other podium finishes . Ferrari took a 1 – 2 finish at the French Grand Prix , the first Ferrari 1 – 2 finish since 1990 , and the Italian Grand Prix , which tied Schumacher with Häkkinen for the lead of the Drivers ' Championship with 80 points , but Häkkinen won the Championship by winning the final two races . There were two controversies ; at the British Grand Prix Schumacher was leading on the last lap when he turned into the pit lane , crossed the start finish line and stopped for a ten @-@ second stop go penalty . There was some doubt whether this counted as serving the penalty , but , because he had crossed the finish line when he came into the pit lane , the win was valid . At Spa , Schumacher was leading the race by 40 seconds in heavy spray , but collided with David Coulthard 's McLaren when the Scot , a lap down , slowed in very poor visibility to let Schumacher past . After both cars returned to the pits , Schumacher leaped out of his car and headed to McLaren 's garage in an infuriated manner and accused Coulthard of trying to kill him .
Rumours circulated that Coulthard may be replaced by Schumacher for the 1999 season and beyond and , in a previous edition of the F1 Racing magazine , Ron Dennis revealed that he had approached Schumacher to sign a deal with McLaren . However , peripheral financial issues that tied Schumacher with Ferrari , such as sponsorship agreements and payment , could not be rectified in a move to the rival team and so no deal came to fruition .
Schumacher 's efforts helped Ferrari win the Constructors title in 1999 . He lost his chance to win the Drivers ' Championship at the British Grand Prix at the high @-@ speed Stowe Corner , his car 's rear brake failed , sending him off the track and resulting in a broken leg . During his 98 @-@ day absence , he was replaced by Finnish driver Mika Salo . After missing six races he made his return at the inaugural Malaysian Grand Prix , qualifying in pole position by almost a second . He then assumed the role of second driver , assisting team mate Eddie Irvine 's bid to win the Drivers ' Championship for Ferrari . In the last race of the season , the Japanese Grand Prix , Häkkinen won his second consecutive title . Schumacher would later say that Häkkinen was the opponent he respected the most .
= = = = 2000 – 2004 : World Championship years = = = =
During this period Schumacher won more races and championships than any other driver in the history of the sport . Schumacher won his third World Championship in 2000 after a year @-@ long battle with Häkkinen . Schumacher won the first three races of the season and five of the first eight . Midway through the year , Schumacher 's chances suffered with three consecutive non @-@ finishes , allowing Häkkinen to close the gap in the standings . Häkkinen then took another two victories , before Schumacher won at the Italian Grand Prix . At the post race press conference , after equalling the number of wins ( 41 ) won by his idol , Ayrton Senna , Schumacher broke into tears . The championship fight would come down to the penultimate race of the season , the Japanese Grand Prix . Starting from pole position , Schumacher lost the lead to Häkkinen at the start . After his second pit @-@ stop , however , Schumacher came out ahead of Häkkinen and went on to win the race and the championship .
In 2001 , Schumacher took his fourth drivers ' title . Four other drivers won races , but none sustained a season @-@ long challenge for the championship . Schumacher scored a record @-@ tying nine wins and clinched the World Championship with four races yet to run . He finished the championship with 123 points , 58 ahead of runner @-@ up Coulthard . Season highlights included the Canadian Grand Prix , where Schumacher finished 2nd to his brother Ralf , thus scoring the first ever 1 – 2 finish by brothers in Formula One ; and the Belgian Grand Prix in which Schumacher scored his 52nd career win , breaking Alain Prost 's record for most career wins .
In 2002 , Schumacher used the Ferrari F2002 to retain his Drivers ' Championship . There was again some controversy , however , at the Austrian Grand Prix , where his teammate , Rubens Barrichello was leading , but in the final metres of the race , under team orders , slowed down to allow Schumacher to win the race . The crowd broke into outraged boos at the result and Schumacher tried to make amends by allowing Barrichello to stand on the top step of the podium . At the United States Grand Prix later that year , Schumacher dominated the race and was set for a close finish with Barrichello . At the end he slowed down to create a formation finish with Barrichello , but slowed too much allowing Barrichello to take the victory . In winning the Drivers ' Championship he equalled the record set by Juan Manuel Fangio of five World Championships . Ferrari won 15 out of 17 races , and Schumacher won the title with six races remaining in the season , which is still the earliest point in the season for a driver to be crowned World Champion . Schumacher broke his own record , shared with Nigel Mansell , of nine race wins in a season , by winning eleven times and finishing every race on the podium . He finished with 144 points , a record @-@ breaking 67 points ahead of the runner @-@ up , his teammate Rubens Barrichello . This pair finished nine of the 17 races in the first two places .
Schumacher broke Juan Manuel Fangio 's record of five World Drivers ' Championships by winning the drivers ' title for the sixth time in 2003 , a closely contested season . The biggest competition came once again from the McLaren Mercedes and Williams BMW teams . In the first race , Schumacher ran off track , and in the following two , was involved in collisions . He fell 16 points behind Kimi Räikkönen . Schumacher won the San Marino Grand Prix and the next two races , and closed within two points of Räikkönen . Aside from Schumacher 's victory in Canada , and Barrichello 's victory in Britain , the mid @-@ season was dominated by Williams drivers Ralf Schumacher and Juan Pablo Montoya , who each claimed two victories . After the Hungarian Grand Prix , Michael Schumacher led Montoya and Kimi Räikkönen by only one and two points , respectively . Ahead of the next race , the FIA announced changes to the way tyre widths were to be measured : this forced Michelin , supplier to Williams and McLaren among others , to rapidly redesign their tyres before the Italian Grand Prix . Schumacher , running on Bridgestone tyres , won the next two races . After Montoya was penalised in the United States Grand Prix , only Schumacher and Räikkönen remained in contention for the title . At the final round , the Japanese Grand Prix , Schumacher needed only one point whilst Räikkönen needed to win . By finishing the race in eighth place , Schumacher took one point and assured his sixth World Drivers ' title , ending the season two points ahead of Räikkönen .
In 2004 , Schumacher won a record twelve of the first thirteen races of the season , only failing to finish in Monaco after an accident with Juan Pablo Montoya during a safety car period when he briefly locked his car 's brakes . He clinched a record seventh drivers ' title at the Belgian Grand Prix . He finished that season with a record 148 points , 34 points ahead of the runner @-@ up , teammate Rubens Barrichello , and set a new record of 13 race wins out of a possible 18 , surpassing his previous best of 11 wins from the 2002 season .
= = = = 2005 – 2006 = = = =
Rule changes for the 2005 season required tyres to last an entire race , tipping the overall advantage to teams using Michelins over teams such as Ferrari that relied on Bridgestone tyres . The rule changes were partly in an effort to dent Ferrari 's dominance and make the series more interesting . The most notable moment of the early season for Schumacher was his battle with Fernando Alonso in San Marino , where he started 13th and finished only 0 @.@ 2 seconds behind the Spanish driver . Less than halfway through the season , Schumacher said " I don 't think I can count myself in this battle any more . It was like trying to fight with a blunted weapon .... If your weapons are weak you don 't have a chance . " Schumacher 's sole win in 2005 came at the United States Grand Prix . Prior to that race , the Michelin tyres were found to have significant safety issues . When no compromise between the teams and the FIA could be reached , all but the six drivers using Bridgestone tyres dropped out of the race after the formation lap . Schumacher retired in six of the 19 races . He finished the season in third with 62 points , fewer than half the points of World Champion Alonso .
2006 became the last season of Schumacher 's Ferrari career . After three races , Schumacher had just 11 points and was already 17 points behind Alonso . He won the following two races . His pole position at San Marino was his 66th , breaking Ayrton Senna 's 12 @-@ year @-@ old record .
Schumacher was stripped of pole position at the Monaco Grand Prix and started the race at the back of the grid . This was due to his stopping his car and blocking part of the circuit while Alonso was on his qualifying lap ; he still managed to work his way up to 5th place on the notoriously cramped Monaco circuit . By the Canadian Grand Prix , the ninth race of the season , Schumacher was 25 points behind Alonso , but he then won the following three races to reduce his disadvantage to 11 . After his victories in Italy ( in which Alonso had an engine failure ) and China , in which Alonso had tyre problems , Schumacher led in the championship standings for the first time during the season . Although he and Alonso had the same point total , Schumacher was in front because he had won more races .
The Japanese Grand Prix was led by Schumacher with only 16 laps to go , when , for the first time since the 2000 French Grand Prix , Schumacher 's car suffered an engine failure . Alonso won the race , giving himself a ten @-@ point championship lead . With only one race left in the season , Schumacher could only win the championship if he won the season finale and Alonso scored no points .
Before the Brazilian Grand Prix , Schumacher conceded the title to Alonso . In pre @-@ race ceremonies , football legend Pelé presented a trophy to Schumacher for his years of dedication to Formula One . During the race 's qualifying session , Schumacher had one of the quickest times during the first session and was fastest in the second session ; but a fuel pressure problem prevented him from completing a single lap during the third session , forcing him to start the race in tenth position . Early in the race Schumacher moved up to sixth place . However , in overtaking Alonso 's teammate , Giancarlo Fisichella , Schumacher experienced a tyre puncture caused by the front wing of Fisichella 's car . Schumacher pitted and consequently fell to 19th place , 70 seconds behind teammate and race leader Felipe Massa . Schumacher recovered and overtook both Fisichella and Räikkönen to secure fourth place . His performance was classified in the press as " heroic " , an " utterly breath @-@ taking drive " , and a " performance that ... sums up his career " .
= = = = 2007 – 2009 : retirement at Ferrari = = = =
While Schumacher was on the podium after winning the 2006 Italian Grand Prix , Ferrari issued a press release stating that he would retire from racing at the end of the 2006 season . Schumacher confirmed his retirement . The press release stated that Schumacher would continue working for Ferrari . It was revealed on 29 October 2006 that Ferrari wanted Schumacher to act as assistant to the newly appointed CEO Jean Todt . This would involve selecting the team 's future drivers . After Schumacher 's announcement , leading Formula One figures such as Niki Lauda and David Coulthard hailed Schumacher as the greatest all @-@ round racing driver in the history of Formula One . The tifosi and the Italian press , who did not always take to Schumacher 's relatively cold public persona , displayed an affectionate response after he announced his retirement .
= = = = 2007 : Ferrari adviser = = = =
He attended several Grands Prix during the season . Schumacher drove the Ferrari F2007 for the first time on 24 October at Ferrari 's home track in Fiorano , Italy . He ran no more than five laps and no lap times were recorded . A Ferrari spokesman said the short drive was done for the Fiat board of directors who were holding their meeting in Maranello .
During the 2007 season Schumacher acted as Ferrari 's adviser and Jean Todt 's ' super assistant ' . On 13 November 2007 Schumacher , who had not driven a Formula One car since he had retired a year earlier , undertook a formal test session for the first time aboard the F2007 . He returned in December 2007 to continue helping Ferrari with their development programme at Jerez circuit . He focused on testing electronics and tyres for the 2008 Formula One season .
= = = = 2008 : Ferrari road car development = = = =
In 2007 , former Ferrari top manager Ross Brawn said that Schumacher was very likely and also happy to continue testing in 2008 ; Schumacher later explained his role further saying that he would " deal with the development of the car inside Gestione Sportiva " and as part of that " I 'd like to drive , but not too often " .
During 2008 Schumacher also competed in motorcycle racing in the IDM Superbike @-@ series , but stated that he had no intention of a second competitive career in this sport . He was quoted as saying that riding a Ducati was the most exhilarating thing he had done in his life , the second most being sky diving .
= = = = 2009 : planned Massa substitution = = = =
In his capacity as racing advisor to Ferrari , Schumacher was present in Budapest for the Hungarian Grand Prix when Ferrari driver Felipe Massa was seriously injured after being struck by a suspension spring during qualifying . As it became clear that Massa would be unable to compete in the next race at Valencia Schumacher was chosen as a replacement for the Brazilian driver and on 29 July 2009 , Ferrari announced that they planned to draft in Schumacher for the European Grand Prix and subsequent Grands Prix until Massa was able to race again . Schumacher tested in a modified F2007 to prepare himself as he had been unable to test the 2009 car due to testing restrictions . Ferrari appealed for special permission for Schumacher to test in a 2009 spec car , but Williams , Red Bull and Toro Rosso were against this test . In the end , Schumacher was forced to call off his return due to the severity of the neck injury he had received in a motorcycle accident earlier in the year . Massa 's place at Ferrari was instead filled by Luca Badoer and Giancarlo Fisichella .
= = = Mercedes ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
In December 2009 it was announced that Schumacher would be returning to Formula One in the 2010 season alongside fellow German driver Nico Rosberg in the new Mercedes GP team . The new Mercedes team was their first majority involvement in an F1 team since 1955 . Schumacher stated that his preparations to replace the injured Massa for Ferrari had initiated a renewed interest in F1 , which , combined with the opportunity to fulfil a long @-@ held ambition to drive for Mercedes and to be working again with team principal Ross Brawn , led Schumacher to accept the offer once he was passed fit . After a period of intensive training medical tests , it was confirmed that the neck injury that had prevented him driving for Ferrari the year before had fully healed . Schumacher signed a three @-@ year contract , reportedly worth £ 20m .
Schumacher 's surprise return to F1 was compared to Niki Lauda 's in 1982 aged 33 and Nigel Mansell 's return in 1994 at age 41 . Schumacher turned 41 in January 2010 and his prospects with Mercedes were compared with the record set by the oldest F1 champion Juan Manuel Fangio who was 46 when he won his fifth championship .
= = = = 2010 : return from retirement = = = =
Schumacher 's first drive of the 2010 Mercedes car – the Mercedes MGP W01 – was at an official test in February 2010 in Valencia . He finished sixth in the first race of the season at the Bahrain Grand Prix . After the Malaysian race former driver Stirling Moss suggested that Schumacher , who had finished behind his team @-@ mate in each of the first four qualifying sessions and races , might be " past it " . Many other respected former Formula One drivers thought otherwise , including former rival Damon Hill , who warned " you should never write Schumacher off " . GrandPrix.com identified the inherent understeer of the Mercedes car , exacerbated by the narrower front tyres introduced for the 2010 season , as contributing to Schumacher 's difficulties . Jenson Button would later claim that Mercedes 2010 car was designed for him , and that their differing driving styles may have contributed to Schumacher 's difficulties .
Mercedes upgraded their car for the Spanish Grand Prix where Schumacher finished fourth . At the Monaco Grand Prix Schumacher finished sixth after passing Ferrari 's Fernando Alonso on the final corner of the race when the safety car returned to the pits . However , he was penalised 20 seconds after the race by the race stewards dropping him to 12th . The stewards judged the pass to be in breach of the FIA 's sporting code . Mercedes ' differing interpretation of the regulation would later lead to it being clarified by the FIA .
In Turkey , Schumacher qualified fifth , and finished fourth in the race , both his best results since his return . In European Grand Prix in Valencia , Schumacher finished 15th , the lowest recorded finish in his career . In Hungary , Schumacher finished outside the points in eleventh , but was found guilty of dangerous driving at 180 mph ( 290 km / h ) while unsuccessfully defending tenth position against Rubens Barrichello . As a result , he was demoted ten places on the grid for the following race , the Belgian Grand Prix , where he finished seventh , despite starting 21st after his grid penalty .
At the season finale in Abu Dhabi , Schumacher was involved in a major accident on the first lap , which occurred after a spin . In recovering from the incident Vitantonio Liuzzi 's car collided with Schumacher , barely missing his head . Nobody was hurt in the crash , but Schumacher said the crash had been " frightening " .
It was Schumacher 's first season since his début in 1991 that he finished without a win , pole position , podium or fastest lap . He finished the season 9th with 72 points .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Schumacher 's first points of 2011 were scored in Malaysia , he later came sixth in Spain and had a strong race at the Canadian Grand Prix finishing fourth , after running as high as second in a wet race . Schumacher was passed late in the race by eventual winner Jenson Button .
Schumacher clashed with Vitaly Petrov in Valencia , and with Kamui Kobayashi in Britain , and marked the 20th anniversary of his Formula One début at the Belgian Grand Prix . Despite starting last in Belgium , Schumacher raced well and finished fifth . Schumacher again raced well in Italy , duelling with Lewis Hamilton for fourth place . The Japanese Grand Prix saw Schumacher lead three laps during the race , marking the first time he had led a race since 2006 . In doing so , he became the oldest driver to lead a race since Jack Brabham in 1970 .
At the Indian Grand Prix Schumacher started well and finished fifth after overtaking Rosberg at the end of the race . Schumacher diced again with Rosberg in Abu Dhabi Grand Prix , battling over sixth position on the first lap . Schumacher finished the season in eighth place in the Drivers ' Championship , with 76 points .
= = = = 2012 : final season = = = =
Schumacher was again partnered by Rosberg at Mercedes for the 2012 season . Schumacher retired from the inaugural race of the season Australian Grand Prix , and scored a point in the second race in Malaysia . In China Schumacher started on the front row alongside Rosberg on pole , but retired due to a loose wheel after a mechanics error during a pit stop .
After causing a collision with Bruno Senna in Spain , Schumacher received a five @-@ place grid penalty for the Monaco Grand Prix . Schumacher was fastest in qualifying in Monaco ; but started sixth owing to his penalty . He later retired from seventh place in the race .
At the European Grand Prix , Schumacher finished third in the race , his only podium finish since his return to F1 with Mercedes . At the age of 43 years and 173 days , he became the oldest driver to achieve a podium since Jack Brabham 's second @-@ place finish at the 1970 British Grand Prix . Further records were set by Schumacher in Germany , where he set the fastest lap in a Grand Prix for the 77th time in his career , and in Belgium where he became the second driver in history to race in 300 Grands Prix .
Schumacher 's indecision over his future plans in F1 led to him being replaced by Lewis Hamilton at Mercedes for the 2013 season . In October 2012 , Schumacher announced he would retire for a second time at the conclusion of the season . The following week he was quoted as saying : " There were times in the past few months in which I didn 't want to deal with Formula One or prepare for the next Grand Prix . " The season and his 21 @-@ year F1 career concluded with the 2012 Brazilian Grand Prix , in which Schumacher finished seventh . He placed 13th in the 2012 Drivers ' Championship .
= = Helmet = =
Schumacher , in conjunction with Schuberth , helped develop the first lightweight carbon helmet . In 2004 , a prototype was publicly tested by being driven over by a tank ; it survived intact . The helmet keeps the driver cool by funneling directed airflow through fifty holes . Schumacher 's original helmet sported the colours of the German flag and his sponsor 's decals . On the top was a blue circle with white astroids . When Jos Verstappen was his team @-@ mate , Schumacher added four red diagonal strokes over the visor to differentiate his helmet from his team @-@ mate . After Schumacher joined Ferrari a prancing horse was added on the back . From the 2000 Monaco Grand Prix , in order to differentiate his colours from his new teammate Rubens Barrichello , Schumacher changed the upper blue colour and some of the white areas to red . Since 2004 , the helmet sported a white diagonal line with a white vertical line in the zone of the German Flag colors ( originally to accommodate sponsor AMD ) , but then these lines remained in the Suzuka 2006 design . He sported one @-@ off helmet designs four times . For the 1998 Japanese Grand Prix , a title decider with Mika Häkkinen , he replaced the German flag with a chequered flag motif and reflective silver replacing the white areas . At the 2004 Italian Grand Prix , the German flag design was replaced with an Italian flag in honour of his team 's home race . For the Brazilian Grand Prix race of 2006 ( at the time intended to be his final Grand Prix ) , he wore an all @-@ red helmet that included the names of his ninety @-@ one Grand Prix victories . For the 2011 Belgian Grand Prix , Schumacher 's 20th anniversary in Formula One , he wore a commemorative gold @-@ leafed helmet . The helmet , very similar to his current helmet , included the year of his début to the present , and the years of his seven World titles . For the 2012 Belgian Grand Prix , Schumacher 's 300th Grand Prix appearance , he wore a special platinum @-@ leafed helmet with a message of his achievement .
= = Honours = =
Schumacher was honoured many times during his career . In April 2002 , for his contributions to sport and his contributions in raising awareness of child education , he was named as one of the UNESCO Champions for sport , joining the other eight , which include Pelé , Sergey Bubka and Justine Henin . He won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year award twice , in 2002 and 2004 for his performances in the 2001 and 2003 seasons respectively . He also received nominations for the 2001 , 2003 , 2005 and 2007 awards . He shares the record for having the second @-@ most nominations for the award with Roger Federer with six nominations , and is eclipsed only by Tiger Woods who has been nominated seven times . He holds the distinction of having the most nominations for a motorsport athlete , ( Fernando Alonso has been nominated only twice , Sebastian Vettel three times , and Valentino Rossi five times ) and being the only motorsport athlete to have won the award more than once .
In honour of Schumacher 's racing career and his efforts to improve safety and the sport , he was awarded an FIA Gold Medal for Motor Sport in 2006 . In 2007 , in recognition of his contribution to Formula One racing , the Nürburgring racing track renamed turns 8 and 9 ( the Audi and Shell Kurves ) as the Schumacher S , and a month later he presented A1 Team Germany with the A1 World Cup at the A1GP World Cup of Motorsport 2007 awards ceremony . He was nominated for the Prince of Asturias Award for Sport for 2007 , which he won both for sporting prowess and for his humanitarian record .
In 2008 , the Swiss Football Association appointed long @-@ time Swiss resident Schumacher as the country 's ambassador for the 2008 European football championship .
On 30 April 2010 , Schumacher was honored with the Officier of Légion d 'honneur title from French prime minister François Fillon .
On 13 November 2014 , Schumacher was awarded the Millenium Trophy at the Bambi Awards .
= = Racing controversies = =
= = = Championship @-@ deciding collisions = = =
Going into the 1994 Australian Grand Prix , the final race of the 1994 season , Schumacher led Damon Hill by a single point in the Drivers ' Championship . Schumacher led the race from the beginning , but on lap 35 he went off track and hit the wall with his right side wheels , returning to the track at reduced speed , and with car damage , but still leading the race . At the next corner Hill attempted to pass on the inside , but Schumacher turned in sharply and they collided . Both cars were eliminated from the race and , as neither driver scored , Schumacher took the title . The race stewards judged it a racing accident and took no action against either driver , but public opinion is divided over the incident , and Schumacher was vilified in the British media .
At the 1997 European Grand Prix at Jerez , the last race of the season , Schumacher led Williams 's Jacques Villeneuve by one point in the Drivers ' Championship . As Villeneuve attempted to pass Schumacher at the Dry Sac corner on lap 48 , Schumacher turned in and the right @-@ front wheel of Schumacher 's Ferrari hit the left sidepod of Villeneuve 's car . Schumacher retired from the race as a result , but Villeneuve finished in third place , taking four points and so becoming the World Champion . The race stewards did not initially award any penalty , but two weeks after the race Schumacher was disqualified from the entire 1997 Drivers ' Championship after an FIA disciplinary hearing found that his " manoeuvre was an instinctive reaction and although deliberate not made with malice or premeditation . It was a serious error . " Schumacher accepted the decision and admitted having made a mistake . Schumacher 's actions were widely condemned in British , German , and Italian newspapers . This made Schumacher the only driver in the history of the sport , as of 2014 , to be disqualified from a Driver 's World Championship .
= = = Team orders = = =
Historically , team orders have always been an accepted part of Formula One . However , in the final metres of the 2002 Austrian Grand Prix , Schumacher 's teammate , Rubens Barrichello , slowed his car under orders from Ferrari to allow Schumacher to pass and win the race . Although the switching of positions did not break any actual sporting or technical regulation , it angered fans and it was claimed that the team 's actions showed a lack of sportsmanship and respect to the spectators . Many argued that Schumacher did not need to be " given " wins in only the 6th race of the season , particularly given that he had already won four of the previous five grands prix , and that Barrichello had dominated the race weekend up to that point . At the podium ceremony , Schumacher pushed Barrichello onto the top step , and for this disturbance , the Ferrari team incurred a US $ 1 million fine . Later in the season at the end of the 2002 United States Grand Prix , Schumacher slowed down within sight of the finishing line , allowing Barrichello to win by 0 @.@ 011 seconds , the 2nd closest margin in F1 history . Schumacher 's explanation varied between it being him " returning the favour " for Austria ( now that Schumacher 's title was secure ) , or trying to engineer a dead @-@ heat ( a feat derided as near @-@ impossible in a sport where timings are taken to within a thousandth of a second ) . The FIA subsequently banned " team orders which interfere with the race result " , but the ban was lifted for the 2011 season because the ruling was difficult to enforce .
= = = Dangerous driving = = =
During his spell in Sauber , in the 1991 Sportscar World Championship , Schumacher was involved in a serious incident with Derek Warwick in that year 's 430 km of Nürburgring . While trying to set his flying lap in qualifying , Schumacher encountered Warwick 's Jaguar on a slow lap resulting in lost time for Schumacher . As retaliation for being in his way , Schumacher swerved the Sauber into Warwick 's car , hitting the Jaguar 's nose and front wheel . Enraged by the German 's attitude , Warwick drove to the pits and chased a fleeing Schumacher on foot through the Sauber pits . He eventually caught up with Schumacher , and it took intervention from Jochen Mass to prevent Warwick physically assaulting Schumacher .
Toward the end of the 2010 Hungarian Grand Prix , Rubens Barrichello attempted to pass Schumacher down the inside on the main straight . Schumacher closed the inside line to force Barrichello onto the outside , but Barrichello persisted on the inside at 180 mph ( 290 km / h ) , despite the close proximity of a concrete wall and Schumacher leaving him only inches to spare . Barrichello said " It is the most dangerous thing that I have been through " , and " There is not a rule for that , but between ourselves we should take a line , stick to it and that 's it . " Schumacher said that " Obviously there was space enough to go through . We didn 't touch , so I guess I just left enough space for him to come through . " Ross Brawn said " at the end of the day he gave him enough space . You can argue that it was marginal , but it was just tough – tough racing . " A range of ex @-@ drivers and commentators were highly critical of Schumacher . Although there was no accident , the race steward , the same Derek Warwick of the 1991 Nürburgring incident , wanted to black flag Schumacher since that " would have shown a better example to our young drivers " . The Hungaroring incident was ruled to be dangerous and Schumacher received a 10 place grid penalty for the next race . Schumacher accepted the decision , and apologised .
= = = Other incidents = = =
In 1994 , suspicion of foul play by the Benetton team ( who were eventually found to have been responsible for some technical violations over the course of the season ) was said to have troubled Ayrton Senna that season . For example , in the words of his then team mate , Damon Hill , Senna had chosen to spend a bit of time at the first corner of the Aida circuit following his retirement from the Pacific Grand Prix . After listening to Schumacher 's Benetton B194 as it went past , Senna " concluded that there was , what he regarded , as unusual noises from the engine " . The FIA subsequently issued a press release setting out action that it required teams to take prior to the German Grand Prix , given that various cars were found to have an advanced engine management systems emulating launch and traction control .
In 1995 , Schumacher and Williams driver David Coulthard were disqualified for fuel irregularities , after a switch to Renault engines and Elf oils . On appeal , both drivers had their results and points reinstated , but both teams lost the points the results would normally have earned in the Constructors ' Championship .
The 1998 Canadian Grand Prix saw Schumacher accused of dangerous driving when his exit from the pit @-@ lane forced Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen off the track and into retirement . Despite receiving a 10 @-@ second penalty , Schumacher recovered and won the race .
Two laps from the finish of the 1998 British Grand Prix , Schumacher was leading the race when he was issued a stop @-@ and @-@ go penalty for overtaking a lapped car ( Alexander Wurz ) during the early moments of a Safety Car period . This penalty involves going into the pit lane and stopping for 10 seconds , and the rules state that a driver must serve his penalty within three laps of the penalty being issued . On the third lap after receiving the penalty , Schumacher turned into the pit lane to serve his penalty , but as this was the last lap of the race , and as Ferrari 's pit box was located after the start / finish line , Schumacher technically finished the race before serving the penalty . The stewards initially resolved that problem by adding 10 seconds to Schumacher 's race time , then later rescinded the penalty completely due to the irregularities in how the penalty had been issued .
In the 1998 Belgian Grand Prix , Schumacher was involved in a race @-@ ending collision whilst trying to lap David Coulthard in heavy spray . After the race he stormed into the McLaren garage and accused Coulthard of trying to kill him , and McLaren and Ferrari team members had to separate the drivers . Coulthard admitted some five years later that the accident had been his mistake .
During qualifying for the 2006 Monaco Grand Prix Schumacher set the fastest time , but his car stopped in the Rascasse corner on the racing line , leaving the corner partially blocked , while his main contender for the season title , Fernando Alonso , was on his final qualifying lap . Schumacher stated that he simply locked up the wheels going into the corner and that the car then stalled while he attempted to reverse out . Alonso believed he would have been on pole if the incident had not happened , and Schumacher was stripped of pole position by the race stewards and started the race at the back of the grid . In the same qualifying session , Giancarlo Fisichella was similarly found to have blocked David Coulthard from improving his time , but Fisichella was only demoted five places on the grid . At the 2010 Monaco Grand Prix , the safety car was deployed after an accident , involving Karun Chandhok and Jarno Trulli , and pulled into the pits on the last lap . Schumacher passed Alonso before the finish line . Mercedes held that " the combination of the race control messages ' Safety Car in this lap ' and ' Track Clear ' and the green flags and lights shown by the marshals after safety car line one indicated that the race was not finishing under the safety car and all drivers were free to race . This opinion appears to have been shared by the majority of the teams with cars in the top ten positions who also gave their drivers instructions to race to the finish line . " However an FIA investigation found Schumacher guilty of breaching Safety Car regulations and awarded him a 20 @-@ seconds penalty , which cost him six places .
= = Personal life = =
Schumacher 's younger brother Ralf was a Formula One driver until the end of 2007 . Their stepbrother Sebastian Stahl has also been a racing driver .
In August 1995 , Michael married Corinna Betsch . They have two children , a daughter Gina @-@ Marie , born in 1997 and a son Mick , born March 22 , 1999 . He has always been very protective of his private life and is known to dislike the celebrity spotlight . The family moved to a newly @-@ built mansion near Gland , Switzerland in 2007 , covering an area of 650 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 000 sq ft ) with a private beach on Lake Geneva and featuring an underground garage and petrol station . The family has two dogs – one stray that Corinna fell in love with in Brazil , and an Australian Shepherd named " Ed " whose arrival in the family made headlines . In fact , in 2007 , Schumacher personally drove a taxi through the Bavarian town of Coburg to collect the dog and enable the family to make their return flight to Switzerland . Both Schumacher and the taxi driver were reprimanded by local police .
One of his main hobbies is horse riding , and he plays football for his local team FC Echichens . He has appeared in several charity football games and organised games between Formula One drivers .
On 23 June 2003 , Schumacher was appointed as an Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large for the Most Serene Republic of San Marino .
Schumacher is a special ambassador to UNESCO and has donated 1 @.@ 5 million euros to the organization . Additionally , he paid for the construction of a school for poor children and for area improvements in Dakar , Senegal . He supports a hospital for child victims of war in Sarajevo , which specialises in caring for amputees . In Lima , Peru he funded the " Palace for the Poor " , a centre for helping homeless street children obtain an education , clothing , food , medical attention , and shelter . He stated his interest in these various efforts was piqued both by his love for children and the fact that these causes had received little attention . While an exact figure for the amount of money he has donated throughout his life is unknown , it is known that in his last four years as a driver , he donated at least $ 50 million . In 2008 , it was revealed that he had donated between $ 5M and $ 10M to the William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park of Bill Clinton .
Since his participation in an FIA European road safety campaign , as part of his punishment after the collision at the 1997 European Grand Prix , Schumacher continued to support other campaigns , such as Make Roads Safe , which is led by the FIA Foundation and calls on G8 countries and the UN to recognise global road deaths as a major global health issue . In 2008 , Schumacher was the figurehead of an advertising campaign by Bacardi to raise awareness about responsible drinking , with a focus on communicating an international message ' drinking and driving don 't mix ' . He featured in an advertising campaign for television , cinema and online media , supported by consumer engagements , public relations and digital media across the World .
On the eve of the 2002 British Grand Prix , on behalf of Fiat , Schumacher presented a Ferrari 360 Modena to the Indian cricketer Sachin Tendulkar at Silverstone .
On 21 June 2009 , Schumacher appeared on the BBC 's motoring programme Top Gear as the Stig . Presenter Jeremy Clarkson hinted later in the programme that Schumacher was not the regular Stig , and the BBC has since confirmed that this is the case . Schumacher was there on that occasion because Ferrari would not allow anyone else to drive the one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind black Ferrari FXX that was featured in the show . The FXX was presented to Schumacher upon his retirement at Monza in 2006 .
During his interview with Clarkson , Schumacher stated that his road cars are a Fiat 500 Abarth , and a Fiat Croma , which is his family car .
= = = Finance and sponsorship = = =
In 2004 , Forbes magazine listed him as the second highest paid athlete in the World . In 2005 , Eurobusiness magazine identified Schumacher as the World 's first billionaire athlete . His 2004 salary was reported to be around US $ 80 million . Forbes magazine ranked him 17th in its " The World 's Most Powerful Celebrities " list . A significant share of his income came from advertising . For example , Deutsche Vermögensberatung paid him $ 8 million over three years from 1999 for wearing a 10 by 8 centimetre advertisement on his post @-@ race cap . The deal was extended until 2010 . He donated $ 10 million for aid after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . His donation surpassed that of any other sports person , most sports leagues , many worldwide corporations and even some countries . Schumacher 's bodyguard Burkhard Cramer and Cramer 's two sons were killed in the tsunami .
In 2010 , his personal fortune was estimated at £ 515 million . He reportedly received a salary of £ 21 million each year from the Mercedes team , plus a further £ 9 million in endorsements .
= = = 2013 skiing accident = = =
On 29 December 2013 , Schumacher was skiing with his 14 @-@ year @-@ old son Mick descending the Combe de Saulire below the Dent de Burgin above Méribel in the French Alps . While crossing an unsecured off @-@ piste area between Piste Chamois and Piste Mauduit he fell and hit his head on a rock , sustaining a head injury despite wearing a ski helmet . According to his physicians , he would most likely have died had he not been wearing a helmet . Schumacher was put into a medically induced coma because of traumatic brain injury ; his doctors reported on 7 March 2014 that his condition was stable . On 4 April 2014 , Schumacher 's agent reported that he was showing " moments of consciousness " as he was gradually withdrawn from the medically induced coma , adding to reports by relatives of " small encouraging signs " over the preceding month . In mid @-@ June he was moved from intensive care into a rehabilitation ward . By 16 June 2014 , Schumacher had regained consciousness and left Grenoble Hospital for further rehabilitation at the University Hospital ( CHUV ) in Lausanne , Switzerland . On 9 September 2014 , Schumacher left CHUV and was brought back to his home for further rehabilitation . In November 2014 , it was reported that Schumacher was " paralysed and in a wheelchair " ; he " cannot speak and has memory problems " . In a video interview released in May 2015 , Schumacher 's manager Sabine Kehm said that his condition is slowly improving " considering the severeness of the injury he had " .
= = Racing record = =
= = = Career summary = = =
Source : Hilton , Christopher ( 2006 ) . Michael Schumacher : The Whole Story . Haynes . ISBN 1 @-@ 84425 @-@ 008 @-@ 3 .
= = = Complete Japanese Formula 3000 Championship results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ) ( Races in italics indicate fastest lap )
= = = Complete Formula One results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ; races in italics indicate fastest lap )
‡ Schumacher was disqualified from the 1997 World Drivers ' Championship due to dangerous driving in the European Grand Prix , where he caused an avoidable accident with Jacques Villeneuve . His points tally would have placed him in second place in that year 's standings . † Driver did not finish the Grand Prix , but was classified as he completed over 90 % of the race distance .
= = = 24 Hours of Le Mans results = = =
= = = Formula One records = = =
Schumacher holds the following records in Formula One .
= = Books and films = =
Allen , James ( 1999 ) . Michael Schumacher : Driven to Extremes . Bantam Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 81214 @-@ 9 .
Allen , James ( 2007 ) . Edge of Greatness . Headline . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7553 @-@ 1678 @-@ 6 .
Collings , Timothy ( 2004 ) . The Piranha Club . Virgin Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 7535 @-@ 0965 @-@ 2 .
Collings , Timothy ( 2005 ) . Team Schumacher . Highdown . ISBN 1 @-@ 905156 @-@ 03 @-@ 0 .
Domenjoz , Luc ( 2002 ) . Michael Schumacher : Rise of a genius . Parragon . ISBN 0 @-@ 7525 @-@ 9228 @-@ 9 .
Henry , Alan ( ed . ) ( 1992 ) . Autocourse 1992 – 93 . Hazleton Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 905138 @-@ 96 @-@ 1 .
Henry , Alan ( 1996 ) . Wheel to Wheel : Great Duels of Formula One Racing . Weidenfeld Nicolson Illustrated . ISBN 0 @-@ 7538 @-@ 0522 @-@ 7 .
Hilton , Christopher ( 2003 ) . Michael Schumacher : The greatest of all . Haynes . ISBN 1 @-@ 84425 @-@ 044 @-@ X.
Hilton , Christopher ( 2006 ) . Michael Schumacher : The Whole Story . Haynes . ISBN 1 @-@ 84425 @-@ 008 @-@ 3 .
Kehm , Sabine ( 2003 ) . Michael Schumacher . Driving Force . Random House . ISBN 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 189435 @-@ 2 .
Matchett , Steve ( 1995 ) . Life in the Fast Lane : The Story of the Benetton Grand Prix Year . London : Weidenfeld and Nicolson . ISBN 0 @-@ 297 @-@ 81610 @-@ 1 .
Matchett , Steve ( 1999 ) . The Mechanic 's Tale : Life in the Pit Lanes of Formula One . Osceola , Wisconsin : MBI Pub . ISBN 0 @-@ 7603 @-@ 0754 @-@ 7 .
Williams , Richard ( 1999 ) . The Death of Ayrton Senna . Bloomsbury . ISBN 0 @-@ 7475 @-@ 4495 @-@ 6 .
Schumacher had a voice role in the Disney / Pixar film Cars . His character is himself as a car ( Ferrari F430 ) . The French film Asterix and Obelix at the Olympic Games features Schumacher in a cameo role , also as himself .
= Adamussium =
Adamussium is a monotypic genus of bivalve molluscs in the large family of scallops , the Pectinidae . The Antarctic scallop ( Adamussium colbecki ) is the only species in the genus though its exact relationship to other members of the family is unclear . It is found in the ice @-@ cold seas surrounding Antarctica , sometimes at great depths .
Adamussium colbecki is a large , slow @-@ growing scallop that lives on the seabed . The shell consists of a pair of ribbed calcareous valves which enclose the soft body and are joined by a ligament at a hinge . It feeds on microscopic green algae and is sometimes present in great numbers . It is able to move around by flapping its valves and to dart backwards to escape threats . The species is an important member of the Antarctic seabed community as the upper valve often acts as a substrate for seaweeds , sponges and other organisms . In addition , juveniles bind themselves by threads to the upper valve of older shells , using these as a base for several years as they grow . The adult scallops have been used in research to study the accumulation of heavy metals in marine organisms .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Antarctic scallop was first described by the British zoologist Edgar Albert Smith in 1902 as Pecten colbecki . He worked at the British Museum and was responsible for examining and describing shells from collections made over the years that had been deposited there . The German malacologist Johannes Thiele determined in 1934 that the characteristics of the Antarctic scallop were sufficiently different from those of other members of the genus Pecten to warrant its inclusion in a separate genus , Adamussium . More recently , examinations of the chromosome structure and of the mitochondrial DNA of A. colbecki have been undertaken , but the exact phylogenetic relationship it has with other pectinids is still unclear .
= = Description = =
The shell of the Antarctic scallop grows to about 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) long and 7 centimetres wide and has a nearly circular outline . The two purplish @-@ red valves are paper thin and only slightly convex and are attached by a long , slightly sinuous , hinge . Near the hinge there is an umbo or beak on each valve , a raised hump from which the ribs radiate . The umbones are not very prominent and on either side of them are irregular winged processes , the auricles . In smaller specimens there are around 12 shallow ribs diverging from the umbones and further low ridges appear between these as the shell grows larger . There is a fine sculpturing of concentric lines on the outside of the valves . The auricles are also finely sculpted with the annual growth lines visible . The interior of the valves is pink . A fringe of numerous small tentacles project from the mantle between the two valves and there are a number of simple eyes in a row around the rim . The valves are held closed by powerful adductor muscles which work in opposition to an elastic ligament that lies just behind the umbones and which tends to open the valves . The flanges of the auricles provide a wide attachment for this ligament . The Antarctic scallop could be confused with other scallops , other bivalves or lamp shells .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Antarctic scallop is endemic to the waters surrounding Antarctica . These are mostly within the Antarctic Circle and include the Ross Sea , the Weddell Sea , the Davis Sea , McMurdo Sound and the Southern Ocean . Although it is commonly found at depths of less than 100 metres ( 330 ft ) , remotely operated underwater vehicles armed with lights and cameras have recorded the scallop at much greater depths , including one recording at 4 @,@ 840 metres ( 15 @,@ 880 ft ) . It is found on many different substrates including sand , gravel and silt , either on the surface or semi @-@ submerged in the sediment . It can flap its gills slightly to create a hollow in which to settle . In shallow waters it is usually attached by byssus threads to hard surfaces so as not to be swept away by water movement . At greater depths it is usually free living .
Although the Antarctic scallop has a circum @-@ polar distribution , this is very disjunct , and overall it is not common . In some places it is found at densities of up to 90 per square metre and in Terra Nova Bay in the Ross Sea , at depths between 40 metres ( 130 ft ) and 80 metres ( 260 ft ) , some scallop beds were found to be so crowded that adult individuals were lying on top of others . In other locations that seem eminently suitable in many ways , it was entirely absent . A possible explanation for this lies in the fact that its paper thin shell is characteristic of bivalves living in stable , deep water areas with little water movement . The shallower locations in which it now thrives are characterised by being protected bays or by having extensive sea ice coverage , each of which provides a stable environment unaffected by storm waves and where iceberg scouring does not normally occur . It is also absent from habitats dominated by other benthic suspension feeding communities whereas it is found in habitats with soft sediments and no dominant cnidarian and sponge communities . This might be because its larvae face such heavy predation in these locations that it is unable to establish itself .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Locomotion = = =
The Antarctic scallop can swim rather slowly by opening and closing its valves . It advances in this way with the rim of the shell to the front . It can detect the movement of nearby objects with its rudimentary eyes and , in order to escape predators , can move much more swiftly umbones first , by clapping its valves shut . A remotely controlled camera stationed on the sea bed is apt to find that all the scallops that were originally in its field of view have moved off to other locations .
= = = Feeding = = =
Like other members of the Pectinidae family , the Antarctic scallop is a suspension feeder , extracting its nourishment from the sea water that surrounds it . Bands of cilia on the velum , a curtain @-@ like fold of the mantle , waft particles towards the gills . Oxygen is absorbed by the gills and food particles , mostly microscopic algae , are trapped in mucous and transported to the mouth by cilia . There is a seasonal increase in microscopic ice algae which become available to suspension feeders when the sea ice melts in the summer , and most of the annual growth takes place at this time . Research has shown that this is as a result of the rise in sea temperature and not the greater availability of food .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The rate of growth of the Antarctic scallop is very slow compared to that of scallops living in warmer seas . It matures at 5 to 7 years old and spawning takes place in late summer . Little is known about the development of the veliger larvae but they may be planktonic for 4 or 5 months . Besides feeding on phytoplankton and small zooplankton , they may absorb dissolved organic matter and consume bacterioplankton . When they settle , metamorphosis takes place and the juveniles attach themselves with byssus threads , often attaching these to the upper valves of scallops , and remain attached for 3 to 5 years . While attached to the adult shell , the juveniles benefit from food particles in the fine detritus thrown up into the water column by movements of the adult . While studying the sizes and growth rates of adults , researchers came to realize that there were gaps in their records which were due to the fact that , in some years , no juveniles had survived .
= = Ecology = =
The Antarctic scallop is monitored in connection with the Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems ( VME ) classification set up by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources ( CCAMLR ) . As such , notification is required to be made by vessels that land the scallop as by @-@ catch during their fishing activities .
The Antarctic scallop is often found living in association with the Antarctic sea urchin , Sterechinus neumayeri , and Odontaster validus , a species of sea star . Predatory invertebrates found in the vicinity of the Antarctic scallop include the gastropod Neobuccinum eatoni , and the ribbon worm Parborlasia corrugatus . The Antarctic scallop does not itself have many predators and large individuals are adept at jumping and swimming to escape attackers . Any attached juveniles benefit from this . However , the scallops are intolerant of low salinity levels , and mortality sometimes occurs as a result of a pool of relatively fresh water that sometimes forms during the summer months under the sea ice as it melts .
There are a large number of epifaunal organisms living on the shells of Antarctic scallops , which may represent 90 % of the hard substrate available in a region where rocky surfaces are not common and much of the seabed consists of sediment . Because a diverse community of invertebrates and algae use its shell as a base , the Antarctic scallop is considered to be a " foundation species " ; a species of great importance in its habitat . The fact that the scallops can swim and move to other locations aids in the dispersal of these organisms . The epiphytes include benthic diatoms , forams , bacteria , bryozoans , sponges and algae . The foram Cibicides refulgens lives parasitically on the scallop 's shell and also grazes on the algae and bacteria growing there . In a research study , 10 different species of demosponge were found growing on a single Antarctic scallop . The demosponge Homaxinella balfourensis was one of the commonest epibionts growing harmlessly on the scallop 's shell . The relationship between sponge and scallop may be symbiotic ; the sponge avoids being engulfed in sediment while the scallop benefits from the protection provided by the sponge , which is distasteful to many predators .
The hydroid Hydractinia angusta has a mutualistic relationship with the scallop . A study showed that its larvae preferentially settled in the vicinity of other epibionts , usually on scallop shells , and that the scallop larvae were deterred from settling in the vicinity of colonies of the hydroid . It is surmised that the hydroid benefits from a solid substrate on which to live , and although the scallop benefits from the protection from predators provided by the stinging cells of the hydroid , it is disadvantaged by the failure of its larvae to establish themselves in their preferred location , on the shells of mature scallops .
= = Research = =
A laboratory study examined the effects on the Antarctic scallop of an increase in lead , copper and mercury content in the water . It was found that a rise in levels of heavy metals led to quite severe morphological changes in the scallop and a reduction in lysosomal membrane stability . Another experiment involved transplanting scallops from a clean water area to a bay where effluent from an Antarctic base was released . It was found that the scallops were relatively unaffected by the outflows and this resulted in the belief that benthic marine communities were unlikely to be severely affected by such discharges .
Another study analysed the tissues of Adamussium colbecki and compared them with those of Pecten jacobaeus , a temperate water species of scallop . It was found that copper , iron , cadmium and chromium were concentrated in the digestive organ of the Antarctic scallop . Cadmium levels in particular were higher in the Antarctic scallop than in P. jacobaeus and other pectinids , but zinc and manganese , found in the kidney , were considerably lower .
= War of the Euboeote Succession =
The War of the Euboeote Succession was fought in 1256 – 1258 between the Prince of Achaea , William II of Villehardouin , and a broad coalition of other rulers from throughout Frankish Greece who felt threatened by William 's aspirations . The war was sparked by William 's attempt to gain control of a third of the island of Euboea , which was resisted by the local Lombard barons ( " terciers " or " triarchs " ) with the aid of the Republic of Venice . The Lord of Athens and Thebes , Guy I de la Roche , also entered the war against William , along with other barons of Central Greece . Their defeat at the Battle of Karydi in May / June 1258 effectively brought the war to an end in an Achaean victory , although a definite peace treaty was not concluded until 1262 .
= = Background = =
Following the Fourth Crusade , southern Greece had been divided among several Latin lordships , the most powerful of which was the Principality of Achaea , which controlled the entire Peloponnese peninsula . William II of Villehardouin , who in 1246 had succeeded his elder brother as prince , was a most energetic ruler , who aimed to expand and consolidate his rule over the other Latin states . Guy I de la Roche , the " Great Lord " of Athens and Thebes , was already his vassal for the fief of Argos and Nauplia , which lay in the Peloponnese , and William was also suzerain of the three Lombard baronies ( terzieri , " thirds " ) of Negroponte ( the medieval name of both the island of Euboea and its capital , modern Chalkis ) .
In 1255 , William 's second wife , Carintana dalle Carceri , baroness of the northern third of the island , died , and her husband laid claim to her inheritance , even minting coins presenting himself as " Triarch of Negroponte " . The other two triarchs , however , Guglielmo I da Verona and Narzotto dalle Carceri , rejected his claim . Although they were William 's nominal subjects and , in Guglielmo 's case , even related to him by marriage , they were loath to surrender Euboeote territory to someone outside their own families . Instead , they ceded Carintana 's barony to their kinsman , Grapella dalle Carceri . In this , they were supported by Paolo Gradenigo , the Venetian bailo ( representative ) at Negroponte , the capital of Euboea . Venice had a long presence at Negroponte , which was an important trading station , and exercised considerable influence over the island and the triarchs .
= = Contest for Negroponte = =
On 14 June 1256 , a treaty was signed between the Lombard triarchs and Gradenigo . In exchange for the Venetian alliance against Achaea , the triarchs renewed their previous agreements , ceded possession of the fortress of Negroponte , which controlled the bridge over the Euripus Strait , and of extensive lands on the island . The triarchs and their domains were freed from any duties and the considerable tribute that they paid to Venice until then , but in turn , they gave up the rights to all customs revenue to the Republic . Venice also received further concessions , such as the right to regulate the weights , measures and scales for all Euboea , and privileges for its citizens . Soon after , according to the historian Marino Sanudo , William called upon Guglielmo and Narzotto to present themselves to him . Constrained by their feudal oaths of fealty , they did so and were imprisoned by the Achaean prince . The triarchs ' wives , accompanied by many knights and other kinsmen , then went to Marco Gradenigo , the newly arrived bailo , and beseeched his aid . " Moved alike by policy and sympathy " , as the historian William Miller states , Gradenigo assented .
William , moving quickly in support of his own claims , had already seized Negroponte . Gradenigo and his Venetians attacked and took the city , but William responded by sending his nephew the baron of Karytaina , Geoffroy de Bruyères , who recaptured Negroponte and launched devastating raids in Euboea . Venice then laid siege to the city , which dragged on for thirteen months until its defenders capitulated in early 1258 . An Achaean counterattack was repulsed by Venetian infantry sallying forth and defeating the famed Achaean cavalry before the city 's walls .
= = League against Achaea and the Battle of Karydi = =
Faced with the opposition of Venice , William of Villehardouin turned to her rival , Genoa , for support . The Genoese , ever eager to thwart their rivals , Venice , and owing a debt for William 's assistance to them at Rhodes a few years before , readily accepted . Based at Monemvasia , Genoese @-@ crewed galleys preyed upon Venetian shipping . Othon de Cicon , the lord of Karystos in southern Euboea , in control of the strategic passage of the Cavo D 'Oro , also sided with William . Elsewhere , however , William 's appeals were met with hostility and mistrust , due to the Achaean ruler 's claims of suzerainty over all the Latin princes of southern Greece . From the summer of 1256 , Guy I de la Roche , the " Great Lord " ( " Megaskyr " ) of Athens and Thebes , and his kinsman William de la Roche , had joined the Venetian camp , although they were both vassals to the Villehardouins ( Guy as Lord of Argos and Nauplia and his brother as baron of Veligosti and Damala ) : the treaty between Venice and the triarchs had been signed at Guy 's capital , Thebes , while both Guy and William actively aided the Venetians in their siege of Negroponte . Thomas II de Stromoncourt , the Lord of Salona , and Ubertino Pallavicini , the Margrave of Bodonitsa , also entered in the anti @-@ Achaean coalition , to be joined soon after by Geoffroy de Bruyères , " the best soldier in all the realm of Romania [ i.e. Latin Greece ] " , who deserted his uncle 's cause .
William of Villehardouin responded by what William Miller described as " restless activity " : he unsuccessfully besieged the Venetian fortress of Coron , and led a raid into Attica , where he was nearly captured , before resolving on launching a full @-@ scale invasion of the de la Roche domains . His army assembled at Nikli , crossed the Isthmus of Corinth , and at the pass of Mount Karydi , on the way from Megara to Thebes , his army decisively defeated the coalition army . Guy de la Roche and the other barons fled the field and found refuge in the citadel of Thebes . William of Villehardouin followed after them and prepared to lay siege to the city , but relented after the Latin archbishop and many of his own nobles pleaded to show restraint and end the conflict . After extracting a pledge by Guy de la Roche to appear before the Achaean High Court , the assembly of the Achaean barons , and be judged , William 's troops withdrew .
The High Court quickly assembled at Nikli . Guy de la Roche presented himself before it accompanied by his own knights , but the assembled barons decided that they did not have the authority to judge him , and referred the matter to King Louis IX of France ( r . 1226 – 1270 ) . Guy travelled to France in 1259 , but Louis not only pardoned him , but awarded him the title of Duke , which he and his successors were to bear thereafter . The renegade Geoffroy de Bruyères too was brought for judgement before William , and it was only the determined and passionate intercession of the other barons that saved his life and secured a pardon from the vengeful prince . He was however deprived of the possession of his domains by the inalienable right of conquest , and retained them henceforth as a gift from the Prince , meaning that they would be forfeit upon his death unless he had any immediate descendants .
= = Aftermath = =
William 's victory at Karydi , coupled with a victory of his troops against the Venetians near Oreoi , brought an effective end to the conflict ; on 6 August 1258 , Guglielmo da Verona and Narzotto dalle Carceri consented to begin negotiations for peace through the Doge of Venice , and in early 1259 , the Doge authorized the new bailo , Andrea Barozzi , to sign a treaty with William . But due to William 's subsequent involvement in the great Epirote @-@ Achaean @-@ Sicilian alliance against the Empire of Nicaea , his defeat and capture at the Battle of Pelagonia and his captivity at the hands of the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos ( r . 1259 – 1261 ) , a final peace treaty was delayed until William 's release in 1262 . The treaty , signed at the residence of the Archbishop of Thebes , essentially restored the status quo ante : William recognized Guglielmo , Narzotto , and Grapella as triarchs , and they in turn swore their allegiance to him . The fortress of Negroponte was razed , but Venice retained and even increased its quarter in the city , as well as retaining its exclusive right to levy customs in Euboea , except for the triarchs , the Prince , and their agents . Thus , Venice retained some of its 1256 gains , but overall the treaty was regarded as a setback , in view of the considerable expenses incurred . For some time afterwards , Venice was content to exercise her financial privileges , and refrained from meddling with the island 's politics .
= Southern black bream =
The southern black bream ( Acanthopagrus butcheri ) ( also known as the black bream , southern bream and blue @-@ nosed bream ) is a species of marine and freshwater fish of the porgy family , Sparidae . It is a deep @-@ bodied fish , occasionally confused with other similar species that occur within its range , but is generally distinguished from these species by a lack of yellow ventral and anal fins . Southern black bream are endemic to Australia , inhabiting the southern coast from Shark Bay in Western Australia to Mallacoota , Victoria , as well as Tasmania .
The species is primarily an inhabitant of estuaries and coastal lakes , rarely entering the ocean , as it cannot complete its life cycle in a fully marine environment . During the breeding season , the species is known to penetrate into the upper reaches of rivers to spawn , causing an influx of juveniles in the estuaries a few months later . Southern black bream are opportunistic predators , consuming a wide range of crustaceans , molluscs , polychaetes and fish .
The southern black bream is a major target for both commercial and amateur fishermen due to its high quality flesh , with over 300 tonnes of fish taken each year by commercial fisheries . Anglers also seek out the fish for its sporting qualities , with the development of lure fishing for bream adding to this attraction . Aquaculture techniques for the species are being developed , with a slow growth rate the major hurdle to large scale food production .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The southern black bream is one of eleven species in the genus Acanthopagrus , part of the porgy family Sparidae . The Sparidae are perciform fish in the suborder Percoidei . The southern black bream was at first confused with its nearly identical east coast relative , the surf bream ( Acanthopagrus australis ) , with specimens initially grouped under the name Mylio australis by Rudall , Hale and Sheriden . In a 1949 review of the Australian " silver breams , " Ian Munro found that M. australis was in fact two separate species , creating the new species name of Mylio butcheri to accommodate the southern black bream . Munro based this classification on a number of new specimens , one of which was from the Gippsland Lakes , Victoria , which he designated to be the holotype . Mylio butcheri was later changed to Acanthopagrus butcheri when the true genus of the species was identified .
Acanthopagrus butcheri has a number of common names , many of which are applied to a number of related fish species , both in Australia and worldwide . The species is commonly referred to in publications as the " southern black bream " to avoid confusion with the black sea bream and other closely related species loosely given the name " black bream . " The species is known regionally by the names " black bream , " " Perth bream , " " Gippsland bream " and the " blue @-@ nose bream . " The latter name is given to mature fish over 1 kg in weight , as at this point their snouts begin to develop a bluish tinge . The Department of the Environment , Water , Heritage and the Arts of the Federal Government designated black bream as preferred name . Black bream has also been designated the standard name by the CSIRO Division of Marine and Atmospheric Research in commercial fishing in Australia .
= = Description = =
The southern black bream has a deep , moderately compressed body , with both the dorsal and ventral profiles equally curved . The mouth is of moderate size in comparison with the body , and contains six curved , peg like incisors in the front of both upper and lower jaws . The molars are set in series of four or five on each side of the upper jaw , and in series of three or four on the sides of the lower jaw , becoming smaller in size anteriorly . The body is covered with large scales , which may be cycloid or weakly ctenoid in shape . The head is mostly scale @-@ free , with the exception of parts of the operculum . A low , scaly sheath covers the bases of the soft dorsal , anal and caudal fins . The lateral line scale count is 52 – 58 . There is a single dorsal fin originating a little behind the posterior edge of the operculum , consisting of 10 to 13 spines set in front of 10 to 13 soft rays . The anal fin consists of 3 spines anterior to 8 to 10 soft rays , while the pectoral fin has 14 to 16 rays and the ventral has one large spine and 5 soft rays . The southern black bream is golden brown or bronze coloured on the back and sides , with greenish reflections when fresh , while the belly and chin are white . The fins are all dusky in colour , with the caudal fin often a dusky olive brown . The species has been known to reach a total maximum length of 60 cm ( 23 1 ⁄ 2 in ) and a weight of 4 kg ( 8 3 ⁄ 4 lb ) , but is much more common around 23 – 25 cm ( 9 – 9 3 ⁄ 4 in ) and under 2 kg .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The southern black bream is endemic to southern Australia , inhabiting coastal waters from Shark Bay , Western Australia in the west to Mallacoota , Victoria in the east and south around the entire Tasmanian coastline . The species is primarily an inshore species , although has been found on rare occasions on deeper reefs on the continental shelf . Southern black bream primarily inhabit estuarine environments , penetrating into the far reaches of freshwater creeks and rivers during the summer spawning season . They are also known from a number of coastal lakes and intermittently open estuaries . In estuarine and freshwater environments they seek out the cover of structures such as fallen tree branches , jetties , oyster leases and rocky areas , while in deeper areas of coastal lakes , they are often found over bare mud and sand substrates . The species is rarely found in the ocean , but are often washed out of creeks during times of high river flow and are able to survive in the marine environment , where they inhabit inshore reefs and rocky shorelines .
The species is most common in southern Victoria , where it inhabits numerous estuaries . The Gippsland Lakes , Mallacoota Inlet and Lake Tyers are the most densely populated bodies of water in the state and the species is often found along the coast . It is not as prolific in South Australia , with the Coorong and Kangaroo Island being the main bream @-@ producing areas in the state . The low numbers may be correlated with the state 's lack of rivers and estuaries , although bream have been caught in unexpected areas , including the Gulfs , as well as deep rocky reefs off Streaky Bay in lobster traps . Southern black bream are prevalent in southern Western Australia , with large numbers of estuaries holding the species . The Culham and Stokes Inlets are known to have large populations of the fish .
= = Biology = =
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Southern black bream are opportunistic omnivores , consuming a wide range of prey , including sessile , burrowing , benthic and pelagic species . The diet of the species varies between rivers , with their opportunistic feeding methods showing little pattern between seasons , although they appear to have certain prey preferences when two or more possible prey species are present . Crustaceans , including crabs , prawns , amphipods and copepods , are commonly taken , as are a number of polychaete and annelid worms . Bivalves such as mussels and cockles are crushed in the bream 's powerful jaws , with small fish such as gobies and anchovies also taken . Algae of the genus Enteromorpha are also a major component of most fish 's diets . Fish feeding in the upper reaches of river have different prey , reflecting the freshwater fauna , with insects , hardyheads , tadpoles , brine shrimp and gastropods taken . Studies from the Swan River suggest that there is a shift in diet with age . Younger fish consume amphipods , polychaetes and small individuals of various molluscs . The number of amphipods consumed decreased in the diets of older fish while the number of large molluscs , crabs and teleosts taken increased . The fish actively forage the substrate while swimming with their head down , snapping their prey down with little chewing .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Southern black bream become sexually mature at different ages throughout their range , with Western and South Australian fish maturing by two to three years of age , while Victorian fish mature at five years . There is also a difference in maturation age between the sexes , as females generally mature one year later than males . The timing of spawning is also variable over the species range , with fish in Western Australia able to spawn from July to November , South Australian fish spawning between November and January and Victorian fish in October to November . Reproducing fish migrate into the upper reaches of rivers and streams , where they shed their eggs , with each fish producing up to three million per season . The eggs are small and pelagic , hatching two days or so after fertilisation . The young bream spend the next four years of their lives living in rivers , estuaries and parts of the coastline , often seen schooling over seagrass beds in shallow reaches of estuaries . It is when they reach five years in age that fish living in the marine environment move offshore to deeper reefs , returning to the rivers to spawn , as they cannot complete their life cycle in the ocean . Southern black bream are known to live to 29 years of age .
A number of unusual reproductive features have been observed in the species including a number hermaphroditic individuals which have both functional ovaries and testes , with the ability for a change to the preference of one sex also occasionally observed . The species has also been known to hybridise with the closely related species Acanthopagrus australis forming viable offspring , themselves able to backcross with the parent species . This is only known from one coastal lake where the two species are landlocked together for extended periods , promoting interbreeding and the production of offspring with morphological traits intermediate between the two species . The setting required to cause hybridisation , however is too rare to consider the two species subspecies , or even a single species .
= = = Predators = = =
Apart from humans , a variety of seabirds are the southern black bream 's main predators , with the pelican , little black cormorant and great cormorant prominent . The species is also taken by larger fish including sharks , rays and a number of large predatory teleosts such as mulloway and flathead . A number of ectoparasites are known from the species , including species from the Copepoda , Monogenea , Branchiura , Isopoda and Hirudinea .
= = Relationship to humans = =
Southern black bream are one of the most important species to both commercial and recreational fisheries throughout its range , valued for its flavoursome and moist flesh . Due to its marketability , as well as its high tolerance to a wide range of salinity , the species has become a candidate for inland aquaculture in saline dams .
= = = Commercial fishery = = =
The southern black bream is one of the most important species to the commercial fisheries in both Victoria and southern Western Australia , although only small numbers are harvested in South Australian waters due to the lower populations . Victoria produces the majority of the catch , with the Gippsland region alone producing 80 % of the state 's haul . A. butcheri has been taken from the Gippsland Lakes since the 1880s when they were the predominantly targeted species , although during the 1920s mullet became the most frequently caught species in the lakes . The bream catch from the lakes now fluctuates between 200 and 400 tonnes per year . The Mallacoota inlet and Lake Tyers make up the other important bream @-@ producing regions of the state . In South Australia , bream are only commercially taken from the Coorong which has yielded 10 to 70 tonnes of the species per year since the 1970s . In lower Western Australia the Culham and Stokes inlet produce the bulk of the state 's catch , with annual hauls far greater now than during the early 1990s . During the 1970s and 1980s , Western Australia had a modest bream catch of around 26 tonnes per year , a figure which rocketed to 103 @.@ 9 tonnes in the 1992 / 3 season before receding to around 28 tonnes per year since 2000 . The species is commonly taken by gill nets , beach seine and haul nets , as well as by handline . The fish are normally sold fresh whole or as fillets in local markets throughout the states they are taken in .
= = = Recreational fishery = = =
Southern black bream have long been a favourite target for anglers who seek out the species for both its fighting qualities and high quality flesh . Bream are also popular due to their accessibility , with fish commonly caught from harbour and estuary banks , piers and rock walls , therefore eliminating the need for a boat in most regions . Research in Western Australia has shown that anglers take more bream than commercial fishermen , with a 1979 study indicating that at least 232 tonnes were taken , more than double that of the commercial harvest at its peak , although with the advent of catch and release fishing this figure has dropped .
Bream are commonly caught around structures within an estuary , including fallen branches , piers , rock walls , bridge abutments and other man made structures as well as on mud and sand banks where shellfish and crustaceans dwell . Although bream are opportunistic feeders , they can often be very difficult to catch in areas subject to high fishing pressure . Light fishing lines and sinkers are used to avoid spooking the fish and , as with all fishing , live bait produces the best results . Various crustaceans such as nippers , prawns and crabs are commonly used alongside various species of beach and tube worm . Frozen and cut bait such as prawns , mussels , cockles and fish pieces are also effective . Rigs are usually kept simple and light , with running ball or bean sinkers used on a light line from two up to four kilograms in breaking strength tied to a size 6 – 1 hook . In fast flowing waters , heavier sinkers may be needed to keep the bait in the target area long enough to be noticed by a fish . Burley is often introduced into the water , with chopped pilchards or chicken pellets soaked in fish oil popular amongst anglers . In recent years , the use of lures and flies on southern black bream has been successfully developed , with the species known to attack both hard bodied minnow and spinnerbait type lures , as well as soft plastic lures and saltwater flies .
The southern black bream is protected by size and bag limits in all the states it inhabits , which anglers must be aware of or face fines . In Western Australia the size limit is 25 cm with only 2 fish over 40 cm allowed to be taken from the Swan or Canning Rivers , while the bag limit varies throughout the state with West Coast allowing 4 per angler , Gascoyne 8 per angler , and Southern and Northern 20 per angler . In South Australia the daily bag limit is 10 per person , with a minimum legal size of 28 cm , which is the same limit as Victoria .
= = = Aquaculture = = =
Southern black bream are relatively easy to grow in captivity , with fish usually spawning during their natural season without needing the addition of hormones . Despite this , bream are not bred on a commercial basis due to a comparatively slow growth rate and a low fillet recovery . Studies by Sarre in 1999 , however , showed that the species can survive well in saline ponds with deep enough waters as long as food is supplemented to the ponds . This has led to the proposal of the breeding of the species to stock inland saline ponds for the use of recreational fishing , much like trout and barramundi are stocked elsewhere in Australia . Although the growth rate is currently too slow for food production purposes , genetic selection may allow the breeding of faster @-@ growing fish for market purposes . Southern black bream are currently bred to stock depleted estuaries , and thus their requirements for farming are already well known .
= = Similar species = =
A number of other members of the Sparidae inhabit Australian waters and maybe confused with A. butcheri . The yellowfin bream , Acanthopagrus australis is the most similar species to A. butcheri , overlapping in northern Victoria , with hybridisation events suggesting a recent divergence time , allowing few genetic differences to accumulate between the species . As its name suggests , the yellow fins of the yellowfin bream are distinctive . Overlapping the distribution of A. butcheri in the west is Acanthopagrus latus , the western yellowfin bream , which can be distinguished by the prominent yellow ventral , anal and lower caudal fins . The tarwhine , Rhabdosargus sarba , is also similar in shape , but possesses gold horizontal stripes which allow for identification .
= French battleship Gaulois =
Gaulois was a Charlemagne @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the French Navy in the mid @-@ 1890s . She spent most of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron ( Escadre de la Méditerranée ) . The ship accidentally rammed two other French warships early in her career , although neither was seriously damaged , nor was the ship herself .
When World War I began , she escorted troop convoys from French North Africa to France for a month and a half . Gaulois was ordered to the Dardanelles in November 1914 to guard against a sortie into the Mediterranean by the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben . In 1915 , she joined British ships in bombarding Turkish fortifications . She was badly damaged during one such bombardment in March and had to beach herself to avoid sinking . She was refloated and sent to Toulon for permanent repairs . Gaulois returned to the Dardanelles and covered the Allied evacuation in January 1916 . On 27 December 1916 , she was en route for the Dardanelles after a refit in France when she was torpedoed and sunk by the German submarine UB @-@ 47 .
= = Design and description = =
Gaulois was 117 @.@ 7 metres ( 386 ft 2 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 26 metres ( 66 ft 6 in ) . At deep load , she had a draught of 7 @.@ 4 metres ( 24 ft 3 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 4 metres ( 28 ft ) aft . She displaced 10 @,@ 361 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 197 long tons ) normally , and 11 @,@ 325 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 150 long tons ) at deep load .
The ship used three 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines , one engine per shaft . They produced 14 @,@ 420 ihp ( 10 @,@ 750 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials using steam generated by 20 Belleville water @-@ tube boilers . Gaulois reached a top speed of 18 @.@ 024 knots ( 33 @.@ 380 km / h ; 20 @.@ 742 mph ) on her trials . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 101 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 084 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 3 @,@ 776 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 993 km ; 4 @,@ 345 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Gaulois carried her main armament of four 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of ten 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1893 guns , eight of which were mounted in individual casemates and the remaining pair in shielded mounts on the forecastle deck amidships . She also carried eight 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1893 guns in shielded mounts on the superstructure . The ship 's anti @-@ torpedo boat defences consisted of twenty 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 47 mm Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns , fitted in platforms on both masts , on the superstructure , and in casemates in the hull . Gaulois mounted four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside . Two of these were submerged , angled 20 ° from the ship 's axis , and the other two were above the waterline . They were provided with twelve Modèle 1892 torpedoes . As was common with ships of her generation , she was built with a plough @-@ shaped ram .
The Charlemagne @-@ class ships carried a total of 820 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 807 @.@ 7 long tons ) of Harvey armour . They had a complete waterline armour belt that was 3 @.@ 26 metres ( 10 ft 8 in ) high . It tapered from its maximum thickness of 400 mm ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) to a thickness of 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at its lower edge . The armoured deck was 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick on the flat and was reinforced with an additional 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) plate where it angled downwards to meet the armoured belt . The main turrets were protected by 320 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) of armour and their roofs were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Their barbettes were 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The outer walls of the casemates for the 138 @.@ 6 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 46 in ) guns were 55 mm thick and they were protected by transverse bulkheads 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The conning tower walls were 326 mm ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) thick and its roof consisted of 50 mm armour plates . Its communications tube was protected by armour plates 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick .
= = Construction and career = =
Gaulois , named after the tribes that inhabited France during Roman times , was ordered on 22 January 1895 from the Arsenal de Brest . Her sister ship Charlemagne was being built in the slipway intended for Gaulois so the latter ship 's construction was delayed until the former was launched . Gaulois was laid down on 6 January 1896 and launched on 6 October of the same year . She was commissioned on 23 October 1899 after completing her sea trials .
Together with Charlemagne , the ship was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of the Mediterranean Squadron and they arrived at Toulon in January 1900 . Stormy weather during this voyage caused her captain to complain about her forward turret and casemates being flooded out in a head sea . The following month , while exercising in the harbour at Hyères , Gaulois accidentally rammed the destroyer Hallebarde , gouging a 4 @-@ by @-@ 1 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 13 @.@ 1 by 4 @.@ 9 ft ) hole in the smaller ship . Hallebarde reached Toulon where she was repaired while the battleship was barely damaged . On 18 July , after combined manoeuvres with the Northern Squadron ( Escadre du Nord ) , the ship participated in a naval review conducted by the President of France , Émile Loubet , at Cherbourg . The following year , Gaulois and the Mediterranean Squadron participated in an international naval review by President Loubet in Toulon with ships from Spain , Italy and Russia .
In October 1901 , the 1st Battleship Division , under the command of Rear Admiral ( contre @-@ amiral ) Leonce Caillard , was ordered to proceed to the port of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos , then owned by the Ottoman Empire . After landing two companies of marines that occupied the major ports of the island on 7 November , Sultan Abdul Hamid II agreed to enforce contracts made with French companies and to repay loans made by French banks . The 1st Division departed Lesbos in early December and returned to Toulon . In May 1902 , the ship became the flagship of Vice Admiral ( vice @-@ amiral ) François Fournier who led a small delegation to celebrate the unveiling of the statue of Comte de Rochambeau in Lafayette Square , Washington , D.C. President Theodore Roosevelt was received aboard on 23 May and the ship made port visits to New York City and Boston before heading back to France . She made another port visit to Lisbon before arriving back at Toulon on 14 June .
During exercises off Golfe @-@ Juan , Gaulois accidentally rammed the battleship Bouvet on 31 January 1903 . Neither ship was seriously damaged in the accident . In April 1904 , she was one of the ships that escorted President Loubet during his state visit to Italy . Later that year , the ship made port visits in Thessaloniki and Athens with the rest of the Mediterranean Squadron . A wireless telegraph was installed aboard Gaulois in December 1905 . Together with the battleships Iéna and Bouvet , the ship aided survivors of the April 1906 eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Naples . For the rest of the decade , she participated in various exercises with the Mediterranean Squadron and made a number of port visits in France and its dependencies . Gaulois was briefly transferred to the Northern Squadron in August 1910 and she participated in a large naval review by President Armand Fallières off Cap Brun on 4 September 1911 . The ship was reassigned to the Mediterranean Squadron in October 1912 and she participated in a naval review by President Raymond Poincaré on 10 June 1913 . In June 1914 , the Navy planned to assign Gaulois to the Training Division of the Squadron as of October , but this was cancelled upon the outbreak of war in August .
= = = World War I = = =
Together with the older French pre @-@ dreadnoughts , the ship 's first mission in the war was to escort troop convoys from North Africa to France . Later in September , her main turrets required repairs in Bizerte as the forward turret was having difficulty traversing . Following these repairs , Gaulois was ordered to Tenedos Island , not far from the Gallipoli Peninsula of Turkey , in November to guard against a sortie by the German battlecruiser Goeben . She relieved the battleship Suffren which needed a refit in Toulon . She became flagship of Rear Admiral Émile Guépratte upon her arrival on 15 November . He transferred his flag back to Suffren when she returned on 10 January 1915 .
During the bombardment of 19 February , Gaulois supported Suffren as the latter ship bombarded Turkish forts covering the mouth of the Dardanelles . Late in the day , she bombarded the fort at Orhaniye Tepe on the Asiatic side of the strait . During the subsequent bombardment on 25 February , the ship anchored some 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) from the Asiatic shore and engaged the forts at Kum Kale and Cape Helles . Their return fire was heavy enough to force Gaulois to up anchor before she could suppress their guns . Later in the day , she closed to within 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) of the forts and engaged them with her secondary armament . During the day 's action , the ship was hit twice , but these did little damage .
On 2 March , the French squadron bombarded targets in the Gulf of Saros , at the base of the Gallipoli Peninsula . Five days later , the French squadron attempted to suppress the Turkish guns while British battleships bombarded the fortifications . Gaulois was hit by a 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) shell during this attack that caused little damage as it failed to detonate . Admiral Guépratte and his squadron returned to the Gulf of Saros on 11 March where they again bombarded Turkish fortifications .
They returned to assist in the major attack on the fortifications planned for 18 March . British ships made the initial entry into the Dardanelles , but the French ships passed through them to engage the forts at closer range . Gaulois was hit twice during this bombardment ; the first shell struck the quarterdeck , but caused little damage other than deforming the deck . The second shell hit just above the waterline on the starboard bow and did little obvious damage . In reality , however , it pushed in the armour plates below the waterline and opened up a hole 7 metres ( 23 ft 0 in ) by 22 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) through which water flooded in . Little could be done to staunch the inflow and Captain Briard decided to head for the Rabbit Islands , north of Tenedos , where he could beach his ship for temporary repairs . He ordered the non @-@ essential crewmen off the ship in case she foundered en route , but managed to reach the islands , escorted by Charlemagne .
Gaulois was refloated on 22 March and departed for Toulon via Malta three days later , escorted by Suffren . They encountered a storm on 27 March off Cape Matapan and the ship began taking on water as the repairs began to leak under the pressure of the storm . She radioed for assistance later that night and the armoured cruiser Jules Ferry and three torpedo boats arrived several hours later . The ship arrived in the Bay of Navarin the following morning and more repairs were made . Gaulois arrived without further incident at Toulon on 16 April and entered drydock the following day . The Navy took the opportunity to increase her stability by lightening her masts , removing some armour from the superstructure and conning tower as well as dismounting two 100 mm and six 47 mm guns . In addition , the ship was fitted with an anti @-@ torpedo bulge that stretched between her bridge and aft superstructure to increase her beam and thus her stability .
Her repairs were completed by early June and Gaulois departed for the Dardanelles on 8 June . She reached Lemnos on 17 June and relieved her sister St Louis on 27 July . The ship anchored 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) off the shore on 11 August to bombarded a Turkish artillery battery at Achi Baba . Splinters from return fire detonated a 100 mm shell and started a small fire , but it was put out without much trouble . On her voyage home , Gaulois ran aground at the harbour entrance and had to unload most of her ammunition before she could be refloated on 21 August . Together with the pre @-@ dreadnought République , the ship covered the Allied evacuation from Gallipoli in January 1916 . Badly in need of a refit , she sailed for Brest on 20 August where her captain argued that the range of her main armament needed to be increased by 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) if she was to be considered fit for the battleline . Some thought was given to disarming her and converting her into a barracks ship , but nothing was done before the ship was ordered back to the Eastern Mediterranean on 25 November .
= = = = Fate = = = =
By 27 December 1916 , Gaulois had reached the Aegean Sea and was off the southern coast of Greece when she was torpedoed by the submarine UB @-@ 47 despite her escort of one destroyer and two armed trawlers . The explosion of the single torpedo hit slightly abaft the mainmast . It killed two crewmen and another pair drowned as they attempted to abandon ship . The ship capsized 22 minutes after being hit and sank 14 minutes later off Cape Maleas at 36 ° 15 ′ N 23 ° 42 ′ E.
= Cynna Kydd =
Cynna Kydd ( née Neele ; born 18 September 1981 in Kyabram , Victoria ) is a former Australian professional netball player . Kydd achieved some success in netball and swimming in her early life , and played in the Dairy Farmers State League at the age of 16 . She was also selected for the national under @-@ 21 team in 1999 and was accepted by the Australian Institute of Sport , before launching her professional career .
Kydd was a goal shooter for the Melbourne Kestrels in the Commonwealth Bank Trophy from 2000 to 2006 , serving as club captain for the last two years . An accurate and high @-@ scoring shooter , she was one of the league 's top players of that era , winning the competition 's Most Valuable Player award for 2004 . She was also a frequent member of the Australian national netball team from 2003 to 2005 . Her career was hampered by injury and poor form in later years , and she struggled after being dropped from the national side in early 2005 and missing out on a return in time for the 2006 Commonwealth Games after sustaining a serious concussion late in the year .
Kydd made the surprise decision at the beginning of the 2006 season to transfer from the Kestrels , where she had been captain , to the club 's more successful rival , the Melbourne Phoenix , but she lasted only one season before walking away from the club to travel overseas . She subsequently signed with New Zealand club Canterbury Flames for the 2007 National Bank Cup season , but withdrew her services before playing a game due to injury . She subsequently moved to England , where she currently plays mixed minor grade netball .
= = Early life = =
Kydd was born in the Victorian regional town of Kyabram , and began playing competitive netball at age nine . Though also a talented swimmer , she was forced to make a choice between the two sports , and ultimately chose netball . She played for local and Goulburn Valley representative teams as a teenager and , in 1998 at the age of 16 , was selected to play for the dominant Eastside Netball Club in the state Dairy Farmers State League competition , alongside three national league players . Despite a regular three @-@ hour commute and having to juggle sporting commitments with studies at Kyabram Secondary College , she played an integral role in Eastside 's premiership that year . She was subsequently named in the state under @-@ 21 squad for the annual Australian National Netball Championships and in the Melbourne Kestrels squad for the 1999 season .
Despite never having played a national league game , Kydd was selected in the national under @-@ 21 ( U @-@ 21 ) team in 1999 , which , as a result of reforms made that year , automatically saw her admitted to the Australian Institute of Sport ( AIS ) . She spent the 1999 season playing for the AIS team in the Victorian state league , before switching to their South Australian counterparts for the 2000 season . Kydd , at 188 cm ( 6 ft 2 in ) tall , established a reputation as an effective shooter , and despite often missing matches as a result of her national U @-@ 21 team was a key part of the team .
= = Commonwealth Bank Trophy debut = =
Kydd made her debut for the Melbourne Kestrels in April 2000 but , because of her relative inexperience , was asked to play only two games for them over the season . She earned selection in the U @-@ 21 national squad to tour Jamaica in May , followed by a successful stint with the team as part of the squad for the Youth World Cup in Wales . At season 's end Kydd was named in the state open team for the national championships and , while remaining in the U @-@ 21 squad , was also named in the initial national open squad , despite having only played two national league games . However , the national squad was at the time enjoying an unusual glut of shooters , and she was cut amidst fierce competition from six other prominent players , all aiming at just three positions in the final team . Her disappointment was , however , partly offset when she won the Commonwealth Bank Trophy 's Best New Talent award , worth A $ 5 @,@ 000 , in February 2001 .
Kydd graduated from high school at the end of 2000 , and moved to Kensington , an inner suburb of Melbourne , in February 2001 to study tourism and hospitality at Victoria University . At the beginning of the 2001 season , two of the Kestrels ' main stars , Shelley O 'Donnell and Janine Ilitch , both announced that they would be sidelined for most or all of the season because of pregnancy , and Kydd was called upon to fill the vacancy . She became a core player instantly , and although the Kestrels struggled , Kydd formed an effective combination with goal shooter Amanda Burton ( who she had previously played with in the interstate competition ) . Kydd was among the team 's standout performers and was frequently praised in the media for both her accuracy and consistency , coming away at season 's end with 390 goals and the fifth highest scoring average in the competition . She continued to represent Australia in under @-@ 21 competition , being selected for several home matches against England and a tour of New Zealand , and was again selected in the national open squad in the lead @-@ up to the 2002 Commonwealth Games , but was once again cut from the final team .
= = Furthering her career = =
Though she had missed out on Commonwealth Games selection , Kydd had established a reputation as a particularly difficult opponent by the beginning of the 2002 Commonwealth Bank Trophy season . She was consistently among the league 's top goalers , particularly after she was again paired with Burton , due to the axing of struggling new recruit Kristy Doyle . She scored her 500th goal with the Kestrels in the middle of the season , and excelled against some particularly difficult opponents , including then @-@ Australian captain Kathryn Harby @-@ Williams . She was integral in helping the Kestrels make the semifinals for the first time since 1999 , and was the third @-@ highest scorer in the league . Kydd was again named in the extended national squad at the end of the season , and finally survived the cut , being named in the squad to tour Jamaica in early 2003 , beating rival shooters Jane Altschwager and Megan Dehn ( née Anderson ) for the vacancy caused by the retirement of veteran player Jacqui Delaney .
= = = International selection = = =
At only 21 Kydd was the youngest player on the tour of Jamaica and , while she toured with the remainder of the team , was overlooked for a Test position . She finally made her full début against South Africa not long afterwards , and managed to cement her position with a superb performance , managing an accuracy rate of 94 % in the third Test . This performance , along with similar form in the national league , led to her selection in the starting squad for the 2003 Netball World Championships . She played every game in the world championships in July at the expense of ageing veteran Eloise Southby , a decision which was the cause of some controversy . She subsequently helped the Kestrels to the elimination final and , at the end of the season , was named as the team 's new vice @-@ captain , with predecessor Janine Ilitch assuming the captaincy . She also won the coveted Commonwealth Bank Trophy Player 's Player Award , and tied for third in the Most Valuable Player count .
= = = Career peak = = =
With the experience gained from several seasons in the national league , Kydd reached her peak in 2004 . She was rarely troubled in the national league all year , scoring 436 goals at an average accuracy of 79 % ; statistics among the best in the league . Although Burton had retired , creating a supporting void that the Kestrels struggled to fill , she again played a vital role in the team reaching the finals series . She also established her place as a regular member of the national team , playing in Test series against South Africa and New Zealand and a practice match against England . Though she struggled initially against the Silver Ferns , Kydd improved over the space of the series and was awarded player of the match in the third Test . At the end of the tour , she was given some praise for being among Australia 's best in what had been an otherwise disastrous series . She was rewarded for her form when she was a surprise choice for the 2004 Commonwealth Bank Trophy Most Valuable Player Award , being selected over favourite veteran internationals Catherine Cox and Sharelle McMahon . When captain Ilitch was ruled out for 2005 because of pregnancy , Kydd was the natural choice to replace her , and she was soon announced as the Kestrels ' new leader .
= = Form slump and injuries = =
Kydd graduated from university at the end of 2004 , but had significant difficulty finding employment as her netball commitments scared off prospective employers . She also became engaged to Garth Kydd , a member of the Australian men 's netball team , whom she married in April 2006 . Kydd was widely expected to again feature among the league 's best , however , she was disappointing against South Africa in February . She also struggled in the opening games of the national league season , a result largely attributed to nerves associated with the captaincy . She began to recover her form , but in May broke her finger . She continued to play but the injury severely inhibited her performance for four weeks . In June she was dropped from the national team for the first time in two years as a result of poor form and injury , with national coach Norma Plummer stating that she was " very disappointed that [ Kydd had ] let it drop " and that she " never thought she would have to [ cut her from the team ] " . The ageing Southby @-@ Halbish was brought in to replace her and Kydd admitted that her accuracy had been well below ideal levels . She improved markedly over the following two rounds , but on 23 July suffered major concussion after being hit hard in the head during a match against the Adelaide Thunderbirds , which required her to be taken to hospital . A brilliant performance against the Perth Orioles the following week seemed to suggest a quick recovery , however she was dogged with complications for the remainder of the season .
In an attempt to regain her position in the national squad , Kydd attended the extended squad 's first training camp in September 2005 , but was one of several players forced out after succumbing to a virus . She was subsequently left out of the team for a practice tour of Jamaica and New Zealand in the lead @-@ up to the 2006 Commonwealth Games , but continued her efforts to make the team for the Games . Finally , on 10 December 2005 , she voluntarily withdrew her name from selection , noting ongoing complications from the earlier concussion ( team doctors stated that she had probably attempted to return too quickly ) and low motivation .
= = Defection to the Melbourne Phoenix = =
After withdrawing from the Commonwealth Games squad , Kydd took a four @-@ month hiatus from the sport in order to recover from injury and regain motivation . She married fiancée Garth in April 2006 , and though widely known by her maiden name , decided to take on her husband 's surname . Kydd began the process of re @-@ signing with the Kestrels for the 2006 season , and returned to training with the club with March 2006 , but stunned the team when she defected to more successful rival Melbourne Phoenix only three weeks before the start of the season . The defection caused notable antagonism between the traditional rivals with Kydd 's former coach , Jane Searle and several team @-@ mates expressing shock at the suddenness of the switch .
After six years at the Kestrels , the defection saw Kydd forced to adapt to a new shooting combination with veteran international Sharelle McMahon . As she had had little opportunity to train with the new team before the opening of the season , the pair initially had some difficulty adjusting to each other 's style . After a tenuous start , however , the pair found form , and were able to form a relatively successful combination . Kydd scored 360 goals in the season , and assisted the Phoenix in becoming the top scoring side for the season , although occasionally patchy form from the team as a whole saw the Phoenix slip outside the top two at season 's end . Kydd was overlooked for a return to international selection during the 2006 – 07 season .
In October 2006 , Kydd announced that she was leaving the Phoenix after just one season , a move that stunned coach Julie Hoornweg . Kydd said that she was travelling overseas with her husband , leading to speculation she would play in New Zealand . Hoornweg said that if she had known that Kydd would not keep her long term commitment , then she would have rather invested in young talent , referring to Kydd as a " player at risk " . In November , New Zealand 's Canterbury Flames announced Kydd in their squad for the 2007 National Bank Cup . Her contract was to start in February 2007 , so that she could fulfil work commitments with Youth Hostels Association , Victoria . However , Kydd withdrew her services to the Flames without playing a match , citing medical advice , due to a concussion incident . In late 2007 , Kydd was playing mixed netball in the United Kingdom in the PIM Mixed A competition .
= Cake ( band ) =
Cake ( stylized CAKE ) is an American alternative rock band from Sacramento , California . Consisting of singer John McCrea , trumpeter Vince DiFiore , guitarist Xan McCurdy , bassist Gabe Nelson and drummer Paulo Baldi , the band has been noted for McCrea 's sarcastic lyrics and monotone vocals , DiFiore 's trumpet parts , and their wide @-@ ranging musical influences , including country music , Mariachi , rock , funk , Iranian folk music and hip hop . There is also an UK based alternative rock band existent with the same name .
Cake was formed in 1991 by McCrea , DiFiore , Greg Brown , Frank French and Shon Meckfessel , who soon left and was replaced by Nelson . Following the self @-@ release of its debut album , Motorcade of Generosity , the band was signed to Capricorn Records in 1995 and released its first single , " Rock ' n ' Roll Lifestyle " , which hit number 35 on the Modern Rock Tracks music chart and was featured on MTV 's 120 Minutes ; French and Nelson then left the band , and were replaced by Todd Roper and Victor Damiani . Cake 's second album , 1996 's Fashion Nugget , went platinum on the strength of its lead single , " The Distance " . Following a tour of Europe and the United States , both Brown and Damiani announced they were leaving Cake , which led to speculation about the band 's future ; McCrea eventually recruited Xan McCurdy to take over on guitar , and persuaded Nelson to return .
Prolonging the Magic , the band 's third album , was released in 1998 and went platinum , having shipped over one million units ; this was followed three years later by Comfort Eagle , the band 's first album on Columbia Records , featuring the single " Short Skirt / Long Jacket " which hit number 7 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . Following a series of tours , including several versions of the Unlimited Sunshine Tour , the band released Pressure Chief in 2004 , its second and last album on Columbia . After creating its own label , Upbeat Records , the band released Showroom of Compassion in 2011 , which became its first album to debut at the top of the Billboard charts , selling 44 @,@ 000 copies in the first week after release .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and Motorcade of Generosity ( 1991 – 1996 ) = = =
Cake was formed in 1991 when John McCrea , a Sacramento , California native who had moved to Los Angeles with a band only to see it " quickly crumble around him " , returned to Sacramento . He began looking for a new band to play with , having " grown tired of Sacramento 's coffeehouse circuit " , and quickly attracted trumpet player Vince DiFiore , guitarist Greg Brown , bassist Shon Meckfessel and drummer Frank French . All were active in the music scene at the time ; DiFiore notes that " [ McCrea ] came back and stole us from other bands " . The band soon came up with the name " Cake " ; rather than referring to the foodstuff , the name is meant to be " like when something insidiously becomes a part of your life ... [ we ] mean it more as something that cakes onto your shoe and is just sort of there until you get rid of it " . McFessel soon left to attend college , and was replaced by Gabe Nelson . After touring and becoming part of the club scene in San Francisco , the band independently recorded and released Motorcade of Generosity in 1994 , selling copies from their van as a method of paying touring expenses .
Motorcade was named one of the best indie releases of 1994 by Pulse ! , and after a concert at the Great American Music Hall Bonnie Simmons agreed to manage the band , leading to them signing a deal with Capricorn Records , who re @-@ released the album in 1995 . The first single , Rock ' n ' Roll Lifestyle , hit number 35 on the Modern Rock Tracks music chart and was featured on MTV 's 120 Minutes . Critical reactions to the album were largely positive ; Stephen Thompson in the Wisconsin State Journal described it as possessing " great lyrics , creative instrumentation and production that 's about as simple as production gets " , Thomas Conner praised it for being " soulful and smooth , witty and gritty , this record makes the ghosts of Bob Wills , Buddy Holly and Lou Reed smile " in the Tulsa World , and Matt Weitz in the Dallas Observer noted its " gimlet eye and sardonic humor " . The album was eventually nominated for a Bammy Award in the category of " Outstanding Debut Album " .
Nevertheless , some critics were less appreciative ; John Wirt , in The Advocate , praised the album 's sense of humor and " delicious " irreverence but noted that " [ the ] musicianship in Motorcade of Generosity suggests the Cake guys are mediocre players " . Mindy LaBernz , in The Austin Chronicle , described the album as " cover @-@ free , and , since we 're on the subject , genre @-@ free . A quartet made five by a trumpet player , Cake carry themselves with the snittiness of technically proficient , lyrically aware music lovers , who are almost anachronistically untrendy and brazenly proud of it " . The signing to Capricorn and re @-@ release of Motorcade led to both French and Nelson leaving the band , citing their dislike of " the prospect of extensive national touring " ; they were replaced by Todd Roper and Victor Damiani respectively .
= = = Fashion Nugget ( 1996 – 1998 ) = = =
Fashion Nugget , Cake 's second album , was released on September 17 , 1996 . Like Motorcade , it was produced by the band and released on Capricorn Records . Cake considered the album more professionally produced than Motorcade , despite references to its " raw " sound , and the reception was again generally positive ; critics noted the broadening of Cake 's sound , with Joshua Green noting in the Westword that " Nugget spans a broader range of topics than did Motorcade , with similarly appealing results " , and Matt Weitz in the Dallas Observer saying that " The gimlet eye and sardonic humor of 1994 's Motorcade of Generosity is intact , but Fashion Nugget is aptly named ; it updates Motorcade with beatboxy soul and hip @-@ hop rhythms " . The album 's first single , " The Distance " , written by Greg Brown , became the band 's biggest hit to date and is considered their " ubiquitous " song ; it hit number 5 on the RPM Alternative 30 , and entered the Modern Rock Tracks top 5 .
On the strength of " The Distance " , Fashion Nugget was certified gold on December 9 , 1996 and platinum on April 10 , 1997 . The second single from Fashion Nugget , a cover of the Freddie Perren and Dino Fekaris song " I Will Survive " , hit number 38 on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart . Although the band described it as a serious take on the original , one they 'd been playing live for years , original performer Gloria Gaynor considers it her least favorite version of the song due to its use of profanity . Following Fashion Nugget 's release , the band toured the United States , playing in cities including Tulsa , Chicago , Salt Lake City , Los Angeles , San Antonio , and Dallas . They later toured overseas , visiting the United Kingdom as a support act for Counting Crows , playing their own shows alongside the tour at venues including Dingwalls in London . The band also toured Japan ; a later tour of the US , starting in Minneapolis in June 1997 , was cancelled due to illness when McCrea was diagnosed with " fatigue and extreme exhaustion " . After McCrea recovered , the band continued touring , playing at the Big Stink festival in Vancouver , Washington , and the Jayhawk Music Festival in Lawrence , Kansas .
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1997 also saw lineup changes ; bassist Victor Damiani and guitarist Greg Brown both left , prompting speculation about the band 's survival ; McCrea noted that " Musically , there was a really great symbiosis and I really felt that it ( their departures , especially Brown 's ) was the most stupid thing in the world " , and said that he had considered dissolving the band . Brown and Damiani formed the " new @-@ wave influenced " Deathray ; their places within Cake were taken by Xan McCurdy and Gabe Nelson , whom McCrea persuaded to rejoin the band .
= = = Prolonging the Magic ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = =
With Brown and Damiani 's departure , McCrea felt " freer to experiment " with the next album , 1998 's Prolonging the Magic ; he wrote and produced every song . As a result of this experimentation , the album was noted as " loaded with spiced @-@ up instrumentation , including a few new ingredients like the pedal steel guitar and musical saw thrown in for extra flavour " . McCrea stated that he deliberately " approached writing this record without the guitar as the central assumption of all life in the universe " . Music Week described it as an " inspired collection of leftfield rock " , while Thor Christensen of The Dallas Morning News said that it " brims with the same dry humor the Sacramento band displayed in past hits such as ' The Distance ' and ' Rock and Roll Lifestyle ' : The leadoff track , ' Satan Is My Motor , ' puts a devilish new spin on the rock ' n ' roll car @-@ song tradition , while ' When You Sleep ' revolves around the question of what your fingers do while the rest of the body snoozes " . Other reviewers were less complimentary , with Mike Pattenden in The Times writing that " Prolonging the Magic suggests that [ Cake ] may well be destined to go down as one @-@ hit wonders ... While a handful stand out – the country waltz Mexico , You Turn the Screws and Hem of Your Garment – Prolonging the Magic shows McRea and company to be little more than an above average bar @-@ room act . Cake are surviving on songwriting crumbs " . The album peaked at number 33 on the Billboard 200 , was listed in The Columbian as the second best album of 1998 , and eventually went platinum after shipping over 1 million units .
The album 's first single , " Never There " , hit number 1 on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks , and was followed by " Let Me Go " in 1999 , which hit number 30 . Following Prolonging the Magic 's release , the band toured the United States , playing in cities including San Diego and Los Angeles . A tour of Europe was temporarily postponed in March after McCrea broke a bone in his hand while moving furniture , which also led to the delay of the European release of Prolonging the Magic . Both the album release and the tour happened in mid @-@ April , with Cake playing at the London Astoria . Later show locations in North America included Chicago , St. Louis , Missouri , and Toronto . A third single , " Sheep Go to Heaven " , was released in 2001 .
= = = Comfort Eagle ( 2001 – 2004 ) = = =
For their fourth album , Comfort Eagle , the band signed a deal with Columbia Records . Comfort Eagle was both produced and arranged by the band , and was recorded at Paradise Studios in Sacramento and Hyde Street Studios in San Francisco . Following the recording , drummer Todd Roper left the band , citing the demands extended touring would put on his time , and the commitments his two children , Griffin and Bella represented . He was replaced by Pete McNeal . The album 's release was preceded by the release of its first single , " Short Skirt / Long Jacket " , described as a parable about " the relationship between prosperity and the population boom ... There 's nothing more procreational than economic prosperity " . An accompanying video was directed by McCrea , and recorded using the DV system ; it featured vox populi recordings of members of the public listening to the song and giving their opinion . " Short Skirt / Long Jacket " hit number 2 on the Bear Rock Top 10 in Canada and number 7 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks ; the video became one of the 30 most requested tracks on MTV ; Billboard writers later listed the video as the 5th best of 2001 .
Comfort Eagle itself was released on July 24 , 2001 , to good reviews ; Michael D. Clark of The Houston Chronicle described it as " Cake at its best " , while a reviewer for The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution stated that the album 's songs were " among the best of the band 's career " , praising McCrea for widening his vocal repertoire . James Montgomery , writing for UWIRE , noted a stylistic change , saying that " While the core sound of the band – honky tonk guitars , mariachi horns and salsa rhythms – remain intact , they have been stripped down to the core , replaced instead with ill Casio beats , rubbery funk and Stax @-@ style horn bleats " . The album sold 22 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , the highest sales in the band 's history , and eventually went gold . With the exception of a slot at the Atlanta On The Bricks Festival , playing for 90 @,@ 000 people , the band chose to start the tour with small rather than large shows , such as in the Sacramento area , where they played for around 100 people . They launched their first full tour for the album in September , playing in the United States , Canada and across Europe .
A second single , " Love You Madly " , was released in 2002 , with an accompanying video again produced by McCrea . The video featured DiFiore and McNeal competing in a cooking competition , judged by Rick James , Phyllis Diller and Jeff Smith , and was noted by Billboard as " continuing the fresh , witty , and downright fun style seen in the " Short Skirt " video " . Cake had planned a second tour of Europe , followed by a series of shows around the United States , but in view of the September 11 attacks chose not to travel overseas . Instead , the band streamed a performance internationally from the Yahoo ! headquarters in California , playing emailed requests . The United States tour went ahead as planned , with Cake playing concerts in Birmingham , Alabama , St. Petersburg , Florida , Salt Lake City , and Las Vegas . This was followed by the Unlimited Sunshine Tour , a traveling festival headlined and planned by the band and featuring Modest Mouse , De La Soul and The Flaming Lips . A second Unlimited Sunshine Tour was undertaken in 2003 , featuring Cake , Cheap Trick and The Hackensaw Boys .
= = = Pressure Chief / B @-@ Sides and Rarities ( 2004 – 2011 ) = = =
Cake 's fifth album , Pressure Chief , was recorded in June 2004 in a converted house in Sacramento ; the album was again released on Columbia Records . Before its official release date on October 5 , the band played at the Austin City Limits Music Festival and KBCO 's World Class Rockfest . The album was also preceded by its first single , " No Phone " , which hit number 13 on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart ; the song covered the ubiquitous and privacy @-@ invading use of cell phones , and was described by Jeremy Mahadevan of the New Straits Times as " a traditionally minimalist Cake anthem , with a killer melody and , unique to this album , fairly extensive use of synths " . A second single , " Wheels " , was also released but failed to chart . Pressure Chief itself hit number 17 on the Billboard top 200 , spending 7 weeks in the charts , and received mixed reviews from critics . Although it was acknowledged as a continuation of their old work , albeit with an increased use of synthesisers , Sam Spies of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch noted that " the experiments in style that made Cake fun to listen to have all but disappeared from ' Pressure Chief ' ... What 's left is mostly uninspired , so @-@ called alternative rock " , and Graeme Hammond of the Sunday Herald Sun wrote that " the melodies are listless , the album bereft of anything with the verve of Short Skirt / Long Jacket or Comfort Eagle " .
Other critics were more generous ; Doug Elfman of the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal called it " another great and bizarre , twangy album of alternative @-@ singer @-@ songwriting stories about cars and horrible relationships " , while a reviewer in the New Straits Times noted its " smart , subtly dissident , and always catchy pop " . Following Pressure Chief 's release , the band toured North America , playing in cities including Albany , New York , and Montreal . A second tour , in 2005 , saw the band headline the 20 @-@ city Virgin College Mega Tour , playing alongside Gomez ; while the Tour was in California , the band announced that it had been dropped from Columbia Records . This was followed by a tour of Europe , as well as concerts in Australia and Jakarta , along with a 2006 repeat of the Unlimited Sunshine Tour , featuring Cake , Tegan and Sara and Gogol Bordello .
Cake later formed their own label , Upbeat Records , which allowed them to release the compilation album B @-@ Sides and Rarities on August 14 , 2007 . This was followed by a series of concerts , including at the IndigO2 in London , and a performance in Anchorage , Alaska . Reviews of B @-@ Sides and Rarities were generally good ; Devin Grant of The Post and Courier wrote that " For an album full of odds and ends , this Cake release is every bit as good , and every bit as fun , as the band 's previous studio releases " , while Catherine P. Lewis of The Washington Post noted that , although several live tracks reduced the album 's strength , " there are still enough charming nuggets to make this album less disposable than the typical rarities compilation " .
= = = Showroom of Compassion and upcoming seventh studio album ( 2011 – present ) = = =
After six years without a new studio album , Cake recorded Showroom of Compassion in 2010 and released it on January 11 , 2011 . Rather than having it professionally recorded , the band built their own solar @-@ powered studio in Sacramento over five years and chose to produce the album themselves there . The album was preceded by its first single , " Sick of You " , which was released in September 2010 , hitting number 4 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart . The album itself opened at number 1 on the Billboard Top 200 Albums , selling 44 @,@ 000 copies ; this marked not only the first time a Cake album had hit the number 1 spot in an opening week , but also the lowest sales numbers for an album at the top of that chart .
The album received fairly good reviews ; Scott Bergen of The Record described it as " one of their best albums " , while Jim Farber of the Daily News wrote that " Fifteen years after they batted out their first left @-@ field hit with ' The Distance , ' the band 's sound and words still have bite " . George Lang of The Oklahoman , however , wrote that it was " frustratingly lacking in many more songs worthy of the band 's late- ' 90s boom period " . To promote the album , Cake performed on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno before releasing Showroom of Compassion 's second single , " Long Time " . This was followed by a spring tour of both Europe and North America , concluding with a show in Toronto on May 21 .
On February 26 , 2011 , Cake performed a live set for " Guitar Center Sessions " on DirecTV . The episode included an interview with program host Nic Harcourt . In September 2011 , Cake released a 24 @-@ page , hand @-@ made visual book for their song , Bound Away . They will release a vinyl box set consisting of their six studio albums , their rarities album and the previously unreleased , Live at the Crystal Palace for Record Store Day 2014 . A new studio album was announced for an early 2014 release , although in September 2014 McCrea admitted they hadn 't yet begun to record a new album .
= = Influences and musical style = =
Cake incorporates a wide range of genres into its music , including country music , Mariachi , new wave , college rock , jazz , funk , Iranian folk music , Brazilian music and hip hop . McCrea himself cites Hank Williams , Tom Zé , the Golden Gate Quartet and Sly and the Family Stone as particular influences . The band is most often noted for three things : the prominence of DiFiore 's trumpet lines , McCrea 's ironic , sarcastic lyrics , and his " droll , deadpan ... monotone " vocals . DiFiore 's trumpet work originated with McCrea 's desire for a second melodic instrument to go with a song he had written ; " A lead guitar playing those lines would have been really hokey . I like it when it 's a contrapuntal thing , where the guitar is doing one melody , the vocal is doing another melody , and the trumpet plays this third melody . If the music can be transparent enough , you can hear all three at the same time " .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Motorcade of Generosity ( 1994 )
Fashion Nugget ( 1996 )
Prolonging the Magic ( 1998 )
Comfort Eagle ( 2001 )
Pressure Chief ( 2004 )
Showroom of Compassion ( 2011 )
= = Awards = =
Cake have been nominated for five awards : four California Music Awards and one MTV Video Music Award .
= = Band members = =
Current members
John McCrea – lead vocals , acoustic guitar , piano , organ , vibraslap ( 1991 – present )
Vince DiFiore – trumpet , keyboards , melodica , auxiliary percussion , background vocals ( 1991 – present )
Gabe Nelson – bass , background vocals ( 1992 – 1994 , 1997 – present )
Xan McCurdy – electric guitar , background vocals ( 1997 – present )
Paulo Baldi – drums , percussion , background vocals ( 2004 – present )
Former members
Shon Meckfessel – bass , background vocals ( 1991 )
Frank French – drums , background vocals ( 1991 – 1994 )
Greg Brown – electric guitar , organ , background vocals ( 1991 – 1997 )
Victor Damiani – bass , background vocals ( 1994 – 1997 )
Todd Roper – drums , background vocals ( 1994 – 2001 )
Pete McNeal – drums , background vocals ( 2001 – 2004 )
Timeline
= USS Montana ( ACR @-@ 13 ) =
USS Montana ( ACR @-@ 13 / CA @-@ 13 ) , also referred to as " Armored Cruiser No. 13 " , later renamed Missoula and reclassified CA @-@ 13 , was a Tennessee @-@ class armored cruiser of the United States Navy . She was built by the Newport News Drydock & Shipbuilding Co . ; her keel was laid down in April 1905 , she was launched in December 1906 , and she was commissioned in July 1908 . The final class of armored cruisers to be built for the US Navy , Montana and her sisters were armed with a main battery of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns , and were capable of a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
Montana spent her active duty career in the Atlantic Fleet . She made two cruises to the Mediterranean Sea to protect American citizens in the Ottoman Empire , the first in 1909 in the aftermath of the Young Turk Revolution and the second during the Balkan Wars in 1913 . Montana was also involved in political unrest in Central American countries , sending landing parties ashore in Haiti and in Mexico during the Occupation of Veracruz , both in 1914 .
After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Montana was tasked with convoy escort and training ship duties . With the end of the war in November 1918 came a new task , transporting American soldiers back from the battlefields of Europe . She made six round trips to France and carried back a total of 8 @,@ 800 men . Montana was then transferred to the Puget Sound Naval Yard in Washington State , where she was decommissioned and renamed Missoula . She remained in the reserve fleet until 1930 , when she was stricken under the terms of the London Naval Treaty . The ship was eventually sold for scrap in 1935 and broken up .
= = Design = =
Montana was 504 ft 6 in ( 153 @.@ 77 m ) long overall and had beam of 72 feet 10 inches ( 22 @.@ 20 m ) and a draft of 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 500 long tons ( 14 @,@ 700 t ) normally and up to 15 @,@ 981 long tons ( 16 @,@ 237 t ) at full load . The ship was propelled by two 4 @-@ cylinder , vertical triple @-@ expansion engines , with steam provided by sixteen coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers trunked into four funnels . The engines were rated at 23 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 22 knots ( 25 mph ; 41 km / h ) . She had a storage capacity for up to 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of coal , which allowed her to steam for 6 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 000 km ; 7 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 914 officers and men . Originally fitted with a pair of military masts , Montana had her foremast replaced with a cage mast in 1911 .
Montana was armed with a main battery of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber Mark 3 guns in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . These were supported by a secondary battery of sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber Mark 8 guns mounted in casemates , eight on each broadside . For defense against torpedo boats , she carried twenty @-@ two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber guns in single pedestal mounts either in casemates or sponsons in the hull . She also carried a variety of smaller guns , including twelve 3 @-@ pounder automatic guns and four 1 @-@ pounders . Like other contemporary armored cruisers , she was also armed with four 21 inches ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes located below the waterline in her hull . Montana was protected by a combination of Krupp cemented steel and older Harvey steel . The ship 's armored belt was 5 in ( 127 mm ) thick and the maximum thickness of the armor deck was 3 in thick . The main battery turret faces were 9 in ( 229 mm ) thick , as were the sides of the conning tower .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Montana was laid down at the Newport News Drydock & Shipbuilding Co. in Newport News on 29 April 1905 . Her completed hull was launched on 15 December 1906 , and after fitting @-@ out work was completed , the new cruiser was commissioned into the United States Navy on 21 July 1908 . She was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet and was transferred to Norfolk , Virginia . Montana steamed out of Norfolk on 5 August for a cruise off the eastern coast of the United States that lasted until 25 January 1909 .
After a stop in Charleston , South Carolina , she continued south through the Caribbean Sea , arriving at Colón , Panama on 29 January . There , she joined the Special Service Squadron . This duty was interrupted twice ; the first came in February , when she returned to Hampton Roads , Virginia , where she and the rest of the Atlantic Fleet greeted the Great White Fleet at the conclusion of its circumnavigation of the globe . The second came in April , owing to instability in the Ottoman Empire following the Young Turk Revolution that threatened American interests . Montana departed Guantanamo Bay , Cuba , on 2 April , when she was sent to the Mediterranean to protect Americans in the region . She remained there until 23 July , when she left Gibraltar , arriving in Boston on 3 August . She thereafter returned to her normal operations patrolling the eastern coast of the United States .
Montana departed Hampton Roads on 8 April 1910 , bound for South America for the Argentina Centennial . She steamed in company with her sister ship North Carolina , eventually reaching Maldonado , Uruguay , where the two cruisers met their sister Tennessee and the armored cruiser South Dakota , which had steamed down independently . The four ships then continued on to Bahía Blanca , Argentina , for the centennial celebrations . The ship left Argentina on 30 June and arrived back in Hampton Roads on 22 July . After resuming her normal peacetime routine for the following three months , Montana was tasked with escorting President William Howard Taft aboard Tennessee for a trip to Panama . The two ships departed Charleston on 10 November for the visit , which lasted a week . On 26 July 1911 , Montana was transferred to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet and she began an overhaul at the Portsmouth Navy Yard that lasted until 11 November 1912 . During the overhaul , a cage mast was installed in place of her original fore military mast .
After returning to service in late 1912 , Montana made another trip to the eastern Mediterranean , departing in December . Montana again joined Tennessee for the patrol , which was ordered in response to the Balkan Wars between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League , which again threatened American interests in the region . The ships operated under the command of Rear Admiral Austin M. Knight . During the trip , which lasted until June 1913 , she made stops in Beirut , İskenderun , and Mersin . After returning to the United States , the ship resumed her peacetime routine of training cruises off the American east coast , as well as cruises to Mexico , Cuba , and Haiti , over the following year . During this period , on 23 January 1914 , Montana was in Haiti when Michel Oreste abdicated from the presidency . Montana and the German protected cruiser SMS Vineta landed marines in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince to prevent rioting in the capital . Later that year , Montana took part in the United States occupation of Veracruz , where the ship 's commander , Louis McCoy Nulton , led a landing party in the city during the occupation . Montana also carried the remains on the seventeen sailors and marines who had been killed in the fighting back to New York City , arriving on 10 May . There , the Navy held a ceremony attended by President Woodrow Wilson and Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels .
= = = World War I = = =
After the United States entered World War I on 6 April 1917 , Montana initially was tasked with transporting men and materiel in the York River area , along with conducting training exercises . On 17 July , she was assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force ; she spent the majority of 1917 and 1918 escorting convoys from Hampton Roads , New York City , and Halifax , Nova Scotia to France . These operations included a troopship convoy of four transports — Finland , Henderson , Antilles , and San Jacinto — carrying part of the American Expeditionary Forces on 6 August 1917 . In early 1918 , she was briefly used as a training ship for naval cadets from the United States Naval Academy in the Chesapeake Bay . A troopship convoy followed in June 1918 in company with the cruisers South Dakota and Huntington and the destroyers Gregory and Fairfax , protecting the Italian steamers Re d 'Italia , Caserta , and Duca d 'Aosta , the French Patria , and American transports Pocahontas and Susquehanna .
In September 1918 , Montana took part in another troopship convoy to France with the battleship Georgia , the armored cruiser North Carolina , and the destroyer Rathburne . The convoy consisted of the transports Princess Matoika , President Grant , Mongolia , Rijndam , Wilhelmina , British steamer Ascanius . The following month she joined the battleship Nebraska to escort twelve British merchant ships bound for Liverpool . Following the Allied victory in November 1918 , Montana was sent to France to begin the process of transporting American soldiers back from Europe . By July 1919 , she had made six round trips between France and the United States , carrying a total of some 8 @,@ 800 American soldiers .
After the conclusion of the repatriation effort , Montana was transferred to the west coast of the United States . She arrived in the Puget Sound Navy Yard in Seattle on 16 August , where she remained until 2 February 1921 , when she was decommissioned . During this period of inactivity , she was renamed Missoula on 7 June 1920 so her original name could be used for one of the planned South Dakota @-@ class battleships , and she reclassified with the hull number CA @-@ 13 . Though decommissioned in 1921 , the ship remained in the Navy 's inventory until 15 July 1930 , when she was formally stricken from the naval register , according to the terms of the London Naval Treaty , which placed aggregate tonnage limits on the cruiser fleets of the signatory countries . She was sold to John Irwin Jr. on 29 September and was eventually broken up in 1935 .
= Simone Russell =
Simone Russell is a fictional character on the American soap opera Passions , which aired on NBC from 1999 to 2007 and on DirecTV in 2007 – 08 . Passions followed the romantic and supernatural adventures in the fictional New England coastal town of Harmony .
Simone , a member of Passions ' Russell family , is introduced as the youngest daughter of Eve Russell and T. C. Russell , as well as the younger sister of Whitney Russell . While her early appearances center her love triangle with Chad Harris @-@ Crane and her sister Whitney , the character later receives more prominence on the show through her experience coming out as a lesbian to her family , and her relationship with Rae Thomas . The network defended the show 's treatment of Simone 's sexuality as a serious commentary on the topic .
Created by the soap 's founder and head writer James E. Reilly , the role was portrayed by three actresses over the course of the show : Lena Cardwell ( July 5 , 1999 to April 16 , 2001 ) , Chrystee Pharris ( April 17 , 2001 to April 22 , 2004 ) , and Cathy Jenéen Doe ( July 23 , 2004 – September 4 , 2007 ) . The character was created as a part of the show 's effort to represent a full African @-@ American family and full @-@ realized African @-@ American characters on television . The exact reasons behind Cardwell 's departure remain unknown while Pharris chose to leave to pursue other acting opportunities . Doe was the third and final actress to play Simone before the character was written off the show shortly before its transition to DirecTV .
Her storyline made daytime television history by having the first instance in a soap opera of two women in bed making love . The character is also notable for being daytime TV 's first African @-@ American lesbian . At the 17th GLAAD Media Awards , the show won Outstanding Daily Drama for its portrayal of Simone 's sexual orientation . The show 's representation of LGBT topics , and Cathy Jenéen Doe 's performance as Simone , received a mixed response from critics ; Doe was the principal actress during the storylines focusing on the character 's sexuality .
= = Character creation = =
= = = Background = = =
Sheraton Kalouria , senior vice president of NBC ’ s daytime programming , described the decision to create and cast a racially diverse ensemble , as seen with the inclusion of " the African American Russells and the Hispanic Lopez @-@ Fitzgeralds " in the soap 's four core families , as reflective of the show 's " truly color @-@ blind storytelling . " The cast emphasized the representation of an African @-@ American family and fully realized African @-@ American characters as the main attraction to the roles . Charles Divins , one of the actors who played Chad Harris @-@ Crane , viewed the show 's treatment of the Russells as " a strong African American family " as " refreshing . " Rodney Van Johnson praised the incorporation of a complete African @-@ American family as distinguishing Passions from other soap operas . He attributed the cast as bringing more positive portrayals of African @-@ Americans to daytime television :
" We are the only daytime drama with a full African @-@ American family . The Russells have a key role in the community . There aren 't just a flash in the pan . The storylines are heavy . The show has received a huge response from the African @-@ American community for that reason . "
= = = Characterization and casting = = =
Over the course of the show , Simone was played by three actresses : Lena Cardwell ( 1999 to 2001 ) , Chrystee Pharris ( 2001 to 2004 ) , and Cathy Jenéen Doe ( 2004 to 2007 ) . After seeing her audition , producers Reilly and Lisa de Cazotte considered the role ideal for Lena Cardwell . The show initially constructed the character primarily around her " major crush on street @-@ kid Chad Harris since he came to town . " Daniel R. Coleridge of TV Guide characterized Simone 's early behavior as " bitchy to her older sister , who was nothing but kind to her . " Variety 's Josef referred to the character as a " daredevil teen . " Cast members expressed disappointment at Cardwell 's departure from the show and the re @-@ casting of Simone . Tracey Ross described Cardwell as being " very sincere , completely authentic and without malice " in her performance . Johnson viewed himself as " a father figure to her " and said their close relationship helped make the Russell family more authentic and relatable to viewers . After leaving the show , Cardwell said she " received so much fan mail , it was overwhelming " and the experience " made me feel loved and appreciated . "
When assuming the role in 2001 , Pharris said her preparation consisted of asking her friends " as many questions as I could think of about Simone , Whitney and Chad " in order to make " the character my own by putting my own life experiences in the situation " . She commented that the ability to work closely with the producers allowed her to use her own family background as inspiration for her performance as Simone . While discussing the connection to her family , she stated : " my father had a temper so I made Simone have a temper too ! " Pharris explained she did not renew her contract in order to pursue other projects .
Doe was hired for the third and final recasting after moving to Los Angeles from New York , where she was primarily offered the role of " a runaway teenager , a prostitute , a drug dealer " . Initially hesitant to assume a character already established by other actors , she shaped her performance through her friendship with Pharris ; she described Pharris as " a really [ positive ] person " who answered her questions about the character . When discussing the decision to portray Simone as a lesbian , Kalouria emphasized " sexual identity isn 't a passing fancy " and " this is where [ Simone ] is ... I can assure you we 're not going to make light of this particular topic . "
= = Storylines = =
Born in 1983 , Simone Russell is the youngest daughter of T.C. and Eve Russell , and the younger sister of Whitney Russell . Her early storylines concentrate on her reluctant participation in her friend Kay Bennett 's schemes to separate Miguel Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald from Charity Standish and her attraction to Chad @-@ Harris Crane . Chad and Whitney hide their relationship from Simone to the point where Chad pretends to be Simone 's boyfriend to keep her happy . After catching Chad and Whitney having sex , she breaks with him and tells everyone in Harmony about his relationship with her sister .
Disconnected from her sister , Simone becomes close friends with Kay 's younger sister Jessica Bennett and Miguel 's younger sister Paloma Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald and turns to them for support . Simone acts primarily in a supporting role for these two character 's storylines , such as advising Paloma to divorce her abusive husband Spike Lester and seek professional help for her drug addiction . She briefly dates John Hastings , who is the son of David Hastings . At the time , John was falsely believed to be Grace Standish 's son and the half @-@ brother of Kay and Jessica . Simone 's relationship with John ends in 2004 when he moves to Italy with David and Grace .
In the summer of 2005 , Simone comes out as a lesbian by revealing her relationship with Rae Thomas to her family . Her family reacts negatively to her sexual orientation . T.C. beats her and says he is ashamed to be her father . Eve panics and is concerned that her daughter 's reputation will suffer if the rest of Harmony learns of her sexuality . Simone 's sexuality is regarded as " a badge of shame " by the characters Simone 's great @-@ aunt , Irma Johnson , describes homosexuality as a sin and calls her " vile " and " disgusting " . Simone turns to her mother for emotional support after Rae rebukes her declarations of love by revealing that she has no interest in a committed relationship . In December 2005 , Eve , Julian , Liz , and T.C. find a video from Alistair Crane , in which he claims to have hired Rae to seduce Simone and " turn " her into a lesbian . Rae later explains that the money is intended to start a lesbian club and that she was never hired to " turn " Simone gay . As she reconciles with Rae , Simone reconnects with her family . Her father , who recently suffered from a stroke following a car accident , apologizes for his homophobic behavior toward her . Her mother also becomes more supportive of her relationship .
Viewers saw the set @-@ up for the ending of Simone 's romance with Rae through the beginning of 2007 . Rae finds out Vincent Clarkson was framing Luis Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald for his girlfriend Fancy Crane 's rape . On February 12 , 2007 , Vincent stabs Rae to death before she can reveal his identity to Luis . Simone attempts to cope with Rae 's death by helping Jessica through her pregnancy . She invites Jessica to live in Rae 's old apartment so they can protect the baby from Spike . Eve , who was previously being blackmailed by Vincent , tells Simone the truth about Rae 's murder . Simone leaves Harmony with her sister Whitney to start a new life in New Orleans . She does not make a physical appearing during the show 's run on DirecTV or in the series finale . In July 2008 , Simone sends a letter to Kay congratulating her on her wedding to Miguel and includes a pair of earrings as the " something new . "
= = Impact and reception = =
Passions won the award for Outstanding Daily Drama at the 17th GLAAD Media Awards for its portrayal of Simone 's sexuality and her relationship with Rae . Doe accepted the award during the ceremony on the show 's behalf . The soap opera made daytime television history by having the first representation of two women in bed making love .
Simone 's storyline about coming out as a lesbian received mixed feedback from critics and media outlets . The Atlantic 's Aaron Foley connected the show 's inclusion of a black , lesbian character as a sign of " America bec [ oming ] more comfortable with seeing blacks on screen " and viewers " bec [ oming ] more comfortable with risky , sometimes hilarious storylines " . Foley commented the storyline was " short @-@ lived " . An article on Soaps.com noted that Simone would be remembered as " a character who broke down some barriers for the depiction of lesbians on daytime TV and earned the show awards and accolades from civil rights groups " . Damon Romine , media entertainment director of GLAAD ( 2005 @-@ 2009 ) , reported the introduction of gay characters makes soap operas " worth tuning in " and emphasized the show 's capability of normalizing LGBT topics with a wider audience :
" These stories have the ability to reach the many different generations of viewers who watch daytime and share with them stories of our lives , he says . What viewers are seeing is that more and more of their own neighbors and friends are dealing with these issues , and the soaps are merely reflecting the reality of the world we live in . "
Sarah Warn , former editor of entertainment website AfterEllen.com , gave the show a negative review calling the relationship " a poorly developed plot that has reduced Simone to a one @-@ dimensional character who happened to sleep with a girl . " Warn points out that viewers " haven 't had the chance to see this woman through her eyes " as the show does not attempt to fully explore her sexuality ; she expressed disappointment that Simone 's past relationships with men , and her possible bisexuality , are never addressed on the show . Despite the criticism , Warn praised the show for providing a more realistic representation of lesbian sexuality than the " one three @-@ minute scene than All My Children did in five years " .
Cathy Jenéen Doe received mixed feedback for her performance of the character . Doe was listed as a pre @-@ nominee for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for the 34th Daytime Emmy Awards alongside co @-@ star Emily Harper , but was not chosen as one of the final nominees . Warn criticized Doe and Jinario for being " horribly matched as scene partners " and lacking chemistry .
Simone 's storyline received frequent comparisons by critics to the soap 's treatment of Chad 's struggle with his sexuality , and Vincent 's identification as intersex . Herndon L. Davis of Windy City Times described the representation of Simone as daytime 's first African @-@ American lesbian as overshadowed by how the show " recklessly wrote a down @-@ low storyline which involved an African @-@ American man but eventually turned it into an outrageous intersex serial killer storyline " . Davis said the soap opera tackled " daytime 's bitter issue with race " .
= Cupid at the Circus =
Cupid at the Circus is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film is a romance with a storyline focused around a country boy who follows a circus parade to the circus grounds and becomes intent on sneaking into the show . He is discovered , but before he can be ejected , a girl asks her father to buy him a ticket of admission . Thankful , the boy gives her his pocket knife . Years later the two meet again and when he sees her using his pocket knife . He proposes and she accepts . Not too much is known for certain about the production of this film , including the writer , director and photographer credits . The circus scenes were done with special arrangement by Barnum & Bailey . The film was released on May 20 , 1910 to favorable reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a surviving official synopsis was published in The Moving Picture World . It states : " Tom Wilk is a poor country lad , living alone with his stepfather , who ill @-@ treats him . Tom leaves his work one day to follow a circus parade . He is fascinated with the wonders of the parade and follows it to the circus grounds , around which he stays all morning , and is finally tempted by his great wish to see the show , to crawl under the tent . He is discovered by a circus guard , and ordered off the ground . A small girl , Lillie Lockwood , and her father come to the circus , and witness Tom 's ejection . Urged by his daughter , Lillie 's father buys Tom a ticket of admission , giving him his first happy day . In return , Tom gives Lillie , as a keepsake , his most treasured possession , his pocket knife . On returning home , Tom is severely chastised by his step @-@ father , after which he decides to run away . He walks to a neighboring town , and is there engaged as an office boy by Gates , a lawyer . After some years of faithful service , in various capacities , Tom becomes a member of the firm . Lillie obtains a position as a stenographer in their office . She and Tom do not recognize each other , until Tom accidentally sees in her hand the little knife he had given her in the long ago . He declares he had loved her through the years , and has been patiently waiting for her , so the romance that began at the circus finds a happy climax at the altar . "
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane as Tom Gates ( adult ) / alternatively Tom Wilk in the synopsis
Anna Rosemond as Lillie Lockwood ( adult )
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it may have been Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman still employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . While the director of the film is not known , two Thanhouser directors are possible . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . Bowers does not attribute either as the director for this particular production nor does Bowers credit a cameraman . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The two known credits in the film are for the leading players , Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane . Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company and joined in the autumn of 1909 . Crane was involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company from 1909 . Crane 's was the first leading man of the company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser .
The setting of the film included Barnum and Bailey circus that were shot by a special arrangement with Mr. Barnum and Bailey . The date of the filming is unknown , but the 1910 route of Barnum & Bailey 's Greatest Show on Earth indicates that it the circus was in New York between March 24 through April 30 . The circus was at Madison Square Garden from March 24 through April 22 and it moved to Brooklyn , New York for April 25 through April 30 . The circus would go to Philadelphia , Washington D. C. , Baltimore , Maryland , and Wilmington , Delaware before moving back up through New Jersey on May 14 through May 18 . According to one review in the Santa Cruz Sentinel , the film showed " ... the Barnum and Bailey circus from the time they arrive at the lot until after the show . "
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel film was released on Friday May 20 , 1910 . There are different records for the length of the reel . According to Bowers , the film was 975 feet long , but one trade publication listed it as being 940 feet long . The film was advertised in theaters in Kansas , Nebraska , Pennsylvania , Missouri , Minnesota , Indiana , and California . The film was released one day before the Barnum and Bailey tent caught fire in Schenectady , New York . The May 21 fire did not result in injury or loss of life , but was caused an estimated $ 10 @,@ 000 in damages , equivalent to $ 254 @,@ 000 in 2015 .
The film was met with favorable reviews from critics . The Morning Telegraph offers general praise for the good photography and the well @-@ told story . The Nickelodeon was equally positive and began to reflect the acting , staging and photography was up to the regular standard of the Thanhouser company . The New York Dramatic Mirror offered additional comments on the Thanhouser company 's higher standards in their productions , but gave an otherwise positive review that focused on the novelty of the circus scenes .
= Good Mourning ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" Good Mourning " is the first episode of the sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 103rd episode overall . It was written by Krista Vernoff and directed by Ed Ornelas . The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on September 24 , 2009 . In " Good Mourning " , the physicians are seen dealing with the revelation that a dead John Doe is their beloved co @-@ worker Dr. George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) , and dealing with the aftermath of Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) ' s near @-@ death experience . Further storylines include Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) and Stevens trying to decide whether or not to donate O 'Malley 's organs and Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) being offered Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) ' s chief of surgery job .
The episode was the first part of the two @-@ hour season six premiere , the second being " Goodbye " , and took place at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital . " Good Mourning " was the first episode that Knight did not appear in , following an early release from his contract , and Jessica Capshaw ( Dr. Arizona Robbins ) ' first episode in which she received star billing , having been upgraded from a recurring star . Mitch Pileggi reprised his role as a guest star , in addition to Debra Monk , Shannon Lucio and Zoe Boyle . " Good Mourning " opened to generally positive critical reviews , with Ramirez 's performance praised in particular . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed by 17 @.@ 03 million Americans , and garnered a 6 @.@ 7 / 17 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking first for the night .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens to a voice @-@ over narrative from Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , explaining the Kübler @-@ Ross model , that is the five stages of grief . At the conclusion of season five 's finale , Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) and Dr. George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) both flatlined , from cancer and being dragged by a bus , respectively , and the opening of the episode reveals Stevens to have been revived , while O 'Malley has been pronounced brain dead . O 'Malley 's former wife Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) informs her colleagues that he has died , and suffers an emotional breakdown , hyperventilating . O 'Malley 's death had been implied in the first episode when he asks " We 're gonna survive this , right ? " with Grey answering nothing .
It is unknown whether or not O 'Malley is an organ donor , and the chief of surgery Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) calls O 'Malley 's mother , Louise ( Debra Monk ) , as she is his next of kin . Following Stevens ' resuscitation , she is unaware that O 'Malley has died , and her husband Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) decides not to tell her , with fear that she might go into circulatory shock and lose consciousness again . Pediatric surgeon Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) is introduced to a patient , with body pain , whom she diagnoses with growing pains .
Louise O 'Malley arrives at the hospital , and asks Torres to decide if O 'Malley 's organs will be donated . The victim of a speedboat accident , Clara Ferguson ( Zoe Boyle ) , arrives at the hospital in an ambulance , with both of her arms and one of her legs amputated . She is attended to by plastic surgeon Dr. Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , who informs her that her cut @-@ off arms can be reattached . The hospital 's president , Larry Jennings ( Mitch Pileggi ) , explains to neurosuregon Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) that Webber has not been substantially completing his role as chief of surgery , and offers Shepherd the job . Karev reveals O 'Malley 's death to Stevens , and Torres seeks her help in deciding whether or not to donate O 'Malley 's organs . Stevens opinionates that O 'Malley would give all his organs , and the two come to a mutual conclusion that donation is the correct option . Prior to the harvesting of his organs , O 'Malley 's former mentor Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) is uneasy about donating his organs , but soon comes to terms with the situation . Several days later , at O 'Malley 's funeral , the woman O 'Malley saved , Amanda ( Shannon Lucio ) is shown hysterically crying while Karev , Stevens , Meredith , and Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) are laughing — unable to deal with their true emotions . After the funeral , O 'Malley 's former best friend Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) is designated the job of emptying out his locker , but breaks down . Bailey subsequently discharges Stevens , and Robbins ' body pain patient returns , with chronic pain , though Robbins is unable to diagnose him . Torres approaches Webber , seeking information as to whether or not her application to become an attending surgeon has been accepted . Webber explains that the job is no longer available , as the surgeon who was going to retire , ultimately did not . Torres becomes enraged , saying that the current surgeon who has the job is a dinosaur , and storms out while yelling : " I 'm a superstar " . The episode closes with Lexie consoling the speedboat victim , Ferguson .
= = Production = =
" Good Mourning " was written by Krista Vernoff and directed by Ed Ornelas . Joe Mitacek edited the episode and Donald Lee Harris served as production designer . Featured music includes Sweet Honey in the Rock 's " Wade in the Water " and Joy Williams ' " Speaking a Dead Language " . " Good Mourning " is the first episode not to feature Knight 's character , O 'Malley . Knight was released from his contract at the conclusion of season five , following a disagreement with series creator Shonda Rhimes over lack of screen time for his character . When asked to make a ' flashback ' appearance in season six , Knight declined .
Vernoff offered her thoughts on the death of O 'Malley : " It 's heartbreaking . I fell in love with George , like many of you did , in season one . He was impulsive , big @-@ hearted , and yeah , it 's that heart that had him jump in front of a moving bus to save a life . It 's a devastating end to a beloved character , but I would argue with anyone who said it wasn 't a fitting end . " In the episode , Shepherd was offered the position of chief of surgery , but postponed his decision , due to Webber being his friend . Vernoff offered her insight on this :
" Derek was pretty freakin ' noble . So noble ! Cause you KNOW how much he wants that job . It was the promise of the Chiefdom that brought him to Seattle from NYC to begin with . And right here , the job was his for the taking . And out of loyalty and friendship , he went to [ Webber ] and warned him . "
The scene in which O 'Malley 's colleagues were laughing at his funeral was one of Vernoff 's favorite scenes . She added : " Shonda gave me smart notes that enhanced the writing and then the wonderful director Ed Ornelas and the amazing DP Herb Davis and the whole crew that support them made it visually beautiful and then the actors … damn , did they all bring their A game to this scene . And then there are the editors and music folks and the people who color correct everything and mix the sound … It 's a collaboration . What it takes to make good TV is a huge coming together of a great many artists . What it takes to make great TV is all that plus a little magic and a little luck . And that ’ s what I feel like we had with this scene . It 's so funny and so bittersweet and so , so sad . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcasting = = =
" Good Mourning " was originally broadcast on September 24 , 2009 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . It was viewed by a total of 17 @.@ 04 million Americans , in its 9 : 00 Eastern time @-@ slot . The episode was the series ' second least @-@ viewed season premiere , up to that point , just ahead of the season one premiere — " A Hard Day 's Night " . In comparison to the previous episode , " Good Mourning " made a 0 @.@ 08 % decrease in terms of viewership . However , the episode 's viewership ranked first in both its time @-@ slot and the entire night , beating out CBS 's juggernaut CSI . In addition to being a success in viewership , the episode also did well in ratings . " Good Mourning " ' s 6 @.@ 7 / 17 Nielsen rating ranked first in its time @-@ slot and the entire night , for both the rating and share percentages of the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode also received a rating of 10 @.@ 9 / 18 in the 18 @-@ 34 demographic , beating out CBS 's The Mentalist , and ranking first in the ratings and shares for the demographic .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode opened to generally positive feedback , and aired back @-@ to @-@ back with the next episode , " Goodbye " , as a two @-@ hour season premiere special . Alan Sepinwall of NJ.com commented on the two episodes being conjoined into one week : " I keep going back and forth on whether it was a good idea to do that , or if we 'd have been better off spacing out the tearful speeches over two weeks . That isn 't to say that there shouldn 't have been tears , or speeches . George 's death , no matter how marginal he had become last season , is and should be a huge event in the lives of these characters . Had the show raced through Elizabeth Kubler @-@ Ross 's famous five stages of grief , it would have rang false , as if everyone making the show was in a hurry to move past the events of the wildly uneven fifth season . My problem is , when you put two episodes back @-@ to @-@ back , those rhythms - the pace at which the acts build to emotional crescendos and then briefly recede - start to become too predictable , and it sucks some of the life and emotion away . " Sepinwall also praised Wilson 's , Ramirez 's , and Chamber 's performances , in addition to the laughing at O 'Malley 's funeral .
Michael Pascua of The Huffington Post also praised Ramirez 's performance , calling her " the most genuine character " . Although he enjoyed Ramirez 's performance , Pascua was critical of the rest of the episode , writing : " The funeral wasn 't as sad as I thought it would be . There were so many pre @-@ episode pictures up that I thought the funeral would take up half the show , then it was five minutes and it wasn 't sad at all . The core group walked away and Izzie spread the giggles . She laughs at the fact that she has cancer , like this was all some really badly written show . Oh wait , it is . "
Kelly West of TV Blend was also critical of the episode , writing : " I don 't think based on the first episode that we can say that Grey 's is headed in a new direction , nor do I think the writers are making much of an effort to bring the series back to the greatness that was its earlier seasons . That said , this is Grey 's Anatomy and with that comes the usual drama , sex , love and whacky medical mysteries thrown in the mix to keep things moving . If that 's what you ’ re looking for , I think you 'll enjoy the season premiere just fine . " Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV noted that the special foreshadowed a " very dark " season , adding : " The talk between George 's mom and one of the surgeons [ Torres ] proved to be one of the more heart @-@ breaking scenes in an episode that in itself is heartbreaking enough . "
= Dick Padden =
Richard Joseph " Dick " Padden ( September 17 , 1870 – October 31 , 1922 ) , nicknamed " Brains " , was an American professional baseball player , born in Wheeling , West Virginia , who played mainly as a second baseman in Major League Baseball for nine seasons from 1896 to 1905 .
After playing a season and a half in the minor leagues , the right @-@ handed infielder began his major league career for the Pittsburgh Pirates . He played three seasons in Pittsburgh , from 1896 to 1898 , before playing one season for the Washington Senators in 1899 . He returned to the minor leagues for the 1900 season , where he was the player @-@ manager for the Chicago White Sox , then a minor league team . When the Chicago club entered the American League , a major league , the following season , he moved on to play one season for the St. Louis Cardinals , before becoming Captain of the St. Louis Browns from 1902 and 1905 . In total , Padden played in 874 games , and collected 814 hits in 3545 at bats , for a lifetime batting average of .258 . He finished in the league 's top @-@ ten finishers in being hit by pitches six times , including a league @-@ leading 18 in 1904 .
Padden 's post @-@ career activities included duties as a talent scout for the St. Louis Browns and the Washington Senators , as well a lengthy career in the flint glass industry in Ohio . After retiring , he attempted to gain the Democratic Party nomination for the 1912 mayoral race in his hometown of Martin 's Ferry , Ohio . He died there , in 1922 , at the age of 52 of apoplexy .
= = Career = =
= = = Pittsburgh = = =
Padden began his professional career with the Roanoke Magicians , a minor league club in the Virginia State League in 1895 , where he played with and managed the team to a 52 – 74 win – loss record . During the 1896 season , the Pittsburgh Pirates manager , Connie Mack , was seeking a replacement for Harry Truby , his second baseman , who was not performing well , when Padden caught his attention . Padden was playing for the Toronto Canadiens in the Eastern League , and had a reputation of being a smart and quick player with good instincts , as well as a " careful , timely batsman " . Based on his need to upgrade his second base position , and Padden 's good reputation , Mack traded Truby for him . He began his major league career shortly thereafter on July 15 , one day after Truby 's final game in the majors . When Padden did not bat well to start the season , Mack and Pittsburgh 's president and part owner , William Kerr , began to feud over the decision , with Kerr questioning Mack over whether they should have traded Truby . However , his hitting improved and he completed the season with a .242 batting average in 61 games played .
In 1897 , with the Pirates , he led all National League second basemen with 134 games played , and 369 putouts . Besides games played , he established career highs in several batting categories that season , including ; 517 at bats , 84 runs scored , 146 hits , 10 triples , and tied his career high in home runs with two . He made 128 appearances in 1898 , again as their starting second baseman . His statistical output dropped from his previous season ; his batting average lowered to .257 , and scored 61 runs in 463 at bats .
= = = Washington = = =
On December 14 , 1898 , after the season was completed , Padden was traded , along with Jack O 'Brien and Jimmy Slagle , to the Washington Senators in exchange for Heinie Reitz . He played the 1899 season in Washington , and appeared in 134 games as their starting shortstop . He had a batting average of .277 , established his career high in stolen bases ( 27 ) , and was ejected from the game by the umpire three times , which led the league .
= = = Chicago = = =
Following the 1899 season , the Senators franchise ceased operations , which resulted in Padden 's sale , along with O 'Brien , to the Detroit Tigers of the American League , which was a minor league at the time . However , before the 1900 season began , he joined the Chicago White Sox , also a minor league team , as their player @-@ manager instead . On May 16 , he was involved in a physical altercation with Ducky Holmes and another Detroit player . While playing a doubleheader on September 16 , against Connie Mack and his Milwaukee team , Padden suggested to Mack that the second game be shortened to five innings due to the fact that the first game lasted just over three hours , and they might not finish the second game before darkness . Mack , who estimated that he could get five more good innings from his game one starting pitcher , Rube Waddell , quickly agreed . Padden 's suggestion backfired , and turned into a successful strategy for Mack , whose team , with Waddell pitching , won the game . Despite that incident , Padden and his leadership skills led the White Sox to the American League championship that season .
= = = St. Louis = = =
The White Sox stayed with the American League as they became a major league in 1901 , but Padden moved on to play for the St. Louis Cardinals of the National League . He was the team 's starting second baseman , and played in a total of 123 games . He had a batting average of .256 that season , and again led the league in ejections , with five ; however , he stole 26 bases , he had 62 RBIs , his highest single season total .
After his lone season with the Cardinals , Padden , along with many of his teammates deserted to the newly created St. Louis Browns franchise , which was scheduled to begin playing in 1902 in the American League . Padden was Captain of the Browns during his time on the team . In both 1902 and 1904 , he was the Browns ' starting second baseman , and were the only two of his four seasons with the club in which he played in more than 29 games . He led the league in hit by a pitches with 18 in 1904 , the only time in which he led the league in this category , although he did finish in the league 's top @-@ ten five times previously . On May 19 , 1905 , after 16 games , Padden was released by the Browns , and his major league career came to an end .
= = Post @-@ major league career = =
Padden was the player @-@ manager for the minor league team St. Paul Saints of the American Association for the 1906 season . He had a batting average of .288 that year , and hit three home runs . He stayed with the Saints for the 1907 season , but as a player only . After 52 games played , his season ended when he sprained his ankle . After his injury , he and his Saints manager , Mr. Ashenbach attempted to buy the Daytona team of the Eastern League , but were unsuccessful . He had hoped that his ankle would heal , so that he could be ready for the next season , but he never appeared as a player after the injury .
Following his retirement as a player , Padden returned to his old team and became a talent scout for the Browns in 1909 . He also became a talent scout for the Senators and worked in the flint glass industry in Ohio . Alfred Henry Spink described him as " one of the real foxy fellows of the baseball world . He could field beautifully and was never better than when being hard driven . " Padden retired to Martins Ferry , Ohio where in 1912 , he tried to secure the Democratic Party nomination for the mayoral race . He died in Martins Ferry of apoplexy on October 31 , 1922 at the age of 52 , and is interred at St. Marys Cemetery .
= Cyclone Monica =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Monica was the most intense tropical cyclone , in terms of maximum sustained winds , on record to impact Australia . The 17th and final storm of the 2005 – 06 Australian region cyclone season , Monica originated from an area of low pressure off the coast of Papua New Guinea on 16 April 2006 . The storm quickly developed into a Category 1 cyclone the next day , at which time it was given the name Monica . Travelling towards the west , the storm intensified into a severe tropical cyclone before making landfall in Far North Queensland , near Lockhart River , on 19 April 2006 . After moving over land , convection associated with the storm quickly became disorganised .
On 20 April 2006 , Monica emerged into the Gulf of Carpentaria and began to re @-@ intensify . Over the following few days , deep convection formed around a 37 km ( 23 mi ) wide eye . Early on 22 April 2006 , the Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) assessed Monica to have attained Category 5 status , on the Australian cyclone intensity scale . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also upgraded Monica to a Category 5 equivalent cyclone , on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm attained its peak intensity the following day with winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and a barometric pressure of 916 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 05 inHg ) . On 24 April 2006 , Monica made landfall about 35 km ( 22 mi ) west of Maningrida , at the same intensity . Rapid weakening took place as the storm moved over land . Less than 24 hours after landfall , the storm had weakened to a tropical low . The remnants of the former @-@ Category 5 cyclone persisted until 28 April 2006 over northern Australia .
In contrast to the extreme intensity of the cyclone , relatively little structural damage resulted from it . No injuries were reported to have occurred during the storm 's existence and losses were estimated to be A $ 6 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 1 million ) . However , severe environmental damage took place . In the Northern Territory , an area about 7 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 300 mi2 ) was defoliated by Monica 's high wind gusts . In response to the large loss of forested area , it was stated that it would take several hundred years for the area to reflourish .
= = Meteorological history = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Monica originated from an area of low pressure that formed early on 16 April 2006 off the coast of Papua New Guinea . The low quickly became organised , with deep convection developing over the low @-@ pressure centre . Later that day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as the system became increasingly organised . Early the next day , the Bureau of Meteorology in Brisbane , Australia declared that the low had developed into a Category 1 cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone scale , with winds reaching 65 km / h ( 40 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . Upon being classified as a cyclone , the storm was given the name Monica . At the same time , the JWTC designated Monica as Tropical Cyclone 23P . Monica tracked generally westward , towards Far North Queensland , in response to a low to mid @-@ level ridge to the south .
Low wind shear and good divergence in the path of the storm allowed for continued intensification as continued westward . Late on 17 April 2006 , Monica intensified into a Category 2 Cyclone , with winds reaching 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . By 1200 UTC on 18 April 2006 , the Bureau of Meteorology upgraded Monica to a severe tropical cyclone , a Category 3 on the Australian scale . This followed an increase in the storm 's outflow and a fluctuating central dense overcast . Several hours later , the JTWC upgraded Monica to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . During the afternoon of 19 April 2006 , the storm made landfall roughly 40 km ( 25 mi ) south @-@ southeast of the Lockhart River with winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . At the same time , the JTWC assessed Monica to have intensified into a Category 2 equivalent storm with winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) .
Shortly after making landfall , convection associated with the storm deteriorated and the outflow became fragmented . A shortwave trough to the south caused the ridge steering Monica to weaken , leading to the cyclone moving slower . After moving over land , the storm began to weaken , with the Bureau of Meteorology downgrading the storm to weaken to Category 1 cyclone and the JTWC downgraded the cyclone to a tropical storm . The following day , Monica moved offshore , entering the Gulf of Carpentaria . Once back over water , favourable atmospheric conditions allowed the storm to quickly intensify . Within 24 @-@ hours of moving over water , Monica re @-@ attained severe tropical cyclone status . Following a shift in steering currents , the storm slowed significantly and turned north @-@ westward . Steady intensification continued through 22 April 2006 as the storm remained in a region of low wind shear and favourable diffluence . Early on 22 April 2006 the Bureau of Meteorology upgraded Monica to a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone , the third of the season . By this time , a 37 km ( 23 mi ) wide eye had developed within the central dense overcast of the cyclone . Later that day , the JTWC assessed Monica to have intensified into a Category 5 equivalent storm .
Cyclone Monica attained its peak intensity on 23 April 2006 near Cape Wessel with a barometric pressure 916 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 05 inHg ) . Maximum winds were estimated at 250 km / h ( 155 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) by the Bureau of Meteorology while the JTWC assessed it to have attained winds of 285 km / h ( 180 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Using the Dvorak technique , the peak intensity of the cyclone was estimated at T @-@ number of 7 @.@ 5 according to the Satellite Analysis Branch ( SAB ) , yet the Advanced Dvorak Technique of the CIMSS automatically estimated at T8.0 , the highest ranking on the Dvorak Scale . However , since the JTWC , SAB and CIMSS are not the official warning centres for Australian cyclones , these intensities remain unofficial .
On 24 April 2006 , the mid @-@ level ridge south of Monica weakened , causing the storm to turn towards the south @-@ west . Following this , the storm made landfall in the Northern Territory , roughly 35 km ( 22 mi ) west of Maningrida , as a Category 5 cyclone with winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . Not long after making landfall , the storm weakened extremely quickly . Most convective activity associated with the storm dissipated within nine hours of moving onshore . This resulted in the storm 's maximum winds decreasing by 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) in a 12 @-@ hour span . After this rapid weakening , the storm turned sharply west moving over the town of Jabiru as a Category 2 cyclone . Within six hours of passing this town , the Bureau of Meteorology downgraded Monica to a tropical low , no longer producing gale @-@ force winds . The JTWC issued their final advisory on the storm at 1800 UTC that day . The remnants of Monica persisted for several more days , tracking near Darwin on 25 April 2006 before turning south @-@ east and accelerating over the Northern Territory . The remnants eventually dissipated on 28 April 2006 over central Australia .
= = = Intensity estimates = = =
The Bureau of Meteorology uses 10 @-@ minute sustained winds , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses one @-@ minute sustained winds . The Bureau of Meteorology 's peak intensity for Monica was 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Monica was 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained , or 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
While the storm was active the Bureau of Meteorology 's Darwin Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre estimated that Monica , had peaked with a minimum pressure of 905 hPa ( 26 @.@ 72 inHg ) . However , during their post analysis of Monica , the Darwin Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre estimated using the Love @-@ Murphy pressure @-@ wind relationship , that the system had a minimum pressure of 916 hPa ( 27 @.@ 05 inHg ) . However , since then the BoM has started to use the Knaff , Zehr and Courtney pressure @-@ wind relationship , which has estimated that Monica had a minimum pressure of 905 hPa ( 26 @.@ 72 inHg ) . Other pressure estimates include the Joint Typhoon Warning Center 's post analysis estimated pressure of 879 hPa ( 25 @.@ 96 inHg ) and the University of Wisconsin @-@ Madison 's Advanced Dvorak Technique which estimated a minimum pressure of 868 @.@ 5 hPa ( 25 @.@ 65 inHg ) . The Advanced Dvorak Technique pressure estimate would suggest that the system was the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded worldwide as the pressure is below that of the current world record holder , Typhoon Tip of 1979 . In 2010 , Stephen Durden of NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory studied Cyclone Monica 's minimum pressure and suggested that the system likely peaked between 900 – 920 hPa ( 26 @.@ 58 – 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) and strongly refuted claims that Monica was the strongest tropical cyclone on record .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Queensland = = =
Upon being declared as Tropical Cyclone Monica on 17 April 2006 , the Bureau of Meteorology issued a gale warning for areas along the eastern coast of Far North Queensland . Several hours later , a cyclone warning was issued for north @-@ eastern areas as the storm intensified . An estimated 1 @,@ 000 people were planned to be evacuated in Far North Queensland before officials shut down major highways in the area . Ferry services in the Great Barrier Reef and flights in and out of the region were cancelled . However , no evacuations took place according to the Emergency Management in Australia . An aborigine community of 700 , located around the mouth of the Lockhart River , were in the direct path of the storm . The chief executive officer of the community stated that they were ready for the storm , having suffered no losses from Cyclone Ingrid which impacted the same area in 2005 .
Little damage was recorded in Queensland , despite Cyclone Monica being a Category 3 cyclone , as the storm impacted a sparsely populated region of the Cape York peninsula . A storm surge of 1 @.@ 23 m ( 4 ft ) was recorded in Mossman and waves were recorded up to 4 @.@ 24 m ( 13 @.@ 91 ft ) in Weipa . Heavy rainfall was also associated with the storm , exceeding 400 mm ( 16 in ) near where Monica made landfall . Wind gusts up to 109 km / h ( 68 mph ) were recorded as the storm traversed the peninsula . Officials reported about 15 % of the structures along the Lockhart River sustained minor damages and no fatalities were caused as a result of the cyclone . Minor coastal flooding was also reported due to Monica . Three Torres Strait Islanders were rescued after 22 days drifting at sea in the wake of the cyclone passing through the Torres Strait , north of mainland Queensland .
= = = Northern Territory = = =
Officials closed schools throughout the region in advance of the storm on 24 April 2006 and advised people to evacuate . A 10 pm curfew was also put in place to keep people off the streets during the night . Local tours in the territory were postponed or cancelled due to the storm . Several flights in and out of Darwin were also cancelled , as was the Darwin Anzac Day march . Alcan , the world 's second @-@ largest aluminium producer , warned customers of potential interruptions to supplies on contracts from its Gove refinery . Rio Tinto 's Ranger Uranium Mine ceased operations on 24 April 2006 , " as a precautionary measure " .
At one point , Monica was forecast to pass directly over Goulburn Island . In response , officials evacuated the island 's 337 residents to shelters set up in Pine Creek . Numerous schools in the threatened region , especially in Darwin , were closed ahead of Monica 's arrival . Several shelters were opened in Darwin early on 24 April in anticipation of an influx of evacuees . Stores throughout the area reported increased sales for storm supplies , with some reducing prices on specific items . The same day , the Darwin Returned and Services League of Australia cancelled all ANZAC Day services and marches in Darwin that were to be held the next day , to ensure the safety of prospective participants .
The Wessel Islands , located off the coast of the region , suffered significant damage from the storm . Mangrove trees were uprooted throughout the islands and sand dunes were destroyed . An outstation located on one of the islands was destroyed by the cyclone . The highest 24 @-@ hour rainfall from the storm was recorded near Darwin at 340 mm ( 13 in ) . A storm total for the same area was recorded at 383 mm ( 15 @.@ 1 in ) , surpassing the rainfall record for the entire month of April set in 1953 . Although the storm made landfall at peak intensity in Australia 's Northern Territory , the impacted areas were sparsely populated . Around the region where Monica made landfall , evidence of a 5 – 6 m ( 16 @.@ 4 – 19 @.@ 6 ft ) storm surge was present in Junction Bay . Along an area 50 km ( 30 mi ) wide and 130 km ( 80 mi ) long , countless trees were snapped or uprooted by the storm . Nearly 70 % of the forested areas around the bay were destroyed or defoliated by the storms ' 360 km / h ( 225 mph ) wind gusts . An estimated 7 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 350 mi2 ) of trees were downed by the storm with large areas of trees being uprooted .
Power lines were felled by high winds in Maningrida , 12 homes sustained damage from fallen trees in Jabiru , and extensive damage was reported in Oenpelli . Roughly 1 @,@ 000 people also lost phone service in the region . Several highways were blocked by fallen trees throughout the area . A resort in Jabiru sustained significant damage and was closed for two weeks following the storm . Insured damages to the national parks amounted to A $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 766 @,@ 000 ) . According to the Northern Territory Insurance Office , structural damage from Cyclone Monica amounted to A $ 5 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 4 million ) . The remnants of Monica produced significant rainfall over parts of the Northern Territory several days after the system weakened below cyclone status . Flash flooding was reported throughout the Adelaide River basin as up to 261 mm ( 10 @.@ 3 in ) of rain fell in a 24 @-@ hour span . On 26 April 2006 , the remnants of Monica spawned a small tornado near Channel Point ; several mangrove trees were snapped and branches were thrown to nearby beaches .
= = Aftermath = =
The Queensland Government State Disaster Management Group dispatched relief helicopters to remote communities for evacuation of people in flood zones and transport of relief workers . Relief efforts were already underway in relation to Cyclone Larry which caused significant damage in Queensland . The Government of Australia assisted affected business by providing disaster loans up to A $ 25 @,@ 000 for severely impacted areas and A $ 10 @,@ 000 for less affected areas . Farmers were also provided with up to $ 200 @,@ 000 in loans over a period of nine years . Following the impacts in the Northern Territory , two cleanup teams were dispatched from Darwin to assist in cleanup efforts in the hardest hit regions . In a study of the Arnhem forests which were devastated by the cyclone , environmentalists reported that it would take over 100 years for the forest to recover . The storm 's winds snapped numerous trees , estimated to have been over 200 years old and more than 60 cm ( 23 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter . It is estimated that it would take several hundred years before trees of similar sizes would flourish in the region . Despite the minimal damage caused by Monica , the name was retired from the circulating lists of tropical cyclone names for the Australian Region .
Within weeks of the storm , the Alligator Rivers Region Advisory Committee began planting seedlings in deforested areas . By August 2006 , a review of the growth of the new plants found that 81 % to 88 % of the seeds had survived and begun growing . To fully restore the South Alligator valley , environmentalists requested A $ 7 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 6 million ) in funds . In a study at Magela Creek a year after the storm , it was determined that between 8 % and 19 % of the tree canopy lost due to the storm had begun to recover . Additional studies at the Gulungul Creek and the Alligator Rivers region revealed that suspended sediment values in flowing water had temporarily increased in the wake of Monica . The above @-@ average values persisted for roughly a year before the streams returned to pre @-@ cyclone sediment levels .
= The Boat Race 2002 =
The 148th Boat Race took place on 30 March 2002 . Oxford won the race by three @-@ quarters of a length , one of the narrowest margins of victory in the history of the contest .
In the reserve race Isis beat Goldie ; Oxford also won the Women 's race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is an annual competition between Oxford University and Cambridge University . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2001 race by 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) , and led overall with 77 victories to Oxford 's 69 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Aberdeen Asset Management for the third consecutive year .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
Despite weighing just over 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) less per man than their opponents , Cambridge were the pre @-@ race favourites . Both boats contained four Blues ; the Oxford cox Peter Hackworth attended St Paul 's School while Cambridge 's cox Ellie Griggs attended St Paul 's Girls ' School , so both were familiar with the course . Oxford 's crew contained two American international rowers in Dan Perkins and Luke McGee , and Gerritjan Eggenkamp , a Dutch international . Cambridge 's stroke , Rick Dunn , cousin of Oxford 's bow Andrew Dunn , was a world champion in coxless fours , and he rowed alongside fellow British internationals Tom Stallard and Josh West . Cambridge 's other international rowers included American Sam Brooks , German Sebastian Mayer and Australian Stu Welch .
( P ) – Boat Club President
= = Race description = =
Cambridge won the coin toss and elected to start from the northern bank ( the " Middlesex side " ) of the Thames . Despite Cambridge 's cox Griggs having her hand raised ( to indicate that she and the Cambridge crew were not yet ready to commence ) , race umpire Simon Harris started the race . With a stroke rate of 51 , Oxford took an early lead , but Cambridge pulled level as the crews passed Craven Cottage . Taking a slight lead round the Surrey bend , Cambridge 's number four , Mayer suffered an asthma attack and collapsed , allowing Oxford to draw up to within a second as they approached Barnes Bridge . In a sprint finish , Oxford pulled away to be three @-@ quarters of a length clear at the finishing post .
Oxford finished with a time of 16 minutes , 54 seconds , Cambridge finishing two seconds behind them , three @-@ quarters of a length behind . It was Oxford 's second victory in the previous three years , and brought the overall result to 77 – 70 in Cambridge 's favour . At the finish , following tradition , the Oxford crew threw their cox , Hackworth , into the water in celebration . Mayer was hospitalised minutes after the race , initially considered a result of exhaustion , but later diagnosed as following an asthma attack .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie . Earlier at Henley , Oxford won the 57th women 's race by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths .
= = Reaction = =
Hackworth said " it was neck and neck , but I had absolute belief we could do it " . Four @-@ time Olympic gold medallist Matthew Pinsent said of the race " it truly was amazing " . Cambridge coach Robin Williams was generous in defeat : " Credit to Oxford . They did an awesome job and took their chance . It was a fantastic race " , while Oxford 's coach Sean Bowden said " I believed that if we could get through Barnes Bridge well we could still do it . They were rowing so well and I knew how much they wanted it . " Simon Barnes of The Times noted that " Cambridge reeled in an early Oxford lead and went ahead themselves ... that should have been the end of it ... But this Oxford crew just kept pestering away ... and , with the finish in sight , Cambridge ... yielded . "
= Dwarf ( Dungeons & Dragons ) =
A dwarf , in the Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) fantasy roleplaying game , is a humanoid race , one of the primary races available for player characters . The idea for the D & D dwarf comes from European mythologies and J. R. R. Tolkien 's novel The Lord of the Rings ( 1954 @-@ 1955 ) , and has been used in D & D and its predecessor Chainmail since the early 1970s . Variations from the standard dwarf archetype of a short and stout demihuman are commonly called subraces , of which there are more than a dozen across many different rule sets and campaign settings .
= = History = =
The concept of the dwarf comes from Norse and Teutonic mythology . In particular , the dwarves in the Germanic story The Ring of the Nibelungen and the Brothers Grimm fairy tale " Rumpelstiltskin " have been called " ancestors " of Dungeons & Dragons dwarves . Along with giants , dwarves were one of the first types of non @-@ humans to be introduced into the Chainmail game , the forebear of D & D , when miniature figures of varying sizes were used together in the same wargame .
The dwarf first appears as a player character class in the original 1974 edition of Dungeons & Dragons , with a design that is strongly influenced by the dwarves of Poul Anderson 's 1961 novel Three Hearts and Three Lions . This early version of the D & D dwarf is limited to playing a fighter , and can not progress beyond the sixth level . The dwarf is again a character class in the original Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set ( 1977 ) . With the arrival of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons , the dwarf was modified into a player character race in the Player 's Handbook ( 1978 ) and detailed as a monster in the original Monster Manual ( 1977 ) . A number of dwarven subraces are presented as character races in the original Unearthed Arcana ( 1985 ) .
In 1989 , the hill dwarf , the most common dwarven subrace , appears as a character race in the second edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Player 's Handbook and as a monster in the Monstrous Compendium Volume Two . Dwarves are detailed as a race for the Forgotten Realms setting in Dwarves Deep ( 1990 ) . Several dwarven races are detailed as player character races in The Complete Book of Dwarves ( 1991 ) . The dwarf appears as a character race in the third edition Player 's Handbook ( 2000 ) , the 3 @.@ 5 revised Player 's Handbook ( 2003 ) , the fourth edition Player 's Handbook ( 2008 ) , and the fifth edition Player 's Handbook ( 2014 ) . The arctic dwarf , gray dwarf , gold dwarf , shield dwarf , urdunnir , and wild dwarf are all detailed in Races of Faerûn ( 2003 ) . Dwarves are one of the races detailed in Races of Stone ( 2004 ) . The dwarf , including the dwarf bolter and the dwarf hammerer , appears as a monster in the fourth edition Monster Manual ( 2008 ) .
= = Description = =
Dwarves average four feet in height , with squat , broad bodies . Male dwarves grow thick facial hair . The female dwarves in The Lord of the Rings novels , which greatly inspired D & D , were able to grow beards as well . Some authors , such as R. A. Salvatore , have followed suit in their writing , though the game rules ' official position is that females do not grow beards — the fourth edition of Dungeons and Dragons portrayed female dwarves as " beardless and even attractive " . In specific campaign settings , the potential for female dwarven facial hair sees much variation : In the World of Greyhawk some females can grow beards but those generally shave , in the Forgotten Realms they can grow full beards but also usually shave , and in Eberron they do not grow facial hair at all . In older editions of the game , female dwarves did grow beards in various campaign settings .
The book Three Hearts and Three Lions by Poul Anderson strongly influenced Dungeons & Dragons , having a dwarf named Hugi with a Scottish accent . Most popular portrayals of dwarves feature such an accent . Dwarves tend to be more useful for combat @-@ oriented players , as they gain a number of special abilities and bonuses in combat , mostly related to their hardiness and smaller stature compared to humans . Dwarves are also resistant to poison and magic , can see in the dark ( a skill called infravision in earlier editions and darkvision beginning with third edition ) , and can detect different types of mining @-@ related features underground , such as sloping tunnels . The dwarven ability to detect a sloping passage underground is also taken directly from Anderson 's book .
Dwarves are generally good in alignment . Ilan Mitchell @-@ Smith wrote that dwarves , along with other races allowed for use by players such as elves and halflings , are " defined in terms of subjectivity , and ultimately , humanity " as opposed to many other creatures who serve as a type of " monstrous other " .
Dwarves usually worship Moradin , whom they believe is their creator . According to their legends , Moradin fashioned the dwarves into a likeness of himself using gems and metal . He then breathed life into them . In many campaign settings , the dwarven pantheon of gods consists of the leader Moradin , as well as Abbathor , Berronar Truesilver , Clanggedin Silverbeard , Dugmaren Brightmantle , Dumathoin , Muamman Duathal , and Vergadain . Other dwarven gods may be present in different campaign settings .
Dwarves get along well with gnomes , who are often regarded as close cousins of the dwarven race . Dwarves are accepting of humans , half @-@ elves and halflings . Dwarves often do not get to know humans well as they live longer than the average human , and prefer to become friendly with the human 's family in general . Dwarves do not trust half @-@ orcs , and fail to appreciate elves , with whom they only ally in their many battles against orcs , goblins , evil giants and trolls .
= = Subraces = =
Over the history of D & D publications and rules editions , more than a dozen subraces of dwarf have been described . Hill dwarves are the standard dwarven race . Mountain dwarves live deeper underground and have fairer skin than hill dwarves . Aleithian dwarves are deep @-@ dwelling psionic dwarves who follow the dragon god Sardior . In the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd editions of D & D , Azers physically resembled dwarves , though they were unrelated . In the 4th Edition of the game , they are a product of the enslavement of dwarves by giants and titans . Badlands dwarves have adapted to life in the inhospitable wastes , developing a natural knack for finding water and tolerance to heat and thirst . Deep dwarves dwell underground and have a greater ability to see in the dark , but are sensitive to light . They are more resistant to magic and poison than standard dwarves . Dream dwarves are contemplative dwarves in touch with the world around them , which they call the " earth dream . " The duergar are an " evil and avaricious " subrace that live in the Underdark . Frost dwarves are extra @-@ planar dwarves who reside on the Iron Wastes of the Infinite Layers of the Abyss . They were once duergar enslaved by frost giants . Glacier dwarves reside in cold glaciers , mining a special material known as blue ice . These dwarves have great skill at crafting with ice and magical ice , and are tolerant to cold weather . Seacliff dwarves make their home in high seaside cliffs and are excellent swimmers .
= = = Dwarves in campaign settings = = =
On Athas , the planet of the Dark Sun campaign setting , dwarves stand less than 5 ' tall and weigh nearly 200 lbs . Each dwarf pursues a singular obsession , called a focus , that requires at least a week to complete . Athasian dwarves do not live underground , but some communities focus on unearthing long @-@ lost dwarven strongholds . Physically , the dwarves of Athas are unique among their kind , having no hair at all . Athasian dwarves can breed with humans to produce muls , who are sterile offsprings that share the strength and resiliency of dwarves with the size of humans .
In the Dragonlance setting , the dwarves are divided into three distinct groups , which are sub @-@ divided into clans . Hill dwarves consist of a single clan called the Neidar . They are very similar to the mountain dwarves but are slightly more forthcoming towards other races and cultures . Flint Fireforge , one of the Heroes of the Lance , is a Neidar . Mountain dwarves consist of several clans , two of these being the Hylar and the Daewar clans . Gully dwarves , or Aghar ( " the Anguished " ) are thought to be the offspring of gnomes and dwarves . Gully dwarves are first referred to in the Dragonlance Chronicles , by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman , as a " miserable lot . " Several clans live together , following the rule of their chieftains or one particular powerful leader .
The Forgotten Realms world of Faerûn has several major dwarven subraces . Shield dwarves , also known as mountain dwarves , are the dominant dwarves in the northern parts of Faerûn . These dwarves tend to be fatalistic due to generations of declining numbers . Gold dwarves , also known as hill dwarves , are the dominant dwarves in southern Faerûn . They are generally a more upbeat group than their northern cousins . They primarily reside in and around the Deep Realm , an underground realm surrounding a Grand Canyon @-@ like gorge . Arctic dwarves ( also known as the Inugaakalikurit ) , found in the northernmost reaches of Faerûn , are smaller and stronger than most other dwarves , and immune to cold . Urdunnir , also known as orecutter dwarves , have the magical ability to shape metal and stone , and can walk through the latter . Wild dwarves are short , primitive dwarves found in the deep jungles of Faerûn . Gray dwarves , or duergar , are mainly found in the Underdark , and have an aversion to light . Bruenor Battlehammer , a Shield Dwarf , is the king of Mithril Hall in the Forgotten Realms setting who reclaims his homeland from monsters including a shadow dragon named Shimmergloom that he kills single @-@ handedly .
In the World of Greyhawk setting , the group of humans known as Flan call dwarves dwur . They are found throughout the Flanaess , and are particularly numerous in the Lortmils , Principality of Ulek , Glorioles , Iron Hills , Crystalmists , and Ratik . Lord Obmi is a notable dwarf of the setting , a servant of Iuz and member of the Boneshadow organization .
Dwarves of the Spelljammer setting operate in huge spacefaring asteroids , honeycombed with tunnels .
= = Novels = =
Notable D & D novels prominently featuring dwarves include the following :
Dragonlance
Dragons of the Dwarven Depths ( July 2006 ) , by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman , ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7869 @-@ 4099 @-@ 9 )
Dark Thane by Jeff Crook
The Dwarf Home trilogy by Douglas Niles
The Dwarven Nations trilogy by Dan Parkinson
The Gates of Thorbardin by Dan Parkinson
Gully Dwarves by Dan Parkinson
Kender , Gully Dwarves , and Gnomes ( August 1987 ) , edited by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman , ( ISBN 0 @-@ 88038 @-@ 382 @-@ 8 )
Forgotten Realms
The War of the Spider Queen series by R.A. Salvatore
The Icewind Dale Trilogy by R.A. Salvatore
= Dan Deacon : U.S.A. =
" Dan Deacon : U.S.A. " ( also known as the " Dan Deacon Special " ) is the first television special of the American anthology series Off the Air . The special was edited and directed by creator and executive producer Dave Hughes . The episode incorporates surreal footage of landscapes in the United States , with music by Dan Deacon from the album America . The special was commissioned by Williams Street Records as part of the Adult Swim 2013 Singles Program . The episode coincided with the release of another track by Deacon entitled " Why Am I on This Cloud ? " , featuring samples from other Adult Swim programming .
Promoted as a " one @-@ time airing " by members of the production staff , the episode premiered on Adult Swim on July 6 , 2013 . The special was viewed by 962 @,@ 000 viewers and received a 0 @.@ 8 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode received positive critical reception from music journalist websites for its psychedelic visuals and uses of American iconography .
= = Synopsis = =
Similar to other episodes of Off the Air , the episode is presented without explanation or narration as a showcase of surreal animations , viral internet videos , archival footage and morphing psychedelic imagery , arranged around a single loose theme and blended without pause into a single continuous presentation . Excluding its closing credits , the special features the last four tracks from the album America by Dan Deacon ( referred to as the " ' U.S.A. ' suite " ) . The episode incorporates the following works , which center on landscapes in the United States :
El hombre y la Tierra excerpt
Radical Updates by Andrew Benson
Cityscape Chicago by Eric Hines
Space Station footage provided by Image Science and Analysis Laboratory at the NASA John Space Center
Groosland by Dutch National Ballet
CGI space objects by Adam Bruneau
American Harvest provided by Prelinger Archives
Head On by Lior Ben Horin
Murmuration by Liberty Smith and Sophie Windsor Clive
Cy 's Sunrise Lefts by Cyrus Sutton and Korduroy.tv
Moonwalk performance by Dean Potter
Primavera Concert Footage by Tom Bingham , Gill Austin , Jonathan Rej , and Jeff Crocker
Stone Mountain Ghillie Suits ; cinematography by Alan Steadman , featuring Cody DeMatteis and Zach White
Additional stock footage provided by iStock and Pond5
= = Production = =
The episode was produced by Williams Street Records as part of the Adult Swim 2013 Singles Program . Director and editor Dave Hughes had previously collaborated with Deacon in 2008 for his song " Okie Dokie " from the album Spiderman of the Rings . The short film Head On by Lior Ben Horin was featured in the a previous episode of the series entitled " Color " . According to Hughes , the special was commissioned to coincide with the release of Deacon 's track for the compilation album . Deacon 's track was released on William Street Record 's website on June 26 , 2013 ; entitled " Why Am I on This Cloud ? " , the song features samples from other Adult Swim programming . Despite the special 's national focus , the episode culls works from artists worldwide .
Hughes , along with associate producer Cody DeMatteis , utilized Adobe After Effects for some aspects of post @-@ production editing . The special makes extensive use of compression artifacts for artistic effect , namely " datamoshing " , where two videos are interleaved so intermediate frames are interpolated from two separate sources . The technique referred to as " photo stacking " , in which time @-@ lapse photographs are composited on top of one another , was also utilized for the NASA John Space Center footage .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Dan Deacon : U.S.A. " aired on July 6 , 2013 on Cartoon Network 's late @-@ night programming block , Adult Swim . Promoted as a " one @-@ time airing " by members of the production staff , the episode was broadcast as part of DVR Theater at 4 a.m. ; former episodes of the series aired in the 4 a.m. timeslot preceding the premiere of the special as well . The special was viewed by 962 @,@ 000 viewers and received a 0 @.@ 8 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode was previously released onto Adult Swim 's website on July 1 , 2013 ; it was published on Adult Swim 's official YouTube channel on July 3 .
Critical reception was positive , especially from music journalist websites , who praised its psychedelic visuals and uses of American iconography . Consequence of Sound 's Michael Roffman compared the scenic visuals to Koyaanisqatsi and 2001 : A Space Odyssey . Exclaim ! magazine 's Alex Hudson called the special accompanied by the soundtrack " ambitious and shapeshifting " , but described some of the CGI featured as " corny " . Jamie Milton of This Is Fake DIY described the episode as a " bold slice of national pride , beloved to the landscapes that inspired the making of the excitable producer 's latest album " . In his review , he compared it to the theory of " Broken Britain " in the United Kingdom , stating between the special and " a 20 minute documentary about ' Broken Britain ' , you know which one you should go for . " An article by Fact magazine described the episode as a compilation of " eye @-@ popping scenes . "
Nancy Hoang of CMJ praised the episode 's visuals , highlighting the incorporation of the short film Murmuration by Liberty Smith and Sophie Windsor Clive . Chris Martins of Spin magazine enjoyed the colorful and psychedelic visuals . He found the episode appealing to stoner culture , ending his review stating that the special is " tailor @-@ made for late nights in haze @-@ filled dorm rooms . " Tom Breihan of Stereogum reviewed the special positively , calling the episode an " oddly patriotic work that pulls in all sorts of American iconography " . Rachel Haas of Paste magazine praised the special being released close to Independence Day , stating " this suite would possibly soundtrack the coolest , weirdest fireworks show ever . " Leor Galil of the Chicago Reader featured the video for his " 12 O 'Clock Track " , praising Hughes ' manipulation of Cityscape Chicago by cinematographer Eric Hines . However , given the tracks ' length , he argued the episode would best be enjoyed " through a nice pair of speakers at a barbecue instead of spending that time with your eyes affixed to a computer screen . "
= = Explanatory notes = =
= On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( film ) =
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( 1969 ) is the sixth spy film in the James Bond series , based on the 1963 novel of the same name by Ian Fleming . Following Sean Connery 's decision to retire from the role after You Only Live Twice , Eon Productions selected an unknown actor and model , George Lazenby , to play the part of James Bond . During the making of the film , Lazenby decided that he would play the role of Bond only once .
In the film Bond faces Blofeld ( Telly Savalas ) , who is planning to sterilise the world 's food supply through a group of brainwashed " angels of death " , unless his demands are met for an international amnesty for his previous crimes , recognition of his title as the Count De Bleuchamp ( the French form of Blofeld ) , and to be allowed to retire into private life . Along the way Bond meets , falls in love with , and eventually marries Contessa Teresa di Vicenzo ( Diana Rigg ) .
This is the only Bond film to be directed by Peter R. Hunt , who had served as a film editor and second unit director on previous films in the series . Hunt , along with producers Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , decided to produce a more realistic film that would follow the novel closely . It was shot in Switzerland , England , and Portugal from October 1968 to May 1969 . Although its cinema release was not as lucrative as its predecessor You Only Live Twice , On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was still one of the top performing films of the year . Critical reviews upon release were mixed , but the film 's reputation has improved over time , although reviews of Lazenby 's performance continue to vary .
= = Plot = =
In Portugal , James Bond – agent 007 , sometimes referred to simply as ' 007 ' – saves a woman on the beach from committing suicide by drowning , and later meets her again in a casino . The woman , Contessa Teresa " Tracy " di Vicenzo , invites Bond to her hotel room to thank him , but when Bond arrives he is attacked by an unidentifiable man . After subduing the man , Bond returns to his own room and finds Tracy there , who claims she didn 't know the attacker was there . The next morning , Bond is kidnapped by several men , including the one he fought with , who take him to meet Marc @-@ Ange Draco , the head of the European crime syndicate Unione Corse . Draco reveals that Tracy is his only daughter and tells Bond of her troubled past , offering Bond a personal dowry of one million pounds if he will marry her . Bond refuses , but agrees to continue romancing Tracy under the agreement that Draco reveals the whereabouts of Ernst Stavro Blofeld , the head of SPECTRE .
Bond returns to London , and after a brief argument with M at the British Secret Service headquarters , heads for Draco 's birthday party in Portugal . There , Bond and Tracy begin a whirlwind romance , and Draco directs the agent to a law firm in Bern , Switzerland . Bond investigates the office of Swiss lawyer Gumbold , and learns that Blofeld is corresponding with London College of Arms ' genealogist Sir Hilary Bray , attempting to claim the title ' Comte Balthazar de Bleuchamp ' .
Posing as Bray , Bond goes to meet Blofeld , who has established a clinical allergy @-@ research institute atop Piz Gloria in the Swiss Alps . Bond meets twelve young women , the " Angels of Death " , who are patients at the institute 's clinic , apparently cured of their allergies . At night Bond goes to the room of one patient , Ruby , for a romantic encounter . At midnight Bond sees that Ruby , apparently along with each of the other ladies , goes into a sleep @-@ induced hypnotic state while Blofeld gives them audio instructions for when they are discharged and return home . In fact , the women are being brainwashed to distribute bacteriological warfare agents throughout various parts of the world .
Bond tries to trick Blofeld into leaving Switzerland so that MI6 can arrest him without violating Swiss sovereignty . Blofeld refuses and Bond is eventually caught by henchwoman Irma Bunt . Blofeld reveals that he identified Bond after his attempt to lure him out of Switzerland , and tells his henchmen to take the agent away . Bond eventually makes his escape by skiing down Piz Gloria while Blofeld and his men give chase . Arriving at the
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village of Lauterbrunnen , Bond finds Tracy and they escape Bunt and her men after a car chase . A blizzard forces them to a remote barn , where Bond professes his love to Tracy and proposes marriage to her , which she accepts . The next morning , as the flight resumes , Blofeld sets off an avalanche ; Tracy is captured , while Bond is buried but manages to escape .
Back in London at M 's office , Bond is informed that Blofeld intends to hold the world to ransom by threatening to destroy its agriculture using his brainwashed women , demanding amnesty for all past crimes , and that he be recognised as the current Count de Bleuchamp . M tells 007 that the ransom will be paid and forbids him to mount a rescue mission . Bond then enlists Draco and his forces to attack Blofeld 's headquarters , while also rescuing Tracy from Blofeld 's captivity . The facility is destroyed , and Blofeld escapes the destruction alone in a bobsleigh , with Bond pursuing him . The chase ends when Blofeld becomes snared in a tree branch and injures his neck . Bond and Tracy marry in Portugal , then drive away in Bond 's Aston Martin . When Bond pulls over to the roadside to remove flowers from the car , Blofeld ( wearing a neck brace ) and Bunt commit a drive @-@ by shooting of the couple 's car ; Bond survives , but Tracy is killed in the attack . A police officer then approaches Bond 's car , Bond looks at the police officer . All choked up , Bond says : " it 's all right , it 's quite all right really . She 's having a rest , we 'll be going on soon . There 's no hurry you see , we have all the time in the world ..... " Bond starts to cry , and cradle Tracy 's body .
= = Cast = =
George Lazenby as James Bond – MI6 agent , codename 007 .
Diana Rigg as Countess Tracy di Vicenzo – A vulnerable countess and Marc @-@ Ange Draco 's daughter , who captures Bond 's heart . Like Honor Blackman in Goldfinger before her , Rigg had come to the notice of Eon Productions through her work on The Avengers , where she played Emma Peel from 1965 – 68 .
Telly Savalas as Ernst Stavro Blofeld aka Comte Balthazar de Bleuchamp – Bond 's nemesis , leader of SPECTRE and in hiding . Savalas had appeared in The Dirty Dozen in 1967 , leading to Broccoli suggesting him to director Peter Hunt , for the role , in place of Donald Pleasence , who had appeared in You Only Live Twice . Both Broccoli and Hunt felt Pleasence was unsuited to the more physical side of the Blofeld role in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service .
Gabriele Ferzetti as Marc @-@ Ange Draco – Head of the Union Corse , a major crime syndicate and Tracy 's father ( uncredited voice by David de Keyser ) .
Ilse Steppat as Irma Bunt – Blofeld 's henchwoman who assists in the attempts to eliminate Bond , and although they fail to finish him off Bunt eventually manages to kill Tracy . Said to be the most successful piece of casting in the film , the Bunt character did not appear in the film You Only Live Twice , although she did appear in the novel . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was Steppat 's last role : she died on 22 December 1969 , four days after the film premiered .
Bernard Lee as M – Head of the British Secret Service .
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny .
George Baker as Sir Hilary Bray – Herald in the London College of Arms , whom Bond impersonates in Piz Gloria . Baker also provided the voice of Bond while he was imitating Bray .
Yuri Borienko as Grunther – Blofeld 's brutish chief of security at Piz Gloria . In his role as a stuntman , Borienko was one of the people assisting with Lazenby 's audition : Lazenby accidentally broke his nose , which helped him get the part of Bond .
Bernard Horsfall as Shaun Campbell – 007 's colleague who tries to aid Bond in Switzerland as part of Operation Bedlam . Campbell has been called the film 's " Official Sacrificial Lamb " .
Desmond Llewelyn as Q.
Virginia North as Olympe – Draco 's female assistant . Nikki van der Zyl provided the uncredited voice for Olympe , making On Her Majesty 's Secret Service her sixth Bond film in succession .
Geoffrey Cheshire as Toussaint
Irvin Allen as Che Che
Terry Mountain as Raphael
James Bree as Gumbold
John Gay as Hammond
= = = Blofeld 's Angels of Death = = =
The Angels of Death are twelve beautiful women from all over the world being brainwashed by Blofeld under the guise of allergy or phobia treatment to spread the Virus Omega . A number appeared in the representative styles of dress of their particular nation . Their mission is to help Blofeld contaminate and ultimately sterilise the world 's food supply .
Julie Ege as Helen , a Scandinavian girl . Ege was a former Miss Norway who also starred in a number of Hammer Film Productions .
Jenny Hanley as an Irish girl .
Anouska Hempel as an Australian girl .
Joanna Lumley as an English girl . Like Diana Rigg ( and Honor Blackman in Goldfinger ) , Lumley would appear alongside Patrick Macnee , although her role was in a spin @-@ off from The Avengers , as Purdey in The New Avengers .
Catherina von Schell as Nancy , a Hungarian girl at the clinic whom Bond seduces .
Angela Scoular as Ruby Bartlett , an English girl at the clinic suffering from an allergy to chickens , whom Bond also beds . Scoular also played Buttercup in the 1967 comedy Casino Royale .
Mona Chong as a Chinese girl .
Sylvana Henriques as a Jamaican girl .
Dani Sheridan as an American girl .
Zara as an Indian girl .
Ingrit Back as a German girl .
Helena Ronee as an Israeli girl .
= = Production = =
The novel On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was first published after the film series started and contains " a gentle dig at the cinematic Bond 's gadgets , Broccoli and Saltzman had originally intended to make On Her Majesty 's Secret Service after Goldfinger and Richard Maibaum worked on a script at that time . However , Thunderball was filmed instead after the ongoing rights dispute over the novel were settled between Fleming and Kevin McClory . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was due to follow that , but problems with a warm Swiss winter and inadequate snow cover led to Saltzman and Broccoli postponing the film again , favouring production of You Only Live Twice .
Between the resignation of Sean Connery at the beginning of filming You Only Live Twice and its release , Saltzman had planned to adapt The Man with the Golden Gun in Cambodia and use Roger Moore as the next Bond , but political instability meant the location was ruled out and Moore signed up for another series of The Saint . After You Only Live Twice was released in 1967 , the producers once again picked up with On Her Majesty 's Secret Service .
Peter Hunt , who had worked on the five preceding films had impressed Broccoli and Saltzman enough to earn his directorial debut as they believed his quick cutting had set the style for the series ; it was also the result of a long @-@ standing promise from Broccoli and Saltzman for a directorial position . Hunt also asked for the position during the production of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang , and he brought along with him many crew members , including cinematographer Michael Reed . Hunt was focused on putting his mark – " I wanted it to be different than any other Bond film would be . It was my film , not anyone else 's . " On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the last film on which Hunt worked in the series .
= = = Writing = = =
Screenwriter Richard Maibaum , who worked on all the Bond films bar You Only Live Twice , was responsible for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service 's script . Saltzman and Broccoli decided to drop the science fiction gadgets from the earlier films and focus more on plot as in From Russia With Love . Peter Hunt asked Simon Raven to write some of the dialogue between Tracy and Blofeld in Piz Gloria , which was to be " sharper , better and more intellectual " ; one of Raven 's additions was having Tracy quoting James Elroy Flecker . When writing the script , the producers decided to make the closest adaptation of the book possible : virtually everything in the novel occurs in the film and Hunt was reported to always enter the set carrying an annotated copy of the novel .
With the script following the novel more closely than the other film adaptations of the eponymous source novels , there are several continuity errors due to the film taking place in a different order , such as Blofeld not recognising Bond , despite having met him face @-@ to @-@ face in the previous film You Only Live Twice . In the original script , Bond undergoes plastic surgery to disguise him from his enemies ; the intention was to allow an unrecognisable Bond to infiltrate Blofeld 's hideout and help the audience accept the new actor in the role . However , this was dropped in favour of ignoring the change in actor . To make audiences not forget it was the same James Bond , just played by another actor , the producers inserted many references to the previous films , some as in @-@ jokes . These include Bond breaking the fourth wall by stating " This never happened to the other fellow " , the credits sequence with images from the previous instalments , Bond visiting his office and finding objects from Dr. No , From Russia with Love and Thunderball , and a caretaker whistling the theme from Goldfinger .
= = = Casting = = =
In 1967 , after five films , Sean Connery retired from the role of James Bond and — during the filming of You Only Live Twice — was not on speaking terms with Albert Broccoli . The confirmed front runners were Englishman John Richardson , Dutchman Hans De Vries , American Robert Campbell , Englishman Anthony Rogers and Australian George Lazenby .
Broccoli and Hunt eventually chose Lazenby after seeing him in a Fry 's Chocolate Cream advertisement . Lazenby dressed the part by sporting several sartorial Bond elements such as a Rolex Submariner wristwatch and a Savile Row suit ( ordered , but uncollected , by Connery ) , and going to Connery 's barber at the Dorchester Hotel . Broccoli noticed Lazenby as a Bond @-@ type man based on his physique and character elements , and offered him an audition . The position was consolidated when Lazenby accidentally punched a professional wrestler , who was acting as stunt coordinator , in the face , impressing Broccoli with his ability to display aggression . Lazenby was offered a contract for seven films ; however , he was convinced by his agent Ronan O 'Rahilly that the secret agent would be archaic in the liberated 1970s , and as a result he left the series after the release of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service in 1969 .
For Tracy Draco , the producers wanted an established actress opposite neophyte Lazenby . Brigitte Bardot was invited , but after she signed to appear in Shalako opposite Sean Connery the deal fell through , and Diana Rigg — who had already been the popular heroine Emma Peel in The Avengers — was cast instead . Rigg said one of the reasons for accepting the role was that she always wanted to be in an epic film . Telly Savalas was cast following a suggestion from Broccoli , and Hunt 's neighbour George Baker was offered the part of Sir Hilary Bray . Baker 's voice was also used when Lazenby was impersonating Bray , as Hunt considered Lazenby 's imitation not convincing enough . Gabriele Ferzetti was cast as Draco after the producers saw him in an Italian mafia film , but Ferzetti 's heavy Italian accent also led to his voice being redubbed by English actor David de Keyser for the final cut .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in the Canton of Bern , Switzerland , on 21 October 1968 , with the first scene shot being an aerial view of Bond climbing the stairs of Blofeld 's mountain retreat to meet the girls . The scenes were shot atop the now famous revolving restaurant Piz Gloria , located atop the Schilthorn near the village of Mürren . The location was found by production manager Hubert Fröhlich after three weeks of location scouting in France and Switzerland . The restaurant was still under construction , but the producers found the location interesting , and had to finance providing electricity and the aerial lift to make filming there possible . Various chase scenes in the Alps were shot at Lauterbrunnen and Saas @-@ Fee , while the Christmas celebrations were filmed in Grindelwald , and some scenes were shot on location in Bern . Production was hampered by weak snowfall which was unfavourable to the skiing action scenes . The producers even considered moving to another location in Switzerland , but it was taken by the production of Downhill Racer . The Swiss filming ended up running 56 days over schedule . In March 1969 , production moved to England , with London 's Pinewood Studios being used for interior shooting , and M 's house being shot in Marlow , Buckinghamshire . In April , the filmmakers went to Portugal , where principal photography wrapped in May . The pre @-@ credit coastal and hotel scenes were filmed at Hotel Estoril Palacio in Estoril and Guincho Beach , Cascais , while Lisbon was used for the reunion of Bond and Tracy , and the ending employed a mountain road in the Arrábida National Park near Setúbal . Harry Saltzman wanted the Portuguese scenes to be in France , but after searching there , Peter Hunt considered that not only were the locations not photogenic , but were already " overexposed " .
While the first unit shot at Piz Gloria , the second unit , led by John Glen , started filming the ski chases . The downhill skiing involved professional skiers , and various camera tricks . Some cameras were handheld , with the operators holding them as they were going downhill with the stuntmen , and others were aerial , with cameramen Johnny Jordan – who had previously worked in the helicopter battle of You Only Live Twice — developing a system where he was dangled by an 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) long parachute harness rig below a helicopter , allowing scenes to be shot on the move from any angle . The bobsledding chase was also filmed with the help of Swiss Olympic athletes , and was rewritten to incorporate the accidents the stuntmen suffered during shooting , such as the scene where Bond falls from the sled . Blofeld getting snared with a tree was performed at the studio by Savalas himself , after the attempt to do this by the stuntman on location came out wrong . Glen was also the editor of the film , employing a style similar to the one used by Hunt in the previous Bond films , with fast motion in the action scenes and exaggerated sound effects .
The avalanche scenes were due to be filmed in co @-@ operation with the Swiss army who annually used explosions to prevent snow build @-@ up by causing avalanches , but the area chosen naturally avalanched just before filming . The final result was a combination of a man @-@ made avalanche at an isolated Swiss location shot by the second unit , stock footage , and images created by the special effects crew with salt . The stuntmen were filmed later , added by optical effects . For the scene where Bond and Tracy crash into a car race while being pursued , an ice rink was constructed over an unused aeroplane track , with water and snow sprayed on it constantly . Lazenby and Rigg did most of the driving due to the high number of close @-@ ups .
For the cinematography , Hunt aimed for a " simple , but glamorous like the 1950s Hollywood films I grew up with " , as well as something realistic , " where the sets don 't look like sets " . Cinematographer Michael Reed added he had difficulties with lighting , as every set built for the film had a ceiling , preventing spotlights from being hung from above . While shooting , Hunt wanted " the most interesting framings possible " , which would also look good after being cropped for television .
Lazenby said he experienced difficulties during shooting , not receiving any coaching despite his lack of acting experience , and with director Hunt never addressing him directly , only through his assistant . Lazenby also declared that Hunt also asked the rest of the crew to keep a distance from him , as " Peter thought the more I was alone , the better I would be as James Bond . " Allegedly , there also were personality conflicts with Rigg , who was already an established star . However , according to director Hunt , these rumours are untrue and there were no such difficulties — or else they were minor — and may have started with Rigg joking to Lazenby before filming a love scene " Hey George , I 'm having garlic for lunch . I hope you are ! " Hunt also declared that he usually had long talks with Lazenby before and during shooting . For instance , to shoot Tracy 's death scene , Hunt brought Lazenby to the set at 8 o 'clock in the morning and made him rehearse all day long , " and I broke him down until he was absolutely exhausted , and by the time we shot it at five o 'clock , he was exhausted , and that 's how I got the performance . " Hunt said that if Lazenby had remained in the role , he would also have directed the successor film , Diamonds Are Forever , and that his original intentions were concluding the film with Bond and Tracy driving off following their wedding , saving Tracy 's murder for the pre @-@ credit sequence of Diamonds Are Forever . The idea was discarded after Lazenby quit the role .
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the longest Bond film until Casino Royale was released in 2006 . Despite that , two scenes were deleted from the final print : Irma Bunt spying on Bond as he buys a wedding ring for Tracy , and a chase over London rooftops and into the Royal Mail underground rail system after Bond 's conversation with Sir Hilary Bray was overheard .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service has been called " perhaps the best score of the series . " It was composed , arranged and conducted by John Barry ; it was his fifth successive Bond film . Barry opted to use more electrical instruments and a more aggressive sound in the music – " I have to stick my oar in the musical area double strong to make the audience try and forget they don 't have Sean ... to be Bondian beyond Bondian . "
Barry felt it would be difficult to compose a theme song containing the title " On Her Majesty 's Secret Service " unless it were written operatically , in the style of Gilbert and Sullivan . Leslie Bricusse had considered lyrics for the title song but director Peter R. Hunt allowed an instrumental title theme in the tradition of the first two Bond films . The theme was described as " one of the best title cuts , a wordless Moog @-@ driven monster , suitable for skiing at breakneck speed or dancing with equal abandon . "
Barry also composed the love song " We Have All the Time in the World " , with lyrics by Burt Bacharach 's regular lyricist Hal David , sung by Louis Armstrong . It is heard during the Bond – Tracy courtship montage , bridging Draco 's birthday party in Portugal and Bond 's burglary of the Gebrüder Gumbold law office in Bern , Switzerland . It was Louis Armstrong 's last recorded song as he died of a heart attack two years later . Barry recalled Armstrong was very ill , but recorded the song in one take . The song was re @-@ released in 1994 , achieving the number three position during a 13 @-@ week spell in the UK charts . A Hal David song entitled " Do You Know How Christmas Trees Are Grown ? " performed by Danish singer Nina also featured in the film in several scenes .
The theme , " On Her Majesty 's Secret Service " , is used in the film as an action theme alternative to Monty Norman 's " James Bond Theme " , as with Barry 's previous " 007 " themes . " On Her Majesty 's Secret Service " was covered in 1997 by the British big beat group , the Propellerheads for the Shaken and Stirred album . Barry @-@ orchestrator Nic Raine recorded an arrangement of the escape from Piz Gloria sequence and it was featured as a theme in the trailers for the 2004 Pixar animated film The Incredibles .
= = Release and reception = =
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was released on 18 December 1969 with its premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square in London . Lazenby appeared at the premiere with a beard , looking " very un @-@ Bond @-@ like " , according to the Daily Mirror . Lazenby claimed the producers had tried to persuade him to shave it off to appear like Bond , but at that stage he had already decided not to make another Bond film and rejected the idea . The beard and accompanying shoulder @-@ length hair " strained his already fragile relationship with Saltzman and Broccoli " . As On Her Majesty 's Secret Service had been filmed in stereo , the first Bond film to use the technology , the Odeon had a new speaker system installed to benefit the new sounds .
Because Lazenby had informed the producers that On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was to be his only outing as Bond and because of the lack of gadgets used by Bond in the film , few items of merchandise were produced for the film , apart from the soundtrack album and a film edition of the book . Those that were produced included a number of Corgi Toys , including Tracey 's Cougar , Campbell 's Volkswagen and two versions of the bobsleigh — one with the 007 logo and one with the Piz Gloria logo . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was nominated for only one award : George Lazenby was nominated in the New Star of the Year – Actor category at the 1970 Golden Globe Award ceremony , losing out to Jon Voight .
= = = Box office = = =
The film topped the North American box office when it opened with a gross of $ 1 @.@ 2 million . The film closed its box office run with £ 750 @,@ 000 in the United Kingdom ( the highest @-@ grossing film of the year ) , $ 64 @.@ 6 million worldwide , half of You Only Live Twice 's total gross , but still one of the highest @-@ grossing films of 1969 . It was one of the most popular movies in France in 1969 , with admissions of 1 @,@ 958 @,@ 172 . Nonetheless this was a considerable drop from You Only Live Twice . After re @-@ releases , the total box office was $ 82 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worldwide .
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
The majority of reviews were critical of either the film , Lazenby , or both , while most of the contemporary reviews in the British press referred to George Lazenby at some point as " The Big Fry " , a reference to his previous acting in Fry 's Chocolate advertisements . Derek Malcolm of The Guardian was dismissive of Lazenby 's performance , saying that he " is not a good actor and though I never thought Sean Connery was all that stylish either , there are moments when one yearns for a little of his louche panache . " For all the criticism of Lazenby , however , Malcolm says that the film was " quite a jolly frolic in the familiar money @-@ spinning fashion " . Tom Milne , writing in The Observer was even more scathing , saying that " I ... fervently trust ( OHMSS ) will be the last of the James Bond films . All the pleasing oddities and eccentricities and gadgets of the earlier films have somehow been lost , leaving a routine trail through which the new James Bond strides without noticeable signs of animation . "
Donald Zec in the Daily Mirror was equally damning of Lazenby 's acting abilities , comparing him unfavourably to Connery : " He looks uncomfortably in the part like a size four foot in a size ten gumboot . " Zec was kinder to Lazenby 's co @-@ star , saying that " there is style to Diana Rigg 's performance and I suspect that the last scene which draws something of a performance out of Lazenby owes much to her silken expertise . " The New York Times critic AH Weiler also weighed in against Lazenby , saying that " Lazenby , if not a spurious Bond , is merely a casual , pleasant , satisfactory replacement . "
One of the few supporters of Lazenby amongst the critics was Alexander Walker in the London Evening Standard who said that " The truth is that George Lazenby is almost as good a James Bond as the man referred to in his film as ' the other fellow ' . Lazenby 's voice is more suave than sexy @-@ sinister and he could pass for the other fellow 's twin on the shady side of the casino . Bond is now definitely all set for the Seventies . " Judith Crist of New York Magazine also found the actor a strong point of the movie , stating that " This time around there 's less suavity and a no @-@ nonsense muscularity and maleness to the role via the handsome Mr. Lazenby " .
The feminist film critic Molly Haskell also wrote an approving review of the film in the Village Voice : " In a world , an industry , and particularly a genre which values the new and improved product above all , it is nothing short of miraculous to see a movie which dares to go backward , a technological artefact which has nobly deteriorated into a human being . I speak of the new and obsolete James Bond , played by a man named George Lazenby , who seems more comfortable in a wet tuxedo than a dry martini , more at ease as a donnish genealogist than reading ( or playing ) Playboy , and who actually dares to think that one woman who is his equal is better than a thousand part @-@ time playmates . " Haskell was also affected by the film 's emotional ending : " The love between Bond and his Tracy begins as a payment and ends as a sacrament . After ostensibly getting rid of the bad guys , they are married . They drive off to a shocking , stunning ending . Their love , being too real , is killed by the conventions it defied . But they win the final victory by calling , unexpectedly , upon feeling . Some of the audience hissed , I was shattered . If you like your Bonds with happy endings , don 't go . "
= = = Reflective reviews = = =
Critical response to On Her Majesty 's Secret Service has become much more positive in recent years . Film critic James Berardinelli summed this up in his review of the movie : " with the exception of one production aspect , [ it ] is by far the best entry of the long @-@ running James Bond series . The film contains some of the most exhilarating action sequences ever to reach the screen , a touching love story , and a nice subplot that has agent 007 crossing ( and even threatening to resign from ) Her Majesty 's Secret Service . The problem is with Bond himself ... George Lazenby is boring , and his ineffectualness lowers the picture 's quality . Lazenby can handle the action sequences , but that 's about all he masters . "
The American film reviewer Leonard Maltin has suggested that if it had been Connery in the leading role instead of Lazenby , On Her Majesty 's Secret Service would have epitomised the series . On the other hand , Danny Peary wrote , " I 'm not sure I agree with those who insist that if Connery had played Bond it would definitely be the best of the entire Bond series ... Connery 's Bond , with his boundless humor and sense of fun and self @-@ confidence , would be out of place in this picture . It actually works better with Lazenby because he is incapable of playing Bond as a bigger @-@ than @-@ life hero ; for one thing he hasn 't the looks ... Lazenby 's Bond also hasn 't the assurance of Connery 's Bond and that is appropriate in the crumbling , depressing world he finds himself . He seems vulnerable and jittery at times . At the skating rink , he is actually scared . We worry about him ... On Her Majesty 's Secret Service doesn 't have Connery and it 's impossible to ever fully adjust to Lazenby , but I think that it still might be the best Bond film , as many Bond cultists claim . " Peary also described On Her Majesty 's Secret Service as " the most serious " , " the most cynical " and " the most tragic " of the Bond films .
Brian Fairbanks differed in his opinion of Lazenby , saying that the film " gives us a James Bond capable of vulnerability , a man who can show fear and is not immune to heartbreak . Lazenby is that man , and his performance is superb . " Fairbanks also thought On Her Majesty 's Secret Service to be " not only the best Bond , it is also the last truly great film in the series . In fact , had the decision been made to end the series , this would have been the perfect final chapter . "
The filmmaker Steven Soderbergh writes that " For me there 's no question that cinematically On Her Majesty 's Secret Service is the best Bond film and the only one worth watching repeatedly for reasons other than pure entertainment ... Shot to shot , this movie is beautiful in a way none of the other Bond films are " The director Christopher Nolan also saw On Her Majesty 's Secret Service as his favourite Bond film ; in describing its influence on his own film , Inception , Nolan said , " What I liked about it that we 've tried to emulate in this film is there 's a tremendous balance in that movie of action and scale and romanticism and tragedy and emotion . "
Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an 82 % rating based on 44 reviews . IGN ranked On Her Majesty 's Secret Service as the eighth best Bond film , Entertainment Weekly as the sixth , and Norman Wilner of MSN , as the fifth best . The film also became a fan favourite , seeing " ultimate success in the home video market " . In September 2012 it was announced that On Her Majesty 's Secret Service had topped a poll of Bond fans run by 007 Magazine to determine the greatest ever Bond film . Goldfinger came second in the poll and From Russia With Love was third .
= The Getaway ( Dexter ) =
" The Getaway " is the fourth season finale of the American television drama series Dexter , and the 48th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Showtime on December 13 , 2009 . In the episode , Dexter goes to great lengths to stop Arthur , who now knows Dexter 's true identity . Meanwhile , Debra learns the truth about Dexter 's mother , the homicide division closes in on the Trinity Killer , and Rita reaffirms her support for Dexter , even as she acknowledges his hidden demons .
The teleplay was written by Wendy West and Melissa Rosenberg , based on a story by Rosenberg and Scott Reynolds . Directed by Steve Shill , " The Getaway " marked the conclusion of the Trinity Killer plotline , as well as the final regular appearance of guest star John Lithgow , who portrayed Arthur Mitchell . The episode also included the death of Rita Morgan , Dexter 's wife , who had been portrayed by Julie Benz , a regular cast member since the beginning of the series . To protect the twist ending of Rita 's death , Dexter producers imposed strict security measures , which included the distribution of fake alternate endings and forcing staff members to sign non @-@ disclosure agreements .
" The Getaway " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators calling the twist ending shocking , unexpected and likely to change the direction of the entire series . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 6 million households , making it the most @-@ watched original series episode in Showtime 's history .
= = Plot = =
Having learned the truth about Dexter 's identity , Arthur ( John Lithgow ) confronts Dexter ( Michael C. Hall ) at the police station , where nobody else knows Arthur is the Trinity Killer . He warns Dexter to leave him alone from now on . When he leaves , Dexter follows Arthur in his car , and accidentally strikes another car on his way . Dexter follows Arthur to a bank , where he sees Arthur bring a large envelope back to his van . Dexter attacks Arthur , knocking him out and dragging him into the van , and Dexter realizes the envelope is filled with cash . Dexter plans to take Arthur 's van away and kill Arthur , but he spots the driver of the car he struck earlier talking to police officers next to Dexter 's car . Dexter hides the envelope and confronts the driver , who acts very irritable . A frustrated Dexter attacks him and is detained by the police . By the time he is released , Arthur is gone , but Dexter recovers the envelope of money .
Meanwhile , Debra ( Jennifer Carpenter ) continues looking into the mysterious woman who had a secret affair with her and Dexter 's father , Harry ( James Remar ) . An old informant of Harry takes Debra to the woman 's house , which Debra recognizes as the house of Brian Moser . Moser was the Ice Truck Killer , the main villain from the first season who was engaged to Debra , then tried to kill her . The informant reveals the woman 's name was Laura Moser ( Sage Kirkpatrick ) , and while researching her , Debra learns Laura was Dexter 's mother , and that the Ice Truck Killer was Dexter 's brother . The police discovered the real identity of Trinity , and at Arthur 's house , Debra confronts Dexter , who feigns surprise and fears Debra is close to realizing his secret life as a serial killer . Instead , Debra says she believes the Ice Truck Killer used her to get to him , and she reasserts how much she loves her foster brother .
Inspired partially by Debra , and partially by his desire to be a better family man than Arthur , Dexter considers giving up killing people . After convincing his wife Rita ( Julie Benz ) to go safely out of town , Dexter searches for Arthur , eventually tracking him down and capturing him . Dexter insists he is not like Arthur , but Arthur insists they are both the same . Right before he is killed with a framing hammer , Arthur tells Dexter " It 's already over . " Disposing of Arthur 's body on his boat afterwards , Dexter comes to realize that his love for his family is starting to outweigh his need to kill , and he begins to hope for a future without killing . But upon returning home , he finds a message from Rita that she came home from the airport because she forgot her identification . Dexter returns her phone call , only to find that Rita 's cell phone and bags are in the house . Dexter hears Harrison crying in the bathroom and finds Rita dead in the bathtub . Harrison sits in a pool of Rita 's blood on the bathroom floor , in the same manner that Dexter was left in a pool of his mother 's blood during his youth , which gave Dexter his murderous tendencies .
= = Production = =
" The Getaway " , the Dexter fourth season finale , was directed by Steve Shill . The teleplay was written by Wendy West and Melissa Rosenberg , based on a story by Rosenberg and Scott Reynolds . It was the final episode helmed by show runner and executive producer Clyde Phillips before his departure from the show to spend more time with his family . Filming on " The Getaway " ended on October 13 , 2009 , and the episode was originally aired on Showtime on December 13 . " The Getaway " marked the conclusion of a season @-@ long plotline regarding the Trinity Killer , which featured John Lithgow as a serial killer and the primary antagonist of the fourth season . The episode also included the death of Rita Morgan , who had been a regular character since the beginning of the series . Although her death is off @-@ screen and the killer is not specifically identified , it is strongly suggested she was killed by Arthur Mitchell , which Lithgow himself confirmed to be true in an interview that aired on Showtime immediately after the episode was originally broadcast . Clyde Phillips said the ramifications " The Getaway " would have on the future of the series had not yet been determined , as brainstorming for the fifth season was not set to begin until February 2010 .
Rita 's death was alluded to by Dexter producers , who told media outlets " The Getaway " included a series @-@ changing twist , leading to widespread speculation about the possibility of a character death , or the possibility of Debra Morgan learning the truth about her brother 's homicidal nature . Extra security precautions were taken to prevent the finale 's secrets from becoming exposed . Network staff members were forced to sign non @-@ disclosure agreements , and decoy scripts were drafted and disseminated to protect the twist ending . In one of the fake alternate endings , Dexter learned on the news about a child murderer escaping from prison , and the episode would end with Dexter trying to decide whether to join Rita on vacation or go after the escaped killer . Nobody but essential cast and staff were allowed on the set during filming of the episode , and the scripts and DVDs of the episode were watermarked before they were taken off the set .
Phillips claimed the Dexter staff did not know how the finale would conclude until late in the season , but Phillips said Rita 's death began to feel inevitable as the story evolved . However , Julie Benz said she had been told John Lithgow knew about it from the beginning of the season . Phillips said the staff felt obligated to do more than simply kill the Trinity Killer in the final episode , especially because he felt the death of the third season antagonist ( played by Jimmy Smits ) was not handled " as well as we could have " . The writers discussed the idea of having Debra find out about Dexter 's secret life , but it was decided they could not anticipate how drastically the series would be changed by that revelation . Benz heard rumors from David Zayas that her character would be killed in the episode , but she was not officially notified until late September , when the producers held a meeting with her the day before the season finale script was distributed to the cast . She said , " It was a tough meeting . In a bizarre way , it felt like a scene from Defending Your Life . " Benz was unhappy about the news but she handled it professionally . Benz described the death scene as " very poetic " .
Executive Producer Sara Colleton said it was difficult to kill off a long @-@ standing character , but they felt " this is where Dexter needed to be taken " . She also felt the motives for Arthur killing Rita were deliberately made to be open to various interpretations , including that Arthur may have killed her " in a bizarre way to trigger Dexter to deal with who he really is " . When asked whether Arthur told Rita about Dexter 's secret life before killing her , Phillips said the answer had not been determined because the fifth season was not yet planned , but he added , " I would think that he did not tell her " . Michael C. Hall called the ending a " really bold stroke " that would reset the stage of the series just as the Dexter Morgan character began to feel he could live with an emotional connection to his wife and family . Hall also said of the ending , " More than anything I felt for the audience . I think this is the kind of thing that 's really going to tie people in knots . "
Lithgow called Rita 's death a " fantastic choice " , which he said shed a completely different light on the final scene between Dexter and Arthur , which appears to be somewhat sympathetic before the audience learned what Arthur had done . Lithgow said he knew that Arthur would be killed from the very beginning of the season . He said he particularly enjoyed working with Michael C. Hall in " The Getaway " , and particularly cited the opening scene in the police station , where he said Hall was " so great at working out the rhythms and finding the real meaning " of the moment where Dexter realizes Arthur has the advantage over him . Lithgow also said he enjoyed their final scene together , including the moment where he realized his daughter had committed suicide : " It 's very unusual for a character that despicable to have a moment like that , a moment of such pain . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Getaway " broke several records for the Showtime cable network . The finale episode was seen by 2 @.@ 6 million households , according to Nielsen ratings , making it the most @-@ watched original series episode in the network 's history . This rating surpassed the record that had been broken just a week prior by the Dexter episode , Hello , Dexter Morgan , which was seen by 2 @.@ 1 million households . The pair of Dexter episodes were the most watched Showtime telecast since the October 23 , 1999 broadcast of a boxing match between Mike Tyson and Orlin Norris . " The Getaway " was seen by 54 percent more viewers than the third season finale , " Do You Take Dexter Morgan ? " , which aired on December 14 , 2008 . The high ratings for " The Getaway " gave a boost to the third season finale of Californication , which aired immediately after the Dexter season finale . The Californication episode , Mia Culpa , was seen by 1 @.@ 1 million households , the highest ever viewership for the series .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
The episode received critical acclaim and has been cited by many critics as one of the best in the series , with several commentators calling the twist ending shocking , unexpected and likely to change the direction of the entire series . Entertainment Weekly television writer Ken Tucker praised the twist of the episode , which he said " sent the series spinning into a whole new direction for next season " . Tucker praised the Dexter writing staff , " for maintaining the suspense while creating a whole new world within the Dexter world : the awful universe of Trinity and his own trapped family . " Bill Harris of the Toronto Sun said the episode was good before the final scene , but that the twist shed a whole different light on several scenes . Harris said of the twist , " It 's nice to know TV can still be that impactful , isn 't it ? But my God , what a stunner . "
IGN reviewer Matt Fowler gave the episode an " Incredible " rating of 9 @.@ 6 / 10 , saying that : " I 'm sure we all loved Dexter 's final moments with Arthur , down in the toy train bomb shelter , but now looking back at the scene , knowing the final moments of the episode , it 's filled with so many more eerie easter eggs . Something was definitely up when Arthur said , " It 's already over . " We all thought so because we 've heard him say those words before . We also saw Dexter take a beat after the line , confused about its meaning . We could have chalked it up to the fact that Arthur was accepting his own death , but Dexter 's furrowed brow let us know that something more sinister was in play here . Of course , the real bitch here is that Dexter , having dispatched of Trinity officially , now can 't go back and do it with the spirit of vengeance . The scene stands quite beautifully on its own , but Dexter would certainly have not given Arthur an empathetic send off if he knew what that monster had done . We can all point fingers at certain missteps that Dexter took throughout the entire season - mistakes that led to Rita 's demise - but when you take it in as a whole it 's a rather satisfying and cleverly constructed story that actually made us all buy and believe , by the end , that Dexter truly wanted to be rid of his murderous spirit . His stubborn need to kill Trinity himself wound up circumventing the entire justice system , which would have wound up catching Arthur based solely on Deb 's tenacity and expert detective work . " Also , IGN listed Arthur Mitchell as 2nd on a list of Dexter 's Top 10 Kills saying that " This was the murder that America was clamoring for . And it was effin ' great . " In his review of the entire fourth season , Fowler , giving the season an " Incredible " rating of 9 @.@ 5 , said of the finale that " It all just came off as a ton of creepy , guilty fun . I would bet that when we all saw the final scene of the season finale that we , simply due to the time we 've spent the characters over four years , felt a ton of emotions that we might not have even known were there . "
E ! writer Kristin Dos Santos called the ending " horrifying " , and said of Rita , " This death just might go down as one of the most shocking deaths ever on television . " Claire Zulkey said that the twist ending was intense , and the teleplay was woven to feature several moments that had led him to suspect different conclusions . He also praised what he expected to be a " re @-@ set " of the series with Rita 's death . Marcia White of The Express @-@ Times declared Dexter " one of the best cable dramas on TV " , and called the final scene between Dexter and Arthur particularly touching . Mark Dawidziak of The Plain Dealer said the episode was shocking and suspenseful , and called Dexter " a series that leaves you guessing as the psychological ambiguities run deeper and darker " .
= = = Awards = = =
The director of " The Getaway " , Steve Shill , won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for this episode . In addition , Matthew V. Colonna was nominated for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series .
= Neverwinter Nights 2 : Mysteries of Westgate =
Neverwinter Nights 2 : Mysteries of Westgate ( NWN2 : MoW ) is an expansion pack for the role @-@ playing video game Neverwinter Nights 2 . It was developed by Ossian Studios and published by Atari on April 29 , 2009 . The player creates a character and controls it , along with a group of three pre @-@ designed companions , journeying through the game world . The gameplay is very similar to that of the base game . Mysteries of Westgate also includes new monsters , music , and other tools , which can be used by players to create their own Neverwinter Nights 2 levels .
The game takes place in the Forgotten Realms world , a Dungeons & Dragons campaign setting , in the area of Westgate . The player creates a character at the start of the game who finds a cursed mask belonging to the " Night Masks " , a thieves ' guild at war with two other organizations . The player chooses which of these other organizations to side with , and embarks on a quest to lift the mask 's curse .
Mysteries of Westgate was made after Ossian Studios ' successful work on the 2006 expansion pack Darkness over Daggerford . The game 's release was delayed to April 2009 , despite its completion in September 2007 , because of digital rights management issues and coordination difficulties among the three companies involved . Mysteries of Westgate met with mixed reviews ; the game 's plot and small amount of spoken dialogue were criticized by reviewers , while its music and low price for overall content were praised .
= = Gameplay = =
Mysteries of Westgate is a role @-@ playing video game that is based on the fantasy role @-@ playing game Dungeons & Dragons , and uses the d20 System rules , which are based on determining the results of most tasks , such as attacks , by performing the equivalent of rolling a 20 @-@ sided die . The player begins the game by either importing their character from Neverwinter Nights 2 or creating a new one that starts at character level 8 . Each character has a race ( such as human or elf ) and a class ( such as fighter or wizard ) , which determine the character 's main abilities . Mysteries of Westgate has gameplay similar to the original Neverwinter Nights 2 and uses the same systems for gameplay elements , such as character levels , combat , and magic . The gameplay takes place primarily from an overhead perspective in a three @-@ dimensional environment . The player moves and commands characters with the mouse .
The game 's designers estimate that Mysteries of Westgate contains over 15 hours of gameplay , part of which is provided by pursuing optional side quests unrelated to the main plot . Mysteries of Westgate 's campaign features content that does not appear in Neverwinter Nights 2 or its other expansions , including four new monsters ( such as the wererat and sea serpent @-@ like quelzarn ) , a set of " sewer " terrain tiles , and new music , all of which is available to players for use in the creation of custom levels . The pack includes over one hundred magic items , equipment which the character can use during the adventure .
= = Plot = =
The storyline of Mysteries of Westgate is unrelated to Neverwinter Nights 2 or its other expansions . It begins with the player character ( PC ) finding a cursed mask in a dungeon , which causes the PC to have nightmares , and which cannot be discarded . The player soon discovers that the mask belongs to a group of thieves known as the Night Masks of Westgate . After traveling to Westgate , a port city along the Dragon Coast , the PC discovers that the Night Masks are involved in a guild war with a rival group of thieves known as the Ebon Claws . The temple of Lathander is also fighting the Night Masks , and the PC is faced with the choice of joining the temple or the Ebon Claws . The PC is joined by three companions near the start of the game : the rogue Rinara , a former Night Mask ; Mantides , a fallen paladin ; and Charissa , a cleric of Tyr . All three travel with the PC for most of the adventure .
The party then undertakes a number of quests , which vary depending on which faction the PC sides with . As the quests are completed , more is revealed about the cursed mask and how to get rid of it . The party eventually learns that the Night Masks are led by vampires , and additional clues lead them to the vampires ' catacombs . After defeating the vampire Latasha , the PC travels through a portal to reach the chamber of the Night Masks ' leader , Orbakh . Orbakh gives the PC the choice to either become a vampire or keep the cursed mask .
The game 's ending depends on the PC 's choice . If the PC chooses to become a vampire , former allies turn against the PC . Once they are defeated , Orbakh sends the PC to destroy the Ebon Claws . If the PC instead decides to keep the mask , Orbakh attacks ; after his defeat , the leader of the Ebon Claws arrives with a group of followers and attacks the party . After the party is victorious , they kill the last of the Night Masks and free the player character from the cursed mask .
= = Development = =
Soon after the release of Darkness over Daggerford , Ossian Studios ' previous game , discussion began over the possibility of the company creating another expansion for Neverwinter Nights 2 . Ossian officially proposed the game to Atari and Wizards of the Coast , the owners of the Dungeons & Dragons license , in the fall of 2006 , with production beginning in January 2007 . When asked about why the Dungeons & Dragons setting appealed to the company , Ossian Studios CEO Alan Miranda said , " All of our team members are [ Dungeons and Dragons ] fans , so developing a [ Neverwinter Nights 2 ] game seemed like a great opportunity . "
During the game 's early development stages , it was set in the Forgotten Realms nation of Rashemen . The location was changed because Obsidian Studios ' Neverwinter Nights 2 : Mask of the Betrayer was to take place in the same area . At lead designer Luke Scull 's suggestion , Westgate became the new setting for the game . Ossian wanted the game 's setting to differentiate itself from both Neverwinter Nights and the Baldur 's Gate series of games . They found Westgate , situated in another area of the Forgotten Realms setting , to be ideal . Miranda compared Westgate to a city @-@ sized version of Star Wars 's Mos Eisley Cantina ; a " melting pot " of creatures from everywhere in the setting . Ossian said they decided to make Mysteries of Westgate exclusively single @-@ player in order to improve the game experience .
David John , who had also worked on expansion packs for the original Neverwinter Nights , composed the score for Mysteries of Westgate , which took several months . In an interview soon after the game 's release , Scull said " Some of [ the game 's ] tracks are so good , I actually listen to them alongside my usual eclectic mix . " Mysteries of Westgate 's voice acting was recorded in Edmonton , Canada , with over 12 @,@ 000 words of new voice @-@ over material . The cast included some of the same people who previously acted in Neverwinter Nights : Hordes of the Underdark and other BioWare games . Brian Dunn and Brian Watson , both of whom had also worked on Darkness over Daggerford , created the game 's artwork and graphics .
Development of Mysteries of Westgate ended in September 2007 , but Atari delayed the pack 's release , because the digital rights management they wanted to use was not ready . The delay was also caused by coordination problems between Ossian , Obsidian , and Atari . The game was officially announced on October 22 , 2007 , with an estimated release date of " fall 2007 " . In May 2008 , IGN reported that the game was scheduled for release that June , but it was further delayed , finally being released on April 29 , 2009 . Development of Mysteries of Westgate continued during the delays , to ensure the game 's compatibility with the expansions and patches for Neverwinter Nights 2 that were released after the game 's completion . Scull said , " Kevin Smith , our Lead Technical Designer ... had to bug fix and create new builds of the game with each [ patch and expansion ] . "
When IGN 's Steve Butts asked Miranda why the game was made available only through download , he replied , " From a financial perspective , digital distribution makes a lot of sense . It allows us to sell the Adventure Pack at a lower price point while still providing players with the same high quality gameplay and content that they 've come to expect from NWN2 products . " . Some of the game 's voice @-@ overs , monsters , music , and objects were released to the Neverwinter Nights 2 community for free , for use in building custom adventures , without needing to purchase the game itself .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of Mysteries of Westgate were mixed . 1UP.com 's Jason Wilson said that the game 's plot is " an intriguing tale , and even after finishing the game , a number of encounters and plot points ring in my head ... but the story 's poor stitching distracts from its arc — I felt like a great hand ... was pushing me through the plot , and the tale felt a bit muddled toward the end . " Brett Todd of GameSpot called the plot " rough around the edges " , while GameZone reviewer Michael Lafferty said , " The game may have a disjointed storyline , but there are moments where humor shines through , and the game does take a few interesting plot twists . And the exploration of the city zones , the underground areas where the trolls abound , hold that sense of joyful discovery that make an RPG worth playing . " Numerous reviewers mentioned that the impact of the mask which drives the story is minimal , having little effect on the actual gameplay . Lafferty said the side quests were not necessarily optional , as they were often a source of additional gold , and a certain point in the game 's plot required a substantial sum of it to proceed . GamesRadar 's Rich McCormick praised the game 's storyline and main quest as some of its best points . In a review for GameStar , Christian Schmidt thought that the game 's appearance and humor were poor , but recommended it because of its strong storyline .
Todd found the pack 's difficulty to be " wildly careening " and stated , " Some battles are amazingly easy . You can soar through many scraps in moments , with your party carving up the opposition before you can tell if you 're fighting a mummy or a zombie . However , others are absolutely brutal ... There are more than a couple of moments in the game in which your party is ambushed by enemy spellcasters that rip you to pieces before you can even think about a proper response . " He praised the game 's music as blending in seamlessly with that of the original game , but criticized it for having a minimal amount of voice acting , with sequences of dialogue that begin with audio and transition into text . Steve Butts commented on this , saying , " the dialogue here really needs some work ... you 'll even be treated to some truly tortured sentences . ' Wait till you see how deep into the backside of evil I insert my boot in the name of justice ! ' is probably my favorite . It 's too bad there 's not more voice acting in the game , because hearing someone speak lines like that out loud may have given the developers an opportunity to edit some of the worst offenders . "
As a result of Mysteries of Westgate 's 2007 completion and 2009 release , it did not feature the improvements present in the two previous Neverwinter Nights 2 expansion packs , and received criticism because of this . Todd stated that the game lacks the artistic improvements of Mask of the Betrayer and Storm of Zehir , a sentiment echoed by Lafferty 's review . However , Butts stated that " Westgate delivers enough engaging content that the absence of all the latest improvements isn 't " too agonizing . " Several reviews noted that the fifteen hours of story and the new objects in the adventure pack make the expansion worth its US $ 9 @.@ 99 cost .
= UBS =
UBS AG is a Swiss global financial services company , incorporated in the Canton of Zurich , and co @-@ headquartered in Zurich and Basel . The company provides wealth management , asset management , and investment banking services for private , corporate , and institutional clients worldwide , and is generally considered to be a bulge bracket bank . In Switzerland , these services are also offered to retail clients . The name UBS was originally an abbreviation for the Union Bank of Switzerland , but it ceased to be a representational abbreviation after the bank 's merger with Swiss Bank Corporation in 1998 . The company traces its origins to 1856 , when the earliest of its predecessor banks was founded .
UBS is considered the world 's largest manager of private wealth assets , with over CHF 2 @.@ 2 trillion in invested assets , and remains a leading provider of retail banking and commercial banking services in Switzerland . In 2014 , UBS ' assets under management ( AuM ) amounted to US $ 1 @,@ 966 @.@ 9 billion , representing a 15 @.@ 4 % increase in AuM compared to the equivalent data of 2013 . It is the biggest bank in Switzerland , operating in more than 50 countries with about 60 @,@ 000 employees around the world , as of 2014 .
In comparison to other European banks , UBS suffered among the largest losses during the subprime mortgage crisis , and the bank was required to raise large amounts of outside capital . In 2007 , the bank received a US $ 9 @.@ 7 billion capital injection from the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation ( currently GIC Private Limited effective from July 2013 ) , which remains one of the bank 's largest shareholders . The bank also received capital from the Swiss government , further complemented by a series of equity offerings in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 .
= = Corporate structure = =
UBS is a joint @-@ stock company ( " Aktiengesellschaft " ) pursuant to Swiss laws . Its shares are listed at the SIX Swiss Exchange , and the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) . As of February 2015 , UBS is present in all major financial centers worldwide , having offices in more than 50 countries , with about 35 % of its approx . 60 @,@ 000 employees working in the Americas , 36 % in Switzerland , 17 % in Europe , the Middle East and Africa and 12 % in the Asia Pacific region .
The bank has its major presence in the United States . Its American headquarters for investment banking are located in New York City , for private wealth management in Weehawken , New Jersey and its sales & trading headquarters can be found in Stamford , Connecticut . Company 's global business groups are ( i ) wealth management , ( ii ) investment banking and ( iii ) asset management . Additionally , UBS is the leading provider of retail banking and commercial banking services in Switzerland , as established already in 2009 . Overall invested assets are CHF 2 @.@ 689 trillion , shareholders ' equity is CHF 55 @.@ 313 billion and market capitalization is CHF 75 @.@ 147 billion by the end of 2015 .
In November 2014 , the shares in UBS Group AG were listed and started trading as a new holding company on the NYSE and SIX Swiss Exchange . Upon application and with the effect as of 14 January 2015 , the shares of the USB AG , the subsidiary of the UBS Group AG , were delisted from the NYSE .
UBS ' structure includes six divisions in total :
Starting already on 9 June 2003 , all UBS business groups , including UBS Paine Webber and UBS Warburg , were rebranded under the UBS moniker following company 's start of operations as a unified global entity .
= = = UBS Investment Bank = = =
UBS Investment Bank provides services covering securities , other financial products , and research in equities , rates , credit , foreign exchange , precious metals and derivatives .
As of the end of 2015 , the personnel employed at UBS Investment Bank totalled to 5 @,@ 243 presented in over 35 countries ( with principal offices in Hong Kong , London , New York , Singapore , Sydney , Tokyo and Zurich ) . This business division also advises and provides access to capital markets for corporate and institutional clients , governments , financial intermediaries , alternative asset managers , and private investors . UBS Investment Bank was formerly known as UBS Warburg and as Warburg Dillon Read , before the merger of Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation ( SBC ) .
Within the UBS Investment Bank division , the Investment Banking Department ( IBD ) provides a range of advisory and underwriting services including mergers and acquisitions , restructuring , equity offerings , investment grade and high yield debt offerings , leveraged finance and leveraged loan structuring , and the private placement of equity , debt , and derivatives .
The Sales & Trading division comprises equities ( brokering , dealing , market making and engaging in proprietary trading in equities , equity @-@ related products , equity derivatives , and structured products ) and FX , Rates and Credit ( FRC ) ( brokering , dealing , market making and engaging in proprietary trading in interest rate products , credit products , mortgage @-@ backed securities , leveraged loans , investment grade and high @-@ yield debt , currencies , structured products , and derivative products ) .
Since the early 2000s , UBS Investment Bank has been among the top fee @-@ generating investment banks globally . In 2010 , UBS ranked No.5 globally in mergers & acquisitions advisory , No.5 globally in debt capital markets bookrunning , No.5 globally in follow @-@ on equity offerings , No.3 in European follow @-@ on equity offerings , No.1 in Asia M & A advisory , No.2 in Asian equity capital markets bookrunning , No.2 in Asian follow @-@ on equity offerings , No.2 in Canadian M & A advisory , No.3 in Middle Eastern & African mergers & acquisitions advisory , and No.2 in Middle Eastern & African equity capital markets bookrunning . UBS also ranked No.1 on the 2010 M & A league tables in Australia , ahead of Macquarie Bank and Goldman Sachs .
= = = UBS Asset Management = = =
UBS Asset Management offers equity , fixed income , currency , hedge fund , real estate , infrastructure and private equity investment capabilities that can also be combined in multi @-@ asset strategies .
The 1998 UBS @-@ SBC merger and subsequent restructuring resulted in the combination of three major asset management operations : UBS Asset Management , Phillips & Drew ( owned by Union Bank of Switzerland ) , and Brinson Partners ( owned by SBC ) . The investment teams were merged in 2000 and in 2002 the brands were consolidated to become UBS Global Asset Management .
At the end of 2015 , UBS Asset Management was responsible for CHF 650 billion of invested assets and assets under administration were CHF 407 billion . With around 2 @,@ 300 employees in 24 countries , UBS Asset Management is the largest mutual fund manager in Switzerland , a leading fund house in Europe , and one of the largest hedge funds and real estate investment managers in the world . It has main offices in Chicago , Frankfurt , Hartford , Hong Kong , London , New York , Paris , Singapore , Sydney , Tokyo , and Zürich .
= = = UBS Wealth Management ( & Swiss Bank ) = = =
UBS 's wealth management division offers high @-@ net @-@ worth individuals around the world ( with the exception of those served by the division of Wealth Management Americas ) a range of advisory and investment products and services . As of the end of 2014 , UBS Wealth Management 's invested assets totaled CHF 947 billion .
More than 60 % of total invested assets in UBS Wealth Management belong to individuals with a net @-@ worth of CHF 10 million or more . Of the remaining 40 % of total invested assets , 30 % of the total belong to individuals with net @-@ worth between CHF 1 million and CHF 10 million and the last 10 % of total assets belong to individuals with a net @-@ worth of less than CHF 1 million .
UBS offers brokerage services and products as well as asset management and other investment advisory and portfolio management products and services . Additionally , UBS provides a broad range of securities and savings products that are supported by the firm 's underwriting and research activities as well as order execution and clearing services for transactions originated by individual investors .
The business is further divided geographically with separate businesses focused on the U.S. and other international markets . Two @-@ thirds of the total invested assets come from Europe and Switzerland with the final one @-@ third coming mainly from the Asia @-@ Pacific region .
With its headquarters in Switzerland , UBS Wealth Management is present in nearly 50 countries with approximately 230 offices ( 100 of which are in Switzerland ) . As of the end of 2014 , around 16 @,@ 700 people worldwide were employed by UBS Wealth Management . UBS Wealth Management in the U.S. is an outgrowth of the former Paine Webber brokerage business . The business was initially renamed UBS Paine Webber in March 2001 after it was acquired by UBS . The subsidiary was again renamed UBS Wealth Management USA in June 2003 .
In Switzerland , UBS Swiss Bank provides a complete set of retail banking services that includes checking , savings , credit cards , and mortgage products for individuals . They offer cash management and commercial banking services for small businesses and corporate clients as well .
= = = UBS Retail & Corporate = = =
UBS 's Retail & Corporate division delivers financial products and services to retail , corporate and institutional clients in Switzerland . It also provides stable and substantial profits for the Group and revenues opportunities for businesses within the bank . UBS maintains a leading position in the retail and corporate loan market in Switzerland ; in fact , it serves one in three pension funds , more than 85 % of the 1 @,@ 000 largest Swiss corporations and 85 % of banks that resides within the nation . In 2014 , the international financial magazine Euromoney named UBS " Best Domestic Cash Manager Switzerland " . At the end of 2014 , its lending portfolio reached CHF 137 billion . The 73 % of this sum was secured by residential property and the 15 % by commercial and industrial properties .
The products that this UBS division offers range from cash accounts , payments , savings and retirement solutions to investment fund products , residential mortgages and advisory services . This business division constitutes a central building block of UBS 's universal bank delivery model in Switzerland and it supports other divisions , such as Investment Bank , by referring clients to them and by assisting them to build their wealth to a level at which they can ben transferred to UBS Wealth Management .
The retail and corporate distribution network comprises not only customer service centers , but 1 @,@ 250 teller machines and self @-@ service terminals , as well as digital banking services .
= = = Competition = = =
On a global scale , UBS competes with the large global investment banks , and it is regularly compared against its fellow Swiss banking giant , Credit Suisse . In Switzerland , UBS competes with a number of cantonal banks , such as Zürcher Kantonalbank and other cantonal banks , as well as Raiffeisen , PostFinance , and Migros banks .
= = = UBS Young Professional Programs = = =
UBS is one of the major providers of young professional training in Switzerland , offering various programs , depending on applicants ' level of education . After graduation , over 70 % are permanently employed . Aside from the Apprenticeship and All @-@ round Trainee Program offered in Switzerland , UBS offers Internship program and the Graduate Training Programs ( GTP ) globally . The GTP is an 18 @-@ month development program for graduates with bachelor 's degree and above , which is specifically built around the different business groups of UBS . It consists of on @-@ the @-@ job training ( OJT ) , tailored education and networking events .
= = History = =
UBS , as it exists today , is the result of a complex history representing a merger product of the Union Bank of Switzerland and the Swiss Bank Corporation in June 1998 ( SBC ) . The official founding date of the bank is April 1862 , the year when its nucleus Bank in Winterthur was founded .
Although the merged company 's new name was originally supposed to be the " United Bank of Switzerland , " the officials opted to call it simply UBS because of a name clash with the separate Swiss company United Bank Switzerland – a part of the United Bank Limited 's Swiss subsidiary . Therefore , UBS is no longer an acronym but is the company 's brand . Its logo of three keys , carried over from SBC , stands for the company 's values of confidence , security , and discretion .
UBS also comprises a number of well @-@ known securities firms that have been acquired by the bank and its predecessors . Among the bank 's most notable constituent parts are Paine Webber , Dillon , Read & Co . , Kidder , Peabody & Co . , Phillips & Drew , S. G. Warburg & Co . , Blyth , Eastman , Dillon & Co . , Jackson & Curtis , and Union Securities , among others .
= = = Swiss Bank Corporation = = =
= = = = Origins and early years ( 1854 – 1945 ) = = = =
UBS , through Swiss Bank Corporation , traces its history to 1854 when six private banking firms in Basel , Switzerland pooled their resources to form the Bankverein , a consortium that acted as an underwriting syndicate for its member banks . In 1871 , the Bankverein coordinated with the German Frankfurter Bankverein to form the Basler Bankverein , a joint @-@ stock company replacing the original Bankverein consortium . After the new bank started with an initial commitment of CHF 30 million and CHF 6 million of share capital , it soon experienced growing pains when heavy losses in Germany caused it to suspend its dividend until 1879 . Following the years 1885 and 1886 , when the bank merged with the Zürcher Bankverein and acquired the Basler Depositenbank and the Schweizerische Unionbank , it changed its name to Schweizerischer Bankverein . The English name of the bank was originally Swiss Bankverein , but was changed to Swiss Bank Corporation ( SBC ) in 1917 .
SBC subsequently experienced a period of growth , which was only interrupted by the onset of World War I , in which the bank lost investments in a number of large industrial companies . By the end of 1918 , the bank had recovered and surpassed CHF 1 billion in total assets and grew to 2 @,@ 000 employees by 1920 . The impact of the stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression was severe , particularly as the Swiss franc suffered major devaluation in 1936 . The bank saw its assets fall from a 1929 peak of CHF 1 @.@ 6 billion to its 1918 levels of CHF 1 billion by 1936 .
In 1937 , SBC adopted its three @-@ keys logo , designed by Warja Honegger @-@ Lavater , symbolizing confidence , security , and discretion , which remains an integral part in the current @-@ day logo of UBS .
On the eve of World War II in 1939 , SBC , like other Swiss banks , was the recipient of large influxes of foreign funds for safekeeping . Just prior to the outbreak of the war , SBC made the timely decision to open an office in New York City . The office , located in the Equitable Building , was able to begin operations a few weeks after the outbreak of the war and was intended as a safe place to store assets in the case of an invasion . During the war , the banks ' traditional business fell off and the Swiss government became their largest client .
= = = = Post @-@ war years ( 1945 – 1998 ) = = = =
In 1945 , SBC acquired the Basler Handelsbank ( Commercial Bank of Basel ) , which was one of the largest banks in Switzerland , but became insolvent by the end of the war . SBC remained among the Swiss government 's leading underwriters of debt in the post @-@ war years . SBC , which had entered the 1950s with 31 branch offices in Switzerland and three abroad , more than doubled its assets from the end of the war to CHF 4 billion by the end of the 1950s and doubled assets again in the mid @-@ 1960s , exceeding CHF 10 billion by 1965 .
In 1961 , SBC acquired Banque Populaire Valaisanne , based in Sion , Switzerland and the Banque Populaire de Sierre . The bank opened a full branch office in Tokyo in 1970 .
In 1992 , SBC acquired O 'Connor & Associates , a Chicago @-@ based options trading firm and the largest market maker in the financial options exchanges in the U.S. O 'Connor was combined with SBC 's money market , capital market , and currency market activities to form a globally integrated capital markets and treasury operation .
In 1994 , SBC acquired Brinson Partners , an asset management firm focused on providing access for U.S. institutions to global markets , for US $ 750 million . Following the acquisition , founder Gary P. Brinson ran SBC 's asset management business and later when SBC merged with UBS was named chief investment officer of UBS Global Asset Management .
The acquisition of S.G. Warburg & Co . , a leading British investment banking firm , in 1995 for the price of US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion signified a major push into investment banking . S.G. Warburg & Co. had established a reputation as a daring merchant bank that grew to be one of the most respected investment banks in London . However , a Warburg expansion into the U.S. had turned out flawed and costly , and talks in 1994 with Morgan Stanley about a merger had collapsed . SBC merged the firm with its own existing investment banking unit to create SBC Warburg .
Two years later , in 1997 , SBC paid US $ 600 million to acquire Dillon , Read & Co . , a U.S. bulge bracket investment bank .
Dillon , Read & Co . , which traced its roots to the 1830s was among the powerhouse firms on Wall Street in the 1920s and 1930s , and by the 1990s had a particularly strong mergers and acquisitions advisory group . Dillon Read had been in negotiations to sell itself to ING , which owned 25 % of the firm already , but Dillon Read partners balked at ING 's integration plans .
After its acquisition by SBC , Dillon Read was merged with SBC @-@ Warburg to create SBC @-@ Warburg Dillon Read . Following SBC 's later merger with Union Bank of Switzerland , the SBC part was dropped from the name ; in 2000 when the new UBS got restructured the Dillon Read name was dropped , although it was brought back in 2005 as Dillon Read Capital Management , UBS 's ill @-@ fated hedge fund operations .
= = = Union Bank of Switzerland = = =
= = = = Origins and early years ( 1862 – 1945 ) = = = =
The Union Bank of Switzerland emerged in 1912 when the Bank in Winterthur fused with the Toggenburger Bank . The Bank in Winterthur , founded in 1862 with an initial share capital of CHF 5 million , focused on providing financing for industry and other companies , and had profited considerably from its close railroad connections and large warehousing facilities during the American Civil War when cotton prices rose dramatically . The Toggenburger Bank was founded in 1863 with an initial share capital of CHF 1 @.@ 5 million , and specialized as a savings and mortgage bank for individual customers , maintaining a branch office network in eastern Switzerland .
The new company was initially traded under the English name Swiss Banking Association , but in 1921 it was changed to Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) to mirror its French name , Union de Banques Suisses . In German , the bank was known as the Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft ( SBG ) .
The combined bank had total assets of CHF 202 million and a total shareholders ' equity of CHF 46 million . In 1917 , UBS completed the construction of a new headquarters in Zurich on Bahnhofstrasse , considered to be the Wall Street of Switzerland . By 1923 , offices were established throughout Switzerland . Although the bank suffered in the aftermath of World War I and the Great Depression , it was able to make several smaller acquisitions ; in 1937 it established Intrag AG , an asset management business responsible for investment trusts , ( i.e. mutual funds ) .
= = = = Activities in World War II = = = =
The activities of the Union Bank of Switzerland during World War II were not publicly known until decades after the war , when it was demonstrated that UBS likely took active roles in trading stolen gold , securities , and other assets during World War II .
The issue of " unclaimed property " of Holocaust victims became a major issue for UBS in the mid @-@ 1990s , and a series of revelations in 1997 brought the issue to the forefront of national attention in 1996 and 1997 .
UBS confirmed that a large number of accounts had gone unclaimed as a result of the bank 's policy of requiring death certificates from family members to claim the contents of the account . UBS 's handling of these revelations were largely criticized and the bank received significant negative attention in the U.S.
UBS came under significant pressure , particularly from American politicians , to compensate Holocaust survivors who were making claims against the bank .
In January 1997 , Christoph Meili , a night watchman at the Union Bank of Switzerland , found employees shredding archives compiled by a subsidiary that had extensive dealings with Nazi Germany . The shredding was in direct violation of a then @-@ recent Swiss law adopted in December 1996 protecting such material . UBS acknowledged that it had " made a deplorable mistake " , but an internal historian maintained that the destroyed archives were unrelated to the Holocaust . Criminal proceedings then began against the archivist for possible violation of a recent Federal Document Destruction decree and against Meili for possible violation of bank secrecy , which is a criminal offense in Switzerland . Both proceedings were discontinued by the District Attorney in September 1997 .
Meili was suspended from his job at the security company that served UBS , following a criminal investigation . Meili and his family left Switzerland for the United States where they were granted political asylum .
In 1997 , the World Jewish Congress lawsuit against Swiss banks was launched to retrieve deposits made by victims of Nazi persecution during and prior to World War II , ultimately resulting in a settlement of US $ 1 @.@ 25 billion in August 1998 .
= = = = Post @-@ war years ( 1945 – 1998 ) = = = =
Shortly after the end of World War II , Union Bank of Switzerland completed the acquisition of the Eidgenössische Bank , a large Zürich @-@ based bank that became insolvent . As a result of the merger , Union Bank of Switzerland exceeded CHF 1 billion in assets and moved its operations to Zurich . UBS opened branches and acquired a series of banks in Switzerland in the
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York Mets , Houston Astros , Philadelphia Phillies , St. Louis Cardinals , Milwaukee Brewers , and Pittsburgh Pirates . All scheduled games were played that day except for several games – notably the Washington Nationals @-@ New York Mets , the Houston Astros @-@ Philadelphia Phillies ( the game and the ceremony was held on the make @-@ up date on April 23 , 2007 ) , as was the Pirates game against the San Francisco Giants ; the uniforms were worn at the team 's next home game at PNC Park – all due to a major rainstorm in the Eastern United States that postponed six games .
Andre Ethier , Russell Martin and Wilson Valdez managed to each earn three hits each during the Dodgers game . Ethier hit a home run which drove in the first four runs of the season for the Dodgers , who stole five bases — their most since August 23 , 1999 when they stole seven in a game at Milwaukee . " It 's kind of cool to have a decent game on Jackie Robinson Day , " Martin said . " I ’ m going to remember this probably for the rest of my life . " Randy Wolf , who was playing for the Dodgers at the time ( currently a free agent ) allowed six hits and three runs in six innings and struck out seven . " The whole team wearing No. 42 , it kind of goes sour if we don ’ t win , " Wolf said . " It was great . There were a lot of special people here . It 's a special day and I think they did it right . " The San Diego Padres ' José Cruz , Jr. hit his 200th career home run .
Chris Young 's streak of 25 consecutive road starts without a loss was broken that day by the Dodgers win . The only other pitcher in major league baseball history had gone as many as 25 straight road starts without losing — Allie Reynolds had a 25 @-@ game streak in 1948 – 1949 . " I was terrible , " Young said . " I just never found my rhythm and never found my groove . I put the guys in a hole early in the game and it was just too much to overcome . I can ’ t imagine , having to go through that , the courage it took , the discipline , and just how successful he was . I mean , he wasn ’ t just successful integrating the game . He was a great baseball player . He 's a Hall of Fame baseball player . He wouldn ’ t allow himself to fail , and that 's tremendous . "
" Oh Happy Day , " a Robinson favorite , was sung by The Brookinaires Gospel Choir from The First African Methodist Episcopal Church . Paintings of Minnesota Twins logos acknowledging Robinson were on both sides of the home plate with another behind second base , and " Jackie Robinson Day " was printed on the bases . A video tribute with Morgan and Aaron among those participating was shown . Several current players expressed their thanks to Robinson in the video also .
= = = 2008 = = =
April 15 , 2008 , was the 61st anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's major league debut . Over 330 team members wore number 42 , more than the over 240 last year . When the teams took the field , all players , managers and coaches were wearing number 42 , and was repeated at all other 14 ballparks that had scheduled games that day . All players wore number 42 at games including the Washington Nationals ' game at the New York Mets , Pittsburgh 's game at the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Los Angeles Angels ' game at the Texas Rangers . The Oakland Athletics , St. Louis Cardinals and Tampa Bay Rays also wore number 42 , increasing the total to nine teams . " The significance of Jackie Robinson Day is not lost on anyone " , said Bob DuPuy . " As more and more people realize what April 15 means , not only for baseball , but for our country in general , I think you 're going to see the celebration grow annually . "
= = = 2009 = = =
The celebration for the 2009 season , commemorating the 62nd anniversary of Robinson 's debut , included the dedication for the Jackie Robinson Rotunda at Citi Field , the New York Mets ' new home in Flushing Meadows prior to the Mets playing the San Diego Padres in the second regular season game to be played there . Additionally , for the first time , all uniformed personnel ( players , managers , coaches and umpires ) wore # 42 for the day . The sole exception was when the scheduled game at Nationals Park between the Philadelphia Phillies and the Washington Nationals was rained out ; they wore the jerseys in the night game of a day @-@ night doubleheader May 16 .
= = = 2010 = = =
The celebration of Jackie Robinson Day , marking the 63rd anniversary of his debut , marked the second season that all uniformed personnel and umpires wearing # 42 . A total of twelve games were played that day , so as a result , several teams wore Robinson 's number in another game in April due to an off day planned for several teams . The main celebration was again in New York , but was held at the new Yankee Stadium , yards from the original stadium where Robinson played in seven World Series against the New York Yankees .
= = = 2011 = = =
The 64th anniversary of Robinson 's debut marked the third straight season all uniformed players and umpires wearing # 42 , with the exception of the rained @-@ out New York Mets @-@ Atlanta Braves game ; the teams wore the uniforms the following day 's makeup game . In addition , a new MLB website , www.iam42.com , was established .
= = = 2012 = = =
65th anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's debut and 4th straight season all uniformed players , coaches and umpires wore No. 42 .
= = = 2013 = = =
2013 marked the 66th anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's debut and 5th straight season all uniformed players , coaches and umpires wore No. 42 .
= = = 2014 = = =
The 67th anniversary of Jackie Robinson 's debut was celebrated at Historic Dodgertown , where Robinson and teammates used to spend their spring training preparing for the upcoming season for the Dodgers . Owned by former Dodger owner Peter O 'Malley , Historic Dodgertown hosted the 2014 celebration by putting on a minor league exhibition game . Also , four games – Atlanta at Philadelphia , Cleveland at Detroit , Tampa Bay at Baltimore and the Chicago Cubs at the New York Yankees – were postponed due to a rainstorm that plagued much of the eastern USA .
= Shen Kuo =
Shen Kuo ( Chinese : 沈括 ; 1031 – 1095 ) , courtesy name Cunzhong ( 存中 ) and pseudonym Mengqi ( now usually given as Mengxi ) Weng ( 夢溪翁 ) , was a Han Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman of the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . Excelling in many fields of study and statecraft , he was a mathematician , astronomer , meteorologist , geologist , zoologist , botanist , pharmacologist , agronomist , archaeologist , ethnographer , cartographer , encyclopedist , general , diplomat , hydraulic engineer , inventor , academy chancellor , finance minister , governmental state inspector , poet , and musician . He was the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy in the Song court , as well as an Assistant Minister of Imperial Hospitality . At court his political allegiance was to the Reformist faction known as the New Policies Group , headed by Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) .
In his Dream Pool Essays or Dream Torrent Essays ( 夢溪筆談 ; Mengxi Bitan ) of 1088 , Shen was the first to describe the magnetic needle compass , which would be used for navigation ( first described in Europe by Alexander Neckam in 1187 ) . Shen discovered the concept of true north in terms of magnetic declination towards the north pole , with experimentation of suspended magnetic needles and " the improved meridian determined by Shen 's [ astronomical ] measurement of the distance between the pole star and true north " . This was the decisive step in human history to make compasses more useful for navigation , and may have been a concept unknown in Europe for another four hundred years ( evidence of German sundials made circa 1450 show markings similar to Chinese geomancer compasses in regard to declination ) .
Alongside his colleague Wei Pu , Shen planned to map the orbital paths of the Moon and the planets in an intensive five @-@ year project involving daily observations , yet this was thwarted by political opponents at court . To aid his work in astronomy , Shen Kuo made improved designs of the armillary sphere , gnomon , sighting tube , and invented a new type of inflow water clock . Shen Kuo devised a geological hypothesis for land formation ( geomorphology ) , based upon findings of inland marine fossils , knowledge of soil erosion , and the deposition of silt . He also proposed a hypothesis of gradual climate change , after observing ancient petrified bamboos that were preserved underground in a dry northern habitat that would not support bamboo growth in his time . He was the first literary figure in China to mention the use of the drydock to repair boats suspended out of water , and also wrote of the effectiveness of the relatively new invention of the canal pound lock . Although Ibn al @-@ Haytham ( 965 – 1039 ) was the first to describe camera obscura , Shen was the first in China to do so , several decades later . Shen wrote extensively about movable type printing invented by Bi Sheng ( 990 – 1051 ) , and because of his written works the legacy of Bi Sheng and the modern understanding of the earliest movable type has been handed down to later generations . Following an old tradition in China , Shen created a raised @-@ relief map while inspecting borderlands . His description of an ancient crossbow mechanism which he himself unearthed proved to be a Jacob 's staff , a surveying tool which wasn 't known in Europe until described by Levi ben Gerson in 1321 .
Shen Kuo wrote several other books besides the Dream Pool Essays , yet much of the writing in his other books has not survived . Some of Shen 's poetry was preserved in posthumous written works . Although much of his focus was on technical and scientific issues , he had an interest in divination and the supernatural , the latter including his vivid description of unidentified flying objects from eyewitness testimony . He also wrote commentary on ancient Daoist and Confucian texts .
= = Life = =
= = = Birth and youth = = =
Shen Kuo was born in Qiantang ( modern @-@ day Hangzhou ) in the year 1031 . His father Shen Zhou ( 沈周 ; 978 – 1052 ) was a somewhat lower @-@ class gentry figure serving in official posts on the provincial level ; his mother was from a family of equal status in Suzhou , with her maiden name being Xu ( 許 ) . Shen Kuo received his initial childhood education from his mother , which was a common practice in China during this period . She was very educated herself , teaching Kuo and his brother Pi ( 披 ) the military doctrines of her own elder brother Xu Tang ( 許洞 ; 975 – 1016 ) . Since Shen was unable to boast of a prominent familial clan history like many of his elite peers born in the north , he was forced to rely on his wit and stern determination to achieve in his studies , subsequently passing the Imperial Exams and enter the challenging and sophisticated life of an exam @-@ drafted state bureaucrat .
From about 1040 , Shen 's family moved around Sichuan province and finally to the international seaport at Xiamen , where Shen 's father accepted minor provincial posts in each new location . Shen Zhou also served several years in the prestigious capital judiciary , the equivalent of a federal supreme court . Shen Kuo took notice of the various towns and rural features of China as his family traveled , while he became interested during his youth in the diverse topography of the land . He also observed the intriguing aspects of his father 's engagement in administrative governance and the managerial problems involved ; these experiences had a deep impact on him as he later became a government official . Since he often became ill as a child , Shen Kuo also developed a natural curiosity about medicine and pharmaceutics .
Shen Zhou died in the late winter of 1051 ( or early 1052 ) , when his son Shen Kuo was 21 years old . Shen Kuo grieved for his father , and following Confucian ethics , remained inactive in a state of mourning for three years until 1054 ( or early 1055 ) . As of 1054 , Shen began serving in minor local governmental posts . However , his natural abilities to plan , organize , and design were proven early in life ; one example is his design and supervision of the hydraulic drainage of an embankment system , which converted some one hundred thousand acres ( 400 km ² ) of swampland into prime farmland . Shen Kuo noted that the success of the silt fertilization method relied upon the effective operation of sluice gates of irrigation canals .
= = = Official career = = =
In 1063 Shen Kuo successfully passed the Imperial examinations , the difficult national @-@ level standard test that every high official was required to pass in order to enter the governmental system . He not only passed the exam however , but was placed into the higher category of the best and brightest students . While serving at Yangzhou , Shen 's brilliance and dutiful character caught the attention of Zhang Chu ( 張蒭 ; 1015 – 1080 ) , the Fiscal Intendant of the region . Shen made a lasting impression upon Zhang , who recommended Shen for a court appointment in the financial administration of the central court . Shen would also eventually marry Zhang 's daughter , who became his second wife .
In his career as a scholar @-@ official for the central government , Shen Kuo was also an ambassador to the Western Xia Dynasty and Liao Dynasty , a military commander , a director of hydraulic works , and the leading chancellor of the Hanlin Academy . By 1072 , Shen was appointed as the head official of the Bureau of Astronomy . With his leadership position in the bureau , Shen was responsible for projects in improving calendrical science , and proposed many reforms to the Chinese calendar alongside the work of his colleague Wei Pu . With his impressive skills and aptitude for matters of economy and finance , Shen was appointed as the Finance Commissioner at the central court .
As written by Li Zhiyi , a man married to Hu Wenrou ( granddaughter of Hu Su , a famous minister of the Song Dynasty ) , Shen Kuo was Li 's mentor while Shen served as an official . According to Li 's epitaph for his wife , Shen would sometimes relay questions via Li to Hu when he needed clarification for his mathematical work , as Hu Wenrou was esteemed by Shen as a remarkable female mathematician . Shen lamented : " if only she were a man , Wenrou would be my friend . "
While employed by the central government , Shen Kuo was also sent out with others to inspect the granary system of the empire , investigating problems of illegal collections , negligence , ineffective disaster relief , and inadequate water @-@ conservancy projects . While Shen was appointed as the regional inspector of Zhejiang in 1073 , the Emperor requested that Shen pay a visit to the famous poet Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) , then an administrator in Hangzhou . Shen took advantage of this meeting to copy some of Su 's poetry , which he presented to the Emperor indicating that it expressed " abusive and hateful " speech against the Song court ; these poems were later politicized by Li Ding and Shu Dan in order to level a court case against Su . ( The Crow Terrace Poetry Trial , of 1079 . ) With his demonstrations of loyalty and ability , Shen Kuo was awarded the honorary title of a State Foundation Viscount by Emperor Shenzong of Song ( r . 1067 – 1085 ) , who placed a great amount of trust in Shen Kuo . He was even made ' companion to the heir apparent ' ( 太子中允 ; ' Taizi zhongyun ' ) .
At court Shen was a political favorite of the Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) , who was the leader of the political faction of Reformers , also known as the New Policies Group ( 新法 , Xin Fa ) . Shen Kuo had a previous history with Wang Anshi , since it was Wang who had composed the funerary epitaph for Shen 's father , Zhou . Shen Kuo soon impressed Wang Anshi with his skills and abilities as an administrator and government agent . In 1072 , Shen was sent to supervise Wang 's program of surveying the building of silt deposits in the Bian Canal outside the capital city . Using an original technique , Shen successfully dredged the canal and demonstrated the formidable value of the silt gathered as a fertilizer . He gained further reputation at court once he was dispatched as an envoy to the Khitan Liao Dynasty in the summer of 1075 . The Khitans had made several aggressive negotiations of pushing their borders south , while manipulating several incompetent Chinese ambassadors who conceded to the Liao Kingdom 's demands . In a brilliant display of diplomacy , Shen Kuo came to the camp of the Khitan monarch at Mt . Yongan ( near modern Pingquan , Hebei ) , armed with copies of previously archived diplomatic negotiations between the Song and Liao dynasties . Shen Kuo refuted Emperor Daozong 's bluffs point for point , while the Song reestablished their rightful border line . In regard to the Lý Dynasty of Đại Việt ( in modern northern Vietnam ) , Shen demonstrated in his Dream Pool Essays that he was familiar with the key players ( on the Vietnamese side ) in the prelude to the Sino @-@ Vietnamese War of 1075 – 1077 . With his reputable achievements , Shen became a trusted member of Wang Anshi 's elite circle of eighteen unofficial core political loyalists to the New Policies Group .
Although much of Wang Anshi 's reforms outlined in the New Policies centered on state finance , land tax reform , and the Imperial examinations , there were also military concerns . This included policies of raising militias to lessen the expense of upholding a million soldiers , putting government monopolies on saltpetre and sulphur production and distribution in 1076 ( to ensure that gunpowder solutions would not fall into the hands of enemies ) , and aggressive military policy towards China 's northern rivals of the Western Xia and Liao dynasties . A few years after Song Dynasty military forces had made victorious territorial gains against the Tanguts of the Western Xia , in 1080 Shen Kuo was entrusted as a military officer in defense of Yanzhou ( modern @-@ day Yan 'an , Shaanxi province ) . During the autumn months of 1081 , Shen was successful in defending Song Dynasty territory while capturing several fortified towns of the Western Xia . The Emperor Shenzong of Song rewarded Shen with numerous titles for his merit in these battles , and in the sixteen months of Shen 's military campaign , he received 273 letters from the Emperor . However , Emperor Shenzong trusted an arrogant military officer who disobeyed the emperor and Shen 's proposal for strategic fortifications , instead fortifying what Shen considered useless strategic locations . Furthermore , this officer expelled Shen from his commanding post at the main citadel , so as to deny him any glory in chance of victory . The result of this was nearly catastrophic , as the forces of the arrogant officer were decimated ; Xinzhong Yao states that the death toll was 60 @,@ 000 . Nonetheless , Shen was successful in defending his fortifications and the only possible Tangut invasion @-@ route to Yanzhou .
= = = Impeachment and later life = = =
The new Chancellor Cai Que ( 蔡確 ; 1036 – 1093 ) held Shen responsible for the disaster and loss of life . Along with abandoning the territory which Shen Kuo had fought for , Cai ousted Shen from his seat of office . Shen 's life was now forever changed , as he lost his once reputable career in state governance and the military . Shen was then put under probation in a fixed residence for the next six years . However , as he was isolated from governance , he decided to pick up the ink brush and dedicate himself to intensive scholarly studies . After completing two geographical atlases for a state @-@ sponsored program , Shen was rewarded by having his sentence of probation lifted , allowing him to live in a place of his choice . Shen was also pardoned by the court for any previous faults or crimes that were claimed against him .
In his more idle years removed from court affairs , Shen Kuo enjoyed pastimes of the Chinese gentry and literati that would indicate his intellectual level and cultural taste to others . As described in his Dream Pool Essays , Shen Kuo enjoyed the company of the " nine guests " ( 九客 , jiuke ) , a figure of speech for the Chinese zither , the older 17x17 line variant of weiqi ( known today as go ) , Zen Buddhist meditation , ink ( calligraphy and painting ) , tea drinking , alchemy , chanting poetry , conversation , and drinking wine . These nine activities were an extension to the older so @-@ called Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar .
According to Zhu Yu 's book Pingzhou Table Talks ( 萍洲可談 ; Pingzhou Ketan ) of 1119 , Shen Kuo had two marriages ; the second wife was the daughter of Zhang Chu ( 張蒭 ) , who came from Huainan . Lady Zhang was said to be overbearing and fierce , often abusive to Shen Kuo , even attempting at one time to pull off his beard . Shen Kuo 's children were often upset over this , and prostrated themselves to Lady Zhang to quit this behavior . Despite this , Lady Zhang went as far as to drive out Shen Kuo 's son from his first marriage , expelling him from the household . However , after Lady Zhang died , Shen Kuo fell into a deep depression and even attempted to jump into the Yangtze River to drown himself . Although this suicide attempt failed , he would die a year later .
In the 1070s , Shen had purchased a lavish garden estate on the outskirts of modern @-@ day Zhenjiang , Jiangsu province , a place of great beauty which he named " Dream Brook " ( " Mengxi " ) after he visited it for the first time in 1086 . Shen Kuo permanently moved to the Dream Brook Estate in 1088 , and in that same year he completed his life 's written work of the Dream Pool Essays , naming the book after his garden @-@ estate property . It was there that Shen Kuo spent the last several years of his life in leisure , isolation , and illness , until his death in 1095 .
= = Scholarly achievements = =
Shen Kuo wrote extensively on a wide range of different subjects . His written work included two geographical atlases , a treatise on music with mathematical harmonics , governmental administration , mathematical astronomy , astronomical instruments , martial defensive tactics and fortifications , painting , tea , medicine , and much poetry . His scientific writings have been praised by sinologists such as Joseph Needham and Nathan Sivin , and he has been compared by Sivin to polymaths such as his contemporary Su Song , as well as Gottfried Leibniz and Mikhail Lomonosov .
= = = Raised @-@ relief map = = =
If the account of Sima Qian ( c . 145 – 86 BC ) in his Records of the Grand Historian is proven correct upon the unearthing of Qin Shi Huang 's ( r . 221 – 210 BC ) tomb , the raised @-@ relief map has existed since the Qin Dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) . Robert Temple and Joseph Needham suggest that certain pottery vessels of the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) showing artificial mountains as lid decorations may have influenced the raised @-@ relief map . The Han Dynasty general Ma Yuan ( 14 BC – 49 AD ) made a raised @-@ relief map of valleys and mountains in a rice @-@ constructed model of 32 AD . Such rice models were expounded on by the Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) author Jiang Fang in his Essay on the Art of Constructing Mountains with Rice ( c . 845 AD ) . A raised @-@ relief map made of wood representing all the provinces of the empire and put together like a giant 0 @.@ 93 m2 ( 10 ft2 ) jigsaw puzzle was invented by Xie Zhuang ( 421 – 466 AD ) during the Liu Song Dynasty ( 420 – 479 ) .
Shen 's largest atlas included twenty three maps of China and foreign regions that were drawn at a uniform scale of 1 : 900 @,@ 000 . Shen also created a raised @-@ relief map using sawdust , wood , beeswax , and wheat paste . Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) was inspired by the raised @-@ relief map of Huang Shang and so made his own portable map made of wood and clay which could be folded up from eight hinged pieces .
= = = Pharmacology = = =
For pharmacology , Shen wrote of the difficulties of adequate diagnosis and therapy , as well as the proper selection , preparation , and administration of drugs . He held great concern for detail and philological accuracy in identification , use and cultivation of different types of medicinal herbs , such as in which months medicinal plants should be gathered , their exact ripening times , which parts should be used for therapy ; for domesticated herbs he wrote about planting times , fertilization , and other matters of horticulture . In the realms of botany , zoology , and mineralogy , Shen Kuo documented and systematically described hundreds of different plants , agricultural crops , rare vegetation , animals , and minerals found in China . For example , Shen noted that the mineral orpiment was used to quickly erase writing errors on paper .
= = = Civil engineering = = =
The writing of Shen Kuo is the only source for the date when the drydock was first used in China . Shen Kuo wrote that during the Xi @-@ Ning reign ( 1068 – 1077 ) , the court official Huang Huaixin devised a plan for repairing 60 m ( 200 ft ) long palatial boats that were a century old ; essentially , Huang Huaixin devised the first Chinese drydock for suspending boats out of water . These boats were then placed in a roof @-@ covered dock warehouse to protect them from weathering . Shen also wrote about the effectiveness of the new invention ( i.e. by the 10th century engineer Qiao Weiyo ) of the pound lock to replace the old flash lock design used in canals . He wrote that it saved the work of five hundred annual labors , annual costs of up to 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 strings of cash , and increased the size limit of boats accommodated from 21 tons / 21000 kg to 113 tons / 115000 kg .
If it were not for Shen Kuo 's analysis and quoting in his Dream Pool Essays of the writings of the architect Yu Hao ( fl . 970 ) , the latter 's work would have been lost to history . Yu designed a famous wooden pagoda that burned down in 1044 and was replaced in 1049 by a brick pagoda ( the ' Iron Pagoda ' ) of similar height , but not of his design . From Shen 's quotation — or perhaps Shen 's own paraphrasing of Yu Hao 's Timberwork Manual ( 木經 ; Mujing ) — shows that already in the 10th century there was a graded system of building unit proportions , a system which Shen states had become more precise in his time but stating no one could possibly reproduce such a sound work . However , he did not anticipate the more complex and matured system of unit proportions embodied in the extensive written work by scholar @-@ official Li Jie ( 1065 – 1110 ) , the Treatise on Architectural Methods ( 營造法式 ; Yingzao Fashi ) of 1103 . Klaas Ruitenbeek states that the version of the Timberwork Manual quoted by Shen is most likely Shen 's summarization of Yu 's work or a corrupted passage of the original by Yu Hao , as Shen writes : " According to some , the work was written by Yu Hao . "
= = = Anatomy = = =
The Chinese had long taken an interest in examining the human body . For example , in 16 AD the Xin Dynasty usurper Wang Mang called for the dissection of an executed man , to examine his arteries and viscera in order to discover cures for illnesses . Shen also took interest in human anatomy , dispelling the long @-@ held Chinese theory that the throat contained three valves , writing , " When liquid and solid are imbibed together , how can it be that in one 's mouth they sort themselves into two throat channels ? " Shen maintained that the larynx was the beginning of a system that distributed vital qi from the air throughout the body , and that the esophagus was a simple tube that dropped food into the stomach . Following Shen 's reasoning and correcting the findings of the dissection of executed bandits in 1045 , an early 12th @-@ century Chinese account of a bodily dissection finally supported Shen 's belief in two throat valves , not three . Also , the later Song Dynasty judge and early forensic expert Song Ci ( 1186 – 1249 ) would promote the use of autopsy in order to solve homicide cases , as written in his Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified .
= = = Mathematics and optics = = =
In the broad field of mathematics , Shen Kuo mastered many practical mathematical problems , including many complex formulas for geometry , circle packing , and chords and arcs problems employing trigonometry . Shen addressed problems of writing out very large numbers , as large as 1043 . Shen 's " technique of small increments " laid the foundation in Chinese mathematics for packing problems involving equal difference series . Sal Restivo writes that Shen used summation of higher series to ascertain the number of kegs which could be piled in layers in a space shaped like the frustum of a rectangular pyramid . In his formula " technique of intersecting circles " , he created an approximation of the arc of a circle s given the diameter d , sagita v , and length of the chord c subtending the arc , the length of which he approximated as s = c + 2v2 / d . Restivo writes that Shen 's work in the lengths of arcs of circles provided the basis for spherical trigonometry developed in the 13th century by Guo Shoujing ( 1231 – 1316 ) . He also simplified the counting rods technique by outlining short cuts in algorithm procedures used on the counting board , an idea expanded on by the mathematician Yang Hui ( 1238 – 1298 ) . Victor J. Katz asserts that Shen 's method of " dividing by 9 , increase by 1 ; dividing by 8 , increase by 2 , " was a direct forerunner to the rhyme scheme method of repeated addition " 9 , 1 , bottom add 1 ; 9 , 2 , bottom add 2 " .
Shen wrote extensively about what he had learned while working for the state treasury , including mathematical problems posed by computing land tax , estimating requirements , currency issues , metrology , and so forth . Shen once computed the amount of terrain space required for battle formations in military strategy , and also computed the longest possible military campaign given the limits of human carriers who would bring their own food and food for other soldiers . Shen wrote about the earlier Yi Xing ( 672 – 717 ) , a Buddhist monk who applied an early escapement mechanism to a water @-@ powered celestial globe . By using mathematical permutations , Shen described Yi Xing 's calculation of possible positions on a go board game . Shen calculated the total number for this using up to five rows and twenty five game pieces , which yielded the number 847 @,@ 288 @,@ 609 @,@ 443 .
Shen Kuo experimented with the pinhole camera and burning mirror as the ancient Chinese Mohists had done in the 4th century BC . Although the Iraqi Muslim scientist Ibn al @-@ Haytham ( 965 – 1039 ) was the first to experiment with camera obscura , Shen Kuo was the first to attribute geometrical and quantitative properties to the camera obscura , just several decades after Ibn al @-@ Haytham 's death . Using a fitting metaphor , Shen compared optical image inversion to an oarlock and waisted drum . He also discussed focal points and noted that the image in a concave mirror is inverted . Shen , who never asserted that he was the first to experiment with camera obscura , hints in his writing that camera obscura was dealt with in the Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang written by Duan Chengshi ( d . 863 ) during the Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , in regard to the inverted image of a Chinese pagoda by a seashore .
= = = Magnetic needle compass = = =
Since the time of the engineer and inventor Ma Jun ( c . 200 – 265 ) , the Chinese had used the south @-@ pointing chariot , which did not employ magnetism , as a compass . In 1044 the Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques ( 武經總要 ; Wujing Zongyao ) recorded that fish @-@ shaped objects cut from sheet iron , magnetized by thermoremanence ( essentially , heating that produced weak magnetic force ) , and placed in a water @-@ filled bowl enclosed by a box were used for directional pathfinding alongside the south @-@ pointing chariot .
However , it was not until the time of Shen Kuo that the earliest magnetic compasses would be used for navigation . In his written work , Shen Kuo made the first known explicit reference to the magnetic compass @-@ needle and the concept of true north . He wrote that steel needles were magnetized once they were rubbed with lodestone , and that they were put in floating position or in mountings ; he described the suspended compass as the best form to be used , and noted that the magnetic needle of compasses pointed either south or north . Shen Kuo asserted that the needle will point south but with a deviation , stating " [ the magnetic needles ] are always displaced slightly east rather than pointing due south . "
Shen Kuo wrote that it was preferable to use the twenty @-@ four @-@ point rose instead of the old eight compass cardinal points — and the former was recorded in use for navigation shortly after Shen 's death . The preference of use for the twenty @-@ four @-@ point @-@ rose compass may have arisen from Shen 's finding of a more accurate astronomical meridian , determined by his measurement between the pole star and true north ; however , it could also have been inspired by geomantic beliefs and practices . The book of the author Zhu Yu , the Pingzhou Table Talks published in 1119 ( written from 1111 to 1117 ) , was the first record of use of a compass for seafaring navigation . However , Zhu Yu 's book recounts events back to 1086 , when Shen Kuo was writing the Dream Pool Essays ; this meant that in Shen 's time the compass might have already been in navigational use . In any case , Shen Kuo 's writing on magnetic compasses has proved invaluable for understanding China 's earliest use of the compass for seafaring navigation .
= = = Archaeology = = =
Many of Shen Kuo 's contemporaries were interested in antiquarian pursuits of collecting old artworks . They were also interested in archaeological pursuits , although for rather different reasons than why Shen Kuo held an interest in archaeology . While Shen 's educated Confucian contemporaries were interested in obtaining ancient relics and antiques in order to revive their use in rituals , Shen was more concerned with how items from archeological finds were originally manufactured and what their functionality would have been , based on empirical evidence . Shen Kuo criticized those in his day who reconstructed ancient ritual objects using only their imagination and not the tangible evidence from archeological digs or finds . Shen also disdained the notion of others that these objects were products of the " sages " or the aristocratic class of antiquity , rightfully crediting the items ' manufacture and production to the common working people and artisans of previous eras . Fraser and Haber write that Shen Kuo " advocated the use of an interdisciplinary approach to archaeology and practiced such an approach himself through his work in metallurgy , optics , and geometry in the study of ancient measures . "
While working in the Bureau of Astronomy , Shen Kuo 's interest in archaeology and old relics led him to reconstruct an armillary sphere from existing models as well as from ancient texts that could provide additional information . Shen used ancient mirrors while conducting his optics experiments . He observed ancient weaponry , describing the scaled sight devices on ancient crossbows and the ancients ' production of swords with composite blades that had a midrib of wrought iron and low @-@ carbon steel while having two sharp edges of high @-@ carbon steel . Being a knowledgeable musician , Shen also suggested suspending an ancient bell by using a hollow handle . In his assessment of the carved reliefs of the ancient Zhuwei Tomb , Shen stated that the reliefs demonstrate genuine Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) era clothing .
After unearthing an ancient crossbow device from a house 's garden in Haichow , Jiangsu , Shen discovered that the cross @-@ wire grid sighting device , marked in graduated measurements on the stock , could be used to calculate the height of a distant mountain in the same way that mathematicians could apply right @-@ angle triangles to measure height . Needham asserts Shen had discovered the survey device known as Jacob 's staff , which was not described elsewhere until the Provençal Jewish mathematician Levi ben Gerson ( 1288 – 1344 ) wrote of it in 1321 . Shen wrote that while viewing the whole of a mountain , the distance on the instrument was long , but while viewing a small part of the mountainside the distance was short due to the device 's cross piece that had to be pushed further away from the observer 's eye , with the graduation starting on the further end . He wrote that if one placed an arrow on the device and looked past its end , the degree of the mountain could be measured and thus its height could be calculated .
= = = Geology = = =
The ancient Greek Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC ) wrote in his Meteorology of how the earth had the potential for physical change , including the belief that all rivers and seas at one time did not exist where they were , and were dry . The Greek writer Xenophanes ( 570 BC – 480 BC ) wrote of how inland marine fossils were evidence that massive periodic flooding had wiped out mankind several times in the past , but never wrote of land formation or shifting seashores . Du Yu ( 222 – 285 ) a Chinese Jin Dynasty officer , believed that the land of hills would eventually be leveled into valleys and valleys would gradually rise to form hills . The Daoist alchemist Ge Hong ( 284 – 364 ) wrote of the legendary immortal Magu ; in a written dialogue by Ge , Ma Gu described how what was once the Eastern Sea ( i.e. East China Sea ) had transformed into solid land where mulberry trees grew , and would one day be filled with mountains and dry , dusty lands . The later Persian Muslim scholar Abū Rayhān al @-@ Bīrūnī ( 973 – 1048 ) hypothesized that India was once covered by the Indian Ocean while observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers .
It was Shen Kuo who formulated a hypothesis about the process of land formation ( geomorphology ) based upon several observations as evidence . This included his observation of fossil shells in a geological stratum of a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean . He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by erosion of the mountains , uplift , and the deposition of silt , after observing strange natural erosions of the Taihang Mountains and the Yandang Mountain near Wenzhou . He hypothesized that , with the inundation of silt , the land of the continent must have been formed over an enormous span of time . While visiting the Taihang Mountains in 1074 , Shen Kuo noticed strata of bivalve shells and ovoid rocks in a horizontal @-@ running span through a cliff like a large belt . Shen proposed that the cliff was once the location of an ancient seashore that by his time had shifted hundreds of miles east . Shen wrote that in the Zhiping reign period ( 1064 – 1067 ) a man of Zezhou unearthed an object in his garden that looked like a serpent or dragon , and after examining it , concluded the dead animal had apparently turned to " stone " . The magistrate of Jincheng , Zheng Boshun , examined the creature as well , and noted the same scale @-@ like markings that were seen on other marine animals . Shen Kuo likened this to the " stone crabs " found in China .
Shen also wrote that since petrified bamboos were found underground in a climatic area where they had never been known to be grown , the climate there must have shifted geographically over time . Around the year 1080 , Shen Kuo noted that a landslide on the bank of a large river near Yanzhou ( modern Yan 'an ) had revealed an open space several dozens of feet under the ground once the bank collapsed . This underground space contained hundreds of petrified bamboos still intact with roots and trunks , " all turned to stone " as Shen Kuo wrote . Shen Kuo noted that bamboos do not grow in Yanzhou , located in northern China , and he was puzzled during which previous dynasty the bamboos could have grown . Considering that damp and gloomy low places provide suitable conditions for the growth of bamboo , Shen deduced that the climate of Yanzhou must have fit that description in very ancient times . Although this would have intrigued many of his readers , the study of paleoclimatology in medieval China never developed into an established discipline .
The philosopher Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) wrote of this curious natural phenomenon of fossils as well . He was known to have read the works of Shen Kuo . Shen 's description of soil erosion and weathering predated that of Georgius Agricola in his book of 1546 , De veteribus et novis metallis . Furthermore , Shen 's theory of sedimentary deposition predated that of James Hutton , who published his groundbreaking work in 1802 ( considered the foundation of modern geology ) . Historian Joseph Needham likened Shen 's account to that of the Scottish scientist Roderick Murchison ( 1792 – 1871 ) , who was inspired to become a geologist after observing a providential landslide .
= = = Meteorology = = =
Early speculation and hypothesis pertaining to what is now known as meteorology had a long tradition in China before Shen Kuo .
Shen wrote vivid descriptions of tornadoes — the first known description of them in East Asia .
He also gave reasoning ( earlier proposed by Sun Sikong , 1015 – 1076 ) that rainbows were formed by the shadow of the sun in rain , occurring when the sun would shine upon it . Paul Dong writes that Shen 's explanation of the rainbow as a phenomenon of atmospheric refraction " is basically in accord with modern scientific principles . " In Europe , Roger Bacon ( 1214 – 1294 ) was the first to suggest that the colors of the rainbow were caused by the reflection and refraction of sunlight through rain drops .
Shen hypothesized that rays of sunlight refract before reaching the surface of the earth , hence people on earth observing the sun are not viewing it in its exact position , in other words , the altitude of the apparent sun is higher than the actual altitude of the sun . Dong writes that " at the time , this discovery was remarkably original . " Ibn al @-@ Haytham , in his Book of Optics ( 1021 ) , also discussed atmospheric refraction ( in regard to twilight ) .
= = = Astronomy and instruments = = =
Being the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy , Shen Kuo was an avid scholar of medieval astronomy , and improved the designs of several astronomical instruments . Shen is credited with making improved designs of the gnomon , armillary sphere , and clepsydra clock . For the clepsydra he designed a new overflow @-@ tank type , and argued for a more efficient higher @-@ order interpolation instead of linear interpolation in calibrating the measure of time . Improving the 5th century model of the astronomical sighting tube , Shen Kuo widened its diameter so that the new calibration could observe the pole star indefinitely . This came about due to the position of the pole star shifting in position since the time of Zu Geng in the 5th century , hence Shen Kuo diligently observed the course of the pole star for three months , plotting the data of its course and coming to the conclusion that it had shifted slightly over three degrees . Apparently this astronomical finding had an impact upon the intellectual community in China at the time . Even Shen 's political rival and contemporary astronomer Su Song featured Shen 's corrected position of the pole star ( halfway between Tian shu , at − 350 degrees , and the current Polaris ) in the fourth star map of his celestial atlas .
The astronomical phenomena of the solar eclipse and lunar eclipse had been observed in the 4th century BC by astronomers Gan De and Shi Shen ; the latter gave instructions on predicting the eclipses based on the relative position of the Moon to the Sun . The philosopher Wang Chong argued against the ' radiating influence ' theory of Jing Fang 's writing in the 1st century BC and that of Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 ) ; the latter two correctly hypothesized that the brightness of the Moon was merely light reflected from the Sun . Jing Fang had written in the 1st century BC of how it was long accepted in China that the Sun and Moon were spherical in shape ( ' like a crossbow bullet ' ) , not flat . Shen Kuo also wrote of solar and lunar eclipses in this manner , yet expanded upon this to explain why the celestial bodies were spherical , going against the ' flat earth ' theory for celestial bodies . However , there is no evidence to suggest that Shen Kuo supported a round earth theory , which was introduced into Chinese science by Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi in the 17th century . When the Director of the Astronomical Observatory asked Shen Kuo if the shapes of the Sun and Moon were round like balls or flat like fans , Shen Kuo explained that celestial bodies were spherical because of knowledge of waxing and waning of the Moon . Much like what Zhang Heng had said , Shen Kuo likened the Moon to a ball of silver , which does not produce light , but simply reflects light if provided from another source ( the Sun ) . He explained that when the Sun 's light is slanting , the Moon appears full . He then explained if one were to cover any sort of sphere with white powder , and then viewed from the side it would appear to be a crescent , hence he reasoned that celestial bodies were spherical . He also wrote that , although the Sun and Moon were in conjunction and opposition with each other once a month , this did not mean the Sun would be eclipsed every time their paths met , because of the small obliquity of their orbital paths .
Shen is also known for his cosmological hypotheses in explaining the variations of planetary motions , including retrogradation . His colleague Wei Pu realized that the old calculation technique for the mean Sun was inaccurate compared to the apparent Sun , since the latter was ahead of it in the accelerated phase of motion , and behind it in the retarded phase . Shen 's hypotheses were similar to the concept of the epicycle in the Greco @-@ Roman tradition , only Shen compared the side @-@ section of orbital paths of planets and variations of planetary speeds to points in the tips of a willow leaf . In a similar rudimentary physical analogy of celestial motions , as John B. Henderson describes it , Shen likened the relationship of the Moon 's path to the ecliptic , the path of the Sun , " to the figure of a rope coiled about a tree . "
Along with his colleague Wei Pu in the Bureau of Astronomy , Shen Kuo planned to plot out the exact coordinates of planetary and lunar movements by recording their astronomical observations three times a night for a continuum of five years . The Song astronomers of Shen 's day still retained the lunar theory and coordinates of the earlier Yi Xing , which after 350 years had devolved into a state of considerable error . Shen criticized earlier Chinese astronomers for failing to describe celestial movement in spatial terms , yet he did not attempt to provide any reasoning for the motive power of the planets or other celestial movements . Shen and Wei began astronomical observations for the Moon and planets by plotting their locations three times a night for what should have been five successive years . The officials and astronomers at court were deeply opposed Wei and Shen 's work , offended by their insistence that the coordinates of the renowned Yi Xing were inaccurate . They also slandered Wei Pu , out of resentment that a commoner had expertise exceeding theirs . When Wei and Shen made a public demonstration using the gnomon to prove the doubtful wrong , the other ministers reluctantly agreed to correct the lunar and solar errors . Despite this success , they eventually dismissed Wei and Shen 's tables of planetary motions . Therefore , only the worst and most obvious planetary errors were corrected , and many inaccuracies remained .
= = = Movable type printing = = =
Shen Kuo wrote that during the Qingli reign period ( 1041 – 1048 ) , under Emperor Renzong of Song ( 1022 – 1063 ) , an obscure commoner and artisan known as Bi Sheng ( 990 – 1051 ) invented ceramic movable type printing . Although the use of assembling individual characters to compose a piece of text had its origins in antiquity , Bi Sheng 's methodical innovation was something completely revolutionary for his time . Shen Kuo noted that the process was tedious if one only wanted to print a few copies of a book , but if one desired to make hundreds or thousands of copies , the process was incredibly fast and efficient . Beyond Shen Kuo 's writing , however , nothing is known of Bi Sheng 's life or the influence of movable type in his lifetime . Although the details of Bi Sheng 's life were scarcely known , Shen Kuo wrote :
When Bi Sheng died , his fount of type passed into the possession of my followers ( i.e. one of Shen 's nephews ) , among whom it has been kept as a precious possession until now .
There are a few surviving examples of books printed in the late Song Dynasty using movable type printing . This includes Zhou Bida 's Notes of The Jade Hall ( 玉堂雜記 ) printed in 1193 using the method of baked @-@ clay movable type characters outlined in the Dream Pool Essays . Yao Shu ( 1201 – 1278 ) , an advisor to Kublai Khan , once persuaded a disciple Yang Gu to print philological primers and Neo @-@ Confucian texts by using what he termed the " movable type of Shen Kuo " . Wang Zhen ( fl . 1290 – 1333 ) , who wrote the valuable agricultural , scientific , and technological treatise of the Nong Shu , mentioned an alternative method of baking earthenware type with earthenware frames in order to make whole blocks . Wang Zhen also improved its use by inventing wooden movable type in the years 1297 or 1298 , while he was a magistrate of Jingde , Anhui province . The earlier Bi Sheng had experimented with wooden movable type , but Wang 's main contribution was improving the speed of typesetting with simple mechanical devices , along with the complex , systematic arrangement of wooden movable type involving the use of revolving tables . Although later metal movable type would be used in China , Wang Zhen experimented with tin metal movable type , but found its use to be inefficient .
By the 15th century , metal movable type printing was developed in Ming Dynasty China ( and earlier in Joseon Korea , by the mid 13th century ) , and was widely applied in China by at least the 16th century . In Jiangsu and Fujian , wealthy Ming era families sponsored the use of metal type printing ( mostly using bronze ) . This included the printing works of Hua Sui ( 1439 – 1513 ) , who pioneered the first Chinese bronze @-@ type movable printing in the year 1490 . In 1718 , during the mid Qing Dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) , the scholar of Tai 'an known as Xu Zhiding developed movable type with enamelware instead of earthenware . There was also Zhai Jinsheng ( b . 1784 ) , a teacher of Jingxian , Anhui , who spent thirty years making a font of earthenware movable type , and by 1844 he had over 100 @,@ 000 Chinese writing characters in five sizes .
Despite these advances , movable type printing never gained the amount of widespread use in East Asia that woodblock printing had achieved since the Chinese Tang Dynasty in the 9th century . With written Chinese , the vast amount of written morpheme characters impeded movable type 's acceptance and practical use , and was therefore seen as largely unsatisfactory . Furthermore , the European printing press , first invented by Johannes Gutenberg ( 1398 – 1468 ) , was eventually wholly adopted as the standard in China , yet the tradition of woodblock printing remains popular in East Asian countries still .
= = = Other achievements in science and technology = = =
Shen Kuo described the phenomena of natural predator insects controlling the population of pests , the latter of which had the potential to wreak havoc upon the agricultural base of China .
While visiting the iron producing district at Cizhou in 1075 , Shen described the " partial decarburization " method of reforging cast iron under a cold blast , which Hartwell , Needham , and Wertime state is the predecessor of the Bessemer process . Shen was worried about deforestation due to the needs of the iron industry and ink makers using pine soot in the production process , so he suggested for the latter an alternative of petroleum , which he believed was " produced inexhaustibly within the earth " . Shen used the soot from the smoke of burned petroleum fuel ( 石油 Shíyóu , " rock oil " as Shen called it ) to invent a new , more durable type of writing ink ; the Ming Dynasty pharmacologist Li Shizhen ( 1518 – 1593 ) wrote that Shen 's ink was " lustrous like lacquer , and superior to that made from pinewood lamp @-@ black , " or the soot from pinewood .
= = = Beliefs and philosophy = = =
Shen Kuo was much in favor of philosophical Daoist notions which challenged the authority of empirical science in his day . Although much could be discerned through empirical observation and recorded study , Daoism asserted that the secrets of the universe were boundless , something that scientific investigation could merely express in fragments and partial understandings . Shen Kuo referred to the ancient Daoist I Ching in explaining the spiritual processes and attainment of foreknowledge that cannot be attained through " crude traces " , which he likens to mathematical astronomy . Nathan Sivin proposes that Shen was the first in history to " make a clear distinction between our unconnected experiences and the unitary causal world we postulate to explain them , " which Biderman and Scharfstein state is arguably inherent in the works of Heraclitus , Plato , and Democritus as well . Shen was a firm believer in destiny and prognostication , and made rational explanations for the relations between them . Shen held a special interest in fate , mystical divination , bizarre phenomena , yet warned against the tendency to believe that all matters in life were preordained . When describing an event where lightning had struck a house and all the wooden walls did not burn ( but simply turned black ) and lacquerwares inside were fine , yet metal objects had melted into liquid , Shen Kuo wrote :
Most people can only judge of things by the experiences of ordinary life , but phenomena outside the scope of this are really quite numerous . How insecure it is to investigate natural principles using only the light of common knowledge , and subjective ideas .
In his commentary on the ancient Confucian philosopher Mencius ( 372 – 289 BC ) , Shen wrote of the importance of choosing to follow what one knew to be a true path , yet the heart and mind could not attain full knowledge of truth through mere sensory experience . In his own unique way but using terms influenced by the ideas of Mencius , Shen wrote of an autonomous inner authority that formed the basis for one 's inclination towards moral choices , a concept linked to Shen 's life experiences of surviving and obtaining success through self @-@ reliance . Along with his commentary on the Chinese classic texts , Shen Kuo also wrote extensively on the topics of supernatural divination and Buddhist meditation .
= = = Art criticism = = =
As an art critic , Shen criticized the paintings of Li Cheng ( 919 – 967 ) for failing to observe the principle of " seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large " in portraying buildings and the like . He praised the works of Dong Yuan ( c . 934 – c . 962 ) ; he noted that although a close @-@ up view of Dong 's work would create the impression that his brush techniques were cursory , seen from afar his landscape paintings would give the impression of grand , resplendent , and realistic scenery . In addition , Shen 's writing on Dong 's artworks represents the earliest known reference to the Jiangnan style of painting . In his " Song on Painting " and in his Dream Pool Essays , Shen praised the creative artworks of the Tang painter Wang Wei ( 701 – 761 ) ; Shen noted that Wang was unique in that he " penetrated into the mysterious reason and depth of creative activity , " but was criticized by others for not conforming his paintings to reality , such as his painting with a banana tree growing in a snowy , wintry landscape .
= = Written works = =
Much of Shen Kuo 's written work was probably purged under the leadership of minister Cai Jing ( 1046 – 1126 ) , who revived the New Policies of Wang Anshi , although he set out on a campaign of attrition to destroy or radically alter the written work of his predecessors and especially Conservative enemies . For example , only six of Shen 's books remain , and four of these have been significantly altered since the time they were penned by the author .
In modern times , the best attempt at a complete list and summary of Shen 's writing was an appendix written by Hu Daojing in his standard edition of Brush Talks , written in 1956 .
= = = Dream Pool Essays = = =
Shen Kuo 's Dream Pool Essays consists of some 507 separate essays exploring a wide range of subjects . It was Shen 's ultimate attempt to comprehend and describe a multitude of various aspects of nature , science , and reality , and all the practical and profound curiosities found in the world . The literal translation of the title , Dream Brook Brush Talks , refers to his Dream Brook estate , where he spent the last years of his life . About the title , he is quoted as saying : " Because I had only my writing brush and ink slab to converse with , I call it Brush Talks . "
The book was originally 30 chapters long , yet an unknown Chinese author 's edition of 1166 edited and reorganized the work into 26 chapters .
A passage called " Strange Happenings " contains a peculiar account of an unidentified flying object .
= = = Other written works = = =
Although the Dream Pool Essays is certainly his most extensive and important work , Shen Kuo wrote other books as well . In 1075 , Shen Kuo wrote the Xining Fengyuan Li ( 熙寧奉元曆 ; The Oblatory Epoch astronomical system of the Splendid Peace reign period ) , which was lost , but listed in a 7th chapter of a Song Dynasty bibliography . This was the official report of Shen Kuo on his reforms of the Chinese calendar , which were only partially adopted by the Song court 's official calendar system . During his years of retirement from governmental service , Shen Kuo compiled a formulary known as the Liang Fang ( 良方 ; Good medicinal formulas ) . Around the year 1126 it was combined with a similar collection by the famous Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) , who was ironically a political opponent to Shen Kuo 's faction of Reformers and New Policies supporters at court , yet it was known that Shen Kuo and Su Shi were nonetheless friends and associates . Shen wrote the Mengqi Wanghuai Lu ( 夢溪忘懷錄 ; Record of longings forgotten at Dream Brook ) , which was also compiled during Shen 's retirement . This book was a treatise in the working since his youth on rural life and ethnographic accounts of living conditions in the isolated mountain regions of China . Only quotations of it survive in the Shuo Fu ( 說郛 ) collection , which mostly describe the agricultural implements and tools used by rural people in high mountain regions . Shen Kuo also wrote the Changxing Ji ( 長興集 ; Collected Literary Works of [ the Viscount of ] Changxing ) . However , this book was without much doubt a posthumous collection , including various poems , prose , and administrative documents written by Shen . By the 15th century ( during the Ming Dynasty ) , this book was reprinted , yet only the 19th chapter remained . This chapter was reprinted in 1718 , yet poorly edited . Finally , in the 1950s the author Hu Daojing supplemented this small yet valuable work with additions of other scattered poems written by Shen , in the former 's Collection of Shen Kua 's Extant Poetry ( Shanghai : Shang @-@ hai Shu @-@ tian , 1958 ) . In the tradition of the popular Song era literary category of ' travel record literature ' ( ' youji wenxue ' ) , Shen Kuo also wrote the Register of What Not to Forget , a traveler 's guide to what type of carriage is suitable for a journey , the proper foods one should bring , the special clothing one should bring , and many other items .
In his Sequel to Numerous Things Revealed , the Song author Cheng Dachang ( 1123 – 1195 ) noted that stanzas prepared by Shen Kuo for military victory celebrations were later written down and published by Shen . This includes a short poem " Song of Triumph " by Shen Kuo , who uses the musical instrument mawei huqin ( ' horse @-@ tail barbarian stringed instrument ' or ' horse @-@ tail fiddle ' ) of the northwestern Inner Asian nomads as a metaphor for prisoners @-@ of @-@ war led by Song troops :
Historian Jonathan Stock notes that the bent bow described in the poem above represents the arched bow used to play the huqin , while the sound of the instrument itself represented the discontent expressed by the prisoners @-@ of @-@ war with their defeated khan .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Praise , critique , and criticism = = =
In the Routledge Curzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism , Xinzhong Yao states that Shen Kuo 's legacy was tainted by his eager involvement in Wang Anshi 's New Policies reforms , his actions criticized in the later traditional histories . However , Shen 's reputation as a polymath has been well regarded . The British sinologist , historian , and biochemist Joseph Needham ( 1900 – 1995 ) stated that Shen Kuo was " one of the greatest scientific minds in Chinese history . " The French sinologist Jacques Gernet is of the opinion that Shen possessed an " amazingly modern mind . " Yao states of Shen 's thorough recording of natural sciences in his Dream Pool Essays :
We must regard Shen Kuo 's collection as an indispensable primary source attesting to the unmatched level of attainment achieved by Chinese science prior to the twelfth century .
However , Toby E. Huff writes that Shen Kuo 's " scattered set " of writings lacks clear @-@ cut organization and " theoretical acuteness , " that is , scientific theory . Nathan Sivin wrote that Shen 's originality stands " cheek by jowl with trivial didacticism , court anecdotes , and ephemeral curiosities " that provide little insight . Donald Holzman writes that Shen " has nowhere organized his observations into anything like a general theory . " Huff writes that this was a systemic problem of early Chinese science , which lacked systematic treatment that could be found in European works such as the Concordance and Discordant Canons by the lawyer Gratian of Bologna ( fl . 12th century ) . In regard to an overarching concept of science which could branch together all the various sciences studied by the Chinese , Sivin asserts that the writings of Shen Kuo " do not indicate that he achieved , or even sought , an integrated framework for his diverse knowledge ; the one common thread is the varied responsibilities of his career as a high civil servant . "
= = = Burial and posthumous honors = = =
Upon his death , Shen Kuo was interred in a tomb in Yuhang District of Hangzhou , at the foot of the Taiping Hill . His tomb was eventually destroyed , yet Ming Dynasty records indicated its location , which was found in 1983 and protected by the government in 1986 . The remnants of the tomb 's brick structure remained , along with Song Dynasty glasswares and coins . The Hangzhou Municipal Committee completed a restoration of Shen 's tomb in September 2001 .
In addition to his tomb , Shen Kuo 's Mengxi garden estate , his former two acre ( 8 @,@ 000 m ² ) property in Zhenjiang , was restored by the government in 1985 . However , the renovated Mengxi Garden is only part of the original of Shen Kuo 's time . A Qing Dynasty era hall built on the site is now used as the main admissions gate . In the Memorial Hall of the gardens , there is a large painting depicting the original garden of Shen Kuo 's time , including wells , green bamboo groves , stone @-@ paved paths , and decorated walls of the original halls . In this exhibition hall there stands a 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) tall statue of Shen Kuo sitting on a platform , along with centuries @-@ old published copies of his Dream Pool Essays in glass cabinets , one of which is from Japan . At the garden estate there are also displayed marble banners , statues of Shen Kuo , and a model of an armillary sphere ; a small museum gallery depicts Shen 's various achievements .
The Chinese Mount Zijinshan Observatory discovered a new planetoid in 1964 ; in 1979 , the Chinese Academy of Sciences decided to honor Shen by listing " Shen Kuo " as one of its names .
= Conscience =
Conscience is an aptitude , faculty , intuition or judgment that assists in distinguishing right from wrong . Moral judgment may derive from values or norms ( principles and rules ) . In psychological terms conscience is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a human commits actions that go against his / her moral values and to feelings of rectitude or integrity when actions conform to such norms . The extent to which conscience informs moral judgment before an action and whether such moral judgments are or should be based in reason has occasioned debate through much of the history of Western philosophy .
Religious views of conscience usually see it as linked to a morality inherent in all humans , to a beneficent universe and / or to divinity . The diverse ritualistic , mythical , doctrinal , legal , institutional and material features of religion may not necessarily cohere with experiential , emotive , spiritual or contemplative considerations about the origin and operation of conscience . Common secular or scientific views regard the capacity for conscience as probably genetically determined , with its subject probably learned or imprinted ( like language ) as part of a culture .
Commonly used metaphors for conscience include the " voice within " and the " inner light " . Conscience , as is detailed in sections below , is a concept in national and international law , is increasingly conceived of as applying to the world as a whole , has motivated numerous notable acts for the public good and been the subject of many prominent examples of literature , music and film .
= = Religious , secular and philosophical views about conscience = =
Although humanity has no generally accepted definition of conscience or universal agreement about its role in ethical decision @-@ making , three approaches have addressed it :
Religious views
Secular views
Philosophical views
= = Religious views = =
In the literary traditions of the Upanishads , Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita , conscience is the label given to attributes composing knowledge about good and evil , that a soul acquires from the completion of acts and consequent accretion of karma over many lifetimes . According to Adi Shankara in his Vekachudamani morally right action ( characterised as humbly and compassionately performing the primary duty of good to others without expectation of material or spiritual reward ) , helps " purify the heart " and provide mental tranquility but it alone does not give us " direct perception of the Reality " . This knowledge requires discrimination between the eternal and non @-@ eternal and eventually a realization in contemplation that the true self merges in a universe of pure consciousness .
In the Zoroastrian faith , after death a soul must face judgment at the Bridge of the Separator ; there , evil people are tormented by prior denial of their own higher nature , or conscience , and " to all time will they be guests for the House of the Lie . " The Chinese concept of Ren , indicates that conscience , along with social etiquette and correct relationships , assist humans to follow The Way ( Tao ) a mode of life reflecting the implicit human capacity for goodness and harmony .
Conscience also features prominently in Buddhism . In the Pali scriptures , for example , Buddha links the positive aspect of conscience to a pure heart and a calm , well @-@ directed mind . It is regarded as a spiritual power , and one of the “ Guardians of the World ” . The Buddha also associated conscience with compassion for those who must endure cravings and suffering in the world until right conduct culminates in right mindfulness and right contemplation . Santideva ( 685 – 763 CE ) wrote in the Bodhicaryavatara ( which he composed and delivered in the great northern Indian Buddhist university of Nalanda ) of the spiritual importance of perfecting virtues such as generosity , forbearance and training the awareness to be like a " block of wood " when attracted by vices such as pride or lust ; so one can continue advancing towards right understanding in meditative absorption . Conscience thus manifests in Buddhism as unselfish love for all living beings which gradually intensifies and awakens to a purer awareness where the mind withdraws from sensory interests and becomes aware of itself as a single whole .
The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote in his Meditations that conscience was the human capacity to live by rational principles that were congruent with the true , tranquil and harmonious nature of our mind and thereby that of the Universe : " To move from one unselfish action to another with God in mind . Only there , delight and stillness ... the only rewards of our existence here are an unstained character and unselfish acts . "
The Islamic concept of Taqwa is closely related to conscience . In the Qur ’ ān verses 2 : 197 & 22 : 37 Taqwa refers to " right conduct " or " piety " , " guarding of oneself " or " guarding against evil " . Qur ’ ān verse 47 : 17 says that God is the ultimate source of the believer 's taqwā which is not simply the product of individual will but requires inspiration from God . In Qur ’ ān verses 91 : 7 – 8 , God the Almighty talks about how He has perfected the soul , the conscience and has taught it the wrong ( fujūr ) and right ( taqwā ) . Hence , the awareness of vice and virtue is inherent in the soul , allowing it to be tested fairly in the life of this world and tried , held accountable on the day of judgment for responsibilities to God and all humans .
Qur ’ ān verse 49 : 13 states : " O humankind ! We have created you out of male and female and constituted you into different groups and societies , so that you may come to know each other @-@ the noblest of you , in the sight of God , are the ones possessing taqwā . " In Islam , according to eminent theologians such as Al @-@ Ghazali , although events are ordained ( and written by God in al @-@ Lawh al @-@ Mahfūz , the Preserved Tablet ) , humans possess free will to choose between wrong and right , and are thus responsible for their actions ; the conscience being a dynamic personal connection to God enhanced by knowledge and practise of the Five Pillars of Islam , deeds of piety , repentance , self @-@ discipline and prayer ; and disintegrated and metaphorically covered in blackness through sinful acts . Marshall Hodgson wrote the three @-@ volume work : The Venture of Islam : Conscience and History in a World Civilization .
In the Protestant Christian tradition , Martin Luther insisted in the Diet of Worms that his conscience was captive to the Word of God , and it was neither safe nor right to go against conscience . To Luther , conscience falls within the ethical , rather than the religious , sphere . John Calvin saw conscience as a battleground : " [ ... ] the enemies who rise up in our conscience against his Kingdom and hinder his decrees prove that God 's throne is not firmly established therein " . Many Christians regard following one 's conscience as important as , or even more important than , obeying human authority . A fundamentalist Christian view of conscience might be : ' God gave us our conscience so we would know when we break His Law ; the guilt we feel when we do something wrong tells us that we need to repent . ' This can sometimes ( as with the conflict between William Tyndale and Thomas More over the translation of the Bible into English ) lead to moral quandaries : " Do I unreservedly obey my Church / priest / military / political leader or do I follow my own inner feeling of right and wrong as instructed by prayer and a personal reading of scripture ? " Some contemporary Christian churches and religious groups hold the moral teachings of the Ten Commandments or of Jesus as the highest authority in any situation , regardless of the extent to which it involves responsibilities in law . In the Gospel of John ( 7 : 53 – 8 : 11 ) ( King James Version ) Jesus challenges those accusing a woman of adultery stating : " ' He that is without sin among you , let him first cast a stone at her . ' And again he stooped down , and wrote on the ground . And they which heard it , being convicted by their own conscience , went out one by one " ( see Jesus and the woman taken in adultery ) . In the Gospel of Luke ( 10 : 25 – 37 ) Jesus tells the story of how a despised and heretical Samaritan ( see Parable of the Good Samaritan ) who ( out of compassion and conscience ) helps an injured stranger beside a road , qualifies better for eternal life by loving his neighbor , than a priest who passes by on the other side .
This dilemma of obedience in conscience to divine or state law , was demonstrated dramatically in Antigone 's defiance of King Creon 's order against burying her brother an alleged traitor , appealing to the " unwritten law " and to a " longer allegiance to the dead than to the living " .
Catholic theology sees conscience as the last practical " judgment of reason which at the appropriate moment enjoins [ a person ] to do good and to avoid evil " . Thus , conscience is not like the will , nor a habit like prudence , but " the interior space in which we can listen to and hear the truth , the good , the voice of God . It is the inner place of our relationship with Him , who speaks to our heart and helps us to discern , to understand the path we ought to take , and once the decision is made , to move forward , to remain faithful " In terms of logic , conscience can be viewed as the practical conclusion of a moral syllogism whose major premise is an objective norm and whose minor premise is a particular case or situation to which the norm is applied . Thus , Catholics are taught to carefully educate themselves as to revealed norms and norms derived therefrom , so as to form a correct conscience . Catholics are also to examine their conscience daily and with special care before confession . Catholic teaching holds that , " Man has the right to act according to his conscience and in freedom so as personally to make moral decisions . He must not be forced to act contrary to his conscience . Nor must he be prevented from acting according to his conscience , especially in religious matters " . This right of conscience does not allow one to arbitrarily disagree with Church teaching and claim that one is acting in accordance with conscience . A sincere conscience presumes one is diligently seeking moral truth from authentic sources , that is , seeking to conform oneself to that moral truth by listening to the authority established by Christ to teach it . Nevertheless , despite one 's best effort , " [ i ] t can happen that moral conscience remains in ignorance and makes erroneous judgments about acts to be performed or already committed ... This ignorance can often be imputed to personal responsibility ... In such cases , the person is culpable for the wrong he commits . " Some Catholics appeal to conscience in order to justify dissent , not on the level of conscience properly understood , but on the level of the principles and norms which are supposed to inform conscience . For example , some priests make on the use of the so @-@ called internal forum solution ( which is not sanctioned by the Magisterium ) to justify actions or lifestyles incompatible with Church teaching , such as Christ 's prohibition of remarriage after divorce or sexual activity outside marriage . The Catholic Church has warned that " rejection of the Church 's authority and her teaching ... can be at the source of errors in judgment in moral conduct " .
Judaism arguably does not require uncompromising obedience to religious authority ; the case has been made that throughout Jewish history rabbis have circumvented laws they found unconscionable , such as capital punishment . Similarly , although an occupation with national destiny has been central to the Jewish faith ( see Zionism ) many scholars ( including Moses Mendelssohn ) stated that conscience as a personal revelation of scriptural truth was an important adjunct to the Talmudic tradition . The concept of inner light in the Religious Society of Friends or Quakers is associated with conscience . Freemasonry describes itself as providing an adjunct to religion and key symbols found in a Freemason Lodge are the square and compasses explained as providing lessons that Masons should " square their actions by the square of conscience " , learn to " circumscribe their desires and keep their passions within due bounds toward all mankind . " The historian Manning Clark viewed conscience as one of the comforters that religion placed between man and death but also a crucial part of the quest for grace encouraged by the Book of Job and the Book of Ecclesiastes , leading us to be paradoxically closest to the truth when we suspect that what matters most in life ( " being there when everyone suddenly understands what it has all been for " ) . Leo Tolstoy , after a decade studying the issue ( 1877 – 1887 ) , held that the only power capable of resisting the evil associated with materialism and the drive for social power of religious institutions , was the capacity of humans to reach an individual spiritual truth through reason and conscience . Many prominent religious works about conscience also have a significant philosophical component : examples are the works of Al @-@ Ghazali , Avicenna , Aquinas , Joseph Butler and Dietrich Bonhoeffer ( all discussed in the philosophical views section ) .
= = Secular views = =
The secular approach to conscience includes psychological , physiological , sociological , humanitarian and authoritarian views . Lawrence Kohlberg considered critical conscience to be an important psychological stage in the proper moral development of humans , associated with the capacity to rationally weigh principles of responsibility , being best encouraged in the very young by linkage with humorous personifications ( such as Jiminy Cricket ) and later in adolescents by debates about individually pertinent moral dilemmas . Erik Erikson placed the development of conscience in the ' pre @-@ schooler ' phase of his eight stages of normal human personality development . The psychologist Martha Stout terms conscience " an intervening sense of obligation based in our emotional attachments . " Thus a good conscience is associated with feelings of integrity , psychological wholeness and peacefulness and is often described using adjectives such as " quiet " , " clear " and " easy " .
Sigmund Freud regarded conscience as originating psychologically from the growth of civilisation , which periodically frustrated the external expression of aggression : this destructive impulse being forced to seek an alternative , healthy outlet , directed its energy as a superego against the person 's own " ego " or selfishness ( often taking its cue in this regard from parents during childhood ) . According to Freud , the consequence of not obeying our conscience is guilt , which can be a factor in the development of neurosis ; Freud claimed that both the cultural and individual super @-@ ego set up strict ideal demands with regard to the moral aspects of certain decisions , disobedience to which provokes a ' fear of conscience ' .
Antonio Damasio considers conscience an aspect of extended consciousness beyond survival @-@ related dispositions and incorporating the search for truth and desire to build norms and ideals for behavior .
= = = Conscience as society @-@ forming instincts = = =
Michel Glautier argues that conscience is one of the instincts and drives which enable people to form societies : groups of humans without these drives or in whom they are insufficient cannot form societies and do not reproduce their kind as successfully as those that do .
Charles Darwin considered that conscience evolved in humans to resolve conflicts between competing natural impulses @-@ some about self @-@ preservation but others about safety of a family or community ; the claim of conscience to moral authority emerged from the " greater duration of impression of social instincts " in the struggle for survival . In such a view , behavior destructive to a person 's society ( either to its structures or to the persons it comprises ) is bad or " evil " . Thus , conscience can be viewed as an outcome of those biological drives that prompt humans to avoid provoking fear or contempt in others ; being experienced as guilt and shame in differing ways from society to society and person to person . A requirement of conscience in this view is the capacity to see ourselves from the point of view of another person . Persons unable to do this ( psychopaths , sociopaths , narcissists ) therefore often act in ways which are " evil " .
Fundamental in this view of conscience is that humans consider some " other " as being in a social relationship . Thus , nationalism is invoked in conscience to quell tribal conflict and the notion of a Brotherhood of Man is invoked to quell national conflicts . Yet such crowd drives may not only overwhelm but redefine individual conscience . Friedrich Nietzsche stated : " communal solidarity is annihilated by the highest and strongest drives that , when they break out passionately , whip the individual far past the average low level of the ' herd @-@ conscience . ' Jeremy Bentham noted that : " fanaticism never sleeps ... it is never stopped by conscience ; for it has pressed conscience into its service . " Hannah Arendt in her study of the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem , notes that the accused , as with almost all his fellow Germans , had lost track of his conscience to the point where they hardly remembered it ; this wasn 't caused by familiarity with atrocities or by psychologically redirecting any resultant natural pity to themselves for having to bear such an unpleasant duty , so much as by the fact that anyone whose conscience did develop doubts could see no one who shared them : " Eichmann did not need to close his ears to the voice of conscience ... not because he had none , but because his conscience spoke with a " respectable voice " , with the voice of the respectable society around him " .
An interesting area of research in this context concerns the similarities between our relationships and those of animals , whether animals in human society ( pets , working animals , even animals grown for food ) or in the wild . One idea is that as people or animals perceive a social relationship as important to preserve , their conscience begins to respect that former " other " , and urge actions that protect it . Similarly , in complex territorial and cooperative breeding bird communities ( such as the Australian magpie ) that have a high degree of etiquettes , rules , hierarchies , play , songs and negotiations , rule @-@ breaking seems tolerated on occasions not obviously related to survival of the individual or group ; behaviour often appearing to exhibit a touching gentleness and tenderness .
= = = Evolutionary biology and physics = = =
Contemporary scientists in ethology and evolutionary psychology seek to explain conscience as a function of the brain that evolved to facilitate altruism within societies .
In his book The God Delusion , Richard Dawkins states that he agrees with Robert Hinde 's Why Good is Good , Michael Shermer 's The Science of Good and Evil , Robert Buckman 's Can We Be Good Without God ? and Marc Hauser 's Moral Minds , that our sense of right and wrong can be derived from our Darwinian past . Christopher Hitchens in God is Not Great has argued that " Modern vernacular describes conscience – not too badly – as whatever it is that makes us behave well when nobody is looking ... Those who believe that the existence of conscience is a proof of a godly design are advancing an argument that simply cannot be disproved because there is no evidence for or against it . " Charles Lineweaver has argued that our " ideas of " good " and " evil " , and our consciences that we rely on to help us make moral decisions ( like Pinnochio ’ s Jiminy Cricket ) , are features of consciousness that have evolved under selection pressure , just like skin color , intestinal pH and fingernail growth rates . "
= = = Neuroscience and artificial conscience = = =
Numerous case studies of brain damage have shown that damage to areas of the brain ( such as the anterior prefrontal cortex ) results in the reduction or elimination of inhibitions , with a corresponding radical change in behaviour . When the damage occurs to adults , they may still be able to perform moral reasoning ; but when it occurs to children , they may never develop that ability .
Attempts have been made by neuroscientists to locate the free will necessary for what is termed the ' veto ' of conscience over unconscious mental processes ( see Neuroscience of free will and Benjamin Libet ) in a scientifically measurable awareness of an intention to carry out an act occurring 350 – 400 microseconds after the electrical discharge known as the ' readiness potential.'
Jacques Pitrat claims that some kind of artificial conscience is beneficial in artificial intelligence systems to improve their long @-@ term performance and direct their introspective processing .
= = Philosophical views = =
The word " conscience " derives etymologically from the Latin conscientia , meaning " privity of knowledge " or " with @-@ knowledge " . The English word implies internal awareness of a moral standard in the mind concerning the quality of one 's motives , as well as a consciousness of our own actions . Thus conscience considered philosophically may be first , and perhaps most commonly , a largely unexamined " gut feeling " or " vague sense of guilt " about what ought to be or should have been done . Conscience in this sense is not necessarily the product of a process of rational consideration of the moral features of a situation ( or the applicable normative principles , rules or laws ) and can arise from parental , peer group , religious , state or corporate indoctrination , which may or may not be presently consciously acceptable to the person ( " traditional conscience " ) . Conscience may be defined as the practical reason employed when applying moral convictions to a situation ( " critical conscience " ) . In purportedly morally mature mystical people who have developed this capacity through daily contemplation or meditation combined with selfless service to others , critical conscience can be aided by a " spark " of intuitive insight or revelation ( called marifa in Islamic Sufi philosophy and synderesis in medieval Christian scholastic moral philosophy ) . Conscience is accompanied in each case by an internal awareness of ' inner light ' and approbation or ' inner darkness ' and condemnation as well as a resulting conviction of right or duty either followed or declined .
= = = Medieval philosophical views = = =
The medieval Islamic scholar and mystic Al @-@ Ghazali divided the concept of Nafs ( soul or self ( spirituality ) ) into three categories based on the Qur ’ an :
Nafs Ammarah ( 12 : 53 ) which " exhorts one to freely indulge in gratifying passions and instigates to do evil "
Nafs Lawammah ( 75 : 2 ) which is " the conscience that directs man towards right or wrong "
Nafs Mutmainnah ( 89 : 27 ) which is " a self that reaches the ultimate peace "
The medieval Persian philosopher and physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al @-@ Razi believed in a close relationship between conscience or spiritual integrity and physical health ; rather than being self @-@ indulgent , man should pursue knowledge , use his intellect and apply justice in his life . The medieval Islamic philosopher Avicenna , whilst imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan , wrote his famous isolated @-@ but @-@ awake " Floating Man " sensory deprivation thought experiment to explore the ideas of human self @-@ awareness and the substantiality of the soul ; his hypothesis being that it is through intelligence , particularly the active intellect , that God communicates truth to the human mind or conscience . According to the Islamic Sufis conscience allows Allah to guide people to the marifa , the peace or " light upon light " experienced where a Muslim 's prayers lead to a melting away of the self in the inner knowledge of God ; this foreshadowing the eternal Paradise depicted in the Qur ’ ān .
Some medieval Christian scholastics such as Bonaventure made a distinction between conscience as a rational faculty of the mind ( practical reason ) and inner awareness , an intuitive " spark " to do good , called synderesis arising from a remnant appreciation of absolute good and when consciously denied ( for example to perform an evil act ) , becoming a source of inner torment . Early modern theologians such as William Perkins and William Ames developed a syllogistic understanding of the conscience , where God 's law made the first term , the act to be judged the second and the action of the conscience ( as a rational faculty ) produced the judgement . By debating test cases applying such understanding conscience was trained and refined ( i.e. casuistry ) .
In the 13th century , St. Thomas Aquinas regarded conscience as the application of moral knowledge to a particular case ( S.T. I , q . 79 , a . 13 ) . Thus , conscience was considered an act or judgment of practical reason that began with synderesis , the structured development of our innate remnant awareness of absolute good ( which he categorised as involving the five primary precepts proposed in his theory of Natural Law ) into an acquired habit of applying moral principles . According to Singer , Aquinas held that conscience , or conscientia was an imperfect process of judgment applied to activity because knowledge of the natural law ( and all acts of natural virtue implicit therein ) was obscured in most people by education and custom that promoted selfishness rather than fellow @-@ feeling ( Summa Theologiae , I – II , I ) . Aquinas also discussed conscience in relation to the virtue of prudence to explain why some people appear to be less " morally enlightened " than others , their weak will being incapable of adequately balancing their own needs with those of others .
Aquinas reasoned that acting contrary to conscience is an evil action but an errant conscience is only blameworthy if it is the result of culpable or vincible ignorance of factors that one has a duty to have knowledge of . Aquinas also argued that conscience should be educated to act towards real goods ( from God ) which encouraged human flourishing , rather than the apparent goods of sensory pleasures . In his Commentary on Aristotle 's Nicomachean Ethics Aquinas claimed it was weak will that allowed a non @-@ virtuous man to choose a principle allowing pleasure ahead of one requiring moral constraint .
Thomas A Kempis in the medieval contemplative classic The Imitation of Christ ( ca 1418 ) stated that the glory of a good man is the witness of a good conscience . " Preserve a quiet conscience and you will always have joy . A quiet conscience can endure much , and remains joyful in all trouble , but an evil conscience is always fearful and uneasy . " The anonymous medieval author of the Christian mystical work The Cloud of Unknowing similarly expressed the view that in profound and prolonged contemplation a soul dries up the " root and ground " of the sin that is always there , even after one 's confession and however busy one is in holy things : " therefore , whoever would work at becoming a contemplative must first cleanse his [ or her ] conscience . " The medieval Flemish mystic John of Ruysbroeck likewise held that true conscience has four aspects that are necessary to render a man just in the active and contemplative life : " a free spirit , attracting itself through love " ; " an intellect enlightened by grace " , " a delight yielding propension or inclination " and " an outflowing losing of oneself in the abyss of ... that eternal object which is the highest and chief blessedness ... those lofty amongst men , are absorbed in it , and immersed in a certain boundless thing . "
= = = Modern philosophical ideas = = =
Benedict de Spinoza in his Ethics , published after his death in 1677 , argued that most people , even those that consider themselves to exercise free will , make moral decisions on the basis of imperfect sensory information , inadequate understanding of their mind and will , as well as emotions which are both outcomes of their contingent physical existence and forms of thought defective from being chiefly impelled by self @-@ preservation . The solution , according to Spinoza , was to gradually increase the capacity of our reason to change the forms of thought produced by emotions and to fall in love with viewing problems requiring moral decision from the perspective of eternity . Thus , living a life of peaceful conscience means to Spinoza that reason is used to generate adequate ideas where the mind increasingly sees the world and its conflicts , our desires and passions sub specie aeternitatis , that is without reference to time . Hegel 's obscure and mystical Philosophy of Mind held that the absolute right of freedom of conscience facilitates human understanding of an all @-@ embracing unity , an absolute which was rational , real and true . Nevertheless , Hegel thought that a functioning State would always be tempted not to recognize conscience in its form of subjective knowledge , just as similar non @-@ objective opinions are generally rejected in science . A similar idealist notion was expressed in the writings of Joseph Butler who argued that conscience is God @-@ given , should always be obeyed , is intuitive , and should be considered the " constitutional monarch " and the " universal moral faculty " : " conscience does not only offer itself to show us the way we should walk in , but it likewise carries its own authority with it . " Butler advanced ethical speculation by referring to a duality of regulative principles in human nature : first , " self @-@ love " ( seeking individual happiness ) and second , " benevolence " ( compassion and seeking good for another ) in conscience ( also linked to the agape of situational ethics ) . Conscience tended to be more authoritative in questions of moral judgment , thought Butler , because it was more likely to be clear and certain ( whereas calculations of self @-@ interest tended to probable and changing conclusions ) . John Selden in his Table Talk expressed the view that an awake but excessively scrupulous or ill @-@ trained conscience could hinder resolve and practical action ; it being " like a horse that is not well wayed , he starts at every bird that flies out of the hedge " .
As the sacred texts of ancient Hindu and Buddhist philosophy became available in German translations in the 18th and 19th centuries , they influenced philosophers such as Schopenhauer to hold that in a healthy mind only deeds oppress our conscience , not wishes and thoughts ; " for it is only our deeds that hold us up to the mirror of our will " ; the good conscience , thought Schopenhauer , we experience after every disinterested deed arises from direct recognition of our own inner being in the phenomenon of another , it affords us the verification " that our true self exists not only in our own person , this particular manifestation , but in everything that lives . By this the heart feels itself enlarged , as by egotism it is contracted . "
Immanuel Kant , a central figure of the Age of Enlightenment , likewise claimed that two things filled his mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe , the oftener and more steadily they were reflected on : " the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me ... the latter begins from my invisible self , my personality , and exhibits me in a world which has true infinity but which I recognise myself as existing in a universal and necessary ( and not only , as in the first case , contingent ) connection . " The ' universal connection ' referred to here is Kant 's categorical imperative : " act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law . " Kant considered critical conscience to be an internal court in which our thoughts accuse or excuse one another ; he acknowledged that morally mature people do often describe contentment or peace in the soul after following conscience to perform a duty , but argued that for such acts to produce virtue their primary motivation should simply be duty , not expectation of any such bliss . Rousseau expressed a similar view that conscience somehow connected man to a greater metaphysical unity . John Plamenatz in his critical examination of Rousseau 's work considered that conscience was there defined as the feeling that urges us , in spite of contrary passions , towards two harmonies : the one within our minds and between our passions , and the other within society and between its members ; " the weakest can appeal to it in the strongest , and the appeal , though often unsuccessful , is always disturbing . However , corrupted by power or wealth we may be , either as possessors of them or as victims , there is something in us serving to remind us that this corruption is against nature . "
Other philosophers expressed a more sceptical and pragmatic view of the operation of " conscience " in society . John Locke in his Essays on the Law of Nature argued that the widespread fact of human conscience allowed a philosopher to infer the necessary existence of objective moral laws that occasionally might contradict those of the state . Locke highlighted the metaethics problem of whether accepting a statement like " follow your conscience " supports subjectivist or objectivist conceptions of conscience as a guide in concrete morality , or as a spontaneous revelation of eternal and immutable principles to the individual : " if conscience be a proof of innate principles , contraries may be innate principles ; since some men with the same bent of conscience prosecute what others avoid . " Thomas Hobbes likewise pragmatically noted that opinions formed on the basis of conscience with full and honest conviction , nevertheless should always be accepted with humility as potentially erroneous and not necessarily indicating absolute knowledge or truth . William Godwin expressed the view that conscience was a memorable consequence of the " perception by men of every creed when the descend into the scene of busy life " that they possess free will . Adam Smith considered that it was only by developing a critical conscience that we can ever see what relates to ourselves in its proper shape and dimensions ; or that we can ever make any proper comparison between our own interests and those of other people . John Stuart Mill believed that idealism about the role of conscience in government should be tempered with a practical realisation that few men in society are capable of directing their minds or purposes towards distant or unobvious interests , of disinterested regard for others , and especially for what comes after them , for the idea of posterity , of their country , or of humanity , whether grounded on sympathy or on a conscientious feeling . Mill held that certain amount of conscience , and of disinterested public spirit , may fairly be calculated on in the citizens of any community ripe for representative government , but that " it would be ridiculous to expect such a degree of it , combined with such intellectual discernment , as would be proof against any plausible fallacy tending to make that which was for their class interest appear the dictate of justice and of the general good . "
Josiah Royce ( 1855 – 1916 ) built on the transcendental idealism view of conscience , viewing it as the ideal of life which constitutes our moral personality , our plan of being ourself , of making common sense ethical decisions . But , he thought , this was only true insofar as our conscience also required loyalty to " a mysterious higher or deeper self . " In the modern Christian tradition this approach achieved expression with Dietrich Bonhoeffer who stated during his imprisonment by the Nazis in World War II that conscience for him was more than practical reason , indeed it came from a " depth which lies beyond a man 's own will and his own reason and it makes itself heard as the call of human existence to unity with itself . " For Bonhoeffer a guilty conscience arose as an indictment of the loss of this unity and as a warning against the loss of one 's self ; primarily , he thought , it is directed not towards a particular kind of doing but towards a particular mode of being . It protests against a doing which imperils the unity of this being with itself . Conscience for Bonhoeffer did not , like shame , embrace or pass judgment on the morality of the whole of its owner 's life ; it reacted only to certain definite actions : " it recalls what is long past and represents this disunion as something which is already accomplished and irreparable " . The man with a conscience , he believed , fights a lonely battle against the " overwhelming forces of inescapable situations " which demand moral decisions despite the likelihood of adverse consequences.Simon Soloveychik has similarly claimed that the truth distributed in the world , as the statement about human dignity , as the affirmation of the line between good and evil , lives in people as conscience .
As Hannah Arendt pointed out , however , ( following the utilitarian John Stuart Mill on this point ) : a bad conscience does not necessarily signify a bad character ; in fact only those who affirm a commitment to applying moral standards will be troubled with remorse , guilt or shame by a bad conscience and their need to regain integrity and wholeness of the self . Representing our soul or true self by analogy as our house , Arendt wrote that " conscience is the anticipation of the fellow who awaits you if and when you come home . " Arendt believed that people who are unfamiliar with the process of silent critical reflection about what they say and do will not mind contradicting themselves by an immoral act or crime , since they can " count on its being forgotten the next moment ; " bad people are not full of regrets . Arendt also wrote eloquently on the problem of languages distinguishing the word consciousness from conscience . One reason , she held , was that conscience , as we understand it in moral or legal matters , is supposedly always present within us , just like consciousness : " and this conscience is also supposed to tell us what to do and what to repent ; before it became the lumen naturale or Kant 's practical reason , it was the voice of God . "
Albert Einstein , as a self @-@ professed adherent of humanism and rationalism , likewise viewed an enlightened religious person as one whose conscience reflects that he " has , to the best of his ability , liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with thoughts , feelings and aspirations to which he clings because of their super @-@ personal value . " Einstein often referred to the " inner voice " as a source of both moral and physical knowledge : " Quantum mechanics is very impressive . But an inner voice tells me that it is not the real thing . The theory produces a good deal but hardly brings one closer to the secrets of the Old One . I am at all events convinced that He does not play dice . "
Simone Weil who fought for the French resistance ( the Maquis ) argued in her final book The Need for Roots : Prelude to a Declaration of Duties Towards Mankind that for society to become more just and protective of liberty , obligations should take precedence over rights in moral and political philosophy and a spiritual awakening should occur in the conscience of most citizens , so that social obligations are viewed as fundamentally having a transcendent origin and a beneficent impact on human character when fulfilled . Simone Weil also in that work provided a psychological explanation for the mental peace associated with a good conscience : " the liberty of men of goodwill , though limited in the sphere of action , is complete in that of conscience . For , having incorporated the rules into their own being , the prohibited possibilities no longer present themselves to the mind , and have not to be rejected . "
Alternatives to such metaphysical and idealist opinions about conscience arose from realist and materialist perspectives such as those of Charles Darwin . Darwin suggested that " any animal whatever , endowed with well @-@ marked social instincts , the parental and filial affections being here included , would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience , as soon as its intellectual powers had become as well , or as nearly as well developed , as in man . " Émile Durkheim held that the soul and conscience were particular forms of an impersonal principle diffused in the relevant group and communicated by totemic ceremonies . AJ Ayer was a more recent realist who held that the existence of conscience was an empirical question to be answered by sociological research into the moral habits of a given person or group of people , and what causes them to have precisely those habits and feelings . Such an inquiry , he believed , fell wholly within the scope of the existing social sciences . George Edward Moore bridged the idealistic and sociological views of ' critical ' and ' traditional ' conscience in stating that the idea of abstract ' rightness ' and the various degrees of the specific emotion excited by it are what constitute , for many persons , the specifically ' moral sentiment ' or conscience . For others , however , an action seems to be properly termed ' internally right ' , merely because they have previously regarded it as right , the idea of ' rightness ' being present in some way to his or her mind , but not necessarily among his or her deliberately constructed motives .
The French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir in A Very Easy Death ( Une mort très douce , 1964 ) reflects within her own conscience about her mother 's attempts to develop such a moral sympathy and understanding of others .
Michael Walzer claimed that the growth of religious toleration in Western nations arose amongst other things , from the general recognition that private conscience signified some inner divine presence regardless of the religious faith professed and from the general respectability , piety , self @-@ limitation , and sectarian discipline which marked most of the men who claimed the rights of conscience . Walzer also argued that attempts by courts to define conscience as a merely personal moral code or as sincere belief , risked encouraging an anarchy of moral egotisms , unless such a code and motive was necessarily tempered with shared moral knowledge : derived either from the connection of the individual to a universal spiritual order , or from the common principles and mutual engagements of unselfish people . Ronald Dworkin maintains that constitutional protection of freedom of conscience is central to democracy but creates personal duties to live up to it : " Freedom of conscience presupposes a personal responsibility of reflection , and it loses much of its meaning when that responsibility is ignored . A good life need not be an especially reflective one ; most of the best lives are just lived rather than studied . But there are moments that cry out for self @-@ assertion , when a passive bowing to fate or a mechanical decision out of deference or convenience is treachery , because it forfeits dignity for ease . " Edward Conze stated it is important for individual and collective moral growth that we recognise the illusion of our conscience being wholly located in our body ; indeed both our conscience and wisdom expand when we act in an unselfish way and conversely " repressed compassion results in an unconscious sense of guilt . "
The philosopher Peter Singer considers that usually when we describe an action as conscientious in the critical sense we do so in order to deny either that the relevant agent was motivated by selfish desires , like greed or ambition , or that he acted on whim or impulse .
Moral anti @-@ realists debate whether the moral facts necessary to activate conscience supervene on natural facts with a posteriori necessity ; or arise a priori because moral facts have a primary intension and naturally identical worlds may be presumed morally identical . It has also been argued that there is a measure of moral luck in how circumstances create the obstacles which conscience must overcome to apply moral principles or human rights and that with the benefit of enforceable property rights and the rule of law , access to universal health care plus the absence of high adult and infant mortality from conditions such as malaria , tuberculosis , HIV / AIDS and famine , people in relatively prosperous developed countries have been spared pangs of conscience associated with the physical necessity to steal scraps of food , bribe tax inspectors or police officers , and commit murder in guerrilla wars against corrupt government forces or rebel armies . Scrutton has claimed that true understanding of conscience and its relationship with morality has been hampered by an " impetuous " belief that philosophical questions are solved through the analysis of language in an area where clarity threatens vested interests . Susan Sontag similarly argued that it was a symptom of psychological immaturity not to recognise that many morally immature people willingly experience a form of delight , in some an erotic breaking of taboo , when witnessing violence , suffering and pain being inflicted on others . Jonathan Glover wrote that most of us " do not spend our lives on endless landscape gardening of our self " and our conscience is likely shaped not so much by heroic struggles , as by choice of partner , friends and job , as well as where we choose to live . Garrett Hardin in a famous article called tragedy of the commons argued that any instance in which society appeals to an individual exploiting a commons to restrain himself or herself for the general good @-@ by means of his or her conscience- merely sets up a system which , by selectively diverting societal power and physical resources to those lacking in conscience , while fostering guilt ( including anxiety about his or her individual contribution to over @-@ population ) in people acting upon it , actually works toward the elimination of conscience from the race .
John Ralston Saul expressed the view in The Unconscious Civilization that in contemporary developed nations many people have acquiesced in turning over their sense of right and wrong , their critical conscience , to technical experts ; willingly restricting their moral freedom of choice to limited consumer actions ruled by the ideology of the free market , while citizen participation in public affairs is limited to the isolated act of voting and private @-@ interest lobbying turns even elected representatives against the public interest .
Some argue on religious or philosophical grounds that it is blameworthy to act against conscience , even if the judgement of conscience is likely to be erroneous ( say because it is inadequately informed about the facts , or prevailing moral ( humanist or religious ) , professional ethical , legal and human rights norms ) . Failure to acknowledge and accept that conscientious judgements can be seriously mistaken , may only promote situations where one 's conscience is manipulated by others to provide unwarranted justifications for non @-@ virtuous and selfish acts ; indeed , insofar as it is appealed to as glorifying ideological content , and an associated extreme level of devotion , without adequate constraint of external , altruistic , normative justification , conscience may be considered morally blind and dangerous both to the individual concerned and humanity as a whole . Langston argues that philosophers of virtue ethics have unnecessarily neglected conscience for , once conscience is trained so that the principles and rules it applies are those one would want all others to live by , its practise cultivates and sustains the virtues ; indeed , amongst people in what each society considers to be the highest state of moral development there is little disagreement about how to act.Emmanuel Levinas viewed conscience as a revelatory encountering of resistance to our selfish powers , developing morality by calling into question our naive sense of freedom of will to use such powers arbitrarily , or with violence , this process being more severe the more rigorously the goal of our self was to obtain control . In other words , the welcoming of the Other , to Levinas , was the very essence of conscience properly conceived ; it encouraged our ego to accept the fallibility of assuming things about other people , that selfish freedom of will " does not have the last word " and that realising this has a transcendent purpose : " I am not alone ... in conscience I have an experience that is not commensurate with any a priori [ see a priori and a posteriori ] framework @-@ a conceptless experience . "
= = Conscientious acts and the law = =
English humanist lawyers in the 16th and 17th centuries interpreted conscience as a collection of universal principles given to man by god at creation to be applied by reason ; this gradually reforming the medieval Roman law @-@ based system with forms of action , written pleadings , use of juries and patterns of litigation such as Demurrer and Assumpsit that displayed an increased concern for elements of right and wrong on the actual facts . A conscience vote in a parliament allows legislators to vote without restrictions from any political party to which they may belong . In his trial in Jerusalem Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann claimed he was simply following legal orders under paragraph 48 of the German Military Code which provided : " punishability of an action or omission is not excused on the ground that the person considered his behaviour required by his conscience or the prescripts of his religion " . The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights ( UDHR ) which is part of international customary law specifically refers to conscience in Articles 1 and 18 . Likewise , the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ( ICCPR ) mentions conscience in Article 18 @.@ 1 .
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights . They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought , conscience and religion ; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief , and freedom , either alone or in community with others and in public or private , to manifest his religion or belief in teaching , practice , worship and observance
Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought , conscience and religion . This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice , and freedom , either individually or in community with others and in public or private , to manifest his religion or belief in worship , observance , practice and teaching
It has been argued that these articles provide international legal obligations protecting conscientious objectors from service in the military .
John Rawls in his A Theory of Justice defines a conscientious objector as an individual prepared to undertake , in public ( and often despite widespread condemnation ) , an action of civil disobedience to a legal rule justifying it ( also in public ) by reference to contrary foundational social virtues ( such as justice as liberty or fairness ) and the principles of morality and law derived from them . Rawls considered civil disobedience should be viewed as an appeal , warning or admonishment ( showing general respect and fidelity to the rule of law by the non @-@ violence and transparency of methods adopted ) that a law breaches a community 's fundamental virtue of justice . Objections to Rawls ' theory include first , its inability to accommodate conscientious objections to the society 's basic appreciation of justice or to emerging moral or ethical principles ( such as respect for the rights of the natural environment ) which are not yet part of it and second , the difficulty of predictably and consistently determining that a majority decision is just or unjust . Conscientious objection ( also called conscientious refusal or evasion ) to obeying a law , should not arise from unreasoning , naive " traditional conscience " , for to do so merely encourages infantile abdication of responsibility to calibrate the law against moral or human rights norms and disrespect for democratic institutions . Instead it should be based on " critical conscience ' – seriously thought out , conceptually mature , personal moral or religious beliefs held to be fundamentally incompatible ( that is , not merely inconsistent on the basis of selfish desires , whim or impulse ) , for example , either with all laws requiring conscription for military service , or legal compulsion to fight for or financially support the State in a particular war . A famous example arose when Henry David Thoreau the author of Walden was willingly jailed for refusing to pay a tax because he profoundly disagreed with a government policy and was frustrated by the corruption and injustice of the democratic machinery of the state . A more recent case concerned Kimberly Rivera , a private in the US Army and mother of four children who , having served 3 months in Iraq War decided the conflict was immoral and sought refugee status in Canada in 2012 ( see List of Iraq War resisters ) , but was deported and arrested in the US .
In the Second World War , Great Britain granted conscientious @-@ objection status not just to complete pacifists , but to those who objected to fighting in that particular war ; this was done partly out of genuine respect , but also to avoid the disgraceful and futile persecutions of conscientious objectors that occurred during the First World War .
Amnesty International organises campaigns to protect those arrested and or incarcerated as a prisoner of conscience because of their conscientious beliefs , particularly concerning intellectual , political and artistic freedom of expression and association . Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma , was the winner of the 2009 Amnesty International Ambassador of Conscience Award . In legislation , a conscience clause is a provision in a statute that excuses a health professional from complying with the law ( for example legalising surgical or pharmaceutical abortion ) if it is incompatible with religious or conscientious beliefs . Expressed justifications for refusing to obey laws because of conscience vary . Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons — notably , members of the historic peace churches are pacifist by doctrine . Other objections can stem from a deep sense of responsibility toward humanity as a whole , or from the conviction that even acceptance of work under military orders acknowledges the principle of conscription that should be everywhere condemned before the world can ever become safe for real democracy . A conscientious objector , however , does not have a primary aim of changing the law . John Dewey considered that conscientious objectors were often the victims of " moral innocency " and inexpertness in moral training : " the moving force of events is always too much for conscience " . The remedy was not to deplore the wickedness of those who manipulate world power , but to connect conscience with forces moving in another direction- to build institutions and social environments predicated on the rule of law , for example , " then will conscience itself have compulsive power instead of being forever the martyred and the coerced . " As an example , Albert Einstein who had advocated conscientious objection during the First World War and had been a longterm supporter of War Resisters ' International reasoned that " radical pacifism " could not be justified in the face of Nazi rearmament and advocated a world federalist organization with its own professional army . Samuel Johnson pointed out that an appeal to conscience should not allow the law to bring unjust suffering upon another . Conscience , according to Johnson , was nothing more than a conviction felt by ourselves of something to be done or something to be avoided ; in questions of simple unperplexed morality , conscience is very often a guide that may be trusted . But before conscience can conclusively determine what morally should be done , he thought that the state of the question should be thoroughly known . " No man 's conscience " , said Johnson " can tell him the right of another man ... it is a conscience very ill informed that violates the rights of one man , for the convenience of another . "
Civil disobedience as non @-@ violent protest or civil resistance are also acts of conscience , but are designed by those who undertake them chiefly to change , by appealing to the majority and democratic processes , laws or government policies perceived to be incoherent with fundamental social virtues and principles ( such as justice , equality or respect for intrinsic human dignity ) . Civil disobedience , in a properly functioning democracy , allows a minority who feel strongly that a law infringes their sense of justice ( but have no capacity to obtain legislative amendments or a referendum on the issue ) to make a potentially apathetic or uninformed majority take account of the intensity of opposing views . A notable example of civil resistance or satyagraha ( " satya " in sanskrit means " truth and compassion " , " agraha " means " firmness of will " ) involved Mahatma Gandhi making salt in India when that act was prohibited by a British statute , in order to create moral pressure for law reform . Rosa Parks similarly acted on conscience in 1955 in Montgomery , Alabama refusing a legal order to give up her seat to make room for a white passenger ; her action ( and the similar earlier act of 15 @-@ year @-@ old Claudette Colvin ) leading to the Montgomery Bus Boycott . Rachel Corrie was a US citizen allegedly killed by a bulldozer operated by the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) while involved in direct action ( based on the non @-@ violent principles of Martin Luther King and Mahatma Gandhi ) to prevent demolition of the home of local Palestinian pharmacist Samir Nasrallah . Al Gore has argued " If you 're a young person looking at the future of this planet and looking at what is being done right now , and not done , I believe we have reached the stage where it is time for civil disobedience to prevent the construction of new coal plants that do not have carbon capture and sequestration . " In 2011 , NASA climate scientist James E. Hansen , environmental leader Phil Radford and Professor Bill McKibben were arrested for opposing a tar sands oil pipeline and Canadian renewable energy professor Mark Jaccard was arrested for opposing mountain @-@ top coal mining ; in his book Storms of my Grandchildren Hansen calls for similar civil resistance on a global scale to help replace the ' business @-@ as @-@ usual ' Kyoto Protocol cap and trade system , with a progressive carbon tax at emission source on the oil , gas and coal industries – revenue being paid as dividends to low carbon footprint families .
Notable historical examples of conscientious noncompliance in a different professional context included the manipulation of the visa process in 1939 by Japanese Consul @-@ General Chiune Sugihara in Kaunas ( the temporary capital of Lithuania between Germany and the Soviet Union ) and by Raoul Wallenberg in Hungary 1n 1944 to allow Jews to escape almost certain death . Ho Feng @-@ Shan the Chinese Consul @-@ General in Vienna in 1939 , defied orders from the Chinese ambassador in Berlin to issue Jews with visas for Shanghai . John Rabe a German member of the Nazi Party likewise saved thousands of Chinese from massacre by the Japanese military at Nanking . The White Rose German student movement against the Nazis declared in their 4th leaflet : " We will not be silent . We are your bad conscience . The White Rose will not leave you in peace ! " Conscientious noncompliance may be the only practical option for citizens wishing to affirm the existence of an international moral order or ' core ' historical rights ( such as the right to life , right to a fair trial and freedom of opinion ) in states where non @-@ violent protest or civil disobedience are met with prolonged arbitrary detention , torture , forced disappearance , murder or persecution . The controversial Milgram experiment into obedience by Stanley Milgram showed that many people lack the psychological resources to openly resist authority , even when they are directed to act callously and inhumanely against an innocent victim .
= = World conscience = =
World conscience is the universalist idea that with ready global communication , all people on earth will no longer be morally estranged from one another , whether it be culturally , ethnically , or geographically ; instead they will conceive ethics from the utopian point of view of the universe , eternity or infinity , rather than have their duties and obligations defined by forces arising solely within the restrictive boundaries of ' blood and territory.'
Often this derives from a spiritual or natural law perspective , that for world peace to be achieved , conscience , properly understood , should be generally considered as not necessarily linked ( often destructively ) to fundamentalist religious ideologies , but as an aspect of universal consciousness , access to which is the common heritage of humanity . Thinking predicated on the development of world conscience is common to members of the Global Ecovillage Network such as the Findhorn Foundation , international conservation organisations like Fauna and Flora International , as well as performers of world music such as Alan Stivell . Non @-@ government organizations , particularly through their work in agenda @-@ setting , policy @-@ making and implementation of human rights @-@ related policy , have been referred to as the conscience of the world
Edward O Wilson has developed the idea of consilience to encourage coherence of global moral and scientific knowledge supporting the premise that " only unified learning , universally shared , makes accurate foresight and wise choice possible " . Thus , world conscience is a concept that overlaps with the Gaia hypothesis in advocating a balance of moral , legal , scientific and economic solutions to modern transnational problems such as global poverty and climate change , through strategies such as environmental ethics , climate ethics , natural conservation , ecology , cosmopolitanism , sustainability and sustainable development , biosequestration and legal protection of the biosphere and biodiversity . The NGO 350.org , for example , seeks to attract world conscience to the problems associated with elevation in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations .
The microcredit initiatives of Nobel Peace Prize winner Muhammad Yunus have been described as inspiring a " war on poverty that blends social conscience and business savvy " .
The Green party politician Bob Brown ( who was arrested by the Tasmanian state police for a conscientious act of civil disobedience during the Franklin Dam protest ) expresses world conscience in these terms : " the universe , through us , is evolving towards experiencing , understanding and making choices about its future ' ; one example of policy outcomes from such thinking being a global tax ( see Tobin tax ) to alleviate global poverty and protect the biosphere , amounting to 1 / 10 of 1 % placed on the worldwide speculative currency market . Such an approach sees world conscience best expressing itself through political reforms promoting democratically based globalisation or planetary democracy ( for example internet voting for global governance organisations ( see world government ) based on the model of " one person , one vote , one value " ) which gradually will replace contemporary market @-@ based globalisation .
The American cardiologist Bernard Lown and the Russian cardiologist Yevgeniy Chazov were motivated in conscience through studying the catastrophic public health consequences of nuclear war in establishing International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War ( IPPNW ) which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985 and continues to work to " heal an ailing planet " .
Worldwide expressions of conscience contributed to the decision of the French government to halt atmospheric nuclear tests at Mururoa in the Pacific in 1974 after 41 such explosions ( although below @-@ ground nuclear tests continued there into the 1990s ) .
A challenge to world conscience was provided by an influential 1968 article by Garrett Hardin that critically analyzed the dilemma in which multiple individuals , acting independently after rationally consulting self @-@ interest ( and , he claimed , the apparently low ' survival @-@ of @-@ the @-@ fittest ' value of conscience @-@ led actions ) ultimately destroy a shared limited resource , even though each acknowledges such an outcome is not in anyone 's long @-@ term interest . Hardin 's conclusion that commons areas are practicably achievable only in conditions of low population density ( and so their continuance requires state restriction on the freedom to breed ) , created controversy additionally through his direct deprecation of the role of conscience in achieving individual decisions , policies and laws that facilitate global justice and peace , as well as sustainability and sustainable development of world commons areas , for example including those officially designated such under United Nations treaties ( see common heritage of humanity ) . Areas designated common heritage of humanity under international law include the Moon , Outer Space , deep sea bed , Antarctica , the world cultural and natural heritage ( see World Heritage Convention ) and the human genome . It will be a significant challenge for world conscience that as world oil , coal , mineral , timber , agricultural and water reserves are depleted , there will be increasing pressure to commercially exploit common heritage of mankind areas .
The philosopher Peter Singer has argued that the United Nations Millennium Development Goals represent the emergence of an ethics based not on national boundaries but on the idea of one world . Ninian Smart has similarly predicted that the increase in global travel and communication will gradually draw the world 's religions towards a pluralistic and transcendental humanism characterized by an " open spirit " of empathy and compassion .
Noam Chomsky has argued that forces opposing the development of such a world conscience include free market ideologies that valorise corporate greed in nominal electoral democracies where advertising , shopping malls and indebtedness , shape citizens into apathetic consumers in relation to information and access necessary for democratic participation . John Passmore has argued that mystical considerations about the global expansion of all human consciousness , should take into account that if as a species we do become something much superior to what we are now , it will be as a consequence of conscience not only implanting a goal of moral perfectibility , but assisting us to remain periodically anxious , passionate and discontented , for these are necessary components of care and compassion . The Committee on Conscience of the US Holocaust Memorial Museum has targeted genocides such as those in Rwanda , Bosnia , Darfur , the Congo and Chechnya as challenges to the world 's conscience . Oscar Arias Sanchez has criticised global arms industry spending as a failure of conscience by nation states : " When a country decides to invest in arms , rather than in education , housing , the environment , and health services for its people , it is depriving a whole generation of its right to prosperity and happiness . We have produced one firearm for every ten inhabitants of this planet , and yet we have not bothered to end hunger when such a feat is well within our reach . This is not a necessary or inevitable state of affairs . It is a deliberate choice " ( see Campaign Against Arms Trade ) . US House of Representatives Speaker Nancy Pelosi , after meeting with the 14th Dalai Lama during the 2008 violent protests in Tibet and aftermath said : " The situation in Tibet is a challenge to the conscience of the world . " Nelson Mandela , through his example and words , has been described as having shaped the conscience of the world .
The Right Livelihood Award is awarded yearly in Sweden to those people , mostly strongly motivated by conscience , who have made exemplary practical contributions to resolving the great challenges facing our planet and its people . In 2009 , for example , along with Catherine Hamlin ( obstetric fistula and see fistula foundation ) ) , David Suzuki ( promoting awareness of climate change ) and Alyn Ware ( nuclear disarmament ) , René Ngongo shared the Right Livelihood Award " for his courage in confronting the forces that are destroying the Congo Basin 's rainforests and building political support for their conservation and sustainable use " . Avaaz is one of the largest global on @-@ line organizations launched in January 2007 to promote conscience @-@ driven activism on issues such as climate change , human rights , animal rights , corruption , poverty , and conflict , thus " closing the gap between the world we have and the world most people everywhere want " .
= = Notable examples of modern acts based on conscience = =
In a notable contemporary act of conscience , Christian bushwalker Brenda Hean protested against the flooding of Lake Pedder despite threats and that ultimately lead to her death . Another was the campaign by Ken Saro @-@ Wiwa against oil extraction by multinational corporations in Nigeria that led to his execution . So too was the act by the Tank Man , or the Unknown Rebel photographed holding his shopping bag in the path of tanks during the protests at Beijing 's Tiananmen Square on 5 June 1989 . The actions of United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld to try and achieve peace in the Congo despite the ( eventuating ) threat to his life , were strongly motivated by conscience as is reflected in his diary , Vägmärken ( Markings ) . Another example involved the actions of Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson , Jr to try and prevent the My Lai Massacre in the Vietnam War . Evan Pederick voluntarily confessed and was convicted of the Sydney Hilton bombing stating that his conscience could not tolerate the guilt and that " I guess I was quite unique in the prison system in that I had to keep proving my guilt , whereas everyone else said they were innocent . " Vasili Arkhipov was a Russian naval officer on out @-@ of @-@ radio @-@ contact Soviet submarine B @-@ 59 being depth @-@ charged by US warships during the Cuban Missile Crisis whose dissent when two other officers decided to launch a nuclear torpedo ( unanimous agreement to launch was required ) may have averted a nuclear war . In 1963 Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc performed a famous act of self @-@ immolation to protest against alleged persecution of his faith by the Vietnamese Ngo Dinh Diem regime .
Conscience played a major role in the actions by anaesthetist Stephen Bolsin to whistleblow ( see list of whistleblowers ) on incompetent paediatric cardiac surgeons at the Bristol Royal Infirmary . Jeffrey Wigand was motivated by conscience to expose the Big Tobacco scandal , revealing that executives of the companies knew that cigarettes were addictive and approved the addition of carcinogenic ingredients to the cigarettes . David Graham , a Food and Drug Administration employee , was motivated by conscience to whistleblow that the arthritis pain @-@ reliever Vioxx increased the risk of cardiovascular deaths although the manufacturer suppressed this information . Rick Piltz from the U.S. Climate Change Science Program , blew the whistle on a White House official who ignored majority scientific opinion to edit a climate change report ( " Our Changing Planet " ) to reflect the Bush administration 's view that the problem was unlikely to exist . " Muntadhar al @-@ Zaidi , an Iraqi journalist , was imprisoned and allegedly tortured for his act of conscience in throwing his shoes at George W. Bush . Mordechai Vanunu an Israeli former nuclear technician , acted on conscience to reveal details of Israel 's nuclear weapons program to the British press in 1986 ; was kidnapped by Israeli agents , transported to Israel , convicted of treason and spent 18 years in prison , including more than 11 years in solitary confinement .
At the awards ceremony for the 200 metres at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City John Carlos , Tommie Smith and Peter Norman ignored death threats and official warnings to take part in an anti @-@ racism protest that destroyed their respective careers . W. Mark Felt an agent of the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation who retired in 1973 as the Bureau 's Associate Director , acted on conscience to provide reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein with information that resulted in the Watergate scandal . Conscience was a major factor in US Public Health Service officer Peter Buxtun revealing the Tuskegee syphilis experiment to the public . The 2008 attack by the Israeli military on civilian areas of Palestinian Gaza was described as a " stain on the world 's conscience " . Conscience was a major factor in the refusal of Aung San Suu Kyi to leave Burma despite house arrest and persecution by the military dictatorship in that country . Conscience was a factor in Peter Galbraith 's criticism of fraud in the 2009 Afghanistan election despite it costing him his United Nations job . Conscience motivated Bunnatine Greenhouse to expose irregularities in the contracting of the Halliburton company for work in Iraq . Naji al @-@ Ali a popular cartoon artist in the Arab world , loved for his defense of the ordinary people , and for his criticism of repression and despotism by both the Israeli military and Yasser Arafat 's PLO , was murdered for refusing to compromise with his conscience . The journalist Anna Politkovskaya provided ( prior to her murder ) an example of conscience in her opposition to the Second Chechen War and then @-@ Russian President Vladimir Putin . Conscience motivated the Russian human @-@ rights activist Natalia Estemirova , who was abducted and murdered in Grozny , Chechnya in 2009 . The Death of Neda Agha @-@ Soltan arose from conscience @-@ driven protests against the 2009 Iranian presidential election . Female Muslim lawyer Shirin Ebadi ( winner of the 2003 Nobel Peace Prize ) has been described as the ' conscience of the Islamic Republic ' for her work in protecting the human rights of women and children in Iran . The human rights lawyer Gao Zhisheng , often referred to as the ' conscience of China ' and who had previously been arrested and allegedly tortured by the Chinese regime for defending members of the Falun Gong , was abducted by Chinese security agents on 4 February 2009 and has not been seen since . 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo in his final statement before being sentenced by a closed Chinese court to over a decade in jail as a political prisoner of conscience stated : " For hatred is corrosive of a person ’ s wisdom and conscience ; the mentality of enmity can poison a nation ’ s spirit . " Sergei Magnitsky , a lawyer in Russia , was arrested , held without trial for almost a year and died in custody , as a result of exposing corruption . On 6 October 2001 Laura Whittle was a naval gunner on HMAS Adelaide ( FFG 01 ) under orders to implement a new border protection policy when they encountered the SIEV @-@ 4 ( Suspected Illegal Entry Vessel @-@ 4 ) refugee boat in choppy seas . After being ordered to fire warning shots from her 50 calibre machinegun to make the boat turn back she saw it beginning to break up and sink with a father on board holding out his young daughter that she might be saved ( see Children Overboard Affair ) . Whittle jumped without a life vest 12 metres into the sea to help save the refugees from drowning thinking " this isn 't right ; this isn 't how things should be . " In February 2012 journalist Marie Colvin was deliberately targeted and killed by the Syrian Army in Homs during the 2011 – 2012 Syrian uprising and Siege of Homs , after she decided to stay at the " epicentre of the storm " in order to " expose what is happening . " In October 2012 the Taliban organised the attempted murder of Malala Yousafzai a teenage girl who had been campaigning , despite their threats , for female education in Pakistan . In December 2012 the 2012 Delhi gang rape case was said to have stirred the collective conscience of India to civil disobedience and public protest at the lack of legal action against rapists in that country ( see Rape in India ) In June 2013 Edward Snowden revealed details of a US National Security Agency internet and electronic communication PRISM ( surveillance program ) because of a conscience @-@ felt obligation to the freedom of humanity greater than obedience to the laws that bound his employment .
= = Conscience in literature , art , film , and music = =
The ancient epic of the Indian subcontinent , the Mahabharata of Vyasa , contains two pivotal moments of conscience . The first occurs when the warrior Arjuna being overcome with compassion against killing his opposing relatives in war , receives counsel ( see Bhagavad @-@ Gita ) from Krishna about his spiritual duty ( " work as though you are performing a sacrifice for the general good " ) . The second , at the end of the saga , is when king Yudhishthira having alone survived the moral tests of life , is offered eternal bliss , only to refuse it because a faithful dog is prevented from coming with him by purported divine rules and laws . The French author Montaigne ( 1533 – 1592 ) in one of the most celebrated of his essays ( " On experience " ) expressed the benefits of living with a clear conscience : " Our duty is to compose our character , not to compose books , to
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linear — doubling the number of processing elements should halve the runtime , and doubling it a second time should again halve the runtime . However , very few parallel algorithms achieve optimal speedup . Most of them have a near @-@ linear speedup for small numbers of processing elements , which flattens out into a constant value for large numbers of processing elements .
The potential speedup of an algorithm on a parallel computing platform is given by Amdahl 's law
<formula>
where
Slatency is the potential speedup in latency of the execution of the whole task ;
s is the speedup in latency of the execution of the parallelizable part of the task ;
p is the percentage of the execution time of the whole task concerning the parallelizable part of the task before parallelization .
Since Slatency < 1 / ( 1 - p ) , it shows that a small part of the program which cannot be parallelized will limit the overall speedup available from parallelization . A program solving a large mathematical or engineering problem will typically consist of several parallelizable parts and several non @-@ parallelizable ( serial ) parts . If the non @-@ parallelizable part of a program accounts for 10 % of the runtime ( p = 0 @.@ 9 ) , we can get no more than a 10 times speedup , regardless of how many processors are added . This puts an upper limit on the usefulness of adding more parallel execution units . " When a task cannot be partitioned because of sequential constraints , the application of more effort has no effect on the schedule . The bearing of a child takes nine months , no matter how many women are assigned . "
Amdahl 's law only applies to cases where the problem size is fixed . In practice , as more computing resources become available , they tend to get used on larger problems ( larger datasets ) , and the time spent in the parallelizable part often grows much faster than the inherently serial work . In this case , Gustafson 's law gives a less pessimistic and more realistic assessment of parallel performance :
<formula>
Both Amdahl 's law and Gustafson 's law assume that the running time of the serial part of the program is independent of the number of processors . Amdahl 's law assumes that the entire problem is of fixed size so that the total amount of work to be done in parallel is also independent of the number of processors , whereas Gustafson 's law assumes that the total amount of work to be done in parallel varies linearly with the number of processors .
= = = Dependencies = = =
Understanding data dependencies is fundamental in implementing parallel algorithms . No program can run more quickly than the longest chain of dependent calculations ( known as the critical path ) , since calculations that depend upon prior calculations in the chain must be executed in order . However , most algorithms do not consist of just a long chain of dependent calculations ; there are usually opportunities to execute independent calculations in parallel .
Let Pi and Pj be two program segments . Bernstein 's conditions describe when the two are independent and can be executed in parallel . For Pi , let Ii be all of the input variables and Oi the output variables , and likewise for Pj . Pi and Pj are independent if they satisfy
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Violation of the first condition introduces a flow dependency , corresponding to the first segment producing a result used by the second segment . The second condition represents an anti @-@ dependency , when the second segment produces a variable needed by the first segment . The third and final condition represents an output dependency : when two segments write to the same location , the result comes from the logically last executed segment .
Consider the following functions , which demonstrate several kinds of dependencies :
1 : function Dep ( a , b )
2 : c : = a * b
3 : d : = 3 * c
4 : end function
In this example , instruction 3 cannot be executed before ( or even in parallel with ) instruction 2 , because instruction 3 uses a result from instruction 2 . It violates condition 1 , and thus introduces a flow dependency .
1 : function NoDep ( a , b )
2 : c : = a * b
3 : d : = 3 * b
4 : e : = a + b
5 : end function
In this example , there are no dependencies between the instructions , so they can all be run in parallel .
Bernstein 's conditions do not allow memory to be shared between different processes . For that , some means of enforcing an ordering between accesses is necessary , such as semaphores , barriers or some other synchronization method .
= = = Race conditions , mutual exclusion , synchronization , and parallel slowdown = = =
Subtasks in a parallel program are often called threads . Some parallel computer architectures use smaller , lightweight versions of threads known as fibers , while others use bigger versions known as processes . However , " threads " is generally accepted as a generic term for subtasks . Threads will often need to update some variable that is shared between them . The instructions between the two programs may be interleaved in any order . For example , consider the following program :
If instruction 1B is executed between 1A and 3A , or if instruction 1A is executed between 1B and 3B , the program will produce incorrect data . This is known as a race condition . The programmer must use a lock to provide mutual exclusion . A lock is a programming language construct that allows one thread to take control of a variable and prevent other threads from reading or writing it , until that variable is unlocked . The thread holding the lock is free to execute its critical section ( the section of a program that requires exclusive access to some variable ) , and to unlock the data when it is finished . Therefore , to guarantee correct program execution , the above program can be rewritten to use locks :
One thread will successfully lock variable V , while the other thread will be locked out — unable to proceed until V is unlocked again . This guarantees correct execution of the program . Locks , while necessary to ensure correct program execution , can greatly slow a program .
Locking multiple variables using non @-@ atomic locks introduces the possibility of program deadlock . An atomic lock locks multiple variables all at once . If it cannot lock all of them , it does not lock any of them . If two threads each need to lock the same two variables using non @-@ atomic locks , it is possible that one thread will lock one of them and the second thread will lock the second variable . In such a case , neither thread can complete , and deadlock results .
Many parallel programs require that their subtasks act in synchrony . This requires the use of a barrier . Barriers are typically implemented using a software lock . One class of algorithms , known as lock @-@ free and wait @-@ free algorithms , altogether avoids the use of locks and barriers . However , this approach is generally difficult to implement and requires correctly designed data structures .
Not all parallelization results in speed @-@ up . Generally , as a task is split up into more and more threads , those threads spend an ever @-@ increasing portion of their time communicating with each other . Eventually , the overhead from communication dominates the time spent solving the problem , and further parallelization ( that is , splitting the workload over even more threads ) increases rather than decreases the amount of time required to finish . This is known as parallel slowdown .
= = = Fine @-@ grained , coarse @-@ grained , and embarrassing parallelism = = =
Applications are often classified according to how often their subtasks need to synchronize or communicate with each other . An application exhibits fine @-@ grained parallelism if its subtasks must communicate many times per second ; it exhibits coarse @-@ grained parallelism if they do not communicate many times per second , and it exhibits embarrassing parallelism if they rarely or never have to communicate . Embarrassingly parallel applications are considered the easiest to parallelize .
= = = Consistency models = = =
Parallel programming languages and parallel computers must have a consistency model ( also known as a memory model ) . The consistency model defines rules for how operations on computer memory occur and how results are produced .
One of the first consistency models was Leslie Lamport 's sequential consistency model . Sequential consistency is the property of a parallel program that its parallel execution produces the same results as a sequential program . Specifically , a program is sequentially consistent if " … the results of any execution is the same as if the operations of all the processors were executed in some sequential order , and the operations of each individual processor appear in this sequence in the order specified by its program " .
Software transactional memory is a common type of consistency model . Software transactional memory borrows from database theory the concept of atomic transactions and applies them to memory accesses .
Mathematically , these models can be represented in several ways . Petri nets , which were introduced in Carl Adam Petri 's 1962 doctoral thesis , were an early attempt to codify the rules of consistency models . Dataflow theory later built upon these , and Dataflow architectures were created to physically implement the ideas of dataflow theory . Beginning in the late 1970s , process calculi such as Calculus of Communicating Systems and Communicating Sequential Processes were developed to permit algebraic reasoning about systems composed of interacting components . More recent additions to the process calculus family , such as the π @-@ calculus , have added the capability for reasoning about dynamic topologies . Logics such as Lamport 's TLA + , and mathematical models such as traces and Actor event diagrams , have also been developed to describe the behavior of concurrent systems .
= = = Flynn 's taxonomy = = =
Michael J. Flynn created one of the earliest classification systems for parallel ( and sequential ) computers and programs , now known as Flynn 's taxonomy . Flynn classified programs and computers by whether they were operating using a single set or multiple sets of instructions , and whether or not those instructions were using a single set or multiple sets of data .
The single @-@ instruction @-@ single @-@ data ( SISD ) classification is equivalent to an entirely sequential program . The single @-@ instruction @-@ multiple @-@ data ( SIMD ) classification is analogous to doing the same operation repeatedly over a large data set . This is commonly done in signal processing applications . Multiple @-@ instruction @-@ single @-@ data ( MISD ) is a rarely used classification . While computer architectures to deal with this were devised ( such as systolic arrays ) , few applications that fit this class materialized . Multiple @-@ instruction @-@ multiple @-@ data ( MIMD ) programs are by far the most common type of parallel programs .
According to David A. Patterson and John L. Hennessy , " Some machines are hybrids of these categories , of course , but this classic model has survived because it is simple , easy to understand , and gives a good first approximation . It is also — perhaps because of its understandability — the most widely used scheme . "
= = Types of parallelism = =
= = = Bit @-@ level parallelism = = =
From the advent of very @-@ large @-@ scale integration ( VLSI ) computer @-@ chip fabrication technology in the 1970s until about 1986 , speed @-@ up in computer architecture was driven by doubling computer word size — the amount of information the processor can manipulate per cycle . Increasing the word size reduces the number of instructions the processor must execute to perform an operation on variables whose sizes are greater than the length of the word . For example , where an 8 @-@ bit processor must add two 16 @-@ bit integers , the processor must first add the 8 lower @-@ order bits from each integer using the standard addition instruction , then add the 8 higher @-@ order bits using an add @-@ with @-@ carry instruction and the carry bit from the lower order addition ; thus , an 8 @-@ bit processor requires two instructions to complete a single operation , where a 16 @-@ bit processor would be able to complete the operation with a single instruction .
Historically , 4 @-@ bit microprocessors were replaced with 8 @-@ bit , then 16 @-@ bit , then 32 @-@ bit microprocessors . This trend generally came to an end with the introduction of 32 @-@ bit processors , which has been a standard in general @-@ purpose computing for two decades . Not until recently ( c . 2003 – 2004 ) , with the advent of x86 @-@ 64 architectures , have 64 @-@ bit processors become commonplace .
= = = Instruction @-@ level parallelism = = =
A computer program , is in essence , a stream of instructions executed by a processor . Without instruction @-@ level parallelism , a processor can only issue less than one instruction per clock cycle ( IPC < 1 ) . These processors are known as subscalar processors . These instructions can be re @-@ ordered and combined into groups which are then executed in parallel without changing the result of the program . This is known as instruction @-@ level parallelism . Advances in instruction @-@ level parallelism dominated computer architecture from the mid @-@ 1980s until the mid @-@ 1990s .
All modern processors have multi @-@ stage instruction pipelines . Each stage in the pipeline corresponds to a different action the processor performs on that instruction in that stage ; a processor with an N @-@ stage pipeline can have up to N different instructions at different stages of completion and thus can issue one instruction per clock cycle ( IPC = 1 ) . These processors are known as scalar processors . The canonical example of a pipelined processor is a RISC processor , with five stages : instruction fetch ( IF ) , instruction decode ( ID ) , execute ( EX ) , memory access ( MEM ) , and register write back ( WB ) . The Pentium 4 processor had a 35 @-@ stage pipeline .
Most modern processors also have multiple execution units . They usually combine this feature with pipelining and thus can issue more than one instruction per clock cycle ( IPC > 1 ) . These processors are known as superscalar processors . Instructions can be grouped together only if there is no data dependency between them . Scoreboarding and the Tomasulo algorithm ( which is similar to scoreboarding but makes use of register renaming ) are two of the most common techniques for implementing out @-@ of @-@ order execution and instruction @-@ level parallelism .
= = = Task parallelism = = =
Task parallelisms is the characteristic of a parallel program that " entirely different calculations can be performed on either the same or different sets of data " . This contrasts with data parallelism , where the same calculation is performed on the same or different sets of data . Task parallelism involves the decomposition of a task into sub @-@ tasks and then allocating each sub @-@ task to a processor for execution . The processors would then execute these sub @-@ tasks simultaneously and often cooperatively . Task parallelism does not usually scale with the size of a problem .
= = Hardware = =
= = = Memory and communication = = =
Main memory in a parallel computer is either shared memory ( shared between all processing elements in a single address space ) , or distributed memory ( in which each processing element has its own local address space ) . Distributed memory refers to the fact that the memory is logically distributed , but often implies that it is physically distributed as well . Distributed shared memory and memory virtualization combine the two approaches , where the processing element has its own local memory and access to the memory on non @-@ local processors . Accesses to local memory are typically faster than accesses to non @-@ local memory .
Computer architectures in which each element of main memory can be accessed with equal latency and bandwidth are known as uniform memory access ( UMA ) systems . Typically , that can be achieved only by a shared memory system , in which the memory is not physically distributed . A system that does not have this property is known as a non @-@ uniform memory access ( NUMA ) architecture . Distributed memory systems have non @-@ uniform memory access .
Computer systems make use of caches — small and fast memories located close to the processor which store temporary copies of memory values ( nearby in both the physical and logical sense ) . Parallel computer systems have difficulties with caches that may store the same value in more than one location , with the possibility of incorrect program execution . These computers require a cache coherency system , which keeps track of cached values and strategically purges them , thus ensuring correct program execution . Bus snooping is one of the most common methods for keeping track of which values are being accessed ( and thus should be purged ) . Designing large , high @-@ performance cache coherence systems is a very difficult problem in computer architecture . As a result , shared memory computer architectures do not scale as well as distributed memory systems do .
Processor – processor and processor – memory communication can be implemented in hardware in several ways , including via shared ( either multiported or multiplexed ) memory , a crossbar switch , a shared bus or an interconnect network of a myriad of topologies including star , ring , tree , hypercube , fat hypercube ( a hypercube with more than one processor at a node ) , or n @-@ dimensional mesh .
Parallel computers based on interconnected networks need to have some kind of routing to enable the passing of messages between nodes that are not directly connected . The medium used for communication between the processors is likely to be hierarchical in large multiprocessor machines .
= = = Classes of parallel computers = = =
Parallel computers can be roughly classified according to the level at which the hardware supports parallelism . This classification is broadly analogous to the distance between basic computing nodes . These are not mutually exclusive ; for example , clusters of symmetric multiprocessors are relatively common .
= = = = Multi @-@ core computing = = = =
A multi @-@ core processor is a processor that includes multiple processing units ( called " cores " ) on the same chip . This processor differs from a superscalar processor , which includes multiple execution units and can issue multiple instructions per clock cycle from one instruction stream ( thread ) ; in contrast , a multi @-@ core processor can issue multiple instructions per clock cycle from multiple instruction streams . IBM 's Cell microprocessor , designed for use in the Sony PlayStation 3 , is a prominent multi @-@ core processor . Each core in a multi @-@ core processor can potentially be superscalar as well — that is , on every clock cycle , each core can issue multiple instructions from one thread .
Simultaneous multithreading ( of which Intel 's Hyper @-@ Threading is the best known ) was an early form of pseudo @-@ multi @-@ coreism . A processor capable of simultaneous multithreading includes multiple execution units in the same processing unit — that is it has a superscalar architecture — and can issue multiple instructions per clock cycle from multiple threads . Temporal multithreading on the other hand includes a single execution unit in the same processing unit and can issue one instruction at a time from multiple threads .
= = = = Symmetric multiprocessing = = = =
A symmetric multiprocessor ( SMP ) is a computer system with multiple identical processors that share memory and connect via a bus . Bus contention prevents bus architectures from scaling . As a result , SMPs generally do not comprise more than 32 processors . Because of the small size of the processors and the significant reduction in the requirements for bus bandwidth achieved by large caches , such symmetric multiprocessors are extremely cost @-@ effective , provided that a sufficient amount of memory bandwidth exists .
= = = = Distributed computing = = = =
A distributed computer ( also known as a distributed memory multiprocessor ) is a distributed memory computer system in which the processing elements are connected by a network . Distributed computers are highly scalable .
= = = = = Cluster computing = = = = =
A cluster is a group of loosely coupled computers that work together closely , so that in some respects they can be regarded as a single computer . Clusters are composed of multiple standalone machines connected by a network . While machines in a cluster do not have to be symmetric , load balancing is more difficult if they are not . The most common type of cluster is the Beowulf cluster , which is a cluster implemented on multiple identical commercial off @-@ the @-@ shelf computers connected with a TCP / IP Ethernet local area network . Beowulf technology was originally developed by Thomas Sterling and Donald Becker . The vast majority of the TOP500 supercomputers are clusters .
Because grid computing systems ( described below ) can easily handle embarrassingly parallel problems , modern clusters are typically designed to handle more difficult problems — problems that require nodes to share intermediate results with each other more often . This requires a high bandwidth and , more importantly , a low @-@ latency interconnection network . Many historic and current supercomputers use customized high @-@ performance network hardware specifically designed for cluster computing , such as the Cray Gemini network . As of 2014 , most current supercomputers use some off @-@ the @-@ shelf standard network hardware , often Myrinet , InfiniBand , or Gigabit Ethernet .
= = = = = Massively parallel computing = = = = =
A massively parallel processor ( MPP ) is a single computer with many networked processors . MPPs have many of the same characteristics as clusters , but MPPs have specialized interconnect networks ( whereas clusters use commodity hardware for networking ) . MPPs also tend to be larger than clusters , typically having " far more " than 100 processors . In an MPP , " each CPU contains its own memory and copy of the operating system and application . Each subsystem communicates with the others via a high @-@ speed interconnect . "
IBM 's Blue Gene / L , the fifth fastest supercomputer in the world according to the June 2009 TOP500 ranking , is an MPP .
= = = = = Grid computing = = = = =
Grid computing is the most distributed form of parallel computing . It makes use of computers communicating over the Internet to work on a given problem . Because of the low bandwidth and extremely high latency available on the Internet , distributed computing typically deals only with embarrassingly parallel problems . Many distributed computing applications have been created , of which SETI @ home and Folding @ home are the best @-@ known examples .
Most grid computing applications use middleware , software that sits between the operating system and the application to manage network resources and standardize the software interface . The most common distributed computing middleware is the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing ( BOINC ) . Often , distributed computing software makes use of " spare cycles " , performing computations at times when a computer is idling .
= = = = Specialized parallel computers = = = =
Within parallel computing , there are specialized parallel devices that remain niche areas of interest . While not domain @-@ specific , they tend to be applicable to only a few classes of parallel problems .
= = = = = Reconfigurable computing with field @-@ programmable gate arrays = = = = =
Reconfigurable computing is the use of a field @-@ programmable gate array ( FPGA ) as a co @-@ processor to a general @-@ purpose computer . An FPGA is , in essence , a computer chip that can rewire itself for a given task .
FPGAs can be programmed with hardware description languages such as VHDL or Verilog . However , programming in these languages can be tedious . Several vendors have created C to HDL languages that attempt to emulate the syntax and semantics of the C programming language , with which most programmers are familiar . The best known C to HDL languages are Mitrion @-@ C , Impulse C , DIME @-@ C , and Handel @-@ C. Specific subsets of SystemC based on C + + can also be used for this purpose .
AMD 's decision to open its HyperTransport technology to third @-@ party vendors has become the enabling technology for high @-@ performance reconfigurable computing . According to Michael R. D 'Amour , Chief Operating Officer of DRC Computer Corporation , " when we first walked into AMD , they called us ' the socket stealers . ' Now they call us their partners . "
= = = = = General @-@ purpose computing on graphics processing units ( GPGPU ) = = = = =
General @-@ purpose computing on graphics processing units ( GPGPU ) is a fairly recent trend in computer engineering research . GPUs are co @-@ processors that have been heavily optimized for computer graphics processing . Computer graphics processing is a field dominated by data parallel operations — particularly linear algebra matrix operations .
In the early days , GPGPU programs used the normal graphics APIs for executing programs . However , several new programming languages and platforms have been built to do general purpose computation on GPUs with both Nvidia and AMD releasing programming environments with CUDA and Stream SDK respectively . Other GPU programming languages include BrookGPU , PeakStream , and RapidMind . Nvidia has also released specific products for computation in their Tesla series . The technology consortium Khronos Group has released the OpenCL specification , which is a framework for writing programs that execute across platforms consisting of CPUs and GPUs . AMD , Apple , Intel , Nvidia and others are supporting OpenCL .
= = = = = Application @-@ specific integrated circuits = = = = =
Several application @-@ specific integrated circuit ( ASIC ) approaches have been devised for dealing with parallel applications .
Because an ASIC is ( by definition ) specific to a given application , it can be fully optimized for that application . As a result , for a given application , an ASIC tends to outperform a general @-@ purpose computer . However , ASICs are created by UV photolithography . This process requires a mask set , which can be extremely expensive . A mask set can cost over a million US dollars . ( The smaller the transistors required for the chip , the more expensive the mask will be . ) Meanwhile , performance increases in general @-@ purpose computing over time ( as described by Moore 's law ) tend to wipe out these gains in only one or two chip generations . High initial cost , and the tendency to be overtaken by Moore 's @-@ law @-@ driven general @-@ purpose computing , has rendered ASICs unfeasible for most parallel computing applications . However , some have been built . One example is the PFLOPS RIKEN MDGRAPE @-@ 3 machine which uses custom ASICs for molecular dynamics simulation .
= = = = = Vector processors = = = = =
A vector processor is a CPU or computer system that can execute the same instruction on large sets of data . Vector processors have high @-@ level operations that work on linear arrays of numbers or vectors . An example vector operation is A = B × C , where A , B , and C are each 64 @-@ element vectors of 64 @-@ bit floating @-@ point numbers . They are closely related to Flynn 's SIMD classification .
Cray computers became famous for their vector @-@ processing computers in the 1970s and 1980s . However , vector processors — both as CPUs and as full computer systems — have generally disappeared . Modern processor instruction sets do include some vector processing instructions , such as with Freescale Semiconductor 's AltiVec and Intel 's Streaming SIMD Extensions ( SSE ) .
= = Software = =
= = = Parallel programming languages = = =
Concurrent programming languages , libraries , APIs , and parallel programming models ( such as algorithmic skeletons ) have been created for programming parallel computers . These can generally be divided into classes based on the assumptions they make about the underlying memory architecture — shared memory , distributed memory , or shared distributed memory . Shared memory programming languages communicate by manipulating shared memory variables . Distributed memory uses message passing . POSIX Threads and OpenMP are two of the most widely used shared memory APIs , whereas Message Passing Interface ( MPI ) is the most widely used message @-@ passing system API . One concept used in programming parallel programs is the future concept , where one part of a program promises to deliver a required datum to another part of a program at some future time .
CAPS entreprise and Pathscale are also coordinating their effort to make hybrid multi @-@ core parallel programming ( HMPP ) directives an open standard called OpenHMPP . The OpenHMPP directive @-@ based programming model offers a syntax to efficiently offload computations on hardware accelerators and to optimize data movement to / from the hardware memory . OpenHMPP directives describe remote procedure call ( RPC ) on an accelerator device ( e.g. GPU ) or more generally a set of cores . The directives annotate C or Fortran codes to describe two sets of functionalities : the offloading of procedures ( denoted codelets ) onto a remote device and the optimization of data transfers between the CPU main memory and the accelerator memory .
The rise of consumer GPUs has led to support for compute kernels , either in graphics APIs ( referred to as compute shaders ) , in dedicated APIs ( such as OpenCL ) , or in other language extensions .
= = = Automatic parallelization = = =
Automatic parallelization of a sequential program by a compiler is the holy grail of parallel computing . Despite decades of work by compiler researchers , automatic parallelization has had only limited success .
Mainstream parallel programming languages remain either explicitly parallel or ( at best ) partially implicit , in which a programmer gives the compiler directives for parallelization . A few fully implicit parallel programming languages exist — SISAL , Parallel Haskell , SequenceL , System C ( for FPGAs ) , Mitrion @-@ C , VHDL , and Verilog .
= = = Application checkpointing = = =
As a computer system grows in complexity , the mean time between failures usually decreases . Application checkpointing is a technique whereby the computer system takes a " snapshot " of the application — a record of all current resource allocations and variable states , akin to a core dump — ; this information can be used to restore the program if the computer should fail . Application checkpointing means that the program has to restart from only its last checkpoint rather than the beginning . While checkpointing provides benefits in a variety of situations , it is especially useful in highly parallel systems with a large number of processors used in high performance computing .
= = Algorithmic methods = =
As parallel computers become larger and faster , it becomes feasible to solve problems that previously took too long to run . Parallel computing is used in a wide range of fields , from bioinformatics ( protein folding and sequence analysis ) to economics ( mathematical finance ) . Common types of problems found in parallel computing applications are :
dense linear algebra ;
sparse linear algebra ;
spectral methods ( such as Cooley – Tukey fast Fourier transform )
N @-@ body problems ( such as Barnes – Hut simulation ) ;
structured grid problems ( such as Lattice Boltzmann methods ) ;
unstructured grid problems ( such as found in finite element analysis ) ;
Monte Carlo method ;
combinational logic ( such as brute @-@ force cryptographic techniques ) ;
graph traversal ( such as sorting algorithms ) ;
dynamic programming ;
branch and bound methods ;
graphical models ( such as detecting hidden Markov models and constructing Bayesian networks ) ;
finite @-@ state machine simulation .
= = Fault @-@ tolerance = =
Parallel computing can also be applied to the design of fault @-@ tolerant computer systems , particularly via lockstep systems performing the same operation in parallel . This provides redundancy in case one component should fail , and also allows automatic error detection and error correction if the results differ . These methods can be used to help prevent single event upsets caused by transient errors . Although additional measures may be required in embedded or specialized systems , this method can provide a cost effective approach to achieve n @-@ modular redundancy in commercial off @-@ the @-@ shelf systems .
= = History = =
The origins of true ( MIMD ) parallelism go back to Luigi Federico Menabrea and his Sketch of the Analytic Engine Invented by Charles Babbage . IBM introduced the 704 in 1954 , through a project in which Gene Amdahl was one of the principal architects . It became the first commercially available computer to use fully automatic floating @-@ point arithmetic commands .
In April 1958 , S. Gill ( Ferranti ) discussed parallel programming and the need for branching and waiting . Also in 1958 , IBM researchers John Cocke and Daniel Slotnick discussed the use of parallelism in numerical calculations for the first time . Burroughs Corporation introduced the D825 in 1962 , a four @-@ processor computer that accessed up to 16 memory modules through a crossbar switch . In 1967 , Amdahl and Slotnick published a debate about the feasibility of parallel processing at American Federation of Information Processing Societies Conference . It was during this debate that Amdahl 's law was coined to define the limit of speed @-@ up due to parallelism .
In 1969 , company Honeywell introduced its first Multics system , a symmetric multiprocessor system capable of running up to eight processors in parallel . C.mmp , a 1970s multi @-@ processor project at Carnegie Mellon University , was among the first multiprocessors with more than a few processors . The first bus @-@ connected multiprocessor with snooping caches was the Synapse N + 1 in 1984 . "
SIMD parallel computers can be traced back to the 1970s . The motivation behind early SIMD computers was to amortize the gate delay of the processor 's control unit over multiple instructions . In 1964 , Slotnick had proposed building a massively parallel computer for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . His design was funded by the US Air Force , which was the earliest SIMD parallel @-@ computing effort , ILLIAC IV . The key to its design was a fairly high parallelism , with up to 256 processors , which allowed the machine to work on large datasets in what would later be known as vector processing . However , ILLIAC IV was called " the most infamous of supercomputers " , because the project was only one fourth completed , but took 11 years and cost almost four times the original estimate . When it was finally ready to run its first real application in 1976 , it was outperformed by existing commercial supercomputers such as the Cray @-@ 1 .
= M @-@ 26 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 26 is a 96 @.@ 355 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 155 @.@ 068 km ) state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan , running from two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Rockland to its junction with US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) in Copper Harbor . It generally runs southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast in the western half or Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . The northernmost segment , which closely parallels the shore of Lake Superior on the west side of the Keweenaw Peninsula , is highly scenic .
M @-@ 26 previously reached the Wisconsin border , but a section of the highway became US 45 . Other changes on the northern end of M @-@ 26 incorporated highways that were previously numbered M @-@ 111 and M @-@ 206 in the Eagle Harbor and Eagle River area .
= = Route description = =
= = = Southern terminus to Houghton = = =
M @-@ 26 starts at an intersection with US 45 east of Rockland in Michigan 's Ontonagon County . From there it runs through the town of Mass City to the junction with M @-@ 38 east of Greenland . The two highways join for a short distance before M @-@ 26 separates turning northeast to Winona across the Houghton County line . In Twin Lakes M @-@ 26 passes the shores of the namesake lakes and Twin Lakes State Park . M @-@ 26 passes through wooded , hilly terrain in western Houghton County . The segment of roadway in South Range was recently realigned to smooth out curves in the roadway . From there north , M @-@ 26 runs generally downhill on approaching the western business district of Houghton and the Portage Lake Lift Bridge from the west .
= = = Portage Lake Lift Bridge = = =
The Portage Lake Lift Bridge connects the cities of Hancock and Houghton , Michigan by crossing over the Portage Waterway , an arm of Portage Lake which cuts across the Keweenaw Peninsula with a canal linking the final several miles to Lake Superior to the northwest .
As its name states , the bridge is a lift bridge with the middle section capable of being lifted from its low point of four feet clearance over the water to a clearance of thirty two feet to allow boats to pass underneath . The Portage Lake Lift Bridge is the widest and heaviest double decked vertical lift bridge in the world . The lower deck of the bridge was originally open to rail traffic , but this level is now closed to trains and is used in the winter for snowmobile traffic . Throughout the 1960s , 70s and 80s , the bridge was painted the same color as the Mackinac Bridge — cream and forest green — however , in the early 1990s , it was repainted in a cream and robins egg blue color scheme — exactly the same colors as the National Park Service 's ship Ranger III — to some demoting Houghton as the " Gateway to Isle Royale " .
= = = Hancock to Copper Harbor = = =
On the north end of the bridge , M @-@ 26 turns east while US 41 turns west into Hancock . M @-@ 26 passes through Ripley at the base of the Mt . Ripley Ski Area before turning north to Dollar Bay on the shore of the heavy polluted Torch Lake . Next are the twin communities of Lake Linden and Hubbell . M @-@ 26 forms the main streets of these as it passes north from Hubbell into Lake Linden . The highway then runs back to the west to rejoin US 41 in Calumet . US 41 / M @-@ 26 connects with the northern end of M @-@ 203 on the north side of town before heading out to Keweenaw County . In the town of Phoenix , M @-@ 26 separates from US 41 one last time , turning west for a stretch along the northern shoreline of the Keweenaw Peninsula . It passes through the communities of Eagle River ( county seat of Keweenaw County ) and Eagle Harbor .
M @-@ 26 in Eagle River crosses the namesake river on the glue @-@ laminated Eagle River Timber Bridge . The 152 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) bridge features two timber frame arches of 74 feet ( 23 m ) and 79 feet ( 24 m ) in length . The connecting work between the wood elements is steel . There are hinge points in the center of each arch . The deck is wood covered with an asphalt driving surface . Enough wood was used in construction to fabricate three or four average @-@ sized homes . All the wood was pressure @-@ treated , and the steel was galvanized and epoxy @-@ coated . Reapplication of preservative and tighening bolts will be the routine maintenance required every three years .
Past Eagle Harbor , M @-@ 26 meets the highly scenic Brockway Mountain Drive . The northern terminus of M @-@ 26 is located in Copper Harbor . The terminus is just past the second intersection with Brockway Mountain Drive near the marina and the location of the Isle Royale Queen ferry to Isle Royale National Park .
= = History = =
Before it was a state highway , many parts of the original route of M @-@ 26 was used as a military road , connecting Fort Wilkins at Copper Harbor with Fort Howard at Green Bay , Wisconsin . From 1919 until 1934 , M @-@ 26 was routed southward to the Wisconsin state line to a connection with STH @-@ 26 along what is now US 45 .
The original northern terminus of M @-@ 26 was in Laurium at M @-@ 15 ( now US 41 ) ; it was extended by 1927 along US 41 to Mohawk and then replacing M @-@ 83 to Gay . This extension would be reversed in 1933 when the Mohawk to Gay routing was turned over to Keweenaw County control . A second extension in 1935 along US 41 to Phoenix replaced M @-@ 129 between Phoenix and Eagle Harbor . At this time , M @-@ 206 was designated from M @-@ 26 to the Eagle Harbor light house . A rerouting of M @-@ 26 in November 1940 moved it between Phoenix and Eagle River , replacing M @-@ 111 . The segment between Phoenix and Eagle River along Copper Falls Mine Road was turned over to Keweenaw County at this time .
In 1979 , M @-@ 26 was rerouted through Dakota Heights , bisecting it . Park Avenue had formerly served as the main route from Houghton to Atlantic Mine , but this was replaced by the new route of the highway .
The Lake Shore Drive Bridge , which had carried M @-@ 26 over the Eagle River , was relegated to pedestrian use in 1990 after the adjacent Eagle River Timber Bridge opened for traffic .
In 2006 , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) opened a bypass around the southwest and southern edge of South Range in order to provide a safer route through the town . As of 4 October 2006 , MDOT has transferred jurisdiction of the necessary pieces of roadway to complete the M @-@ 26 bypass of South Range .
= = = M @-@ 111 = = =
After 1938 , the M @-@ 111 designation was given to an old M @-@ 6 routing in the Keweenaw Peninsula that ran between Eagle River and Phoenix along what is , now , modern @-@ day M @-@ 26 parallel to Eagle River . That incarnation lasted two years until M @-@ 111 was deleted and M @-@ 26 was realigned over it . The M @-@ 111 designation has not been used since being deleted in 1940 .
= = = M @-@ 206 = = =
M @-@ 206 was a state highway that served as a spur route from M @-@ 26 into Eagle Harbor and the Eagle Harbor Lighthouse in Keweenaw County in 1935 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Joran van der Sloot =
Joran Andreas Petrus van der Sloot ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈjoːrɑn vɑn dεr ˈsloːt ] ; born 6 August 1987 ) is a Dutch citizen , the murderer of Stephany Flores Ramírez in Lima , in 2010 , and the primary suspect in the 2005 disappearance of Natalee Holloway , in Aruba .
After Flores Ramírez 's murder on 30 May 2010 van der Sloot fled to Chile , where he was arrested and extradited back to Peru for questioning regarding the murder . On 7 June 2010 , he confessed to bludgeoning Flores . He later tried to formally retract his confession , claiming that he had been intimidated by the National Police of Peru and framed by the FBI . A Peruvian judge ruled on 25 June 2010 that the confession was valid and on 13 January 2012 , Van der Sloot was sentenced to 28 years imprisonment for Flores ' murder .
Five years earlier , while living in Aruba , van der Sloot had been the primary suspect in the disappearance of American teenager Natalee Holloway , who disappeared in Aruba on 30 May 2005 , exactly five years before Flores ' murder . Van der Sloot was indicted by a federal grand jury in the United States for wire fraud and extortion related to Holloway 's whereabouts . Holloway 's disappearance remains unsolved .
The Holloway and Flores cases both attracted widespread media attention ; Time magazine declared Van der Sloot 's arrest the top crime story of 2010 . Van der Sloot was the subject of international news coverage from prison , leading to controversies that resulted in the investigation and suspension of several Peruvian officials .
= = Background = =
Joran van der Sloot was born in Arnhem , Netherlands . He is one of three sons born to Paul van der Sloot ( 1952 – 2010 ) , a lawyer , and Anita van der Sloot @-@ Hugen , an art teacher . In 1990 , his family moved from Arnhem to Aruba , where he was an honor student at the International School of Aruba . He was considered a star soccer and tennis athlete at the school . Van der Sloot competed in doubles tennis with his father at the Moët et Chandon Anniversary Cup in 2005 . He hoped to play for Saint Leo University near Tampa , Florida . Van der Sloot 's mother said he had a problem with lying and had a tendency to sneak out of the house at night to go to casinos .
= = Natalee Holloway disappearance = =
Van der Sloot ( then age 17 ) , along with the Kalpoe brothers , Deepak ( then age 21 ) and Satish ( then age 18 ) , was arrested on 9 June 2005 , as a suspect in the 30 May 2005 disappearance of an 18 @-@ year @-@ old American woman , Natalee Holloway , who was declared legally dead six years after she disappeared . The Kalpoes were released from custody on 4 July , but were re @-@ arrested on 26 August on suspicion of rape and murder , while van der Sloot remained in custody . Van der Sloot and the Kalpoes were released on 3 September because of a lack of evidence . After his release , Van Der Sloot was required to stay within Dutch territory pending the results of the investigation . On 5 September 2005 , van der Sloot returned to the Netherlands to study international business management at the HAN University of Applied Sciences . On 14 September , a higher court removed the travel restrictions . Gerold G. Dompig , former deputy commissioner of the Aruba Police Force , stated that the initial arrests were made prematurely under pressure from Holloway 's family . Dompig charged that the family sidetracked the investigation by making it difficult for the police to collect evidence to solve the case .
= = = Media coverage = = =
On 26 September 2005 , van der Sloot told the American television show A Current Affair that neither he nor the Kalpoe brothers had sex with Natalee , but he admitted that they initially agreed to lie to the authorities . He said that they first told police that Holloway was dropped off alone at her hotel , while he later said that he was dropped off with her at the beach . He stated that he left Holloway alone at the beach at her request and that he regretted it .
On 6 February 2006 , on Good Morning America , van der Sloot 's parents stated that their son was unfairly singled out and that the investigation left them devastated .
On 16 February 2006 , while van der Sloot and his father were in New York City for an interview with ABC Primetime , they were served with a lawsuit filed by Natalee 's parents , Beth and Dave Holloway , alleging personal injury ; the case was dismissed on jurisdictional grounds that August .
In April 2007 , De zaak Natalee Holloway ( The Case of Natalee Holloway ) , a Dutch language book by van der Sloot and reporter Zvezdana Vukojevic , was published by Sijthoff in the Netherlands . Van der Sloot started writing the book while attending business classes in Arnhem . He stated in the introduction , " I see this book as my opportunity to be open and honest about everything that happened , for anyone who wants to read it . "
= = = 2007 search and arrest = = =
On 27 April 2007 , a new search involving some twenty investigators was launched at van der Sloot 's parents ' home on Aruba . Dutch authorities searched the yard and surrounding area , using shovels and thin metal rods to penetrate the dirt . A spokesman for the prosecutor 's office , Vivian van der Biezen , stated " The investigation has never stopped and the Dutch authorities are completely reviewing the case for new indications " . A statement released directly from the prosecutor 's office stated : " The team has indications that justify a more thorough search . " Investigators did not comment on what prompted the new search , except that it was not related to van der Sloot 's book .
On 21 November 2007 , van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers were re @-@ arrested in Arnhem , Netherlands and Aruba for " suspicion of involvement in voluntary manslaughter and causing serious bodily harm that resulted in the death of Natalee Holloway " because of what the Aruba prosecutor 's office stated was " new incriminating evidence " related to the disappearance of Holloway . Van der Sloot was returned to Aruba on 23 November , and a court hearing on 26 November ruled to continue his detention for eight days . The Kalpoe brothers were released on 1 December . Van der Sloot was ordered released on 7 December , and he was released without charge the same day .
= = = 2008 Dutch television sting operations = = =
On 11 January 2008 , after being challenged on the Dutch late @-@ night talk show Pauw & Witteman by crime reporter Peter R. de Vries , Van der Sloot threw a glass of red wine into De Vries ' face .
On 3 February 2008 , an undercover video made by De Vries aired on Dutch television , purporting to show van der Sloot smoking marijuana and admitting to being present during Holloway 's death . The show was watched by 7 million viewers in the Netherlands and was the most popular non @-@ sports program in Dutch television history . Patrick van der Eem , working undercover for De Vries , had befriended van der Sloot , who was unaware that he was being taped when he said that Holloway had suffered some kind of seizure while having sex on the beach . After failing to revive her , van der Sloot said that he summoned a friend named Daury . The two men never phoned for medical help nor did they check Natalee to determine if she might still be alive . Then , according to van der Sloot , Daury volunteered to load her on a boat and he dumped Natalee 's body into the sea . The prosecutor in Aruba determined the video was admissible , but the evidence was deemed " insufficient " to warrant van der Sloot 's , or anyone 's , arrest . Although the taped confession appeared damning , van der Sloot argued that he was lying to impress van der Eem , whom he believed to be a drug dealer . On 22 September 2008 , in New York City , De Vries accepted an International Emmy Award in Current Affairs for his coverage while accompanied by Beth Holloway . Under pressure of the attention from the program , van der Sloot voluntarily checked into a psychiatric clinic before departing for Thailand . He moved to Muang Ake , a suburb of Bangkok , to study business at Rangsit University , but dropped out and bought Sawadee Cup , a restaurant next to the campus that served sandwiches and pizza .
In November 2008 , De Vries aired undercover footage of van der Sloot making preparations for the apparent sex trafficking of Thai women in Bangkok . De Vries claimed that van der Sloot was making $ 13 @,@ 000 for every woman sold into prostitution in the Netherlands. van der Sloot used the alias of " Murphy Jenkins " to avoid Thai authorities . Peruvian Minister of Justice Aurelio Pastor said that Thailand is pursuing criminal charges against van der Sloot . According to The National Enquirer , he is being investigated for his involvement in the disappearance of young women he may have recruited for a Thai sex slave gang while posing as a production consultant for a modeling agency that would send them to Europe .
On 19 April 2009 , van der Sloot was portrayed by actor Jacques Strydom in the Lifetime television film Natalee Holloway , which was based on the bestselling book Loving Natalee : A Mother 's Testament of Hope and Faith by Natalee 's mother Beth Holloway . The movie brought in the highest television ratings in Lifetime 's 11 @-@ year history at the time . Van der Sloot himself watched the film one evening in 2010 , according to his friend John Ludwick , and said that some parts were true while others were not .
In August 2009 , van der Sloot was spotted in Macau at the Asia Pacific Poker Tour . He won over $ 12 @,@ 000 that year in an online poker tournament . He described himself on his YouTube page as " a professional poker player " and cited the poker strategy guide Ace on the River as his favorite book . In early 2010 , van der Sloot sold his restaurant business and returned to Aruba after the death of his father .
= = = Father 's involvement in the case = = =
Joran 's father , Paulus Antonius Petrus Johanna " Paul " van der Sloot ( 15 February 1952 – 10 February 2010 ) , was arrested on 22 June 2005 , for questioning in Holloway 's disappearance . Paul was ordered released on 26 June after three days of questioning . According to Aruba 's chief prosecutor , one of the Kalpoe brothers told investigators that Paul , who at the time was training to be a judge , advised that without a body , the police would have no case . Beth Twitty ( Holloway 's married name at the time ) pursued van der Sloot 's parents in the ensuing media circus on Aruba . She said that Paul acknowledged that they could not control their son and had sent him to a psychiatrist .
On 10 November 2005 , Paul van der Sloot won an unjust detention action against the Aruban government , clearing him as a suspect and allowing him to retain his government contract . The elder van der Sloot then brought a second action , seeking monetary damages for himself and his family because of his false arrest . The action was initially successful , but the award of 40 @,@ 000 Aruban florins ( US $ 22 @,@ 300 ) was reversed on appeal . The family 's finances were depleted by the legal expenses . In January 2007 , Paul found work as a managing partner at the law firm that represented him .
On 24 November 2008 , On the Record aired an interview with Joran van der Sloot in which he said that he sold Holloway into sexual slavery , receiving money both when Holloway was taken , and later on to keep quiet . He also alleged that he paid the Kalpoe brothers for their assistance , and that his father paid off two police officers who had learned that Holloway was taken to Venezuela . Joran van der Sloot later retracted the statements made in the interview . The show also aired part of an audio recording provided by van der Sloot , which he alleged is a phone conversation between him and his father , in which the father displays knowledge of his son 's purported involvement in human trafficking . According to Mos , the voice heard on the recording is not that of Paul van der Sloot . The Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf reported that the " father 's " voice is almost certainly that of Joran himself , trying to speak in a lower tone .
On 8 January 2010 , Paul cancelled his partnership at the law firm where he had been working . On 10 February 2010 , he died of a heart attack at the age of 57 while playing tennis in Aruba . Joran returned to Aruba soon afterward and turned to gambling . His mother Anita said that Joran had severe mental problems and blamed himself for his father 's death . He left before she could have him psychiatrically committed , leaving a note : " I 'm gone , do not worry . "
= = = 2010 charges in the United States = = =
Around 29 March 2010 , van der Sloot allegedly contacted John Q. Kelly , legal representative of Natalee 's mother Beth Holloway , with an offer to reveal the location of her daughter 's body and the circumstances surrounding her death for an advance of $ 25 @,@ 000 against a total of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Kelly said that he secretly went to Aruba in April to meet with van der Sloot , who was desperate for money , and gave him $ 100 . Kelly notified the Federal Bureau of Investigation to set up a sting operation with the Aruban authorities . On 10 May , van der Sloot allegedly accepted the amount of $ 15 @,@ 000 by wire transfer to his account in the Netherlands , following a cash payment of $ 10 @,@ 000 that was videotaped by undercover investigators in Aruba . In exchange , van der Sloot told Kelly that his father buried Holloway 's remains in the foundation of a house . Authorities determined that the information that he in return provided was false , because the house had not yet been built at the time of Holloway 's disappearance . Van der Sloot later e @-@ mailed Kelly that he lied about the house . Holloway was shocked that the FBI did not promptly file extortion charges against van der Sloot , allowing him to leave freely with the money to Bogotá , Colombia , on his way to Lima , Peru . The FBI and the office of the U.S. Attorney contended that the case had not yet been sufficiently developed .
On 3 June 2010 , the U.S. District Court of Northern Alabama charged van der Sloot with extortion and wire fraud . U.S. Attorney Joyce White Vance issued an arrest warrant through Interpol to have van der Sloot prosecuted in the United States . On 4 June , at the request of the U.S. Justice Department , Dutch authorities raided and confiscated items from two homes in the Netherlands , one of them belonging to reporter Jaap Amesz who had previously interviewed van der Sloot and claimed knowledge of his criminal activities . Aruban investigators used information gathered from the extortion case to launch a new search at a beach , but no new evidence was found . The Solicitor General said they would not seek van der Sloot 's extradition to Aruba . On 30 June , a federal grand jury formally indicted van der Sloot of the two charges . The indictment filed with the U.S. District Court seeks the forfeiture of the $ 25 @,@ 100 that had been paid to van der Sloot .
In an interview published by De Telegraaf on 6 September 2010 , van der Sloot admitted to the extortion plot , stating : " I wanted to get back at Natalee 's family . Her parents have been making my life tough for five years . " Van der Sloot 's attorney said that his client was not paid for the interview and suggested that " maybe there were some mistakes in the translation . "
On 9 March 2014 , the Peruvian government announced that van der Sloot would face extradition to the United States in the year 2038 to face charges of extortion and wire fraud , after completion of his 28 @-@ year sentence in Peru for the murder of Stephany Tatiana Flores Ramírez ( see below ) . In February 2016 , an undercover reporter filmed Joran confessing to the murder of Natalee Holloway . The film shows Joran , in Dutch , laughing over how he never told the truth about the whole event and that he did in fact kill Natalee . His Peruvian wife is also present during this conversation .
= = Death of Stephany Flores = =
On 30 May 2010 , the fifth anniversary of Holloway 's disappearance , Stephany Tatiana Flores Ramírez , 21 , died at the Hotel TAC , in the Miraflores District of Lima , Peru . On 2 June , a hotel employee found her beaten body in room 309 , which had been registered in van der Sloot 's name . He had departed from the hotel without returning the room key and left the television running . A tennis racquet , identified by the coroner as a possible homicide weapon , was recovered from the room . A hotel guest and an employee came forward to say they saw van der Sloot and the victim entering the hotel room together , and the police obtained video of the two playing cards at the same table the night before at the Atlantic City Casino in Lima . Van der Sloot had entered Peru via Colombia on 14 May 2010 to attend the Latin American Poker Tour .
Flores Ramírez was a business student less than a year from graduation at the University of Lima . She was the daughter of Ricardo Flores , a former president of the Peruvian Automobile Club and winner of the " Caminos del Inca " rally in 1991 . A prominent businessman and entertainment organizer , he ran for vice president in 2001 and for president five years later on fringe tickets . Flores said that police found date rape drugs in his daughter 's car , parked about 50 blocks from the hotel where she died . Her jewelry , money , ID and credit cards were missing , including about $ 1 @,@ 000 her father had given her to purchase a laptop , and over $ 10 @,@ 000 she had won earlier at the casino . Stephany reportedly kept this money in her car , but a police search found no money in it .
After Flores Ramírez 's family reported her missing , police retrieved the hotel surveillance tape and obtained van der Sloot 's name and national identification number . Her brother 's wife discovered van der Sloot 's background in a Google search about an hour before her body was found .
= = = Arrest = = =
Peruvian officials named van der Sloot as the lone suspect in the homicide investigation . Interpol issued an international arrest warrant for van der Sloot , believing that he had fled the country to Chile and may have been traveling to Argentina to return to Aruba . Van der Sloot was sighted entering Chile via the Chacalluta border crossing , north of Arica , on 31 May 2010 . His ex @-@ girlfriend , Melody Granadillo , said that van der Sloot sent her a text message asking for money to buy a ticket back to Aruba .
On 3 June , van der Sloot was arrested near Curacaví by the Investigations Police of Chile while traveling in a rented taxi on Highway 68 between the coastal city of Viña del Mar and the capital Santiago . He was found with a laptop , foreign currency , a business card case , detailed charts of ocean currents around Lima , and bloody clothes . His phone 's SIM card was missing , which made mobile phone tracking of his location impossible . He told Chilean police that unidentified armed robbers hid in the hotel room and killed Flores Ramírez when she disobeyed their order to be quiet . Van der Sloot 's Dutch attorney claimed that his client was on his way to Santiago to turn himself in . He was subsequently expelled and transported by Chilean police in a Cessna 310 back to Arica to be handed over to Peruvian authorities at the Chacalluta border crossing on 4 June . Van der Sloot arrived at Lima police headquarters on 5 June , where he was interrogated about the death while represented by attorney Luz Maria Romero Chinchay . The Dutch embassy provided a translator for his defense . He was held in a seventh floor cell and permitted to contact his mother . Van der Sloot was placed on suicide watch by guards after it was reported that he deliberately hit his head against a wall . On 10 June , he was moved to a cell at the prosecutor 's office in central Lima .
= = = Forensic investigation = = =
Surveillance video from the Atlantic City Casino recorded Flores Ramírez winning $ 10 @,@ 000 at a baccarat table area on 25 May 2010 , while accompanied by a male friend who was not van der Sloot . According to casino spokesperson Luis Laos , she also won $ 237 playing poker on 29 May and it was common for people to know the identities of big winners . Laos stated that van der Sloot did not win any money that night . At 3 : 00 a.m. on 30 May , Flores Ramírez was recorded entering the casino alone and walking to a poker table where van der Sloot was sitting. van der Sloot had not registered for the Latin American Poker Tour . The deadline to pay the $ 2 @,@ 700 entry fee for the 2 June event at the casino was 30 May .
Police released hotel security video showing van der Sloot and Flores Ramírez entering the Hotel TAC together at about 5 : 00 a.m. on 30 May . At about 8 : 10 a.m. , he is shown walking across the street to a supermarket and returning with bread and two cups of coffee . Around 8 : 45 a.m. , he is seen leaving the hotel alone with his bags .
An autopsy ruled that Flores Ramírez did not have sexual intercourse before her death and that she was not under the influence of enough alcohol to prevent her from resisting an attack . She suffered blunt force trauma to her head , causing a brain hemorrhage , cranial fracture , and breaking her neck . She also suffered significant injuries to her face and showed signs of asphyxiation , according to court documents . Flores Ramírez tested positive for the presence of amphetamines . The lab report does not indicate whether the victim took the drugs willingly or unknowingly . The stains on van der Sloot 's clothes matched the blood type of Flores Ramírez . Blood was also found on the floor , hallway , and mattress in the hotel room . Police stated that DNA tests would be conducted on the clothes , skin found under the victim 's fingernails , and the previously recovered tennis racquet . Ricardo Flores stated in interviews that his daughter 's body needed to be exhumed to gather the fingernail DNA evidence , and that her body had not been cremated for this reason .
On 14 March 2011 , the National Police of Peru provided a copy of the hard disk drive from van der Sloot 's laptop computer to the FBI . Colonel Oscar González of the high tech division of the Peruvian police stated that the U.S. federal investigation was interested in information related to Holloway 's disappearance and the alleged extortion of her family . Peruvian detectives determined that the laptop accessed information about the Holloway case before Flores Ramírez arrived in Van der Sloot 's hotel room ; it was then used to visit two poker websites at around the time Flores Ramírez was present in the room . According to a police dossier , the laptop was later used to search Google for the subjects : " relationship between the Peruvian and Chilean police " , " Chilean border pass " , " buses in Chile " , and " countries that do not extradite in Latin America . "
= = = Confession and retraction = = =
On 7 June 2010 , van der Sloot reportedly confessed to killing Flores Ramírez , after hours of interrogation . He initially proclaimed his innocence . According to an expert in Peruvian law , the confession fit a defense strategy of trying to get the charge reduced to manslaughter , which is punishable by 6 to 20 years in prison , while a conviction for murder could result in up to 35 years imprisonment . The prosecution was seeking a sentence of 30 years . Peru does not issue life sentences in standard cases of murder and has abolished capital punishment in all but exceptional circumstances , such as crimes committed under military law . A life sentence can be issued for a murder committed during the commission of a robbery . Peruvian president Alan García Pérez used the case to seek the reinstatement of the death penalty for murder .
On 8 June , Peruvian investigators reportedly planned to take van der Sloot back to the hotel room for a re @-@ enactment of the crime scene as part of standard procedure , but waived it on the basis that his alleged confession was remarkably complete and corroborated by evidence . In the written confession released by Peruvian police , van der Sloot recounted that he briefly left the hotel to get some coffee and bread , and returned to find Flores Ramírez using his laptop computer without his permission . A police source stated that she may have found information linking him to the disappearance of Holloway . An altercation allegedly began and she attempted to escape . According to the written confession that has been released by Peruvian authorities , van der Sloot stated , " I did not want to do it . The girl intruded into my private life . . . she didn 't have any right . I went to her and I hit her . She was scared , we argued and she tried to escape . I grabbed her by the neck and hit her . " Van der Sloot reportedly stated that he was stoned on marijuana at the time . A detective linked to the case said that van der Sloot considered getting rid of the body in a suitcase , but decided against it because he would have been stopped at the front desk . He then reportedly drank espresso and took amphetamines to counter fatigue before fleeing .
Criminal police chief Cesar Guardia said van der Sloot " let slip that he knew the place " where Holloway 's body is buried . Guardia stated that the interrogation was limited to their case in Peru , which he considered " practically closed , " and that questions about Holloway 's disappearance were avoided . Guardia said that the confession contains lies because van der Sloot 's " toxicological report shows no signs that he had ingested any kind of drug . " Felonies committed under the influence of drugs can gain leniency in Peruvian courts . Guardia said that the motive for the crime was robbery . Van der Sloot reportedly offered a different motive for killing Flores Ramírez , stating that he " feared that she would go to the police . " On 14 June , Peruvian authorities released written transcripts of van der Sloot 's alleged confession . His mother Anita expressed concern that her son 's confession may have been coerced . According to van der Sloot 's former attorney Luz Maria Romero Chinchay , his mother advised him not to make any statements nor sign anything , but it was too late .
Van der Sloot later retracted this confession in a prison cell interview with Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf , claiming that he had been intimidated and " tricked " by police with a promise to be transferred to the Netherlands . He stated that at the time he signed the confession documents , he did not understand the content as it was in Spanish . He was quoted : " In my blind panic , I signed everything , but didn 't even know what it said . " Van der Sloot said that he was lured to Peru and framed by another gambler named Elton Garcia , who he claimed was working undercover for the FBI . Van der Sloot 's attorney Maximo Alonso Altez Navarro stated his intention to resign because the case " created many problems " for him . He had been threatened and harassed for taking the case , and van der Sloot 's family was unable to afford his legal expenses . However , Altez Navarro stayed on to file a motion to void the confession on the grounds that his client was not properly represented during his interrogation . On 25 June , Superior Court Judge Wilder Casique Alvizuri rejected the motion , noting that van der Sloot was represented by a state @-@ appointed lawyer and provided a translator by the Dutch embassy . Altez Navarro said that van der Sloot was as " depressed " as anyone in prison would be .
= = = Criminal proceedings = = =
On 11 June 2010 , Lima Superior Court Judge Juan Buendia ordered van der Sloot held on charges of first @-@ degree murder and robbery , determining that he acted with " ferocity and great cruelty " . Under Peruvian law , Van der Sloot was not eligible to be released on bail , and would be tried by a panel of three judges rather than a jury . A simple majority of the three was required for conviction . Police transported van der Sloot on the same day from Lima 's Palace of Justice in an armored truck while angry onlookers yelled and threw rotten lettuce . He was taken to Miguel Castro Castro maximum security prison and placed in a cell near the prison director 's office for his own safety . He is registered as inmate # 326390 and separated from the general prison population under 24 @-@ hour guard in a high @-@ security cell block where the only other inmate is alleged Colombian hitman Hugo Trujillo Ospina . Van der Sloot reportedly offered to disclose the location of Holloway 's body in exchange for transfer to an Aruban prison because of fear for his life in Miguel Castro Castro prison . President Alan García Pérez said that van der Sloot would have to stand trial for the homicide before any extradition request would be considered . He also stated that van der Sloot will serve his prison sentence in Peru . There is no treaty for the transfer of prisoners between Peru and the Netherlands .
On 15 June , Aruban and Peruvian authorities announced that they would cooperate in their respective cases involving van der Sloot . Aruban investigators expected to be able to interview van der Sloot in Peru in August , after Peruvian authorities had completed their investigation . At his first formal hearing within the on @-@ site courtroom of Miguel Castro Castro prison on 21 June , Van der Sloot refused to discuss the case with Judge Carlos Morales Cordova , claiming that his rights and due process were violated . Van der Sloot filed a complaint with the National Police of Peru , accusing chief detective Miguel Angel Canlla Ore of misconduct . He also claimed that his laptop had been improperly searched . Van der Sloot 's defense counsel filed a motion of habeas corpus disputing the legality of his detention and to nullify statements he gave to police , but the motion was declared " unfounded " by Superior Court Judge Wilder Casique Alvizuri on 25 June . The judge upheld all three depositions given by van der Sloot to police and stated that the defendant 's laptop was sealed by the court . Defense attorney Altez Navarro vowed to appeal all the way to the Supreme Court of Peru and the Inter @-@ American Court of Human Rights with a legal strategy to " paralyze the process " . The Peruvian court said that this would not hold up the case against van der Sloot .
Altez Navarro stated that he filed suit against attorney Luz Maria Romero Chinchay , who first represented van der Sloot during his interrogation , charging her with abuse of authority , conspiracy to commit a crime , and misrepresentation because he did not find her name on the list of public defenders from the Ministry of Justice . Altez Navarro also filed a complaint against van der Sloot 's translator , insisting that he misrepresented himself as an official translator of the Dutch embassy . Romero Chinchay rejected the claims against her , stating that van der Sloot had selected her as a private attorney after declining another defense attorney appointed by the state . She contradicted his claims that he did not understand what he was signing by stating that she was able to speak with him in perfect Spanish . She said that van der Sloot was interested in talking about the Holloway case , thinking that it might get him extradited to Aruba . Romero Chinchay also said that when she told van der Sloot that she noticed he was signing various documents with very different signatures , he signaled for her to be quiet .
Altez Navarro stated on 21 August 2010 that the case was stagnating because an official interpreter was unable to be found for the case in Peru . The Peruvian association of translators and interpreters and the Dutch embassy both separately stated at the time that they have been unable to locate one to officially translate Spanish into Dutch . Unlike Aruba and the United States , Peru does not guarantee the right to a speedy trial . On 6 September , a Peruvian appeals court voted 2 to 1 to reject van der Sloot 's motion that he is being unlawfully held . Because 3 votes are required for a decision , if a fourth judge votes in van der Sloot 's favor , a fifth judge will be required to break the tie . Peruvian statutes permit a suspect to be detained for up to 18 months for interrogation , though Altez Navarro expressed skepticism that law enforcement officers will do so with his client .
In February 2011 , Altez Navarro filed a " violent emotion " defense with the court , arguing that van der Sloot had entered into a state of temporary insanity because Flores Ramírez found out about his connection to Holloway from his laptop computer . Under Peruvian law , if the judge accepts this crime of passion argument , the sentence for such a plea could be reduced to only 3 to 5 years ; Altez Navarro noted that this could allow van der Sloot to be eligible for parole in as soon as 20 months . Oscar González of the Peruvian police stated that an examination of van der Sloot 's laptop determined that Flores Ramírez did not access such information while she was in the hotel room with him .
= = = Guilty plea and conviction = = =
On 11 January 2012 , van der Sloot pleaded guilty to the " qualified murder " and simple robbery of Flores . He was convicted and sentenced to 28 years imprisonment for the murder on 13 January , and , he must pay $ 75 @,@ 000 to the Flores family . Hours after learning of the sentence , van der Sloot was transferred to a maximum security prison , Piedras Gordas , located north of Lima . He is currently expected to be released on 10 June 2038 .
In August 2014 , van der Sloot was transferred to Challapalca prison in the mountainous South of Peru , where circumstances are harsh due to the location 's altitude . Two months later , a Dutch online news service claimed that van der Sloot was stabbed and critically injured by fellow prisoners in Peru . Although van der Sloot 's wife 's claim of a stabbing is contested by Peruvian authorities , photos have been published showing van der Sloot as suffering from multiple stab wounds from two separate attacks .
= = = Public reaction = = =
Public outcry in Peru has been fueled by local media , which labeled van der Sloot a " monster , " " serial killer , " and " psychopath . " The coverage of this controversy highlighted cases of other women dying at the hands of foreigners . Peruvian and Colombian newspapers published articles about the investigation of the disappearance of two young women who frequented casinos during van der Sloot 's stay in at least two Bogotá hotels from 6 to 14 May 2010 , prior to entering Peru . However , the Administrative Department of Security of Colombia do not consider van der Sloot a suspect as they believe his presence in Bogotá was merely in transit to Peru .
Dutch daily newspaper Trouw warned that the overwhelming pressure on authorities of van der Sloot 's presumed guilt risked turning the case into a show trial . The Dutch consulate told Peruvian authorities that it was concerned how van der Sloot was being treated and presented to the media .
In December 2010 , Time magazine named van der Sloot 's arrest the most notable criminal event of the year , ahead of the Belgian love triangle skydiving murder case , the Chinese school attacks and the Elizabeth Smart kidnapping trial . ABC News listed the coverage of van der Sloot 's murder confession by Good Morning America among the most read stories from its website in 2010 . CBS 42 , the news affiliate in Birmingham near Holloway 's hometown , named the criminal charges filed against van der Sloot in 2010 among the top ten stories of the year in Alabama . Radio Netherlands Worldwide identified him as one of the most talked about Dutch people of the year .
He generates a lot of media attention , which costs us time and it is not good for the relationship between the Netherlands and Peru .
= = = Media coverage at Miguel Castro prison = = =
Van der Sloot 's cell became the target of a media circus , with reporters vying to gain exclusive access and report about his prison surroundings . Since his incarceration , he has only consented to interviews to De Telegraaf , in which he admitted to extorting the Holloway family and said that he received a number of marriage proposals in his cell , including one from a woman who wanted to have his child . Van der Sloot reportedly receives fan mail from around the world , though mostly from women residing in the United States and the Netherlands . According to sources within the prison , Van der Sloot sought $ 1 million in exchange for an on @-@ camera interview .
The Office of Internal Affairs of the National Penitentiary Institute of Peru began administrative and disciplinary action on 23 August 2010 , when Peruvian network América Televisión aired a picture of van der Sloot with three other inmates that had been taken with official photographic equipment at Miguel Castro Castro prison . The photo included van der Sloot casually posing with Colombian hitman Hugo Trujillo Ospina , accused of the contract killing of Peruvian entrepreneur Myriam Fefer , and American William Trickett Smith II , accused of killing and dismembering his Peruvian wife . Van der Sloot and Smith have been referred to by local media as " the foreigners accused of the most talked @-@ about assassinations in our country . "
On 11 September 2010 , Beth Holloway and Peter R. De Vries traveled to Peru with a Dutch television crew to visit the prison . According to van der Sloot 's attorney Maximo Alonso Altez Navarro , his client was taken to meet them " practically by force . " Altez Navarro stated that the meeting with Holloway took " less than one minute . " Holloway said that she told van der Sloot that she had " no hate in her soul " for him and asked about her daughter 's disappearance , to which van der Sloot responded by saying that he could not speak to her without his lawyer present and handing her his business card . According to Altez Navarro , Holloway was " snuck " into the prison without being identified by the Dutch media crew who she was with . A prison spokesperson stated that Holloway 's name was not found in the visitor registry . Holloway and the crew were removed from the prison , reportedly after a hidden camera was discovered by the guards . Representatives for Holloway and De Vries denied that a hidden camera was involved or that anything was seized . Miguel Castro Castro prison warden Alex Samamé Peña was suspended after video segments of the confrontation between Holloway 's mother and van der Sloot later began airing on Dutch network SBS6 .
In October 2010 , América Televisión broadcast video of a transaction for marijuana within the prison that was conducted by a shirtless man who was addressed as " gringo Van der Sloot . " Defense attorney Altez Navarro said that the situation was " staged " and asked the National Penitentiary Institute to investigate how it was leaked . Prison spokesperson Bruno Guzman said that van der Sloot had been painting his cell " to improve his conditions " and that the incident was being investigated .
In November 2010 , a forensic expert determined that a jawbone found on an Aruban beach was from a young woman . A part of the bone was sent to The Hague for testing by the Netherlands Forensic Institute against Natalee Holloway 's dental records . According to Altez Navarro , Van der Sloot began laughing when notified of the developments . Aruba Solicitor @-@ General Taco Stein later announced that the bone was confirmed to be not from Holloway .
Van der Sloot 's mother Anita stated in a Dutch interview that her son could have killed Flores Ramírez and that she will not visit him at the prison . She said in another interview that she hopes to talk to the family of the victim and apologize to them .
" I believe in karma , I believe that very strongly . I believe that if you do things that you shouldn 't do , that a lot of shit happens to you , " she said . " He didn 't want to listen to his parents . He didn 't listen to me , this last time . I tried to do my best . I don 't think I could have done more . He 's considered an adult right now . He has to do whatever he needs to do , and that is tell the truth ( about ) what happened . "
In February 2011 , Altez Navarro protested a decision by prison officials to deny Radio Netherlands Worldwide permission for a subsequent interview with van der Sloot . Altez Navarro claimed that the ruling was influenced by upcoming general elections .
On 5 July 2011 , St. Martin 's Press published Portrait of a Monster : Joran van der Sloot , a Murder in Peru , and the Natalee Holloway Mystery by Lisa Pulitzer and Cole Thompson .
= = Personal life = =
In a prison ceremony on 4 July 2014 , van der Sloot was married to Leidy ( alt . Leydi ) Figueroa , a Peruvian woman whom he met while she was selling goods inside the prison . She was 7 months pregnant with his child at the time . On 28 September 2014 L. Figueroa gave birth to an 8 lb baby girl in Peru
= Maryland Route 10 =
Maryland Route 10 ( MD 10 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as the Arundel Expressway , the highway runs 7 @.@ 17 miles ( 11 @.@ 54 km ) from MD 2 in Pasadena north to Interstate 695 ( I @-@ 695 ) near Glen Burnie . MD 10 is a four- to six @-@ lane freeway that serves as a bypass of MD 2 through Pasadena and Glen Burnie in northeastern Anne Arundel County . The Arundel Expressway was planned as a Baltimore – Annapolis freeway to provide relief to MD 2 between the cities as early as the 1950s . However , the portion of MD 10 south of Pasadena was removed from state plans when the I @-@ 97 corridor was chosen for the intercity freeway in the 1970s . MD 10 was constructed from I @-@ 695 to MD 710 in the early 1970s and continued south to MD 648 in the late 1970s . The freeway was extended south to MD 100 and completed to MD 2 in the late 1980s and early 1990s , respectively .
= = Route description = =
MD 10 begins at an intersection with MD 2 ( Governor Ritchie Highway ) in Pasadena . The highway heads north as a four @-@ lane freeway to a partial interchange with MD 100 ( Paul T. Pitcher Memorial Highway ) . There is no access from northbound MD 10 to eastbound MD 100 or from westbound MD 100 to southbound MD 10 . MD 10 and MD 100 briefly run concurrently northwest as an eight @-@ lane freeway and diverge at another partial interchange ; in both carriageways , traffic must move over two lanes to remain on the same route . Just north of the MD 100 split , MD 10 has a half @-@ diamond interchange with MD 177 ( Mountain Road ) . That interchange has ramps from southbound MD 10 to MD 177 and from MD 177 to northbound MD 10 . Traffic from eastbound MD 100 to northbound MD 10 and from southbound MD 10 to westbound MD 100 uses MD 177 and MD 2 as intermediaries .
MD 10 continues north from MD 177 through the east side of Glen Burnie as a six @-@ lane freeway . The highway crosses over Marley Creek and has a partial cloverleaf interchange with MD 648 ( Baltimore – Annapolis Boulevard ) . MD 10 parallels MD 270 ( Furnace Branch Road ) north then meets the latter highway at a partial cloverleaf interchange . The highway crosses Furnace Branch and has a partial cloverleaf interchange with MD 710 ( Ordnance Road ) , where northbound MD 10 becomes two lanes wide . MD 10 reaches its northern terminus at a trumpet interchange with I @-@ 695 ( Baltimore Beltway ) . The sweeping ramp from MD 10 to westbound I @-@ 695 merges into a collector @-@ distributor lane that allows access from MD 10 to northbound MD 2 in Brooklyn Park .
MD 10 is a part of the main National Highway System for its entire length .
= = History = =
The Arundel Expressway was proposed as early as 1956 as a freeway connecting Baltimore and Annapolis to relieve congestion on MD 2 . By 1966 , the highway was planned to begin at MD 173 at the city limits of Baltimore , intersect a planned cross @-@ Patapsco section of the Baltimore Beltway , follow its current path to Pasadena , then continue paralleling MD 2 south to near U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) and US 301 . The portion of the Arundel Expressway inside the Beltway was removed from plans in 1967 , with the Beltway instead serving to connect the expressway with highways into Baltimore . The portion of the freeway south of Pasadena was planned to have intermediate interchanges at MD 648 in Severna Park and Jones Station Road ( now College Parkway ) in Arnold , and a toll plaza just south of the MD 100 interchange . The portion of the Arundel Expressway south of MD 100 was removed from state plans by 1975 . Instead of a Baltimore – Annapolis freeway following the MD 2 corridor , in June 1979 the Maryland State Highway Administration announced it was constructing the freeway along the MD 3 and MD 178 corridors .
The first section of modern MD 10 to open was the portion of freeway shared with MD 100 , which opened in November 1970 from MD 2 to its eastern terminus . Work began on the Arundel Expressway proper in 1970 when the interchange between the expressway and the Baltimore Beltway was started in 1970 . MD 710 was relocated over much of its length to make way for the construction of the freeways in 1972 . The Arundel Expressway opened from the Beltway to MD 710 in December 1972 and was marked as MD 10 by 1974 . Construction on the extension south to MD 648 was underway by 1975 . MD 10 opened south to MD 270 in October 1977 and to MD 648 in March 1978 . The freeway was proposed to continue south to MD 100 , but that freeway extension was removed from short @-@ term plans by 1981 .
Construction began in 1987 to extend MD 10 , which was dubbed the " Road to Nowhere , " from MD 648 to a more logical southern terminus . The freeway opened from MD 648 to MD 100 in October 1988 . The final segment of MD 10 , from MD 100 to MD 2 , opened in March 1991 . The Arundel Expressway was planned to carry 75 @,@ 000 as a complete Baltimore – Annapolis freeway . However , as of 2013 , only 51 @,@ 621 vehicles used the highway daily on its most traveled portion between MD 270 and MD 710 . MD 10 functions as a bypass of MD 2 north of Pasadena , but has not fulfilled its original purpose to relieve traffic congestion on MD 2 south to Annapolis . By the time of MD 10 's completion in 1991 , MD 2 was proposed to be expanded to six lanes south of MD 10 . As of 2013 , MD 2 has yet to be widened south of Pasadena .
= = Exit list = =
All exits are unnumbered . The entire route is in Anne Arundel County .
= Heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia =
Heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia ( HIT ) is the development of thrombocytopenia ( a low platelet count ) , due to the administration of various forms of heparin , an anticoagulant . HIT predisposes to thrombosis , the abnormal formation of blood clots inside a blood vessel , and when thrombosis is identified the condition is called heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis ( HITT ) . HIT is caused by the formation of abnormal antibodies that activate platelets . If someone receiving heparin develops new or worsening thrombosis , or if the platelet count falls , HIT can be confirmed with specific blood tests .
The treatment of HIT requires both protection from thrombosis and choice of an agent that will not reduce the platelet count further . Several alternatives are available for this purpose and mainly used are danaparoid , fondaparinux , argatroban and bivalirudin
While heparin was discovered in the 1930s , HIT was not reported until the 1960s .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Heparin may be used for both prevention and the treatment of thrombosis . It exists in two main forms : an " unfractionated " form that can be injected under the skin or through an intravenous infusion , and a " low molecular weight " form that is generally given subcutaneously ( administered under the skin ) . Commonly used low molecular weight heparins are enoxaparin , dalteparin , nadroparin and tinzaparin .
In HIT , the platelet count in the blood falls below the normal range , a condition called thrombocytopenia . However , it is generally not low enough to lead to an increased risk of bleeding . Most people with HIT will therefore not experience any symptoms . Typically the platelet count will fall 5 – 14 days after heparin is first given ; if someone has received heparin in the previous three months , the fall in platelet count may occur sooner , sometimes within a day .
The most common symptom of HIT is enlargement or extension of a previously diagnosed blood clot , or the development of a new blood clot elsewhere in the body . This may take the form of clots either in arteries or veins , causing arterial or venous thrombosis , respectively . Examples of arterial thrombosis are stroke , myocardial infarction ( " heart attack " ) , and acute leg ischemia . Venous thrombosis may occur in the leg or arm in the form of deep vein thrombosis ( DVT ) and in the lung in the form of a pulmonary embolism ( PE ) ; the latter usually originate in the leg but migrate to the lung .
In those receiving heparin through an intravenous infusion , a complex of symptoms ( " systemic reaction " ) may occur when the infusion is started . These include fever , chills , high blood pressure , a fast heart rate , shortness of breath , and chest pain . This happens in about a quarter of people with HIT . Others may develop a skin rash consisting of red spots .
= = Mechanism = =
Heparin occurs naturally in the human body , but the development of HIT antibodies suggests heparin may act as a hapten , and thus be targeted by the immune system . In HIT , the immune system forms antibodies against heparin when it is bound to a protein called platelet factor 4 ( PF4 ) . These antibodies are usually of the IgG class and their development usually takes about five days . However , those who have been exposed to heparin in the last few months may still have circulating IgG , as IgG @-@ type antibodies generally continue to be produced even when their precipitant has been removed . This is similar to immunity against certain microorganisms , with the difference that the HIT antibody does not persist more than three months . HIT antibodies have been found in individuals with thrombocytopenia and thrombosis who had no prior exposure to heparin , but the majority are found in people who are receiving heparin .
The IgG antibodies form a complex with heparin and PF4 in the bloodstream . The tail of the antibody then binds to the FcγIIa receptor , a protein on the surface of the platelet . This results in platelet activation and the formation of platelet microparticles , which initiate the formation of blood clots ; the platelet count falls as a result , leading to thrombocytopenia .
Formation of PF4 @-@ heparin antibodies is common in people receiving heparin , but only a proportion of these develop thrombocytopenia or thrombosis . This has been referred to as an " iceberg phenomenon " .
= = Diagnosis = =
HIT may be suspected if blood tests show a falling platelet count in someone receiving heparin , even if the heparin has already been discontinued . Professional guidelines recommend that people receiving heparin have a complete blood count ( which includes a platelet count ) on a regular basis while receiving heparin .
However , not all people with a falling platelet count while receiving heparin turn out to have HIT . The timing , severity of the thrombocytopenia , the occurrence of new thrombosis , and the presence of alternative explanations , all determine the likelihood that HIT is present . A commonly used score to predict the likelihood of HIT is the " 4 Ts " score introduced in 2003 . A score of 0 – 8 points is generated ; if the score is 0 @-@ 3 , HIT is unlikely . A score of 4 – 5 indicates intermediate probability , while a score of 6 – 8 makes it highly likely . Those with a high score may need to be treated with an alternative drug while more sensitive and specific tests for HIT are performed , while those with a low score can safely continue receiving heparin as the likelihood that they have HIT is extremely low . In an analysis of the reliability of the 4T score , a low score had a negative predictive value of 0 @.@ 998 , while an intermediate score had a positive predictive value of 0 @.@ 14 and a high score a positive predictive value of 0 @.@ 64 ; intermediate and high scores therefore warrant further investigation .
The first screening test in someone suspected of having HIT is aimed at detecting antibodies against heparin @-@ PF4 complexes . This may be with a laboratory test of the ELISA ( enzyme @-@ linked immunosorbent assay ) type . The ELISA test , however , detects all circulating antibodies that bind heparin @-@ PF4 complexes , and may also falsely identify antibodies that do not cause HIT . Therefore , those with a positive ELISA are tested further with a functional assay . This test uses platelets and serum from the patient ; the platelets are washed and mixed with serum and heparin . The sample is then tested for the release of serotonin , a marker of platelet activation . If this serotonin release assay ( SRA ) shows high serotonin release , the diagnosis of HIT is confirmed . The SRA test is difficult to perform and is usually only done in regional laboratories .
If someone has been diagnosed with HIT , some recommend routine Doppler sonography of the leg veins to identify deep vein thromboses , as this is very common in HIT .
= = Treatment = =
Given the fact that HIT predisposes strongly to new episodes of thrombosis , it is not sufficient to simply discontinue the heparin administration . Generally , an alternative anticoagulant is needed to suppress the thrombotic tendency while the generation of antibodies stops and the platelet count recovers . To make matters more complicated , the other most commonly used anticoagulant , warfarin , should not be used in HIT until the platelet count is at least 150 x 10 ^ 9 / L because there is a very high risk of warfarin necrosis in people with HIT who have low platelet counts . Warfarin necrosis is the development of skin gangrene in those receiving warfarin or a similar vitamin K inhibitor . If the patient was receiving warfarin at the time when HIT is diagnosed , the activity of warfarin is reversed with vitamin K. Transfusing platelets is discouraged , as there is a theoretical risk that this may worsen the risk of thrombosis ; the platelet count is rarely low enough to be the principal cause of significant hemorrhage .
Various non @-@ heparin agents are used to provide anticoagulation in those with strongly suspected or proven HIT : danaparoid , fondaparinux , bivalirudin and argatroban . These are alternatives to heparin therapy . Not all agents are available in all countries , and not all are approved for this specific use . For instance , argatroban is only recently licensed in the United Kingdom , and danaparoid is not available in the United States . Fondaparinux , a Factor Xa inhibitor , is commonly used off label for HIT treatment in the United States .
According to a systematic review , people with HIT treated with lepirudin showed a relative risk reduction of clinical outcome ( death , amputation , etc . ) to be 0 @.@ 52 and 0 @.@ 42 when compared to patient controls . In addition , people treated with argatroban for HIT showed a relative risk reduction of the above clinical outcomes to be 0 @.@ 20 and 0 @.@ 18 . Lepirudin production stopped on May 31 , 2012 .
= = Epidemiology = =
The exact number of cases of HIT in the general population is unknown . What is known is that women receiving heparin after a recent surgical procedure , particularly cardiothoracic surgery , have a higher risk , while the risk is very low in women just before and after giving birth . Some studies have shown that HIT is less common in those receiving low molecular weight heparin .
= = History = =
While heparin was introduced for clinical use in the late 1930s , new thrombosis in people treated with heparin was not described until 1957 , when vascular surgeons reported the association . The fact that this phenomenon occurred together with thrombocytopenia was reported in 1969 ; prior to this time , platelet counts were not routinely performed . A 1973 report established HIT as a diagnosis , as well as suggesting that its features were the result of an immune process .
Initially , various theories existed about the exact cause of the low platelets in HIT . Gradually , evidence accumulated on the exact underlying mechanism . In 1984 @-@ 1986 , John G. Kelton and colleagues at McMaster University Medical School developed the laboratory tests that could be used to confirm or exclude heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia .
Treatment was initially limited to aspirin and warfarin , but the 1990s saw the introduction of a number of agents that could provide anticoagulation without a risk of recurrent HIT . Older terminology distinguishes between two forms of heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia : type 1 ( mild , non @-@ immune mediated and self @-@ limiting fall in platelet count ) and type 2 , the form described above . Currently , the term HIT is used without a modifier to describe the immune @-@ mediated severe form .
= Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney =
Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney , known in Japan as Gyakuten Saiban 4 ( Japanese : 逆転裁判4 , lit . " Turnabout Trial 4 " ) , is a visual novel adventure video game developed by Capcom for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . It is the fourth video game in the Ace Attorney series , and was originally released in Japan on April 12 , 2007 ; it was later released in North America , Europe and Australia in 2008 .
The game takes place seven years after the previous game , Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Trials and Tribulations . Phoenix Wright , the main character of previous titles in the series , has been stripped of his attorney 's badge , and Apollo Justice , an up @-@ and @-@ coming attorney , becomes his apprentice , working with Phoenix 's adopted daughter Trucy on four cases . The player 's goal is to get their clients declared not guilty ; to do this , they investigate the cases and cross @-@ examine witnesses . When finding inconsistencies in witness testimonies , the player is able to present pieces of evidence that contradict the witnesses ' statements . They can also use the " perceive " system , in which they are able to see nervous motions or actions during witness testimonies , similar to a tell in poker .
The game was developed by a team of 28 staff members , including producer Minae Matsukawa , director Mitsuru Endo , and character designer Kazuya Nuri . Series creator Shu Takumi , who wrote the game 's scenario and took on a supervisory role for the production , had wanted the series to end with Trials and Tribulations , as he felt that Phoenix 's character had been explored fully ; when it was decided that the game would get made , he wanted it to have a new main character with a new story , and wanted Phoenix to not make an appearance . Despite this , it was decided that Phoenix would be the accused in the first case in the game . Apollo Justice sold around 250 @,@ 000 copies during the first retail week and 515 @,@ 417 by the end of 2007 , and has been mostly positively received by critics .
= = Gameplay = =
Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney is , like the rest of the Ace Attorney series , a cross between the adventure game and visual novel genres . The player 's goal is to defend their clients in four cases , and prove their innocence . The gameplay is separated into two types of situations : Investigations and trials .
During the investigation phase of each case , the player explores the game world by either using the stylus or the D @-@ pad to select the actions they wish to engage in : Examine , Move , Talk , or Present . The player converses with non @-@ player characters by selecting dialogue and can move around the game world by selecting the locations they wish to travel to . Information gained during Investigation Mode can be used during the Trial phase of the game and items picked up can be used as evidence . The player cannot progress without completing certain actions . Ema Skye , a character from the DS remake of the original Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney game , often provides the player with opportunities to use DS features such as the microphone to perform actions such as dusting for fingerprints .
The trial portions consist of listening to and cross @-@ examining witness testimonies . The player is given the option to either Press or Present evidence in response to statements made by witnesses . The player can either select their choice or yell into the microphone . By choosing Press , the player questions the witness 's statement , which sometimes causes the witness to change their testimony . When finding inconsistencies in the testimony , the player may choose Present
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of the bourgeoisie . " Since the " antagonistic classes " were said to have been defeated with the achievement of socialism , these methods were no longer necessary . Reform was needed , for the Czechoslovak economy to join the " scientific @-@ technical revolution in the world " rather than relying on Stalinist @-@ era heavy industry , labour power , and raw materials . Furthermore , since internal class conflict had been overcome , workers could now be duly rewarded for their qualifications and technical skills without contravening Marxism @-@ Leninism . The Programme suggested it was now necessary to ensure important positions were " filled by capable , educated socialist expert cadres " in order to compete with capitalism .
Although it was stipulated that reform must proceed under KSČ direction , popular pressure mounted to implement reforms immediately . Radical elements became more vocal : anti @-@ Soviet polemics appeared in the press ( after the formal abolishment of censorship on 26 June 1968 ) , the Social Democrats began to form a separate party , and new unaffiliated political clubs were created . Party conservatives urged repressive measures , but Dubček counselled moderation and re @-@ emphasized KSČ leadership . At the Presidium of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in April , Dubček announced a political programme of " socialism with a human face " . In May , he announced that the Fourteenth Party Congress would convene in an early session on 9 September . The congress would incorporate the Action Programme into the party statutes , draft a federalization law , and elect a new Central Committee .
Dubček 's reforms guaranteed freedom of the press , and political commentary was allowed for the first time in mainstream media . At the time of the Prague Spring , Czechoslovak exports were declining in competitiveness , and Dubček 's reforms planned to solve these troubles by mixing planned and market economies . Within the party , there were varying opinions on how this should proceed ; certain economists wished for a more mixed economy while others wanted the economy to remain mostly socialist . Dubček continued to stress the importance of economic reform proceeding under Communist Party rule .
On 27 June Ludvík Vaculík , a leading author and journalist , published a manifesto titled The Two Thousand Words . It expressed concern about conservative elements within the KSČ and so @-@ called " foreign " forces . Vaculík called on the people to take the initiative in implementing the reform programme . Dubček , the party Presidium , the National Front , and the cabinet denounced this manifesto .
= = = Publications and media = = =
Dubček ’ s relaxation of censorship ushered in a brief period of freedom of speech and the press . The first tangible manifestation of this new policy of openness was the production of the previously hard @-@ line communist weekly Literarni noviny , renamed Literarni listy .
Freedom of the press also opened the door for the first honest look at Czechoslovakia ’ s past by Czechoslovakia ’ s people . Many of the investigations centered on the country ’ s history under communism , especially in the instance of the Joseph Stalin @-@ period . In another television appearance , Goldstucker presented both doctored and undoctored photographs of former communist leaders who had been purged , imprisoned , or executed and thus erased from communist history . The Writer ’ s Union also formed a committee in April 1968 , headed by the poet Jaroslav Seifert , to investigate the persecution of writers after the Communist takeover in February 1948 and rehabilitate the literary figures into the Union , bookstores and libraries , and the literary world . Discussions on the current state of communism and abstract ideas such as freedom and identity were also becoming more common ; soon , non @-@ party publications began appearing , such as the trade union daily Prace ( Labour ) . This was also helped by the Journalists Union , which by March 1968 had already convinced the Central Publication Board , the government censor , to allow editors to receive uncensored subscriptions for foreign papers , allowing for a more international dialogue around the news .
The press , the radio , and the television also contributed to these discussions by hosting meetings where students and young workers could ask questions of writers such as Goldstucker , Pavel Kohout , and Jan Prochazka and political victims such as Josef Smrkovský , Zdenek Hejzlar , and Gustav Husak . Television also broadcast meetings between former political prisoners and the communist leaders from the secret police or prisons where they were held . Most importantly , this new freedom of the press and the introduction of television into the lives of everyday Czechoslovak citizens moved the political dialogue from the intellectual to the popular sphere .
= = Soviet reaction = =
Initial reaction within the Communist Bloc was mixed . Hungary 's János Kádár was highly supportive of Dubček 's appointment in January , but Leonid Brezhnev and others grew concerned about Dubček 's reforms , which they feared might weaken the position of the Communist Bloc during the Cold War .
At a 23 March meeting in Dresden in East Germany , leaders of the " Warsaw Five " ( USSR , Hungary , Poland , Bulgaria and East Germany ) questioned a Czechoslovak delegation over the planned reforms , suggesting any talk of " democratization " was a veiled critique of other policies . Władysław Gomułka and János Kádár were less concerned with the reforms themselves than with the growing criticisms levelled by the Czechoslovak media , and worried the situation might be " similar to the prologue of the Hungarian counterrevolution " . Some of the language in April 's KSČ Action Programme may have been chosen to assert that no counter @-@ revolution was planned , but Kieran Williams suggests that Dubček was perhaps surprised at , but not resentful of , Soviet suggestions .
The Soviet leadership tried to stop , or limit , the changes in the ČSSR through a series of negotiations . The Soviet Union agreed to bilateral talks with Czechoslovakia in July at Čierna nad Tisou , near the Slovak @-@ Soviet border . At the meeting , with attendance of Brezhnev , Alexei Kosygin , Nikolai Podgorny , Mikhail Suslov and others on the Soviet side and Dubček , Svoboda , Oldřich Černík , Smrkovský and others on the Czechoslovak side , Dubček defended the proposals of the reformist wing of the KSČ while pledging commitment to the Warsaw Pact and Comecon . The KSČ leadership , however , was divided between vigorous reformers ( Josef Smrkovský , Oldřich Černík , and František Kriegel ) who supported Dubček , and conservatives ( Vasil Biľak , Drahomír Kolder , and Oldřich Švestka ) who adopted an anti @-@ reformist stance .
Brezhnev decided on compromise . The KSČ delegates reaffirmed their loyalty to the Warsaw Pact and promised to curb " anti @-@ socialist " tendencies , prevent the revival of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party , and control the press more effectively . The Soviets agreed to withdraw their armed forces ( still in Czechoslovakia after manoeuvres that June ) and permit the 9 September Party Congress .
On 3 August representatives from the " Warsaw Five " and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed the Bratislava Declaration . The declaration affirmed unshakable fidelity to Marxism @-@ Leninism and proletarian internationalism and declared an implacable struggle against " bourgeois " ideology and all " anti @-@ socialist " forces . The Soviet Union expressed its intention to intervene in a Warsaw Pact country if a " bourgeois " system — a pluralist system of several political parties representing different factions of the capitalist class — was ever established . After the Bratislava conference , the Soviet Army left Czechoslovak territory but remained along its borders .
= = = Invasion = = =
As these talks proved unsatisfactory , the Soviets began to consider a military alternative . The Soviet Union 's policy of compelling the socialist governments of its satellite states to subordinate their national interests to those of the " Eastern Bloc " ( through military force if needed ) became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine . On the night of 20 – 21 August 1968 , Eastern Bloc armies from five Warsaw Pact countries – the Soviet Union , the GDR , Bulgaria , Poland and Hungary — invaded the ČSSR .
That night , 200 @,@ 000 troops and 2 @,@ 000 tanks entered the country . They first occupied the Ruzyně International Airport , where air deployment of more troops was arranged . The Czechoslovak forces were confined to their barracks , which were surrounded until the threat of a counter @-@ attack was assuaged . By the morning of 21 August Czechoslovakia was occupied .
Neither Romania nor Albania took part in the invasion . During the invasion by the Warsaw Pact armies , 72 Czechs and Slovaks were killed ( 19 of those in Slovakia ) , 266 severely wounded and another 436 slightly injured . Alexander Dubček called upon his people not to resist . Nevertheless , there was scattered resistance in the streets . Road signs in towns were removed or painted over — except for those indicating the way to Moscow . Many small villages renamed themselves " Dubcek " or " Svoboda " ; thus , without navigational equipment , the invaders were often confused .
Although , on the night of the invasion the Czechoslovak Presidium declared that Warsaw Pact troops had crossed the border without the knowledge of the ČSSR government , the Soviet Press printed an unsigned request – allegedly by Czechoslovak party and state leaders – for " immediate assistance , including assistance with armed forces " . At the 14th KSČ Party Congress ( conducted secretly , immediately following the intervention ) , it was emphasized that no member of the leadership had invited the intervention . More recent evidence suggests that conservative KSČ members ( including Biľak , Švestka , Kolder , Indra , and Kapek ) did send a request for intervention to the Soviets . The invasion was followed by a previously unseen wave of emigration , which was stopped shortly thereafter . An estimated 70 @,@ 000 fled immediately with an eventual total of some 300 @,@ 000 .
The Soviets attributed the invasion to the " Brezhnev Doctrine " which stated that the U.S.S.R. had the right to intervene whenever a country in the Eastern Bloc appeared to be making a shift towards capitalism . There is still some uncertainty , however , as to what provocation , if any , occurred to make the Warsaw Pact armies invade . The days leading up to the invasion was a rather calm period without any major events taking place in Czechoslovakia .
= = = Reactions to the invasion = = =
In Czechoslovakia , especially in the week immediately following the invasion , popular opposition was expressed in numerous spontaneous acts of nonviolent resistance . On 16 January 1969 , student Jan Palach set himself on fire in Prague 's Wenceslas Square to protest against the renewed suppression of free speech . Civilians purposely gave wrong directions to invading soldiers , while others identified and followed cars belonging to the secret police .
The generalized resistance caused the Soviet Union to abandon its original plan to oust the First Secretary . Dubček , who had been arrested on the night of 20 August was taken to Moscow for negotiations . There , he and several other leaders ( including all the highest @-@ ranked officials President Svoboda , Prime Minister Černík and Chairman of the National Assembly Smrkovský ) signed , under heavy psychological pressure from Soviet politicians , the Moscow Protocol and it was agreed that Dubček would remain in office and a programme of moderate reform would continue .
On 25 August citizens of the Soviet Union who did not approve of the invasion protested in Red Square ; seven protesters opened banners with anti @-@ invasion slogans . The demonstrators were arrested and later punished ; the protest was dubbed " anti @-@ Soviet " .
A more pronounced effect took place in Romania , where Nicolae Ceaușescu , Prime Secretary of the Romanian CP , already a staunch opponent of Soviet influences and a self @-@ declared Dubček supporter , gave a public speech in Bucharest on the day of the invasion , depicting Soviet policies in harsh terms . Albania withdrew from the Warsaw Pact in opposition calling the invasion an act of " social @-@ imperialism " . In Finland , a country under some Soviet political influence , the occupation caused a major scandal .
Like the Italian and French Communist parties , the Communist Party of Finland denounced the occupation . Nonetheless , Finnish president Urho Kekkonen was the very first Western politician to officially visit Czechoslovakia after August 1968 ; he received the highest Czechoslovakian honours from the hands of President Ludvík Svoboda , on 4 October 1969 . The Portuguese communist secretary @-@ general Álvaro Cunhal was one of few political leaders from western Europe to have supported the invasion for being counter @-@ revolutionary. along with the Luxembourg party and conservative factions of the Greek party .
Most countries offered only vocal criticism following the invasion . The night of the invasion , Canada , Denmark , France , Paraguay , the United Kingdom and the United States requested a meeting of the United Nations Security Council . At the meeting , the Czechoslovak ambassador Jan Muzik denounced the invasion . Soviet ambassador Jacob Malik insisted the Warsaw Pact actions were " fraternal assistance " against " antisocial forces " .
The next day , several countries suggested a resolution condemning the intervention and calling for immediate withdrawal . Eventually , a vote was taken with ten members supporting the motion ; Algeria , India , and Pakistan abstained ; the USSR ( with veto power ) and Hungary opposed . Canadian delegates immediately introduced another motion asking for a UN representative to travel to Prague and work toward the release of the imprisoned Czechoslovak leaders .
By 26 August a new Czechoslovak representative requested the whole issue be removed from the Security Council 's agenda . Shirley Temple Black visited Prague in August 1968 to prepare for becoming the US Ambassador for a free Czechoslovakia . However , after the 21 August invasion she became part of a U.S. Embassy @-@ organized convoy of vehicles that evacuated U.S. citizens from the country . In August 1989 , she returned to Prague as U.S. Ambassador , three months before the Velvet Revolution that ended 41 years of Communist rule .
= = Aftermath = =
In April 1969 , Dubček was replaced as first secretary by Gustáv Husák , and a period of " normalization " began . Dubček was expelled from the KSČ and given a job as a forestry official .
Husák reversed Dubček 's reforms , purged the party of its liberal members , and dismissed from public office professional and intellectual elites who openly expressed disagreement with the political transformation . Husák worked to reinstate the power of the police and strengthen ties with the rest of the Communist bloc . He also sought to re @-@ centralize the economy , as a considerable amount of freedom had been granted to industries during the Prague Spring . Commentary on politics was forbidden in mainstream media , and political statements by anyone not considered to have " full political trust " were also banned . The only significant change that survived was the federalization of the country , which created the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic in 1969 . In 1987 , the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev acknowledged that his liberalizing policies of glasnost and perestroika owed a great deal to Dubček 's " socialism with a human face " . When asked what the difference was between the Prague Spring and Gorbachev 's own reforms , a Foreign Ministry spokesman replied , " Nineteen years . "
Dubček lent his support to the Velvet Revolution of December 1989 . After the collapse of the Communist regime that month , Dubček became chairman of the federal assembly under the Havel administration . He later led the Social Democratic Party of Slovakia , and spoke against the dissolution of Czechoslovakia prior to his death in November 1992 .
= = = Normalization and censorship = = =
The Warsaw Pact invasion included attacks on media establishments , such as Radio Prague and Czechoslovak Television , almost immediately after the initial tanks rolled into Prague on 21 August 1968 . While both the radio station and the television station managed to hold out for at least enough time for initial broadcasts of the invasion , what the Soviets did not attack by force they attacked by reenacting party censorship . In reaction to the invasion , on 28 August 1968 , all Czechoslovak publishers agreed to halt production of newspapers for the day to allow for a " day of reflection " for the editorial staffs . Writers and reporters agreed with Dubcek to support a limited reinstitution of the censorship office , as long as the institution was to only last three months . Finally , by September 1968 , the Czechoslovak Communist Party plenum was held to instate the new censorship law . In the words of the Moscow @-@ approved resolution , " The press , radio , and television are first of all the instruments for carrying into life the policies of the Party and state . "
While this was not yet the end of the media ’ s freedom after the Prague Spring , it was the beginning of the end . During November , the Presidium , under Husak , declared that the Czechoslovak press could not make any negative remarks about the Soviet invaders or they would risk violating the agreement they had come to at the end of August . When the weeklies Reporter and Politika responded harshly to this threat , even going so far as to not so subtly criticize the Presidium itself in Politika , the government banned Reporter for a month , suspended Politika indefinitely , and prohibited any political programs from appearing on the radio or television .
The intellectuals were stuck at a bypass ; they recognized the government ’ s increasing normalization , but they were unsure whether to trust that the measures were only temporary or demand more . For example , still believing in Dubcek ’ s promises for reform , Milan Kundera published the article “ Cesky udel ” ( Our Czech Destiny ) in Literarni listy on 19 December . He wrote : " People who today are falling into depression and defeatism , commenting that there are not enough guarantees , that everything could end badly , that we might again end up in a marasmus of censorship and trials , that this or that could happen , are simply weak people , who can live only in illusions of certainty . "
In March 1969 , however , the new Soviet @-@ backed Czechoslovakian government instituted full censorship , effectively ending the hopes that normalization would lead back to the freedoms enjoyed during the Prague Spring . A declaration was presented to the Presidium condemning the media as co @-@ conspirators against the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact in their support of Dubcek ’ s liberalization measures . Finally , on 2 April 1969 , the government adopted measures " to secure peace and order " through even stricter censorship , forcing the people of Czechoslovakia to wait until the thawing of Eastern Europe for the return of a free media .
Former students from Prague , including Constantine Menges , and Czech refugees from the crisis , who were able to escape or resettle in Western Countries continued to advocate for human rights , religious liberty , freedom of speech and political asylum for Czech political prisoners and dissidents . Many raised concerns about the Soviet Union and Red Army 's continued military occupation of the Czechoslovakia in the 1970s and 1980s , prior to the fall of the Berlin Wall and collapse of Communism in Moscow and Eastern Europe .
= = = Cultural impact = = =
The Prague Spring deepened the disillusionment of many Western leftists with Soviet views . It contributed to the growth of Eurocommunist ideas in Western communist parties , which sought greater distance from the Soviet Union , and eventually led to the dissolution of many of these groups . A decade later , a period of Chinese political liberalization became known as the Beijing Spring . It also partly influenced the Croatian Spring in Yugoslavia . In a 1993 Czech survey , 60 % of those surveyed had a personal memory linked to the Prague Spring while another 30 % were familiar with the events in another form . The demonstrations and regime changes taking place in North Africa and the Middle East from December 2010 have frequently been referred to as an " Arab Spring " .
The event has been referenced in popular music , including the music of Karel Kryl , Luboš Fišer 's Requiem , and Karel Husa 's Music for Prague 1968 . The Israeli song " Prague " , written by Shalom Hanoch and performed by Arik Einstein at the Israel Song Festival of 1969 , was a lamentation on the fate of the city after the Soviet invasion and mentions Jan Palach 's Self @-@ immolation . " They Can 't Stop The Spring " , a song by Irish journalist and songwriter John Waters , represented Ireland in the Eurovision Song Contest in 2007 . Waters has described it as " a kind of Celtic celebration of the Eastern European revolutions and their eventual outcome " , quoting Dubček 's alleged comment : " They may crush the flowers , but they can 't stop the Spring . "
The Prague Spring is featured in several works of literature . Milan Kundera set his novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being during the Prague Spring . It follows the repercussions of increased Soviet presence and the dictatorial police control of the population . A film version was released in 1988 . The Liberators , by Viktor Suvorov , is an eyewitness description of the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia , from the point of view of a Soviet tank commander . Rock ' n ' Roll , a play by award @-@ winning Czech @-@ born English playwright Tom Stoppard , references the Prague Spring , as well as the 1989 Velvet Revolution . Heda Margolius Kovály also ends her memoir Under a Cruel Star with a first hand account of the Prague Spring and the subsequent invasion , and her reflections upon these events .
In film there has been an adaptation of The Unbearable Lightness of Being , and also the movie Pelíšky from director Jan Hřebejk and screenwriter Petr Jarchovský , which depicts the events of the Prague Spring and ends with the invasion by the Soviet Union and their allies . The Czech musical film , Rebelové from Filip Renč , also depicts the events , the invasion and subsequent wave of emigration .
The number 68 has become iconic in the former Czechoslovakia . Hockey player Jaromír Jágr , whose grandfather died in prison during the rebellion , wears the number because of the importance of the year in Czechoslovak history . A former publishing house based in Toronto , 68 Publishers , that published books by exiled Czech and Slovak authors , took its name from the event .
= 1945 Homestead hurricane =
The 1945 Homestead hurricane was the most intense tropical cyclone to strike the U.S. state of Florida since 1935 . The ninth tropical storm , third hurricane , and third major hurricane of the season , it developed east @-@ northeast of the Leeward Islands on September 12 . Moving briskly west @-@ northwestward , the storm became a major hurricane on September 13 . The system moved over the Turks and Caicos Islands the following day and then Andros on September 15 . Later that day , the storm peaked as a Category 4 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Late on September 15 , the hurricane made landfall on Key Largo and then in southern Miami @-@ Dade County , and across Homestead , FL where much damage was done and winds were clocked at Homestead Army Air Corps Base at 145 mph .
Thereafter , the hurricane began to weaken while moving across Florida , falling to Category 1 intensity only several hours after landfall late on September 15 . Eventually , it curved north @-@ northeastward and approached the east coast of Florida again . Late on September 16 , the storm emerged into the Atlantic near St. Augustine and weakened to a tropical storm early on the following day . The cyclone made another landfall near the Georgia @-@ South Carolina state line later on September 17 . The system continued to weaken and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone near the border of North Carolina and Virginia early on September 18 .
The storm caused significant damage and 22 deaths in the Turks and Caicos Islands and the Bahamas . In Florida , the hardest hit area was Miami @-@ Dade County . Most of the city of Homestead was destroyed , while at the Richmond Naval Air Station , a fire ignited during the storm burned down three hangars worth $ 3 million ( 1945 USD ) each . Throughout the state , the strong winds destroyed 1 @,@ 632 residences and damaged 5 @,@ 372 homes others . Four people died , including the fire chief of the Richmond station . Homestead Army Air Corps Base , to the east of Homestead was completely destroyed . At the base , hurricane winds of " up to 145 miles per hour tore through the Air Field 's buildings . Enlisted housing facilities , the nurses ' dormitory , and the Base Exchange were all destroyed . The roof was ripped from what would later become building 741 , the " Big Hangar " . The base laundry and fire station were both declared total losses . The few remaining aircraft were tossed about like leaves . "
In the Carolinas , the storm produced heavy rainfall , causing flash flooding , particularly along the Cape Fear River in North Carolina . Overall , the hurricane resulted in 26 fatalities and about $ 60 million in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
The hurricane was first observed on September 12 about 235 mi ( 380 km ) east @-@ northeast of Barbuda in the Lesser Antilles . Around that time , the winds were estimated at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , and later that day , the Hurricane Hunters recorded peripheral winds of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) . Moving quickly to the west @-@ northwest , the hurricane quickly intensified while passing north of Puerto Rico , reaching the equivalent of a modern @-@ day major hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The strength was based on another Hurricane Hunters mission reporting flight @-@ level winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . After passing north of Hispaniola , the hurricane turned moved toward the Bahamas , approaching or passing over Grand Turk Island at 0530 UTC on September 14 . A station on the island observed a barometric pressure of 977 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) during the passage , and nearby Clarence Town reported winds of 104 mph ( 168 km / h ) . While moving through the Bahamas , the hurricane turned more to the northwest . It was a smaller than average storm , and continued intensifying while moving toward southeastern Florida .
At 1930 UTC on September 15 , the hurricane made landfall on Key Largo , and about a half hour later struck the Florida mainland . The center passed very close to Homestead Air Reserve Base about an hour after landfall , where a central barometric pressure of 951 mbar ( 28 @.@ 1 inHg ) was recorded . The observation suggested a landfall pressure of 949 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) , and based on its small size and peak winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) ; equivalent to a Category 4 on the current Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . This estimate was backed up by gust of 138 mph ( 222 km / h ) at Carysfort Reef Light . The hurricane weakened over Florida while curving to the north and north @-@ northeast , although the proximity to water and the passage over the Everglades limited substantial weakening . Hurricane @-@ force winds spread across much of Florida until the storm emerged into the western Atlantic near St. Augustine late on September 16 . At around 0000 UTC the next day , the hurricane weakened to tropical storm status . About 11 hours later , it made another landfall near the border between Georgia and South Carolina with winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) .
After continuing through the southeast United States , the storm became extratropical near the border of North Carolina and Virginia midday on September 18 . Although it initially maintained tropical storm @-@ force winds , the former hurricane weakened below gale @-@ force on September 19 while it was near Philadelphia . The storm continued rapidly to the northeast , moving through New England and along the coast of Maine before turning more to the east . Late on September 19 , the storm moved across Nova Scotia , passing southeast of Newfoundland the next day . It was last observed late on September 20 dissipating to the east of Newfoundland .
= = Preparations = =
Although hurricane warnings were initially issued for the Leeward Islands , the cyclone passed north of the Lesser Antilles . In advance of the storm , aircraft were evacuated from the Naval Air Station in Miami , Florida , where hundreds of planes left vulnerable locations . Residents were advised to heed advisories in Florida , the Bahamas , and northern Cuba . On September 15 , hurricane @-@ force winds were expected to affect areas from Fort Lauderdale , Florida through the Florida Keys , and hurricane warnings were accordingly released for this region . Storm warnings also extended north to Melbourne and Tampa . Military personnel sought shelter at Hialeah Race Track , while residents boarded homes and evacuated from coastal areas to public structures . Boats were utilized to transport people from barrier islands , and small watercraft were secured along the Miami River . However , Grady Norton , the head of the United States Weather Bureau , stated before the storm that Miami would " miss the worst of it " . The American Red Cross reported that 25 @,@ 000 people sought shelter within their services during the storm . Local officials from Cape Hatteras , North Carolina to Brunswick , Georgia ordered evacuations for coastal locations .
= = Impact = =
In the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands , 22 people were killed . The hurricane demolished three @-@ quarters of the structures on Grand Turk Island , while the remaining intact buildings were damaged . The cyclone also produced heavy damage on Long Island , though damages were not reported in Nassau . Peak gusts were estimated near 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in Nassau . After the storm , The Daily Gleaner initiated a fund to offer aid for residents in the Turks and Caicos Islands .
In south Florida , peak gusts were estimated near 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) at the Army Air Base in Homestead . The strong winds destroyed 1 @,@ 632 residences across the state , while 5 @,@ 372 homes received damages . In Miami , gusts reached 107 mph ( 170 km / h ) , and damages were minimal , mostly snapped power lines , compared to communities in southern Dade County . Nearly 200 people were injured at the Richmond Naval Air Station , when a fire ignited during the storm , affecting three hangars worth $ 3 million each and destroying 25 blimps , 366 planes , and 150 automobiles . Damages to the Miami area was estimated at $ 40 million . An additional fire also destroyed a furniture factory and a tile manufacturing plant in the northwestern portion of downtown Miami . One death was reported in the area , the fire chief of Richmond 's fire department , and 26 required hospitalization . Another death was recorded after a schooner ran aground in present @-@ day Bal Harbour , Florida , killing its chief engineer .
Homestead was mostly flooded underwater , with the first floor of city hall and the fire department completely flooded and nearly all its residences destroyed . The historical Horde Hardware building collapsed while a local church was flatted by the winds . In the Florida Keys , hundreds of residences were damaged . The Florida East Coast Railway station at Goulds collapsed . Crop losses was estimated to be $ 4 million and most of its avocado harvest was destroyed . Four people died across the state .
Minor reports of damage was reported in Central and Northern Florida , with St. Augustine reporting a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) wind gust . In Charleston , South Carolina , strong winds caused high waves , but the storm arrived at low tide and produced modest damage . Rainfall peaked at 8 @.@ 0 inches ( 200 mm ) at Belton , South Carolina . In Aiken , South Carolina , heavy precipitation caused damage to unpaved streets . Inland , the system produced heavy rainfall over North Carolina , peaking at 14 @.@ 8 inches ( 380 mm ) in Rockingham , North Carolina in the period covering September 13 through September 18 . This rain led to saturated grounds , allowing new water to spill into streams . Many crop fields and dwellings were flooded near the Cape Fear River as levels rose to record heights . The towns of Moncure , Fayetteville , and Elizabethtown exceeded flood stage levels . Broken dams in Richmond County produced significant flash floods . Few deaths were reported , but economic losses were extensive . In Hopewell , New Jersey , the remnants of the system produced winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , though major damage was not reported .
= = Aftermath = =
In the aftermath of the storm , more than 1 @,@ 000 Red Cross workers were activated in response to the cyclone . A force of 400 German prisoner of wars and 200 Bahamian laborers participated in the cleanup process .
= Order of the Arrow =
The Order of the Arrow ( OA ) is most commonly known as the National Honor Society of the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) . A more clear definition would be that the society was created to honor Scouts that best exemplify the Scout Oath and Law . It uses American Indian @-@ styled traditions and ceremonies to bestow recognition on Scouts selected by their peers as best exemplifying the ideals of Scouting . The society was created by E. Urner Goodman , with the assistance of Carroll A. Edson , in 1915 as a means of reinforcing the Scout Oath and the Scout Law . The goal was to establish these as lifelong guidelines , and to encourage continued participation in Scouting and camping . Influenced in part by camp traditions , and Indian folklore , the OA uses " safeguarded " symbols , handshakes , and ceremonies to impart a sense of community . The use of these traditions has been controversial and been criticized by Native American groups .
Inducted members , known as Arrowmen or Brothers , are organized into local youth @-@ led lodges that harbor fellowship , promote camping , and render service to Boy Scout councils and their communities . Members wear identifying insignia on their uniforms , most notably the OA pocket flap ( representing their individual lodge ) and the OA sash ( worn at official OA functions ) and are eligible for special OA awards . The OA program sponsors several events , awards , and training functions .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and development of the society = = =
In 1915 , E. Urner Goodman , a newly hired field executive for the Philadelphia Council , was assigned to serve as director of the council 's summer camp at Treasure Island Scout Reservation on the Delaware River . He believed that the summer camp experience should do more than just teach proficiency in Scoutcraft skills ; rather , the principles embodied in the Scout Oath and Scout Law should become realities in the lives of Scouts . Along with his assistant camp director , Carroll A. Edson , he started an experimental program , Wimachtendienk ( " Brotherhood " in the Lenape language ) , to recognize those Scouts best exemplifying those traits as an example to their peers .
Goodman and Edson decided that a " camp fraternity " was the way to improve the summer camp experience and to keep the older boys coming back . In developing this program they borrowed from the traditions and practices of several other organizations . Edward Cave 's Boy 's Camp Book ( 1914 ) was consulted for the concept of a camp society that would perpetuate camp traditions . College fraternities were also influential for their concepts of brotherhood and rituals , and the idea of new members pledging themselves to the new organization . Inspired by Ernest Thompson Seton 's previous Woodcraft Indians program , American Indian lore was used to make the organization interesting and appealing to youth . Other influences include the Brotherhood of Andrew and Phillip , a Presbyterian church youth group with which Goodman had been involved as a young man , and Freemasonry .
The traditions and rituals of Freemasonry contributed more to the basic structure of the OA ritual than any other organization . In fact , there appears to be no known fraternal organization more faithful in form to Freemasonry than OA . Familiar terms such as " lodge " and " obligation " were borrowed from Masonic practice , as were most of the ceremonial structures and ritual formulae . Even the early national meeting was called a " Grand Lodge , " a Masonic reference . Of course , despite several facts — the common intent to impart a sense of obligation to a higher moral authority ; that groups such as OA that employ these rituals share many of the moral precepts ; and even that there are historical connections to the founders of OA and other organizations to Freemasonry — nothing should imply any political connection to Freemasonry itself .
They ultimately devised a program where troops chose , at the summer camp 's conclusion , those boys from among their number who best exemplified the ideals of Scouting . Those elected were acknowledged as having displayed , in the eyes of their fellow Scouts , a spirit of unselfish service and brotherhood . Edson helped Goodman research the traditions and language of the Lenni Lenape — also known as the Delaware — who had once inhabited Treasure Island . The brotherhood of Scout honor campers with its American Indian overtones was a success and was repeated again the following summer at Treasure Island . Those Scouts honored at Treasure Island in 1915 and 1916 would become members of what is now Unami Lodge .
By 1921 , Goodman had spoken to Scout leaders in surrounding states about the honor society resulting in a number of lodges being established by Scout councils in the northeastern United States . The name of the society was changed to Order of the Arrow , and in October 1921 , Goodman convened the first national meeting of what was then called the " National Lodge of the Order of the Arrow " in Philadelphia — where Goodman was elected as Grand Chieftain . Committees were organized to formulate a constitution , refine ceremonial rituals , devise insignia , and plan future development .
In the early 1920s , many Scout executives were skeptical of what they called " secret camp fraternities . " By September 1922 , opposition to the Order of the Arrow was such that a formal resolution opposing " camp fraternities " was proposed at a national meeting of Scout executives . Goodman argued against the motion : " Using the Scout ideals as our great objective " , he said , a camp activity that will " further the advancement of those ideals " should not be suppressed . The motion was narrowly defeated , and the fledgling Order continued as an experimental program throughout the 1920s and 1930s . In 1931 , there were OA lodges in seven percent of BSA councils nationwide . By 1948 , about two @-@ thirds of the BSA councils had established OA lodges . That year , the OA was also integrated as an official part of the Scouting program .
= = = Order in the 21st century = = =
Over the century since the Order of the Arrow 's founding , more than one million Scouts and Scouters have worn the OA sash on their uniforms , denoting membership in the Brotherhood . The four stated purposes of the Order of the Arrow are : " ( 1 ) Recognize those who best exemplify the Scout Oath and Law in their daily lives and through that recognition cause others to conduct themselves in a way that warrants similar recognition ; ( 2 ) Promote camping , responsible outdoor adventure , and environmental stewardship as essential components of every Scout ’ s experience , in the unit , year @-@ round , and in summer camp ; ( 3 ) Develop leaders with the willingness , character , spirit and ability to advance the activities of their units , our Brotherhood , Scouting , and ultimately our nation ; and ( 4 ) Crystallize the Scout habit of helpfulness into a life purpose of leadership in cheerful service to others .
In a new program of national service conducted from June through August 2008 , the OA offered ArrowCorps5 to both youth and adult Arrowmen . Described as " one of the largest conservation efforts in Scouting 's history " by the Boy Scouts of America , approximately 3 @,@ 500 Arrowmen converged on five national forests to work on various conservation projects such as building new trails and helping preserve nearly extinct species , as well as removing invasive species , in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service . The five national forests are : Mark Twain National Forest , Manti @-@ La Sal National Forest , George Washington and Jefferson National Forests , Shasta @-@ Trinity National Forest and Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest .
= = Membership = =
More than 180 @,@ 000 youth and adults are members of the Order of the Arrow . This number is approximately one @-@ seventh of the total number of those registered in the BSA . Youth members are elected by their local unit . In contrast to Boy Scouting , where youth members are under 18 and adult members are over 18 , OA youth members include all persons under 21 years of age while those 21 and over are considered adult members .
The OA is a part of the Boy Scout program . Youth members are elected from Boy Scout troops and Varsity Scout teams . To be eligible for induction , a Scout must have achieved the rank of First Class , spent at least 15 days and nights camping within the last two years ( six of which at a resident camp ) , and gain the approval of their unit leader . Once elected , a youth must complete their Ordeal within one year . Adults who had not previously joined the Order as a youth member may become members by being nominated by the unit , district , or council committee and then approved by the lodge adult selection committee . Adults must meet the same camping requirement . In addition , at least one youth from the adult 's troop or team must be elected to the OA in that year for an adult to be nominated . A unit may nominate up to one third of the number of adults as the number of youth elected . Honorary membership was once bestowed in special circumstances , as with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Dwight D. Eisenhower , but this practice was officially discontinued in 1953 .
= = = Ordeal = = =
After being elected or nominated , candidates may participate in a call @-@ out ceremony to recognize those Scouts and Scouters that were selected before they attend their Ordeal . The call @-@ out ceremony may be performed at summer camp , a camporee , a call @-@ out weekend or at a unit meeting . Candidates subsequently participate in an Ordeal , intended to emphasize service and selflessness . During the induction , " candidates maintain complete silence , receive small amounts of food , work on camp improvement projects , and are required to sleep alone , apart from other campers , which teaches significant values . " If they succeed in their ordeal the candidates are then welcomed as Ordeal members in a formal Ordeal Ceremony .
= = = Brotherhood = = =
Ordeal members are entitled to all the same rights and privileges of membership in the Order as Brotherhood and Vigil Honor members — there are no ranks within the Order . However , moving on to Brotherhood membership offers an opportunity to reaffirm one 's commitment to the Order . Arrowmen may " seal " their membership after ten months by demonstrating their knowledge of the traditions and obligations of the OA . They then participate in an induction ceremony and become Brotherhood members .
While the Ordeal consists primarily of physical impressions , " the Brotherhood ceremony is one of deeper and quieter mental impressions . "
= = = Vigil Honor = = =
The Vigil Honor is a recognition given to Arrowmen for distinguished contributions beyond the immediate responsibilities of their position or office to their lodge , the Order of the Arrow , Scouting , or their Scout Camp . The Vigil Honor may be conferred upon Arrowmen who have completed a minimum of two years as a Brotherhood member and have performed exceptional service above and beyond their immediate responsibilities through leadership , exemplary efforts , and dedication . However , under no circumstances should tenure in Scouting or the Order of the Arrow be considered as reason enough for a Vigil Honor recommendation . Selection is annual and is limited to one person for every 50 members of the lodge , and members of the Order can be inducted into the Vigil Honor only with the written approval of the national Order of the Arrow committee .
As a part of the Vigil Honor induction , each new Vigil Honor member is given a Vigil Honor name in the language of the Lenni Lenape , on whom the traditions and ceremonies of the Order are based . An English translation of the Vigil Honor name is also provided , and the name often represents a characteristic of the individual .
= = Organization = =
The Order of the Arrow places great emphasis on being a youth @-@ led organization . Only youth under the age 21 are voting members and are eligible to hold elected offices . Professional and volunteer adults are appointed in non @-@ voting advisory positions at the chapter , lodge , and section levels .
= = = Lodge = = =
The basic unit of the OA is the lodge , which is chartered to a local BSA council . The lodge chief is the elected youth leader , the lodge adviser is a BSA adult volunteer appointed by the Scout executive , and the lodge staff adviser is the council Scout executive or his designated council professional Scouter . The lodge youth officers , consisting of the lodge chief , one or more vice chiefs , a secretary , and a treasurer are responsible for organizing and leading the various programs and activities of the lodge . Many lodges have standing committees responsible for ceremonies , service projects , publications , unit elections , camp promotions , and dance teams composed of youth members . Lodges can also divide into chapters , usually corresponding to districts within the council . The chapter is led by the elected youth chapter chief , chapter vice chiefs , secretary , and a volunteer adult is appointed as the adviser , the district executive is the professional ( staff ) adviser .
= = = Section = = =
Lodges are grouped into sections that are then grouped into regions . The section chief is the elected youth leader , a volunteer adult is appointed as the section adviser , and the area director ( or his designate ) is the professional ( staff ) adviser . In addition to the section chief , the section has two additional elected officers . The vice chief and secretary are elected immediately following the election of the section chief at the section 's annual business meeting . All sections gather annually at a section conclave held in the late spring or early fall . The section officers lead the planning of this weekend with the help of the lodge chiefs in the section .
= = = Region = = =
The Order of the Arrow is organized into four regions , Central , Southern , Northeast and Western Region ; the boundaries of each OA region correspond with the boundaries of the BSA 's regions . Each region has an elected region chief , a volunteer adult who is appointed as the region chairman to oversee its region committee , and an appointed professional ( staff ) adviser . Each region chief is elected at the national planning meeting the day after the election of the national chief and vice chief by a caucus of the section chiefs from the given region . The members of the region committee consists of the region chief , the region chairman , all national committeemen from the region , and other appointed adult volunteers . Each region annually has a gathering of all section officers and advisers . As a region they are trained in topics relevant to their jobs . Each region also provides opportunities for Order of the Arrow members to go through a National Leadership Seminar . This weekend course is highly rated and a lasting memory for many members .
= = = National = = =
The national chief and the national vice chief are selected by a caucus of the section chiefs at the outset of the Order of the Arrow 's national planning meeting . At the national level , the OA is headed by the national Order of the Arrow committee of which the national chief and national vice chief are voting members.The national adult leadership includes the volunteer national chairman and the OA director , a professional Scouter .
= = Symbols = =
Arrowmen are identified by a white sash bearing a red arrow that is worn over their right shoulder . An Ordeal member wears a sash with a lone arrow . The Brotherhood member wears a sash bearing an arrow with a red bar at each end of the arrow . A Vigil Honor member wears a sash with the same bars of as the Brotherhood sash at each end of the arrow , and a Vigil Honor triangle on the center of the shaft . Members wear the sash at Order of the Arrow functions and special Scouting activities when members need to be identified as Arrowmen rendering special services . The OA sash is not worn at the same time as the merit badge sash , nor worn folded in the belt . The sash as a form of recognition dates to the founding of the Order and has a long history of changes in usage and design .
The OA Universal Ribbon is worn suspended from the right uniform shirt pocket button . Vigil Honor recipients may add the Vigil Honor pin to the ribbon . Lodge affiliation is indicated by the wearing of the lodge emblem ( commonly known as a lodge flap ) , an embroidered patch worn on the right pocket flap of the uniform shirt . Each lodge flap has a unique design , generally reflecting the name , geography or history of the lodge . Special issues of flaps may be created to commemorate anniversaries and other events and are a popular item for those who engage in Scouting memorabilia collecting .
Arrowmen also exchange a special handshake as a token of brotherhood , along with other signs and passwords . A signature acronym , WWW ( Wimachtendienk , Wingolauchsik , Witahemui - The Brotherhood of Cheerful Service ) is often depicted in publications , regalia , etc .
= = Ceremonies = =
The Order of the Arrow utilizes three nationally standardized ceremonies for Ordeal , Brotherhood , and Vigil Honor memberships using themes , stories , and symbols centered on American Indian traditions as interpreted by the Order of the Arrow . It also utilizes symbolic progression , so that no symbols are introduced before the proper time . This is done to keep the sense of mystery surrounding the ceremonies and their various symbols . There is an element of mystery in the ceremonies for the sake of its effect on the participants , and so the three membership ceremonies are not performed in public . The ceremonies were standardized almost from the beginning of the OA to avoid misunderstandings regarding the diversity of religious beliefs among BSA members .
Ceremonies were once considered to be secret , and consequently the OA has been viewed by some as a secret society . With the introduction of Youth Protection program guidelines in 1980s , the BSA has made clear that any concerned parent , guardian , or religious leader may view a video of the ceremonies , attend meetings , or read ceremonial texts upon request to a council , district , lodge , or chapter official to assure themselves that there is nothing objectionable . Such persons are asked to safeguard the details relating to ceremonies for the sake of the participants . The intent of the provision for parents and religious leaders to be allowed access to ceremonies is to ensure that there is no religious conflict or violations of youth protection guidelines occurring . Parents have long been discouraged in many Lodges from seizing the opportunity to use the provision for photo opportunities with their sons , and some lodges have instituted bans on photography during the ceremonies . Hazing or demeaning initiation pranks are also prohibited by the OA and the BSA .
The ceremonies utilize symbolic settings , rites , and principles to convey various Scouting ideals to participants . As one author depicts a ceremony , " The values of the Order of the Arrow , ' a brotherhood of cheerful service , ' were passed on during a night @-@ time ceremony : an arrowhead outlined with stones on the ground , candles on the stones , a huge bonfire at the base of the arrowhead , and at the point of the arrow a lectern from which was read , and danced , the story of heroic sacrifice for others . " Ceremonies also utilize the OA song , commonly referred to by its first line of lyrics as Firm Bound in Brotherhood , and titled Order of the Arrow Official Song and The Order of the Arrow Song in the printed music score of official OA publications . It was written in 1921 by OA founder E. Urner Goodman to the Russian hymn tune God Save the Tsar ! , composed by Alexei Lvov in the 19th century .
OA ceremony teams are also occasionally asked to assist local Cub Scout and Boy Scout units with special ceremonies including Arrow of Light ceremonies for the Cub Scouts and Eagle Scout ceremonies for Boy Scouts .
= = Awards = =
Awards are separate and distinct from the membership levels of Ordeal and Brotherhood . Awards available through the Order of the Arrow include : Vigil Honor , Founder 's Award , Distinguished Service Award , Lifetime Achievement Award , Red Arrow Award , E. Urner Goodman Camping Award .
= = Events = =
Most lodges hold several annual events , such as one or two annual lodge fellowships , an annual lodge recognition dinner , and one or more Ordeal weekends which usually include Brotherhood ceremonies as well . Many larger lodges delegate responsibility for Ordeal weekends and other service projects upon the individual chapters . Individual summer camps may also host " OA days " during which members of the OA may receive small tokens of recognition in exchange for showing their sash .
The section conclave is an annual activity ( prior to 1972 known as an Area OA Conference ) involving three or more lodges in an established geographic area . Each conclave is led by section youth officers elected from among the member lodges at the previous year 's conclave , and the event itself is prepared in cooperation with various other lodge officers , and with one lodge serving as the " host lodge " .
The national OA committee also sponsors various national service opportunities , the oldest of which is the National OA Service Corps at the national Scout jamborees , at which Arrowmen have helped with many functions including shows and the Outdoor Adventure Program exhibit .
= = = High Adventure Program = = =
The National OA Committee also sponsors service groups to the three National High Adventure Bases , originally starting with the Order of the Arrow Trail Crew at the Philmont Scout Ranch working to build new trails and repair old ones . This expanded to the Northern Tier National High Adventure Bases with the OA Wilderness Voyage , repairing the portage trails in the Boundary Waters area , and then to Florida National High Adventure Sea Base in 2005 with Ocean Adventure , which works to remove invasive species on some of the Keys and promoting and carrying out of the Bleach watch program in the Florida Keys . In the summer of 2009 , the OA began the OA Canadian Odyssey program which provided service similar to the OA Wilderness Voyage to the Donald Rogert Canoe Base in Atikokan , Ontario of Northern Tier National High Adventure Bases .
= = = National Order of the Arrow Conference = = =
The National Order of the Arrow Conference ( NOAC ) is a multi @-@ day event which usually takes place on a university campus , bringing together thousands of delegates from OA lodges around the nation for training and activities . NOACs are held every two years , with exceptions made to align the event with significant anniversaries . As a youth @-@ led organization , these national conferences are organized and directed by the elected section and region youth officers , who serve on committees responsible for various conference aspects under the leadership of the conference vice @-@ chief . Events include training for programs , leadership and American Indian culture ; competitions in athletics , ceremonies , cooking and American Indian dances ; and exhibits on OA history , outdoor activities and camping . There are also opportunities to talk with national leaders , perform service work and trade patches . Evening shows have different themes , including American Indian culture and recognition of dance competition winners , presentations of awards including the OA Distinguished Service Award and other entertainment .
= = Training = =
In addition to training courses available at a NOAC or section conclave , the OA offers specialized leadership training as weekend events for members : Lodge Leadership Development ( LLD ) , National Leadership Seminars ( NLS ) , and National Lodge Adviser Training Seminar ( NLATS ) . LLD is a one @-@ day or two @-@ day event conducted by a lodge to train their officers and advisers . NLS 's are conducted by regions for lodge officers and advisers . Many lodges send key officers to receive training . Typically , each region schedules three or four NLS weekends annually , at geographically dispersed locations within the region . NLATS is a training event for adults , usually held in conjunction with an NLS and conducted by regions , on the role of advisers in the OA .
= = = Lodge Leadership Development ( LLD ) = = =
The LLD ’ s primary objective is to train and orient lodge and chapter officers to the logistics of operating their chapters and lodges . Lodges are primarily responsible for providing this training to its officers , and there are resources available online to add to the course ’ s syllabus .
= = = National Leadership Seminar ( NLS ) = = =
Each region in the Order of the Arrow is responsible for putting on three to four NLSs each year in different areas of the region . The NLS has received praise for being one of the most valuable training offered by the BSA . Participants spend a weekend with Arrowmen in different parts of the region learning about the theory and practice of effective leadership . Each region is responsible for their NLS ’ s program , and the weekend is organized by the region chief and his support staff . Primary NLS staff go through a national training weekend called Train the Trainer , put on once every two years .
= = = National Lodge Adviser Training Seminar ( NLATS ) = = =
Largely considered the adult equivalent of the NLS program , NLATS ’ s primary objective is to provide advanced training to adults in each lodge . NLATS and NLS usually happen concurrently on the same weekend . The event is planned and executed by a staff of adults .
= St Joseph 's Convent , Taunton =
St Joseph 's Convent is a complex of 18th- and 19th @-@ century buildings in Taunton , Somerset , which were primarily used as a Roman Catholic convent , first by the Franciscans , and then Sisters of St. Joseph of Annecy . The buildings were sold out of the Catholic church in 1976 , and were redeveloped as residential flats in 2005 . The main building is designated by English Heritage as a Grade II * listed building , while the boundary walls on the west side are Grade II listed .
The main building was begun in 1772 , as a free hospital for the poor , but funding ran out two years later , and it was completed as a private residence . In the early 19th century , it was bought by a group of Franciscan nuns , who moved from an unsatisfactory site in Winchester . The nuns carried out a number of additions and extensions to the building to make it more suitable for their needs . They moved out of Taunton in 1950 and sold the convent to the Sisters of St. Joseph , who continued to run a school on the site for the next twenty @-@ six years .
= = History = =
Originally , the site was intended to be a hospital ; on the first stone , which was laid in September 1772 , the engraving describes the building as " a general hospital , for the relief of the sick poor . " That foundation stone was laid by Frederick North , Lord North , the British Prime Minister at the time . In 1774 , the building work stopped when funds ran out , and shortly after it was sold to recover the debts incurred from building it . The building was eventually completed as a personal residence , and came into the hands of James Coles . Upon his death , the house , known as Taunton Lodge , was put up for sale . This was brought to the attention of a group of Franciscan nuns . The nuns had left Bruges in Belgium , and arrived in England in 1794 to avoid persecution during the French Revolution . They initially settled in Winchester , but the buildings they utilised there were not suitable for their permanent use , and in October 1806 , they were ordered to look for somewhere else to establish themselves .
Mr Knight of Cannington alerted the nuns to the sale of Taunton Lodge , and they raised the £ 3 @,@ 150 required to purchase it . They completed the purchase in early May 1807 , after some minor quibbles with the Coles family . When the abbess visited the Lodge prior to the purchase , she had identified that it would require £ 1 @,@ 000 worth of improvements in addition to the money already spent on its acquisition . The plans included extending the existing building to gain a staircase and some dormitories for the school girls , and the addition of a new wing that would include a chapel , infirmary , four cells , and rooms for the male chaplain and servants . The new building was began in March 1808 , and by June of that year , the entire community had moved from Winchester , despite the work being ongoing . The shell of the new body was completed by the autumn of 1808 , but the work was delayed due to a lack of finances as £ 1 @,@ 908 had already been spent on altering the old building . This cost did not include the erection of the new wing , thus the constructions costs were already far surpassing the original estimate .
Within two years of being built , the roof on the new wing had to be replaced as it had started sinking ; the joists " were made of bad wood & put in the wrong way " . It was too close to winter in 1810 for the work to be completed that year , and it had to be left until the following spring . The wing was completed , with replacement roof , by January 1812 , at a total cost of just over £ 2 @,@ 230 . A storm in 1818 damaged the roof in the original building , and on inspection it was found that the whole roof should be replaced ; this was completed by September of the same year .
The convent continued to be significantly expanded over the next twenty years , and in 1858 the Franciscans purchased a plot of land adjacent to the convent for the erection of a church , rectory and school . This was gifted to the local Bishop , and St George 's Church was opened on the site two years later .
In 1950 , the Franciscans sold the convent buildings to the Sisters of St. Joseph of Annecy . The latter had been in Taunton since the 1920s , running St George 's School , and upon purchasing the convent , set up St Joseph 's Convent School , which catered for boys and girls up to the age of 11 , and girls on to 18 . That school continued to operate until 1976 , when the property was bought by the nearby King 's College , who used it as accommodation for their boarding students . In 2005 , the building complex was converted to " high quality " residential flats .
= = = 1809 miracle = = =
In March 1809 a miracle was reported as occurring at the convent . It is recorded that one of the nuns , Sister Mary Ann Wood , sustained a deep cut across her arm while opening a sash window . She was attended by a local surgeon , who judged that the muscles , and most of the tendons had been severed . The wound healed over after three weeks , but she continued to suffer sharp pain for four months . During all this time , she was not able to use her hand or arm , and despite attempting a variety of different methods to repair the broken tendons , the doctor eventually declared that she may regain use of her forefinger and thumb , but not the rest of her fingers . By this time , her arm and hand had withered , and Sister Mary Ann decided to make a novena ( nine prayers ) to Saint Winifred . She began her prayers on 6 August , and placed a piece of moss on her arm ; she said that she felt intense pain , and considered removing the moss , but opted not to . The following morning , she awoke , and her hand and arm were returned to full strength . The surgeon who had been tending to her was said to have " at first declared the case a miracle ; but human respect prevented him from publicly attesting it . " The Right Reverend Peter Collingridge , Vicar Apostolic of the Western District , after consulting a Catholic surgeon in London , declared " that the cure was supernatural and an evident miracle . "
= = = 1851 case of Augusta Talbot = = =
In 1851 , the House of Commons was petitioned by Craven Berkeley , who had previously sat as the member of parliament for Cheltenham . He claimed that his step @-@ daughter , Augusta Talbot , had been forced to join the Franciscan Convent in Taunton as a postulant ( the first stage to become a nun ) , rather than a pupil . Her father had died in 1839 and then her mother , after remarrying , died in 1841 , and with the subsequent death of her brother , she was due to inherit £ 80 @,@ 000 . After the death of her mother , Talbot had been placed in the care of Francis Talbot , 5th Earl of Shrewsbury , her father 's half @-@ brother . Berkeley alleged that the Shrewsburys first attempted to marry her to François VII de La Rochefoucauld , and then when she refused , placed her at the Taunton convent against her will . The allegation followed that when Talbot became a nun , her inheritance , which was due to her in June 1852 , would become property of the convent , or the greater Catholic church . Berkeley also protested that he and his daughter were not allowed to communicate with Talbot , though Thomas Wilde , 1st Baron Truro , the Lord Chancellor , noted that Berkeley had not tried to see Talbot for nine years . Lord Truro contacted Talbot , who stated that she was not a postulant , and she was amenable to his plans to remove her from the convent and place her in the care of a new guardian in London . He duly did so , and rejected Berkeley 's petition , upon the basis of his previous lack of contact with Talbot .
= = Architecture = =
The main building is a symmetrical three @-@ storey house built of red brick , with a yellow brick central range which was added later . The building has a cornice and parapet , and a bowed end which projects to the east . On the south side , there is an additional attic storey . The house retains its original sash windows , and on the first floor some of the windows have wrought @-@ iron balconettes . An addition to the building has been made in the south @-@ west , including an arcade on the ground floor , and a bell tower . Further additions were made to the main building in the 19th century , including a Gothic chapel of red brick with ashlar dressings to the north . There are later buildings on either side of the chapel : to the west is a 19th @-@ century building with a two @-@ storey entrance porch , while a Gothic cloister , comprising two walks with scissor @-@ trussed timber roofs , lies to the east . There is a further extension to the south , which is not part of the Grade II * listing .
A summerhouse was added to the grounds , probably alongside the 19th @-@ century additions to the main building . It was constructed of red and white brick , and had a steep slate roof . The east side displayed a crucifix . The building was Grade II listed in July 1975 , but has since been demolished . The stone walls around the site are Grade II listed where they are the original " high stone rubble wall with brick capping " ; in other places they have been renovated in newer red brick .
= Battle of Horseshoe Bend ( 1832 ) =
The Battle of Horseshoe Bend , also referred to as the Battle of Pecatonica and the Battle of Bloody Lake , was fought on June 16 , 1832 in present @-@ day Wisconsin at an oxbow lake known as " Horseshoe Bend " , which was formed by a change in course of the Pecatonica River . The battle was a major turning point in the Black Hawk War , despite being of only minor military significance . The small victory won by the U.S. militia at Horseshoe Bend helped restore public confidence in the volunteer force following an embarrassing defeat at Stillman 's Run . The Battle of Horseshoe Bend ended with three militia men killed in action and a party of eleven Kickapoo warriors dead .
The militia men involved in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend proved their ability to obey orders , act as a disciplined unit , and show bravery . Unlike at Stillman 's Run , the troops waited for Colonel Henry Dodge 's commands before acting on the field of battle . When ordered to charge , the men obeyed and eventually won a fight that descended into a bloody hand @-@ to @-@ hand battle . A memorial marker was erected to commemorate the battle in 1922 . Today the battleground at Horseshoe Bend is a county park .
= = Background = =
As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between Governor William Henry Harrison of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement , the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828 . However , Sauk Chief Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty , claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted , nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands . Angered by the loss of his birthplace , between 1830 and 1831 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River , but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed . In April 1832 , encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British , he again moved his so @-@ called " British Band " of around 1000 warriors and non @-@ combatants into Illinois . Finding no allies , he attempted to return to Iowa , but the undisciplined Illinois Militia force 's actions led to the Battle of Stillman 's Run . A number of other small skirmishes and massacres followed and the militias of Michigan Territory and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk 's Band . The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War .
The period between Stillman 's Run and Horseshoe Bend was filled with war @-@ related activity . A series of attacks at Buffalo Grove , the Plum River settlement , Fort Blue Mounds and the war 's most famous incident , the Indian Creek massacre , all took place between mid @-@ May and late June 1832 . In the week before the Battle of Horseshoe Bend , Colonel Henry Dodge of the western Michigan Territory militia was busy responding to various incidents across the region . On the afternoon of June 8 , 1832 , Dodge and his men , including James W. Stephenson , proceeded to Kellogg 's Grove and buried the victims of the St. Vrain massacre . That night Stephenson returned to Galena , Illinois , while Dodge moved to Hickory Point where he remained overnight . The next morning Dodge set out for Dixon 's Ferry , where he camped with General Hugh Brady .
= = Prelude = =
On June 11 , Dodge escorted Brady to the mouth of the Fox River to confer with overall commander General Henry Atkinson . Dodge left the conference with clear authority from Atkinson to deal with the violence in the mining region . He first traveled to his home fort , at Gratiot 's Grove , which he reached on June 13 . The Spafford Farm massacre occurred the following day , and Dodge set out for Fort Hamilton as soon as he heard about it , stopping at Fort Blue Mounds for supplies . On the way to Hamilton , the soldiers passed a German immigrant , Henry Apple , exchanged greetings and kept traveling . Shortly afterwards the soldiers heard gunshots in the distance ; Apple had met with a Kickapoo ambush , likely meant for Dodge himself . Dodge was probably saved by his last minute decision to make a detour from the main route . Later Apple 's horse galloped wildly back past the men , wounded and carrying a large amount of blood in its saddle . The horse continued all the way to Fort Hamilton , where it raised a furor among the inhabitants .
A Native American band from the Kickapoo tribe , eleven warriors in all , was responsible for the attack on Apple ; the same band had killed five men at Spafford Farm on June 14 . This band was only loosely affiliated with Black Hawk 's British Band .
On hearing the ambush in the distance , Dodge hurried on toward Fort Hamilton ( present @-@ day Wiota , Wisconsin ) where he gathered together a company of 29 mounted volunteers and sped off to intercept the attackers . He led the chase through tangled underbrush until , breaking into prairie , his force caught sight of the raiding party . The Kickapoo crossed the Pecatonica River within sight of the pursuing militia , and entered into an overgrown swamp . The militia followed across the swollen river and dismounted when they reached the swamp .
= = Battle = =
According to personal accounts of the battle , after dismounting Dodge offered his men a chance to back out of the operation . No one opted out , and 21 men advanced with Dodge in an extended firing line , unsure of the enemy 's location . The remaining eight soldiers were posted as guards on high grounds and near the horses . Unlike the disorganized and undisciplined troops at Stillman 's Run , the volunteers at Horseshoe Bend adhered to military discipline ; they waited for Dodge to give the order before they entered the thicket and swampland in search of their enemy , and once searching they awaited their commander 's order to attack .
After the militia advanced about 200 yards ( 200 m ) , the Kickapoo suddenly let loose a loud yell from their hidden position on the bank of an oxbow lake along the river . The warriors fired a volley toward the advancing militia and three men , Samuel Black , Samuel Wells and Montaville Morris , were hit and went down . Dodge did not hesitate and ordered his men to charge , they obeyed and waited until they were within six feet of the Kickapoo before discharging their weapons . The fight , after the initial charge and volley , descended into a hand @-@ to @-@ hand struggle with tomahawks , bayonets , muskets and spears the weapons of choice . The fighting only lasted a few minutes : nine Kickapoo were killed on the spot and the other two were felled while fleeing across the lake . During the hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat a fourth member of the militia , Thomas Jenkins , was wounded . Though short , the Battle of Horseshoe Bend had a lasting impact and influence on the rest of the war .
= = Aftermath = =
The Battle of Horseshoe Bend , though of little military significance , was a major turning point in the war for the volunteer militia forces and many white settlers . This minor militia victory was the first step in the process of redeeming the militia 's own morale and its standing in the eyes of the settlers on the frontier . Individual accounts claim that the battle at Horseshoe Bend " turn ( ed ) the tide of the war . " It was also notable for the proportion of killed in action to the number of combatants . All eleven Kickapoo that Dodge had pursued into the swamp were killed and scalped by his troops , while the final militia casualties were confined to three dead and one wounded . About an hour after the battle , Colonel William S. Hamilton arrived with friendly Menominee , Sioux and Ho @-@ Chunk warriors . According to Dodge , the friendly warriors were given some of the scalps his men had taken , with which they were " delighted " . Dodge also reported that the Native Americans then proceeded on to the battlefield and mutilated the corpses of the fallen Kickapoo .
Of Dodge 's casualties , Thomas Jenkins was only slightly wounded . However , the three Militia men who had been shot as they advanced towards the Kickapoo position all later died . Samuel Wells , Montaville Morris and Samuel Black were transported to Fort Hamilton ; Morris died at the fort , as did Wells , with his head in a comrade 's lap . When informed by the surgeon of his imminent death , Wells requested to speak with Dodge . Wells asked Dodge " if he had behaved like a soldier . " Dodge responded , " Yes , Wells , like a brave one . " Wells then said to the commander , " Send that word to my old father , " and died a short time later . Samuel Black was moved to Fort Defiance , where he lingered for nine days before dying .
This was the first battle in which a volunteer force defeated the Native Americans . Dodge became the first of the militia leaders to prove his ability to stand up to the enemy . He quickly became the " rising star " of the conflict , having helped negotiate the release of the Hall sisters after the Indian Creek massacre and proved himself at Horseshoe Bend .
The battlefield at Horseshoe Bend is now a campground located within a county park in Lafayette County , Wisconsin . The Black Hawk Memorial Park is maintained by the Lafayette County Sportsmen Alliance , Yellowstone Flint and Cap club , and the Friends of Woodford Park . In 1922 , a marker was erected by the Shullsburg chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution and the residents of Woodford to commemorate the Battle of Horseshoe Bend ; it is still visible today . The battlefield was listed on the National Register of Historic Places by the National Park Service on July 28 , 2011 .
= The New York Times =
The New York Times ( sometimes abbreviated to NYT ) is an American daily newspaper , founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18 , 1851 , by The New York Times Company . The New York Times has won 117 Pulitzer Prizes , more than any other news organization .
The paper 's print version has the second @-@ largest circulation , behind The Wall Street Journal , and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the United States of America . The New York Times is ranked 39th in the world by circulation . Following industry trends , its weekday circulation has fallen to fewer than one million daily since 1990 .
Nicknamed for years as " The Gray Lady " , The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a national " newspaper of record " . The New York Times is owned by The New York Times Company . Arthur Ochs Sulzberger , Jr . , the Publisher and the Chairman of the Board , is a member of the Ochs @-@ Sulzberger family that has controlled the paper since 1896 . The New York Times international version , formerly the International Herald Tribune , is now called the International New York Times .
The paper 's motto , " All the News That 's Fit to Print " , appears in the upper left @-@ hand corner of the front page . Since the mid @-@ 1970s , The New York Times has greatly expanded its layout and organization , adding special weekly sections on various topics supplementing the regular news , editorials , sports , and features . In recent times , The New York Times has been organized into the following sections : News , Editorials / Opinions @-@ Columns / Op @-@ Ed , New York ( metropolitan ) , Business , Sports of The Times , Arts , Science , Styles , Home , Travel , and other features .
On Sunday , The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review ( formerly the Week in Review ) , The New York Times Book Review , The New York Times Magazine and T : The New York Times Style Magazine . The New York Times stayed with the broadsheet full page set @-@ up ( as some others have changed into a tabloid lay @-@ out ) and an eight @-@ column format for several years , after most papers switched to six , and was one of the last newspapers to adopt color photography , especially on the front page .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The New York Times was founded as the New @-@ York Daily Times on September 18 , 1851 , by journalist and politician Henry Jarvis Raymond ( 1820 – 69 ) , then a Whig Party member and later second chairman of the newly organized Republican Party National Committee , and former banker George Jones . Sold for a penny ( equivalent to 28 cents today ) , the inaugural edition attempted to address various speculations on its purpose and positions that preceded its release :
We shall be Conservative , in all cases where we think Conservatism essential to the public good ; — and we shall be Radical in everything which may seem to us to require radical treatment and radical reform . We do not believe that everything in Society is either exactly right or exactly wrong ; — what is good we desire to preserve and improve ; — what is evil , to exterminate , or reform .
The newspaper shortened its name to The New @-@ York Times in 1857 . It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s . On April 21 , 1861 , The New York Times departed from its original Monday – Saturday publishing schedule and joined other major dailies in adding a Sunday edition to offer daily coverage of the Civil War . One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair , the subject of twenty editorials it published alone .
The main office of The New York Times was attacked during the New York Draft Riots sparked by the beginning of military conscription for the Northern Union Army now instituted in the midst of the Civil War on July 13 , 1863 . At " Newspaper Row " , across from City Hall , Henry Raymond , owner and editor of The New York Times , averted the rioters with " Gatling " ( early machine , rapid @-@ firing ) guns , one of which he manned himself . The mob now diverted , instead attacked the headquarters of abolitionist publisher Horace Greeley 's New York Tribune until forced to flee by the Brooklyn City Police , who had crossed the East River to help the Manhattan authorities .
The newspaper 's influence grew during 1870 – 1 when it published a series of exposés on William Magear ( " Boss " ) Tweed , leader of the city 's Democratic Party — popularly known as " Tammany Hall " ( from its early 19th Century meeting headquarters ) — that led to the end of the " Tweed Ring 's " domination of New York 's City Hall . In the 1880s , The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical . In 1884 , the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland ( former Mayor of Buffalo and Governor of New York State ) in his first presidential campaign . While this move cost The New York Times ' readership among its more progressive and Republican readers , the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years and slowly acquired a reputation for even @-@ handedness and accurate modern reporting , especially by the 1890s under the guidance of its new owner and publisher , Adolph Ochs of Chattanooga , Tennessee . The New York Times was acquired by Ochs , publisher of the Chattanooga Times , in 1896 . The following year , he coined the paper 's slogan , " All The News That 's Fit To Print " , which has since been printed in a box in the upper left hand corner of the front page ; this was a jab at competing papers such as Joseph Pulitzer 's New York World and William Randolph Hearst 's New York Journal which were now being known for a lurid , sensationalist and often inaccurate reporting of facts and opinions known by the end of the century as " yellow journalism " . Under Ochs ' guidance , continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition , ( which were from the era of James Gordon Bennett of the New York Herald which predated Pulitzer and Hearst 's arrival in New York ) , The New York Times achieved international scope , circulation , and reputation . In 1904 , The New York Times received the first on @-@ the @-@ spot wireless telegraph transmission from a naval battle , a report of the destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy 's Baltic Fleet at the Battle of Port Arthur in the Straits of Tsushima off the eastern coast of Korea in the Yellow Sea in the western Pacific Ocean after just sailing across the globe from Europe from the press @-@ boat Haimun during the Russo @-@ Japanese War ( one of the most important and history @-@ changing naval battles in history ) . In 1910 , the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began . The New York Times ' first trans @-@ Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible . In 1920 , a " 4 A.M. Airplane Edition " was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening .
In the 1940s , the paper extended its breadth and reach . The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942 , and the fashion section in 1946 . The New York Times began an international edition in 1946 . The international edition stopped publishing in 1967 , when The New York Times joined the owners of the New York Herald Tribune and The Washington Post to publish the International Herald Tribune in Paris . The paper bought AM radio station WQXR ( 1560 kHz ) in 1944 . Its " sister " FM station , WQXQ , would become WQXR @-@ FM ( 96 @.@ 3 MHz ) . Branded as " The Radio Stations of The New York Times " , its classical music radio format was simulcast on both the AM & FM frequencies until December 1992 , when the big @-@ band and pop standards music format of station WNEW ( 1130 kHz – now WBBR / " Bloomberg Radio " ) was transferred to and adopted by WQXR ; in recognition of the format change , WQXR changed its call letters to WQEW ( a " hybrid " combination of " WQXR " and " WNEW " ) . By 1999 , The New York Times was leasing WQEW to ABC Radio for its " Radio Disney " format . In 2007 , WQEW was finally purchased by Disney ; in late 2014 , it was sold to Family Radio ( a religious radio network ) and became WFME . On July 14 , 2009 , it was announced that WQXR @-@ FM would be sold to the WNYC radio group who , on October 8 , 2009 , moved the station from 96 @.@ 3 to 105 @.@ 9 MHz ( swapping frequencies with Spanish @-@ language station WXNY @-@ FM , which wanted the more powerful transmitter to increase its coverage ) and began operating it as a non @-@ commercial , public radio station . After the purchase , WQXR @-@ FM retained the classical music format , whereas WNYC @-@ FM ( 93 @.@ 9 MHz ) abandoned it , switching to a talk radio format .
The New York Times is third in national circulation , after USA Today and The Wall Street Journal . The newspaper is owned by The New York Times Company , in which descendants of Adolph Ochs , principally the Sulzberger family , maintain a dominant role . In 2009 , article circulation dropped 7 @.@ 3 percent to about 928 @,@ 000 ; this is the first time since the 1980s that it has fallen under one million . As of February 2013 , the paper reported a circulation of 1 @,@ 317 @,@ 100 copies in weekdays and 1 @,@ 781 @,@ 100 copies on Sundays . In the New York City metropolitan area , the paper costs $ 2 @.@ 50 Monday through Saturday and $ 5 on Sunday . The New York Times has won 117 Pulitzer Prizes , more than any other newspaper .
In 2009 , the newspaper began production of local inserts in regions outside of the New York area . Beginning October 16 , 2009 , a two @-@ page " Bay Area " insert was added to copies of the Northern California edition on Fridays and Sundays . The newspaper commenced production of a similar Friday and Sunday insert to the Chicago edition on November 20 , 2009 . The inserts consist of local news , policy , sports , and culture pieces , usually supported by local advertisements .
In addition to its New York City headquarters , the newspaper has ten news bureaus in the New York region , eleven national news bureaus and 26 foreign news bureaus . The New York Times reduced its page width to 12 inches ( 300 mm ) from 13 @.@ 5 inches ( 340 mm ) on August 6 , 2007 , adopting the width that has become the U.S. newspaper industry standard .
Because of its steadily declining sales attributed to the rise of online alternative media and social media , the newspaper has been going through a downsizing for several years , offering buyouts to workers and cutting expenses , in common with a general trend among print news media .
= = = Headquarters building = = =
The newspaper 's first building was located at 113 Nassau Street in New York City . In 1854 , it moved to 138 Nassau Street , and in 1858 to 41 Park Row , making it the first newspaper in New York City housed in a building built specifically for its use .
The newspaper moved its headquarters to the Times Tower , located at 1475 Broadway in 1904 , in an area called Longacre Square , that was later renamed Times Square in honor of the newspaper . The top of the building – now known as One Times Square – is the site of the New Year 's Eve tradition of lowering a lighted ball , that was started by the paper . The building is also notable for its electronic news ticker – popularly known as " The Zipper " – where headlines crawled around the outside of the building . It is still in use , but is now operated by the Reuters news agency . After nine years in its Times Square tower , the newspaper had an annex built at 229 West 43rd Street . After several expansions , the 43rd Street building became the newspaper 's main headquarters in 1960 and the Times Tower on Broadway was sold the following year . It served as the newspaper 's main printing plant until 1997 , when the newspaper opened a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art printing plant in the College Point section of the borough of Queens .
A decade later , The New York Times moved its newsroom and businesses headquarters from West 43rd Street to a new tower at 620 Eighth Avenue between West 40th and 41st Streets , in Manhattan – directly across Eighth Avenue from the Port Authority Bus Terminal . The new headquarters for the newspaper , known officially as The New York Times Building but unofficially called the new " Times Tower " by many New Yorkers , is a skyscraper designed by Renzo Piano .
= = = New York Times v. Sullivan = = =
The paper 's involvement in a 1964 libel case helped bring one of the key United States Supreme Court decisions supporting freedom of the press , New York Times Co. v. Sullivan . In it , the United States Supreme Court established the " actual malice " standard for press reports about public officials or public figures to be considered defamatory or libelous . The malice standard requires the plaintiff in a defamation or libel case prove the publisher of the statement knew the statement was false or acted in reckless disregard of its truth or falsity . Because of the high burden of proof on the plaintiff , and difficulty in proving malicious intent , such cases by public figures rarely succeed .
= = = The Pentagon Papers = = =
In 1971 , the Pentagon Papers , a secret United States Department of Defense history of the United States ' political and military involvement in the Vietnam War from 1945 to 1967 , were given ( " leaked " ) to Neil Sheehan of The New York Times by former State Department official Daniel Ellsberg , with his friend Anthony Russo assisting in copying them . The New York Times began publishing excerpts as a series of articles on June 13 . Controversy and lawsuits followed . The papers revealed , among other things , that the government had deliberately expanded its role in the war by conducting air strikes over Laos , raids along the coast of North Vietnam , and offensive actions taken by U.S. Marines well before the public was told about the actions , all while President Lyndon B. Johnson had been promising not to expand the war . The document increased the credibility gap for the U.S. government , and hurt efforts by the Nixon administration to fight the ongoing war .
When The New York Times began publishing its series , President Richard Nixon became incensed . His words to National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger included " People have gotta be put to the torch for this sort of thing ... " and " Let 's get the son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ bitch in jail . " After failing to get The New York Times to stop publishing , Attorney General John Mitchell and President Nixon obtained a federal court injunction that The New York Times cease publication of excerpts . The newspaper appealed and the case began working through the court system . On June 18 , 1971 , The Washington Post began publishing its own series . Ben Bagdikian , a Post editor , had obtained portions of the papers from Ellsberg . That day the Post received a call from the Assistant Attorney General , William Rehnquist , asking them to stop publishing . When the Post refused , the U.S. Justice Department sought another injunction . The U.S. District court judge refused , and the government appealed . On June 26 , 1971 the U.S. Supreme Court agreed to take both cases , merging them into New York Times Co. v. United States 403 US 713 . On June 30 , 1971 , the Supreme Court held in a 6 – 3 decision that the injunctions were unconstitutional prior restraints and that the government had not met the burden of proof required . The justices wrote nine separate opinions , disagreeing on significant substantive issues . While it was generally seen as a victory for those who claim the First Amendment enshrines an absolute right to free speech , many felt it a lukewarm victory , offering little protection for future publishers when claims of national security were at stake .
= = = Discrimination in employment = = =
Discriminatory practices restricting women in editorial positions were part of the history , correlating with effects on the journalism published at the time . The newspaper 's first general woman reporter was Jane Grant , who described her experience afterwards . She wrote , " In the beginning I was charged not to reveal the fact that a female had been hired " . Other reporters nicknamed her Fluff and she was subjected to considerable hazing . Because of her gender , promotions were out of the question , according to the then @-@ managing editor . She was there for fifteen years , interrupted by World War I.
In 1935 , Anne McCormick wrote to Arthur Hays Sulzberger , " I hope you won 't expect me to revert to ' woman 's @-@ point @-@ of @-@ view ' stuff . " Later , she interviewed major political leaders and appears to have had easier access than her colleagues did . Even those who witnessed her in action were unable to explain how she got the interviews she did . Clifton Daniel said , " [ After World War II , ] I 'm sure Adenauer called her up and invited her to lunch . She never had to grovel for an appointment . " Covering world leaders ' speeches after World War II at the National Press Club was limited to men by a Club rule . When women were eventually allowed in to hear the speeches , they still were not allowed to ask the speakers questions , although men were allowed and did ask , even though some of the women had won Pulitzer Prizes for prior work . Times reporter Maggie Hunter refused to return to the Club after covering one speech on assignment . Nan Robertson 's article on the Union Stock Yards , Chicago , was read aloud as anonymous by a professor , who then said , " ' It will come as a surprise to you , perhaps , that the reporter is a girl , ' he began ... [ G ] asps ; amazement in the ranks . ' She had used all her senses , not just her eyes , to convey the smell and feel of the stockyards . She chose a difficult subject , an offensive subject . Her imagery was strong enough to revolt you . ' " The New York Times hired Kathleen McLaughlin after ten years at the Chicago Tribune , where " [ s ] he did a series on maids , going out herself to apply for housekeeping jobs . "
= = = End of tenure track = = =
In February 2013 , the paper stopped offering lifelong positions for its journalists and editors .
= = Ownership = =
In 1896 , Adolph Ochs bought The New York Times , a money @-@ losing newspaper , and formed the New York Times Company . The Ochs @-@ Sulzberger family , one of the United States ' newspaper dynasties , has owned The New York Times ever since . After the publisher went public in the 1960s , the family continued to exert control through its ownership of the vast majority of Class B voting shares . Class A shareholders are permitted restrictive voting rights while Class B shareholders are allowed open voting rights .
The Ochs @-@ Sulzberger family trust controls roughly 88 percent of the company 's class B shares . Any alteration to the dual @-@ class structure must be ratified by six of eight directors who sit on the board of the Ochs @-@ Sulzberger family trust . The Trust board members are Daniel H. Cohen , James M. Cohen , Lynn G. Dolnick , Susan W. Dryfoos , Michael Golden , Eric M. A. Lax , Arthur O. Sulzberger , Jr. and Cathy J. Sulzberger .
Turner Catledge , the top editor at The New York Times from 1952 to 1968 , wanted to hide the ownership influence . Arthur Sulzberger routinely wrote memos to his editor , each containing suggestions , instructions , complaints , and orders . When Catledge would receive these memos he would erase the publisher 's identity before passing them to his subordinates . Catledge thought that if he removed the publisher 's name from the memos it would protect reporters from feeling pressured by the owner .
= = = Carlos Slim loan and investment = = =
On January 20 , 2009 , The New York Times reported that Carlos Slim , Mexican telecommunications magnate and the world 's second richest person , lent it $ 250 million " to help the newspaper company finance its businesses " . Since then , Slim has made additional investments in Times stock . As of October 6 , 2011 , according to Reuters , his position was estimated at over 8 @.@ 1 % of Class A shares .
On January 20 , 2015 , Slim increased his stake in the New York Times to 16 @.@ 8 % when he exercised stock options to purchase 15 @.@ 9 million shares , acquired as part of a repayment plan on a loan given to the New York Times Co. during the financial crisis in 2009 . Although this acquisition made him the largest shareholder in the company , it does not give him the ability to control the newspaper , as his stake allows him to vote only for Class A directors , who compose just a third of the company 's board .
= = = Dual @-@ class shares = = =
Dual @-@ class structures caught on in the mid @-@ 20th century as families such as the Grahams of The Washington Post Company sought to gain access to public capital without losing control . Dow Jones & Co . , publisher of The Wall Street Journal , had a similar structure and was controlled by the Bancroft family but was later bought by News Corporation in 2007 , which itself is controlled by Rupert Murdoch and his family through a similar dual @-@ class structure .
= = Content = =
= = = Sections = = =
The newspaper is organized in three sections , including the magazine .
News : Includes International , National , Washington , Business , Technology , Science , Health , Sports , The Metro Section , Education , Weather , and Obituaries .
Opinion : Includes Editorials , Op @-@ Eds and Letters to the Editor .
Features : Includes Arts , Movies , Theater , Travel , NYC Guide , Food , Home & Garden , Fashion & Style , Crossword , The New York Times Book Review , T : The New York Times Style Magazine , The New York Times Magazine , and Sunday Review .
Some sections , such as Metro , are only found in the editions of the paper distributed in the New York – New Jersey – Connecticut Tri @-@ State Area and not in the national or Washington , D.C. editions . Aside from a weekly roundup of reprints of editorial cartoons from other newspapers , The New York Times does not have its own staff editorial cartoonist , nor does it feature a comics page or Sunday comics section . In September 2008 , The New York Times announced that it would be combining certain sections effective October 6 , 2008 , in editions printed in the New York metropolitan area . The changes folded the Metro Section into the main International / National news section and combined Sports and Business ( except Saturday through Monday , when Sports is still printed as a standalone section ) . This change also included having the name of the Metro section be called New York outside of the Tri @-@ State Area . The presses used by The New York Times allow four sections to be printed simultaneously ; as the paper had included more than four sections all days except Saturday , the sections had to be printed separately in an early press run and collated together . The changes will allow The New York Times to print in four sections Monday through Wednesday , in addition to Saturday . The New York Times ' announcement stated that the number of news pages and employee positions will remain unchanged , with the paper realizing cost savings by cutting overtime expenses . According to Russ Stanton , editor of the Los Angeles Times , a competitor , the newsroom of The New York Times is twice the size of the Los Angeles Times , which currently has a newsroom of 600 . In March 2014 , Vanessa Friedman was named the " fashion director and chief fashion critic " of The New York Times .
= = = Style = = =
When referring to people , The New York Times generally uses honorifics , rather than unadorned last names ( except in the sports pages , Book Review and Magazine ) . It stayed with an eight @-@ column format until September 7 , 1976 , years after other papers had switched to six , and it was one of the last newspapers to adopt color photography , with the first color photograph on the front page appearing on October 16 , 1997 . In the absence of a major headline , the day 's most important story generally appears in the top @-@ right column , on the main page . The typefaces used for the headlines are custom variations of Cheltenham . The running text is set at 8 @.@ 7 point Imperial .
Joining a roster of other major American newspapers in the last ten years , including USA Today , The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Post , The New York Times announced on July 18 , 2006 , that it would be narrowing the width of its paper by six inches . In an era of dwindling circulation and significant advertising revenue losses for most print versions of American newspapers , the move , which would result in a five percent reduction in news coverage , would have a target savings of $ 12 million a year for the paper . The change from the traditional 54 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) broadsheet style to a more compact 48 @-@ inch web width ( 12 @-@ inch page width ) was addressed by both Executive Editor Bill Keller and The New York Times President Scott Heekin @-@ Canedy in memos to the staff . Keller defended the " more reader @-@ friendly " move indicating that in cutting out the " flabby or redundant prose in longer pieces " the reduction would make for a better paper . Similarly , Keller confronted the challenges of covering news with " less room " by proposing more " rigorous editing " and promised an ongoing commitment to " hard @-@ hitting , ground @-@ breaking journalism " . The official change went into effect on August 6 , 2007 .
The New York Times printed a display advertisement on its first page on January 6 , 2009 , breaking tradition at the paper . The advertisement for CBS was in color and was the entire width of the page . The newspaper promised it would place first @-@ page advertisements on only the lower half of the page .
In August 2014 , The New York Times decided to increase their use of the term " torture " in stories about harsh interrogations , shifting from their previous description of the interrogations as " harsh " or " brutal " .
The paper maintains a strict profanity policy ; e.g. a 2007 review of a concert by punk band Fucked Up completely avoided mention of the group 's name .
On April 28 , 2016 , Levien and Times company CEO Mark Thompson were named in a 2016 federal class action lawsuit that claimed the advertising department purged older black employees and denied others ' promotions because they favored younger whites . Older black employees considered Levien guilty of racist innuendo for telling staff members like their customers .
= = = Reputation and awards = = =
The New York Times has established links regionally with 16 bureaus in the New York region , nationally , with 11 bureaus within the US , and globally , with 26 foreign news bureaus .
The New York Times has won 117 Pulitzer Prizes , more than any other newspaper . The prize is awarded for excellence in journalism in a range of categories .
It has also won four Peabody Awards , including a personal one for Jack Gould in 1956 .
= = = Web presence = = =
The New York Times has had a presence on the Web since 1996 , and has been ranked one of the top websites . Accessing some articles requires registration , though this could be bypassed in some cases through Times RSS feeds . The website had 555 million pageviews in March 2005 . The domain nytimes.com attracted at least 146 million visitors annually by 2008 according to a Compete.com study . The New York Times Web site ranks 59th by number of unique visitors , with over 20 million unique visitors in March 2009 making it the most visited newspaper site with more than twice the number of unique visitors as the next most popular site . Also , as of May 2009 , nytimes.com produced 22 of the 50 most popular newspaper blogs .
In September 2005 , the paper decided to begin subscription @-@ based service for daily columns in a program known as TimesSelect , which encompassed many previously free columns . Until being discontinued two years later , TimesSelect cost $ 7 @.@ 95 per month or $ 49 @.@ 95 per year , though it was free for print copy subscribers and university students and faculty . To avoid this charge , bloggers often reposted TimesSelect material , and at least one site once compiled links of reprinted material . On September 17 , 2007 , The New York Times announced that it would stop charging for access to parts of its Web site , effective at midnight the following day , reflecting a growing view in the industry that subscription fees cannot outweigh the potential ad revenue from increased traffic on a free site . In addition to opening almost the entire site to all readers , The New York Times news archives from 1987 to the present are available at no charge , as well as those from 1851 to 1922 , which are in the public domain . Access to the Premium Crosswords section continues to require either home delivery or a subscription for $ 6 @.@ 95 per month or $ 39 @.@ 95 per year . Times columnists including Nicholas Kristof and Thomas Friedman had criticized TimesSelect , with Friedman going so far as to say " I hate it . It pains me enormously because it 's cut me off from a lot , a lot of people , especially because I have a lot of people reading me overseas , like in India ... I feel totally cut off from my audience . "
The New York Times was made available on the iPhone and iPod Touch in 2008 , and on the iPad mobile devices in 2010 . It was also the first newspaper to offer a video game as part of its editorial content , Food Import Folly by Persuasive Games . In 2010 , The New York Times editors collaborated with students and faculty from New York University 's Studio 20 Journalism Masters program to launch and produce The Local East Village , a hyperlocal blog designed to offer news " by , for and about the residents of the East Village " . That same year , reCAPTCHA helped to digitize old editions of The New York Times .
In 2012 , The New York Times introduced a Chinese @-@ language news site , cn.nytimes.com , with content created by staff based in Shanghai , Beijing and Hong Kong , though the server was placed outside of China to avoid censorship issues . In March 2013 , The New York Times and National Film Board of Canada announced a partnership entitled A Short History of the Highrise , which will create four short documentaries for the internet about life in highrise buildings as part of the NFB 's Highrise project , utilizing images from the newspaper 's photo archives for the first three films , and user @-@ submitted images for the final film . The third project in the series , " A Short History of the Highrise " , won a Peabody Award in 2013 .
Falling print advertising revenue and projections of continued decline resulted in a paywall being instituted in 2011 , regarded as modestly successful after garnering several hundred thousand subscriptions and about $ 100 million in revenue as of March 2012 . The paywall was announced on March 17 , 2011 , that starting on March 28 , 2011 ( March 17 , 2011 for Canada ) , it would charge frequent readers for access to its online content . Readers would be able to access up to 20 articles each month without charge . ( Although beginning in April 2012 , the number of free @-@ access articles was halved to just ten articles per month . ) Any reader who wanted to access more would have to pay for a digital subscription . This plan would allow free access for occasional readers , but produce revenue from " heavy " readers . Digital subscriptions rates for four weeks range from $ 15 to $ 35 depending on the package selected , with periodic new subscriber promotions offering four @-@ week all @-@ digital access for as low as 99 ¢ . Subscribers to the paper 's print edition get full access without any additional fee . Some content , such as the front page and section fronts will remain free , as well as the Top News page on mobile apps . In January 2013 , The New York Times ' Public Editor Margaret M. Sullivan announced that for the first time in many decades , the paper generated more revenue through subscriptions than through advertising .
The paper 's website was hacked on August 29 , 2013 , by the Syrian Electronic Army , a hacking group that supports the government of Syrian President Bashar al @-@ Assad . The SEA managed to penetrate the paper 's domain name registrar , Melbourne IT , and alter DNS records for The New York Times , putting some of its websites out of service for hours .
The food section has links to a website at cooking.nytimes.com and to a searchable restaurant guide to NYC restaurants . The New York Times has published several cookbooks , the latest , The Essential New York Times Cookbook : Classic Recipes for a New Century. and has thousands of recipes on file .
= = = Mobile presence = = =
The Times Reader is a digital version of The New York Times . It was created via a collaboration between the newspaper and Microsoft . Times Reader takes the principles of print journalism and applies them to the technique of online reporting . Times Reader uses a series of technologies developed by Microsoft and their Windows Presentation Foundation team . It was announced in Seattle in April 2006 , by Arthur Ochs Sulzberger Jr . , Bill Gates , and Tom Bodkin . In 2009 , the Times Reader 2 @.@ 0 was rewritten in Adobe AIR . In December 2013 , the newspaper announced that the Times Reader app would be discontinued on January 6 , 2014 , urging readers of the app to instead begin using the subscription @-@ only " Today 's Paper " app .
In 2008 , The New York Times created an app for the iPhone and iPod touch which allowed users to download articles to their mobile device enabling them to read the paper even when they were unable to receive a signal . In April 2010 , The New York Times announced it would begin publishing daily content through an iPad app . As of October 2010 , The New York Times iPad app is ad @-@ supported and available for free without a paid subscription , but translated into a subscription @-@ based model in 2011 .
In 2010 , the newspaper also launched an App for Android smartphones , followed later by an App for Windows phones .
= = = Chinese @-@ language version = = =
In June 2012 , The New York Times launched its first official foreign @-@ language variant , cn.nytimes.com , in Chinese , viewable in both traditional and simplified Chinese characters . The project was led by Craig S. Smith on the business side and Philip P. Pan on the editorial side .
The site 's initial success was interrupted in October that year following the publication of an investigative article by David Barboza about the finances of Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao 's family . In retaliation for the article , the Chinese government blocked access to both nytimes.com and cn.nytimes.com inside the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) .
Despite Chinese government interference , however , the Chinese @-@ language operations have continued to develop , adding a second site , cn.nytstyle.com , iOS and Android apps and newsletters , all of which are accessible inside the PRC . The China operations also produce three print publications in Chinese . Traffic to cn.nytimes.com , meanwhile , has risen due to the widespread use of VPN technology in the PRC and to a growing Chinese audience outside mainland China . New York Times articles are also available to users in China via the use of mirror websites , apps , domestic newspapers , and social media . The Chinese platforms now represent one of The New York Times ' top five digital markets globally . The current editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Chinese platforms is Ching @-@ Ching Ni .
= = = Reporter resources = = =
The website 's " Newsroom Navigator " collects online resources for use by reporters and editors . It is maintained by Rich Meislin . Further specific collections are available to cover the subjects of business , politics and health . In 1998 , Meislin was editor @-@ in @-@ chief of electronic media at the newspaper .
= = Interruptions = =
Because of holidays , no editions were printed on November 23 , 1851 ; January 2 , 1852 ; July 4 , 1852 ; January 2 , 1853 ; and January 1 , 1854 .
Because of strikes , the regular edition of The New York Times was not printed during the following periods :
December 9 , 1962 to March 31 , 1963 . Only a western edition was printed because of the 1962 – 63 New York City newspaper strike .
September 17 , 1965 to October 10 , 1965 . An international edition was printed , and a weekend edition replaced the Saturday and Sunday papers .
August 10 , 1978 to November 5 , 1978 . A multi @-@ union strike shut down the three major New York City newspapers . No editions of The New York Times were printed . Two months into the strike , a parody of The New York Times called Not The New York Times was given out in New York City , with contributors such as Carl Bernstein , Christopher Cerf , Tony Hendra and George Plimpton .
= = Political stance = =
According to a 2007 survey by conservative @-@ leaning Rasmussen Reports of public perceptions of major media outlets , 40 % saw the paper as having a liberal slant , 20 % no political slant and 11 % believe it has a conservative slant . In December 2004 , a University of California , Los Angeles study by former fellows of a conservative think tank gave The New York Times a score of 73 @.@ 7 on a 100 @-@ point scale , with 0 being most conservative and 100 being most liberal , making it the second @-@ most liberal major newspaper in the study after the Wall Street Journal ( 85 @.@ 1 ) . The validity of the study has been questioned , however . The watchdog group Media Matters for America pointed out potential conflicts of interest with the author 's funding , and political scientists , such as Brendan Nyhan , cited flaws in the study 's methodology .
In mid @-@ 2004 , the newspaper 's then public editor ( ombudsman ) , Daniel Okrent , wrote an opinion piece in which he said that The New York Times did have a liberal bias in news coverage of certain social issues such as abortion and permitting gay marriage . He stated that this bias reflected the paper 's cosmopolitanism , which arose naturally from its roots as a hometown paper of New York City . Okrent did not comment at length on the issue of bias in coverage of other " hard news " , such as fiscal policy , foreign policy , or civil liberties . He wrote :
But if you 're examining the paper 's coverage of these subjects from a perspective that is neither urban nor Northeastern nor culturally seen @-@ it @-@ all ; if you are among the groups The Times treats as strange objects to be examined on a laboratory slide ( devout Catholics , gun owners , Orthodox Jews , Texans ) ; if your value system wouldn 't wear well on a composite New York Times journalist , then a walk through this paper can make you feel you 're traveling in a strange and forbidding world .
Across the gutter , the Op @-@ Ed page editors do an evenhanded job of representing a range of views in the essays from outsiders they publish – but you need an awfully heavy counterweight to balance a page that also bears the work of seven opinionated columnists , only two of whom could be classified as conservative ( and , even then , of the conservative subspecies that supports legalization of gay unions and , in the case of William Safire , opposes some central provisions of the Patriot Act ) .
The New York Times has not endorsed a Republican for president since Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956 ; since that year it has endorsed every Democratic nominee ; although it did endorse incumbent Republican Mayors of New York City Rudy Giuliani in 1997 and Michael Bloomberg in 2005 and 2009 .
In a December 19 , 2012 , column published in the left @-@ leaning The Huffington Post , economics professor and former bank regulator William K. Black characterized The New York Times as being " far right ... on financial issues " while criticizing the paper for its profiles of foreign leaders . Black contrasted a report on Italian Prime Minister Mario Monti that he described as " hagiographic praise " with a more negative report on Ecuadorian President Rafael Correa , stating that the two men have similar backgrounds in getting PhDs in economics from U.S. schools .
In a 2013 interview with CNN , The New York Times public editor Margaret Sullivan responded , " It 's a modified yes with a lot of nuance in it " when asked by Joanne Lipman whether or not The Times has a liberal bias .
In an October 31 , 2014 column published in the Washington Examiner , conservative commentator Michelle Malkin characterized the editorial board of The New York Times as liberal and waging a " war on gun @-@ owning rape victims " , writing :
When victims embrace liberal orthodoxies , they 're heroes and absolute moral authorities in the eyes of the New York Times editorial board . When victims become survivors who reject the Nanny State , they 're liars , ideologues and pot @-@ stirrers who deserve to be sneered at from the rarefied offices of the Fishwrap of Record .
= = Coverage issues = =
= = = Iraq War = = =
A year after the war started the newspaper asserted that some of its articles had not been as rigorous as they should have been , and were insufficiently qualified , frequently overly dependent upon information from Iraqi exiles desiring regime change . Reporter Judith Miller retired after criticisms that her reporting of the lead @-@ up to the Iraq War was factually inaccurate and overly favorable to the Bush administration 's position , for which The New York Times later apologized . One of Miller 's prime sources was Ahmed Chalabi , an Iraqi expatriate who returned to Iraq after the U.S. invasion and held a number of governmental positions culminating in acting oil minister and deputy prime minister from May 2005 until May 2006 .
= = = Iran = = =
A 2015 study found that The New York Times fed into an overarching tendency towards national bias . During the Iranian nuclear crisis the newspaper minimized the " negative processes " of the United States while overemphasizing similar processes of Iran . This tendency was shared by other papers such as The Guardian , The Tehran Times , and the Fars News Agency
= = = Israeli – Palestinian conflict = = =
A 2003 study in The Harvard International Journal of Press / Politics concluded that The New York Times reporting was more favorable to Israelis than to Palestinians .
For its coverage of the Israeli – Palestinian conflict , some have claimed that the paper is pro @-@ Palestinian , others believe it to be pro @-@ Israel . The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy , by political science professors John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt , alleges that The New York Times sometimes criticizes Israeli policies but is not even @-@ handed and is generally pro @-@ Israel . On the other hand , the Simon Wiesenthal Center has criticized The New York Times for printing cartoons regarding the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict that were claimed to be anti @-@ Semitic .
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has rejected a proposal to write an article for the paper on grounds of lack of objectivity . A piece in which Thomas Friedman commented that praise awarded to Netanyahu during a speech at congress was " paid for by the Israel lobby " elicited an apology and clarification from its writer .
The New York Times ' public editor Clark Hoyt concluded in his January 10 , 2009 , column , " Though the most vociferous supporters of Israel and the Palestinians do not agree , I think The New York Times , largely barred from the battlefield and reporting amid the chaos of war , has tried its best to do a fair , balanced and complete job — and has largely succeeded . "
= = = Balkan and anti @-@ Serbian bias = = =
Former The New York Times journalist Daniel Simpson has criticized the newspaper 's bias in representing wars in Yugoslavia in the 1990s . He was especially critical of the anti @-@ Serbian bias of the paper , and has published a book A Rough Guide to the Dark Side : or Why I quit my job at the New York Times , to get myself mixed up with Balkan gangsters in which he explained the relevant issues . He also claimed that he was asked to report about the alleged WMD trade of Serbs with Iraq , which turned out to be false , while his attempts at more neutral reporting were rejected .
= = = World War II = = =
On November 14 , 2001 , in The New York Times ' 150th anniversary issue , former executive editor Max Frankel wrote that before and during World War II , the NY Times had maintained a consistent policy to minimize reports on the Holocaust in their news pages . Laurel Leff , associate professor of journalism at Northeastern University , concluded that the newspaper had downplayed the Third Reich targeting of Jews for genocide . Her 2005 book Buried by the Times documents the paper 's tendency before , during and after World War II to place deep inside its daily editions the news stories about the ongoing persecution and extermination of Jews , while obscuring in those stories the special impact of the Nazis ' crimes on Jews in particular . Leff attributes this dearth in part to the complex personal and political views of the newspaper 's Jewish publisher , Arthur Hays Sulzberger , concerning Jewishness , antisemitism , and Zionism .
During the war , The New York Times journalist William L. Laurence was " on the payroll of the War Department " .
= = Ethics incidents and Criticism = =
= = = Failure to report famine in Ukraine = = =
The New York Times has been criticized for the work of reporter Walter Duranty , who served as its Moscow bureau chief from 1922 through 1936 . Duranty wrote a series of stories in 1931 on the Soviet Union and won a Pulitzer Prize for his work at that time ; however , he has been criticized for his denial of widespread famine , most particularly the Ukrainian famine in the 1930s . In 2003 , after the Pulitzer Board began a renewed inquiry , the Times hired Mark von Hagen , professor of Russian history at Columbia University , to review Duranty 's work . Von Hagen found Duranty 's reports to be unbalanced and uncritical , and that they far too often gave voice to Stalinist propaganda . In comments to the press he stated , " For the sake of The New York Times ' honor , they should take the prize away . "
= = = Fashion news articles promoting advertisers = = =
In the mid to late 1950s , " fashion writer [ s ] ... were required to come up every month with articles whose total column @-@ inches reflected the relative advertising strength of every [ " department " or " specialty " ] store [ " assigned " to a writer ] ... The monitor of all this was ... the advertising director [ of the NYT ] ... " However , within this requirement , story ideas may have been the reporters ' and editors ' own .
= = = Plagiarism = = =
In May 2003 , The New York Times reporter Jayson Blair was forced to resign from the newspaper after he was caught plagiarizing and fabricating elements of his stories . Some critics contended that African @-@ American Blair 's race was a major factor in his hiring and in The New York Times ' initial reluctance to fire him .
= = = Duke University lac
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over the California Golden Seals . Rookie defenseman Hajt was injured with a broken bone in his foot during a 5 – 1 loss to the Chicago Blackhawks on March 26 . The Sabres would lose the next two games for the season 's only three @-@ game losing streak . The Sabres ended the season by winning all three regular season games in April . The Sabres did not clinch the Prince of Wales Conference until winning the final game of the season against the Maple Leafs .
The season was the first of three full seasons coached by Floyd Smith , who had coached one game during the 1971 – 72 season . Smith had played for the Sabres during their first two seasons . The team played its home games at Buffalo Memorial Auditorium . Two members of the team later coached the Sabres : Dudley and Jim Schoenfeld .
= = = Season standings = = =
= = = Results = = =
The following is a Sabres game log .
= = Player statistics = =
The French Connection members led the Sabres in scoring by finishing 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 in both goals and points , although none of them played as many as 75 of the team 's 80 games . Perreault 's eight game @-@ winning goals was fifth highest in the NHL for the season , although he only played 68 games , he finished ninth in the league in scoring with 96 points ( 39 goals and 57 assists ) . Martin also only played 68 games and finished third in goals ( 52 ) and tenth in points ( 95 ) . Martin 's 21 power play goals was second in the league . Robert was seventh in points ( 100 ) , tenth in goals ( 40 ) and tenth in assists ( 60 ) in 74 games . Luce 's 8 shorthanded goals was second and Craig Ramsay had 7 , which was third . Other statistical leaders included Luce who had a 61 plus / minus , which ranked fourth and Peter McNab who led the league in shooting percentage .
Over the course of the season , the team scored a total of 354 goals , which ranked second in the 18 team league and its 49 – 16 – 15 record ranked it first in the league . The team used several goaltenders . Although Gary Bromley led the team with 26 wins in the regular season , and Roger Crozier was second with 17 wins , the team was led in the post season by Desjardins who recorded 7 of the team 's 10 post season victories .
The following are the season statistics for the Sabres .
= = = Key = = =
= = = Skaters = = =
^ Note 1 : A bench minor is when the team is penalized for a minor infraction that is not attributed to any individual player .
= = = Goaltenders = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = Playoffs = =
= = = Schedule and results = = =
The following was the team playoff schedule .
= = = Quarter Finals = = =
The Sabres had a bye in the first round of the playoffs and then met the first round victor Chicago Black Hawks in the Quarter @-@ Finals . In the first game of the series , the Sabres were the beneficiaries of an 18 – 2 penalty minutes differential and won 4 – 1 . Although the Black Hawks scored in the first minute of game two , the Dudley scored a pair of goals on the way to a 3 – 1 Sabres victory . In game three , the Black Hawks took a one @-@ goal lead four times and the Sabres tied the score each time , which led to sudden death overtime in which Chicago came out on top . The Sabres scored five times in the third period to post a 6 – 2 victory in game 4 . The Sabres won the series 4 – 1 , with Robert scoring the series clinching goal after getting into fisticuffs with Pit Martin and third man Phil Russell ( who got ejected ) earlier in the clinching game .
= = = Semi Finals = = =
The Sabres won the first game with an overtime goal by Gare . In game two , Robert was sidelined with the flu and Dudley was inactive due to a sprained knee , but the checking line of Luce , Ramsay and Gare each scored a goal as the Sabres took a 2 – 0 lead with a 4 – 2 victory . In the game , Henri Richard surpassed his brother Maurice Richard with his 127th Stanley Cup playoff point . Following their strong 7 – 0 game three performance , the Canadiens handily won game four at home by an 8 – 2 margin . The game was marked by a bench clearing incident when Doug Risebrough and Gare squared off . Bill Hajt got ejected as third man in and Larry Robinson who took on Hajt was also ejected . The Sabres surrendered an early 3 – 1 lead , but won in overtime of game five on Robert goal . The Sabres scored three goals in the first period of game six on their way to a series @-@ clinching 4 – 3 victory . They led 3 – 1 after one period and added one in the second before withstanding a third period two @-@ goal rally by Montreal .
= = = Stanley Cup Finals = = =
The Flyers came into the series with their own good luck pre- game singer in the form of Kate Smith who sang " God Bless America " before home games at The Spectrum . The Flyers had a 43 – 3 – 1 record following her pregame performances in lieu of the traditional " Star Spangled Banner " . In addition , the Sabres had never won a game against the Flyers in Philadelphia in their short five @-@ year franchise history , had never beaten Flyer starting goalie Bernie Parent , and entered the series on a 13 @-@ game streak against the Flyers without a win .
Although the Sabres held the Flyers to two shots in the first period of game one , eight in the second , and were the beneficiaries of a 1 : 04 two @-@ man advantage at one point , the game remained scoreless until the third period when the Flyers connected four times in a 4 – 1 victory . In game two , the Sabres were held to 19 shots on goal with none coming after Bobby Clarke scored at the 6 : 43 mark of the third period .
Due to unusual heat in Buffalo in May 1975 , portions of game three , which is known as " The Fog Game " , were played in heavy fog . The game was stopped 12 times due to the conditions . Buffalo goalie Desjardins gave up three first period goals , and Crozier started the second period . After having surrendered goals on his first two shots faced and three of his first six , Desjardins removed himself from the game . The Sabres recovered from the three @-@ goal deficit on two goals 17 seconds apart by Gare and Martin . After a goal by Luce netted the score , Reggie Leach gave the flyers the lead again . Bill Hajt scored his first career playoff goal to tie the score . Robert scored the game winner in overtime with a goal that Flyer goalie Bernie Parent did not see until it was too late . The game was the longest NHL overtime game in over four years . Players , officials , and the puck were invisible to many spectators . During a face @-@ off and through the fog , Sabres center Jim Lorentz spotted a bat flying across the rink , raised his stick , and killed it . Many superstitious Buffalo fans considered this to be an " Evil Omen , " pertaining to the result of the series . It was the only time that any player killed an animal during an NHL game . This was one of three playoff appearances for Crozier . Desjardins surrendered a goal on the third Flyer shot in game four , but he stayed in the game for a 4 – 2 victory . In game four , the unseasonable temperature only caused the play to be stopped twice ( with 8 : 08 and 4 : 44 remaining ) as five pairs of arena employees skated around the ice with bed sheets to clear the haze .
By game five of the Finals Dave Schultz had claimed both the single @-@ season regular season penalty minutes record and the post @-@ season record . However , he contributed his first two goals of the playoffs in a 5 – 2 win to help the Flyers take a 3 – 2 lead in the series . It was Schultz ' first two @-@ goal performance of the season and his first goal since March 9 . In the sixth game Conn Smythe Trophy MVP Bernie Parent shut out the Sabres 2 – 0 to clinch the series four games to two . Crozier held the Flyers scoreless for the first two periods of the final game .
= = Awards and records = =
Prince of Wales Trophy
Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy : Don Luce
Rick Martin , 1975 NHL All @-@ Star Game , NHL All @-@ Star Team , Left Wing ( 1st team )
Rene Robert , 1975 NHL All @-@ Star Game , NHL All @-@ Star Team , Right Wing ( 2nd team )
Don Luce 1975 NHL All @-@ Star Game
Jerry Korab 1975 NHL All @-@ Star Game
Peter McNab NHL shooting percentage leader ( 24 @.@ 4 % )
Club Record , Most Goals For , ( 354 )
= Her Majesty 's Theatre =
Her Majesty 's Theatre is a West End theatre situated on Haymarket in the City of Westminster , London . The present building was designed by Charles J. Phipps and was constructed in 1897 for actor @-@ manager Herbert Beerbohm Tree , who established the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art at the theatre . In the early decades of the 20th century , Tree produced spectacular productions of Shakespeare and other classical works , and the theatre hosted premières by major playwrights such as George Bernard Shaw , J. M. Synge , Noël Coward and J. B. Priestley . Since World War I , the wide stage has made the theatre suitable for large @-@ scale musical productions , and the theatre has specialised in hosting musicals . The theatre has been home to record @-@ setting musical theatre runs , notably the World War I sensation Chu Chin Chow and the current production , Andrew Lloyd Webber 's The Phantom of the Opera , which has played continuously at Her Majesty 's since 1986 .
The theatre was established by architect and playwright John Vanbrugh , in 1705 , as the Queen 's Theatre . Legitimate drama unaccompanied by music was prohibited by law in all but the two London patent theatres , and so this theatre quickly became an opera house . Between 1711 and 1739 , more than 25 operas by George Frideric Handel premièred here . In the early 19th century , the theatre hosted the opera company that was to move to the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden , in 1847 , and presented the first London performances of Mozart 's La clemenza di Tito , Così fan tutte and Don Giovanni . It also hosted the Ballet of her Majesty 's Theatre in the mid @-@ 19th century , before returning to hosting the London premières of such operas as Bizet 's Carmen and Wagner 's Ring Cycle .
The name of the theatre changes with the sex of the monarch . It first became the King 's Theatre in 1714 on the accession of George I. It was renamed Her Majesty 's Theatre in 1837 . Most recently , the theatre was known as His Majesty 's Theatre from 1901 to 1952 , and it became Her Majesty 's on the accession of Elizabeth II . The theatre 's capacity is 1 @,@ 216 seats , and the building was Grade II * listed by English Heritage in 1970 . Really Useful Theatres has owned the building since 2000 . The land beneath it is on a long @-@ term lease from the Crown Estate .
= = History = =
The end of the 17th century was a period of intense rivalry amongst London 's actors , and in 1695 there was a split in the United Company , who had a monopoly on the performance of drama at their two theatres . Dramatist and architect John Vanbrugh saw this as an opportunity to break the duopoly of the patent theatres , and in 1703 he acquired a former stable yard , at a cost of £ 2000 , for the construction of a new theatre on the Haymarket . In the new business , he hoped to improve the share of profits that would go to playwrights and actors . He raised the money by subscription , probably amongst members of the Kit @-@ Cat Club :
To recover them [ that is , Thomas Betterton 's company ] , therefore , to their due Estimation , a new Project was form 'd of building them a stately theatre in the Hay @-@ Market , by Sir John Vanbrugh , for which he raised a Subscription of thirty Persons of Quality , at one hundred Pounds each , in Consideration whereof every Subscriber , for his own Life , was to be admitted to whatever Entertainments should be publickly perform 'd there , without farther Payment for his Entrance .
— John Vanbrugh 's notice of subscription for the new theatre
He was joined in the enterprise by his principal associate and manager William Congreve and an actors ' co @-@ operative led by Thomas Betterton .
The theatre provided the first alternative to the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , built in 1663 and the Lincoln 's Inn , founded in 1660 ( forerunner of the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden , built in 1728 ) . The theatre 's site is the second oldest such site in London that remains in use . These three post @-@ interregnum theatres defined the shape and use of modern theatres .
= = = Vanbrugh 's theatre : 1705 – 1789 = = =
The land for the theatre was held on a lease renewable in 1740 and was ultimately owned , as it is today , by the Crown Estate . Building was delayed by the necessity of acquiring the street frontage , and a three bay entrance led to a brick shell 130 feet ( 39 @.@ 6 m ) long and 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) wide . Colley Cibber described the audience fittings as lavish but the facilities for playing poor .
Vanbrugh and Congreve received Queen Anne 's authority to form a Company of Comedians on 14 December 1704 , and the theatre opened as The Queen 's Theatre on 9 April 1705 with imported Italian singers in Gli amori d 'Ergasto ( The Loves of Ergasto ) , an opera by Jakob Greber , with an epilogue by Congreve . This was the first Italian opera performed in London . The opera failed , and the season struggled on through May , with revivals of plays and operas . The first new play performed was The Conquest of Spain by Mary Pix . The theatre proved too large for actors ' voices to carry across the auditorium , and the first season was a failure . Congreve departed , Vanbrugh bought out his other partners , and the actors reopened the Lincoln 's Inn Fields ' theatre in the summer . Although early productions combined spoken dialogue with incidental music , a taste was growing amongst the nobility for Italian opera , which was completely sung , and the theatre became devoted to opera . As he became progressively more involved in the construction of Blenheim Palace , Vanbrugh 's management of the theatre became increasingly chaotic , showing " numerous signs of confusion , inefficiency , missed opportunities , and bad judgement " . On 7 May 1707 , experiencing mounting losses and running costs , Vanbrugh was forced to sell a lease on the theatre for fourteen years to Owen Swiny at a considerable loss . In December of that year , the Lord Chamberlain 's Office ordered that " all Operas and other Musicall presentments be performed for the future only at Her Majesty 's Theatre in the Hay Market " and forbade the performance of further non @-@ musical plays there .
After 1709 , the theatre was devoted to Italian opera and was sometimes known informally as The Haymarket Opera House . Young George Frideric Handel produced his English début , Rinaldo , on 24 February 1711 at the theatre , featuring the two leading castrati of the era , Nicolo Grimaldi and Valentino Urbani . This was the first Italian opera composed specifically for the London stage . The work was well received , and Handel was appointed resident composer for the theatre , but losses continued , and Swiney fled abroad to escape his creditors . John James Heidegger took over the management of the theatre and , from 1719 , began to extend the stage through arches into the houses to the south of the theatre . A " Royal Academy of Music " was formed by subscription from wealthy sponsors , including the Prince of Wales , to support Handel 's productions at the theatre . Under this sponsorship , Handel conducted a series of more than 25 of his original operas , continuing until 1739 Handel was also a partner in the management with Heidegger from 1729 to 1734 , and he contributed to incidental music for theatre , including for a revival of Ben Jonson 's The Alchemist , opening on 14 January 1710 .
On the accession of George I in 1714 , the theatre was renamed the King 's Theatre and remained so named during a succession of male monarchs who occupied the throne . At this time only the two patent theatres were permitted to perform serious drama in London , and lacking Letters patent , the theatre remained associated with opera . In 1762 , Johann Christian Bach travelled to London to première three operas at the theatre , including Orione on 19 February 1763 . This established his reputation in England , and he became music master to Queen Charlotte .
In 1778 , the lease for the theatre was transferred from James Brook to Thomas Harris , stage manager of the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden , and to the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan for £ 22 @,@ 000 . They paid for the remodelling of the interior by Robert Adam in the same year . In November 1778 , The Morning Chronicle reported that Harris and Sheridan had
... at a considerable expence , almost entirely new built the audience part of the house , and made a great variety of alterations , part of which are calculated for the rendering the theatre more light , elegant , and pleasant , and part for the ease and convenience of the company . The sides of the frontispiece are decorated with two figures painted by Gainsborough , which are remarkably picturesque and beautiful ; the heavy columns which gave the house so gloomy an aspect that it rather resembled a large mausoleum or a place for funeral dirges , than a theatre , are removed .
— November 1778 , The Morning Chronicle
The expense of the improvements was not matched by the box office receipts , and the partnership dissolved , with Sheridan buying out his partner with a mortgage on the theatre of £ 12 @,@ 000 obtained from the banker Henry Hoare .
One member of the company , Giovanni Gallini , had made his début at the theatre in 1753 and had risen to the position of dancing master , gaining an international reputation . Gallini had tried to buy Harris ' share but had been rebuffed . He now purchased the mortgage . Sheridan quickly became bankrupt after placing the financial affairs of the theatre in the hands of William Taylor , a lawyer . The next few years saw a struggle for control of the theatre , and Taylor bought Sheridan 's interest in 1781 . In 1782 the theatre was remodelled by Michael Novosielski , formerly a scene painter at the theatre . In May 1783 , Taylor was arrested by his creditors , and a forced sale ensued , with Harris purchasing the lease and much of the effects . Further legal action transferred the interests in the theatre to a board of trustees , including Novosielski . The trustees acted with a flagrant disregard for the needs of the theatre or other creditors , seeking only to enrich themselves , and in August 1785 the Lord Chamberlain took over the running of the enterprise , in the interests of the creditors . Gallini , meanwhile , had become manager . In 1788 , the Lord Chancellor observed " that there appeared in all the proceedings respecting this business , a wish of distressing the property , and that it would probably be consumed in that very court to which ... [ the interested parties ] seemed to apply for relief " . Performances suffered , with the box receipts taken by Novosielski , rather than given to Gallini to run the house . Money continued to be squandered on endless litigation or was misappropriated . Gallini tried to keep the theatre going , but he was forced to employ amateur performers . The World described a performance as follows : " ... the dance , if such it can be called was like the movements of heavy cavalry . It was hissed very abundantly . " At other times , Gallini had to defend himself against a dissatisfied audience who charged the stage and destroyed the fittings , as the company ran for their lives .
The theatre burnt down on 17 June 1789 during evening rehearsals , and the dancers fled the building as beams fell onto the stage . The fire had been deliberately set on the roof , and Gallini offered a reward of £ 300 for capture of the culprit . With the theatre destroyed , each group laid their own plans for a replacement . Gallini obtained a licence from the Lord Chamberlain to perform opera at the nearby Little Theatre , and he entered into a partnership with R. B. O 'Reilly to obtain land in Leicester Fields for a new building , which too would require a licence . The two quarrelled , and each then planned to wrest control of the venture from the other . The authorities refused to grant either of them a patent for Leicester Fields , but O 'Reilly was granted a licence for four years to put on opera at the Oxford Street Pantheon . This too , would burn to the ground in 1792 . Meanwhile , Taylor reached an agreement with the creditors of the King 's Theatre and attempted to purchase the remainder of the lease from Edward Vanbrugh , but this was now promised to O 'Reilly . A further complication arose as the theatre needed to expand onto adjacent land that now came into the possession of a Taylor supporter . The scene was set for a further war of attrition between the lessees , but at this point O 'Reilly 's first season at the Pantheon failed miserably , and he fled to Paris to avoid his creditors .
By 1720 , Vanbrugh 's direct connection with the theatre had been terminated , but the leases and rents had been transferred to both his own family and that of his wife 's through a series of trusts and benefices , with Vanbrugh himself building a new home in Greenwich . After the fire , the Vanbrugh family 's long association with the theatre was terminated , and all their leases were surrendered by 1792 .
= = = Second theatre : 1791 – 1867 = = =
Taylor completed a new theatre on the site in 1791 . Michael Novosielski had again been chosen as architect for the theatre on an enlarged site , but the building was described by Malcolm in 1807 as
fronted by a stone basement in rustic work , with the commencement of a very superb building of the Doric order , consisting of three pillars , two windows , an entablature , pediment , and balustrade . This , if it had been continued , would have contributed considerably to the splendour of London ; but the unlucky fragment is fated to stand as a foil to the vile and absurd edifice of brick pieced to it , which I have not patience to describe .
— The critic Malcolm , quoted in Old and New London ( 1878 )
The Lord Chamberlain , a supporter of O 'Reilly , refused a performing licence to Taylor . The theatre opened on 26 March 1791 with a private performance of song and dance entertainment , but was not allowed to open to the public . The new theatre was heavily indebted and spanned separate plots of land that were leased to Taylor by four different owners on differing terms of revision . As a later manager of the theatre wrote , " In the history of property , there has probably been no parallel instance wherein the legal labyrinth has been so difficult to thread . " Meetings were held at Carlton House and Bedford House attempting to reconcile the parties . On 24 August 1792 a General Opera Trust Deed was signed by the parties . The general management of the theatre was to be entrusted to a committee of noblemen , appointed by the Prince of Wales , who would then appoint a general manager . Funds would be disbursed from the profits to compensate the creditors of both the King 's Theatre and the Pantheon . The committee never met , and management devolved to Taylor .
= = = = William Taylor = = = =
The first public performance of opera in the new theatre took place on 26 January 1793 , the dispute with the Lord Chamberlain over the licence having been settled . This theatre was , at that time , the largest in England , and it became the home of the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane company while that company 's home theatre was itself rebuilt between 1791 – 94 .
From 1793 , seven small houses at the east side of the theatre fronting on the Haymarket were demolished and replaced by a large concert room . It was in this room that Joseph Haydn gave a series of concerts , under the sponsorship of Johann Peter Salomon , on his second visit to London in 1794 – 95 . He presented his own symphonies , some of them premieres , conducted by himself , and was paid £ 50 each for 20 concerts . He was feted in London and returned to Vienna in May 1795 with 12 @,@ 000 florins .
With the departure of the Drury Lane company in 1794 , the theatre returned to opera , hosting the first London performances of Mozart 's La clemenza di Tito in 1806 , Così fan tutte and Die Zauberflöte in 1811 , and Don Giovanni in 1816 . Between 1816 and 1818 , John Nash and George Repton made alterations to the façade and increased the capacity of the auditorium to 2 @,@ 500 . They also added a shopping arcade , called the Royal Opera Arcade , which has survived fires and renovations and still exists . It runs along the rear of the theatre . In 1818 – 20 , the British premières of Gioachino Rossini 's operas Il barbiere di Siviglia , Elisabetta , regina d 'Inghilterra , L 'italiana in Algeri , La Cenerentola and Tancredi took place , and the theatre became known as the Italian Opera House , Haymarket by the 1820s .
In 1797 , he was elected as member of Parliament for Leominster , a position that gave him immunity from his creditors . When that parliament dissolved in 1802 , he fled to France . Later , he returned , and was member of Parliament for Barnstaple from 1806 to 1812 while continuing his association with the theatre . Taylor paid little of the agreed receipts to performers , or composers , and lived for much of his period of management in the King 's Bench , a debtors ' prison in Southwark . Here he maintained an apartment next to Lady Hamilton and lived in some luxury , entertaining lavishly .
= = = = John Ebers = = = =
John Ebers , a bookseller , took over the management of the theatre in 1821 , and seven more London premieres of Rossini operas ( La gazza ladra , Il turco in Italia , Mosè in Egitto , Otello , La donna del lago , Matilde di Shabran and Ricciardo e Zoraide ) took place there in the following three years . Ebers sublet the theatre to Giambattista Benelli in 1824 , and Rossini was invited to conduct , remaining for a five @-@ month season , with his wife Isabella Colbran performing . Two more of his operas , Zelmira and Semiramide , received their British premières during the season , but the theatre sustained huge losses , and Benelli absconded without paying either the composer or the artists . Ebers engaged Giuditta Pasta for the 1825 season , but he became involved in lawsuits which , combined with a large increase in the rent of the theatre , forced him into bankruptcy , after which he returned to his bookselling business .
= = = = Pierre François Laporte = = = =
In 1828 , Ebers was succeeded as theatre manager by Pierre François Laporte , who held the position ( with a brief gap in 1831 – 33 ) until his death in 1841 . Two of Rossini 's Paris operas ( Le comte Ory and Le siège de Corinthe ) had their British premières at the theatre during this period , and Laporte was also the first to introduce the operas of Vincenzo Bellini ( La sonnambula , Norma and I puritani ) and Gaetano Donizetti ( Anna Bolena , Lucia di Lammermoor and Lucrezia Borgia ) to the British public . Under Laporte , singers such as Giulia Grisi , Pauline Viardot , Giovanni Battista Rubini , Luigi Lablache and Mario made their London stage debuts at the theatre . Among the musical directors of this period was Nicolas Bochsa , the celebrated and eccentric French harpist . He was appointed in 1827 and remained for six years at this position . When Queen Victoria ascended the throne in 1837 , the name of the theatre was changed to Her Majesty 's Theatre , Italian Opera House . In the same year , Samuel Phelps made his London début as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice at the theatre , also playing in other Shakespearean plays here .
Over the course of the 1840s , Dion Boucicault had five plays produced here : The Bastile [ sic ] , an " after @-@ piece " ( 1842 ) , Old Heads and Young Hearts ( 1844 ) , The School for Scheming ( 1847 ) , Confidence ( 1848 ) , and The Knight Arva ( 1848 ) . In 1853 , Robert Browning 's Colombe 's Birthday played at the theatre .
In 1841 , disputes arose over Laporte 's decision to replace the baritone Antonio Tamburini with a new singer , Colletti . The audience stormed the stage , and the performers formed a ' revolutionary conspiracy ' .
= = = = Benjamin Lumley = = = =
Laporte died suddenly , and Benjamin Lumley took over the management in 1842 , introducing London audiences to Donizetti 's late operas , Don Pasquale and La fille du régiment . Initially , relations between Lumley and Michael Costa , the principal conductor at Her Majesty 's were good . Verdi 's Ernani , Nabucco and I Lombardi received their British premières in 1845 – 46 , and Lumley commissioned I masnadieri from the composer . This opera received its world première on 22 July 1847 , with the Swedish operatic diva Jenny Lind in the role of Amalia , and the British premières of two more Verdi operas , I due Foscari and Attila , followed in 1847 – 48 . Meanwhile , the performers had continued to feel neglected and the disputes continued . In 1847 , Costa finally transferred his opera company to the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden , and the theatre relinquished the sobriquet , ' Italian Opera House ' , to assume its present title , Her Majesty 's Theatre .
Lumley engaged Michael Balfe to conduct the orchestra and entered negotiations with Felix Mendelssohn for a new opera . Jenny Lind had made her English début on 4 May 1847 in the role of Alice in Giacomo Meyerbeer 's Robert le Diable , in the presence of the Royal family and the composer Felix Mendelssohn . Such was the press of people around the theatre that many " arrived at last with dresses crushed and torn , and coats hanging in shreds , having suffered bruises and blows in the struggle " . She performed for a number of acclaimed seasons at the theatre , interspersed with national tours , becoming known as the Swedish Nightingale . The secession of the orchestra to Covent Garden was a blow , and the theatre closed in 1852 , re @-@ opening in 1856 , when a fire closed its rival . After the reopening , Lumley presented two more British premières of Verdi operas : La traviata in 1856 and Luisa Miller in 1858 .
From the early 1830s until the late 1840s Her Majesty 's Theatre played host to the heyday of the era of the romantic ballet , and the theatre 's resident ballet company was considered the most renowned in Europe , aside from the Ballet du Théâtre de l 'Académie Royale de Musique in Paris . The celebrated ballet master Jules Perrot began staging ballet at Her Majesty 's in 1830 . Lumley appointed him Premier Maître de Ballet ( chief choreographer ) to the theatre in 1842 . Among the works of ballet that he staged were Ondine , ou La Naïade ( 1843 ) , La Esmeralda ( 1844 ) , and Catarina , ou La Fille du Bandit ( 1846 ) , as well as the celebrated divertissement Pas de Quatre ( 1845 ) . Other ballet masters created works for the ballet of Her Majesty 's Theatre throughout the period of the romantic ballet , most notably Paul Taglioni ( son of Filippo Taglioni ) , who staged ballets including Coralia , ou Le Chevalier inconstant ( 1847 ) and Electra ( 1849 , the first production of a ballet to make use of electric lighting ) . Arthur Saint @-@ Léon staged such works as La Vivandière ( 1844 ) , Le Violin du Diable ( 1849 ) , and Le Jugement de Pâris ( 1850 ) , which was considered a sequel of sorts to Pas de Quatre .
The Italian composer Cesare Pugni was appointed Composer of the Ballet Music to the theatre in 1843 , a position created for him by Lumley . From 1843 until 1850 , he composed nearly every new ballet presented at the theatre . Pugni remains the most prolific composer of the genre , having composed more than 100 original ballets , as well as composing numerous divertissements and incidental dances that were often performed as diversions during the intermissions of opera performances at the theatre . Throughout the era of the romantic ballet , the theatre presented performances by notable ballerinas , including Marie Taglioni , Carlotta Grisi , Fanny Elssler , Lucile Grahn , and Fanny Cerrito , performing in the works of Perrot , Taglioni and Saint @-@ Léon .
= = = = J. H. Mapleson = = = =
From 1862 to 1867 , the theatre was managed by James Henry Mapleson , presenting Italian , French and German opera , including the British premières of La forza del destino , Médée , Faust and The Merry Wives of Windsor , and promoting such singers as Mario , Giulia Grisi , De Murska , Thérèse Tietjens , Antonio Giuglini , Charles Santley and Christine Nilsson . On the night of 6 December 1867 , the theatre was destroyed by fire , thought to have been caused by an overheated stove . Only the bare walls of the theatre remained , and most of the adjacent shops in Pall Mall , and the Clergy Club hotel in Charles Street , suffered damage of varying severity . The Royal Opera Arcade , on the western side , survived with only superficial damage . With the destruction of the theatre , Mapleson took his company to the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane .
By the 1850s , with the era of the romantic ballet at an end , the principal personalities of the ballet , such as Perrot , Saint @-@ Léon , Taglioni , and the composer Pugni , joined the Tsar 's Imperial Ballet of St. Petersburg , Russia . Ballet in London went through a considerable decline beginning with the fire at Her Majesty 's Theatre , a decline that lasted until the end of the 19th century . Ballet in London was not resurrected until the early 20th century , when such dancers as Adeline Genée began performing . The theatre 's ballet company found a new home at the Old Vic and soon took on the name of the Vic @-@ Wells Ballet . Later , relocating primarily to the Sadler 's Wells Theatre , the company became known as the Sadler 's Wells Ballet . Eventually the troupe began performing at the Royal Opera House and became the Royal Ballet , as it is known today .
= = = Third theatre : 1868 – 1896 = = =
A third building was constructed in 1868 at a cost of £ 50 @,@ 000 , within the shell of the old theatre , for Lord Dudley . It was designed by Charles Lee and Sons and their partner , William Pain . They had taken over John Nash 's practice on his retirement . The new theatre was designed to be less susceptible to fire , with brick firewalls , iron roof trusses and Dennett 's patent gypsum @-@ cement floors . The auditorium had four tiers , with a stage large enough for the greatest spectaculars . For opera , the theatre seated 1 @,@ 890 , and for plays , with the orchestra pit removed , 2 @,@ 500 . As a result of a dispute over the rent between Dudley and Mapleson , and a decline in the popularity of ballet , the theatre remained dark until 1874 , when it was sold to a Revivalist Christian group for £ 31 @,@ 000 .
Mapleson returned to Her Majesty 's in 1877 and 1878 , after a disastrous attempt to build a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ seat National Opera House on a site subsequently used for the building of Scotland Yard . On the return of the company , all the fittings of the theatre had been removed , including the seats , carpets and even the wallpaper . £ 6 @,@ 000 was spent on fitting out the theatre , and on 28 April 1877 the building returned to theatrical use with the opening of Vincenzo Bellini 's opera Norma . The London première of Bizet 's Carmen occurred here on 22 June 1878 , and in subsequent seasons the theatre hosted the Carl Rosa Opera Company ( Rosa 's wife , Euphrosyne Parepa , had made her name in opera partly at Her Majesty 's ) and a programme of French plays and light opera . The company was the first to produce Carmen in English , at the theatre in February 1879 , starring Selina Dolaro in the title role and Durward Lely as Don José . In 1882 , the theatre hosted the London premières of Wagner 's Ring cycle .
Mapleson returned in 1887 and 1889 , but The Times commented that the repertoire comprised " works that had long ceased to attract a large public , the singers were exclusively of second @-@ rate quality , and the standard of performance was extremely low " . Rigoletto , on 25 May 1889 , was the last operatic performance given in the house .
= = Phipps ' theatre : 1897 – present = =
With the rapid advances in theatre technology made during this period , the 1868 theatre quickly became outmoded , and the sub @-@ lease of the theatre , still held by the Dudley family , was due to expire in 1891 . The Commissioners of Woods , Forests and Land Revenues ( forerunners of the Crown Estate ) desired the entire block on which the theatre stood to be rebuilt , except for the Royal Arcade , where the lease did not expire until 1912 . Problems were encountered in obtaining all the buildings and in financing the scheme , but the theatre and surrounding buildings were demolished in 1892 . Plans were commissioned from architect Charles J. Phipps for a theatre and a hotel . In February 1896 an agreement was reached with Herbert Beerbohm Tree for the erection of the theatre at a cost of £ 55 @,@ 000 . The plans were approved in February 1897 , and on 16 July 1896 , the foundation stone of the new theatre was laid . Phipps died in 1897 , and the theatre was his last work .
= = = Architecture = = =
The theatre was designed as a symmetrical pair with the Carlton Hotel and restaurant on the adjacent site , now occupied by New Zealand House . The frontage formed three parts , each of nine bays . The hotel occupied two parts , the theatre one , and the two buildings were unified by a cornice above the ground floor . The buildings rose to four storeys , with attic floors above , surmounted by large squared domes in a style inspired by the French Renaissance . The theatre has a Corinthian colonnade at the first floor , rising to the second , forming a loggia in front of the circle foyer . This is above a canopy over the main ground floor entrances . The theatre lies on an east – west axis . The stage at the western end was 49 feet ( 14 @.@ 9 m ) deep and 69 @.@ 5 feet ( 21 @.@ 2 m ) wide , and reputedly the first to be flat , rather than raked . The interior was designed by the consulting architect , W. H. Romaine @-@ Walker ( 1854 – 1940 ) , after the Opera at Versailles by Gabriel . Stalls and the pit were entered at ground level , with two partly cantilevered tiers above accommodating dress and family circles on the first level , and upper circle , amphitheatre and gallery on the tier above . In all , there were 1 @,@ 319 seats . Contemporary opinion was critical of the project . Edwin Sachs wrote in his 1897 guide to theatres , " The treatment is considered to be in the French Renaissance style and stone has been used throughout . The detail cannot , however , be termed satisfactory , nor does the exterior architecturally express the purpose of the building . "
Modern opinion of the theatre is more generous , with English Heritage describing the building as both Phipps ' finest work and one of the best planned theatres in London . The building was Grade II * listed in January 1970 . Appreciation of the buildings came too late to save the adjacent hotel from redevelopment as the new High Commission for New Zealand , completed in 1963 by British architects Robert Matthew , Johnson Marshall and Partners , who also designed the Commonwealth Institute . In 1995 , this too was Grade II listed as a fine example of 1960s architecture . The 200 @-@ year @-@ old Royal Opera Arcade , built by Nash and Repton , is all that survives of the second theatre and is the earliest example of a London arcade .
= = = Performance = = =
The current theatre opened on 28 April 1897 . Herbert Beerbohm Tree built the theatre with profits from his tremendous success at the Haymarket Theatre , and he owned , managed and lived in the theatre from its construction until his death in 1917 . For his personal use , he had a banqueting hall and living room installed in the massive , central , square French @-@ style dome . This building did not specialise in opera , although there were some operatic performances in its early years . The theatre opened with a dramatisation of Gilbert Parker 's The Seats of the Mighty . Adaptations of novels by Dickens , Tolstoy , and others formed a significant part of the repertoire , along with classical works from Molière and Shakespeare . The theatre also hosted the world première of J. M. Synge 's The Tinker 's Wedding on 11 November 1909 and George Bernard Shaw 's Pygmalion , with Tree as Henry Higgins and Mrs Patrick Campbell as Eliza , in 1914 . Tree 's productions were known for their elaborate and spectacular scenery and effects , often including live animals and real grass . These remained both popular and profitable , but in his last decade , Tree 's acting style was seen as increasingly outmoded , and many of his plays received bad reviews . Tree defended himself from critical censure , demonstrating his continuing popularity at the box office until his death .
In 1904 , Tree founded the Academy of Dramatic Art ( later RADA ) , which spent a year based in the theatre before moving in 1905 to Gower Street in Bloomsbury . Tree continued to take graduates of the Academy into his company at His Majesty 's , employing some 40 actors in this way by 1911 .
The facilities of the theatre naturally lent themselves to the new genre of musical theatre . Chu Chin Chow opened in 1916 and ran for an astonishing world record 2 @,@ 235 performances ( almost twice as long as the previous record for musical theatre – a record that it held until surpassed by Salad Days in 1955 ) . Major productions of plays with large casts were also performed at His Majesty 's . George and Ira Gershwin 's Oh , Kay ! had its London première on 21 September 1927 . This starred Gertrude Lawrence and John Kirby , and ran for 213 performances . Noël Coward 's operetta Bitter Sweet enjoyed a run of 697 performances beginning 18 July 1929 . J. B. Priestley 's theatrical adaptation of his own The Good Companions premièred on 14 May 1931 .
Musicals continued to dominate at the theatre in the post @-@ World War II period , including transfers of the successful Broadway productions Follow the Girls ( 1945 ; 572 performances ) and the Lerner and Loewe musicals Brigadoon ( 1949 ; 685 performances ) and Paint Your Wagon ( 1953 ; 478 performances ) . Leonard Bernstein 's West Side Story opened in December 1958 for a run of 1 @,@ 039 performances , transferring from Broadway via the Manchester Opera House . The London première of Fiddler on the Roof was on 16 February 1967 , starring Chaim Topol , and the production ran at Her Majesty 's for 2 @,@ 030 performances . Forty years after the original stage adaptation , André Previn 's musical adaptation of The Good Companions premièred on 11 July 1974 , followed by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Alan Ayckbourn 's initially unsuccessful collaboration , Jeeves , on 22 April 1975 , which has since enjoyed considerable success .
John Cleese organised A Poke in the Eye ( With a Sharp Stick ) as a benefit for Amnesty International at the theatre in 1976 , and it was broadcast as Pleasure at Her Majesty 's . This was the first of The Secret Policeman 's Balls , organised by and starring such performers as Peter Cook , Graham Chapman , and Rowan Atkinson . The venue was also the setting for the popular ITV variety series Live from Her Majesty 's , which ran on television from 1983 to 1988 . It was on this programme that Tommy Cooper collapsed and died on stage in 1984 .
This theatre is one of the 40 theatres featured in the 2012 DVD documentary series Great West End Theatres , presented by Donald Sinden .
= = = Phantom of the Opera = = =
The Phantom of the Opera had its world première on 9 October 1986 at the theatre , winning the Olivier Award for Best New Musical and featuring Sarah Brightman and Michael Crawford , who won an Olivier award for his performance in the title role . The piece is still playing at Her Majesty 's , celebrating its 25th anniversary in October 2011 and surpassing 10 @,@ 000 performances in October 2010 . It is the second longest @-@ running West End musical in history ( after Les Misérables ) . In a sign of its continuing popularity , Phantom ranked second in a 2006 BBC Radio 2 listener poll of the " Nation 's Number One Essential Musicals " . The musical is also the longest @-@ running show on Broadway , was made into a film in 2004 and had been seen by over 130 million people in 145 cities in 27 countries and grossed more than £ 3.2bn ( $ 5bn ) by 2011 , the most successful entertainment project in history .
Her Majesty 's Theatre 's " grand exterior " and " luxurious interior , with its three tiers of boxes and gold statuary around the stage " , as well as French Renaissance design , " make it an ideal site for this Gothic tale " set at the Opéra Garnier . The original Victorian stage machinery remains beneath the stage of the theatre . Designer Maria Björnson found a way to use it " to show the Phantom travelling across the lake as if floating on a sea of mist and fire " , in a key scene from the musical . On 5 May 2008 , for the first time in the run , the show closed for three days . This allowed the installation of an improved sound system at the theatre , consisting of over 6 miles ( 10 km ) of cabling and the siting of 120 auditorium speakers .
The theatre 's capacity is 1 @,@ 216 seats on four levels . Really Useful Theatres Group purchased it in January 2000 with nine other London theatres formerly owned by the Stoll @-@ Moss Group . Between 1990 and 1993 , renovation and improvements were made by the H.L.M. and C. G. Twelves partnership . In 2014 , Really Useful Theatres split @-@ off from the Really Useful Group and owns the theatre .
= Let 's All Chant =
" Let 's All Chant " is a song written by Michael Zager and Alvin Fields and performed by the Michael Zager Band . It was based on an idea originally suggested by former head of A & R Jerry Love after he visited clubs in New York and saw people endlessly chanting " Ooh @-@ ah , Ooh @-@ ah " . Although Zager was first embarrassed when Love asked him to write a song using these chants , he accepted the proposal and later co @-@ wrote " Let 's All Chant " with Fields .
The opening track and lead single from the group 's eponymous LP , " Let 's All Chant " was released as a single in December 1977 , with the track " Love Express " as a B @-@ side . An unexpected smash hit , the single reached number one on the disco chart and crossed over to the Soul Singles chart , where it peaked at number 15 , and to the Billboard Hot 100 , where it peaked at number 36 . In Europe , the single reached the top 10 in several countries , including the UK , Ireland and France . It eventually sold five million copies worldwide , making it one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time .
Recognizable by both its vocal hooks and its classical section , which is featured in the middle of the song , " Let 's All Chant " was well received by critics , who have praised its musical arrangement and its catchiness . Many reviewers regard the song as a classic of the disco era . It also became a turning point in Michael Zager 's career . As well as being used in many TV advertisements and movies , it has become an influential dance song which has been extensively covered or remixed by numerous artists and has been interpolated or sampled in many other tracks .
= = Background and recording = =
When he was still at A & M Records , Michael Zager met Jerry Love , the former head of A & R for A & M Records . After Love subsequently left the record label , he and Zager formed the Michael Zager Moon 's Band in 1976 . Love was an habitué of Studio 54 and went to clubs every night . One evening , he went to Greenwich Village to visit several clubs and noted that people were continuously singing " Ooh @-@ ah , Ooh @-@ ah " to every tune which was played in order to increase their own participation and pleasure . The next day , he described the scene to Zager and suggested that Zager write a song incorporating the " Ooh @-@ ah , Ooh @-@ ah " vocals . Zager told Love : " You have to be kidding ; that 's embarrassing ! " Love commented that everybody was doing it and that if Zager wrote a song using these chants , dancers would love it .
In parallel , the group 's name was changed to the Michael Zager Band and they signed with the label Private Stock Records . For their forthcoming LP , Zager wrote two songs , " Let 's All Chant " and " Love Express " , together with Alvin Fields . The co @-@ writer shared lead vocals on " Let 's All Chant " with session singers Dollette McDonald and Billy Baker . Zager added a classical section to the track . He later remarked :
The reason I added the piccolo trumpet and classical section in the middle of Let 's All Chant ' was mainly because I was embarrassed ! I thought it was so stupid with that ' Ooh @-@ ah ' sound in it that I wanted to add something to lift the track musically . I have a classical background and went to a music conservatory , so I was really feeling embarrassed
" Let 's All Chant " and " Love Express " were both recorded at the Secret Sound Studios , in Manhattan . Once the tracks were recorded , Zager told Fields : " I 'm gonna kill you if this isn 't a hit ! "
= = Composition = =
" Let 's All Chant " is a disco song driven by a repetitive bassline , handclaps and numerous vocal hooks ( such as " Ah @-@ ah , eh @-@ eh , let 's all chant " and " Your body , my body , everybody work your body " ) . These typical disco lyrics are about dancing and working one 's body . The song 's instrumentation also includes Afro @-@ Cuban drums , a " rollicking " piano line and an ensemble of wind instruments , marked by a piccolo trumpet solo which sounds " like it 's straight out of the Dynasty opening theme song " . The song 's tempo is 121 bpm and is very close to the average tempo of a standard disco song ( 120 bpm ) . According to AllMusic reviewer Alex Henderson , the combination of the " European @-@ influenced , oddly baroque " feeling with a " catchy disco / funk beat " grabs the attention of the listener and encourages him to discover the rest of the eponymous LP .
= = Commercial performance and sales = =
" Let 's All Chant " was released as a single with " Love Express " as a B @-@ side in December 1977 , on Christmas week . Zager thought it was the worst time to release the single because many artists usually released their albums during this period and thought the single would only become a " disco hit " . However , the single became an unexpected smash hit . It climbed to number one on the disco chart on February 18 , 1978 , knocking Cerrone 's " Supernature " off the top spot , and remained atop the chart for one week , before being toppled by Bionic Boogie 's " Dance Little Dreamer " . In the US , " Let 's All Chant " also charted at number 15 on the Soul Singles chart , number 25 on the Cash Box Top 100 Singles , number 31 on the Record World and number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 . In Canada , the single peaked at number two on the dance chart ( behind " Supernature " ) and at number 27 on the singles chart . A music video was simultaneously released .
The single did even better in Europe , reaching the top 10 in several countries . It peaked at number eight on both the UK Singles Chart and the Irish Singles Chart . In the Netherlands , the song reached the fourth place on the Dutch Top 40 and the Single Top 100 charts and stayed for thirteen weeks on both charts . It also reached number four in Switzerland , where it became the 25th best @-@ selling single of the year 1978 . In France , " Let 's All Chant " peaked at number five and became the eleventh best @-@ selling single of 1978 in this country . In Belgium , it peaked at number two for three weeks , being kept from the top spot by John Travolta and Olivia Newton @-@ John 's " You 're the One That I Want " , and remains the eight best @-@ selling single of the year . The single also reached number 14 in Germany and stayed for 21 weeks on the national chart .
By July 1979 , the single sold over three million copies worldwide and eventually went on to sell five million copies worldwide , selling about 6 to 700 @,@ 000 copies in the US and about 763 @,@ 000 copies in France . It was also certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for certified sales of 75 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Critical reception = =
Critically , AllMusic 's Henderson provided a mixed description of the track . Although he criticized the lyrics for being " usual disco clichés " , he also called the song " quirky " , " infectious " and " interesting " and viewed " Let 's All Chant " as one of the most " unorthodox disco hits of 1978 " . In their book Saturday Night Forever : The Story of Disco , Alan Jones and Jussi Kantonen described the song as being " supremely catchy and melodic , with a quite miraculous classical chamber music @-@ style break in the middle " and considered the track " a key recording that instantly defines the disco era . " They also regarded " Let 's All Chant " as the high point in Michael Zager 's career . In 2006 , Slant Magazine ranked the song number 50 in its 100 Greatest Dance Songs list , describing it as a " deft mix of disco , funk and baroque @-@ pop " and writing that the song 's breakdown made it special . The track was also ranked 165th on the 700 Top Disco Songs , a list drawn up by several DJs from all over the world .
= = Track listings = =
7 " Single
" Let 's All Chant " – 3 : 07
" Love Express " – 2 : 52
12 " Single
" Let 's All Chant " – 7 : 03
" Love Express " – 7 : 01
Reissue – 12 " Maxi
" Let 's All Chant " – 7 : 05
" Traffic Jam " – 7 : 09
" Traffic Jam ( Dub Mix ) " – 4 : 03
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Impact and influence = =
Following the song 's release and worldwide success , " Let 's All Chant " introduced Michael Zager in the mainstream and became a turning point in his career :
The song is bigger than ever , along with many other recordings I produced / composed etc . For example the Spinners ' ' Working my way back to you ' and ' Cupid ' along with ' Right before my eyes ' by Patti Day . But ' Let 's all chant ' really put me on the ' map ' as a composer , producer and arranger .
Private Stock promoted Michael Zager Band 's eponymous LP due to the success of the song . It became a contributing factor the success of the LP . It also remains an influential dance track which has been heavily used on TV and in movies , as well as being covered or remixed by numerous artists or interpolated or sampled in other songs .
= = = Appearances = = =
= = = = Movies = = = =
" Let 's All Chant " is heard in the 1978 movie Eyes of Laura Mars , while Laura Mars is setting up an elaborate shoot juxtaposing murder and high fashion .
The song is featured on the soundtrack of the 1998 movie The Last Days of Disco .
It is used in the 1999 movie Summer of Sam .
= = = = Television = = = =
On November 17 , 1978 , the song was featured in " Ute und Manuela " , the twelfth episode of the fifth season of the TV series Derrick .
In September 2006 , it was used in a TV advertising for Médiatis .
= = = Cover versions and remixes = = =
In 1988 , British duo Pat and Mick covered the song . It was released as a single with " On The Night " as a B @-@ side and was credited to " Mick and Pat " . This version reached number eleven on the UK Singles Chart and number four on the UK Indie Chart .
In the same year , Gazuzu released " Chant for You ( Chant for Me ) " , a track which features elements of " Let 's All Chant " , La Bionda 's " One for You , One for Me " and Whistle 's ( Nothing Serious ) Just Buggin ' .
In 1993 , German dance group Go covered the track .
In 1996 , " Let 's All Chant " was remixed by UK based producer and DJ Gusto . His version peaked at number 43 on the Flemish Ultratop 50 Singles chart and at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart .
In 2002 , it was remade by DJ Valium under the title " DJ Valium feat . Michael Zager " . It charted in several countries , reaching number 42 in France , number 44 in Austria and number 73 in Germany .
In 2003 , French DJ Antoine Clamaran remixed the song .
In the same year , it was covered by French act Seventy Three . Their version reached number 41 on the French Singles Chart and was used in an advertisement for Orangina in June 2003 — and later in an advertisement for McDonald 's in November 2003 — in that country .
Disco Queen also covered the song in 2003 . Their version peaked at number 10 on the Greek charts .
In 2010 , Bob Sinclar remixed the song . The remix was used in a TV advertising for Oasis Tea .
In the same year , the song was remixed by French DJs DatA , Nôze and DJ Zebra .
= = = Interpolations = = =
In 1979 , Discotheque interpolated the song on " Intro Disco " .
In 1987 , MC Miker G of MC Miker G & DJ Sven interpolated the song on his track " My Body Energized " .
In 1994 , it was interpolated on the song " Move That Body " by Look Twice feat . Gladys .
In 2011 , " Let 's All Chant " was interpolated in " Galera " by Congolese @-@ French singer Jessy Matador , which features King Kuduro and Bra Zil and which peaked at number 68 in France .
In 2012 , it was interpolated in " My Party " by German female artist DJane HouseKat and rapper Rameez . " My Party " charted well in Europe , reaching number 25 in Denmark , the top 20 in Switzerland and the top 10 in Austria and Germany . It also peaked at number 19 on the Dance Bubbling Under in Wallonia .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Samples = = =
= Tidus =
Tidus ( ティーダ , Tīda ) is a fictional character from Square Enix 's Final Fantasy series , first introduced as the protagonist of the role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy X in 2001 by Square . Tidus is introduced as a 17 @-@ year @-@ old rising blitzball star player from the city of Zanarkand . After a mysterious creature called Sin attacked his hometown , Tidus was seemingly transported to the world of Spira . Shortly after arriving , Tidus meets a fledgling summoner , Yuna , and her guardians . The summoner is soon to set out on a pilgrimage in an attempt to put an end to the very creature that attacked Tidus ' city ; and by joining them , Tidus hopes he will find his way home . He has also made appearances in other video games , such as Final Fantasy X 's sequel , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 ; the Kingdom Hearts series , and other crossover games by Square Enix .
Tidus ' character was designed by Tetsuya Nomura with the intention of having a cheerful appearance in contrast to previous Final Fantasy protagonists , while scenario writer Kazushige Nojima wanted to expand the relationship between the player and the character through the story . He is voiced by Masakazu Morita in Japanese and James Arnold Taylor in English .
The character has generally been well received by video game reviewers owing to his cheerful personality and heroic traits that made him an appealing protagonist . His character development and romantic relationship with Yuna has also been praised , and both have often been featured as among the best ones in gaming . Critics and fans were divided on voice actor Taylor 's portrayal of the character , however . Several types of merchandise based on Tidus ' character have been produced , such as action figures and jewelry .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy X = = =
In Final Fantasy X , Tidus is introduced in medias res via an in @-@ game cutscene , showing the main characters around the ruins of a city , Zanarkand . He narrates most of the game events , revealing his thoughts on certain aspects of his journey . Tidus recounts how events have led to the present , starting at his life in Zanarkand where he was a sports celebrity in blitzball , a fictional underwater sport . Despite showing a cheerful and carefree attitude , Tidus bears an enormous hatred towards his absent father , Jecht , initially due to the fact his mother did not pay attention to him when he was around , and later for the pressure he had when playing blitzball due to the fact Jecht was also a celebrity . During a Blitzball tournament , Zanarkand is attacked by an immense , shrouded creature known as Sin . The city is destroyed in its path , and Tidus is taken by Sin and Jecht 's friend Auron to the world Spira .
After arriving in Spira , Tidus drifts to the island Besaid . While on the island he meets Yuna , a summoner who is planning a pilgrimage to destroy Sin , along with her guardians : Lulu , Wakka , and Kimahri Ronso . Tidus joins them in the hope of finding his way home , and ultimately becomes one of Yuna 's guardians , alongside Auron who reveals that Jecht became Sin . Ten years ago , Jecht and Auron did the same pilgrimage protecting summoner Braska , Yuna 's father , to defeat it , but Jecht became the reborn Sin . As the journey continues , Tidus starts losing hope of returning home as he decides to stay with the other guardians and develops a romantic relationship with Yuna . As the party approaches Zanarkand , Tidus learns that he and the Zanarkand he hails from are the cumulative dreams of deceased people known as fayth . Dream Zanarkand was created at the same time as the destruction of the original Zanarkand , when Sin was created in the war between Zanarkand and Bevelle . However , if Sin is permanently defeated , the summoning of Dream Zanarkand and all its people — including Tidus — will disappear .
Inside Zanarkand , the group learns Yuna must choose one of her guardians to become her fayth for the Final Summoning . The group decides to find another way to destroy Sin forever and that should not involve the sacrifice of a guardian or a summoner . The group then attacks Sin directly and enter its shell . Eventually , they find Jecht , who they have to defeat to eliminate Sin . After killing the corrupt deity Yu Yevon responsible for Sin 's rebirth , the fayth are allowed to depart and their summoning of Zanarkand ends . As he vanishes Tidus says farewell to his friends , and is reunited with the spirits of Auron , Jecht , and Braska in the Farplane . However , after the credits , Tidus is seen awakening under the sea .
= = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 = = =
Tidus figures prominently into the plot of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , though his appearances in the sequel are few . Also , because players have the option of renaming Tidus in Final Fantasy X , he is exclusively referred to with pronouns ( " he " and " him " ) just like in the previous game . Two years after the events of Final Fantasy X , Yuna sees a sphere displaying a young man who looks like Tidus trapped in a prison . This compels Yuna to join the Gullwings , a sphere @-@ hunting group , and travel around Spira in the hopes of finding more clues that Tidus may be alive . The individual seen in the sphere is eventually revealed to be another man named Shuyin instead . Depending on the player 's development during the game , the fayth will appear to Yuna in the game 's ending , telling her they can make Tidus return to her . Tidus then appears in Spira and is reunited with Yuna . Although another final scene has Tidus unsure whether he is still a dream or not , he wishes to stay with her . He is also an unlockable character to play blitzball in the game but under the name of " Star Player " .
In the updated version of the game , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 : International + Last Mission , Tidus appears as a playable character for battles . Additionally , an extra episode set after the original game 's playthrough reveals that he is living in Besaid alongside Yuna while an illusion of him appears as a boss character . The HD Remastered version of the game adds a new audio drama where Tidus is a new blitzball star who appears to be hiding a wound . Even though Yuna breaks up with him , Tidus decides to aid Yuna on a future quest .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Tidus has also appeared in games outside of the Final Fantasy X continuity . A more youthful version of Tidus appears in the Kingdom Hearts series as a friend of the protagonists Sora and Riku . In the first Kingdom Hearts , he appears with younger versions of Wakka and Final Fantasy VIII 's Selphie , serving as an optional sparring opponent . The character makes a cameo in Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories and in Kingdom Hearts II , he is briefly mentioned by Selphie . A digital replica of Tidus also appears in Kingdom Hearts coded as a boss character . Tidus appears in Itadaki Street Special , a board game @-@ based video game , along with Auron and Yuna . Tidus ' dialogues , monologues and character songs were also included in the CDs Final Fantasy X Vocal Collection and feel / Go dream : Yuna & Tidus .
In Dissidia Final Fantasy , an action game that features several Final Fantasy heroes and villains , Tidus is featured as the hero from Final Fantasy X as a warrior from the goddess Cosmos while his father works for the other rival god , Chaos . To match the overall character designs of Dissidia , Nomura designed Tidus to look younger than his Final Fantasy X appearance . Nevertheless , his original Final Fantasy X design is available as an alternative form . Various of his traits such as his thoughts and actions are references to Final Fantasy X. Along the entire cast , Tidus reappears in the prequel Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , representing Chaos in the previous war . When confronted by Yuna , Tidus sacrifices his life to save her from an attack from the Emperor , but is saved by Jecht to later become a Warrior of Cosmos . Besides his previous outifits , Tidus has another design based on an illustration by Yoshitaka Amano . He is also featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as a playable character representing Final Fantasy X. Additionally , he appears in World of Final Fantasy .
Tidus has also had various types of merchandise modeled after his likeness ; for example , action figures and jewelry . In commemoration of the franchise 's 20th anniversary , Square released figurines of him alongside other Final Fantasy protagonists .
= = Creation and development = =
The game 's scenario writer , Kazushige Nojima , has expressed his concern regarding the relationship between the player and the main character in a Final Fantasy title , and wanted to try something new while penning Final Fantasy X. Since both the player and the main character find themselves in a new world , Nojima wanted Tidus ' understanding of the world to reflect the player 's progress in the game ; a connection that allowed the player to advance Tidus ' first @-@ person narration of most of Final Fantasy X. Nojima created a brief description for Tidus to give the character designer , Tetsuya Nomura , a rough scenario to work with . Nomura used the description to create a sketch to get input from Nojima and other staff members . Nomura was also requested to design Tidus to look different from the game 's theme in order to make him stand out . With the concept of the undead people used in the games , the staff wanted it to use it on one of the playable characters . Tidus was meant to be an undead person , but during development of Final Fantasy X , Nojima watched a movie which used a similar idea with its protagonist . Therefore , Tidus was not an undead person during the game , and such role was given to Auron , as he was a secondary character .
Nomura has also mentioned a contrast between the lead male and female protagonists was established by Yuna 's name meaning " night " in Okinawan . This contrast is also represented with the items required to empower their Celestial Weapons ; the Sun Sigil and the Sun Crest for Tidus ' , and the Moon Sigil and Moon Crest for Yuna 's . Nomura also explained he wanted his clothing and accessories to suggest a relationship with the sea . For example , his outfit bears a distinctive blue theme , and the symbol of Tidus ' Blitzball team on his clothing is designed after a fishing hook . The symbol is designed as an amalgamation of the letters " J " and " T " ( the first letters of Tidus ' name and that of his father , Jecht ) . Due to the player having the option to change his default name , Tidus is never directly referred to by name during audible dialogue , though one character in Dream Zanarkand says his name in a dialogue box . The only other in @-@ game appearance of his name is on a name plate on an Auroch locker in the Luca stadium as " Tidu " , written in the fictional script used in Spira . Prior to Final Fantasy X 's release , Tidus was referred by publications as " Tida " . During early 2001 , PlayOnline changed the name to " Tidus " . Because his name is never spoken out loud in Final Fantasy X , its intended pronunciation has been a subject of debate among fans . Interviews with James Arnold Taylor , Tidus ' English voice actor , and spoken dialogue from the English versions of Dissidia , Dissidia 012 , and Kingdom Hearts — which featured the character in a cameo — portray it as / ˈtiːdəs / TEE @-@ dəs , whereas one instance in the English version of Kingdom Hearts 2 exists in which the character 's name is pronounced / ˈtaɪdəs / TY @-@ dəs .
For the sequel , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , producer Yoshinori Kitase thought that the fans ' biggest expectations of the game was a reunion between Tidus and Yuna after their separation in the first game . The game generated multiple rumors about Tidus ' connection with the villain , Shuyin . In response , Square found answering that would be too complicated due to Tidus ' nature .
= = = Personality = = =
Nomura has expressed after designing serious and moody main characters for Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VIII , he wanted to give Tidus a cheerful attitude and appearance ( while still keeping the recent trend of giving him a name related to the sky ) , which is reflected in the name Kazushige Nojima chose for him ( Tiida is the Okinawan word for " Sun " ) . This is also shown in his personality with Nojima calling him " lively " and comparing him with Final Fantasy VIII 's Laguna Loire and Zell Dincht . Initially , Tidus was going to be a rude plumber who was also part of a delinquent gang , but Kitase pointed it would make him a weak protagonist , so he was changed to a sports star . His relationship with his father was based " stories throughout the ages , such as the ancient Greek legends . " This would eventually reveal the key of Sin 's weakness and eventual defeat .
In Japanese Tidus has been voiced by Masakazu Morita who stated that playing such character was one of the best experiences in his career thanks to the fact he also did the motion capture for him . This gave him greater understanding of the character 's personality and was able to connect himself with him to the point that when Morita did Tidus ' dialogues in the recording of the game he also moved his own body . James Arnold Taylor did the character 's English voice and stated that it did not seem realistic to him to have Tidus react in any other way than to truthfully show his emotions . While he also said there were things he would change about his performance if he could do it over again , Taylor stated he enjoyed voicing Tidus and thanked fans of the game for complimenting him on his work .
= = Reception = =
Tidus has received positive reception with GameSpy describing him as a " garishly dressed Leonardo DiCaprio " , commenting that his flaws are what make him appealing . PSXextreme 's Arnold Katayev liked Tidus ' personality which contrasts the ones from previous Final Fantasy protagonists . His role as the male lead was found outstanding in comparison to previous characters by GameZone due to his " perpetual feel of youth and innocence " . The 1UP.com staff initially described him as the " good kind of jock " due to how he supports the other protagonists of the game and yet they noted that his anger and his growth throughout the game avoided him from being a " stereotypical boy scout " . Although GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin commented players might not initially like the character , they would eventually find him " suitably endearing . " Furthermore , he stated that he had the " surprising depth " characterized by past Final Fantasy protagonists , and called the ending involving Tidus " emotionally charged and satisfying " . Eurogamer 's Tom Brawell stated that Tidus and the other characters " make much more dignified and believable decisions than those made by their predecessors in other Final Fantasy games . " Kazuma Kaneko from Atlus also praised him calling Tidus " a dashing lead character . "
Tidus was also listed as the fourth best Final Fantasy hero of all the time by GamesRadar who described him as " One of the most complex and bizarre heroes yet seen in the series " , while in another article they referred to his look as androgynous . In a Famitsu poll done in February 2010 , Tidus was voted by readers as the twentieth most popular video game character . GameZone listed him as the third best Final Fantasy character praising his energetic personality and his actions across Final Fantasy X that make him " the true star of the title " . Tidus ' revelation of his real nature in the game 's ending was third in a 1UP article of video game spoilers ; such event was stated to have reduced " [ to ] at least two 1UP staffers to a state of misty @-@ eyed mourning " yet they criticized how Tidus ' resurrection in the sequel makes his fate unrealistic . On the other hand , GamesRadar found Tidus ' fate in the first game confusing as in the epilogue he appears alive despite having previously disappeared , and such scene is not explained until the sequel 's ending . Matthew Walker from Cheat Code Central commented that the game 's final scene was meant to give hope that Tidus was alive , the ending still felt sad .
Tidus was also compared to Squall Leonhart , the protagonist from Final Fantasy VIII . IGN noted the differences in appearances between the two , comparing Squall 's darker colored outfit and " permanent mope " against Tidus ' brighter outfit and weapon along with " an indelible grin " . Additionally , Kurt Kalata in Gamasutra thought that Tidus ' character was more entertaining than Squall 's despite being " a bit whiny " . 1UP listed him as the worst dressed video game character , citing a " deal with it " outfit design by Nomura . They further commented that despite the " preposterous " design , Square was able to " successfully sell " Tidus as Final Fantasy X 's main protagonist . His Dissidia outfit was noted by 1UP to be consistent with other outfits by Nomura due to the number of accessories it has . Because of his English @-@ language voice work , GameSpot commented it would have preferred " an almost @-@ mute lead character , a la Squall from Final Fantasy VIII . " Regarding the character 's English @-@ language voice work , IGN stated the character " has a tendency to speak a little too high and fast when he gets excited . " RPGamer criticized Taylor 's work , stating that while Tidus is supposed to sound " impulsive and energetic " , his dialogue leaves him as " stupid and childish " , while Eurogamer echoed similar statements by referring to his voice acting as " whiny " and " detestable " . On the other hand , PSXextreme found that Taylor does a good work voicing Tidus . He was also featured fifth in 1UP 's " The Top 5 Most Irriating RPG Protagonists " with criticism focused on his relationship with his father and his outfit . Matthew Walker noted that while in the climax Tidus still told his father he hated him , he actually came to appreciate him despite his initial feelings .
The relationship between Tidus and Yuna was listed by GameSpot as one of the " Great Loves " in video games . It referred to their relationship as " one of the best ( and ultimately saddest ) examples " of a mature romance in games and cited the progression of the romance throughout the story as one of the game 's best elements . In a general overview of the romances from Final Fantasy , Gaming Age stated that Final Fantasy X had " the sparks fly " between Tidus ' and Yuna 's relationship . GamesRadar listed their relationship as the tenth best romance in gaming as well the second best romance in Square Enix game , commenting on " that they have the most realistic relation " , and noted that despite the sacrifices they go through in the series , they still look for a chance to be together . Kotaku listed the relationship second in the " Gaming 's Top Five Love Stories " by Mike Fahey who stated that the popularity of their relationship and the fact Tidus fades away in the game 's ending was what forced Square to make its direct sequel so that the two characters could meet once again . Gamasutra featured it fifth in their list by Leigh Alexander who despite citing Tidus as a " forgettable hero " praised the importance of his and Yuna 's relation in the game 's story . Both Tidus and Yuna also won the " Best Couple of the Year " award from Game Informer in 2001 . Yuna 's English voice actress , Hedy Burress , commented that thanks to Tidus ' interactions with Yuna gave her character a more " womanly aspect " , and thus , more humanizing .
= April 2011 Fukushima earthquake =
The April 2011 Fukushima earthquake ( 福島県浜通り地震 , Fukushima @-@ ken Hamadōri jishin , lit . " Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake " ) was a potent magnitude 6 @.@ 6 Mw intraplate aftershock that occurred at 17 : 16 JST ( 08 : 16 UTC ) on Monday , 11 April 2011 , in the Hamadōri region of Fukushima , Japan . With a shallow focus of 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) , the earthquake was centred inland about 36 km ( 22 mi ) west of Iwaki , causing widespread strong to locally severe shaking . It was one of many aftershocks to follow the 11 March Tōhoku earthquake , and the strongest to have its epicentre located inland .
The earthquake occurred as a result of normal faulting to the west of Iwaki and triggered numerous landslides across adjacent mountainous areas . A few fires broke out , and 220 @,@ 000 households lost electricity . Officials issued localised tsunami alerts , though no significant waves were generated . The earthquake caused little structural damage , but killed four people and injured ten others . The strong ground movements triggered the reactivation of a nearby geological fault , prompting researchers to conduct extensive surveys in the region .
= = Geology = =
The magnitude 6 @.@ 6 Mw Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake occurred inland on 11 April 2011 at 08 : 16 UTC at a focal depth of 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) , about 36 km ( 22 mi ) west of Iwaki , Fukushima , or 161 km ( 100 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Tokyo . To the east of the epicentre , the oceanic Pacific Plate is subducted beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate , on which much of Honshu 's Tōhoku region is situated . Building stress near the resultant plate boundary has led to the development of shallow inland faults through crustal deformation and folding along the east coast of Tōhoku . This intraplate earthquake occurred in the vicinity of the Idosawa Fault – a shallow crustal fault in the Hamadōri region near Tabito town , Iwaki city , that had previously been inactive .
Surveys near the epicentre revealed a surface rupture of about 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) and numerous fault scarps , with general vertical displacements of 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 2 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 9 ft ) ; a maximum displacement of 2 @.@ 3 m ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) occurred at the small village of Shionohira . Localised right @-@ lateral slip of 30 cm ( 12 in ) was observed at the subsiding west side of the rupture . The segments of the Idosawa Fault associated with this surface feature were classified as the " Shionohira Fault " in 2011 . The proximate Yunodake Fault , a normal dip @-@ slip fault northeast of the Shionohira Fault that had been dormant for 120 @,@ 000 – 130 @,@ 000 years , also ruptured during the quake . These observations indicated that the earthquake occurred as a result of normal dip @-@ slip faulting with some strike @-@ slip component .
Although it was centred near a different fault zone , the earthquake was classified as an aftershock of the 11 March Tōhoku earthquake , which occurred offshore about 235 km ( 146 mi ) to its northeast . The magnitude 9 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake triggered widespread seismic activity , and its aftershock sequence includes well @-@ over 67 earthquakes of magnitude 6 @.@ 0 Mw or greater . Apart from the Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake , four of the aftershocks measured magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw or higher . The Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake , however , was the strongest of the aftershocks to have its epicentre located inland . Early estimates placed the strength of the earthquake at a magnitude of 7 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 1 , but the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) lowered the magnitude to 6 @.@ 6 . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) assessed a magnitude of 7 @.@ 0 Mj and a depth of 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) .
The Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake was succeeded by a number of smaller tremors ; that same day , at least 11 earthquakes of magnitude 3 @.@ 5 Mj or higher were recorded near its epicentre . Of the series , the strongest registered at a magnitude of 5 @.@ 5 Mj and occurred within 3 @.@ 5 hours after the initial quake . A shallow magnitude 6 @.@ 0 Mw ( 6 @.@ 4 Mj ) earthquake and several smaller tremors struck the region on 12 April .
= = Effects = =
The earthquake struck in the late afternoon near a moderately populated region of the Fukushima Prefecture , although most structures around the epicentre were resistant to earthquake shaking . Focussed at an unusually shallow depth , the earthquake generated significant shaking throughout many adjacent prefectures . The strongest ground motion registered at severe ( MM VIII ) in Ishikawa town on the Mercalli intensity scale . Strong shaking ( MM VI ) spread through Iwaki , Sukawaga , Kuroiso , Ōtawara and Kitaibaraki , with light tremors ( MM IV ) felt in areas up to several hundred kilometres from the epicentre , including Tokyo and Yokohama . The earthquake cut electricity to about 220 @,@ 000 households , with most of the cuts reported in Iwaki city . Workers at the Fukushima Daiichi power plant – distanced 70 km ( 43 mi ) from the epicentre – evacuated to safety , and external power to the plant was cut . The outage briefly disrupted cooling water injections into three of the reactors , but services to the plant were restored by 18 : 05 JST . Authorities at Tokyo International Airport closed all runways momentarily , while NTT DoCoMo restricted voice calls in 14 prefectures following the quake . East Japan Railway Company temporarily suspended its services to restart four of five bullet @-@ train lines ; other Shinkansen bullet trains in the region were also halted .
The earthquake sparked several fires in Iwaki , with one fire breaking out in Asakawa town . Fire engines extinguished a blaze in a liquefied natural gas tank at Daiichi Sankyo 's Onahama Plant . Most of the structural damage was due to scattered rock- and landslides along hillsides in the vicinity of Iwaki . A landslide crushed two vehicles and buried three homes in the city , trapping a number of the inhabitants . The incident resulted in two immediate deaths . Four people were critically injured and taken to hospital ; one of them was later pronounced dead . The Iwaki Ibaraki Route 14 interchange of the Jōban Expressway , which runs from Misato , Saitama , to Tomiya , Miyagi , was cut off to traffic by a large landslide of 120 m × 100 m ( 390 ft × 330 ft ) . In Tabito town , very close to the epicentre , a 170 m × 50 m ( 560 ft × 160 ft ) landslide resulted in the formation of a quake lake – a natural damming of a river by mass wasting – with a water level of 15 m ( 49 ft ) and a storage volume of 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 500 m3 ( 35 @,@ 000 – 90 @,@ 000 cu ft ) . Significant land deformation with traces of uplift was observed in and around town , affecting local roads but largely sparing its structures .
A total of seven people from other regions near the epicentre , including southern Ibaraki , Tochigi and Kanagawa prefectures , suffered minor injuries . Another person was injured during the magnitude 6 @.@ 0 ( Mw ) aftershock of 12 April . In a report from July 2011 , the Fire and Disaster Management Agency confirmed a death toll of four from the earthquake .
= = Response = =
The Earthquake Early Warning system was activated upon the detection of primary waves – seismic waves that forego an earthquake 's perceivable ground motions – giving residents 6 @.@ 8 seconds to seek cover before the main shock . At the risk of a tsunami – which reach their destructive wave heights near shallow coastal waters – local fishing boats along coastlines were shown heading out to sea on national news broadcasts . A warning for a localised tsunami of up to 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) was issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency ; however , no significant waves were recorded , and the warning was cancelled soon thereafter . In response to the earthquake , the fire department dispatched search and rescue teams and emergency crews for relief efforts and damage assessments throughout the affected area . Six medical crews in pairs of two were also sent to Kanagawa , Chiba and Gunma prefectures . Former Prime Minister Naoto Kan postponed a press conference scheduled for 17 : 50 JST marking the one @-@ month anniversary of the catastrophic Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami .
The Fukushima Hamadōri earthquake occurred in a region with historically low levels of seismicity ; studies showed that the recent activity near the fault zone had been triggered by the Tōhoku earthquake . Ever since the earthquake triggered their reactivation , the Shionohira and Yunodake faults have provided essential data for local geological surveys on regional land deformation , sedimentary rock distribution and landslide vulnerability . In the earthquake 's aftermath , Professor Yagi Hiroshi from the Faculty of Education , Art and Science noted that " a possibility exists for widespread aftershocks of the same size to occur in the near future . "
= Close My Eyes ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Close My Eyes " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey for her sixth studio album Butterfly ( 1997 ) . It was co @-@ written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff . While Carey solely wrote the lyrics to the song , both she and Afanasieff composed its music . They also produced and arranged the song together . A downtempo piano led song , the lyrics in " Close My Eyes " revolve around negative experiences in her life , including indirectly talking about the relationship between her and ex @-@ husband Tommy Mottola . In September 2012 , Carey revealed that it is one of her most favourite and revealing songs that she has written in her career thus far .
= = Background = =
Carey began working on Butterfly in January 1997 . During the album 's development in mid @-@ 1997 Carey separated from her husband , music executive Tommy Mottola , who had guided her career since 1988 . Carey 's increasing control over her own career had led to speculation in the press over the future of the couple , and they later divorced . Throughout the development of the album , in a departure from her previous style , Carey worked with various rappers and hip @-@ hop producers , including Sean " Puffy " Combs , Kamaal Fareed , Missy Elliott and Jean Claude Oliver and Samuel Barnes from Trackmasters . Critics saw Carey 's new production team as a form of revenge on Mottola and Sony Music . Carey denied taking a radically new direction , and insisted that the musical style of her new album was of her own choosing . Nevertheless , Carey resented the control that Sony , whose president was Mottola , exercised over her music , preventing her making music about which she was passionate . In contrast , Sony were concerned Carey , their best @-@ selling act , could jeopardize her future success through her actions . The pressure of the separation and constant press attention began to take its toll of Carey . Growing creative differences with producer Walter Afanasieff ended their working relationship , after collaborating on most of Carey 's previous output . The breaking point came after a heated argument during a long recording session , over the album 's musical direction . Carey also faced media criticism over her choice of producers and several newspapers linked Carey romantically to several rappers , suggesting these relationships influenced her decisions . However , Carey denied the allegations , stating she had only slept with her husband .
= = Production and recording = =
" Close My Eyes " was co @-@ written by Carey and Walter Afanasieff ; Carey solely wrote the lyrics , while both she and Afanasieff composed the musical structure . It was also produced and arranged by Carey and Afanasieff . The keyboards , synthesizers and programming were performed by Afanasieff . Additional keys , drum and rhythm programming , sound design and computer programming were carried out by Dan Shea . Dana Jon Chappelle and Mike Scott served as the engineers , while Ian Dalsemer was enlisted as the assistant engineer . " Close My Eyes " was recorded at Crave Studios and The Hit Factory , both situated in New York City . It was mixed by Mick Gazauski at both Crave Studios and The Hit Factory . It was mastered by Bob Ludwig at Gateway Mastering in Portland , ME .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Close My Eyes " is a downtempo piano led song , which runs for a duration of four minutes and 19 seconds . The lyrical content of the song speaks indirectly about Carey 's relationship with Mottola , and reflects on times in her life where she has had personal struggles and troubles . Her past is presented in the lyrics " I was a wayward child , with the weight of the world that I held deep inside " and " Life was a winding road , and I learned many things little ones shouldn 't know . " As described by David Browne for Entertainment Weekly , Carey " paints herself " in the lyrics as " A wayward child , with the weight of the world " . He also noted that the singer seems concerned that she had to grow up quicker than was perhaps necessary , in order to live her life in a controlled environment , " Maybe I grew up a little too soon . " During the chorus , Carey lightens the mood of the song by singing about having courage to face times of adversity , " But I closed my eyes , steadied my feet on the ground , raised my head to the sky . And though times rolled by , still I feel like a child as I look at the moon . Maybe I grew up a little too soon . " Jon Pareles for The New York Times wrote that Carey " coos " the lyrics " Maybe I grew up a little too soon " and " That woman @-@ child inside was on the verge of fading / Thankfully I woke up in time . "
= = Critical reception = =
David Browne for Entertainment Weekly described how " Close My Eyes " , as well as another track from the album entitled " Butterfly " , were not difficult songs to interpret , writing " It isn 't a reach to interpret these songs as describing life with the reportedly controlling Mottola . " Jon Pareles for The New York Times wrote that with regard to the lyrics " Maybe I grew up a little too soon " and " That woman @-@ child inside was on the verge of fading / Thankfully I woke up in time , " " Carey isn 't about to turn into Alanis Morissette ; Butterfly proclaims dependence more humbly than ever . " In their guide to Carey 's albums , Rolling Stone stated that " Close My Eyes , " along with " Butterfly " and " Breakdown , " were songs which indirectly spoke about her " pending extraction from the tentacles " of Mottola , who exercised his power over her as the head of Sony , the label to which Carey was signed .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " Close My Eyes " for the first time live on The Rosie O 'Donnell Show in 1997 . The performance saw Carey perform the song sitting on a stool , wearing a white vest top and jeans . It was also included on the set list of her Butterfly World Tour of 1998 and Rainbow World Tour of 2000 .
= = Legacy = =
In an interview with CNN on September 7 , 2012 , where she was honored by Broadcast Music , Inc. for her songwriting , Carey declared " Close My Eyes " as one of her most favourite and revealing songs that she has written . She stated that it is not always her number one or signature songs which are her favourite , rather , they are " lesser @-@ known cuts from more obscure records . " When asked about how she felt about some of her number @-@ one singles , including " Hero " ( Music Box , 1993 ) , " We Belong Together " ( The Emancipation of Mimi , 2005 ) and " Touch My Body " ( E = MC ² , 2008 ) , the singer revealed " I still love those songs , [ but ] I love the obscure songs because they 're very close to my heart . Especially a song called ' Close My Eyes , ' that 's like my life story . " In addition to " Close My Eyes , " Carey cited " Looking In , " " I Am Free , " and " Underneath the Stars " ( Daydream , 1995 ) as some of her favourites .
The song is included on the U.S. release of The Essential Mariah Carey . On Carey 's official Facebook page on May 12 , 2012 , shortly after the release , she wrote , " I spent four years writing this song , only because after I performed in Schenectady , NY , I started hearing this melody and singing it over and over to myself as I was taking a bath , looking at the moon .. Four years later , as I was leaving a devastating part of my life behind , I wrote the second verse , the bridge and the outro . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Crave Studios , New York City ; The Hit Factory , New York City .
Mixed at Gateway Mastering , Portland , ME .
Personnel
Lyrics – Mariah Carey
Music – Mariah Carey , Walter Afanasieff
Production – Mariah Carey , Walter Afanasieff
Arranging – Mariah Carey , Walter Afanasieff
Mixing – Bob Ludwig
Keys , synths , programming – Walter Afanasieff
Additional keys , drum and rhythm programming , sound design and computer programming – Dan Shea
Engineers – Dana Jon Chappelle , Mike Scott
Assistant engineers – Ian Dalsemer
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Butterfly .
= Aleeta curvicosta =
Aleeta curvicosta ( commonly the floury baker or floury miller , known until 2003 as Abricta curvicosta ) is a species of cicada , one of Australia 's most familiar insects . Native to the continent 's eastern coastline , it was described in 1834 by Ernst Friedrich Germar . As of 2014 the floury baker is the only described species in the genus Aleeta .
The floury baker 's distinctive appearance and loud call make it popular with children . Both the common and genus name are derived from the white , flour @-@ like filaments covering the adult body . Its body and eyes are generally brown with pale patterns including a light @-@ coloured line along the midline of the pronotum . Its forewings have distinctive dark brown patches at the base of two of their apical cells . The female is larger than the male , although species size overall varies geographically , with larger animals associated with regions of higher rainfall . The male has distinctive genitalia and a loud and complex call generated by the frequent buckling of ribbed tymbals and amplified by abdominal air sacs .
The floury baker is solitary and occurs in low densities . Individuals typically emerge from the soil through a three @-@ month period from late November to late February , and can be encountered until May . The floury baker is found on a wide variety of trees , with some preference for species of paperbark ( Melaleuca ) . It is a relatively poor flier , preyed upon by cicada killer wasps and a wide variety of birds , and can succumb to a cicada @-@ specific fungal disease .
= = Taxonomy = =
German naturalist Ernst Friedrich Germar described the floury baker in 1834 as Cicada curvicosta . Germar based the description on two specimens now in the Hope Entomological Collections , Oxford , but did not designate a type specimen and their exact locations were not recorded . In 2003 , one of the original specimens was designated the lectotype and the other the paralectotype .
Prominent Swedish entomologist Carl Stål named the genus Abricta in 1866 , and it was either treated as a subgenus of the genus Tibicen or a genus in its own right . Thus it became known as Tibicen curvicostus , and Abricta curvicosta from 1906 . French entomologist Jean Baptiste Boisduval described two specimens collected from Port Jackson as Cicada tephrogaster ( later Tibicen tephrogaster ) in 1835 ; this has long been considered a junior synonym . However , a review of the genus in 2003 showed Abricta to be a disparate group of species , and the Australian members were moved to other genera . Max Moulds conducted a morphological analysis of the genus and found the cicadas split naturally into clades according to biogeographical region . Of the 15 Australian species , the floury baker was the earliest offshoot . Unpublished data confirmed it was quite genetically distant from the other 14 species , and so it was classified in a new monotypic genus Aleeta , while most of the others were placed in the genus Tryella . The morphological distinction between Aleeta and Tryella is based on two factors : A. curvicosta has a larger forewing size – rarely less than 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) and usually over 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) , whereas Tryella is never above 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) ; the uncal lobes of Aleeta 's distinctive male genitalia are downturned at their distal ends , whereas those of Tryella are upturned . The name Aleeta is derived from the Greek aleton meaning flour or meal .
The floury baker gains its common name from the appearance of having been dusted with flour , and both the vernacular terms baker and miller were in use by 1860 . The name is sometimes corrupted as " flowery baker " . As of 1905 the same name " floury baker " was also in use for another species of Australian cicada ( Altria perulata , now Arunta perulata ) , which has white " sacks " as sounding boxes . That species is now commonly referred to as the " white drummer " .
= = Description = =
With a body length of 2 @.@ 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) , forewings between 3 and 5 @.@ 1 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 in ) long , a wingspan of 9 – 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 in ) and weighing around 1 @.@ 02 g ( 0 @.@ 036 oz ) , the floury baker is a medium @-@ sized cicada . Individuals markedly vary in size by region depending on local rainfall . Areas with an average annual rainfall of over 1000 mm ( 40 in ) – mostly coastal – have much larger individuals , with average forewing lengths about 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) longer than those in low @-@ rainfall areas .
The adult is brown with a white dusted appearance ; white downy filaments cover much of the body , legs and some wing veins , but this silver body fur is easily rubbed off , and so is often substantially diminished in older adults and museum specimens . Individuals have a variety of body markings , but all have a pale midline on their pronotum . Their legs are brown , sometimes yellowish , but with no distinct markings . Their dry mass is on average 36 @.@ 2 % of their total bodymass , higher than most Australian cicadas , which suggests strong exoskeletal armour . Their eyes are dark brown . They have yellowish opercula that extend laterally well beyond the body . The female is slightly larger than the male , She has generally similar colour and markings , though can be slightly paler in some areas . Her ninth abdominal segment is long and dark reddish @-@ brown , sometimes partly tending toward black . Her ovipositor is long , with a downward tilt , and the ovipositor sheath is black or dark reddish @-@ brown .
The wings are transparent with black or brown veins and a brown @-@ black patch at the base of apical cells 2 and 3 . These patches are sometimes fused into a continuous zigzag of dark brown to black discolouration . The basal cell is often opaque and amber @-@ coloured . As on many insects , the wing membranes are coated on either side by a repeating pattern of cuticular nanostructures , about 200 nm in height , separated by about 180 nm . These are thought to aid in anti @-@ reflective camouflage , anti @-@ wetting and self @-@ cleaning .
The male call can be heard at any time of day and consists of an unusual hissing @-@ type sound , starting as a series of one @-@ second sibilant bursts about a second apart repeated more rapidly until they become a constant hiss lasting 7 – 10 s . Described as " rp , rp , rp , rp , rrrrrp " , the sound is produced when single muscular contractions click the tymbal inward , buckling 7 – 9 of the tymbal ribs , each of which produces a pulse . This occurs alternately on the two tymbals and is rapidly repeated at a frequency of about 143 Hz ( in groups of four except when the cicada is in distress – when they are ungrouped and at a lower frequency ) , giving a pulse repetition frequency of around 1050 per second , with a relatively broad sound frequency range of 7 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 5 kHz , that has a dominant frequency ( at which the peak energy is observed ) of 9 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 6 kHz .
The abdominal tracheal air sacs surround the sound muscles and extend into the abdomen , acting as resonant chambers to amplify sound . The floury baker rapidly extends or raises its abdomen , thus modulating the influence of the air sacs on the sound to change its volume , pitch or tune during the introduction to the free song . This can be heard when a cicada is undisturbed in its natural environment , while male cicadas use these calls to attract females . The species is one of Australia 's loudest cicadas and has been termed " the best musician of them all " .
The floury baker is distinguished from a similar undescribed species A. sp. nr curvicosta ( the little floury baker ) by the structure of the male genitalia and an audibly distinct call . Members of Aleeta and Tryella are easily distinguished from other Australian cicadas as they lack tymbal covers , while the costal margin of their forewings gets larger toward the point where the wing is attached to the body . In these genera it is clearly wider than the costal vein .
= = Life cycle = =
Eggs are laid in a series of slits usually cut by the mother 's ovipositor in live branches or twigs of their food plants . On average about sixteen eggs , among a total batch of a few hundred , are laid in each slit . The batch all hatch around 70 days later – usually within a day or two of one another – but take longer in cold or dry conditions . Oviposition has been observed on a wide range of native and introduced plant species and can weaken the branches of young orchard trees such that they cannot sustain the load of their fruit .
After hatching , the nymphs fall from the branches to seek a crack in the soil where they can burrow , often to a depth of 10 – 40 cm ( 4 – 16 in ) , by digging with their large forelegs . Larger species of cicada like A. curvicosta are thought to spend 2 – 8 years underground , during which time they grow and feed through their rostrum on the sap from tree roots . They moult five times before emerging from the ground to shed their final shell . Although consistently taking place at night , the emergence of the population is diffusely spread over the season in comparison to the more high @-@ density Australian species . The sex ratio is about 1 @.@ 15 males to every female , consistent throughout the emergence . The metabolic rate over a period of about 6 @.@ 5 hours during emergence of A. curvicosta is about 1 @.@ 8 times the resting metabolic rate of the adult . A South East Queensland study reported nymphs would emerge on most tree species but avoid Norfolk pine ( Araucaria heterophylla ) and broad @-@ leaved paperbark ( Melaleuca quinquenervia ) . The adults are usually found between November and May but are sometimes observed as early as September and until as late as June . They were recorded as appearing every year , mainly in December and January in western Sydney , with a similar 92 @-@ day emergence period from late November until late February recorded in South East Queensland . This makes it one of the last Australian cicadas to emerge each season . The nymph grips onto the tree bark with all of its legs , swallows air and redistributes haemolymph to split the cast down the center of its back . It then extracts its head and clypeus by hunching its body , and when these have emerged , arches back to draw the legs out of their casing . It then slowly unfolds its wings , finally bending forward and gripping onto the front of the shell to free its abdomen . Once free it hangs for hours more as the wings harden .
Once they reach adulthood most adult cicada species live for around another two to four weeks . During this time they feed on flowing sap from tree branches , and mating and egg laying occurs .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The floury baker is found from the Daintree River in North Queensland to Bendalong in southern New South Wales . It is a highland species in the northern part of its range , restricted to the Atherton Tableland and Eungella National Park to the west of Mackay , but more a lowland species in the remainder of its range . It may be found in varied habitats , from rainforest margins to suburbs , even in the centre of Sydney .
= = Behaviour = =
Individuals are usually solitary , with a South @-@ East Queensland study estimating densities of only 50 per hectare ( compared to some other Australian species nearly two orders of magnitude more dense ) . The adult floury baker normally perches facing downwards and on branches of trees rather than trunks . It is found on a wide variety of plants , most commonly on species in the family Myrtaceae , more specifically various species of Melaleuca and Callistemon plants , as well as brown hazelwood ( Lysicarpus angustifolius ) and pegunny ( Bauhinia hookeri ) . These are expected to also be nymphal food plants . The species was associated with white feather honeymyrtle ( Melaleuca decora ) in a study at three sites in western Sydney . The broad @-@ leaved paperbark has been confirmed as a nymphal food plant .
Floury bakers are not proficient fliers compared with other Australian cicadas . They are slow , with a typical speed of 2 @.@ 1 metres per second ( 6 @.@ 9 ft / s ) , which rises to around 3 @.@ 9 metres per second ( 13 ft / s ) ( 14 km / hr ) when they are pursued or provoked . They are only able to generate low aerodynamic power and their flights are relatively short , lasting around 3 @.@ 4 s , with an average of 3 @.@ 3 changes in direction . Nor are they adept at landing . The distance at which they react to an approaching observer is moderate , both when stationary and when in flight .
= = Predation = =
Bird predation of the adult cicada is common , with wrens and grey fantails , noisy miners , blue @-@ faced honeyeaters , little wattlebirds , grey and pied butcherbirds , magpie @-@ larks , Torresian crows , white @-@ faced herons and even the nocturnal tawny frogmouth , all reported as significant predators . The frogmouths and bearded dragons have been observed feeding on emerging nymphs , however total nymphal mortality is estimated at under 10 % .
The adults of some Australian cicada are subject to a cicada @-@ specific fungus from the genus Massospora , which grows on their genitalia and abdominal cavity , eventually causing the tail end to drop off . Australian cicadas are further preyed on by the cicada killer wasp ( Exeirus lateritius
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= = =
The Castle is the main location in the series . It is situated by a river on a piece of land , circular in shape , which has been cut off from the surrounding forest by an artificial moat . The Wizard Tower , the Palace and the Ramblings are located in the Castle . Sage based the structure on that of ancient walled cities which were completely self @-@ sufficient , like little nations in their own right .
The Wizard Tower is the place where the ExtraOrdinary Wizard ( Marcia Overstrand ) resides along with Ordinary Wizards and the ExtraOrdinary Apprentice ( Septimus Heap ) . Built by the first ExtraOrdinary Wizard , Hotep @-@ Ra , it is a purple 21 @-@ floor tower with a gold pyramid at the top , surrounded by an aura of magyk . The Palace is the royal residence , home to Jenna , Sarah and Silas . It is much older than the Wizard Tower with secret places , such as the Queen 's room , which is accessible only to the Queen or the Princess , and has a secret passage to the Marram Marshes .
= = = The lands around the Castle = = =
= = = Marram Marshes = = =
To the south of the Castle are the Marram Marshes , a long stretch of marshland near the mouth of the river , which is inhabited by many creatures , such as Brownies , Quake Oozes , Boggarts and pythons . Zelda Heap 's cottage is on Draggen Island , in the middle of the marshes . It is built above the secret temple where Septimus finds the Dragon Boat . Septimus also found the egg ( which he thought was a rock ) from which spit Fyre hatched in this temple . Sage has stated that the marshes are based on boggy areas at the end of a creek near her home , and that the tides and the phases of the moon in the novels are based on those for Falmouth , Cornwall .
= = = The Forest = = =
The Forest lies to the north @-@ west of the Castle , and is feared by the Castle 's inhabitants as a dark and dangerous area . The Wendron Witches and the witch community live there , as does Galen , Sarah Heap 's mentor in Physik . The Forest has many mysterious aspects , and is dominated by shape @-@ shifting or carnivorous trees , including Benjamin Heap , wolverines , and secrets . The Forest has a secret way to transport a character to the path leading to the House of Foryx . Sage based the Forest on medieval forests , which were huge and a law unto themselves , free from the authority of the outside world .
= = = The House of Foryx = = =
The House of Foryx is a magical house situated somewhere deep in another forest , surrounded by perpetual winter . It is an octagonal building flanked by four octagonal pillars . Here all times meet , and characters can go from one time to another . Characters can come into the building from any time , but can leave it in their own time only if another from that time stands outside the main door ; otherwise they are lost in time , and may even end up in a time when the House of Foryx did not exist , giving them no chance of ever returning . The house is named after Foryx , a huge elephantine creature in the Septimus Heap universe .
= = = Other locations = = =
= = = The Port = = =
The Port lies in the extreme south near the sea , and is portrayed as a place full of strangers . Here ships load their cargo , which is verified by the customs officer , Alice Nettles ( deceased ) . A dangerous coven called the Port Witch Coven can lure strangers into a trap or turn them into toads . There is a short cut from the Port to Zelda 's house in the Marram Marshes . The author created the Port because of her love of the hubbub accompanying the arrival of boats . According to Sage , she sees the Port as full of " beginnings and adventures — and endings too . "
= = = The Badlands = = =
The Badlands are a rocky and hilly valley on the northern borders of the Septimus Heap world , where DomDaniel once practised his dark magic in an observatory atop a hill . They are inhabited by Land Wurms , giant carnivorous snakelike animals , making them a dangerous place . Simon Heap also used to live there with Lucy Gringe .
= = Reception = =
The Septimus Heap novels have been published in 28 languages worldwide and have sold over one million copies in the United States , with each of the books appearing on national bestsellers lists . Published in March 2005 , the first book , Magyk , became an international bestseller after it appeared at number one on the New York Times Best Sellers List .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The series has received mostly positive reviews .
The Independent newspaper 's review of the audio books stated that the chapters are short enough to keep children of seven @-@ plus interested but , as there are ghosts , rats , soldiers and dragon boats to help Septimus and the young Princess fight the evil necromancer DomDaniel , there is enough to keep the whole family amused .
= = = Comparisons with other fantasy novels = = =
Some critics have noted similarities between names in Septimus Heap and those in Harry Potter , such as Petroc Trelawney ( Jenna 's pet rock ) and Sybill Trelawney ( a professor in Harry Potter ) ; also both series feature Boggarts ( which are intelligent Marsh creatures in Septimus Heap and shape @-@ shifters in Harry Potter ) . In response , British author Phil Knight has commented :
The Petroc Trelawney in the Septimus Heap books is nothing at all to do with Professor Trelawney . He is a Radio 3 presenter who may well be known to Angie Sage personally , but otherwise will be known over the air . Think : why would Jenna call a pet rock ' Trelawney ' ? To a Radio 3 listener like me , it 's perfectly logical ... And as for Boggarts , they 've been around here in the North of England for a long time . Manchester has Boggart Hole Clough , for example . They 're not really like either Sage 's or Rowling 's creatures , but pre @-@ exist either of them .
The series has also been compared to other fantasy novels : for instance , Hotep @-@ Ra 's magical ring evokes The Lord of the Rings , and the journeys in the series are " somewhat Narnia @-@ esque in how they play out " ; similarly the concept of a remarkably powerful seventh son of a seventh son was previously employed in the Alvin Maker series of Orson Scott Card . The sprinkling of borrowed ideas has not necessarily been regarded as a negative trait : these ideas play a part in developing the flavour of the series and " don 't necessarily deviate it from its originality " .
= Galactic habitable zone =
In astrobiology and planetary astrophysics , the galactic habitable zone is the region of a galaxy in which life is most likely to develop . More specifically , the concept of a galactic habitable zone incorporates various factors , such as metallicity and the rate of major catastrophes such as supernovae , in order to calculate which regions of the galaxy are more likely to form terrestrial planets , initially develop simple life , and provide a suitable environment for this life to evolve and advance . According to research published in August 2015 , very large galaxies may be more favorable to the creation and development of habitable planets than smaller galaxies , like the Milky Way . For the Milky Way , the galactic habitable zone is commonly believed to be an annulus with an outer radius of about 10 kiloparsecs and an inner radius close to the Galactic Center , both of which lack hard boundaries .
Galactic habitable zone theory , however , has been criticized due to an inability to quantify accurately the factors making a region of the galaxy good for the emergence of life . In addition , computer simulations suggest that stars may change their orbits around the galactic center significantly , therefore challenging at least part of the view that some areas of the galaxy are necessarily more life @-@ supporting than others .
= = Background = =
The idea of the circumstellar habitable zone was introduced in 1953 by Hubertus Strughold and Harlow Shapley and in 1959 by Su @-@ Shu Huang as the region around a star in which an orbiting planet could retain water at its surface . From the 1970s , planetary scientists and astrobiologists began to consider various other factors required for the creation and sustenance of life , including the impact that a nearby supernova may have on life 's development . In 1981 , Jim Clarke proposed that the apparent lack of extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way could be explained by Seyfert @-@ type outbursts from an active galactic nucleus , with Earth alone being spared from this radiation by virtue of its location in the galaxy . In the same year , Wallace Hampton Tucker analyzed galactic habitability in a more general context , but later work superseded his proposals .
Modern galactic habitable @-@ zone theory was introduced in 1986 by L.S. Marochnik and L.M. Mukhin , who defined the zone as the region in which intelligent life could flourish . Donald Brownlee and palaeontologist Peter Ward expanded upon the concept of a galactic habitable zone , as well as the other factors required for the emergence of complex life , in their 2000 book Rare Earth : Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe . In that book , the authors used the galactic habitable zone , among other factors , to argue that intelligent life is not a common occurrence in the Universe .
The idea of a galactic habitable zone was further developed in 2001 in a paper by Ward and Brownlee , in collaboration with Guillermo Gonzalez of the University of Washington . In that paper , Gonzalez , Brownlee , and Ward stated that regions near the galactic halo would lack the heavier elements required to produce habitable terrestrial planets , thus creating an outward limit to the size of the galactic habitable zone . Being too close to the galactic center , however , would expose an otherwise habitable planet to numerous supernovae and other energetic cosmic events , as well as excessive cometary impacts caused by perturbations of the host star 's Oort cloud . Therefore , the authors established an inner boundary for the galactic habitable zone , located just outside the galactic bulge .
= = Considerations = =
In order to identify a location in the galaxy as being a part of the galactic habitable zone , a variety of factors must be accounted for . These include the distribution of stars and spiral arms , the presence or absence of an active galactic nucleus , the frequency of nearby supernovae that can threaten the existence of life , the metallicity of that location , and other factors . Without fulfilling these factors , a region of the galaxy cannot create or sustain life with efficiency .
= = = Chemical evolution = = =
One of the most basic requirements for the existence of life around a star is the ability of that star to produce a terrestrial planet of sufficient mass to sustain it . Various elements , such as iron , magnesium , titanium , carbon , oxygen , silicon , and others , are required to produce habitable planets , and the concentration and ratios of these vary throughout the galaxy .
One important elemental ratio is that of [ Fe / H ] , one of the factors determining the propensity of a region of the galaxy to produce terrestrial planets . The galactic bulge , the region of the galaxy closest to the galactic center , has an [ Fe / H ] distribution peaking at − 0 @.@ 2 decimal exponent units ( dex ) relative to the Sun 's ratio ; the thin disk , where the Sun is located , has an average metallicity of − 0 @.@ 02 dex at the orbital distance of the Sun around the galactic center , reducing by 0 @.@ 07 dex for every additional kiloparsec of orbital distance . The extended thick disk has an average [ Fe / H ] of − 0 @.@ 6 dex , while the halo , the region farthest from the galactic center , has the lowest [ Fe / H ] distribution peak , at around − 1 @.@ 5 dex . In addition , ratios such as [ C / O ] , [ Mg / Fe ] , [ Si / Fe ] , and [ S / Fe ] may be relevant to the ability of a region of a galaxy to form habitable terrestrial planets , and of these [ Mg / Fe ] and [ Si / Fe ] are slowly reducing over time , meaning that future terrestrial planets are more likely to possess larger iron cores .
In addition to specific amounts of the various stable elements that comprise a terrestrial planet 's mass , an abundance of radionuclides such as 40K , 235U , 238U , and 232Th is required in order to heat the planet 's interior and power life @-@ sustaining processes such as plate tectonics , volcanism , and a geomagnetic dynamo . The [ U / H ] and [ Th / H ] ratios are dependent on the [ Fe / H ] ratio ; however , a general function for the abundance of 40K cannot be created with existing data .
Even on a habitable planet with enough radioisotopes to heat its interior , various prebiotic molecules are required in order to produce life ; therefore , the distribution of these molecules in the galaxy is important in determining the galactic habitable zone . A 2008 study by Samantha Blair and colleagues attempted to determine the outer edge of the galactic habitable zone by means of analyzing formaldehyde and carbon monoxide emissions from various giant molecular clouds scattered throughout the Milky Way ; however , the data is neither conclusive nor complete .
While high metallicity is beneficial for the creation of terrestrial extrasolar planets , an excess amount can be harmful for life . Excess metallicity may lead to the formation of a large number of gas giants in a given system , which may subsequently migrate from beyond the system 's frost line and become hot Jupiters , disturbing planets that would otherwise have been located in the system 's circumstellar habitable zone . Thus , it was found that the Goldilocks principle applies to metallicity as well ; low @-@ metallicity systems have low probabilities of forming terrestrial @-@ mass planets at all , while excessive metallicities cause a large number of gas giants to develop , disrupting the orbital dynamics of the system and altering the habitability of terrestrial planets in the system .
= = = Catastrophic events = = =
As well as being located in a region of the galaxy that is chemically advantageous for the development of life , a star must also avoid an excessive number of catastrophic cosmic events with the potential to damage life on its otherwise habitable planets . Nearby supernovae , for example , have the potential to severely harm life on a planet ; with excessive frequency , such catastrophic outbursts have the potential to sterilize an entire region of a galaxy for billions of years . The galactic bulge , for example , experienced an initial wave of extremely rapid star formation , triggering a cascade of supernovae that for five billion years left that area almost completely unable to develop life .
In addition to supernovae , gamma @-@ ray bursts , excessive amounts of radiation , gravitational perturbations and various other events have been proposed to affect the distribution of life within the galaxy . These include , controversially , such proposals as " galactic tides " with the potential to induce cometary impacts or even cold bodies of dark matter that pass through organisms and induce genetic mutations . However , the impact of many of these events may be difficult to quantify .
= = = Galactic morphology = = =
Various morphological features of galaxies can affect their potential for habitability . Spiral arms , for example , are the location of star formation , but they contain numerous giant molecular clouds and a high density of stars that can perturb a star 's Oort cloud , sending avalanches of comets and asteroids toward any planets further in . In addition , the high density of stars and rate of massive star formation can expose any stars orbiting within the spiral arms for too long to supernova explosions , reducing their prospects for the survival and development of life . Considering these factors , the Sun is advantageously placed within the galaxy because , in addition to being outside a spiral arm , it orbits near the corotation radius , maximizing the interval between spiral @-@ arm crossings .
Spiral arms also have the ability to cause climatic changes on a planet . Passing through the dense molecular clouds of galactic spiral arms , stellar winds may be pushed back to the point that a reflective hydrogen layer accumulates in an orbiting planet 's atmosphere , perhaps leading to a snowball Earth scenario .
A galactic bar also has the potential to affect the size of the galactic habitable zone . Galactic bars are thought to grow over time , eventually reaching the corotation radius of the galaxy and perturbing the orbits of the stars located there . High @-@ metallicity stars like our Sun , for example , located at an intermediate location between the low @-@ metallicity galactic halo and the high @-@ radiation galactic center , may be scattered throughout the galaxy , affecting the definition of the galactic habitable zone . It has been suggested that for this reason , it may be impossible to properly define a galactic habitable zone .
= = Boundaries = =
Early research on the galactic habitable zone , including the 2001 paper by Gonzalez , Brownlee , and Ward , did not demarcate any specific boundaries , merely stating that the zone was an annulus encompassing a region of the galaxy that was both enriched with metals and spared from excessive radiation , and that habitability would be more likely in the galaxy 's thin disk . However , later research conducted in 2004 by Lineweaver and colleagues did create boundaries for this annulus , in the case of the Milky Way ranging from 4 kpc to 10 kpc from the galactic center .
The Lineweaver team also analyzed the evolution of the galactic habitable zone with respect to time , finding , for example , that stars close to the galactic bulge had to form within a time window of about two billion years in order to have habitable planets . Before that window , galactic @-@ bulge stars would be prevented from having life @-@ sustaining planets from frequent supernova events . After the supernova threat had subsided , though , the increasing metallicity of the galactic core would eventually mean that stars there would have a high number of giant planets , with the potential to destabilize star systems and radically alter the orbit of any planet located in a star 's circumstellar habitable zone . Simulations conducted in 2005 at the University of Washington , however , show that even in the presence of hot Jupiters , terrestrial planets may remain stable over long timescales .
A 2006 study by Milan Ćirković and colleagues extended the notion of a time @-@ dependent galactic habitable zone , analyzing various catastrophic events as well as the underlying secular evolution of galactic dynamics . The paper considers that the number of habitable planets may fluctuate wildly with time due to the unpredictable timing of catastrophic events , thereby creating a punctuated equilibrium in which habitable planets are more likely at some times than at others . Based on the results of Monte Carlo simulations on a toy model of the Milky Way , the team found that the number of habitable planets is likely to increase with time , though not in a perfectly linear pattern .
Subsequent studies saw more fundamental revision of the old concept of the galactic habitable zone as an annulus . In 2008 , a study by Nikos Prantzos revealed that , while the probability of a planet escaping sterilization by supernova was highest at a distance of about 10 kpc from the galactic center , the sheer density of stars in the inner galaxy meant that the highest number of habitable planets could be found there . The research was corroborated in a 2011 paper by Michael Gowanlock , who calculated the frequency of supernova @-@ surviving planets as a function of their distance from the galactic center , their height above the galactic plane , and their age , ultimately discovering that about 0 @.@ 3 % of stars in the galaxy could today support complex life , or 1 @.@ 2 % if one does not consider the tidal locking of red dwarf planets as precluding the development of complex life .
= = Criticism = =
The idea of the galactic habitable zone has been criticized by Nikos Prantzos , on the grounds that the parameters to create it are impossible to define even approximately , and that thus the galactic habitable zone may merely be a useful conceptual tool to enable a better understanding of the distribution of life , rather than an end to itself . For these reasons , Prantzos has suggested that the entire galaxy may be habitable , rather than habitability being restricted to a specific region in space and time . In addition , stars " riding " the galaxy 's spiral arms may move tens of thousands of light years from their original orbits , thus supporting the notion that there may not be one specific galactic habitable zone . A Monte Carlo simulation , improving on the mechanisms used by Ćirković in 2006 , was conducted in 2010 by Duncan Forgan of Royal Observatory Edinburgh . The data collected from the experiments support Prantzos 's notion that there is no solidly defined galactic habitable zone , indicating the possibility of hundreds of extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way , though further data will be required in order for a definitive determination to be made .
= SM U @-@ 5 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 5 or U @-@ V was the lead boat of the U @-@ 5 class of submarines or U @-@ boats built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) before and during the First World War . The submarine was built as part of a plan to evaluate foreign submarine designs , and was the first of three boats of the class built by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume after a design by American John Philip Holland .
U @-@ 5 was laid down in April 1907 and launched in February 1909 . The double @-@ hulled submarine was just over 105 feet ( 32 m ) long and displaced between 240 and 273 metric tons ( 265 and 301 short tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . U @-@ 5 's design had inadequate ventilation and exhaust from her twin gasoline engines often intoxicated the crew . The boat was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in April 1910 , and served as a training boat — sometimes making as many as ten cruises a month — through the beginning of the First World War in 1914 .
The submarine scored most of her wartime successes during the first year of the war while under the command of Georg Ritter von Trapp . The French armoured cruiser Léon Gambetta , sunk in April 1915 , was the largest ship sunk by U @-@ 5 . The sinking of Italian Troop Transport ship SS Principe Umberto in June 1916 with the loss of 1 @,@ 926 men , was the worst naval disaster of World War I in terms of human lives lost . In May 1917 , U @-@ 5 hit a mine and sank with the loss of six men . She was raised , rebuilt , and recommissioned , but sank no more ships . At the end of the war , U @-@ 5 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation , and scrapped in 1920 . In all , U @-@ 5 sank four ships totaling 21 @,@ 604 gross register tons ( GRT ) .
= = Design and construction = =
U @-@ 5 was built as part of a plan by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to competitively evaluate foreign submarine designs from Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy authorized the construction of U @-@ 5 ( and sister ship , U @-@ 6 ) in 1906 by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume . The boat was designed by American John Philip Holland and licensed by Holland and his company , Electric Boat . U @-@ 5 was laid down on 9 April 1907 in the United States , partially assembled , and shipped to Whitehead 's for final assembly , a process which , author Edwin Sieche notes , " caused a lot of trouble " . She was launched at Fiume on 10 February 1909 by Agathe Whitehead , and towed to Pola on 17 August .
U @-@ 5 's design featured a single @-@ hull with a teardrop @-@ shaped body that bore a strong resemblance to modern nuclear submarines . She was 105 feet 4 inches ( 32 @.@ 11 m ) long by 13 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 19 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 10 inches ( 3 @.@ 91 m ) . She displaced 240 metric tons ( 260 short tons ) surfaced , and 273 metric tons ( 301 short tons ) submerged . Her two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes featured unique , cloverleaf @-@ shaped design hatches that rotated on a central axis , and the boat was designed to carry up to four torpedoes . For surface running , U @-@ 5 was outfitted with 2 gasoline engines , but suffered from inadequate ventilation , which resulted in frequent intoxication of the crew ; her underwater propulsion was by two electric motors .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 5 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 1 April 1910 , with Linienschiffsleutnant Urban Passerar in command . Over the next three years she served primarily as a training boat , making as many as ten training cruises per month . On 1 May 1911 , she hosted a delegation of Peruvian Navy officers that inspected her . In June 1912 , she towed a balloon as part of efforts to assess the underwater visibility of hull paint schemes .
At the outbreak of World War I , U @-@ 5 was one of only four fully operational U @-@ boats in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy fleet . She was initially stationed at the submarine base on Brioni , but was moved to Cattaro by late 1914 . U @-@ 5 made an unsuccessful attack on a French battleship squadron off Punta Stilo on 3 November . In December , the ship 's armament was augmented by a 3 @.@ 7 cm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) deck gun , and had her first radio receiver installed . In April 1915 , Georg Ritter von Trapp assumed command of U @-@ 5 , and the following month , led the boat in sinking the French armored cruiser Léon Gambetta off Santa Maria di Leuca . On the night of 26 April , Léon Gambetta was patrolling the Straits of Otranto at a leisurely 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ) without the benefit of a destroyer screen . U @-@ 5 launched two torpedoes at the French cruiser , hitting with both . The ship was rocked by the explosions of the two torpedoes and went down in ten minutes , taking down with her the entire complement of officers , including Rear Admiral Victor Baptistin Sénès . Of the French ship 's complement , 648 were killed in the attack ; there were 137 survivors . Léon Gambetta was the largest ship of any kind sunk by U @-@ 5 .
= = Victims Gallery = =
In June , U @-@ 5 helped search for the lost Austro @-@ Hungarian seaplane L 41 , and in July , received an upgrade of her deck gun to a 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF gun . In early August , U @-@ 5 was sent out from Lissa when the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy received word from a reconnaissance aircraft that an Italian submarine had been sighted at Pelagosa . On the morning of 5 August , the Italian submarine Nereide was on the surface , moored under a cliff in the island 's harbor . When U @-@ 5 surfaced just offshore , Nereide 's commanding officer , Capitano di Corvetta Carlo del Greco , cast off the lines and maneuvered to get a shot at von Trapp 's boat . Nereide launched a single torpedo at U @-@ 5 that missed , after which del Greco ordered his boat submerged . U @-@ 5 lined up a shot and launched a single torpedo at the slowly submerging target , striking her , and sending her to the bottom with all hands . The Italian captain received the Medaglia d 'Oro al Valore Militare for his actions . At the end of August , U @-@ 5 captured the 1 @,@ 034 GRT Greek steamer Cefalonia as a prize off Durazzo . In late November , Friedrich Schlosser succeeded von Trapp as U @-@ 5 's commanding officer .
Schlosser and U @-@ 5 made an unsuccessful attack on an Italian Indomito @-@ class destroyer on 7 June 1916 , but the boat managed to torpedo the Italian armed merchant cruiser Principe Umberto off Cape Linguetta on the next day . According to a contemporary account , Principe Umberto and two other ships were transporting troops and materiel under escort of two destroyers . After the torpedo hit , Principe Umberto went down quickly with the loss 1 @,@ 750 men . Principe Umberto was the last ship hit by U @-@ 5 .
= = Gallery = =
On 16 May 1917 , U @-@ 5 was conducting a training cruise in the Fasana Channel near Pula when her stern struck a mine . The boat sank at a depth of 36 meters ( 118 ft ) with a loss of 6 of the 19 men on board . From 20 to 24 May the submarine was raised , and through November underwent a refit . During this reconditioning , a new conning tower was added and the deck gun was upgraded again , this time to a 7 @.@ 5 cm / 30 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) gun . Upon completion , U @-@ 5 was recommissioned , but had no more war successes . In her career , U @-@ 5 sank a total of four ships totaling 21 @,@ 604 GRT . After the war 's end , U @-@ 5 was transferred to Venice where she was inspected by British military commissions . U @-@ 5 was later ceded to Italy as a war reparation in 1920 and was scrapped .
= Hurricane Emilia ( 1994 ) =
Hurricane Emilia was , at the time , the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the central Pacific Ocean , and the first of such to be classified as a Category 5 hurricane – the highest rating on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . However , hurricanes Gilma later that year and Ioke in 2006 later reached lower barometric pressures in the Central Pacific . The fifth named storm and the first of three Category 5 hurricanes of the 1994 hurricane season , Emilia developed from an area of low pressure southeast of Hawaii on July 16 . Tracking westward , the initial tropical depression intensified into a tropical storm several hours after tropical cyclogenesis . Subsequently , Emilia entered Central Pacific Ocean and moved into the area of responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) .
After reaching hurricane intensity the following day , the tropical cyclone began to rapidly intensify , and late on July 17 , Emilia reached its record peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 926 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 34 inHg ) , rating it as a Category 5 hurricane . After slight oscillations in strength , and upper @-@ level trough forced the intense hurricane northwest on July 21 , and Emilia began to weaken thereafter . The tropical cyclone encountered an area of vertical wind shear and cool sea surface temperatures , which further weakened the system . The following day , Emilia made its closest approach to the Big Island of Hawaii , but subsequently weakened to below hurricane intensity . This weakening trend continued , and the tropical cyclone fully dissipated on July 25 . Though the hurricane per se did not make landfall , Emilia brought strong surf to the islands of Hawaii and caused gusty winds , which resulted in some property damage . Precipitation was also reported , but remained under moderate levels .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 29 , a weak tropical wave exited the west African coast and traversed the Atlantic with no signs of organization or convective activity . Moving within the Intertropical Convergence Zone , the tropical disturbance remained inactive until July 14 , when it developed into an area of low pressure roughly 2 @,@ 110 mi ( 3 @,@ 400 km ) east @-@ southeast of the Hawaiian Islands . A low @-@ level circulation was present , and a tropical depression is believed to have formed on July 17 due to increasing organization . Later , satellite imagery suggested that the system had intensified to Tropical Storm Emilia with 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) sustained winds . Emilia steadily strengthened to a minimal hurricane , moving west @-@ northwest . It crossed 140 ° W and entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's ( CPHC ) area of responsibility , which noted that Emilia was " well developed . " Emilia attained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , which marked the beginning of a rapid intensification period . Maximum sustained winds increased from 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on July 17 to 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) late on July 19 , which was a period of 42 hours . At the time , an Air Force reconnaissance aircraft measured a minimum central pressure of 926 mbar ( 27 @.@ 34 inHg ) and maximum winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , hinting that the storm has reached peak intensity .
On July 20 , Emilia briefly weakened to a Category 4 hurricane , but it re @-@ intensified to Category 5 status 12 hours later during the day . Subsequently , Emilia began to weaken for the final time . An upper @-@ level trough in the westerlies caused the cyclone to turn northwest on July 21 . Emilia moved over progressively cooler waters , and vertical wind shear from the westerlies negatively impacted the hurricane . The central pressure steadily rose to 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 50 inHg ) , and Emilia diminished to a marginal Category 3 hurricane . On July 22 , Emilia continued to weaken , and it passed within 170 mi ( 270 km ) of the Big Island . It was the closest approach to the islands . Later , the peak winds dropped to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Emilia gradually turned west @-@ northwest , and the circulation moved with the trade winds . Emilia weakened to a tropical depression on July 24 , and a remnant swirl of stratocumulus clouds was noted . The system dissipated on the same day .
= = Preparations = =
Initially , forecasts significantly underestimated the intensification of Emilia , which was one of three tropical cyclones to attain Category 5 status in the central Pacific during the season . On July 16 , a 72 @-@ hour forecast misjudged the strengthening of Emilia by 41 m / s ( 92 mph ) . Later , winds at 72 hours were 31 m / s ( 69 mph ) too high when the cyclone began to weaken . Tropical cyclone forecast models consistently predicted Emilia to remain south of the Hawaiian Islands because of the upper troughs ' climatologically weak nature during the summer . This led to high confidence in the forecasts , resulting in a lack of watches or warnings . Nonetheless , a high surf advisory was issued for the south and east coasts of all islands .
= = Impact and records = =
Despite the storm 's offshore anture , wells of 6 – 10 feet ( 2 – 3 @.@ 3 m ) were reported near the Puna and Ka ‘ ū coasts . Waikiki Beach in Honolulu reported a 5 ft high ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) surf . Surf was lower along the Kona and Kohala coasts . Winds were gusty , causing a few trees to be blown over and branches to be broken . Some minor roof damage was caused by the winds . International observatories and the Keck Telescope on the top of Mauna Kea were forced to close their domes due to the high winds . Rainfall ranged from light to moderate . The storm passed near two National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) weather buoys during its passage through the state . All in all , Hurricane Emilia had mostly minor effects in the Hawaiian Islands .
Emilia is one of the most intense tropical cyclones on record in the Eastern Pacific , with a lowest pressure of 926 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 34 inHg ) . In the CPHC warning zone , only Gilma and Ioke of 2006 attained deeper pressures . Emilia was also a Category 5 hurricane for 18 hours , the most ever at the time in the Central Pacific . That record was broken later in the season by Hurricane John .
The storm was the subject of a disagreement between the Central Pacific Hurricane Center and the National Hurricane Center . Specifically , they debated Emilia 's peak strength in relation to the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale ( SSHWS ) . The CPHC reported that Emilia 's maximum winds peaked at 140 knots ( 260 km / h ) , making it a Category 5 hurricane . However , the NHC considered Emilia to be a high @-@ end Category 4 with maximum winds of 135 knots ( 250 km / h ) , in both its " best track " and its preliminary report . During 2008 , the NHC upgraded its " best track " to make Emilia a Category 5 , although there continues to be a discrepancy in Emilia 's duration at Category 5 intensity .
= Hurricane Dolly ( 1996 ) =
Hurricane Dolly caused flooding throughout Mexico in August 1996 . The fourth named storm and third hurricane of the season , Dolly developed from a tropical wave to the west @-@ southwest of Jamaica on August 19 . Initially a tropical depression , the system strengthened into a tropical storm about twelve hours later . Dolly headed westward and intensified into a Category 1 hurricane late on August 20 . It then made landfall near Chetumal , Quintana Roo . The system weakened to a tropical depression on August 21 . Later that day or early on August 22 , Dolly emerged into the Bay of Campeche and quickly re @-@ strengthened into a tropical storm . The storm deepened further and was upgraded to a hurricane again by midday on August 23 ; Dolly simultaneously peaked with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Around that time , it struck between Tuxpan , Veracruz , and Tampico , Tamaulipas . Dolly quickly weakened to a tropical depression early on August 24 , but remained intact while crossing Mexico and dissipated over the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 25 .
The storm brought heavy rainfall to much of Mexico , peaking at 37 @.@ 41 inches ( 950 mm ) . In Quintana Roo , flooding destroyed a large amount of farmlands . Widespread flooding occurred after a river in the Pueblo Viejo area overflowed its banks . Hundreds of homes were destroyed , displacing about 35 @,@ 000 people . Large scale evacuations occurred in San Luis Potosí , while about 6 @,@ 500 fled their homes in the Tampico area . Communications and power outages were reported as far west as Mazatlán , Sinaloa . Throughout Mexico , there were fourteen fatalities reported , including six in Veracruz , three in Nuevo León , one in Monterrey , and another in Pueblo Viejo . Additionally , two people were left missing in Nuevo León . The outer bands of Dolly brought rainfall to southern Texas , which caused minor flooding , but was mostly beneficial due to drought conditions in the state .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large tropical wave , an elongated trough of low pressure , emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa around August 9 . Although deep convection was associated with the wave when it entered the Atlantic , showers and thunderstorms remained minimal for several days as the system tracked westward . Upon reaching the eastern Caribbean Sea , deep convection redeveloped , but failed to persist , until the wave reached an area southwest of Jamaica on August 18 . Around that time , a reconnaissance aircraft flight indicated a low to mid @-@ level circulation , but the system was too weak to classify using the Dvorak technique . After a center fix was made by another reconnaissance flight and satellite imagery , as well as a ship observing winds of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) , the system was classified as Tropical Depression Four at 06 : 00 UTC on August 19 , while situated about 140 mi ( 230 km ) west @-@ southwest of South Negril Point , Jamaica .
With an initially poorly @-@ defined circulation , the depression moved west @-@ northwestward . Because it developed near a mid to upper @-@ level anticyclone , conditions were favorable for intensification , with the system becoming Tropical Storm Dolly around 18 : 00 UTC on August 19 . Convection became more organized , and the storm strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale just under twenty four hours later . At 17 : 30 UTC on August 20 , Dolly made landfall near Punta Herrero , Quintana Roo – located northeast of Chetumal , with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Early the following day , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm , and then to a tropical depression several hours later .
Late on August 21 , Dolly emerged into the Bay of Campeche , with satellite imagery indicating that convection was displaced to the south of the center of circulation . However , the system soon began to restrengthening , regaining tropical storm intensity by 00 : 00 UTC on August 22 . Early on the following day , the cyclone began turning westward . At 12 : 00 UTC on August 23 , Dolly reintensified into a hurricane and attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 989 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) . Simultaneously , the hurricane made landfall between Tuxpan , Veracruz , and Tampico , Tamaulipas . Six hours after moving inland , Dolly weakened to a tropical storm . Early on August 24 , the system deteriorated to a tropical depression . Dolly remained intact while crossing Mexico and emerged into the Pacific Ocean several hours later , but was not reclassified as an eastern Pacific tropical cyclone and dissipated about 40 mi ( 65 km ) west of San Juanito in the Islas Marías .
= = Preparations = =
At 18 : 00 UTC on August 19 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Chetumal to Progreso , Yucatán , while a tropical storm watch was placed between Pinar del Río Province and Isle of Pines , Cuba . Just three hours later , another tropical storm warning was put into effect between between San Pedro Town , Belize , and the Mexican border . On August 20 , the tropical storm watch was discontinued for Cuba , as the system was moving away from the area . At 15 : 00 UTC , another tropical storm warning was issued from Progreso , Yucatán , to Ciudad del Carmen . Only an hour later , a tropical storm warning from Cozumel to Chetumal was upgraded to a hurricane warning . By 21 : 00 UTC on August 20 , all warnings south of Cozumel were discontinued . Just six hours later on August 21 , all tropical storm warnings east of 88 ° W were discontinued . Shortly after that , a tropical storm warning east of Progreso was removed . All warnings for Mexico were discontinued at 15 : 00 UTC on August 21 . When Dolly entered the Bay of Campeche on August 22 , a hurricane watch was put into action for Veracruz , La Pesca , and all areas in between , at 09 : 00 UTC . Only six hours later , the watch became a hurricane warning until Dolly made landfall at 18 : 00 UTC on August 23 , when all remaining warnings were removed .
Throughout the Yucatán Peninsula , airports and ports were closed , while regularly scheduled bus routes were canceled . About 180 locations were prepared to serve as a shelter if large scale evacuations were necessary . In Punta Allen and Punta Herrero , authorities ordered the evacuation of about 100 families . Dozens of oil and gas wells in the Bay of Campeche owned by Pemex were evacuated , while Shell Oil Company evacuated some people from an oil platform farther north . Approximately 6 @,@ 500 people were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas of Tampico and flood prone locations in San Luis Potosi . The General Francisco Javier Mina International Airport closed for most of the day on August 23 . A total of 37 ports along the Gulf Coast of Mexico were closed . In Texas , Cameron County officials purchased satellite telephones and generators and released 55 prisoners because of fear that the newly built jail might not withstand a hurricane .
= = Impact = =
= = = Belize and Mexico = = =
Just over 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of rain fell into central Belize as the storm passed to the north . In Quintana Roo , 5 @.@ 73 in ( 146 mm ) of precipitation fell in Chetumal , flooding large areas of farmland . A total of 16 homes were destroyed and 26 others were damaged . At least two fishermen were left missing .
In Tampico , near the location of the storm 's second landfall , the streets were littered with fallen trees branches , utility poles , and billboards . Additionally , many roads were inundated with water , leaving some impassable . Nearby , over 700 people fled their homes for shelter due to flooding in Ciudad Madero . One death occurred in Pueblo Viejo when a woman was crushed by a tree that fell on her house . Six other deaths occurred in Veracruz , five from a ship capsizing near Boca del Río and another after a person was caught in an undertow offshore Úrsulo Galván . Two landslides in northern Puebla left roads impassable , isolating some communities such as Tlatlauquitepec . Hundreds of homes were destroyed leaving 35 @,@ 000 people homeless and there was severe damage in Tuxpan , Tamiahua , Pueblo Viejo , Platon , Pánuco , Tampico Alto , and elsewhere along the coast of northeast Mexico .
In Nuevo León , the storm caused four fatalities , including one in the city of Monterrey . The place with the most rainfall received in a 24 @-@ hour @-@ period was in Micos , which observed 12 @.@ 94 in ( 329 mm ) of rain . Some other high rainfall recordings were in Santa Rosa , which recorded 10 @.@ 59 in ( 270 mm ) , and Puerto de Valles , which received 10 in ( 254 mm ) of rain . Although well south of the storm 's path , precipitation from Dolly peaked at 37 @.@ 41 in ( 950 mm ) in Iguala de la Independencia , Guerrero , making it the wettest tropical cyclone on record in Guerrero . In Sinaloa , three fatalities occurred , two when two people stepped into a puddle of water electrified by a downed power line and another from a weather @-@ related traffic accident . According to newspaper reports , 14 people died in the storm 's passage . An additional two people from Nuevo León were reported to be missing .
= = = Texas = = =
Though far from the United States , Dolly managed to bring heavy rain and high winds to southern Texas . Weekly rainfall totals in Corpus Christi reached 5 @.@ 53 in ( 141 mm ) and 2 @.@ 82 in ( 71 @.@ 6 mm ) in Brownsville . Corpus Christi daily rainfall measurements on August 23 and August 24 were as high as 1 @.@ 92 in ( 48 @.@ 8 mm ) and 2 @.@ 55 in ( 64 @.@ 8 ) , respectively , a new daily record . The beach at the Padre Island National Seashore was closed after high tides began flooding the beaches and the John F. Kennedy Causeway , though other facilities such as the campground remained open . A tornado was spawned near Olmito , damaging a few homes and unroofing two others . Later , while passing north of Rancho Viejo , the twister inflicted impact on 10 dwellings and knocked over trees and signs .
= Joffrey Tower =
The Joffrey Tower is a high @-@ rise commercial real estate development on the northeast corner of North State Street and East Randolph Street in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States that is the permanent home of the Joffrey Ballet . It is located immediately south of the Chicago Theatre and directly across the street from Macy 's largest Chicago ( and its second largest overall ) department store on State Street , within the Loop Retail Historic District . Its address had once been the site of the Chicago Masonic Temple . The placement of the Joffrey Ballet in this building appears to have involved political dealings with the Mayor of Chicago , Richard M. Daley and his brother , William M. Daley , a co @-@ chairman of the Joffrey board of trustees . The building was scheduled for completion in December 2007 , but was not finished until September 12 , 2008 .
= = Details = =
The building was originally named the Modern Momentum Building ( nicknamed the MoMo ) . Like the ballet company , it has been named after Robert Joffrey , co @-@ founder of the company . The Joffrey Ballet acquired the naming rights when it purchased 45 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 200 m2 ) of space on the third and fourth floors to serve as its new permanent home . The floors include the Joffrey administrative offices plus seven state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art rehearsal studios and a black @-@ box theatre . The building occupies the southwest quarter of the block bounded by North State Street to the West , North Wabash Street to the East , East Randolph Street to the South , and East Lake Street to the North . The Modern Momentum Project now holds the Joffrey name when the Ballet company took possession ( originally anticipated in December 2007 ) . The first two floors of the Joffrey Tower house retail tenants and floors 9 through 32 host residential condominiums . All four of the foundation floors are 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) high . The four @-@ story cutout above the foundation and green roof is capped by " legs " with only elevators and stairwells that compensate for the fact the building does not have the typical lower level parking spaces to improve the views by raising the units . The building 's main largest rehearsal space had been named the Arpino Studio in honor of Gerald Arpino , Joffrey Ballet co @-@ founder and artistic director emeritus .
The building was originally scheduled for completion in December 2007 with the official renaming and company move accompanying the completion . By January 2008 , the anticipated grand opening had been rescheduled to occur in the summer of 2008 . The grand opening events , including performances by Shelley MacArthur and Ramsey Lewis , were sponsored by The PrivateBank , Bank of America , and the McCormick Foundation . July 2008 advertisements announced a September 12 , 2008 opening night and a set of opening events from September 11 to 15 .
The building was designed by Booth Hansen Architects . Construction started in 2005 and was completed for the September 2008 grand opening . The height of the structure is 409 feet ( 125 m ) ( including spires and antennae ) .
The September 11 , 2008 , free performance at the Jay Pritzker Pavilion served the dual purpose of heralding the grand opening weekend and paying tribute to the September 11 attacks victims . Other events during the grand opening weekend included a September 12 black tie gala , September 13 Tower tours , and September 15 party and fashion show . The September 15 event also included an auction for various items , including a pair of $ 25 @,@ 000 Van Cleef and Arpels diamond earrings .
= = Building Safety Issues = =
On August 1 , 2011 , an aluminum piece of the facade fell from the building and injured a pedestrian on the sidewalk below . As a result of this damage , the Chicago Department of Buildings required a protective scaffolding canopy to be erected around the entire building .
= = History = =
The building is located on the site of the former Masonic Temple , which had once been the tallest building in Chicago . Since the demolition of the Masonic Temple , the address had housed a two @-@ story retail building . One failed previous plan to replace the small retail building on the site was the Market Hall Tower , proposed in 2000 , which was to have a two @-@ story European style food market and 75 spacious apartments in the adjacent 26 @-@ story , 291 @-@ foot ( 89 m ) tower . Another failed plan was the subsequent 33 @-@ story Randolph Court design .
The Daley administration has been a proponent of the Joffrey Ballet having a permanent Theatre District home in order to establish it as a major Chicago institution . However , the cost of building their own building at State and Lake was prohibitive . Supposedly , the city of Chicago held the development of this project hostage until the developer agreed to the Joffrey initiative . The delay tactic used was to delay closing long enough to cause the developer to have to file suit . William Daley , a co @-@ chairman of the Joffrey board of trustees , is a former Cabinet member in the Clinton administration and clout @-@ heavy brother of Chicago 's former mayor , Richard M. Daley . The arts @-@ loving mayor has revitalized the Loop in part by re @-@ establishing a central theatre district . The Joffrey Tower is within three blocks of Cadillac Palace , Chicago , Goodman , Harris , Ford Center / Oriental , and Storefront Theatres , as well as the Chicago Cultural Center , the Tiffany @-@ decorated former central library .
= = Center Stage Campaign = =
The Joffrey Ballet launched its first Chicago capital campaign on March 7 , 2007 . As of May 2008 , it has raised $ 30 million towards a goal of $ 35 million for Joffrey Tower construction costs and an endowment . When the purchase was finalized , the Joffrey had $ 2 @.@ 5 million in reserves and the state had recently approved a $ 4 million grant . The construction costs alone were estimated to be $ 21 million . The fundraising enticements include the possibility that for $ 10 million a corporate donor could acquire renaming rights to the entire building and for lesser amounts they could acquire naming rights for various specific spaces . Facility details released at the hard hat preview and launch include the following :
A dedicated entrance and elevators on Randolph Street , with a lobby box office selling tickets to company events .
A " black box " theater space that will serve primarily as a full @-@ company rehearsal space but , with its lighting booth and fully foldable seating for 144 , also can double as an intimate showcase for open rehearsals , works @-@ in @-@ progress viewings and more . When unused , the studio also can be rented to visiting dance companies .
An additional six rehearsal studios with high ceilings and no obstructions . The Joffrey could use these for classes if it starts a school here . For now they will be the site of activities related to the Joffrey 's extensive outreach school programs .
Locker rooms , dressing rooms , showers , wardrobe and laundry suites , a lounge , physical therapy areas , and artistic and executive staff offices .
A Green roof to cover the Joffrey part of the building .
In Chicago , the administration and the performers had previously been in separate buildings . The Joffrey Ballet had rented both a 17 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 600 m2 ) rehearsal studio at 17 N. State Street , which it leased in July 2005 , and administrative offices at 70 E. Lake Street . The Joffrey now has the company 's creative leadership , dancers , administration , technical staff , guest artists , students , and apprentices united under one roof , creating streamlined operations and a more efficient and accomplished organization . The new space nearly doubles the current space . The new permanent state of the art facilities enable The Joffrey to recruit and retain elite dancers and simultaneously attract world @-@ class performers , guest artists and collaborators . The planned space allows the company to rehearse and present more of its repertoire , mount additional full @-@ length ballets , extend its apprentice program , launch additional revivals , and provide young dancers and choreographers the opportunity to train and present their new works .
= = Occupancy = =
Loehmann 's opened a 27 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 500 m2 ) retail store on the first two floors on October 12 , 2007 . This location is part of the transformation of State Street to a retail and student @-@ housing mecca , and further solidifies the revitalization of Randolph Street 's theatre district . Loehmann 's filed for bankruptcy November 16 , 2010 and closed the State Street location January 29 , 2011 , after less than 4 years in operation .
Walgreens , which had occupied the property from 1926 until 2005 , announced that it would take over the Loehmann 's space and operate a two @-@ level drugstore , opening in 2012 . The location was developed as a two @-@ story 27 @,@ 350 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 541 m2 ) flagship location that was unveiled with dignitaries such as Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel and Illinois Governor Pat Quinn on January 12 , 2012 , selling a range of amenities far beyond that of a typical pharmacy . Some of the features included a cigar humidor , international newsstand , made @-@ to @-@ order smoothies , self @-@ serve frozen yogurt , sushi and juice bars , a barista , over 700 fine wines , and manicure stations . The Walgreens investment was part of a business strategy to combat governmentally @-@ induced declining pharmacy margins .
= = School zoning = =
Residents of the building are zoned to Chicago Public Schools . Residents are zoned to South Loop K @-@ 8 and Phillips Academy High School .
= E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial ( video game ) =
E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial ( also referred to simply as E.T. ) is a 1982 adventure video game developed and published by Atari , Inc. for the Atari 2600 video game console . It is based on the film of the same name , and was designed by Howard Scott Warshaw . The objective of the game is to guide the eponymous character through various screens to collect three pieces of an interplanetary telephone that will allow him to contact his home planet .
Warshaw intended the game to be an innovative adaptation of the film , and Atari thought it would achieve high sales figures based on its connection with the film , which was extremely popular throughout the world . Negotiations to secure the rights to make the game ended in late July 1982 , giving Warshaw only five and a half weeks to develop the game in time for the 1982 Christmas season . The result is often cited as one of the worst video games released and was one of the biggest commercial failures in video gaming history . The game 's commercial failure and resulting effects on Atari are frequently cited as a contributing factor to the video game industry crash of 1983 .
It was believed that as a result of overproduction and returns , millions of unsold cartridges were buried in an Alamogordo , New Mexico landfill . In 2013 , plans were revealed to conduct an excavation to determine the accuracy of reports about the burial , and in April of the following year , the diggers confirmed that the Alamogordo Burial did include E.T. cartridges among other titles . James Heller , the former Atari manager who was in charge of the original burial , was also on hand at the excavation and revealed to the Associated Press that 728 @,@ 000 cartridges of various titles were buried .
= = Gameplay = =
E.T. is an adventure game in which players control an alien ( E.T. ) from a top @-@ down perspective . The objective of the game is to collect three pieces of an interplanetary telephone . The pieces are found scattered randomly throughout various pits ( also referred to as wells ) . The player is provided with an on @-@ screen energy bar , which decreases when E.T. performs any actions ( including moving , teleporting , or falling into a pit , as well as levitating back to the top ) . To prevent this , E.T. can collect Reese 's Pieces , which are used to restore his energy or , when nine are collected , E.T. can call Elliott to obtain a piece of the telephone , or the player can save the candy pieces for bonus points at the end . After the three phone pieces have been collected , the player must guide E.T. to an area where he can use the phone , which allows him to call his home planet . When the call is made , E.T. must reach the spaceship in a given time limit . Once E.T. gets to the forest where his ship abandoned him and stands and waits in the designated area for the ship to come , the ship will appear on screen and take him back to his home planet . Then the game starts over , with the same difficulty level , while changing the location of the telephone pieces . The score obtained during the round is carried over to the next iteration . The game ends when the energy bar depletes . E.T. has three lives and if he dies within those three lives Elliot will come in and revive him . E.T. can get a fourth life if the player is lucky enough to find a geranium in one of the wells . It turns into a sprite from some games that Howard Scott Warshaw made , such as Raiders of the Lost Ark .
The game is divided into six environments , each representing a different setting from the film . To accomplish the objective of the game , the player must guide E.T. into the wells . Once all items found in a well are collected , the player must levitate E.T. out of them . An icon at the top of each screen represents the current area , each area enabling the player to perform different actions . Antagonists include a scientist who takes E.T. for observation and an FBI agent who chases the alien to confiscate one of the collected telephone pieces , or candy . The game offers diverse difficulty settings that affect the number and speed of humans present , and the conditions needed to accomplish the objective .
= = Development = =
The process began in July 1982 and was completed before the end of the year . Following the commercial success of the film in June 1982 , Steve Ross , chief executive officer ( CEO ) of Atari 's parent company Warner Communications , started negotiations with Steven Spielberg and Universal Pictures to acquire the license to produce a video game based on the film . In late July , Warner announced its exclusive worldwide rights to market coin @-@ operated and console games based on the movie . Although the exact details of the transaction were not disclosed in the announcement , it was later reported that Atari had paid US $ 20 – 25 million for the rights , a high figure for video game licensing at the time . When asked by Ross what he thought about making an E.T.-based video game , Atari CEO Ray Kassar replied , " I think it 's a dumb idea . We 've never really made an action game out of a movie . " An arcade game based on the E.T. property had also been planned , but this was deemed to be impossible given the short deadline .
After negotiations completed , Kassar called Howard Scott Warshaw on July 27 , 1982 to commission him as developer of the video game . Kassar informed him that Spielberg asked for Warshaw specifically and that development needed to be completed by September 1 to meet a production schedule for the Christmas holiday . Though Warshaw had spent over a year working on consecutive development schedules for games ( seven months working on Yars ' Revenge and then six months on Raiders of the Lost Ark ) , he accepted the offer based on the challenge of completing a game in a short time frame and at Spielberg 's request . Warshaw considered it an opportunity to develop an innovative Atari 2600 game based on a movie he enjoyed , " provided we reach the right arrangement " . Kassar reportedly offered Warshaw US $ 200 @,@ 000 and an all @-@ expenses @-@ paid vacation to Hawaii in compensation . Kassar then told him to arrive at the San Jose Airport a few days later to have a meeting with Spielberg .
Warshaw used those days to design the structure of the game and segmented the concept into four ideas : world , objective , path to achieve the objective , and obstacles . He envisioned a three @-@ dimensional cube world as the setting and adapted part of the film 's plot , E.T. phoning home , as the goal . Warshaw then conceived that E.T. would need to assemble a special phone to call his ship and arrive at a special landing site to achieve this goal . He considered obstacles as an element that would determine the success of a game , and experienced difficulties when taking into account the time constraints and technical limitations of the console . Inspired by the movie , adults were implemented as antagonists that would chase the alien . Feeling more adversity was needed , Warshaw included a time limit for players to accomplish the goal . Pits were devised as an element to hide the pieces of the phone as well as expand the game 's world .
Warshaw and other Atari executives presented this design to Spielberg , who did not express enthusiasm . Spielberg instead asked him to create a game similar to Namco 's Pac @-@ Man . Believing the concept too derivative of a common game design , Warshaw proceeded with his concept , which he felt would capture the sentimentality he saw in the original film . In retrospect , however , Warshaw stated that Spielberg 's idea might have had merit . He spent the remaining time programming the game . Atari anticipated enormous sales based on the popularity of the film , as well as the stability the video game industry was experiencing in 1982 . Due to time limitations , Atari decided to skip audience testing for the product . Emanual Gerard , co @-@ chief operating officer of Warner at the time , later suggested that the company had fallen into a false sense of security by the success of its previous releases , particularly its console version of Pac @-@ Man , which was commercially successful despite poor critical reaction .
= = Reception = =
Anticipation for E.T. was high in 1982 , and it was a sought @-@ after Christmas gift . In early December 1982 , the New York Times reported that video games based on successful movies , specifically E.T. , would become " an increasingly profitable source " for video game development . At first , retailers ordered more supplies than what was expected to be sold , but Atari received an increasing number of order cancellations as new competitors entered the market , an event the company had not anticipated . John Hubner and William Kistner of InfoWorld attribute the cancellations to changes Atari initiated between its relationship between distributors . On November 1 , 1982 , Atari informed them that their contracts were canceled and that exclusive deals would be established with select distributors . Hubner and Kistner believed the action prompted retailers to cancel orders , which Atari had not properly tracked .
E.T. met with initial commercial success . It was among the top four on Billboard magazine 's " Top 15 Video Games " sales list in December 1982 and January 1983 . The game eventually sold 1 @.@ 5 million units , becoming one of the best @-@ selling Atari 2600 titles . However , between 2 @.@ 5 and 3 @.@ 5 million cartridges went unsold . Hubner and Kistner commented that the large number of produced cartridges may have resulted in excess inventory regardless of E.T. ' s success . Even though the game was a best seller during the holiday season , retailers still stated that its sales figures did not meet expectations . Warner Communications also expressed disappointment at the number of sales . Lower than expected sales figures combined with excess inventory , which produced a negative supply and demand event , prompted retailers to repeatedly discount price . According to Ray Kassar , about 3 @.@ 5 million of the 4 million produced were sent back to the company as unsold inventory or customer returns . Despite sales figures , the quantity of unsold merchandise , coupled with the expensive movie license and the large amount of returns , made E.T. a major financial failure for Atari . By 2004 , the cartridges were still very common and priced at very low amounts .
= = = Critical response = = =
While reviews of the movie version of E.T. were highly positive , the game was negatively received by critics , with common complaints focused on the plot , gameplay , and visuals . New York magazine 's Nicholas Pileggi described it as a loser when compared to other games Atari could have released like Donkey Kong and Frogger . Video Games called the game " really for kids ( the littler ones ) . " Kevin Bowen of GameSpy 's Classic Gaming called the gameplay " convoluted and inane " , also criticizing its story for departing from the serious tone of the film . Author Steven Kent described the game as " infamous " within the industry , citing " primitive " graphics , " dull " gameplay , and a " disappointing story " . In 1984 Softline readers named the game the second @-@ worst Atari program of 1983 , after Congo Bongo .
Nevertheless , the game also received some more positive reviews . An editor for The Miami Herald described it as a difficult game to learn to play , but felt it was worth dedicating the time . Vidiot 's Kevin Christopher criticized the protagonist 's repeated falling down back into holes , but considered it " about the only flaw with an otherwise A @-@ 1 game . " Arcade Express scored it 6 out of 10 in December 1982 .
Critics bemoaned the gameplay 's repetitive use of falling down holes . Emru Townsend of PC World discussed the game with a group , and found a universal dislike for the pits that E.T. falls into , describing it as " monotonous " . Writer Sean " Seanbaby " Reiley also criticized the pits , claiming that they are " time @-@ consuming " and " difficult to leave without falling back in " . Trent Ward , a former Next Generation Magazine reviewer , commented that this element prompted him to immediately return the game for a refund after purchasing it in his youth , and the children who found games in the New Mexico landfill gave the E.T. cartridges away because , as one later said , the " game sucked ... you couldn 't finish it " . Classic Gaming argued that despite the negative reception , the game can be enjoyable after the player has learned to navigate the pits .
In published materials written over a decade after its initial release , E.T. has been universally panned by critics and is frequently listed as the worst video game ever . Reiley ranked it number one in a list of the 20 worst games of all time in Electronic Gaming Monthly 's 150th issue . Michael Dolan , deputy editor of FHM magazine , has also listed the game as his pick for the worst video game of all time . Townsend placed E.T. at the top of his list of worst video games , noting that , " about a third of the people I quizzed came up with this title almost instantly , and it 's not hard to see why . " GameTrailers ranked the game the second worst on their " Top Ten Best and Worst Games of All Time " list .
Critics often attribute the poor quality to the short development time . Townsend commented that the rushed development was very apparent after playing the game . Warshaw 's contributions to the game have been met with mixed responses . Classic Gaming called the game poorly designed , while IGN 's Levi Buchanan stated the " impossibly tight schedule " given to Warshaw absolves him of blame . Warshaw does not express regret for his part in E.T. , and feels he created a good game given the time available to him .
= = Impact and legacy = =
E.T. is one of the earliest video games based on a movie . GamePro , GameTrailers , and Bowen cite the game as the first poor quality @-@ film – video @-@ game tie @-@ in . Patrick O 'Luanaigh of SCi Games called it the most famous disaster story among film @-@ inspired video games as well as within the industry . Describing it as one of the " games that changed the world " , GamePro stated that E.T. established a standard of subpar quality video games based on movies . They further commented that other publishers adopted similar marketing and production practices with licensed movie properties . The publication listed the game as the second " worst movie game ever " , citing it as an example of how poor gameplay can bring negative reception to strong licenses .
= = = Effect on the industry = = =
The game is often cited as one of the most important titles in the industry 's history . Billboard magazine 's Earl Paige reported that the large number of unsold E.T. games along with an increase in competition prompted retailers to demand official return programs from video game manufacturers . The game is also considered to be one of the causes of the video game industry crisis of 1983 . By the end of 1982 , Atari had begun to lose dominance as more competitors entered the market . Poor critical reception and lack of a profitable marketing strategy made this game one of many cited decisions that led Atari to report a $ 536 million loss in 1983 and led to the company being divided and sold in 1984 . GameSpy 's Classic Gaming called E.T. Atari 's biggest mistake , as well as the largest financial failure in the industry . Reiley commented that the game 's poor quality was responsible for ending the product life of the Atari 2600 . Occurring soon after Pac @-@ Man 's negative critical response on the Atari 2600 , E.T. ' s poor reception was attributed by Kent to a negative impact on Atari 's reputation and profitability . Authors Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost echoed similar comments about Pac @-@ Man and E.T. ' s combined effect on the company 's reputation and the industry 's reaction . Buchanan also cited the game as a factor to Atari and the industry 's crash . He stated that the large amount of unsold merchandise was a financial burden to Atari , which pushed the company into debt .
On December 7 , 1982 , Kassar announced that Atari 's revenue forecasts for 1982 were cut from a 50 percent increase over 1981 to a 15 percent increase . Immediately following the announcement , Warner Communications ' stock value dropped by around 35 percent — from US $ 54 to US $ 35 — resulting in the company losing US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in market valuation . Kassar sold five thousand of his Warner shares a half @-@ hour before the announcement . This prompted an investigation for insider trading against him by U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission . Atari attempted to regain their market share by licensing popular arcade games for the Atari consoles . The games , however , did not reverse Atari 's decline and they went further into debt . In 1983 , the company had decreased its workforce by 30 percent and lost US $ 356 million . Other companies — Activision , Bally Manufacturing , and Mattel — experienced similar results as the industry declined .
= = = Atari video game burial = = =
In September 1983 , the Alamogordo Daily News of Alamogordo , New Mexico , reported in a series of articles that between ten and twenty semi @-@ trailer truckloads of Atari boxes , cartridges , and systems from an Atari storehouse in El Paso , Texas , were crushed and buried at the landfill within the city . It was Atari 's first dealings with the landfill , which was chosen because no scavenging was allowed and its garbage was crushed and buried nightly . Atari officials and others gave differing reports of what was buried , but it has been speculated that most unsold copies of E.T. are buried in this landfill , crushed and encased in cement . The story of the buried cartridges was erroneously regarded by some as an urban legend , with skeptics — including Warshaw — disregarding the official accounts .
On May 28 , 2013 , the Alamogordo City Commission approved Fuel Industries , an Ottawa @-@ based entertainment company , for six months of landfill access both to create a documentary about the legend and to excavate the burial site . On April 26 , 2014 , remnants of E.T. and other Atari games were discovered in the early hours of the excavation .
A fictional account of the game 's disposal is the main basis for James Rolfe 's 2014 independent film Angry Video Game Nerd : The Movie . A documentary called Atari : Game Over in which several of the buried games were unearthed was released in 2014 .
In December 2014 , The Smithsonian Institution added an excavated cartridge of E.T. to their collection . In 2015 , The Henry Ford museum added several excavated cartridges and a video touchpad , a sample of landfill dirt taken from the site of the burial , and items of clothing worn by the excavation team to their collection . A selection of these items are on permanent display .
= = = Attempts at fixing the game = = =
In 2006 the game was decompiled by Dennis Debro and a source code variant reconstructed .
In February 2013 , several unofficial fixes for the game were released by Neocomputer.org , a small personal website unrelated to Atari . The website details and provides commentary on the game 's shortcomings , including instruction on fixing it . According to Neocomputer , the infamous " bug " of E.T. falling into the pits was simply due to pixel @-@ perfect collision detection ; if any portion of E.T. ' s sprite overlapped a pit , E.T. would then fall into the pit . The website also details certain other problems that were resolved .
= = = Re @-@ release = = =
In October 2013 the Internet Archive provided a browser @-@ playable version via MESS .
In Q4 2014 , KHAN Games ported the original Atari game to the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . Some changes were made , including providing some more detailed instructions on how to play . The original Atari version was often cited as having very little instruction on gameplay . Later the game went " out of stock " on the store .
= Spooks ( series 7 ) =
The seventh series of the BBC espionage television series Spooks ( known as MI @-@ 5 in the United States ) began broadcasting on 27 October 2008 on BBC One before ending on 8 December 2008 on the same channel , and consists of eight episodes , two fewer than previous series . It follows the actions of Section D , a counter @-@ terrorism division in MI5 . The primary storyline involves Sugarhorse , a top secret operation set up by MI5 during the final years of the Cold War , and a mole working for the FSB who intends to leak the operation to the Russians . Peter Firth , Rupert Penry @-@ Jones , Hermione Norris , Richard Armitage , Miranda Raison , Gemma Jones , Hugh Simon and Alex Lanipekun are credited as the main cast .
Penry @-@ Jones announced his intention to leave the series in December 2007 , while it was later announced Armitage would join . Norris and Raison were both asked to return after their characters were left open for return after the end of the last series . In developing the series , the producers wanted to repeat the serialised style from series six , and settled on using the resurgence of Russia as the primary storyline , as they felt that at the time , the resurgence is in subtle ways threatening the security of the west . The producers also participated in several meetings with the writers to discuss the purpose of Sugarhorse . Filming started in London in March 2008 , and later finished on August in the same year , in Moscow , the first time in series history where Spooks was filmed outside the United Kingdom .
The seventh series received healthy ratings , with both BBC One and BBC Three ratings together achieving 6 @.@ 13 million viewers per episode . It series also attracted critical acclaim , with some reviewers considering it to be the best series of Spooks . Both factors allowed the BBC to commission an eighth series of the programme for 2009 . The seventh series was released on DVD on 12 October 2009 in the United Kingdom , 30 March 2009 in Australia , and 26 January 2010 in the United States .
= = Episodes = =
= = Cast = =
The series consists of eight main cast members . Rupert Penry @-@ Jones returns as Adam Carter for the first episode . Penry @-@ Jones announced his intention to leave the series after appearing on the show for four years in December 2007 , because he felt his character ran its course and " getting to the point where I needed to move on , " adding he would like to explore other venues in his career . In order to keep the series fresh , the producers still wanted Adam 's exit to be a shock to the audience . The actor found that his last days on Spooks was generally upsetting and " welled up " on his final day .
Later in March 2008 , the BBC announced that Richard Armitage would join the series as Lucas North . The character was designed by the producers to become a " new heroic figure , " and to become much more distant than Adam . Armitage was chosen early in the casting process as the producers believed he could carry the mystery of the character . Armitage was approached by the producers after he finished work on the second series of Robin Hood , for which he portrayed the regular part of Sir Guy of Gisbourne . He accepted the role but was initially hesitant to join because of the " tall order " for replacing Penry @-@ Jones . Armitage lost a stone in weight in preparation to keep with the description that Lucas is malnourished in the first episode , but still kept physically fit .
Elsewhere , Hermione Norris returns as Ros Myers . The character was initially written off after the eighth episode of the sixth series due to the actress 's pregnancy , however when the seventh series entered pre @-@ production , Norris was asked to return and she accepted . Miranda Raison also returns as Jo Portman ; the cliffhanger of the sixth series finale , where Jo was apparently killed , was to leave the audience wonder whether she survived . Raison stated that she realised the producers wanted her to return , and she wanted to return . Alex Lanipekun returns as Ben Kaplan , and was upgraded to a series regular from the last series . Lanipekun believed that the seventh series was " kind of for Ben , " adding that there was an episode that would see his coming of age by dealing with his first undercover operation and his burdens , namely getting close to someone who is involved with the group he was sent to stop . Peter Firth , Gemma Jones and Hugh Simon returns as superior Harry Pearce , Connie James and Malcolm Wynn @-@ Jones , respectively .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The writers and producers got together to discuss what direction they would take for the seventh series . They wanted to repeat the same style for series six , which was to add a serial element to be carried throughout the duration of the series . They got together to think about what they would believe to be a big political story that would affect politics in the United Kingdom in within twelve to eighteen months after their initial meetings early in 2008 . They settled on using Russia , which was facing a resurgence in power after the Cold War , which the producers felt , in subtle ways , would threaten the security of the west . Sometime through the writing process , the producers set up a story @-@ arc , Sugarhorse , to be a threat throughout the series and have it resolved by the finale . The writers enjoyed making the Sugarhorse storyline because it was one of the instances that " really brings Harry to the edge " and causing him to doubt everything he has done or achieved . The writing team took several meetings together to discuss what it is and how it should work into the storyline . Christian Spurrier noted it was " kind of a headache " to figure out how to " weave it in " to the series and work out what parts would be used in which episodes . The producers wanted to use a scene relating to Sugarhorse as the finale scene of every episode it was featured in , as the producers believed it would provide a " right hook " to the audience . Adding the new storyline would allow the series to return to the world of spying , truth , and who the characters should trust .
Throughout the writing process , several cast members would give suggestion notes to the writers on how to improve some scenes . The writers were frequently annoyed with Armitage , who gave out more notes than any other cast members , however the writers also liked some of his ideas and included them in the scripts . The producers believed that the seventh series was among the more brutal than the others , citing the violent death of Ben .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming started in March 2008 , and later finished on August in the same year . Before principal photography commenced , director Colm McCarthy participated in helicopter shots over London . In each block of episodes , the cast and crew would often film all scenes held in certain locations at once , for instance all scenes set on the Grid , although taking place in different parts of each episodes , would all be filmed together before moving on to another set . However , the cast had trouble following the storylines with this method . A different Director of Photography was hired in each episode . Because of this , the filming style inside the Grid set changed in every episode . To film public shots , a small filming crew were used as to not attract too much attention from passers by . However , by using the small crew , they and the actors generally film the scenes unnoticed by the public , which the producers felt gave the characters such gravitas .
Filming finished in August 2008 in Moscow , Russia ; it was the first time in series history where filming took place outside the United Kingdom ; producer Katie Swinden stated that Spooks is usually " London @-@ orientated , " including when it comes to filming scenes set in other countries , and it usually does not take place outside the confines of the M25 , an orbital motorway which encircles the UK 's capital . However , the producers were able to afford to shoot in another country . A small crew were used to save costs . Armitage and Norris were the only two of the main actors who participated in the shoot . However , the main problem with filming in Moscow was of the 30 plus degree heat , and the actors had to wear winter coats because the episodes were set during the colder months .
= = = Stunts = = =
The producers allow the cast to perform many of their own stunts . In filming fight sequences , they were carefully choreographed beforehand so the actors could participate themselves . The guns featured on the series are real . In scenes where guns are included , an armourer is on hand throughout the entirety of the sequence to see if the actors are handling them properly and gives out the guns to the actors at the last possible second before filming . After the sequence is shot , the guns have to be returned and locked in a case to prevent anybody from playing with them , even if the guns are not loaded . Among other stunt work , Armitage was asked to be subjected to an actual waterboarding scene to ensure the authenticity of the sequence . The actor agreed after he was convinced by conultants from the FSB and CIA . Kudos film and television , the production company behind Spooks , had to follow several health and safety provisions from an advisor to ensure the sequence strictly adheres to the advice . The advisor and a medic were present during filming . Armitage was only waterboarded for a short time , and was filmed in slow motion to make it appear as if he was on for longer . The ambient temperature of the room was also raised to make Armitage as comfortable as possible . Following the sequence , Armitage stated " I only lasted five to ten seconds , and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn 't me acting . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
The series was broadcast every Monday from 27 October to 8 December 2008 on BBC One , with the exception of the second episode , which aired on a Tuesday , the day after the first episode . However , the second through to the seventh episodes were pre @-@ empted to BBC Three sometime after the BBC One broadcasts of the previous episode . The first episode " New Allegiances " was seen by 5 @.@ 5 million and was given a strong audience share of 23 @.@ 4 per cent . Although ratings were high , the premiere was down from the 6 @.@ 6 million seen by the premiere of the previous sixth series . Some of the later episode faced heavy competition from I 'm a Celebrity , Get Me Out of Here ! on ITV1 , however despite this , ratings for Spooks remained steady . The finale " Nuclear Strike " gave the seventh series its strongest ratings , with six million viewers . Compiling both BBC One and BBC Three viewings , viewing figures for the seventh series averaged 6 @.@ 13 million per episode . The series also became the ninth most watched series from BBC iPlayer , an Internet television service , of 2008 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The seventh series attracted critical acclaim , with some reviewers considering it to be the best series of Spooks . Leigh Holmwood of The Guardian feared that the death of Adam " would have cast a long shadow , " but barely noticed his absence given the pace of the episodes . Holmwood also believed that Lucas ' introduction " more than made amends " for replacing Adam , and also felt the return of Ros Myers and her promotion was " a genius move . " Mark Wright of The Stage thought that it was " stunning " with the last three episodes in particular " hitting new heights of tension and storytelling for the series , " adding it is " as good as , if not the better , than the first couple of seasons . " Wright also believed the series performed well with a reduced series length of eight as opposed to the ten episodes from the last few series , which he said allowed for " tighter , more focussed storytelling . " He also felt the cast changes " always felt naturally organic , " and praised Adam 's exit , Lucas ' introduction , and the " fantastic , strong female role model " of Hermione Norris ' portrayal . Wright ended by saying " Spooks has been my favourite show of the last few months and indeed of 2008 . "
Mof Gimmers of TV Scoop named Spooks series seven as the best television show of 2008 out of 50 programmes . Gimmers felt the seventh series performed better than the previous , as it " lost its way slightly " with the concentration of Islamic extremists . The seventh series however , was praised for bringing back the more traditional enemy , the Russians . With the introduction of Lucas North , Gimmers stated " the possibilities for double @-@ blinding the audience were legion and every single one was exploited to the max . " Gimmers also cited the more " pacy " plots due to a shorter series as another factor of the series 's success , and also said " the only problem with having a series as good as this in the bag is how they will match it next year ? " David Blackwell of Enterline Media said that the series ' storylines " have a grain of truth reflecting today 's climate " and also " more deeply rooted in gritty realism and preying on the real dangers that terrorists and other countries pose to the UK . " Blackwell also posed the storylines also " keeps the characters human and show what they go through " and reacted positevely towards Lucas ' introduction , stating " I like Lucas North better than Adam Carter or Tom Quinn . His dark and conflicted persona adds to the story and makes him a more interesting character than Adam or Tom ever were . " Blackwell summed up the series as " as great as the first six seasons . The show maintains a high standard of quality . "
Following the end of the eighth series , Last Broadcast held a poll for the top five most shocking death scenes in Spooks . Two of them were deaths from the seventh series . Adam Carter 's death was voted the fourth most shocking , while Ben Kaplan 's death was voted third . Connie 's death however , was not listed . The featuring of an actual waterboarding scene drew criticism from Guardian columnist Zoe Williams , who wrote " it 's really unpleasant , [ Armitage ] concurred . ' I only lasted five to 10 seconds , and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn 't me acting . ' Pal , that 's nice that you 're not showing off but this is all wrong and despicable : it 's like locking yourself and 10 friends into a loo on a commuter train , to see what it would be like on the train to Auschwitz . If you can make it stop whenever you like , you 're learning nothing and kicking people in the face while you 're at it . "
= = = Award nomination and renewal = = =
The seventh series was nominated for a British Academy Television Award ( BAFTA ) for " Best Drama Series " in 2009 , but lost to Wallander . Because of the strong ratings and positive feedback from fans and critics , the BBC announced they would recommission Spooks for an eighth series for 2009 on 4 December 2008 , just days before the finale was set to air .
= = Home video release = =
The series has been released on DVD in the United Kingdom ( Region 2 ) on 12 October 2009 . It was also released in the United States ( Region 1 ) on 26 January 2010 , and in Australia ( Region 4 ) on 30 March 2009 . The set consists of four discs and contain all eight episodes , as well as a few special features , including a Behind the Scenes documentary , which contain cast and crew interviews covering the characters and storylines of the series , " Spooks in Russia " , a featurette behind the scenes of filming in Russia , " Action Sequence " , which covers filming a chase sequence in episode six , and audio commentaries for episodes five and eight . The box set also contains the original trailer for the series , while the Region 1 release also contains trailers for other British television programmes , including Doctor Who , Torchwood and Primeval .
= Fin whale =
The fin whale ( Balaenoptera physalus ) , also called the finback whale , razorback , or common rorqual , is a marine mammal belonging to the suborder of baleen whales . It is the second @-@ largest animal after the blue whale . The largest reportedly grow to 27 @.@ 3 m ( 89 @.@ 6 ft ) long with a maximum confirmed length of 25 @.@ 9 m ( 85 ft ) , a maximum recorded weight of nearly 74 tonnes ( 73 long tons ; 82 short tons ) , and a maximum estimated weight of around 120 tonnes ( 132 @.@ 5 tons ) . American naturalist Roy Chapman Andrews called the fin whale " the greyhound of the sea ... for its beautiful , slender body is built like a racing yacht and the animal can surpass the speed of the fastest ocean steamship . "
The fin whale 's body is long and slender , coloured brownish @-@ grey with a paler underside.The fin whale is a large baleen whale that belongs to the cetacean order , which is composed of all species of whale , dolphin and porpoise . At least two recognized subspecies exist , in the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere . It is found in all the major oceans , from polar to tropical waters . It is absent only from waters close to the ice pack at the poles and relatively small areas of water away from the open ocean . The highest population density occurs in temperate and cool waters . Its food consists of small schooling fish , squid , and crustaceans including copepods and krill .
Like all other large whales , the fin whale was heavily hunted during the 20th century and is an endangered species . Over 725 @,@ 000 fin whales were reportedly taken from the Southern Hemisphere between 1905 and 1976 , as of 1997 survived by only 38 @,@ 000 .
The International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) issued a moratorium on commercial hunting of this whale , although Iceland and Japan have resumed hunting . The species is also hunted by Greenlanders under the IWC 's Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling provisions . Global population estimates range from less than 100 @,@ 000 to roughly 119 @,@ 000 .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fin whale was first described by Friderich Martens in 1675 and then again by Paul Dudley in 1725 . The former description was used as the primary basis of the species Balaena physalus by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . In 1804 , Bernard Germain de Lacépède reclassified the species as Balaenoptera rorqual , based on a specimen that had stranded on Île Sainte @-@ Marguerite ( Cannes , France ) in 1798 . In 1830 , Louis Companyo described a specimen that had stranded near Saint @-@ Cyprien , southern France , in 1828 as Balaena musculus . Most later authors followed him in using the specific name musculus , until Frederick W. True ( 1898 ) showed that it referred to the blue whale . In 1846 , British taxonomist John Edward Gray described a 16 @.@ 7 m ( 55 ft ) specimen from the Falkland Islands as Balaenoptera australis . In 1865 , German naturalist Hermann Burmeister described a roughly 15 m ( 49 ft ) specimen found near Buenos Aires about 30 years earlier as Balaenoptera patachonicus . In 1903 , Romanian scientist Emil Racoviță placed all these designations into Balaenoptera physalus . The word physalus comes from the Greek word physa , meaning " blows " , referring to the prominent blow of the species ( as described by Martens [ 1675 , p . 132 ] : " They know the finn @-@ fish by the ... vehement blowing and spouting up of the water ... " ) .
Fin whales are rorquals , members of the family Balaenopteridae , which also includes the humpback whale , the blue whale , Bryde 's whale , the sei whale , and the minke whales . The family diverged from the other baleen whales in the suborder Mysticeti as long ago as the middle Miocene , although it is not known when the members of these families further evolved into their own species .
Recent DNA evidence indicates the fin whale may be more closely related to the humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) and in at least one study the gray whale ( Eschrichtius robustus ) , two whales in different genera , than it is to members of its own genus , such as the minke whales . As of 2006 , two subspecies are named , each with distinct physical features and vocalizations . The northern fin whale , B. p. physalus ( Linnaeus 1758 ) inhabits the North Atlantic and the southern fin whale , B. p. quoyi ( Fischer 1829 ) occupies the Southern Ocean . Most experts consider the fin whales of the North Pacific to be a third , as yet unnamed subspecies – this was supported by a 2013 study , which found that the Northern Hemisphere B. p. physalus was not composed of a single subspecies . The three groups mix at most , rarely .
Clarke ( 2004 ) proposed a " pygmy " subspecies ( B. p. patachonica , Burmeister , 1865 ) that is purportedly darker in colour and has black baleen . He based this on a single physically mature 19 @.@ 8 m ( 65 ft ) female caught in the Antarctic in 1947 – 48 , the smaller average size ( a few feet ) of sexually and physically mature fin whales caught by the Japanese around 50 ° S , and smaller , darker sexually immature fin whales caught in the Antarctic which he believed were a " migratory phase " of his proposed subspecies . His proposal is not widely accepted and no genetic evidence for their existence is available .
= = = Hybrids = = =
The genetic distance between blue and fin whales has been compared to that between a gorilla and human ( 3 @.@ 5 million years on the evolutionary tree . ) Nevertheless , hybrid individuals between blue and fin whales with characteristics of both are known to occur with relative frequency in both the North Atlantic and North Pacific .
The DNA profile of a sampling of whale meat in the Japanese market found evidence of blue / fin hybrids .
= = Anatomy = =
The fin whale is usually distinguished by its tall spout , long back , prominent dorsal fin , and asymmetrical colouration .
The animal 's large size aids in identification , and it is usually only confused with the blue whale , the sei whale , or , in warmer waters , Bryde 's whale .
= = = Size = = =
In the Northern Hemisphere , the average size of adult males and females is about 18 @.@ 5 m ( 61 ft ) and 20 m ( 66 ft ) , respectively , averaging 38 @.@ 5 and 50 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 42 @.@ 5 and 55 @.@ 5 tons ) while in the Southern Hemisphere , it is 20 @.@ 5 m ( 67 ft ) and 22 m ( 72 ft ) , weighing 52 @.@ 5 and 63 tonnes ( 58 and 69 @.@ 5 tons ) .
In the North Atlantic , the longest reported were a 24 @.@ 4 m ( 80 @.@ 1 ft ) male caught off Shetland in 1905 and a 25 m ( 82 @.@ 0 ft ) female caught off Scotland sometime between 1908 and 1914 , while the longest reliably measured were three 20 @.@ 7 m ( 67 @.@ 9 ft ) males caught off Iceland in 1973 – 74 and a 22 @.@ 5 m ( 73 @.@ 8 ft ) female also caught off Iceland in 1975 . Mediterranean population are generally smaller , reaching just above 20 m ( 65 @.@ 6 ft ) at maximum , or may possibly up to 21 m ( 68 @.@ 9 ft ) - 23 m ( 75 @.@ 5 ft ) .
In the North Pacific , the longest reported were three 22 @.@ 9 m ( 75 @.@ 1 ft ) males , two caught off California between 1919 and 1926 and the other caught off Alaska in 1925 , and a 24 @.@ 7 m ( 81 @.@ 0 ft ) female also caught off California , while the longest reliably measured were a 21 m ( 68 @.@ 9 ft ) male caught off British Columbia in 1959 and a 22 @.@ 9 m ( 75 @.@ 1 ft ) female caught off central California between 1959 and 1970 .
In the Southern Hemisphere , the longest reported for each sex were 25 m ( 82 @.@ 0 ft ) and 27 @.@ 3 m ( 89 @.@ 6 ft ) , while the longest measured by Mackintosh and Wheeler ( 1929 ) were 22 @.@ 65 m ( 74 @.@ 3 ft ) and 24 @.@ 53 m ( 80 @.@ 5 ft ) . Major F. A. Spencer , while whaling inspector of the factory ship Southern Princess ( 1936 – 38 ) , confirmed the length of a 25 @.@ 9 m ( 85 @.@ 0 ft ) female caught in the Antarctic south of the southern Indian Ocean ; scientist David Edward Gaskin also measured a 25 @.@ 9 m ( 85 @.@ 0 ft ) female while whaling inspector of the British factory ship Southern Venturer in the Southern Ocean in the 1961 – 62 season . Terence Wise , who worked as a winch operator aboard the British factory ship Balaena , claimed that " the biggest fin [ he ] ever saw " was a 25 @.@ 6 m ( 84 @.@ 0 ft ) specimen caught near Bouvet Island in January 1958 . The largest fin whale ever weighed ( piecemeal ) was a 22 @.@ 7 m ( 74 @.@ 5 ft ) pregnant female caught by Japanese whalers in the Antarctic in 1948 which weighed 69 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 68 @.@ 4 long tons ; 76 @.@ 6 short tons ) , minus 6 % for loss of fluids during the flensing process . An individual over 27 m ( 88 @.@ 6 ft ) is estimated to weigh in excess of 120 tonnes ( 120 long tons ; 130 short tons ) .
A newborn fin whale measures about 6 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 5 m ( 20 – 21 ft ) in length and weighs about 1 @,@ 800 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 000 lb ) .
= = = Colouration and markings = = =
The fin whale is brownish to dark or light gray dorsally and white ventrally . The left side of the head is dark gray , while the right side exhibits a complex pattern of contrasting light and dark markings . On the right lower jaw is a white or light gray " right mandible patch " , which sometimes extends out as a light " blaze " laterally and dorsally unto the upper jaw and back to just behind the blowholes . Two narrow dark stripes originate from the eye and ear , the former widening into a large dark area on the shoulder — these are separated by a light area called the " interstripe wash " . These markings are more prominent on individuals in the North Atlantic than in the North Pacific , where they can appear indistinct . The left side exhibits similar but much fainter markings . Dark , oval @-@ shaped areas of pigment called " flipper shadows " extend below and posterior to the pectoral fins . This type of asymmetry is seen in Omura 's whale and occasionally in minke whales . It was thought to have evolved because the whale swims on its right side when surface lunging and it sometimes circles to the right while at the surface above a prey patch . However , the whales just as often circle to the left . No accepted hypothesis explains the asymmetry . It has paired blowholes on a prominent splashguard and a broad , flat , V @-@ shaped rostrum . A single median ridge stops well short of the rostrum tip . A light V @-@ shaped marking , the chevron , begins behind the blowholes and extends back and then forward again . The whale has a series of 56 – 100 pleats or grooves along the bottom of the body that run from the tip of the chin to the navel that allow the throat area to expand greatly during feeding . It has a curved , prominent dorsal fin that ranges in height from 26 – 75 cm ( 10 – 30 in ) ( usually 45 – 60 cm ( 18 – 24 in ) ) and averages about 51 cm ( 20 in ) , lying about three @-@ quarters of the way along the back . Its flippers are small and tapered and its tail is wide , pointed at the tip , and notched in the centre .
When the whale surfaces , the dorsal fin is visible soon after the spout . The spout is vertical and narrow and can reach heights of 6 m ( 20 ft ) or more .
= = = Nervous system = = =
Fin whales have very stretchy nerves .
= = Life history = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Mating occurs in temperate , low @-@ latitude seas during the winter , followed by an 11- to 12 @-@ month gestation period . A newborn weans from its mother at 6 or 7 months of age when it is 11 to 12 m ( 36 to 39 ft ) in length , and the calf accompanies the mother to the summer feeding ground . Females reproduce every 2 or 3 years , with as many as six fetuses being reported , but single births are far more common . Females reach sexual maturity between 6 and 12 years of age at lengths of 17 @.@ 7 – 19 m ( 58 – 62 ft ) in the Northern Hemisphere and 20 m ( 66 ft ) in the Southern Hemisphere .
Full physical maturity is attained between 25 and 30 years . Fin whales live to 94 years of age , although specimens have been found aged at an estimated 135 – 140 years .
The fin whale is one of the fastest cetaceans and can sustain speeds between 37 km / h ( 23 mph ) and 41 km / h ( 25 mph ) and bursts up to 46 km / h ( 29 mph ) have been recorded , earning the fin whale the nickname " the greyhound of the sea " .
Fin whales are more gregarious than other rorquals , and often live in groups of 6 – 10 , although feeding groups may reach up to 100 animals .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
Like other whales , males make long , loud , low @-@ frequency sounds . The vocalizations of blue and fin whales are the lowest @-@ frequency sounds made by any animal . Most sounds are frequency @-@ modulated ( FM ) down @-@ swept infrasonic pulses from 16 to 40 hertz frequency ( the range of sounds that most humans can hear falls between 20 hertz and 20 kilohertz ) . Each sound lasts one to two seconds , and various sound combinations occur in patterned sequences lasting 7 to 15 minutes each . The whale then repeats the sequences in bouts lasting up to many days . The vocal sequences have source levels of up to 184 – 186 decibels relative to 1 micropascal at a reference distance of one metre and can be detected hundreds of miles from their source .
When fin whale sounds were first recorded by US biologists , they did not realize that these unusually loud , long , pure and regular sounds were being made by whales . They first investigated the possibilities that the sounds were due to equipment malfunction , geophysical phenomena , or even part of a Soviet Union scheme for detecting enemy submarines . Eventually , biologists demonstrated that the sounds were the vocalizations of fin whales .
Direct association of these vocalizations with the reproductive season for the species and that only males make the sounds point to these vocalizations as possible reproductive displays . Over the past 100 years , the dramatic increase in ocean noise from shipping and naval activity may have slowed the recovery of the fin whale population , by impeding communications between males and receptive females .
= = = Breathing = = =
When feeding , they blow 5 – 7 times in quick succession , but while traveling or resting will blow once every minute or two . On their terminal ( last ) dive they arch their back high out of the water , but rarely raise their flukes out of the water . It then dives to depths of up to 470 metres ( 1 @,@ 540 ft ) when feeding or a few hundred feet when resting or traveling . The average feeding dive off California and Baja lasts 6 minutes , with a maximum of 17 minutes ; when traveling or resting they usually dive for only a few minutes at a time .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Range and habitat = = =
Like many large rorquals , the fin whale is a cosmopolitan species . It is found in all the world 's major oceans and in waters ranging from the polar to the tropical . It is absent only from waters close to the ice pack at both the north and south extremities and relatively small areas of water away from the large oceans , such as the Red Sea and the Baltic Sea . The highest population density occurs in temperate and cool waters . It is less densely populated in the warmest , equatorial regions .
The North Atlantic fin whale has an extensive distribution , occurring from the Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea , northward to Baffin Bay and Spitsbergen . In general , fin whales are more common north of approximately 30 ° N latitude , but considerable confusion arises about their occurrence south of 30 ° N latitude because of the difficulty in distinguishing fin whales from Bryde 's whales . Extensive ship surveys have led researchers to conclude that the summer feeding range of fin whales in the western North Atlantic is mainly between 41 ° 20'N and 51 ° 00'N , from shore seaward to the 1 @,@ 000 fathoms ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) contour .
Summer distribution of fin whales in the North Pacific is the immediate offshore waters from central Baja California to Japan and as far north as the Chukchi Sea bordering the Arctic Ocean . They occur in high densities in the northern Gulf of Alaska and southeastern Bering Sea between May and October , with some movement through the Aleutian passes into and out of the Bering Sea . Several whales tagged between November and January off southern California were killed in the summer off central California , Oregon , British Columbia , and in the Gulf of Alaska . Fin whales have been observed feeding 250 miles south of Hawaii in mid @-@ May , and several winter sightings have been made there . Some researchers have suggested that the whales migrate into Hawaiian waters primarily in the autumn and winter .
Although fin whales are certainly migratory , moving seasonally in and out of high @-@ latitude feeding areas , the overall migration pattern is not well understood . Acoustic readings from passive @-@ listeninghydrophone arrays indicate a southward migration of the North Atlantic fin whale occurs in the autumn from the Labrador @-@ Newfoundland region , south past Bermuda , and into the West Indies . One or more populations of fin whales are thought to remain year @-@ round in high latitudes , moving offshore , but not southward in late autumn . In the Pacific , migration patterns are poorly characterized . Although some fin whales are apparently present year @-@ round in the Gulf of California , there is a significant increase in their numbers in the winter and spring . Southern fin whales migrate seasonally from relatively high @-@ latitude Antarctic feeding grounds in the summer to low @-@ latitude breeding and calving areas in the winter . The location of winter breeding areas is still unknown , since these whales tend to migrate in the open ocean .
= = = Population and trends = = =
= = = = North Atlantic = = = =
North Atlantic fin whales are defined by the International Whaling Commission to exist in one of seven discrete population zones : Nova Scotia @-@ New England , Newfoundland @-@ Labrador , western Greenland , eastern Greenland @-@ Iceland , North Norway , West Norway @-@ Faroe Islands , and Ireland @-@ Spain @-@ United Kingdom @-@ Portugal . Results of mark @-@ and @-@ recapture surveys have indicated that some movement occurs across the boundaries of these zones , suggesting that they are not entirely discrete and that some immigration and emigration does occur . Sigurjónsson estimated in 1995 that total pre @-@ exploitation population size in the entireNorth Atlantic ranged between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 animals , but his research is criticized for lack of supporting data and an explanation of his reasoning . In 1977 , D.E. Sergeant suggested a " primeval " aggregate total of 30 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 throughout the North Atlantic . Of that number , 8 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 would have resided in the Newfoundland and Nova Scotia areas , with whales summering in U.S. waters south of Nova Scotia presumably omitted . J.M. Breiwick estimated that the " exploitable " ( above the legal size limit of 50 ft ) component of the Nova Scotia population was 1 @,@ 500 to 1 @,@ 600 animals in 1964 , reduced to only about 325 in 1973 . Two aerial surveys in Canadian waters since the early 1970s gave numbers of 79 to 926 whales on the eastern Newfoundland @-@ Labrador shelf in August 1980 , and a few hundred in the northern and central Gulf of Saint Lawrence in August 1995 – 1996 . Summer estimates in the waters off western Greenland range between 500 and 2 @,@ 000 , and in 1974 , Jonsgard considered the fin whales off Western Norway and the Faroe Islands to " have been considerably depleted in postwar years , probably by overexploitation " . The population around Iceland appears to have fared much better , and in 1981 , appeared to have undergone only a minor decline since the early 1960s . Surveys during the summers of 1987 and 1989 estimated of 10 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 between eastern Greenland and Norway . This shows a substantial recovery when compared to a survey in 1976 showing an estimate of 6 @,@ 900 , which was considered to be a " slight " decline since 1948 . A Spanish NASS survey in 1989 of the France @-@ Portugal @-@ Spain sub @-@ area estimated a summer population range at 17 @,@ 355 . The aggregate population level in the Mediterranean basin is estimated to be between 40 @,@ 000 and 56 @,@ 000 individuals . Satellite tracking revealed that those found in Pelagos Sanctuary migrate southward to off Tunisia , Malta , Pantelleria , and Sicily , and also possibly winter off coastal southern Italy , Sardinia , within the Strait of Messina , Aeolian Islands , and off Libya , Kerkennah Islands , Lampedusa , and whales may recolonize out of the Ligurian Sea to other areas such as in Ionian and in Adriatic Sea . Biology of the species along southern and southeastern parts of the basin such as off Libya , Algeria , and northern Egypt , is unclear due to lacks of scientific approaches although whales have been confirmed off the furthermost of the basin such as along Levantine Sea including Israel , Lebanon , and Cyprus . Documented records within Turkish waters have been in very small numbers ; one sighting off Antalya in 1994 and 5 documented strandings as of 2016 .
Recently discovered , possible resident group exist in waters of Cape Verde Islands , uniquely being feasted by cookiecutter sharks .
= = = = North Pacific = = = =
The total historical North Pacific population was estimated at 42 @,@ 000 to 45 @,@ 000 before the start of whaling . Of this , the population in the eastern portion of the North Pacific was estimated to be 25 @,@ 000 to 27 @,@ 000 . By 1975 , the estimate had declined to between 8 @,@ 000 and 16 @,@ 000 . Surveys conducted in 1991 , 1993 , 1996 , and 2001 produced estimates between 1 @,@ 600 and 3 @,@ 200 off California and 280 and 380 off Oregon and Washington . The minimum estimate for the California @-@ Oregon @-@ Washington population , as defined in the U.S. Pacific Marine Mammal Stock Assessments : 2005 , is about 2 @,@ 500 . Surveys in coastal waters of British Columbia in summers 2004 and 2005 produced abundance estimates of approximately 500 animals . Surveys near the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea indicated a substantial increase in the local abundance of fin whales between 1975 – 1978 and 1987 – 1989 . In 1984 , the entire population was estimated to be less than 38 % of its historic carrying capacity . Fin whales might have started returning to the coastal waters off British Columbia ( a sighting occurred in Johnstone Strait in 2011 ) and Kodiak Island . Size of the local population migrating to Hawaiian Archipelago is unknown . Historically , several other wintering grounds were scattered in the North Pacific in the past , such as off the Northern Mariana Islands , Bonin Islands , and Ryukyu Islands ( for other possible habitats , see blue whale as their habitat preferences may correspond ) .
For Asian stocks , resident groups may exist in the Yellow Sea and East China Sea , and the Sea of Japan ( though these populations are critically endangered and the population off China , Korea , and Japan are either near extinction or in very small numbers ) . Very small increases in sightings have been confirmed off Shiretoko Peninsula , Abashiri , and Kushiro in Hokkaido , Tsushima , Sado Island , off Maiduru in the Sea of Japan since in late 2000s as whales in Sea of Okhotsk might have started recolonizing into former habitats ( for coastal Sakhalin , as well ) . Whales possibly used to migrated into Seto Inland Sea .
Studies of historical catches suggest several resident groups once existed in the North Pacific - the Baja California group and the Yellow Sea – East China Sea ( including Ryukyu Islands and western Kyusyu ) group . Additionally , respective groups in northern Sea of Japan and the group along Pacific coasts of Japan from Hokkaido to Sanriku might have been resident or less migratory , as well . Recent sightings of large whales exceeding 20 m in length , likely to be fin whales , as blue whales in coastal northeast Asia are considered to be extinct , indicate that remnants of the Sea of Japan or the Yellow – ohai Sea groups still pass through the Tsushima Strait where all the larger cetaceans are under threats of being struck by high @-@ speed vessels . Southward migrations to Taiwan or East and South China Seas may still occur , but the whole scale of current migrations along Eurasian continent including population size is unclear . The only modern record among Ryukyu Islands was of a rotten carcass beached on Ishigaki Island in 2005 .
There had been congregation areas among Sea of Japan to Yellow Sea such as in East Korea Bay , along eastern coasts of Korean Peninsula , and Ulleungdo , although recent occurrences into these locations are of unclear due to locational disorders .
Fin whales in Yellow Sea could have been a unique form from outer Pacific populations due to their smaller size of around 20m or more at near maximum , and breeding season in these regions was mainly in winter .
Modern sightings around Commander Islands have been annual but not in great numbers , and whales likely to migrate through the areas rather than summering . Possibilities of whales seen in Commander Islands might mix with other populations among Asian and eastern Pacific populations has been considered .
= = = = South Pacific = = = =
Very little information has been revealed about the ecology of current migration from Antarctic waters are unknown , but small increases in sighting rates are confirmed off New Zealand , such as off Kaikoura , and wintering grounds may exist in further north such as in Papua New Guinea , Fiji , and off East Timor . Confirmations in Rarotonga have been increased recently where interactions with humpback whales occur on occasions . Finbacks are also relatively abundant along the coast of Peru and Chile ( in Chile , most notably off Los Lagos region such as Gulf of Corcovado in Chiloé National Park , Punta de Choros , port of Mejillones , and Caleta Zorra . Year @-@ round confirmations indicate possible residents off pelagic north eastern to central Chile such as around coastal Caleta Chañaral and Pingüino de Humboldt National Reserve , east of Juan Fernández Islands , and northeast of Easter Island and possible wintering ground exist for eastern south Pacific population . They are known to make mixed groups with other rorquals such as blue whales and sei whales . Their recovery is confirmed vicinity to various subantarctic islands such as South Georgia and Falkland , but unknown in other historical habitats including Campbell Island , Kermadec to Chatham Islands , Tristan da Cunha , and Gough Island .
= = = = Antarctica = = = =
Relatively little is known about the historical and current population levels of the Southern fin whale . The IWC officially estimates that the Southern Hemisphere pre @-@ whaling population was 400 @,@ 000 whales and that the population in 1979 ( at the cessation of Antarctic large scale whaling ) was 85 @,@ 200 . Both the current and historical estimates should be considered as poor estimates because the methodology and data used in the study are known to be flawed . Other estimates cite current size to be between 15 @,@ 000 ( 1983 ) and 38 @,@ 000 ( 1997 ) . As of 2006 , there is no scientifically accepted estimate of current population or trends in abundance .
= = = Predation = = =
The only known predator of the fin whale is the killer whale , with at least 20 eyewitness and second @-@ hand accounts of attack or harassment . They usually flee and offer little resistance to attack . Only a few confirmed fatalities have occurred . In October 2005 , 16 killer whales attacked and killed a fin whale in the Canal de Ballenas , Gulf of California , after chasing it for about an hour . They fed on its sinking carcass for about 15 minutes before leaving the area . In June 2012 , a pod of killer whales was seen in La Paz Bay , in the Gulf of California , chasing a fin whale for over an hour before finally killing it and feeding on its carcass . The whale bore numerous tooth rakes over its back and dorsal fin ; several killer whales flanked it on either side , with one individual visible under water biting at its right lower jaw . In July 1908 , a whaler reportedly saw two killer whales attack and kill a fin whale off western Greenland . In January 1984 , seven were seen from the air circling , holding the flippers , and ramming a fin whale in the Gulf of California , but the observation ended at nightfall .
= = = Feeding = = =
The fin whale is a filter @-@ feeder , feeding on small schooling fish , squid and crustaceans including copepods and krill .
In the North Pacific , they feed on euphausiids in the genera Euphausia , Thysanoessa , and Nyctiphanes , large copepods in the genus Neocalanus , small schooling fish ( e.g. the genera Engraulis , Mallotus , Clupea , and Theragra ) , and squid . Based on stomach content analysis of over 19 @,@ 500 fin whales caught by the Japanese whaling fleet in the North Pacific from 1952 to 1971 , 64 @.@ 1 % contained only krill , 25 @.@ 5 % copepods , 5 @.@ 0 % fish , 3 @.@ 4 % krill and copepods and 1 @.@ 7 % squid . Nemoto ( 1959 ) analysed the stomach contents of about 7500 fin whales caught in the northern North Pacific and Bering Sea from 1952 to 1958 , found that they mainly preyed on euphausiids
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around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska and schooling fish in the northern Bering Sea and off Kamchatka . In the northern Bering Sea ( north of 58 ° N ) , their main prey species were capelin ( Mallotus villosus ) , Alaska pollock ( Theragra chalcogramma ) and Pacific herring ( Clupea pallasii ) ; they also consumed saffron cod ( Eleginus gracilis ) . Arctic krill ( Thysanoessa raschii ) was the only species of euphausiid found in the stomachs of fin whales in the northern Bering Sea . Off Kamchatka , they appeared to primarily feed on herring . They also took large quantities of the copepod Neocalanus cristatus around the Aleutian Islands and in Olyutorsky Bay off northeast Kamchatka , areas where the species was abundant . Five species of euphausiid ( Euphausia pacifica , Thysanoessa spinifera , T. inermis , T. raschii , and T. longipes ) were the predominant prey around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska . Prey varied by region in the Kuril Islands area , with euphausiids ( T. longipes , T. inermis , and T. raschii ) and copepods ( Neocalanus plumchrus and N. cristatus ) being the main prey in the northern area and Japanese flying squid ( Todarodes pacificus pacificus ) and small schooling fish ( e.g. Pacific saury , Cololabis saira ; and Japanese anchovy , Engraulis japonicus ) dominating the diet in the southern area .
Of the fin whale stomachs sampled off British Columbia between 1963 and 1967 , euphausiids dominated the diet for four of the five years ( 82 @.@ 3 to 100 % of the diet ) , while copepods only formed a major portion of the diet in 1965 ( 35 @.@ 7 % ) . Miscellaneous fish , squid , and octopus played only a very minor part of the diet in two of the five years ( 3 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 8 % ) . Fin whales caught off California between 1959 and 1970 fed on the pelagic euphausiid Euphausia pacifica ( 86 % of sampled individuals ) , the more neritic euphausiid Thysanoessa spinifera ( 9 % ) , and the northern anchovy ( Engraulis mordax ) ( 7 % ) ; only trace amounts ( < 0 @.@ 5 % each ) were found of Pacific saury ( C. saira ) and juvenile rockfish ( Sebastes jordani ) . In the Gulf of California , they have been observed feeding on swarms of the euphausiid Nyctiphanes simplex .
In the North Atlantic , they prey on euphausiids in the genera Meganyctiphanes , Thysanoessa and Nyctiphanes and small schooling fish ( e.g. the genera Clupea , Mallotus , and Ammodytes ) . Of the 1 @,@ 609 fin whale stomachs examined at the Hvalfjörður whaling station in southwestern Iceland from 1967 to 1989 ( caught between June and September ) , 96 % contained only krill , 2 @.@ 5 % krill and fish , 0 @.@ 8 % some fish remains , 0 @.@ 7 % capelin ( M. villosus ) , and 0 @.@ 1 % sandeel ( family Ammodytidae ) ; a small proportion of ( mainly juvenile ) blue whiting ( Micromesistius poutassou ) were also found . Of the krill sampled between 1979 and 1989 , the vast majority ( over 99 % ) was northern krill ( Meganyctiphanes norvegica ) ; only one stomach contained Thysanoessa longicaudata . Off West Greenland , 75 % of the fin whales caught between July and October had consumed krill ( family Euphausiidae ) , 17 % capelin ( Mallotus ) and 8 % sand lance ( Ammodytes sp . ) . Off eastern Newfoundland , they chiefly feed on capelin , but also take small quantities of euphausiids ( mostly T. raschii and T. inermis ) . In the Ligurian @-@ Corsican @-@ Provençal Basin in the Mediterranean Sea they make dives as deep as 470 metres ( 1 @,@ 540 ft ) to feed on the euphausiid Meganyctiphanes norvegica , while off the island of Lampedusa , between Tunisia and Sicily , they have been observed in mid @-@ winter feeding on surface swarms of the small euphausiid Nyctiphanes couchi .
In the Southern Hemisphere , they feed almost exclusively on euphausiids ( mainly the genera Euphausia and Thysanoessa ) , as well as taking small amounts of amphipods ( e.g. Themisto gaudichaudii ) and various species of fish . Of the more than 16 @,@ 000 fin whales caught by the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Hemisphere between 1961 and 1965 that contained food in their stomachs , 99 @.@ 4 % fed on euphausiids , 0 @.@ 5 % on fish , and 0 @.@ 1 % on amphipods . In the Southern Ocean they mainly consume E. superba .
The animal feeds by opening its jaws while swimming at some 11 kilometres per hour ( 6 @.@ 8 mph ) in one study , which causes it to engulf up to 70 cubic metres ( 18 @,@ 000 US gal ; 15 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water in one gulp . It then closes its jaws and pushes the water back out of its mouth through its baleen , which allows the water to leave while trapping the prey . An adult has between 262 and 473 baleen plates on each side of the mouth . Each plate is made of keratin that frays out into fine hairs on the ends inside the mouth near the tongue . Each plate can measure up to 76 centimetres ( 30 in ) in length and 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) in width .
The whale routinely dives to depths of more than 200 metres ( 660 ft ) where it executes an average of four " lunges " , to accumulate krill . Each gulp provides the whale with approximately 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) of food . One whale can consume up to 1 @,@ 800 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 000 lb ) of food a day , leading scientists to conclude that the whale spends about three hours a day feeding to meet its energy requirements , roughly the same as humans . If prey patches are not sufficiently dense , or are located too deep in the water , the whale has to spend a larger portion of its day searching for food . One hunting technique is to circle schools of fish at high speed , frightening the fish into a tight ball , then turning on its side before engulfing the massed prey .
= = = Pathology = = =
Fin whales suffer from a number of pathological conditions . The parasitic copepod Pennella balaenopterae — usually found on the flank of fin whales — burrows into their blubber to feed on their blood , while the pseudo @-@ stalked barnacle Xenobalanus globicipitis is generally found more often on the dorsal fin , pectoral fins , and flukes .
Other barnacles found on fin whales include the acorn barnacle Coronula reginae and the stalked barnacle Conchoderma auritum , which attaches to Coronula or the baleen . The harpacticid copepod Balaenophilus unisetus ( heavy infestations of which have been found in fin whales caught off northwestern Spain ) and the ciliate Haematophagus also infest the baleen , the former feeding on the baleen itself and the latter on red blood cells .
The remora Remora australis and occasionally the amphipod Cyamus balaenopterae can also be found on fin whales , both feeding on the skin . Infestations of the giant nematode Crassicauda boopis can cause inflammation of the renal arteries and potential kidney failure , while the smaller C. crassicauda infects the lower urinary tract .
An emaciated 13 m ( 43 ft ) female fin whale , which stranded along the Belgian coast in 1997 , was found to be infected with lesions of Morbillivirus . In January 2011 , a 16 @.@ 7 m ( 55 ft ) emaciated adult male fin whale stranded dead on the Tyrrhenian coastline of Italy was found to be infected with Morbillivirus and the protozoa Toxoplasma gondii , as well as carrying heavy loads of organochlorine pollutants .
= = Human interaction = =
= = = Whaling = = =
In the 19th century , the fin whale was occasionally hunted by open @-@ boat whalers , but it was relatively safe , because it could easily outrun ships of the time and often sank when killed , making the pursuit a waste of time for whalers . However , the later introduction of steam @-@ powered boats and harpoons that exploded on impact made it possible to kill and secure them along with blue and sei whales on an industrial scale . As other whale species became overhunted , the whaling industry turned to the still @-@ abundant fin whale as a substitute . It was primarily hunted for its blubber , oil , and baleen . Around 704 @,@ 000 fin whales were caught in Antarctic whaling operations alone between 1904 and 1975 .
The introduction of factory ships with stern slipways in 1925 substantially increased the number of whales taken per year . In 1937 – 38 alone , over 29 @,@ 000 fin whales were taken . From 1953 – 54 to 1961 – 62 , the catch averaged over 30 @,@ 000 per year . By 1962 – 63 , sei whale catches began to increase as fin whales became scarce . By 1975 – 76 , fewer than 1 @,@ 000 fin whales were being caught each year . In the North Pacific , over 74 @,@ 000 fin whales were caught between 1910 and 1975 . Between 1910 and 1989 , over 55 @,@ 000 were caught in the North Atlantic . Coastal groups in northeast Asian waters , along with many other baleen species , were likely driven into serious perils or functional extinctions by industrial catches by Japan covering wide ranges of China and Korean EEZ within very short period in 20th century . Migrations of the species into Japanese EEZ and in East China Sea were likely to be exterminated relatively earlier , as the last catch records on Amami Oshima was between the 1910s and 1930s . After the cease of exploiting Asian stocks , Japan kept mass commercial and illegal hunts until 1975 . Several thousand individuals were hunted from various stations mainly along coasts of Hokaido , Sanriku , and the Gotō Islands .
The IWC prohibited hunting in the Southern Hemisphere in 1976 . The Soviet Union engaged in the illegal killing of protected whale species in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere , over @-@ reporting fin whale catches to cover up illegal takes of other species . In the North Pacific , they reported taking over 10 @,@ 000 fin whales between 1961 – 79 , while the true catch was less than 9 @,@ 000 . In the Southern Hemisphere , they reported taking nearly 53 @,@ 000 between 1948 and 1973 , when the true total was a little over 41 @,@ 000 . The fin whale was given full protection from commercial whaling by the IWC in the North Pacific in 1976 , and in the North Atlantic in 1987 , with small exceptions for aboriginal catches and catches for research purposes . All populations worldwide remain listed as endangered species by the US National Marine Fisheries Service and the International Conservation Union Red List . The fin whale is on Appendix 1 of CITES .
The IWC has set a quota of 19 fin whales per year for Greenland . Meat and other products from whales killed in these hunts are widely marketed within Greenland , but export is illegal . Iceland and Norway are not bound by the IWC 's moratorium on commercial whaling because both countries filed objections to it .
In October 2006 , Iceland 's fisheries ministry authorized the hunting of 9 fin whales through August 2007 . In 2009 and 2010 , Iceland caught 125 and 148 fin whales , respectively . An Icelandic company , Hvalur , caught over a hundred fin whales in 2014 , and exported a record quantity of 2071 tonnes in a single shipment in 2014 . Since 2006 , Hvalur has caught more than 500 fin whales and exported more than 5000 tonnes of whale meat to Japan .
In the Southern Hemisphere , Japan permits annual takes of 10 fin whales under its Antarctic Special Permit whaling program for the 2005 – 2006 and 2006 – 2007 seasons . The proposal for 2007 – 2008 and the subsequent 12 seasons allows taking 50 per year . While 10 fin whales were caught in the 2005 – 06 season and three in the 2006 – 07 season , none was caught in the 2007 – 2008 season . A single fin whale was caught in both the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 seasons , two were taken in the 2010 – 11 season , and one was taken in the 2011 – 12 season .
Not only humpback , minkes , sperm , and many other smaller Odontoceti , but also including critically endangered species such as North Pacific right , western gray , and Northern fin whales have been targets of illegal captures using harpoons for dolphin hunts or intentionally drive whales into nets , and later reports to administrative organs or research institutions as cases of ' entanglements where fishermen tried their best to save whales ' . Protected species ' meats can also be found on markets even today which are mostly " byproducts " of entanglements , and one case scientifically revealed that at least some humpbacks with other species were illegally hunted in EEZ of antiwhaling nations such as off Mexico or South Africa , and tried to import into Japan by hiring vessels from other countries and even trying to go on overland routes within other nations .
= = = Ship interaction = = =
Collisions with ships are a major cause of mortality . In some areas , they cause a substantial portion of large whale strandings . Most serious injuries are caused by large , fast @-@ moving ships over or near continental shelves .
A 60 @-@ ft @-@ long fin whale was found stuck on the bow of a container ship in New York harbor on 12 April 2014 .
Ship collisions frequently occur in Tsushima Strait and result in damaging all of whales , passengers , and vessels , hence the panese Coast Guard ] ] has started visual recordings of large cetaceans in Tsushima Strait to inform operating vessels in the areas .
= = = Museums = = =
Several fin whale skeletons are exhibited in North America . The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County in Los Angeles , California has an exhibit entitled the " Fin Whale Passage " , which displays a 19 @.@ 2 m ( 63 ft ) fin whale skeleton collected by former museum osteologist Eugene Fischer and field collector Howard Hill in 1926 from the Trinidad whaling station ( 1920 – 1926 ) in Humboldt County , northern California . A steel armature supports the skeleton , which is accompanied by sculpted flukes . Science North , a science museum in Greater Sudbury , Ontario , Canada , has a 20 m ( 66 ft ) fin whale skeleton collected from Anticosti Island hanging from the fourth floor of its main building . The Grand Rapids Public Museum in Grand Rapids , Michigan contains a 76 @-@ ft @-@ long skeleton in the Galleria section hanging above from the ceiling .
Several fin whale skeletons are also exhibited in Europe . The Natural History Museum of Slovenia in Ljubljana , Slovenia , houses a 13 m ( 43 ft ) female fin whale skeleton – the specimen had been found floating in the Gulf of Piran in the spring of 2003 . The Hungarian Natural History Museum in Budapest , Hungary , displays a fin whale skeleton hanging near its main entrance which had been caught in the Atlantic Ocean in 1896 and purchased from Vienna in 1900 . The Cambridge University Museum of Zoology , in Cambridge , United Kingdom , exhibits a nearly 21 m ( 69 ft ) male fin whale skeleton , which had stranded at Pevensey , East Sussex , in November 1865 .
The Otago Museum , in Dunedin , New Zealand , displays a 16 @.@ 76 m ( 55 @.@ 0 ft ) fin whale skeleton , which had stranded on the beach at Nelson at the entrance of the Waimea River in 1882 .
= = = Whale watching = = =
Fin whales are regularly encountered on whale @-@ watching excursions worldwide . In the Southern California Bight , fin whales are encountered year @-@ round , with the best sightings between November and March . They can even be seen from land ( for example , from Point Vicente , Palos Verdes , where they can be seen lunge feeding at the surface only a half mile to a few miles offshore ) . They are regularly sighted in the summer and fall in the Gulf of St. Lawrence , the Gulf of Maine , the Bay of Fundy , the Bay of Biscay , Strait of Gibraltar , the Mediterranean . In southern Ireland , they are seen inshore from June to February , with peak sightings in November and December . Cruise ships en route to and from the Antarctic Peninsula sometimes encounter fin whales in the Drake Passage .
= = Conservation = =
The fin whale is listed on both Appendix I and Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ( CMS ) . It is listed on Appendix I as this species has been categorized as in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of its range and CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals , conserving or restoring the places where they live , mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them .
It is listed on Appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co @-@ operation organised by tailored agreements . In addition , the fin whale is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea , Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area ( ACCOBAMS ) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region ( Pacific Cetaceans MOU ) .
= Mary , Queen of Scots =
Mary , Queen of Scots ( 8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587 ) , also known as Mary Stuart or Mary I of Scotland , was Queen of Scotland from 14 December 1542 to 24 July 1567 and Queen consort of France from 10 July 1559 to 5 December 1560 .
Mary , the only surviving legitimate child of King James V of Scotland , was six days old when her father died and she acceded to the throne . She spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents , and in 1558 , she married the Dauphin of France , Francis . He ascended the French throne as King Francis II in 1559 , and Mary briefly became queen consort of France , until his death in December 1560 . Widowed , Mary returned to Scotland , arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561 . Four years later , she married her first cousin , Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley , but their union was unhappy . In February 1567 , his residence was destroyed by an explosion , and Darnley was found murdered in the garden .
James Hepburn , 4th Earl of Bothwell , was generally believed to have orchestrated Darnley 's death , but he was acquitted of the charge in April 1567 , and the following month he married Mary . Following an uprising against the couple , Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle . On 24 July 1567 , she was forced to abdicate in favour of James , her one @-@ year @-@ old son by Darnley . After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne , she fled southwards seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed , Queen Elizabeth I of England . Mary had previously claimed Elizabeth 's throne as her own and was considered the legitimate sovereign of England by many English Catholics , including participants in a rebellion known as the Rising of the North . Perceiving her as a threat , Elizabeth had her confined in various castles and manor houses in the interior of England . After eighteen and a half years in custody , Mary was found guilty of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth , and was subsequently beheaded .
= = Childhood and early reign = =
Mary was born on 7 or 8 December 1542 at Linlithgow , Scotland , to James V , King of Scots , and his French second wife , Mary of Guise . She was said to have been born prematurely and was the only legitimate child of James to survive him . She was the great @-@ niece of King Henry VIII of England , as her paternal grandmother , Margaret Tudor , was Henry VIII 's sister . On 14 December , six days after her birth , she became Queen of Scots when her father died , perhaps from the effects of a nervous collapse following the Battle of Solway Moss , or from drinking contaminated water while on campaign .
A popular legend , first recorded by John Knox , states that James , hearing on his deathbed that his wife had given birth to a daughter , ruefully exclaimed , " It cam wi ' a lass and it will gang wi ' a lass ! " His House of Stewart had gained the throne of Scotland by the marriage of Marjorie Bruce , daughter of Robert the Bruce , to Walter Stewart , 6th High Steward of Scotland . The crown had come to his family through a woman , and would be lost from his family through a woman . This legendary statement came true much later — not through Mary , but through her descendant Queen Anne .
Mary was baptised at the nearby Church of St Michael shortly after she was born . Rumours spread that she was weak and frail , but an English diplomat , Ralph Sadler , saw the infant at Linlithgow Palace in March 1543 , unwrapped by her nurse , and wrote , " it is as goodly a child as I have seen of her age , and as like to live . "
As Mary was an infant when she inherited the throne , Scotland was ruled by regents until she became an adult . From the outset , there were two claims to the Regency : one from Catholic Cardinal Beaton , and the other from the Protestant Earl of Arran , who was next in line to the throne . Beaton 's claim was based on a version of the late king 's will that his opponents dismissed as a forgery . Arran , with the support of his friends and relations , became the regent until 1554 when Mary 's mother managed to remove and succeed him .
= = = Treaty of Greenwich = = =
King Henry VIII of England took the opportunity of the regency to propose marriage between Mary and his own son , Prince Edward , hoping for a union of Scotland and England . On 1 July 1543 , when Mary was six months old , the Treaty of Greenwich was signed , which promised that at the age of ten Mary would marry Edward and move to England , where Henry could oversee her upbringing . The treaty provided that the two countries would remain legally separate and that if the couple should fail to have children the temporary union would dissolve . However , Cardinal Beaton rose to power again and began to push a pro @-@ Catholic pro @-@ French agenda , which angered Henry , who wanted to break the Scottish alliance with France . Beaton wanted to move Mary away from the coast to the safety of Stirling Castle . Regent Arran resisted the move , but backed down when Beaton 's armed supporters gathered at Linlithgow . The Earl of Lennox escorted Mary and her mother to Stirling on 27 July 1543 with 3 @,@ 500 armed men . Mary was crowned in the castle chapel on 9 September 1543 , with " such solemnity as they do use in this country , which is not very costly " according to the report of Ralph Sadler and Henry Ray .
Shortly before Mary 's coronation , Scottish merchants headed for France were arrested by Henry , and their goods impounded . The arrests caused anger in Scotland , and Arran joined Beaton and became a Catholic . The Treaty of Greenwich was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland in December . The rejection of the marriage treaty and the renewal of the Auld Alliance between France and Scotland prompted Henry 's " Rough Wooing " , a military campaign designed to impose the marriage of Mary to his son . English forces mounted a series of raids on Scottish and French territory . In May 1544 , the English Earl of Hertford ( later Duke of Somerset ) raided Edinburgh , and the Scots took Mary to Dunkeld for safety .
In May 1546 , Beaton was murdered by Protestant lairds , and on 10 September 1547 , nine months after the death of Henry VIII , the Scots suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh . Mary 's guardians , fearful for her safety , sent her to Inchmahome Priory for no more than three weeks , and turned to the French for help .
The French king , Henry II , proposed to unite France and Scotland by marrying the young queen to his three @-@ year @-@ old son , the Dauphin Francis . On the promise of French military help , and a French dukedom for himself , Arran agreed to the marriage . In February 1548 , Mary was moved , again for her safety , to Dumbarton Castle . The English left a trail of devastation behind once more and seized the strategic town of Haddington . In June , the much awaited French help arrived at Leith to besiege and ultimately take Haddington . On 7 July 1548 , a Scottish Parliament held at a nunnery near the town agreed to a French marriage treaty .
= = = Life in France = = =
With her marriage agreement in place , five @-@ year @-@ old Mary was sent to France to spend the next thirteen years at the French court . The French fleet sent by Henry II , commanded by Nicolas de Villegagnon , sailed with Mary from Dumbarton on 7 August 1548 and arrived a week or more later at Roscoff or Saint @-@ Pol @-@ de @-@ Léon in Brittany .
Mary was accompanied by her own court including two illegitimate half @-@ brothers , and the " four Marys " , four girls her own age , all named Mary , who were the daughters of some of the noblest families in Scotland : Beaton , Seton , Fleming , and Livingston . Janet , Lady Fleming , who was Mary Fleming 's mother and James V 's half @-@ sister , was appointed governess .
Vivacious , beautiful , and clever ( according to contemporary accounts ) , Mary had a promising childhood . At the French court , she was a favourite with everyone , except Henry II 's wife Catherine de ' Medici . Mary learned to play lute and virginals , was competent in prose , poetry , horsemanship , falconry and needlework , and was taught French , Italian , Latin , Spanish , and Greek , in addition to speaking her native Scots . Her future sister @-@ in @-@ law , Elisabeth of Valois , became a close friend of whom Mary " retained nostalgic memories in later life " . Her maternal grandmother , Antoinette de Bourbon , was another strong influence on her childhood , and acted as one of her principal advisors .
Portraits of Mary show that she had a small , oval @-@ shaped head , a long , graceful neck , bright auburn hair , hazel @-@ brown eyes , under heavy lowered eyelids and finely arched brows , smooth pale skin , a high forehead , and regular , firm features . She was considered a pretty child and later , as a woman , strikingly attractive . At some point in her infancy or childhood , she caught smallpox , but it did not mark her features .
Mary was eloquent and especially tall by sixteenth @-@ century standards ( she attained an adult height of 5 feet 11 inches or 1 @.@ 80 m ) , while Henry II 's son and heir , Francis , stuttered and was abnormally short . Henry commented that " from the very first day they met , my son and she got on as well together as if they had known each other for a long time " . On 4 April 1558 , Mary signed a secret agreement bequeathing Scotland and her claim to England to the French crown if she died without issue . Twenty days later , she married the Dauphin at Notre Dame de Paris , and Francis became king consort of Scotland .
= = = Claim to the English throne = = =
In November 1558 , Henry VIII 's elder daughter , Queen Mary I of England , was succeeded by her only surviving sibling , Elizabeth I. Under the Third Succession Act , passed in 1543 by the Parliament of England , Elizabeth was recognised as her sister 's heir , and Henry VIII 's last will and testament had excluded the Stuarts from succeeding to the English throne . Yet , in the eyes of many Catholics , Elizabeth was illegitimate , and Mary Stuart , as the senior descendant of Henry VIII 's elder sister , was the rightful queen of England . Henry II of France proclaimed his eldest son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law king and queen of England , and in France the royal arms of England were quartered with those of Francis and Mary . Mary 's claim to the English throne was a perennial sticking point between her and Elizabeth I.
When Henry II died on 10 July 1559 from injuries sustained in a joust , fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Francis became King of France , with Mary , aged sixteen , as his queen consort . Two of Mary 's uncles , the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine , were now dominant in French politics , enjoying an ascendancy called by some historians la tyrannie Guisienne .
In Scotland , the power of the Protestant Lords of the Congregation was rising at the expense of Mary 's mother , Mary of Guise , who maintained effective control only through the use of French troops . The Protestant Lords invited English troops into Scotland in an attempt to secure Protestantism , and a Huguenot rising in France , called the Tumult of Amboise , in March 1560 made it impossible for the French to send further support . Instead , the Guise brothers sent ambassadors to negotiate a settlement . On 11 June 1560 , their sister Mary of Guise died , and so the question of future Franco @-@ Scots relations was a pressing one . Under the terms of the Treaty of Edinburgh , signed by Mary 's representatives on 6 July 1560 , France and England undertook to withdraw troops from Scotland and France recognised Elizabeth 's right to rule England . However , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Mary , still in France and grieving for her mother , refused to ratify the treaty .
= = Return to Scotland = =
King Francis II died on 5 December 1560 , of a middle ear infection which led to an abscess in his brain . Mary was grief @-@ stricken . Her mother @-@ in @-@ law , Catherine de ' Medici , became regent for the late king 's ten @-@ year @-@ old brother Charles IX , who inherited the French throne .
Mary returned to Scotland nine months after her husband 's death , arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561 . Having lived in France since the age of five , Mary had little direct experience of the dangerous and complex political situation in Scotland . As a devout Catholic , she was regarded with suspicion by many of her subjects , as well as by Elizabeth , her father 's cousin . Scotland was torn between Catholic and Protestant factions , and Mary 's illegitimate half @-@ brother , the Earl of Moray , was a leader of the Protestants . The Protestant reformer John Knox preached against Mary , condemning her for hearing Mass , dancing , and dressing too elaborately . She summoned him to her presence to remonstrate with him unsuccessfully , and later charged him with treason , but he was acquitted and released .
To the disappointment of the Catholic party , however , Mary tolerated the newly established Protestant ascendancy , and kept her half @-@ brother Lord Moray as her chief advisor . Her privy council of 16 men , appointed on 6 September 1561 , retained those who already held the offices of state and was dominated by the Protestant leaders from the reformation crisis of 1559 – 1560 : the Earls of Argyll , Glencairn , and Moray . Only four of the councillors were Catholic : the Earls of Atholl , Erroll , Montrose , and Huntly , who was Lord Chancellor . Modern historian Jenny Wormald found this remarkable , suggesting that Mary 's failure to appoint a council sympathetic to Catholic and French interests was an indication of her focus on the goal of the English throne over the internal problems of Scotland . Even the one significant later addition to the council , in December 1563 , Lord Ruthven , was another Protestant whom Mary personally disliked . In this , she was acknowledging her lack of effective military power in the face of the Protestant lords , while also following a policy which strengthened her links with England . She joined with Lord Moray in the destruction of Scotland 's leading Catholic magnate , Lord Huntly , in 1562 after he led a rebellion in the Highlands against her .
Mary sent William Maitland of Lethington as an ambassador to the English court to put the case for Mary as the heir presumptive to the English throne . Elizabeth refused to name a potential heir , fearing that to do so would invite conspiracy to displace her with the nominated successor . However , Elizabeth assured Maitland that she knew no one with a better claim than Mary . In late 1561 and early 1562 , arrangements were made for the two queens to meet in England at York or Nottingham in August or September 1562 , but Elizabeth sent Sir Henry Sidney to cancel in July because of the civil war in France .
Mary turned her attention to finding a new husband from the royalty of Europe . However , when her uncle , the Cardinal of Lorraine , began negotiations with Archduke Charles of Austria without her consent , she angrily objected and the negotiations foundered . Her own attempt to negotiate a marriage to Don Carlos , the mentally unstable heir apparent of King Philip II of Spain , was rebuffed by Philip . Elizabeth attempted to neutralise Mary by suggesting that she marry English Protestant Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester ( Sir Henry Sidney 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and the English queen 's own favourite ) , whom Elizabeth trusted and thought she could control . She sent an ambassador , Thomas Randolph , to tell Mary that if she would marry an English nobleman , Elizabeth would " proceed to the inquisition of her right and title to be our next cousin and heir " . The proposal came to nothing , not least because the intended bridegroom was unwilling .
In contrast , a French poet at Mary 's court , Pierre de Boscosel de Chastelard , was apparently besotted by Mary . In early 1563 , he was discovered during a security search hidden underneath her bed , apparently planning to surprise her when she was alone and declare his love for her . Mary was horrified and banished him from Scotland . He ignored the edict , and two days later he forced his way into her chamber as she was about to disrobe . She reacted with fury and fear , and when Moray rushed into the room , in reaction to her cries for help , she shouted , " Thrust your dagger into the villain ! " , which Moray refused to do , as Chastelard was already under restraint . Chastelard was tried for treason , and beheaded . Maitland claimed that Chastelard 's ardour was feigned , and that he was part of a Huguenot plot to discredit Mary by tarnishing her reputation .
= = Marriage to Lord Darnley = =
Mary had briefly met her English @-@ born first cousin Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley , in February 1561 when she was in mourning for Francis . Darnley 's parents , the Earl and Countess of Lennox , who were Scottish aristocrats as well as English landowners , had sent him to France ostensibly to extend their condolences while hoping for a potential match between their son and Mary . Both Mary and Darnley were grandchildren of Margaret Tudor , sister of Henry VIII of England , and patrilineal descendants of the High Stewards of Scotland . Darnley shared a more recent Stewart lineage with the Hamilton family as a descendant of Mary Stewart , Countess of Arran , a daughter of James II of Scotland . They next met on Saturday 17 February 1565 at Wemyss Castle in Scotland , after which Mary fell in love with the " long lad " ( as Queen Elizabeth called him — he was over six feet tall ) . They married at Holyrood Palace on 29 July 1565 , even though both were Catholic and a papal dispensation for the marriage of first cousins had not been obtained .
English statesmen William Cecil and the Earl of Leicester had worked to obtain Darnley 's licence to travel to Scotland from his home in England . Although her advisors had thus brought the couple together , Elizabeth felt threatened by the marriage , because as descendants of her aunt , both Mary and Darnley were claimants to the English throne and their children , if any , would inherit an even stronger , combined claim . However , Mary 's insistence on the marriage seems to have stemmed from passion rather than calculation . The English ambassador Nicholas Throckmorton stated " the saying is that surely she [ Queen Mary ] is bewitched " , adding that the marriage could only be averted " by violence " . The union infuriated Elizabeth , who felt the marriage should not have gone ahead without her permission , as Darnley was both her cousin and an English subject .
Mary 's marriage to a leading Catholic precipitated Mary 's half @-@ brother , the Earl of Moray , to join with other Protestant lords , including Lords Argyll and Glencairn , in open rebellion . Mary set out from Edinburgh on 26 August 1565 to confront them , and on the 30th Moray entered Edinburgh , but left soon afterward having failed to take the castle . Mary returned to Edinburgh the following month to raise more troops . In what became known as the Chaseabout Raid , Mary and her forces and Moray and the rebellious lords roamed around Scotland without ever engaging in direct combat . Mary 's numbers were boosted by the release and restoration to favour of Lord Huntly 's son , and the return of James Hepburn , 4th Earl of Bothwell , from exile in France . Unable to muster sufficient support , in October Moray left Scotland for asylum in England . Mary broadened her privy council , bringing in both Catholics ( Bishop of Ross John Lesley and provost of Edinburgh Simon Preston of Craigmillar ) and Protestants ( the new Lord Huntly , Bishop of Galloway Alexander Gordon , John Maxwell of Terregles and Sir James Balfour ) .
Before long , Darnley grew arrogant . Not content with his position as king consort , he demanded the Crown Matrimonial , which would have made him a co @-@ sovereign of Scotland with the right to keep the Scottish throne for himself if he outlived his wife . Mary refused his request , and their marriage grew strained even though they conceived by October 1565 . He was jealous of her friendship with her Catholic private secretary , David Rizzio , who was rumoured to be the father of her child . By March 1566 , Darnley had entered into a secret conspiracy with Protestant lords , including the nobles who had rebelled against Mary in the Chaseabout Raid . On 9 March , a group of the conspirators , accompanied by Darnley , murdered Rizzio in front of the pregnant Mary at a dinner party in Holyrood Palace . Over the next two days , a disillusioned Darnley switched sides , and Mary received Moray at Holyrood . On the night of 11 – 12 March , Darnley and Mary escaped from the palace , and took temporary refuge in Dunbar Castle before returning to Edinburgh on 18 March . The former rebels Lords Moray , Argyll and Glencairn were restored to the council .
= = = Murder of Darnley = = =
Mary 's son by Darnley , James , was born on 19 June 1566 in Edinburgh Castle , but the murder of Rizzio led inevitably to the breakdown of her marriage . In October 1566 , while staying at Jedburgh in the Scottish Borders , Mary made a journey on horseback of at least four hours each way to visit the Earl of Bothwell at Hermitage Castle , where he lay ill from wounds sustained in a skirmish with border reivers . The ride was later used as evidence by Mary 's enemies that the two were lovers , though no suspicions were voiced at the time and Mary had been accompanied by her councillors and guards . Immediately after her return to Jedburgh , she suffered a serious illness that included frequent vomiting , loss of sight , loss of speech , convulsions and periods of unconsciousness . She was thought to be near death or dying . Her recovery from 25 October onwards was credited to the skill of her French physicians . The cause of her illness is unknown ; diagnoses include physical exhaustion and mental stress , haemorrhage of a gastric ulcer , and porphyria .
At Craigmillar Castle , near Edinburgh , at the end of November 1566 , Mary and leading nobles held a meeting to discuss the " problem of Darnley " . Divorce was discussed , but then a bond was probably sworn between the lords present to remove Darnley by other means : " It was thought expedient and most profitable for the common wealth ... that such a young fool and proud tyrant should not reign or bear rule over them ; ... that he should be put off by one way or another ; and whosoever should take the deed in hand or do it , they should defend . " Darnley feared for his safety and after the baptism of his son at Stirling shortly before Christmas , he went to Glasgow to stay on his father 's estates . At the start of the journey , he was afflicted by a fever , possibly smallpox , syphilis , or the result of poison , and he remained ill for some weeks .
In late January 1567 , Mary prompted her husband to return to Edinburgh . He recuperated from his illness in a house belonging to the brother of Sir James Balfour at the former abbey of Kirk o ' Field , just within the city wall . Mary visited him daily , so that it appeared a reconciliation was in progress . On the night of 9 – 10 February 1567 , Mary visited her husband in the early evening and then attended the wedding celebrations of a member of her household , Bastian Pagez . In the early hours of the morning , an explosion devastated Kirk o ' Field , and Darnley was found dead in the garden , apparently smothered . There were no visible marks of strangulation or violence on the body . Bothwell , Moray , Secretary Maitland , the Earl of Morton and Mary herself were among those who came under suspicion . Elizabeth wrote to Mary of the rumours , " I should ill fulfil the office of a faithful cousin or an affectionate friend if I did not ... tell you what all the world is thinking . Men say that , instead of seizing the murderers , you are looking through your fingers while they escape ; that you will not seek revenge on those who have done you so much pleasure , as though the deed would never have taken place had not the doers of it been assured of impunity . For myself , I beg you to believe that I would not harbour such a thought . "
By the end of February , Bothwell was generally believed to be guilty of Darnley 's assassination . Lennox , Darnley 's father , demanded that Bothwell be tried before the Estates of Parliament , to which Mary agreed , but Lennox 's request for a delay to gather evidence was denied . In the absence of Lennox , and with no evidence presented , Bothwell was acquitted after a seven @-@ hour trial on 12 April . A week later , Bothwell managed to convince more than two dozen lords and bishops to sign the Ainslie Tavern Bond , in which they agreed to support his aim to marry the queen .
= = Imprisonment in Scotland and abdication = =
Between 21 and 23 April 1567 , Mary visited her son at Stirling for the last time . On her way back to Edinburgh on 24 April , Mary was abducted , willingly or not , by Lord Bothwell and his men and taken to Dunbar Castle , where he may have raped her . On 6 May , Mary and Bothwell returned to Edinburgh and on 15 May , at either Holyrood Palace or Holyrood Abbey , they were married according to Protestant rites . Bothwell and his first wife , Jean Gordon , who was the sister of Lord Huntly , had divorced twelve days previously .
Originally Mary believed that many nobles supported her marriage , but things soon turned sour between the newly elevated Bothwell ( created Duke of Orkney and consort of the Queen ) and his former peers , and the marriage proved to be deeply unpopular . Catholics considered the marriage unlawful , since they did not recognise Bothwell 's divorce or the validity of the Protestant service . Both Protestants and Catholics were shocked that Mary should marry the man accused of murdering her husband . The marriage was tempestuous , and Mary became despondent . Twenty @-@ six Scottish peers , known as the confederate lords , turned against Mary and Bothwell , raising an army against them . Mary and Bothwell confronted the lords at Carberry Hill on 15 June , but there was no battle as Mary 's forces dwindled away through desertion during negotiations . Bothwell was given safe passage from the field , and the lords took Mary to Edinburgh , where crowds of spectators denounced her as an adulteress and murderer . The following night , she was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle , on an island in the middle of Loch Leven . Between 20 and 23 July , Mary miscarried twins . On 24 July , she was forced to abdicate in favour of her one @-@ year @-@ old son James . Moray was made regent , while Bothwell was driven into exile . He was imprisoned in Denmark , became insane and died in 1578 .
= = Escape and imprisonment in England = =
On 2 May 1568 , Mary escaped from Loch Leven Castle with the aid of George Douglas , brother of Sir William Douglas , the castle 's owner . Managing to raise an army of 6 @,@ 000 men , she met Moray 's smaller forces at the Battle of Langside on 13 May . Defeated , she fled south ; after spending the night at Dundrennan Abbey , she crossed the Solway Firth into England by fishing boat on 16 May . She landed at Workington in Cumberland in the north of England and stayed overnight at Workington Hall . On 18 May , local officials took her into protective custody at Carlisle Castle .
Mary apparently expected Elizabeth to help her regain her throne . Elizabeth was cautious , ordering an inquiry into the conduct of the confederate lords and the question of whether Mary was guilty of Darnley 's murder . In mid @-@ July 1568 , English authorities moved Mary to Bolton Castle , because it was further from the Scottish border but not too close to London . A commission of inquiry , or conference as it was known , was held in York and later Westminster between October 1568 and January 1569 . In Scotland , her supporters fought a civil war against Regent Moray and his successors .
= = = Casket letters = = =
As an anointed queen , Mary refused to acknowledge the power of any court to try her and refused to attend the inquiry at York personally ( she sent representatives ) , but Elizabeth forbade her attendance anyway . As evidence against Mary , Moray presented the so @-@ called casket letters — eight unsigned letters purportedly from Mary to Bothwell , two marriage contracts , and a love sonnet or sonnets said to have been found in a silver @-@ gilt casket just less than one foot ( 30 cm ) long , decorated with the monogram of King Francis II . Mary denied writing them , arguing that her handwriting was not difficult to imitate , and insisted they were forgeries . They are widely believed to be crucial as to whether Mary shares the guilt for Darnley 's murder . The chair of the commission of inquiry , the Duke of Norfolk , described them as horrible letters and diverse fond ballads , and sent copies to Elizabeth , saying that if they were genuine they might prove Mary 's guilt .
The authenticity of the casket letters has been the source of much controversy among historians . It is impossible now to prove either way . The originals , written in French , were probably destroyed in 1584 by Mary 's son . The surviving copies , in French or translated into English , do not form a complete set . There are incomplete printed transcriptions in English , Scots , French , and Latin from the 1570s . Other documents scrutinised included Bothwell 's divorce from Jean Gordon . Moray had sent a messenger in September to Dunbar to get a copy of the proceedings from the town 's registers .
Mary 's biographers , such as Antonia Fraser , Alison Weir , and John Guy , have come to the conclusion that either the documents were complete forgeries , or incriminating passages were inserted into genuine letters , or that the letters were written to Bothwell by some other person or by Mary to some other person . Guy points out that the letters are disjointed , and that the French language and grammar employed in the sonnets are too poor for a writer with Mary 's education . However , certain phrases of the letters ( including verses in the style of Ronsard ) and certain characteristics of style would be compatible with known writings of Mary .
The casket letters did not appear publicly until the Conference of 1568 , although the Scottish privy council had seen them by December 1567 . Mary had been forced to abdicate and held captive for the best part of a year in Scotland . The letters were never made public to support her imprisonment and forced abdication . Historian Jenny Wormald believes this reluctance on the part of the Scots to produce the letters , and their destruction in 1584 , whatever their content , constitute proof that they contained real evidence against Mary , whereas Weir thinks it demonstrates the lords required time to fabricate them . At least some of Mary 's contemporaries who saw the letters had no doubt that they were genuine . Among them was the Duke of Norfolk , who secretly conspired to marry Mary in the course of the commission , although he denied it when Elizabeth alluded to his marriage plans , saying " he meant never to marry with a person , where he could not be sure of his pillow " .
The majority of the commissioners accepted the casket letters as genuine after a study of their contents and comparison of the penmanship with examples of Mary 's handwriting . Elizabeth , as she had wished , concluded the inquiry with a verdict that nothing was proven , either against the confederate lords or Mary . For overriding political reasons , Elizabeth wished neither to convict nor acquit Mary of murder , and there was never any intention to proceed judicially ; the conference was intended as a political exercise . In the end , Moray returned to Scotland as its regent , and Mary remained in custody in England . Elizabeth had succeeded in maintaining a Protestant government in Scotland , without either condemning or releasing her fellow sovereign . In Fraser 's opinion , it was one of the strangest " trials " in legal history , ending with no finding of guilt against either party with one let home to Scotland while the other remained in custody .
= = = Plots = = =
On 26 January 1569 , Mary was moved to Tutbury Castle and placed in the custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury and his formidable wife Bess of Hardwick . Elizabeth considered Mary 's designs on the English throne to be a serious threat and so confined her to Shrewsbury 's properties , including Tutbury , Sheffield Castle , Wingfield Manor and Chatsworth House , all located in the interior of England halfway between Scotland and London , and distant from the sea . Mary was permitted her own domestic staff , which never numbered less than 16 , and needed 30 carts to transport her belongings from house to house . Her chambers were decorated with fine tapestries and carpets , as well as her cloth of state on which she had the French phrase En ma fin est mon commencement ( " In my end lies my beginning " ) embroidered . Her bedlinen was changed daily , and her own chefs prepared meals with a choice of 32 dishes served on silver plates . She was occasionally allowed outside under strict supervision , spent seven summers at the spa town of Buxton , and spent much of her time doing embroidery . Her health declined , perhaps through porphyria or lack of exercise , and by the 1580s , she had severe rheumatism in her limbs , rendering her lame .
In May 1569 , Elizabeth attempted to mediate the restoration of Mary in return for guarantees of the Protestant religion , but a convention held at Perth rejected the deal overwhelmingly . Norfolk continued to scheme for a marriage with Mary , and Elizabeth imprisoned him in the Tower of London between October 1569 and August 1570 . Early in the following year , Moray was assassinated . Moray 's death coincided with a rebellion in the North of England , led by Catholic earls , which persuaded Elizabeth that Mary was a threat . English troops intervened in the Scottish civil war , consolidating the power of the anti @-@ Marian forces . Elizabeth 's principal secretaries Sir Francis Walsingham and William Cecil , Lord Burghley , watched Mary carefully with the aid of spies placed in Mary 's household .
In 1571 , Cecil and Walsingham uncovered the Ridolfi Plot , which was a plan to replace Elizabeth with Mary with the help of Spanish troops and the Duke of Norfolk . Norfolk was executed , and the English Parliament introduced a bill barring Mary from the throne , to which Elizabeth refused to give royal assent . To discredit Mary , the casket letters were published in London . Plots centred on Mary continued . Pope Gregory XIII endorsed one plan in the latter half of the 1570s to marry her to the governor of the Low Countries and half @-@ brother of Philip II of Spain , Don John of Austria , who was supposed to organise the invasion of England from the Spanish Netherlands . After the Throckmorton Plot of 1583 , Walsingham introduced the Bond of Association and the Act for the Queen 's Safety , which sanctioned the killing of anyone who plotted against Elizabeth and aimed to prevent a putative successor from profiting from her murder . In February 1585 , William Parry was convicted of plotting to assassinate Elizabeth , without Mary 's knowledge , though her agent Thomas Morgan was implicated . In April , Mary was placed in the stricter custody of Sir Amias Paulet , and at Christmas she was moved to a moated manor house at Chartley .
= = Death = =
= = = Trial = = =
On 11 August 1586 , after being implicated in the Babington Plot , Mary was arrested while out riding and taken to Tixall . In a successful attempt to entrap her , Walsingham had deliberately arranged for Mary 's letters to be smuggled out of Chartley . Mary was misled into thinking her letters were secure , while in reality they were deciphered and read by Walsingham . From these letters it was clear that Mary had sanctioned the attempted assassination of Elizabeth . She was moved to Fotheringhay Castle in a four @-@ day journey ending on 25 September , and in October was put on trial for treason under the Act for the Queen 's Safety before a court of 36 noblemen , including Cecil , Shrewsbury , and Walsingham . Spirited in her defence , Mary denied the charges . She told her triers , " Look to your consciences and remember that the theatre of the whole world is wider than the kingdom of England " . She drew attention to the facts that she was denied the opportunity to review the evidence , that her papers had been removed from her , that she was denied access to legal counsel and that as a foreign anointed queen she had never been an English subject and thus could not be convicted of treason .
Mary was convicted on 25 October and sentenced to death with only one commissioner , Lord Zouche , expressing any form of dissent . Despite this , Elizabeth hesitated to order her execution , even in the face of pressure from the English Parliament to carry out the sentence . She was concerned that the killing of a queen set a discreditable precedent , and was fearful of the consequences , especially if , in retaliation , Mary 's son James formed an alliance with the Catholic powers and invaded England . Elizabeth asked Paulet , Mary 's final custodian , if he would contrive a clandestine way to " shorten the life " of Mary , which he refused to do on the grounds that he would not make " a shipwreck of my conscience , or leave so great a blot on my poor posterity " . On 1 February 1587 , Elizabeth signed the death warrant , and entrusted it to William Davison , a privy councillor . On the 3rd , ten members of the Privy Council of England , having been summoned by Cecil without Elizabeth 's knowledge , decided to carry out the sentence at once .
= = = Execution = = =
At Fotheringhay on the evening of 7 February 1587 , Mary was told that she was to be executed the next morning . She spent the last hours of her life in prayer , distributing her belongings to her household , and writing her will and a letter to the King of France . The scaffold that was erected in the Great Hall was two feet high and draped in black . It was reached by two or three steps and furnished with the block , a cushion for her to kneel on and three stools , for her and the earls of Shrewsbury and Kent , who were there to witness the execution . The executioners ( one named Bull and his assistant ) knelt before her and asked forgiveness . She replied , " I forgive you with all my heart , for now , I hope , you shall make an end of all my troubles . " Her servants , Jane Kennedy and Elizabeth Curle , and the executioners helped Mary to remove her outer garments , revealing a velvet petticoat and a pair of sleeves in crimson @-@ brown , the liturgical colour of martyrdom in the Catholic Church , with a black satin bodice and black trimmings . As she disrobed she smiled and said that she " never had such grooms before ... nor ever put off her clothes before such a company " . She was blindfolded by Kennedy with a white veil embroidered in gold , knelt down on the cushion in front of the block , on which she positioned her head , and stretched out her arms . Her last words were , " In manus tuas , Domine , commendo spiritum meum " ( " Into thy hands , O Lord , I commend my spirit " ) .
Mary was not beheaded with a single strike . The first blow missed her neck and struck the back of her head . The second blow severed the neck , except for a small bit of sinew , which the executioner cut through using the axe . Afterward , he held her head aloft and declared , " God save the Queen . " At that moment , the auburn tresses in his hand turned out to be a wig and the head fell to the ground , revealing that Mary had very short , grey hair . A small dog owned by the queen , a Skye terrier , is said to have been hiding among her skirts , unseen by the spectators . Following the beheading , it refused to be parted from its owner 's body and was covered in her blood , until it was forcibly taken away and washed . Items supposedly worn or carried by Mary at her execution are of doubtful provenance ; contemporary accounts state that all her clothing , the block , and everything touched by her blood was burnt in the fireplace of the Great Hall to obstruct relic @-@ hunters .
= = = Legacy = = =
When the news of the execution reached Elizabeth , she became indignant and asserted that Davison had disobeyed her instructions not to part with the warrant and that the Privy Council had acted without her authority . Elizabeth 's vacillation and deliberately vague instructions gave her plausible deniability , to attempt to avoid the direct stain of Mary 's blood . Davison was arrested , thrown into the Tower of London , and found guilty of misprision . He was released 19 months later after Cecil and Walsingham interceded on his behalf .
Mary 's request to be buried in France was refused by Elizabeth . Her body was embalmed and left unburied in a secure lead coffin until her burial , in a Protestant service , at Peterborough Cathedral in late July 1587 . Her entrails , removed as part of the embalming process , were buried secretly within Fotheringhay Castle . Her body was exhumed in 1612 when her son , King James VI and I , ordered that she be reinterred in Westminster Abbey , in a chapel opposite the tomb of Elizabeth I. In 1867 , her tomb was opened to try to ascertain the resting place of James I ; he was ultimately found with Henry VII , but many of her other descendants , including Elizabeth of Bohemia , Prince Rupert of the Rhine and the children of Anne , Queen of Great Britain , were interred in her vault .
Assessments of Mary in the sixteenth century divided between Protestant reformers such as George Buchanan and John Knox , who vilified her mercilessly , and Catholic apologists such as Adam Blackwood , who praised , defended and eulogised her . After the accession of James I in England , historian William Camden wrote an officially sanctioned biography that drew from original documents . It condemned Buchanan 's work as an invention , and " emphasized Mary 's evil fortunes rather than her evil character " . Differing interpretations persisted into the eighteenth century : William Robertson and David Hume argued that the casket letters were genuine and that Mary was guilty of adultery and murder , while William Tytler argued the reverse . In the latter half of the twentieth century , the work of Antonia Fraser was acclaimed as " more objective ... free from the excesses of adulation or attack " that had characterised older biographies , and her contemporaries Gordon Donaldson and Ian B. Cowan also produced more balanced works . Historian Jenny Wormald concluded that Mary was a tragic failure , who was unable to cope with the demands placed on her , but hers was a rare dissenting view in a post @-@ Fraser tradition that Mary was a pawn in the hands of scheming noblemen . There is no concrete proof of her complicity in Darnley 's murder or of a conspiracy with Bothwell . Such accusations rest on assumptions , and Buchanan 's biography is today discredited as " almost complete fantasy " . Mary 's courage at her execution helped establish her popular image as the heroic victim in a dramatic tragedy .
= = Family tree = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
= New Jersey Route 147 =
Route 147 is a 4 @.@ 20 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 76 km ) state highway located in Cape May County in New Jersey , United States . It is a short connector between U.S. Route 9 in Middle Township and North Wildwood at New York Avenue . West of U.S. Route 9 , the road continues to Route 47 as County Route 618 ( Indian Trail Road ) ; this route along with Route 147 provides an alternate route to The Wildwoods from Route 47 . East of New York Avenue , the route continues south through The Wildwoods as County Route 621 ( New Jersey Avenue ) . The route passes through mostly marshland along its journey , intersecting the Garden State Parkway at a partial interchange and County Route 619 ( Ocean Drive ) . The portion of the route east of the intersection with the latter forms a part of Ocean Drive . When the 500 @-@ series county routes were established in New Jersey in the 1950s , what is now Route 147 became a part of County Route 585 , a route running from Lower Township north to Absecon . Route 147 was designated along County Route 585 between U.S. Route 9 and the North Wildwood border . The route was extended to its current location in North Wildwood by the 1990s .
= = Route description = =
Route 147 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 9 in the Burleigh section of Middle Township , heading to the east along North Wildwood Boulevard , a two @-@ lane undivided road . The road continues to the west of U.S. Route 9 as County Route 618 ( Indian Trail Road ) to Route 47 . The road passes residences and businesses to the north and woodland to the south before coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with the Garden State Parkway that has access to and from the northbound direction of the parkway .
Past the Garden State Parkway , Route 147 becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway that briefly passes more homes and commercial establishments before entering a delta @-@ type series of marshy rivers and inlets . It turns to the southeast and comes to an intersection with County Route 665 before crossing the Grassy Sound on a bridge . After the bridge , the route comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of County Route 619 ( Ocean Drive ) .
At this point , the Ocean Drive moniker merges onto Route 147 and the road crosses over the Beach Creek into the beach resort of North Wildwood . Here , the route turns south and becomes Spruce Avenue , which heads between marshland to the west and resort homes to the east . At the intersection with West Angelsea Drive , Route 147 becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road that continues past more developments , turning to the southeast . Route 147 heads through a mix or residential and commercial establishments before ending at the intersection with New York Avenue . From here , County Route 621 continues south along the roadway as New Jersey Avenue . Route 147 , along with County Route 618 , provide an alternate route to The Wildwoods from Route 47 .
= = History = =
What is now Route 147 was an unimproved road back in 1927 . When the 500 @-@ series county routes were established in the 1950s , this road became a part of County Route 585 , a route that ran from Route 109 ( then a part of U.S. Route 9 ) in Lower Township north to U.S. Route 30 and Route 157 in Absecon . The route was also designated as part of County Route 18 , which continued west past U.S. Route 9 to Route 47 . In 1971 , Route 147 was designated to replace the portion of County Route 18 / County Route 585 between U.S. Route 9 in Burleigh and the North Wildwood border . As a result of a bridge replacement over the Grassy Sound , Route 147 was realigned off its former drawbridge , and the former alignment became Cape May County Route 665 . The southern terminus of County Route 585 was eventually truncated its current location at Route 52 in Somers Point . By the 1990s , Route 147 was extended to its current terminus at New York Avenue in North Wildwood .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Cape May County .
= Alex Lawless =
Alexander Graham " Alex " Lawless ( born 26 March 1985 ) is a Welsh professional footballer who plays as a midfielder and is unattached .
Lawless began his career with the Cardiff City youth system before playing for Welsh Football League team Ton Pentre . He joined FA Premier League team Fulham in 2003 and he was released in 2005 . He spent a season in the Football League with Torquay United , before joining Forest Green Rovers in the Conference National . He spent three seasons with them , winning the club 's players ' player of the season award in the 2007 – 08 season and playing in the Final of the Conference League Cup . He joined York City in 2009 and played for them in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium . He signed for current club Luton Town , initially on loan , in 2010 . After taking part in two unsuccessful play @-@ off campaigns with the club , Lawless was part of the Luton side that won the Conference Premier title and promotion to the Football League in the 2013 – 14 season .
He has represented Wales at various levels . He earned two caps for the under @-@ 19 team , before making one appearance for the under @-@ 21 team in 2006 . He has made two appearances for the semi @-@ pro team , making his debut against Italy in 2007 and scoring against England C in a 2 – 1 defeat in 2008 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Tonypandy , Rhondda Cynon Taf , Lawless was educated at Tonypandy Comprehensive School and began his career with the youth system of Cardiff City . After being released by Cardiff he stayed at school and studied for his A @-@ levels . He later played for Welsh Football League Division One team Ton Pentre , making 33 league appearances and scoring 10 goals in the 2002 – 03 season ; this included two goals in a 9 – 0 victory over Milford in December 2002 . Following a six @-@ week trial , he signed professional terms with FA Premier League team Fulham on 21 August 2003 .
= = = Torquay United = = =
He was released by Fulham in May 2005 , and he was offered a trial with League Two team Torquay United in July . Lawless signed for the club on a free transfer and manager Leroy Rosenior said " It 's important that the supporters are patient with these youngsters and give them time to learn and develop " . He made his debut on 6 August 2005 in a 0 – 0 draw at home to Notts County , although he only lasted 26 minutes before being replaced by substitute Tony Bedeau . His return from an injury after nearly a month out came in a 2 – 1 victory over Shrewsbury Town in September , which was Torquay 's first win of the season . He picked up another injury in November 2005 , and made his return after three months of not playing by starting in a 1 – 0 victory over Bristol Rovers on 17 December 2005 . He scored an own goal after 86 minutes against Wycombe Wanderers on 26 December 2005 , which resulted in Torquay drawing 2 – 2 . His final appearance of the 2005 – 06 season came in a 2 – 0 defeat to Lincoln City in February 2006 . He was released by Torquay after making 16 appearances .
= = = Forest Green Rovers = = =
Lawless joined Conference National team Forest Green Rovers on non @-@ contract terms on 4 August 2006 . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat to Dagenham & Redbridge on 12 August 2006 . Lawless scored his first goal for the club with a " spectacular " strike from long @-@ range to give Forest Green the lead against Morecambe on 24 February 2007 , but they went on to lose 3 – 1 . He finished the 2006 – 07 season with 40 appearances and one goal . He scored the only goal for Forest Green in their 1 – 0 victory over Crawley Town on 10 February 2008 , after scoring in the 73rd minute . After playing for the Wales semi @-@ pro team manager Jim Harvey was worried over Lawless ' fitness , although he was able to play in Forest Green 's following game against Cambridge United . Lawless made 41 appearances and scored three goals for Forest Green as they earned their highest ever finish of eighth in the Conference Premier in the 2007 – 08 season . He won the players ' player of the season award , being described as the team 's unsung hero .
On the opening day of the 2008 – 09 season he filled in at right @-@ back due to an injury to Kris Thomas and scored with a 20 yard strike to give Forest Green a 1 – 1 draw against Kettering Town . He garnered praise from Harvey , who said Lawless had a " super game " . A hip injury forced him to miss a game against Northwich Victoria in September 2008 , before making his return later that month in a 3 – 0 defeat to Stevenage Borough . During a game against former club Torquay on 23 September 2008 he suffered an ankle injury which forced him to miss three games . He made his return in a 2 – 2 draw with Cambridge United on 16 October 2008 . He then picked up a hamstring injury and in his return scored with a " fierce " long @-@ range strike to give Forest Green a 1 – 0 victory over Mansfield Town on 22 November 2008 . Following this game , his hamstring tightened and was ruled out for a month due to a back injury . After making good progress with the injury he returned in a 1 – 1 draw with Kidderminster Harriers on 26 December 2008 .
Lawless scored against Championship team Derby County with a " superb finish past Carroll from a tight angle " after evading the opponent defence in an FA Cup third round tie on 3 January 2009 , which put Forest Green 2 – 0 up , although they went on to lose 4 – 3 . He missed Forest Green 's FA Trophy tie against Redditch United because of a hamstring injury , as well as the semi @-@ final of the Conference League Cup against Woking . He made his return in a 2 – 1 defeat to Eastbourne Borough on 17 January 2009 and was substituted in the 64th minute as a precaution . After missing the match against Histon because of a one @-@ match suspension , Lawless contributed with an assist and a goal on his return against Northwich on 18 February 2009 , after heading from a corner kick for John Hardiker to score and himself finishing with a goal from close range . He was forced to miss games against Cambridge United and Kidderminster in April due to a stomach illness , and he made his return in the 2009 Conference League Cup Final , which was lost 3 – 0 to AFC Telford United on a penalty shoot @-@ out , after a 0 – 0 extra time draw . His season ended prematurely after he suffered a broken leg against York City following a heavy challenge on 21 April 2009 , with an X @-@ ray confirming his fibula endured a hairline fracture . He completed the season with 39 appearances and six goals and Harvey hoped his budget would allow for Lawless to stay at the club .
= = = York City = = =
Lawless signed for Conference Premier rivals York City on a one @-@ year contract on 17 June 2009 , despite there being two Football League clubs looking to sign him . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 defeat to Oxford United on 8 August 2009 . After suffering from a virus he was forced to miss a game against Cambridge United in September 2009 , and he recovered ahead of York 's game against Kidderminster . He scored his first goal for York with the only goal in a 1 – 0 victory over Gateshead on 24 November 2009 . He pulled his hamstring in a 1 – 0 defeat to Eastbourne on 27 February 2010 and made his return as a 64th @-@ minute substitute in a 4 – 0 victory at Grays Athletic on 30 March . He played in both legs of York 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final victory over Luton Town , which finished 2 – 0 on aggregate . He started in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium on 16 May , which York lost 3 – 1 to Oxford . He finished the season with 45 appearances and one goal for York .
Lawless made his first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season in the opening game , a 2 – 1 defeat to Kidderminster on 14 August 2010 . He scored his first goal of the season with York 's second in a 3 – 1 victory at Tamworth on 25 September 2010 .
= = = Luton Town = = =
On 8 November 2010 , Lawless joined York 's Conference Premier rivals Luton Town , initially on loan , with a permanent transfer due to take place in January 2011 . York were reluctant to let him leave , but relented when Luton increased their original offer on three occasions . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat at Wrexham on 11 November 2010 and , in the following game , Lawless scored his first Luton goal with the winner in a 1 – 0 victory at Altrincham . Lawless signed for Luton permanently for an undisclosed fee on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract on 5 January 2011 . His first appearance after signing was as a 74th @-@ minute substitute in a 0 – 0 draw at Bath City on 8 January 2011 . After the departure of fellow midfielder Andy Drury to Ipswich Town in late January 2011 , Lawless played a much more prominent role in a Luton side that eventually finished the 2010 – 11 season third in the table . He scored the opening goal , a 35 yard strike described as " superb " , in Luton 's 3 – 0 play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg victory away at Wrexham . He then played in the 2 – 1 home victory in the second leg , and in the 2011 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final against AFC Wimbledon at Wembley he missed the opening penalty kick in the penalty shoot @-@ out , which Luton lost 4 – 3 .
During the half @-@ time break of Luton 's 3 – 0 defeat away at his former club York on 24 September 2011 , Lawless broke his hand after punching a wall out of frustration , resulting in him being ruled out for around a month and being handed a fine by his club . He played in Luton 's 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final 2 – 1 defeat at Wembley , coincidentally against York , on 20 May 2012 . Lawless signed a one @-@ year contract extension in July 2012 , despite poor performances during the 2011 – 12 season making him a target for fans .
Manager Paul Buckle praised Lawless for his " quality ... hard work and ... discipline " following his 100th appearance for the club in December 2012 . He scored the winning goal with a volley into the bottom corner in Luton 's 1 – 0 victory over Championship side Wolverhampton Wanderers in the FA Cup third round on 5 January 2013 , and was voted as the competition 's Player of the Round . Lawless finished the season with 48 appearances and five goals . His performances saw him voted by both Luton supporters and his teammates as the club 's Player of the Season for the 2012 – 13 season ; a marked turnaround from the previous year . He signed a new two @-@ year contract with Luton in May 2013 after having talks with two unnamed League One clubs .
Lawless was sidelined with a groin injury at the beginning of the 2013 – 14 season , and did not make his first start until 17 September in a 3 – 0 victory against Dartford , in which he scored one goal and set up another . This victory provided the springboard for Luton to embark on a 27 @-@ game unbeaten run in the league , in which Lawless was heavily involved , scoring five further times and contributing ten assists . After playing in 32 games and scoring six goals , including many games in an unfamiliar position as a left midfielder , he missed the final part of the season due to injury . On 15 April 2014 , with three games to spare , Luton won the Conference Premier title and were promoted to League Two ; this was Lawless ' first title and promotion as a player .
Lawless struggled with multiple injuries during the 2014 – 15 season , making 15 league appearances ( only six of which were starts ) and scoring three goals . Despite this limited playing time , Lawless triggered a contract extension during the season to keep him at the club until the end of the 2015 – 16 season .
On 10 May 2016 , it was announced that Lawless would not have his contract renewed after making 203 appearances and scoring 22 goals for Luton since joining the club in 2010 . He left the club upon the expiry of his contract .
= = International career = =
Lawless earned two caps for the Wales under @-@ 19 team and he made his only under @-@ 21 appearance in a 1 – 0 defeat against Northern Ireland on 28 February 2006 , eventually being substituted for Marc Williams on 84 minutes . He made his debut for the Wales semi @-@ pro team in their 4 – 2 defeat to Italy on 14 November 2007 . He was part of the semi @-@ pro team to play against England C in February 2008 , and he scored in their 2 – 1 defeat with a shot from 20 yards . He was named in the team to play Finland in November , although he was forced to miss the game because of an injury .
= = Style of play = =
Lawless is able to play as a right or left midfielder , a central midfielder and a right @-@ back . While being equally comfortable playing at any of these positions , he prefers to play in a midfield role . He has also played in the hole and has given a composed performance as a second striker . His play as a right midfielder is " skilful " and he has been described as being " comfortable on the ball , a good passer , mobile and with an eye for goal " . Stevenage Borough manager Graham Westley described him as a player " who impresses me with his consistency " . After signing for York , manager Martin Foyle said " He is a great all rounder , a technically good footballer and has a very professional attitude towards the game . " His partnership with Neil Barrett in the central midfield for York drew praise from teammate Richard Brodie , who said " The midfield two worked really well together and picked up the second balls . Alex Lawless was flawless and he should be playing in the Football League " .
= = Personal life = =
After joining York City in 2009 , Lawless moved into a house with teammates Neil Barrett , James Meredith , Richard Pacquette and Danny Parslow . He has an interest in art , which he studied as a GCSE , saying " I wouldn ’ t mind trying to make a living from it one day but my main priority is football " . He is a Manchester United supporter and attention to his interest in art was first drawn after producing a painting of manager Alex Ferguson .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 7 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Luton Town
Conference Premier : 2013 – 14
= = = Individual = = =
Luton Town Player of the Season : 2012 – 13
= Leotia lubrica =
Leotia lubrica , commonly referred to as a jelly baby , is a species of fungus in the family Leotiaceae . The species produces small fruit bodies up to 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in height , featuring a " head " and a stalk . Ochre tinted with olive @-@ green in colour , the heads are irregularly shaped , while the stalk , of a similar colour , attaches them to the ground . The appearance can be somewhat variable and is similar to a number of other species , including Cudonia confusa , C. circinans , L. atrovirens and L. viscosa . L. lubrica was first validly described by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli , but it was later transferred to Leotia by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon . Its relationship with other members of the genus , of which it is the type species , is complicated .
Growing in woodland among moss , plant detritus or other habitats , the L. lubrica fruit bodies are typically found in large numbers , though they can grow in tight clumps or even individually . The species feeds as a saprotroph . The youngest fruit bodies are small and conical , but the fertile head quickly grows from the stalk . It is often described as inedible , despite its common name , but has also been reported as edible and even good . L. lubrica has been recorded in Europe , North America , Asia and Australasia .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The first species was first validly described scientifically by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in his 1772 work Flora Carniolica exhibens plantas Carnioliae indigenas et distributas in classes , genera , species , varietates , ordine Linnaeano . Scopoli either named the species Elvella lubrica or Helvella lubrica , with the specific name lubrica meaning slimy . Christiaan Hendrik Persoon transferred the species to Leotia , where it remains , in 1794 . Other synonyms include Leotia gelatinosa , used by John Hill in 1751 , Helvella gelatinosa , used in Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard 's Histoire des champignons de la France , and Peziza cornucopiae , a name given by Georg Franz Hoffmann in 1790 . The fruit bodies of the mushrooms are typically referred to as jelly babies , but other common names include the lizard tuft , the ochre jelly club , the slippery cap , the green slime fungus , and the gumdrop fungus . The term " yellow jelly babies " is sometimes used to differentiate the species from green jelly babies , Leotia viscosa .
Leotia lubrica is the type species of the genus Leotia . It has been hypothesised that the species has a close relationship with L. atrovirens ; mycologist Geoffrey Kibby suggested that greenish color of L. atrovirens may be due to infection by an imperfect fungus on L. lubrica , while David Arora proposed that the two species may intergrade . In 2004 , results of phylogenetic analysis suggested that L. lubrica , L. atrovirens and L. viscosa , while morphologically well @-@ defined , were not monophyletic . L. lubrica specimens could be split into at least two different groups , one of which also contained specimens of L. viscosa . These groups could be differentiated morphologically by the colour of the stalk when dried . The most basal was shown to be L. atrovirens .
= = Description = =
Leotia lubrica produces fruit bodies which range from 1 to 6 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) in height . Each body has a single fertile " head " measuring up to 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) across , which is an olive @-@ greenish ochre and gelatinous . To the touch , the surface of the head can be smooth , clammy or slimey . While in shape it is convex , the head is made up of irregular lobes and undulations , and the edge is rolled inward . The underside is paler in colour than the upper surface , and smooth . The head is attached to a central stalk , which ranges from 3 to 6 mm wide , though thinner toward the substrate . The stalk is typically cylindrical , but can be flattened , and occasionally has furrows . The colour is similar to that of the head , though more yellow , and the surface is covered in very small granules of a greenish colour . The flesh is gelatinous in the head , while the stalk is mostly hollow , but it can be filled with gel .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Leotia lubrica spores are borne in asci measuring around 150 by 10 – 12 micrometres ( μm ) . They are club @-@ shaped , and each ascus typically bears eight spores . The asci are inoperculate , meaning that they lack a " lid " and must split to release their spores . The elongated ascospores themselves measure 20 to 25 by 5 to 6 μm , and are subfusiform , that is , they taper slightly at each end . The surface is smooth , and they can be curved , and the spores typically contain four small drops of oil . The mature spores are septate ; that is , they are divided by several septa throughout their length , with 5 to 7 partitions typical , and hyaline . The threadlike , colourless paraphyses measure 105 to 124 by 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 8 μm .
= = = Similar species = = =
Leotia lubrica fruit bodies are similar to those of Cudonia confusa , commonly known as the cinnamon jellybaby . The species can be differentiated by the fact that L. lubrica fruit bodies are more sturdy , and those of C. confusa are much paler in colour . Another Cudonia species , C. circinans ( which is highly similar to C. lutea ) , is similar to L. lubrica , though it can be differentiated by its colour ( which is more brown ) , spores ( which are smaller and thinner ) and texture ( which is less slimy and gelatinous than L. lubrica ) . L. lubrica fruit bodies can also be mistaken for those of the much rarer L. atrovirens , which can be differentiated by its darker colouration . L. viscosa can again be differentiated by colouration ; the species has a green head . However , as L. lubrica fruit bodies can sometimes have a greenish hue , differentiation between the two species is not always easy .
= = Edibility = =
Its fruit bodies are of little culinary interest , and , contrary to what is suggested by the common name , are typically described as inedible by field guides . However , it has also been reported that , while it is little known , the species is in fact edible , with Charles McIlvaine even considering it good . By comparison , American mycologists Alan Bessette and Walter J. Sundberg describe the species as edible , but describe the taste as " bland " . In the field , the flesh has no discernible smell or taste .
= = Habitat , distribution and ecology = =
Leotia lubrica favours damp deciduous woodland , but can also be found under hardwoods . Particular favoured habitats include path sides and underneath bracken , while favoured substrates include soil , moss and plant waste , where it feeds as a saprotroph . Fruit bodies are typically encountered from late summer to late autumn in Europe , and from late spring to autumn in North America , where it is the most common Leotia species . It has also been recorded in eastern Asia , in China and Tibet , as well as in New Zealand and Australia .
The fruit bodies are typically found growing in large numbers , sometimes in clumps , though solitary specimens are occasionally encountered . Several bodies can be connected at their bases , or younger bodies can grow out of the bases of older ones . The youngest fruit bodies are conical in shape . When the body reaches around 2 mm in length , the tip of the cone begins to expand , forming the head . This is the stage at which the hymenium becomes differentiated from the rest of the body , and the bodies quickly reach their mature form , maturing only through growth after that point . Fruit bodies can be infected by the mould Hypomyces leotiarum .
= U.S. Route 219 in Maryland =
U.S. Route 219 ( US 219 ) is a part of the U.S. Highway System that runs from Rich Creek , Virginia to West Seneca , New York . In the U.S. state of Maryland , the U.S. Highway runs 48 @.@ 40 miles ( 77 @.@ 89 km ) from the West Virginia state line near Red House to the Pennsylvania state line near Grantsville . Known as Garrett Highway for much of its length in Maryland , US 219 is the primary north – south route in Garrett County , connecting Interstate 68 ( I @-@ 68 ) and Oakland . The highway also provides the main access to the resort area of Deep Creek Lake , which includes Maryland 's only ski area , Wisp Ski Resort .
The part of US 219 between Oakland and Keyser 's Ridge was designated as part of the original state road system in 1909 by the Maryland State Roads Commission and constructed in the early 1910s . Chestnut Ridge Road near Grantsville was upgraded to a modern road in the late 1910s , while the Seneca Trail south of Oakland was mostly built in the 1920s . The US 219 designation was assigned to Chestnut Ridge Road and Maryland Route 37 ( MD 37 ) was assigned to the highway south of Keyser 's Ridge when national and state route numbers were assigned in 1926 and 1927 . The intersection with US 40 near Grantsville was the southern terminus of US 219 until the U.S. Highway was extended through West Virginia in 1935 . US 219 was almost completely rebuilt in the 1940s and 1950s , and moved onto I @-@ 68 in the late 1970s . Future plans call for a bypass of Oakland and construction of freeway north from I @-@ 68 to connect with other freeway portions of US 219 in Pennsylvania .
= = Route description = =
US 219 enters Maryland in the southwest corner of Garrett County just to the west of Backbone Mountain . The U.S. Highway heads northeast from the West Virginia state line as two @-@ lane Garrett Highway . After crossing the Youghiogheny River , US 219 meets US 50 ( George Washington Highway ) at an intersection with a two @-@ way stop in the hamlet of Red House . The highway turns northwest to intersect Ben Dewitt Road , a shortcut between US 219 and US 50 at the state line to the west , then resumes its northeasterly course heading toward Gortner , where the highway crosses Cherry Creek and Ambrose Run . US 219 veers north and crosses the Little Youghiogheny River and CSX 's Mountain Subdivision before entering the town of Oakland and meeting the west end of MD 135 ( Maryland Highway ) . The U.S. Highway turns west onto Oak Street while Ninth Street ( unsigned MD 219 ) continues north . US 219 heads west through the Oakland Historic District . At the intersection with MD 39 ( Oak Street ) next to the Garrett County Courthouse , the highway turns north onto Third Street . US 219 parallels Cherry Glade Run north out of town .
US 219 passes along the eastern edge of Mount Nebo Wildlife Management Area and crosses Hoop Pole Hill . North of Sand Flat Road , the highway passes Mayhew Inn Road , which leads west to Swallow Falls State Park . US 219 descends from Hoop Pole Ridge and reaches the southwestern shore of Deep Creek Lake in the hamlet of Thayerville . After passing Glendale Road , which heads east toward Deep Creek Lake State Park and other destinations on the east side of the lake , the highway turns northwest and parallels the west shore of the lake east of Roman Nose Hill . After passing Lakeshore Drive , US 219 crosses the lake on the Deep Creek Bridge . The highway becomes a partially controlled access highway on the hillside above the lake , while Deep Creek Drive follows the shore . US 219 continues north through the unincorporated village of McHenry . In McHenry , the highway intersects Mosser Road , which provides access to Garrett College and Garrett County Airport , and Sang Run Road , which leads to Wisp Ski Resort . After meeting the northern end of Deep Creek Drive , the highway leaves Deep Creek Lake and curves northeast at its junction with MD 42 ( Friendsville Road ) . US 219 continues northeast along Rocklick Creek and the South Branch of Bear Creek . After leaving the South Branch , the highway follows Main Street through the town of Accident . Within the town , the highway intersects Accident Friendsville Road and Accident Bittinger Road , which heads east toward the James Drane House .
After leaving Accident , US 219 intersects an access road to Bear Creek Road and Fish Hatchery Road near the Kaese Mill . After the highway crosses the latter road and Bear Creek , it begins the ascent to Keyser 's Ridge , with the northbound direction gaining a climbing lane . After passing Accident Garage Road , Northern Garrett High School , and a scenic overlook , the highway curves to the east and then back north as it approaches the summit . The climbing lane ends northbound and another climbing lane begins in the southbound direction . Shortly after the descent from the summit , US 219 meets I @-@ 68 ( National Freeway ) and US 40 at Exit 14 of I @-@ 68 at Keyser 's Ridge . US 219 exits onto the eastbound direction of the freeway at a cloverleaf interchange , while US 40 heads north from the interchange to meet the west end of US 40 Alternate then turn northwest into Pennsylvania . After meeting MD 495 at Exit 19 in Grantsville , US 219 exits north onto Chestnut Ridge Road at Exit 22 . The highway intersects US 40 Alternate ( National Pike ) in the hamlet of High Point before crossing the Pennsylvania state line , where US 219 continues north toward Meyersdale .
US 219 is part of the National Highway System for its entire length in Maryland . The highway is also part of Corridor N of the Appalachian Development Highway System from I @-@ 68 to the Pennsylvania state line .
= = History = =
In 1909 , the Maryland State Roads Commission targeted the pre @-@ existing road from the Northwestern Turnpike at Red House to the National Turnpike at Keyser 's Ridge for upgrade to an all @-@ weather road as part of the original state road system . The existing road followed roughly the same alignment as the present US 219 , with four major deviations : south of Oakland , where the road followed Monte Vista Road , Underwood Road , and Third Street north to Oak Street ; at Deep Creek , where the road crossed Deep Creek to the east of the present Deep Creek Bridge ; Hoyes , where the road followed Friendsville Road north to Hoyes , then Hoyes Road east to the present alignment ; and north of Accident , where the road turned northeast and used a very curvy alignment to cross Bear Creek and climb the lower slopes of Keyser 's Ridge to meet the present road near Northern Garrett High School . The new highway was completed from Oakland to Thayerville in 1910 . The segment from Thayerville to McHenry , which followed the pre @-@ existing alignment , was under construction by 1911 and completed in 1913 . The highway from McHenry to Accident , which bypassed Hoyes , was completed in 1914 . Finally , the section from Accident to Keyser 's Ridge , which bypassed the crooked road around Bear Creek , was completed in 1915 .
Once the highway from Oakland to Keyser 's Ridge was completed , attention turned to the south of Oakland . The new road , constructed from Oakland to Gortner in 1915 and 1916 , met the road to Mountain Lake Park , now Oakland Drive , next to Southern Garrett High School , then followed Oak Street west into the county seat . The road from Gortner to Red House was constructed between 1924 and 1927 . The highway was paved south to the West Virginia state line in 1928 . The Chestnut Ridge Road was completed in 1923 . The Deep Creek Dam was constructed starting in 1923 and Deep Creek Lake began to fill in January 1925 . The road was relocated around Deep Creek Lake and the first Deep Creek Bridge was built in 1924 . Chestnut Ridge Road was designated the southern end of US 219 in the U.S. Highway System designated in 1926 . The road south from Keyser 's Ridge was marked as MD 37 in 1927 . In 1935 , US 219 was extended west along US 40 and then south toward West Virginia , replacing the MD 37 designation for its entire length .
After World War II , US 219 was reconstructed into its modern form for most of its length . The segment between Oakland and Thayerville was reconstructed between 1948 and 1950 . The stretch from Keyser 's Ridge to Accident was relocated around 1950 . The section of US 219 between Gortner and Red House was widened between 1950 and 1952 . The stretch between Thayerville and the Deep Creek Bridge was rebuilt from 1952 to 1955 . The McHenry to Accident part of US 219 was reconstructed starting in 1952 . Chestnut Ridge Road was relocated around 1956 . Finally , US 219 between Gortner and Oakland was rebuilt between 1957 and 1959 , including a relocation at the northern end that included its present intersection with MD 135 and a bridge over the B & O Railroad . In the late 1960s , US 219 was relocated from the Deep Creek Bridge through McHenry , leaving behind Deep Creek Drive as an old alignment . After the construction of I @-@ 68 in the mid @-@ 1970s , US 219 was moved to the new freeway between Keyser 's Ridge and Chestnut Ridge Road in 1978 . The present Deep Creek Bridge was completed in 1987 , replacing the 1924 structure .
= = Future = =
There are two projects planned for US 219 in Maryland . The Oakland Bypass will run from the present intersection of US 219 and MD 135 on the east edge of the town to US 219 north of the Walmart Supercenter . There are also plans by Maryland and Pennsylvania to upgrade US 219 to a freeway northward from I @-@ 68 east of Grantsville .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Garrett County .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
US 219 has eight unsigned auxiliary routes , several of which connect with segments of MD 826 . US 219A and US 219B are found around Oakland , US 219C through 219G are located between Accident and Keyser 's Ridge , and US 219J is near Grantsville .
US 219A is the designation for Weber Road , a 0 @.@ 10 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) connector between MD 826A ( Weber Road / SHA Drive ) and the intersection of US 219 and MD 826B ( Lumber City Road ) in Oakland .
US 219B is the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 01 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 016 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826C between Gortner and Oakland .
US 219C is the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 01 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 016 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826G between Accident and Bear Creek .
US 219D is the designation for a 0 @.@ 01 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 016 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826J ( Stockyard Road ) near its southern end in Keyser 's Ridge .
US 219E is the designation for a 0 @.@ 01 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 016 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826J ( Stockyard Road ) near its northern end in Keyser 's Ridge .
US 219F is the designation for a 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826K south of Keyser 's Ridge .
US 219G is the designation for Ryland Court , a 0 @.@ 04 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 064 km ) connector between US 219 and MD 826L south of Keyser 's Ridge .
US 219J is the designation for a 0 @.@ 14 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 23 km ) segment of Chestnut Ridge Road immediately south of Exit 22 of I @-@ 68 .
= Annelid =
The annelids ( Annelida , from Latin anellus , " little ring " ) , also known as the ringed worms or segmented worms , are a large phylum , with over 17 @,@ 000 extant species including ragworms , earthworms , and leeches . The species exist in and have adapted to various ecologies - some in marine environments as distinct as tidal zones and hydrothermal vents , others in fresh water , and yet others in moist terrestrial environments .
The annelids are bilaterally symmetrical , triploblastic , coelomate , invertebrate organisms . They also have parapodia for locomotion . Most textbooks still use the traditional division into polychaetes ( almost all marine ) , oligochaetes ( which include earthworms ) and leech @-@ like species . Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme , viewing leeches as a sub @-@ group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub @-@ group of polychaetes . In addition , the Pogonophora , Echiura and Sipuncula , previously regarded as separate phyla , are now regarded as sub @-@ groups of polychaetes . Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa , a " super @-@ phylum " of protostomes that also includes molluscs , brachiopods , flatworms and nemerteans .
The basic annelid form consists of multiple segments . Each segment has the same sets of organs and , in most polychaetes , has a pair of parapodia that many species use for locomotion . Septa separate the segments of many species , but are poorly defined or absent in others , and Echiura and Sipuncula show no obvious signs of segmentation . In species with well @-@ developed septa , the blood circulates entirely within blood vessels , and the vessels in segments near the front ends of these species are often built up with muscles that act as hearts . The septa of such species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments , which facilitates movement by peristalsis ( " ripples " that pass along the body ) or by undulations that improve the effectiveness of the parapodia . In species with incomplete septa or none , the blood circulates through the main body cavity without any kind of pump , and there is a wide range of locomotory techniques – some burrowing species turn their pharynges inside out to drag themselves through the sediment .
Although many species can reproduce asexually and use similar mechanisms to regenerate after severe injuries , sexual reproduction is the normal method in species whose reproduction has been studied . The minority of living polychaetes whose reproduction and lifecycles are known produce trochophore larvae , that live as plankton and then sink and metamorphose into miniature adults . Oligochaetes are full hermaphrodites and produce a ring @-@ like cocoon around their bodies , in which the eggs and hatchlings are nourished until they are ready to emerge .
Earthworms are Oligochaetes that support terrestrial food chains both as prey and in some regions are important in aeration and enriching of soil . The burrowing of marine polychaetes , which may constitute up to a third of all species in near @-@ shore environments , encourages the development of ecosystems by enabling water and oxygen to penetrate the sea floor . In addition to improving soil fertility , annelids serve humans as food and as bait . Scientists observe annelids to monitor the quality of marine and fresh water . Although blood @-@ letting is no longer in favor with doctors , some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they have been over @-@ harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries . Ragworms ' jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer an exceptional combination of lightness and strength .
Since annelids are soft @-@ bodied , their fossils are rare – mostly jaws and the mineralized tubes that some of the species secreted . Although some late Ediacaran fossils may represent annelids , the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about 518 million years ago in the early Cambrian period . Fossils of most modern mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the Carboniferous , about 299 million years ago . Palaeontologists disagree about whether some body fossils from the mid Ordovician , about 472 to 461 million years ago , are the remains of oligochaetes , and the earliest indisputable fossils of the group appear in the Tertiary period , which began 65 million years ago .
= = Classification and diversity = =
There are over 22 @,@ 000 living annelid species , ranging in size from microscopic to the Australian giant Gippsland earthworm and Amynthas mekongianus ( Cognetti , 1922 ) , which can both grow up to 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long . Although research since 1997 has radically changed scientists ' views about the evolutionary family tree of the annelids , most textbooks use the traditional classification into the following sub @-@ groups :
Polychaetes ( about 12 @,@ 000 species ) . As their name suggests , they have multiple chetae ( " hairs " ) per segment . Polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs , and nuchal organs that are thought to be chemosensors . Most are marine animals , although a few species live in fresh water and even fewer on land .
Clitellates ( about 10 @,@ 000 species ) . These have few or no chetae per segment , and no nuchal organs or parapodia . However , they have a unique reproductive organ , the ring @-@ shaped clitellum ( " pack saddle " ) around their bodies , which produces a cocoon that stores and nourishes fertilized eggs until they hatch or , in moniligastrids , yolky eggs that provide nutrition for the embyros . The clitellates are sub @-@ divided into : Oligochaetes ( " with few hairs " ) , which includes earthworms . Oligochaetes have a sticky pad in the roof of the mouth . Most are burrowers that feed on wholly or partly decomposed organic materials .
Hirudinea , whose name means " leech @-@ shaped " and whose best known members are leeches . Marine species are mostly blood @-@ sucking parasites , mainly on fish , while most freshwater species are predators . They have suckers at both ends of their bodies , and use these to move rather like inchworms .
The Archiannelida , minute annelids that live in the spaces between grains of marine sediment , were treated as a separate class because of their simple body structure , but are now regarded as polychaetes . Some other groups of animals have been classified in various ways , but are now widely regarded as annelids :
Pogonophora / Siboglinidae were first discovered in 1914 , and their lack of a recognizable gut made it difficult to classify them . They have been classified as a separate phylum , Pogonophora , or as two phyla , Pogonophora and Vestimentifera . More
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recently they have been re @-@ classified as a family , Siboglinidae , within the polychaetes .
The Echiura have a checkered taxonomic history : in the 19th century they were assigned to the phylum " Gephyrea " , which is now empty as its members have been assigned to other phyla ; the Echiura were next regarded as annelids until the 1940s , when they were classified as a phylum in their own right ; but a molecular phylogenetics analysis in 1997 concluded that echiurans are annelids .
Myzostomida live on crinoids and other echinoderms , mainly as parasites . In the past they have been regarded as close relatives of the trematode flatworms or of the tardigrades , but in 1998 it was suggested that they are a sub @-@ group of polychaetes . However , another analysis in 2002 suggested that myzostomids are more closely related to flatworms or to rotifers and acanthocephales .
= = Distinguishing features = =
No single feature distinguishes Annelids from other invertebrate phyla , but they have a distinctive combination of features . Their bodies are long , with segments that are divided externally by shallow ring @-@ like constrictions called annuli and internally by septa ( " partitions " ) at the same points , although in some species the septa are incomplete and in a few cases missing . Most of the segments contain the same sets of organs , although sharing a common gut , circulatory system and nervous system makes them inter @-@ dependent . Their bodies are covered by a cuticle ( outer covering ) that does not contain cells but is secreted by cells in the skin underneath , is made of tough but flexible collagen and does not molt – on the other hand arthropods ' cuticles are made of the more rigid α @-@ chitin , and molt until the arthropods reach their full size . Most annelids have closed circulatory systems , where the blood makes its entire circuit via blood vessels .
= = Description = =
= = = Segmentation = = =
Most of an annelid 's body consists of segments that are practically identical , having the same sets of internal organs and external chaetae ( Greek χαιτη , meaning " hair " ) and , in some species , appendages . However , the frontmost and rearmost sections are not regarded as true segments as they do not contain the standard sets of organs and do not develop in the same way as the true segments . The frontmost section , called the prostomium ( Greek προ- meaning " in front of " and στομα meaning " mouth " ) contains the brain and sense organs , while the rearmost , called the pygidium ( Greek πυγιδιον , meaning " little tail " ) or periproct contains the anus , generally on the underside . The first section behind the prostomium , called the peristomium ( Greek περι- meaning " around " and στομα meaning " mouth " ) , is regarded by some zoologists as not a true segment , but in some polychaetes the peristomium has chetae and appendages like those of other segments .
The segments develop one at a time from a growth zone just ahead of the pygidium , so that an annelid 's youngest segment is just in front of the growth zone while the peristomium is the oldest . This pattern is called teloblastic growth . Some groups of annelids , including all leeches , have fixed maximum numbers of segments , while others add segments throughout their lives .
The phylum 's name is derived from the Latin word annelus , meaning " little ring " .
= = = Body wall , chetae and parapodia = = =
Annelids ' cuticles are made of collagen fibers , usually in layers that spiral in alternating directions so that the fibers cross each other . These are secreted by the one @-@ cell deep epidermis ( outermost skin layer ) . A few marine annelids that live in tubes lack cuticles , but their tubes have a similar structure , and mucus @-@ secreting glands in the epidermis protect their skins . Under the epidermis is the dermis , which is made of connective tissue , in other words a combination of cells and non @-@ cellular materials such as collagen . Below this are two layers of muscles , which develop from the lining of the coelom ( body cavity ) : circular muscles make a segment longer and slimmer when they contract , while under them are longitudinal muscles , usually four distinct strips , whose contractions make the segment shorter and fatter . Some annelids also have oblique internal muscles that connect the underside of the body to each side .
The setae ( " hairs " ) of annelids project out from the epidermis to provide traction and other capabilities . The simplest are unjointed and form paired bundles near the top and bottom of each side of each segment . The parapodia ( " limbs " ) of annelids that have them often bear more complex chetae at their tips – for example jointed , comb @-@ like or hooked . Chetae are made of moderately flexible β @-@ chitin and are formed by follicles , each of which has a chetoblast ( " hair @-@ forming " ) cell at the bottom and muscles that can extend or retract the cheta . The chetoblasts produce chetae by forming microvilli , fine hair @-@ like extensions that increase the area available for secreting the cheta . When the cheta is complete , the microvilli withdraw into the chetoblast , leaving parallel tunnels that run almost the full length of the cheta . Hence annelids ' chetae are structurally different from the setae ( " bristles " ) of arthropods , which are made of the more rigid α @-@ chitin , have a single internal cavity , and are mounted on flexible joints in shallow pits in the cuticle .
Nearly all polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs , while other major annelid groups lack them . Parapodia are unjointed paired extensions of the body wall , and their muscles are derived from the circular muscles of the body . They are often supported internally by one or more large , thick chetae . The parapodia of burrowing and tube @-@ dwelling polychaetes are often just ridges whose tips bear hooked chetae . In active crawlers and swimmers the parapodia are often divided into large upper and lower paddles on a very short trunk , and the paddles are generally fringed with chetae and sometimes with cirri ( fused bundles of cilia ) and gills .
= = = Nervous system and senses = = =
The brain generally forms a ring round the pharynx ( throat ) , consisting of a pair of ganglia ( local control centers ) above and in front of the pharynx , linked by nerve cords either side of the pharynx to another pair of ganglia just below and behind it . The brains of polychaetes are generally in the prostomium , while those of clitellates are in the peristomium or sometimes the first segment behind the peristomium . In some very mobile and active polychaetes the brain is enlarged and more complex , with visible hindbrain , midbrain and forebrain sections . The rest of the central nervous system is generally " ladder @-@ like " , consisting of a pair of nerve cords that run through the bottom part of the body and have in each segment paired ganglia linked by a transverse connection . From each segmental ganglion a branching system of local nerves runs into the body wall and then encircles the body . However , in most polychaetes the two main nerve cords are fused , and in the tube @-@ dwelling genus Owenia the single nerve chord has no ganglia and is located in the epidermis .
As in arthropods , each muscle fiber ( cell ) is controlled by more than one neuron , and the speed and power of the fiber 's contractions depends on the combined effects of all its neurons . Vertebrates have a different system , in which one neuron controls a group of muscle fibers . Most annelids ' longitudinal nerve trunks include giant axons ( the output signal lines of nerve cells ) . Their large diameter decreases their resistance , which allows them to transmit signals exceptionally fast . This enables these worms to withdraw rapidly from danger by shortening their bodies . Experiments have shown that cutting the giant axons prevents this escape response but does not affect normal movement .
The sensors are primarily single cells that detect light , chemicals , pressure waves and contact , and are present on the head , appendages ( if any ) and other parts of the body . Nuchal ( " on the neck " ) organs are paired , ciliated structures found only in polychaetes , and are thought to be chemosensors . Some polychaetes also have various combinations of ocelli ( " little eyes " ) that detect the direction from which light is coming and camera eyes or compound eyes that can probably form images . The compound eyes probably evolved independently of arthropods ' eyes . Some tube @-@ worms use ocelli widely spread over their bodies to detect the shadows of fish , so that they can quickly withdraw into their tubes . Some burrowing and tube @-@ dwelling polychaetes have statocysts ( tilt and balance sensors ) that tell them which way is down . A few polychaete genera have on the undersides of their heads palps that are used both in feeding and as " feelers " , and some of these also have antennae that are structurally similar but probably are used mainly as " feelers " .
= = = Coelom , locomotion and circulatory system = = =
Most annelids have a pair of coelomata ( body cavities ) in each segment , separated from other segments by septa and from each other by vertical mesenteries . Each septum forms a sandwich with connective tissue in the middle and mesothelium ( membrane that serves as a lining ) from the preceding and following segments on either side . Each mesentery is similar except that the mesothelium is the lining of each of the pair of coelomata , and the blood vessels and , in polychaetes , the main nerve cords are embedded in it . The mesothelium is made of modified epitheliomuscular cells ; in other words , their bodies form part of the epithelium but their bases extend to form muscle fibers in the body wall . The mesothelium may also form radial and circular muscles on the septa , and circular muscles around the blood vessels and gut . Parts of the mesothelium , especially on the outside of the gut , may also form chloragogen cells that perform similar functions to the livers of vertebrates : producing and storing glycogen and fat ; producing the oxygen @-@ carrier hemoglobin ; breaking down proteins ; and turning nitrogenous waste products into ammonia and urea to be excreted .
Many annelids move by peristalsis ( waves of contraction and expansion that sweep along the body ) , or flex the body while using parapodia to crawl or swim . In these animals the septa enable the circular and longitudinal muscles to change the shape of individual segments , by making each segment a separate fluid @-@ filled " balloon " . However , the septa are often incomplete in annelids that are semi @-@ sessile or that do not move by peristalsis or by movements of parapodia – for example some move by whipping movements of the body , some small marine species move by means of cilia ( fine muscle @-@ powered hairs ) and some burrowers turn their pharynges ( throats ) inside out to penetrate the sea @-@ floor and drag themselves into it .
The fluid in the coelomata contains coelomocyte cells that defend the animals against parasites and infections . In some species coelomocytes may also contain a respiratory pigment – red hemoglobin in some species , green chlorocruorin in others ( dissolved in the plasma ) – and provide oxygen transport within their segments . Respiratory pigment is also dissolved in the blood plasma . Species with well @-@ developed septa generally also have blood vessels running all long their bodies above and below the gut , the upper one carrying blood forwards while the lower one carries it backwards . Networks of capillaries in the body wall and around the gut transfer blood between the main blood vessels and to parts of the segment that need oxygen and nutrients . Both of the major vessels , especially the upper one , can pump blood by contracting . In some annelids the forward end of the upper blood vessel is enlarged with muscles to form a heart , while in the forward ends of many earthworms some of the vessels that connect the upper and lower main vessels function as hearts . Species with poorly developed or no septa generally have no blood vessels and rely on the circulation within the coelom for delivering nutrients and oxygen .
However , leeches and their closest relatives have a body structure that is very uniform within the group but significantly different from that of other annelids , including other members of the Clitellata . In leeches there are no septa , the connective tissue layer of the body wall is so thick that it occupies much of the body , and the two coelomata are widely separated and run the length of the body . They function as the main blood vessels , although they are side @-@ by @-@ side rather than upper and lower . However , they are lined with mesothelium , like the coelomata and unlike the blood vessels of other annelids . Leeches generally use suckers at their front and rear ends to move like inchworms . The anus is on the upper surface of the pygidium .
= = = Respiration = = =
In some annelids , including earthworms , all respiration is via the skin . However , many polychaetes and some clitellates ( the group to which earthworms belong ) have gills associated with most segments , often as extensions of the parapodia in polychaetes . The gills of tube @-@ dwellers and burrowers usually cluster around whichever end has the stronger water flow .
= = = Feeding and excretion = = =
Feeding structures in the mouth region vary widely , and have little correlation with the animals ' diets . Many polychaetes have a muscular pharynx that can be everted ( turned inside out to extend it ) . In these animals the foremost few segments often lack septa so that , when the muscles in these segments contract , the sharp increase in fluid pressure from all these segments everts the pharynx very quickly . Two families , the Eunicidae and Phyllodocidae , have evolved jaws , which can be used for seizing prey , biting off pieces of vegetation , or grasping dead and decaying matter . On the other hand , some predatory polychaetes have neither jaws nor eversible pharynges . Selective deposit feeders generally live in tubes on the sea @-@ floor and use palps to find food particles in the sediment and then wipe them into their mouths . Filter feeders use " crowns " of palps covered in cilia that wash food particles towards their mouths . Non @-@ selective deposit feeders ingest soil or marine sediments via mouths that are generally unspecialized . Some clitellates have sticky pads in the roofs of their mouths , and some of these can evert the pads to capture prey . Leeches often have an eversible proboscis , or a muscular pharynx with two or three teeth .
The gut is generally an almost straight tube supported by the mesenteries ( vertical partitions within segments ) , and ends with the anus on the underside of the pygidium . However , in members of the tube @-@ dwelling family Siboglinidae the gut is blocked by a swollen lining that houses symbiotic bacteria , which can make up 15 % of the worms ' total weight . The bacteria convert inorganic matter – such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from hydrothermal vents , or methane from seeps – to organic matter that feeds themselves and their hosts , while the worms extend their palps into the gas flows to absorb the gases needed by the bacteria .
Annelids with blood vessels use metanephridia to remove soluble waste products , while those without use protonephridia . Both of these systems use a two @-@ stage filtration process , in which fluid and waste products are first extracted and these are filtered again to re @-@ absorb any re @-@ usable materials while dumping toxic and spent materials as urine . The difference is that protonephridia combine both filtration stages in the same organ , while metanephridia perform only the second filtration and rely on other mechanisms for the first – in annelids special filter cells in the walls of the blood vessels let fluids and other small molecules pass into the coelomic fluid , where it circulates to the metanephridia . In annelids the points at which fluid enters the protonephridia or metanephridia are on the forward side of a septum while the second @-@ stage filter and the nephridiopore ( exit opening in the body wall ) are in the following segment . As a result , the hindmost segment ( before the growth zone and pygidium ) has no structure that extracts its wastes , as there is no following segment to filter and discharge them , while the first segment contains an extraction structure that passes wastes to the second , but does not contain the structures that re @-@ filter and discharge urine .
= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
= = = = Asexual reproduction = = = =
Polychaetes can reproduce asexually , by dividing into two or more pieces or by budding off a new individual while the parent remains a complete organism . Some oligochaetes , such as Aulophorus furcatus , seem to reproduce entirely asexually , while others reproduce asexually in summer and sexually in autumn . Asexual reproduction in oligochaetes is always by dividing into two or more pieces , rather than by budding . However , leeches have never been seen reproducing asexually .
Most polychaetes and oligochaetes also use similar mechanisms to regenerate after suffering damage . Two polychaete genera , Chaetopterus and Dodecaceria , can regenerate from a single segment , and others can regenerate even if their heads are removed . Annelids are the most complex animals that can regenerate after such severe damage . On the other hand , leeches cannot regenerate .
= = = = Sexual reproduction = = = =
It is thought that annelids were originally animals with two separate sexes , which released ova and sperm into the water via their nephridia . The fertilized eggs develop into trochophore larvae , which live as plankton . Later they sink to the sea @-@ floor and metamorphose into miniature adults : the part of the trochophore between the apical tuft and the prototroch becomes the prostomium ( head ) ; a small area round the trochophore 's anus becomes the pygidium ( tail @-@ piece ) ; a narrow band immediately in front of that becomes the growth zone that produces new segments ; and the rest of the trochophore becomes the peristomium ( the segment that contains the mouth ) .
However , the lifecycles of most living polychaetes , which are almost all marine animals , are unknown , and only about 25 % of the 300 + species whose lifecycles are known follow this pattern . About 14 % use a similar external fertilization but produce yolk @-@ rich eggs , which reduce the time the larva needs to spend among the plankton , or eggs from which miniature adults emerge rather than larvae . The rest care for the fertilized eggs until they hatch – some by producing jelly @-@ covered masses of eggs which they tend , some by attaching the eggs to their bodies and a few species by keeping the eggs within their bodies until they hatch . These species use a variety of methods for sperm transfer ; for example , in some the females collect sperm released into the water , while in others the males have a penis that inject sperm into the female . There is no guarantee that this is a representative sample of polychaetes ' reproductive patterns , and it simply reflects scientists ' current knowledge .
Some polychaetes breed only once in their lives , while others breed almost continuously or through several breeding seasons . While most polychaetes remain of one sex all their lives , a significant percentage of species are full hermaphrodites or change sex during their lives . Most polychaetes whose reproduction has been studied lack permanent gonads , and it is uncertain how they produce ova and sperm . In a few species the rear of the body splits off and becomes a separate individual that lives just long enough to swim to a suitable environment , usually near the surface , and spawn .
Most mature clitellates ( the group that includes earthworms and leeches ) are full hermaphrodites , although in a few leech species younger adults function as males and become female at maturity . All have well @-@ developed gonads , and all copulate . Earthworms store their partners ' sperm in spermathecae ( " sperm stores " ) and then the clitellum produces a cocoon that collects ova from the ovaries and then sperm from the spermathecae . Fertilization and development of earthworm eggs takes place in the cocoon . Leeches ' eggs are fertilized in the ovaries , and then transferred to the cocoon . In all clitellates the cocoon also either produces yolk when the eggs are fertilized or nutrients while they are developing . All clitellates hatch as miniature adults rather than larvae .
= = Ecological significance = =
Charles Darwin 's book The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms ( 1881 ) presented the first scientific analysis of earthworms ' contributions to soil fertility . Some burrow while others live entirely on the surface , generally in moist leaf litter . The burrowers loosen the soil so that oxygen and water can penetrate it , and both surface and burrowing worms help to produce soil by mixing organic and mineral matter , by accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and thus making it more quickly available to other organisms , and by concentrating minerals and converting them to forms that plants can use more easily . Earthworms are also important prey for birds ranging in size from robins to storks , and for mammals ranging from shrews to badgers , and in some cases conserving earthworms may be essential for conserving endangered birds .
Terrestrial annelids can be invasive in some situations . In the glaciated areas of North America , for example , almost all native earthworms are thought to have been killed by the glaciers and the worms currently found in those areas are all introduced from other areas , primarily from Europe , and , more recently , from Asia . Northern hardwood forests are especially negatively impacted by invasive worms through the loss of leaf duff , soil fertility , changes in soil chemistry and the loss of ecological diversity . Especially of concern is Amynthas agrestis and at least one state ( Wisconsin ) has listed it as a prohibited species .
Earthworms migrate only a limited distance annually on their own , and the spread of invasive worms is increased rapidly by anglers and from worms or their cocoons in the dirt on vehicle tires or footwear .
Marine annelids may account for over one @-@ third of bottom @-@ dwelling animal species around coral reefs and in tidal zones . Burrowing species increase the penetration of water and oxygen into the sea @-@ floor sediment , which encourages the growth of populations of aerobic bacteria and small animals alongside their burrows .
Although blood @-@ sucking leeches do little direct harm to their victims , some transmit flagellates that can be very dangerous to their hosts . Some small tube @-@ dwelling oligochaetes transmit myxosporean parasites that cause whirling disease in fish .
= = Interaction with humans = =
Earthworms make a significant contribution to soil fertility . The rear end of the Palolo worm , a marine polychaete that tunnels through coral , detaches in order to spawn at the surface , and the people of Samoa regard these spawning modules as a delicacy . Anglers sometimes find that worms are more effective bait than artificial flies , and worms can be kept for several days in a tin lined with damp moss . Ragworms are commercially important as bait and as food sources for aquaculture , and there have been proposals to farm them in order to reduce over @-@ fishing of their natural populations . Some marine polychaetes ' predation on molluscs causes serious losses to fishery and aquaculture operations .
Scientists study aquatic annelids to monitor the oxygen content , salinity and pollution levels in fresh and marine water .
Accounts of the use of leeches for the medically dubious practise of blood @-@ letting have come from China around 30 AD , India around 200 AD , ancient Rome around 50 AD and later throughout Europe . In the 19th century medical demand for leeches was so high that some areas ' stocks were exhausted and other regions imposed restrictions or bans on exports , and Hirudo medicinalis is treated as an endangered species by both IUCN and CITES . More recently leeches have been used to assist in microsurgery , and their saliva has provided anti @-@ inflammatory compounds and several important anticoagulants , one of which also prevents tumors from spreading .
Ragworms ' jaws are strong but much lighter than the hard parts of many other organisms , which are biomineralized with calcium salts . These advantages have attracted the attention of engineers . Investigations showed that ragworm jaws are made of unusual proteins that bind strongly to zinc .
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
Since annelids are soft @-@ bodied , their fossils are rare . Polychaetes ' fossil record consists mainly of the jaws that some species had and the mineralized tubes that some secreted . Some Ediacaran fossils such as Dickinsonia in some ways resemble polychaetes , but the similarities are too vague for these fossils to be classified with confidence . The small shelly fossil Cloudina , from 549 to 542 million years ago , has been classified by some authors as an annelid , but by others as a cnidarian ( i.e. in the phylum to which jellyfish and sea anemones belong ) . Until 2008 the earliest fossils widely accepted as annelids were the polychaetes Canadia and Burgessochaeta , both from Canada 's Burgess Shale , formed about 505 million years ago in the early Cambrian . Myoscolex , found in Australia and a little older than the Burgess Shale , was possibly an annelid . However , it lacks some typical annelid features and has features which are not usually found in annelids and some of which are associated with other phyla . Then Simon Conway Morris and John Peel reported Phragmochaeta from Sirius Passet , about 518 million years old , and concluded that it was the oldest annelid known to date . There has been vigorous debate about whether the Burgess Shale fossil Wiwaxia was a mollusc or an annelid . Polychaetes diversified in the early Ordovician , about 488 to 474 million years ago . It is not until the early Ordovician that the first annelid jaws are found , thus the crown @-@ group cannot have appeared before this date and probably appeared somewhat later . By the end of the Carboniferous , about 299 million years ago , fossils of most of the modern mobile polychaete groups had appeared . Many fossil tubes look like those made by modern sessile polychaetes , but the first tubes clearly produced by polychaetes date from the Jurassic , less than 199 million years ago .
The earliest good evidence for oligochaetes occurs in the Tertiary period , which began 65 million years ago , and it has been suggested that these animals evolved around the same time as flowering plants in the early Cretaceous , from 130 to 90 million years ago . A trace fossil consisting of a convoluted burrow partly filled with small fecal pellets may be evidence that earthworms were present in the early Triassic period from 251 to 245 million years ago . Body fossils going back to the mid Ordovician , from 472 to 461 million years ago , have been tentatively classified as oligochaetes , but these identifications are uncertain and some have been disputed .
= = = Family tree = = =
Traditionally the annelids have been divided into two major groups , the polychaetes and clitellates . In turn the clitellates were divided into oligochaetes , which include earthworms , and hirudinomorphs , whose best @-@ known members are leeches . For many years there was no clear arrangement of the approximately 80 polychaete families into higher @-@ level groups . In 1997 Greg Rouse and Kristian Fauchald attempted a " first heuristic step in terms of bringing polychaete systematics to an acceptable level of rigour " , based on anatomical structures , and divided polychaetes into :
Scolecida , less than 1 @,@ 000 burrowing species that look rather like earthworms .
Palpata , the great majority of polychaetes , divided into :
Canalipalpata , which are distinguished by having long grooved palps that they use for feeding , and most of which live in tubes .
Aciculata , the most active polychaetes , which have parapodia reinforced by internal spines ( aciculae ) .
Also in 1997 Damhnait McHugh , using molecular phylogenetics to compare similarities and differences in one gene , presented a very different view , in which : the clitellates were an offshoot of one branch of the polychaete family tree ; the pogonophorans and echiurans , which for a few decades had been regarded as a separate phyla , were placed on other branches of the polychaete tree . Subsequent molecular phylogenetics analyses on a similar scale presented similar conclusions .
In 2007 Torsten Struck and colleagues compared 3 genes in 81 taxa , of which 9 were outgroups , in other words not considered closely related to annelids but included to give an indication of where the organisms under study are placed on the larger tree of life . For a cross @-@ check the study used an analysis of 11 genes ( including the original 3 ) in 10 taxa . This analysis agreed that clitellates , pogonophorans and echiurans were on various branches of the polychaete family tree . It also concluded that the classification of polychaetes into Scolecida , Canalipalpata and Aciculata was useless , as the members of these alleged groups were scattered all over the family tree derived from comparing the 81 taxa . In addition , it also placed sipunculans , generally regarded at the time as a separate phylum , on another branch of the polychaete tree , and concluded that leeches were a sub @-@ group of oligochaetes rather than their sister @-@ group among the clitellates . Rouse accepted the analyses based on molecular phylogenetics , and their main conclusions are now the scientific consensus , although the details of the annelid family tree remain uncertain .
In addition to re @-@ writing the classification of annelids and 3 previously independent phyla , the molecular phylogenetics analyses undermine the emphasis that decades of previous writings placed on the importance of segmentation in the classification of invertebrates . Polychaetes , which these analyses found to be the parent group , have completely segmented bodies , while polychaetes ' echiurans and sipunculan offshoots are not segmented and pogonophores are segmented only in the rear parts of their bodies . It now seems that segmentation can appear and disappear much more easily in the course of evolution than was previously thought . The 2007 study also noted that the ladder @-@ like nervous system , which is associated with segmentation , is less universal previously thought in both annelids and arthropods .
Annelids are members of the protostomes , one of the two major superphyla of bilaterian animals – the other is the deuterostomes , which includes vertebrates . Within the protostomes , annelids used to be grouped with arthropods under the super @-@ group Articulata ( " jointed animals " ) , as segmentation is obvious in most members of both phyla . However , the genes that drive segmentation in arthropods do not appear to do the same in annelids . Arthropods and annelids both have close relatives that are unsegmented . It is at least as easy to assume that they evolved segmented bodies independently as it is to assume that the ancestral protostome or bilaterian was segmented and that segmentation disappeared in many descendant phyla . The current view is that annelids are grouped with molluscs , brachiopods and several other phyla that have lophophores ( fan @-@ like feeding structures ) and / or trochophore larvae as members of Lophotrochozoa . Bryozoa may be the most basal phylum ( the one that first became distinctive ) within the Lophotrochozoa , and the relationships between the other members are not yet known . Arthropods are now regarded as members of the Ecdysozoa ( " animals that molt " ) , along with some phyla that are unsegmented .
The " Lophotrochozoa " hypothesis is also supported by the fact that many phyla within this group , including annelids , molluscs , nemerteans and flatworms , follow a similar pattern in the fertilized egg 's development . When their cells divide after the 4 @-@ cell stage , descendants of these 4 cells form a spiral pattern . In these phyla the " fates " of the embryo 's cells , in other words the roles their descendants will play in the adult animal , are the same and can be predicted from a very early stage . Hence this development pattern is often described as " spiral determinate cleavage " .
= Hunting Trip =
" Hunting Trip " is the tenth episode of the second season of American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the sixteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 19 , 2009 . In the episode , Leslie tries to prove she can hang out with the guys by attending Ron 's annual hunting trip , where Ron is accidentally shot .
The episode was written by Daniel J. Goor and was directed by series co @-@ creator Greg Daniels . It also introduced a romantic subplot between the characters Andy and April which continued throughout the second season and into the third . Series co @-@ creator Michael Schur said the pairing was not previously planned , but grew when it was discovered actors Aubrey Plaza and Chris Pratt had strong comedic chemistry together .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Hunting Trip " was seen by 4 @.@ 61 million viewers , a slight drop from the previous week 's episode , " The Camel " . The episode received generally positive to mixed reviews , with commentators particularly praising the Andy and April subplot , as well as the continued development of Leslie Knope 's character .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Andy ( Chris Pratt ) giving piggyback rides to everyone in the parks department . Later , Ron ( Nick Offerman ) , Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) and Mark ( Paul Schneider ) look forward to their annual " trail survey " , which is actually a yearly secret hunting trip . Determined to prove she can be just like one of the guys around the office , Leslie insists the ladies of the parks department attend the trip this year , as well as Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) , who has also never been invited . Ron is visibly disappointed .
Leslie asks April ( Aubrey Plaza ) to check on a budgeting request while they are gone . What should be a simple chore , however , has April waiting on hold at the phone for hours . When she desperately has to use the restroom , Andy agrees to wait by the phone . When she returns , the two start to bond by making up their own lyrics to the hold music , playing a non @-@ water game of Marco Polo around the office , and seeing who can make the best spit @-@ take . When Andy says he is jealous that his ex @-@ girlfriend Ann ( Rashida Jones ) is going to the hunting trip with Mark , April offers to give him a hickey to make Ann jealous , which Andy accepts .
Meanwhile , the others arrive at the cabin for the hunting trip . Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) proves to be an excellent hunter and bags the first quail . Growing increasingly agitated , Ron agrees to a challenge that Leslie cannot shoot more birds than he can , and they split up . After a few hours of hunting , Ron screams and the others rush to his side and find he has been shot in the head . Ann , a nurse , takes Ron back to the cabin , where he is absolutely furious even though the injury is not serious . Ron asks whether Leslie shot him , but she insists she did not . Ron takes several pain pills and washes it down with scotch , which forces Ann and Leslie to hold his mouth open and induce vomiting , despite fierce opposition from Ron himself .
The others discuss who shot Ron , and Tom creates a minor panic when he suggests perhaps an outsider is hunting them . Ann takes Leslie aside and says she knows who shot Ron , and a few minutes later Leslie admits to the group that she was the shooter , even though Ann knows this is not the case . A park ranger ( Jay Johnston ) arrives and interrogates Leslie , implying that the accident is the result of her femininity . Leslie knows that she is a good hunter , but goes along with the ranger 's sexist implications in order to appease him . Later , a bandaged Ron repeatedly berates Leslie , prompting Ann to insist Tom come forward . Tom admits he shot Ron , and that Leslie covered for him because he did not have his hunting license , which could have resulted in a $ 25 @,@ 000 fine and prison time . Ron is impressed with Leslie , whom he calls a " stand @-@ up guy " . The episode ends with a get well party for Ron , where Ann is unimpressed with Andy 's hickey , and the whole party is horrified by Ron 's head wound .
= = Production = =
" Hunting Trip " was written by Daniel J. Goor and directed by series co @-@ creator Greg Daniels . The episode introduced a romantic subplot between the characters Andy and April which continued throughout the second season and into the third . Series co @-@ creator Michael Schur said the pairing was not previously planned , but grew when it was discovered during the filming of " Hunting Trip " that actors Aubrey Plaza and Chris Pratt had strong comedic chemistry together . However , Schur also said the idea to pair them together in " Hunting Trip " stemmed in part from a line Plaza improvised in the first season finale " Rock Show " , when Andy explained his style of music and April replied that she completely understood him . Schur said , " At the time , it was this little nothing , throwaway thing , but when we watched it , we thought there might be something there . "
During a November 2009 panel at the Paley Center for Media in New York City , Plaza said , " You 're going to see more scenes with Andy and April . There could be a love connection for them . " Daniels said some of his favorite moments from the series were in " Hunting Trip " and he particularly loved the " interpersonal stuff " between Andy and April , who he described as " two characters that you didn 't know had any interest in one another " . Pratt specifically sought to make Plaza laugh during their scene together and was ultimately successful . He told Daniels before filming , " I 'm gonna get something out of her . " " Hunting Trip " included a scene in which Leslie tells the state trooper multiple reasons or excuses for why she apparently shot Ron , all of which were edited together in a series of jump cuts . The technique has been commonly used throughout the Parks and Recreation series to condense multiple takes of improvisation from Poehler .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on November 19 , 2009 , " Hunting Trip " was seen by 4 @.@ 61 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . " Hunting Trip " drew a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 6 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . It constituted about a five percent drop in viewership from the previous week 's episode , " The Camel " , which itself was a five percent drop from the previous episode , " Ron and Tammy " . The episode received generally positive reviews , with several particularly praising the subplot between Aubrey Plaza and Chris Pratt . Reviewers also praised the continued developed of the Leslie Knope character , who proves to be intelligent and capable in " Hunting Trip " , rather than the clueless protagonist she appeared to be in earlier episodes . In 2011 , New York magazine writer called it " one of the breakout episodes that saw the show finding its momentum and figuring out how to transfer the dynamic outside of the office " .
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said " Hunting Trip " was not as funny as the previous episode , " The Camel " , but that it included excellent physical comedy like Ron 's refusal to throw up , and Andy 's piggyback rides throughout Pawnee town hall . Sepinwall also praised Leslie 's intelligence and savvy , which he said differentiates the show from Greg Daniels ' other show , The Office and its protagonist Michael Scott . IGN writer Matt Fowler particularly praised the pairing of Aubrey Plaza and Chris Pratt , which he called simultaneously funny , naturalistic and sweet . Fowler said the main hunting plot was funny , but " I 'm not a huge fan of horrific personal injury as a vehicle for humor " . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said he liked the episode , but that the main hunting subplot was messy because there was too much action involving too many supporting cast members . Heisler said the Andy and April subplot was more effective . Slate magazine writer Jonah Weiner praised " Hunting Trip " , especially the scene in which the characters become convinced they are being stalked by the Predator , the alien antagonist from the 1987 film of the same name . Weiner called it a " detour into an inspired absurdity that tugs against and tweaks the show 's bureaucratic backdrop " . Time magazine television critic James Poniewozik said " Hunting Trip " demonstrated how far Leslie Knope had developed since the first season . Poniewozik praised the " ultra @-@ deadpan " pairing of Andy and April , which he said was another in a continued line of " interesting combinations for its side players " . Steve Penner of The Portsmouth Herald said the sequence of Poehler 's statements to the park trooper was " worthy of her absolutely best SNL impressions " .
= = DVD release = =
" Hunting Trip " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD also included deleted scenes from each episode . It also included a commentary track for " Hunting Trip " featuring Amy Poehler , Nick Offerman , Aziz Ansari , Rashida Jones , Chris Pratt , Jim O 'Heir , Retta , Aubrey Plaza , Michael Schur and Greg Daniels . " Hunting Trip " was also included in the DVD box @-@ set for the sixth season of The Office .
= The Girl Reporter =
The Girl Reporter is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film follows two sweethearts , May and Will , who are reporters for the Daily Wave newspaper . Will leaves the newspaper to work as a secretary to Blake , the commissioner of public works . Blake takes a bribe and blames Will and fires him . May sets out to clear his name and becomes Blake 's new secretary . May investigates and clears Will 's name while proving Blake 's corruption . The film was released on August 16 , 1910 and saw a wide national release . The film received mixed responses from critics who liked the acting , but found issues with the staging and the plausibility of the plot . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 20 , 1910 . It states : " May Merrill and Will Marshall are sweethearts and both reporters on the Daily Wave . Will leaves the paper to accept a position of private secretary to Blake , commissioner of public works . Shortly after Will takes up his new work Blake is threatened with exposure and punishment on his charge of accepting a bribe . In order to save himself , Blake makes it appear that Will is the guilty party . May is sent to investigate the matter for the Wave . When she discovers that Will is accused , she determines to devote all of her time to clearing him , and with this end in view , she applies for the vacant position of private secretary to Blake . Assisted by Pete , faithful office boy from the Wave , who follows her to her new position , May does some clever detective work and , clearing Will , manages to fix the guilt where it belongs , on the shoulders of Blake . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Though the roles of the actors are unknown , it is likely that numerous other character roles and persons appeared in the film . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . The cast could include either or both leading ladies of the company , Anna Rosemond and Violet Heming . One of the more prominent leading male actors was Frank H. Crane .
Though critics would reveal that the plot strained plausibility , the little known production details surrounding the film show that the Thanhouser staging was effective to one reviewer . Recently , the quality of the Thanhouser films were commended in an editorial by " The Spectator " in The New York Dramatic Mirror contained specific praise for Thanhouser productions by stating , " ... practically all other Independent American companies , excepting Thanhouser , show haste and lack of thought in their production . Crude stories are crudely handled , giving the impression that they are rushed through in a hurry - anything to get a thousand feet of negative ready for the market . Such pictures , of course , do not cost much to produce , but they are not of a class to make reputation . The Thanhouser company , alone of the Independents , shows a consistent effort to do things worthwhile ... " Bowers would note that the plot focusing on a female reporter would prove to be a popular subject and referred to The Girl Reporter 's Big Scoop by the Kalem Company and Perils of Our Girl Reporter by Niagara Film Studios @-@ Mutual . Bowers also included another production bearing the same name The Girl Reporter by the Crystal Film Company in 1913 . Another girl reporter would be featured A Columbus Day Conspiracy by the Thanhouser Company .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel drama , approximately 970 feet long , was released on August 16 , 1910 . The film saw a wide national release , with theater advertisements in Arizona , Missouri , Indiana , Nebraska , Washington state , and Illinois . The film was also shown by the Province Theatre of Vancouver , British Columbia in Canada within days of its release .
The film received positive attention by film critics and seems to have been well @-@ staged because a reviewer of The Moving Picture News states , " This film points a moral and adorns a tale . Clean as a hound 's tooth , sweet as a nut . Full of life . The tale of the triumph of a courageous girl , backed by an inimitable office boy , and the downfall of the grafter are well planned and well rendered . The copy room set our mind flying back to our own ' cub ' days . By the way , the paper on the wall of the traction company office is somewhat weird . A good , healthy , vigorous production in every sense . " The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer said the acting was good , but found fault with the plot itself . The reviewer states , " This film story has melodramatic interest , and the acting is good , but the means by which some of the incidents are brought about will not stand the acid test . For instance , if a political boss wants to ' shake down ' a traction company for $ 5 @,@ 000 , would he submit the proposition in writing ? ... The scenes in the newspaper reporters ' room would have been more convincing in the first scene if the staff had been more busy in writing copy instead of waving their arms and moving about . " The term " traction company " refers to a streetcar company .
= Barton Fink =
Barton Fink is a 1991 American period film written , produced , directed and edited by the Coen brothers . Set in 1941 , it stars John Turturro in the title role as a young New York City playwright who is hired to write scripts for a film studio in Hollywood , and John Goodman as Charlie , the insurance salesman who lives next door at the run @-@ down Hotel Earle .
The Coens wrote the screenplay in three weeks while experiencing difficulty during the writing of Miller 's Crossing . Soon after Miller 's Crossing was finished , the Coens began filming Barton Fink , which had its premiere at the Cannes Film Festival in May 1991 . In a rare sweep , Barton Fink won the Palme d 'Or , as well as awards for Best Director and Best Actor ( Turturro ) . Although the film received critical acclaim and was nominated for three Academy Awards , it was a box office bomb , only grossing $ 6 million against its $ 9 million budget . The process of writing and the culture of entertainment production are two prominent themes of Barton Fink . The world of Hollywood is contrasted with that of Broadway , and the film analyzes superficial distinctions between high culture and low culture . Other themes in the film include fascism and World War II ; slavery and conditions of labor in creative industries ; and how intellectuals relate to " the common man " . Because of its diverse elements , the film has defied efforts at genre classification , being variously referred to as a film noir , a horror film , a Künstlerroman , and a buddy film .
The feel of the Hotel Earle was central to the development of the story , and careful deliberation went into its design . There is a sharp contrast between Fink 's living quarters and the polished , pristine environs of Hollywood , especially the home of Jack Lipnick . On the wall of Fink 's room there hangs a single picture of a woman at the beach ; this captures Barton 's attention , and the image reappears in the final scene of the film . Although the picture and other elements of the film ( including a mysterious box given to Fink by Charlie ) appear laden with symbolism , critics disagree over their possible meanings . The Coens have acknowledged some intentional symbolic elements while denying an attempt to communicate any message in the film overall . The film contains allusions to many real @-@ life people and events , most notably the writers Clifford Odets and William Faulkner . The characters of Barton Fink and W. P. Mayhew are widely seen as fictional representations of these men , but the Coens stress important differences . They have also admitted to parodying film magnates like Louis B. Mayer , but they note that Fink 's agonizing tribulations in Hollywood are not meant to reflect their own experiences .
Barton Fink was influenced by several earlier works , including the films of Roman Polanski , particularly Repulsion ( 1965 ) and The Tenant ( 1976 ) . Other influences are Stanley Kubrick 's The Shining and Preston Sturges 's Sullivan 's Travels . The film contains a number of literary allusions to works by William Shakespeare , John Keats , and Flannery O 'Connor , and in particular , Nikos Kazantzakis 's novel , Zorba the Greek . There are also religious overtones , including references to the Book of Daniel , King Nebuchadnezzar , and Bathsheba .
= = Plot = =
In 1941 , Barton Fink 's first Broadway play , Bare Ruined Choirs , has achieved critical and popular success . His agent informs him that Capitol Pictures in Hollywood has offered him a thousand dollars per week to write film scripts . Barton hesitates , worried that moving to California would separate him from " the common man " , his focus as a writer . He accepts the offer , however , and checks into the Hotel Earle , a large and unusually deserted building . His room is sparse and draped in subdued colors ; its only decoration is a small painting of a woman on the beach , arm raised to block the sun .
In his first meeting with Capitol Pictures boss Jack Lipnick , Barton explains that he chose the Earle because he wants lodging that is ( as Lipnick says ) " less Hollywood " . Lipnick promises that his only concern is Barton 's writing ability and assigns his new employee to a wrestling film . Back in his room , however , Barton is unable to write . He is distracted by sounds coming from the room next door , and he phones the front desk to complain . His neighbor , Charlie Meadows , is the source of the noise and visits Barton to apologize , insisting on sharing some alcohol from a hip flask to make amends . As they talk , Barton proclaims his affection for " the common man " , and Charlie describes his life as an insurance salesman . Later , Barton falls asleep , but is awakened by the incessant whine of a mosquito .
Still unable to proceed beyond the first lines of his script , Barton consults producer Ben Geisler for advice . Irritated , the frenetic Geisler takes him to lunch and orders him to consult another writer for assistance . While in the men 's room , Barton meets the novelist William Preston ( W.P. ) " Bill " Mayhew , who is vomiting in the next stall . They briefly discuss movie writing and arrange a second meeting later in the day . When Barton arrives , Mayhew is drunk and yelling wildly . His secretary , Audrey Taylor , reschedules the meeting and confesses to Barton that she and Mayhew are in love . When they finally meet for lunch , Mayhew , Audrey , and Barton discuss writing and drinking . Before long , Mayhew argues with Audrey , slaps her , and wanders off , drunk . Rejecting Barton 's offer of consolation , Audrey explains that she feels sorry for Mayhew since he is married to another woman who is " disturbed " .
With one day left before his meeting with Lipnick to discuss the movie , Barton phones Audrey and begs her for assistance . She visits him at the Earle , and after she admits that she wrote most of Mayhew 's scripts , they apparently have sex ; Barton later confesses to Charlie they did so . When Barton awakens the next morning , he , again , hears the sound of the mosquito , finds it on Audrey 's back , and slaps it dead . When Audrey does not respond , Barton turns her onto her side only to find that she has been violently murdered . He has no memory of the night 's events . Horrified , he summons Charlie and asks for help . Charlie is repulsed but disposes of the body and orders Barton to avoid contacting the police . After a meeting with an unusually supportive Lipnick , Barton tries writing again and is interrupted by Charlie , who announces he is going to New York for several days . Charlie leaves a package with Barton and asks him to watch it .
Soon afterward , Barton is visited by two police detectives , who inform him that Charlie 's real name is Karl " Madman " Mundt . Mundt is a serial killer wanted for several murders ; after shooting his victims , they explain , he decapitates them and keeps the heads . Stunned , Barton returns to his room and examines the box . Placing it on his desk without opening it , he begins writing and produces the entire script in one sitting . After a night of celebratory dancing , Barton returns to find the detectives in his room , who , after handcuffing Barton to the bed , then reveal they 've found evidence of Mundt 's latest murders . Each of the men notes how hot it is , and Charlie appears , and does the same ; soon the source of heat is revealed : the hotel has become engulfed in flames . Running through the hallway , screaming , Charlie shoots the policemen with a shotgun . As the hallway burns , Charlie speaks with Barton about their lives and the hotel , breaks the bed frame to which Barton is handcuffed ( thus freeing him ) , then retires to his own room , saying as he goes that he paid a visit to Barton 's parents and uncle in New York . Barton leaves the ( still @-@ burning ) hotel , carrying the box and his script . Shortly thereafter he attempts to telephone his family , but there is no answer .
In a final meeting , a disappointed Lipnick , in uniform ( as he attempts to secure an Army Reserve commission ) , angrily chastises Barton for writing " a fruity movie about suffering " then informs him that he is to remain in Los Angeles ; although Barton will remain under contract , Capitol Pictures will not produce anything he writes so he can be ridiculed as a loser around the studio while Lipnick is in the war . Dazed , Barton wanders onto a beach , still carrying the package . He meets a woman who looks just like the one in the picture on his wall at the Earle , and she asks about the box . He tells her he does not know what it contains nor who owns it . She then assumes the pose from the picture .
= = Cast = =
John Turturro as Barton Fink
John Goodman as Charlie Meadows
Michael Lerner as Jack Lipnick
Judy Davis as Audrey Taylor
John Mahoney as W. P. Mayhew
Tony Shalhoub as Ben Geisler
Jon Polito as Lou Breeze
Steve Buscemi as Chet
David Warrilow as Garland Stanford
Richard Portnow as Detective Mastrionotti
Christopher Murney as Detective Deutsch
Megan Fay as Poppy Carnahan
Lance Davis as Richard St. Claire
Frances McDormand as Voice of stage actress ( uncredited )
Barry Sonnenfeld as Page ( uncredited )
Max Grodenchik as Clapper Boy
= = Production = =
= = = Background and writing = = =
In 1989 , filmmakers Joel and Ethan Coen began writing the script for a film eventually released as Miller 's Crossing . The many threads of the story became complicated , and after four months they found themselves lost in the process . Although biographers and critics later referred to it as writer 's block , the Coen brothers rejected this description . " It 's not really the case that we were suffering from writer 's block , " Joel said in a 1991 interview , " but our working speed had slowed , and we were eager to get a certain distance from Miller 's Crossing . " They went from Los Angeles to New York and began work on a different project .
In three weeks , the Coens wrote a script with a title role written specifically for actor John Turturro , with whom they 'd been working on Miller 's Crossing . The new movie , Barton Fink , was set in a large , seemingly @-@ abandoned hotel . This setting , which they named the Hotel Earle , was a driving force behind the story and mood of the new project . While filming their 1984 film Blood Simple in Austin , Texas , the Coens had seen a hotel which made a significant impression : " We thought , ' Wow , Motel Hell . ' You know , being condemned to live in the weirdest hotel in the world . "
The writing process for Barton Fink was smooth , they said , suggesting that the relief of being away from Miller 's Crossing may have been a catalyst . They also felt satisfied with the overall shape of the story , which helped them move quickly through the composition . " Certain films come entirely in one 's head ; we just sort of burped out Barton Fink . " While writing , the Coens created a second leading role with another actor in mind : John Goodman , who had appeared in their 1987 comedy Raising Arizona . His new character , Charlie , was Barton 's next @-@ door neighbor in the cavernous hotel . Even before writing , the Coens knew how the story would end , and wrote Charlie 's final speech at the start of the writing process .
The script served its diversionary purpose , and the Coens put it aside : " Barton Fink sort of washed out our brain and we were able to go back and finish Miller 's Crossing . " Once production of the first movie was finished , the Coens began to recruit staff to film Barton Fink . Turturro looked forward to playing the lead role , and spent a month with the Coens in Los Angeles to coordinate views on the project : " I felt I could bring something more human to Barton . Joel and Ethan allowed me a certain contribution . I tried to go a little further than they expected . "
As they designed detailed storyboards for Barton Fink , the Coens began looking for a new cinematographer , since their associate Barry Sonnenfeld – who had filmed their first three movies – was occupied with his own directorial debut , The Addams Family . The Coens had been impressed with the work of English cinematographer Roger Deakins , particularly the interior scenes of the 1988 film Stormy Monday . After screening other films he had worked on ( including Sid and Nancy and Pascali 's Island ) , they sent a script to Deakins and invited him to join the project . His agent advised against working with the Coens , but Deakins met with them at a cafe in Notting Hill and they soon began working together on Barton Fink .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began in June 1990 and took eight weeks ( a third less time than required by Miller 's Crossing ) , and the estimated final budget for the movie was US $ 9 million . The Coens worked well with Deakins , and they easily translated their ideas for each scene onto film . " There was only one moment we surprised him , " Joel Coen recalled later . An extended scene called for a tracking shot out of the bedroom and into a sink drain " plug hole " in the adjacent bathroom as a symbol of sexual intercourse . " The shot was a lot of fun and we had a great time working out how to do it , " Joel said . " After that , every time we asked Roger to do something difficult , he would raise an eyebrow and say , ' Don 't be having me track down any plug @-@ holes now . ' "
Three weeks of filming were spent in the Hotel Earle , a set created by art director Dennis Gassner . The film 's climax required a huge spreading fire in the hotel 's hallway , which the Coens originally planned to add digitally in post @-@ production . When they decided to use real flames , however , the crew built a large alternate set in an abandoned aircraft hangar at Long Beach . A series of gas jets were installed behind the hallway , and the wallpaper was perforated for easy penetration . As Goodman ran through the hallway , a man on an overhead catwalk opened each jet , giving the impression of a fire racing ahead of Charlie . Each take required a rebuild of the apparatus , and a second hallway ( sans fire ) stood ready nearby for filming pick @-@ up shots between takes . The final scene was shot near Zuma Beach , as was the image of a wave crashing against a rock .
The Coens edited the film themselves , as is their custom . " We prefer a hands @-@ on approach , " Joel explained in 1996 , " rather than sitting next to someone and telling them what to cut . " Because of rules for membership in film production guilds , they are required to use a pseudonym ; " Roderick Jaynes " is credited with editing Barton Fink . Only a few filmed scenes were removed from the final cut , including a transition scene to show Barton 's movement from New York to Hollywood . ( In the movie , this is shown enigmatically with a wave crashing against a rock . ) Several scenes representing work in Hollywood studios were also filmed , but edited out because they were " too conventional " .
= = = Setting = = =
The spooky , inexplicably empty feel of the Hotel Earle was central to the Coens ' conception of the movie . " We wanted an art deco stylization " , Joel explained in a 1991 interview , " and a place that was falling into ruin after having seen better days " . Barton 's room is sparsely furnished with two large windows facing another building . The Coens later described the hotel as a " ghost ship floating adrift , where you notice signs of the presence of other passengers , without ever laying eyes on any " . In the movie , residents ' shoes are an indication of this unseen presence ; another rare sign of other inhabitants is the sound from adjacent rooms . Joel said : " You can imagine it peopled by failed commercial travelers , with pathetic sex lives , who cry alone in their rooms " .
Heat and moisture are other important elements of the setting . The wallpaper in Barton 's room peels and droops ; Charlie experiences the same problem and guesses heat is the cause . The Coens used green and yellow colors liberally in designing the hotel " to suggest an aura of putrefaction " .
The atmosphere of the hotel was meant to connect with the character of Charlie . As Joel explained : " Our intention , moreover , was that the hotel function as an exteriorization of the character played by John Goodman . The sweat drips off his forehead like the paper peels off the walls . At the end , when Goodman says that he is a prisoner of his own mental state , that this is like some kind of hell , it was necessary for the hotel to have already suggested something infernal . " The peeling wallpaper and the paste which seeps through it also mirror Charlie 's chronic ear infection and the resultant pus .
When Barton first arrives at the Hotel Earle , he is asked by the friendly bellhop Chet ( Steve Buscemi ) if he is " a trans or a res " – transient or resident . Barton explains that he isn 't sure but will be staying " indefinitely " . The dichotomy between permanent inhabitants and guests reappears several times , notably in the hotel 's motto , " A day or a lifetime " , which Barton notices on the room 's stationery . This idea returns at the end of the movie , when Charlie describes Barton as " a tourist with a typewriter " . His ability to leave the Earle ( while Charlie remains ) is presented by critic Erica Rowell as evidence that Barton 's story represents the process of writing itself . Barton , she says , represents an author who is able to leave a story , while characters like Charlie cannot .
In contrast , the offices of Capitol Pictures and Lipnick 's house are pristine , lavishly decorated , and extremely comfortable . The company 's rooms are bathed in sunlight , and Ben Geisler 's office faces a lush array of flora . Barton meets Lipnick in one scene beside an enormous , spotless swimming pool . This echoes his position as studio head , as he explains : " ... you can 't always be honest , not with the sharks swimming around this town ... if I 'd been totally honest , I wouldn 't be within a mile of this pool – unless I was cleaning it . " In his office , Lipnick showcases another trophy of his power : statues of Atlas , the Titan of Greek mythology who declared war on the gods of Mount Olympus and was severely punished .
Barton watches dailies from another wrestling film being made by Capitol Pictures ; the date on the clapperboard is December 9 , two days after the attack on Pearl Harbor . Later , when Barton celebrates the completed script by dancing at a USO show , he is surrounded by soldiers . In Lipnick 's next appearance , he wears a colonel 's uniform , which is really a costume from his company . Lipnick has not actually entered the military but declares himself ready to fight the " little yellow bastards " . Originally , this historical moment just after the United States entered World War II was to have a significant impact on the Hotel Earle . As the Coens explained : " [ W ] e were thinking of a hotel where the lodgers were old people , the insane , the physically handicapped , because all the others had left for the war . The further the script was developed , the more this theme got left behind , but it had led us , in the beginning , to settle on that period . "
= = = = The Picture = = = =
The picture in Barton 's room of a woman at the beach is a central focus for both the character and camera . He examines it frequently while at his desk , and after finding Audrey 's corpse in his bed he goes to stand near it . The image is repeated at the end of the film , when he meets an identical @-@ looking woman at an identical @-@ looking beach , who strikes an identical pose . After complimenting her beauty , he asks her : " Are you in pictures ? " She blushes and replies : " Don 't be silly . "
The Coens decided early in the writing process to include the picture as a key element in the room . " Our intention , " Joel explained later , " was that the room would have very little decoration , that the walls would be bare and that the windows would offer no view of any particular interest . In fact , we wanted the only opening on the exterior world to be this picture . It seemed important to us to create a feeling of isolation . "
Later in the film , Barton places into the frame a small picture of Charlie , dressed in a fine suit and holding a briefcase . The juxtaposition of his neighbor in the uniform of an insurance salesman and the escapist image of the woman on the beach leads to a confusion of reality and fantasy for Barton . Critic Michael Dunne notes : " [ V ] iewers can only wonder how ' real ' Charlie is . ... In the film 's final shot ... viewers must wonder how ' real ' [ the woman ] is . The question leads to others : How real is Fink ? Lipnick ? Audrey ? Mayhew ? How real are films anyway ? "
The picture 's significance has been the subject of broad speculation . Washington Post reviewer Desson Howe said that despite its emotional impact , the final scene " feels more like a punchline for punchline 's sake , a trumped @-@ up coda " . In her book @-@ length analysis of the Coen brothers ' films , Rowell suggests that Barton 's fixation on the picture is ironic , considering its low culture status and his own pretensions toward high culture ( speeches to the contrary notwithstanding ) . She further notes that the camera focuses on Barton himself as much as the picture while he gazes at it . At one point , the camera moves past Barton to fill the frame with the woman on the beach . This tension between objective and subjective points of view appears again at the end of the film , when Barton finds himself – in a sense – inside the picture .
Critic M. Keith Booker calls the final scene an " enigmatic comment on representation and the relationship between art and reality " . He suggests that the identical images point to the absurdity of art which reflects life directly . The film transposes the woman directly from art to reality , prompting confusion in the viewer ; Booker asserts that such a literal depiction therefore leads inevitably to uncertainty .
= = Genre = =
The Coens are known for making films that defy simple classification . Although they refer to their first film , Blood Simple ( 1984 ) , as a relatively straightforward example of detective fiction , the Coens wrote their next script , Raising Arizona ( 1987 ) , without trying to fit a particular genre . They decided to write a comedy but intentionally added dark elements to produce what Ethan calls " a pretty savage film " . Their third film , Miller 's Crossing ( 1990 ) , reversed this order , mixing bits of comedy into a crime film . Yet it also subverts single @-@ genre identity by using conventions from melodrama , love stories , and political satire .
This trend of mixing genres continued and intensified with Barton Fink ( 1991 ) ; the Coens insist the film " does not belong to any genre " . Ethan has described it as " a buddy movie for the ' 90s " . It contains elements of comedy , film noir , and horror , but other film categories are present . Actor Turturro referred to it as a coming of age story , while literature professor and film analyst R. Barton Palmer calls it a Künstlerroman , highlighting the importance of the main character 's evolution as a writer . Critic Donald Lyons describes the movie as " a retro @-@ surrealist vision " .
Because it crosses genres , fragments the characters ' experiences , and resists straightforward narrative resolution , Barton Fink is often considered an example of postmodernist film . In his book Postmodern Hollywood , Booker says the movie renders the past with an impressionist technique , not a precise accuracy . This technique , he notes , is " typical of postmodern film , which views the past not as the prehistory of the present but as a warehouse of images to be raided for material " . In his analysis of the Coens ' films , Palmer calls Barton Fink a " postmodern pastiche " which closely examines how past eras have represented themselves . He compares it to The Hours ( 2002 ) , a film about Virginia Woolf and two women who read her work . He asserts that both films , far from rejecting the importance of the past , add to our understanding of it . He quotes literary theorist Linda Hutcheon : the kind of postmodernism exhibited in these films " does not deny the existence of the past ; it does question whether we can ever know that past other than through its textualizing remains " .
Certain elements in Barton Fink highlight the veneer of postmodernism : the writer is unable to resolve his modernist focus on high culture with the studio 's desire to create formulaic high @-@ profit films ; the resulting collision produces a fractured story arc emblematic of postmodernism . The Coens ' cinematic style is another example ; when Barton and Audrey begin making love , the camera pans away to the bathroom , then moves toward the sink and down its drain . Rowell calls this a " postmodern update " of the notorious sexually suggestive image of a train entering a tunnel , used by director Alfred Hitchcock in his film North by Northwest ( 1959 ) .
= = Style = =
Barton Fink uses several stylistic conventions to accentuate the story 's mood and give visual emphasis to particular themes . For example , the opening credits roll over the Hotel Earle 's wallpaper , as the camera moves downward . This motion is repeated many times in the film , especially pursuant to Barton 's claim that his job is to " plumb the depths " while writing . His first experiences in the Hotel Earle continue this trope ; the bellhop Chet emerges from beneath the floor , carrying a shoe ( which he has presumably been polishing ) suggesting the real activity is underground . Although Barton 's floor is presumably six floors above the lobby , the interior of the elevator is shown only while it is descending . These elements – combined with many dramatic pauses , surreal dialogue , and implied threats of violence – create an atmosphere of extreme tension . The Coens explained that " the whole movie was supposed to feel like impending doom or catastrophe . And we definitely wanted it to end with an apocalyptic feeling " .
The style of Barton Fink is also evocative – and representative – of films of the 1930s and ' 40s . As critic Michael Dunne points out : " Fink 's heavy overcoat , his hat , his dark , drab suits come realistically out of the Thirties , but they come even more out of the films of the Thirties . " The style of the Hotel Earle and atmosphere of various scenes also reflect the influence of pre @-@ WWII filmmaking . Even Charlie 's underwear matches that worn by his filmic hero Jack Oakie . At the same time , camera techniques used by the Coens in Barton Fink represent a combination of the classic with the original . Careful tracking shots and extreme close @-@ ups distinguish the film as a product of the late 20th century .
From the start , the film moves continuously between Barton 's subjective view of the world and one which is objective . After the opening credits roll , the camera pans down to Barton , watching the end of his play . Soon we see the audience from his point of view , cheering wildly for him . As he walks forward , he enters the shot and the viewer is returned to an objective point of view . This blurring of the subjective and objective returns in the final scene .
The shifting point of view coincides with the movie 's subject matter : filmmaking . The film begins with the end of a play , and the story explores the process of creation . This metanarrative approach is emphasized by the camera 's focus in the first scene on Barton ( who is mouthing the words spoken by actors offscreen ) , not on the play he is watching . As Rowell says : " [ T ] hough we listen to one scene , we watch another . ... The separation of sound and picture shows a crucial dichotomy between two ' views ' of artifice : the world created by the protagonist ( his play ) and the world outside it ( what goes into creating a performance ) " .
The film also employs numerous foreshadowing techniques . Signifying the probable contents of the package Charlie leaves with Barton , the word " head " appears 60 times in the original screenplay . In a grim nod to later events , Charlie describes his positive attitude toward his " job " of selling insurance : " Fire , theft and casualty are not things that only happen to other people . "
= = = Symbolism = = =
Much has been written about the symbolic meanings of Barton Fink . Rowell proposes that it is " a figurative head swelling of ideas that all lead back to the artist " . The proximity of the sex scene to Audrey 's murder prompts Lyons to insist : " Sex in Barton Fink is death " . Others have suggested that the second half of the movie is an extended dream sequence .
The Coens , however , have denied any intent to create a systematic unity from symbols in the film . " We never , ever go into our films with anything like that in mind " , Joel said in a 1998 interview . " There 's never anything approaching that kind of specific intellectual breakdown . It 's always a bunch of instinctive things that feel right , for whatever reason " . The Coens have noted their comfort with unresolved ambiguity . Ethan said in 1991 : " Barton Fink does end up telling you what 's going on to the extent that it 's important to know ... What isn 't crystal clear isn 't intended to become crystal clear , and it 's fine to leave it at that . " Regarding fantasies and dream sequences , he said :
It is correct to say that we wanted the spectator to share in the interior life of Barton Fink as well as his point of view . But there was no need to go too far . For example , it would have been incongruous for Barton Fink to wake up at the end of the film and for us to suggest thereby that he actually inhabited a reality greater than what is depicted in the film . In any case , it is always artificial to talk about " reality " in regard to a fictional character .
The homoerotic overtones of Barton 's relationship with Charlie are not unintentional . Although one detective demands to know if they had " some sick sex thing " , their intimacy is presented as anything but deviant , and cloaked in conventions of mainstream sexuality . Charlie 's first friendly overture toward his neighbor , for example , comes in the form of a standard pick @-@ up line : " I 'd feel better about the damned inconvenience if you 'd let me buy you a drink " . The wrestling scene between Barton and Charlie is also cited as an example of homoerotic affection . " We consider that a sex scene " , Joel Coen said in 2001 .
= = = Sound and music = = =
Many of the sound effects in Barton Fink are laden with meaning . For example , Barton is summoned by a bell while dining in New York ; its sound is light and pleasant . By contrast , the eerie sustained bell of the Hotel Earle rings endlessly through the lobby , until Chet silences it . The nearby rooms of the hotel emit a constant chorus of guttural cries , moans , and assorted unidentifiable noises . These sounds coincide with Barton 's confused mental state and punctuate Charlie 's claim that " I hear everything that goes on in this dump " . The applause in the first scene foreshadows the tension of Barton 's move west , mixed as it is with the sound of an ocean wave crashing – an image which is shown onscreen soon thereafter .
Another symbolic sound is the hum of a mosquito . Although his producer insists that these parasites don 't live in Los Angeles ( since " mosquitos breed in swamps ; this is a desert " ) , its distinctive sound is heard clearly as Barton watches a bug circle overhead in his hotel room . Later , he arrives at meetings with mosquito bites on his face . The insect also figures prominently into the revelation of Audrey 's death ; Barton slaps a mosquito feeding on her corpse and suddenly realizes she 's been murdered . The high pitch of the mosquito 's hum is echoed in the high strings used for the movie 's score . During filming , the Coens were contacted by an animal rights group who expressed concern about how mosquitoes would be treated .
The score was composed by Carter Burwell , who has worked with the Coens since their first film . Unlike earlier projects , however – the Irish folk tune used for Miller 's Crossing and an American folk song as the basis for Raising Arizona – Burwell wrote the music for Barton Fink without a specific inspiration . The score was released in 1996 on a compact disc , combined with the score for the Coens ' film Fargo ( 1996 ) .
Several songs used in the film are laden with meaning . At one point Mayhew stumbles away from Barton and Audrey , drunk . As he wanders , he hollers the folk song " Old Black Joe " ( 1853 ) . Composed by Stephen Foster , it tells the tale of an elderly slave preparing to join his friends in " a better land " . Mayhew 's rendition of the song coincides with his condition as an oppressed employee of Capitol Pictures , and it foreshadows Barton 's own situation at the movie 's end .
When he finishes writing his script , Barton celebrates by dancing at a USO show . The song used in this scene is a rendition of " Down South Camp Meeting " , a swing tune . Its lyrics ( unheard in the film ) state : " Git ready ( Sing ) / Here they come ! The choir 's all set " . These lines echo the title of Barton 's play , Bare Ruined Choirs . As the celebration erupts into a melee , the intensity of the music increases , and the camera zooms into the cavernous hollow of a trumpet . This sequence mirrors the camera 's zoom into a sink drain just before Audrey is murdered earlier in the film .
= = = Clifford Odets = = =
The character of Barton Fink is based loosely on Clifford Odets , a playwright from New York who in the 1930s joined the Group Theatre , a gathering of dramatists which included Harold Clurman , Cheryl Crawford , and Lee Strasberg . Their work emphasized social issues and employed Stanislavski 's system of acting to recreate human experience as truthfully as possible . Several of Odets ' plays were successfully performed on Broadway , including Awake and Sing ! and Waiting for Lefty ( both in 1935 ) . When public tastes turned away from politically engaged theatre and toward the familial realism of Eugene O 'Neill , Odets had difficulty producing successful work , so he moved to Hollywood and spent 20 years writing film scripts .
The Coens wrote with Odets in mind ; they imagined Barton Fink as " a serious dramatist , honest , politically engaged , and rather naive " . As Ethan said in 1991 : " It seemed natural that he comes from Group Theater and the decade of the thirties . " Like Odets , Barton believes that the theatre should celebrate the trials and triumphs of everyday people ; like Barton , Odets was highly egotistical . In the movie , a review of Barton 's play Bare Ruined Choirs indicates that his characters face a " brute struggle for existence ... in the most squalid corners " . This wording is similar to the comment of biographer Gerald Weales that Odets ' characters " struggle for life amidst petty conditions " . Lines of dialogue from Barton 's work are reminiscent of Odets ' play Awake and Sing ! . For example , one character declares : " I 'm awake now , awake for the first time " . Another says : " Take that ruined choir . Make it sing " .
However , many important differences exist between the two men . Joel Coen said : " Both writers wrote the same kind of plays with proletarian heroes , but their personalities were quite different . Odets was much more of an extrovert ; in fact he was quite sociable even in Hollywood , and this is not the case with Barton Fink ! " Although he was frustrated by his declining popularity in New York , Odets was successful during his time in Hollywood . Several of his later plays were adapted – by him and others – into movies . One of these , The Big Knife ( 1955 ) , matches Barton 's life much more than Odets ' . In it , an actor becomes overwhelmed by the greed of a movie studio which hires him and eventually commits suicide . Another similarity to Odets ' work is Audrey 's death , which mirrors a scene in Deadline at Dawn ( 1946 ) , a film noir written by Odets . In that film , a character awakens to find that the woman he bedded the night before has been inexplicably murdered .
Odets chronicled his difficult transition from Broadway to Hollywood in his diary , published as The Time Is Ripe : The 1940 Journal of Clifford Odets ( 1988 ) . The diary explored Odets ' philosophical deliberations about writing and romance . He often invited women into his apartment , and he describes many of his affairs in the diary . These experiences , like the extended speeches about writing , are echoed in Barton Fink when Audrey visits and seduces Barton at the Hotel Earle . Turturro was the only member of the production who read Odets ' Journal , however , and the Coen brothers urge audiences to " take account of the difference between the character and the man " .
= = = William Faulkner = = =
Some similarities exist between the character of W.P. Mayhew and novelist William Faulkner . Like Mayhew , Faulkner became known as a preeminent writer of Southern literature and later worked in the movie business . Like Faulkner , Mayhew is a heavy drinker and speaks contemptuously about Hollywood . Faulkner 's name appeared in the Hollywood 1940s history book City of Nets , which the Coens read while creating Barton Fink . Ethan explained in 1998 : " I read this story in passing that Faulkner was assigned to write a wrestling picture .... That was part of what got us going on the whole Barton Fink thing . " Faulkner worked on a wrestling film called Flesh ( 1932 ) , which starred Wallace Beery , the actor for whom Barton is writing . The focus on wrestling was fortuitous for the Coens , as they participated in the sport in high school .
However , the Coens disavow a significant connection between Faulkner and Mayhew , calling the similarities " superficial " . " As far as the details of the character are concerned , " Ethan said in 1991 , " Mayhew is very different from Faulkner , whose experiences in Hollywood were not the same at all . " Unlike Mayhew 's inability to write due to drink and personal problems , Faulkner continued to pen novels after working in the movie business , winning several awards for fiction completed during and after his time in Hollywood .
= = = Jack Lipnick = = =
Lerner 's Academy Award @-@ nominated character of studio mogul Jack Lipnick is a composite of several Hollywood producers , including Harry Cohn , Louis B. Mayer , and Jack L. Warner – three of the most powerful men in the film industry at the time in which Barton Fink is set . Like Mayer , Lipnick is originally from the Belarusian capital city Minsk . When World War II broke out , Warner pressed for a position in the military and ordered his wardrobe department to create a military uniform for him ; Lipnick does the same in his final scene . Warner once referred to writers as " schmucks with Underwoods " , leading to Barton 's use in the film of an Underwood typewriter .
At the same time , the Coens stress that the labyrinth of deception and difficulty Barton endures is not based on their own experience . Although Joel has said that artists tend to " meet up with Philistines " , he added : " Barton Fink is quite far from our own experience . Our professional life in Hollywood has been especially easy , and this is no doubt extraordinary and unfair " . Ethan has suggested that Lipnick – like the men on which he is based – is in some ways a product of his time . " I don 't know that that kind of character exists anymore . Hollywood is a little more bland and corporate than that now " .
= = = Cinema = = =
The Coens have acknowledged several cinematic inspirations for Barton Fink . Chief among these are three movies by Polish @-@ French filmmaker Roman Polanski : Repulsion ( 1965 ) , Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac ( 1966 ) , and The Tenant ( 1976 ) . These movies employ a mood of psychological uncertainty coupled with eerie environments that compound the mental instability of the characters . Barton 's isolation in his room at the Hotel Earle is frequently compared to that of Trelkovsky in his apartment in The Tenant . Ethan said regarding the genre of Barton Fink : " [ I ] t is kind of a Polanski movie . It is closer to that than anything else . " By coincidence , Polanski was the head of the jury at the Cannes Film Festival in 1991 , where Barton Fink premiered . This created an awkward situation . " Obviously " , Joel Coen said later , " we have been influenced by his films , but at this time we were very hesitant to speak to him about it because we did not want to give the impression we were sucking up " .
Other works cited as influences for Barton Fink include the film The Shining ( 1980 ) , produced and directed by Stanley Kubrick , and the comedy Sullivan 's Travels ( 1941 ) , written and directed by Preston Sturges . Set in an empty hotel , Kubrick 's movie concerns a writer unable to proceed with his latest work . Although the Coens approve of comparisons to The Shining , Joel suggests that Kubrick 's film " belongs in a more global sense to the horror film genre " . Sullivan 's Travels , released the year in which Barton Fink is set , follows successful director John Sullivan , who decides to create a movie of deep social import – not unlike Barton 's desire to create entertainment for " the common man " . Sullivan eventually decides that comedic entertainment is a key role for filmmakers , similar to Jack Lipnick 's assertion at the end of Barton Fink that " the audience wants to see action , adventure " .
Additional allusions to films and film history abound in Barton Fink . At one point a character discusses " Victor Soderberg " ; the name is a reference to Victor Sjöström , a Swedish director who worked in Hollywood under the name Victor Seastrom . Charlie 's line about how his troubles " don 't amount to a hill of beans " is a probable homage to the film Casablanca ( 1942 ) . Another similarity is that of Barton Fink 's beach scene to the final moment in La Dolce Vita ( 1960 ) , wherein a young woman 's final line of dialogue is obliterated by the noise of the ocean . The unsettling emptiness of the Hotel Earle has also been compared to the living spaces in Key Largo ( 1948 ) and Sunset Boulevard ( 1950 ) .
= = Themes = =
Two of the film 's central themes – the culture of entertainment production and the writing process – are intertwined and relate specifically to the self @-@ referential nature of the work ( as well as the work within the work ) . It is a movie about a man who writes a movie based on a play , and at the centre of Barton 's entire opus is Barton himself . The dialogue in his play Bare Ruined Choirs ( also the first lines of the film , some of which are repeated at the end of the film as lines in Barton 's screenplay The Burlyman ) give us a glimpse into Barton 's self @-@ descriptive art . The mother in the play is named " Lil " , which is later revealed to be the name of Barton 's own mother . In the play , " The Kid " ( a representation of Barton himself ) refers to his home " six flights up " – the same floor where Barton resides at the Hotel Earle . Moreover , the characters ' writing processes in Barton Fink reflect important differences between the culture of entertainment production in New York 's Broadway district and Hollywood .
= = = Broadway and Hollywood = = =
Although Barton speaks frequently about his desire to help create " a new , living theater , of and about and for the common man " , he does not recognize that such a theater has already been created : the movies . In fact , he disdains this authentically popular form . On the other hand , the world of Broadway theatre in Barton Fink is a place of high culture , where the creator believes most fully that his work embodies his own values . Although he pretends to disdain his own success , Barton believes he has achieved a great victory with Bare Ruined Choirs . He seeks praise ; when his agent Garland asks if he 's seen the glowing review in the Herald , Barton says " No " , even though his producer had just read it to him . Barton feels close to the theatre , confident that it can help him create work that honors " the common man " . The men and women who funded the production – " those people " , as Barton calls them – demonstrate that Broadway is just as concerned with profit as Hollywood ; but its intimacy and smaller scale allow the author to feel that his work has real value .
Barton does not believe Hollywood offers the same opportunity . In the film , Los Angeles is a world of false fronts and phony people . This is evident in an early line of the screenplay ( filmed , but not included in the theatrical release ) ; while informing Barton of Capitol Pictures ' offer , his agent tells him : " I 'm only asking that your decision be informed by a little realism – if I can use that word and Hollywood in the same breath " . Later , as Barton tries to explain why he 's staying at the Earle , studio head Jack Lipnick finishes his sentence , recognizing that Barton wants a place that is " less Hollywood " . The assumption is that Hollywood is fake and the Earle is genuine . Producer Ben Geisler takes Barton to lunch at a restaurant featuring a mural of the " New York Cafe " , a sign of Hollywood 's effort to replicate the authenticity of the East Coast . Lipnick 's initial overwhelming exuberance is also a façade . Although he begins by telling Barton : " The writer is king here at Capitol Pictures " , in the penultimate scene he insists : " If your opinion mattered , then I guess I 'd resign and let you run the studio . It doesn 't , and you won 't , and the lunatics are not going to run this particular asylum " .
Deception in Barton Fink is emblematic of Hollywood 's focus on low culture , its relentless desire to efficiently produce formulaic entertainment for the sole purpose of economic gain . Capitol Pictures assigns Barton to write a wrestling picture with superstar Wallace Beery in the leading role . Although Lipnick declares otherwise , Geisler assures Barton that " it 's just a B picture " . Audrey tries to help the struggling writer by telling him : " Look , it 's really just a formula . You don 't have to type your soul into it " . This formula is made clear by Lipnick , who asks Barton in their first meeting whether the main character should have a love interest or take care of an orphaned child . Barton shows his iconoclasm by answering : " Both , maybe ? " In the end , his inability to conform to the studio 's norms destroys Barton .
A similar depiction of Hollywood appears in Nathanael West 's novel The Day of the Locust ( 1939 ) , which many critics see as an important precursor to Barton Fink . Set in a run @-@ down apartment complex , the book describes a painter reduced to decorating movie sets . It portrays Hollywood as crass and exploitative , devouring talented individuals in its neverending quest for profit . In both West 's novel and Barton Fink , protagonists suffer under the oppressive industrial machine of the movie studio .
= = = Writing = = =
The film contains further self @-@ referential material , as a film about a writer having difficulty writing ( written by the Coen brothers while they were having difficulty writing Miller 's Crossing ) . Barton is trapped between his own desire to create meaningful art and Capitol Pictures ' need to use its standard conventions to earn profits . Audrey 's advice about following the formula would have saved Barton , but he does not heed it . However , when he puts the mysterious package on his writing desk ( which might have contained her head ) , she might have been helping him posthumously , in other ways . The movie itself toys with standard screenplay formulas . As with Mayhew 's scripts , Barton Fink contains a " good wrestler " ( Barton , it seems ) and a " bad wrestler " ( Charlie ) who " confront " each other at the end . But in typical Coen fashion , the lines of good and evil are blurred , and the supposed hero in fact reveals himself to be deaf to the pleadings of his " common man " neighbor . By blurring the lines between reality and surreal experience , the film subverts the " simple morality tales " and " road maps " offered to Barton as easy paths for the writer to follow .
However , the filmmakers point out that Barton Fink is not meant to represent the Coens themselves . " Our life in Hollywood has been particularly easy " , they once said . " The film isn 't a personal comment " . Still , universal themes of the creative process are explored throughout the movie . During the picnic scene , for example , Mayhew asks Barton : " Ain 't writin ' peace ? " Barton pauses , then says : " No , I 've always found that writing comes from a great inner pain . " Such exchanges led critic William Rodney Allen to call Barton Fink " an autobiography of the life of the Coens ' minds , not of literal fact " . Allen 's comment is itself a reference to the phrase " life of the mind " , used repeatedly in the movie in wildly differing contexts .
= = = Fascism = = =
Several of the film 's elements , including the setting at the start of World War II , have led some critics to highlight parallels to the rise of fascism at the time . For example , the detectives who visit Barton at the Hotel Earle are named " Mastrionatti " and " Deutsch " – Italian and German names , evocative of the regimes of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler . Their contempt for Barton is clear : " Fink . That 's a Jewish name , isn 't it ? ... I didn 't think this dump was restricted . " Later , just before killing his last victim , Charlie says : " Heil Hitler " . Jack Lipnick hails originally from the Belarusian capital city Minsk , which was occupied from 1941 by the Nazis , following Operation Barbarossa .
" [ I ] t 's not forcing the issue to suggest that the Holocaust hovers over Barton Fink " , writes biographer Ronald Bergan . Others see a more specific message in the film , particularly Barton 's obliviousness to Charlie 's homicidal tendencies . Critic Roger Ebert wrote in his 1991 review that the Coens intended to create an allegory for the rise of Nazism . " They paint Fink as an ineffectual and impotent left @-@ wing intellectual , who sells out while telling himself he is doing the right thing , who thinks he understands the ' common man ' but does not understand that , for many common men , fascism had a seductive appeal " . However , he goes on to say : " It would be a mistake to insist too much on this aspect of the movie .... "
Other critics are more demanding . M. Keith Booker writes :
Fink 's failure to " listen " seems intended to tell us that many leftist intellectuals like him were too busy pursuing their own selfish interests to effectively oppose the rise of fascism , a point that is historically entirely inaccurate ... That the Coens would choose to level a charge of irresponsibility against the only group in America that actively sought to oppose the rise of fascism is itself highly irresponsible and shows a complete ignorance of ( or perhaps lack of interest in ) historical reality . Such ignorance and apathy , of course , are typical of postmodern film ....
For their part , the Coens deny any intention of presenting an allegorical message . They chose the detectives ' names deliberately , but " we just wanted them to be representative of the Axis world powers at the time . It just seemed kind of amusing . It 's a tease . All that stuff with Charlie – the " Heil Hitler ! " business – sure , it 's all there , but it 's kind of a tease . " In 2001 , Joel responded to a question about critics who provide extended comprehensive analysis : " That 's how they 've been trained to watch movies . In Barton Fink , we may have encouraged it – like teasing animals at the zoo . The movie is intentionally ambiguous in ways they may not be used to seeing " .
= = = Slavery = = =
Although subdued in dialogue and imagery , the theme of slavery appears several times in the movie . Mayhew 's crooning of the spiritual tune " Old Black Joe " depicts him as enslaved to the movie studio , not unlike the song 's narrator who pines for " my friends from the cotton fields away " . One brief shot of the door to Mayhew 's workspace shows the title of the movie he is supposedly writing : Slave Ship . This is a reference to a 1937 movie written by Mayhew 's inspiration William Faulkner and starring Wallace Beery , for whom Barton is composing a script in the movie .
The symbol of the slave ship is furthered by specific set designs , including the round window in Ben Geisler 's office which resembles a porthole , as well as the walkway leading to Mayhew 's bungalow , which resembles the boarding ramp of a watercraft . Several lines of dialogue make clear by the film 's end that Barton has become a slave to the studio : " [ T ] he contents of your head " , Lipnick 's assistant tells him , " are the property of Capitol Pictures " . After Barton turns in his script , Lipnick delivers an even more brutal punishment : " Anything you write will be the property of Capitol Pictures . And Capitol Pictures will not produce anything you write " . This contempt and control is representative of the opinions expressed by many writers in Hollywood at the time . As Arthur Miller said in his review of Barton Fink : " The only thing about Hollywood that I am sure of is that its mastication of writers can never be too wildly exaggerated " .
= = = " The Common Man " = = =
During the first third of the film , Barton speaks constantly of his desire to lionise " the common man " in his work . In one speech he declares : " The hopes and dreams of the common man are as noble as those of any king . It 's the stuff of life – why shouldn 't it be the stuff of theater ? Goddamnit , why should that be a hard pill to swallow ? Don 't call it new theater , Charlie ; call it real theater . Call it our theater . " Yet , despite his rhetoric , Barton is totally unable ( or unwilling ) to appreciate the humanity of the " common man " living next door to him . Later in the film , Charlie explains that he has brought various horrors upon him because " you DON 'T LISTEN ! " In his first conversation with Charlie , Barton constantly interrupts Charlie just as he is saying " I could tell you some stories- " , demonstrating that despite his fine words he really isn 't interested in Charlie 's experiences ; in another scene , Barton symbolically demonstrates his deafness to the world by stuffing his ears with cotton to block the sound of his ringing telephone .
Barton 's position as screenwriter is of particular consequence to his relationship with " the common man " . By refusing to listen to his neighbor , Barton cannot validate Charlie 's existence in his writing – with disastrous results . Not only is Charlie stuck in a job which demeans him , but he cannot ( at least in Barton 's case ) have his story told . More centrally , the film traces the evolution of Barton 's understanding of " the common man " : At first he is an abstraction to be lauded from a vague distance . Then he becomes a complex individual with fears and desires . Finally he shows himself to be a powerful individual in his own right , capable of extreme forms of destruction and therefore feared and / or respected .
The complexity of " the common man " is also explored through the oft @-@ mentioned " life of the mind " . While expounding on his duty as a writer , Barton drones : " I gotta tell you , the life of the mind ... There 's no road map for that territory ... and exploring it can be painful . The kind of pain most people don 't know anything about . " Barton assumes that he is privy to thoughtful creative considerations while Charlie is not . This delusion shares the film 's climax , as Charlie runs through the hallway of the Earle , shooting the detectives with a shotgun and screaming : " LOOK UPON ME ! I 'LL SHOW YOU THE LIFE OF THE MIND ! ! " Charlie 's " life of the mind " is no less complex than Barton 's ; in fact , some critics consider it more so .
Charlie 's understanding of the world is depicted as omniscient , as when he asks Barton about " the two lovebirds next door " , despite the fact that they are several doors away . When Barton asks how he knows about them , Charlie responds : " Seems like I hear everything that goes on in this dump . Pipes or somethin ' . " His total awareness of the events at the Earle demonstrate the kind of understanding needed to show real empathy , as described by Audrey . This theme returns when Charlie explains in his final scene : "
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, however , much simpler insignia are used whenever a member of the Order attends an event at which decorations are worn .
The star of the Order consists of a silver St Andrew 's saltire , with clusters of rays between the arms thereof . In the centre is depicted a green circle bearing the motto of the Order in gold majuscules ; within the circle , there is depicted a thistle on a gold field . It is worn pinned to the left breast . ( Since the Order of the Thistle is the second @-@ most senior chivalric order in the UK , a member will wear its star above that of other orders to which he or she belongs , except that of the Order of the Garter ; up to four orders ' stars may be worn . )
The broad riband is a dark green sash worn across the body , from the left shoulder to the right hip .
At the right hip of the Riband , the badge of the Order is attached . The badge depicts St Andrew in the same form as the badge @-@ appendant surrounded by the Order 's motto .
However , on certain collar days designated by the Sovereign , members attending formal events may wear the Order 's collar over their military uniform , formal wear , or other costume . They will then substitute the broad riband of another order to which they belong ( if any ) , since the Order of the Thistle is represented by the collar .
Upon the death of a Knight or Lady , the insignia must be returned to the Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood . The badge and star are returned personally to the Sovereign by the nearest relative of the deceased .
Officers of the Order also wear green robes . The Gentleman Usher of the Green Rod also bears , as the title of his office suggests , a green rod .
One unusual recipient of the Order of the Thistle was James , Earl of Southesk ( 1827 @-@ 1905 ) . He was recognized by the Order for his adventurous spirit and his passion for the wilds of Canada . His portrait in marble by William Grant Stevenson depicts a stern man who had placed himself at some risk as he travelled through the Canadian wilderness and wrote about his admiration for the native peoples of North America .
= = Chapel = =
When James VII created the modern Order in 1687 , he directed that the Abbey Church at the Palace of Holyroodhouse be converted to a Chapel for the Order of the Thistle , perhaps copying the idea from the Order of the Garter ( whose chapel is located in Windsor Castle ) . James VII , however , was deposed by 1688 ; the Chapel , meanwhile , had been destroyed during riots . The Order did not have a Chapel until 1911 , when one was added onto St Giles High Kirk in Edinburgh . Each year , the Sovereign resides at the Palace of Holyroodhouse for a week in June or July ; during the visit , a service for the Order is held . Any new Knights or Ladies are installed at annual services .
Each member of the Order , including the Sovereign , is allotted a stall in the Chapel , above which his or her heraldic devices are displayed . Perched on the pinnacle of a knight 's stall is his helm , decorated with mantling and topped by his crest . If he is a peer , the coronet appropriate to his rank is placed beneath the helm . Under the laws of heraldry , women , other than monarchs , do not normally bear helms nor crests ; instead , the coronet alone is used ( if she is a peeress or princess ) . Lady Marion Fraser had a helm and crest included when she was granted arms ; these are displayed above her stall in the same manner as for knights . Unlike other British Orders , the armorial banners of Knights and Ladies of the Thistle are not hung in the chapel , but instead in an adjacent part of St Giles High Kirk . The Thistle Chapel does , however , bear the arms of members living and deceased on stall plates . These enamelled plates are affixed to the back of the stall and display its occupant 's name , arms , and date of admission into the Order .
Upon the death of a Knight , helm , mantling , crest ( or coronet or crown ) and sword are taken down . The stall plates , however , are not removed ; rather , they remain permanently affixed to the back of the stall , so that the stalls of the chapel are festooned with a colourful record of the Order 's Knights ( and now Ladies ) since 1911 . The entryway just outside the doors of the chapel has the names of the Order 's Knights from before 1911 inscribed into the walls giving a complete record of the members of the order .
= = Precedence and privileges = =
Knights and Ladies of the Thistle are assigned positions in the order of precedence , ranking above all others of knightly rank except the Order of the Garter , and above baronets . Wives , sons , daughters and daughters @-@ in @-@ law of Knights of the Thistle also feature on the order of precedence ; relatives of Ladies of the Thistle , however , are not assigned any special precedence . ( Generally , individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands , but not from their mothers or wives . )
Knights of the Thistle prefix " Sir " , and Ladies prefix " Lady " , to their forenames . Wives of Knights may prefix " Lady " to their surnames , but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Ladies . Such forms are not used by peers and princes , except when the names of the former are written out in their fullest forms .
Knights and Ladies use the post @-@ nominal letters " KT " and " LT " respectively . When an individual is entitled to use multiple post @-@ nominal letters , " KT " or " LT " appears before all others , except " Bt " or " Btss " ( Baronet or Baronetess ) , " VC " ( Victoria Cross ) , " GC " ( George Cross ) and " KG " or " LG " ( Knight or Lady of the Garter ) .
Knights and Ladies may encircle their arms with the circlet ( a green circle bearing the Order 's motto ) and the collar of the Order ; the former is shown either outside or on top of the latter . The badge is depicted suspended from the collar . The Royal Arms depict the collar and motto of the Order of the Thistle only in Scotland ; they show the circlet and motto of the Garter in England , Wales and Northern Ireland .
Knights and Ladies are also entitled to receive heraldic supporters . This high privilege is shared only by members of the Royal Family , peers , Knights and Ladies of the Garter , and Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the junior orders of chivalry and clan chiefs .
= = Current members and officers = =
Sovereign : Elizabeth II
Knights and Ladies Companion :
Andrew , Earl of Elgin and Kincardine KT JP DL ( 1981 )
David , Earl of Airlie KT GCVO PC JP ( 1985 )
Robert , Earl of Crawford and Balcarres KT GCVO PC DL ( 1996 )
Lady Marion Fraser LT ( 1996 )
Norman , Lord Macfarlane of Bearsden KT DL ( 1996 )
James , Lord Mackay of Clashfern KT PC QC ( 1997 )
David , Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG ( 2000 )
Stewart , Lord Sutherland of Houndwood KT ( 2002 )
Sir Eric Anderson KT ( 2002 )
David , Lord Steel of Aikwood KT KBE PC ( 2004 )
George , Lord Robertson of Port Ellen KT GCMG PC ( 2004 )
William , Lord Cullen of Whitekirk KT PC ( 2007 )
David , Lord Hope of Craighead KT PC QC ( 2009 )
Narendra , Lord Patel KT ( 2009 )
David , Earl of Home KT CVO CBE ( 2014 )
Robert , Lord Smith of Kelvin KT CH ( 2014 )
Extra Knights and Ladies Companion :
Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh KG KT OM GBE AK CC CMM QSO PC ADC ( P ) CD ( 1952 )
Prince Charles , Duke of Rothesay KG KT GCB OM AK QSO PC ADC ( P ) CD ( 1977 )
Princess Anne , Princess Royal KG KT GCVO QSO CD ( 2000 )
Prince William , Earl of Strathearn KG KT PC ADC ( P ) ( 2012 )
Officers :
Dean : Very Reverend Professor Iain Torrance , TD
Chancellor : David , Earl of Airlie KT GCVO PC JP
Gentleman Usher of the Green Rod : Rear Admiral Christopher Hope Layman CB DSO LVO
King of Arms : Dr Joseph Morrow ( Lord Lyon King of Arms )
Secretary : Elizabeth Roads LVO ( Snawdoun Herald , Lyon Clerk and Keeper of the Records )
= = = Printed = = =
= = = Web = = =
= Fight Club =
Fight Club is a 1999 American neo @-@ noir drama film based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk . The film was directed by David Fincher , and stars Brad Pitt , Edward Norton and Helena Bonham Carter . Norton plays the unnamed protagonist , an " everyman " who is discontented with his white @-@ collar job . He forms a " fight club " with soap maker Tyler Durden , played by Pitt , and they are joined by men who also want to fight recreationally . The narrator becomes embroiled in a relationship with Durden and a dissolute woman , Marla Singer , played by Bonham Carter .
Palahniuk 's novel was optioned by 20th Century Fox producer Laura Ziskin , who hired Jim Uhls to write the film adaptation . Fincher was one of four directors the producers considered , and was selected because of his enthusiasm for the film . Fincher developed the script with Uhls and sought screenwriting advice from the cast and others in the film industry . The director and the cast compared the film to Rebel Without a Cause ( 1955 ) and The Graduate ( 1967 ) . Fincher intended Fight Club 's violence to serve as a metaphor for the conflict between a generation of young people and the value system of advertising . The director copied the homoerotic overtones from Palahniuk 's novel to make audiences uncomfortable and keep them from anticipating the twist ending .
Studio executives did not like the film and restructured Fincher 's intended marketing campaign to try to reduce anticipated losses . Fight Club failed to meet the studio 's expectations at the box office and received polarized reactions from critics , who debated the explicit violence and moral ambiguity , but praised the acting , directing , themes and messages . It was cited as one of the most controversial and talked @-@ about films of 1999 . The film later found critical and commercial success with its DVD release , which established Fight Club as a cult film .
= = Plot = =
The unnamed narrator ( Edward Norton ) is a traveling automobile recall specialist who suffers from insomnia . One night , he visits a support group for testicular cancer victims , where they assume that he , too , is a victim , and he spontaneously weeps into the nurturing arms of another man , finding a " freedom " that euphorically relieves his insomnia . He becomes addicted to participating in support groups of various kinds , always allowing the groups to assume that he suffers what they do . However , he begins to notice another impostor , Marla Singer ( Helena Bonham Carter ) , whose presence disturbs his bliss . The two negotiate to avoid their attending the same groups , but , before going their separate ways , Marla gives the narrator her phone number .
On a flight home from a business trip , the narrator meets Tyler Durden ( Brad Pitt ) , a soap salesman with whom he begins to converse after noticing the two share the same kind of briefcase . After the flight , the narrator returns home to find that his apartment has been demolished by an explosion . He calls Tyler and they meet at a bar . A conversation about consumerism leads to the narrator moving into Tyler 's dilapidated mansion . Outside the bar , Tyler requests that the narrator hit him , which leads the two to engage in a fistfight . They have further fights outside the bar on subsequent nights , and these fights attract growing crowds of men . The fighting eventually moves to the bar 's basement where the men form a " fight club , " a routine opportunity for the men to fight recreationally .
Marla overdoses on pills and telephones the narrator for help ; he ignores her , but Tyler answers the call and saves her . Tyler and Marla become sexually involved , and Tyler warns the narrator never to talk to Marla about him . More fight clubs form across the country and , under Tyler 's leadership , they become the anti @-@ materialist and anti @-@ corporate organization called " Project Mayhem . " The narrator complains to Tyler that he wants to be more involved in the organization , but then Tyler suddenly disappears . When a member of Project Mayhem is killed by the police during a botched sabotage operation , the narrator tries to shut down the project , and follows evidence of Tyler 's national travels to track him down . In one city , a Project member greets the narrator as Tyler Durden . The narrator calls Marla from his hotel room and discovers that Marla also believes him to be Tyler . He suddenly sees Tyler in his room , and Tyler reveals that they are dissociated personalities in the same body . When the narrator has believed himself to be asleep , Tyler has been controlling his body and travelling to different locations .
The narrator blacks out after the conversation , and when he awakes , he uncovers Tyler 's plans to erase debt by destroying buildings that contain credit card companies ' records . The narrator tries to contact the police , but finds that the officers are members of the Project . He attempts to disarm the explosives in a building , but Tyler subdues him and moves him to the uppermost floor . The narrator , held at gunpoint by Tyler , realizes that , in sharing the same body with Tyler , he himself is actually holding the gun . He fires it into his mouth , shooting through the cheek without killing himself . Tyler collapses with an exit wound to the back of his head , and the narrator stops mentally projecting him . Afterward , Project Mayhem members bring a kidnapped Marla to him , believing him to be Tyler , and leave them alone . The explosives detonate , collapsing many buildings around them ; the narrator and Marla , holding hands , look on .
= = Themes = =
Fincher said Fight Club was a coming of age film , like the 1967 film The Graduate but for people in their 30s . Fincher described the narrator as an " everyman " ; the character is identified in the script as " Jack " , but left unnamed in the film . Fincher outlined the narrator 's background : " He 's tried to do everything he was taught to do , tried to fit into the world by becoming the thing he isn 't . " The narrator cannot find happiness , so he travels on a path to enlightenment in which he must " kill " his parents , his god , and his teacher . At the start of the film , he has killed his parents . With Tyler Durden , he kills his god by doing things they are not supposed to do . To complete the process of maturing , the narrator has to kill his teacher , Tyler Durden .
The character is a 1990s inverse of The Graduate archetype : " a guy who does not have a world of possibilities in front of him , he has no possibilities , he literally cannot imagine a way to change his life . " He is confused and enraged , so he responds to his environment by creating Tyler Durden , a Nietzschean Übermensch , in his mind . While Tyler is who the narrator would want to be , he is not empathetic and does not help the narrator face decisions in his life " that are complicated and have moral and ethical implications " . Fincher explained , " [ Tyler ] can deal with the concepts of our lives in an idealistic fashion , but it doesn 't have anything to do with the compromises of real life as modern man knows it . Which is : You 're not really necessary to a lot of what 's going on . It 's built , it just needs to run now . " While studio executives worried that Fight Club was going to be " sinister and seditious " , Fincher sought to make it " funny and seditious " by including humor to temper the sinister element .
Uhls described the film as a " romantic comedy " , explaining , " It has to do with the characters ' attitudes toward a healthy relationship , which is a lot of behavior which seems unhealthy and harsh to each other , but in fact does work for them — because both characters are out on the edge psychologically . " The narrator seeks intimacy , but he avoids it with Marla Singer , seeing too much of himself in her . While Marla is a seductive and negativist prospect for the narrator , he instead embraces the novelty and excitement that comes with befriending Tyler Durden . The narrator is comfortable being personally connected to Tyler Durden , but he becomes jealous when Tyler becomes sexually involved with Marla . When the narrator argues with Tyler about their friendship , Tyler tells him that being friends is secondary to pursuing the philosophy they have been exploring . Tyler also suggests doing something about Marla , implying that she is a risk to be removed . When Tyler says this , the narrator realizes that his desires should have been focused on Marla and begins to diverge from Tyler 's path .
The unreliable narrator is not immediately aware that Tyler Durden originated in him and is being mentally projected . He also mistakenly promotes the fight clubs as a way to feel powerful , though the narrator 's physical condition worsens while Tyler Durden 's appearance improves . While Tyler desires " real experiences " of actual fights like the narrator at first , he manifests a nihilistic attitude of rejecting and destroying institutions and value systems . His impulsive nature , representing the id , conveys an attitude that is seductive and liberating to the narrator and the members of Project Mayhem . Tyler 's initiatives and methods become dehumanizing ; he orders around the members of Project Mayhem with a megaphone similar to camp directors at Chinese re @-@ education camps . The narrator pulls back from Tyler and in the end , he arrives at a middle ground between his two conflicting selves .
Norton said , " I feel that Fight Club really , in a way ... probed into the despair and paralysis that people feel in the face of having inherited this value system out of advertising . " Pitt said , " Fight Club is a metaphor for the need to push through the walls we put around ourselves and just go for it , so for the first time we can experience the pain . " Fight Club also parallels the 1955 film Rebel Without a Cause ; both probe the frustrations of the people that live in the system . The characters , having undergone societal emasculation , are reduced to " a generation of spectators " . A culture of advertising defines society 's " external signifiers of happiness " , causing an unnecessary chase for material goods that replaces the more essential pursuit of spiritual happiness . The film references Calvin Klein , IKEA , and the Volkswagen New Beetle . Norton said of the Beetle , " We smash it ... because it seemed like the classic example of a Baby Boomer generation marketing plan that sold culture back to us . " His character also walks through his apartment while visual effects identify his many IKEA possessions . Fincher described the narrator 's immersion , " It was just the idea of living in this fraudulent idea of happiness . " Pitt explained the dissonance , " I think there 's a self @-@ defense mechanism that keeps my generation from having any real honest connection or commitment with our true feelings . We 're rooting for ball teams , but we 're not getting in there to play . We 're so concerned with failure and success — like these two things are all that 's going to sum you up at the end . "
The violence of the fight clubs serves not to promote or glorify physical combat , but for participants to experience feeling in a society where they are otherwise numb . The fights tangibly represent a resistance to the impulse to be " cocooned " in society . Norton believed that the fighting between the men strips away the " fear of pain " and " the reliance on material signifiers of their self @-@ worth " , leaving them to experience something valuable . When the fights evolve into revolutionary violence , the film only half @-@ accepts the revolutionary dialectic by Tyler Durden ; the narrator pulls back and rejects Durden 's ideas . Fight Club purposely shapes an ambiguous message , the interpretation of which is left to the audience . Fincher elaborated , " I love this idea that you can have fascism without offering any direction or solution . Isn 't the point of fascism to say , ' This is the way we should be going ' ? But this movie couldn 't be further from offering any kind of solution . "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The novel Fight Club by Chuck Palahniuk was published in 1996 . Before its publication , a 20th Century Fox book scout sent a galley proof of the novel to creative executive Kevin McCormick . The executive assigned a studio reader to review the proof as a candidate for a film adaptation , but the reader discouraged it . McCormick then forwarded the proof to producers Lawrence Bender and Art Linson , who also rejected it . Producers Josh Donen and Ross Bell saw potential and expressed interest . They arranged unpaid screen readings with actors to determine the script 's length , and an initial reading lasted six hours . The producers cut out sections to reduce the running time , and they used the shorter script to record its dialogue . Bell sent the recording to Laura Ziskin , head of the division Fox 2000 , who listened to the tape and purchased the rights to Fight Club from Palahniuk for $ 10 @,@ 000 .
Ziskin initially considered hiring Buck Henry to write the adaptation , finding Fight Club similar to the 1967 film The Graduate , which Henry had adapted . When a new screenwriter , Jim Uhls , lobbied Donen and Bell for the job , the producers chose him over Henry . Bell contacted four directors to direct the film . He considered Peter Jackson the best choice , but Jackson was too busy filming the 1996 film The Frighteners in New Zealand . Bryan Singer received the book but did not read it . Danny Boyle met with Bell and read the book , but he pursued another film . David Fincher , who had read Fight Club and had tried to buy the rights himself , talked with Ziskin about directing the film . He hesitated to accept the assignment with 20th Century Fox at first because he had an unpleasant experience directing the 1992 film Alien 3 for the studio . To repair his relationship with the studio , he met with Ziskin and studio head Bill Mechanic . In August 1997 , 20th Century Fox announced that Fincher would direct the film adaptation of Fight Club .
= = = Casting = = =
Producer Ross Bell met with actor Russell Crowe to discuss his candidacy for the role of Tyler Durden . Producer Art Linson , who joined the project late , met with Pitt regarding the same role . Linson was the senior producer of the two , so the studio sought to cast Pitt instead of Crowe . Pitt was looking for a new film after the failure ( in the US market ) of his 1998 film Meet Joe Black , and the studio believed Fight Club would be more commercially successful with a major star . The studio signed Pitt and offered him a US $ 17 @.@ 5 million salary .
For the role of the unnamed narrator , the studio desired a " sexier marquee name " like Matt Damon to increase the film 's commercial prospects ; it also considered Sean Penn . Fincher instead considered Norton a candidate for the role , based on the actor 's performance in the 1996 film The People vs. Larry Flynt . Other studios were approaching Norton for leading roles in developing films like The Talented Mr. Ripley and Man on the Moon . The actor was cast in Runaway Jury , but the film did not reach production . 20th Century Fox offered Norton a $ 2 @.@ 5 million salary to attract him to Fight Club . Norton could not accept the offer immediately because he still owed Paramount Pictures a film ; he had signed a contractual obligation with Paramount to appear in one of the studio 's future films for a smaller salary ( Norton later satisfied the obligation with his role in the 2003 film The Italian Job ) .
In January 1998 , 20th Century Fox announced that Pitt and Norton were cast in the film . The actors prepared for their roles by taking lessons in boxing , taekwondo , grappling , and soapmaking . Pitt voluntarily visited a dentist to have pieces of his front teeth chipped off so his character would not have perfect teeth . The pieces were restored after filming concluded .
Fincher 's first choice for the role of Marla Singer was Janeane Garofalo , who objected to the film 's sexual content . The filmmakers considered Courtney Love and Winona Ryder as candidates early on . The studio wanted to cast Reese Witherspoon , but Fincher objected that she was too young for the role . He chose to cast Bonham Carter based on her performance in the 1997 film The Wings of the Dove .
= = = Writing = = =
Uhls started working on an early draft of the adapted screenplay , which excluded a voice @-@ over because the industry perceived at the time that the technique was " hackneyed and trite " . When Fincher joined the film , he thought that the film should have a voice @-@ over , believing that the film 's humor came from the narrator 's voice . The director described the film without a voice @-@ over as seemingly " sad and pathetic " . Fincher and Uhls revised the script for six to seven months and by 1997 had a third draft that reordered the story and left out several major elements . When Pitt was cast , he was concerned that his character , Tyler Durden , was too one @-@ dimensional . Fincher sought the advice of writer @-@ director Cameron Crowe , who suggested giving the character more ambiguity . Fincher also hired screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker for assistance . The director invited Pitt and Norton to help revise the script , and the group drafted five revisions in the course of a year .
Palahniuk praised the faithful film adaptation of his novel and applauded how the film 's plot was more streamlined than the book 's . Palahniuk recalled how the writers debated if film audiences would believe the plot twist from the novel . Fincher supported including the twist , arguing , " If they accept everything up to this point , they 'll accept the plot twist . If they 're still in the theater , they 'll stay with it . " Palahniuk 's novel also contained homoerotic overtones , which the director included in the film to make audiences uncomfortable and accentuate the surprise of the film 's twists . The bathroom scene where Tyler Durden bathes next to the narrator is an example of the overtones ; the line , " I 'm wondering if another woman is really the answer we need , " was meant to suggest personal responsibility rather than homosexuality . Another example is the scene at the beginning of the film in which Tyler Durden puts a gun barrel down the narrator 's mouth .
The narrator finds redemption at the end of the film by rejecting Tyler Durden 's dialectic , a path that diverged from the novel 's ending in which the narrator is placed in a mental institution . Norton drew parallels between redemption in the film and redemption in The Graduate , indicating that the protagonists of both films find a middle ground between two divisions of self . Fincher considered the novel too infatuated with Tyler Durden and changed the ending to move away from him : " I wanted people to love Tyler , but I also wanted them to be OK with his vanquishing . "
= = = Filming = = =
Studio executives Mechanic and Ziskin planned an initial budget of US $ 23 million to finance the film , but by the start of production , the budget was increased to $ 50 million . Half was paid by New Regency , but during filming , the projected budget escalated to US $ 67 million . New Regency 's head and Fight Club executive producer Arnon Milchan petitioned Fincher to reduce costs by at least US $ 5 million . The director refused , so Milchan threatened Mechanic that New Regency would withdraw financing . Mechanic sought to restore Milchan 's support by sending him tapes of dailies from Fight Club . After seeing three weeks of filming , Milchan reinstated New Regency 's financial backing . The final production budget was $ 63 million .
The fight scenes were heavily choreographed , but the actors were required to " go full out " to capture realistic effects like having the wind knocked out of them . Makeup artist Julie Pearce , who worked for the director on the 1997 film The Game , studied mixed martial arts and pay @-@ per @-@ view boxing to portray the fighters accurately . She designed an extra 's ear to have cartilage missing , citing as inspiration the boxing match in which Mike Tyson bit off part of Evander Holyfield 's ear . Makeup artists devised two methods to create sweat on cue : spraying mineral water over a coat of Vaseline , and using the unadulterated water for " wet sweat " . Meat Loaf , who plays a member of the fight club who has " bitch tits " , wore a 90 @-@ pound ( 40 kg ) fat harness that gave him large breasts for the role . He also wore eight @-@ inch ( 20 cm ) lifts in his scenes with Norton to be taller than him .
Filming lasted 138 days , during which Fincher shot more than 1 @,@ 500 rolls of film , three times the average for a Hollywood film . The locations were in and around Los Angeles , including most notably : The Promenade Towers , Melrose Avenue , St. Brendan 's Catholic Church , and Michael Heizer 's public art sculpture " North , South East , West " . Sets were also built in Century City . Production designer Alex McDowell constructed more than 70 sets . The exterior of Tyler Durden 's house was built in Wilmington , California , while the interior was built on a sound stage at the studio 's location . The interior was given a decayed look to illustrate the deconstructed world of the characters . Marla Singer 's apartment was based on photographs of the Rosalind Apartments in downtown LA . Overall production included 300 scenes , 200 locations , and complex special effects . Fincher compared Fight Club to his succeeding and less complex film Panic Room , " I felt like I was spending all my time watching trucks being loaded and unloaded so I could shoot three lines of dialogue . There was far too much transportation going on . "
= = = Cinematography = = =
Fincher used the Super 35 format to film Fight Club since it gave him maximum flexibility in composing shots . He hired Jeff Cronenweth as cinematographer ; Cronenweth 's father Jordan Cronenweth was the cinematographer who worked for Fincher on the 1992 film Alien 3 but left midway through its production due to Parkinson 's disease . Fincher explored visual styles in his previous films Seven and The Game , and he and Cronenweth drew elements from these styles for Fight Club .
They applied a lurid style , choosing to make people " sort of shiny " . The appearance of the narrator 's scenes without Tyler Durden were bland and realistic . The scenes with Tyler were described by Fincher as " more hyper @-@ real in a torn @-@ down , deconstructed sense — a visual metaphor of what [ the narrator is ] heading into " . The filmmakers used heavily desaturated colors in the costuming , makeup , and art direction . Bonham Carter wore opalescent makeup to portray her romantic nihilistic character with a " smack @-@ fiend patina " . Fincher and Cronenweth drew influences from the 1973 film American Graffiti , which applied a mundane look to nighttime exteriors while simultaneously including a variety of colors .
The crew took advantage of both natural and practical light at filming locations . The director sought various approaches to the lighting setups , for example choosing several urban locations for the city lights ' effects on the shots ' backgrounds . He and the crew also embraced fluorescent lighting at other practical locations to maintain an element of reality and to light the prostheses depicting the characters ' injuries . On the other hand , Fincher also ensured that scenes were not so strongly lit so the characters ' eyes were less visible , citing cinematographer Gordon Willis ' technique as the influence .
Fight Club was filmed mostly at night and Fincher purposely filmed the daytime shots in shadowed locations . The crew equipped the bar 's basement with inexpensive work lamps to create a background glow . Fincher avoided stylish camerawork when filming early fight scenes in the basement and instead placed the camera in a fixed position . In later fight scenes , Fincher moved the camera from the viewpoint of a distant observer to that of the fighter .
The scenes with Tyler Durden were staged to conceal that the character was a mental projection of the unnamed narrator . The character was not filmed in two shots with a group of people , nor was he shown in any over the shoulder shots in scenes where Tyler gives the narrator specific ideas to manipulate him . In scenes before the narrator meets Tyler , the filmmakers inserted Tyler 's presence in single frames for subliminal effect . Tyler appears in the background and out of focus , like a " little devil on the shoulder " . Fincher explained the subliminal frames : " Our hero is creating Tyler Durden in his own mind , so at this point he exists only on the periphery of the narrator 's consciousness . "
While Cronenweth generally rated and exposed the Kodak film stock normally on Fight Club , several other techniques were applied to change its appearance . Flashing was implemented on much of the exterior night photography , the contrast was stretched to be purposely ugly , the print was adjusted to be underexposed , Technicolor 's ENR silver retention was used on a select number of prints to increase the density of the film 's blacks , and high @-@ contrast print stocks were chosen to create a " stepped @-@ on " look on the print with a dirty patina .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Fincher hired visual effects supervisor Kevin Tod Haug , who worked for him on The Game , to create visual effects for Fight Club . Haug assigned the visual effects artists and experts to different facilities that each addressed different types of visual effects : CG modeling , animation , compositing , and scanning . Haug explained , " We selected the best people for each aspect of the effects work , then coordinated their efforts . In this way , we never had to play to a facility 's weakness . " Fincher visualized the narrator 's perspective through a " mind 's eye " view and structured a myopic framework for the film audiences . Fincher also used previsualized footage of challenging main @-@ unit and visual effects shots as a problem @-@ solving tool to avoid making mistakes during the actual filming .
The film 's title sequence is a 90 @-@ second visual effects composition that depicts the inside of the narrator 's brain at a microscopic level ; the camera pulls back to the outside , starting at his fear center and following the thought processes initiated by his fear impulse . The sequence , designed in part by Fincher , was budgeted separately from the rest of the film at first , but the sequence was awarded by the studio in January 1999 . Fincher hired Digital Domain and its visual effects supervisor Kevin Mack , who won an Academy Award for Visual Effects for the 1998 film What Dreams May Come , for the sequence . The company mapped the computer @-@ generated brain using an L @-@ system , and the design was detailed using renderings by medical illustrator Katherine Jones . The pullback sequence from within the brain to the outside of the skull included neurons , action potentials , and a hair follicle . Haug explained the artistic license that Fincher took with the shot , " While he wanted to keep the brain passage looking like electron microscope photography , that look had to be coupled with the feel of a night dive — wet , scary , and with a low depth of field . " The shallow depth of field was accomplished with the ray tracing process .
Other visual effects include an early scene in which the camera flashes past city streets to survey Project Mayhem 's destructive equipment lying in underground parking lots ; the sequence was a three @-@ dimensional composition of nearly 100 photographs of Los Angeles and Century City by photographer Michael Douglas Middleton . The final scene of the demolition of the credit card office buildings was designed by Richard Baily of Image Savant ; Baily worked on the scene for over fourteen months .
Midway through the film , Tyler Durden points out the cue mark — nicknamed " cigarette burn " in the film — to the audience . The scene represents a turning point that foreshadows the coming rupture and inversion of the " fairly subjective reality " that existed earlier in the film . The director explained , " Suddenly it 's as though the projectionist missed the changeover , the viewers have to start looking at the movie in a whole new way . "
= = = Musical score = = =
Fincher was concerned that bands experienced in writing film scores would be unable to tie the movie 's themes together , so he sought a band which had never recorded for film . He pursued Radiohead , but ultimately chose the breakbeat producing duo Dust Brothers to score the film . The duo created a post @-@ modern score that included drum loops , electronic scratches , and computerized samples . Dust Brothers performer Michael Simpson explained the setup : " Fincher wanted to break new ground with everything about the movie , and a nontraditional score helped achieve that . " The film 's climax and end credits feature the song " Where Is My Mind ? " by the Pixies .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
Filming concluded in December 1998 , and Fincher edited the footage in early 1999 to prepare Fight Club for a screening with senior executives . They did not receive the film positively and were concerned that there would not be an audience for the film . Executive producer Art Linson , who supported the film , recalled the response : " So many incidences of Fight Club were alarming , no group of executives could narrow them down . " Nevertheless , Fight Club was originally slated to be released in July 1999 but was later changed to August 6 , 1999 . The studio further delayed the film 's release , this time to autumn , citing a crowded summer schedule and a hurried post @-@ production process . Outsiders attributed the delays to the Columbine High School massacre earlier in the year .
Marketing executives at 20th Century Fox faced difficulties in marketing Fight Club and at one point considered marketing it as an art film . They considered that the film was primarily geared toward male audiences because of its violence and believed that not even Pitt would attract female filmgoers . Research testing showed that the film appealed to teenagers . Fincher refused to let the posters and trailers focus on Pitt and encouraged the studio to hire the advertising firm Wieden + Kennedy to devise a marketing plan . The firm proposed a bar of pink soap with the title " Fight Club " embossed on it as the film 's main marketing image ; the proposal was considered " a bad joke " by Fox executives . Fincher also released two early trailers in the form of fake public service announcements presented by Pitt and Norton ; the studio did not think the trailers marketed the film appropriately . Instead , the studio financed a $ 20 million large @-@ scale campaign to provide a press junket , posters , billboards , and trailers for TV that highlighted the film 's fight scenes . The studio advertised Fight Club on cable during World Wrestling Entertainment broadcasts , which Fincher protested , believing that the placement created the wrong context for the film . Linson believed that the " ill @-@ conceived one @-@ dimensional " marketing by marketing executive Robert Harper largely contributed to Fight Club 's lukewarm box office performance in the United States .
= = = Theatrical run = = =
The studio held Fight Club 's world premiere at the 56th Venice International Film Festival on September 10 , 1999 . For the American theatrical release , the studio hired the National Research Group to test screen the film ; the group predicted the film would gross between US $ 13 million and US $ 15 million in its opening weekend . Fight Club opened commercially in the United States and Canada on October 15 , 1999 and earned US $ 11 @,@ 035 @,@ 485 in 1 @,@ 963 theaters over the opening weekend . The film ranked first at the weekend box office , defeating Double Jeopardy and The Story of Us , a fellow weekend opener . The gender mix of audiences for Fight Club , argued to be " the ultimate anti @-@ date flick " , was 61 % male and 39 % female ; 58 % of audiences were below the age of 21 . Despite the film 's top placement , its opening gross fell short of the studio 's expectations . Over the second weekend , Fight Club dropped 42 @.@ 6 % in revenue , earning US $ 6 @,@ 335 @,@ 870 . Against its production budget of US $ 63 million , the film grossed US $ 37 million from its theatrical run in the United States and Canada and earned US $ 100 @.@ 9 million in theaters worldwide . The underwhelming North American performance of Fight Club soured the relationship between 20th Century Fox 's studio head Bill Mechanic and media executive Rupert Murdoch , which contributed to Mechanic 's resignation in June 2000 .
The British Board of Film Classification reviewed Fight Club for its November 12 , 1999 release in the United Kingdom and removed two scenes involving " an indulgence in the excitement of beating a ( defenseless ) man 's face into a pulp " . The board assigned the film an 18 certificate , limiting the release to adult @-@ only audiences in the UK . The BBFC did not censor any further , considering and dismissing claims that Fight Club contained " dangerously instructive information " and could " encourage anti @-@ social ( behavior ) " . The board decided , " The film as a whole is — quite clearly — critical and sharply parodic of the amateur fascism which in part it portrays . Its central theme of male machismo ( and the anti @-@ social behaviour that flows from it ) is emphatically rejected by the central character in the concluding reels . " The scenes were restored in a two @-@ disc DVD edition released in the UK in March 2007 .
= = = Home media = = =
Fincher supervised the composition of the DVD packaging and was one of the first directors to participate in a film 's transition to home media . The film was released in two DVD editions . The single @-@ disc edition included a commentary track , while the two @-@ disc special edition included the commentary track , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clips , deleted scenes , trailers , fake public service announcements , the promotional music video " This is Your Life " , Internet spots , still galleries , cast biographies , storyboards , and publicity materials . The director worked on the DVD as a way to finish his vision for the film . Julie Markell , 20th Century Fox 's senior vice president of creative development , said the DVD packaging complemented the director 's vision : " The film is meant to make you question . The package , by extension , tries to reflect an experience that you must experience for yourself . The more you look at it , the more you 'll get out of it . " The studio developed the packaging for two months . The two @-@ disc special edition DVD was packaged to look covered in brown cardboard wrapper . The title " Fight Club " was labeled diagonally across the front , and packaging appeared tied with twine . Markell said , " We wanted the package to be simple on the outside , so that there would be a dichotomy between the simplicity of brown paper wrapping and the intensity and chaos of what 's inside . " Deborah Mitchell , 20th Century Fox 's vice president of marketing , described the design : " From a retail standpoint , [ the DVD case ] has incredible shelf @-@ presence . "
Fight Club won the 2000 Online Film Critics Society Awards for Best DVD , Best DVD Commentary , and Best DVD Special Features . Entertainment Weekly ranked the film 's two @-@ disc edition in first place on its 2001 list of " The 50 Essential DVDs " , giving top ratings to the DVD 's content and technical picture @-@ and @-@ audio quality . When the two @-@ disc edition went out of print , the studio re @-@ released it in 2004 because of fans ' requests . The film sold more than 6 million copies on DVD and video within the first ten years , making it one of the largest @-@ selling home media items in the studio 's history , in addition to grossing over $ 55 million in video and DVD rentals . With a weak box office performance in the United States and Canada , a better performance in other territories , and the highly successful DVD release , Fight Club generated a US $ 10 million profit for the studio .
The Laserdisc edition was only released in Japan on May 26 , 2000 and features a different cover art , as well as one of the very few Dolby EX soundtracks released on LD .
The VHS edition was released on October 31 , 2000 , as a part of 20th Century Fox 's " Premiere Series " line . It includes a featurette after the film , entitled " Behind the Brawl " .
Fight Club was released in the Blu @-@ ray Disc format in the United States on November 17 , 2009 . Fox Creative chose Neuron Syndicate to design the art for the format 's packaging , and Neuron commissioned five graffiti artists to create 30 pieces of art . The art encompasses urban aesthetics found on the East Coast and West Coast of the United States as well as influences from European street art . The Blu @-@ ray edition opens with a menu screen for the romantic comedy Never Been Kissed starring Drew Barrymore before leading into the actual Fight Club menu screen . David Fincher got permission from Barrymore to include the fake menu screen .
= = Critical reception = =
When Fight Club premiered at the 56th Venice International Film Festival , the film was fiercely debated by critics . A newspaper reported , " Many loved and hated it in equal measures . " Some critics expressed concern that the film would incite copycat behavior , such as that seen after A Clockwork Orange debuted in Britain nearly three decades previously . Upon the film 's theatrical release , The Times reported the reaction : " It touched a nerve in the male psyche that was debated in newspapers across the world . " Although the film 's makers called Fight Club " an accurate portrayal of men in the 1990s , " some critics called it " irresponsible and appalling " . Writing for the Australian newspaper , Christopher Goodwin stated : " Fight Club is shaping up to be the most contentious mainstream Hollywood meditation on violence since Stanley Kubrick 's A Clockwork Orange . "
Janet Maslin , reviewing for The New York Times , praised Fincher 's direction and editing of the film . She wrote that Fight Club carried a message of " contemporary manhood " , and that , if not watched closely , the film could be misconstrued as an endorsement of violence and nihilism . Roger Ebert , reviewing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , called Fight Club " visceral and hard @-@ edged " , and " a thrill ride masquerading as philosophy " that most audiences would not appreciate . Ebert later acknowledged that the film was " beloved by most , not by me " . He was later requested to have a shot @-@ by @-@ shot analysis of Fight Club at the Conference on World Affairs ; he stated that " [ s ] eeing it over the course of a week , I admired its skill even more , and its thought even less . " Jay Carr of The Boston Globe opined that the film began with an " invigoratingly nervy and imaginative buzz " , but that it eventually became " explosively silly " . Newsweek 's David Ansen described Fight Club as " an outrageous mixture of brilliant technique , puerile philosophizing , trenchant satire and sensory overload " and thought that the ending was too pretentious . Richard Schickel of Time described the director 's mise en scène as dark and damp : " It enforces the contrast between the sterilities of his characters ' aboveground life and their underground one . Water , even when it 's polluted , is the source of life ; blood , even when it 's carelessly spilled , is the symbol of life being fully lived . To put his point simply : it 's better to be wet than dry . " Schickel applauded the performances of Brad Pitt and Edward Norton , but he criticized the film 's " conventionally gimmicky " unfolding and the failure to make Helena Bonham Carter 's character interesting .
Cineaste 's Gary Crowdus reviewed the critical reception in retrospect : " Many critics praised Fight Club , hailing it as one of the most exciting , original , and thought @-@ provoking films of the year . " He wrote of the negative opinion , " While Fight Club had numerous critical champions , the film 's critical attackers were far more vocal , a negative chorus which became hysterical about what they felt to be the excessively graphic scenes of fisticuffs ... They felt such scenes served only as a mindless glamorization of brutality , a morally irresponsible portrayal , which they feared might encourage impressionable young male viewers to set up their own real @-@ life fight clubs in order to beat each other senseless . "
Fight Club was nominated for the 2000 Academy Award for Best Sound Editing , but it lost to The Matrix . Bonham Carter won the 2000 Empire Award for Best British Actress . The Online Film Critics Society also nominated Fight Club for Best Film , Best Director , Best Actor ( Norton ) , Best Editing , and Best Adapted Screenplay ( Uhls ) . Though the film won none of the awards , the organization listed Fight Club as one of the top ten films of 1999 . The soundtrack was nominated for a BRIT Award , losing to Notting Hill .
On Rotten Tomatoes , Fight Club holds a rating of 79 % , based on 162 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 3 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Solid acting , amazing direction , and elaborate production design make Fight Club a wild ride . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 66 out of 100 , based on 35 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
= = Cultural impact = =
Fight Club was one of the most controversial and talked @-@ about films of the 1990s . Like other films released that year , including Magnolia , Being John Malkovich and Three Kings , Fight Club was recognized as an innovator in cinematic form and style since it exploited new developments in filmmaking technology . After Fight Club 's theatrical release , it became more popular via word of mouth , and the positive reception of the DVD established it as a cult film that David Ansen of Newsweek conjectured would enjoy " perennial " fame . The film 's success also heightened Palahniuk 's profile to global renown .
Following Fight Club 's release , several fight clubs were reported to have started in the United States . A " Gentleman 's Fight Club " was started in Menlo Park , California in 2000 and had members mostly from the tech industry . Teens and preteens in Texas , New Jersey , Washington state , and Alaska also initiated fight clubs and posted videos of their fights online , leading authorities to break up the clubs . In 2006 , an unwilling participant from a local high school was injured at a fight club in Arlington , Texas , and the DVD sales of the fight led to the arrest of six teenagers . An unsanctioned fight club was also started at Princeton University , where matches were held on campus . The film was suspected of influencing Luke Helder , a college student who planted pipe bombs in mailboxes in 2002 . Helder 's goal was to create a smiley pattern on the map of the United States , similar to the scene in Fight Club in which a building is vandalized to have a smiley on its exterior . On July 16 , 2009 , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old who had formed his own fight club in Manhattan was charged with detonating a homemade bomb outside a Starbucks Coffee shop in the Upper East Side . The New York City Police Department reported the suspect was trying to emulate " Project Mayhem " . In September , 2015 , two employees at Lightbridge Academy , a New Jersey day care center , were charged with instigating " Fight Club @-@ style " brawls between children ( aged four to six years of age ) . The fights were reportedly filmed and uploaded to Snapchat , a video messaging application , and involved approximately a " dozen boys and girls " . In the videos , one of the perpetrators , Erica Kenny , can be heard making references to Fight Club . The charges stem from an incident that occurred on August 13 , 2015 , but investigators are looking into whether the fights were ongoing .
In 2003 , Fight Club was listed as one of the " 50 Best Guy Movies of All Time " by Men 's Journal . In 2006 and 2008 , Fight Club was voted by Empire readers as the eighth and tenth greatest film of all time , respectively . Total Film ranked Fight Club as " The Greatest Film of our Lifetime " in 2007 during the magazine 's tenth anniversary . In 2007 , Premiere selected Tyler Durden 's line , " The first rule of fight club is you do not talk about fight club , " as the 27th greatest movie line of all time . In 2008 , readers of Empire ranked Tyler Durden first on a list of the 100 Greatest Movie Characters . Empire also identified Fight Club as the 10th greatest movie of all time in its 2008 issue The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time .
In 2010 , two viral mash @-@ up videos featuring Fight Club were released . Ferris Club was a mash @-@ up of Fight Club and the film Ferris Bueller 's Day Off . It portrayed Ferris as Tyler Durden and Cameron as the narrator , " claiming to see the real psychological truth behind the John Hughes classic " . The second video Jane Austen 's Fight Club also gained popularity online as a mash @-@ up of Fight Club 's fighting rules and the characters created by 19th century novelist Jane Austen .
= = = American Film Institute nominations = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes – " First rule of Fight Club is – you do not talk about Fight Club . "
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition )
= Hillingdon House =
Hillingdon House is a Grade II listed mansion in Hillingdon , Greater London . The original house was built in 1717 as a hunting lodge for the Duke of Schomberg . It was destroyed by fire and the present house was built in its place in 1844 .
The British Government purchased Hillingdon House in 1915 and it became a military hospital . In 1917 , what would become the Royal Air Force station RAF Uxbridge was established within the grounds . In military use , the house has served over time as the first headquarters for No. 11 Group RAF and RAF Bomber Command . The River Pinn passes through the grounds of the house from north to south , splitting the former RAF Uxbridge in two .
The Hillingdon House Farm estate to the north of the house includes the Hillingdon Sports and Leisure Complex ( formerly Uxbridge Lido ) . The farm ceased operations in 1965 after the local council served a notice to quit on the tenant . The farmhouse on Honeycroft Hill became a council depot , followed by a plant nursery , before it was sold for residential housing .
Under plans approved in early 2011 for the redevelopment of the RAF station , the house will be renovated and converted to include a restaurant . As of 2014 it is not accessible to the public while the site undergoes redevelopment .
= = History = =
= = = First house = = =
The first house on the site was built as a hunting lodge in 1717 for the Duke of Schomberg , a British army commander of German origin . He is said to have been very argumentative , to the point where he would argue with all those around him bar the enemy .
The house eventually passed to the Chetwynd family , who sold it to the Marchioness of Rockingham , widow of Prime Minister The Marquess of Rockingham , in 1786 for £ 9 @,@ 000 . The Marchioness lived there until her own death in 1804 , upon which the estate passed to her stepsister Elizabeth , widow of William Weddell MP . Her husband had left her Newby Hall in Mayfair , therefore having no need of Hillingdon House , she sold it to Josias Du Pré Porcher in 1805 . In 1810 the estate was sold to Richard Henry Cox , a member of the Cox banking family and the grandson of Richard Cox , founder of the travel company Cox & Kings .
= = = Second house = = =
After the first house burnt down , the present structure was built in 1844 , in a classical Victorian style . In 1892 , an area of the estate south of the house was established as Hillingdon Golf Club , founded by Charles Newton who lived at Hillingdon House , and Charles Stevens , a partner of a local timber company . The estate of Frederick Cox , Richard Henry Cox 's grandson , placed the house on the market in 1914 , describing it as " a brick and stone building , partly stuccoed , with extensive outbuildings and ornamental gardens . " The house and gardens , together with the surrounding parkland and artificial lake created by damming a section of the River Pinn , amounted to more 200 acres ( 81 ha ) .
The British Government bought the house and grounds in 1915 , intending to construct a prisoner of war camp within the grounds . Local opposition to the plan led to the house becoming the Canadian Convalescent Hospital to care for troops evacuated from the front line during the First World War . The hospital opened on 20 September 1915 and closed on 12 December 1917 , having had four commanding officers and five sisters @-@ in @-@ charge .
On 19 November 1917 , 114 officers and 1156 men of the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) Armament School moved into Hillingdon House , with the RFC making a donation of £ 2289 12s 9d to the Canadian Red Cross . Needing a site for the training of recruits in ground gunnery , the RFC used parts of the estate not required by the Canadian hospital and established a firing range on the opposite side of the river from the house .
The Royal Air Force was formed on 1 April 1918 , following the merger of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service . The Uxbridge site came under the control of the new service , becoming known as the RAF Central Depot , Uxbridge . The site was then split to form administratively two RAF stations : the area east of the River Pinn including Hillingdon House became RAF Hillingdon and the remainder RAF Uxbridge . Among the aircraftmen trained at Hillingdon was T. E. Lawrence ( ' Lawrence of Arabia ' ) , whose book The Mint , initially censored for its frank use of four @-@ letter words , describes his time there : " Hillingdon House looked forlorn , because of its black windows , behind whose wideness the clerks lounged with their first cups of tea . ' Jammy [ cunts ] , ' sneered Sailor enviously . "
On 1 March 1929 , the Royal Observer Corps established its headquarters at Hillingdon House , where it remained until transferring to RAF Bentley Priory on 1 March 1936 . No. 11 Group formed on the same day under the command of Air Vice Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté , using Hillingdon House as its headquarters . On 13 July , RAF Bomber Command was formed from the old HQ Air Defence of Great Britain and was also based in the house , remaining there until 1940 when the command moved to RAF High Wycombe .
No. 11 Group was relocated to RAF Martlesham Heath in 1958 , when control of RAF Hillingdon passed from Fighter Command to RAF Technical Training Command and the entire site became known as RAF Uxbridge . The RAF School of Education moved into Hillingdon House from RAF Spitalgate on 10 November . Southern Region Air Traffic Services HQ and the Royal Observer Corps ' South East Communications Centre moved into the house in 1960 . On 1 November , the Southern Region Air Traffic Services headquarters moved into Hillingdon House . The station had been home since the end of the war to the London Area Control Centre , renamed the London Air Traffic Control Centre in 1948 and the Uxbridge Air Traffic Control Centre in 1957 . This eventually transferred to RAF West Drayton , which operated as a satellite station of RAF Uxbridge . HQ Military Air Traffic Operations ( HQ MATO ) moved into Hillingdon House in January 1965 .
During the final years of military ownership , Hillingdon House was occupied by the Service Prosecuting Authority and the Civil Aviation Authority 's Air Proximity Board . The house was Grade II listed on 5 June 1984 .
= = = Redevelopment = = =
On 31 March 2010 , RAF Uxbridge closed as part of a rationalisation of Ministry of Defence facilities in Greater London . Under redevelopment plans approved by Hillingdon Council in January 2011 , the house will be converted to include a restaurant . Provision has also been made to retain the carpenter 's block beside the house .
= Pre @-@ Code Hollywood =
Pre @-@ Code Hollywood refers to the brief era in the American film industry between the introduction of sound pictures in 1929 and the enforcement of the Motion Picture Production Code censorship guidelines in 1934 , usually labeled , albeit inaccurately , as the " Hays Code " . Although the Code was adopted in 1930 , oversight was poor and it did not become rigorously enforced until July 1 , 1934 , with the establishment of the PCA . Before that date , movie content was restricted more by local laws , negotiations between the Studio Relations Committee ( SRC ) and the major studios , and popular opinion , than strict adherence to the Hays Code , which was often ignored by Hollywood filmmakers .
As a result , films in the late 1920s and early 1930s included sexual innuendo , miscegenation , profanity , illegal drug use , promiscuity , prostitution , infidelity , abortion , intense violence , and homosexuality . Strong female characters were ubiquitous , in such films as Female , Baby Face , and Red @-@ Headed Woman . Gangsters in films like The Public Enemy , Little Caesar , and Scarface were seen by many as heroic rather than evil . Along with featuring stronger female characters , films examined female subject matters that would not be revisited until decades later in American films . Nefarious characters were seen to profit from their deeds , in some cases without significant repercussions , and drug use was a topic of several films . Many of Hollywood 's biggest stars such as Clark Gable , Barbara Stanwyck , Joan Blondell and Edward G. Robinson got their start in the era . Other stars who excelled during this period , however , like Ruth Chatterton ( who decamped to England ) and Warren William ( the so @-@ called " king of Pre @-@ Code " , who died in 1948 ) , would wind up essentially forgotten by the general public within a generation .
Beginning in late 1933 and escalating throughout the first half of 1934 , American Roman Catholics launched a campaign against what they deemed the immorality of American cinema . This , plus a potential government takeover of film censorship and social research seeming to indicate that movies which were seen to be immoral could promote bad behavior , was enough pressure to force the studios to capitulate to greater oversight .
= = Origins of the Code = =
In 1922 , after some risqué films and a series of off @-@ screen scandals involving Hollywood stars , the studios enlisted beacon of rectitude and Presbyterian elder William H. " Will " Hays to rehabilitate Hollywood 's image . Hays , later nicknamed the motion picture " Czar " , was paid the then @-@ lavish sum of $ 100 @,@ 000 a year ( equivalent to more than $ 1 @.@ 4 million in 2014 dollars ) . Hays , Postmaster General under Warren G. Harding and former head of the Republican National Committee , served for 25 years as president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America ( MPPDA ) , where he " defended the industry from attacks , recited soothing nostrums , and negotiated treaties to cease hostilities . " Hollywood mimicked the decision Major League Baseball had made in hiring judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis as League Commissioner the previous year to quell questions about the integrity of baseball in wake of the 1919 World Series gambling scandal ; The New York Times called Hays the " screen Landis " .
Hays introduced a set of recommendations dubbed " The Formula " in 1924 , which the studios were advised to heed , and asked filmmakers to describe to his office the plots of pictures they were planning . The Supreme Court had already decided unanimously in 1915 in Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio that free speech did not extend to motion pictures , and while there had been token attempts to clean up the movies before , such as when the studios formed the National Association of the Motion Picture Industry ( NAMPI ) in 1916 , little had come of the efforts .
= = = Creation of the Code and its contents = = =
In 1929 , an American Roman Catholic layman Martin Quigley , editor of the prominent trade paper Motion Picture Herald , and Father Daniel A. Lord , a Jesuit priest , created a code of standards ( which Hays liked immensely ) , and submitted it to the studios . Lord 's concerns centered on the effects sound film had on children , whom he considered especially susceptible to their allure . Several studio heads , including Irving Thalberg of Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) , met with Lord and Quigley in February 1930 . After some revisions , they agreed to the stipulations of the Code . One of the main motivating factors in adopting the Code was to avoid direct government intervention . It was the responsibility of the Studio Relations Committee , headed by Colonel Jason S. Joy , to supervise film production and advise the studios when changes or cuts were required .
The Code was divided into two parts . The first was a set of " general principles " which mostly concerned morality . The second was a set of " particular applications " which was an exacting list of items that could not be depicted . Some restrictions , such as the ban on homosexuality or the use of specific curse words , were never directly mentioned but were assumed to be understood without clear demarcation . Miscegenation , the mixing of the races , was forbidden . It stated that the notion of an " adults @-@ only policy " would be a dubious , ineffective strategy that would be difficult to enforce . However , it did allow that " maturer minds may easily understand and accept without harm subject matter in plots which does younger people positive harm . " If children were supervised and the events implied elliptically , the code allowed what Brandeis University cultural historian Thomas Doherty called " the possibility of a cinematically inspired thought crime " .
The Code sought not only to determine what could be portrayed on screen , but also to promote traditional values . Sexual relations outside of marriage could not be portrayed as attractive and beautiful , presented in a way that might arouse passion , nor be made to seem right and permissible . All criminal action had to be punished , and neither the crime nor the criminal could elicit sympathy from the audience . Authority figures had to be treated respectfully , and the clergy could not be portrayed as comic characters or villains . Under some circumstances , politicians , police officers and judges could be villains , as long as it was clear that they were the exception to the rule .
The entire document contained Catholic undertones and stated that art must be handled carefully because it could be " morally evil in its effects " and because its " deep moral significance " was unquestionable . The Catholic influence on the Code was initially kept secret . A recurring theme was " throughout , the audience feels sure that evil is wrong and good is right . " The Code contained an addendum commonly referred to as the Advertising Code , which regulated film advertising copy and imagery .
= = = Enforcement = = =
On February 19 , 1930 , Variety published the entire contents of the Code and predicted that state film censorship boards would soon become obsolete . However , the men obligated to enforce the code , Jason Joy , who was the head of the Committee until 1932 , and his successor , Dr. James Wingate , were generally ineffective . The very first film the office reviewed , The Blue Angel , which was passed by Joy without revision , was considered indecent by a California censor . Although there were several instances where Joy negotiated cuts from films , and there were indeed definite — albeit loose — constraints , a significant amount of lurid material made it to the screen .
Joy had to review 500 films a year using a small staff and little power . The Hays office did not have the authority to order studios to remove material from a film in 1930 , but instead worked by reasoning and sometimes pleading with them . Complicating matters , the appeals process ultimately put the responsibility for making the final decision in the hands of the studios themselves .
One factor in ignoring the Code was the fact that some found such censorship prudish . This was a period in which the Victorian era was sometimes ridiculed as being naïve and backward . When the Code was announced , The Nation , a liberal periodical , attacked it . The publication stated that if crime were never presented in a sympathetic light , then , taken literally , " law " and " justice " would become the same . Therefore , events such as the Boston Tea Party could not be portrayed . And if clergy were always to be presented positively , then hypocrisy could not be examined either . The Outlook agreed , and , unlike Variety , predicted from the beginning the Code would be difficult to enforce .
Additionally , the Great Depression of the 1930s led many studios to seek income by any way possible . As films containing racy and violent content resulted in high ticket sales , it seemed reasonable to continue producing such films . Soon , the flouting of the code became an open secret . In 1931 , the Hollywood Reporter mocked the code , and Variety followed suit in 1933 . In the same year as the Variety article , a noted screenwriter stated that " the Hays moral code is not even a joke any more ; it 's just a memory . "
= = Early sound film era = =
Although the liberalization of sexuality in American film had increased during the 1920s , the pre @-@ Code era is either dated to the start of the sound film era , or more generally to March 1930 , when the Hays Code was first written . Over the protests of NAMPI , New York became the first state to take advantage of the Supreme Court 's decision in Mutual Film vs. Ohio by instituting a censorship board in 1921 . Virginia followed suit the following year , and eight individual states had a board by the advent of sound film .
Many of these boards were ineffectual . By the 1920s , the New York stage , a frequent source of subsequent screen material , had topless shows ; performances were filled with curse words , mature subject matter , and sexually suggestive dialogue . Early during the sound system conversion process , it became apparent that what might be acceptable in New York would not be so in Kansas . In 1927 , Hays suggested studio executives form a committee to discuss film censorship . Irving G. Thalberg of Metro Goldwyn Mayer ( MGM ) , Sol Wurtzel of Fox , and E. H. Allen of Paramount responded by collaborating on a list they called the " Don 'ts and Be Carefuls " , based on items that were challenged by local censor boards , and which consisted of eleven subjects best avoided , and twenty @-@ six to be handled very carefully . The Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) approved the list , and Hays created the SRC to oversee its implementation . But there was still no way to enforce these tenets . The controversy surrounding film standards came to a head in 1929 .
Director Cecil B. DeMille was responsible for the increasing discussion of sex in cinema in the 1920s . Starting with Male and Female ( 1919 ) , he made a series of films that examined sex and were highly successful . Films featuring Hollywood 's original " It girl " Clara Bow such as The Saturday Night Kid ( released four days before the October 29 , 1929 , market crash ) highlighted Bow 's sexual attractiveness . 1920s stars such as Bow , Gloria Swanson , and Norma Talmadge freely displayed their sexuality in a straightforward fashion .
= = Hollywood during the Great Depression = =
The Great Depression presented a unique time for film @-@ making in the United States . The economic disaster brought on by the stock market crash of 1929 changed American values and beliefs in various ways . Themes of American exceptionalism and traditional concepts of personal achievement , self @-@ reliance , and the overcoming of odds lost great currency . Due to the constant empty economic reassurances from politicians in the early years of the Depression , the American public developed an increasingly jaded attitude .
The cynicism , challenging of traditional beliefs , and political controversy of Hollywood films during this period mirrored the attitudes of many of their patrons . Also gone was the carefree and adventurous lifestyle of the 1920s . " After two years the Jazz Age seems as far away as the days before the war " , F. Scott Fitzgerald commented in 1931 . In the sense noted by Fitzgerald , understanding the moral climate of the early 1930s is complex . Although films experienced an unprecedented level of freedom and dared to portray things that would be kept hidden for several decades , many in America looked upon the stock market crash as a product of the excesses of the previous decade . In looking back upon the 1920s , events were increasingly seen as occurring in prelude to the market crash . In Dance , Fools , Dance ( 1931 ) , lurid party scenes featuring 1920s flappers are played to excess . Joan Crawford ultimately reforms her ways and is saved ; less fortunate is William Bakewell , who continues on the careless path that leads to his ultimate self @-@ destruction .
For Rain or Shine ( 1930 ) , Milton Ager and Jack Yellin composed " Happy Days Are Here Again " . The song was repeated sarcastically by characters in several films such as Under 18 ( 1932 ) and 20 @,@ 000 Years in Sing Sing ( 1933 ) . Less comical was the picture of the United States ' future presented in Heroes for Sale that same year ( 1933 ) , in which a hobo looks into a depressing night and proclaims , " It 's the end of America " .
Heroes for Sale was directed by prolific pre @-@ Code director William Wellman and featured silent film star Richard Barthelmess as a World War I veteran cast onto the streets with a morphine addiction from his hospital stay . In Wild Boys of the Road ( 1933 ) , the young man played by Frankie Darrow leads a group of dispossessed juvenile drifters who frequently brawl with the police . Such gangs were common ; around 250 @,@ 000 youths traveled the country by hopping trains or hitchhiking in search of better economic circumstances in the early 1930s .
Complicating matters for the studios , the advent of sound film in 1927 required an immense expenditure in sound stages , recording booths , cameras , and movie @-@ theater sound systems , not to mention the new @-@ found artistic complications of producing in a radically altered medium . The studios were in a difficult financial position even before the market crash as the sound conversion process and some risky purchases of theater chains had pushed their finances near the breaking point . These economic circumstances led to a loss of nearly half of the weekly attendance numbers and closure of almost a third of the country 's theaters in the first few years of the depression . Even so , 60 million Americans went to the cinema weekly .
Apart from the economic realities of the conversion to sound , were the artistic considerations . Early sound films were often noted for being too verbose . In 1930 , Carl Laemmle criticized the wall @-@ to @-@ wall banter of sound pictures , and director Ernst Lubitsch wondered what the camera was intended for if characters were going to narrate all the onscreen action . The film industry also withstood competition from the home radio , and often characters in films went to great lengths to belittle the medium . The film industry was not above using the new medium to broadcast commercials for its projects however , and occasionally turned radio stars into short feature performers to take advantage of their built @-@ in following .
Seething beneath the surface of American life in the Depression was the fear of the angry mob , portrayed in panicked hysteria in films such as Gabriel Over the White House ( 1933 ) , The Mayor of Hell ( 1933 ) , and American Madness ( 1932 ) . Massive wide shots of angry hordes , comprising sometimes hundreds of men , rush into action in terrifyingly efficient uniformity . Groups of agitated men either standing in breadlines , loitering in hobo camps , or marching the streets in protest became a prevalent sight during the Great Depression . The Bonus Army protests of World War I veterans on the capital in Washington , D.C. , on which Hoover unleashed a brutal crackdown , prompted many of the Hollywood depictions . Although social issues were examined more directly in the pre @-@ Code era , Hollywood still largely ignored the Great Depression , as many films sought to ameliorate patrons , rather than incite them .
Hays remarked in 1932 :
The function of motion pictures is to ENTERTAIN . … This we must keep before us at all times and we must realize constantly the fatality of ever permitting our concern with social values to lead us into the realm of propaganda … the American motion picture … owes no civic obligation greater than the honest presentment of clean entertainment and maintains that in supplying effective entertainment , free of propaganda , we serve a high and self @-@ sufficing purpose .
= = Social problem films = =
Hays and others , such as Samuel Goldwyn , obviously felt that motion pictures presented a form of escapism that served a palliative effect on American moviegoers . Goldwyn had coined the famous dictum , " If you want to send a message , call Western Union " in the Pre @-@ Code era . However , the MPPDA took the opposite stance when questioned about certain so @-@ called " message " films before Congress in 1932 , claiming the audiences ' desire for realism led to certain unsavory social , legal , and political issues being portrayed in film .
The length of pre @-@ Code films was usually comparatively short , but that running time often required tighter material and did not affect the impact of message films . Employees ' Entrance ( 1933 ) received the following review from Jonathan Rosenbaum : " As an attack on ruthless capitalism , it goes a lot further than more recent efforts such as Wall Street , and it 's amazing how much plot and character are gracefully shoehorned into 75 minutes . " The film featured pre @-@ Code megastar Warren William ( later dubbed " the king of Pre @-@ Code " ) , " at his magnetic worst " , playing a particularly vile and heartless department store manager who , for example , terminates the jobs of two long @-@ standing male employees , one of whom commits suicide as a result . He also threatens to fire Loretta Young 's character , who pretends to be single to stay employed , unless she sleeps with him , then attempts to ruin her husband after learning she is married .
Films which stated a position about a social issue were usually labeled either " propaganda films " or " preachment yarns " . In contrast to Goldwyn and MGM 's definitively Republican stance on social issue films , Warner Brothers , led by New Deal advocate Jack L. Warner , was the most prominent maker of these types of pictures and preferred they be called " Americanism stories " . Pre @-@ Code historian Thomas Doherty has written that two recurring elements marked the so @-@ called preachment yarns . " The first is the exculpatory preface ; the second is the Jazz Age prelude . " The preface was essentially a softened version of a disclaimer that intended to calm any in the audience who disagreed with the film 's message . The Jazz Age prelude was almost singularly used to cast shame on the boisterous behavior of the 1920s .
Cabin in the Cotton ( 1932 ) is a Warner Bros. message film about the evils of capitalism . The film takes place in an unspecified southern state where workers are given barely enough to survive and taken advantage of by being charged exorbitant interest rates and high prices by unscrupulous landowners . The film is decidedly anti @-@ capitalist ; however , its preface claims otherwise :
In many parts of the South today , there exists an endless dispute between rich land @-@ owners , known as planters , and the poor cotton pickers , known as " peckerwoods " . The planters supply the tenants with the simple requirements of everyday life and ; in return , the tenants work the land year in and year out . A hundred volumes could be written on the rights and wrongs of both parties , but it is not the object of the producers of Cabin in the Cotton to take sides . We are only concerned with the effort to picture these conditions .
In the end , however , the planters admit their wrongdoing and agree to a more equitable distribution of capital .
The avaricious businessman remained a recurring character in pre @-@ Code cinema . In The Match King ( 1932 ) , Warren William played an industrialist based on real @-@ life Swedish entrepreneur Ivar Kreuger , himself nicknamed the " Match King " , who attempts to corner the global market on matches . William 's vile character , Paul Kroll , commits robbery , fraud , and murder on his way from a janitor to a captain of industry . When the market collapses in the 1929 crash , Kroll is ruined and commits suicide to avoid imprisonment . William played another unscrupulous businessman in Skyscraper Souls ( 1932 ) : David Dwight , a wealthy banker who owns a building named after himself that is larger than the Empire State Building . He tricks everyone he knows into poverty to appropriate others ' wealth . He is ultimately shot by his secretary ( Verree Teasdale ) , who then ends the film and her own life by walking off the roof of the skyscraper .
Americans ' mistrust and dislike of lawyers was a frequent topic of dissection in social problem films such Lawyer Man ( 1933 ) , State 's Attorney , and The Mouthpiece ( 1932 ) . In films such as Paid ( 1930 ) , the legal system turns innocent characters into criminals . The life of Joan Crawford 's character is ruined and her romantic interest is executed so that she may live free , although she is innocent of the crime for which the district attorney wants to convict her . Religious hypocrisy was addressed in such films as The Miracle Woman ( 1931 ) , starring Barbara Stanwyck and directed by Frank Capra . Stanwyck also portrayed a nurse and initially reluctant heroine who manages to save , via unorthodox means , two young children in danger from nefarious characters ( including Clark Gable as a malevolent chauffeur ) in Night Nurse ( 1931 ) .
Countless films dealt with the economic realities of a country struggling to find its next meal . In Blonde Venus ( 1932 ) , Marlene Dietrich 's character resorts to prostitution to feed her child , and Claudette Colbert 's character in It Happened One Night ( 1934 ) gets her comeuppance for throwing a tray of food onto the floor by later finding herself without food or financial resources . Joan Blondell 's character in Big City Blues ( 1932 ) reflects that as a chorus girl she regularly received diamonds and pearls as gifts , but now must content herself with a corned beef sandwich . In Union Depot ( 1932 ) , Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. puts a luscious meal as the first order of business on his itinerary after coming into money .
= = = Political releases = = =
Unsurprisingly , given the social circumstances , politically oriented social problem films ridiculed politicians and portrayed them as incompetent bumblers , scoundrels , and liars . In The Dark Horse ( 1932 ) , Warren William is again enlisted , this time to get an imbecile , who is accidentally in the running for Governor , elected . The candidate wins the election despite his incessant , embarrassing mishaps . Washington Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round portrayed the state of a political system stuck in neutral . Columbia Pictures nearly released the film with a scene of the public execution of a politician as the climax before deciding to cut it .
Cecil B. DeMille released This Day and Age in 1933 , and it stands in stark contrast to his other films of the period . Filmed shortly after DeMille had completed a five @-@ month tour of the Soviet Union , This Day and Age takes place in America and features several children torturing a gangster who got away with the murder of a popular local shopkeeper . The youngsters are seen lowering the gangster into a vat of rats when the police arrive , and their response is to encourage the youths to continue this . The film ends with the youngsters taking the gangster to a local judge and forcing the magistrate to conduct a trial in which the outcome is never in doubt .
The need for strong leaders who could take charge and steer America out of its crisis is seen in Gabriel Over the White House ( 1933 ) , about a benevolent dictator who takes control of the United States . Walter Huston stars as a weak @-@ willed , ineffectual president ( likely modeled after Hoover ) who is inhabited by the archangel Gabriel upon being knocked unconscious . The spirit 's behavior is similar to that of Abraham Lincoln . The president solves the nation 's unemployment crisis and executes an Al Capone @-@ type criminal who has continually flouted the law .
Dictators were not just glorified in fiction . Columbia 's Mussolini Speaks ( 1933 ) was a 76 @-@ minute paean to the Fascist leader , narrated by NBC radio commentator Lowell Thomas . After showing some of the progress Italy has made during Il Duce 's 10 @-@ year reign , Thomas opines , " This is a time when a dictator comes in handy ! " The film was viewed by over 175 @,@ 000 jubilant people during its first two weeks at the cavernous Palace Theater in Albany , New York .
The election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt ( FDR ) in 1932 quelled the public affection for dictators . As the country became increasingly enthralled with FDR , who was featured in countless newsreels , it exhibited less desire for alternative forms of government . Many Hollywood films reflected this new optimism . Heroes for Sale , despite being a tremendously bleak and at times anti @-@ American film , ends on a positive note as the New Deal appears as a sign of optimism . When Wild Boys of the Road ( 1933 ) , directed by William Wellman , reaches its conclusion , a dispossessed juvenile delinquent is in court expecting a jail sentence . However the judge lets the boy go free , revealing to him the symbol of the New Deal behind his desk , and tells him " [ t ] hings are going to be better here now , not only here in New York , but all over the country . " A box @-@ office casualty of this hopefulness was Gabriel Over the White House , which entered production during the Hoover era malaise and sought to capitalize on it . By the time the film was released on March 31 , 1933 , FDR 's election had produced a level of hopefulness in America that rendered the film 's message obsolete .
Adolf Hitler 's rise to power in Germany and his regime 's anti @-@ Semitic policies significantly affected American pre @-@ Code filmmaking . Although Hitler had become unpopular in many parts of the United States , Germany was still a voluminous importer of American films and the studios wanted to appease the German government . The ban on Jews and negative portrayals of Germany in the Fatherland even led to a significant reduction in work for Jews in Hollywood until after the end of World War II . As a result , only two social problem films released by independent film companies addressed the mania in Germany during the pre @-@ Code era ( Are We Civilized ? and Hitler 's Reign of Terror ) .
In 1933 , Herman J. Mankiewicz and producer Sam Jaffe announced they were working on a picture , to be titled Mad Dog of Europe , which was intended to be a full @-@ scale attack on Hitler . Jaffe had quit his job at RKO Pictures to make the film . Hays summoned the pair to his office and told them to cease production as they were causing needless headaches for the studios . Germany had threatened to seize all the properties of the Hollywood producers in Germany and ban the import of any future American films .
= = Crime films = =
In the early 1900s , the United States was still primarily a rural country , especially in self @-@ identity . D. W. Griffith 's The Musketeers of Pig Alley ( 1912 ) is one of the earliest American films to feature urban organized crime . Prohibition 's arrival in 1920 created an environment where anyone who wanted to drink had to consort with criminals , especially in urban areas . Nonetheless , the urban @-@ crime genre was mostly ignored until 1927 when Underworld , which is recognized as the first gangster movie , became a surprise hit . According to the Encyclopedia of Hollywood entry on Underworld , " The film established the fundamental elements of the gangster movie : a hoodlum hero ; ominous , night @-@ shrouded city streets ; floozies ; and a blazing finale in which the cops cut down the protagonist . " Gangster films such as Thunderbolt ( 1929 ) , and Doorway to Hell were released to capitalize on Underworld 's popularity , with Thunderbolt being described as " a virtual remake " of the film . Other late 1920s crime films investigated the connection between mobsters and Broadway productions in movies such as Lights of New York ( 1928 ) , Tenderloin ( 1928 ) and Broadway ( 1929 ) .
The Hays Office had never officially recommended banning violence in any form in the 1920s — unlike profanity , the drug trade or prostitution — but advised that it be handled carefully . New York 's censor board was more thorough than that of any other state , missing only around 50 of the country 's 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 300 annual releases . In 1927 – 28 the violent scenes removed were all of those in which a gun was pointed at the camera , some instances in which guns were pointed " at or into the body of another character " , many shots where machine guns were featured , scenes where criminals shot at law enforcement officers , some scenes involving stabbing or knife brandishing ( audiences considered stabbings more disturbing than shootings ) , most whippings , several involving choking , torture , or electrocution , and any scenes which could be considered educational in their depiction of crime methods . Sadistic violence and reaction shots showing the faces of individuals on the receiving end of violence were considered especially sensitive areas . The Code later recommended against scenes showing robbery , theft , safe @-@ cracking , arson , " the use of firearms " , " dynamiting of trains , machines , and buildings " , and " brutal killings " , on the basis that they would be rejected by local censors .
= = = Birth of the Hollywood gangster = = =
No motion picture genre of the Pre @-@ Code era was more incendiary than the gangster film ; neither preachment yarns nor vice films so outraged the moral guardians or unnerved the city fathers as the high caliber scenarios that made screen heroes out of stone killers .
In the early 1930s , several real @-@ life criminals became celebrities . Two in particular captured the American imagination : Al Capone and John Dillinger . Gangsters like Capone had transformed the perception of entire cities . Capone gave Chicago its " reputation as the locus classicus of American gangsterdom , a cityscape where bullet @-@ proof roadsters with tommygun @-@ toting hoodlums on running boards careened around State Street spraying fusillades of slugs into flower shop windows and mowing down the competition in blood @-@ spattered garages " . Capone appeared on the cover of Time magazine in 1930 . He was even offered 7 @-@ figure sums by two major Hollywood studios to appear in a film but declined . Dillinger became a national celebrity as a bank robber who eluded arrest and escaped confinement several times . He had become the most celebrated public outlaw since Jesse James . His father appeared in a popular series of newsreels giving police homespun advice on how to catch his son . Dillinger 's popularity rose so quickly that Variety joked that " if Dillinger remains at large much longer and more such interviews are obtained , there may be some petitions circulated to make him our president . " Hays wrote a cablegram to all the studios in March 1934 mandating that Dillinger not be portrayed in any motion picture .
The genre entered a new level following the release of Little Caesar ( 1931 ) , which featured Edward G. Robinson as gangster Rico Bandello . Caesar , along with The Public Enemy starring James Cagney as Tom Powers and Scarface ( 1932 ) , featuring Paul Muni as Tony Comante , were , by standards of the time , incredibly violent films that created a new type of anti @-@ hero . Nine gangster films were released in 1930 , 26 in 1931 , 28 in 1932 , and 15 in 1933 , when the genre 's popularity began to subside after the end of Prohibition . The backlash against gangster films was swift . In 1931 , Jack Warner announced that his studio would stop making them and that he himself had never allowed his 15 @-@ year @-@ old son to see them .
Generally considered the grandfather of gangster films , in Little Caesar , Robinson as Rico and his close friend Joe Massara ( Douglas Fairbanks , Jr . ) move to Chicago . Joe wants to go straight and meets a woman . Rico , however , seeks a life of crime and joins the gang of Sam Vettori . He rises to the rank of boss of the crime family . After becoming concerned his friend will betray him he threatens him , at which point Joe 's girlfriend goes to the police . Unable to bring himself to kill Joe and eliminate the witness against him , Rico goes into hiding . He is coaxed out by the police , who publish that he is a coward to the press . Rico is killed in a blaze of gunfire ; his last words are " Mother of mercy , is this the end of Rico ? " Robinson was initially cast in a small role but persuaded the film 's producer to let him play the lead . Wingate , who then headed New York 's censorship board , told Hays that he was flooded with complaints from people who saw kids in theaters nationwide " applaud the gang leader as a hero . " The success of Little Caesar inspired Fox 's The Secret Six ( 1931 ) and Quick Millions ( 1931 ) , and Paramount 's City Streets ( 1931 ) , but the next big Hollywood gangster would come from Warners .
William Wellman 's The Public Enemy ( 1931 ) , released by Warner Brothers , features another career @-@ defining performance , this time James Cagney as Tom Powers . The film is similar to the template set in Little Caesar in that it follows Powers from his rise to his eventual fall in the world of crime . The film was partially based on the real life of Chicago gangster Dion O 'Banion . Cagney 's character is contrasted with his puritanical brother who wants him to go straight ; their mother is at the center of the conflict . Tom Powers is egotistical , amoral , heartless , ruthless , and extremely violent . The best @-@ remembered scene in the picture is referred to as the " grapefruit scene " : when Cagney 's girlfriend ( Mae Clarke ) angers him during breakfast , he shoves half a grapefruit in her face . Instead of scenes from the film , its trailer contained a voiceover warning of the picture 's intensity and showed a gun being fired directly at the camera .
Cagney was even more violent towards women in the gangster film Picture Snatcher ( 1933 ) : in one scene , he knocks out an amorous woman whose feelings he does not reciprocate and violently throws her into the backseat of his car . In April 1931 , the same month as the release of The Public Enemy , Hays recruited former police chief August Vollmer to conduct a study on the effect gangster pictures had on children . After he had finished his work , Vollmer stated that gangster films were innocuous and even overly favorable in depicting the police . Although Hays used the results to defend the film industry , the New York State censorship board was not impressed , and from 1930 through 1932 , removed 2 @,@ 200 crime scenes from pictures .
Some critics have named Scarface ( 1932 ) as the most incendiary pre @-@ Code gangster film . Directed by Howard Hawks and starring Muni as Tony Camonte , the film is partially based on the life of Al Capone and incorporates details of Capone 's biography into the storyline . The film begins with Tony Camonte ( Paul Muni ) working for Johnny Lovo ( Osgood Perkins ) , but he 's dissatisfied with being a subordinate and he 's also attracted to Lovo 's girlfriend Poppy ( Karen Morley ) . He has an unhealthily controlling relationship with his sister Francesca ( Ann Dvorak ) – whom he expects to remain chaste — that many critics have described as incestuous . Lovo warns Camonte to leave the North Side alone as it is controlled by a rival mob , but he ignores this warning and launches a series of executions and extortions that result in a war with the North Side gang . Camonte then forcefully takes the gang over from Lovo , who tries unsuccessfully to kill him for this . Camonte 's attempt to kill Lovo is more successful , and Poppy happily becomes his girl . When Camonte finds Francesca in a hotel room with his closest friend , coin @-@ flipping gangster Guino Rinaldo ( George Raft ) , he kills Rinaldo in a rage . Afterward , he becomes despondent when he learns that the couple had wanted to surprise him with the news that they had gotten married .
The production of Scarface was troubled from the start . The Hays office warned producer Howard Hughes not to make the film ; when it was completed in late 1931 , the Hays office demanded numerous changes including a conclusion where Comante was captured , tried , convicted , and hanged and that the film carry the subtitle Shame of a Nation . Hughes sent the film to numerous state censorship boards , saying that he hoped to show that the film was made to combat the " gangster menace " . After he was unable to get the film past the New York State censor board ( then headed by Wingate ) even after the changes , Hughes sued the New York board and won , allowing him to release the film in a version close to its intended form . When other local censors refused to release the edited version , the Hays Office sent Jason Joy around to them to assure them that the cycle of gangster films of this nature was ending .
Scarface provoked outrage mainly because of its unprecedented violence , but also for its shifts of tone from serious to comedic . Dave Kehr , writing in the Chicago Reader , stated that the film blends " comedy and horror in a manner that suggests Chico Marx let loose with a live machine gun . " In one scene , Camonte is inside a cafe while a torrent of machine @-@ gun fire from the car of a rival gang is headed his way ; when the barrage is over , Camonte picks up one of the newly released tommy guns the gangsters dropped and exhibits childlike wonder and unrestrained excitement over the new toy . Civic leaders became furious that gangsters like Capone ( who was also the blatant inspiration for Little Caesar ) were being applauded in movie houses all across America . The screenplay , adapted by Ben Hecht who was a journalist in Chicago , contained biographical details for Muni 's character in Scarface that were so obviously taken from Capone , and the detail so close , that it was impossible not to draw the parallels .
One of the factors that made gangster pictures so subversive was that , in the difficult economic times of the Depression , there already existed the viewpoint that the only way to get financial success was through crime . The Kansas City Times argued that although adults may not be particularly affected , these films were " misleading , contaminating , and often demoralizing to children and youth . " Exacerbating the problem , some cinema theater owners advertised gangster pictures with a singular irresponsibility . Real @-@ life murders were tied into promotions and " theater lobbies displayed tommy guns and blackjacks " . The situation reached such a nexus that the studios had to ask exhibitors to tone down the gimmickry in their promotions .
= = = Prison films = = =
Prison films of the pre @-@ Code era often involved men and women who were unjustly incarcerated , and films set in prisons of the north tended to portray them as a bastion of solidarity against the crumbling social system of the Great Depression . Sparked by the real @-@ life Ohio penitentiary fire on April 21 , 1930 , in which guards refused to release prisoners from their cells , causing 300 deaths , the films depicted the inhumane conditions inside prisons in the early 1930s . The genre was composed of two archetypes : the prison film and the chain gang film . In the prison film , large hordes of men move about in identical uniforms , resigned to their fate , they live by a well defined code . In the chain gang film , Southern prisoners were subjected to a draconian system of discipline in the blazing outdoor heat , where they were treated terribly by their ruthless captors .
The prototype of the prison genre was The Big House ( 1930 ) . In The Big House , Robert Montgomery plays a squirmy inmate who is sentenced to six years after committing vehicular manslaughter while under the influence . His cell mates are a murderer played by Wallace Beery and a forger played by Chester Morris . The picture features future staples of the prison genre such as solitary confinement , informers , riots , visitations , an escape , and the codes of prison life . The protagonist , Montgomery , ends up being a loathsome character , a coward who will sell anyone in the prison out to get an early release . The film was banned in Ohio , the site of the deadly prison riots that inspired it . Numbered Men , The Criminal Code , Shadow of the Law , Convict 's Code , and others , from no less than seven studios , followed . However , prison films mainly appealed to men , and had weak box office performances as a result .
Studios also produced children 's prison films which addressed the juvenile delinquency problems of America in the Depression . The Mayor of Hell for instance , featured kids killing a murderously abusive reform school overseer without retribution .
= = = = Chain gang films = = = =
The most searing criticism of the American prison system was reserved for the depiction of Southern chain gangs , with I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang being by far the most influential . I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang , which is based on the true story of Robert . E. Burns , is by far the most famous of the early 1930s chain gang films . In the first half of 1931 , True Detective Mysteries magazine had published Burns ' work over six issues , and it was released as a book in January 1932 . Decorated veteran James Allen ( Paul Muni ) returns from World War I a changed man , and seeks an alternative to the tedious job that he left behind . He travels the country looking for construction work . His ultimate goal is to become involved in construction planning . Allen follows a hobo he met at a homeless shelter into a cafe , taking him up on his offer of a free meal . When the hobo attempts to rob the eatery , Allen is charged as an accessory , convicted of stealing a few dollars , and sentenced to ten years in a chain gang . The men are chained together and transported to a quarry to break rocks every day . Even when unchained from each other , shackles remain around their ankles at all times . Allen convinces a large black prisoner who has particularly good aim to hit the shackles on his ankles with a sledgehammer to bend them . He removes his feet from the bent shackles , and in a famous sequence , escapes through the woods while being chased by bloodhounds . On the outside he develops a new identity and becomes a respected developer in Chicago . He is blackmailed into marriage by a woman he does not love who finds out his secret . When he threatens to leave her for a young woman he has fallen in love with , she turns him in . His case becomes a cause célèbre , and he agrees to turn himself in under the agreement that he will serve 90 days and then be released . He is tricked however , and not freed at the agreed upon time . This forces him to escape again , and he seeks out the young woman , telling her that they cannot be together because he will always be hunted . The film ends with her asking him how he survives , and his ominous reply from the darkness : " I steal . "
Although based on reality , Chain Gang changes the facts slightly to appeal to Depression @-@ era audiences by making Allen 's return home one to a country that is struggling economically , even though Burns returned to the roaring twenties . The film 's bleak , anti @-@ establishment ending shocked audiences . Laughter in Hell , a 1933 film directed by Edward L. Cahn and starring Pat O 'Brien , was inspired in part by I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang . O 'Brien plays a railroad engineer who kills his wife and her lover in a jealous rage , and is sent to prison . The dead man 's brother ends up being the warden of the prison and torments O 'Brien 's character . O 'Brien and several others revolt , killing the warden and escaping with his new lover ( Gloria Stuart ) . The film , rediscovered in 2012 , drew controversy for its lynching scene in which several black men were hanged . Reports vary if the blacks were hanged alongside other white men , or by themselves . The New Age ( an African American weekly newspaper ) film critic praised the filmmakers for being courageous enough to depict the atrocities that were occurring in some Southern states .
= = Sex films = =
= = = Promotion = = =
As films featuring prurient elements performed well at the box office , after the crackdown on crime films , Hollywood increased its production of pictures featuring the seven deadly sins . In 1932 , Warner Bros formed an official policy decreeing that " two out of five stories should be hot " , and that nearly all films could benefit by " adding something having to do with ginger . " Filmmakers began putting in overly suggestive material they knew would never reach theaters in hopes that lesser offenses would survive the cutting @-@ room floor . MGM screenwriter Donald Ogden Stewart said that " [ Joy and Wingate ] wouldn 't want to take out too much , so you would give them five things to take out to satisfy the Hays Office — and you would get away with murder with what they left in . " Films such as Laughing Sinners , Safe in Hell , The Devil is Driving , Merrily We Go to Hell , Laughter in Hell , and The Road to Ruin were provocative in their mere titles . Studios marketed their films , sometimes dishonestly , by inventing suggestive tag lines and lurid titles , even going so far as to hold in @-@ house contests for thinking up provocative titles for screenplays . Commonly labeled " sex films " by the censors , these pictures offended taste in more categories than just sexuality . According to a Variety analysis of 440 pictures produced in 1932 – 33 , 352 had " some sex slant " , with 145 possessing " questionable sequences " , and 44 being " critically sexual " . Variety summarized that " over 80 % of the world 's chief picture output was … flavored with bedroom essence . " Attempts to create films for adults only ( dubbed " pinking " ) wound up bringing large audiences of all ages to cinemas .
Posters and publicity photos were often tantalizing . Women appeared in poses and garb not even glimpsed in the films themselves . In some cases actresses with small parts in films ( or in the case of Dolores Murray in her publicity still for The Common Law , no part at all ) appeared scantily clad . Hays became outraged at the steamy pictures circulating in newspapers around the country . The original Hays Code contained an often @-@ ignored note about advertising imagery , but he wrote an entirely new advertising screed in the style of the Ten Commandments that contained a set of twelve prohibitions . The first seven addressed imagery . They prohibited women in undergarments , women raising their skirts , suggestive poses , kissing , necking , and other suggestive material . The last five concerned advertising copy and prohibited misrepresentation of the film 's contents , " salacious copy " , and the word " courtesan " . Studios found their way around the restrictions and published increasingly racy imagery . Ultimately this backfired in 1934 when a billboard in Philadelphia was placed outside the home of Cardinal Dennis Dougherty . Severely offended , Dougherty took his revenge by helping to launch the motion @-@ picture boycott which would later facilitate enforcement of the Code . A commonly repeated theme by those supporting censorship , and one mentioned in the Code itself was the notion that the common people needed to be saved from themselves by the more refined cultural elite .
Despite the obvious attempts to appeal to red @-@ blooded American males , most of the patrons of sex pictures were female . Variety squarely blamed women for the increase in vice pictures :
Women are responsible for the ever @-@ increasing public taste in sensationalism and sexy stuff . Women who make up the bulk of the picture audiences are also the majority reader of the tabloids , scandal sheets , flashy magazines , and erotic books … the mind of the average man seems wholesome in comparison . … Women love dirt , nothing shocks ' em .
Pre @-@ Code female audiences liked to indulge in the carnal lifestyles of mistresses and adulteresses while at the same time taking joy in their usually inevitable downfall in the closing scenes of the picture . While gangster films were claimed to corrupt the morals of young boys , vice films were blamed for threatening the purity of adolescent women .
= = = Content = = =
In pre @-@ Code Hollywood , the sex film became synonymous with women 's pictures — Darryl F. Zanuck once told Wingate that he was ordered by Warner Brothers ' New York corporate office to reserve 20 % of the studio 's output for " women 's pictures , which inevitably means sex pictures . " Vice films typically tacked on endings where the most sin @-@ filled characters were either punished or redeemed . Films explored Code @-@ defying subjects in an unapologetic manner with the premise that an end @-@ reel moment could redeem all that had gone before . The concept of marriage was often tested in films such as The Prodigal ( 1931 ) , in which a woman is having an affair with a seedy character , and later falls in love with her brother @-@ in @-@ law . When her mother @-@ in @-@ law steps in at the end of the film , it is to encourage one son to grant his wife a divorce so she can marry his brother , with whom she is obviously in love . The older woman proclaims the message of the film in a line near the end : " This the twentieth century . Go out into the world and get what happiness you can . "
In Madame Satan ( 1930 ) , adultery is explicitly condoned and used as a sign for a wife that she needs to act in a more enticing way to maintain her husband 's interest . In Secrets ( 1933 ) , a husband admits to serial adultery , only this time he repents and the marriage is saved . The films took aim at what was already a damaged institution . During the Great Depression , relations between spouses often deteriorated due to financial strain , marriages lessened , and husbands abandoned their families in increased numbers . Marriage rates continually declined in the early 1930s , finally rising in 1934 , the final year of the pre @-@ Code era , and although divorce rates lowered , this is likely because desertion was a more likely method of separation . Consequently , female characters , such as Ruth Chatterton 's in Female , live promiscuous bachelorette lifestyles , and control their own financial destiny ( Chatterton supervises an auto factory ) without regret .
One of the most prominent examples of punishment for immoral transgressions in vice film can be seen in The Story of Temple Drake , based on the William Faulkner novel Sanctuary . In Drake , the title character ( Miriam Hopkins ) , a cold , vapid " party girl " , the daughter of a judge , is raped and forced into prostitution by a backwoods character , and according to pre @-@ Code scholar Thomas Doherty , the film implies that the deeds done to her are in recompense for her immorality . Later , in court , she confesses that she killed the man who raped and kept her . She faints after this confession , upon which her lawyer carries her out , leading to a " happy ending " . In the RKO film Christopher Strong , Katharine Hepburn plays an aviator who becomes pregnant from an affair with a married man . She commits suicide by flying her plane directly upwards until she breaks the world altitude record , at which point she takes off her oxygen mask and plummets to earth . Strong female characters often ended films as " reformed " women , after experiencing situations in which their progressive outlook proved faulty .
Female protagonists in aggressively sexual vice films were usually of two general kinds : the bad girl or the fallen woman . In so @-@ called " bad girl " pictures , female characters profited from promiscuity and immoral behavior . Jean Harlow , an actress who was by all reports a lighthearted , kind person offscreen , frequently played bad girl characters and dubbed them " sex vultures " . Two of the most prominent examples of bad girl films , Red @-@ Headed Woman and Baby Face , featured Harlow and Stanwyck . In Red @-@ Headed Woman Harlow plays a secretary determined to sleep her way into a more luxurious lifestyle , and in Baby Face Stanwyck is an abused runaway determined to use sex to advance herself financially .
In Baby Face Stanwyck moves to New York and sleeps her way to the top of Gotham Trust . Her progress is illustrated in a recurring visual metaphor of the movie camera panning ever upward along the front of Gotham Trust 's skyscraper . Men are driven mad with lust over her and they commit murder , attempt suicide , and are ruined financially for associating with her before she mends her ways in the final reel . In another departure from post Code films , Stanwyck 's sole companion for the duration of the picture is a black woman named Chico ( Theresa Harris ) , whom she took with her when she ran away from home at age 14 .
Red @-@ Headed Woman begins with Harlow seducing her boss Bill LeGendre and intentionally breaking up his marriage . During her seductions , he tries to resist and slaps her , at which point she looks at him deliriously and says " Do it again , I like it ! Do it again ! " They eventually marry but Harlow seduces a wealthy aged industrialist who is in business with her husband so that she can move to New York . Although this plan succeeds , she is cast aside when she is discovered having an affair with her chauffeur , in essence cheating on her paramour . Harlow shoots LeGendre , nearly killing him . When she is last seen in the film , she is in France in the back seat of a limousine with an elderly wealthy gentleman being driven along by the same chauffeur . The film was a boon to Harlow 's career and has been described as a " trash masterpiece " .
Cinema classified as " fallen woman " films was often inspired by real @-@ life hardships women endured in the early Depression era workplace . The men in power in these pictures frequently sexually harassed the women working for them . Remaining employed often became a question of a woman 's virtue . In She Had to Say Yes ( 1933 ) , starring Loretta Young , a struggling department store offers dates with its female stenographers as an incentive to customers . Employees ' Entrance was marketed with the tag line " See what out of work girls are up against these days . " Joy complained in 1932 of another genre , the " kept woman " film , which presented adultery as an alternative to the tedium of an unhappy marriage .
Homosexuals were portrayed in such pre @-@ Code films as Our Betters ( 1933 ) , Footlight Parade ( 1933 ) , Only Yesterday ( 1933 ) , Sailor 's Luck ( 1933 ) , and Cavalcade ( 1933 ) . Although the topic was dealt with much more openly than in the decades that followed , the characterizations of gay and lesbian characters were usually derogatory . Gay male characters were portrayed as flighty with high voices , existing merely as buffoonish supporting characters . In films like Ladies They Talk About , lesbians were portrayed as rough , burly characters , but in DeMille 's The Sign of the Cross , a female Christian slave is brought to a Roman prefect and seduced in dance by a statuesque lesbian dancer . Fox nearly became the first American studio to use the word " gay " to refer to homosexuality , but the SRC made the studio muffle the word in the soundtrack of all filmreels that reached theaters . Bisexual actress Marlene Dietrich cultivated a cross @-@ gender fan base and started a trend when she began wearing men 's suits . She caused a commotion when she appeared at the premiere of The Sign of the Cross in 1932 in a tuxedo , complete with top hat and cane . The appearance of homosexual characters was at its height in 1933 ; in that year , Hays declared that all gay male characters would be removed from pictures . Paramount took advantage of the negative publicity Dietrich generated by signing a largely meaningless agreement stating that they would not portray women in male attire .
= = Comedy = =
In the harsh economic times of the early Depression , films and performers often featured an alienated , cynical , and socially dangerous comic style . As with political films , comedy softened with the election of FDR and the optimism of the New Deal . Characters in the pre @-@ Code era frequently engaged in comedic duels of escalating sexual innuendo . In Employee 's Entrance , a woman enters the office of a scoundrel boss who remarks , " Oh , it 's you — I didn 't recognize you with all your clothes on . " Racial stereotypes were usually employed when ethnic characters appeared . Blacks in particular were usually the butt of the wisecrack , never the author . The most acknowledged black comedian was Stepin Fetchit , whose slow @-@ witted comedic character was only meant to be successful in an unintentional manner , with himself as the punchline .
The New York stage was filled with ribald humor and sexually offensive comedy ; when movie producers started to put wisecracks in their sound pictures , they sought New York performers . Popular comics such as the Marx Brothers got their start on Broadway in front of live audiences . Censors complained when they had to keep up with the deluge of jokes in pictures in the early 1930s , some of which were designed to go over their heads . The comic banter of some early sound films was rapid @-@ fire , non @-@ stop , and frequently exhausting for the audience by the final reel .
Mae West had already established herself as a comedic performer when her 1926 Broadway show Sex made national headlines . Tried and convicted of indecency by the New York City District Attorney , she served eight days in prison . West carefully constructed a stage persona and carried it over into her interviews and personal appearances . Despite her voluptuous physique , most of her appeal lay in her suggestive manner . She became a wordsmith in the art of the come @-@ on and the seductive line , and despite her obvious appeal to male audiences , was popular with women as well . Over the cries of the censors , West got her start in the film Night After Night ( 1932 ) , which starred George Raft and Constance Cummings , as a Texas Guinan @-@ esque supporting character . She agreed to appear in the film only after producers agreed to let her write her own lines . In West 's first line on film , after a hat check girl remarks " Goodness , what beautiful diamonds " , West replies , " Goodness had nothing to do with it , dearie . " Raft , who had wanted Texas Guinan herself for the role that went to West , later wrote , " In this picture , Mae West stole everything but the cameras . " She went on to make She Done Him Wrong in 1933 , which became a huge box office hit , grossing $ 3 million against a $ 200 @,@ 000 budget , and then nine months later wrote and starred in I 'm No Angel . She became such a success that her career saved Paramount from financial ruin .
The arrival of sound film created a new job market for writers of screen dialogue . Many newspaper journalists moved to California and became studio @-@ employed screenwriters . This resulted in a series of fast @-@ talking comedy pictures featuring newsmen . The Front Page , later re @-@ made as the much less cynical and more sentimental post @-@ Code His Girl Friday ( 1940 ) , was adapted from the Broadway play by Chicago newsmen , and Hollywood screenwriters , Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur . It was based on Hecht 's experiences working as a reporter for the Chicago Daily Journal .
The Marx Brothers had been stage performers since the early 1900s . By the 1930s , their act consisted of wisecracking leader Groucho , the chronically silent Harpo , the overly ethnic Chico , and the strangely normal Zeppo . The plot of the seminal comedy Duck Soup ( 1933 ) is quite convoluted . Groucho 's plebeian character is named king of the fictional Freedonia , and he is pursued by two bumbling spies played by Chico and Harpo . Zeppo plays a typically normal secretary . Groucho 's con artist character leads Freedonia into war with neighboring Sylvania . The plot essentially exists to provide a framework for several comedic bits and long sketches . The film was unsuccessful at the box office and the anarchic zaniness and subversive nature of the comedy in the film would be unmatched in the brothers ' post @-@ Code work , which was more standardly burlesque .
= = = Cartoons = = =
Theatrical cartoons were also covered by the Production Code . According to Leonard Maltin : " In early 1933 a Georgia theater owner wrote to Film Daily : ' The worst kicks we have are on smut in cartoons . They are primarily a kid draw , and parents frequently object to the filth that is put in them , incidentally without helping the comedy . The dirtiest ones are invariably the least funny . ' " Betty Boop thus underwent some of the most dramatic changes after the Code was imposed : " gone was the garter , the short skirt , the décolletage " .
= = Horror and science fiction = =
Unlike silent @-@ era sex and crime pictures , silent horror movies , despite being produced in the hundreds , were never a major concern for censors or civic leaders . When sound horror films were released however , they quickly caused controversy . Sound provided " atmospheric music and sound effects , creepy @-@ voiced macabre dialogue and a liberal dose of blood @-@ curdling screams " which intensified its effects on audiences , and consequently on moral crusaders . The Hays Code did not mention gruesomeness , and filmmakers took advantage of this oversight . However , state boards usually had no set guidelines and could object to any material they found indecent . Although films such as Frankenstein and Freaks caused controversy when they were released , they had already been re @-@ cut to comply with censors .
Comprising the nascent motion picture genres of horror and science fiction , the nightmare picture provoked individual psychological terror in its horror incarnations , while embodying group sociological terror in its science fiction manifestations . The two main types of pre @-@ Code horror pictures were the single monster movie , and films where masses of hideous beasts rose up and attacked their putative betters . Frankenstein and Freaks exemplified both genres .
The pre @-@ Code horror cycle was similar to other pre @-@ Code cycles in that its boom was motivated by financial necessity . Universal in particular buoyed itself with the production of horror hits such as Dracula ( 1931 ) and Frankenstein , then followed those successes up with Murders in the Rue Morgue ( 1932 ) , The Mummy ( 1932 ) , and The Old Dark House ( 1932 ) . Other major studios responded with their own productions . Much like the crime film cycle however , the intense boom of the horror cycle was ephemeral , and had fallen off at the box office by the end of the pre @-@ Code era .
While Joy declared Dracula " quite satisfactory from the standpoint of the Code " before it was released , and the film had little trouble reaching theaters , Frankenstein was a different story . New York , Pennsylvania , and Massachusetts removed the scene where the monster unintentionally drowns a little girl and lines that referenced Dr. Frankenstein 's God complex . Kansas , in particular , objected to the film . The state 's censor board requested the cutting of 32 scenes , which if removed , would have halved the length of the film .
Paramount 's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde ( 1931 ) played to the Freudian theories popular with the audience of its time . Fredric March played the split @-@ personality title character . Jekyll represented the composed super @-@ ego , and Hyde the lecherous id . Miriam Hopkins 's coquettish prostitute sexually teases Jekyll early in the film by displaying parts of her legs and bosom . Joy felt the scene had been " dragged in simply to titillate the audience . " Hyde coerces her with the threat of violence into becoming his paramour and beats her when she attempts to stop seeing him . She is contrasted with his wholesome fiancée ( Rose Hobart ) , whose chaste nature dissatisfies March 's baser alter ego . The film is considered the " most honored of the Pre @-@ Code horror films . " Many of the graphic scenes between Hyde and Ivy were cut by local censors because of their suggestiveness . Sex was intimately tied to horror in many pre @-@ Code horror movies . In Murders in the Rue Morgue , an adaptation of Edgar Allan Poe 's classic tale which has little in common with the source material , Bela Lugosi plays a mad scientist who tortures and kills women , trying to mix human blood with ape blood during his experiments . His prized experiment , an intelligent ape named Erik , breaks into a woman 's second @-@ floor apartment window and rapes her .
In Freaks , director Tod Browning of Dracula fame helms a picture that depicts a traveling circus populated by a group of deformed carnival freaks . Browning populated the movie with actual carnival sideshow performers including " midgets , dwarfs , hermaphrodites , Siamese twins , and , most awful , the armless and legless man billed as the ' living torso ' " . There is also a group of Pinheads , who are depicted as fortunate in that they are not mentally capable enough to understand that they disgust people . But the truly unsavory characters here are the villains , the circus strongman Hercules and the beautiful high @-@ wire artist Cleopatra , who intends to marry and poison Hans , the midget heir who is enamored of her . At a dinner celebrating their union , one of the freaks dances on the table as they chant " gooble @-@ gobble , gobble , gobble , one of us , one of us , we accept her , we accept her . " Disgusted , Cleopatra insults Hans and makes out with Hercules in front of him . When the freaks discover her plot , they exact revenge by mutilating Cleopatra into a freak . Although circus freaks were common in the early 1930s , the film was their first depiction on screen . Browning took care to linger over shots of the deformed , disabled performers with long takes of them including one of the " living torso " lighting a match and then a cigarette with his mouth . The film was accompanied by a sensational marketing campaign that asked sexual questions such as " Do the Siamese Twins make love ? " , " What sex is the half @-@ man half @-@ woman ? " , and " Can a full grown woman truly love a midget ? " Surprisingly , given its reaction to Frankenstein , the state of Kansas objected to nothing in Freaks . However , other states , such as Georgia , were repulsed by the film and it was not shown in many locales . The film later became a cult classic spurred by midnight movie showings , but it was a box @-@ office bomb in its original release .
In Island of Lost Souls ( 1932 ) , an adaptation of H. G. Wells ' science @-@ fiction novel , The Island of Doctor Moreau , Charles Laughton plays yet another mad scientist with a God complex . As Moreau , Laughton creates a mad scientist 's island paradise , an unmonitored haven where he is free to create a race of man @-@ beasts and Lota , a beast @-@ woman he wants to mate with a normal human male . A castaway lands on his island , providing him an opportunity to see how far his science experiment , the barely clothed , attractive Lota , has come . The castaway discovers Moreau vivisecting one of the beast @-@ men and attempts to leave the island . He runs into the camp of the man @-@ beasts and Moreau beats them back with a whip . The film ends with Lota dead , the castaway rescued , and the man @-@ beasts chanting , " Are we not men ? " as they attack and then vivisect Moreau . The film has been described as " a rich man 's Freaks " due to its esteemed source material . Wells , however , despised the movie for its lurid excesses . It was rejected by 14 local censor boards in the United States , and considered " against nature " in Great Britain , where it was banned until 1958 .
= = Exotic adventure films = =
Pre @-@ Code films contained a continual , recurring theme of white racism . In the early 1930s , the studios filmed a series of pictures that aimed to provide viewers a sense of the exotic , an exploration of the unknown and the forbidden . These pictures often imbued themselves with the allure of interracial sex according to pre @-@ Code historian Thomas Doherty . " At the psychic core of the genre is the shiver of sexual attraction , the threat and promise of miscegenation . " Films such as Africa Speaks were directly marketed by referencing interracial sex ; moviegoers received small packets labeled " Secrets " which contained pictures of naked black women . As portrayals of historic conditions , these movies are of little educational value , but as artifacts that show Hollywood 's attitude towards race and foreign cultures they are enlightening . The central point of interest in The Blonde Captive ( 1931 ) , a film which depicted a blonde woman abducted by a savage tribe of Aboriginal Australians , was not that she was kidnapped , but that she enjoys living among the tribe . The lack of black characters in films highlights their status in Jim Crow America .
In Bird of Paradise , a white American man ( Joel McCrea ) enjoys a torrid affair with a Polynesian princess ( Dolores del Río ) . The film created a scandal when released due to a scene featuring Dolores del Río swimming naked . Orson Welles said del Río represented the highest erotic ideal with her performance in the film .
The white protagonist in Tarzan , the Ape Man ( 1932 ) is the " King of the [ African ] Jungle " . Tarzan ( Johnny Weissmuller ) is a monosyllabic half @-@ naked jungle creature whose attractiveness is derived from his physical prowess ; throughout the movie , he saves Jane ( Maureen O 'Sullivan ) from danger and she swoons in his arms . When Jane 's father warns her " [ h ] e 's not like us " , she responds , " [ h ] e 's white " as evidence to the contrary . In the racy 1934 sequel , Tarzan and His Mate ( the last word meaning both a status and a biological function ) , men come from the U.S. with fancy gowns and other accoutrements to woo and clothe the bra @-@ less , barely clothed Jane , again played by O 'Sullivan , hoping to lure her away from the savage Tarzan . He detests the fancier clothing and tears it off . The film included a skinny @-@ dipping scene with extensive nudity with a body double standing in for O 'Sullivan . Breen , then head of the SRC , objected to the scene , and MGM , the movie 's producer , decided to take their case to the appeals review board . The board consisted of the heads of Fox , RKO , and Universal . After watching the scene " several times " , the board sided with Breen and the MPPDA , and the scene was removed , but MGM still allowed some uncut trailers and a few reels to stay in circulation . MGM marketed the film primarily towards women using taglines such as :
Girls ! Would you live like Eve if you found the right Adam ?
Modern marriages could learn plenty from this drama of primitive jungle mating !
If all marriages were based on the primitive mating instinct , it would be a better world .
Ethnic characters were portrayed against stereotype in Massacre ( 1934 ) . The protagonist ( Richard Barthelmess ) is a Native American who performs in a Wild West Show in full Indian garb , but then slips into a suit and speaks in American slang once the show is over . He has a black butler who is atypically intelligent ; his character merely plays dumb by slipping into a stereotypical slow @-@ witted " negro " character when it suits him , rather than being genuinely unintelligent .
Films such as The Mask of Fu Manchu ( 1932 ) and The Bitter Tea of General Yen ( 1933 ) , explored the exoticism of the Far East — by using white actors , not Asians , in the lead roles . The white actors frequently looked absurd in yellow @-@ face makeup next to genuine Asians , so the studios would cast all the Asian parts white . In Manchu , Karloff plays a mad scientist who wants to find the sword and mask of Genghis Khan as they will give him the power to control the " countless hordes " into battle versus the West . Manchu is a sexual deviant who engages in ritual torture and has occult powers . In a scene cut from the film due to its miscegenation , he shows a man the image of Manchu 's depraved daughter ( Myrna Loy ) violating one of the chaste good characters . He is eventually conquered , but not before he temporarily lays his hand on the sword and proclaims to his men : " Would you have maidens like this [ Karen Morley ] for your wives ? Then conquer and breed ! Kill the white man and take his women ! "
Frank Capra 's The Bitter Tea of General Yen was not quite the same type of film : Stanwyck plays a missionary who goes to civil @-@ war @-@ torn China and meets the titular general ( played by Nils Asther ) after his car kills the driver of her rickshaw . When she is knocked unconscious in a riot , he takes her out of the rabble and onto a train car . She has lurid , horror @-@ themed , symbolic dreams about the General , in which she is both titillated and repulsed by him . The film breaks precedent by developing into an interracial love story , but his army ends in ruins . Yen kills himself at the film 's conclusion — by drinking poisoned tea — rather than be captured and killed . Capra adored the script and disregarded the risk of making a film that broke California 's ( and 29 other states ' ) laws concerning the portrayal of miscegenation . Cinematographer Joseph Walker tested a new technique he created , which he dubbed " Variable Diffusion " , in filming the picture . This rendered the entire picture in very soft focus .
= = Newsreels and documentaries = =
From 1904 until 1967 , when television finally killed them off , newsreels preceded films . In the early sound @-@ film era , they lasted around eight minutes and featured highlights and clips of the world 's biggest stories . Updated twice a week by the five major studios , they became a highly profitable enterprise : in 1933 , newsreels had a total box office take of almost $ 19 @.@ 5 million against an outlay of under $ 10 million . The sound @-@ film era created the narrator ; among the first was Graham McNamee , who provided voiceover during the clips , often delivering hackneyed jokes while delineating the on @-@ screen action . Sound newsreel interviews and monologues featured famous subjects unaccustomed to the new medium . These clips changed public perception of important historical figures depending on their elocution , the sound of their previously unheard voices , and their composure in front of the camera . Around 12 " newsreel theaters " were soon created around the United States , the most successful being the Embassy Newsreel Theater on Broadway . The Embassy was a 578 @-@ seat facility that presented fourteen 45 – 50 minute programs a day , running from 10 in the morning until midnight . It was noted for its discerning , intellectual audience , many of whom did not attend motion @-@ picture theaters .
The most gripping news story of the pre @-@ Code era was the kidnapping of the Lindbergh baby on the evening of 1 March 1932 . As the child was already enormously famous before the kidnapping , the event created a media circus , with news coverage more intense than anything since World War I. Newsreels featuring family photos of the child ( the first time private pictures had been " conscripted for public service " ) asked spectators to report any sight of him . On May 12 , 1932 , the child 's body was found less than five miles from the Lindbergh home . Although newsreels covered the most important topics of the day , they also presented human @-@ interest stories ( such as the immensely popular coverage of the Dionne quintuplets ) and entertainment news , at times in greater detail than more pressing political and social matters .
Some of the images ' impact belies their historical accuracy ; nearly all ceremonies and public events that were filmed for newsreels in the early sound era were staged , and in some cases even reenacted . For instance : when FDR signed an important bill , a member of his cabinet was called away before the staged reenactment began , so the video shows him absent at the time of the signing , although he had been present . The newsreels of FDR were staged to hide his hobbled gait caused by polio . Caught between the desire to present accurate hard @-@ hitting news stories and the need to keep an audience in the mood for the upcoming entertainment , newsreels often soft @-@ pedaled the difficulties Americans faced during the early years of the Great Depression . FDR in particular received favorable treatment from Hollywood , with all five of the major studios producing pro @-@ FDR shorts by late 1933 . These shorts featured some of the studios ' lesser contract talent extolling the virtues of FDR created government and social programs . Roosevelt himself was a natural before the camera . The newsreels were instrumental to the success of his initial campaign , and his enduring popularity while in office . He was described by Variety as the " Barrymore of the Capital " .
Taking advantage of the existence of 30 years of newsreels archives were filmmakers who made early sound era documentaries . World War I was a popular topic of these pictures and spawned the following documentaries ; The Big Drive ( 1933 ) , World in Revolt ( 1933 ) , This is America ( 1933 ) , and Hell 's Holiday ( 1933 ) . The most prescient pre @-@ Code World War I documentary was aptly called The First World War ( 1934 ) and was the most critically and commercially successful documentary of the era .
Filmmakers also made feature @-@ length documentaries that covered the dark recesses of the globe , including the Amazon Rainforest , Native American settlements , the Pacific islands , and everywhere in between . Taking advantage of audiences ' voyeuristic impulses , aided by the allowance of nudity in tribal documentaries , the filming of lands untouched by modernity , and the presentation of locales never before filmed , these movies placated Depression era American audiences by showing them lifestyles more difficult than their own . Also captured were Arctic expeditions in films such 90 ° South and With Byrd at the South Pole , and deepest Africa in the safari films of Martin and Osa Johnson , among others . Some exploitation style documentaries purported to show actual events but were instead staged , elaborate ruses . The most prominent of which was Ingagi ( 1931 ) , a film which claimed to show a ritual where African women were given over to gorillas as sex slaves , but instead was mostly filmed in Los Angeles using local blacks in place of natives . Douglas Fairbanks mocked the phoniness of many pre @-@ Code documentaries in his parody Around
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the World in 80 Minutes with Douglas Fairbanks , in one scene of which he filmed himself wrestling a stuffed tiger doll , then a tiger @-@ skin rug . Opposing these films was the travelogue which was shown before features and served as a short saccharine form of cinematic tourism .
= = End of an era = =
Pre @-@ Code films began to draw the ire of various religious groups , some Protestant but mostly a contingent of Roman Catholic crusaders . Amleto Giovanni Cicognani , apostolic delegate to the Catholic Church in the United States , called upon Roman Catholics in the United States to unite against the surging immorality of films . As a result , in 1933 the Catholic Legion of Decency , headed by the Reverend John T. McNicholas ( later renamed the National Legion of Decency ) , was established to control and enforce decency standards and boycott films they deemed offensive . They created a rating system for films that started at " harmless " and ended at " condemned " , with the latter denoting a film that was a sin to watch .
“ I wish to join the Legion of Decency , which condemns vile and unwholesome moving pictures . I unite with all who protest against them as a grave menace to youth , to home life , to country and to religion . I condemn absolutely those salacious motion pictures which , with other degrading agencies , are corrupting public morals and promoting a sex mania in our land … Considering these evils , I hereby promise to remain away from all motion pictures except those which do not offend decency and Christian morality . " ( Catholic Legion of Decency Pledge )
The Legion spurred several million Roman Catholics across the U.S. to sign up for the boycott , allowing local religious leaders to determine which films to protest . Conservative Protestants tended to support much of the crackdown , particularly in the South , where anything relating to the state of race relations or miscegenation could not be portrayed . Although the Central Conference of American Rabbis joined in the protest , it was an uneasy alliance as there had always been whispers that at least some of the vitriol from the Christian groups occurred because many studio executives were Jewish .
Hays opposed direct censorship , considering it " Un @-@ American " . He had stated that although there were some tasteless films in his estimation , working with filmmakers was better than direct oversight , and that , overall , films were not harmful to children . Hays blamed some of the more prurient films on the difficult economic times which exerted " tremendous commercial pressure " on the studios more than a flouting of the code . Catholic groups became enraged with Hays and as early as July 1934 were demanding that he resign from his position , which he did not , although his influence waned and Breen took control , with Hays becoming a functionary .
The Payne Study and Experiment Fund was created in 1927 by Frances Payne Bolton to support a study of the influence of fiction on children . The Payne Fund Studies , a series of eight books published from 1933 to 1935 which detailed five ( 5 ) years of research aimed specifically at the cinema 's effects on children , were also gaining publicity at this time , and became a great concern to Hays . Hays had said certain pictures might alter " ... that sacred thing , the mind of a child … that clean , virgin thing , that unmarked state " and have " the same responsibility , the same care about the thing put on it that the best clergyman or the most inspired teacher would have . " Despite its initial reception , the main findings of the study were largely innocuous . It found that cinema 's effect on individuals varied with age and social position , and that pictures reinforced audiences ' existing beliefs . The Motion Picture Research Council ( MPRC , led by honorary vice president Sara Delano Roosevelt — FDR 's mother – and executive director the Rev. William H. Short ) , which funded the study , was not pleased . An " alarmist summary " of the study 's results written by Henry James Forman appeared in McCall 's , a leading women 's magazine of the time , and Forman 's book , Our Movie Made Children , which became a best @-@ seller , publicized the Payne Fund 's results , emphasizing its more negative aspects .
The social environment created by the publicity of the Payne Fund Studies and religious protests reached such a fever pitch that a member of the Hays Office described it as a " state of war " . However , newspapers including The Plain Dealer ( Cleveland ) , New Orleans Times Picayune , Chicago Daily News , Atlanta Journal , Saint Paul Dispatch , the Philadelphia Record and Public Ledger , the Boston American and New York 's Daily News , Daily Mirror , and Evening Post all lambasted the studies . When discussing the Supreme Court 's 1915 decision , film historian Gregory Black argues that the efforts of reformers might have been lessened had " filmmakers been willing to produce films for specialized audiences ( adults only , family , no children ) … but the movers and shakers of the industry wanted or needed the largest possible market . " The most provocative pictures were the most profitable , with the 25 % of the motion picture industry 's output that was the most sensational supporting the cleaner 75 % .
By 1932 , there was an increasing movement for government control . By mid @-@ 1934 when Cardinal Dougherty of Philadelphia called for a Catholic boycott of all films , and Raymond Cannon was privately preparing a congressional bill supported by both Democrats and Republicans which would introduce Government oversight , the studios decided they had had enough . They re @-@ organized the enforcement procedures giving Hays and the recently appointed Joseph I. Breen , a devout Roman Catholic , head of the new Production Code Administration ( PCA ) , greater control over censorship . The studios agreed to disband their appeals committee and to impose a $ 25 @,@ 000 fine for producing , distributing , or exhibiting any film without PCA approval . Hays had originally hired Breen , who had worked in public relations , in 1930 to handle Production Code publicity , and the latter was popular among Catholics . Joy began working solely for Fox Studios , and Wingate had been bypassed in favor of Breen in December 1933 . Hays became a functionary , while Breen handled the business of censoring films .
Breen was a rabid anti @-@ Semite , who was quoted as stating that Jews " are , probably , the scum of the earth . " When Breen died in 1965 , the trade magazine Variety stated , " More than any single individual , he shaped the moral stature of the American motion picture . " Although the Legion 's impact on the more effective enforcement of the Code is unquestionable , its influence on the general populace is harder to gauge . A study done by Hays after the Code was finally fully implemented found that audiences were doing the exact opposite of what the Legion had recommended . Each time the Legion protested a film it meant increased ticket sales ; unsurprisingly , Hays kept these results to himself and they were not revealed until many years later . In contrast to big cities , boycotts in smaller towns were more effective and theater owners complained of the harassment they received when they exhibited salacious films .
Many actors and actresses , such as Edward G. Robinson , Barbara Stanwyck , and Clark Gable , continued their careers apace after the Code was enforced . However , others , such as Ruth Chatterton and Warren William , who excelled during this period , are mostly forgotten today .
= = After the pre @-@ Code era = =
Censors like Martin Quigley and Joseph Breen understood that :
a private industry code , strictly enforced , is more effective than government censorship as a means of imposing religious dogma . It is secret , for one thing , operating at the pre @-@ production stage . The audience never knows what has been trimmed , cut , revised , or never written . For another , it is uniform — not subject to hundreds of different licensing standards . Finally and most important , private censorship can be more sweeping in its demands , because it is not bound by constitutional due process or free @-@ expression rules — in general , these apply to only the government — or by the command of church @-@ state separation … there is no question that American cinema today is far freer than in the heyday of the Code , when Joe Breen 's blue pencil and the Legion of Decency 's ever @-@ present boycott threat combined to assure that films adhered to Catholic Church doctrine .
Termed by Breen as " Compensating moral value " , the maxim was that " any theme must contain at least sufficient good in the story to compensate for , and to counteract , any evil which relates . " Hollywood could present evil behavior , but only if it were eradicated by the end of the film , " with the guilty punished , and the sinner redeemed " .
Pre @-@ Code scholar Thomas Doherty summarized the practical effects :
Even for moral guardians of Breen 's dedication , however , film censorship can be a tricky business . Images must be cut , dialogue overdubbed or deleted , and explicit messages and subtle implications excised from what the argot of film criticism calls the " diegesis " . Put simply , the diegesis is the world of the film , the universe inhabited by the characters existing in the landscape of cinema . " Diegetic " elements are experienced by the characters in the film and ( vicariously ) by the spectator ; " nondiegetic " elements are apprehended by the spectator alone .... The job of the motion picture censor is to patrol the diegesis , keeping an eye and ear out for images , languages , and meanings that should be banished from the world of film .... The easiest part of the assignment is to connect the dots and connect what is visually and verbally forbidden by name . … More challenging is the work of the textual analysis and narrative rehabilitation that discerns and redirects hidden lessons and moral meanings .
The censors thus expanded their jurisdiction from what was seen to what was implied in the spectator 's mind . In The Office Wife ( 1930 ) , several of Joan Blondell 's disrobing maneuvers were strictly forbidden and the implied image of the actress being naked just off @-@ screen was deemed too suggestive even though it relied upon the audience using their imaginations , so post @-@ Code releases of the film had scenes which were blurred or rendered indistinct , if allowed at all .
Following the July 1 , 1934 decision by the studios put the power over film censorship in Breen 's hands , he appeared in a series of newsreel clips promoting the new order of business , assuring Americans that the motion @-@ picture industry would be cleansed of " the vulgar , the cheap , and the tawdry " and that pictures would be made " vital and wholesome entertainment " . All scripts now went through PCA , and several films playing in theaters were ordered withdrawn .
The first film Breen censored in the production stage was the Joan Crawford film Forsaking All Others . Although Independent film producers vowed they would give " no thought to Mr. Joe Breen or anything he represents " , they caved on their stance within one month of making it . The major studios still owned most of the successful theaters in the country , and studio heads such as Harry Cohn of Columbia Pictures had already agreed to stop making indecent films . In several large cities audiences booed when the Production seal appeared before films . But the Catholic Church was pleased , and in 1936 Pope Pius XI stated that the U.S. film industry " has recognized and accepts its responsibility before society . " The Legion condemned zero films produced by the MPPDA between 1936 and 1943 .
A coincidental upswing in the fortunes of several studios was publicly explained by Code proponents such as the Motion Picture Herald as proof positive that the code was working . Another fortunate coincidence for Code supporters was the torrent of famous criminals such as John Dillinger , Baby Face Nelson , and Bonnie and Clyde that were killed by police shortly after the PCA took power . Corpses of the outlaws were shown in newsreels around the country , alongside clips of Al Capone and Machine Gun Kelly in Alcatraz . Among the unarguably positive aspects of the Code being enforced was the money it saved studios in having to edit , cut , and alter films to get approval from the various state boards and censors . The money saved was in the millions annually . A spate of more wholesome family films featuring performers such as Shirley Temple took off .
Stars such as James Cagney redefined their images . Cagney played a series of patriots , and his gangster in Angels with Dirty Faces ( 1937 ) purposefully acts like a coward when he is executed so children who had looked up to him would cease any such admiration . Breen in essence neutered Groucho Marx , removing most of his jokes which directly referenced sex , although some sexual references slipped through unnoticed in the Marx Brothers post @-@ Code pictures . In the political realm , films such Mr. Smith Goes to Washington in which James Stewart tries to change the American system from within while reaffirming its core values , stand in stark contrast to Gabriel Over the White House where a dictator is needed to cure America 's woes .
Some pre @-@ Code movies suffered irreparable damage from censorship after 1934 . When studios attempted to re @-@ issue films from the 1920s and early 1930s , they were forced to make extensive cuts . Films such as Animal Crackers ( 1930 ) , Mata Hari ( 1931 ) , Arrowsmith ( 1931 ) , and A Farewell to Arms ( 1932 ) exist only in their censored versions . Many other films survived intact because they were too controversial to be re @-@ released , such as The Maltese Falcon ( 1931 ) , which was remade a decade later with the same name , and thus never had their master negatives edited . In the case of Convention City ( 1933 ) , which Breen would not allow to be re @-@ released in any form , the entire film remains missing . Although it has been rumored that all prints and negatives were ordered destroyed by Jack Warner in the late thirties , further research shows the negative was in the vaults as late as 1948 when it was junked due to nitrate decomposition .
= = Home video and screenings = =
In the 1980s , New York City Film Forum programmer Bruce Goldstein held the first film festivals featuring pre @-@ Code films . Goldstein is also credited by San Francisco film critic Mick LaSalle as the person to bring the term " pre @-@ Code " into general use .
In the 1990s , MGM released several pre @-@ Code films on laserdisc and VHS . " The Forbidden Hollywood Collection " included : Baby Face ; Beauty and the Boss ; Big Business Girl ; Blessed Event ; Blonde Crazy ; Bombshell ; Dance , Fools , Dance ; Employees ' Entrance ; Ex @-@ Lady ; Female ; Havana Widows ; Heroes for Sale ; Illicit ; I 've Got Your Number ; Ladies They Talk About ; Lady Killer ; Madam Satan ; Night Nurse ; Our Dancing Daughters ; Our Modern Maidens ; The Purchase Price ; Red @-@ Headed Woman ; Scarlet Dawn ; Skyscraper Souls ; The Strange Love of Molly Louvain ; They Call It Sin ; and Three on a Match .
MGM / UA and Turner also released other pre @-@ Code films such as The Divorcee , Doctor X , A Free Soul , Little Caesar , Mystery of the Wax Museum , Possessed , The Public Enemy , Red Dust ( remade in the 1950s as Mogambo ) , and Riptide under other labels . UCLA ran several series of pre @-@ Code films during the 2000s , showcasing films which had not been seen for decades , and not available on any home media .
In 1999 , the Roan Group / Troma Entertainment released two pre @-@ Code DVD collections : Pre @-@ Code Hollywood : The Risqué Years # 1 , featuring Of Human Bondage , Millie and Kept Husbands , and Pre @-@ Code Hollywood 2 , featuring Bird of Paradise and The Lady Refuses .
Warner Bros. Home Video has released a number of their pre @-@ Code films on DVD under the Forbidden Hollywood banner . To date , nine volumes have been released :
Volume 1 , released on December 5 , 2006 , includes Baby Face , Red @-@ Headed Woman , and Waterloo Bridge .
Volume 2 , released on March 4 , 2008 , includes The Divorcee , A Free Soul , Three on a Match , Female , and Night Nurse .
Volume 3 , released on March 24 , 2009 , featured six films from William Wellman : Other Men 's Women , The Purchase Price , Frisco Jenny , Midnight Mary , Heroes for Sale , and Wild Boys of the Road .
Volume 4 , released on August 9 , 2012 , includes Jewel Robbery , Lawyer Man , Man Wanted , and They Call It Sin .
Volume 5 , released on August 9 , 2012 , includes Hard to Handle , Ladies They Talk About , The Mind Reader , and Miss Pinkerton .
Volume 6 , released on April 2 , 2013 includes The Wet Parade , Downstairs , Mandalay , and Massacre .
Volume 7 , released on April 30 , 2013 , includes The Hatchet Man , Skyscraper Souls , Employees ' Entrance , Ex @-@ Lady
Volume 8 , released on October 28 , 2014 , includes Blonde Crazy , Strangers May Kiss , Hi , Nellie , Dark Hazard
Volume 9 , released on October 27 , 2015 , includes Big City Blues , Hell 's Highway , The Cabin in the Cotton , When Ladies Meet , I Sell Anything
Universal Home Video followed suit with Pre @-@ Code Hollywood Collection : Universal Backlot Series . Released on April 7 , 2009 , the box set includes The Cheat , Merrily We Go to Hell , Hot Saturday , Torch Singer , Murder at the Vanities , and Search for Beauty , together with a copy of the entire Hays Code .
= Erling Folkvord =
Erling Folkvord ( born 15 June 1949 ) is a Norwegian politician for the Red party , and a former member of the Parliament of Norway . A revolutionary socialist , he was one of the leading members of the Workers ' Communist Party and the Red Electoral Alliance before they merged to form Red . He sat as a member of the Parliament of Norway from 1993 to 1997 , becoming the first socialist to the left of the Socialist Left Party and the Labour Party in parliament since 1961 . He later lost his position in 1997 , and has been a candidate for parliament ever since . He has been a member of the Oslo City Council from 1983 to 1993 , and again since 1999 . Folkvord has become one of the best @-@ known Norwegian politicians on the left who is not connected with the Labour Party and the Socialist Left Party .
In the early part of his political career Folkvord was a member of the Red Electoral Alliance . Known for working on several corruption cases earned him the nickname the " watch dog " . Folkvord 's political views turned to communism and anti @-@ capitalism when he became a member of the Workers ' Communist Party . From 1990 to 1997 he was Deputy Leader of the Workers ' Communist Party and in 2001 he became Deputy Leader of the Red Electoral Alliance alongside Chris Hartmann .
= = Early life and career = =
Folkvord is the son of school principal Sverre Folkvord and housewife Eldrid Kjesbu . He finished secondary school earning the examen artium degree in Trondheim and then started studies to become a social worker at the Social School of Trondheim . By 1976 he was the leader of the national Social Agencies Union serving until 1978 . In 1982 , along with fellow Red Electoral Alliance member Harald Stabell , Folkvord sued Oslo 's social @-@ office leading figures , Signe M. Stray Ryssdal and Marit Moe . They accused them of misconduct and of making a false accusation which led to an innocent man going to prison . These accusations eventually led to a police investigation into the matter . After finding no proof of their accusations , Moe sued Folkvord and Stabell for defamatatory charges made against her , but she abstained from pursuing this in court .
Folkvord and Stabell reported to the police that the Norwegian newspaper Dagbladet breached the pimp paragraph of the criminal code . In an interview Folkvord stated that Dagbladet contributed to giving the Norwegian sex market more attention .
= = Political career = =
= = = Council representative = = =
In 1983 Folkvord , along with Liv Finstad , was elected as Red Electoral Alliance representative for the Oslo City Council , taking office on 1 January 1984 . According to Aftenposten , the Red Electoral Alliance and the Christian Democratic Party had the most loyal voter base throughout the election . Folkvord was later highly vocal in his opposition towards the decentralisation of health and social services in Oslo where control was to be given to the boroughs . During his early years as member of the City Council Folkvord used most of his time in defending the then " current " social administration .
By the late 1980s Folkvord had earned the nickname " watch dog " , as he usually wanted an " independent investigation " into corruption matters . This eventually developed into one of his most well @-@ known public traits . When leading an investigation into a corruption case in 1989 , which involved several representatives of the Oslo City Council , he said " It is possible to sweep corruption and other non @-@ essential nonsense out of City Hall . People only need to persist where necessary " . Earlier that year , when finding more proof of a so @-@ called corruption scandal , Folkvord asked for assistance from the district attorney urging him to lead an investigation into the matter .
By 1990 there were talks within the Red Electoral Alliance towards replacing Folkvord and Athar Ali as City Council representatives in Oslo to make way for more women in the top positions within the party . Folkvord was kept since he was a well @-@ known face with the Norwegian media . By September 1990 Folkvord had demanded a police @-@ run investigation against Conservative Party member Michael Tetzschner , accusing him of corruption and hidden money . These charges were included in a broadcast by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation ( NRK ) . Tetzschner replied to this broadcast stating that " The news feature was completely dominated by false information . If the television provider does not make the corrections that are necessary , we 'll bring the case to the Complaints Board of the Broadcasting Corporation " . Folkvord is one of the co @-@ founders of the Oslo party cell , established in early 1991 , of the Red Electoral Alliance . While media speculated that he would become the chapter 's leader , he denied any such allegations , saying their existed " better suited people " then him for that post .
= = = Parliament = = =
Folkvord was elected the Red Electoral Alliance 's Oslo lead candidate in June 1992 . The decision was made based on party leader Aksel Nærstad 's belief that Folkvord could easily win a seat since he had become a " national celebrity " of sorts and due to the support Folkvord enjoyed during the 1989 parliamentary election . Folkvord needed 14 @,@ 000 votes to earn a seat in parliament . In January 1993 , at the national convention , several long @-@ standing members discussed the best way to organise Folkvord 's Oslo electoral campaign . There was optimism among these members believed , along with Nærstad , and they believed before hand that Folkvord would be elected to parliament . The Red Electoral Alliance used a total of NOK 600 @,@ 000 for their nationwide 1993 election campaign , two thirds of it being used to support Folkvords campaign in Oslo . When announcing the results the party managed to become the biggest party in six different constituencies : Grünerløkka , Ankertorget , Tøyen , Kampen , Vålerenga and Gamlebyen . Various analysists , and Folkvord himself , believed the Red Electoral Alliance achieved good results in Oslo because of the Socialist Left Party 's bad election results in the municipality .
When asked what parliamentary committee he wanted to be a member of Folkvord replied that the Standing Committee on Finance and Economic Affairs would be an ideal choice because most of the " assaults " on the working man had their origins in that committee . He was then selected for that very committee in addition to a seat on the Election Committee . He later became elected as a member of the financial committee of parliament .
In 1994 Folkvord criticised the Labour Government for exporting weapons to Turkey , which at that time was engaged in a civil war against the Kurdish people . He claimed it violated a parliamentary decision made in 1959 which said that the government would not distribute , or export , weapons to countries involved in a civil war . Folkvord earned the support of the Socialist Left , the Centre Party and the Christian Democratic Party who all sought to end weapon exports to Turkey . The Conservative Party supported the Labour Party 's decision however , with the then party leader Jan Petersen claiming that the Kurdish liberators were " terrorists " . According to Arbeiderbladet the Norwegian Government had sold NOK 99 million worth of weapons to the Turkish Government in 1989 alone . Folkvord sent a letter to Bjørn Tore Godal , the then Minister of Foreign Affairs , and asked if the Norwegian Government had gotten the approval of the parliament 's Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence to sell weapons to Turkey . In a 1967 decree it became illegal to sell weapons to civil war torned countries , and Folkvord believed that Norway should stopp selling weapons to a country which he considered to be embroilled by civil war .
In early 1995 Folkvord announced that he would not be a candidate for parliament when his term was over . He later claimed the job was " exhausting and stressful " . In an opinion poll , conducted in August 1997 , Folkvords popularity in Oslo had declined while his popularity outside Oslo had increased . During the election the party used NOK 500 @,@ 000 on Folkvord 's re @-@ election campaign , which was estimated to be around 70 % of party 's budget estimated to be around NOK 700 @,@ 000 . On 1 September 1995 Folkvord was arrested by Turkish law enforcement in the Kurdish city of Diyarbakir . The Turkish Government said the main reason was his visit to an illegal Kurdish peace festival . That very same day he was flown to Ankara , and later Istanbul and the following day he was delivered back to Norway . Nicolas Rea , a member of the British House of Lords , took a picture of Folkvord during the event . It was claimed that the picture showed Folkvord being beaten by Turkish officials and that the picture was in @-@ turn burnt by the Turkish police when they saw Rea had a camera .
On 12 September various opinion polls showed that Folkvords popularity had increased again in Oslo which gave rise to speculation that Folkvord would win Inger Lise Husøy 's seat in parliament because of this sudden rise in popularity . When 99 % of the vote in Oslo had been counted the party had managed to earn a disappointing 3 @.@ 9 % , losing its only seat .
= = = 1999 to the 2003 elections = = =
After losing his position in parliament , Folkvord went through a short @-@ period of obscurity . He once again earned media attention when he publicly denounced the Lund Commission . The commission revealed there had been extensive surveillance of Norwegian communists , socialists and other radicals by the Norwegian Police Security Service . Folkvord demanded to be shown his own documentation created during the surveillance . In 1999 Folkvord topped his party 's list of candidates running for a seat in the City Council . Folkvord was successful and earned a seat on the City Council while the party noted an increase of 1 @.@ 3 % . Folkvords main goal during the campaign was to earn a third seat for the Red Electoral Alliance , he failed to do so though the party held its two seats on the City Council . The party earned 2 % and 2 @.@ 1 % of the vote in the county and municipal elections of 1999 .
Before the 2001 parliamentary election both Aslak Sira Myhre , leader of the Red Electoral Alliance , and Folkvord stated their intentions of being top cadidate for the Red Electoral Alliance . Later , when hearing that Myhre sought to become the party 's lead candidate in Oslo , Folkvord told the media he would become third candidat if he was not elected to become the party 's lead candidate . A vote was held at the party convention , which resulted in 50 votes for and 62 against Folkvord as lead candidate . Folkvord became third candidate , and Sigrid Angen became second candidate .
By February 2001 the Workers ' Communist Party proposed making Folkvord the new leader of the Red Electoral Alliance , since Myhre would resign if he was elected to parliament . While the majority of the members wanted a female leader after the departure of Myhre , his supporters were perfectly aware that Folkvord could lose the nomination and a campaign was started to make him deputy leader . The main problem for Folkvord 's opposition was his close ties to the Workers ' Communist Party . At the convention Myhre was re @-@ elected the party 's party leader , with Folkvord and Chris Hartmann stepping in as the party 's new deputy leaders . Myhre did not become a member of parliament .
By March 2003 Myhre had resigned as leader and Torstein Dahle was elected as his successor . Dahle had been the leading figure of the Red Electoral Alliance in Hordaland since the 1990s . When commenting on his resignation , Myhre commented on his 2001 election in Oslo saying " it is sad to resign after a bad election " . During the 2003 local elections three different polls showed that the Red Electoral Alliance was close to earning three seats on the Oslo City Council . Folkvord stated that if the party managed to earn one extra seat , he would use try removing the right @-@ wing Conservative Party from power and replace them with a more left @-@ wing " leaning choice " — such as the Labour Party or the Socialist Left Party . The party increased its vote by 0 @.@ 1 % , earning the party 3 @.@ 1 % of the popular vote in Oslo . The party was not able to win a third seat , retaining the two they held .
= = = Later years : 2004 – present = = =
In February 2004 Folkvord was charged with violating the penal code as he had participated in a demonstration against the Invasion of Iraq in 2003 . Together with other demonstrators he effectively cut off the entrance to the office of Kristin Krohn , the Minister of Defence . Folkvord was accused in a statement saying " his refusal to walk away from the area where it was held an illegal demonstration , despite the fact that he was asked to leave the area " . After the incident he received a fine of NOK 2 @,@ 000 which he refused to pay .
At the Red Electoral Alliance 's city convention Folkvord was elected their lead candidate in Oslo for the 2005 election . Folkvord , along with Torstein Dahle , were the only representatives from the party who had a chance of gaining a seat in parliament . Jens Stoltenberg , leader of the Labour Party , was negative towards the idea of having any representatives from the Red Electoral Alliance in parliament , saying that the voters should do anything in their power to stop them from earning a seat in parliament . When the votes were counted Folkvord did not gain a seat in parliament .
Folkvord later accused many of the prominent members of the Oslo City Council of being involved , or having been involved , in corruption . André Støylen of the Conservative Party said Folkvord should stop accusing and instead go to the police with proof if he had any .
On 27 February 2007 Folkvord announced he would seek another term in the City Council . Folkvord was re @-@ elected lead candidate for the municipal election at the party convention . In March 2007 the Red Electoral Alliance and the Workers ' Communist Party merged and established Red . By 3 September , six days before the election day , Red earned its best showing ever in Oslo earning 4 @.@ 4 % in an opinion poll — an increase of 0 @.@ 3 % from the previous election . When the votes for the municipality of Oslo were counted the party had managed to gain three seats on the City Council , with Folkvord 's position secure . At national level Red had received 1 @.@ 9 % and 2 @.@ 1 % for the municipal and county elections respectively .
During the 2009 election several opinion polls showed that Folkvord and Dahle had enough support to earn two seats in parliament . Jens Stoltenberg and Kristin Halvorsen from the Red @-@ Green Coalition were both highly negative towards the idea of having Red in parliament . Folkvord stated several times that he would demand an immediate withdrawal of Norwegian troops from Afghanistan if elected to parliament . He said this decision involved both the " enthusiastic warriors of the Progress Party " and " the disillusioned skeptics of the Socialist Left " . Folkvord later felt he needed to set pressure on the Labour Party which would , according to him , move them further to the left . Labour Party member Reiulf Steen had reacted positively towards the idea of having Folkvord in parliament saying , " I am a great admirer of Erling Folkvord . He has integrity and great courage . Besides I am overjoyed that Red supports the Red @-@ Green coalition " . When the votes were counted Red had an increase of 1 % from the 2005 election , but it was not enough to secure Folkvord a seat in parliament . When all the votes were counted the party had gained 1 @.@ 3 % of the national vote , an increase of 0 @.@ 1 % .
= = Political positions = =
During an interview in 1993 , Folkvord said his most important commitment if he gained a seat in parliament was giving the National trade union centers more power so that they could better defend the working class . When asked if it was exhausting to promote socialist reforms Folkvord said , " It is . But I think in some ways easier than before [ because many ] fake socialist regimes have collapsed " . Another opinion of his was that " capitalism destroys the natural environment around us making the bourgeois society planners understand that there must be something new in the future . This provides inspiration to win support for socialist beliefs in Norway " . Folkvord 's first contact with anti @-@ capitalist beliefs came when he joined the Workers ' Communist Party . The party told him about " capitalist barbarism " and how the wealthy controlled everything . Folkvord said he believed that " [ this ] can 't be the end of human development " , and that he believes humans are destined to create another more @-@ just system .
Folkvord has long supported the Kurdish independence movement , believing that Norway and other countries in Europe should stop treating the conflicts between Turkish military and the Kurds as an internal Turkish matter . Being an anti @-@ war activist he was highly vocal against Norwegian involvement in the War on Terror since the start of the American led invasion of Iraq . In 2009 Folkvord visited Norwegian soldiers in Afghanistan but claimed that Red was the only Norwegian party not allowed to visit the Afghan city of Meymaneh , the city were the Norwegian troops are stationed . He is also highly vocal against Norwegian membership in the European Union , claiming the organisation is spreading " German imperialism " .
= = Authorship = =
Since earning the position of Oslo City Council representative in 1984 , Folkvord has used much of his time writing books about his political experiences and beliefs . His books have earned much attention by the Norwegian media . He has also collaborated on several books , the most notable being Rapport fra rottereiret – korrupsjon i Norge . In the book Folkvord claimed that Lise Harlem was involved in some sort of corruption in Norway , although to verify this he had only one source , Knut Frigaard . Harlem later wrote an article in Aftenposten stating that the book was " dubiously " written and unreliable . The book also received support from Carl August Fleischer and Liberal Party politician Helge Seip who defended the book against the accusations . Folkvord wrote Rødt ! in 1998 , a book about his tenure as a parliamentary representative . Twelve pages were about Folkvords four @-@ year @-@ term as representative , the other pages contained information criticising fellow parliamentary representatives . When writing the book , he wanted it to have some sort of impact on Red Youth members and other left of center groups or activists . Operasjon Heilomvending , published in 2007 , contained a large amount of criticism of the Socialist Left Party , the Labour Party and the Red @-@ Green Coalition in general . The book Vår korrupte hovedstad ( English : Our Corrupt Capitol ) , was published in 2011 . In 2015 his book [ " the great Oslo robbery " ] Det store Oslo @-@ ranet was published .
= = Family = =
Folkvord has a daughter named Jorunn Folkvord who works as a teacher and is a member of the Norwegian teachers union , Union of Education Norway . She was notable for her far @-@ left political activities in Norway , having membership status in the Workers ' Communist Party and the Red Electoral Alliance . She took part in several notable protests during the 1990s , in one case being arrested by the police . She was also the Leader of Red Youth during the early 1990s .
= Up All Night ( 30 Rock ) =
" Up All Night " is the thirteenth episode of NBC 's first season of 30 Rock . It was written by the series ' creator and executive producer Tina Fey , and was directed by Michael Engler . It first aired on February 8 , 2007 in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Katrina Bowden , Rachel Dratch , Rachel Hamilton , John Lutz , Maulik Pancholy , Keith Powell , Lonny Ross , Isabella Rossellini , Sherri Shepherd , Jason Sudeikis and Mark Zimmerman . Joy Behar appeared as herself in the episode .
This episode focuses on the events of Valentine 's Day for the cast and crew of TGS with Tracy Jordan , a fictional sketch comedy series . Liz Lemon ( played by Tina Fey ) receives a mysterious gift ; Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) comments that he hates Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) ; Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) forgets Valentine 's Day , which also happens to be his wife , Paula 's ( Paula Pell ) birthday ; Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) divorce from Bianca ( Isabella Rossellini ) is made official ; the writers believe that Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) has romantic feelings for Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) ; and Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) tries to spend a night with his wife , Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shephard ) .
= = Plot = =
Jack 's wife Bianca asks to finalize their divorce to which Jack agree , demanding various things in their settlement all to which she agrees , and the divorce is set for the next day . It is Valentine 's Day , although the TGS cast and crew still have to work all night . Frank reveals that he hates Jenna when he always chooses to " kill " Jenna in a game of " Marry , Boff , Kill " . Frank believes that Jenna is " phony " , and Jenna tries many times to redeem herself with Frank , with reasons such as her participation in Vagina Day : " a charity event founded by a group of celebrities who have for whatever reason never been asked to participate in The Vagina Monologues " . Eventually , in her final confrontation with Frank , she farts , but Frank is happy , telling her that that is the first real thing she has done , and the two reconcile . Another game of " Marry , Boff , Kill " leads some of the writers into believing that Cerie ( who has been having problems with her fiance Aris ) has feelings for Kenneth when she chooses to " boff " him . The writers send the pair off to get candy for the night . Kenneth and Cerie take a walk around Rockefeller Center , and Cerie reveals that she is not attracted to Kenneth but tells him that he can tell the others that the two made out . However , Kenneth fails to convince the writers that he has done so when he shows them a pair of male underpants , which he claims belong to Cerie .
Jack asks Tracy to have a drink with him to celebrate his impending divorce , but Tracy has to leave early to celebrate Valentine 's Day with his wife through " role @-@ play " . As Jack gets more and more drunk , he reveals that he still has various fantasies about his wife from grabbing one of her breasts to her getting various terminal diseases with him by her bedside . Eventually , he picks up a prostitute ( Rachel Dratch ) , and the two interrupt Tracy and Angie 's Valentine 's Day at the Soho Grand Hotel . Angie , upset that their Valentine 's Day is ruined , demands that Tracy get rid of Jack and the prostitute , so he calls Liz for help . Liz gets Jack and the drunk prostitute out of the hotel , and Liz tells Jack that his relationship with his wife is sick and presents him with a scenario of " Marry , Boff , Kill " , all with his wife , causing Jack to say that he wants to do all of the three but promises Liz that he will get over his wife , and the two leave the prostitute in the street . The next day , Jack and Bianca sign the divorce papers , and Bianca begs Jack not to sell the Arby 's that he had gotten in their settlement . He promises not to do so , but will let the place shut down and become desolate . The two argue , and the sexual tension between the two escalate , until Bianca tears herself away from Jack and leaves .
Pete has forgotten that it is Valentine 's Day , which also happens to be his wife Paula 's birthday . He spends the night running around the city to try to find Valentine 's Day and birthday presents for his wife , only to lose the balloons that he had bought for his wife . Liz has received a gift of chocolate @-@ covered cherries and flowers from a supposed secret admirer . The " admirer " turns out to be " a law stylist " , ( Jason Sudeikis ) and the gifts turn out to be for his girlfriend , Liz Lemler , who works in the accounting department at TGS . However , he tells Liz to keep the flowers but asks for a picture of her with the flowers and her ID to prove to his girlfriend that he did indeed get her something for Valentine 's Day .
= = Production = =
Jason Sudeikis , who played Floyd in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Tina Fey was the head writer on Saturday Night Live from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of Saturday Night Live have appeared on 30 Rock . These cast members include : Rachel Dratch , Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Chris Parnell and Molly Shannon . Tina Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Alec Baldwin has also hosted Saturday Night Live thirteen times , the second highest amount of episodes of any host of the series .
= = Reception = =
" Up All Night " brought in an average of 5 @.@ 2 million viewers . The episode also achieved a 2 @.@ 5 / 6 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 5 refers to 2 @.@ 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 6 refers to 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast in the U.S ..
Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide wrote that " it would be nearly impossible to measure up to last week 's utterly manic introduction of Prince Gerhardt [ Paul Ruebens ] , so forgive 30 Rock if this week 's outing was ' merely ' very amusing at times . " He added that compared to Jack 's storyline , he " actually wore more grins watching the microscopic B @-@ story with the writers , playing Marry , Boff , Kill . " Robert Canning of IGN thought that " the Valentine 's Day episode of 30 Rock gave us a big surprise : a low @-@ key half hour from a show known for being over the top , " adding that this was " a pleasant surprise " . He said that this episode " proved that [ 30 Rock ] could make with the funny no matter what the tone " . Canning rated this episode 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 .
= Turning Point ( 2004 wrestling ) =
Turning Point ( 2004 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , which took place on December 5 , 2004 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first event under the Turning Point chronology . Eight matches were featured on the event 's card .
The main event was a Six Sides of Steel cage match with a pre @-@ match stipulation that the losing team would disband . America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) defeated Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) in this match . A Six Man Tag Team match on the event 's card ended in Jeff Hardy , A.J. Styles , and Randy Savage defeating The Kings of Wrestling ( Jeff Jarrett , Kevin Nash and Scott Hall ) . The event 's undercard featured different varieties of matches . Petey Williams defeated Chris Sabin to retain the TNA X Division Championship in one match on the undercard . Diamond Dallas Page defeated Raven in another match .
Turning Point is remembered for the disbanding of Triple X and for Elix Skipper pulling Chris Harris off the top of a cage with his legs to perform a move he named the New School . The PPV was also the final televised match of Randy Savage 's career . The professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer website rated the event a 7 out of 10 , which was the same as the 2005 event 's rating .
= = Background = =
Turning Point featured eight professional wrestling matches involving wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots , and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or heroes in scripted , tension @-@ filled events that culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event was contested inside a 16 foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high steel structure with six sides — known as Six Sides of Steel ; to win a wrestler must either gain a pinfall or submission , with the losing team disbanding . Participants in the main event included the tag team pairings of America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) and Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) . The storyline build to this match on September 8 at TNA 's last weekly PPV event ( # 110 ) . During this event , Harris replaced an injured Daniels and teamed with Skipper to defeat The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) for the NWA World Tag Team Championship . Harris and Skipper then proceeded to lose the championship to Storm and Daniels on the September 24 episode of TNA 's primary television program , TNA Impact ! . After Storm and Daniels lost the championship to Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) on the October 15 episode of Impact ! , tensions between the teams during the respective title reigns gave way to an official rivalry between America 's Most Wanted and Triple X. The teams fought against each other in an Elimination Last Team Standing match at TNA 's previous and first monthly three @-@ hour PPV event , Victory Road . In an Elimination Last Man Standing match , a series of events must take place to eliminate a participant . First , a wrestler must be pinned , and then the pinned wrestler has until the referee 's count of ten to reach their feet before they are officially eliminated from the match . The first two members of a team to be eliminated lose the contest ; America 's Most Wanted was victorious in the Elimination Last Man Standing match at Victory Road . On the November 19 episode of Impact , Daniels insinuated that the two teams were scheduled for a Six Sides of Steel cage match at Turning Point . Later in the episode , newly appointed authority figure Dusty Rhodes announced that the match was indeed scheduled , with the added stipulation that the losing team would have to disband and never team together again in TNA under any circumstances .
A Six Man Tag Team match scheduled pitting the team of Jeff Hardy , A.J. Styles , and Randy Savage against The Kings of Wrestling ( Jeff Jarrett , Kevin Nash , and Scott Hall ) was another highly promoted match . At Victory Road during the main event for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship between Jarrett and Hardy , Nash and Hall interfered and cost Hardy the match . Afterwards , Nash , Hall , and Jarrett joined forces and dubbed themselves " The Kings of Wrestling " ; they then proceeded to attack Hardy Following the encounter between Jarrett and Hardy , the 3Live Kru ( B.G. James , Ron Killings , and Konnan ) , and Styles came out to Hardy 's aid . Nash , Hall , and Jarrett quickly won the fight . Savage then made his debut in TNA aligning himself with Styles and Hardy . After multiple fights between the two teams , Savage challenged The Kings of Wrestling to a match at Turning Point on the November 19 episode of Impact . The match was later made official by TNA without The Kings of Wrestling agreeing to it .
A featured preliminary match on Turning Point 's card was for the TNA X Division Championship , in which the champion , Petey Williams , defended the championship against Chris Sabin . The match was promoted for Turning Point on the November 12 episode of Impact ! . In the weeks leading to the encounter , Sabin stated he had found a counter to Williams ' finishing maneuver the Canadian Destroyer , which was thought to be uncounterable . The Canadian Destroyer involves Williams grabbing an opponent with his legs around their head , jumping over their back , causing them to perform a backflip , and forcing their head into the mat after they make the full rotation . Making true to his word , Sabin countered the move three times before Turning Point ; one on the November 12 , one of the November 19 , and the last on the November 30 episodes of Impact ! .
Another match announced for Turning Point was between Raven and Diamond Dallas Page . On the November 12 episode of Impact ! , Page cost Raven a match against Monty Brown , creating a rivalry between the two . On the November 19 episode of Impact ! , Page attacked Raven once again , costing him another match . TNA later scheduled a match between the two at Turning Point .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ Show = = =
Before the event began , a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show aired with a match between The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) and Mikey Batts and Jerrelle Clark . The Naturals won the match by pinfall , after Stevens and Douglas lifted Batts up , placed Batts head and neck onto one of their shoulders , and fell to a seated position to perform a move they dubbed the Natural Disaster .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
In the first match , the 3Live Kru ( B.G. James and Ron Killings ) defending the NWA World Tag Team Championship against Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) , who were accompanied by Coach D 'Amore . Team Canada won the match and the championship after another Team Canada member , Johnny Devine , interfered and hit B.G. with a hockey stick . Roode followed up by pinning B.G. to win the match .
The next encounter pitted the team of Héctor Garza , Sonjay Dutt , and Sonny Siaki were pitted against the team of Kid Kash , Michael Shane , and Frankie Kazarian , who were accompanied by Traci , in a Six Man Tag Team match . Garza , Dutt , and Siaki won the match after Garza jumped off the top rope backwards and twisted in mid @-@ air to perform a corkscrew moonsault onto Kazarian for the pinfall victory .
The third match was a Serengeti Survival match between Monty Brown and Abyss . In this match , there were no disqualifications and the only way to win was by pinfall , submission , or by slamming the opponent into a pile of thumbtacks . Mid @-@ way through the match , Brown grabbed a bag of tacks and poured them on the ring @-@ mat . Afterwards , Brown and Abyss fought to slam each other into the tacks until Brown lifted Abyss up onto his shoulders and threw him forward down to the ring @-@ mat . Brown 's throw caused Abyss to fall on the tacks with his head and back , giving the win to Brown .
A tag team match followed in the fourth match , with Pat Kenney teaming with Johnny B. Badd to fight The New York Connection ( Johnny Swinger and Glenn Gilbertti ) . Jacqueline was the special guest referee for the bout . Badd won the encounter after he lifted Gilberti up onto his shoulders , spun him around , and fell to his back to perform a move known as a TKO . Badd followed by covering Gilberti for the pinfall .
Diamond Dallas Page ( DDP ) and Raven fought in the fifth match . The officiating referee was scripted to be knocked out in the beginning of the match and was later replaced . DDP claimed victory in the match with a move called the Diamond Cutter : DPP grabbed Raven 's head , jumped forward , and landed on his back , causing Raven 's head to impact with his shoulder .
= = = Main event matches = = =
Accompanied by Coach D 'Amore , Petey Williams defended the TNA X Division Championship against Chris Sabin . During the match , Sabin countered the Canadian Destroyer and attempted to perform his signature maneuver , the Cradle Shock . Williams countered the Cradle Shock into a submission maneuver known as the Sharpshooter . While the referee wasn 't looking , Williams hit Sabin with a pair of brass knuckles and gained the pinfall victory to end the match , retaining the TNA X Division Championship .
Next , the Kings of Wrestling ( Kevin Nash , Scott Hall , and Jeff Jarrett ) fought the team of Jeff Hardy , A.J. Styles , and Randy Savage in a Six Man Tag Team match . Earlier in the night , The Kings of Wrestling attacked Savage and stuffed him into the trunk of a limo , which spend off out of the arena 's parking lot . Without Savage , Styles and Hardy had to work the match by themselves . After several minutes of Hardy and Styles fighting off all the members of The Kings of Wrestling , Savage returned to the arena and walked down to the ring , where he was tagged into the match by Hardy . A few moments later , Savage pinned Jarrett after a punch to the jaw .
The main event was a Six Sides of Steel cage match contested between America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) and Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) , with the losing team disbanding forever . Mid @-@ way through , Skipper handcuffed Harris to the ropes and kept the key away from the referee . Storm later took the key from Skipper and freed Harris from the cuffs . At one point in the match , Skipper and Daniels double teamed Harris and performed America 's Most Wanted signature finishing maneuver , the Death Sentence by holding Harris in place while the other member climbed to the top rope and performed a leg drop across Harris 's neck and head . Skipper followed by covering Harris for a pinfall , however , he kicked out before the count of three . Harris later climbed up to the top of the cage . While Harris sat on top of the cage , Skipper climbed up at another corner and walked across the top similar to walking a tightrope . Skipper then jumped and grabbed Harris 's head with his legs , falling backwards towards the ring in a move he dubbed the New School . This move caused Harris to fly off of the top of the cage and land on his back in the middle of the ring . A brief time later , all four men were positioned at certain points on one of the padded turnbuckles to perform what TNA calls the " Tower of Doom " . In a variation of the move , Daniels was being held upside @-@ down by Storm , until Skipper grabbed Storm and placed his head between Storm 's legs to lift him off of a padded turnbuckle . Harris then grabbed Skipper and placed Skipper on his shoulders while he held Storm , who remained holding Daniels . Harris then performed a powerbomb on Skipper , while Skipper pulled down Storm , who suplexed Daniels off of the top of the cage . The conclusion to the match saw America 's Most Wanted cuff Daniels to the ropes and perform Triple X 's signature maneuver , the Powerplex by lifting Skipper up onto Storm 's shoulders while Harris held Skipper 's head . Storm and Harris then fell to the mat , forcing Skipper 's neck into Harris 's shoulder and mat while slamming his back into the mat as well . Storm then pinned Skipper for the pinfall victory . As a result of Triple X 's loss , the team had to disband forever .
= = Aftermath = =
Following Turning Point , America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) began a rivalry with Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) over the NWA World Tag Team Championship . They defeated Team Canada on the December 24 episode of Impact ! to earn the chance to challenge them at TNA 's next PPV , Final Resolution . At the event , America 's Most Wanted defeated Team Canada to win the championship .
The rivalry between The Kings of Wrestling ( Jeff Jarrett , Scott Hall , and Kevin Nash ) and Randy Savage , Jeff Hardy , and A.J. Styles slowly died down after the event . Styles went on to Final Resolution to win the TNA X Division Championship in an Ultimate X match , which also involved Chris Sabin and Petey Williams . In an Ultimate X match , four pillars are set up at ringside with steel red ropes attached at the top , which are criss @-@ crossed to form an " X " over the center of the ring . The championship belt is hung on the center " X " with the objective being to remove it and fall to the mat below to win . Hardy defeated Hall at Final Resolution as a replacement for Hector Garza . Savage left the company after the event . The Kings of Wrestling later disbanded ( not official until after Final Resolution ) as a result of Nash being placed in a match where the winner would challenge Jarrett in the main event of Final Resolution for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship ; this match also took place at the event .
In 2007 , Triple X reformed at Victory Road ( which became a July PPV event in 2006 ) with all three members of the original alliance : Daniels , Skipper , and Senshi . Before the reunion in 2007 , Daniels had a successful career as a singles competitor . At TNA 's March PPV event , Destination X , Daniels won the TNA X Division Championship from Styles in an Ultimate X Challenge match involving Ron Killings and his former partner , Eilx Skipper . Afterward , Daniels went on to make successful defenses and winning the championship three times ; Skipper 's singles career was not as victorious .
= = Reception = =
Writer Bob Kapur of the Canadian Online Explorer rated Turning Point a 7 out of 10 , which was the same as the rating for the 2005 event . The TNA X Division Championship bout was rated an 8 out of 10 . The Six Man Tag Team match between The Kings of Wrestling ( Kevin Nash , Scott Hall , and Jeff Jarrett ) and A.J. Styles , Jeff Hardy , and Randy Savage was rated a 3 out of 10 , while the Six Sides of Steel cage match main event was rated a 9 out of 10 . In his review , Kapur stated that he felt the Six Man Tag Team match was " an overbooked train wreck whose only saving grace was Styles 's performance , as he tried to wring out something decent out of the old @-@ timers " . The X Division Championship and main event bouts gained better reviews from Kapur . According to Kapur , the X Division Championship encounter was " a fantastic match which really showcases the talents of both men . " Regarding the main event , Kapur described it as " a fantastic match filled with exciting high spots from bell to bell " . TNA released a list of their top 50 moments in their history in 2006 in a DVD release titled " TNA : The 50 Greatest Moments " , with the main event between America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) and Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) being ranked number 6 . On September 20 , 2005 , TNA Home Video released the event in a DVD boxset called " TNA Anthology : The Epic Set " , including TNA 's April 2005 PPV event , Lockdown , and the 2004 Victory Road event .
= = Results = =
= I Did It , Mama ! =
" I Did It , Mama ! " is a song recorded by Romanian singer @-@ songwriter Alexandra Stan for her eponymous and second studio album , Alesta ( 2016 ) . Released on 27 November 2015 through Global Records as a single , the track was produced by Play & Win members Sebastian Barac and Marcel Botezan , and David Ciente . The writing process was handled by the latter three in collaboration with Stan , Eric Turner and J @-@ Son . An europop , reggaeton , eurodance and dance @-@ pop song incorporating Balcanic and ethnic influences into its sound , the record was described as resembling the lyrical message of Madonna 's " Papa Don 't Preach " ( 1986 ) .
" I Did It , Mama ! " was met with negative to positive reviews , with music critics calling it " an earworm " and " great " , while others named it " boring " and unfriendly for radio airplay . An official music video for " I Did It , Mama ! " was shot by Bogdan Daragiu and uploaded in November 2015 onto YouTube in order to accompany the single 's release . The clip presents Stan being surrounded by different types of half @-@ naked men , and aroused controversy for cut scenes where she is shown miming the sexual intercourse and oral sex with one of her background dancers . Commercially , the track peaked at number nine in Stan 's native country .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
The song was written by Marcel Botezan , Sebastian Barac , J @-@ Son , Eric Turner , David Ciente and Stan , while production was handled by both Botezan and Barac under their alias Play & Win , and Ciente . Lyrically , " I Did It , Mama ! " is about the " conflict between different generations , more specific between children and their parents " . Throughout the lyrics , Stan urges her parents to accept her misunderstood new boyfriend . However , with the refrain of the song , she stands her ground , repeating the track 's title several times . Bradely Stern , writing for music website Pop Crush , compared the message of the song to that of Madonna 's " Papa Don 't Preach " ( 1986 ) , while Stan herself confessed that " [ the song ] is a more rebellious recording that parents may not understand from the first play " . She has , as well , named the tune a mixture between europop , reggaeton and Balkanic music . Hitfire described " I Did , It Mama ! " as a " successful " dance @-@ pop track , and Gay Times named it an " eurodance banger " . Carlo Andriani of Italian portal Daring To Do pointed out ethnic influences featured into its composition .
= = Critical response = =
Upon its release , the track was met with mixed reviews from music critics . Pop Crush was positive towards the song , calling it " an immediately infectious earworm , as with every Stan @-@ pop masterpiece " . The review concluded that " [ the track ] doesn 't make much sense at all , and it doesn 't have to — she ’ s Alexandra Stan , damnit " . Hitfire praised the refrain and the strophes of the tune , but criticized its drop and main part , confessing that they " destroy the song a little bit " . Spanish music website Melty eventually named the recording " great " , foreseeing it successful in European clubs . Daring To Do provided a negative review for " I Did It , Mama ! " , saying that it was " boring " and confessing that its radio potential was " below zero " . Romanian magazine Libertatea compared the song 's title to that of Delia Matache 's " Da , Mama " .
= = Music video and promotion = =
An accompanying music video shot by Bogdan Daragiu for the song was released on 25 November 2015 onto Stan 's YouTube channel . Stan , particularly , confessed that " at the filming of the clip , [ she ] felt very good , like an absolute goddess , with a lot of males teeming around [ her ] for 24 hours " . For the video , several men were employed , such as models , motorcyclists and rugby players from CSA Steaua București . The clip commences with some motorcyclists arriving at an abandoned place , followed by Stan lying on a plastic horse in a neon @-@ lightened room and singing the first strophe in front of the rugby players . Subsequently , she is shown scattered on the ground of a dark room , with half @-@ naked men sporting white fishnet tigths and boots appearing from her left and right . After she and the fellow males perform to the song , the clip ends with Stan being left alone on the horse from the beginning . Scenes interspersed through the main video portray her posing in front of a blue wall , sporting black sun glasses and cross @-@ styled earrings .
The clip received mostly positive reviews , with Pop Crush calling the dresses displayed in it " a campy European mixture of ’ 20s flapper style / old Hollywood glamour in fringe " . Hitfire recommended the video , which they called " a feast for both genders " . Romanian newspapers Cancan and Click ! pointed out cut scenes that portray Stan 's mime of the sexual intercourse and oral sex with a fellow dancer , which , according to them , would have been a reason for the clip to be banned in Romania . Melty named the video " provocant " , while Daring To Do was negative towards it , commending " it presents scenes [ they 've ] already seen countless times , leaving the viewer annoyed with a feeling of déjà vu " .
Stan included " I Did It , Mama ! " on the tracklist for her Japanese one @-@ week concert tours that promoted the release of her studio album , Alesta , in that territory . She as well performed a stripped @-@ down version of the song on Romanian radio station Pro FM . Romania singer , dancer and moderator George Papagheorghe impersonated Stan and covered the track on native interactive talent show Te cunosc de undeva ! .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Alesta .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" I Did It Mama " - 3 : 25
Digital remix EP
" I Did It Mama " ( Jack Mazzoni Remix ) – 4 : 26
" I Did It Mama " ( Jack Mazzoni Radio Remix ) – 3 : 23
" I Did It Mama " ( Franques Remix ) – 4 : 20
" I Did It Mama " ( Franques Extended Mix ) – 5 : 08
" I Did It Mama " ( Fedo Mora & Oki Doro Remix ) – 4 : 30
" I Did It Mama " ( Fedo Mora & Oki Doro Radio Remix ) – 3 : 20
" I Did It Mama " ( Matthew Bee Radio Remix ) – 3 : 32
" I Did It Mama " ( Matthew Bee Remix ) – 4 : 41
= = Charts = =
= = Release = =
= = = Process = = =
" I Did It , Mama " was released digitally worldwide on 27 November 2015 on iTunes through Global and Ego labels . Subsequently , a remixes EP was made available for purchase on 7 January 2016 and 15 January in European territories . The cover artwork for the Italian extended play featured the blue coloring from the original one being edited to green , while the sleeve for the other releases featured it changed to red . Italian radio stations began adding the track onto their playlist on 30 November 2015 .
= = = History = = =
= Tiga Dara =
Tiga Dara ( Indonesian for Three Maidens ) is a 1957 Indonesian @-@ language musical comedy film starring Chitra Dewi , Mieke Wijaya , and Indriati Iskak . Directed by Usmar Ismail for Perfini , the film follows three sisters who live with their father and grandmother . When the eldest sister , Nunung , shows no interest in marrying , her family tries unsuccessfully to find a husband for her . Nunung initially rejects the advances of a young man named Toto , who instead dates her younger sister . However , when he becomes jealous and travels from Jakarta to Bandung to profess his love , she agrees to marry him .
Produced using government credit and written in an attempt to cover Perfini 's outstanding debts , Tiga Dara was intended to be commercial despite Ismail 's disapproval of such works . After it was released in August 1957 , the film was an immense popular success , launching the careers of its stars , earning the highest box office returns of any Perfini film , and being screened in first @-@ class cinemas . However , even though Tiga Dara was shown at the 1959 Venice Film Festival and received Best Musical Arrangement at the 1960 Indonesian Film Week , Ismail considered it a compromise of his initial vision for Perfini .
Since its release , Tiga Dara has been considered a classic of Indonesian cinema , with themes which remain relevant for modern Indonesian society . It was remade as Tiga Dara Mencari Cinta ( Three Maidens Seek Love ) in 1980 by Djun Saptohadi and influenced Teguh Karya 's Pacar Ketinggalan Kereta ( Lover Left by the Train , 1989 ) . A second remake , Ini Kisah Tiga Dara ( This is the Story of Three Maidens ) , has been produced by Nia Dinata and is scheduled for a September 2016 release . In 2015 Tiga Dara was restored and converted to 4K digital by L 'immagine Ritrovata Laboratory .
= = Plot = =
Three sisters — Nunung ( Chitra Dewi ) , Nana ( Mieke Wijaya ) and Nenny ( Indriati Iskak ) — are being raised by their grandmother ( Fifi Young ) in Jakarta after their mother 's death . Though the sisters ' father Sukandar ( Hassan Sanusi ) lives with them , he is too involved in his own work to pay them heed .
While the sisters are out with Nana 's boyfriend Herman ( Bambang Irawan ) , their grandmother tells Sukandar than she will not live to see Nunung , already aged 29 , marry . He agrees to invite his colleagues to the house . When they come several days later , Nunung impresses all present with her piano @-@ playing and singing . However , the men are all too old , and Nunung 's grandmother insists that Sukandar find a younger man . Nenny , overhearing the conversation , suggests that they hold a party ; this too is a failure , as Nunung takes no interest in the festivities .
Nana is then asked to take Nunung out with her , in the hopes that the eldest sister will meet a marriageable young man . At a party , while Nana mingles with several men , Nunung sits out every dance and eventually leaves with Herman . Asked why she has returned home , Nunung tells her grandmother that she felt too old among the younger party @-@ goers and asks why she was told to go . Nenny , again eavesdropping , shouts out that their grandmother is hoping to find her a husband . Though Nunung is initially angered , she understands her grandmother 's good intentions .
The following day , Nunung is stricken by a scooter driven by Toto ( Rendra Karno ) . Despite an injured leg , Nunung insists on taking a pedicab home ; without her knowledge , Toto follows her . He later returns to apologize , and , though Nunung treats him harshly , is quickly accepted by Nana and her grandmother . Nana asks Toto to visit frequently , and over the next several days Nana pushes away Herman . Nenny , meanwhile , uses her sister 's interest in Toto to become closer to Herman . When Nana announces that she and Toto are engaged , her grandmother is furious ; if Nana marries before her sister , she says , Nunung will never marry .
After Nana and Nunung fight , their guardians decide that it is best for Nunung to go the home of her uncle Tamsil ( Usmar Ismail ) in Bandung and rest . While there , Nunung writes a letter to her father that Joni kisses her goodnight every day . This news sparks Nenny 's titillation and Toto 's jealousy . Nana insists that Toto choose between her and Nunung ; Toto decides to go to Bandung and protest Joni 's impropriety . He confronts Nunung and confesses his love for her . She spitefully tells him that she sleeps with Joni every night .
Herman , at the insistence of Nana , takes the remainder of the family to Bandung , where they meet up with Toto , Nunung , and Tamsil 's family . As Tamsil introduces his sons , Joni is revealed to be a young child . Nunung and Toto embrace , while Nana and Herman make up .
= = Production = =
Tiga Dara was directed and produced by Usmar Ismail for his National Film Company ( Perusahaan Film Nasional , better known as Perfini ) . Although Ismail had wanted to " not consider commercial aspects " of filmmaking when he established Perfini in 1950 , he was forced to recognise the need to make a profitable film as Perfini continued to lose money . Following the failures of Lagi @-@ Lagi Krisis ( More Crises , 1955 ) and Tamu Agung ( Exalted Guest , 1955 ) , the company 's financial situation was bleak , and Ismail fired a number of his staff . With only some leftover government credit to finance his next production , Ismail collaborated with M. Alwi Dahlan to write a film which would be popular with audiences . The resulting story , which may have been inspired by the 1936 musical comedy Three Smart Girls , was Tiga Dara .
Production of Tiga Dara began in 1956 . Chitra Dewi , Mieke Wijaya , and Indriati Iskak were cast as the titular maidens . Dewi had previously appeared in Tamu Agung , and Wijaya had made her debut in the Palembang Film Corporation 's Gagal ( Fail ) the previous year . Iskak , the 14 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of film director Raden Iskak , made her feature film debut with Tiga Dara . Supporting roles were filled by Fifi Young , Rendra Karno , Hassan Sanusi , Bambang Irawan , and Roosilawaty . For the role of Joni , Ismail cast his real @-@ life son , Irwan Usmar Ismail .
As musical films were popular with Indonesian audiences , Tiga Dara was made in that genre . It featured seven songs by Sjaiful Bachri ( who also served as sound editor ) as well as one by Ismail Marzuki and two by Oetjin Noerhasjim . Only Wijaya provided her own vocals ; the other actors were dubbed by Sam Saimun , Elly Sri Kudus , Bing Slamet , Djuita , S. Effendy , and Sitti Nurochma . Long @-@ time Perfini cameraman Max Tera handled cinematography for this black @-@ and @-@ white film , using the company 's outdated equipment , and Soemardjono was in charge of editing .
= = Release and reception = =
Tiga Dara premiered in August 1957 at the Capitol Theatre in Jakarta . Distributed by Perfini , it found popular success and was screened for eight consecutive weeks in cinemas throughout the archipelago . This included several first @-@ class cinemas which were affiliated with the American Motion Picture Association of Indonesia ( AMPAI ) and mostly showed imported films . On 20 September 1957 President Sukarno arranged for a private screening of the film at the Presidential Palace in Bogor for the birthday of his wife , Hartini . " Tiga Dara " competitions between groups of three sisters were held in much of Java , and the term became widely used as the name of batik products , shops , and drinks . At the 1960 Indonesian Film Week , Tiga Dara received Best Musical Arrangement .
Negotiations to bring Tiga Dara to Malaya began soon after its release , and the film was exported , again to commercial success , in exchange for the import of the Malayan film Mega Mendung ( Cloudy Skies ) . In the late 1950s the film was shown in several Italian cities , including Rome , as well as in Yugoslavia . After Floris Ammannati saw the Rome screening , he invited Ismail to show Tiga Dara at the 1959 Venice Film Festival ; Ismail did so , though he considered the Venice screening to be unsuccessful . Tiga Dara was screening in Netherlands New Guinea by August 1960 and in Suriname by August 1963 .
= = Impact = =
Tiga Dara was Perfini 's most lucrative film , grossing almost Rp 10 million in ticket sales , or a profit of Rp 3 @,@ 080 @,@ 000 , during its theatrical run . However , despite this popular success Perfini 's financial situation saw little improvement . Furthermore , Ismail considered the Tiga Dara a disappointment which compromised the goals he had had when he established Perfini . According to fellow Perfini film director D. Djajakusuma :
Usmar [ Ismail ] was ashamed of the film . His intent to sell Tiga Dara when it was still in production showed how difficult it was for him to accept the fact that he had to make that kind of film . ... even though money was coming in , Perfini just was not making the kinds of films that Usmar had dreamed of initially .
In subsequent years Perfini released a number of commercially oriented films , such as Delapan Pendjuru Angin ( Eight Compass Directions , 1957 ) and Asrama Dara ( Dormitory for Girls , 1958 ) . Though none of these were commercial failures , none except for Asrama Dara approached the financial success of Tiga Dara . Ismail attempted to reassert himself as a director of quality not @-@ for @-@ profit films through Pedjuang ( Warriors for Freedom , 1960 ) , which was screened in competition at the 2nd Moscow International Film Festival in 1961 . However , as the years passed he became increasingly distanced from his early goals and had made attempts to enter banking , the nightclub industry , and parliament by the time of his death in 1971 .
Dewi and Wijaya both became popular following the success of Tiga Dara . Dewi continued acting for a further four decades , appearing in her final feature film , Pedang Ulung ( Grand Sword ) , in 1993 , fifteen years before her death . Wijaya 's most recent film role has been in Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( Verses of Love , 2008 ) . Meanwhile , Iskak , who was praised for having a more naturalistic acting style than her stage @-@ trained fellow actors , soared to popularity . She formed a girl group , the Baby Dolls , together with Rima Melati , Gaby Mambo , and Baby Huwae , and acted in a further eight films before retiring from cinema in 1963 .
= = Legacy = =
Tiga Dara has been recognised as a classic of Indonesian cinema and often been shown on television . A 1989 retrospective on Perfini in Tempo argued that the film still showed the sense of honesty and realism common in Ismail 's earlier work , and in a 1991 memorial book for Ismail , Rosihan Anwar wrote that the themes of Tiga Dara remained relevant for the Indonesian people . Similar sentiments were voiced by the film director Nia Dinata in 2016 .
By 2015 the cellulose acetate negatives for Tiga Dara , held at Sinematek Indonesia , were heavily damaged . They were torn in
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Organisation and National Support Division . The DMO purchases all forms of equipment and services used by the ADF and is also responsible for maintaining this equipment throughout its life of type .
The DMO is not responsible for directly supplying deployed ADF units ; this is the responsibility of the Joint Logistics Command and the single service logistic units . These units include the Navy 's Systems Command and replenishment ships , the Army 's 17th Combat Service Support Brigade and Combat Service Support Battalions , and the Combat Support Group RAAF .
The increasing role of the private sector forms an important trend in the ADF 's logistics arrangements . During the 1990s many of the ADF 's support functions were transferred to the private sector to improve the efficiency with which they were provided . Since these reforms most of the ' garrison ' support services at military bases have been provided by private firms . The reforms also led to many of the ADF 's logistics units being disbanded or reduced in size . Since this time private firms have increasingly been contracted to provide critical support to ADF units deployed outside Australia . This support has included transporting equipment and personnel and constructing and supplying bases .
= = Military intelligence and surveillance = =
The Australian Defence Force 's intelligence collection and analysis capabilities include each of the services ' intelligence systems and units , two joint civilian @-@ military intelligence gathering agencies and two strategic and operational @-@ level intelligence analysis organisations .
Each of the three services has its own intelligence collection assets . RAN doctrine states that " all maritime units " contribute to the collection of intelligence and many of the RAN 's ships are capable of collecting communications and electronic transmissions . The Collins class submarines are particularly effective in this role . The Army 's intelligence and surveillance units include the 1st Intelligence Battalion , 7th Signal Regiment ( Electronic Warfare ) , three Regional Force Surveillance Units and the Special Air Service Regiment . The RAAF monitors the airspace of Australia and neighbouring countries using the Vigilare system , which combines input from the service 's Jindalee Operational Radar Network , other ADF air defence radars ( including airborne and naval systems ) and civilian air traffic control radars . The RAAF 's other intelligence assets include No. 87 Squadron and the AP @-@ 3C Orion aircraft operated by No. 92 Wing . A Space Situational Awareness capability is currently being installed at Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt to allow the tracking of space assets and debris . Australia also provides personnel to the US Joint Space Operations Center in Colorado Springs which tracks and identifies any man @-@ made object in orbit .
The Defence Intelligence and Security Group within the Department of Defence supports the services and co @-@ operate with the civilian agencies within the Australian Intelligence Community . This Group consists of the Defence Imagery and Geospatial Organisation ( DIGO ) , Australian Signals Directorate ( ASD ) and Defence Intelligence Organisation ( DIO ) . The DIGO is responsible for geospatial intelligence and producing maps for the ADF , the ASD is Australia 's signals intelligence agency and the DIO is responsible for the analysis of intelligence collected by the other intelligence agencies . The three agencies are headquartered in Canberra , though the DIGO has staff in Bendigo and the ASD maintains several permanent signals collection facilities in other locations .
The ASD includes a Cyber Security Operations Centre ( CSOC ) which is responsible for protecting Defence and other Australian Government agencies against cyberwarfare attacks . The CSOC was established in January 2010 and is jointly staffed by the DSD , other sections of the ADO , Attorney @-@ General 's Department , Australian Security Intelligence Organisation and Australian Federal Police . Unlike the United States military , the ADF does not class cyberwarfare as being a separate sphere of warfare .
= = Personnel = =
The Australian military has been an all @-@ volunteer force since the abolition of conscription in 1972 . Both women and men can enlist in the ADF , although there are some restrictions on the positions that women may fill . In general , only Australian citizens can enlist in the ADF though permanent residents are accepted in " exceptional circumstances " . The minimum age for recruits is 17 and the retirement age is 60 for permanent personnel and 65 for reservists . Discipline of defence personnel is guided by the Defence Force Discipline Act ( 1982 ) , ultimately overseen by the Judge Advocate General of the ADF .
= = = Personnel numbers = = =
Over the 2014 – 15 financial year the ADF had an average strength of 56 @,@ 922 permanent ( full @-@ time ) and 23 @,@ 232 reserve ( part @-@ time ) personnel . There were a further 22 @,@ 166 inactive members of the Standby Reserve as at June 2009 . The Army is the largest service , followed by the RAAF and RAN . The ADO also employed 19 @,@ 988 civilian Australian Public Service ( APS ) staff as of the 2014 – 15 financial year . The average distribution of ADF personnel between the services and categories of service over the 2014 – 15 financial year was as follows :
During the 2009 – 10 financial year 6 @,@ 063 people enlisted in the ADF on a permanent basis . This represented 91 % of the ADF 's recruitment target for that year . A further 671 people enlisted as part of the gap year scheme ( 96 % of the target ) and 2 @,@ 629 joined the reserves ( 84 % of the target ) . During that financial year 4 @,@ 000 people left the ADF 's permanent force , representing a 7 @.@ 1 % separation rate .
The number of ADF personnel has changed over the last 20 years . During the 1990s the strength of the ADF was reduced from around 70 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 permanent personnel as a result of budget cuts and the commercialisation of some elements of the military . The ADF began to grow from 2000 after the defence white paper released that year called for an expansion to the military 's strength . During the 2003 – 04 to 2005 – 06 financial years the strength of the ADF dropped as a result of problems with attracting further recruits . The ADF has consistently grown in all subsequent financial years , however . This growth is attributable to increased spending on recruitment and improved recruitment and retention policies . Nevertheless , some parts of the ADF are suffering from shortages of personnel ( such as technicians and trades people ) and demand for skilled labour in the broader economy is driving up the wages the ADF needs to pay to retain key personnel . As of May 2010 , 20 employment categories were considered " critical or perilous " due to a shortage of skilled personnel , though this had been reduced from 32 such categories in 2009 .
As of the 2011 – 12 budget , Defence planned to have a strength of 58 @,@ 627 full @-@ time personnel supported by 21 @,@ 397 civilians and contractors in the 2018 – 19 financial year . The Strategic Reform Program has included transferring the roles filled by several hundred ADF members to civilian APS staff as a means of reducing costs .
= = = Reserves = = =
Each of the branches of the ADF has a reserve component . These forces are the Royal Australian Naval Reserve , Australian Army Reserve and Royal Australian Air Force Reserve . The main role of the reserves is to supplement the permanent elements of the ADF during deployments and crises , including natural disasters . This can include attaching individual reservists to regular units or deploying units composed entirely of reserve personnel . As reservists serve on a part @-@ time basis , they are less costly to the government than permanent members of the ADF , but the nature of their service can mean that reservists have a lower level of readiness than regular personnel and require further training before they can be deployed . It has historically proven difficult to set a level of training requirements which allows reservists to be rapidly deployable yet does not act as a disincentive to recruitment and continued participation .
There are two main categories of reserve personnel ; those in the active reserve and those in the standby reserve . Members of the active reserve have an annual minimum training obligation . Army and RAAF reservists may also volunteer for the high readiness reserve ; this category of reservists have higher training and active service obligations . Members of the standby reserve are not required to undertake training , and would only be called up in response to a national emergency or to fill a specialised position . Most standby reservists are former full @-@ time members of the ADF .
While Australian Naval Reserve personnel are assigned to permanent units , most members of the Army Reserve and Air Force Reserve are members of reserve units . Most of the RAAF 's reserve units are not intended to be deployed , and reserve personnel are generally attached to regular air force units during their periods of active service . The Army Reserve is organised into permanent combat and support units , though most are currently manned at levels well below their authorised strengths and are not capable of deploying as formed units . There have been long @-@ running debates over whether the Army Reserve and its structure remain relevant to modern warfare .
The ADF 's increased activities since 1999 and shortfalls in recruiting permanent personnel has led to reservists being more frequently called to active service . This has included large scale domestic deployments , which have included providing security for major events such as the 2000 Summer Olympics and responding to natural disasters . Large numbers of reserve personnel have also been deployed as part of ADF operations in Australia 's region ; this has included the deployment of Army Reserve rifle companies to East Timor and the Solomon Islands . Smaller numbers of reservists have taken part in operations in locations distant from Australia . Notably , companies of the Army Reserve 1st Commando Regiment were regularly deployed to Afghanistan as part of the Special Operations Task Group .
= = = Training = = =
Individual training of Australian servicemen and women is generally provided by the services in their own training institutions . Each service has its own training organisation to manage this individual training . Where possible , however , individual training is increasingly being provided through tri @-@ service schools .
Military academies include HMAS Creswell for the Navy , Royal Military College , Duntroon for the Army , and the Officer Training School – RAAF Base East Sale for the Air Force . The Australian Defence Force Academy is a tri @-@ service university for officer cadets of all services wishing to attain a university degree through the Australian Defence Force . Navy recruit training is conducted at HMAS Cerberus , Army recruits are trained at the Army Recruit Training Centre and Air Force recruits at RAAF Base Wagga .
= = = Women in the ADF = = =
Women first served in the Australian military during World War II when each service established a separate female branch . The RAAF was the first service to fully integrate women into operational units , doing so in 1977 , with the Army and RAN following in 1979 and 1985 respectively . The ADF initially struggled to integrate women , with integration being driven by changing Australian social values and Government legislation rather than a change in attitudes within the male @-@ dominated military .
The number of positions available to women in the ADF has increased over time . Although servicewomen were initially barred from combat positions , these restrictions began to be lifted in 1990 . In 2010 approximately 92 % of employment categories and 84 % of positions in the ADF were available to females as well as males . The only positions which women are currently excluded from are those in which there is a high probability of ' direct combat ' , which includes all infantry positions and other positions in which there is a high probability of hand to hand combat . As a result , while almost all positions in the Navy and Air Force are open to women , women are excluded from a high proportion of Army positions .
Despite the expansion in the number of positions available to women and other changes which aim to encourage increased female recruitment and retention , there has been little growth in the proportion of female permanent defence personnel . In the 1989 – 1990 financial year women made up 11 @.@ 4 % of the ADF personnel . In the 2008 – 2009 financial year women occupied 13 @.@ 5 % of ADF positions . During the same period the proportion of civilian positions filled by women in the Australian Defence Organisation increased from 30 @.@ 8 % to 42 @.@ 8 % . As of the 2014 – 15 financial year , women made up 14 @.@ 5 % of permanent ADF positions and 16 @.@ 1 % of reserve positions . In 2008 , defence minister Joel Fitzgibbon instructed the ADF to place a greater emphasis on recruiting women and addressing barriers to women being promoted to senior roles . In September 2011 Minister for Defence Stephen Smith announced that the Cabinet had decided to remove all restrictions on women serving in combat positions , and that this change would come into effect within five years . This decision was supported by the CDF and the chiefs of the services . Women became able to apply for all positions other than special forces roles in the Army on 1 January 2013 ; it is planned that this remaining restriction will be removed in 2014 once the physical fitness standards required for service in these units are determined . Women will be directly recruited into all frontline combat positions from late 2016 . In 2015 the ADF adopted targets to increase the proportion of service personnel who are female by 2018 .
There continue to be concerns over the incidence of sexual abuse and gender @-@ based discrimination in the ADF . In 2014 the Defence Abuse Response Taskforce estimated that around 1 @,@ 100 currently @-@ serving ADF personnel had abused other members of the military , and recommended that a royal commission be conducted to investigate long @-@ running allegations of sexual abuse and assault of servicewomen at the Australian Defence Force Academy . In 2013 Chief of Army General David Morrison publicly released a video in which he warned against gender @-@ based discrimination , and stated that he would dismiss members of the Army who engaged in such conduct .
= = = Ethnic composition = = =
A high percentage of ADF personnel are drawn from the Anglo @-@ Celtic portion of Australia 's population . In 2007 the proportion of ADF personnel born in Australia and the other predominately Anglo @-@ Celtic countries was higher than this population group 's share of both the Australian workforce and overall population . As a result , analyst Mark Thomson has argued that the ADF is unrepresentative of Australia 's society in this regard and that recruiting more personnel from other ethnic backgrounds would improve the ADF 's language skills and cultural empathy .
The ADO is seeking to expand the number of Indigenous Australians it recruits and improve their retention rate . Restrictions on Indigenous Australians ' ability to enlist in the military existed until the 1970s , though hundreds of Indigenous men and women had joined the military when restrictions were reduced during the world wars . By 1992 the representation of Indigenous Australians in the ADF was equivalent to their proportion of the Australian population , though they continue to be under @-@ represented among the officer corps . Two of the Army 's three Regional Force Surveillance Units ( NORFORCE and the 51st Battalion , Far North Queensland Regiment ) are manned mostly by Indigenous Australian reservists . In 2007 Indigenous Australians made up 1 @.@ 4 % of permanent ADF personnel and 1 @.@ 8 % of reservists .
= = = Sexuality = = =
Australia allows gay men and lesbians to serve openly . Openly gay and lesbian personnel were banned from the ADF until November 1992 when the Australian Government decided to remove this prohibition . The heads of the services and most military personnel opposed this change at the time , and it caused considerable public debate . Opponents of lifting the ban on gay and lesbian personnel argued that doing so would greatly harm the ADF 's cohesiveness and cause large numbers of resignations . This did not eventuate , and the reform caused relatively few problems . A 2000 study found that lifting the ban on gay service did not have any negative effects on the ADF 's morale , effectiveness or recruitment and retention , and may have led to increased productivity and improved working environments .
Since 1 January 2009 same @-@ sex couples have had the same access to military retirement pensions and superannuation as opposite @-@ sex couples . Transgender personnel are also permitted to serve in the ADF , and are provided with support when necessary . The ADF has permitted a contingent of gay and lesbian personnel to march together in the Sydney Mardi Gras since 2008 , and from 2013 these personnel were authorised to wear their uniforms during the parade .
= = Defence expenditure and procurement = =
= = = Current expenditure = = =
The Australian Government allocated A $ 31 @.@ 9 billion to the Australian Defence Organisation in the 2015 – 16 financial year . This level of expenditure is equivalent to approximately 1 @.@ 92 % of Australian Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) . This was an increase from the A $ 25 @.@ 4 billion allocated in the 2013 – 14 financial year which represented approximately 1 @.@ 59 % of GDP . In 2013 – 14 the Defence budget was 6 @.@ 6 % of the Government 's planned expenditure . In broad terms , 42 @.@ 2 % of the 2011 – 12 defence budget will be allocated to personnel expenses , 35 @.@ 4 % to operating costs and 22 @.@ 4 % to investment . The amount allocated to defence in the 2013 – 14 budget was 2 @.@ 3 % higher than that in the previous year 's budget in real terms , though the 2012 – 13 expenditure was the lowest proportion of GDP to be allocated to Defence since 1938 . The 2013 – 14 budget also forecast that total expenditure on Defence over the next six years will be $ 200 billion , representing a real annual growth rate of 2 @.@ 5 % . This was despite the former Labor Government promising to increase Defence spending by 3 % in real terms until 2016 at the 2007 election .
The 2009 defence white paper included a commitment to increase defence spending by 3 % in real terms each year over a 21 @-@ year period . The white paper also specified that defence would be required to undertake a package of reforms named the ' Strategic Reform Program ' which aimed to save A $ 20 @.@ 6 billion over ten years through improvements to management practices and other efficiencies . However , the actual rate of growth in funding over the seven years covered by the white paper will be 1 % .
In relative terms , Australia 's defence expenditure as a proportion of GDP is greater than that of most developed Western nations , but is smaller than the proportion allocated to defence by Australia 's larger neighbours . The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute has estimated that Australia 's defence spending in 2010 was the 13th highest of any country in purchasing power parity terms . As a proportion of GDP Australia 's defence spending ranks as 57th of the countries for which data is available .
= = = Long term procurement projects = = =
The Defence Capability Plan ( DCP ) sets out the ADF 's long term capital programs . DCPs have been regularly produced since 2000 . The current public version DCP , which was released in 2009 and updated in late 2010 , contains 140 projects and phases of projects which have a total estimated cost of A $ 153 billion in 2010 dollars . Work on these projects will take place between 2011 and 2020 . The most expensive and complex projects in the DCP are the Collins class submarine replacement project , the purchase of at least 72 F @-@ 35 Lightning II fighters , upgrades to the RAAF 's Wedgetail AEW & C aircraft , the replacement of many of the ADF 's wheeled vehicles , the replacement of the Army 's ASLAV and M @-@ 113s and the development of new offshore combatant vessels and frigates to replace most of the RAN 's surface combatants .
= = Current equipment = =
The Australian Defence Force seeks to be a high @-@ technology force , and much of its equipment is scheduled to be replaced or upgraded in the near future . Australia does not possess weapons of mass destruction and has ratified the Biological Weapons Convention , Chemical Weapons Convention and Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty . Although most of the ADF 's weapons are only used by single service , there is an increasing emphasis on commonality . The three services use the same small arms and the FN Herstal 35 is the ADF 's standard hand gun , the F88 Austeyr the standard rifle , the F89 Minimi the standard light support weapon , the FN Herstal MAG @-@ 58 the standard light machine gun and the Browning M2HB the standard heavy machine gun .
The Royal Australian Navy operates 47 commissioned ships and submarines , and 3 non @-@ commissioned vessels . The Navy 's 11 frigates are its most capable surface combatants ; the three remaining Adelaide @-@ class frigates provide the RAN 's surface offensive capability , while the eight Anzac @-@ class frigates are general purpose escorts . The RAN 's submarine force has six Collins @-@ class submarines . There are 13 Armidale @-@ class patrol boats for border security and fisheries patrol duties in Australia 's northern waters . The RAN 's amphibious force comprises the two Canberra @-@ class landing helicopter docks and the dock landing ship HMAS Choules . The Navy 's minesweeping force operates six Huon @-@ class minehunters . Two replenishment vessels ( Sirius and Success ) and six survey vessels ( the Leeuwin and Paluma classes ) support these combatants . Non @-@ commissioned ships operated by the RAN include the sail training ship Young Endeavour and two Cape @-@ class patrol boats leased to the RAN from the Australian Border Force . As of September 2014 , the Fleet Air Arm 's helicopter force comprised 42 helicopters ; 16 Seahawks and 4 MH @-@ 60R Romeos for anti @-@ submarine tasks , 6 MRH 90 transport helicopters , 13 Eurocopter AS350 Squirrels and 3 Bell 429 GlobalRangers for training purposes .
The Australian Army is primarily a light infantry force with equipment which may be carried by individual soldiers . It is also equipped with armoured vehicles and artillery ; the Army is introducing more armoured vehicles into service as part of the ' hardened and networked army ' initiative . The Army 's armoured , mechanised and motorised units are currently equipped with 59 M1A1 Abrams main battle tanks , 774 M113 armoured personnel carriers ( including vehicles in store ) , and 257 ASLAV armoured reconnaissance vehicles . 838 Bushmaster Protected Mobility Vehicles are currently in service with 214 on order as of July 2012 . The Army 's artillery holdings consist of 112 L119 Hamel 105 mm calibre towed guns , 36 155 mm towed M198 howitzers , an unspecified number of 81 mm mortars and 30 RBS @-@ 70 surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . As of July 2015 , Australian Army Aviation is equipped with 115 helicopters , including 19 Kiowa reconnaissance helicopters , 22 Eurocopter Tiger armed reconnaissance helicopters , 34 S @-@ 70A @-@ 9 Blackhawk , six CH @-@ 47D Chinooks , one CH @-@ 47F Chinook ( with six on order ) , 27 of a planned 46 MRH 90 transport helicopters , and 12 Bell 206 training aircraft . The Army also operates 18 AAI RQ @-@ 7 Shadows as well as several ScanEagle and Skylark unmanned aerial vehicles . To support amphibious operations , the Army is equipped with 15 LCM @-@ 8 watercraft .
The Royal Australian Air Force operates combat , maritime patrol , transport and training aircraft . As at July 2015 the combat aircraft force comprised 71 F / A @-@ 18A and B Hornets and 24 F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets . The maritime patrol force was equipped with 15 AP @-@ 3C Orions and 6 Boeing E @-@ 7A Wedgetail AEW & C aircraft . The air transport force operated 12 C @-@ 130J @-@ 30 Super Hercules , 6 C @-@ 17 Globemaster IIIs with 2 on order , 2 C @-@ 27 Spartans with 8 on order and 9 Super King Air 200 / 300 utility transport aircraft . The RAAF also operates 3 Bombardier Challenger and 2 Boeing Business Jet 737 aircraft as VIP transports . 5 Airbus KC @-@ 30B Multi @-@ Role Tanker Transports were in service . The RAAF also operates 67 Pilatus PC @-@ 9 , 8 Beechcraft B300 King Air and 33 Hawk 127 training aircraft .
= = Current bases = =
The Australian Defence Force maintains 60 major bases and many other facilities across all the states and territories of Australia . These bases occupy millions of hectares of land , giving the ADO Australia 's largest real estate portfolio . Defence Housing Australia manages around 17 @,@ 000 residences occupied by members of the ADF . While most of the Army 's permanent force units are based in northern Australia , the majority of Navy and Air Force units are based near Sydney , Brisbane and Perth . Few ADF bases are currently shared by different services . Small Army and RAAF units are also located at Royal Malaysian Air Force Base Butterworth .
The administrative headquarters of the ADF and the three services is located in Canberra alongside the main offices of the Department of Defence and Defence Materiel Organisation and the interim headquarters of Joint Operations Command . JOC and the other operational headquarters will be co @-@ located near Bungendore , New South Wales as part of the Headquarters Joint Operations Command Project .
The Royal Australian Navy has two main bases ; Fleet Base East ( HMAS Kuttabul ) in Sydney and Fleet Base West ( HMAS Stirling ) near Perth . The Navy 's operational headquarters , Fleet Headquarters , is located adjacent to Fleet Base East . The majority of the Navy 's patrol boats are based at HMAS Coonawarra in Darwin , Northern Territory with the remaining patrol boats and the hydrographic fleet located at HMAS Cairns in Cairns . The Fleet Air Arm is based at HMAS Albatross near Nowra , New South Wales .
The Australian Army 's regular units are concentrated in a few bases , most of which are located in Australia 's northern states . The Army 's operational headquarters , Forces Command , is located at Victoria Barracks in Sydney . Most elements of the Army 's three regular brigades are based at Robertson Barracks near Darwin , Lavarack Barracks in Townsville , Queensland , and Gallipoli Barracks in Brisbane . The Deployable Joint Force ( Land ) Headquarters is also located at Gallipoli Barracks . Other important Army bases include the Army Aviation Centre near Oakey , Queensland , Holsworthy Barracks near Sydney , Woodside Barracks near Adelaide , South Australia and Campbell Barracks in Perth . Dozens of Army Reserve depots are located across Australia .
The Royal Australian Air Force maintains several air bases , including three which are only occasionally activated . The RAAF 's operational headquarters , Air Command , is located at RAAF Base Glenbrook near Sydney . The Air Force 's combat aircraft are based at RAAF Base Amberley near Ipswich , Queensland , RAAF Base Tindal near Katherine , Northern Territory and RAAF Base Williamtown near Newcastle , New South Wales . The RAAF 's maritime patrol aircraft are based at RAAF Base Edinburgh near Adelaide and most of its transport aircraft are based at RAAF Base Richmond in Sydney . RAAF Base Edinburgh is also home to the control centre for the Jindalee Operational Radar Network . Most of the RAAF 's training aircraft are based at RAAF Base Pearce near Perth with the remaining aircraft located at RAAF Base East Sale near Sale , Victoria and RAAF Base Williamtown . The RAAF also maintains a network of bases in northern Australia to support operations to Australia 's north . These bases include RAAF Base Darwin and RAAF Base Townsville and three ' bare bases ' in Queensland and Western Australia . Of the RAAF 's operational bases , only Tindal is located near an area in which the service 's aircraft might feasibly see combat . While this protects the majority of the RAAF 's assets from air attack , most air bases are poorly defended and aircraft are generally hangared in un @-@ hardened shelters .
= = Domestic responsibilities = =
The Australian Defence Force has domestic responsibilities . In most of these tasks the ADF supports the relevant civilian authorities . These responsibilities are typically undertaken by specialised elements of the ADF , though the services ' combat elements can be deployed within Australia in response to major emergencies .
The ADF makes a significant contribution to Australia 's domestic maritime security . ADF ships , aircraft and Regional Force Surveillance Units conduct patrols of northern Australia in conjunction with the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service . This operation , which is code @-@ named Operation Resolute , is commanded by the Border Protection Command which is jointly manned by members of the ADF and Customs . Up to 400 personnel were assigned to Operation Resolute in July 2010 .
While the ADF does not have a significant nation @-@ building role , it provides assistance to remote Indigenous Australian communities through the Army Aboriginal Community Assistance Program . Under this program , which has been conducted since 1996 , an engineer squadron works with one community for several months each year to upgrade local infrastructure and provide training . The ADF also took part in the intervention in remote Northern Territory Indigenous communities between June 2007 and October 2008 . During this operation ADF personnel provided logistical support to the Northern Territory Emergency Response Task Force and helped conduct child health checks .
The ADF shares responsibility for counter @-@ terrorism with civilian law enforcement agencies . Under the Australian National Counter @-@ Terrorism Plan the State and Territory police and emergency services have the primary responsibility for responding to any terrorist incidents on Australian territory . If a terrorist threat or the consequences of an incident are beyond the capacity of civilian authorities to resolve the ADF may be ' called out ' to provide support . To meet its counter @-@ terrorism responsibilities the ADF maintains two elite Tactical Assault Groups , the Special Operations Engineer Regiment as well as a company @-@ sized high readiness group in each Army Reserve brigade and the 1st Commando Regiment . While these forces provide a substantial counter @-@ terrorism capability , the ADF does not regard domestic security as being part of its ' core business ' .
= = Foreign defence relations = =
The Australian Defence Force cooperates with militaries around the world . Australia 's formal military agreements include the ANZUS Alliance with the United States of America , the Closer Defence Program with New Zealand and the Five Power Defence Arrangements with Malaysia , Singapore , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . Australia is currently developing closer security ties with Japan . ADF activities under these agreements include participating in joint planning , intelligence sharing , personnel exchanges , equipment standardisation programs and joint exercises . Australia is also a member of the UKUSA signals intelligence gathering agreement .
New Zealand , Singapore and the United States maintain military units in Australia . The New Zealand and Singaporean forces are limited to small training units at ADF bases , with the New Zealand contingent comprising nine Army personnel involved in air navigation training . Two Republic of Singapore Air Force pilot training squadrons are based in Australia ; 126 Squadron at the Oakey Army Aviation Centre and 130 Squadron at RAAF Base Pearce . The Singapore Army also uses the Shoalwater Bay Military Training Area in Queensland for annual large @-@ scale exercises .
Two United States intelligence and communications facilities are located in Australia ; the Pine Gap satellite tracking station near Alice Springs and Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt near Exmouth , Western Australia . Pine Gap is jointly operated by Australian and United States personnel and Naval Communication Station Harold E. Holt has been an exclusively Australian @-@ operated facility since 1999 . In early 2007 the Australian Government approved the construction of a new unmanned US communications installation at the Defence Signals Directorate Australian Defence Satellite Communications Station facility near Geraldton , Western Australia . The United States Military also frequently uses Australian exercise areas and these facilities have been upgraded to support joint Australian @-@ United States training . As well as these facilities , between 200 and 300 US Military personnel are posted to Australia to liaise with the ADF and in November 2011 the Australian and American Governments announced plans to rotate United States Marine Corps and United States Air Force units through bases in the Northern Territory for training purposes .
The ADF provides assistance to militaries in Australia 's region through the Defence Cooperation Program . Under this program the ADF provides assistance with training , infrastructure , equipment and logistics and participates in joint exercises with countries in South East Asia and Oceania . The Pacific Patrol Boat Program is the largest Defence Cooperation Program activity and supports 22 Pacific class patrol boats operated by twelve South Pacific countries . Other important activities include supporting the development of the Timor Leste Defence Force and Papua New Guinea Defence Force and supplying watercraft to the Armed Forces of the Philippines . Australia also directly contributes to the defence of Pacific countries by periodically deploying warships and aircraft to patrol their territorial waters ; this includes an annual deployment of RAAF AP @-@ 3 Orions to the region as part of a multi @-@ national maritime surveillance operation . Under an informal agreement Australia is responsible for the defence of Nauru .
= = Assessment of capabilities = =
The ADF 's capabilities enable it to carry out a range of tasks . The size of the force that the government can deploy differs according to the likelihood of high @-@ intensity combat and the distance from Australia . In overall terms , Dr. Mark Thomson of the Australian Strategic Policy Institute assesses the ADF 's size and capability as being typical for a Western nation with Australia 's economic and population base .
The ADF has probably the most capable air and naval capabilities in the South @-@ East Asia region , though the small size of the Army and the age of much of the RAN and RAAF 's equipment constrains Australia 's ability to make large @-@ scale deployments or engage in high @-@ intensity combat . The ADF 's personnel shortages may also limit its ability to quickly conduct new deployments .
The ADF is highly capable of defeating direct attacks on Australia by conventional forces , though such attacks are highly improbable at present . The ADF 's intelligence gathering capabilities should enable it to detect any attacking force before it reaches Australia . Once detected , the RAN and RAAF would be able to defeat the attacking force while it was still in Australia 's maritime approaches . The Army and RAAF are also capable of defeating small raiding forces once they are detected . The ADF currently maintains sufficient forces to meet its domestic security and counter @-@ terrorism responsibilities .
The RAN and RAAF are capable of deploying significant numbers of capable ships and aircraft , these forces are large and modern enough to operate independently in a high @-@ threat environment and would typically make up a small part of a larger international coalition force . Due to its relatively small size the Army 's capability for high intensity warfare is more limited than that of the other services .
As a result of these limitations , the ADF is capable of providing only relatively small , but high @-@ quality , ' niche ' forces for high intensity warfare . Such forces include the Navy 's submarines , the Army 's special forces and the RAAF 's Orion aircraft . However , the ADF 's logistic capabilities are insufficient to independently supply such forces deployed in areas distant from Australia . As a result , the ADF can only contribute forces to high intensity warfare outside of Australia 's region when larger coalition partners provide logistical support .
The ADF is highly capable of undertaking peacekeeping operations around the world . The Navy 's frigates and transport ships , the Army 's light infantry battalions and the RAAF 's transport aircraft are well @-@ suited to peacekeeping . The ADF has the capability to undertake peacekeeping and low @-@ intensity warfare operations independently in Australia 's region and can sustain such deployments for a lengthy period . It is also capable of leading international peacekeeping forces in the Asia @-@ Pacific region and , in the unlikely event of an external attack , defending Australia 's Pacific neighbours .
= = = Works consulted = = =
= Battle of Old Trafford =
The " Battle of Old Trafford " is a name used by the British press to refer to a Premier League match played on Sunday , 21 September 2003 between Manchester United and Arsenal . The name was later applied to the same fixture during the following season . The final result , a 0 – 0 draw , turned out to be significant for Arsenal as they went on to finish the league season without a single defeat , something that had only been achieved once before in English football , by Preston North End in 1888 – 89 .
The highlights of the match included the sending @-@ off of Arsenal captain Patrick Vieira for a second bookable offence , for an incident that also brought about a booking for Manchester United centre @-@ forward Ruud van Nistelrooy , and the decision by referee Steve Bennett to award Manchester United a penalty kick in the last minute of the match . Players from both teams were charged by The Football Association ( the FA ) for their reactions at the end of the game , five Arsenal players and two Manchester United players were forced to pay fines .
= = Background = =
Fixtures between Manchester United and Arsenal had seen a number of controversial incidents in the previous seasons . The rivalry between the two clubs had grown more intense since the formation of the Premier League in 1992 , since when all but one Premier League title had been won by Manchester United or Arsenal ( Blackburn Rovers won the title in 1994 – 95 ) . However , the rivalry could be traced back to Alex Ferguson 's first fixture against Arsenal as United manager in 1987 , when David Rocastle was sent off and a row erupted . The following season , Brian McClair missed a penalty for United in an FA Cup tie and Nigel Winterburn made a point of aggravating him . McClair got his revenge in 1990 : after a lunging tackle from Winterburn on Denis Irwin , McClair and Irwin both kicked Winterburn while he lay on the floor , sparking a 21 @-@ man brawl . Both teams were fined and deducted points and it has often been suggested that this was a turning point in relations . The rivalry continued to intensify as " hard men " such as Patrick Vieira , Roy Keane and Martin Keown joined the sides .
The previous league match between the two clubs in April 2003 at Highbury was a competitive and bad @-@ tempered affair . In a match that finished in a 2 – 2 draw , Sol Campbell received a straight red card for violent conduct after elbowing Ole Gunnar Solskjær in the face . Manchester United went on to claim the title from Arsenal by five points after clawing back from being eight points down at the start of March 2003 .
The clubs had also been paired together in the fourth round of the FA Cup in February 2003 . Paul Scholes and Ruud van Nistelrooy of Manchester United , and Patrick Vieira of Arsenal were all shown yellow cards within the first seven minutes of the match and referee Jeff Winter had to call Vieira and Roy Keane together to calm their team @-@ mates down . Keane himself received a yellow card in the first half and Ryan Giggs missed an open goal from 18 yards . Arsenal eventually won the match 2 – 0 and the result infuriated Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson to such an extent that he kicked a boot across the changing room that hit David Beckham above the left eye .
As Manchester United and Arsenal won the Premier League and FA Cup respectively , both teams met in another heated match at the Millennium Stadium a month earlier for the 2003 Community Shield . Phil Neville was booked in the first minute for a challenge on Patrick Vieira , and a minute later Ashley Cole received a booking for fouling Ole Gunnar Solskjær . Yellow cards were also given to Quinton Fortune and Paul Scholes for United and Patrick Vieira for Arsenal , Arsenal substitute Francis Jeffers was shown a straight red for a kick on Phil Neville and , despite originally going unpunished , Sol Campbell was later given a three @-@ match ban by the FA for kicking out at Eric Djemba @-@ Djemba . The game finished 1 – 1 after 90 minutes and United eventually won the Shield 4 – 3 on penalties . Ruud van Nistelrooy had his spot kick saved by debutant Jens Lehmann but it was his opposite number and fellow debutant Tim Howard who was the hero , saving penalties from Giovanni van Bronckhorst and Robert Pirès .
Arsenal entered the match in second place in the Premier League after five matches , holding an unbeaten record that stretched back to the end of the previous season . Manchester United were a point behind Arsenal in third place , but they had already lost one match that season , against Southampton three weeks earlier .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Arsenal were missing defender Sol Campbell from their team after the death of his father , and manager Arsène Wenger dropped wingers Robert Pirès and Sylvain Wiltord in favour of Ray Parlour and Fredrik Ljungberg , creating a more physical midfield . Wenger 's tactics worked , as the Arsenal defence withstood the pressure from the Manchester United attack . United themselves were without Paul Scholes due to injury , and they played a 4 – 3 – 2 – 1 formation with Phil Neville , Roy Keane and Quinton Fortune completing a defensively minded midfield .
When Cristiano Ronaldo was fouled on the right wing 40 yards from goal in the 13th minute , Ryan Giggs was presented with the first chance of the match ; although intended as a cross , Giggs ' free @-@ kick hit the outside of the post . Another foul on Ronaldo gave Giggs another chance to apply pressure with a crossed free @-@ kick shortly after , but Ruud van Nistelrooy was only able to loop the ball over the goal with his head with goalkeeper Jens Lehmann beaten . Arsenal 's attacking play lacked their usual ambition , with their best opportunity coming in the 75th minute , when a deft touch from Dennis Bergkamp almost played Patrick Vieira into the penalty area .
The match was characterised by a large number of fouls – 13 by United , 18 by Arsenal – and referee Steve Bennett showed four yellow cards to each team , although most of those came as a result of the fracas at the end of the game . Vieira was booked in the 77th minute for a foul on Quinton Fortune , and was shown a second yellow card not long after , in the 80th minute . In challenging for a high ball outside the Arsenal penalty area , Van Nistelrooy jumped up onto Vieira 's back . Vieira fell to the ground and kicked out at Van Nistelrooy in retaliation , causing the Manchester United striker to jump backwards . Van Nistelrooy was booked for the original foul , and although Vieira 's kick failed to connect with the Dutchman , the referee believed that the intent was there and booked Vieira for the second time , resulting in his dismissal .
Despite Arsenal being reduced to 10 men , the scores remained level as the game went into its final minute , when Diego Forlán went to ground in the penalty area under a challenge from Arsenal defender Martin Keown while trying to reach a Gary Neville cross . The referee deemed this a foul and awarded a penalty . Van Nistelrooy stepped up to take the penalty , despite having missed his previous two penalties for Manchester United . Lehmann tried to put him off by moving from side to side along the goal line , and it appeared to work : the shot hit the bar and rebounded back into play , and the Dutchman was immediately confronted by Keown . Within a minute , the final whistle blew and the match finished as a goalless draw .
At the final whistle , Van Nistelrooy was immediately confronted by Arsenal players Martin Keown , Lauren , Ray Parlour , Ashley Cole and Kolo Touré . Keown jumped up next to Van Nistelrooy and brought his arms down hard on the Dutchman 's back , while Lauren pushed Van Nistelrooy in the back and Parlour and Cole offered verbal abuse . Van Nistelrooy did not react and was escorted away by Manchester United captain Roy Keane , but the incident escalated away from the two of them . In defence of their team @-@ mate , Manchester United players Ryan Giggs , Cristiano Ronaldo , Gary Neville , Mikaël Silvestre , Quinton Fortune and Rio Ferdinand also became involved in the situation .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Aftermath = =
In the post @-@ match interviews , Van Nistelrooy was accused by both Vieira and Arsenal 's manager , Arsène Wenger , of feigning contact to get Vieira sent off , while United manager Alex Ferguson defended his player and denied he had dived .
As a result of these reactions , six Arsenal players , two Manchester United players and Arsenal Football Club itself were charged with improper conduct by The Football Association . As a club , Arsenal were charged with " failing to ensure the proper behaviour of their players " , while their players ' charges ranged from one charge of improper conduct for Ashley Cole 's " involvement in a confrontation with Cristiano Ronaldo after the final whistle " to Lauren 's two counts of violent behaviour for " kicking out at Quinton Fortune following the penalty award and for forcibly pushing Ruud van Nistelrooy in the back following the final whistle " , and two counts of improper conduct for " confronting Van Nistelrooy after Patrick Vieira 's sending @-@ off , and for confronting Ryan Giggs after the final whistle " . Manchester United as a club were not charged , but Ryan Giggs was charged with improper conduct for " his involvement in a confrontation with Lauren after the match had ended " and Cristiano Ronaldo was charged with improper conduct for " confronting Martin Keown at the conclusion of the match " . Phil Neville was also warned about his future behaviour .
Arsenal and their players pleaded guilty to the charges against them , but still received a £ 175 @,@ 000 fine , the largest ever given to a club by the FA . Lauren , Martin Keown , Patrick Vieira and Ray Parlour were all suspended for between one and four matches : Lauren received a four @-@ game ban – half of the potential ban he could have received – and a £ 40 @,@ 000 fine ; Keown was suspended for three matches and had to pay a £ 20 @,@ 000 fine ; Vieira and Parlour were given one @-@ game bans and had to pay £ 20 @,@ 000 and £ 10 @,@ 000 respectively . Jens Lehmann was originally charged but this was later dropped . Ashley Cole was not suspended but was given a £ 10 @,@ 000 fine . Ryan Giggs and Cristiano Ronaldo both pleaded not guilty to their involvement in the incident , but after a five @-@ hour hearing in December 2003 , Giggs was handed a £ 7 @,@ 500 fine and Ronaldo a £ 4 @,@ 000 fine and both were warned about their future conduct .
Arsenal finished the league season without a single defeat and earned the tag of The Invincibles , a tag once given to the 1888 – 89 Preston North End team , the only previous team to go through a league season undefeated . Van Nistelrooy 's missed penalty , therefore , was a crucial moment in Arsenal 's season . The return fixture between the two sides at Highbury finished as a 1 – 1 draw and passed without incident . The team was recognised for its excellent conduct throughout the rest of the campaign , being awarded the season 's Fair Play Award . Manchester United finished in third place in the league table behind Chelsea but defeated Millwall in the 2004 FA Cup Final . Their run included a semi @-@ final victory against Arsenal courtesy of a Paul Scholes goal . The following season , after Manchester United had brought Arsenal 's unbeaten run to an end after 49 matches , the two clubs were involved in another incident at Old Trafford , variously dubbed the Battle of Old Trafford II , the Battle of the Buffet or simply the Battle of Old Trafford .
= Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde =
Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde is the debut album of American hip hop group The Pharcyde , released on November 24 , 1992 through Delicious Vinyl Records . The album was produced by former group member J @-@ Swift , and features only one guest appearance , provided by little known Los Angeles rapper Bucwheed ( known then as " Buckwheat " from The Wascals ) . In the years after its release , Bizarre Ride has been hailed by music critics and alternative hip hop fans , as a classic hip hop album along with Souls of Mischief 's " 93 ' til Infinity " , and has appeared in numerous publications ' " best albums " lists .
Released during the dominant Gangsta rap era of West Coast hip hop , Bizarre Ride was described as " refreshing " due to its playful , light @-@ hearted humor and lush , jazzy production . Along with albums such as To Whom It May Concern ... by Freestyle Fellowship , and I Wish My Brother George Was Here by Del tha Funkee Homosapien , Bizarre Ride helped establish a new alternative scene on the West Coast , followed by artists such as Hieroglyphics , The Coup and Jurassic 5 . Despite its wide critical acclaim , the album produced only moderate sales , peaking at No. 75 on the Billboard 200 album chart in 1993 . However , on the strength of the second single , " Passin ' Me By " , the album was certified gold in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on March 28 , 1996 .
= = Conception = =
= = = Background = = =
High school friends " Slimkid3 " ( Tre Hardson ) , " Imani " ( Emandu Wilcox ) and " Bootie Brown " ( Romye Robinson ) began their career in the entertainment industry as dancers and choreographers under the moniker " Two For Two " , making numerous appearances in music videos . Their most notable exposure came with a short stint on the television show In Living Color . While working on the show , the group met their future manager Suave , then a road manager for Candyman and Tone Loc . The trio met Derrick " Fatlip " Stewart and producer John " J @-@ Swift " Martinez at an after @-@ school music program called South Central Unit . The program 's teacher , Reggie Andrews , taught the group about essential elements of the music industry , and later oversaw the group 's writing and recording sessions . While attending SCU , the group recorded their first demo tape , which included the track " Ya Mama " . In 1991 , the group signed a deal with Delicious Vinyl Records , following a performance of the track " Ya Mama " at an artist showcase . Soon after , the group made their first notable appearance , with the track " Soul Flower " , released on the Heavy Rhyme Experience album by the Brand New Heavies .
= = = Recording = = =
The four emcees , along with producer J @-@ Swift , began recording their debut album in 1991 at the Hollywood Sounds studio in California , with Delicious Vinyl Records head Michael Ross overseeing the project as Executive Producer . J @-@ Swift produced 10 songs and five interludes — 15 of the album 's 16 tracks . Before the completion of the album , Swift had a falling @-@ out with the group over internal problems . He claimed that he was not properly compensated for his work , and that the other group members had tried to take production credit , when he had crafted all the beats himself . After leaving Pharcyde , J @-@ Swift began a crack cocaine habit , which he has yet to completely recover from . In a 2006 interview with Mass Appeal Magazine , Swift stated :
I would be in the studio crying ’ cause I couldn ’ t believe that I was in the situation that I was in . I was like , What did I do to deserve this ? All I did was try to help everybody , so I was kinda feeling sorry for myself . I was feeling suicidal but I knew that I didn ’ t have the balls to put a gun to my head , so I figured I ’ d smoke dope and just kill myself off this dope .
Now without a producer or a finished product , the group recruited local producer L.A. Jay to craft the album 's final recording , " Otha Fish " , which was also co @-@ produced by SlimKid 3 .
= = Music = =
= = = Lyrical content = = =
Much of the album 's acclaim was due to the eccentric , comedic content provided by the four emcees , who were described as a " pack of class clowns set loose in a studio " by Rolling Stone . The album 's wacky storytelling and light @-@ hearted playfulness provided an alternative to the pessimistic , hardcore hip hop that had ruled the scene at the time . Due to its light lyrical content , the album has been described as an extension of the " Daisy Age " , established by De La Soul and the Native Tongues Posse . AllMusic described the group 's rapping as " amazing " , and stated , " The L.A.-based quartet introduced listeners to an uproarious vision of earthy hip @-@ hop informed by P @-@ Funk silliness and an everybody @-@ on @-@ the @-@ mic street @-@ corner atmosphere that highlights the incredible rapping skills of each member . " Instead of focusing on the troubles of the inner city , the quartet use their verses to provide humorous first @-@ person narratives , with varying topics . On the album opener " Oh Shit " , SlimKid , Imani and Fatlip trade embarrassing tales about drunken antics , unusual sex partners and transsexuals . SlimKid , Imani and guest rapper Buckwheat use the song " On the DL " to vent personal stories that they 'd like to be kept " on the down @-@ low " , with topics including masturbation and murder . On the single " 4 Better or 4 Worse " , Fatlip dedicates an entire verse to prank calling , in which the rapper spouts insane and psychotic threats while a confused female victim continually threatens to call the police . The group 's debut single " Ya Mama " , described by the Rolling Stone Album Guide as the album 's most memorable track , calling it a " marathon game of the dozens " , sees the four rappers trading comical insults towards each other 's mothers . An online reviewer comments on the group 's humorous rapping style :
The first album by the lovably obnoxious California rappers , is a wonderfully adventurous exploration that covers almost every social topic known to man in the best way possible – with a brilliant mixture of low and high comedy and introspective contemplation . The four rappers that form The Pharcyde are all very humorous , thoughtful , surprsingly lucid and self @-@ depreciating , and most importantly , they can actually rap .
While the majority of the album has a focus on comedic stories , the song " Officer " touches on the topic of racial profiling . " Otha Fish " finds the group rising up and moving on from their past hang @-@ ups as described in the previous track , " Passing Me By " , the album 's hit single . On the song , the four recount heartbreaking tales of school @-@ boy crushes that had eluded them . Their mix of humor and social insight was one factor in the album 's acclaim . An editorial reviewer comments on the group 's unique style :
When the Pharcyde burst onto the scene in the summer of ' 92 with its brilliantly disconnected grab bag Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde , it seemed at first an innocuously enjoyable , goofy if somewhat lightweight disc . However , it would swiftly become clear that there were deeper waters stirring within the Pharcyde 's rhymes and rhythms , and that the group 's style was unlike that of those who came before . The main distinction came in the Pharcyde 's subject matters , which run the gamut from the usual sexual conquests all the way to rejection and masturbation . The group 's lyrics are often reflective and vulnerable , bordering on self @-@ deprecating at times . While many rappers who came before poked fun at themselves as a gimmick , the Pharcyde relates its rebuffs with confident candor . "
= = = Production = = =
Bizarre Ride also featured the acclaimed production work of J @-@ Swift , who provides the album with a lush , jazzy soundscape through use of live instrumentation and sampling . Swift relied on a large number of samples , by artists including James Brown , Donald Byrd , Sly & the Family Stone , The Meters , Quincy Jones , Jimi Hendrix , Roy Ayers and Marvin Gaye . Aside from the samples , Swift also provided piano , bass and rhodes on the album , and fellow producer JMD provided drum arrangements . These upbeat key arrangements and quick @-@ paced drum loops provide much of the backdrop for the rapper 's animated lyrical deliveries . Allmusic calls the album 's production " easily some of the tightest and most inventive of any hip @-@ hop record of the era . " NME magazine stated , " The Pharcyde use jazz samples and phat beats to the ultimate effect : to create their own sonic Utopia . " . An online review describes the album 's unique musical atmosphere and layered production :
The music on the album is very lush and multi @-@ layered , with a mixture of live instruments , turntable wankery , and samples from jazz , R & B , funk , classic rock and everything in between . Powerful beats pervade , with some of the most kinetic bass lines this side of funkadelic . The Pharcyde forgoes the minimalism that now dominates mainstream rap music , favoring intense rhythmic layering and a strong melodic element instead . Piano lines cascade down dropping bass lines while three or four vocal tracks attack from all sides . The music is jaunty , elaborate and even atmospheric in parts ( consider the stoner rap anthem " Pack the Pipe " ) , all of it drawn tightly together with the band 's satirical lyrical outlook .
= = = Singles = = =
Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde featured four singles , all of which were accompanied by music videos . The group 's debut single , " Ya Mama " , was originally released in 1991 , then re @-@ packaged by Delicious Vinyl in 1992 , with two additional songs , " I 'm That Type of Nigga " and " Soul Flower " . Though the song landed the group their record deal , it failed to reach any Billboard singles chart . Their first major exposure came with the release of the album 's second single , " Passin ' Me By " . Utilizing a sample from Quincy Jones ' " Summer in the City " , the song became the group 's biggest crossover hit , peaking at No. 52 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and No. 1 on the Hot Rap Singles chart . The song was later featured on the soundtrack to , and in Adam Sandler 's 1999 film Big Daddy . The song is now considered a classic hip hop single , and was later included on comprehensive hip hop compilation albums like The Hip Hop Box and Hip Hop Gold . The album 's third single , " 4 Better or 4 Worse " , was released in mid @-@ 1993 , and featured the stoner song " Pack the Pipe " and the throwback track " Return of the B @-@ Boy " as its B @-@ Side . The single did not reach any Billboard chart . The final single , the SlimKid solo track " Otha Fish " , was released in late 1993 . The song became the second charting single from the album , though not as highly placed as " Passing Me By " , reaching only the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales chart .
A number of tracks from the album were later remixed . " Ya Mama " , " Soul Flower " , " Otha Fish " , and " Passing Me By " all featured a number of remixes , which were later included on the 2005 Pharcyde compilation album Sold My Soul : The Remix & Rarity Collection .
= = Reception = =
At the time of its release , Bizarre Ride received mostly positive , though at times , mixed reviews . In the years following its release , critical reaction became increasingly more positive . A number of music publications have since recognized the album as a classic . Bizarre Ride was listed on Pitchfork Media 's " Top 100 Favorite Records of the 90s " , and was also featured in the 2005 publication 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , in which it is stated :
When many MCs and rappers were striving to ' keep it real ' , The Pharcyde instead went out of their way to ' keep it original ' . J @-@ Swift 's production , along with the core members , sacrificed the more immediately catchy hooks for greater depth and a lush , soulful sound . While this may have cost them audiences at the time , the album is now a true classic , both of its time and of hip hop . It remains an influence on the scene even today .
Hip hop magazine The Source originally gave the album a humble 3 ½ ( out of 5 ) mic rating , but in 1998 , included Bizarre Ride on their 100 Best Rap Albums list . Allmusic gave the album a perfect 5 Star rating , while Rolling Stone and Q both gave Bizarre Ride positive 4 Star ratings .
An Ink Blot Magazine review called Bizarre Ride " the most fun album ever " , and stated :
Bizarre Ride II The Pharcyde reaffirms every positive stereotype you 've ever heard about hip hop while simultaneously exploding every negative myth with under a barrage of head @-@ twisting rhymes , jazz breaks and straight @-@ up funk . The samples nod ( wink ? ) at the past , the urgency of the rhymes keep things rooted in the present and the vibrancy of the overall vision keeps Bizarre Ride ... reaching for the future . Make no mistake , this is one of the most important records in the history of hip hop . It is the sound of black music 's past erupting in a riot of colour and excitement and possibility . It 'll make you dance , it 'll make you smile , and it 'll make you wanna do it all over again .
NME ( December 25 , 1993 , p . 67 ) – Ranked No. 39 in New Musical Express ' list of `The Top 50 LPs Of 1993 ' – " ... a cartoon @-@ strip of blunt @-@ smoking antics , sexual innuendo and unashamed political incorrectness , crammed with infectious funky beats .... "
In November 2010 , Kanye West named the album as his ' favorite album of all time ' .
= = = Influence = = =
While alternative East Coast hip hop albums , such as De La Soul 's 3 Feet High and Rising ultimately sold over a million copies , there was no equivalent from the West Coast . With Bizarre Ride , The Pharcyde became one of the first alternative acts on the West Coast to sell large numbers of albums . Though Bizarre Ride did reach Gold status , the album 's sales paled in comparison to West Coast G @-@ funk releases of the era , such as The Chronic by Dr. Dre and Doggystyle by Snoop Dogg .
While Bizarre Ride sparked the career of The Pharcyde , the group did not attempt to capitalize on the album 's reception . Following the release , the group set out on the Lollapalooza tour , and waited almost three years to release their second album , Labcabincalifornia . While the album featured two highly regarded hit singles , " Runnin ' " and " Drop " , it received mixed reviews . Critics weighed the album against their debut , and some felt Labcabincalifornia fell victim to the sophomore jinx . Group member Bootie Brown later stated in a 2005 interview :
I don ’ t think it ’ s that they slept on it , they were just expecting a sound like Bizarre [ Ride II ] and we came out with something different . But after people actually listened , they felt it and vibed to it and now it ’ s considered a classic .
Following the release of Labcabincalifornia , member Fatlip split from The Pharcyde , and the group did not return until 2000 , releasing the album Plain Rap to mediocre reviews . Though the album marked the first collaboration between the group and J @-@ Swift , Bootie Brown and Imani had a falling out with SlimKid ( now known by his birth name Tre Hardson ) , before the album was released , turning the group into a duo . In 2004 , Imani and Bootie released the group 's fourth album , Humboldt Beginnings , receiving little attention and harsh reviews . Tre and Fatlip have both since released solo albums , but no project released by the group or its members since their debut has been able to reach the acclaim of Bizarre Ride .
= = Track listing = =
Track listing and production information is taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
All information is taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = Chart history = =
= = = Album chart positions = = =
All chart positions from Billboard magazine ( North America ) .
= = = Singles chart positions = = =
All chart positions from Billboard magazine ( North America ) .
= = Accolades = =
Information is taken from Acclaimed Music . ( * ) designates lists which are unordered .
= SM U @-@ 29 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 29 or U @-@ XXIX was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 29 , built by the Hungarian firm of Ganz Danubius at Fiume , was launched in October 1916 and commissioned in January 1917 .
U @-@ 29 had a single hull and was just over 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced nearly 265 metric tons ( 261 long tons ) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
During her service career , U @-@ 29 sank three ships and damaged two others , sending a combined tonnage of 9 @,@ 838 GRT to the bottom . U @-@ 29 was at Fiume at war 's end and was surrendered at Venice in March 1919 . She was granted to France as war reparation in 1920 , but foundered while under tow to Bizerta for scrapping .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen .
U @-@ 29 displaced 264 metric tons ( 260 long tons ) surfaced and 301 metric tons ( 296 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 29 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 29 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
After intricate political negotiations to allocate production of the class between Austrian and Hungarian firms , U @-@ 27 was ordered from Ganz Danubius on 12 October 1915 . She was laid down on 3 March 1916 at Fiume and launched on 21 October .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 29 underwent diving trials at Fiume and then made her way to Pola on 29 November 1916 . There , on 21 January 1917 , SM U @-@ 29 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffleutnant Leo Prásil . Prásil , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old native of Pola , had previously served as commander of U @-@ 10 .
U @-@ 29 departed on her first patrol on 23 January , destined for duty in the Mediterranean . The next day , however , the U @-@ boat encountered a severe storm near Lussin that damaged her . Prásil steered the boat into the harbor at Brgulje to wait out the storm . Departing Brgulje on the 25th to resume her journey to the Mediterranean , the submarine developed a leak when performing a test dive . U @-@ 29 headed back to Pula for repairs , which lasted until 30 January . On 5 February the U @-@ boat set out for Cattaro , which she reached after three days journey .
Prásil took U @-@ 29 out of Cattaro on 17 February to begin the delayed patrol in the Mediterranean , but on the 20th encountered another severe storm . Suffering no damage in the tempest , the boat continued on . On 24 February , she had an at @-@ sea rendezvous with U @-@ 43 . On 1 March the U @-@ boat 's gyrocompass broke down , necessitating a return to port . Two days later , as she neared Cattaro , U @-@ 29 encountered yet another storm , this one again damaging the ship . The beleaguered U @-@ boat headed back to the base at Pula for more repairs , and remained there until early April .
On 4 April , U @-@ 29 set out from Pula , touched at Cattaro , and continued on into the Mediterranean for her second patrol there . While 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ) from Cape Matapan , Prásil torpedoed and sank the steamer Dalton , traveling in ballast . U @-@ 29 took the master of the 3 @,@ 486 @-@ ton British ship captive ; three other men lost their lives in the attack . Five days later and some 115 nautical miles ( 213 km ) away , U @-@ 29 torpedoed Mashobra , a British India Line passenger steamer of 8 @,@ 173 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The ship , en route from Calcutta to London with a general cargo , was finished off by U @-@ 29 's deck gun . As with Dalton , Mashobra 's master was taken prisoner . Eight persons died in the attack . U @-@ 29 's gyrocompass broke down again on 17 April , once again forcing the boat to return for repairs . U @-@ 29 's second Mediterranean tour ended when Prásil docked the boat at Cattaro on 19 April .
U @-@ 29 's third Mediterranean deployment began on 8 May when she departed Cattaro . After eleven days at sea , Prásil torpedoed the British cargo ship Mordenwood 90 nautical miles ( 170 km ) from Cape Matapan . U @-@ 29 took the 3 @,@ 125 @-@ ton ship 's master captive . Two sources disagree on the number of casualties when Mordenwood went down , but place the number at either 21 or 31 . Escorting destroyers launched a depth charge attack on U @-@ 29 but did not succeed in damaging the U @-@ boat . Two days later , U @-@ 29 launched a torpedo attack on the British steamer Marie Suzanne but did not sink the ship . U @-@ 29 arrived at Cattaro on 25 May .
After a brief time in port , U @-@ 29 set out for the Mediterranean again on 17 June . One day out , the U @-@ boat came under attack from an airplane out of Valona , compelling U @-@ 29 to crash dive ; none of the three bombs dropped by the aircraft hit their mark . U @-@ 29 's patrol ended without success when she docked at Cattaro on 6 July . After a return to Pola on 12 July , the U @-@ boat underwent extensive repairs that kept her out of action for the next nine months .
On 16 March 1918 , the newly refitted boat sailed from Pola to Cattaro , departing that port for another Mediterranean tour on 25 March . Near Valona the next day , an Italian destroyer attempted to ram U @-@ 29 , scraping one of her propellers against U @-@ 29 's conning tower . The damage done was slight and U @-@ 29 continued on into the Mediterranean , weathering a storm in the Ionian Sea on the 27th . On 4 April , U @-@ 29 launched a torpedo attack on what was thought to be a cargo ship . In fact , it was the British protected cruiser Edgar which had been hit . Edgar was damaged but did not sink ; she suffered no casualties in the attack . The following day Prásil attempted to torpedo a ship in a convoy but missed and was exposed to a depth charge attack by the convoy 's escorts . The U @-@ boat ended the patrol with no further successes .
In June , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy planned an assault on the Otranto Barrage , similar to a May 1917 action that evolved into the Battle of Otranto Straits . U @-@ 29 was deployed from Cattaro on 9 June in advance of the attack . One of the seven separate groups participating in the attack , the two dreadnoughts Tegetthoff and Szent István , came under attack from Italian MAS torpedo boats in the early morning hours of 10 June . Szent István was hit and sank just after 06 : 00 , and the entire operation was called off . U @-@ 29 returned to Cattaro on 12 June . Over the next two months , U @-@ 29 operated in the Adriatic out of Cattaro , patrolling off Durazzo and the Albanian coast .
While at Cattaro , command of U @-@ 29 passed to Linienschiffleutnant Friedrich Sterz on 4 September . The 27 @-@ year @-@ old native of Pergine , Tyrolia ( in present @-@ day Italy ) , had previously commanded U @-@ 22 and , like Prásil , had also served a stint as commander of U @-@ 10 . After assuming command of U @-@ 29 , Sterz set sail for Durazzo the same day . The U @-@ boat had encounters with MAS torpedo boats on 9 and 12 September . On the latter date , U @-@ 29 had to crash dive to avoid a bombing attack from Allied airplanes . None of the seven bombs hit their mark and U @-@ 29 returned to Cattaro on 16 September .
Linienschiffleutnant Robert Dürrial replaced Sterz as commander on 29 September . The Galician Dürrial , like both Stertz and Prásil , had served as the commander of U @-@ 10 , but had most recently commanded U @-@ 21 . A day after assuming command , Dürrial headed for the Albanian coast in U @-@ 29 and patrolled off Durazzo .
After the Armistice with Bulgaria on 29 September ended Bulgaria 's participation in the war , Durazzo gained importance to the remaining Central Powers as the main port for supplying their forces fighting in the Balkans . Anticipating this , the Allies put together a force to bombard Durazzo . While the second echelon of the attacking force got into position to bombard the town , U @-@ 29 and sister boat U @-@ 31 maneuvered to attack . While U @-@ 31 was able to hit and damage the British cruiser Weymouth , U @-@ 29 was blocked by screening ships and herself attacked . The Allied escorts ( mainly American submarine chasers ) subjected U @-@ 29 to a heavy depth charge attack . U @-@ 29 was able to make her way back to Cattaro on 8 October .
Over the next three weeks , U @-@ 29 patrolled between Cattaro and Antivari , Montenegro . After her arrival back at Cattaro on 1 November , U @-@ 29 was moored between the coastal battleship Monarch and U @-@ 14 . There she remained until she was awarded to France as a war reparation in 1920 . U @-@ 29 was towed , along with sister boats U @-@ 31 and U @-@ 41 , from Cattaro for Bizerta for scrapping , but foundered on the way . In total , U @-@ 29 sank three ships with a combined tonnage of 14 @,@ 784 , and damaged one warship .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
* damaged but not sunk
= Black @-@ throated blue warbler =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler ( Setophaga caerulescens ) is a small passerine bird of the New World warbler family . Its breeding ranges are located in the interior of deciduous and mixed coniferous forests in eastern North America . Over the cooler months , it migrates to islands in the Caribbean and Central America . It is a very rarely found in western Europe , where it is considered to be a non @-@ indigenous species . The black @-@ throated blue warbler is sexually dimorphic ; the adult male has a black face and cheeks , deep blue upperparts and white underparts , while the adult female is olive @-@ brown above and light yellow below .
Predominantly insectivorous , the black @-@ throated blue warbler supplements its diet with berries and seeds in winter . It builds its nests in thick shrubs and the closeness of its nesting sites to the ground make it a favored species for the study of warbler behavior in the wild . The black @-@ throated blue warbler defends its territory against other birds of the same species for both nesting and winter habitats . As the black @-@ throated blue warbler requires large , unbroken forest areas for nesting , its numbers are declining .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin described the black @-@ throated blue warbler in 1789 . Its species name is the Latin adjective caerulescens meaning " turning blue " .
The black @-@ throated blue warbler is one of the New World warblers or wood @-@ warblers in the family Parulidae . This species was originally placed under the genus Dendroica . It was recently adjusted to be a member of genus Setophaga along with all other members of the genus Dendroica , based on the findings from a recent phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA in 2010 . The old genus Dendroica was then deleted . Within the genus , it appears to have no particularly close relatives .
The species breeds in North America and winters in the Caribbean . Some studies have observed significant differences in terms of migratory behavior and plumage color between northern and southern populations within the breeding range . The northern population mainly winters in the western Caribbean ( Cuba and Jamaica ) while the southern population usually spends the winter on eastern islands ( Hispaniola and Puerto Rico ) . Moreover , males in the southern population have darker plumage than those in the northern population . These differences have led biologists to consider them as separate subspecies . However , a recent study in the United States reveals no significant genetic differentiation between northern ( samples from Michigan , New Hampshire and New York states ) and southern populations ( sample from North Carolina ) . The study results actually show a recent population expansion from a single glacial refugium , therefore the current populations are homogeneous in terms of genetics . The differentiation that is observed between the northern and southern populations should have occurred quite recently .
= = Description = =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler measures 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) in length and weighs 8 @.@ 4 – 12 @.@ 4 g ( 0 @.@ 30 – 0 @.@ 44 oz ) . The adult male has white underparts with a black throat , face and flanks . The upperparts are deep blue . The immature male is similar , but with greener upperparts . The female has olive @-@ brown upperparts and light yellow underparts with darker wings and tail , gray crown and brown patches on the cheek . Both sexes have a thin pointed bill and small white wing patches which are not always visible . Like many other warbler species , it has colorful plumage during the spring and summer . However , outside the breeding season its plumage is drab and less distinctive . In the fall , the black @-@ throated blue warbler can be distinguished by its small white wing patches . Juveniles have brown upperparts with a creamy supercilium and brownish spots on the throat , the breast and the belly .
The bird 's song can be described as a buzzed zee @-@ zee @-@ zeeee with an upward inflection . Its call is a flat ctuk .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler is a migratory species . It breeds in temperate mature deciduous forests or mixed coniferous @-@ deciduous forest with a thick understory . The species is often found in hilly and mountainous regions in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada . In late summer , it migrates to the tropical wooded and scrub habitats in the Greater Antilles for wintering . Along the migration route , the black @-@ throated blue warbler can be observed in habitats such as parks and gardens . Its nesting site is more important than its foraging site in playing a role in determining the habitat of the black @-@ throated blue warbler . The black @-@ throated blue warbler is an open @-@ nesting species , that nests very close to the ground so it has to choose a protected nesting site where the risk of predation is relatively low .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Feeding and foraging = = =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler forages actively in low vegetation , sometimes hovering or catching insects in flight . It often forages in one area for a while before moving on to the next . It mainly eats invertebrates such as caterpillars , crane flies , and spiders . It may supplement its diet with seeds , berries , and fruit in the winter .
Males and females prefer different foraging sites . While males usually hover among the higher shrub foliage between 3 and 9 m ( 9 @.@ 8 and 29 @.@ 5 ft ) , females tend to forage at lower strata . The time within a breeding season influences where the males forage . When it is time to feed the fledglings , males come down to the same foraging strata as females . The black @-@ throated blue warbler mostly forages in the understory instead of the canopy . The large leaves and long branches in the understory affect its foraging behaviors . The black @-@ throated blue warbler more often hovers rather than gleans its prey because it is more difficult to glean among thick understory foliage .
= = = Breeding = = =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler is a monogamous species . Its breeding season usually begins in May and ends in July . As a songbird , the male black @-@ throated blue warbler attracts a female ’ s attention by singing a soft melody . He then follows the female while she is foraging or searching for nesting sites . As soon as the female stops to rest , the male droops his wings slightly , stretches his head forward and up , opens his bill , and faces the female . The female also makes displays to the male by vibrating her wings . In response , the male mounts the female for 2 – 3 seconds and then flies off .
A 1996 , researchers showed that the black @-@ throated blue warbler prefers to reside in hardwood forests with higher shrub densities where food is more abundant compared to lower shrub density plots . Within these high shrub density habitats , not only is there a higher density of warblers , but the population age average is also older , being composed of males and females who are at least two years of age .
The black @-@ throated blue warbler uses social cues in its evaluation and choice of nesting sites . In particular , it listens to the post @-@ breeding songs given out by other males . These songs have strong temporal dependencies . Males sing at the beginning and the peak of breeding season , but songs are not indicative of reproductive success . Near the end of a breeding season , a male that has successfully mated continues to sing while a male that has failed to reproduce abandons the habitat . Therefore , post @-@ breeding songs are reliable indicators of reproductive success within the particular habitat and convey essential information to the natal and breeding dispersers . In comparison to the traditional idea of direct assessment of the vegetation structure , the vocal cue is much more efficient and easier to obtain , hence revealing the advantage of social communication in survival and reproduction . A female , however , does not respond to post @-@ breeding songs directly . Instead , she is likely to rely on the presence of males in deciding nesting sites .
= = = = Extra @-@ pair mating = = = =
Although the black @-@ throated blue warbler is a socially monogamous species , males are frequently observed in territories of other males , suggesting the occurrence of extra @-@ pair matings . Nestling parentage is identified by microsatellites in a study plot at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire . The results show that extra @-@ pair fertilization occurs and that the majority of the extra @-@ pair sires come from males in neighboring territories . Only very few extra @-@ pair sires are from distant territories . This local reproductive interaction is also supported by another study conducted earlier , which finds that extra pair fertilizations are strongly and positively correlated with local synchrony but there is no significant association with population level synchrony .
Males engage in mate guarding during the period females are most vulnerable to successful extra pair copulations . They usually stay close to their social mate , singing slowly on the side and following the mate while she is foraging or searching for a nesting site . The guarding behavior , though , may conflict with males ’ pursuit of extra @-@ pair fertilizations . It is not yet clear to what extent a male will prefer mate guarding over extra @-@ pair fertilizations . Male retention studies have shown that removal of a male increases the chance of extra @-@ pair offspring in the brood , suggesting that mate guarding reduces extra @-@ pair fertilization attempts . The extra @-@ pair fertilization rate nonetheless cannot be eliminated even if males are allowed to stay near their social mates during fertility risk period . Several hypotheses try to explain this phenomenon : females may be able to manage extra @-@ pair mating even while its social mate is guarding it , or females may reject extra @-@ pair copulation attempts by other males in the absence of male guarding .
Females who participate in extra @-@ pair fertilizations may incorporate better genes in their offspring than they could get with their social mate , but they are likely to receive less help with parental care from their social mates because of cheating . Extra @-@ pair fertilization , therefore , can be costly to females as well . A possible theory why extra @-@ pair fertilization occurs is that female organisms select males with overall high heterozygosity or dissimilar genetics from themselves . A microsatellite study suggests an alternative to heterozygosity selection . Because no correlation is found between female extra @-@ pair fertilization frequencies and the overall heterozygosity of their social mates , it is suggested that females may choose only a selective set of heterozygous genes , particularly the MHC locus , which can affect the immunocompetence of offspring .
= = = Sexual selection = = =
Males ’ differential recognition of local and nonlocal songs has been studied in two populations : one in the northern United States ( New Hampshire ) and the other in the southern United States ( North Carolina ) . An asymmetry of response has been found between the two populations . The northern black @-@ throated blue warbler responds strongly to local songs but relatively weakly to the song of southern warblers . In contrast , a warbler from the south responds equally to songs from both the north and the south . A potential explanation of this asymmetry is the difference in female preference between the northern and southern black @-@ throated blue warblers . Females from the north are less likely to mate with a “ heterospecific ” male from the south ; therefore it is not necessary for a northern male to respond strongly to the song of a southern challenger . It is possible that a barrier to gene flow from south to north exists while a barrier to the reverse does not . Therefore , female choice of male songs is likely to play a role in gene flow and reproductive isolation , which may eventually lead to diversification .
It has long been believed that a male black @-@ throated blue warbler achieves reproductive maturation well into its first breeding season . A yearling participates in extra @-@ pair mating and cuckoldry as much as or even more than older males . However , research by Graves has found opposing evidence in terms of testicular size and sperm production . Directional asymmetry is present in many passerine birds . The left testicle is often larger in size than the right one , and this holds true for both yearling and older male warblers . However , the testicle to body mass ratio nonetheless is much lower in yearlings than in older males . Moreover , older males have a greater degree of directional asymmetry than do yearlings . Because the size of testes in birds is correlated to the ejaculate quality , it is likely that females employ age @-@ dependent choice in favor of older males who can be distinguished by their definitive age @-@ specific plumage .
= = Status and threats = =
The black @-@ throated blue warbler enjoys a large range and a big population . Its population trend is currently increasing . This species was ranked as Least Concern by the IUCN in 2012 . Deforestation and habitat fragmentation are threatening the black @-@ throated blue warbler in its tropical wintering areas . A report in 2000 discussed the impact of global climate change on the population dynamics of the black @-@ throated blue warbler by an observation from 1986 to 1998 . In particular , the effect of El Niño Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) was studied in relation to the survival , fecundity and recruitment of this migratory bird . It was found that El Niño years ( the warm South Pacific oceanic phase ) were associated with lower adult survival rate in their wintering ground , Jamaica , lower fecundity in the breeding habitats in New Hampshire of the United States , and lower annual recruitment of yearlings and juveniles to both breeding and wintering grounds . All the three factors were relatively higher during La Niña years ( cold South Pacific ocean ) when the weather was wetter and the food availability was much more abundant . Long @-@ term global warming can aggravate the ENSO effect , adding to the fluctuation of the black @-@ throated blue warbler population .
= Alboin =
Alboin ( 530s – June 28 , 572 ) was king of the Lombards from about 560 until 572 . During his reign the Lombards ended their migrations by settling in Italy , the northern part of which Alboin conquered between 569 and 572 . He had a lasting effect on Italy and the Pannonian Basin ; in the former his invasion marked the beginning of centuries of Lombard rule , and in the latter his defeat of the Gepids and his departure from Pannonia ended the dominance there of the Germanic peoples .
The period of Alboin 's reign as king in Pannonia following the death of his father , Audoin , was one of confrontation and conflict between the Lombards and their main neighbors , the Gepids . The Gepids initially gained the upper hand , but in 567 , thanks to his alliance with the Avars , Alboin inflicted a decisive defeat on his enemies , whose lands the Avars subsequently occupied . The increasing power of his new neighbours caused Alboin some unease however , and he therefore decided to leave Pannonia for Italy , hoping to take advantage of the Byzantine Empire 's reduced ability to defend its territory in the wake of the Gothic War .
After gathering a large coalition of peoples , Alboin crossed the Julian Alps in 568 , entering an almost undefended Italy . He rapidly took control of most of Venetia and Liguria . In 569 , unopposed , he took northern Italy 's main city , Milan . Pavia offered stiff resistance however , and was only taken after a siege lasting three years . During that time Alboin turned his attention to Tuscany , but signs of factionalism among his supporters and Alboin 's diminishing control over his army increasingly began to manifest themselves .
Alboin was assassinated on June 28 , 572 , in a coup d 'état instigated by the Byzantines . It was organized by the king 's foster brother , Helmichis , with the support of Alboin 's wife , Rosamund , daughter of the Gepid king whom Alboin had killed some years earlier . The coup failed in the face of opposition from a majority of the Lombards , who elected Cleph as Alboin 's successor , forcing Helmichis and Rosamund to flee to Ravenna under imperial protection . Alboin 's death deprived the Lombards of the only leader who could have kept the newborn Germanic entity together , the last in the line of hero @-@ kings who had led the Lombards through their migrations from the vale of the Elbe to Italy . For many centuries following his death Alboin 's heroism and his success in battle were celebrated in Saxon and Bavarian epic poetry .
= = Father 's rule = =
The Lombards under King Wacho had migrated towards the east into Pannonia , taking advantage of the difficulties facing the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy following the death of its founder , Theodoric in 526 . Wacho 's death in about 540 brought his son Walthari to the throne , but as the latter was still a minor the kingdom was governed in his stead by Alboin 's father , Audoin , of the Gausian clan . Seven years later Walthari died , giving Audoin the opportunity to crown himself and overthrow the reigning Lethings .
Alboin was probably born in the 530s in Pannonia , the son of Audoin and his wife , Rodelinda . She may have been the niece of King Theodoric and betrothed to Audoin through the mediation of Emperor Justinian . Like his father , Alboin was raised a pagan , although Audoin had at one point attempted to gain Byzantine support against his neighbours by professing himself a Christian . Alboin took as his first wife the Christian Chlothsind , daughter of the Frankish King Chlothar . This marriage , which took place soon after the death of the Frankish ruler Theudebald in 555 , is thought to reflect Audoin 's decision to distance himself from the Byzantines , traditional allies of the Lombards , who had been lukewarm when it came to supporting Audoin against the Gepids . The new Frankish alliance was important because of the Franks ' known hostility to the Byzantine empire , providing the Lombards with more than one option . However , the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire interprets events and sources differently , believing that Alboin married Chlothsind when already a king in or shortly before 561 , the year of Chlothar 's death .
Alboin first distinguished himself on the battlefield in a clash with the Gepids . At the Battle of Asfeld ( 552 ) , he killed Turismod , son of the Gepid king Thurisind , in a victory that resulted in the Emperor Justinian 's intervention to maintain equilibrium between the rival regional powers . After the battle , according to a tradition reported by Paul the Deacon , to be granted the right to sit at his father 's table , Alboin had to ask for the hospitality of a foreign king and have him donate his weapons , as was customary . For this initiation , he went to the court of Thurisind , where the Gepid king gave him Turismod 's arms . Walter Goffart believes it is probable that in this narrative Paul was making use of an oral tradition , and is sceptical that it can be dismissed as merely a typical topos of an epic poem .
= = Reign in Pannonia = =
Alboin came to the throne after the death of his father , sometime between 560 and 565 . As was customary among the Lombards , Alboin took the crown after an election by the tribe 's freemen , who traditionally selected the king from the dead sovereign 's clan . Shortly afterwards , in 565 , a new war erupted with the Gepids , now led by Cunimund , Thurisind 's son . The cause of the conflict is uncertain , as the sources are divided ; the Lombard Paul the Deacon accuses the Gepids , while the Byzantine historian Menander Protector places the blame on Alboin , an interpretation favoured by historian Walter Pohl .
An account of the war by the Byzantine Theophylact Simocatta sentimentalises the reasons behind the conflict , claiming it originated with Alboin 's vain courting and subsequent kidnapping of Cunimund 's daughter Rosamund , that Alboin proceeded then to marry . The tale is treated with scepticism by Walter Goffart , who observes that it conflicts with the Origo Gentis Langobardorum , where she was captured only after the death of her father . The Gepids obtained the support of the Emperor in exchange for a promise to cede him the region of Sirmium , the seat of the Gepid kings . Thus in 565 or 566 Justinian 's successor Justin II sent his son @-@ in @-@ law Baduarius as magister militum ( field commander ) to lead a Byzantine army against Alboin in support of Cunimund , ending in the Lombards ' complete defeat .
Faced with the possibility of annihilation , Alboin made an alliance in 566 with the Avars under Bayan I , at the expense of some tough conditions ; the Avars demanded a tenth of the Lombards ' cattle , half of the war booty , and on the war 's conclusion all of the lands held by the Gepids . The Lombards played on the pre @-@ existing hostility between the Avars and the Byzantines , claiming that the latter were allied with the Gepids . Cunimund , on the other hand , encountered hostility when he once again asked the Emperor for military assistance , as the Byzantines had been angered by the Gepids ' failure to cede Sirmium to them , as had been agreed . Moreover , Justin II was moving away from the foreign policy of Justinian , and believed in dealing more strictly with bordering states and peoples . Attempts to mollify Justin II with tributes failed , and as a result the Byzantines kept themselves neutral if not outright supportive of the Avars .
In 567 the allies made their final move against Cunimund , with Alboin invading the Gepids ' lands from the northwest while Bayan attacked from the northeast . Cunimund attempted to prevent the two armies joining up by moving against the Lombards and clashing with Alboin somewhere between the Tibiscus and Danube rivers . The Gepids were defeated in the ensuing battle , their king slain by Alboin , and Cunimund 's daughter Rosamund taken captive , according to references in the Origo . The full destruction of the Gepid kingdom was completed by the Avars , who overcame the Gepids in the east . As a result , the Gepids ceased to exist as an independent people , and were partly absorbed by the Lombards and the Avars . Some time before 568 , Alboin 's first wife Chlothsind died , and after his victory against Cunimund Alboin married Rosamund , to establish a bond with the remaining Gepids . The war also marked a watershed in the geo @-@ political history of the region , as together with the Lombard migration the following year , it signalled the end of six centuries of Germanic dominance in the Pannonian Basin .
= = Preparations and departure from Pannonia = =
Despite his success against the Gepids , Alboin had failed to greatly increase his power , and was now faced with a much stronger threat from the Avars . Historians consider this the decisive factor in convincing Alboin to undertake a migration , even though there are indications that before the war with the Gepids a decision was maturing to leave for Italy , a country thousands of Lombards had seen in the 550s when hired by the Byzantines to fight in the Gothic War . Additionally , the Lombards would have known of the weakness of Byzantine Italy , which had endured a number of problems after being retaken from the Goths . In particular the so @-@ called Plague of Justinian had ravaged the region and conflict remained endemic , with the Three @-@ Chapter Controversy sparking religious opposition and administration at a standstill after the able governor of the peninsula , Narses , was recalled . Nevertheless , the Lombards viewed Italy as a rich land which promised great booty , assets Alboin used to gather together a horde which included not only Lombards but many other peoples of the region , including Heruli , Suebi , Gepids , Thuringii , Bulgars , Sarmatians , the remaining Romans and a few Ostrogoths . But the most important group , other than the Lombards , were the Saxons , of whom 20 @,@ 000 participated in the trek . These Saxons were tributaries to the Frankish King Sigebert , and their participation indicates that Alboin had the support of the Franks for his venture .
The precise size of the heterogeneous group gathered by Alboin is impossible to know , and many different estimates have been made . Neil Christie considers 150 @,@ 000 – 500 @,@ 000 to be a realistic size , a number which would make the Lombards a more numerous force than the Ostrogoths on the eve of their invasion of Italy . Jörg Jarnut proposes 100 @,@ 000 – 150 @,@ 000 as an approximation ; Wilfried Menghen in Die Langobarden estimates 150 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 ; while Stefano Gasparri cautiously judges the peoples united by Alboin to be somewhere between 100 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 .
As a precautionary move Alboin strengthened his alliance with the Avars , signing what Paul calls a foedus perpetuum ( " perpetual treaty " ) and what is referred to in the 9th @-@ century Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani as a pactum et foedus amicitiae ( " pact and treaty of friendship " ) , adding that the treaty was put down on paper . By the conditions accepted in the treaty , the Avars were to take possession of Pannonia and the Lombards were promised military support in Italy should the need arise ; also , for a period of 200 years the Lombards were to maintain the right to reclaim their former territories if the plan to conquer Italy failed , thus leaving Alboin with an alternative open . The accord also had the advantage of protecting Alboin 's rear , as an Avar @-@ occupied Pannonia would make it difficult for the Byzantines to bring forces to Italy by land . The agreement proved immensely successful , and relations with the Avars were almost uninterruptedly friendly during the lifetime of the Lombard Kingdom .
A further cause of the Lombard migration into Italy may have been an invitation from Narses . According to a controversial tradition reported by several medieval sources , Narses , out of spite for having been removed by Justinian 's successor Justin II , called the Lombards to Italy . Often dismissed as an unreliable tradition , it has been studied with attention by modern scholars , in particular Neil Christie , who see in it a possible record of a formal invitation by the Byzantine state to settle in northern Italy as foederati , to help protect the region against the Franks , an arrangement that may have been disowned by Justin II after Narses ' removal .
= = = March to Italy = = =
The Lombard migration started on Easter Monday , April 2 , 568 . The decision to combine the departure with a Christian celebration can be understood in the context of Alboin 's recent conversion to Arian Christianity , as attested by the presence of Arian Gothic missionaries at his court . The conversion is likely to have been motivated mostly from political considerations , and intended to consolidate the migration 's cohesion , distinguishing them from the Catholic Romans . It also connected Alboin and his people to the Gothic heritage , and in this way obtain the support of the Ostrogoths serving in the Byzantine army as foederati . It has been speculated that Alboin 's migration could have been partly the result of a call from surviving Ostrogoths in Italy .
The season chosen for leaving Pannonia was unusually early ; the Germanic peoples generally waited until autumn before beginning a migration , giving themselves time to do the harvesting and replenish their granaries for the march . The reason behind the spring departure could be the anxiety induced by the neighboring Avars , despite the friendship treaty . Nomadic peoples like the Avars also waited for autumn to begin their military campaigns , as they needed enough forage for their horses . A sign of this anxiety can also be seen in the decision taken by Alboin to ravage Pannonia , which created a safety zone between the Lombards and the Avars .
The road followed by Alboin to reach Italy has been the subject of controversy , as is the length of the trek . According to Neil Christie the Lombards divided themselves into migrational groups , with a vanguard scouting the road , probably following the Poetovio – Celeia – Emona – Forum Iulii route , while the wagons and most of the people proceeded slowly behind because of the goods and chattels they brought with them , and possibly also because they were waiting for the Saxons to join them on the road . By September raiding parties were looting Venetia , but it was probably only in 569 that the Julian Alps were crossed at the Vipava Valley ; the eyewitness Secundus of Non gives the date as May 20 or 21 . The 569 date for the entry into Italy is not void of difficulties however , and Jörg Jarnut believes the conquest of most of Venetia had already been completed in 568 . According to Carlo Guido Mor , a major difficulty remains in explaining how Alboin could have reached Milan on September 3 assuming he had passed the border only in the May of the same year .
= = Invasion of Italy = =
= = = Foundation of the Duchy of Friuli = = =
The Lombards penetrated into Italy without meeting any resistance from the border troops ( milities limitanei ) . The Byzantine military resources available on the spot were scant and of dubious loyalty , and the border forts may well have been left unmanned . What seems certain is that archaeological excavations have found no sign of violent confrontation in the sites that have been excavated . This agrees with Paul the Deacon 's narrative , who speaks of a Lombard takeover in Friuli " without any hindrance " .
The first town to fall into the Lombards ' hands was Forum Iulii ( Cividale del Friuli ) , the seat of the local magister militum . Alboin chose this walled town close to the frontier to be capital of the Duchy of Friuli and made his nephew and shield bearer , Gisulf , duke of the region , with the specific duty of defending the borders from Byzantine or Avar attacks from the east . Gisulf obtained from his uncle the right to choose for his duchy those farae , or clans , that he preferred .
Alboin 's decision to create a duchy and designate a duke were both important innovations ; until then , the Lombards had never had dukes or duchies based on a walled town . The innovation adopted was part of Alboin 's borrowing of Roman and Ost
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rogothic administrative models , as in Late Antiquity the comes civitatis ( city count ) was the main local authority , with full administrative powers in his region . But the shift from count ( comes ) to duke ( dux ) and from county ( comitatus ) to duchy ( ducatus ) also signalled the progressive militarization of Italy . The selection of a fortified town as the centre for the new duchy was also an important change from the time in Pannonia , for while urbanized settlements had previously been ignored by the Lombards , now a considerable part of the nobility settled itself in Forum Iulii , a pattern that was repeated regularly by the Lombards in their other duchies .
= = = Conquest of Milan = = =
From Forum Iulii , Alboin next reached Aquileia , the most important road junction in the northeast , and the administrative capital of Venetia . The imminent arrival of the Lombards had a considerable impact on the city 's population ; the Patriarch of Aquileia Paulinus fled with his clergy and flock to the island of Grado in Byzantine @-@ controlled territory .
From Aquileia , Alboin took the Via Postumia and swept through Venetia , taking in rapid succession Tarvisium ( Treviso ) , Vicentia ( Vicenza ) , Verona , Brixia ( Brescia ) and Bergomum ( Bergamo ) . The Lombards faced difficulties only in taking Opitergium ( Oderzo ) , which Alboin decided to avoid , as he similarly avoided tackling the main Venetian towns closer to the coast on the Via Annia , such as Altinum , Patavium ( Padova ) , Mons Silicis ( Monselice ) , Mantua and Cremona . The invasion of Venetia generated a considerable level of turmoil , spurring waves of refugees from the Lombard @-@ controlled interior to the Byzantine @-@ held coast , often led by their bishops , and resulting in new settlements such as Torcello and Heraclia .
Alboin moved west in his march , invading the region of Liguria ( north @-@ west Italy ) and reaching its capital Mediolanum ( Milan ) on September 3 , 569 , only to find it already abandoned by the vicarius Italiae ( vicar of Italy ) , the authority entrusted with the administration of the diocese of Annonarian Italy . Archbishop Honoratus , his clergy , and part of the laity accompanied the vicarius Italiae to find a safe haven in the Byzantine port of Genua ( Genoa ) . Alboin counted the years of his reign from the capture of Milan , when he assumed the title of dominus Italiae ( Lord of Italy ) . His success also meant the collapse of Byzantine defences in the northern part of the Po plain , and large movements of refugees to Byzantine areas .
Several explanations have been advanced to explain the swiftness and ease of the initial Lombard advance in northern Italy . It has been suggested that the towns ' doors may have been opened by the betrayal of the Gothic auxiliaries in the Byzantine army , but historians generally hold that Lombard success occurred because Italy was not considered by Byzantium as a vital part of the empire , especially at a time when the empire was imperilled by the attacks of Avars and Slavs in the Balkans and Sassanids in the east . The Byzantine decision not to contest the Lombard invasion reflects the desire of Justinian 's successors to reorient the core of the Empire 's polices eastward .
= = = Impact of the migration on Annonarian Italy = = =
The impact of the Lombard migration on the Late Roman aristocracy was disruptive , especially in combination with the Gothic War ; the latter conflict had finished in the north only in 562 , when the last Gothic stronghold , Verona , was taken . Many men of means ( Paul 's possessores ) either lost their lives or their goods , but the exact extent of the despoliation of the Roman aristocracy is a subject of heated debate . The clergy was also greatly affected . The Lombards were mostly pagans , and displayed little respect for the clergy and Church property . Many churchmen left their sees to escape from the Lombards , like the two most senior bishops in the north , Honoratus and Paulinus . However , most of the suffragan bishops in the north sought an accommodation with the Lombards , as did in 569 the bishop of Tarvisium Felix when he journeyed to the Piave river to parley with Alboin , obtaining respect for the Church and its goods in return for this act of homage . It seems certain that many sees maintained an uninterrupted episcopal succession through the turmoil of the invasion and the following years . The transition was eased by the hostility existing among the northern Italian bishops towards the papacy and the empire due to the religious dispute involving the " Three @-@ Chapter Controversy " . In Lombard territory , churchmen were at least sure to avoid imperial religious persecution .
In the view of Pierre Riché , the disappearance of 220 bishops ' seats indicates that the Lombard migration was a crippling catastrophe for the Church . Yet according to Walter Pohl the regions directly occupied by Alboin suffered less devastation and had a relatively robust survival rate for towns , whereas the occupation of territory by autonomous military bands interested mainly in raiding and looting had a more severe impact , with the bishoprics in such places rarely surviving .
= = = Siege of Ticinum = = =
The first attested instance of strong resistance to Alboin 's migration took place at the town of Ticinum ( Pavia ) , which he started to besiege in 569 and captured only after three years . The town was of strategic importance , sitting at the confluence of the rivers Po and Ticino and connected by waterways to Ravenna , the capital of Byzantine Italy and the seat of the Praetorian prefecture of Italy . Its fall cut direct communications between the garrisons stationed on the Alpes Maritimae and the Adriatic coast .
Careful to maintain the initiative against the Byzantines , by 570 Alboin had taken their last defences in northern Italy except for the coastal areas of Liguria and Venetia and a few isolated inland centres such as Augusta Praetoria ( Aosta ) , Segusio ( Susa ) , and the island of Amacina in the Larius Lucus ( Lake Como ) . During Alboin 's kingship the Lombards crossed the Apennines and plundered Tuscia , but historians are not in full agreement as to whether this took place under his guidance and if this constituted anything more than raiding . According to Herwig Wolfram , it was probably only in 578 – 579 that Tuscany was conquered , but Jörg Jarnut and others believe this began in some form under Alboin , although it was not completed by the time of his death .
Alboin 's problems in maintaining control over his people worsened during the siege of Ticinum . The nature of the Lombard monarchy made it difficult for a ruler to exert the same degree of authority over his subjects as had been exercised by Theodoric over his Goths , and the structure of the army gave great authority to the military commanders or duces , who led each band ( fara ) of warriors . Additionally , the difficulties encountered by Alboin in building a solid political entity resulted from a lack of imperial legitimacy , as unlike the Ostrogoths , they had not entered Italy as foederati but as enemies of the Empire .
The king 's disintegrating authority over his army was also manifested in the invasion of Frankish Burgundy which from 569 or 570 was subject to yearly raids on a major scale . The Lombard attacks were ultimately repelled following Mummolus ' victory at Embrun . These attacks had lasting political consequences , souring the previously cordial Lombard @-@ Frankish relations and opening the door to an alliance between the Empire and the Franks against the Lombards , a coalition agreed to by Guntram in about 571 . Alboin is generally thought not to have been behind this invasion , but an alternative interpretation of the transalpine raids presented by Gian Piero Bognetti is that Alboin may actually have been involved in the offensive on Guntram as part of an alliance with the Frankish king of Austrasia , Sigebert I. This view is met with scepticism by scholars such as Chris Wickham .
The weakening of royal authority may also have resulted in the conquest of much of southern Italy by the Lombards , in which modern scholars believe Alboin played no role at all , probably taking place in 570 or 571 under the auspices of individual warlords . However it is far from certain that the Lombard takeover occurred during those years , as very little is known of Faroald and Zotto 's respective rise to power in Spoletium ( Spoleto ) and Beneventum ( Benevento ) .
= = Assassination = =
= = = Earliest narratives = = =
Ticinum eventually fell to the Lombards in either May or June 572 . Alboin had in the meantime chosen Verona as his seat , establishing himself and his treasure in a royal palace built there by Theodoric . This choice may have been another attempt to link himself with the Gothic king .
It was in this palace that Alboin was killed on June 28 , 572 . In the account given by Paul the Deacon , the most detailed narrative on Alboin 's death , history and saga intermingle almost inextricably . Much earlier and shorter is the story told by Marius of Aventicum in his Chronica , written about a decade after Alboin 's murder . According to his version the king was killed in a conspiracy by a man close to him , called Hilmegis ( Paul 's Helmechis ) , with the connivance of the queen . Helmichis then married the widow , but the two were forced to escape to Byzantine Ravenna , taking with them the royal treasure and part of the army , which hints at the cooperation of Byzantium . Roger Collins describes Marius as an especially reliable source because of his early date and his having lived close to Lombard Italy .
Also contemporary is Gregory of Tours ' account presented in the Historia Francorum , and echoed by the later Fredegar . Gregory 's account diverges in several respects from most other sources . In his tale it is told how Alboin married the daughter of a man he had slain , and how she waited for a suitable occasion for revenge , eventually poisoning him . She had previously fallen in love with one of her husband 's servants , and after the assassination tried to escape with him , but they were captured and killed . However , historians including Walter Goffart place little trust in this narrative . Goffart notes other similar doubtful stories in the Historia and calls its account of Alboin 's demise " a suitably ironic tale of the doings of depraved humanity " .
= = = Skull cup = = =
Elements present in Marius ' account are echoed in Paul 's Historia Langobardorum , which also contains distinctive features . One of the best known aspects unavailable in any other source is that of the skull cup . In Paul , the events that lead to Alboin 's downfall unfold in Verona . During a great feast , Alboin gets drunk and orders his wife Rosamund to drink from his cup , made from the skull of his father @-@ in @-@ law Cunimund after he had slain him in 567 and married Rosamund . Alboin " invited her to drink merrily with her father " . This reignited the queen 's determination to avenge her father .
The tale has been often dismissed as a fable and Paul was conscious of the risk of disbelief . For this reason , he insists that he saw the skull cup personally during the 740s in the royal palace of Ticinum in the hands of king Ratchis . The use of skull cups has been noticed among nomadic peoples and , in particular , among the Lombards ' neighbours , the Avars . Skull cups are believed to be part of a shamanistic ritual , where drinking from the cup was considered a way to assume the dead man 's powers . In this context , Stefano Gasparri and Wilfried Menghen see in Cunimund 's skull cup the sign of nomadic cultural influences on the Lombards : by drinking from his enemy 's skull Alboin was taking his vital strength . As for the offering of the skull to Rosamund , that may have been a ritual request of complete submission of the queen and her people to the Lombards , and thus a cause of shame or humiliation . Alternatively , it may have been a rite to appease the dead through the offering of a libation . In the latter interpretation , the queen 's answer reveals her determination not to let the wound opened by the killing of her father be healed through a ritual act , thus openly displaying her thirst for revenge .
The episode is read in a radically different way by Walter Goffart . According to him , the whole story assumes an allegorical meaning , with Paul intent on telling an edifying story of the downfall of the hero and his expulsion from the promised land , because of his human weakness . In this story , the skull cup plays a key role as it unites original sin and barbarism . Goffart does not exclude the possibility that Paul had really seen the skull , but believes that by the 740s the connection between sin and barbarism as exemplified by the skull cup had already been established .
= = = Death = = =
In her plan to kill her husband she found an ally in Helmichis , the king 's foster brother and spatharius ( arms bearer ) . According to Paul the queen then recruited the king 's cubicularius ( bedchamberlain ) , Peredeo , into the plot , after having seduced him . When Alboin retired for his midday rest on June 28 , care was taken to leave the door open and unguarded . Alboin 's sword was also removed , leaving him defenceless when Peredeo entered his room and killed him . Alboin 's remains were allegedly buried beneath the palace steps .
Peredeo 's figure and role is mostly introduced by Paul ; the Origo had for the first time mentioned his name as " Peritheus " , but there his role had been different , as he was not the assassin , but the instigator of the assassination . In the vein of his reading of the skull cup , Goffart sees Peredeo as not as a historical figure but as an allegorical character : he notes a similarity between Peredeo 's name and the Latin word peritus , meaning " lost " , a representation of those Lombards who entered into the service of the Empire .
Alboin 's death had a lasting impact , as it deprived the Lombards of the only leader they had that could have kept together the newborn Germanic entity . His end also represents the death of the last of the line of the hero @-@ kings that had led the Lombards through their migrations from the Elba to Italy . His fame survived him for many centuries in epic poetry , with Saxons and Bavarians celebrating his prowess in battle , his heroism , and the magical properties of his weapons .
= = Aftermath = =
To complete the coup d 'état and legitimize his claim to the throne , Helmichis married the queen , whose high standing arose not only from being the king 's widow but also from being the most prominent member of the remaining Gepid nation , and as such her support was a guarantee of the Gepids ' loyalty to Helmichis . The latter could also count on the support of the Lombard garrison of Verona , where many may have opposed Alboin 's aggressive policy and could have cultivated the hope of reaching an entente with the Empire . The Byzantines were almost certainly deeply involved in the plot . It was in their interest to stem the Lombard tide by bringing a pro @-@ Byzantine regime into power in Verona , and possibly in the long run break the unity of the Lombards ' kingdom , winning over the dukes with honors and emoluments .
The coup ultimately failed , as it met with the resistance of most of the warriors , who were opposed to the king 's assassination . As a result , the Lombard garrison in Ticinum proclaimed Duke Cleph the new king , and Helmichis , rather than going to war against overwhelming odds , escaped to Ravenna with Longinus ' assistance , taking with him his wife , his troops , the royal treasure and Alboin 's daughter Albsuinda . In Ravenna the two lovers became estranged and killed each other . Subsequently Longinus sent Albsuinda and the treasure to Constantinople .
Cleph kept the throne for only 18 months before being assassinated by a slave . Possibly he too was killed at the instigation of the Byzantines , who had every interest in avoiding a hostile and solid leadership among the Lombards . An important success for the Byzantines was that no king was proclaimed to succeed Cleph , opening a decade of interregnum , thus making them more vulnerable to attacks from Franks and Byzantines . It was only when faced with the danger of annihilation by the Franks in 584 that the dukes elected a new king in the person of Authari , son of Cleph , who began the definitive consolidation and centralization of the Lombard kingdom while the remaining imperial territories were reorganized under the control of an exarch in Ravenna with the capacity to defend the country without the Emperor 's assistance .
The consolidation of Byzantine and Lombard dominions had long @-@ lasting consequences for Italy , as the region was from that moment on fragmented among multiple rulers until Italian unification in 1871 .
= Blue carbon =
Blue carbon is the carbon captured by the world 's oceans and coastal ecosystems . The carbon captured by living organisms in oceans is stored in the form of biomass and sediments from mangroves , salt marshes , seagrasses and potentially algae .
= = Overview = =
Historically the ocean and terrestrial forest ecosystems have been the major natural carbon ( C ) sinks . New research on the role of vegetated coastal ecosystems have highlighted their potential as highly efficient C sinks , and led to the scientific recognition of the term " Blue Carbon " . " Blue Carbon " designates carbon that is fixed via ocean and coastal ecosystems , rather than traditional land ecosystems , like forests . Although the ocean ’ s vegetated habitats cover less than 0 @.@ 5 % of the seabed , they are responsible for more than 50 % , and potentially up to 70 % , of all carbon storage in ocean sediments . Mangroves , salt marshes and seagrasses make up the majority of the ocean ’ s vegetated habitats but only equal 0 @.@ 05 % of the plant biomass on land . Despite their small footprint , they can store a comparable amount of carbon per year and are highly efficient carbon sinks . Seagrasses , mangroves and salt marshes can capture carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere by sequestering the C in their underlying sediments , in underground and below @-@ ground biomass , and in dead biomass . In plant biomass such as leaves , stems , branches or roots , blue carbon can be sequestered for years to decades , and for thousands to millions of years in underlying plant sediments . Current estimates of long @-@ term blue carbon C burial capacity are variable , and research is ongoing . Although vegetated coastal ecosystems cover less area and have less aboveground biomass than terrestrial plants they have the potential to impact longterm C sequestration , particularly in sediment sinks . One of the main concerns with Blue Carbon is the rate of loss of these important marine ecosystems is much higher than any other ecosystem on the planet , even compared to rainforests . Current estimates suggest a loss of 2 @-@ 7 % per year , which is not only lost carbon sequestration , but also lost habitat that is important for managing climate , coastal protection , and health .
= = Types of blue carbon ecosystems = =
= = = Seagrass = = =
Seagrass are a group of about 60 angiosperm species that have adapted to an aquatic life , and can grow in meadows along the shores of all continents except Antarctica . Seagrass meadows form in maximum depths of up to 50m , depending on water quality and light availability , and can include up to 12 different species in one meadow . These seagrass meadows are highly productive habitats that provide many ecosystem services , including sediment stabilization , habitat and biodiversity , better water quality , and carbon and nutrient sequestration . The current documented seagrass area is 177 @,@ 000 km2 , but is thought to underestimate the total area since many areas with large seagrass meadows have not been thoroughly documented . Most common estimates are 300 @,@ 000 to 600 @,@ 000 km2 , with up to 4 @,@ 320 @,@ 000 km2 suitable seagrass habitat worldwide . Although seagrass makes up only 0 @.@ 1 % of the area of the ocean floor , it accounts for approximately 10 @-@ 18 % of the total oceanic carbon burial . Currently global seagrass meadows are estimated to store as much as 19 @.@ 9 Pg ( gigaton , or billion tons ) of organic carbon . Carbon primarily accumulates in marine sediments , which are anoxic and thus continually preserve organic carbon from decadal @-@ millennial time scales . High accumulation rates , low oxygen , low sediment conductivity and slower microbial decomposition rates all encourage carbon burial and carbon accumulation in these coastal sediments . Compared to terrestrial habitats that lose carbon stocks as CO2 during decomposition or by disturbances like fires or deforestation , marine carbon sinks can retain C for much longer time periods . Carbon sequestration rates in seagrass meadows vary depending on the species , characteristics of the sediment , and depth of the habitats , but on average the carbon burial rate is approximately 138 g C m − 2 yr − 1 . Seagrass habitats are threatened by coastal eutrophication , increased seawater temperatures , increased sedimentation and coastal development , and sea @-@ level rise which may decrease light availability for photosynthesis . Seagrass loss has accelerated over the past few decades , from 0 @.@ 9 % per year prior to 1940 to 7 % per year in 1990 , with about 1 / 3 of global loss since WWII . Scientists encourage protection and continued research of these ecosystems for organic carbon storage , valuable habitat and other ecosystem services .
= = = Mangrove = = =
Mangroves are woody halophytes that form intertidal forests and provide many important ecosystem services including coastal protection , nursery grounds for coastal fish and crustaceans , forest products , recreation , nutrient filtration and carbon sequestration . Currently they are found in 123 countries , with 73 identified species . They grow along coastlines in subtropical and tropical waters , depending mainly on temperature , but also vary with precipitation , tides , waves and water flow . Because they grow at the intersection between land and sea , they have semi @-@ terrestrial and marine components , including unique adaptations including aerial roots , viviparous embryos , and highly efficient nutrient retention mechanisms . Mangroves cover approximately 150 @,@ 000 km2 worldwide , but have declined by 20 % in the last 25 years , mainly due to coastal development and land conversion . Mangrove deforestation is slowing , from 1 @.@ 04 % loss per year in the 1980s to 0 @.@ 66 % loss in the early 2000s , as research and understanding of mangrove benefits have increased . Mangrove forests are responsible for approximately 10 % of global carbon burial , with an estimated carbon burial rate of 174 g C m − 2 yr − 1 . Mangroves , like seagrasses , have potential for high levels of carbon sequestration . They account for 3 % of the global carbon sequestration by tropical forests and 14 % of the global coastal ocean 's carbon burial . Mangroves are naturally disturbed by floods , tsunamis , coastal storms like cyclones and hurricanes , lightning , disease and pests , and changes in water quality or temperature . Although they are resilient to many of these natural disturbances , they are highly susceptible to human impacts including urban development , aquaculture , mining , and overexploitation of shellfish , crustaceans , fish and timber . Mangroves provide globally important ecosystem services and carbon sequestration and are thus an important habitat to conserve and repair when possible .
= = = Marsh = = =
Marshes , intertidal ecosystems dominated by herbaceous vegetation , can be found globally on coastlines from the arctic to the subtropics . In the tropics , marshes are replaced by mangroves as the dominant coastal vegetation . Marshes have high productivity , with a large portion of primary production in belowground biomass . This belowground biomass can form deposits up to 8m deep . Marshes provide valuable habitat for plants , birds , and juvenile fish , protect coastal habitat from storm surge and flooding , and can reduce nutrient loading to coastal waters . Similarly to mangrove and seagrass habitats , marshes also serve as important carbon sinks . Marshes sequester C in underground biomass due to high rates of organic sedimentation and anaerobic @-@ dominated decomposition . Salt marshes cover approximately 22 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 km2 globally , with an estimated carbon burial rate of 210 g C m − 2 yr − 1 . Tidal marshes have been impacted by humans for centuries , including modification for grazing , haymaking , reclamation for agriculture , development and ports , evaporation ponds for salt production , modification for aquaculture , insect control , tidal power and flood protection . Marshes are also susceptible to pollution from oil , industrial chemicals , and most commonly , eutrophication . Introduced species , sea @-@ level rise , river damming and decreased sedimentation are additional longterm changes that affect marsh habitat , and in turn , may affect carbon sequestration potential .
= = = Algae = = =
Both macroalgae and microalgae are being investigated as possible means of carbon sequestration . Because algae lack the complex lignin associated with terrestrial plants , the carbon in algae is released into the atmosphere more rapidly than carbon captured on land . Algae have been proposed as a short @-@ term storage pool of carbon that can be used as a feedstock for the production of various biogenic fuels . Microalgae are often put forth as a potential feedstock for carbon @-@ neutral biodiesel and biomethane production due to their high lipid content . Macroalgae , on the other hand , do not have high lipid content and have limited potential as biodiesel feedstock , although they can still be used as feedstock for other biofuel generation . Macroalgae have also been investigated as a feedstock for the production of biochar . The biochar produced from macroalgae is higher in agriculturally important nutrients than biochar produced from terrestrial sources . Another novel approach to carbon capture which utilizes algae is the Bicarbonate @-@ based Integrated Carbon Capture and Algae Production Systems ( BICCAPS ) developed by a collaboration between Washington State University in the United States and Dalian Ocean University in China . Many cyanobacteria , microalgae , and macroalgae species can utilize carbonate as a carbon source for photosynthesis . In the BICCAPS , alkaliphilic microalgae utilize carbon captured from flue gases in the form of bicarbonate . In South Korea , macroalgae have been utilized as part of a climate change mitigation program . The country has established the Coastal CO2 Removal Belt ( CCRB ) which is composed of artificial and natural ecosystems . The goal is to capture carbon using large areas of kelp forest .
= = Ecosystem restoration = =
Restoration of mangrove forests , seagrass meadows , marshes , and kelp forests has been implemented in many countries . These restored ecosystems have the potential to act as carbon sinks . Restored seagrass meadows were found to start sequestering carbon in sediment within about four years . This was the time needed for the meadow to reach sufficient shoot density to cause sediment deposition . Similarly , mangrove plantations in China showed higher sedimentation rates than barren land and lower sedimentation rates than established mangrove forests . This pattern in sedimentation rate is thought to be a function of the plantation ’ s young age and lower vegetation density .
= = Nutrient stoichiometry of seagrasses = =
The primary nutrients determining sea grass growth are carbon ( C ) , nitrogen ( N ) , phosphorus ( P ) , and light for photosynthesis . Nitrogen and P can be acquired from sediment pore water or from the water column , and sea grasses can uptake N in both ammonium ( NH4 + ) and nitrate ( NO3- ) form .
A number of studies from around the world have found that there is a wide range in the concentrations of C , N , and P in seagrasses depending on their species and environmental factors . For instance , plants collected from high @-@ nutrient environments had lower C : N and C : P ratios than plants collected from low @-@ nutrient environments . Sea grass stoichiometry does not follow the Redfield ratio commonly used as an indicator of nutrient availability for phytoplankton growth . In fact , a number of studies from around the world have found that the proportion of C : N : P in sea grasses can vary significantly depending on their species , nutrient availability , or other environmental factors . Depending on environmental conditions , sea grasses can be either P @-@ limited or N @-@ limited .
An early study of sea grass stoichiometry suggested that the " Redfield " balanced ratio between N and P for sea grasses is approximately 30 : 1 . However , N and P concentrations are strictly not correlated , suggesting that sea grasses can adapt their nutrient uptake based on what is available in the environment . For example , sea grasses from meadows fertilized with bird excrement have shown a higher proportion of phosphate than unfertilized meadows . Alternately , sea grasses in environments with higher loading rates and organic matter diagenesis supply more P , leading to N @-@ limitation . P availability in T. testudinum is the limiting nutrient . The nutrient distribution in T. testudinum ranges from 29 @.@ 4 @-@ 43 @.@ 3 % C , 0 @.@ 88 @-@ 3 @.@ 96 % N , and 0 @.@ 048 @-@ 0 @.@ 243 % P. This equates to a mean ratio of 24 @.@ 6 C : N , 937 @.@ 4 C : P , and 40 @.@ 2 N : P. This information can also be used to characterize the nutrient availability of a bay or other water body ( which is difficult to measure directly ) by sampling the sea grasses living there .
Light availability is another factor that can affect the nutrient stoichiometry of sea grasses . Nutrient limitation can only occur when photosynthetic energy causes grasses to grow faster than the influx of new nutrients . For example , low light environments tend to have a lower C : N ratio . Alternately , high @-@ N environments can have an indirect negative effect to sea grass growth by promoting growth of algae that reduce the total amount of available light .
Nutrient variability in sea grasses can have potential implications for wastewater management in coastal environments . High amounts of anthropogenic nitrogen discharge could cause eutrophication in previously N @-@ limited environments , leading to hypoxic conditions in the sea grass meadow and affecting the carrying capacity of that ecosystem .
A study of annual deposition of C , N , and P from P. Oceanica sea grass meadows in northeast Spain found that the meadow sequestered 198 g C m @-@ 2 yr @-@ 1 , 13 @.@ 4 g N m @-@ 2 yr @-@ 1 , and 2 @.@ 01 g P m @-@ 2 yr @-@ 1 into the sediment . Subsequent remineralization of carbon from the sediments due to respiration returned approximately 8 % of the sequestered carbon , or 15 @.@ 6 g C m @-@ 2 yr -1 .
= = Distribution and decline of blue carbon ecosystems = =
Seagrasses , mangroves and marshes are types of vegetated coastal habitats that cover approximately 49 million hectares worldwide . Seagrass ecosystems range from polar to tropical regions , mangroves are found in tropical and sub @-@ tropical ecosystems and tidal marshes are found in mostly temperate regions such as on the east coast of the United States . As habitats that sequester carbon are altered and decreased , that stored amount of C is being released into the atmosphere , continuing the current accelerated rate of climate change . Impacts on these habitats globally will directly and indirectly release the previously stored carbon , which had been sequestered in sediments of these habitats . Declines of vegetated coastal habitats are seen worldwide ; examples seen in mangroves are due to clearing for shrimp ponds such is the case in Indonesia , while in seagrasses there are both natural causes due to pathogens and may be exacerbated by anthropogenic effects . Quantifying rates of decrease are difficult to calculate , however measurements have been estimated by researchers indicating that if blue carbon ecosystems continue to decline , for any number of reasons , 30 @-@ 40 % of tidal marshes and seagrasses and approximately 100 % of mangroves could be gone in the next century .
Decline in seagrasses are due to a number of factors including drought , water quality issues , agricultural practices , invasive species , pathogens , fishing and climate change . Over 35 % of global mangrove habitat remains . Decreases in habitat is due to damming of rivers , clearing for aquaculture , development etc . , overfishing , and climate change , according to the World Wildlife Fund . Nearly 16 % of mangroves assessed by the IUCN are on the IUCN Red List ; due to development and other causes 1 in 6 worldwide mangroves are in threat of extinction . Dams threaten habitats by slowing the amount of freshwater reaching mangroves . Coral reef destruction also plays a role in mangrove habitat health as reefs slow wave energy to a level that mangroves are more tolerant of . Salt marshes may not be expansive worldwide in relation to forests , but they have a C burial rate that is over 50 times faster than tropical rainforests . Rates of burial have been estimated at up to 87 @.@ 2 ± 9 @.@ 6 Tg C yr @-@ 1 which is greater than that of tropical rainforests , 53 ± 9 @.@ 6 Tg C yr @-@ 1 . Since the 1800s salt marshes have been disturbed due to development and a lack of understanding their importance . The 25 % decline since that time has led to a decrease in potential C sink area coupled with the release of once buried C. Consequences of increasingly degraded marsh habitat are a decrease in C stock in sediments , a decrease in plant biomass and thus a decrease in photosynthesis reducing the amount of CO2 taken up by the plants , failure of C in plant blades to be transferred into the sediment , possible acceleration of erosive processes due to the lack of plant biomass , and acceleration of buried C release to the atmosphere .
Reasons for decline of mangroves , seagrass , and marshes include land use changes , climate and drought related effects , dams built in the watershed , convergence to aquaculture and agriculture , land development and sea @-@ level rise due to climate change . Increases in these activities can lead to significant decreases in habitat available and thus increases in released C from sediments . As anthropogenic effects and climate change are heightened , the effectiveness of blue carbon sinks will diminish and CO2 emissions will be further increased . Data on the rates at which CO2 is being released into the atmosphere is not robust currently , however research is being conducted to gather a better information to analyze trends . Loss of underground biomass ( roots and rhizomes ) will allow for CO2 to be emitted changing these habitats into sources rather than carbon sinks .
= = Sedimentation and blue carbon burial = =
Organic carbon is only sequestered from the oceanic system if it reaches the sea floor and gets covered by a layer of sediment . Reduced oxygen levels in buried environments mean that tiny bacteria who eat organic matter and respire CO2 can ’ t decompose the carbon , so it is removed from the system permanently . Organic matter that sinks but is not buried by a sufficiently deep layer of sediment is subject to re @-@ suspension by changing ocean currents , bioturbation by organisms that live in the top layer of marine sediments , and decomposition by heterotrophic bacteria . If any of these processes occur , the organic carbon is released back into the system . Carbon sequestration takes place only if burial rates by sediment are greater than the long term rates of erosion , bioturbation , and decomposition .
= = = Spatial variability in sedimentation = = =
Sedimentation is the rate at which floating or suspended particulate matter sinks and accumulates on the ocean floor . The faster ( more energetic ) the current , the more sediment it can pick up . As sediment laden currents slow , the particles fall out of suspension and come to rest on the sea floor . In other words , a fast current can pick up lots of heavy grains , where as a slow current can pick up only tiny pieces . As one can imagine , different places in the ocean vary drastically when it comes to the amount of suspended sediment and rate of deposition .
= = = = Open ocean = = = =
The open ocean has very low sedimentation rates because most of the sediments that make it here are carried by the wind . Wind transport accounts for only a small fraction of the total sediment delivery to the oceans . Additionally , there is much less plant and animal life living in the open ocean that could be buried . Therefore , carbon burial rates are relatively slow in the open ocean .
= = = = Coastal margins = = = =
Coastal margins have high sedimentation rates due to sediment input by rivers , which account for the vast majority of sediment delivery to the ocean . In most cases , sediments are deposited near the river mouth or are transported in the alongshore direction due to wave forcing . In some places sediment falls into submarine canyons and is transported off @-@ shelf , if the canyon is sufficiently large or the shelf is narrow . Coastal margins also contain diverse and plentiful marine species , especially in paces that experience periodic upwelling . More marine life combined with higher sedimentation rates on coastal margins creates hotspots for carbon burial .
= = = = Submarine Canyons = = = =
Marine canyons are magnets for sediment because as currents carry sediment on the shelf in the alongshore direction , the path of the current crosses canyons perpendicularly . When the same amount of water flow is suddenly in much deeper water it slows down and deposits sediment . Due to the extreme depositional environment , carbon burial rates in the Nazare Canyon near Portugal are 30 times greater than the adjacent continental slope ! This canyon alone accounts for about 0 @.@ 03 % of global terrestrial organic carbon burial in marine sediments . This may not seem like much , but the Nazarre submarine canyon only makes up 0 @.@ 0001 % of the area of the worlds ocean floor .
= = = Human changes to global sedimentary systems = = =
Humans have been modifying sediment cycles on a massive scale for thousands of years through a number of mechanisms .
= = = = Agriculture / land clearing = = = =
The first major change to global sedimentary cycling happened when humans started clearing land to grow crops . In a natural ecosystem , roots from plants hold sediment in place when it rains . Trees and shrubs reduce the amount of rainfall that impacts the dirt , and create obstacles that forest streams must flow around . When all vegetation is removed rainfall impacts directly on the dirt , there are no roots to hold on to the sediment , and there is nothing to stop the stream from scouring banks as it flows straight downhill . Because of this , land clearing causes an increase in erosion rates when compared to a natural system .
= = = = Dams = = = =
The first dams date back to 3000 BC and were built to control flood waters for agriculture . When sediment laden river flow reaches a dam ’ s reservoir , the water slows down as it pools . Since slower water can ’ t carry as much sediment , virtually all of the sediment falls out of suspension before the water passes through the dam . The result is that most dams are nearly 100 % efficient sediment traps . Additionally , the use of dams for flood control reduces the ability of downstream channels to produce sediment . Since the vast majority of sedimentation occurs during the biggest floods , reduced frequency and intensity of flood @-@ like flows can drastically change production rates . For thousands of years there were too few dams to have a significant impact on global sedimentary cycles , except for local impacts on a few river deltas such as the Nile which were significant . However The popularization of hydroelectric power in the last century has caused an enormous boom in dam building . Currently only a third of the world ’ s largest rivers flow unimpeded to the ocean .
= = = = Channelization = = = =
In a natural system , the banks of a river will meander back and forth as different channels erode , accrete , open , or close . Seasonal floods regularly overwhelm riverbanks and deposit nutrients on adjacent flood plains . These services are essential to natural ecosystems , but can be troublesome for humans , who love to build infrastructure and development close to rivers . In response , rivers in populated areas are often channelized , meaning that their banks and sometimes beds are armored with a hard material , such as rocks or concrete , which prevent erosion and fixes the stream in place . This inhibits sedimentation because there is much less soft substrate left for the river to take downstream .
= = = = Impacts = = = =
Currently , the net effect of humans on global sedimentary cycling is a drastic reduction in the amount of sediment that makes it to the ocean . If we continue to build dams and channelize rivers , we will continue to see a number of problems in coastal areas including sinking deltas , shrinking beaches , and disappearing salt marshes . In addition , it ’ s possible that we might ruin the ability of coastal margins to bury blue carbon . Without sequestration of carbon in coastal marine sediments , we will likely see accelerated global climate change .
= = Other Factors influencing blue carbon burial rates = =
= = = Density of vegetation = = =
The density of vegetation in mangrove forests , seagrass meadows , and tidal marshes is an important factor in carbon burial rates.The density of the vegetation must be sufficient to change water flows enough to reduce erosion and increase sediment deposition .
= = = Nutrient load = = =
Increases in carbon capture and sequestration have been observed in both mangrove and seagrass ecosystems which have been subjected to high nutrient loads , either intentionally or due to waste from human activities . Intentional fertilization has been used in seagrass meadow restoration . Perches for seabirds are installed in the meadow and the bird droppings are the fertilizer source . The fertilization allows fast growing varieties of seagrasses to establish and grow . The species composition of these meadows is markedly different than the original seagrass meadow , although after the meadow has been reestablished and fertilization terminated , the meadows return to a species composition that more closely resembles an undisturbed meadow . Research done on mangrove soils from the Red Sea have shown that increases in nutrient loads to these soils do not increase carbon mineralization and subsequent CO2 release . This neutral effect of fertilization was not found to be true in all mangrove forest types . Carbon capture rates also increased in these forests due to increased growth rates of the mangroves . In forests with increases in respiration there were also increases in mangrove growth of up to six times the normal rate .
= = Engineered approaches to blue carbon = =
A US Department of Energy study from 2001 proposed to replicate a natural process of carbon sequestration in the ocean by combining water rich in CO2 gas with carbonate [ CO3- ] to produce a bicarbonate [ HCO3- ] slurry . Practically , the engineered process could involve hydrating the CO2 from power plant flue gas and running it through a porous bed of limestone to ‘ fix ’ the carbon in a saturated bicarbonate solution . This solution could then be deposited at sea to sink in the deep ocean . The cost of this process , from capture to ocean burial , was estimated to range between $ 90 to $ 180 per tonne of CO2 and was highly dependent on the distance required to transport limestone , seawater , and the resulting bicarbonate solution .
Expected benefits from bicarbonate production over direct CO2 gas injection would be a significantly lesser increase in ocean acidity and a longer timescale for burial before the captured carbon would be released back to the atmosphere .
= Underground Electric Railways Company of London =
The Underground Electric Railways Company of London Limited ( UERL ) , known operationally as the Underground for much of its existence , was established in 1902 . It was the holding company for the three deep @-@ level " tube " underground railway lines opened in London during 1906 and 1907 : the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway , the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway and the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway . It was also the parent company from 1902 of the District Railway , which it electrified between 1903 and 1905 . The UERL is a precursor of today 's London Underground ; its three tube lines form the central sections of today 's Bakerloo , Northern and Piccadilly lines .
The UERL struggled financially in the first years after the opening of its lines and narrowly avoided bankruptcy in 1908 by restructuring its debt . A policy of expansion by acquisition was followed before World War I , so that the company came to operate the majority of the underground railway lines in and around London . It also controlled large bus and tram fleets , the profits from which subsidised the financially weaker railways . After the war , railway extensions took the UERL 's services out into suburban areas to stimulate additional passenger numbers , so that , by the early 1930s , the company 's lines stretched beyond the County of London and served destinations in Middlesex , Essex , Hertfordshire and Surrey .
In the 1920s , competition from small unregulated bus operators reduced the profitability of the road transport operations , leading the UERL 's directors to seek government regulation . This led to the establishment of the London Passenger Transport Board in 1933 , which absorbed the UERL and all of the independent and municipally operated railway , bus and tram services in the London area .
= = Establishment = =
= = = Background = = =
The first deep @-@ level tube railway , the City & South London Railway ( C & SLR ) , opened in 1890 . Its early success resulted in a rush of proposals to Parliament for other deep @-@ level routes under the capital , but by 1901 only two more lines had opened : the Waterloo & City Railway ( W & CR ) in 1898 and the Central London Railway ( CLR ) in 1900 . Construction had started on one other line and then stopped following a financial crisis . The rest of the companies were struggling to raise funding .
The District Railway ( DR ) was a sub @-@ surface underground railway which had opened in 1868 . Its steam @-@ hauled services operated around the Inner Circle and on branches to Hounslow , Wimbledon , Richmond , Ealing , Whitechapel and New Cross . By 1901 , the DR was struggling to compete with emerging motor bus and electric tram companies and the CLR which were eroding its passenger traffic . To become more competitive , the DR was contemplating a programme of electrification , although it was not financially strong enough to raise the capital to carry out the work on its own . It also had parliamentary approval for a congestion @-@ relieving deep @-@ level line that was to run beneath its existing route between Gloucester Road and Mansion House .
By 1898 , American financier Charles Tyson Yerkes had made a large fortune developing the electric tramway and elevated railway systems in Chicago , but his questionable business methods , which included bribery and blackmail , had finally drawn the disapproving attention of the public . Yerkes had unsuccessfully attempted to bribe the city council and Illinois state legislature into granting him a 100 @-@ year franchise for the tramway system . Following a public backlash , he sold his Chicago investments and turned his attention to opportunities in London .
= = = Acquisitions = = =
Yerkes ' first acquisition in London was the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ( CCE & HR ) . The company had parliamentary permission to build a deep @-@ level tube railway from Charing Cross to Hampstead and Highgate , but had been unable to raise the finance , selling only a tiny fraction of the shares available . Robert Perks , a solicitor for a number of railway companies and Member of Parliament for Louth , had suggested the CCE & HR to Yerkes and the American 's consortium bought the company for £ 100 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 9 @.@ 8 million today ) on 28 September 1900 .
Perks was also a large shareholder in Yerkes ' next target , the Metropolitan District Railway , usually known as the District Railway or DR. By March 1901 , the syndicate had acquired a controlling interest in the DR and made a proposal for its electrification . Yerkes established the Metropolitan District Electric Traction Company ( MDETC ) on 15 July 1901 with himself as managing director . The company raised £ 1 million ( £ 97 @.@ 9 million today ) to carry out the electrification works including the construction of the generating station and supplying the new electric rolling stock . In September 1901 , Perks became the DR 's chairman .
The Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway ( B & PCR ) was a tube railway company which had been purchased by the DR in 1898 , but had remained a separate financial entity . It had permission to construct a line from South Kensington to Piccadilly Circus , but had not raised the capital to do so . At South Kensington it was to connect to the deep level line planned by the DR. On 12 September 1901 , the DR @-@ controlled board of the B & PCR sold the company to the MDETC . In the same month , the B & PCR took over the Great Northern and Strand Railway ( GN & SR ) , a tube railway with permission to build a line from Strand to Finsbury Park . The routes of the B & PCR and GN & SR were subsequently linked and combined with part of the DR 's tube route to create the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ) .
Yerkes ' final purchase was the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) in March 1902 for £ 360 @,@ 000 ( £ 35 @.@ 3 million today ) . The BS & WR had permission to construct a line from Paddington to Elephant & Castle and , unlike his other tube railway purchases , construction work had started in 1898 . Substantial progress had been made before it was stopped following the collapse of the BS & WR 's parent company , the London & Globe Finance Corporation , due to the fraud of its managing director Whitaker Wright in 1900 . With a varied collection of companies under his control , Yerkes established the UERL in April 1902 to take control of them all and manage the planned works , and took the position of chairman . On 8 June 1902 , the UERL took over the MDETC and paid off the company 's shareholders with cash and UERL shares .
= = = Finances = = =
The UERL was set up with an initial capitalisation of £ 5 million ( £ 490 million today ) . The company was backed by three merchant banks , Speyer Brothers in London , Speyer & Co. in New York and Old Colony Trust Company in Boston , each of which was to receive £ 250 @,@ 000 from the capital raised . Almost 60 per cent of the initial share offering was bought in the United States , with a third sold in Britain and the rest mainly in the Netherlands . Further capital was soon needed for the construction works and additional share and bond issues followed . The UERL eventually raised a total of £ 18 million ( £ 1 @.@ 74 billion today ) .
Like many of Yerkes ' schemes in the United States , the structure of the UERL 's finances was highly complex and involved the use of novel financial instruments . One method , used by Yerkes to raise £ 7 million , was " profit @-@ sharing secured notes " , a form of bond which was secured against the value of shares . They were sold at a 4 per cent discount , paid 5 per cent interest and were due for repayment in 1908 . The assumption was that shares would inevitably rise in value once the UERL 's tube railways were operational and producing a profit . Investors in the notes would gain the double benefit of the growth in share price and interest .
= = Engineering works = =
= = = Electrification of the District Railway = = =
Before its takeover , the DR had carried out some joint electrification experiments with the Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) , the other sub @-@ surface line with which the DR shared the Inner Circle . A section of track between Earl 's Court and High Street Kensington was electrified with a four @-@ rail system and a jointly owned test train operated a shuttle service between February and November 1900 . Having proven the practicality of electric traction , the two companies set up a joint committee to select a supplier of equipment for the electrification of their networks .
The committee 's preferred system was a 3 @,@ 000 volt , three @-@ phase alternating current system proposed by Hungarian electrical engineering company Ganz . The system delivered current by overhead conductor wires and was cheaper than alternatives using power rails and required fewer electrical sub @-@ stations . An experimental line had been constructed by Ganz in Budapest , although the system had not yet been adopted for the full @-@ scale operation of a railway . Before the appointment of Ganz could be finalised , Yerkes took control of the DR. He and his engineers preferred the low voltage direct current conductor rail system they had worked with in the United States and were intending to use on the tube lines when they were constructed ; they rejected the Ganz system putting the DR and the MDETC into dispute with the MR which wanted to proceed with the Ganz system . After some acrimonious debate between the two companies , some of which was carried out in public through the letters pages of The Times newspaper , the dispute went to arbitration at the Board of Trade . The decision was made in December 1901 to use the four @-@ rail system , although the arbitrator , Alfred Lyttelton , was critical of the DR 's unilateral decision .
Victorious , the MDETC quickly began the electrification of the DR 's tracks , starting with an extension from Ealing Common to South Harrow that opened with its first electric service in June 1903 . Conversion of the rest of the DR 's tracks was completed in mid @-@ 1905 , although failure to coordinate installations with the MR meant that the first electric services on the Inner Circle from 1 July 1905 were disrupted for several months due to equipment failures on the MR 's trains . Power came from the UERL 's own Lots Road Power Station on Chelsea Creek . Originally planned by the B & PCR , construction of the power station began in 1902 and finished in December 1904 . It became operational on 1 February 1905 , generating three @-@ phase alternating current at 11 @,@ 000 volts , which was converted to 550 volts direct current at track @-@ side transformers located around the network . The power station was constructed large enough to power all of the UERL 's lines once they opened plus others later . By the time the last of the DR 's steam trains were retired on 5 November 1905 , the UERL had spent £ 1 @.@ 7 million ( £ 165 million today ) on the electrification of the line .
= = = Construction of the tube railways = = =
With funds in place , construction of the BS & WR was quickly restarted . 50 per cent of the tunnelling and 25 per cent of the station work had been completed before work had been stopped , and by February 1904 virtually all of the tunnels and underground parts of the stations between Elephant & Castle and Marylebone were complete and works on the station buildings were under way . Construction of the GNP & BR and the CCE & HR began in July 1902 and proceeded quickly so that the UERL was able to record in its annual report in October 1904 that 80 per cent of the GNP & BR 's and 75 per cent of the CCE & HR 's tunnels had been completed .
Following the pattern adopted by the earlier tube lines , each of the UERL 's lines was constructed as a pair of circular tunnels using tunnelling shields with segmental cast iron tunnel linings bolted together and grouted into place as the shield advanced . Generally the tunnels followed surface roads and were constructed side by side , but where the width of the road above was insufficient , tunnels were placed one above the other . Stations on all three lines were provided with surface buildings designed by the UERL 's architect Leslie Green in a standardised style modified for each site . These consisted of two @-@ storey steel @-@ framed buildings faced with red glazed terracotta blocks with wide semi @-@ circular windows on the upper floor . The stations had flat roofs and were designed to accommodate upward extension for commercial development . Most stations were provided with between two and four lifts and an emergency spiral staircase in a separate shaft . At platform level , the wall tiling featured the station name and an individual geometric pattern and colour scheme designed by Green .
The UERL used a Westinghouse automatic signalling system operated through electrified track circuits . This controlled signals based on the presence or absence of a train on the track ahead . Signals incorporated an arm that was raised when the signal was red . If a train failed to stop at a red signal , the arm would activate a " tripcock " on the train ; applying the brakes automatically .
= = Operation = =
= = = Early struggle for survival = = =
Apart from the electrification of the DR , Yerkes did not live to see the completion of the fast @-@ paced construction works that he set in motion ; he died in New York on 29 December 1905 and was replaced as UERL chairman by Edgar Speyer . Speyer was chairman of the UERL 's backer Speyer Brothers and a partner in Speyer & Co . Sir George Gibb , general manager of the North Eastern Railway , was appointed managing director . The BS & WR opened to passengers on 10 March 1906 . The GNP & BR followed on 15 December 1906 , with the CCE & HR on 22 June 1907 . The three tube lines quickly came to be known as the Bakerloo Tube , Piccadilly Tube and Hampstead Tube .
Yerkes also did not live to see the UERL 's financial struggle during the first years after the opening of the new lines . Because of greatly over @-@ optimistic pre @-@ opening predictions of passenger numbers , the lines failed to generate the income expected and needed to fund the interest payments on the UERL 's substantial borrowings . In the Bakerloo Tube 's first twelve months of operation , it carried 20 @.@ 5 million passengers , less than sixty per cent of the 35 million that had been predicted during the planning of the line . The Piccadilly Tube achieved 26 million of a predicted 60 million and the Hampstead Tube managed 25 million of a predicted 50 million . For the DR , the UERL had predicted an increase to 100 million passengers after electrification , but achieved 55 million . The lower than expected passenger numbers were partly due to competition between the UERL 's lines and those of the other tube and sub @-@ surface railway companies , and the further spread of electric trams and motor buses , replacing slower , horse @-@ drawn road transport , took a large number of passengers away from the trains . The low price of tickets also depressed income .
The crisis point for the UERL was the need to redeem the five @-@ year profit @-@ sharing secured notes on 30 June 1908 . The UERL did not have the money . Speyer unsuccessfully tried to persuade the London County Council ( LCC ) to inject £ 5 million into the UERL and used some of his own bank 's money to pay @-@ off disgruntled shareholders threatening bankruptcy proceedings . Eventually , Speyer and Gibb managed to obtain agreement from the shareholders to convert the notes into long @-@ term debt to be repaid in 1933 and 1948 .
= = = Consolidation = = =
As Speyer and Gibb worked to restructure the debt , the UERL 's general manager , Albert Stanley , appointed by Gibb in 1907 , began to increase the UERL 's income by improving management structures . With commercial manager Frank Pick , Stanley instigated a plan to increase passenger numbers ; developing the " Underground " brand and establishing a joint booking system and coordinated fares throughout all of London 's underground railways , including those not controlled by the UERL .
In 1909 , the UERL overcame the objections of previously reluctant American investors , and announced a parliamentary bill for the formal merger of the Bakerloo , Hampstead and Piccadilly Tube lines into a single company , the London Electric Railway Company ( LER ) . This bill received Royal Assent and was enacted on 26 July 1910 as the London Electric Railway Amalgamation Act , 1910 , The DR was not merged with the tube lines and remained a separate company .
As managing director of the UERL from 1910 , Stanley led further transport consolidation with the UERL 's take @-@ over of London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) in 1912 and the CLR and the C & SLR on 1 January 1913 . The LGOC was the dominant bus operator in the capital and its high profitability ( it paid dividends of 18 per cent compared with Underground Group companies ' dividends of 1 to 3 per cent ) subsidised the rest of the group . Through the UERL 's shareholding in the London and Suburban Traction Company ( LSTC ) , which it owned jointly with British Electric Traction , the UERL took control in 1913 of the London United Tramways , the Metropolitan Electric Tramways and the South Metropolitan Electric Tramways . The UERL also took control of bus builder AEC . The much enlarged group became known as the Combine . Only the MR ( and its subsidiaries the Great Northern & City Railway and the East London Railway ) and the W & CR ( by then fully owned by the London and South Western Railway ) remained outside of the Underground Group 's control .
= = = Extensions and improvements = = =
Another way in which the UERL tried to improve income was the construction of extensions to its lines to generate additional passenger traffic , often through the stimulation of new housing developments in the areas through which the lines ran . The DR was extended to Uxbridge in 1910 , by a connection made to the MR. In 1913 , the Bakerloo Tube was extended to Paddington and to Queen 's Park and Watford Junction four years later . The Hampstead tube was extended a short distance at its southern end to provide an interchange with the Bakerloo and the DR at Embankment in 1914 . It was extended at its northern end from Golders Green into the Middlesex countryside to reach Edgware in 1924 . In 1926 , the Hampstead tube was extended south to connect to the C & SLR at Kennington in conjunction with a reconstruction of the C & SLR and its 1926 extension from Clapham Common to Morden . The CLR was extended to Ealing Broadway in 1920 . Permission for an extension of the line to Richmond was obtained in 1913 and again in 1920 , but was not used . Later , during 1932 and 1933 , the Piccadilly Tube was extended at both ends : in the north from Finsbury Park to Cockfosters , and in the west from Hammersmith to Hounslow and Uxbridge using the DR 's tracks .
In addition , a programme of modernising many of the Underground 's busiest central London stations was started ; providing them with escalators to replace lifts . New and refurbished rolling stock was gradually introduced on a number of lines with automatic sliding doors along the length of the carriages instead of manual end gates , reducing boarding times . By the middle of the 1920s , the organisation had expanded to such an extent that a large , new headquarters building designed by Charles Holden was constructed at 55 Broadway over St. James 's Park station .
= = Move to public ownership = =
Starting in the early 1920s , competition from numerous small bus companies , nicknamed " pirates " because they operated irregular routes and plundered the LGOC 's passengers , eroded the profitability of the Combine 's bus operations . This had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole group . Stanley lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . Starting in 1923 , a series of legislative initiatives were made in this direction , with Stanley and Labour politician Herbert Morrison , London County Councillor ( and later member of parliament and Minister of Transport ) at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Stanley aimed for regulation that would give the UERL group protection from competition and allow it to take substantive control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . After seven years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) , a public corporation that would take control of the UERL , the Metropolitan Railway and all bus and tram operators within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . As Stanley had done with shareholders in 1910 over the consolidation of the three UERL controlled tube lines , he used his persuasiveness to obtain their agreements to the government buy @-@ out of their stock .
The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 , with Stanley as chairman and Pick as Chief Executive .
= Revolution ( Beatles song ) =
" Revolution " is a song by the Beatles , written by John Lennon and credited to Lennon – McCartney . Two versions of the song were recorded in 1968 : a hard rock version , released as the B @-@ side of the " Hey Jude " single , and a slower , bluesier arrangement ( titled " Revolution 1 " ) for the Beatles ' self @-@ titled double album , commonly known as " the White Album " . Although the single version was issued first , it was recorded several weeks after " Revolution 1 " , as a re @-@ make specifically intended for release as a single . A third connected piece , written by Lennon , is the experimental track " Revolution 9 " , based on the latter parts of the same performance that produced " Revolution 1 " , and which also appears on the White Album .
Inspired by political protests in early 1968 , Lennon 's lyrics expressed doubt in regard to some of the tactics . When the single version was released in August , the political left viewed it as betraying their cause . The release of the album version in November indicated Lennon 's uncertainty about destructive change , with the phrase " count me out " recorded differently as " count me out , in " . In 1987 , the song became the first Beatles recording to be licensed for a television commercial , which prompted a lawsuit from the surviving members of the group .
In the same year Nina Simone recorded her single " Revolution " with some structural similarities ( some lyrics are also the same ) to the Beatles ' song , but credited to her and Weldon Irvine .
= = Background and composition = =
In early 1968 , media coverage in the aftermath of the Tet Offensive spurred increased protests in opposition to the Vietnam War , especially among university students . The protests were most prevalent in the US , but on 17 March , several thousand demonstrators marched to the American embassy in London 's Grosvenor Square and violently clashed with police . Major protests concerning other political issues made international news , such as the March 1968 protests in Poland against their communist government , and the campus uprisings of May 1968 in France .
By and large , the Beatles had avoided publicly expressing their political views , with " Taxman " being their only overtly political track thus far . During his time in Rishikesh , Lennon decided to write a song about the recent wave of social upheaval . He recalled , " I thought it was about time we spoke about it [ revolution ] , the same as I thought it was about time we stopped not answering about the Vietnamese war . I had been thinking about it up in the hills in India . "
Despite Lennon 's antiwar feelings , he had yet to become anti @-@ establishment , and expressed in " Revolution " that he wanted " to see the plan " from those advocating toppling the system . The repeated phrase " it 's gonna be alright " in " Revolution " came directly from Lennon 's Transcendental Meditation experiences in India , conveying the idea that God would take care of the human race no matter what happened politically . Another influence on Lennon was his burgeoning relationship with avant @-@ garde artist Yoko Ono ; Ono attended the recording sessions , and participated in the unused portion of " Revolution 1 " which evolved into " Revolution 9 " .
Around the fourth week of May 1968 , the Beatles met at Kinfauns , George Harrison 's home in Esher , to demonstrate their compositions to each other in preparation for recording their next studio album . A bootleg recording from that informal session shows that " Revolution " had two of its three verses intact . The line referencing Mao Zedong was added to the lyrics in the studio . During filming of a promotional clip later that year , Lennon told the director that it was the most important lyric of the song . Lennon had changed his mind by 1972 , saying " I should have never put that in about Chairman Mao " .
= = Recording = =
= = = Revolution 1 = = =
The Beatles began their studio sessions for the new album on 30 May , starting with " Revolution 1 " ( simply titled " Revolution " for the first few sessions ) . The first day concentrated on recording the basic rhythm track . Take 18 lasted 10 : 17 , much longer than the earlier takes , and it was this take that was chosen for additional overdubs recorded over the next two sessions .
During overdubs which brought the recording to take 20 , Lennon took the unusual step of performing his lead vocal while lying on the floor . He also altered one line into the ambiguous " you can count me out , in " . He later explained that he included both because he was undecided in his sentiments . The appended " in " did not appear on the lyric sheet included with the original album .
" Revolution 1 " has a blues style , performed at a relaxed tempo . The electric guitar heard in the intro ( similar to the blues song " Dust My Broom " ) shows a blues influence , and the " shoo @-@ bee @-@ do @-@ wop " backing vocals are a reference to Doo Wop music . The basic time signature is 12 / 8 ( or 4 / 4 in a " shuffle " style ) , but the song has several extra half @-@ length bars during the verses . There are also two extra beats at the end of the last chorus , the result of an accidental bad edit during the mixing process that was left uncorrected at Lennon 's request .
= = = = Take 20 = = = =
Low @-@ quality monitor mixes of the full @-@ length version of " Revolution " appeared on various bootlegs , such as From Kinfauns to Chaos , throughout the 1990s . Then in 2009 , a high @-@ quality version labelled " Revolution Take 20 " appeared on the bootleg CD Revolution : Take ... Your Knickers Off ! The release triggered considerable interest among the media and fans of the group . This version , RM1 ( Remix in Mono # 1 ) of Take 20 , runs to 10 minutes 46 seconds ( at the correct speed ) and was created at the end of the 4 June session , with a copy taken away by Lennon . It was an attempt by Lennon to augment the full @-@ length version of " Revolution " in a way that satisfied him before he chose to split the piece between the edited " Revolution 1 " and the musique concrète " Revolution 9 " .
The bootlegged recording starts with engineer Geoff Emerick announcing the remix as " RM1 of Take ... " and then momentarily forgetting the take number , which Lennon jokingly finishes with " Take your knickers off and let 's go " , hence the name of the bootleg CD . The first half of the recording is almost identical to the released track " Revolution 1 " . It lacks the electric guitar and horn overdubs of the final version , but features two tape loops in the key of A ( same as the song ) that are faded in and out at various points . After the final chorus , the song launches into an extended coda similar to that in " Hey Jude " . ( The album version only features about 40 seconds of this coda . ) Beyond the point where the album version fades out , the basic instrumental backing keeps repeating while the vocals and overdubs become increasingly chaotic : Harrison and Paul McCartney repeatedly sing " dada , mama " in a childlike register ; Lennon 's histrionic vocals are randomly distorted in speed ( a little of this can be heard in the fade of " Revolution 1 " ) ; and radio tuning noises à la " I Am the Walrus " appear . Several elements of this coda appear in the officially released " Revolution 9 " . Throughout the body of that song , Lennon 's histrionic vocal track periodically appears ( albeit minus the speed distortion ) , as do the tape loops .
After the band track ends , the song moves into avant @-@ garde territory , with Yoko Ono reciting some prose over an unknown , vaguely operatic recording ( possibly captured live from the radio ) . Ono 's piece begins with the words " Maybe , it 's not that … " , with her voice trailing off at the end ; Lennon or Harrison jokingly replies , " It is ' that ' ! " As the piece continues , Lennon quietly mumbles " Gonna be alright " a few times . Then follows a brief piano riff , some comments from Lennon and Ono on how well the track has preceded , and final appearances of the tape loops . Most of this coda was lifted for the end of " Revolution 9 " , with a little more piano at the beginning ( which monitor mixes reveal was present in earlier mixes of " Revolution " ) and minus Lennon 's ( or Harrison 's ) joking reply .
= = = = Splitting of Revolution 1 and Revolution 9 = = = =
Lennon soon decided to divide the existing ten @-@ minute recording into two parts : a more conventional Beatles track and an avant @-@ garde sound collage . Within days after take 20 , work began on " Revolution 9 " using the last six minutes of the take as a starting point . Numerous sound effects , tape loops , and overdubs were recorded and compiled over several sessions almost exclusively by Lennon and Ono , although Harrison provided assistance for additional spoken overdubs . With more than 40 sources used for " Revolution 9 " , only small portions of the take 20 coda are heard in the final mix ; most prominent from take 20 are Lennon 's multiple screams of " right " and " alright " , and around a minute near the end featuring Ono 's lines up to " you become naked " .
On 21 June , the first part of take 20 received several overdubs and became officially titled " Revolution 1 " . The overdubs included a lead guitar line by Harrison and a brass section of two trumpets and four trombones . Final stereo mixing was completed on 25 June . The final mix included the hurried announcement of " take two " by Geoff Emerick at the beginning of the song .
= = = Revolution ( single version ) = = =
Lennon wanted " Revolution 1 " to be the next Beatles single , but McCartney was reluctant to invite controversy , and argued along with Harrison that the track was too slow for a single . Lennon persisted , and rehearsals for a faster and louder re @-@ make began on 9 July ; recording started the following day . This proved an immense success .
The song begins with " a startling machine @-@ gun fuzz guitar riff " , with Lennon and Harrison 's guitars prominent throughout the track . The distorted guitar sound was achieved by direct injection of the guitar signal into the mixing console . Emerick later explained that he routed the signal through two microphone preamplifiers in series while keeping the amount of overload just below the point of overheating the console . Lennon overdubbed the opening scream , and double @-@ tracked some of the words " so roughly that its careless spontaneity becomes a point in itself " , according to author Ian MacDonald .
" Revolution " was performed in a higher key , B major , compared to the A major of " Revolution 1 " , although the distortion changes the key slightly , leaving the song halfway between B ♭ and B. The " shoo @-@ bee @-@ do @-@ wop " backing vocals were omitted in the re @-@ make , and an instrumental break was added . " Revolution " was given a climactic end , as opposed to the fade out of " Revolution 1 " . For this version , Lennon unequivocally sang " count me out " . An electric piano overdub by Nicky Hopkins was added on 11 July , with final overdubs on 13 July and mono mixing on 15 July .
= = Release and reception = =
" Revolution " was released as the B @-@ side of the " Hey Jude " single in late August 1968 . In the US , the song peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The single was listed as a double @-@ sided number 1 in Australia , while " Revolution " topped New Zealand 's singles chart for one week , following " Hey Jude " ' s five @-@ week run at number 1 there . " Revolution 1 " was released on The Beatles in late November 1968 . It was the opening track on side four of the LP , four spots ahead of the companion piece " Revolution 9 " .
" Revolution " later appeared on the 1970 US compilation album Hey Jude , the first time the song was issued in stereo . Lennon disliked the stereo mix , saying in a 1974 interview that the mono mix of " Revolution " was a " heavy record " but " then they made it into a piece of ice cream ! " The song was released on other compilations , including 1967 – 1970 and Past Masters . It was remixed for the 2006 soundtrack album Love , appearing in full length on the DVD @-@ Audio version and as a shortened edit on other versions .
Music journalist Greil Marcus noted that the political critics had overlooked the music ; he wrote that while " there is sterility and repression in the lyrics " , the " freedom and movement in the music ... dodges the message and comes out in front . " Among later music critics , Dave Marsh included " Revolution " in his 1989 book covering the 1001 greatest singles , describing it as a " gem " with a " ferocious fuzztone rock and roll attack " and a " snarling " Lennon vocal . Writing for AllMusic , Richie Unterberger called " Revolution " one of the Beatles ' " greatest , most furious rockers " with " challenging , fiery lyrics " where the listener 's " heart immediately starts pounding before Lennon goes into the first verse " .
= = = Political reception = = =
Politically , the release of " Revolution " prompted immediate responses from the New Left and counterculture press . Ramparts branded it a " betrayal " , and the New Left Review said the song was " a lamentable petty bourgeois cry of fear " . The far left contrasted " Revolution " with a song by the Rolling Stones that was inspired by similar events and released around the same time : " Street Fighting Man " was perceived to be more supportive of their cause . Others on the left praised the Beatles for rejecting radicalism and advocating " pacifist idealism " . The song 's apparent scepticism about revolution caused Lennon to become the target of a few minority Trotskyist , Leninist and in particular Maoist groups .
The far right remained suspicious of the Beatles , saying they were moderate subversives who were " warning the Maoists not to ' blow ' the revolution by pushing too hard " . As further evidence of group 's supposed " pro @-@ Soviet " sentiments , the John Birch Society magazine cited another song on the White Album , " Back in the U.S.S.R. " Anti @-@ communist and far @-@ right groups also picked on the track " Piggies " , which was about social class and corporate greed .
= = Promotional clips = =
Filming for promotional clips of " Hey Jude " and " Revolution " took place on 4 September 1968 under the direction of Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg . Two finished clips of " Revolution " were produced , with only lighting differences and other minor variations . The Beatles sang the vocals live over the pre @-@ recorded instrumental track from the single version . Their vocals included elements from " Revolution 1 " : McCartney and Harrison sang the " shoo @-@ bee @-@ doo @-@ wap " backing vocals , and Lennon sang " count me out , in " . Lennon also substituted " we 'd all love " for " we all want " in the opening verse . Later it was correctly pointed out that a track of Lennon 's voice is in fact playing in the background during the performance and can be heard quite noticeably at the end of the song when he fails to shout out his last and most explosive " All right " . Instead , the shout is heard from the soundtrack after he has already stopped singing and backed away from the microphone .
While the " Hey Jude " clip debuted on David Frost 's ITV television programme , the " Revolution " clip was first broadcast on the BBC1 programme Top of the Pops on 19 September 1968 . The first US screening of " Revolution " was on the 13 October 1968 broadcast of The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour . The promo clip is included in the three @-@ disc versions , titled 1 + , of the Beatles ' 2015 video compilation 1 .
= = Personnel = =
Revolution
John Lennon – vocal , lead guitar , handclaps , scream
Paul McCartney – bass guitar , Hammond organ , handclaps
George Harrison – lead guitar , handclaps
Ringo Starr – drums , handclaps
Nicky Hopkins – electric piano
Revolution 1
John Lennon – lead vocal , acoustic guitar , lead guitar
Paul McCartney – bass guitar , piano , organ , backing vocals
George Harrison – lead guitar , backing vocals
Ringo Starr – drums
Francie Schwartz - backing vocals
Derek Watkins and Freddy Clayton – trumpets
Don Lang , Rex Morris , J. Power , and Bill Povey – trombones
Personnel per Ian MacDonald
= = Use in Nike advertisement = =
In 1987 , " Revolution " became the first Beatles recording to be licensed for use in a television commercial . Nike paid $ 500 @,@ 000 for the right to use the song for one year , split between recording owner Capitol @-@ EMI and song publisher ATV Music Publishing ( owned by Michael Jackson ) . Commercials using the song started airing in March 1987 .
The three surviving Beatles , through their record company Apple , filed a lawsuit in July 1987 objecting to Nike 's use of the song . The suit was aimed at Nike , its advertising agency Wieden + Kennedy , and Capitol @-@ EMI Records . Capitol @-@ EMI said the lawsuit was groundless because they had licensed the use of " Revolution " with the " active support and encouragement of Yoko Ono Lennon , a shareholder and director of Apple " . Ono had expressed approval when the commercial was released , saying the commercial " is making John 's music accessible to a new generation " .
The " Revolution " lawsuit and others involving the Beatles and EMI were settled out of court in November 1989 , with the terms kept secret . The financial website TheStreet.com included the Nike " Revolution " advertisement campaign in its list of the 100 key business events of the 20th century , as it helped " commodify dissent " .
= = Cover versions = =
= = = Thompson Twins version = = =
Thompson Twins covered " Revolution " on their 1985 album Here 's to Future Days , from which it was released as the fourth and final single . The song peaked at number 56 in the UK , spending five weeks on the chart . The band made a promotional video for the single version of the song . The B @-@ side , " The Fourth Sunday " , was exclusive to this single .
Thompson Twins also performed the song with Madonna and Nile Rodgers at Live Aid in July 1985 .
= = = = Formats = = = =
7 " UK vinyl single ( 1985 ) Arista TWINS 10
Side A
" Revolution " – 3 : 23
Side B
" The Fourth Sunday " – 4 : 18
12 " UK vinyl single ( 1985 ) Arista TWINS 1210
Side One
" Revolution " ( Extended Mix ) – 6 : 25
Side Two
" The Fourth Sunday " – 4 : 18
12 " UK vinyl single ( 1985 ) Arista TWINS 2210
Side One
" Revolution " ( Remix ) – 6 : 00
Side Two
" The Fourth Sunday " – 4 : 18
= = = = Chart performance = = = =
= = = = Official versions = = = =
= = = = Personnel = = = =
Tom Bailey – vocals , piano , Fairlight , synthesizers , guitar , contrabass , Fairlight and drum programming
Alannah Currie – lyrics , marimba , backing vocals , acoustic drums , percussion , tuned percussion
Joe Leeway – backing vocals , congas , percussion
Steve Stevens – additional guitar
Produced by Nile Rodgers and Tom Bailey
Mixed by James Farber
Mixed at Skyline Studio , NYC
Photography – Rebecca Blake
Artwork / Design – Andie Airfix , Satori
Art Direction – Alannah
= = = Stone Temple Pilots version = = =
In October 2001 , Stone Temple Pilots performed " Revolution " live during Come Together : A Night for John Lennon 's Words and Music , a television special in tribute to Lennon that raised funds for victims of the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center . After their performance received significant radio airplay , the group recorded a studio version of the song , which was released as a single in November 2001 . The song reached number 30 on the US Mainstream Rock Tracks chart .
= Furtum =
Furtum was a delict of Roman law comparable to the modern offence of theft ( as it is usually translated ) despite being a civil and not criminal wrong . In the classical law and later , it denoted the contrectatio ( “ handling ” ) of most types of property with a particular sort of intention – fraud and in the later law , a view to gain . It is unclear whether a view to gain was always required or added later , and , if the latter , when . This meant that the owner did not consent , although Justinian broadened this in at least one case . The law of furtum protected a variety of property interests , but not land , things without an owner , or types of state or religious things . An owner could commit theft by taking his things back in certain circumstances , as could a borrower or similar user through misuse .
The Romans distinguished between " manifest " and " non @-@ manifest theft " based on how close to the scene of the crime the thief was caught , although exactly where the line was debated by jurists . Under the Twelve Tables , death or flogging could be expected for a manifest thief , later changed to damages of four times the thing . The penalty for non @-@ manifest theft was two times . There were complementary actions against the occupier of the property where the stolen goods were found , if the defendant did not bring the thing to court or refused a search . Vindicatio or condictio could also be undertaken by the owner of the thing , in addition to an action under furtum .
= = Contrectatio = =
Contrectatio meant " handling " and was established as the prohibited action associated with furtum before the end of the republic . Furtum had in the early and mid @-@ Republic required the carrying away of a thing . This was widened and there are several examples from the classical Rome and later where it is even hard to find physical contact in any sense . Contrectatio extended to dealing with the thing as if the owner , and " physical interference " can be considered a more accurate term than just touching . The idea of furtum , and conrectatio in particular , broadened during the republic to complement the narrowly defined Lex Aquilia . This did , for example , include using a borrowed thing in a way which went beyond that agreed with the lender ( furtum usus ) , such as borrowing a horse and riding it for longer than agreed . During the Republic , no distinction was made in language between furtum usus and furtum in general . Contrectio included what might be thought of as fraud : knowingly accepting a wrongful payment , or embezzlement , for example . The case of wrongful payment is problematic , because a mistaken payment still transferred ownership ; it seems contradictory that the receiver was granted ownership and still liable for theft . To accept a thing as a pledge knowing that it did not belong to the pledgor was also furtum – not merely acting as an accomplice . Plautus , a playwright , suggests that failing to report a theft after the fact was furtum , but this should not be assumed . The development of contrectio as the preferred prohibited act accompanied that of the criminal law , the actio doli ( for fraud ) and the Aquilian actions .
An accomplice could be sued if he had provided help ope consilio – a physical act relating to the method of execution , rather than mere encouragement . It appears that Labeo was the first to require help or advice , and earlier sources suggest that both help and advice was required . Labeo 's version was certainly entrenched by the early second century AD . An accomplice was treated as if he himself had committed the crime . Only one person needed to have handled the thing for all wrongdoers to be liable . Republican jurists were harder on accomplices than later jurists under the empire . Indeed , Ulpian considers the unwitting accomplice , who accidentally knocks out of the victim 's hand some coins which are then stolen , an accomplice to the theft . Some commentators have gone as far to say that the veteres ( " ancients " ) may not have even required a third party to remove the coins , as long as they were otherwise lost to the owner .
= = Requisite intent = =
The requisite intention ( sometimes described as " animus furandi " ) was a fraud ( fraudulosa ) . The act had to be against the will of the owner . The prospective thief also had to believe that he did not have the owner 's consent . This is confirmed in Gaius in the case of the slave who alerts his master to the fact that he has been bribed by another to steal from his master . The owner now consents to the thief 's appropriation so he can be caught in the act , and therefore prevents the crime actually occurring . Justinian , however , reverses this distinction for public policy reasons , and thus creates rather an anomaly . The acts had to be done deliberately , not merely negligently .
Intention to make a gain was probably necessary in Justinian 's time . It is thought that this was the case during classical Rome , as well : an example of Gaius is quoted in the Digest , and implies so ; Sabinus is quoted by Gellius as including such a condition . It is not entirely clear , however . This rule complements the existence of damnum iniuria datum . In a notable example , a man , acting dishonestly , calls a mule @-@ driver to court frivolously , which caused the mules to be lost . Although this was classed as theft , there is no obvious intention to make a gain . This may have been because if the mules were lost , they had necessarily been stolen by someone . That being the case , the perpetrator could be held as an accomplice . Damnum iniuria datum focussed on wrongful damage to property . It is then , in form , more appropriate an action than furtum in cases where a loss has been caused , although the penalty nature of furtum did mean it could result in a higher payment .
Infantes ( young children ) and furiosi ( " lunatics " ) were considered incapable of formulating the necessary intention and could therefore not commit furtum .
= = Protected interests = =
The thing must be movable , if it is to be stolen . Whilst an immovable thing cannot be carried away , the pre @-@ classical extension to other types of interference with property means that immovable were not by their nature excluded . Gaius indicates that certain veteres ( " ancients " ) believed that land could be stolen . This was also the view of Sabinus , but it was rejected by other classical jurists . A thing separated from the land could be stolen , however . Usucapio was particularly important with regard to land , and therefore the exclusion may have be retained to help the good faith possessor of land to usucapt . Res sanctae and religiosia were covered by separate delicts ; and one could not steal a res nullius . One can commit furtum of one 's own property , for example by taking back a thing pledged to a creditor , or by secretly reclaiming one 's own thing from a good faith possessor . Free persons could also be stolen , for example , children ; a wife in manu ; indicati and auctorati . This was probably a hang @-@ over from a time when dominium ( ownership ) , manus and potestas were indistinct and not formally separate . Res hereditariae could not be stolen , perhaps for want of a suitable plaintiff with a sufficient interest .
The general rule was that anyone with an interest in the safety of the thing stolen may sue . It could be that the owner did not have a sufficient interest to bring an action . If one person had a positive right in a thing , such as a pledgee , usufructory , or good faith possessor , both he and the owner could sue . The unsecured creditor could not . Those obliged by contract to return the thing , and other forms of " negative interest " , had an action available at the expense of owner . This was only true so long as the person obliged was solvent – that is , under a real risk of losing out by a theft . If the person obliged was insolvent , the owner would have an action instead . The plaintiff with a negative interest was precluded from an action if it was by his own fault ( dolus ) , or other dishonest . The lower standard of care required of a depositee meant he could not be sued by a depositor , and so had no action available for furtum . A vendor , who had agreed a price but not delivered his thing , retained legal ownership of the thing . Thus if the thing was stolen , the vendor had the action on the theft because he was liable to the purchaser .
= = Applicable actions = =
There were several possible actions available to the claimant . In the typical theft , the damages were a multiple of the value of the thing stolen , available through the actio furti . A subsequent rise in the value of the thing stolen whilst the claim was being brought was borne by the defendant , if found liable . If part of a thing was stolen , probably the value of that part . A successful action for theft brought with it infamia for the thief . If the claimant had an interest short of ownership , then the value of that interest formed the basis for the damages instead . An heir of the claimant could sue , but the heir of a thief was not liable . Some types of theft were criminal wrongs by the end
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nier M.S.406 and Fiat G.50 aircraft .
1944 also saw the return of the HZL fighter squadron to the NDH from service on the Eastern Front . It was redesignated Kroat . JGr 1 and its operational fighter squadron was redesignated 2 . / ( Kroat . ) JGr . Soon after arrival 2 . / ( Kroat . ) JGr sent its ZNDH pilots to collect 12 brand new Macchi C.202 fighters direct from the plant near Milan in Italy . The Italian designed and built Macchi C.202 fighter was the first up @-@ to @-@ date fighter available to the ZNDH . These aircraft retained their Luftwaffe markings whilst in service with the unit . A second training / operational conversion squadron was also formed , designated 3 . / ( Kroat . ) JGr and equipped with Fiat G.50 , Macchi C.200 and Fiat CR.42 fighters . After a period of operational conversion , the squadron commenced operations against the frequent incursions over the NDH by USAAF and RAF aircraft . During a period of intensive activity over the summer of 1944 , the squadron claimed some 20 Allied aircraft shot down , while at the same time receiving six further Macchi C.202s , as well as four brand new Macchi C.205s.
The ZNDH 's long obsolete Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 and Fiat G.50 fighter aircraft also attempted to intercept the USAAF bomber formations , often stressing their old engines beyond the limit . They were no match for the escorting Mustang and Thunderbolt USAAF fighters and suffered heavy losses , both in the air and on the ground .
By the end of 1944 the HZL squadron had handed in its remaining worn @-@ out Macchis for brand new German Messerschmitt Bf 109G & K fighters . A total of 21 Bf 109s had been delivered to the ZNDH by year 's end .
Allied aircraft specifically started targeting ZNDH and Luftwaffe bases and aircraft for the first time as a result of the Seventh anti @-@ Partisan Offensive , including Operation Rösselsprung in late May 1944 . Until then Axis aircraft could fly inland almost at will as long as they remained at low altitude . Partisan units on the ground frequently complained about enemy aircraft attacking them while hundreds of Allied aircraft flew above at higher altitude . This changed during Rösselsprung as Allied fighter @-@ bombers went low en @-@ masse for the first time , establishing full aerial superiority . Consequently , both the ZNDH and Luftwaffe were forced to limit their operations in clear weather to early morning and late afternoon hours .
In June , the ZNDH finally received from Germany the long @-@ promised airdrop containers for aerial resupply of ammunition and other equipment , constantly in need by besieged and encircled garrisons all over the NDH . They were immediately put to good use and eased the work of the already overstretched ZNDH . The Dornier Do 17s of the ZNDH proved to be especially well suited for such tasks . June also saw Kren returned to his previous position as head of the ZNDH .
Toward the end of June , the ZNDH received the first of 22 Bücker Bü 181 Bestmann aircraft . The 19th and 20th Transport Squadrons received five each , with the remainder issued to the 1st Pilot School . Besides liaison duties , they were used to transport fresh meat from Bosnia to Zagreb , where there was a food shortage .
Fifteen Ju 87D dive bombers and a few Ju 87R @-@ 2 extended range dive bombers are known to have been supplied to the HZL , and six of these were flown operationally against Soviet troops in the late summer of 1944 .
In the second half of 1944 , the situation on all fronts rapidly worsened for the Axis forces . Soviet , Bulgarian and Partisan armies had liberated the whole eastern part of Yugoslavia and Partisan forces in Bosnia pressed their attacks on even larger Axis garrisons . In a surprise attack on 20 September , they captured the city of Banja Luka and the ZNDH 's airbase at Zaluzani airfield , including 11 unserviceable aircraft . In the total confusion during the attack on the airfield , a number of ZNDH crews managed to take off and escape at the last moment , some even starting their take off runs when barely clear of open hangar doors , using suppressing fire provided by their machine @-@ gun turrets , whilst others took off under heavy Partisan fire . The city and airbase were re @-@ taken several days later in a heavy counter @-@ attack by NDH and German troops .
The Germans also continued to supply second @-@ line aircraft to the ZNDH , including between nine and 12 exotic Fieseler Fi 167 biplane torpedo bombers . These had been originally designed and intended for use aboard the German aircraft carrier Graf Zeppelin , which was never completed . After that they were sold to the NDH , where their short @-@ field and load @-@ carrying abilities made them ideal not only for attack missions , but also for transporting ammunition and other supplies to besieged army garrisons . Many of these missions were flown between their arrival in September 1944 and the end of the War ( under the right conditions , the aircraft could descend almost vertically ) . During one such mission , near Sisak on 10 October 1944 , an Fi 167 of the ZNDH was attacked by five P @-@ 51 Mustang Mk IIIs of 213 Squadron RAF . The crew of the Fieseler ( piloted by an ex @-@ HZL eight @-@ kill Flying ace ) , exploiting the aircraft 's extreme maneuverability to the fullest , had the distinction of shooting down one of the Mustangs before itself being shot down ; possibly one of the last biplane " kills " of the war .
= = = 1945 = = =
1944 had been a catastrophic year for the ZNDH . Aircraft losses amounted to 234 , primarily on the ground , and it entered 1945 with 196 machines , including 17 Messerschmitt Bf 109Gs , 12 Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406s , seven Fiat G.50s and two Fiat CR.42 fighters and some 30 multi @-@ engined bombers , although shortages of fuel had begun to hamper operations .
Further deliveries of new aircraft from Germany continued in the early months of 1945 to replace losses . Some 39 by the end of March . These included , in addition to regular Messerschmitt Bf 109G deliveries , the final dozen Dornier Do 17 medium bombers in January . In March , despite losses of 15 Bf 109G & Ks , ten Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 , three Fiat CR.42 and two Fiat G.50 , the ZNDH 's fighter force included 23 Messerschmitt Bf 109G & Ks , three Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 , six Fiat G.50 and two Messerschmitt Bf 110G fighters . With the Bf 109G the ZNDH were finally able to face the USAAF and RAF on equal terms , with two squadrons equipped with the type from late 1944 . The ZNDH still had 176 aircraft on its strength in April 1945 .
The Dornier Do 17 medium bombers of the ZNDH were still hitting back when and where they could and on 31 December 1944 a Dornier Do 17E attacked an RAF 148 Squadron Handley Page Halifax bomber on the ground at the Partisan airfield at Grabovnica near Čazma , destroying it with bombs . On 10 February 1945 , after a bridge @-@ busting sortie on the Drava river , a single ZNDH Dornier Do 17Z caught 1 . Zagorska Brigada ( 1st Zagorje Brigade ) marching in the open near Daruvar . The Yugoslav Partisans ( by now known as the Jugoslovenska Armija - Yugoslav Army ) unit suffered some two dozen casualties . Late in the afternoon of 30 March , four Dornier Do 17Z bombers , escorted by four Bf 109G fighters attacked Jugoslovenska Armija positions near Gospić . On 15 April 1945 , a force made up of a Dornier Do 17Z , escorted by two Bf 109Gs destroyed two Partisan aircraft at their airfield at Sanski Most .
Despite these attacking raids , with the outcome of the war by now quite obvious , defections of ZNDH personnel and aircraft to the Allies and Partisans intensified , including two Bf 109s to Italy on 16 April and a further two Messerschmitts to the Partisans in Mostar on 20 April .
The last fighter delivery took place on 23 April 1945 . It was also on this day that the final Croatian kills were scored when an ex @-@ HZL 16 @-@ kill ace and his wingman claimed two RAF P @-@ 51 Mustangs shot down in their Bf 109Gs , one of which was confirmed . The last attack mission was flown on 6 May , when two ancient Rogožarski R @-@ 100 fighter trainers bombed the railway bridge over the Kupa River in an effort to stop the Partisan advance on Karlovac , south of Zagreb . One of the Yugoslav @-@ built parasol wing aircraft was hit by ground fire and the pilot crash @-@ landed near his target . He was captured and shot on the spot .
That evening , with Partisan forces advancing upon the NDH capital of Zagreb , the commanding officer of the ZNDH fighter group gathered together his men at Zagreb 's Lucko airfield and released them from their oath of loyalty and announced that each was free to go . Some flew their aircraft and crews , including several Dornier Do 17s and a CANT Z.1007 to Italy and the Allied forces there . Some flew their aircraft over to the Partisans , including several light aircraft and some Bf 109s , whilst others , also including Bf 109s , as well as at least one Dornier Do @-@ 17Z , a Messerschmitt Bf 110G @-@ 2 , a Bristol Blenheim I and a Yugoslav @-@ designed and built Zmaj Fizir FP @-@ 2 sought sanctuary at Klagenfurt in Austria .
The four @-@ year campaign of the ZNDH , during which it had on its charge at one time or another some 650 aircraft , thus ended with the capture of the airbases around Zagreb on 8 May 1945 and the ZNDH ceased to exist . Its colourful collection of often vintage aircraft , scattered on deserted airfields , received new markings , a red star , and formed the basis of the new Yugoslav Air Force .
= = Ranks = =
= = Commanders = =
Vladimir Kren ( 1941 – 1943 )
Adalbert Rogulja ( 1943 – 1944 )
Vladimir Kren ( 1944 – 1945 )
= = Service types = =
= = Journal = =
The ZNDH published a weekly journal called Hrvatska Krila ( Croatian Wings ) .
= Sumatran rhinoceros =
The Sumatran rhinoceros , also known as the hairy rhinoceros or Asian two @-@ horned rhinoceros ( Dicerorhinus sumatrensis ) , is a rare member of the family Rhinocerotidae and one of five extant rhinoceroses . It is the only extant species of the genus Dicerorhinus . It is the smallest rhinoceros , although it is still a large mammal ; it stands 112 – 145 cm ( 3 @.@ 67 – 4 @.@ 76 ft ) high at the shoulder , with a head @-@ and @-@ body length of 2 @.@ 36 – 3 @.@ 18 m ( 7 @.@ 7 – 10 @.@ 4 ft ) and a tail of 35 – 70 cm ( 14 – 28 in ) . The weight is reported to range from 500 to 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 to 2 @,@ 200 lb ) , averaging 700 – 800 kg ( 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 800 lb ) , although there is a single record of a 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) specimen . Like both African species , it has two horns ; the larger is the nasal horn , typically 15 – 25 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) , while the other horn is typically a stub . A coat of reddish @-@ brown hair covers most of the Sumatran rhino 's body .
Members of the species once inhabited rainforests , swamps , and cloud forests in India , Bhutan , Bangladesh , Myanmar , Laos , Thailand , Malaysia , Indonesia , and China . In historical times , they lived in southwest China , particularly in Sichuan . They are now critically endangered , with only five substantial populations in the wild : four on Sumatra and one on Borneo . Their numbers are difficult to determine because they are solitary animals that are widely scattered across their range , but they are estimated to number fewer than 100 . Survival of the Peninsular Malaysia population is in doubt , and one of the Sumatran populations may already be extinct . Total numbers today may be as low as 80 . In 2015 , researchers announced that the Bornean rhinoceros had become extinct from the northern part of Borneo ( Sabah , Malaysia ) ; however , a new population was discovered in East Kalimantan in early 2016 .
The Sumatran rhino is a mostly solitary animal except for courtship and offspring @-@ rearing . It is the most vocal rhino species and also communicates through marking soil with its feet , twisting saplings into patterns , and leaving excrement . The species is much better studied than the similarly reclusive Javan rhinoceros , in part because of a program that brought 40 Sumatran rhinos into captivity with the goal of preserving the species . The program was considered a disaster even by its initiator ; most of the rhinos died and no offspring were produced for nearly 20 years , representing an even worse population decline than in the wild . In March 2016 , a Sumatran rhinoceros was spotted in Indonesian Borneo .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The first documented Sumatran rhinoceros was shot 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) outside Fort Marlborough , near the west coast of Sumatra , in 1793 . Drawings of the animal , and a written description , were sent to the naturalist Joseph Banks , then president of the Royal Society of London , who published a paper on the specimen that year . In 1814 , the species was given a scientific name by Johann Fischer von Waldheim , a German scientist and curator of the State Darwin Museum in Moscow , Russia .
The scientific name Dicerorhinus sumatrensis comes from the Greek terms di ( δι , meaning " two " ) , cero ( κέρας , meaning " horn " ) , and rhinos ( ρινος , meaning " nose " ) . Sumatrensis signifies " of Sumatra " , the Indonesian island where the rhinos were first discovered . Carl Linnaeus originally classified all rhinos in the genus , Rhinoceros ; therefore , the species was originally identified as Rhinoceros sumatrensis or sumatranus . Joshua Brookes considered the Sumatran rhinoceros , with its two horns , a distinct genus from the one @-@ horned Rhinoceros , and gave it the name Didermocerus in 1828 . Constantin Wilhelm Lambert Gloger proposed the name Dicerorhinus in 1841 . In 1868 , John Edward Gray proposed the name Ceratorhinus . Normally , the oldest name would be used , but a 1977 ruling by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature established the proper genus name as Dicerorhinus .
The three subspecies are :
D. s. sumatrensis , known as the Western Sumatran rhinoceros , which has only 75 to 85 rhinos remaining , mostly in the national parks of Bukit Barisan Selatan and Gunung Leuser in Sumatra , but also in Way Kambas National Park in small numbers . They have recently gone extinct in Peninsular Malaysia . The main threats against this subspecies are habitat loss and poaching . A slight genetic difference is noted between the Western Sumatran and Bornean rhinos . The rhinos in the Malaysian Peninsular were once known as D. s. niger , but were later recognized to be a synonym of D. s. sumatrensis . Three males and four females currently live in captivity at the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary at Way Kambas , the youngest male having been bred and born there in 2012 . Another calf , a female , was born at the sanctuary in May 2016 . The sanctuary 's two males were born at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden .
D. s. harrissoni , known as the Bornean Rhinoceros or Eastern Sumatran rhinoceros , which was once common throughout Borneo ; now , only about 15 individuals are estimated to survive . The known population lives in East Kalimantan , with them having recently gone extinct in Sabah . Reports of animals surviving in Sarawak are unconfirmed . This subspecies is named after Tom Harrisson , who worked extensively with Bornean zoology and anthropology in the 1960s . The Bornean subspecies is markedly smaller than the other two . The captive population consists of one male and two females at the Borneo Rhinoceros Sanctuary in Sabah .
D. s. lasiotis , known as the Northern Sumatran rhinoceros or Chittagong rhinoceros , which once roamed India and Bangladesh , but has been declared extinct in these countries . Unconfirmed reports suggest a small population may still survive in Burma , but the political situation in that country has prevented verification . The name lasiotis is derived from the Greek for " hairy @-@ ears " . Later studies showed that their ear @-@ hair was not longer than other Sumatran rhinos , but D. s. lasiotis remained a subspecies because it was significantly larger than the other subspecies .
= = = Evolution = = =
Ancestral rhinoceroses first diverged from other perissodactyls in the Early Eocene . Mitochondrial DNA comparison suggests the ancestors of modern rhinos split from the ancestors of Equidae around 50 million years ago . The extant family , the Rhinocerotidae , first appeared in the Late Eocene in Eurasia , and the ancestors of the extant rhino species dispersed from Asia beginning in the Miocene .
The Sumatran rhinoceros is considered the least derived of the extant species , as it shares more traits with its Miocene ancestors . Paleontological evidence in the fossil record dates the genus Dicerorhinus to the Early Miocene , 23 – 16 million years ago . Many fossils have been classified as members of Dicerorhinus , but no other recent species are in the genus . Molecular dating suggests the split of Dicerorhinus from the four other extant species as far back as 25 @.@ 9 ± 1 @.@ 9 million years . Three hypotheses have been proposed for the relationship between the Sumatran rhinoceros and the other living species . One hypothesis suggests the Sumatran rhinoceros is closely related to the black and white rhinos in Africa , evidenced by the species having two horns , instead of one . Other taxonomists regard the Sumatran rhinoceros as a sister taxon of the Indian and Javan rhinoceros because their ranges overlap so closely . A third hypothesis , based on more recent analyses , however , suggests that the two African rhinos , the two Asian rhinos , and the Sumatran rhinoceros represent three essentially separate lineages that split around 25 @.@ 9 million years ago ; which group diverged first remains unclear .
Because of morphological similarities , the Sumatran rhinoceros is believed to be closely related to the extinct woolly rhinoceros ( Coelodonta antiquitatis ) . The woolly rhinoceros , so named for the coat of hair it shares with the Sumatran rhinoceros , first appeared in China ; by the Upper Pleistocene , it ranged across the Eurasian continent from Korea to Spain . The woolly rhinoceros survived the last Ice Age , but , like the woolly mammoth , most or all became extinct around 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Although some morphological studies questioned the relationship , recent molecular analysis has supported the two species as sister taxa .
= = Description = =
A mature Sumatran rhino stands about 120 – 145 cm ( 3 @.@ 94 – 4 @.@ 76 ft ) high at the shoulder , has a body length of around 250 cm ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , and weighs 500 – 800 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 800 lb ) , though the largest individuals in zoos have been known to weigh as much as 2 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) . Like the African species , it has two horns . The larger is the nasal horn , typically only 15 – 25 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) , though the longest recorded specimen was much longer at 81 cm ( 32 in ) . The posterior horn is much smaller , usually less than 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , and often little more than a knob . The larger nasal horn is also known as the anterior horn ; the smaller posterior horn is known as the frontal horn . The horns are dark grey or black in color . The males have larger horns than the females , though the species is not otherwise sexually dimorphic . The Sumatran rhino lives an estimated 30 – 45 years in the wild , while the record time in captivity is a female D. lasiotis , which lived for 32 years and 8 months before dying in the London Zoo in 1900 .
Two thick folds of skin encircle the body behind the front legs and before the hind legs . The rhino has a smaller fold of skin around its neck . The skin itself is thin , 10 – 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 63 in ) , and in the wild , the rhino appears to have no subcutaneous fat . Hair can range from dense ( the most dense hair in young calves ) to scarce , and is usually a reddish @-@ brown . In the wild , this hair is hard to observe because the rhinos are often covered in mud . In captivity , however , the hair grows out and becomes much shaggier , likely because of less abrasion from walking through vegetation . The rhino has a patch of long hair around its ears and a thick clump of hair at the end of its tail . Like all rhinos , they have very poor vision . The Sumatran rhinoceros is fast and agile ; it climbs mountains easily and comfortably traverses steep slopes and riverbanks .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Sumatran rhinoceros lives in both lowland and highland secondary rainforest , swamps , and cloud forests . It inhabits hilly areas close to water , particularly steep upper valleys with copious undergrowth . The Sumatran rhinoceros once inhabited a continuous range as far north as Burma , eastern India , and Bangladesh . Unconfirmed reports also placed it in Cambodia , Laos , and Vietnam . All known living animals occur in Peninsular Malaysia , the island of Sumatra , and Sabah , Borneo . Some conservationists hope Sumatran rhinos may still survive in Burma , though it is considered unlikely . Political turmoil in Burma has prevented any assessment or study of possible survivors . The last reports of stray animals from Indian limits were in 1990s .
The Sumatran rhino is widely scattered across its range , much more so than the other Asian rhinos , which has made it difficult for conservationists to protect members of the species effectively . Only five areas are known to contain Sumatran rhinoceros : Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park , Gunung Leuser National Park , and Way Kambas National Park on Sumatra ; Danum Valley in Sabah , Malaysia , on the island of Borneo , and on Indonesian Borneo west of Samarindah .
The Kerinci Seblat National Park , Sumatra 's largest , was estimated to contain a population of around 500 rhinos in the 1980s , but due to poaching , this population is now considered extinct . The survival of any animals in Peninsula Malaysia is extremely unlikely .
Genetic analysis of Sumatran rhino populations has identified three distinct genetic lineages . The channel between Sumatra and Malaysia was not as significant a barrier for the rhinos as the Barisan Mountains along the length of Sumatra , for rhinos in eastern Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia are more closely related than the rhinos on the other side of the mountains in western Sumatra . In fact , the eastern Sumatra and Malaysia rhinos show so little genetic variance , the populations were likely not separate during the Pleistocene , when sea levels were much lower and Sumatra formed part of the mainland . Both populations of Sumatra and Malaysia , however , are close enough genetically that interbreeding would not be problematic . The rhinos of Borneo are sufficiently distinct that conservation geneticists have advised against crossing their lineages with the other populations . Conservation geneticists have recently begun to study the diversity of the gene pool within these populations by identifying microsatellite loci . The results of initial testing found levels of variability within Sumatran rhino populations comparable to those in the population of the less endangered African rhinos , but the genetic diversity of Sumatran rhinos is an area of continuing study .
Although the rhino had been thought to be extinct in Kalimantan since the 1990s , in March 2013 World Wildlife Fund ( WWF ) announced that the team when monitoring orangutan activity found in West Kutai Regency , East Kalimantan , several fresh rhino foot trails , mud holes , traces of rhino @-@ rubbed trees , traces of rhino horns on the walls of mud holes , and rhino bites on small branches . The team also identified that rhinos ate more than 30 species of plants . On 2 October 2013 , video images made with camera traps showing the Sumatran rhino in Kutai Barat , Kalimantan , were released by the World Wildlife Fund . Experts assume the videos show two different animals , but aren 't quite certain . According to the Indonesia 's Minister of Forestry , Zulkifli Hasan called the video evidence " very important " and mentioned Indonesia 's " target of rhino population growth by three percent per year " . On 22 March 2016 it was announced by the WWF that a live Sumatran Rhino was found in Kalimantan ; it was the first contact in over 40 years . The rhino , a female , is being transported to a nearby sanctuary .
= = Behaviour = =
Sumatran rhinoceroses are solitary creatures except for pairing before mating and during offspring rearing . Individuals have home ranges ; bulls have territories as large as 50 km2 ( 19 sq mi ) , whereas females ' ranges are 10 – 15 km2 ( 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 8 sq mi ) . The ranges of females appear to be spaced apart ; males ' ranges often overlap . No evidence indicates Sumatran rhinos defend their territories through fighting . Marking their territories is done by scraping soil with their feet , bending saplings into distinctive patterns , and leaving excrement . The Sumatran rhino is usually most active when eating , at dawn , and just after dusk . During the day , they wallow in mud baths to cool down and rest . In the rainy season , they move to higher elevations ; in the cooler months , they return to lower areas in their range . When mud holes are unavailable , the rhino will deepen puddles with its feet and horns . The wallowing behaviour helps the rhino maintain its body temperature and protect its skin from ectoparasites and other insects . Captive specimens , deprived of adequate wallowing , have quickly developed broken and inflamed skins , suppurations , eye problems , inflamed nails , and hair loss , and have eventually died . One 20 @-@ month study of wallowing behavior found they will visit no more than three wallows at any given time . After two to 12 weeks using a particular wallow , the rhino will abandon it . Typically , the rhino will wallow around midday for two to three hours at a time before venturing out for food . Although in zoos the Sumatran rhino has been observed wallowing less than 45 minutes a day , the study of wild animals found 80 – 300 minutes ( an average of 166 minutes ) per day spent in wallows .
There has been little opportunity to study epidemiology in the Sumatran rhinoceros . Ticks and gyrostigma were reported to cause deaths in captive animals in the 19th century . The rhino is also known to be vulnerable to the blood disease surra , which can be spread by horse @-@ flies carrying parasitic trypanosomes ; in 2004 , all five rhinos at the Sumatran Rhinoceros Conservation Centre died over an 18 @-@ day period after becoming infected by the disease . The Sumatran rhino has no known predators other than humans . Tigers and wild dogs may be capable of killing a calf , but calves stay close to their mothers , and the frequency of such killings is unknown . Although the rhino 's range overlaps with elephants and tapirs , the species do not appear to compete for food or habitat . Elephants ( Elephas maximus ) and Sumatran rhinos are even known to share trails , and many smaller species such as deer , boars , and wild dogs will use the trails the rhinos and elephants create .
The Sumatran rhino maintains trails across its range . These trails fall into two types . Main trails will be used by generations of rhinos to travel between important areas in the rhino 's range , such as between salt licks , or in corridors through inhospitable terrain that separates ranges . In feeding areas , the rhinos will make smaller trails , still covered by vegetation , to areas containing food the rhino eats . Sumatran rhino trails have been found that cross rivers deeper than 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) and about 50 m ( 160 ft ) across . The currents of these rivers are known to be strong , but the rhino is a strong swimmer . A relative absence of wallows near rivers in the range of the Sumatran rhinoceros indicates they may occasionally bathe in rivers in lieu of wallowing .
= = = Diet = = =
Most feeding occurs just before nightfall and in the morning . The Sumatran rhino is a browser , with a diet of young saplings , leaves , fruits , twigs , and shoots . The rhinos usually consume up to 50 kg ( 110 lb ) of food a day . Primarily by measuring dung samples , researchers have identified more than 100 food species consumed by the Sumatran rhinoceros . The largest portion of the diet is tree saplings with a trunk diameter of 1 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 in ) . The rhinoceros typically pushes these saplings over with its body , walking over the sapling without stepping on it , to eat the leaves . Many of the plant species the rhino consumes exist in only small portions , which indicates the rhino is frequently changing its diet and feeding in different locations . Among the most common plants the rhino eats are many species from the Euphorbiaceae , Rubiaceae , and Melastomataceae families . The most common species the rhino consumes is Eugenia .
The vegetal diet of the Sumatran rhinoceros is high in fiber and only moderate in protein . Salt licks are very important to the nutrition of the rhino . These licks can be small hot springs , seepages of salty water , or mud @-@ volcanoes . The salt licks also serve an important social purpose for the rhinos — males visit the licks to pick up the scent of females in oestrus . Some Sumatran rhinos , however , live in areas where salt licks are not readily available , or the rhinos have not been observed using the licks . These rhinos may get their necessary mineral requirements by consuming plants rich in minerals .
= = = Communication = = =
The Sumatran rhinoceros is the most vocal of the rhinoceros species . Observations of the species in zoos show the animal almost constantly vocalizing , and it is known to do so in the wild , as well . The rhino makes three distinct noises : eeps , whales , and whistle @-@ blows . The eep , a short , one @-@ second @-@ long yelp , is the most common sound . The whale , named for its similarity to vocalizations of the humpback whale , is the most song @-@ like vocalization and the second @-@ most common . The whale varies in pitch and lasts from four to seven seconds . The whistle @-@ blow is named because it consists of a two @-@ second @-@ long whistling noise and a burst of air in immediate succession . The whistle @-@ blow is the loudest of the vocalizations , loud enough to make the iron bars in the zoo enclosure where the rhinos were studied vibrate . The purpose of the vocalizations is unknown , though they are theorized to convey danger , sexual readiness , and location , as do other ungulate vocalizations . The whistle @-@ blow could be heard at a great distance , even in the dense brush in which the Sumatran rhino lives . A vocalization of similar volume from elephants has been shown to carry 9 @.@ 8 km ( 6 @.@ 1 mi ) and the whistle @-@ blow may carry as far . The Sumatran rhinoceros will sometimes twist the saplings they do not eat . This twisting behavior is believed to be used as a form of communication , frequently indicating a junction in a trail .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Females become sexually mature at the age of six to seven years , while males become sexually mature at about 10 years old . The gestation period is around 15 – 16 months . The calf , which typically weighs 40 – 60 kg ( 88 – 132 lb ) , is weaned after about 15 months and stays with its mother for the first two to three years of its life . In the wild , the birth interval for this species is estimated to be four to five years ; its natural offspring @-@ rearing behavior is unstudied .
The reproductive habits of the Sumatran rhinoceros have been studied in captivity . Sexual relationships begin with a courtship period characterized by increased vocalization , tail raising , urination , and increased physical contact , with both male and female using their snouts to bump the other in the head and genitals . The pattern of courtship is most similar to that of the black rhinoceros . Young Sumatran rhino males are often too aggressive with females , sometimes injuring and even killing them during the courtship . In the wild , the female could run away from an overly aggressive male , but in their smaller captive enclosures , they cannot ; this inability to escape aggressive males may partly contribute to the low success rate of captive @-@ breeding programs .
The period of oestrus itself , when the female is receptive to the male , lasts about 24 hours , and observations have placed its recurrence between 21 and 25 days . Rhinos in the Cincinnati Zoo have been observed copulating for 30 – 50 minutes , similar in length to other rhinos ; observations at the Sumatran Rhinoceros Conservation Centre in Malaysia have shown a briefer copulation cycle . As the Cincinnati Zoo has had successful pregnancies , and other rhinos also have lengthy copulatory periods , a lengthy rut may be the natural behavior . Though researchers observed successful conceptions , all these pregnancies ended in failure for a variety of reasons until the first successful captive birth in 2001 ; studies of these failures at the Cincinnati Zoo discovered the Sumatran rhino 's ovulation is induced by mating and it had unpredictable progesterone levels . Breeding success was finally achieved in 2001 , 2004 , and 2007 by providing a pregnant rhino with supplementary progestin . Recently , a calf was born in captivity of an endangered female in western Indonesia , only the fifth such birth in one and a quarter century .
= = Conservation = =
Sumatran rhinoceroses were once quite numerous throughout Southeast Asia . Fewer than 100 individuals are now estimated to remain . The species is classed as critically endangered ( primarily due to illegal poaching ) while the last survey in 2008 estimated that around 250 individuals survived . Until the early 1990s , the population decline was estimated at more than 50 % per decade , and the small , scattered populations now face high risks of inbreeding depression . Most remaining habitat is in relatively inaccessible mountainous areas of Indonesia .
Poaching of Sumatran rhinoceros is a cause for concern , as the price of its horn has been estimated as high as US $ 30 @,@ 000 per kilogram . This species has been overhunted for many centuries , leading to the current greatly reduced – and still declining – population . The rhinos are difficult to observe and hunt directly ( one field researcher spent seven weeks in a treehide near a salt lick without ever observing a rhino directly ) , so poachers make use of spear traps and pit traps . In the 1970s , uses of the rhinoceros 's body parts among the local people of Sumatra were documented , such as the use of rhino horns in amulets and a folk belief that the horns offer some protection against poison . Dried rhinoceros meat was used as medicine for diarrhea , leprosy , and tuberculosis . " Rhino oil " , a concoction made from leaving a rhino 's skull in coconut oil for several weeks , may be used to treat skin diseases . The extent of use and belief in these practices is not known . Rhinoceros horn was once believed to be widely used as an aphrodisiac ; in fact traditional Chinese medicine never used it for this purpose . Nevertheless , hunting in this species has primarily been driven by a demand for rhino horns with supposedly medicinal properties .
The rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia , which the Sumatran rhino inhabits , are also targets for legal and illegal logging because of the desirability of their hardwoods . Rare woods such as merbau , meranti and semaram are valuable on the international markets , fetching as much as $ 1 @,@ 800 per m3 ( $ 1 @,@ 375 per cu yd ) . Enforcement of illegal @-@ logging laws is difficult because humans live within or near many of the same forests as the rhino . The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake has been used to justify new logging . Although the hardwoods in the rainforests of the Sumatran rhino are destined for international markets and not widely used in domestic construction , the number of logging permits for these woods has increased dramatically because of the tsunami . However , while this species has been suggested to be highly sensitive to habitat disturbance , apparently it is of little importance compared to hunting , as it can withstand more or less any forest condition .
The Bornean rhino in Sabah was confirmed to be extinct in the wild in April 2015 , with only 3 individuals left in captivity .
The mainlaind Sumatran rhino in Malaysia was confirmed to be extinct in the wild in August 2015 .
In March 2016 there was a rare sighting of a Sumatran Rhino in Kalimantan , the Indonesian part of Borneo . The last time there was a Sumatran Rhino in the Kalimantan area was approximately 40 years ago . This optimism was met with despair as that very specific Sumatran Rhino was found dead several weeks later after the sighting . The reason of the death is currently unknown .
= = = In captivity = = =
Sumatran rhinoceroses do not thrive outside of their ecosystem . The London Zoo acquired a male and female in 1872 that had been captured in Chittagong in 1868 . The female named " Begum " survived until 1900 , the record lifetime for a captive rhino . Begum was one of at least seven specimens of the extinct subspecies D. s. lasiotis that were held in zoos and circuses . In 1972 , Subur , the only Sumatran rhino remaining in captivity , died at the Copenhagen Zoo .
Despite the species ' persistent lack of reproductive success , in the early 1980s , some conservation organizations began a captive @-@ breeding program for the Sumatran rhinoceros . Between 1984 and 1996 , this ex situ conservation program transported 40 Sumatran rhinos from their native habitats to zoos and reserves across the world . While hopes were initially high , and much research was conducted on the captive specimens , by the late 1990s , not a single rhino had been born in the program , and most of its proponents agreed the program had been a failure . In 1997 , the IUCN 's Asian rhino specialist group , which once endorsed the program , declared it had failed " even maintaining the species within acceptable limits of mortality " , noting that , in addition to the lack of births , 20 of the captured rhinos had died . In 2004 , a surra outbreak at the Sumatran Rhinoceros Conservation Centre killed all the captive rhinos in Peninsular Malaysia , reducing the population of captive rhinos to eight .
Seven of these captive rhinos were sent to the United States ( the other was kept in Southeast Asia ) , but by 1997 , their numbers had dwindled to three : a female in the Los Angeles Zoo , a male in the Cincinnati Zoo , and a female in the Bronx Zoo . In a final effort , the three rhinos were united in Cincinnati . After years of failed attempts , the female from Los Angeles , Emi , became pregnant for the sixth time , with the zoo 's male Ipuh . All five of her previous pregnancies ended in failure . Researchers at the zoo had learned from previous failures , though , and with the aid of special hormone treatments , Emi gave birth to a healthy male calf named Andalas ( an Indonesian literary word for Sumatra ) in September 2001 . Andalas 's birth was the first successful captive birth of a Sumatran rhino in 112 years . A female calf , named " Suci " ( Indonesian for " pure " ) , followed on 30 July 2004 . On 29 April 2007 , Emi gave birth a third time , to her second male calf , named Harapan ( Indonesian for " hope " ) or Harry . In 2007 , Andalas , who had been living at the Los Angeles Zoo , was returned to Sumatra to take part in breeding programs with healthy females , leading to the siring and 23 June 2012 birth of male calf Andatu , the fourth captive @-@ born calf of the era ; Andalas had been mated with Ratu , a wild @-@ born female living in the Rhino Sanctuary at Way Kambas National Park .
Despite the recent successes in Cincinnati , the captive @-@ breeding program has remained controversial . Proponents argue that the zoos have aided the conservation effort by studying the reproductive habits , raising public awareness and education about the rhinos , and helping raise financial resources for conservation efforts in Sumatra . Opponents of the captive breeding program argue that the losses are too great ; the program is too expensive ; removing rhinos from their habitat , even temporarily , alters their ecological role ; and captive populations cannot match the rate of recovery seen in well @-@ protected native habitats . In October 2015 Harpan , the last rhino in the Western Hemisphere , left the Cincinnati Zoo to Indonesia .
= = Cultural depictions = =
Aside from those few individuals kept in zoos and pictured in books , the Sumatran rhinoceros has remained little known , overshadowed by the more common Indian , black and white rhinos . Recently , however , video footage of the Sumatran rhinoceros in its native habitat and in breeding centers has been featured in several nature documentaries . Extensive footage can be found in an Asia Geographic documentary The Littlest Rhino . Natural History New Zealand showed footage of a Sumatran rhino , shot by freelance Indonesian @-@ based cameraman Alain Compost , in the 2001 documentary The Forgotten Rhino , which featured mainly Javan and Indian rhinos .
Though they were documented by droppings and tracks , pictures of the Bornean rhinoceros were first taken and widely distributed by modern conservationists in April 2006 , when camera traps photographed a healthy adult in the jungles of Sabah in Malaysian Borneo . On 24 April 2007 , it was announced that cameras had captured the first @-@ ever video footage of a wild Bornean rhino . The night @-@ time footage showed the rhino eating , peering through jungle foliage , and sniffing the film equipment . The World Wildlife Fund , which took the video , has used it in efforts to convince local governments to turn the area into a rhino conservation zone . Monitoring has continued ; 50 new cameras have been set up , and in February 2010 , what appeared to be a pregnant rhino was filmed .
A number of folk tales about the Sumatran rhino were collected by colonial naturalists and hunters from the mid @-@ 19th century to early 20th century . In Burma , the belief was once widespread that the Sumatran rhino ate fire . Tales described the fire @-@ eating rhino following smoke to its source , especially campfires , and then attacking the camp . There was also a Burmese belief that the best time to hunt was every July , when the Sumatran rhinos would congregate beneath the full moon . In Malaya , it was said that the rhino 's horn was hollow and could be used as a sort of hose for breathing air and squirting water . In Malaya and Sumatra , it was once believed that the rhino shed its horn every year and buried it under the ground . In Borneo , the rhino was said to have a strange carnivorous practice : after defecating in a stream , it would turn around and eat fish that had been stupefied by the excrement .
= Yotsuba & ! =
Yotsuba & ! ( よつばと ! , Yotsuba to ! ) is an ongoing Japanese comedy manga series by Kiyohiko Azuma , the creator of Azumanga Daioh . It is published in Japan by ASCII Media Works , formerly MediaWorks , in the monthly magazine Dengeki Daioh and collected in thirteen tankōbon volumes . It depicts the everyday adventures of a young girl named Yotsuba as she learns about the world around her , guided by her father , the neighbors , and their friends . Several characters in Yotsuba & ! were previously featured in a one @-@ shot manga called " Try ! Try ! Try ! " The phrase Yotsuba to means " Yotsuba and , " a fact reflected in the chapter titles , most of which take the form " Yotsuba and [ something ] . "
The manga was licensed for English @-@ language distribution by ADV Manga , which released five volumes between 2005 and 2007 . Volume six was supposed to have been released in February 2008 , but was delayed indefinitely in order to focus on ADV 's core business of anime . At New York Comic Con 2009 , Yen Press announced that it had acquired the North American license for the series ; it reprinted the first five volumes with new translations along with volume six in September 2009 , and is continuing with later volumes .
= = Story = =
Yotsuba & ! is centered on Yotsuba Koiwai , a five @-@ year @-@ old adopted girl who is energetic , cheerful , curious , odd , and quirky — so odd and quirky that even her own father calls her strange . She is also initially ignorant about many things a child her age would be expected to know , among them doorbells , escalators , air conditioners , and even playground swings . This naïveté is the premise of humorous stories where she learns about , and frequently misunderstands , everyday things .
At the start of the series , Yotsuba and her adoptive father , Koiwai , relocate to a new city with the help of Koiwai 's best friend , an impressively tall man nicknamed Jumbo . Yotsuba makes a strong impression on the three daughters of the neighboring Ayase family , Asagi , Fuuka , and Ena . Most of her daily activities and misadventures often originate from interactions with these characters .
The series has no continuing plot — the focus of the stories is Yotsuba 's daily voyage of discovery . Many chapters take place on successive days ( for details , see List of Yotsuba & ! chapters ) , so that the series follows , almost literally , the characters ' daily lives . The tone can be summarized by the motto , used on chapter title pages and advertising , " Today is always the most enjoyable day " , or in the original translation , " Enjoy Everything " ( いつでも今日が 、 いちばん楽しい日 , Itsudemo kyō ga , ichiban tanoshii hi ) .
= = Main characters = =
= = = Koiwai household = = =
Yotsuba Koiwai ( 小岩井 よつば , Koiwai Yotsuba ) / " Yotsuba " ( よつば , Yotsuba )
Yotsuba is depicted as an energetic five @-@ year @-@ old girl with a child 's wonder towards the world . She is infectiously enthusiastic about nearly everything . Before moving to their present house , she and Koiwai used to live with his mother , and before that on an island that is , according to Yotsuba , " to the left " . Almost nothing is known about her biological parentage other than that she was orphaned somewhere outside Japan and then adopted by Koiwai . Hence , people often think she is a foreigner . She is an excellent swimmer and enjoys drawing , although others only praise her art to avoid hurting her feelings .
The name " Yotsuba " ( よつば ) can be translated as " four leaved clover , " and is part of the phrase yotsuba no kurōbā ( 四葉のクローバー ? , " four @-@ leaf clover " ) . Her green hair is always styled into four pigtails ( even at bedtime ) , similarly to her namesake .
Yousuke Koiwai ( 小岩井 葉介 , Koiwai Yousuke ) / " Daddy " ( とーちゃん , tō @-@ chan )
Yousuke Koiwai is Yotsuba 's adoptive father . The manga avoids the subject of her adoption or even her birth parents . When his neighbor Fuuka asks , he tells her that he found Yotsuba while visiting a foreign country and decided to adopt her and bring her back to Japan , with no further details . Although he often casually tells people that Yotsuba is a weirdo , he can be very offbeat and silly himself . He is depicted as a youthful dad with the carefree lifestyle of a slacker . He usually wears an undershirt and boxer shorts while at home , and apologizes when people see him in his " irresponsible " clothes . He works at home as a freelance translator , although the materials he translates are not described . When he does leave the house , usually shopping or with friends , he often brings Yotsuba . Despite his laid @-@ back personality and playful behavior , Koiwai does aim to be a good father and proper role model to Yotsuba and punishes her if he feels she has done something warranting it .
= = = Ayase household = = =
The Ayase family lives next @-@ door to the Koiwais .
Asagi Ayase ( 綾瀬 あさぎ , Ayase Asagi )
20 @-@ something years old and the oldest of the three Ayase sisters , Asagi lives at home while attending a nearby university . She is depicted as a very attractive young woman who enjoys creating mischief and teasing people , especially her parents ; her friend Torako once called her a horrible person for manipulating Ena . She often teases Yotsuba for entertainment , although not maliciously . Her mother claims Asagi was very much like Yotsuba when she was young . Mrs. Ayase is puzzled how such a cute child could turn out to be a delinquent , much to Asagi 's annoyance . Asagi 's irreverence may have come from her mother 's teasing when she was a child . For example , in the past when Asagi presented Mrs. Ayase with a four @-@ leaf clover , her mother asked for a five @-@ leaf clover instead . Unable to locate one , young Asagi was reduced to tears . Yotsuba often refers to her as the " Pretty one " .
Fuuka Ayase ( 綾瀬 風香 , Ayase Fūka )
The middle Ayase sister , Fuuka ( also romanized as Fuka ) is 16 years old and in her second year of high school . She appears to be the most dependable and responsible of the sisters . Fuuka usually buys the groceries and is active in the community . During Yotsuba 's eventful first visit to her school , one student calls her " vice @-@ president . " Fuuka often finds herself going out of her way to help out the Koiwais , even though she does not really intend to do so . Besides Jumbo , she has observed the Koiwais ' eccentricities and oddball tendencies more than anyone else . Other characters often lightly ridicule her for making ban puns and wearing t @-@ shirts with strange pictures on them ( such as Chiyo 's " father " from Azumanga Daioh , who also appears as a plushie in her room and as a keychain on her bag ) . Yotsuba has referred to her as " the one who is not pretty " , much to Fuuka 's dismay .
Ena Ayase ( 綾瀬 恵那 , Ayase Ena )
The youngest Ayase sister , Ena is about 10 years old and goes to a nearby elementary school . As the one closest to Yotsuba 's age , she and her best friend Miura play with Yotsuba most frequently . Ena is generally well @-@ liked and is arguably the most earnestly kind character of the series . She tries to be eco @-@ friendly by telling people about the negative effects of global warming , limiting her use of air conditioning , and teaching Yotsuba the benefits of recycling . Appreciative , level @-@ headed and smart , she serves as a big sister figure to Yotsuba . However , her attempts to spare the five @-@ year @-@ old 's fragile feelings sometimes lead her to say little white lies , like praising Yotsuba 's unspectacular drawings or letting Yotsuba believe that her friend Miura ( concealed in a cardboard costume ) is a real robot named Cardbo ( in ADV 's translation ) or Danbo ( in Yen 's translation ) ( ダンボー , Danbō ) , often landing herself and Miura in trouble as a result . During her free time , Ena often sketches ( she has very good drawing skills ) or plays with her finely @-@ dressed teddy bears . Eager and willing to try out new experiences , Ena is not squeamish and even enthusiastic about activities like holding large frogs and cleaning out live fish . Yotsuba once referred to her as the " small one " .
Mrs. Ayase ( 綾瀬家の母 , Ayase @-@ ke no Haha ) / " Mommy " ( かーちゃん , kā @-@ chan )
The mother of the Ayase sisters . She frequently has Yotsuba over as a guest and even tells her to visit them every day . Yotsuba 's habit of calling her " Mom " is due to her generosity ( she is fond of giving Yotsuba treats because she likes to watch her eat ) and tolerant nature ( she doesn 't mind Yotsuba soaking her with a water pistol then acting dead to play the part ) . Nostalgia might why she dotes on Yotsuba so much , since during Yotsuba 's visits she often reminisces about Asagi 's younger years ( cuter and better days according to her ) . Asagi exasperates her constantly , although her husband comments that the two have very similar personalities , which both deny . She likes ice creams , cakes , and other sugary desserts . Yotsuba likes to come over to have them , since they 're always in the fridge - much to Mr. Koiwai 's embarrassment and disapproval .
Mr. Ayase ( 綾瀬家の父 , Ayase @-@ ke no Chichi )
The father of the three sisters . Mr. Ayase is almost never seen at home , particularly during the regular workweek . While his profession is not yet revealed , it seems to be some sort of salaryman . Asagi teases him about his constant absences , even sometimes referring to him in the past tense as if he is dead . Still , Mr. Ayase is on very good terms with his family ; he dotes on Ena and tries to protect Fuuka . Fuuka and Ena seem to take after his personality : laid @-@ back , congenial , optimistic , and sentimental . Yotsuba seems to treat him with extra respect , although he , like the other Ayases , treat her as family .
= = = Friends = = =
Takashi Takeda ( 竹田 隆 , Takeda Takashi ) / " Jumbo " ( ジャンボ , Janbo )
A friend of Koiwai and Yotsuba who has known Koiwai since they were children . He dwarfs the other characters at 210 centimeters ( 6 ft 11 in ) , especially Yotsuba . He is always referred to as " Jumbo " and works as a florist at his father 's flower shop , which Yotsuba and Fuuka only discover through chance . Jumbo helps the Koiwais move in and frequently visits their house ( usually with gifts for Yotsuba such as ice cream ) , and Yotsuba more or less sees him as family . He tends to make deadpan jokes that go over the heads of the younger children , like Yotsuba and Ena , but he means well . At the same time , he is rather impulsive , and often goes all @-@ out in organizing impromptu activities for the younger children such as catching cicadas , fishing and star @-@ gazing . He also develops a deep infatuation with Asagi at first meeting , but is too shy and awkward around beautiful women to directly act upon it . As a result , he often takes advantage of Yotsuba 's relationship with Asagi , but due to Yotsuba 's naïveté , these schemes are never effective .
Miura Hayasaka ( 早坂 みうら , Hayasaka Miura )
Ena 's close friend and classmate who lives in a nearby high @-@ rise condo . Miura is tomboyish and brusque , in both her appearance and speech ( this is very noticeable in the Japanese version ; see gender differences in spoken Japanese ) . She wears short hair and boyish clothes , such as sports jerseys . She has an active nature - for instance , she can ride a unicycle and likes to wear roller shoes . Most of the time , she is frank and tends to reply in a tsukkomi @-@ like manner when she feels wronged or ridiculed . Miura also sometimes teases Yotsuba , even up to the point where Yotsuba is on the verge of tears , though Ena is always on hand to smooth things over . In the end , she is good at heart and the three are good friends . Miura is very squeamish . Unlike Ena , she hated the sight of gutting the fish and was scared by a large frog that Yotsuba caught .
Torako ( 虎子 )
A close friend of Asagi who also attends the same university as her . The two frequently plan trips and hang out together . Focused on being ' cool ' , Torako smokes cigarettes constantly and is very skinny . Her name means " tiger " ( 虎 , tora ) " girl " ( 子 , ko ) and Yotsuba enjoys calling her just Tora ( " tiger " ) . She is fond of taking photos on her old SLR camera . Jumbo has yet to meet Torako and was quite apprehensive , assuming that she was male and Asagi 's boyfriend . Generally humorless and no @-@ nonsense , Torako was annoyed by Yotsuba at first , but she ended up liking her and now considers being around her " fun . "
Yanda ( ヤンダ ) , actual surname Yasuda ( 安田 )
Yanda is a friend of Koiwai and Jumbo . Though he is mentioned in the first and fourth chapters , when Jumbo calls Yanda " no good " for making lame excuses for not helping the Koiwais move , he does not appear until chapter 30 . He is childish , as shown by the petty pranks he plays on Yotsuba , including bribing her with candy then taking it back when it does not work and prank @-@ calling her . He enjoys teasing Yotsuba and acting as her " nemesis " . Koiwai refers to Yanda as his kōhai , junior , but in what context he is Koiwai 's junior is unknown . He lives from paycheck to paycheck and eats instant ramen because he does not get paid until the end of the month , and only eats frozen meals the rest of the time .
Hiwatari ( 日渡 ) / " Miss Stake " ( しまうー , Shimaū )
A friend of Fuuka 's , given name unknown , who is in the same homeroom . Her first official appearance is in chapter 45 , when she visits Fuuka 's home and recognizes Yotsuba from her trip to their high school in chapter 40 . Hiwatari is a bit eccentric . Her nickname Miss Stake ( しまうー , Shimaū ) comes from a " mistake " she made when she first introduced herself to her class ( in Japanese , shimau used as an auxiliary verb can mean to do something by accident , hence the pun ) .
= = Development = =
In 1998 , Azuma published a one @-@ shot manga and two webcomics called " Try ! Try ! Try ! " , in which Yotsuba , her father ( who is unnamed ) , Ena , Fuka , and Asagi first appeared . Although some of these characters , including Yotsuba herself , are largely the same as in Yotsuba & ! , Fuka has a different character design , a more mischievous personality , and a different spelling of her given name ( in " Try ! Try ! Try ! " , it is written with the kanji 風 夏 , meaning " wind @-@ summer " ; in Yotsuba & ! , it is 風 香 , meaning " wind @-@ scent " ) .
= = Media = =
= = = Anime = = =
An anime " spin @-@ off " based on cat versions of Azuma 's character Danbo has been announced and is due to air in October 2016 as part of a " mini @-@ anime " program . This project will not adapt any of Yotsuba & ! .
Despite its popularity and the success of Azumanga Daioh , no plans have been announced for an anime adaptation of Yotsuba & ! . In an entry posted on his website on 15 May 2005 , Azuma said there were no plans for it to be animated ; he reiterated this on the 5 December 2008 , claiming that the stories and style of Yotsuba & ! are not well @-@ suited for animation .
= = = Manga = = =
The manga is written and illustrated by Kiyohiko Azuma , and published by ASCII Media Works in the monthly shōnen ( aimed at teenage boys ) manga magazine Dengeki Daioh since the March 2003 issue , with serialization on @-@ going . Chapters have been collected in thirteen tankōbon volumes .
In English , Yotsuba & ! was originally licensed by ADV Manga , who published five volumes between 2005 and 2007 before dropping the license . The North American license was picked up by Yen Press , which republished the first five volumes along with the sixth in September 2009 . All thirteen volumes have since been released . In addition , the series is licensed in France by Kurokawa , in Spain by Norma Editorial , in Germany by Tokyopop Germany , in Italy by Dynit , in Finland by Punainen jättiläinen , in Korea by Daiwon C.I. , in Taiwan by Kadokawa Media , in Vietnam by TVM Comics , and in Thailand by NED Comics .
Each chapter of Yotsuba & ! takes place on a specific , nearly sequential day of a common year starting on Wednesday . The year was initially believed to be 2003 , coinciding with the date of the manga 's serialization , but Azuma has stated that the manga always takes place in the present day . This allows the appearance of products created after 2003 , such as the Nintendo DS Mr. Ayase plays in chapter forty @-@ two .
= = = Calendars = = =
Both monthly and daily Yotsuba & ! calendars have been released every year since 2005 , although a monthly calendar for 2009 was not released due to constraints on Azuma 's schedule . The 2005 edition of the monthly calendar featured pictures of Yotsuba playing with animals such as lions , zebras , and kangaroos . The 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , and 2010 editions feature photographs altered to include Yotsuba doing such things as playing with other children or reaching for a balloon . The photographs were by Miho Kakuta , with drawings by Kiyohiko Azuma . The daily calendars have a mix of original and manga artwork , with occasional captions , as well as other fun items – for example , the 2006 calendar had a game of shiritori ongoing through the year . The daily calendars run from April to March , following the Japanese school year instead of the calendar year .
The 2010 monthly calendar was released in November 2009 .
= = = Music = = =
Two Yotsuba & ! music CDs have been released , both purely instrumental , called " image albums " . The music is designed to elicit mental images of events described by the titles . Both albums are composed by Masaki Kurihara and performed by the Kuricorder Pops Orchestra , who also worked together on the Azumanga Daioh soundtrack .
The first album , Yotsuba & ♪ , released in April 2005 , follows Yotsuba throughout the course of a typical day .
The second album , Yotsuba & ♪ Music Suite ( General Winter ) , released in November 2006 , depicts the season of winter , including Christmas and New Year 's celebrations . " General Winter " ( 冬将軍 , Fuyu Shōgun ) is a personification of harsh winters , similar to Jack Frost .
= = = Picture books = = =
A Yotsuba & ! picture book , Yotsuba & Monochrome Animals , was published on 16 December 2006 ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 8402 @-@ 3714 @-@ 7 ) . The book has pictures of Yotsuba playing with various black @-@ and @-@ white colored animals , such as pandas . The name of each animal is given in Japanese and English , along with the scientific classification of the species . Another book called Find Yotsuba was released in 2013 , which is actually a compilation of all the calendar illustrations released previously .
= = Reception = =
Yotsuba & ! is drawn not in the vertical four @-@ panel strips of Azuma 's earlier series , Azumanga Daioh , but in a full @-@ page format , giving him more artistic scope . Azuma 's work on Yotsuba & ! has been noted for its clean art , detailed backgrounds , and expressive faces . Azuma is also praised for his joyous tone , slice @-@ of @-@ life storytelling , comedic writing , and eccentric yet realistic characters , especially Yotsuba herself .
The Comics Reporter described the series as " read [ ing ] like a love letter to the way kids can be at the age of 2 – 5 , " and a reviewer at Anime News Network compared Azuma 's ability to capture " the wonder of childhood " to Bill Watterson 's in Calvin and Hobbes . Manga : The Complete Guide described it as " a light , feel @-@ good manga , like an endless summer day . " Nicholas Penedo of Animeland said " with Yotsuba , we find ourselves plunged into the wonderful world of childhood , " calling the French edition of volume eight , " A beautiful manga for children and adults . " BD Gest praised Azuma 's skill in making distinct secondary characters , calling them " immediately recognisable " , and saying that they each spice up the story in their own ways . However , Azuma has been criticized for creating characters that are " too clean , too perfectly functional , " for overusing " outrageous expressions and reactions , " and for dragging out jokes too long .
Yotsuba & ! has been popular with readers as well as reviewers . For example , on Amazon.co.jp , volume six was the third best @-@ selling comic in Japan for the first half of 2007 and volume eight was the second best @-@ selling comic in Japan for 2008 ; volumes seven and eight both were number two on the Tohan comics chart the week they debuted . Volume eight sold more than 450 @,@ 000 copies in 2008 , making it one of the top 50 bestselling manga volumes on the Oricon chart for the year . The first five volumes of the English translation were each among the top 100 selling graphic novels in the United States in the month of release . Volume six of the English edition reached number 3 on the New York Times best seller list for manga , and it stayed on the list for four weeks . Volume 8 debuted at No. 2 on the manga best seller list .
The series had sold a total of 13 million copies worldwide as of December 5 , 2015 , and 2 million of which are published outside of Japan , including the U.S. , France , Germany , Italy , Spain , Russia , Sweden , Finland , Korea , China , Taiwan , Indonesia , Thailand , and Vietnam .
= = = Awards and recognitions = = =
Yotsuba & ! received an Excellence Award for Manga at the 2006 Japan Media Arts Festival , where the jury citation praised the vivid characters and gentle atmosphere . In 2008 Yotsuba & ! was nominated for the 12th Osamu Tezuka Culture Award and the Eisner Award in the " Best Publication for Kids " category , but did not win either , and was runner @-@ up for the first annual Manga Taishō award . In 2016 , Yotsuba & ! won the Grand Prize at the 20th Osamu Tezuka Culture Awards , sharing it with Kei Ichinoseki 's Hanagami Sharaku . The English translation was listed as one of the best 20 comics of 2005 by Publishers Weekly , one of the best comics of 2006 by the staff of The Comics Journal , and one of the top graphic novels for teens in 2008 by YALSA . Volume one was named Book of the Month in the June 2005 issue of Newtype USA .
There was an exhibit of Yotsuba & ! artwork at the Gallery of Fantastic Art in Tokyo from 2 – 17 December 2006 . The lead article of the May 2009 issue of the Japanese design magazine Idea was a study of Yotsuba & ! , focusing on book design , interior layout , and how translated editions were handled .
= Menstrual cycle =
The menstrual cycle is the regular natural change that occurs in the female reproductive system like the uterus and ovaries that make pregnancy possible . The cycle is required for the production of ovocytes , and for the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy . Up to 80 % of women report having some symptoms during the one to two weeks prior to menstruation . Common symptoms include acne , tender breasts , bloating , feeling tired , irritability and mood changes . These symptoms interfere with normal life and therefore qualify as premenstrual syndrome in 20 to 30 % of women . In 3 to 8 % , they are severe .
The first period usually begins between twelve and fifteen years of age , a point in time known as menarche . They may occasionally start as early as eight , and this onset may still be normal . The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world and earlier in developed world . The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women and 21 to 35 days in adults ( an average of 28 days ) . Menstruation stops occurring after menopause which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age . Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days .
The menstrual cycle is governed by hormonal changes . These changes can be altered by using hormonal birth control to prevent pregnancy . Each cycle can be divided into three phases based on events in the ovary ( ovarian cycle ) or in the uterus ( uterine cycle ) . The ovarian cycle consists of the follicular phase , ovulation , and luteal phase whereas the uterine cycle is divided into menstruation , proliferative phase , and secretory phase .
Stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of estrogen in the follicular phase , discharges of blood ( menses ) flow stop , and the lining of the uterus thickens . Follicles in the ovary begin developing under the influence of a complex interplay of hormones , and after several days one or occasionally two become dominant ( non @-@ dominant follicles shrink and die ) . Approximately mid @-@ cycle , 24 – 36 hours after the luteinizing hormone ( LH ) surges , the dominant follicle releases an ovocyte , in an event called ovulation . After ovulation , the ovocyte only lives for 24 hours or less without fertilization while the remains of the dominant follicle in the ovary become a corpus luteum ; this body has a primary function of producing large amounts of progesterone . Under the influence of progesterone , the uterine lining changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy . If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks , the corpus luteum will involute , causing a sharp drop in levels of both progesterone and estrogen . The hormone drop causes the uterus to shed its lining in a process termed menstruation . Menstruation also occurs in some other animals including shrews , bats , and other primates such as apes and monkeys .
= = Onset and frequency = =
The average age of menarche is 12 – 15 . They may occasionally start as early as eight , and this onset may still be normal . This first period often occurs later in the developing world than the developed world .
The average age of menarche is approximately 12 @.@ 5 years in the United States , 12 @.@ 7 in Canada , 12 @.@ 9 in the UK and 13 @.@ 1 years in Iceland . Factors such as genetics , diet and overall health can affect timing .
The cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a woman 's reproductive period is termed menopause . The average age of menopause in women is 52 years , with anywhere between 45 and 55 being common . Menopause before age 45 is considered premature in industrialised countries . Like the age of menarche , the age of menopause is largely a result of cultural and biological factors ; however , illnesses , certain surgeries , or medical treatments may cause menopause to occur earlier than it might have otherwise .
The length of a woman 's menstrual cycle typically varies somewhat , with some shorter cycles and some longer cycles . A woman who experiences variations of less than eight days between her longest cycles and shortest cycles is considered to have regular menstrual cycles . It is unusual for a woman to experience cycle length variations of less than four days . Length variation between eight and 20 days is considered as moderately irregular cycles . Variation of 21 days or more between a woman 's shortest and longest cycle lengths is considered very irregular .
The average menstrual cycle lasts 28 days . The variability of menstrual cycle lengths is highest for women under 25 years of age and is lowest , that is , most regular , for ages 25 to 39 . Subsequently , the variability increases slightly for women aged 40 to 44 .
The luteal phase of the menstrual cycle is about the same length in most individuals ( mean 14 @.@ 13 days , SD 1 @.@ 41 days ) whereas the follicular phase tends to show much more variability ( log @-@ normally distributed with 95 % of individuals having follicular phases between 10 @.@ 3 and 16 @.@ 3 days ) . The follicular phase also seems to get significantly shorter with age ( geometric mean 14 @.@ 2 days in women aged 18 – 24 vs. 10 @.@ 4 days in women aged 40 – 44 ) .
= = Health effects = =
Some women with neurological conditions experience increased activity of their conditions at about the same time during each menstrual cycle . For example , drops in estrogen levels have been known to trigger migraines , especially when the woman who suffers migraines is also taking the birth control pill . Many women with epilepsy have more seizures in a pattern linked to the menstrual cycle ; this is called " catamenial epilepsy " . Different patterns seem to exist ( such as seizures coinciding with the time of menstruation , or coinciding with the time of ovulation ) , and the frequency with which they occur has not been firmly established . Using one particular definition , one group of scientists found that around one @-@ third of women with intractable partial epilepsy has catamenial epilepsy . An effect of hormones has been proposed , in which progesterone declines and estrogen increases would trigger seizures . Recently , studies have shown that high doses of estrogen can cause or worsen seizures , whereas high doses of progesterone can act like an antiepileptic drug . Studies by medical journals have found that women experiencing menses are 1 @.@ 68 times more likely to commit suicide .
Mice have been used as an experimental system to investigate possible mechanisms by which levels of sex steroid hormones might regulate nervous system function . During the part of the mouse estrous cycle when progesterone is highest , the level of nerve @-@ cell GABA receptor subtype delta was high . Since these GABA receptors are inhibitory , nerve cells with more delta receptors are less likely to fire than cells with lower numbers of delta receptors . During the part of the mouse estrous cycle when estrogen levels are higher than progesterone levels , the number of delta receptors decrease , increasing nerve cell activity , in turn increasing anxiety and seizure susceptibility .
Estrogen levels may affect thyroid behavior . For example , during the luteal phase ( when estrogen levels are lower ) , the velocity of blood flow in the thyroid is lower than during the follicular phase ( when estrogen levels are higher ) .
Among women living closely together , it was once thought that the onsets of menstruation tend to synchronize . This effect was first described in 1971 , and possibly explained by the action of pheromones in 1998 . Subsequent research has called this hypothesis into question .
Research indicates that women have a significantly higher likelihood of anterior cruciate ligament injuries in the pre @-@ ovulatory stage , than post @-@ ovulatory stage .
= = = Fertility = = =
The most fertile period ( the time with the highest likelihood of pregnancy resulting from sexual intercourse ) covers the time from some 5 days before until 1 to 2 days after ovulation . In a 28 ‑ day cycle with a 14 ‑ day luteal phase , this corresponds to the second and the beginning of the third week . A variety of methods have been developed to help individual women estimate the relatively fertile and the relatively infertile days in the cycle ; these systems are called fertility awareness .
Fertility awareness methods that rely on cycle length records alone are called calendar @-@ based methods . Methods that require observation of one or more of the three primary fertility signs ( basal body temperature , cervical mucus , and cervical position ) are known as symptoms @-@ based methods . Urine test kits are available that detect the LH surge that occurs 24 to 36 hours before ovulation ; these are known as ovulation predictor kits ( OPKs ) . Computerized devices that interpret basal body temperatures , urinary test results , or changes in saliva are called fertility monitors .
A woman 's fertility is also affected by her age . As a woman 's total egg supply is formed in fetal life , to be ovulated decades later , it has been suggested that this long lifetime may make the chromatin of eggs more vulnerable to division problems , breakage , and mutation than the chromatin of sperm , which are produced continuously during a man 's reproductive life . However , despite this hypothesis , a similar paternal age effect has also been observed .
As measured on women undergoing in vitro fertilization , a longer menstrual cycle length is associated with higher pregnancy and delivery rates , even after age adjustment . Delivery rates after IVF have been estimated to be almost doubled for women with a menstrual cycle length of more than 34 days compared with women with a menstrual cycle length shorter than 26 days . A longer menstrual cycle length is also significantly associated with better ovarian response to gonadotropin stimulation and embryo quality .
= = = Mood and behaviour = = =
The different phases of the menstrual cycle correlate with women ’ s moods . In some cases , hormones released during the menstrual cycle can cause behavioral changes in females ; mild to severe mood changes can occur . The menstrual cycle phase and ovarian hormones may contribute to increased empathy in women . The natural shift of hormone levels during the different phases of the menstrual cycle has been studied in conjunction with test scores . When completing empathy exercises , women in the follicular stage of their menstrual cycle performed better than women in their midluteal phase . A significant correlation between progesterone levels and the ability to accurately recognize emotion was found . Performances on emotion recognition tasks were better when women had lower progesterone levels . Women in the follicular stage showed higher emotion recognition accuracy than their midluteal phase counterparts . Women were found to react more to negative stimuli when in midluteal stage over the women in the follicular stage , perhaps indicating more reactivity to social stress during that menstrual cycle phase . Overall , it has been found that women in the follicular phase demonstrated better performance in tasks that contain empathetic traits .
Fear response in women during two different points in the menstrual cycle has been examined . When estrogen is highest in the preovulatory stage , women are significantly better at identifying expressions of fear than women who were menstruating , which is when estrogen levels are lowest . The women were equally able to identify happy faces , demonstrating that the fear response was a more powerful response . To summarize , menstrual cycle phase and the estrogen levels correlates with women ’ s fear processing .
However , the examination of daily moods in women with measuring ovarian hormones may indicate a less powerful connection . In comparison to levels of stress or physical health , the ovarian hormones had less of an impact on overall mood . This indicates that while changes of ovarian hormones may influence mood , on a day @-@ to @-@ day level it does not influence mood more than other stressors do .
= = = = Eating behaviour = = = =
Females have been found to experience different eating habits at different stages of their menstrual cycle , with food intake being higher during the luteal phase than the follicular phase . Food intake increases by approximately 10 % during the luteal phase compared to the follicular phase .
Various studies have shown that during the luteal phase woman consume more carbohydrates , proteins and fats and that 24 @-@ hour energy expenditure shows increases between 2 @.@ 5 @-@ 11 @.@ 5 % . The increasing intake during the luteal phase may be related to higher preferences for sweet and fatty foods , which occurs naturally and is enhanced during the luteal phases of the menstrual cycle . This is due to the higher metabolic demand during this phase . In particular , women tend to show a cravings for chocolate , with higher cravings during the luteal phase .
Females with premenstrual syndrome ( PMS ) report changes in appetite across the menstrual cycle more than non @-@ sufferers of PMS , possibly due to their oversensitivity to changes in hormone levels . In women with PMS , food intake is higher in the luteal phase than follicular . The remaining symptoms of PMS , including mood changes and physical symptoms , also occur during the luteal phase . No difference for preference of food types has been found between PMS sufferers and non @-@ sufferers .
The different levels of ovarian hormones at different stages of the cycle have been used to explain eating behaviour changes . Progesterone has been shown to promote fat storage , causing a higher intake of fatty foods during the luteal phase when progesterone levels are higher . Additionally , with a high estrogen level dopamine is ineffective in converting to noradrenaline , a hormone which promotes eating , therefore decreasing appetite . In humans , the level of these ovarian hormones during the menstrual cycle have been found to influence binge eating .
It is theorised that the use of birth control pills should affect eating behaviour as they minimise or remove the fluctuations in hormone levels . The neurotransmitter serotonin is also thought to play a role in food intake . Serotonin is responsible for inhibiting eating and controlling meal size , among other things , and is modulated in part by ovarian hormones .
A number of factors affect whether dieting will affect these menstrual processes : age , weight loss and the diet itself . First , younger women are likely to experience menstrual irregularities due to their diet . Second , menstrual abnormalities are more likely with more weight loss . For example , anovulatory cycles can occur as a result of adopting a restricted diet , as well as engaging in a high amount of exercise . Finally , the cycle is affected more by a vegetarian diet compared to a non @-@ vegetarian diet .
= = = = Substance abuse = = = =
Studies investigating effects of the menstrual cycle on alcohol consumption have found mixed evidence . However , some evidence suggests that individuals consume more alcohol during the luteal stage , especially if these individuals are heavy drinkers or have a family history of alcohol abuse .
The level of substance abuse increases with PMS , mostly with addictive substances such as nicotine , tobacco and cocaine . One theory behind this suggests this higher level of substance abuse is due to decreased self @-@ control as a result of the higher metabolic demands during the luteal phase .
= = = Menstrual disorders = = =
Infrequent or irregular ovulation is called oligoovulation . The absence of ovulation is called anovulation . Normal menstrual flow can occur without ovulation preceding it : an anovulatory cycle . In some cycles , follicular development may start but not be completed ; nevertheless , estrogens will be formed and stimulate the uterine lining . Anovulatory flow resulting from a very thick endometrium caused by prolonged , continued high estrogen levels is called estrogen breakthrough bleeding . Anovulatory bleeding triggered by a sudden drop in estrogen levels is called withdrawal bleeding . Anovulatory cycles commonly occur before menopause ( perimenopause ) and in women with polycystic ovary syndrome .
Very little flow ( less than 10 ml ) is called hypomenorrhea . Regular cycles with intervals of 21 days or fewer are polymenorrhea ; frequent but irregular menstruation is known as metrorrhagia . Sudden heavy flows or amounts greater than 80 ml are termed menorrhagia . Heavy menstruation that occurs frequently and irregularly is menometrorrhagia . The term for cycles with intervals exceeding 35 days is oligomenorrhea . Amenorrhea refers to more than three to six months without menses ( while not being pregnant ) during a woman 's reproductive years .
= = Cycles and phases = =
The menstrual cycle can be described by the ovarian or uterine cycle . The ovarian cycle describes changes that occur in the follicles of the ovary whereas the uterine cycle describes changes in the endometrial lining of the uterus . Both cycles can be divided into three phases . The ovarian cycle consists of the follicular phase , ovulation , and the luteal phase whereas the uterine cycle consists of menstruation , proliferative phase , and secretory phase .
= = = Ovarian cycle = = =
= = = = Follicular phase = = = =
The follicular phase is the first part of the ovarian cycle . During this phase , the ovarian follicles mature and get ready to release an egg . The latter part of this phase overlaps with the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle .
Through the influence of a rise in follicle stimulating hormone ( FSH ) during the first days of the cycle , a few ovarian follicles are stimulated . These follicles , which were present at birth and have been developing for the better part of a year in a process known as folliculogenesis , compete with each other for dominance . Under the influence of several hormones , all but one of these follicles will stop growing , while one dominant follicle in the ovary will continue to maturity . The follicle that reaches maturity is called a tertiary , or Graafian , follicle , and it contains the ovum .
= = = = Ovulation = = = =
Ovulation is the second phase of the ovarian cycle in which a mature egg is released from the ovarian follicles into the oviduct . During the follicular phase , estradiol suppresses production of luteinizing hormone ( LH ) from the anterior pituitary gland . When the egg has nearly matured , levels of estradiol reach a threshold above which this effect is reversed and estrogen stimulates the production of a large amount of LH . This process , known as the LH surge , starts around day 12 of the average cycle and may last 48 hours .
The exact mechanism of these opposite responses of LH levels to estradiol is not well understood . In animals , a gonadotropin @-@ releasing hormone ( GnRH ) surge has been shown to precede the LH surge , suggesting that estrogen 's main effect is on the hypothalamus , which controls GnRH secretion . This may be enabled by the presence of two different estrogen receptors in the hypothalamus : estrogen receptor alpha , which is responsible for the negative feedback estradiol @-@ LH loop , and estrogen receptor beta , which is responsible for the positive estradiol @-@ LH relationship . However , in humans it has been shown that high levels of estradiol can provoke abrupt increases in LH , even when GnRH levels and pulse frequencies are held constant , suggesting that estrogen acts directly on the pituitary to provoke the LH surge .
The release of LH matures the egg and weakens the wall of the follicle in the ovary , causing the fully developed follicle to release its secondary oocyte . The secondary oocyte promptly matures into an ootid and then becomes a mature ovum . The mature ovum has a diameter of about 0 @.@ 2 mm .
Which of the two ovaries — left or right — ovulates appears essentially random ; no known left and right co @-@ ordination exists . Occasionally , both ovaries will release an egg ; if both eggs are fertilized , the result is fraternal twins .
After being released from the ovary , the egg is swept into the fallopian tube by the fimbria , which is a fringe of tissue at the end of each fallopian tube . After about a day , an unfertilized egg will disintegrate or dissolve in the fallopian tube .
Fertilization by a spermatozoon , when it occurs , usually takes place in the ampulla , the widest section of the fallopian tubes . A fertilized egg immediately begins the process of embryogenesis , or development . The developing embryo takes about three days to reach the uterus and another three days to implant into the endometrium . It has usually reached the blastocyst stage at the time of implantation .
In some women , ovulation features a characteristic pain called mittelschmerz ( German term meaning middle pain ) . The sudden change in hormones at the time of ovulation sometimes also causes light mid @-@ cycle blood flow .
= = = = Luteal phase = = = =
The luteal phase is the final phase of the ovarian cycle and it corresponds to the secretory phase of the uterine cycle . During the luteal phase , the pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause the remaining parts of the dominant follicle to transform into the corpus luteum , which produces progesterone . The increased progesterone in the adrenals starts to induce the production of estrogen . The hormones produced by the corpus luteum also suppress production of the FSH and LH that the corpus luteum needs to maintain itself . Consequently , the level of FSH and LH fall quickly over time , and the corpus luteum subsequently atrophies . Falling levels of progesterone trigger menstruation and the beginning of the next cycle . From the time of ovulation until progesterone withdrawal has caused menstruation to begin , the process typically takes about two weeks , with 14 days considered normal . For an individual woman , the follicular phase often varies in length from cycle to cycle ; by contrast , the length of her luteal phase will be fairly consistent from cycle to cycle .
The loss of the corpus luteum is prevented by fertilization of the egg . The syncytiotrophoblast , which is the outer layer of the resulting embryo @-@ containing structure ( the blastocyst ) and later also becomes the outer layer of the placenta , produces human chorionic gonadotropin ( hCG ) , which is very similar to LH and which preserves the corpus luteum . The corpus luteum can then continue to secrete progesterone to maintain the new pregnancy . Most pregnancy tests look for the presence of hCG .
= = = Uterine cycle = = =
The uterine cycle has three phases .
= = = = Menstruation = = = =
Menstruation ( also called menstrual bleeding , menses , catamenia or a period ) is the first phase of the uterine cycle . The flow of menses normally serves as a sign that a woman has not become pregnant . ( However , this cannot be taken as certainty , as a number of factors can cause bleeding during pregnancy ; some factors are specific to early pregnancy , and some can cause heavy flow . )
Eumenorrhea denotes normal , regular menstruation that lasts for a few days ( usually 3 to 5 days , but anywhere from 2 to 7 days is considered normal ) . The average blood loss during menstruation is 35 milliliters with 10 – 80 ml considered normal . Women who experience Menorrhagia are more susceptible to iron deficiency than the average person . An enzyme called plasmin inhibits clotting in the menstrual fluid .
Painful cramping in the abdomen , back , or upper thighs is common during the first few days of menstruation . Severe uterine pain during menstruation is known as dysmenorrhea , and it is most common among adolescents and younger women ( affecting about 67 @.@ 2 % of adolescent females ) . When menstruation begins , symptoms of premenstrual syndrome ( PMS ) such as breast tenderness and irritability generally decrease . Many sanitary products are marketed to women for use during their menstruation .
= = = = Proliferative phase = = = =
The proliferative phase is the second phase of the uterine cycle when estrogen causes the lining of the uterus to grow , or proliferate , during this time . As they mature , the ovarian follicles secrete increasing amounts of estradiol , and estrogen . The estrogens initiate the formation of a new layer of endometrium in the uterus , histologically identified as the proliferative endometrium . The estrogen also stimulates crypts in the cervix to produce fertile cervical mucus , which may be noticed by women practicing fertility awareness .
= = = = Secretory phase = = = =
The secretory phase is the final phase of the uterine cycle and it corresponds to the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle . During the secretory phase , the corpus luteum produces progesterone , which plays a vital role in making the endometrium receptive to implantation of the blastocyst and supportive of the early pregnancy , by increasing blood flow and uterine secretions and reducing the contractility of the smooth muscle in the uterus ; it also has the side effect of raising the woman 's basal body temperature .
= = Ovulation suppression = =
= = = Birth control = = =
While some forms of birth control do not affect the menstrual cycle , hormonal contraceptives work by disrupting it . Progestogen negative feedback decreases the pulse frequency of gonadotropin @-@ releasing hormone ( GnRH ) release by the hypothalamus , which decreases the release of follicle @-@ stimulating hormone ( FSH ) and luteinizing hormone ( LH ) by the anterior pituitary . Decreased levels of FSH inhibit follicular development , preventing an increase in estradiol levels . Progestogen negative feedback and the lack of estrogen positive feedback on LH release prevent a mid @-@ cycle LH surge . Inhibition of follicular development and the absence of a LH surge prevent ovulation .
The degree of ovulation suppression in progestogen @-@ only contraceptives depends on the progestogen activity and dose . Low dose progestogen @-@ only contraceptives — traditional progestogen only pills , subdermal implants Norplant and Jadelle , and intrauterine system Mirena — inhibit ovulation in about 50 % of cycles and rely mainly on other effects , such as thickening of cervical mucus , for their contraceptive effectiveness . Intermediate dose progestogen @-@ only contraceptives — the progestogen @-@ only pill Cerazette and the subdermal implant Nexplanon — allow some follicular development but more consistently inhibit ovulation in 97 – 99 % of cycles . The same cervical mucus changes occur as with very low @-@ dose progestogens . High @-@ dose , progestogen @-@ only contraceptives — the injectables Depo @-@ Provera and Noristerat — completely inhibit follicular development and ovulation .
Combined hormonal contraceptives include both an estrogen and a progestogen . Estrogen negative feedback on the anterior pituitary greatly decreases the release of FSH , which makes combined hormonal contraceptives more effective at inhibiting follicular development and preventing ovulation . Estrogen also reduces the incidence of irregular breakthrough bleeding . Several combined hormonal contraceptives — the pill , NuvaRing , and the contraceptive patch — are usually used in a way that causes regular withdrawal bleeding . In a normal cycle , menstruation occurs when estrogen and progesterone levels drop rapidly . Temporarily discontinuing use of combined hormonal contraceptives ( a placebo week , not using patch or ring for a week ) has a similar effect of causing the uterine lining to shed . If withdrawal bleeding is not desired , combined hormonal contraceptives may be taken continuously , although this increases the risk of breakthrough bleeding .
= = = Breastfeeding = = =
Breastfeeding causes negative feedback to occur on pulse secretion of gonadotropin @-@ releasing hormone ( GnRH ) and luteinizing hormone ( LH ) . Depending on the strength of the negative feedback , breastfeeding women may experience complete suppression of follicular development , but no ovulation , or normal menstrual cycle may resume . Suppression of ovulation is more likely when suckling occurs more frequently . The production of prolactin in response to suckling is important to maintaining lactational amenorrhea . On average , women who are fully breastfeeding whose infants suckle frequently experience a return of menstruation at fourteen and a half months postpartum . There is a wide range of response among individual breastfeeding women , however , with some experiencing return of menstruation at two months and others remaining amenorrheic for up to 42 months postpartum .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Etymological = = =
The word " menstruation " is etymologically related to " moon " . The terms " menstruation " and " menses " are derived from the Latin mensis ( month ) , which in turn relates to the Greek mene ( moon ) and to the roots of the English words month and moon .
= = = The Moon = = =
Even though the average length of the human menstrual cycle is similar to that of the lunar cycle , in modern humans there is no relation between the two . The relationship is believed to be a coincidence . Light exposure does not appear to affect the menstrual cycle in humans . A meta @-@ analysis of studies from 1996 showed no correlation between the human menstrual cycle and the lunar cycle .
Dogon villagers did not have electric lighting and spent most nights outdoors , talking and sleeping ; so they were apparently an ideal population for detecting a lunar influence ; none was found . Other scholars counter , however , that the Dogon — unlike ancestral African hunter @-@ gatherer populations — are polygamous , meaning that reproductive synchrony would not be expected on theoretical grounds .
= = = Work = = =
In a number of countries , mainly in Asia , legislation or corporate practice has introduced formal menstrual leave to provide women with either paid or unpaid leave of absence from their employment while they are menstruating . Countries with policies include Japan , Taiwan , Indonesia , and South Korea . The practice is controversial due to it being seen to criticize women 's work efficiency , as well as being seen as possible sexism .
= Cowboys Are Frequently , Secretly Fond of Each Other =
" Cowboys Are Frequently , Secretly Fond of Each Other " ( 1981 ) is a song by Latin country musician Ned Sublette , whose music , according to Howard Cohen , features a " lilting West Texas waltz ( 3 / 4 time at about 60 – 90 beats per minute ) feel " . It is , according to Gene Tyranny , " the famous gay cowboy song " . The lyrics satirize the stereotypes associated with cowboys and gay men , such as in the lyrics relating western wear to the leather subculture with the line : " What did you think all them saddles and boots was about ? "
Country musician Willie Nelson 's cover ( iTunes single 14 February 2006 ) is the first LGBT @-@ themed mainstream country song by a major artist . The song has been recorded and released by Sublette ( GPS : Life is a Killer 1982 ) , Canadian alternative country band Lost Dakotas ( Cargo : Sun Machine , 1993 ) , and queercore band Pansy Division ( Lookout : Pile Up 1995 ) .
= = Original version = =
Sublette stated that the song is based on his experiences growing up in Portales , N.M. : " I sat down at the piano and … remembered what it felt like to feel different as a teenager , and the culture at that time , and I started to put those two things together and the song wrote itself " . The song was written during the Urban Cowboy fad while living with his wife in Manhattan next to a gay country bar on Christopher Street called Boots and Saddles . He explains , " Gay life in 1981 was very vibrant in those days . It was part of the culture of the city and cowboy imagery is a part of gay iconography . " He wrote the song with Nelson 's voice in mind : " I was at the beginning of my songwriting career … and used to like writing songs for my favorite voices . I 've been a Willie fan since the ' 60s . "
In 2006 , Ann Northrop of Gay USA described the lyrics as " the language of thirty years ago . " David Nahmod , however , stated that he felt the lyrics maintain currency and say " a lot about gender identity and heterosexual elitism " ; " The song aims to show Mr. Nelson 's support for gays , particularly to conservative country @-@ music fans , " and suggests that , in addition to other causes , he supports gay rights .
The reception of Sublette 's recording is hard to determine as the song was originally only available through the Dial @-@ A @-@ Poem , through which one could literally dial up a poem and listen on the phone . However , AllMusicGuide gave the album on which the song eventually appeared 4 ½ out of 5 stars .
= = Willie Nelson 's version = =
Nelson received a tape of the song from Saturday Night Live Band bassist Tony Garnier after performing on the show in the mid to late 1980s . According to Sublette , " Willie took it from there " though Nelson recently found that demo in a drawer among a stack of his own while recording unreleased songs for iTunes at his Spicewood , Texas home studio . Nelson says , " I thought it was the funniest goddamn song I 'd ever heard . I had it on the bus for 20 years , and people would come in and I 'd play it . When Brokeback Mountain come out , it just seemed like a good time to kick it out of the closet " .
There were plans to release the song on a future album and filming for the video featuring Broken Lizard Comedy Troupe occurred at Dallas ' gay cowboy bar , the Round Up Saloon ( in Oak Lawn ) , in February 2006 . Nelson 's publicist describes the release of the song , which debuted on Howard Stern 's satellite radio show : " Since everyone is talking about the acclaimed film Brokeback Mountain and its Academy Award nominations , Valentine 's Day seemed like the right time to let [ the song ] be heard . " Nelson appeared on the movie 's soundtrack with the traditional " He Was a Friend of Mine " which made the US charts at number 54 .
Nelson himself described the release in a prepared statement to Dallas Morning News : " The song 's been in the closet for 20 years . The timing 's right for it to come out . I 'm just opening the door . " The song 's release was encouraged by the coming out of his friend and tour manager of thirty years , David Anderson , two years ago . Says Anderson : " This song obviously has special meaning to me in more ways than one . I want people to know more than anything — gay , straight , whatever — just how cool Willie is and … his way of thinking , his tolerance , everything about him . "
= = = Reception = = =
Nelson 's version of the song is his highest charting solo single since his 1984 duet with Julio Iglesias " To All the Girls I 've Loved Before " ( number 5 ) , debuting at number 52 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , which Nelson last appeared on with the Toby Keith duet " Beer for My Horses " . The song has also been well received by critics . Pitchfork Media 's Stephen M. Deusner rated the song four out of four stars despite calling it , " even more of a stunt than his reggae album " ( 2005 's Countryman ) . Saying that the song sounds written by Nelson , and that his performance raises the piece above the level of a cheap gag , he felt that it adds , " a whole new level of complexity to the outlaw mythology Willie helped to cultivate in the 70s . "
Nelson also says that he has received very few negative reactions : " Every now and then somebody might get a little offended . It 's got bad language in it , so I just don 't do it in my shows . Anybody wants to hear it can hear it on iTunes . But you know people are listenin ' to it , likin ' it . Every now and then somebody don 't like it , but that 's okay . Similar to years ago , when the hippie thing come out and I started growin ' my hair and puttin ' the earring in , I got a little flak here and there . "
However , some sources speculate about the potential success and reception of the song . Nelson explains that he didn 't think , " it took a lot of balls to put the song out " saying , " first of all , I didn 't think anybody would play it . I didn 't think it would get on the air , but sure enough it did " though not on country stations : " Oh no , they 're not gonna play it " .
WXBX , a country station in Johnson City , Tenn . , devoted one morning show to a listener discussion of Nelson 's release , concluding that , " the audience was disappointed in [ Nelson ] " and , as Nelson thought , that they " probably wouldn 't be interested in much airplay " . PlanetOut offered the opinion that Nelson 's fan base is secure and broad enough ( including " hippies , rednecks and outlaws young and old " ) to take risks with LGBT @-@ themed songs and soundtracks , while the WXBX station manager pointed out that Nelson has not been a mainstream country star for a while . Nelson 's broad audience , and part of the appeal of the song , may be that , " Willie speaks his mind about any subject ... That 's one of those things that has made him so endearing to so many generations of fans " .
The song has been described variously as " deadpan " , " straight @-@ faced " , and " pointedly poignant " . Sublette , as expected , approves of Nelson 's performance and its potential impact , saying , " It 's supposed to be funny , that 's what gets people 's attention , but to get people to listen to it a second time [ you ] have to have something going on , and Willie beautifully brought out the tenderness there … [ It 's ] nice to have a funny song out there — it is challenging people to laugh . Everybody is so angry now . " Sublette speculated about the song 's reception : " Willie 's smart . We talked about recording it in the ' 90s but we needed some kind of context . It wouldn 't make sense to just put this on some normal Willie album … The movie provided the context . I don 't know if the public is any more or less ready than they were but I think the media is more ready . "
The song was featured in a Boondocks comic strip on 27 and 28 February and mentioned until March 2006 . According to Sublette , " the Monday and Tuesday strip consisted of my lyrics and dramatizing listeners ' response to my lyrics . What a compliment ! "
The reception of Nelson 's song may be compared to that of Garth Brooks ' 1992 single " We Shall Be Free " . The song 's line , " when we 're free to love anyone we choose " caused some radio stations to refuse to play the song , contributing to its peak at number 12 on Billboard 's country singles chart and marking the end of Brooks ' string of top ten hits . Nelson 's song has been lumped together with contemporaneous LGBT friendly country releases : his and Emmylou Harris 's appearance on the Brokeback Mountain soundtrack and the Dolly Parton 's song " Travelin ' Thru " appearing on the Transamerica soundtrack , for which she received an Oscar nomination .
When the song appeared as the penultimate track on Nelson 's 2009 compilation Lost Highway , it was followed by a previously unreleased version of Willie singing Ben Hayslip 's Ain 't Goin ' Down On Brokeback Mountain , which includes the lyric , " ... that shit ain 't right . "
= Pondicherry shark =
The Pondicherry shark ( Carcharhinus hemiodon ) is an extremely rare species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae . A small and stocky gray shark , it grows not much longer than 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) , and it has a fairly long , pointed snout . This species can be identified by the shape of its upper teeth , which are strongly serrated near the base and smooth @-@ edged near the tip , and by its first dorsal fin , which is large with a long free rear tip . Furthermore , this shark has prominent black tips on its pectoral fins , second dorsal fin , and caudal fin lower lobe .
The Pondicherry shark was once found throughout Indo @-@ Pacific coastal waters from the Gulf of Oman to New Guinea , and is known to enter fresh water . Currently , the only known sightings of this species since the 1980s are in rivers in Sri Lanka . Fewer than 20 specimens are available for study , and most aspects of its natural history are unknown . It probably feeds on bony fishes , cephalopods , and crustaceans , and gives birth to live young with the embryos forming a placental connection to their mother . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the Pondicherry shark as Critically Endangered . It is probably threatened by intense and escalating fishing pressure throughout its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first scientific description of the Pondicherry shark was authored by German biologists Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle in their 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen . Their account was based on a 47 cm ( 19 in ) long immature male from Puducherry ( formerly Pondicherry ) , India and three more paratypes from the same region . Müller and Henle attributed the name for the new species , Carcharias ( Hypoprion ) hemiodon , to French zoologist Achille Valenciennes . The specific epithet hemiodon is derived from the Greek hemi ( " half " ) and odon ( " tooth " ) .
In 1862 , Theodore Gill elevated Hypoprion to the rank of full genus and also placed the Pondicherry shark in its own genus , Hypoprionodon , based on the relative positions of the dorsal and pectoral fins . Subsequent authors generally accepted Gill 's first revision but not his second , and thus this species became known as Hypoprion hemiodon . In 1985 , Jack Garrick followed up on earlier taxonomic work by Leonard Compagno and synonymized Hypoprion with Carcharhinus . Another common name for the Pondicherry shark is long nosed shark .
= = Phylogeny = =
The evolutionary relationships of the Pondicherry shark are uncertain . In a 1988 study based on morphological data , Compagno tentatively grouped it with the smalltail shark ( C. porosus ) , blackspot shark ( C. sealei ) , spottail shark ( C. sorrah ) , creek whaler ( C. fitzroyensis ) , whitecheek shark ( C. dussumieri ) , Borneo shark ( C. borneensis ) , and hardnose shark ( C. macloti ) .
= = Description = =
The Pondicherry shark has a robust build and a moderately long , pointed snout . The large and circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes . Each nostril is broad with a small , narrow nipple @-@ shaped lobe on the anterior rim . The arched mouth lacks conspicuous furrows or enlarged pores at the corners . The upper and lower jaws contain 14 – 15 and 12 – 14 tooth rows on either side respectively ; in addition , there are one or two rows of small teeth at the upper and lower symphyses ( jaw midpoints ) . The upper teeth have a single narrow , smooth @-@ edged central cusp , flanked on both sides by very large serrations . The lower teeth are narrower and more upright than the uppers , and may be smooth to finely serrated . The five pairs of gill slits are fairly long .
Originating below the fourth pair of gill slits , the pectoral fins are short , broad , and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) with pointed tips . The first dorsal fin is tall and falcate with a distinctively long free rear tip , and is positioned just behind the pectoral fin bases . The second dorsal fin is large and tall without a notably elongated free rear tip , and is positioned over or slightly behind the anal fin . Usually there is no midline ridge between the dorsal fins , and when present the ridge is slight . The caudal peduncle has a deep crescent @-@ shaped notch at the upper caudal fin origin . The asymmetrical caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a notch in the trailing margin near the tip .
The skin is covered by overlapping dermal denticles ; each denticle has three horizontal ridges leading to three ( rarely five ) marginal teeth . This species is gray above and white below , with an obvious pale stripe on the flanks . The pectoral fins , second dorsal fin , and lower caudal fin lobe are prominently tipped in black , while the first dorsal fin and dorsal caudal fin lobe are narrowly edged in black . The maximum size reached by the Pondicherry shark is uncertain due to a lack of large specimens , but is probably not much greater than 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Pondicherry shark appears to have been broadly distributed in the Indo @-@ Pacific . It may have once been common , as it was reportedly a regular catch off India and Pakistan , but is now extremely rare . Most of the known specimens were collected from India , with more specimens from the Gulf of Oman , Borneo , and Java . There are also less reliable records from the South China Sea , other parts of Southeast Asia such as Vietnam and the Philippines , New Guinea , and northern Australia . This species inhabits inshore waters . Several older sources reported that it could be found in rivers such as the Hooghli River and the Saigon River . These reports may have confused a river shark ( Glyphis sp . ) for the Pondicherry shark ; if accurate , they would suggest this species to be tolerant of low salinity . As of 2016 , these reports have been confirmed ; the only documented Pondicherry sharks in the 21st century were found in the Sri Lankan Menik River .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The diet of the Pondicherry shark is thought to consist of small bony fishes , cephalopods , and crustaceans . A parasite documented from this species is the tapeworm Acanthobothrium paramanandai . Like other requiem sharks , it is viviparous with the developing embryos sustained to term via a placental connection to the mother , though specific details are unknown . The smallest known specimen is a female 32 cm ( 13 in ) long , which may be close to the birth size . Sexual maturity is attained at a length of over 60 cm ( 24 in ) .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the Pondicherry shark was caught and used for meat . Fewer than 20 specimens have been deposited in museum collections , most of which were collected prior to 1900 . This shark 's rarity originally led to fears that it may be possibly extinct . However , in 2016 , the Pondicherry shark was rediscovered in the Sri Lankan Menik and Kumbukkam rivers . Two photographs of this species exist ; one taken from above by a group of nature enthusiasists , as well as one taken from the side by a freshwater fish survey . Given that artisanal and commercial fishing activity across its range is heavy , unregulated , and intensifying , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the Pondicherry shark as Critically Endangered and placed a high priority on locating any surviving populations .
= Article 12 of the Constitution of Singapore =
Article 12 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore guarantees to all persons equality before the law and equal protection of the law . The Article also identifies four forbidden classifications – religion , race , descent and place of birth – upon which Singapore citizens may not be discriminated for specific reasons . For example , discrimination on those classifications is prohibited in the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority or in the administration of any law relating to the establishing or carrying on of any trade , business , profession , vocation or employment .
Persons unable to show that one of the forbidden classifications applies to them may try to argue that they are members of a group defined by a law in a way that violates the general guarantee of equality and equal protection . To succeed , they must establish that the classification used in the law fails the rational nexus test , which is a three @-@ stage test formulated by the courts . The first stage of the test involves an examination as to whether the law differentiates amongst classes of individuals . At the second stage , the court considers if the differentiation is founded on an intelligible differentia or distinguishing feature . Finally , the basis of the differentiation must bear a reasonable relation to the object of the statute . However , the test is not foolproof as a classification may satisfy the test even if the object of the law is itself illegitimate . The rational nexus test , as it is currently applied in Singapore , also tolerates over- and under @-@ inclusive classifications . It remains to be seen if local courts will consider other approaches to the issue , such as the three @-@ tier system of scrutiny applied in the United States , the proportionality analysis applied in the United Kingdom to other areas of human rights law , or the reasonableness approach taken by some judges in India and Malaysia .
The rational nexus test does not apply where a statute treats all persons equally , but it is alleged that the authorities have applied the statute in a discriminatory manner . Instead , a modified rational nexus test is used , which requires a court to consider whether there is a reasonable nexus between the state action taken and the object of the law . Such a nexus will be absent if the action amounts to intentional and arbitrary discrimination or intentional systematic discrimination . It is insufficient if any inequality is due to inadvertence or inefficiency , unless this occurs on a very substantial scale . In addition , inequalities arising from a reasonable administrative policy or which are mere errors of judgment are insufficient to constitute a violation of Article 12 ( 1 ) .
Article 12 ( 3 ) of the Constitution provides that Article 12 does not invalidate or prohibit any provision regulating personal law ; or any provision or practice restricting office or employment connected with the affairs of any religion , or of an institution managed by a group professing any religion , to persons professing that religion .
= = Text of Article 12 = =
Article 12 of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore is entitled " Equal protection " and reads as follows :
12 . — ( 1 ) All persons are equal before the law and entitled to the equal protection of the law .
( 2 ) Except as expressly authorised by this Constitution , there shall be no discrimination against citizens of Singapore on the ground only of religion , race , descent or place of birth in any law or in the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority or in the administration of any law relating to the acquisition , holding or disposition of property or the establishing or carrying on of any trade , business , profession , vocation or employment .
( 3 ) This Article does not invalidate or prohibit —
( a ) any provision regulating personal law ; or
( b ) any provision or practice restricting office or employment connected with the affairs of any religion , or of an institution managed by a group professing any religion , to persons professing that religion .
In the 1998 decision Public Prosecutor v. Taw Cheng Kong , the Court of Appeal regarded the concept of equality as a component of the wider doctrine of the rule of law , and traced its origin to the 40th article of the Magna Carta of 1215 which states : " To none will we sell , to none will we deny , to none will we delay right or justice . " Article 12 ( 1 ) of the Constitution bears a strong resemblance to the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution which prohibits any state from denying " to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws " , and to Article 14 of the Constitution of India which bars the state from denying " to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India " . Article 12 ( 1 ) is identical to Article 8 ( 1 ) of the Constitution of Malaysia , from which it was adopted following Singapore 's independence from Malaysia in 1965 .
In Lim Meng Suang v. Attorney @-@ General ( 2013 ) , the High Court noted that the concept of equality before the law is derived from English common law which requires all classes of persons to be equally subject to the law , while the concept of equal protection of the law stems from the US Constitution 's Fourteenth Amendment and guarantees both procedural and substantive equality . The Court said :
It will be seen that equality before the law and equal protection of the law are but different aspects of the same doctrine – equal justice . The first expresses the immutable principle of equal subjection of all classes of persons to the law , and the second is the positive aspect of that principle which reaches out , when invoked , to strike down unequal laws and discriminatory administrative or executive action as unconstitutional and void .
= = Discriminatory classification = =
= = = Forbidden classifications = = =
Article 12 ( 2 ) of the Constitution prohibits discrimination against Singapore citizens ( unlike Article 12 ( 1 ) which applies to " all persons " ) " on the ground only of religion , race , descent or place of birth " in the following situations :
In any law .
In the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority .
In the administration of any law relating to ( 1 ) the acquisition , holding or disposition of property ; or ( 2 ) the establishing or carrying on of any trade , business , profession , vocation or employment .
The word only raises the possibility that discrimination may be permissible on the basis of one of the proscribed grounds in combination with some other factor , such as age or state of health .
Article 12 ( 2 ) is subject to an express contrary authorization by the Constitution . Article 39A empowers the Legislature to ensure that members of the Malay , Indian and other minority communities are represented in Parliament by enacting a law to create Group Representation Constituencies ( GRCs ) . Each voter in a GRC casts his or her ballot for a team of candidates , at least one of whom must be from a minority community . Article 39A ( 3 ) exempts any provision enacted by Parliament pursuant to Article 39A from being void due to inconsistency with Article 12 .
Another provision that is rescued from potential invalidity by Article 12 ( 2 ) is the Government 's constitutional mandate to exercise its functions in such a way as to recognize the special position of the Malays , who are the indigenous people of Singapore . The Government has a responsibility to " protect , safeguard , support , foster and promote their political , educational , religious , economic , social and cultural interests and the Malay language " . The Constitution also requires the Legislature to enact legislation to regulate Muslim religious affairs and to establish a council to advise the President concerning matters relating to Islam . The legislation in question is the Administration of Muslim Law Act .
= = = Other discriminatory classifications : the rational nexus test = = =
Aggrieved persons who cannot avail themselves of the protection afforded by Article 12 ( 2 ) may try to argue that they are a member of a group defined by a law in a way that violates Article 12 ( 1 ) . The rational nexus test , also known as the doctrine of reasonable classification , is a three @-@ stage test formulated by the courts to determine if the manner in which a law classifies a group of persons is discriminatory . The equality guaranteed by the provision is a relative and not an absolute concept ; it does not require that all persons are treated alike , but rather that all persons in like situations should be treated alike . Consequently , a law that differentiates between classes of persons is valid and constitutional provided that there is some difference in circumstances , and the factor which the legislature adopts as constituting the dissimilarity in circumstances is not purely arbitrary but bears a reasonable relation to the legislative object of the law . If there is no such relationship , the difference is discriminatory and the impugned legislation is unconstitutional and invalid .
= = = = History = = = =
In 1909 , the Supreme Court of the United States propounded a test to determine the reasonableness of a classification , stating that the classification " must always rest upon some real and substantial distinction bearing a reasonable and just relation to the things in respect to which the classification is made " . Based on this principle , the Supreme Court of India subsequently formulated a two @-@ stage test to determine if a classification made by a law was constitutional . The relevant stages were ( 1 ) whether the classification was founded on an intelligible differentia ; and ( 2 ) whether the differentia had a rational relation to the object sought to be achieved by the law in question .
The Federal Court of Malaysia later adapted the rational nexus test by including an additional preceding stage , namely , whether the law was discriminatory . This three @-@ stage inquiry was accepted in Singapore in the case Kok Hoong Tan Dennis v. Public Prosecutor ( 1996 ) .
= = = = Stages of the test = = = =
The test that is currently followed in Singapore was re @-@ expressed by the Court of Appeal in Taw Cheng Kong ( 1998 ) as comprising three stages :
Whether the law differentiates – that is , prescribes different treatment – amongst classes of individuals .
Whether the differentiation is founded on an intelligible differentia ( distinguishing feature ) .
Whether the basis of differentiation bears a reasonable relation to the object of the statute .
The purpose of the test is to ensure that the right to equal protection is upheld by guarding against three forms of arbitrariness . First , individuals in the same class must share common features and should not be classified arbitrarily . Secondly , the treatment of persons falling within the same class must not be arbitrary . Lastly , the basis of classification must not be arbitrary but should bear a reasonable relationship to the object of the executive action . The stages of the rational nexus test directly address these forms of arbitrariness . As such , a law that satisfies all the stages of the test will be found to be valid and constitutional .
= = = = = Stage 1 : Whether the law differentiates = = = = =
The first stage of the test considers whether the law prescribes different treatment for one group of individuals as against other groups . For example , in the 1998 High Court decision Taw Cheng Kong v. Public Prosecutor , Judge of Appeal M. Karthigesu found that the Prevention of Corruption Act differentiated between classes of people as it renders some , but not all , persons open to criminal prosecution in Singapore for offences committed outside Singapore .
While earlier cases expressed this stage of the test as a determination of whether a law is discriminatory , the Court of Appeal has warned against the confusing of the concepts of differentiation and discrimination . A differentiating law is one that draws distinctions between groups of people . A discriminatory law or executive act , on the other hand , is one that contravenes Article 12 ( 1 ) and hence is unconstitutional . Therefore , the mere finding of a differentiating measure in this first stage does not necessarily make the law discriminatory , as the other two stages will still have to be taken into consideration . If the impugned statute does not contain such a differentiating measure , it is a good law and the objection fails .
Even if a differentiating measure is found , there is a strong presumption that it is constitutional . The legislature must necessarily have a wide power of classification in making laws that operate differently for different groups of people in order to give effect to its policy . Unless the law is plainly arbitrary , suggesting examples of arbitrariness are not ordinarily helpful in rebutting this presumption of constitutionality . It is presumed that Parliament knows best for its people , and is experienced in making laws directed at societal problems , hence its differentiation is based on adequate grounds . Therefore , to rebut this presumption it is necessary for the person challenging the law to adduce some material or factual evidence to show that it was enacted arbitrarily or had operated arbitrarily .
= = = = = Stage 2 : Intelligible differentia = = = = =
The second stage of the rational nexus test looks at whether the basis for differentiation is founded on an intelligible differentia which distinguishes those who are grouped together from those left outside the group . To satisfy the second stage , there must be a discernible basis of classification . All persons being discriminated against by a law must share a common identifying mark that is not borne by those not discriminated against . Examples of such features include gender , age , race , religion , seniority of professional qualification and area of residence . Another feature that has been accepted by the courts as constituting an intelligible differentia is Singapore citizenship . Singling out a person or object with characteristics not peculiar to itself , but which may conceivably be found in other persons or objects , does not constitute classification . If there is no consistent means of identifying the persons treated differently , the differentiation is arbitrary and the law is invalid . If there is an intelligible differentia , the differentiation is not arbitrary in this sense and it is necessary to proceed to the third stage .
Equality under Article 12 ( 1 ) does not require that all persons are treated alike , but rather that all persons in like situations should be treated alike . Similarly , failing to treat differently persons whose situations are significantly different also amounts to inequality . As such , at the second stage the question to be considered is whether persons falling within the same class are treated equally . Article 12 ( 1 ) prohibits laws which require that some individuals within a single class should be treated more harshly than others . However , the law is not unconstitutional if all persons discriminated against are equally discriminated against , and all persons not discriminated against are equally not discriminated against . The courts have found this stage to be satisfied where under a statute all citizens are equally liable to prosecution , whereas all non @-@ citizens are equally immune from it . The second stage test was also found to have been satisfied where all members of the Singapore Congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses found to have been in violation of the Societies Act were treated equally .
= = = = = Stage 3 : Reasonable relation to statutory objective = = = = =
In this stage , it is necessary to inquire into , firstly , the object of the statute , and secondly , whether the basis of differentiation against or for a particular class is a reasonable means of achieving such an object . The essence of the test is whether it is reasonable , taking into consideration the object of the statute , to distinguish between persons on the selected basis of differentiation . As such , it is necessary to ask how the differentiation against or for one particular class furthers the object of the statute . The law is not arbitrary if the basis for discrimination has a rational relation to the object sought to be achieved , and the statute will be declared valid and constitutional .
In Taw Cheng Kong , the respondent challenged his conviction for corruption on the ground that section 37 of the Prevention of Corruption Act , which extends the effect of the Act to corrupt acts by Singapore citizens ( but not non @-@ citizens ) occurring outside Singapore , discriminated against citizens and thus violated Article 12 ( 1 ) . The Court of Appeal held that the distinction drawn by the section 37 between citizens and non @-@ citizens who are abroad is valid as it is a reasonable means of achieving the Act 's object , which is to address acts of corruption taking place outside Singapore but affecting events within it . The exclusion of non @-@ citizens from the ambit of section 37 observes international comity and the sovereignty of other nations .
= = = = Criticisms of the test = = = =
= = = = = Unreasonable legislative objectives = = = = =
In equal protection cases , the purpose of the law must be distilled before the reasonableness of a classification can be judged . When the purpose of the law is not explicitly stated , the court may conclude that there is no legitimate public purpose , assume that there is a legitimate public purpose but refuse to look for it , or draw some inferences as to what it is . When the purpose of the law is explicitly stated , the court may either accept it at face value ; or challenge the integrity of the legislative declaration , looking behind the explicit purpose to determine the true purpose . In the latter situation , what is concerned is the discriminatory character of the legislation . The need to identify the legislative purpose has been said to involve the court in the " thornier aspects of judicial review " , because it must either " uncritically and often unrealistically accept a legislative avowal at face value " or " challenge legislative integrity and push beyond the express statement into unconfined realms of inference " . The court must then " make a judgment as to the purity of legislative motive and ... determine the legitimacy of the end " .
This step is necessary because the rational nexus test is not foolproof . The test is based on the presumption that the legislative object itself is not in violation of the Constitution . However , if the object of the statute is itself illegitimate , a classification may be invalid even if it satisfies the test . Hence , the test is only applicable if the object of the impugned legislation is a proper one .
In India , a solution was proffered by means of a more holistic approach to the constitutional promise of equality . In Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India ( 1978 ) , the learned Justice Prafullachandra Natwarlal Bhagwati noted that " an essential element of equality perv
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. Located on the Bowery , it exhibited a Grim Reaper riding a bumper car in circles to an elaborate light show , fog machine and Blue Öyster Cult 's ( Don 't Fear ) The Reaper . The accompanying audio guide offered a self @-@ mockery interpretation , with Banksy stating that often " the role of art is to remind us of our mortality , " implying that with this mounted art show that goes on " for so long we wish we were dead already . " The site of the exhibit was once that of an antique shop , some remains of which were placed in a coffin that occupied the lot for months . This prompted other interpretations of the installations message , paying homage to the " ghosts of Bowry , " as the antique store owner suggested .
On 26 October Banksy 's work appeared in Sunset Park of the back of a truck and read , " The grumpier you are , the more assholes you meet ... " which was ultimately removed and sold in auction .
The 27 October piece was a message on a wall in Greenpoint that read " This site contains blocked messages . " It made reference to an unpublished column Banksy had submitted to The New York Times . The controversial essay criticized the city 's decision in approving the One World Trade Center , which he described as " vanilla " and looking like " something they would build in Canada . " In what became his second reference to the September 11 attacks , Banksy argued the building was a betrayal to everyone who lost their lives that day , and that its blandness is a sign the terrorist won .
Day 28 came with a simple stencil in Coney Island of a robot spray @-@ painting a barcode onto the wall .
On 29 October Banksy 's art was displayed in a shop window , unbeknownst to the owners . Banksy had purchased a very basic painting of a landscape , added his own special touch in the form of a Nazi in full uniform resting on a bench and enjoying the view , and donated it back to the store , drastically increasing their patronage for the day .
On day 30 Banksy 's art could be found on Yankee Stadium in the form of a jaguar draped on a line on the wall . This piece was quickly covered up .
The final piece of the month @-@ long series was a group of balloons that together read " BANKSY ! " , tied to the wall of a building alongside the Long Island Expressway in Queens . Banksy included the message " Save 5pointz " in the caption for the piece on his website , referring to 5 Pointz , a nearby outdoor art exhibit considered to be a focal point of such culture that had recently been approved by the New York City Department of City Planning to be demolished to make way for condominiums .
= = Defacement = =
Most of the works that make up the Better Out Than In series were defaced , some just hours after the piece was unveiled . At least one defacement was identified as done by a competing artist , OMAR NYC , who spray @-@ painted over Banksy 's red mylar balloon piece in Red Hook . OMAR NYC also defaced some of Banksy 's work in May 2010 .
As a result of the continued defacement , fans rushed to the sites of the installments as soon as they are announced . A group of men took advantage of this and threatened to deface a stencil painting of a beaver in East New York , charging money for people to take photographs . Some took matters into their own hands by guarding the works , others restoring them once defaced . In part because of the defacement , but also because of the great value of the artworks , property owners have also gone to extreme measures to protect the art . Some hired security guards , others covered the art with acrylic glass , and yet others installed metal roll @-@ down gates .
= = Response = =
The month @-@ long show was widely publicized and covered by the media . Mayor Michael Bloomberg , while supporting the arts , criticized Banksy 's work , calling him a vandal , contending that defacing property was not his definition of art .
On 17 October the New York Post wrote under the front @-@ page headline " Get Banksy ! " that police were pursuing Banksy , but noted the hunt is difficult because he has never been positively identified in public . In response Banksy posted an image of the front page on his website with the caption " I don 't read what i believe in the papers . " The NYPD later denied they were actively looking for Banksy as no property owners had filed any formal complaints .
= = = Controversy = = =
Bronx Borough President Rubén Díaz , Jr. called Banksy a " modern @-@ day Picasso " and praised him for choosing to unveil his 16 October Ronald McDonald replica in the South Bronx . This came before Banksy 's 21 October piece , which brought discontent to the President and other residents . The piece featured a child spray @-@ painting the words " Ghetto 4 Life " on a wall . Díaz stated it reinforced " outdated negative stereotypes , " and defended that Banksy should become aware that graffiti art and culture originated in the Bronx . The owner of the graffitied wall and his partner , however , praised the work and its message , calling it " beautiful " and owning its preservation to the artist 's fame .
Banksy 's op @-@ ed article about One World Trade Center , posted on his website on 27 October , came as an insult to many across the city . Former FDNY Deputy Chief Jim Riches wrote that it was a " disgrace to New York City and all the families who lost loved ones on 9 / 11 . " Sally Regenhard , a leading voice for families of 11 September victims , expressed concerns about Banksy 's 15 October depiction of the Twin Towers in TriBeCa , saying the piece was " horrific " and that the placed flower looked more like an explosion . A Century 21 department store near Ground Zero had planned to show Banksy 's work on 29 October , but cancelled due to the controversy .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Banksy 's Better Out Than In series has received mixed reviews . Many fans raved over his work , flocking to each site everyday of the show .
New York magazine art critic Jerry Saltz wrote Banksy 's well @-@ executed work stood out from other graffiti , but that the meaning behind the pieces aren 't as deep as fans like to believe . " No other graffiti artist has a PR machine remotely like Banksy 's , " he writes , arguing Banksy is more of a " promo man " than an artist .
Will Ellsworth @-@ Jones , author of Banksy : The Man Behind the Wall writes that Better Out Than In shows Banksy 's range of mediums has grown to incorporate multi @-@ media and performance @-@ based works . He pointed out the " wonderful commentary on money and art " displayed with hiring an anonymous salesman to sell Banksy paintings in Central Park for $ 60 .
= 28th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 28th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . It was raised in early 1915 as part of the First Australian Imperial Force for service during the First World War and formed part of the 7th Brigade , attached to the 2nd Division . It fought during the final stages of the Gallipoli campaign in late 1915 and then on the Western Front between 1916 and 1918 . At the end of the war , the 28th was disbanded in 1919 but was re @-@ raised in 1921 , as a part @-@ time unit based in Western Australia . During the Second World War , the 28th undertook defensive duties in Australia for the majority of the conflict , before seeing action against the Japanese in the New Britain campaign in 1944 – 45 . The battalion was disbanded in March 1946 but was re @-@ formed in 1948 as an amalgamated unit with the 16th Battalion , before being unlinked in 1952 and re @-@ raised as a full battalion following the reintroduction of national service . It remained on the Australian Army 's order of battle until 1960 when it was subsumed into the Royal Western Australia Regiment , but was later re @-@ raised in 1966 as a remote area infantry battalion . In 1977 , the 28th was reduced to an independent rifle company , and in 1987 was amalgamated into the 11th / 28th Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = First World War = = =
The 28th Battalion came into existence on 16 April 1915 when it was raised at Blackboy Camp , in Western Australia . Formed as part of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , an all volunteer formation raised for overseas service during the First World War , the 28th Battalion 's first batch of volunteers came from personnel who had originally been allocated to the 24th Battalion . The 24th was being raised at Broadmeadows in Victoria , and it had been intended that the 24th would be raised from all states of Australia with recruits travelling to Victoria to form the unit , but the higher than expected number of volunteers at Broadmeadows at the time meant that the 24th was raised as a Victorian battalion , and the Western Australians , who had been intended to form a sub unit within the 24th , were reallocated to the 28th which was subsequently raised mainly from Western Australian recruits .
The 28th Battalion was subsequently allocated to the 7th Brigade , which besides the 28th and several support units , also consisted of the 25th , 26th and 27th Battalions , which were drawn from the states of Queensland , Tasmania and South Australia , and which completed their training separately before joining each other in Egypt . With an authorised strength of 1 @,@ 023 men , the battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Herbert Collett . After completing rudimentary training , the 28th embarked on the transport Ascanius on 9 June and sailed from Fremantle to Egypt via the Red Sea .
The 28th arrived in Egypt in July and concentrated along with the rest of the 7th Brigade at Abbassia , near Cairo , where they were assigned to the newly formed Australian 2nd Division . Two months of training followed , as the division was readied for action ; this process was put on hold in September when elements of the division were dispatched to Gallipoli to provide reinforcements for the Australian and New Zealand forces that had been fighting around Anzac Cove since April . The campaign was almost over , but the decision to evacuate had not been confirmed and the 7th Brigade was dispatched in early September . Upon arrival the brigade was temporarily attached to the New Zealand and Australian Division as reinforcements , occupying positions north @-@ east of Anzac Cove around " Cheshire Ridge " . They remained on the peninsula for the next few months , manning the trenches , improving defences and defending the beachhead until the evacuation in mid @-@ December , when they were withdrawn back to Lemnos Island . Casualties during the 28th 's brief involvement in the campaign were described by the Australian War Memorial as " light " , and the battalion 's strength on departing the peninsula was 24 officers and 667 other ranks .
After spending Christmas on Lemnos , the 28th returned to Egypt in early January 1916 . Further training followed before the 7th Brigade was deployed in defence of the Suez Canal . At this time , the AIF was reorganised and expanded in preparation for future operations . Two new infantry divisions were formed from the experienced troops of the 1st Division who had deployed to Gallipoli at the start of the campaign , while a third division was raised in Australia from scratch . The 2nd Division was largely left untouched , so that it could complete its formation which had been interrupted by its deployment to Gallipoli . The 7th Brigade subsequently returned to the command of the 2nd Division and the 28th Battalion – along with the rest of the 7th Brigade – would remain with that formation for the rest of the war . In mid @-@ March 1916 , the 28th was transferred to France , as part of the first body of Australian troops to deploy to the European battlefield . In early April , the 28th Battalion entered the front line around Armentières , holding the right hand sector of the 7th Brigade 's line . For the next two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , they would fight in the trenches of the Western Front in both Belgium and France and take part in numerous battles .
The 28th 's first major action came during the Battle of Pozières in late July and early August when they took part in two attacks . During the first attack , the 28th suffered heavily when they were committed to a night @-@ time attack on the heights that got held up in heavy wire entanglements that the preparatory bombardment had failed to destroy ; the battalion 's losses were the heaviest in the 7th Brigade , amounting to 10 officers and 360 other ranks . A follow up attack was undertaken on 4 August , which proved more successful , eventually securing the objective . The following day , the Australians were subjected to heavy shelling before they were withdrawn on 6 August . After this , the 28th was moved to a quieter sector around Ypres before returning to the Somme in the later part of 1916 , and taking part in further fighting around Flers . In early 1917 , the Germans began a surprise withdrawal along the front , which enabled them to hold the line with fewer troops , thus gaining a pool of reserves . When the Allies discovered this , a brief advance followed , before they came up against the strongly prepared defences of the Hindenburg Line . After this , a series of attacks followed with the 28th Battalion being utilised mainly in supporting roles for the remainder of the year . Actions were fought at Bullecourt , Menin Road , Broodseinde and Poelcappelle during this time .
The battalion wintered in Belgium , but early in 1918 was transferred to the Somme again in response to the German Spring Offensive . In late March and into April , they defended the line around Villers @-@ Bretonneux as the Allies fought to defend the vital railhead of Amiens , before providing support to the 6th Brigade 's attack on Ville @-@ sur @-@ Ancre in May . A brief lull followed in June and July as the Allies attempted to regain the initiative , during which the 28th was involved in a minor action around Morlancourt . On 8 August , the Allies launched their Hundred Days Offensive during which the 28th Battalion was initially engaged around Villers @-@ Bretonneux . It was there , on the first day of the offensive , that Lieutenant Alfred Gaby , performed the deeds that led to him becoming the 28th Battalion 's first , and only , Victoria Cross recipient . A series of advances followed as the Allies exploited their initial success and sought to break the Hindenburg Line . In late August , the Australian 2nd Division advanced to the Somme River , and on 29 August , as the 7th Brigade attacked around Biaches , the 28th was assigned the task of capturing the Amiens – Peronne railway bridge . The following day , they forced their way across the river around Peronne , and during the subsequent Battle of Mont St Quentin – Peronne , they joined the 7th Brigade 's advance towards Aizecourt @-@ le @-@ Haut . They continued fighting until early October 1918 when they were withdrawn from the line , just after an attack on the Beaureviour Line , around the village of Estrees .
The fighting throughout 1918 had heavily depleted the Australian units , which had been unable to make good their losses , and on 5 October , the entire Australian Corps was withdrawn for rest and reorganisation . The battalion remained out of the line until the war ended in November , after which they began to demobilise . The process was slow as personnel were repatriated back to Australia in drafts and consequently the battalion was not disbanded until March 1919 . Throughout the war , casualties amongst the 28th totalled 787 killed and 2 @,@ 241 wounded . The battalion received 17 battle honours for its war service , which were bestowed in 1927 .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
The demobilisation of the AIF was completed in early 1921 , at which time Australia 's part @-@ time military force , the Citizens Force , was reorganised to reflect the divisional structure and numerical designations of the AIF . As a result , the 28th Battalion was re @-@ raised in Western Australia , as part of the 13th Brigade , within the 5th Military District . Upon formation , the new battalion drew personnel from parts of the 11th , 16th and 28th Infantry Regiments . In 1927 , when territorial designations were approved for all Citizen Forces infantry battalions , the 28th adopted the title of the " Swan Valley Regiment " , although in 1934 this was changed to the " Swan Regiment " . The battalion 's motto – the Latin word Urgens – was approved in 1927 . It was headquartered in Perth , but also had detachments in Northam and Western Australia . At the outset , in 1921 the Citizen Forces units were maintained through a mixture of voluntary and compulsory service , but in late 1929 , the scheme was suspended by the Scullin Labor government , and replaced by an all @-@ volunteer " Militia " scheme . Numbers fell sharply and training opportunities for those that did volunteer were limited throughout the 1930s . Activities during this period were limited with training consisting of just one six @-@ day annual camp , which was augmented by monthly half @-@ day parades , amounting to a further six days of training . Training was also hampered by the austerity measures that were necessitated by the economic hardships of the Great Depression , which meant that the equipment provided during this time was largely obsolete , being mainly First World War vintage , and provided in insufficient numbers .
= = = Second World War and beyond = = =
Throughout the early part of the Second World War , the 28th Battalion undertook brief periods of continuous service , providing training to recruits who were enlisted following the re @-@ establishment of conscription in January 1940 to improve the nation 's overall readiness . The provisions of the Defence Act precluded the Militia from being sent outside Australian territory to fight , so many of the battalion 's personnel volunteered to serve in the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) . After Japan 's entry into the war , the 13th Brigade 's units were mobilised for full @-@ time service and pressed into home defence with III Corps , undertaking garrison duties to defend Western Australia against a possible invasion . When that threat passed , they moved to the Northern Territory , and the 28th Battalion established itself around 49 @-@ Mile Creek . Late in the war , the 13th Brigade was reassigned from the 4th Division to the 5th , and in November 1944 they were committed to the New Britain campaign , landing at Jacquinot Bay the following month and later established themselves around Waitavalo . From then until the end of the war in August 1945 , the 28th took part in a containment campaign against the much larger Japanese force on the island , as the Australians attempted to confine them to the Gazelle Peninsula and Rabaul . The 28th kept up a program of patrolling through the jungle , but made little contact with the Japanese . After the war , the battalion remained on the island processing Japanese prisoners of war until being repatriated back to Australia in January 1946 . They were disbanded two months later as part of the demobilisation process . Throughout the war , the 28th lost six men killed on active service and one wounded . It received one battle honour for its service in 1961 , but was also entrusted with the 16 battle honours awarded to the 2nd AIF 's 2 / 28th Battalion .
Once Australia 's wartime military forces had been demobilised , the part @-@ time force was re @-@ established in the guise of the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , which was formed in 1948 . Within this , an amalgamated 16th / 28th Battalion was raised . This battalion existed until August 1952 when , following the reintroduction of national service , the 28th Battalion was re @-@ raised in its own right , based in East Perth with sub @-@ units at Albany , Katanning and Geraldton . Heart of Oak was approved as the battalion 's regimental march in 1953 , but it was replaced the following year by Colonel Bogey . In 1960 , following the introduction of the Pentropic organisation and the suspension of national service , this battalion was subsumed into the newly formed Royal Western Australia Regiment , providing three company @-@ sized elements to the regiment 's 1st Battalion ( 1 RWAR ) . The Australian Army ceased using the Pentropic organisation in July 1965 and at this time 1 RWAR was split into two smaller battalions : 1 RWAR and 2 RWAR . In early 1966 , these were renumbered 16 RWAR and 11 RWAR , with the companies that had originally come from the 28th Battalion being allocated to 16 RWAR . In October 1966 , when national service was reintroduced , the 28th Battalion was re @-@ formed as a full battalion known as 28 RWAR , and fulfilling the role of a remote area battalion , catering for the training needs of men eligible for call up who wished to exercise the option to serve in the CMF instead of the Regular Army , but who could not parade regularly due to where they lived or what civilian occupation they held . The national service scheme ended in December 1972 , after which many who had joined the CMF to defer full @-@ time national service took their discharge . Numbers fell significantly and in 1977 the 28th Battalion was reduced to an independent rifle company , along with the 11th Battalion . This continued until October 1987 , when the two companies were amalgamated to form the current 11th / 28th Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment .
= = Alliances = =
The 28th Battalion held the following alliances :
United Kingdom – The Gloucestershire Regiment .
= = Battle honours = =
The 28th Battalion received the following battle honours ( including those inherited from the 2 / 28th Battalion ) :
First World War : Somme 1916 – 18 ; Pozières ; Bullecourt ; Ypres 1917 ; Menin Road ; Polygon Wood ; Broodseinde ; Poelcappelle ; Passchendaele ; Amiens ; Albert 1918 ; Mont St. Quentin ; Hindenburg Line ; Beaurevoir ; France and Flanders 1916 – 18 ; Gallipoli 1915 ; Egypt 1915 – 16 .
Second World War : North Africa 1941 – 42 ; Defence of Tobruk ; Defence of Alamein Line ; Tel el Makh Khad ; Sanyet el Miteirya ; Qattara Track ; El Alamein ; South West Pacific 1943 – 45 ; Lae @-@ Nadzab ; Busu River ; Finschhafen ; Defence of Scarlet Beach ; Siki Cove ; Gusika ; Borneo ; Labuan ; and Beaufort .
= = Commanding officers = =
First World War
Herbert Bayley Collett
George Arthur Read
Patrick Currie .
Second World War
Michael Joseph Anketell
James Gerald Brennan
Henry Humfrey Marsden Chilton
Alfred Joseph Proud .
= Inns of Chancery =
The Inns of Chancery or Hospida Cancellarie were a group of buildings and legal institutions in London initially attached to the Inns of Court and used as offices for the clerks of chancery , from which they drew their name . Existing from at least 1344 , the Inns gradually changed their purpose , and became both the offices and accommodation for solicitors ( as the Inns of Court were to barristers ) and a place of initial training for barristers .
The practice of training barristers at the Inns of Chancery had died out by 1642 , and the Inns instead became dedicated associations and offices for solicitors . With the founding of the Society of Gentlemen Practisers in 1739 and the Law Society of England and Wales in 1825 , a single unified professional association for solicitors , the purpose of the Inns died out , and after a long period of decline the last one ( Clement 's Inn ) was sold in 1903 and demolished in 1934 .
= = History = =
It is believed that the Inns of Chancery evolved in tandem with the Inns of Court . During the 12th and 13th century the law was taught in the City of London , primarily by the clergy . During the 13th century two events happened which destroyed this form of legal education - firstly a decree by Henry III of England that no institutes of legal education could exist in the City of London , and second a papal bull that prohibited the clergy from teaching the law . As a result , the system of legal education fell apart , and the lawyers instead settled immediately outside the City of London as close as possible to Westminster Hall , where Magna Carta provided for a permanent court . This was the small village of Holborn , where they inhabited " hostels " or " inns " , which later took their name from the landlord of the Inn in question .
The Inns of Chancery sprung up around the Inns of Court , and took their name and original purpose from the chancery clerks , who used the buildings as hostels and offices where they would draft their writs . As with the Inns of Court the precise dates of founding of the Inns of Chancery are unknown , but the one commonly said to be the oldest is Clifford 's Inn , which existed from at least 1344 . Thavie 's Inn , founded in 1349 , is considered to be the next oldest , and several legal historians mistakenly considered it the oldest of them all .
For several centuries , education at one of the Inns of Chancery was the first step towards becoming a barrister . A student would first join one of the Inns of Chancery , where he would be taught in the form of moots and rote learning . He would also be taught by Readers sent from the Inn of Court that his Inn of Chancery was attached to , who would preside over the moots and discuss cases with the students . At the end of each legal term , particularly promising students would be transferred to the parent Inn of Court and begin the next stage of their education . By 1461 there were approximately 100 students studying at the Inns of Chancery at any one time .
At the same time , the Inns of Chancery was used as accommodation and offices by solicitors , the other branch of the English legal profession . During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the purpose of the Inns changed . After the outbreak of the First English Civil War in 1642 , the practice of teaching barristers in the Inns ceased , and as a result the Inns of Chancery became a dedicated association for solicitors instead , offering offices and accommodation . The foundation of the Society of Gentlemen Practisers and Law Society of England and Wales in 1739 and 1825 respectively as professional bodies for the solicitors profession relegated the Inns of Chancery to little more than eccentric dining clubs , and they were gradually dissolved and sold . In 1897 a popular book reported that nobody could remember the purpose of the buildings and that and an 1850 investigation had failed to uncover their origins . The last Inn to be sold was Clement 's Inn , which was sold in 1903 , and demolished in 1934 .
= = Inns = =
John Fortescue wrote of ten Inns of Chancery , each one attached to an Inn of Court " like Maids of Honour to a Princess " . Only nine are known of in detail , others were " never acknowledged by anybody " and are not found in records . The nine Inns were :
Clement 's Inn , Lyon 's Inn and Clifford 's Inn attached to the Inner Temple ,
Strand Inn and New Inn attached to the Middle Temple ,
Furnival 's Inn and Thavie 's Inn attached to Lincoln 's Inn , and
Staple Inn and Barnard 's Inn attached to Gray 's Inn .
( A tenth Inn of Chancery , the Outer Temple , was proven to exist by the legal historian John Baker in 2008 . )
Many Inns were originally independent of the Inns of Court , and fell in and out of allegiance with them , with some claiming independence right up to the nineteenth century . Most Inns became directly attached to Inns of Court during the sixteenth century , however , when the Inns of Court began charging higher acceptance fees to students trained in independent Inns of Chancery than they did to students trained in " their " Inns of Chancery .
= = = Inner Temple attachments = = =
Clement 's Inn was the last to be dissolved , being shut down in 1903 . Located near St Clement Danes , the Inn was also named after Saint Clement and took as its coat of arms his , with a large letter C in sable . The buildings were completely rebuilt in the 19th century in the Queen Anne Style . Noted members included Sir Edmund Saunders , and William Shakespeare made Justice Shallow , a character in Henry IV , Part 2 , a member of the Inn . Members were noted as " a wild lot " known for their drinking and parties . In its later years the Inn was a poor one , and had no library or chapel , with most of the funds being spent on repairs and maintenance for the building .
Lyon 's Inn was " a place of considerable antiquity " , with records from 1413 . Originally a hostel , it was purchased by the inhabitants and turned into an Inn of Chancery . Initially a small but respected Inn that educated people as noted as Sir Edward Coke , Lyon 's Inn became a disreputable institution that " perished of public contempt long before it came to the hammer and the pick " . By the time it was dissolved it was inhabited only by the lowest lawyers and those struck off the rolls , and when surveyed it was found that it was run by only two Ancients , neither of whom had any idea what their duties were , and the Inn had not dined for over a century . The Inn was dissolved in 1863 and replaced with the third Globe Theatre .
Clifford 's Inn was the oldest of the Inns of Chancery , and was first mentioned in 1344 . Although generally considered a dependent of the Inner Temple , its members always maintained that they were independent . As a note of that " independence " it became custom for the Inner Temple to send them a message once a year , which would be received but deliberately not replied to . Their coat of arms was a modified form of the Clifford family arms , with " cheque or and azure , a fess gules , a bordure , bezantée , of the third . " Noted students include John Selden ; Sir Edward Coke was also said to have studied there , but historical records find no evidence of this , and he was always associated with Lyon 's Inn more than Clifford 's .
= = = Middle Temple attachments = = =
Strand Inn , also called Chester Inn , was the shortest lived of the Inns of Chancery . Founded in the fifteenth century it was pulled down in the 1540s by Lord Somerset in his role as Lord Protector so that he could build Somerset House . The students instead went to New Inn , and Strand Inn was absorbed into that Inn . Thomas Occleve was said to have studied at Strand Inn .
New Inn , originally St. George 's Inn or Our Lady Inn , was founded in the 15th century from our Lady Inn , a hostel . Noted students included Sir Thomas More , who attended New Inn before going to Lincoln 's Inn . The buildings of New Inn were pulled down in 1902 to make way for a road between Holborn and the Strand . After the destruction of Strand Inn , New Inn was the only Inn of Chancery left attached to the Middle Temple .
= = = Lincoln 's Inn attachments = = =
Furnival 's Inn was founded before or during the reign of Henry IV and named after the Lords Furnival . During the 1820s the Inn was completely rebuilt . Noted tenants include Charles Dickens , who began to write The Pickwick Papers whilst living there . The Inn was demolished in 1897 .
Thavie 's Inn was the second oldest Inn of Chancery , and was founded around 1349 . It was sold in 1769 .
= = = Gray 's Inn attachments = = =
Staple Inn dated from at least 1415 , and was originally an inn where wool merchants stayed and haggled . In reference to this , the Inn coat of arms contained a bale of wool . During the reign of Elizabeth I it was the largest of the Inns of Chancery , with 145 students and 69 as permanent residents . The buildings survived the great fire of London and were rebuilt in the seventeenth century , and again in the nineteenth . The Inn was shut down and the building sold to the Prudential Assurance Company in 1884 , and part of it is now used as the headquarters of the Institute of Actuaries .
Barnard 's Inn , originally known as Mackworth 's Inn after its owner , John Mackworth , was established in 1454 as an Inn of Chancery . A large Inn , Barnard 's had 112 students a year during the reign of Elizabeth I with 24 in permanent residence . When it was an institute of legal education , it enforced the odd practice of fining a student when he got something wrong : a halfpenny for a defective word , a farthing for a defective syllable and a penny for an improper word . Barnard 's was under the supervision of Gray 's Inn , who traditionally sent a Reader to the Inn every year , who was treated with great respect . Noted pupils included Sir John Holt , later a distinguished jurist . The Inn was badly damaged in the Gordon Riots after a rioter set fire to the distillery next door . In 1880 it was bought by the Worshipful Company of Mercers and used to house the Mercers ' School .
= The Boat Race 1876 =
The 33rd Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 8 April 1876 . Six of the Oxford crew had Boat Race experience while Cambridge 's crew contained three Blues . Umpired by Joseph William Chitty , Cambridge won the race " easily " in a time of 20 minutes 20 seconds , following confusion as to the positioning of the finish . The victory took the overall record to 17 – 16 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Cambridge by ten lengths in the previous year 's race , and led overall with seventeen wins to Cambridge 's fifteen .
Cambridge were coached by Constantine William Benson who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1872 , 1873 and 1875 races , and James Brooks Close who had represented the Light Blues in the 1872 , 1873 and 1874 races . There is no record of who coached Oxford . Joseph William Chitty was the umpire for the race . He had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in March and December ) and the 1852 race . The starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
Both crews weight an average of 11 st 13 @.@ 875 lb ( 76 @.@ 0 kg ) . The Cambridge crew contained three former Blues : William Brooks Close , cox George Latham Davies and Herbert Rhodes ( rowing in his fourth Boat Race ) . Oxford saw six Blues return , including H. J. Stayner who was making his third Boat Race appearance . Author and rower G. C. Drinkwater stated that the placement of Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss , described as " one of the best sevens that ever rowed " , at stroke was a mistake . In contrast , Cambridge were " considered by many to be the finest seen at Putney up to that time . "
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . Weather conditions were warm but with a " foul wind " in Corney Reach ( about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) along the course ) , and the race commenced at 2 : 02 p.m. The crews remained almost level for the first four minutes of the race , after which Cambridge began to pull ahead . By Hammersmith Bridge they had a clear water advantage and were three lengths up by Chiswick Eyot . Extending their lead , the Light Blues were five lengths ahead by The Ship pub . When Oxford finally passed the pub , they stopped , " apparently unaware that they had not completed the course " . Author and former Oxford rower Dickie Burnell suggested the course was approximately 60 yards ( 55 m ) too long .
Cambridge , having sprinted to the finish , received the finishing gun while eight lengths ahead . As a result of the confusion , the judge declared the winning distance as four lengths . However , official records state that Cambridge won the race " easily " , in a time of 20 minutes 20 seconds . It was their sixth win in seven years and took the overall record to 17 – 16 in Oxford 's favour .
= History of the bikini =
The history of the bikini can be traced back to antiquity . Illustrations of Roman women wearing bikini @-@ like garments during competitive athletic events have been found in several locations . The most famous of them is Villa Romana del Casale . French engineer Louis Réard introduced the modern bikini , modeled by Micheline Bernardini , on July 5 , 1946 , borrowing the name for his design from the Bikini Atoll , where post @-@ war testing on the atomic bomb was happening .
French women welcomed the design but the Catholic Church , some media , and a majority of the public initially thought the design was risqué or even scandalous . Contestants in the first Miss World beauty pageant wore them in 1951 , but the bikini was then banned from the competition . Actress Bridget Bardot drew attention when she was photographed wearing a bikini on the beach during the Cannes Film Festival in 1953 . Other actresses , including Rita Hayworth and Ava Gardner , also gathered press attention when they wore bikinis . During the early 1960s , the design appeared on the cover of Playboy and Sports Illustrated , giving it additional legitimacy . Ursula Andress made a huge impact when she emerged from the surf wearing what is now an iconic bikini in the James Bond movie Dr. No ( 1962 ) . The deer skin bikini Raquel Welch wore in the film One Million Years B.C. ( 1966 ) turned her into an international sex symbol and was described as a definitive look of the 1960s .
The bikini gradually grew to gain wide acceptance in Western society . According to French fashion historian Olivier Saillard , the bikini is perhaps the most popular type of female beachwear around the globe because of " the power of women , and not the power of fashion " . As he explains , " The emancipation of swimwear has always been linked to the emancipation of women . " By the early 2000s , bikinis had become a US $ 811 million business annually , and boosted spin @-@ off services like bikini waxing and the sun tanning .
= = In antiquity = =
= = = Pre @-@ Roman = = =
In the Chalcolithic era around 5600 BC , the mother @-@ goddess of Çatalhöyük , a large ancient settlement in southern Anatolia , was depicted astride two leopards wearing a costume somewhat like a bikini . Two @-@ piece garments worn by women for athletic purposes are depicted on Greek urns and paintings dating back to 1400 BC . Active women of ancient Greece wore a breastband called a mastodeton or an apodesmos , which continued to be used as an undergarment in the Middle Ages . While men in ancient Greece abandoned the perizoma , partly high @-@ cut briefs and partly loincloth , women performers and acrobats continued to wear it .
= = = Roman = = =
Artwork dating back to the Diocletian period ( 286 @-@ 305 AD ) in Villa Romana del Casale , Sicily , excavated by Gino Vinicio Gentile in 1950 @-@ 60 , depicts women in garments resembling bikinis in mosaics on the floor . The images of ten women , dubbed the " Bikini Girls " , exercising in clothing that would pass as bikinis today , are the most replicated mosaic among the 37 million colored tiles at the site . In the artwork " Coronation of the Winner " done in floor mosaic in the Chamber of the Ten Maidens ( Sala delle Dieci Ragazze in Italian ) the bikini girls are depicted weight @-@ lifting , discus throwing , and running . Some activities depicted have been described as dancing , as their bodies resemble dancers rather than athletes . Coronation in the title of the mosaic comes from a woman in a toga with a crown in her hand and one of the maidens holding a palm frond . Some academics maintain that the nearby image of Eros , the primordial god of lust , love , and intercourse , was added later , demonstrating the owner 's predilections and strengthening the association of the bikini with the erotic . Similar mosaics have been discovered in Tellaro in northern Italy and Patti , another part of Sicily . Prostitution , skimpy clothes and athletic bodies were related in ancient Rome , as images were found of female sex workers exercising with dumbbells / clappers and other equipment wearing costumes similar to the Bikini Girls .
Charles Seltman , a fellow of Queens ' College , Cambridge , curator of the Archaeology Museum there and an editor of The Cambridge Ancient History , illustrated a chapter titled " The new woman " in his book Women in Antiquity with a 1950s model wearing an identical bikini against the 4th @-@ century mosaics from Piazza Armerina as part of a sisterhood between the bikini @-@ clad female athletes of ancient Greco @-@ Romans and modern woman . A photograph of the mosaic was used by Sarah Pomeroy , Professor of Classics at Hunter College and the Graduate Center , City University of New York , in the 1994 British edition of her book Goddesses , Whores , Wives , and Slaves to emphasize a similar identification . According to archeologist George M.A. Hanfmann the bikini girls made the learned observers realize " how modern the ancients were " .
In ancient Rome , the bikini @-@ style bottom , a wrapped loincloth of cloth or leather , was called a subligar or subligaculum ( " little binding underneath " ) , while a band of cloth or leather to support the breasts was called strophium or mamillare . The exercising bikini girls from Piazza Armenia wear subligaria , scanty briefs made as a dainty version of a man 's perizoma , and a strophium band about the breasts , often referred to in literature as just fascia , which can mean any kind of bandage . Observation of artifacts and experiments shows bands had to be wrapped several times around the breasts , largely to flatten them in a style popular with flappers in the 1920s . These Greco @-@ Roman breastbands may have flattened big breasts and padded small breasts to look bigger . Evidence suggests regular use . The " bikini girls " from Piazza Armenia , some of whom sport the braless look of the late 20th century , do not depict any propensity of such popularity in style . One bottom , made of leather , from Roman Britain was displayed at the Museum of London in 1998 . There has been no evidence that these bikinis were for swimming or sun @-@ bathing .
Finds especially in Pompeii show the Roman goddess Venus wearing a bikini . A statue of Venus in a bikini was found in a cupboard in the southwest corner in Casa della Venere , others were found in the front hall . A statue of Venus was recovered from the tablinum of the house of Julia Felix , and another from an atrium in the garden at Via Dell 'Abbondanza . Naples National Archaeological Museum , which opened its limited viewing gallery of more explicit exhibits in 2000 , also exhibits a " Venus in Bikini " . The museum 's exhibits include female statues wearing see @-@ through gold lamé brassiere , basque and knickers . The Kings of Naples discovered these Pompeii artifacts , including the one meter tall , almost unclothed statue of Venus painted in gold leaf with something like a modern bikini . They found them so shocking that for long periods the secret chamber was opened only to " mature persons of secure morals " . Even after the doors were opened , only 20 visitors were to be admitted at a time , and children under 12 were not allowed into the new part of the museum without their parents ' or a teacher 's permission .
There are references to bikinis in ancient literature as well . Ovid , the writer ranked alongside Virgil and Horace as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature , suggests the breastband or long strip of cloth wrapped around the breasts and tucked in the ends , is a good place to hide love @-@ letters . Martial , a Latin poet from Hispania who published between AD 86 and 103 , satirized a female athlete he named Philaenis , who played ball in a bikini @-@ like garb quite bluntly , making her drink , gorge and vomit in abundance and hinting at her lesbianism . In an epigram on Chione , Martial strangely mentions a sex worker who went to the bathhouse in a bikini , while it was more natural to go unclothed . Reportedly Theodora , the 6th century empress of the Byzantine Empire wore a bikini when she appeared as an actress before she captured the heart of emperor Justinian I.
There is evidence of ancient Roman women playing expulsim ludere , an early version of handball , wearing a costume that has been identified as bikinis .
= = Interval = =
Between the classical bikinis and the modern bikini there have been a long interval . Swimming or outdoor bathing were discouraged in the Christian West and there was little need for a bathing or swimming costume till the 18th century . The bathing gown in the 18th century was a loose ankle @-@ length full @-@ sleeve chemise @-@ type gown made of wool or flannel , so that modesty or decency was not threatened . In the first half of 19th century the top became knee @-@ length while an ankle @-@ length drawer was added as a bottom . By the second half of 19th century , in France , the sleeves started to vanish , the bottom became shorter to reach only the knees and the top became hip @-@ length and both became more form fitting . In the 1900s women wore wool dresses on the beach that were made of up to 9 yards ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) of fabric . That standard of swimwear evolved into the modern bikini in the first of half of the 20th century .
= = = Breakthrough = = =
In 1907 , Australian swimmer and performer Annette Kellerman was arrested on a Boston beach for wearing a form @-@ fitting sleeveless one @-@ piece knitted swimming tights that covered her from neck to toe , a costume she adopted from England , although it became accepted swimsuit attire for women in parts of Europe by 1910 . Even in 1943 , pictures of the Kellerman swimsuit were produced as evidence of indecency in Esquire v. Walker , Postmaster General . But , Harper 's Bazaar wrote in June 1920 ( vol . 55 , no . 6 , p . 138 ) - " Annette Kellerman Bathing Attire is distinguished by an incomparable , daring beauty of fit that always remains refined . " The following year , in June 1921 ( vol . 54 , no . 2504 , p . 101 ) it wrote that these bathing suits were " famous ... for their perfect fit and exquisite , plastic beauty of line . "
Female swimming was introduced at the 1912 Summer Olympics . In 1913 , inspired by that breakthrough , the designer Carl Jantzen made the first functional two @-@ piece swimwear , a close @-@ fitting one @-@ piece with shorts on the bottom and short sleeves on top . Silent films such as The Water Nymph ( 1912 ) saw Mabel Normand in revealing attire , and this was followed by the daringly dressed Sennett Bathing Beauties ( 1915 – 1929 ) . The name " swim suit " was coined in 1915 by Jantzen Knitting Mills , a sweater manufacturer who launched a swimwear brand named the Red Diving Girl , . The first annual bathing @-@ suit day at New York 's Madison Square Garden in 1916 was a landmark . The swimsuit apron , a design for early swimwear , disappeared by 1918 , leaving a tunic covering the shorts .
During the 1920s and 1930s , people began to shift from " taking in the water " to " taking in the sun , " at bathhouses and spas , and swimsuit designs shifted from functional considerations to incorporate more decorative features . Rayon was used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight @-@ fitting swimsuits , but its durability , especially when wet , proved problematic , with jersey and silk also sometimes being used . Burlesque and vaudeville performers wore two @-@ piece outfits in the 1920s . The 1929 film " Man with a Movie Camera " shows Russian women wearing early two @-@ piece swimsuits which expose their midriff , and a few who are topless . Films of holidaymakers in Germany in the 1930s show women wearing two @-@ piece suits ,
= = = Necklines and midriff = = =
By the 1930s , necklines plunged at the back , sleeves disappeared and sides were cut away and tightened . With the development of new clothing materials , particularly latex and nylon , through the 1930s swimsuits gradually began hugging the body , with shoulder straps that could be lowered for tanning . Women 's swimwear of the 1930s and 1940s incorporated increasing degrees of midriff exposure . Coco Chanel made suntans fashionable , and in 1932 French designer Madeleine Vionnet offered an exposed midriff in an evening gown . They were seen a year later in Gold Diggers of 1933 . The Busby Berkeley film Footlight Parade of 1932 showcases aquachoreography that featured bikinis . Dorothy Lamour 's The Hurricane ( 1937 ) also showed two @-@ piece bathing suits .
The 1934 film , Fashions of 1934 featured chorus girls wearing two @-@ piece outfits which look identical to modern bikinis . In 1934 , a National Recreation Association study on the use of leisure time found that swimming , encouraged by the freedom of movement the new swimwear designs provided , was second only to movies in popularity as free time activity out of a list of 94 activities . In 1935 American designer Claire McCardell cut out the side panels of a maillot @-@ style bathing suit , the bikini 's forerunner . The 1938 invention of the Telescopic Watersuit in shirred elastic cotton ushered into the end the era of wool . Cotton sun @-@ tops , printed with palm trees , and silk or rayon pyjamas , usually with a blouse top , became popular by 1939 . Wartime production during World War II required vast amounts of cotton , silk , nylon , wool , leather , and rubber . In 1942 the United States War Production Board issued Regulation L @-@ 85 , cutting the use of natural fibers in clothing and mandating a 10 % reduction in the amount of fabric in women 's beachwear . To comply with the regulations , swimsuit manufacturers produced two @-@ piece suits with bare midriffs .
= = = Postwar = = =
Fabric shortage continued for some time after the end of the war . Two @-@ piece swimsuits without the usual skirt panel and other excess material started appearing in the US when the government ordered a 10 % reduction in fabric used in woman 's swimwear in 1943 as wartime rationing . By that time , two @-@ piece swimsuits were frequent on American beaches . The July 9 , 1945 , Life shows women in Paris wearing similar items . Hollywood stars like Ava Gardner , Rita Hayworth and Lana Turner tried similar swimwear or beachwear . Pin ups of Hayworth and Esther Williams in the costume were widely distributed . The most provocative swimsuit was the 1946 Moonlight Buoy , a bottom and a top of material that weighed only eight ounces . What made the Moonlight Buoy distinctive was a large cork buckle attached to the bottoms , which made it possible to tie the top to the cork buckle and splash around au naturel while keeping both parts of the suit afloat . Life magazine had a photo essay on the Moonlight Buoy and wrote , " The name of the suit , of course , suggests the nocturnal conditions under which nude swimming is most agreeable . "
American designer Adele Simpson , a Coty American Fashion Critics ' Awards winner ( 1947 ) and a notable alumna of the New York art school Pratt Institute , who believed clothes must be comfortable and practical , designed a large part of her swimwear line with one @-@ piece suits that were considered fashionable even in early 1980s . This was when Cole of California started marketing revealing prohibition suits and Catalina Swimwear introduced almost bare @-@ back designs . Teen magazines of late 1940s and 1950s featured designs of midriff @-@ baring suits and tops . However , midriff fashion was stated as only for beaches and informal events and considered indecent to be worn in public . Hollywood endorsed the new glamour with films such as Neptune 's Daughter ( 1949 ) in which Esther Williams wore provocatively named costumes such as " Double Entendre " and " Honey Child " . Williams , who also was an Amateur Athletic Union champion in the 100 meter freestyle ( 1939 ) and an Olympics swimming finalist ( 1940 ) , also portrayed Kellerman in the 1952 film Million Dollar Mermaid ( titled as The One Piece Bathing Suit in UK ) .
Swimwear of the 1940s , 50s and early 60s followed the silhouette mostly from early 1930s . Keeping in line with the ultra @-@ feminine look dominated by Dior , it evolved into a dress with cinched waists and constructed bustlines , accessorized with earrings , bracelets , hats , scarves , sunglasses , hand bags and cover @-@ ups . Many of these pre @-@ bikinis had fancy names like Double Entendre , Honey Child ( to maximize small bosoms ) , Shipshape ( to minimize large bosoms ) , Diamond Lil ( trimmed with rhinestones and lace ) , Swimming In Mink ( trimmed with fur across the bodice ) and Spearfisherman ( heavy poplin with a rope belt for carrying a knife ) , Beau Catcher , Leading Lady , Pretty Foxy , Side Issue , Forecast , and Fabulous Fit . According to Vogue the swimwear had become more of " state of dress , not undress " by mid @-@ 1950s .
= = The modern bikini = =
French fashion designer Jacques Heim , who owned a beach shop in the French Riviera resort town of Cannes , introduced a minimalist two @-@ piece design in May 1946 which he named the " Atome , " after the smallest known particle of matter . The bottom of his design was just large enough to cover the wearer 's navel .
At the same time , Louis Réard , a French automotive and mechanical engineer , was running his mother 's lingerie business near Les Folies Bergères in Paris . He noticed women on St. Tropez beaches rolling up the edges of their swimsuits to get a better tan and was inspired to produce a more minimal design . He trimmed additional fabric off the bottom of the swimsuit , exposing the wearer 's navel for the first time . Réard 's string bikini consisted of four triangles made from 30 square inches ( 194 cm2 ) of fabric printed with a newspaper pattern .
When Réard sought a model to wear his design at his press conference , none of the usual models would wear the suit , so he hired 19 year old nude dancer Micheline Bernardini from the Casino de Paris . He introduced his design to the media and public on July 5 , 1946 , in Paris at Piscine Molitor , a public pool in Paris . Réard held the press conference five days after the first test of a nuclear device ( nicknamed Able ) over the Bikini Atoll during Operation Crossroads . His swimsuit design shocked the press and public because it was the first to reveal the wearer 's navel .
To promote his new design , Heim hired skywriters to fly above the Mediterranean resort advertising the Atome as " the world 's smallest bathing suit . " Not to be outdone by Heim , Réard hired his own skywriters three weeks later to fly over the French Riviera advertising his design as " smaller than the smallest bathing suit in the world . "
Heim 's design was the first to be worn on the beach , but the name given by Réard stuck with the public . Despite significant social resistance , Réard received more than 50 @,@ 000 letters from fans . He also initiated a bold ad campaign that told the public a two @-@ piece swimsuit was not a genuine bikini " unless it could be pulled through a wedding ring . " According to Kevin Jones , curator and fashion historian at the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising , " Réard was ahead of his time by about 15 to 20 years . Only women in the vanguard , mostly upper @-@ class European women embraced it . "
= = = Social resistance = = =
Bikini sales did not pick up around the world as women stuck to traditional two @-@ piece swimsuits . Réard went back to designing conventional knickers to sell in his mother 's shop . According to Kevin Jones , curator and fashion historian at the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising , " Réard was ahead of his time by about 15 to 20 years . Only women in the vanguard , mostly upper @-@ class European women embraced it , just like the upper @-@ class European women who first cast off their corsets after World War I. " It was banned in the French Atlantic coastline , Spain , Belgium and Italy , three countries neighboring France , as well as Portugal and Australia , and it was prohibited in some US states , and discouraged in others .
In 1951 , the first Miss World contest ( originally the Festival Bikini Contest ) , was organized by Eric Morley . When the winner , Kiki Håkansson from Sweden , was crowned in a bikini , countries with religious traditions threatened to withdraw delegates . Håkansson remains the first and last Miss World to be crowned in her bikini , a crowning that was condemned by Pope Pius XII who declared the swimsuit to be sinful . Bikinis were banned from beauty pageants around the world after the controversy . In 1949 the Los Angeles Times reported that Miss America Bebe Shopp on her visit to Paris said she did not approve the bikini for American girls , though she did not mind French girls wearing them . Actresses in movies like My Favorite Brunette ( 1947 ) and the model on a 1948 cover of LIFE were shown in traditional two @-@ piece swimwear , not the bikini .
In 1950 , Time magazine interviewed American swimsuit mogul Fred Cole , owner of Cole of California , and reported that he had " little but scorn for France 's famed Bikinis , " because they were designed for " diminutive Gallic women " . " French girls have short legs , " he explained , " Swimsuits have to be hiked up at the sides to make their legs look longer . " Réard himself described it as a two @-@ piece bathing suit which " reveals everything about a girl except for her mother 's maiden name . " Even Esther Williams commented , " A bikini is a thoughtless act . " But , popularity of the charms of Pin @-@ up queen and Hollywood star Williams were to vanish along with pre @-@ bikinis with fancy names over the next few decades . Australian designer Paula Straford introduced the bikini to Gold Coast in 1952 . In 1957 , Das moderne Mädchen ( The Modern Girl ) wrote , " It is unthinkable that a decent girl with tact would ever wear such a thing . " Eight years later a Munich student was punished to six days cleaning work at an old home because she had strolled across the central Viktualienmarkt square , Munich in a bikini .
= = = The Cannes connection = = =
Despite the controversy , some in France admired " naughty girls who decorate our sun @-@ drenched beaches " . Brigitte Bardot , photographed wearing similar garments on beaches during the Cannes Film Festival ( 1953 ) helped popularize the bikini in Europe in the 1950s and created a market in the US . Photographs of Bardot in a bikini , according to The Guardian , turned Saint @-@ Tropez into the bikini capital of the world . Cannes played a crucial role in the career of Brigitte Bardot , who in turn played a crucial role in promoting the Festival , largely by starting the trend of being photographed in a bikini at her first appearance at the festival , with Bardot identified as the original Cannes bathing beauty . In 1952 , she wore a bikini in Manina , the Girl in the Bikini ( 1952 ) ( released in France as Manina , la fille sans voiles ) , a film which drew considerable attention due to her scanty swimsuit . During the 1953 Cannes Film Festival , she worked with her husband and agent Roger Vadim , and garnered a lot of attention when she was photographed wearing a bikini on every beach in the south of France .
Like Esther Williams did a decade earlier , Betty Grable , Marilyn Monroe and Brigitte Bardot all used revealing swimwears as career props to enhance their sex appeal , and it became more accepted in parts of Europe when worn by fifties " love goddess " actresses such as Bardot , Anita Ekberg and Sophia Loren . British actress Diana Dors had a mink bikini made for her during the 1955 Venice Film Festival and wore it riding in a gondola down Venice 's Grand Canal past St. Mark 's Square .
In Spain , Benidorm played a similar role as Cannes . Shortly after the bikini was banned in Spain , Pedro Zaragoza , the mayor of Benidorm convinced dictator Francisco Franco that his town needed to legalize the bikini to draw tourists . In 1959 , General Franco agreed and the town became a popular tourist destination . Interestingly , in less than four years since Franco 's death in 1979 , Spanish beaches and women had gone topless .
= = = Legal and moral resistance = = =
The swimsuit was declared sinful by the Vatican and was banned in Spain , Portugal and Italy , three countries neighboring France , as well as Belgium and Australia , and it remained prohibited in many US states . As late as in 1959 , Anne Cole , a US swimsuit designer and daughter of Fred Cole , said about a Bardot bikini , " It 's nothing more than a G @-@ string . It 's at the razor 's edge of decency . " In July that year the New York Post searched for bikinis around New York City and found only a couple . Writer Meredith Hall wrote in her memoir that till 1965 one could get a citation for wearing a bikini in Hampton Beach , New Hampshire .
In 1951 , the first Miss World contest , originally the Festival Bikini Contest , was organized by Eric Morley as a mid @-@ century advertisement for swimwear at the Festival of Britain . The press welcomed the spectacle and referred to it as Miss World , and Morley registered the name as a trademark . When , the winner Kiki Håkansson from Sweden , was crowned in a bikini , countries with religious traditions threatened to withdraw delegates . The bikinis were outlawed and evening gowns introduced instead . Håkansson remains the only Miss World crowned in a bikini , a crowning that was condemned by the Pope . Bikini was banned from beauty pageants around the world after the controversy . Catholic @-@ majority countries like Belgium , Italy , Spain and Australia also banned the swimsuit that same year .
The National Legion of Decency pressured Hollywood to keep bikinis from being featured in Hollywood movies . The Hays production code for US movies , introduced in 1930 but not strictly enforced till 1934 , allowed two @-@ piece gowns but prohibited navels on screen . But between the introduction and enforcement of the code two Tarzan movies , Tarzan , the Ape Man ( 1932 ) and Tarzan and His Mate ( 1934 ) , were released in which actress Maureen O 'Sullivan wore skimpy bikini @-@ like leather outfits . Film historian Bruce Goldstein described her clothes in the first film as " It 's a loincloth open up the side . You can see loin . " All at sea was allowed in the USA in 1957 after all bikini @-@ type clothes were removed from the film . The girl in the bikini was allowed in Kansas after all the bikini close ups were removed from the film in 1959 .
In reaction to the introduction of the bikini in Paris , American swimwear manufacturers compromised cautiously by producing their own similar design that included a halter and a midriff @-@ bottom variation . Though size makes all the difference in a bikini , early bikinis often covered the navel . When the navel showed in pictures , it was airbrushed out by magazines like Seventeen . Navel @-@ less women ensured the early dominance of European bikini makers over their American counterparts . By the end of the decade a vogue for strapless styles developed , wired or bound for firmness and fit , along with a taste for bare @-@ shouldered two @-@ pieces called Little Sinners . But , it was the halterneck bikini that caused the most moral controversy because of its degree of exposure . So much so as bikini designs called " Huba Huba " and " Revealation " were withdrawn from fashion parades in Sydney as immodest .
= = Rise to popularity = =
In 1962 , Bond Girl Ursula Andress emerged from the sea wearing a white bikini in Dr. No . The scene has been named one of the most memorable of the series . Channel 4 declared it the top bikini moment in film history , Virgin Media puts it ninth in its top ten , and top in the Bond girls . The Herald ( Glasgow ) put the scene as best ever on the basis of a poll . It also helped shape the career of Ursula Andress , and the look of the quintessential Bond movie . Andress said that she owed her career to that white bikini , remarking , " This bikini made me into a success . As a result of starring in Dr. No as the first Bond girl , I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent . " In 2001 , the Dr. No bikini worn by Andress in the film sold at auction for US $ 61 @,@ 500 . That white bikini has been described as a " defining moment in the sixties liberalization of screen eroticism " . Because of the shocking effect from how revealing it was at the time , she got referred to by the joke nickname " Ursula Undress " . According to the British Broadcasting Corporation , " So iconic was the look that it was repeated 40 years later by Halle Berry in the Bond movie Die Another Day . "
The appearance of bikinis kept increasing both on screen and off . The sex appeal prompted film and television productions , including Dr. Strangelove . They include the surf movies of the early 1960s . In 1960 , Brian Hyland 's song " Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini " inspired a bikini @-@ buying spree . By 1963 , the movie Beach Party , starring Annette Funicello and Frankie Avalon , followed by Muscle Beach Party ( 1964 ) , Bikini Beach ( 1964 ) , and Beach Blanket Bingo ( 1965 ) that depicted teenage girls wearing bikinis , frolicking in the sand with boys , and having a great time .
The beach films led a wave of films that made the bikini pop @-@ culture symbol . In the sexual revolution in 1960s America , bikinis became quickly popular . Hollywood stars like Marilyn Monroe , Jayne Mansfield , Gina Lollobrigida , and Jane Russell helped further the growing popularity of bikinis . Pin @-@ up posters of Monroe , Mansfield , Hayworth , Bardot and Raquel Welch also contributed significantly to its increasing popularity . In 1962 , Playboy featured a bikini on its cover for the first time . Two years later , Sports Illustrated featured Berlin @-@ born fashion model Babette March on the cover wearing a white bikini . The issue was the first Swimsuit Issue . It gave the bikini legitimacy , became an annual publication and an American pop @-@ culture staple , and sells millions of copies each year . In 1965 , a woman told Time it was " almost square " not to wear one . In 1967 the magazine wrote that 65 % of " the young set " were wearing bikinis .
When Jayne Mansfield and her husband Miklós Hargitay toured for stage shows , newspapers wrote that Mansfield convinced the rural population that she owned more bikinis than anyone . She showed a fair amount of her 40 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) bust , as well as her midriff and legs , in the leopard @-@ spot bikini she wore for her stage shows . Kathryn Wexler of The Miami Herald wrote , " In the beginning as we know it , there was Jayne Mansfield . Here she preens in leopard @-@ print or striped bikinis , sucking in air to showcase her well noted physical assets . " Her leopard @-@ skin bikini remains one of the earlier specimens of the fashion .
Raquel Welch wore a deer skin bikini in One Million Years B.C. ( 1966 ) that made her an instant pin @-@ up girl . Welch was featured in the studio 's advertising as " wearing mankind 's first bikini " and the bikini was later described as a " definitive look of the 1960s " . Her role wearing the leather bikini raised Welch to a fashion icon and the photo of her in the bikini became a best @-@ selling pinup poster . One author said , " although she had only three lines in the film , her luscious figure in a fur bikini made her a star and the dream girl of millions of young moviegoers " . In 2011 , Time listed Welch 's B.C. bikini in the " Top Ten Bikinis in Pop Culture " .
In the 1983 film Return of the Jedi , Star Wars ' Princess Leia Organa was captured by Jabba the Hutt and forced to wear a metal bikini complete with shackles . The costume was made of brass and was so uncomfortable that actress Carrie Fisher described it as " what supermodels will eventually wear in the seventh ring of hell . " The " slave Leia " look is often imitated by female fans at Star Wars conventions . In 1997 , 51 years after the bikini 's debut , and 77 years after the Miss America Pageant was founded , contestants were allowed wear two @-@ piece swimsuits , not just the swimsuits ( nicknamed " bulletproof vests " ) traditionally issued by the pageant . Two of the 17 swimsuit finalists wore two @-@ piece swimsuits , and Erika Kauffman , representing Hawaii , wore the briefest bikini of all and won the swimsuit competition . In 2010 , the International Federation of Bodybuilders recognized Bikini as a new competitive category .
= = = In India = = =
Bollywood actress Sharmila Tagore appeared in a bikini in An Evening in Paris ( 1967 ) , a film mostly remembered for the first bikini appearance of an Indian actress . She also posed in a bikini for the glossy Filmfare magazine . The costume shocked the conservative Indian audience , but it also set a trend of bikini @-@ clad actresses carried forward by Parveen Babi ( in Yeh Nazdeekiyan , 1982 ) , Zeenat Aman ( in Heera Panna 1973 ; Qurbani , 1980 ) and Dimple Kapadia ( in Bobby , 1973 ) in the early 1970s . Wearing a bikini put her name in the Indian press as one of Bollywood 's ten hottest actresses of all time , and was a transgression of female identity through a reversal of the state of modesty , which functions as a signifier of femininity in Bombay films . By 2005 , it became usual for actors in Indian films to change outfits a dozen times in a single song — starting with a chiffon sari and ending up wearing a bikini . But , when Tagore was the chairperson of the Central Board of Film Certification in 2005 , she expressed concerns about the rise of the bikini in Indian films .
= = Acceptance = =
In France , Réard 's company folded in 1988 , four years after his death . By that year the bikini made up nearly 20 % of swimsuit sales , more than any other model in the US . As skin cancer awareness grew and a simpler aesthetic defined fashion in the 1990s , sales of the skimpy bikini decreased dramatically . The new swimwear code was epitomized by surf star Malia Jones , who appeared on the June 1997 cover of Shape Magazine wearing a halter top two @-@ piece for rough water . After the 90s , however , the bikini came back again . US market research company NPD Group reported that sales of two @-@ piece swimsuits nationwide jumped 80 % in two years . On one hand the one @-@ piece made a big comeback in the 1980s and early 1990s , on the other bikinis became briefer with the string bikini in the 1970s and 80s .
The " -kini family " ( as dubbed by author William Safire ) , including the " -ini sisters " ( as dubbed by designer Anne Cole ) has grown to include a large number of subsequent variations , often with a hilarious lexicon — string bikini , monokini or numokini ( top part missing ) , seekini ( transparent bikini ) , tankini ( tank top , bikini bottom ) , camikini ( camisole top and bikini bottom ) , hikini , thong , slingshot , minimini , teardrop , and micro . In just one major fashion show in 1985 , there were two @-@ piece suits with cropped tank tops instead of the usual skimpy bandeaux , suits that are bikinis in front and one @-@ piece behind , suspender straps , ruffles , and daring , navel @-@ baring cutouts . To meet the fast changing tastes , some of the manufacturers have made a business out of making made @-@ to @-@ order bikinis in around seven minutes . The world 's most expensive bikini , made up of over 150 carats ( 30 g ) of flawless diamonds and worth a massive £ 20 million , was designed in February 2006 by Susan Rosen .
Actresses in action films like Charlie 's Angels : Full Throttle ( 2003 ) and Blue Crush ( 2002 ) have made the two @-@ piece " the millennial equivalent of the power suit " , according to Gina Bellafonte of The New York Times , On September 9 , 1997 , Miss Maryland Jamie Fox was the first contestant in 50 years to compete in a two @-@ piece swimsuit to compete in the Preliminary Swimsuit Competition at the Miss America Pageant . PETA used celebrities like Pamela Anderson , Traci Bingham and Alicia Mayer wearing a bikini made of iceberg @-@ lettuce for an advertisement campaign to promote vegetarianism . A protester from Columbia University used a bikini as a message board against a New York City visit by Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad .
By the end of the century , the bikini went on to become the most popular beachwear around the globe , according to French fashion historian Olivier Saillard due to " the power of women , and not the power of fashion " . As he explains , " The emancipation of swimwear has always been linked to the emancipation of women " , though one survey tells 85 % of all bikinis never touch the water . According to Beth Dincuff Charleston , research associate at the Costume Institute of the Metropolitan Museum of Art , " The bikini represents a social leap involving body consciousness , moral concerns , and sexual attitudes . " By the early 2000s , bikinis had become a US $ 811 million business annually , according to the NPD Group , a consumer and retail information company . The bikini has boosted spin @-@ off services like bikini waxing and the sun tanning industries .
= = = Continued controversies = = =
The bikini remained a hot topic for the news media . In May 2011 , Barcelona , Spain made it illegal to wear bikinis in public except in areas near the beaches . Violators face fines of between 120 and 300 euros . In 2012 , two students of St. Theresa 's College in Cebu , the Philippines were barred from attending their graduation ceremony for " ample body exposure " because their bikini pictures were posted on Facebook . The students sued the college and won a temporary stay in a regional court .
In May 2013 , Cambridge University banned the Wyverns Club of Magdalene College from arranging its annual bikini jelly wrestling . In June 2013 , actress Gwyneth Paltrow , who also is interested in fashion , produced a bikini for her clothing line that is designed to be worn by girls 4 to 8 years old . She was criticized for sexualizing young children by Claude Knight of Kidscape , a British foundation that strives to prevent child abuse . He commented , " We remain very opposed to the sexualisation of children and of childhood ... is a great pity that such trends continue and that they carry celebrity endorsement . "
Four women were arrested over the 2013 Memorial Day weekend in Myrtle Beach , South Carolina for indecent exposure when they wore thong bikinis that exposed their buttocks . In June 2013 , the British watchdog agency Advertising Standards Authority banned a commercial that showed men in an office fantasizing about their colleague , played by Pamela Anderson , in a bikini for degrading women .
= HIP 13044 =
HIP 13044 is a red horizontal @-@ branch star about 2 @,@ 300 light years ( 700 pc ) from Earth in the constellation Fornax . The star is part of the Helmi stream , a former dwarf galaxy that merged with the Milky Way between six and nine billion years ago . As a result , HIP 13044 circles the galactic center at a highly irregular orbit with respect to the galactic plane . HIP 13044 is slightly less massive than the Sun , but is approximately seven times its size . The star , which is estimated to be at least nine billion years old , has passed the red @-@ giant phase . The relatively fast rotation of the star may be due to having engulfed one or more planets during the red @-@ giant phase .
= = Observational history = =
A science team from the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy first observed HIP 13044 using Fiber @-@ fed Extended Range Optical Spectrograph ( FEROS ) at the European Southern Observatory 's La Silla Observatory in Chile . The first follow @-@ up led to the collection of 36 radial velocity measurements taken between September 2009 and July 2010 .
The team also used photometric data that had been passively collected by and publicly released into the archive of the SuperWASP collaboration , which had been observing the region where the star was located . In this data , HIP 13044 was found to oscillate ; the signal was blocked roughly every sixteen days . Analysis of the SuperWASP and FEROS data led to the supposed discovery of the planet HIP 13044 b , although this claim was later refuted .
= = Characteristics = =
HIP 13044 is an F @-@ type star located approximately 701 parsecs ( 2 @,@ 286 light years ) away from Earth in the Helmi stream — a group of low @-@ metallicity stars moving with large velocities relative to the Sun . The star follows an eccentric galactic orbit , with a distance from the galactic center ranging from 7 to 16 kiloparsecs . The orbit does not lie in the galactic plane , and can reach distances as high as 13 kpc above it . This indicates that it once was part of a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way that was disrupted 6 – 9 billion years ago . The star itself is estimated to be at least nine billion years old .
HIP 13044 is fairly evolved star fusing helium in its core , and has therefore already passed the red @-@ giant phase of its evolution . It lies near the blue end of the red horizontal branch bordering the instability strip . Its surface temperature is about 6025 K and its radius is approximately 6 @.@ 7 solar radii . HIP 13044 's mass is estimated to be 0 @.@ 8 solar masses . Having a rotation period of 5 – 6 days , HIP 13044 is a fast @-@ rotating star for its type . It is possible that this is because it has swallowed planets during its red @-@ giant phase .
HIP 13044 has an apparent magnitude of 9 @.@ 94 and cannot be seen with the unaided eye .
= = Claims of a planetary system = =
In 2010 , it was announced that a giant planet in a 16 @.@ 2 @-@ day orbit had been discovered by the radial velocity measurements . This would have had implications for planet formation in metal @-@ poor systems and survival of planets being engulfed by expanded giant stars . Subsequent analysis of the data revealed problems with the detection : for example an erroneous barycentric correction had been applied ( the same error had also led to claims of planets around HIP 11952 that were subsequently refuted ) . After applying the corrections , there is no evidence for a planet orbiting the star .
= Frederic M. Richards =
Frederic Middlebrook Richards ( August 19 , 1925 – January 11 , 2009 ) , commonly referred to as Fred Richards , was an American biochemist and biophysicist known for solving the pioneering crystal structure of the ribonuclease S enzyme in 1967 and for defining the concept of solvent @-@ accessible surface . He contributed many key experimental and theoretical results and developed new methods , garnering over 20 @,@ 000 journal citations in several quite distinct research areas . In addition to the protein crystallography and biochemistry of ribonuclease S , these included solvent accessibility and internal packing of proteins , the first side @-@ chain rotamer library , high @-@ pressure crystallography , new types of chemical tags such as biotin / avidin , the nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) chemical shift index , and structural and biophysical characterization of the effects of mutations .
Richards spent his entire academic research career at Yale University , where he became Sterling Professor of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry in the department that he created and chaired , " one of the major centers in the world for the study of biophysics and structural biology " . He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences USA and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , and received many other scientific awards . He served as head of the Jane Coffin Childs Memorial Fund for Medical Research and was elected as president both of the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology ( ASBMB ) and of the Biophysical Society .
= = Personal biography = =
Richards was born on August 19 , 1925 in New York City to George H. Richards and Marianna Middlebrook Richards . Both parents were from old New England families who had settled in Fairfield and New London , Connecticut in the 1600s . The family usually spent summers in Connecticut , giving Richards an early affinity for the area which continued through his career at Yale University . He had two older sisters , Marianna and Sarah . Marianna became a biochemist , and was a significant role model for Fred , who delighted in the smells and explosions produced by chemistry sets in that era . He attended high school at Phillips Exeter Academy , and later recalled that " the excellent science department even permitted certain students the unsupervised run of the laboratories outside of class hours . This attitude played a strong role ... in cementing our commitment to scientific careers . " He learned glassblowing and electronics there , and tried to measure the universal gravitational constant using 100 @-@ pound cannonballs .
With strong science interests , Richards thwarted his family 's expectations by choosing MIT ( Massachusetts Institute of Technology ) rather than Yale for college in 1943 , majoring in chemistry . His undergraduate time was interrupted by two years in the army , which he described as " uneventful " . He then joined the Biochemistry department at Harvard Medical School and the lab of Barbara Low . She had worked with Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin to solve the x @-@ ray crystal structure of penicillin , and was later active in protein crystallography . The phase problem had not yet been solved to allow determination of protein structure , so his Ph.D. thesis ( completed in 1952 ) studied the density and solvent content in crystals to help determine very accurate molecular weights for proteins . In 1954 he went to the Carlsberg Laboratory in Copenhagen to do postdoctoral research with Kaj Linderstrøm @-@ Lang , where he started his classic work on the ribonuclease enzyme . He also absorbed the scientific and mentorship style of Lang , who Richards called " a delightful individual , full of fun and jokes as well as science " exemplifying " simple , inexpensive , ingenious , and insightful experiments " . In 1955 Richards joined the faculty at Yale University , where he stayed for the rest of his career .
Richards was an avid and enthusiastic sailor . In addition to sailing on Long Island Sound , he voyaged north along the Canadian coast , south to Bermuda , and even across the Atlantic several times with a small crew of family and friends . He and his wife had sailboats ( Hekla 1 and 2 ) and an outboard @-@ motor utility boat known as " Sally 's Baage " ( the spelling presumably a comment on her Maine accent ) , which he had built himself . Chris Anfinsen , Richards 's friend and his colleague as editors of Advances in Protein Chemistry and who recommended the Carlsberg Lab to him , was also an avid sailor , and they sometimes joined forces . Wendell Lim wrote that , " a dedicated sailor since childhood , Fred almost always took a month off each summer to captain a major sailing excursion , returning to lab afterwards refreshed and ready to work . His sailing adventures included several transatlantic voyages . He was also an avid ice hockey player . "
Richards lived in Guilford , Connecticut , a coastal town about 10 miles east of New Haven , situated between the Metacomet Ridge and Long Island Sound . Fred was married twice , to Heidi Clark Richards , daughter of biochemist Hans Clarke , and in 1959 to Sarah ( Sally ) Wheatland Richards , a marine biologist . He had three children – Sarah , Ruth , and George – and four grandchildren . His daughter Sarah described him as " a lifelong scientist and sailor .... His main loves were his scientific work which he finished at Yale University , sailing , working in his shop , and helping in the community . " Fred and Sally were a major presence in local land conservation efforts , both on committees and in working projects out on the land and water . He donated a 41 @-@ acre shoreline property to the Yale Peabody Museum Natural Areas , which they described as " one of the few natural forest areas left in the state . " The property now has long @-@ term protection for use in biological and geological research .
= = Research career = =
= = = Two @-@ component ribonuclease S system = = =
On December 2 , 1957 , at Yale University , Richards performed a simple experiment on the protein Ribonuclease A ( RNase A ) that helped change the scientific community 's view of the physical nature of protein molecules . Using a particular protease ( Subtilisin ) , RNase A was converted into a split protein ( RNase S ) , which is composed of two parts called S @-@ peptide and S @-@ protein ( Richards & Vithayathil 1959 ) . Richards had developed that cleavage system as a postdoc at the Carlsberg Laboratory in Sweden , using purified ribonuclease protein that had been donated to Christian Anfinsen by the Armour Company and that Anfinsen shared with Richards and other researchers . Richards found that , when separated , S @-@ protein and S @-@ peptide had no RNase activity , but that the RNase enzymatic activity was restored when the parts were recombined in the test tube . In an autobiographical piece , Richards wrote that " this discovery came as a surprise to the scientific community at that time .... In retrospect , this may have been the high point of my career in terms of excitement . " This experiment showed that proteins maintain 3 @-@ dimensional order and tight binding between their interacting parts and that the structural information is inherent in the protein itself , foreshadowing both Anfinsen 's later work showing that sequence determines structure and also the idea that hormones or other small molecules can bind tightly and specifically to proteins , a concept basic to how pharmaceutical companies design drugs today . Two years later , the protein structure of myoglobin confirmed such specific 3D relationships . Later , with Marilyn Doscher and Flo Quiocho , Richards demonstrated that ribonuclease S as well as carboxypeptidase were enzymatically active in the crystals , important evidence to silence doubts that the conformations of proteins in crystals are directly relevant to their biological activity in cells .
= = = Ribonuclease crystal structure = = =
Along with colleague Harold W. Wyckoff , who had worked on early research toward the myoglobin structure , the effort to solve the RNase S 3 @-@ dimensional structure was spearheaded by Richards . Done in 1966 and published in 1967 , the analyses of RNase S and RNase A jointly made ribonuclease the third distinct protein structure to be determined by X @-@ ray diffraction of crystals , after myoglobin / hemoglobin and hen @-@ egg lysozyme , and the first to be done in the United States . Later , the Yale group collected more diffraction data , and in 1970 published the RNase S structure in full detail at 2 @.@ 0 Å resolution ( Wyckoff et al . , 1970 ) . Coordinates for ribonuclease S were deposited into the international Protein Data Bank in 1973 as PDB : 1RNS , among the first small set of macromolecular structures .
The black @-@ and @-@ white ribbon drawing above shows the large , twisted beta sheet ( arrows ) of ribonuclease , flanked by several alpha @-@ helices ( spirals ) . The shorter S @-@ peptide piece is behind , starting at upper left with a helix and ending with the chain break ( between residues 20 @-@ 21 ) at lower right . The active site for RNA cleavage ( in the groove at center front in this drawing ) involves one histidine side chain from the S @-@ peptide fragment and another from the S @-@ protein part . The computer image shows superimposed structures of ribonuclease S and A , with the S @-@ peptide in gold and the active site histidines in hot pink . The close match of the 3D structures shows that the 2 @-@ fragment S system does indeed fold to the active form ( Wyckoff et al . , 1970 ) .
= = = " Richards ' box " = = =
In 1968 , while on sabbatical with David Phillips at Oxford , Richards developed a large optical comparator device called a " Richards ' box " ( or " Fred 's Folly " ) which enabled crystallographers to build physical models of protein structures by viewing the stacked sheets of electron density through a half @-@ silvered mirror ( see photo ) . Once the Folly had been constructed , he built an all @-@ atom brass model of RNase S quite rapidly . This was the method of choice for building protein crystallographic models into electron density until the late 1970s , when it was superseded by molecular computer graphics programs such as Grip @-@ 75 and then Frodo .
Richards showed his sense of humor in a later review of developments in the use and construction of Richards boxes . He provided a " correction to the Original Bibliographic Citations , " complete with diagrams , for a theatrical stage technique that used selective illumination and a sheet of plate glass inclined at 45 ° to give an illusion of the nymph Amphitrite rising from the sea and floating in air , or of an audience volunteer dissolving to a skeleton and back again . Richards ended that section by noting that " had this reference been known to the author in 1968 no further description of the ' folly ' would have been required . "
= = = Solvent @-@ accessible surface and molecular packing = = =
Richards ' most enduring long @-@ term scientific interest was in protein folding and packing , studied both experimentally and theoretically , and mostly from a geometrical perspective . As summarized by George Rose , " protein folders can be divided into ' minimizers ' and ' packers ' . The former seek to minimize the interaction energy among atoms or groups of atoms , whereas the latter concentrate on probable geometry , guided by both excluded volume limitations and structural motifs seen in proteins of known structure . " Fred was a founding influence for the packers , who built on his observations about packing density , areas , and volumes .
In 1971 , with Byungkook Lee , Richards introduced the concept and a quantitative measure for the solvent @-@ accessible surface ( SAS ) of amino acid residues in folded protein structures ( Lee & Richards 1971 ) . The surface is constructed by tracing the center of an imaginary ball , its radius that of a water molecule ( taken as 1 @.@ 4 Å ) , as it rolls over the van der Waals surfaces of the proteins . Thus defined , the surface is continuous and each point on it is unambiguously associated with a specific protein atom ( the nearest ) . The Lee & Richards definition has been widely adopted as the standard measure for solvent accessibility , for instance to evaluate exposure per residue as a percentage of accessible vs total surface area , and as the basis of the buried @-@ surface @-@ area method for estimating the energetics of protein / protein contacts .
Richards 1974 introduced the Voronoi polyhedra construction to protein chemistry , a contribution reviewed more recently by Gerstein and Richards . This approach has been adopted by many others and has been put on a firm mathematical footing by the work of Herbert Edelsbrunner . With Jay Ponder in 1987 , as part of an exploration of using internal packing of sidechains to enumerate the possible sequences compatible with a given protein backbone structure ( a foreshadowing of protein engineering and design ) , Richards developed the first side @-@ chain rotamer library . ( Ponder & Richards 1987 ) Increasingly detailed rotamer libraries have been made since then by other research groups , with some used primarily for structure validation and others for homology modeling or protein design . With Craig Kundrot , Richards investigated the effects of high pressure ( 1000 atmospheres ) on protein structure , using hen @-@ egg lysozyme crystals , finding that the structure was robust to such pressures apart from a quite modest compaction in size . In the 1990s , Richards and collaborators used a combination of theory and experiment to investigate how the well @-@ packed interior of proteins can nevertheless accommodate mutations .
= = = Other research areas = = =
In the 1970s , with a succession of students and postdocs , the lab developed a series of chemical , photochemical , and cross @-@ link labels for determining the position and relationships of proteins in biological membranes ( Peters & Richards 1977 ) , including glutaraldehyde and what was one of the two first general uses of the exceptionally tight interaction of biotin with avidin , anchored to ferritin for use in electron microscopy . The biotin – avidin system quickly became a central method in cell biology , immunology , and protein engineering , as well as electron microscopy .
With David Wishart and Brian Sykes , he developed the chemical shift index for NMR assignment of protein secondary structure ( Wishart , Sykes & Richards 1991 & Wishart , Sykes & Richards 1992 ) . This is still considered a standard tool in the NMR field . Separately , around 1990 , Homme Hellinga , with Richards , developed computational tools to design metal @-@ binding sites into proteins , and used them to build a new metal site into thioredoxin .
Richards is named as a depositor on 27 crystal structure entries in the Protein Data Bank , including the now @-@ obsoleted ribonuclease S ( PDB : 1RNS ) , hen egg lysozyme ( PDB : 2LYM ) , SH3 domains ( PDB : 1SEM ) , the ion @-@ channel @-@ forming alamethicin ( PDB : 1AMT ) ( Fox & Richards 1982 ) , and mutants of ribonuclease S ( e.g. , PDB : 1RBD ; PDB : 1RBI ) , of Staphylococcal nuclease ( e.g. , PDB : 1NUC ; PDB : 1A2T ) , and of lambda repressor in complex with DNA ( PDB : 1LLI ) .
= = Administration , mentoring , and outside activities = =
The Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry ( " MB & B " ) that Richards founded and chaired at Yale , which amalgamated the medical school Biochemistry and the university Molecular Biophysics departments , was considered to have " quickly gained pre @-@ eminent stature . " Many of those faculty became members of the National Academy of Sciences , and Tom Steitz shared the Nobel Prize in 2009 for crystal structures of the ribosome . Richards was known as a highly valued mentor and friend to students , faculty , and colleagues , including a very supportive approach to women and African – Americans , according to Jim Staros . His colleague George D. Rose wrote that Richards ' lectures were insightful , delivered with clarity and humor , and often deliberately provocative , and that Richards worked to improve the scientific community in general . For instance , in the late 1980s , he was the primary author , and the first of many signers , of a widely circulated letter that successfully urged a policy of depositing 3D atomic coordinates on scientific journals , on the NIH , and on individual crystallographers . He also lobbied , less successfully , for a let @-@ up in overall publication pressure but an increased emphasis on a few first @-@ class papers , by having promotion committees only consider a list of 12 key papers .
= = Summary of career events = =
1954 , NRC Postdoctoral Fellow , Carlsberg Laboratory , Denmark
1955 , joined Yale faculty , in Biochemistry at the Medical School
1963 , Professor and chair of the Department of Molecular Biophysics at Yale University
1965 , Pfizer – Paul @-@ Lewis Award in Enzyme Chemistry
1968 , Member , American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1969 – 73 , founding chair of the Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry at Yale
1971 , Member , National Academy of Sciences
1972 , President of the Biophysical Society
1976 – 91 , Director of the Jane Coffin Childs Fund for Medical Research
1978 , Kaj Linderstrøm @-@ Lang Prize in Protein Chemistry
1979 , President of the ASBMB
1988 , American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology – Merck Award
1988 , Protein Society – Stein and Moore Award
1995 , Connecticut Medal of Science
= = Highly cited papers = =
Articles with over 500 citations according to Web of Science as of June 18 , 2012 :
Lee , B. ; Richards , F.M. ( 1971 ) . " The interpretation of protein structures : Estimation of static accessibility " . Journal of Molecular Biology 55 ( 3 ) : 379 – 400 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0022 @-@ 2836 ( 71 ) 90324 @-@ X. PMID 5551392 .
Richards , F.M. ( 1977 ) . " Areas , Volumes , Packing , and Protein Structure " . Annual Review of Biophysics and Bioengineering 6 : 151 – 176 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1146 / annurev.bb.06.060177.001055. PMID 326146 .
Wishart , D.S. ; Sykes , B.D. ; Richards , F.M. ( 1992 ) . " The chemical shift index : A fast and simple method for the assignment of protein secondary structure through NMR spectroscopy " . Biochemistry 31 ( 6 ) : 1647 – 1651 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1021 / bi00121a010 . PMID 1737021 .
Wishart , D.S. ; Sykes , B.D. ; Richards , F.M. ( 1991 ) . " Relationship between nuclear magnetic resonance chemical shift and protein secondary structure " . Journal of Molecular Biology 222 ( 2 ) : 311 – 333 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0022 @-@ 2836 ( 91 ) 90214 @-@ Q. PMID 1960729 .
Ponder , J.W. ; Richards , F.M. ( 1987 ) . " Tertiary templates for proteins . Use of packing criteria in the enumeration of allowed sequences for different structural classes " . Journal of Molecular Biology 193 ( 4 ) : 775 – 791 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0022 @-@ 2836 ( 87 ) 90358 @-@ 5 . PMID 2441069 .
Richards , F.M. ( 1974 ) . " The interpretation of protein structures : Total volume , group volume distributions and packing density " . Journal of Molecular Biology 82 ( 1 ) : 1 – 14 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0022 @-@ 2836 ( 74 ) 90570 @-@ 1 . PMID 4818482 .
Richards , F.M. ; Vithayathil , P.J. ( 1959 ) . " The preparation of subtilisin @-@ modified ribonuclease and the separation of the peptide and protein components " . Journal of Biological Chemistry 234 ( 6 ) : 1459 – 1465 . PMID 13654398 .
Fox , R.O. ; Richards , F.M. ( 1982 ) . " A voltage @-@ gated ion channel model inferred from the crystal structure of alamethicin at 1 @.@ 5 @-@ Å resolution " . Nature 300 ( 5890 ) : 325 – 330 . Bibcode : 1982Natur.300 .. 325F. doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / 300325a0 . PMID 6292726 .
Peters , K. ; Richards , F. M. ( 1977 ) . " Chemical Cross @-@ Linking : Reagents and Problems in Studies of Membrane Structure " . Annual Review of Biochemistry 46 : 523 – 551 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1146 / annurev.bi.46.070177.002515. PMID 409338 .
Wyckoff , H.W. ; Tsernoglou , D. ; Hanson , A.W. ; Knox , J.R. ; Lee , B. ; Richards , F.M. ( 1970 ) . " The three @-@ dimensional structure of ribonuclease @-@ S. Interpretation of an electron density map at a nominal resolution of 2 Å " . Journal of Biological Chemistry 245 ( 2 ) : 305 – 328 . PMID 5460889 .
= Fantasy ( 1938 magazine ) =
Fantasy was a British pulp science fiction magazine which published three issues in 1938 and 1939 . The editor was T. Stanhope Sprigg ; when the war started , he enlisted in the RAF and the magazine was closed down . The publisher , George Newnes Ltd , paid respectable rates , and as a result Sprigg was able to obtain some good quality material , including stories by John Wyndham , Eric Frank Russell , and John Russell Fearn .
= = Publication history = =
The first U.S. science fiction ( sf ) magazine , Amazing Stories , was imported into the U.K. from its launch in 1926 , and other magazines from the U.S. market were also available in the U.K. from an early date . However , no British sf magazine was launched until 1934 , when Pearson 's launched Scoops , a weekly in tabloid format aimed at the juvenile market . Soon Haydn Dimmock , Scoops ' editor , began to receive more sophisticated stories , targeted at an adult audience ; he tried to change the magazine 's focus to include more mature fiction but within twenty issues falling sales led Pearson 's to kill the magazine . The failure of Scoops gave British publishers the impression that Britain could not support a science fiction publication .
Despite this failure , only a year later , Newnes . , the publisher of The Strand magazine , decided to launch a group of four genre pulp magazines , and to include a science fiction title in the group . The plan was the idea of T. Stanhope Sprigg , a young editor who had jouned Newnes in 1934 . Sprigg had help from Walter Gillings , a British science fiction reader who had been active in fan circles since the early 1930s , in searching for good submissions , and was able to obtain stories from Eric Frank Russell and John Russell Fearn , but although the other three titles — Air Stories , War Stories , and Western Stories — were launched in 1935 and 1936 , the science fiction title was much delayed . Sprigg recalled later that Newnes issued a memo specifying the requirements for the stories ; it was " so restricting that it threw would @-@ be contributors into a complete tizzy " . The project was placed on hold after fifteen months .
Gillings subsequently persuaded The World 's Work , a subsidiary of William Heinemann , to launch a science fiction pulp magazine titled Tales of Wonder in 1937 . This was successful enough to convince Newnes to go ahead with the original plan , and Fantasy was launched in July 1938 , with an issue dated only with the year . Another issue appeared six months later and a third and final issue in June 1939 , again dated only with the year ; Sprigg enlisted as a pilot when World War II started , and although a fourth issue had been prepared , it was clear that paper rationing was coming , and Newnes decided to close down the magazine .
= = Contents and reception = =
The lead story for the first issue was " Menace of the Metal Men " , by A. Prestigiacomo ; this was a 1933 reprint from the British edition of Argosy , but the other stories in the issue were all new . Contributors included John Wyndham , Eric Frank Russell , and John Russell Fearn , and a couple of writers who were not known in the science fiction world but who had contributed to Newnes ' other magazines : J.E. Gurdon and Francis H. Sibson . There was an article on interplanetary travel by P.E. Cleator , which continued a series of articles he had published in Scoops . Newnes paid competitive rates for fiction , so they were able to attract good quality submissions , many of which were subsequently reprinted in the U.S. These included Wyndham 's " Beyond the Screen " ( described by sf historian and critic Sam Moskowitz as " an engrossing story " ) ; Halliday Sutherland 's " Valley of Doom " ; and Eric Frank Russell 's " Vampire from the Void " , which was reprinted in Fantastic in 1972 , having been submitted there by Russell 's agent as if it were a new story . When the editor , Ted White , was told that the story was over thirty years old , he initially denied that it was possible , but ultimately accepted that it was a reprint : science fiction historian Mike Ashley comments that this indicated Russell 's fiction " stood well the test of time " .
The main artist for Fantasy was Serge Drigin , a Russian @-@ born artist who worked for Pearson 's and had been responsible for all the covers for Scoops ; Drigin did interior artwork and all three covers . Though his work has been described as " crude " and " mediocre " , science fiction art historian Robert Weinberg regards the cover for the second issue , illustrating " Winged Terror " by G.R. Malloch , as " highly effective and easily the best thing he ever did " .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Fantasy was printed in pulp format , 128 pages , and priced at 1 / - . All three issues were edited by T. Stanhope Sprigg and published by Newnes . There was no volume numeration ; each issue was dated only with the year .
= Common eland =
The common eland ( Taurotragus oryx ) , also known as the southern eland or eland antelope , is a savannah and plains antelope found in East and Southern Africa . It is a species of the family Bovidae and genus Taurotragus . It was first described by Peter Simon Pallas in 1766 . An adult male is around 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 ' ) tall at the shoulder ( females are 20 centimetres ( 8 " ) shorter ) and can weigh up to 942 kg ( 2077 lbs ) with an average of 500 – 600 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 300 lb , 340 – 445 kilograms ( 750 – 980 lb ) for females ) . It is the second largest antelope in the world , being slightly smaller on average than the giant eland .
Mainly a herbivore , its diet is primarily grasses and leaves . Common elands form herds of up to 500 animals , but are not territorial . The common eland prefers habitats with a wide variety of flowering plants such as savannah , woodlands , and open and montane grasslands ; it avoids dense forests . It uses loud barks , visual and postural movements and the flehmen response to communicate and warn others of danger . The common eland is used by humans for leather , meat , and rich , nutritious milk , and has been domesticated in many areas .
It is native to Botswana , Burundi , the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Ethiopia , Kenya , Lesotho , Malawi , Mozambique , Namibia , Rwanda , South Africa , South Sudan , Swaziland , Tanzania , Uganda , Zambia and Zimbabwe but is no longer present in Burundi and Angola . While the common eland 's population is decreasing , it is classified as " Least Concern " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Etymology = =
The scientific name of the common eland is Taurotragus oryx , composed of three words : tauros , tragos and oryx . Tauros is Greek for a bull or bullock , meaning the same as the Latin taurus . Tragos is Greek for a male goat , referring to the tuft of hair that grows in the eland 's ear and its resemblance to a goat 's beard . Oryx is Latin and Greek ( generally orygos ) for pickaxe , referring to the pointed horns of North African antelopes like the common eland and scimitar @-@ horned oryx .
The name ' eland ' is Dutch for " elk " or " moose " . It has a Baltic source similar to the Lithuanian élnis , which means " deer " . It was borrowed earlier as ellan ( French ) in the 1610s or Elend ( German ) . When Dutch settlers came to the Cape Province , they named it after the large , herbivorous moose . In Dutch the animal is called " Eland antelope " to distinguish it from the moose , which is found in the northern boreal forests .
= = Physical description = =
Common elands are spiral @-@ horned antelopes . They are sexually dimorphic , with females being smaller than the males . Females weigh 300 – 600 kg ( 660 – 1 @,@ 320 lb ) , measure 200 – 280 cm ( 79 – 110 in ) from the snout to the base of the tail and stand 125 – 153 cm ( 49 – 60 in ) at the shoulder . Bulls weigh 400 – 942 kg ( 882 – 2 @,@ 077 lb ) , are 240 – 345 cm ( 94 – 136 in ) from the snout to the base of the tail and stand 150 – 183 cm ( 59 – 72 in ) at the shoulder . The tail is 50 – 90 cm ( 20 – 35 in ) long . Male elands can weigh up to 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) .
Their coat differs geographically , with elands in north Africa having distinctive markings ( torso stripes , markings on legs , dark garters and a spinal crest ) that are absent in the south . Apart from a rough mane , the coat is smooth . Females have a tan coat , while the coats of males are darker , with a bluish @-@ grey tinge . Bulls may also have a series of vertical white stripes on their sides ( mainly in parts of the Karoo in South Africa ) . As males age , their coat becomes more grey . Males also have dense fur on their foreheads and a large dewlap on their throats .
Both sexes have horns with a steady spiral ridge ( resembling that of the bushbuck ) . The horns are visible as small buds in newborns and grow rapidly during the first seven months . The horns of males are thicker and shorter than those of females ( males ' horns are 43 – 66 centimetres ( 17 – 26 in ) long and females ' are 51 – 69 centimetres ( 20 – 27 in ) long ) , and have a tighter spiral . Males use their horns during rutting season to wrestle and butt heads with rivals , while females use their horns to protect their young from predators .
The common eland is the slowest antelope , with a peak speed of 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) per hour that tires them quickly . However , they can maintain a 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) per hour trot indefinitely . Elands are capable of jumping up to 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) from a standing start when startled ( up to 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) for young elands ) . The common eland 's life expectancy is generally between 15 and 20 years ; in captivity some live up to 25 years .
Eland herds are accompanied by a loud clicking sound that has been subject to considerable speculation . It is believed that the weight of the animal causes the two halves of its hooves to splay apart , and the clicking is the result of the hoof snapping together when the animal raises its leg . The sound carries some distance from a herd , and may be a form of communication .
= = Taxonomy = =
The common eland was first described in 1766 by the German zoologist and botanist Peter Simon Pallas . It belongs to the order Artiodactyla , family Bovidae and subfamily Bovinae . Common elands are sometimes considered part of the genus Tragelaphus on the basis of molecular phylogenetics , but are usually categorized as Taurotragus , along with the giant eland ( T. derbianus ) .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Three subspecies of common eland have been recognized , though their validity has been in dispute .
T. o. livingstonii ( Sclater , 1864 ; Livingstone 's eland ) : also called kaufmanni , niediecki , selousi and triangularis . It is found in the Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands . Livingstone 's eland has a brown pelt with up to twelve stripes .
T. o. oryx ( Pallas , 1766 ; Cape eland ) : also called alces , barbatus , canna and oreas . It is found in south and southwest Africa . The fur is tawny , and adults lose their stripes .
T. o. pattersonianus ( Lydekker , 1906 ; East African eland or Patterson 's eland ) : also called billingae . It is found in east Africa , hence its common name . Its coat can have up to 12 stripes .
= = Diseases and parasites = =
Common elands are resistant to trypanosomiasis , a protozoan infection that has the tsetse fly as a vector , but not to the Rhipicephalus @-@ transmitted disease theileriosis . The disease @-@ causing bacteria Theileria taurotragi has caused many eland deaths . Clostridium chauvoei , another bacterium , can be harmful as well . Eland are also hosts to several kinds of ticks . In one study an eland was found to be host to the Amblyomma species A. gemma and A. variegatum , and Rhipicephalus species R. decoloratus , R. appendiculatus , R. evertsi , R. pulchellus and R. pravus . Elands produce antibodies for Brucella bacteria , but none for Mycobacterium paratuberculosis or various types of pneumonia like contagious bovine pneumonia and contagious caprine pneumonia , normally infectious in cows or antelopes .
= = Genetics and evolution = =
Male elands have 31 diploid chromosomes and females have 32 . The male ( Y ) chromosome has been translocated to the short arm of an autosome . Both the X and Y replicate late ; they do not match well and are variable . The chromosomes resemble those of the greater kudu ( Tragelaphus strepsiceros ) .
Male elands and female greater kudus can produce a viable male hybrid , though it is not known if it is sterile . An accidental crossing of an east African common eland ( T. o. pattersonianus ' ) with an east African kudu ( T. s. bea ) occurred in the San Diego Zoo Safari Park . This was believed to be due to the absence of male kudus in the herd . The hybrid produced was sterile , which was unexpected before the study . The study conformed the chromosome numbers of both the eland and the kudu and the strangeness of their attached Y chromosomes . Reports state that repeated matings of male elands with domestic ( Bos primigenius ) and zebu cows ( Bos indicus ) have also produced sterile hybrids . Female elands can also act as surrogates for bongos .
The Bovidae family ancestors of the common eland evolved approximately 20 million years ago in Africa ; fossils are found throughout Africa and France but the best record appears in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . The first members of the tribe Tragelaphini appear 6 million years in the past during the late Miocene . An extinct ancestor of the common eland ( Taurotragus arkelli ) appears in the Pleistocene in northern Tanzania and the first T. oryx fossil appears in the Holocene in Algeria .
In 2010 , a genetic study was made basing on the evolutionary history of common elands . Located in the sub @-@ Saharan savanna biome of east and southern Africa , the study used methods like analysis of mitochondrial DNA control @-@ region fragments from 122 individuals to learn more about various topics , such as the phylogeography , genetic diversity , demographic history of the species . The conclusions strongly supported the presence of a longer @-@ standing population in the south and a mosaic of Pleistocene refugia in the east . It is believed that today their extinction from these parts could be due to colonization . The similarity of dates obtained from more studies indicates a significant event c . 200 ka
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, which had brought a great change in the genetic history of the species .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
Common elands are nomadic and crepuscular . They eat in the morning and evening , rest in shade when hot and remain in sunlight when cold . They are commonly found in herds of up to 500 , with individual members remaining in the herd anywhere from several hours to several months . Juveniles and mothers tend to form larger herds , while males may separate into smaller groups or wander individually . During estrus , mainly in the rainy season , groups tend to form more regularly . In southern Africa common elands will often associate with herds of zebras , roan antelopes and oryxes .
Common elands communicate via gestures , vocalizations , scent cues and display behaviors . The flehmen response also occurs , primarily in males in response to contact with female urine or genitals . Females will urinate to indicate fertility during the appropriate phase of their estrous cycle , as well as to indicate their lack of fertility when harassed by males . If eland bulls find any of their predators nearby , they will bark and attempt to attract the attention of others by trotting back and forth until the entire herd is conscious of the danger . Some of their main predators include lions , African wild dogs , cheetahs and spotted hyenas . Juvenile elands are more vulnerable than adults to their predators .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Common elands live on the open plains of southern Africa and along the foothills of the great southern African plateau . The species extends north into Ethiopia and most arid zones of South Sudan , east into western Angola and Namibia , and south to South Africa . However , there is a low density of elands in Africa due to poaching and human settlement .
Elands prefer to live in semi @-@ arid areas that contain many shrub @-@ like bushes , and often inhabit grasslands , woodlands , sub @-@ desert , bush , and mountaintops with altitudes of about 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4600 m ) . Elands do , however , avoid forests , swamps and deserts . The places inhabited by elands generally contain Acacia , Combretum , Commiphora , Diospyros , Grewia , Rhus and Ziziphus trees and shrubs ; some of these also serve as their food .
Eland can be found in many National Parks and reserves today , including Nairobi and Tsavo East National Park , Tsavo West National Park , Masai Mara NR , Kenya ; Serengeti , Ruaha and Tarangire National Park , Ngorongoro Crater , Tanzania ; Kagera National Park , Rwanda ; Nyika National Park , Malawi ; Luangwa Valley and Kafue National Park , Zambia ; Hwange National Park , Matobo National Park , Tuli Safari Area and Chimanimani Eland Sanctuary , Zimbabwe ; Kruger National Park , Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park , Giant 's Castle and Suikerbosrand NR , South Africa .
They live on home ranges that can be 200 – 400 km2 for females and juveniles and 50 km2 for males .
= = Diet = =
Common elands are herbivores that browse during drier winter months but have also adapted to grazing during the rainy season when grasses are more common . They require a high @-@ protein diet of succulent leaves from flowering plants but will consume lower quality plant material if available including forbs , trees , shrubs , grasses , seeds and tubers . The eland can conserve water by increasing its body temperature . Grasses the eland eats include Setaria and Themeda and fruits from Securinega and Strychnos . Large antelope can survive on lower quality food in times of little rain . Elands feed during the night in hot weather and sleep for long periods during the day .
Most of their water is obtained from their food , though they will drink water when available . As they quickly adjust to the surroundings due to seasonal changes and other causes , they also change their feeding habits . They also use their horns to break off branches that are hard to reach .
= = Sociability and reproduction = =
Females are sexually mature at 15 – 36 months and males at 4 – 5 years . Mating may occur anytime after reaching sexual maturity , but is mostly seen in the rainy season . In Zambia , young are born in July and August , while elsewhere it is the mating season . Mating begins when elands gather to feed on lush green plains with plentiful grass , and some males and females start mating with each other in separate pairs . Males chase the females to find out if they are in estrus . They also test the female 's urine . Usually , a female chooses the most dominant and fit male to mate with . Sometimes she runs away from males trying to mate , causing more attraction . This results in fights between males , in which their hard horns are used . It is 2 – 4 hours before a female allows a male to mount . Males usually keep close contact with females in the mating period . The dominant male can mate with more than one female . Females have a gestation period of 9 months , and give birth to only one calf each time .
Males , females and juveniles each form separate social groups . The male groups are the smallest ; the members stay together and search for food or water sources . The female group is much larger and covers greater areas . They travel the grassy plains in wet periods and prefer bushy areas in dry periods . Females have a complex linear hierarchy . The nursery and juvenile group is naturally formed when females give birth to calves . After about 24 hours of the delivery , the mother and calf join this group . The calves start befriending each other and stay back in the nursery group while the mother returns to the female group . The calves leave the nursery group when they are at least two years old and join a male or female group .
= = Conservation = =
Currently , common elands are not endangered . They are conserved by the U.S. Endangered Species Act , and regulated in international trade by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species . Using ground counts and aerial surveys , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) calculates the population density of the common eland to be between 0 @.@ 05 and 1 per square kilometre with a total population estimate of 136 @,@ 000 . Populations are considered stable or increasing in the countries of Namibia , Botswana , Zimbabwe , South Africa , Malawi and possibly Tanzania .
The population is , however , gradually decreasing due to habitat loss , caused by expanding human settlements and poaching for its superior meat . As they are docile and inactive most of the time , they can easily be killed . The species became extinct in Swaziland and Zimbabwe , but has been reintroduced .
The IUCN states that about half of the estimated total population lives in protected areas and 30 % on private land . Protected areas that support major populations include Omo ( Ethiopia ) , Serengeti , Katavi , Ruaha and Selous @-@ Kilombero ( Tanzania ) , Kafue and North Luangwa ( Zambia ) , Nyika ( Malawi ) , Etosha ( Namibia ) , Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park ( Botswana / South Africa ) and Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park ( South Africa ) . Most of these populations appear to be stable . Relatively large numbers of common eland now live on private land , particularly in Namibia , Zimbabwe and South Africa , reflecting its value as a trophy animal . Common elands have also been widely domesticated in Zimbabwe , South Africa and Kenya , as well as in Russia , Ukraine and England .
= = Uses = =
The common eland is sometimes farmed and hunted for its meat , and in some cases can be better used than cattle because it is more suited to African climates . This has led to some Southern African farmers switching from cattle to eland . Common elands are also pictured as supporters in the coat of arms of Grootfontein , Namibia .
= = = Husbandry = = =
Common elands have a mild temperament and have been successfully domesticated for meat and milk production in South Africa and Russia . Their need for water is quite low because they produce urine with a high @-@ urea content , but they require a substantial grazing area , along with salt licks and large amounts of supplementary foods like maize , sorghum , melons and beans which can be expensive . A female can produce up to 7 kilograms ( 15 lb ) of milk per day that is richer in milkfat than cow milk . The pleasant @-@ tasting milk has a butterfat content of 11 @-@ 17 % and can be stored for up to eight months if properly prepared , versus several days for cow milk .
Housing common elands is difficult due to their ability to jump over fences as high as 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) or simply break through using their substantial mass . Sometimes , wild eland will break through enclosures to mix with domesticated ones . Common elands can reproduce in captivity , but calf survival is low and the young may need to be separated from their mothers to ensure health and adequate feeding . Husbandry requires care because the generally placid animals startle easily and require large amounts of space .
= Myst V : End of Ages =
Myst V : End of Ages is a 2005 adventure video game , and the fifth and final installment in the Myst series . The game was developed by Cyan Worlds , published by Ubisoft , and released for Macintosh and Windows PC platforms on September 20 , 2005 . As in previous games in the series , End of Ages 's gameplay consists of navigating worlds known as " Ages " via the use of special books and items which act as portals . On each Age , the player solves puzzles and discovers story clues hidden in the Ages or written down in diaries and journals . The player 's actions in the game decide the fate of the ancient D 'ni civilization .
In a departure from previous titles in the Myst series , End of Ages replaces pre @-@ rendered environments with worlds rendered in real @-@ time 3D graphics , allowing players to freely navigate the Ages . The faces of actors were digitally mapped onto three @-@ dimensional character models to preserve realism . Cyan paid attention to making the game more accessible to new players by the addition of multiple methods of navigation and an in @-@ game camera . Myst creator Rand Miller decided to give players the ability to decide the fates of the game 's characters as a gift to Myst fans .
End of Ages was positively received upon release . Despite complaints such as lessened interactivity compared to previous games and poorer graphics , publications including Macworld , Computer Gaming World , and The Washington Post judged the game a fitting end to the series . After End of Ages 's release , Cyan abruptly announced the end of software development and the layoff of most of its staff , but was able to rehire much of the development team a few weeks later . Including End of Ages 's sales , the Myst franchise had sold more than 12 million copies by November 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
Myst V : End of Ages is an adventure game taking place in the first person . Players travel across several worlds known as " Ages " , solving puzzles and gathering story clues by reading books or observing the environment . End of Ages offers players three navigation modes to explore . The first , " Classic mode " , uses the same controls used in Myst and Riven ; Ages are divided into locations of interest , or nodes , and the player 's view is fixed at every node . Players advance to other nodes by clicking on portions of the screen . The " Classic Plus " mode uses the control scheme of Myst III : Exile and Myst IV : Revelation ; movement is still node @-@ based but players can rotate their view 360 degrees in any direction . The final navigation mode , known as " Free Look " or " Advanced " mode , allows players to navigate and observe the Ages freely like Uru : Ages Beyond Myst . The WASD keyboard keys are used for walking forward , backward , and sideways , while the mouse changes the player 's point of view .
A new game mechanic to the series is the use of a slate found on all the Ages . These slates can be carved using the mouse to create shapes and symbols . The use of the slate is necessary to communicate with a shadowy race of creatures known as the Bahro . The Bahro understand certain symbols drawn on the slate and will respond to them ; the creatures also retrieve the slate and return it to its original space if the player drops it . Slate symbols can cause environmental changes such as rain or increased wind , which may be necessary for solving puzzles . The slate cannot be carried everywhere due to its size . For example , the player will have to leave the slate behind if he or she wants to climb a ladder .
End of Ages has several features designed to help players complete puzzles . To recall clues or important items , players can use a camera feature to take screenshots , which are then placed in a journal the player can access at any time . Player interactions with other characters are similarly recalled via another journal ; everything a character tells the player is stored and can be viewed at any time . Journal pages are narrated by the voice of the character , and missing pages of the journal appear translucent in menus .
= = Plot = =
End of Ages takes place in the present day , sometime after the events of Uru : Ages Beyond Myst , and begins as the player responds to a letter from Atrus . Atrus is a writer of special volumes called linking books , which serve as portals or links to worlds known as Ages . A linking book to the Age of Myst , the setting of the original game , lies sealed in the ruins of the ancient D 'ni civilization . The D 'ni had the ability to craft linking books , but their society crumbled from within ; Atrus and his family have been trying to restore the D 'ni people and created an Age for the survivors to live on , known as Releeshahn ( introduced in Exile ) . Atrus by this period is an old man , mourning the deaths of his sons Sirrus and Achenar in Revelation , and the death of his wife Catherine in the period after . In his letter , Atrus expresses concern that his daughter , Yeesha , may be lost as well .
The player starts in Atrus ' old study on K 'veer , an island near the ruins of the main D 'ni city ; in the antechamber outside the study , there is a strange tablet locked in place on an altar . Yeesha links in and explains that legends state that in order to fully restore D 'ni , someone known as the Grower must utilize the tablet . The artifact has the ability to fully control a mysterious enslaved race known as the Bahro . As Yeesha made the wrong decision upon unlocking the tablet , she can no longer use it ; Yeesha instead charges the player with uncovering the tablet 's power . After leaving Yeesha , the player meets a man named Esher near " the Great Shaft " , connecting D 'ni to the surface ( as detailed in Myst : The Book of Ti 'ana ) . Esher is a survivor of the fall of D 'ni and tells the player that Yeesha cannot be trusted , warning the player not to give her the Tablet . Throughout the Great Shaft , the player collects twelve fragments of Yeesha 's journal . The writings appear to confirm Esher 's warnings , as the narration seemingly indicates that Yeesha has descended into madness , believing herself to be the Grower .
At the urging of both Yeesha and Esher , the player travels across four Ages , collecting four slates that unlock the tablet 's power . Esher occasionally appears in the Ages to offer his counsel , or reveal the histories of his people and the worlds the player explores . Once all four slates are collected , Esher requests that the player bring the tablet to him in the now @-@ unlocked Age of Myst . The player is then returned to K 'veer , where they have four possible choices . Travelling to Myst without the tablet will cause Esher to angrily abandon the player with no way out . If Esher is given the tablet , he will explain he wishes to use the tablet for domination , and will also leave the player trapped . If the player gives the tablet to Yeesha , the tablet simply slips through her hands and disappears into the ground ; she walks away , disappointed , leaving the player trapped in D 'ni . The only good ending involves giving the Bahro the tablet , ending their enslavement . Arriving at Releeshahn , the new home Age of the D 'ni , Yeesha and Atrus thank the player and speak of a new chapter for the D 'ni people ; Esher is handed over to the Bahro to be punished for his crimes . The game ends on a visit to Releeshahn .
= = Development = =
Robyn and Rand Miller , Myst 's creators , had initially decided against creating sequels to 1997 's Riven . However , the publishing rights to the series later transferred to Ubisoft , who commissioned two sequels : Myst III : Exile and Myst IV : Revelation . Myst V : End of Ages was officially announced at the 2005 MacWorld Expo by Myst and Riven 's developer , Cyan Worlds . In the announcement , Cyan stated that the game would be the final installment in the series .
Whereas most previous Myst titles had forgone 3D graphics rendered in real @-@ time in favor of interactive prerendered environments , Rand Miller decided that technology had advanced to the point that End of Ages could use real @-@ time graphics without sacrificing player immersion . " Over the years the Myst games have become increasingly sophisticated , culminating in Myst V , where we offer striking graphics that players can walk smoothly through , " Miller stated in an interview . Miller emphasized that the goal of the game remained for players to become immersed in Myst 's alternate worlds .
A focus in development was to make End of Ages more accessible than previous Myst games , which had often stymied uninitiated players with their puzzles . Learning from the control scheme used in another real @-@ time Myst game ( a remake of the original entitled realMyst ) , Cyan decided to develop multiple control methods to allow new players to quickly learn the controls , as well as provide a familiar interface for franchise veterans . Esher 's experiences with the player 's quest allowed a hint system to be built into the story . Miller wanted to make a significant change from previous games in the series , in that the player 's actions decide the fate of the characters . When asked about the ending , Miller explained , " The future of civilization is down to this point , and the choices you make determine where it goes . "
Myst games had typically used chroma key to insert footage of actors into digital backgrounds . The models of End of Ages 's characters were instead computer @-@ generated , but Cyan did not want to lose the warmth and feeling provided by using a live actor . Instead Cyan created a contraption mounted to the actor 's faces that captured video of the actor 's faces while they spoke their lines . The video was then manipulated and used as a facial texture which was mapped onto the 3D characters , and the facial movement was also tracked and used to animate the faces of the characters in @-@ game . Motion capture of the body was also used to ensure lifelike movement . Cyan staff were worried that the audio synching for animation would not be finished in time for the E3 unveiling of the game , but were happy with the end results . Critical reaction to game previews and impressions at E3 was highly positive . Miller was relieved , stating that when the mostly shooter game @-@ dominated showcase declared that End of Ages might be the best game in the series , " That feels good " .
= = = Audio = = =
Composer Tim Larkin , a sound designer and audio director at Cyan who had previously worked on realMyst and Uru : Ages Beyond Myst , was given the task of developing Myst V 's musical score . Larkin stated that whereas earlier Myst games had been constrained by technological limitations , the available technology allowed End of Ages to have a more dynamic environment , with the music changing with various timings of different sound effects . Surround sound provided a more realistic and immersive gameplay experience . A major challenge in writing the music was that the score had to be flexible enough to match the non @-@ linear gameplay events . " Games are totally interactive experiences , " Larkin explained . " You don 't guide a player through , since you can 't count on being at a certain place at a certain time . I can 't write cue music to get the player to do this , this and then this . One player might hear the cue and run the other way ! " Larkin had to step away from what he had learned as a jazz composer and musician writing pieces with a definite beginning and end , instead creating music with " less arc " and structure . Larkin admitted that some Myst fans would have preferred a musical style similar to Robyn Miller 's scores for Myst and Riven , but replied by saying that change happens and players would find something to like in the new music if they kept an open mind .
Due to a tight budget , Larkin was unable to hire an orchestra to perform the music ; all the instruments in the soundtrack aside from Larkin 's own trumpet playing are sampled instruments . Larkin used a variety of synthesizers , samplers , and computers to create the score , working at his home studio and Cyan 's offices . Larkin found that the biggest challenge with the score was finishing it on time for the game to ship . The soundtrack was released in CD format on October 25 , 2005 .
= = = Release = = =
End of Ages was packaged in two different retail versions for release in September 2005 , to coincide with the 12th anniversary of the franchise 's debut . A standard edition , containing only the game , was released for Windows @-@ based PCs in a CD @-@ ROM format . The limited edition contained the original soundtrack , a collector 's lithograph , strategy guide , and a bonus DVD with a " making of " retrospective on the Myst franchise . The video was made by GameTap , a subsidiary of Turner Broadcasting System ; the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes feature was the first game @-@ related documentary developed by Turner . The limited edition was shipped on hybrid Mac OS X / Windows DVDs , with Macintosh conversion provided by Quebec @-@ based developer Beenox ; this was the only commercial option for Macintosh players .
Shortly before End of Ages was released , Cyan announced the layoff of most of the staff and that the company would be ceasing software development . The reason for the sudden closure was a failure to gain financial backing for a new project after End of Ages 's development . Part of the blame for the company 's financial troubles were placed on the commercial disappointment of Uru : Ages Beyond Myst . The company was , according to Rand Miller , " able to pull a rabbit out of a hat " and rehire " almost all " the employees a few weeks later after backing for a new project was secured . With the release of End of Ages , Cyan stated that their next game would have nothing to do with the Myst series . While pitching an unnamed online game to publishers , Cyan produced Cosmic Osmo 's : Hex Isle with online content site Fanista .
= = Reception = =
Overall , End of Ages was well received by critics . The game was judged a fitting end to the series , and in combination with the other games in the series sold more than 12 million copies by November 2007 .
As with previous games , the visuals of End of Ages were widely praised . The switch to real @-@ time rendering was generally seen as a positive step . The game 's music was lauded ; GameSpot 's review noted the use of music in End of Ages was sparse , but the little audio present set the proper tone for different Ages . A few reviewers , such as Charles Herold of the New York Times , felt that the graphics fell short of what was possible , especially compared to the prerendered visuals of Myst IV : Revelation . While Greg Kasavin of GameSpot felt that though the visuals were on par with previous games , End of Ages was missing several elements which made Myst IV more immersive ; only important , story @-@ driving items could be interacted with , for example , and the player makes no sounds or footsteps in the game .
The characters of Myst , occasionally ridiculed in previous games , were well received in End of Ages . Publications such as GameSpot and IGN praised the voice acting and the switch to character models ; Jaun Castro of IGN stated that though the player could not interact directly with the characters , the rendered characters wound up " feeling more genuine and real " than in previous games , speaking with genuine conviction and animation . Special praise was given to David Ogden Stiers for bringing Esher to life . A dissenting opinion was presented by reviewer Mark Saltzman , who thought that players might become bored by the " overly dramatic " character dialogue .
Critics warmly received the addition of the slate and its related puzzles . Oliver Clare of Eurogamer called the slate system a welcome addition to the Myst formula , although he felt that the recognition of symbols was occasionally too precise . Paul Presley of Computer and Video Games felt that the slate concept could have been explored further , while GameSpot enjoyed the environmental effects created by the slates . End of Ages won several awards upon release , including IGN 's " editor 's choice " . Larkin 's music was nominated under the " Best Interactive Score " category at the 2006 Game Audio Network Guild Awards , and won the 2006 Game Industry News award for best soundtrack .
= The Whale ( The Office ) =
" The Whale " is the seventh episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office . The episode originally aired on NBC on November 15 , 2012 . The episode guest stars Jack Coleman as Robert Lipton and marks the return of actress Melora Hardin as Jan Levenson .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) is tasked with selling paper to a woman — who is later revealed to be Jan ( Hardin ) — from the Scranton White Pages , so Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) and the women of the office teach him how to interact with women . Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) confides in Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) that her husband , Robert ( Jack Coleman ) — who is secretly having a relationship with Oscar — is cheating on her . Oscar helps her spy on her husband at his yoga class . Meanwhile , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) convinces several of the men in the office to grow mustaches for " Movember " .
" The Whale " received mixed reviews from television critics , with many commenting on Hardin 's appearance . The episode was also viewed by 4 @.@ 16 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 / 6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking fourth in its timeslot . The episode , however , ultimately ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) Skypes into the office from his boat . He is severely sunburned , loses his supply of fresh water in the ocean , and is going mad from lack of human contact despite only been on the boat for two days .
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) is tasked with winning the Scranton White Pages account . However , the CEO is a woman , and Dwight has trouble selling to women . Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) and the women of the office teach him how to interact with women . The lesson , which is taught by Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) , and Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) , goes nowhere , and they give up . Pam goes with Dwight to the White Pages , only to find out that the buyer is Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) . Jan was expecting to meet with CEO David Wallace , and reprimands her assistant for the confusion . Pam quickly realizes that the meeting was just a ruse to take revenge on David for firing her five years ago . However , Dwight remains determined to make the sale , so he has Pam stall while he gets Clark ( Clark Duke ) , intuiting that Jan has an attraction to underage men due to her rumored affair with her 17 @-@ year @-@ old former assistant Hunter . After he introduces Clark to her , Jan says she will think about it , and tells everyone to leave her office except Clark . As Pam and Dwight leave , Dwight offers a sympathetic comment to Jan 's assistant ( a woman ) . Pam is pleased , seeing that some of the lessons they gave Dwight on women sunk in after all .
Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) confides in Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) that she suspects her husband , Robert ( Jack Coleman ) — who is secretly having a relationship with Oscar — of cheating on her . Oscar thinks that Robert may be seeing another man besides him and convinces Angela that they should spy on Robert at his yoga class . They hide outside of the class and watch as Robert spends time with a younger woman who later turns out to have a boyfriend . Oscar then notices Robert spending most of the yoga practice with a young man , which he finds suspicious . After the class , Robert phones Oscar , and his phone goes off . Oscar panics and silences the phone , and Angela immediately realizes why .
Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) is on a business call with the investors and members of the business venture he is up for . Many distractions from the background make the call difficult . At the end of the day , Jim apologizes , but then hears the person on the phone saying this is not working out . Meanwhile , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) convinces several of the men in the office to grow mustaches for " Movember " . He says he is doing this to support the cure for prostate cancer but is actually using it for a chance to socialize more with the office , to no avail . Pete ( Jake Lacy ) later shows Erin his mustache , but she finds it repulsive . He shaves it off shortly after that .
= = Production = =
" The Whale " was written by executive story editor Carrie Kemper , who is the younger sister of cast member Ellie Kemper , making it her third writing credit for the series . It was directed by Rodman Flender , his first directing credit for the series . The episode sees the return of Melora Hardin as Jan Levenson , a former character in the series who left after the early part of the fifth season . Hardin , did however , make two short appearances on the show during the seventh season episodes " Sex Ed " and " Threat Level Midnight " . Ed Helms only appears in the episode 's cold open ; he was written out of several episodes of the season in order to film The Hangover Part III .
The official website of The Office included several cut scenes from " The Whale " within a week of the episode 's release . In the first 105 @-@ second clip , Toby admits to the camera his amusement that the men at Dunder Mifflin are partaking in Movember with him . In the second 76 @-@ second clip , the women of Dunder Mifflin inform Dwight that his knowledge about women is severely lacking at that he has a long way to go . In the third and final 85 @-@ second clip . Dwight and Pam , while in the car , prepare for their " biggest sales call ever " .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode — " The Whale " — is a reference to the popular 1851 novel Moby @-@ Dick by Herman Melville and its main antagonist , the great white whale . The white pages , which is the sale that Dwight is attempting to make , are a listing of telephone subscribers in a geographical area or subscribers to services provided by the organization that publishes the directory . Toby organizes a Movember celebration , which is an annual , month @-@ long event involving the growing of moustaches during the month of November to raise awareness of prostate cancer and other male cancer and associated charities .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Whale " was originally scheduled to air on NBC on November 8 , 2012 , but the previous episode was delayed a week when it was replaced with a rerun of The Voice . It eventually aired a week later , on November 15 , 2012 . In its original broadcast , " The Whale " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 16 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 / 6 percent share rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a decrease in the ratings from the previous episode , " The Boat " , which had received a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 percent . The episode ranked fourth in its timeslot , being beaten by the Fox series Glee which received a 2 @.@ 2 / 6 percent rating , an entry of the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 9 / 7 percent rating , and an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 1 / 8 percent rating . Despite this , The Office was highest @-@ rated NBC television program of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
Mark Trammell of TV Equals was very pleased with the episode and wrote that " Rainn Wilson [ was ] clearly in his element " . Damon Houx of Screencrush felt that the entry was rushed , which resulted in " most characters [ getting ] 2 @-@ 3 minute storylines , or — in most cases — a joke or line or two . " He called it " one of the better episodes of this last season " , but noted that " the show 's going to end with more of a whimper than a bang " . Cindy White of IGN awarded the episode a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , denoting a " good " episode . White complimented Dwight and Pam 's situation , as well Angela and Oscar 's development . However , she noted that it " wasn 't hard to imagine Michael in [ Dwight 's ] situation " . Furthermore , she compared the episode to the third season episode " Women 's Appreciation " .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C " and was critical of the episode 's focus on " the series ’ endgame " , noting that the episode heavily set up both Jim and Dwight 's departure . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . While enjoying the story 's main plots — specifically citing Angela and Oscar 's " sneak around " , and Dwight 's endeavor — he was critical of Jim 's subplot , writing that " I couldn 't care less about the issues he was facing with teleconferencing . "
Melora Hardin 's return garnered critical attention . Forcella wrote that " Jan was definitely a welcome appearance " . Furthermore , he praised her " all @-@ around meanness " and the " hilarity of her singing " . Houx wrote that " the return of Jan Levinson and the final solution to get her business was pretty good . " Adams , on the other hand , was critical of the return of Hardin , noting that " there ’ s little reason to justify Melora Hardin ’ s presence in ' The Whale ' " other than " an obligation [ for ] The Office ’ s final @-@ season victory lap . " White noted that it " was nice to see Melora Hardin in the role one last time " , but wrote that " it 's a shame that the show is sticking with the crazy version of the character rather than mellowing her out a bit " . Melora Hardin 's performance was later submitted by the producers of The Office for an " Outstanding Guest Actor in Comedy Series " Emmy consideration .
= 2015 World Series =
The 2015 World Series was the 111th edition of Major League Baseball 's championship series , a best @-@ of @-@ seven playoff between the National League ( NL ) champions New York Mets and the American League ( AL ) champions Kansas City Royals . The series was played between October 27 and November 1 , with the Royals winning the series 4 games to 1 . It was the first time since the 2010 World Series that the World Series extended into November . The Royals became the first team since the Oakland Athletics in the 1989 World Series to win the World Series after losing in the previous year . It was also the first World series since the 2009 World Series to not feature the St. Louis Cardinals or San Francisco Giants as the NL Champions .
The Royals had home field advantage for the first two games of the series because of the AL 's 6 – 3 victory in the 2015 All @-@ Star Game . It was the 13th World Series in which home field advantage was awarded to the league that won the All @-@ Star Game . The series was played in a 2 – 3 – 2 format : the Royals hosted Games 1 and 2 , and the Mets hosted Games 3 , 4 , and 5 ( there was no Game 6 or 7 , which the Royals would have hosted ) .
The Royals won Game 1 in extra innings , tying for the longest game in World Series history . The Royals also won Game 2 with a complete game by Johnny Cueto , who allowed only one unearned run and two hits . With the series shifting to New York , the Mets won Game 3 with home runs by David Wright and Curtis Granderson . The Royals came from behind to win Game 4 after an error by Daniel Murphy led to a blown save by Jeurys Familia . Game 5 also went into extra innings , where bench player Christian Colón drove in the go @-@ ahead run for the Royals , who clinched the series . Salvador Pérez was named the World Series Most Valuable Player .
= = Background = =
= = = New York Mets = = =
The Mets made their fifth appearance in the World Series after sweeping the Cubs 4 – 0 in the 2015 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) . They had split their four previous appearances , winning the 1969 World Series against the Baltimore Orioles and the 1986 World Series against the Boston Red Sox , while losing the 1973 World Series against the Oakland Athletics and the 2000 World Series against the New York Yankees , their cross @-@ town rivals .
The Mets qualified for the postseason by winning the National League ( NL ) East , their sixth division title . They faced the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 2015 NL Division Series , winning in five games . In the 2015 NLCS , Daniel Murphy led the team by hitting home runs in each game of the four @-@ game sweep of the Chicago Cubs . By winning the NLCS , the Mets ensured that they have the most World Series appearances by an expansion franchise with five . In addition , the Mets have made World Series appearances in all but one of their six decades of existence , not appearing in any that were played during the 1990s . This was the first World Series appearance for Mets ' manager Terry Collins .
= = = Kansas City Royals = = =
The Royals made their second consecutive appearance in the World Series , both under Ned Yost , and fourth overall . They won the 1985 World Series against the St. Louis Cardinals , and lost their two other appearances , the 1980 World Series against the Philadelphia Phillies and the 2014 World Series against the San Francisco Giants . The Royals qualified for the postseason by winning the American League ( AL ) Central , their seventh division title and their first since winning the AL West in 1985 . They faced the Houston Astros in the 2015 American League Division Series , winning in five games . They followed that up in the 2015 American League Championship Series , beating the Toronto Blue Jays in six games .
By winning the ALCS , the Royals became the first team to play in consecutive World Series since the Texas Rangers played in the 2010 World Series and 2011 World Series .
= = = Series preview = = =
The series began on October 27 . As the AL won the 2015 All @-@ Star Game , the Royals had home field advantage for the series .
The Mets and Royals had not played since 2013 . Though the Mets boasted four starting pitchers who could throw over 95 miles per hour ( 153 km / h ) in Matt Harvey , Noah Syndergaard , Jacob deGrom and Steven Matz , the Royals had the best team batting average against pitches over that speed during the 2015 season . While the Mets starting pitchers had the best strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratio in the majors , the Royals , consisting of strong contact hitters , led baseball in contact rate . The Royals also had a superior defensive team , finishing second in the majors in Defensive Runs Saved , while the Mets finished 21st . The Royals bullpen , anchored by Wade Davis and Kelvin Herrera , also provided a strength . While the Mets hitters performed better against left @-@ handed pitchers than right @-@ handed pitchers , the Royals four starting pitchers , Johnny Cueto , Edinson Vólquez , Yordano Ventura , and Chris Young , and primary relievers , Davis , Herrera , Ryan Madson , and Luke Hochevar , are right @-@ handed .
= = Summary = =
Kansas City won the series , 4 – 1 .
= = Game summaries = =
= = = Game 1 = = =
The ceremonial first pitch was thrown out by George Brett . Matt Harvey started Game 1 for the Mets , while Edinson Vólquez started for the Royals . Vólquez 's father had died earlier in the day . He was not aware of his father 's death until after he left the game .
On the first pitch thrown by Harvey , Alcides Escobar hit an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run , the first in a World Series game since Mule Haas in the 1929 World Series , and the first hit by a leadoff batter since Patsy Dougherty did it for the Boston Americans in the 1903 World Series . In the fourth inning , Murphy recorded the Mets ' first hit , and later scored their first run on a hit by Travis d 'Arnaud . Curtis Granderson hit a home run in the fifth inning to give the Mets a 2 – 1 lead . The Mets took a 3 – 1 lead in the top of the sixth when Michael Conforto drove in Yoenis Céspedes with a sacrifice fly . Mike Moustakas then saved a run with a diving stop and throw out to first to end the top of the sixth . Eric Hosmer reduced the lead to 3 – 2 with a sacrifice fly , and set a new Royals ' postseason run batted in ( RBI ) record in the process . A single by Moustakas tied the game at three , but in the top of the eighth , Wilmer Flores reached on an fielding error by Hosmer , allowing Juan Lagares to score the go @-@ ahead run and give the Mets a 4 – 3 lead . In the bottom of the ninth with the Mets 2 outs away from taking Game 1 , Alex Gordon tied the game for the Royals with a home run to deep center field , as Jeurys Familia blew his first save in six postseason opportunities and his first since July 30 . With the home run , Gordon became the first player since Scott Brosius in the 2001 World Series , and just the fifth player in history , to tie a World Series game on a home run in the ninth inning .
In the bottom of the 11th inning , Granderson robbed the speedy Jarrod Dyson of a multi @-@ base hit with a running , leaping catch that prevented what probably would have been a lead @-@ off triple . The Mets went on to get out of the inning . In the bottom of the 14th , Escobar reached first on a throwing error by David Wright , and Bartolo Colón gave up a base hit to Ben Zobrist , allowing Escobar to reach third . Hosmer hit a sacrifice fly to Granderson in right field to drive in the winning run . This was the first time in World Series history that the same player scored both the first run of the game on the first pitch , and the last run of the game on the final pitch . The game ended at 1 : 18 AM EDT , lasting five hours and nine minutes . The game tied the record for the longest game by innings in World Series history , shared with Game 2 in the 1916 World Series and Game 3 in the 2005 World Series . The loss made Colón the oldest player ever to lose a World Series game .
= = = Game 2 = = =
In Game 2 , Jacob deGrom started for the Mets , and Johnny Cueto started for the Royals . Cueto walked Curtis Granderson to lead off the fourth and Daniel Murphy one out later . Yoenis Cespedes 's hit into a forecourt at second before Lucas Duda 's RBI single put the Mets up 1 @-@ 0 . Duda hit the Mets ' only other hit in the game in the second and Cueto retired them in order through the ninth .
In the fifth inning , Degrom allowed a leadoff walk to Alex Gordon and subsequent single to Alex Rios before Alcides Escobar 's RBI single tied the game . Ben Zobrist 's groundout moved the runners up and after Lorenzo Cain lined out to center , Eric Hosmer 's two @-@ run single put the Royals up 3 @-@ 1 . Kendrys Morales 's single moved Hosmer to third and Mike Moustakas 's single made it 4 @-@ 1 Royals .
The Royals blew the game open in the eighth off of Jon Niese , who allowed a leadoff single to Moustakas , subsequent single to Salvador Perez , and RBI double to Gordon . Addison Reed relieved Niese and allowed a sacrifice fly to Paulo Orlando and RBI triple to Escobar to make it 7 @-@ 1 Kansas City .
Cueto walked Murphy with two outs in the ninth before getting Cespedes to fly out to right to finish the complete game , becoming the first AL pitcher to accomplish this feat in the World Series since Jack Morris in Game 7 of the 1991 World Series , as the Royals defeated the Mets and took a two games to zero lead in the series . Cueto became the first AL pitcher since Jim Lonborg in the 1967 World Series to throw a World Series complete game while allowing two hits or fewer .
= = = Game 3 = = =
The series shifted to Citi Field , the home stadium of the Mets , for Game 3 . Yordano Ventura started for the Royals and Noah Syndergaard started for the Mets . The ceremonial first pitch was thrown by Mike Piazza to catcher Kevin Plawecki . With no designated hitter ( DH ) in NL parks , the Mets started Michael Conforto , their DH for Game 2 , in the outfield instead of Juan Lagares , and the Royals did not start Kendrys Morales , their regular DH .
Zobrist scored the Royals ' first run in the first inning on a force play . In the bottom of the first inning , Wright hit a two @-@ run home run that also scored Granderson . For the Royals , Alex Ríos drove Salvador Pérez home in the second inning , and scored on a passed ball by d 'Arnaud , giving the Royals a 3 – 2 lead . Granderson hit a two @-@ run home run in the third inning , and the Mets took a 4 – 3 lead . The Mets added a run in the fourth inning on an RBI single by Conforto , and four more in the sixth inning . The Royals made a few uncharacteristic mistakes in this game , the first coming in the fourth inning when pitcher Yordano Ventura forgot to cover the base on a ground ball to the first baseman , and the second in the sixth inning when Royals pitcher Franklin Morales triple @-@ clutched Granderson 's ground ball , allowing all runners to be safe , which led to a 2 @-@ run single by Wright .
In the fifth inning , Royals player Raúl A. Mondesí made his Major League Baseball debut , pinch hitting for Danny Duffy . Mondesí became the first player ever to make his MLB debut in the World Series .
= = = Game 4 = = =
The ceremonial first pitch was thrown out by country singer Tim McGraw , son of the late Mets relief pitcher Tug McGraw . The starting pitchers for Game 4 were Chris Young of the Royals and Steven Matz of the Mets . Conforto scored the game 's first run with a home run in the third inning , and Flores scored later in the inning on a Granderson sacrifice fly , where right @-@ fielder Ríos didn 't make an immediate throw home thinking that was the third out , even though it was just the second out of the inning . The Royals cut the deficit to 2 – 1 in the top of the fifth when Pérez doubled and was then driven in by Gordon . However , in the bottom of the fifth , Conforto hit another home run , becoming the first rookie to hit two home runs in a World Series game since Andruw Jones in the 1996 World Series . In the sixth inning , Zobrist hit his eighth double of the postseason , tying a postseason record previously set by Albert Pujols and David Freese of the 2011 St. Louis Cardinals . Lorenzo Cain drove in Zobrist in to make it a 3 – 2 game .
In the eighth inning , after recording the first out , Tyler Clippard walked two consecutive batters to force Terry Collins to bring in Familia . A key fielding error by Daniel Murphy allowed the tying run to score . The Royals took the lead on an RBI single from Moustakas , and then Pérez added an insurance run with another RBI base hit to give Kansas City the 5 – 3 lead . For Familia , it was his second blown save of the series , and second out of seven opportunities this postseason , though this one could be partly attributed to Murphy 's error . Wade Davis converted a two @-@ inning save for the Royals , his fourth overall this postseason . Davis pitched a perfect eighth , but got into some trouble with one out in the ninth when Murphy hit a hard grounder that Moustakas couldn 't field cleanly , and then Céspedes got a base hit to bring the winning run to the plate in Duda . However , Duda hit a soft line drive that was caught by Moustakas , who then doubled off Céspedes at first base to end the game . Céspedes had started running thinking that the ball would hit the ground .
= = = Game 5 = = =
Vólquez returned to the Dominican Republic for his father 's funeral the day after Game 1 , but returned to the Royals in time to start Game 5 . Harvey started for the Mets . Tony Bennett performed " America the Beautiful " , and the first pitch was thrown by Cleon Jones , Mookie Wilson , and Darryl Strawberry .
Granderson led off the first inning with a home run for the Mets , and scored the Mets ' second run in the sixth inning . The Mets had a chance to break the game open in that sixth inning as they loaded the bases with no outs , but had to settle for one run after Céspedes lined a foul ball off his leg and was injured , leaving the game after popping up for the first out of the inning . Duda hit a sacrifice fly before d 'Arnaud grounded out to end the inning . Harvey pitched eight shutout innings for the Mets , and convinced Collins to keep him in the game for the ninth . He then gave up a leadoff walk to Cain in the ninth inning , and the Royals got a run when Hosmer drove Cain in with a double , prompting Collins to call upon Familia to relieve Harvey . After a groundout by Moustakas advanced Hosmer to third base with one out , Pérez hit a ground ball to third baseman Wright , who after checking Hosmer at third , threw to first base for the second out ; however , Hosmer broke for home as soon as the ball was thrown , and Duda , who fielded the out at first , threw wide at home attempting to throw Hosmer out , and the latter scored the tying run , resulting in Familia blowing his third save of the postseason and the series ; his eight save opportunities tied the postseason record set in 2002 by Robb Nen .
In the top of the 12th inning , with Addison Reed pitching for the Mets , Pérez hit a single for the Royals . Pinch running for Pérez , Dyson stole a base and scored on a single by pinch hitter Christian Colón . Colón scored on a hit by Escobar . The Royals loaded the bases , and Cain drove home three more runs with a double off of Bartolo Colón . Davis pitched a shutout inning for the Royals to complete the series and win the championship . He struck out Flores looking to end the game , series , and baseball season .
Pérez , who batted 8 @-@ for @-@ 22 ( .364 ) in the series , and caught every inning for the Royals with the exception of the final inning of the series , won the World Series Most Valuable Player Award . He became the first catcher to win the award since Pat Borders won it in the 1992 World Series , and the second Venezuelan player , following Pablo Sandoval , who won it in the 2012 World Series .
= = = Composite line score = = =
2015 World Series ( 4 – 1 ) : Kansas City Royals beat New York Mets .
= = Broadcasting = =
= = = Television = = =
Fox broadcast the series in the United States , with play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Joe Buck calling the action along with color analysts Harold Reynolds and Tom Verducci and field reporters Ken Rosenthal and Erin Andrews . The pregame and postgame show featured host Kevin Burkhardt with analysts Frank Thomas , Raul Ibanez , Pete Rose , and Alex Rodriguez . Fox Deportes offered a Spanish telecast of the series in the United States . The MLB International feed featured Matt Vasgersian and John Smoltz with play @-@ by @-@ play and analysis , respectively .
Fox suffered an outage during their broadcast of Game 1 , resulting in a loss of coverage for 15 minutes , followed a 5 @-@ minute delay in @-@ game while officials addressed the availability of video review due to the loss of Fox 's feed . The teams agreed to allow the use of footage from MLB International 's world feed of the game for video review , while Fox also temporarily switched to the MLB International feed with Vasgersian and Smoltz , later replaced by Buck , Reynolds , and Verducci before the main Fox Sports production was restored .
The World Series started on a Tuesday for the second straight year , instead of a Wednesday as in the past . The practice was to avoid games on Thursday and Monday nights , generally big days of television viewing , where Fox 's telecast would face stiff competition from Thursday Night Football , ESPN College Football Thursday Primetime , various popular primetime entertainment shows , and Monday Night Football .
= = = = Ratings = = = =
Game 1 of the World Series averaged a 4 @.@ 6 rating on Fox , making it the most watched Game 1 since the 2010 World Series . Game 2 then had a 3 @.@ 9 rating , up 24 percent from last season 's Game 2 . The series also recorded the most watched Game 3 since 2009 .
Game 5 went head @-@ to @-@ head with an NBC Sunday Night Football game between the Green Bay Packers and Denver Broncos , both of which were previously unbeaten . Media sources like Sporting News predicted that this heavy competition would result in series @-@ low ratings . While the football game drew the larger audience , the Royals and Mets did average a 10 @.@ 0 rating , the highest for a World Series Game 5 since 2003 .
= = = Radio = = =
ESPN Radio aired the series , with Dan Shulman on play @-@ by @-@ play , Aaron Boone handling color commentary , and Buster Olney serving as field reporter . Tampa Bay Rays pitcher Chris Archer served as a guest commentator for selected innings in Games 1 , 2 and 5 . Marc Kestecher anchored pre @-@ game and post @-@ game coverage for the network along with Chris Singleton and Peter Pascarelli .
Locally , the series was broadcast on the teams ' flagship radio stations with their respective announcing crews . In New York , WOR aired the games in English , with Howie Rose and Josh Lewin announcing , while WEPN @-@ AM aired the games in Spanish , with Juan Alicea and Max Pérez Jiménez announcing . In Kansas City , KCSP broadcast the games , with Denny Matthews , Ryan Lefebvre , Steve Stewart , and Steve Physioc announcing . WEPN @-@ FM and WHB , the ESPN Radio affiliates in New York and Kansas City respectively , aired the network 's coverage of the series in those cities .
= = Historical notes = =
This was the first World Series in which both teams were expansion teams , which are teams that were formed after the 1960 season ; the Mets began play in 1962 , while the Royals began play in 1969 . Additionally , they have been the most successful expansion teams in the major leagues : the Mets and Royals were the first expansion teams in their respective leagues to not only win a league championship pennant ( 1969 for the Mets and 1980 for the Royals ) but the World Series as well ( the Mets in 1969 and the Royals in 1985 ) ; with five and four pennants respectively , they are the only expansion franchises with more than two league titles . Each team was also seeking to end a long championship drought ; the Royals ' previous championship was in 1985 , with the Mets ' last title coming one year later in 1986 . The Mets and Royals met on Opening Day of the 2016 season , on April 3 , 2016 , for a Sunday night game of the 2016 season in Kansas City .
= = = Popular culture = = =
In the 1989 film Back to the Future Part II , the Chicago Cubs are depicted as the 2015 World Series champions , defeating a fictional American League team from Miami , whose mascot is an alligator . Screenwriter Bob Gale , who co @-@ wrote the script of Back to the Future Part II , originally intended it as a joke , saying " Being a baseball fan , I thought , ' OK , let 's come up with one of the most unlikely scenarios we can think of ' " , referencing both the Cubs ' long championship drought , and the fact that Florida did not have a baseball team in 1989 . He also explained the October 21 prediction was based on the postseason structure at the time , and thus could have been accurate had MLB not added the Division Series in 1994 ( but not played until 1995 due to the strike ) and the Wild Card Game in 2012 .
= Mycena multiplicata =
Mycena multiplicata is a species of mushroom in the Mycenaceae family . First described as a new species in 2007 , the mushroom is known only from Kanagawa , Japan , where it grows on dead fallen twigs in lowland forests dominated by oak . The mushroom has a whitish cap that reaches up to 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) in diameter atop a slender stem 15 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) long by 1 to 1 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 to 0 @.@ 051 in ) thick . On the underside of the cap are whitish , distantly spaced gills that are narrowly attached to the stem . Microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the amyloid spores ( turning bluish @-@ black to black in the presence of Melzer 's reagent ) , the pear @-@ shaped to broadly club @-@ shaped cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the gill edge ) covered with a few to numerous , unevenly spaced , cylindrical protuberances , the lack of pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) , and the diverticulate hyphae in the outer layer of the cap and stem . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and classification = =
The mushroom was first collected by Japanese mycologist Haruki Takahashi in 1999 , and reported as a new species in a 2007 , along with seven other Japanese Mycenas . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word multiplicata , meaning " multiplicative " . Its Japanese name is Keashi @-@ ochiedatake ( ケアシオチエダタケ ) .
Takahashi suggests that the mushroom is best classified in the section Mycena of the genus Mycena , as defined by Dutch Mycena specialist Maas Geesteranus .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. multiplicata is conical to convex to bell @-@ shaped , reaching 7 to 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 to 0 @.@ 51 in ) in diameter . It is often shallowly grooved toward the margin , dry , and somewhat hygrophanous ( changing color when it loses or absorbs water ) . The cap surface is initially pruinose ( appearing as if covered with a fine white powder ) , but soon becomes smooth . The cap color is whitish , sometimes pale brownish at the center . The white flesh is up to 0 @.@ 3 mm thick , and does not have any distinctive taste or odor . The slender stem is 15 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) long by 1 to 1 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 to 0 @.@ 051 in ) thick , cylindrical , centrally attached to the cap , and hollow . Its surface is dry , pruinose near the top , and covered with fine , soft hairs toward the base . It is whitish to grayish @-@ violet near the top , gradually becoming dark violet below . The stem base is covered with long , fairly coarse , whitish fibrils . The gills are narrowly attached to the stem , distantly spaced ( between 13 and 16 gills reach the stem ) , up to 1 @.@ 7 mm broad , thin , and whitish , with the gill edges the same color as the gill faces . The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are ellipsoid , thin @-@ walled , smooth , colorless , amyloid , and measure 8 – 9 @.@ 5 by 4 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 24 – 31 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm , club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and have clamps at the basal septa . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are abundant , pear @-@ shaped to broadly club @-@ shaped , and measure 17 – 28 by 11 – 20 µm . They are covered with a few to numerous excrescences ( outgrowths ) that are 2 – 18 by 1 – 3 µm , colorless , and thin @-@ walled . The excrescences are unevenly spaced , simple to somewhat branched , cylindrical , and straight or curved . There are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) in this species . The hymenophoral ( gill @-@ producing ) tissue is made of thin @-@ walled hyphae that are 7 – 20 µm wide , cylindrical ( but often inflated ) , smooth , hyaline ( translucent ) , and dextrinoid ( staining reddish to reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent ) . The cap cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 3 – 5 µm wide , cylindrical , and covered with simple to highly branched colorless diverticulae that have thin walls . The layer of hyphae underneath the cap cuticle have a parallel arrangement , and are hyaline and dextrinoid , and made of short and inflated cells that are up to 52 µm wide . The stem cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 2 – 10 µm wide , cylindrical , diverticulate , colorless or pale violet , dextrinoid , and thin @-@ walled . The caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) are 2 – 6 µm wide , and otherwise similar in appearance to the cheilocystidia . The stem tissue is made of longitudinally arranged , cylindrical hyphae measuring 5 – 13 µm wide that are smooth , hyaline , and dextrinoid . Clamp connections are present in the cap cuticle and flesh , and at the septa at the base of the basidia .
= = = Similar species = = =
Within the section Mycena , M. multiplicata is similar to the Malaysian species M. obcalyx in having a grayish @-@ white cap , lobed cheilocystidia with finger @-@ like outgrowths , and a lignicolous habitat . M. obcalyx may be distinguished by forming much smaller fruit bodies ( with caps 2 – 4 mm wide ) with subdecurrent gills , a pruinose , hyaline white stem , and broadly ellipsoid spores .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mycena multiplicata is known only from Kanagawa , Japan . It is found growing solitary or scattered , on dead fallen twigs in lowland forests dominated by the oak species Quercus myrsinaefolia and Q. serrata .
= Chetco River =
The Chetco River is a 56 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 90 km ) stream located in the southwestern portion of the U.S. state of Oregon . It drains approximately 352 square miles ( 912 km2 ) of Curry County . Flowing through a rugged and isolated coastal region , it descends rapidly from about 3 @,@ 200 feet ( 975 m ) to sea level at the Pacific Ocean . Except for the lowermost 5 miles ( 8 km ) , the river is located entirely within the Rogue River – Siskiyou National Forest . The river rises in the Kalmiopsis Wilderness , northwest of Chetco Peak at the junction of the Oregon Coast Range and the Klamath Mountains . It flows generally north , west , and then southwest , before emptying into the ocean between Brookings and Harbor , approximately 6 miles ( 10 km ) north of the California state line . The Chetco River 's watershed remains largely undeveloped , protected by the Rogue River – Siskiyou National Forest and the Kalmiopsis Wilderness . The upper 45 miles ( 72 km ) of the river have been designated Wild and Scenic since 1988 .
Native Americans have lived in the Chetco River 's watershed for the last one to three thousand years . Several explorers , including Sir Francis Drake , George Vancouver , and Jedediah Smith , visited the region between the 16th and 19th centuries , and found the Chetco people inhabiting the area . Non @-@ indigenous settlers arrived soon after gold and other precious metals were discovered in the 1840s and 1850s . The town of Brookings was founded in the early 20th century , and incorporated in 1951 . Fourteen thousand residents of Brookings and Harbor rely on the Chetco for drinking water .
Supporting a large population of salmon and trout , the Chetco 's water is of very high quality . The watershed is home to many other species , including several that are endemic to the Siskiyou Mountains area . The northernmost grove of Redwoods — the tallest trees on Earth — grow in the southern region of the Chetco 's drainage basin . In total , the river is home to over 200 species of animals , and 97 percent of the watershed is forested .
= = Course = =
The Chetco River begins about 4 miles ( 6 km ) east of Chetco Peak , approximately 3 @,@ 201 feet ( 975 @.@ 7 m ) above sea level . It flows north , gathering small tributaries such as the Little Chetco River and Babyfoot Creek . The river turns west near the 5 @,@ 098 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 1 @,@ 554 m ) Pearsoll Peak , the highest point in the watershed . It receives Box Canyon Creek on the left bank , Tincup Creek on the right bank , and Boulder Creek on the left . It then flows south , gathering the South Fork Chetco River . A few miles farther south , the river passes through a Redwood grove . It flows between Bosley Butte to the north and Mount Emily to the south ; the latter is the impact site of one of only four bombs known to have been dropped in the continental United States by an enemy aircraft . This occurred during the Lookout Air Raids of 1942 .
Turning southwest , the river flows through Alfred A. Loeb State Park and collects the North Fork Chetco River on the right at river mile ( RM ) 5 ( or river kilometer ( RK ) 8 ) . The Chetco becomes an estuary about 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) from its mouth . It passes through the communities of Brookings to the north and Harbor to the south , and discharges into the Pacific Ocean .
= = = Discharge = = =
The United States Geological Survey monitors the flow of the Chetco River at a stream gauge at RM 10 @.@ 7 ( RK 17 @.@ 2 ) , which is 6 @.@ 8 miles ( 11 km ) northeast of Brookings . It opened in 1969 , and continues to operate . The average flow was 2 @,@ 263 cubic feet per second ( 64 @.@ 08 m3 / s ) from a drainage area of 271 square miles ( 702 km2 ) , about 77 percent of the Chetco 's total drainage basin . The maximum recorded flow was 85 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 2 @,@ 420 m3 / s ) on December 22 , 1964 , during the Pacific Northwest flood of 1964 . The minimum flow was 42 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 2 m3 / s ) on October 14 , 1987 .
= = Watershed = =
The Chetco River drains 352 square miles ( 912 km2 ) of the southern Oregon Coast . About 78 percent is owned by the United States Forest Service , and another 5 percent is owned by the Bureau of Land Management . Sixteen percent is privately owned , while the remaining one percent is managed by the cities of Brookings and Harbor , Curry County , and the state of Oregon . Approximately 97 percent of the land is used for forestry , 2 percent for agriculture and rural areas , and 1 percent is urban . Gravel and minerals are mined from the lower and upper regions of the watershed , respectively .
The region is mostly mountainous , characterized by steep river valleys . Elevations in the Chetco River watershed range from sea level to 5 @,@ 098 feet ( 1 @,@ 554 m ) at the summit of Pearsoll Peak . Precipitation averages between 45 and 140 inches ( 1 @,@ 143 and 3 @,@ 556 mm ) per year , with October through June being the wettest months . Seventy percent of surface runoff is collected from rain , and 30 percent from rain on snow . Twenty @-@ five separate wetlands totaling 93 acres ( 38 ha ) have been identified in the watershed . Temperatures average between 32 and 82 ° F ( 0 and 28 ° C ) , although the Brookings effect ( or Chetco effect ; similar to a foehn wind ) often brings localized hot weather to the Brookings area . The increase in temperature is caused by the geography of the region ; cool air funnels down the Chetco River valley from the Siskiyou and Coast ranges , gradually heating up before eventually reaching Brookings as a warm wind . The mountains also shield the area from cool marine layers . Partially as a result of this phenomenon , Brookings recorded its highest temperature ever , 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) , on July 8 , 2008 .
Earthquakes are common , and large @-@ scale ones occur around every 300 years . The Cascadia earthquake of 1700 — estimated at 8 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 2 on the moment magnitude scale — caused a tsunami to sweep across California , Oregon , Washington , and British Columbia , reaching Japan the next day . It was produced when the entire Cascadia subduction zone , about 680 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) long , slipped approximately 66 feet ( 20 m ) in a megathrust event . Another major earthquake occurred in 1873 near present @-@ day Brookings . With a magnitude of 7 @.@ 3 , the quake was felt from Seattle to San Francisco . Wind is also a factor in the region ; storms can sometimes reach over 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) . The Columbus Day Storm of 1962 brought devastating winds to nearly all of Oregon ; nearby Port Orford recorded gusts exceeding 190 miles per hour ( 310 km / h ) . The storm killed 38 people across the state and caused over $ 200 million worth of damage . The watershed often experiences wildfires , some of them major . The Biscuit Fire of 2002 burned over 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 ha ) of the Kalmiopsis Wilderness and surrounding regions .
As of the 2010 census , the city of Brookings had a population of 6 @,@ 336 , while nearby Harbor had 2 @,@ 391 . In total , over 14 @,@ 000 residents of the Brookings – Harbor area depend on the Chetco River for drinking water . Nearby watersheds include the Winchuck and Smith rivers to the south , the Pistol River to the north , and the Illinois River , a tributary of the Rogue River , to the north and east .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The Chetco River watershed is covered primarily by temperate coniferous forest , which includes species such as Douglas fir , western hemlock , white fir , Port Orford cedar , California incense cedar , and Sitka spruce . Jeffrey pine , knobcone pine , and golden chinquapin have also been identified . Hardwoods including tanoak , bigleaf maple , red alder , and Pacific madrone are common . Manzanita , hazelnut , vine maple , western skunk cabbage , and multiple species of berries and grasses make up the understory . Kalmiopsis , a flowering evergreen shrub and the namesake of the Kalmiopsis Wilderness , only grows in the Siskiyou Mountains . Several noxious weeds have also been identified , including gorse , Scotch broom , blackberries , and thistles .
The most prevalent species of the extreme southern portion of the watershed is the coastal redwood , one of the tallest types of trees on Earth . The world 's northernmost redwood grove is located near the south bank of the Chetco at RM 15 ( RK 24 ) , about 8 miles ( 10 km ) north of the California border . Trees here are around 300 to 800 years old , 5 to 13 feet ( 2 to 4 m ) in diameter , and some exceed 300 feet ( 91 m ) tall . The redwoods were heavily logged in the early 20th century . Prior to logging , the massive trees created their own microclimate by capturing moisture from fog , and also by the immense amount of shade they produced . The redwoods region is less mountainous than the rest of the watershed , and meandering streams are much more common .
Over 200 species of animals inhabit the river and its tributaries . Birds such as loons , grebes , ducks , kingfishers , and bald eagles are known to live around streams and other regions of the watershed . Auks , gulls , and terns have been spotted around the river 's mouth , and black @-@ legged kittiwakes nest in the area during the winter . The wildlife in the Kalmiopsis region of the Chetco watershed is more diverse than that of any other region in Oregon . Mammals such as American black bears , black @-@ tailed deer , bobcats , ring @-@ tailed cats , and gray foxes are common inhabitants of this region . The rare Siskiyou chipmunk is endemic to the Klamath Mountains . Steelhead and chinook and coho salmon are the most common anadromous fish that inhabit the Chetco River . Steelhead are abundant and have been spotted in most major and minor streams . Chinook salmon usually travel as far as Boulder Creek , about halfway between the Chetco 's headwaters and its mouth . Coho also generally stay in this area , but some have been found in the Granite and Carter Creek area , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) above Boulder Creek . Coastal cutthroat trout can be found all around the watershed ; some migrate to the ocean , while others live in the river and its tributaries year round . Pacific lamprey , three @-@ spined stickleback , and various sculpins have also been observed .
= = Geology = =
The Chetco River flows through the ancient Klamath Mountain terrane , which is between 400 and 100 million years old , the oldest rocks in Oregon . The Klamath microcontinent was originally located beneath the ocean near southern California before separating hundreds of millions of years ago . Plate tectonics pushed the microcontinent north , and bits of granite , sea floor sediment , subduction zones , and coral reefs gradually accreted into small islands . Between 212 and 170 million years ago , a massive volcanic arc erupted on the Klamath microcontinent , binding the islands together in a single block . The Klamath microcontinent went through a period of intense tectonic activity known as the Siskiyou orogeny roughly 170 to 165 million years ago . The process was strong enough to force sedimentary rocks deep into the Earth 's crust , melting them into large plutons of granite , which rose slowly to the surface . Shortly after , a large portion of sea floor was thrust over the older Klamath terranes ; much of it is still visible atop Vulcan and Chetco peaks . This region is known as the Josephine Ophiolite , and contains a rare type of rock called peridotite , originating from the Earth 's mantle .
The mountainous terrain of the Chetco River watershed was created approximately 130 million years ago when the microcontinent collided with the much larger North American continent . The process uplifted the complex and exotic terranes of the microcontinent to form the Klamath Mountains . Many glaciers carved U @-@ shaped valleys and cirques during the last ice age , and several alpine lakes still exist today .
Today , sandstone , shale , granite , and serpentine are the primary rock types in the Chetco region . Various forms of loam comprise its soil . Erosion levels are high due to
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5 – 1997 ) , had been born in Southwark before training as an acrobatic dancer and working on the music hall circuit prior to the Second World War . Ken 's Scottish father , Robert " Bob " Moffat Livingstone ( 1915 – 1971 ) , had been born in Dunoon before joining the Merchant Navy in 1932 and becoming ship 's master .
Having first met in April 1940 at a music hall in Workington , they married within three months . After the war the couple moved in with Ethel 's aggressive mother , Zona Ann ( Williams ) , whom Livingstone considered " tyrannical " . Livingstone 's sister Lin was born 21 ⁄ 2 years later . Robert and Ethel went through various jobs in the post @-@ war years , with the former working on fishing trawlers and English Channel ferries , while the latter worked in a bakers , at Freemans catalogue dispatch and as a cinema usherette . Livingstone 's parents were " working class Tories " , and unlike many Conservative voters at the time did not hold to socially conservative views on race and sexuality , opposing racism and homophobia . The family was nominally Anglican , although Livingstone abandoned Christianity when he was 11 , becoming an atheist .
Moving to a Tulse Hill council housing estate , Livingstone attended St. Leonard 's Primary School , and after failing his eleven plus exam , in 1956 began secondary education at Tulse Hill Comprehensive School . In 1957 , his family purchased their own property at 66 Wolfington Road , West Norwood . Rather shy at school , he was bullied , and got into trouble for truancy . One year , his form master was Philip Hobsbaum , who encouraged his pupils to debate current events , first interesting Livingstone in politics . He related that he became " an argumentative cocky little brat " at home , bringing up topics at the dinner table to enrage his father . His interest in politics was furthered by the 1958 Papal election of Pope John XXIII – a man who had " a strong impact " on Livingstone – and the United States presidential election , 1960 . At Tulse Hill Comprehensive he gained his interest in amphibians and reptiles , keeping several as pets ; his mother worried that rather than focusing on school work all he cared about was " his pet lizard and friends " . At school he attained four O @-@ levels in English Literature , English Language , Geography and Art , subjects he later described as " the easy ones " . He started work rather than stay on for the non @-@ compulsory sixth form , which required six O @-@ levels .
From 1962 @-@ 70 , he worked as a technician at the Chester Beatty cancer research laboratory in Fulham , looking after animals used in experimentation . Most of the technicians were socialists , and Livingstone helped found a branch of the Association of Scientific , Technical and Managerial Staffs to fight redundancies imposed by company bosses . Livingstone 's leftist views solidified upon the election of Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson in 1964 . With a friend from Chester Beatty , Livingstone toured West Africa in 1966 , visiting Algeria , Niger , Nigeria , Lagos , Ghana and Togo . Interested in the region 's wildlife , Livingstone rescued an infant ostrich from being eaten , donating it to Lagos children 's zoo . Returning home , he took part in several protest marches as a part of the anti @-@ Vietnam War movement , becoming increasingly interested in politics and briefly subscribing to the publication of a libertarian socialist group , Solidarity .
= = = Political activism : 1968 – 1970 = = =
Livingstone joined the Labour Party in March 1968 , when he was 23 years old , later describing it as " one of the few recorded instances of a rat climbing aboard a sinking ship " . At the time , many leftists were leaving in disgust at the Labour government 's support for the U.S. in the Vietnam War , cuts to the National Health Service budget , and restrictions on trade unions ; many went on to join far @-@ left parties like the International Socialists and the Socialist Labour League , or single @-@ issue groups like the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and the Child Poverty Action Group . Suffering mass electoral defeat at the local elections , in London , Labour lost 15 boroughs , including Livingstone 's London Borough of Lambeth , which came under Conservative control . Contrastingly , Livingstone believed that grassroots campaigning – such as the 1968 student protests – were ineffective , joining Labour because he considered it the best chance for implementing progressive political change in the UK .
Joining his local Labour branch in Norwood , he involved himself in their operations , within a month becoming chair and secretary of the Norwood Young Socialists , gaining a place on the constituency 's General Management and Executive Committees , and sitting on the Local Government Committee who prepared Labour 's manifesto for the next borough election . Hoping for better qualifications , he attended night school , gaining O @-@ levels in Human Anatomy , Physiology and Hygiene , and an A @-@ level in Zoology . Leaving his job at Chester Beatty , in September 1970 he began a 3 @-@ year course at the Philippa Fawcett Teacher Training College ( PFTTC ) in Streatham ; his attendance was poor , and he considered it " a complete waste " of time . Beginning a romantic relationship with Christine Chapman , president of the PFTTC student 's union , the couple married in 1973 .
Realising the Conservative governance of Lambeth Borough council was hard to unseat , Livingstone aided Eddie Lopez in reaching out to members of the local populace disenfranchised from the traditional Labour leadership . Associating with the leftist Schools ' Action Union ( SAU ) founded in the wake of the 1968 student protests , he encouraged members of the Brixton branch of the Black Panther Party to join Labour . His involvement in the SAU led to his dismissal from the PFTCC student 's union , who disagreed with politicising secondary school pupils .
= = = Lambeth Housing Committee : 1971 – 1973 = = =
In 1971 , Livingstone and his comrades developed a new strategy for obtaining political power in Lambeth borough . Focusing on campaigning for the marginal seats in the south of the borough , the safe Labour seats in the north were left to established party members . Public dissatisfaction with the Conservative government of Prime Minister Edward Heath led to Labour 's best local government results since the 1940s ; Labour leftists gained every marginal seat in Lambeth , and the borough returned to Labour control . In October 1971 , Livingstone 's father died of a heart attack ; his mother soon moved to Lincoln . That year , Labour members voted Livingstone Vice @-@ Chairman of the Housing Committee on the Lambeth London Borough Council , his first job in local government . Reforming the housing system , Livingstone and Committee Chairman Ewan Carr cancelled the proposed rent increase for council housing , temporarily halting the construction of Europe 's largest tower blocks , and founded a Family Squatting Group to ensure that homeless families would be immediately rehoused through squatting in empty houses . He increased the number of compulsory purchase orders for private @-@ rented properties , converting them to council housing . They faced opposition to their reforms , which were cancelled by central government .
Livingstone and the leftists became embroiled in factional in @-@ fighting within Labour , vying for powerful positions with centrist members . Although never adopting Marxism , Livingstone became involved with a number of Trotskyist groups active within Labour ; viewing them as potential allies , he became friends with Chris Knight , Graham Bash and Keith Veness , members of the Socialist Charter , a Trotskyist cell affiliated with the Revolutionary Communist League that had infiltrated the Labour party . In his struggle against Labour centrists , Livingstone was influenced by Trotskyist Ted Knight , who convinced him to oppose the use of British troops in Northern Ireland , believing they would simply be used to quash nationalist protests against British rule . Livingstone stood as the leftist candidate for the Chair of the Lambeth Housing Committee in April 1973 , but was defeated by David Stimpson , who undid many of Livingston and Carr 's reforms .
= = = Early years on the Greater London Council : 1973 – 1977 = = =
In June 1972 , after a campaign orchestrated by Eddie Lopez , Livingstone was selected as the Labour candidate for Norwood in the Greater London Council ( GLC ) . In the 1973 GLC elections , he won the seat with 11 @,@ 622 votes , a firm lead over his Conservative rival . Led by Reg Goodwin , the GLC was dominated by Labour , who controlled 57 seats , compared to 33 controlled by the Conservatives and 2 by the Liberal Party . Of the Labour GLC members , around 16 , including Livingstone , were staunch leftists . Representing Norwood in the GLC , Livingstone continued as a Lambeth councillor and Vice Chairman of the Lambeth Housing Committee , criticising Lambeth council 's dealings with the borough 's homeless . Learning that the council had pursued a racist policy of allocating the best housing to white working @-@ class families , Livingstone went public with the evidence , which was published in the South London Press . In August 1973 , he publicly threatened to resign from the Lambeth Housing Committee if the council failed " to honour longstanding promises " to rehouse 76 homeless families then staying in dilapidated and overcrowded halfway accommodation . Frustrated at the council 's failure to achieve this , he resigned from the Housing Committee in December 1973 .
Considered a radical troublemaker by the GLC 's Labour management , Livingstone was allocated the relatively unimportant position of Vice Chairman of the Film Viewing Board , monitoring the release of soft pornography . Like most Board members , Livingstone opposed cinematic censorship , a view he changed with the increasing availability of violent pornography . With growing support from Labour leftists , in March 1974 he was elected onto the executive of the Greater London Labour Party ( GLLP ) , responsible for drawing up the manifesto for the GLC Labour group and the lists of candidates for council and parliamentary seats . Turning his attention once more to housing , he became Vice Chairman of the GLC 's Housing Management Committee , however was sacked in April 1975 for his vocal opposition to the Goodwin administration 's decision to cut £ 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 from the GLC 's house @-@ building budget . Coming up to the 1977 GLC elections , Livingstone recognised the difficulty of retaining his Norwood seat , instead being selected for Hackney North and Stoke Newington , a Labour safe seat , following the retirement of David Pitt . Accused of being a " carpetbagger " , it ensured he was one of the few leftist Labour councillors to remain on the GLC , which fell into Conservative hands under Horace Cutler .
= = = Hampstead : 1977 – 1980 = = =
Turning towards the Houses of Parliament , Livingstone and Christine moved to West Hampstead , north London ; in June 1977 he was selected by local party members as the Labour parliamentary candidate for the Hampstead constituency , beating Vince Cable . He gained notoriety in the Hampstead and Highgate Express for publicly reaffirming his support for the controversial issue of LGBT rights , declaring he supported the reduction of the age of consent for male same @-@ sex activity from 21 to 16 , in line with the different @-@ sex age of consent . Becoming active in the politics of the London Borough of Camden , Livingstone was elected Chair of Camden 's Housing Committee ; putting forward radical reforms , he democratized council housing meetings by welcoming local people , froze rents for a year , reformed the rate collection system , changed rent arrears procedures and implemented further compulsory purchase orders to increase council housing . Criticised by some senior colleagues as incompetent and excessively ambitious , some accused him of encouraging leftists to move into the borough 's council housing to increase his local support base .
In 1979 , internal crisis rocked Labour as activist group , the Campaign for Labour Democracy , struggled with the Parliamentary Labour Party for a greater say in party management . Livingstone joined the activists , on 15 July 1978 helping unify small hard left groups as the Socialist Campaign for a Labour Victory ( SCLV ) . Producing a sporadically published paper , Socialist Organiser , as a mouthpiece for Livingstone 's views , it criticised Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan as " anti @-@ working class " . In January 1979 , Britain was hit by a series of public sector worker strikes that came to be known as the " Winter of Discontent . " In Camden Borough , council employees unionised under the National Union of Public Employees ( NUPE ) went on strike , demanding a 35 @-@ hour limit to their working week and a weekly wage increase to £ 60 . Livingstone backed the strikers , urging Camden Council to grant their demands , eventually getting his way . District auditor Ian Pickwell , a government @-@ appointed accountant who monitored council finances , claimed that this move was reckless and illegal , taking Camden Council to court . If found guilty , Livingstone would have been held personally responsible for the measure , forced to pay the massive surcharge , and been disqualified for public office for five years ; ultimately the judge threw out the case .
In May 1979 , a general election was held in the United Kingdom . Standing as Labour candidate for Hampstead , Livingstone was defeated by the incumbent Conservative , Geoffrey Finsberg . Weakened by the Winter of Discontent , Callaghan 's government lost to the Conservatives , whose leader , Margaret Thatcher , became Prime Minister . A staunch right winger and free market advocate , she became a bitter opponent of the labour movement and Livingstone . Following the electoral defeat , Livingstone told Socialist Organiser that the blame lay solely with the " Labour government 's policies " and the anti @-@ democratic attitude of Callaghan and the Parliamentary Labour Party , calling for greater party democracy and a turn towards a socialist platform . This was a popular message among many Labour activists amassed under the SCLV . The primary figurehead for this leftist trend was Tony Benn , who narrowly missed being elected deputy leader of Labour in September 1981 , under new party leader Michael Foot . The head of the " Bennite left " , Benn became " an inspiration and a prophet " to Livingstone ; the two became the best known left @-@ wingers in Labour .
= = Greater London Council leadership = =
= = = Becoming leader of the GLC : 1979 – 1981 = = =
Inspired by the Bennites , Livingstone planned a GLC take @-@ over ; on 18 October 1979 , he called a meeting of Labour leftists entitled " Taking over the GLC " , beginning publication of monthly newsletter the London Labour Briefing . Focused on increasing leftist power in the London Labour Party , he urged socialists to stand as candidates in the upcoming GLC election . When the time came to choose who would lead London Labour in that election , Livingstone put his name down , but was challenged by the moderate Andrew McIntosh ; in the April 1980 vote , McIntosh beat Livingstone by 14 votes to 13 . In September 1980 , Livingstone separated from his wife Christine , though they remained amicable . Moving into a small flat at 195 Randolph Avenue , Maida Vale with his pet reptiles and amphibians , he divorced in October 1982 and began a relationship with Kate Allen , chair of Camden Council Women 's Committee .
Livingstone turned his attention to achieving a GLC Labour victory , exchanging his safe @-@ seat in Hackney North for the marginal Inner London seat at Paddington ; in May 1981 he won the seat by 2 @,@ 397 votes . Cutler and the Conservatives learned of Livingstone 's plans , proclaiming that a GLC Labour victory would lead to a Marxist takeover of London and then Britain ; the rightist press picked up the story , with the Daily Express using the headline of " Why We Must Stop These Red Wreckers " . Such scaremongering was ineffective , and the GLC election of May 1981 was a Labour victory , with McIntosh installed as Head of the GLC ; within 24 hours he would be deposed by members of his own party , replaced by Livingstone .
On 7 May , Livingstone called a caucus of his supporters ; announcing his intent to challenge McIntosh 's leadership , he invited those assembled to stand for other GLC posts . The meeting ended at 4 : 45pm having agreed on a full slate of candidates . At 5 o 'clock , McIntosh held a GLC Labour meeting ; the attendees called an immediate leadership election , in which Livingstone defeated him by 30 votes to 20 . The entire left caucus slate was then elected . The next day , a leftist coup deposed Sir Ashley Bramall on the Inner London Education Authority ( ILEA ) , replacing him with Bryn Davies ; the left group now controlled both the GLC and the ILEA .
McIntosh proclaimed the GLC coup illegitimate , asserting that Labour was in danger from a leftist take @-@ over . The mainstream right @-@ wing press criticised the coup ; the Daily Mail called Livingstone a " left wing extremist " , and The Sun nicknamed him " Red Ken " , stating his victory meant " full @-@ steam @-@ ahead red @-@ blooded Socialism for London . " The Financial Times issued a " warning " that leftists could use such tactics to take control of the government , when " the erosion of our democracy will surely begin . " Thatcher joined the rallying call , proclaiming that leftists like Livingstone had " no time for parliamentary democracy " , but were plotting " To impose upon this nation a tyranny which the peoples of Eastern Europe yearn to cast aside . "
= = = Leader of the GLC : 1981 – 1983 = = =
Entering County Hall as GLC leader on 8 May 1981 , Livingstone initiated changes , converting the building 's Freemasonic temple into a meeting room and removing many of the privileges enjoyed by GLC members and senior officers . He initiated an open @-@ door policy allowing citizens to hold meetings in the committee rooms free of charge , with County Hall gaining the nickname of " the People 's Palace " . Livingstone took great pleasure watching the disgust expressed by some Conservative GLC members when non @-@ members began using the building 's restaurant . In the London Labour Briefing , Livingstone announced " London 's ours ! After the most vicious GLC election of all time , the Labour Party has won a working majority on a radical socialist programme . " He stated that their job was to " sustain a holding operation until such time as the Tory [ Conservative ] government can be brought down and replaced by a left @-@ wing Labour government . " There was a perception among Livingstone 's allies that they constituted the genuine opposition to Thatcher 's government , with Foot 's Labour leadership dismissed as ineffectual ; they hoped Benn would soon replace him .
There was a widespread public perception that Livingstone 's GLC leadership was illegitimate , while the mainstream British media remained resolutely hostile to the hard left . Livingstone received the levels of national press attention normally reserved for senior Members of Parliament . A press interview was arranged with Max Hastings for the Evening Standard , in which Livingstone was portrayed as affable but ruthless . The Sun 's editor Kelvin MacKenzie took a particular interest in Livingstone , establishing a reporting team to ' dig up the dirt ' on him ; they were unable to uncover any scandalous information , focusing on his love of amphibians , a personality trait mocked by other media sources . The satirical journal Private Eye referred to him as " Ken Leninspart " after Vladimir Lenin , proceeding to erroneously claim that Livingstone received funding from the Libyan Jamahiriya ; suing them for libel , in November 1983 the journal apologised , awarding Livingstone £ 15 @,@ 000 in damages in an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement .
During 1982 , Livingstone made new appointments to the GLC governance , with John McDonnell appointed key chair of finance and Valerie Wise chair of the new Women 's Committee , while Sir Ashley Bramall became GLC chairman and Tony McBrearty was appointed chair of housing . Others stayed in their former positions , including Dave Wetzel as transport chair and Mike Ward as chair of industry ; thus was created what biographer John Carvel described as " the second Livingstone administration " , leading to a " more calm and supportive environment " . Turning his attention once more to Parliament , Livingstone attempted to get selected as the Labour candidate for the constituency of Brent East , a place which he felt an " affinity " for and where several friends lived . At the time , the Brent East Labour Party was in strife as competing factions battled for control , with Livingstone attempting to gain the support of both the hard and soft left . Securing a significant level of support from local party members , he nonetheless failed to apply for candidacy in time , and so the incumbent centrist Reg Freeson was once more selected as Labour candidate for Brent East . A subsequent vote at the council meeting revealed that 52 local Labour members would have voted for Livingstone , with only 2 for Freeson and 3 abstentions . Nevertheless , in the United Kingdom general election , 1983 , Freeson went on to win the Brent East constituency for Labour . In 1983 , Livingstone began co @-@ presenting a late night television chat show with Janet Street @-@ Porter for London Weekend Television .
= = = = Fares Fair and transport policy = = = =
The Greater London Labour Manifesto for the 1981 elections , although written under McIntosh 's leadership , had been determined by a special conference of the London Labour Party in October 1980 in which Livingstone 's speech had been decisive on transport policy . The manifesto focused on job creation schemes and cutting London Transport fares , and it was to these issues that Livingstone 's administration turned . One primary manifesto focus had been a pledge known as Fares Fair , which focused on reducing London Underground fares and freezing them at that lower rate . Based on a fare freeze implemented by the South Yorkshire Metropolitan County Council in 1975 , it was widely considered to be a moderate and mainstream policy by Labour , which it was hoped would get more Londoners using public transport , thereby reducing congestion . In October 1981 , the GLC implemented their policy , cutting London Transport fares by 32 % ; to fund the move , the GLC planned to increase the London rates .
The legality of the Fares Fair policy was challenged by Dennis Barkway , Conservative leader of the London Borough of Bromley council , who complained that his constituents were having to pay for cheaper fares on the London Underground when it did not operate in their borough . Although the Divisional Court initially found in favour of the GLC , Bromley Borough took the issue to a court of appeal , where three judges – Lord Denning , Lord Justice Oliver and Lord Justice Watkins – reversed the previous decision , finding in favour of Bromley Borough on 10 November . They proclaimed that the Fares Fair policy was illegal because the GLC was expressly forbidden from choosing to run London Transport at a deficit , even if this was in the perceived interest of Londoners . The GLC appealed this decision , taking the case to the House of Lords ; on 17 December five Law Lords unanimously ruled in favour of Bromley Borough Council , putting a permanent end to the Fares Fair policy . GLC transport chairman Dave Wetzel labelled the judges " Vandals in Ermine " while Livingstone maintained his belief that the judicial decision was politically motivated .
Initially presenting a motion to the GLC Labour groups that they refuse to comply with the judicial decision and continue with the policy regardless , but was out @-@ voted by 32 – 22 ; many commentators claimed that Livingstone had only been bluffing in order to save face among the Labour Left . Instead , Livingstone got on board with a campaign known as " Keep Fares Fair " in order to bring about a change in the law that would make the Fares Fair policy legal ; an alternate movement , " Can 't Pay , Won 't Pay " , accused Livingstone of being a sell @-@ out and insisted that the GLC proceed with its policies regardless of their legality . One aspect of the London Transport reforms was however maintained ; the new system of flat fares within ticket zones , and the inter @-@ modal Travelcard ticket continues as the basis of the ticketing system . The GLC then put together new measures in the hope of reducing London Transport fares by the more modest amount of 25 % , taking them back to roughly the price that they were when Livingstone 's administration took office ; it was ruled legal in January 1983 , and subsequently implemented .
= = = = GLEB and nuclear disarmament = = = =
Livingstone 's administration founded the Greater London Enterprise Board ( GLEB ) to create employment by investing in the industrial regeneration of London , with the funds provided by the council , its workers ' pension fund and the financial markets . Livingstone later claimed that GLC bureaucrats obstructed much of what GLEB tried to achieve . Other policies implemented by the Labour Left also foundered . Attempts to prevent the sale @-@ off of GLC council housing largely failed , in part due to the strong opposition from the Conservative government . ILEA attempted to carry through with its promise to cut the price of school meals in the capital from 35p to 25p , but was forced to abandon its plans following legal advice that the councillors could be made to pay the surcharge and disqualified from public office .
The Livingstone administration took a strong stance on the issue of nuclear disarmament , proclaiming London a " nuclear @-@ free zone " . On 20 May 1981 , the GLC halted its annual spending of £ 1 million on nuclear war defence plans , with Livingstone 's deputy , Illtyd Harrington , proclaiming that " we are challenging ... the absurd cosmetic approach to Armageddon . " They published the names of the 3000 politicians and administrators who had been earmarked for survival in underground bunkers in the event of a nuclear strike on London . Thatcher 's government remained highly critical of these moves , putting out a propaganda campaign explaining their argument for the necessity of Britain 's nuclear deterrent to counter the Soviet Union .
= = = = Egalitarian policies = = = =
Livingstone 's administration advocated measures to improve the lives of minorities within London , who together made up a sizeable percentage of the city 's population ; what Reg Race called " the Rainbow Coalition " . The GLC allocated a small percentage of its expenditure on funding minority community groups , including the London Gay Teenage Group , English Collective of Prostitutes , Women Against Rape , Lesbian Line , A Woman 's Place , and Rights of Women . Believing these groups could initiate social change , the GLC increased its annual funding of voluntary organisations from £ 6 million in 1980 to £ 50 million in 1984 . They provided loans to such groups , coming under a barrage of press criticism for awarding a loan to the Sheba Feminist Publishers , whose works were widely labelled pornographic . In July 1981 , Livingstone founded the Ethnic Minorities Committee , the Police Committee , and the Gay and Lesbian Working Party , and in June 1982 , a Women 's Committee was also established . Believing the Metropolitan Police to be a racist organisation , he appointed Paul Boateng to head the Police Committee and monitor the force 's activities . Considering the police a highly political organisation , he publicly remarked that " When you canvas police flats at election time , you find that they are either Conservatives who think of Thatcher as a bit of a pinko or they are National Front . "
The Conservatives and mainstream rightist press were largely critical of these measures , considering them symptomatic of what they derogatarily termed the " loony left " . Claiming that these only served " fringe " interests , their criticisms often exhibited racist , homophobic and sexist sentiment . A number of journalists fabricated stories designed to discredit Livingstone and the " loony left " , for instance claiming that the GLC made its workers drink only Nicaraguan coffee in solidarity with the country 's socialist government , and that Haringey Council leader Bernie Grant had banned the use of the term " black bin liner " and the rhyme " Baa Baa Black Sheep " because they were perceived as racially insensitive . Writing in 2008 , BBC reporter Andrew Hosken noted that although most of Livingstone 's GLC administration 's policies were ultimately a failure , its role in helping change social attitudes towards women and minorities in London remained its " enduring legacy " .
= = = = Republicanism and Ireland = = = =
Invited to the Wedding of Charles , Prince of Wales , and Lady Diana Spencer at St Paul 's Cathedral in July 1981 , Livingstone – a republican critical of the monarchy – wished the couple well but turned down the offer . He also permitted Irish republican protesters to hold a vigil on the steps of County Hall throughout the wedding celebrations , both actions that enraged the press . His administration supported the People 's March for Jobs , a demonstration of 500 anti @-@ unemployment protesters who marched to London from Northern England , allowing them to sleep in County Hall and catering for them . Costing £ 19 @,@ 000 , critics argued that Livingstone was illegally using public money for his own political causes . The GLC orchestrated a propaganda campaign against Thatcher 's government , in January 1982 erecting a sign on the top of County Hall – clearly visible from the Houses of Parliament – stating the number of unemployed in London .
In September 1981 , Livingstone began production of weekly newspaper , the Labour Herald , co @-@ edited with Ted Knight and Matthew Warburton . It was published by a press owned by the Trotskyist Workers Revolutionary Party ( WRP ) , who had financed it with funding from Libya and Iraq . Livingstone 's commercial relationship with WRP leader Gerry Healy was controversial among British socialists , many of whom disapproved of Healy 's violent nature . The Labour Herald folded in 1985 , when Healy was exposed as a sex offender and ousted from the WRP 's leadership .
A supporter of Irish reunification , Livingstone had connections with the left @-@ wing Irish republican party Sinn Féin and in July , met with the mother of an imprisoned Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) militant Thomas McElwee , then taking part in the 1981 Irish hunger strike . That day , Livingstone publicly proclaimed his support for those prisoners on hunger strike , claiming that the British government 's fight against the IRA was not " some sort of campaign against terrorism " but was " the last colonial war . " He was heavily criticised for this meeting and his statements in the mainstream press , while Prime Minister Thatcher claimed that his comments constituted " the most disgraceful statement I have ever heard . " Soon after , he also met with the children of Yvonne Dunlop , an Irish Protestant who had been killed in McElwee 's bomb attack .
On 10 October , the IRA bombed London 's Chelsea Barracks , killing 2 and injuring 40 . Denouncing the attack , Livingstone informed members of the Cambridge University Tory Reform Group that it was a misunderstanding to view the IRA as " criminals or lunatics " because of their strong political motives and that " violence will recur again and again as long as we are in Ireland . " Mainstream press criticised him for these comments , with The Sun labeling him " the most odious man in Britain " . In response , Livingstone proclaimed that the press coverage had been " ill @-@ founded , utterly out of context and distorted " , reiterating his opposition both to IRA attacks and British rule in Northern Ireland . Anti @-@ Livingstone pressure mounted and on 15 October he was publicly attacked in the street by members of unionist militia , The Friends of Ulster . In a second incident , Livingstone was attacked by far right skinheads shouting " commie bastard " at the Three Horseshoes Pub in Hampstead . Known as " Green Ken " among Ulster Unionists , Unionist paramilitary Michael Stone of the Ulster Defence Association plotted to kill Livingstone , only abandoning the plan when he became convinced that the security services were onto him .
Livingstone agreed to meet Gerry Adams , Sinn Féin President and IRA @-@ supporter , after Adams was invited to London by Labour members of the Troops Out campaign in December 1982 . The same day as the invitation was made , the Irish National Liberation Army ( INLA ) bombed The Droppin Well bar in Ballykelly , County Londonderry , killing 11 soldiers and 6 civilians ; in the aftermath , Livingstone was pressured to cancel the meeting . Expressing his horror at the bombing , Livingstone insisted that the meeting proceed , for Adams had no connection with the INLA , but Conservative Home Secretary Willie Whitelaw banned Adams ' entry to Britain with the 1976 Prevention of Terrorism ( Temporary Provisions ) Act . In February 1983 , Livingstone visited Adams in his constituency of West Belfast , receiving a hero 's welcome from local republicans . In July 1983 , Adams finally came to London on the invite of Livingstone and MP Jeremy Corbyn , allowing him to present his views to a mainstream British audience through televised interviews . In August , Livingstone was interviewed on Irish state radio , proclaiming that Britain 's 800 @-@ year occupation of Ireland was more destructive than the Holocaust ; he was publicly criticised by Labour members and the press . He also controversially expressed solidarity with the Marxist – Leninist government of Fidel Castro in Cuba against the U.S. economic embargo , in turn receiving an annual Christmas gift of Cuban rum from the Cuban embassy .
Courting further controversy , in the Falklands War of 1982 , during which the United Kingdom battled Argentina for control of the Falkland Islands , Livingstone stated his belief that the islands rightfully belonged to the Argentinian people , but not the military junta then ruling the country . Upon British victory , he sarcastically remarked that " Britain had finally been able to beat the hell out of a country smaller , weaker and even worse governed than we were . " Challenging the Conservative government 's militarism , the GLC proclaimed 1983 to be " Peace Year " , solidifying ties with the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( CND ) in order to advocate international nuclear disarmament , a measure opposed by the Thatcher government . In keeping with this pacifistic outlook , they banned the Territorial Army from marching past County Hall that year . The GLC then proclaimed 1984 to be " Anti @-@ Racism Year " . In July 1985 , the GLC twinned London with the Nicaraguan city of Managua , then under the control of the socialist Sandinista National Liberation Front . The press also continued to criticise the Livingstone administration 's funding of volunteer groups that they perceived represented only " fringe interests " . As Livingstone biographer Andrew Hosken remarked , " by far the most contentious grant " was given in February 1983 to a group called Babies Against the Bomb , founded by a group of mothers who had united to campaign against nuclear weapons .
Members of the London Labour groups chastised Livingstone for his controversial statements , believing them detrimental to the party , leading Labour members and supporters to defect to the Social Democratic Party ( SDP ) . Many highlighted Labour 's failure to secure the seat in the Croydon North West by @-@ election , 1981 as a sign of Labour 's prospects under Livingstone . Some called for Livingstone 's removal , but Michael Foot 's Trotskyist assistant Una Cooze defended Livingstone 's position to her boss . Television and radio outlets welcomed Livingstone on for interviews ; described by biographer John Carvel as having " one of the best television styles of any contemporary politician " , Livingstone used this medium to speak to a wider audience , gaining widespread public support , something Carvell attributed to his " directness , self @-@ deprecation , colourful language , complete unflappability under fire and lack of pomposity " , coupled with popular policies like Fares Fair .
= = = Abolition of the GLC : 1983 – 1986 = = =
The 1983 general election proved disastrous for Labour , as much of their support went to the Social Democrat @-@ Liberal Alliance , and Thatcher entered her second term in office . Foot was replaced by Neil Kinnock , a man Livingstone considered " repellent " . Livingstone publicly attributed Labour 's electoral failure to the leading role that the party 's capitalist wing had played , arguing that the party should promote a socialist program of " national reconstruction " , overseeing the nationalisation of banks and major industry and allowing for the investment in new development .
Considering it a waste of rate payer 's money , Thatcher 's government was keen to abolish the GLC and devolve control to the Greater London boroughs , stating its intention to do so in its 1983 electoral manifesto . Secretary of State for Employment Norman Tebbit lambasted the GLC as " Labour @-@ dominated , high @-@ spending and at odds with the government 's view of the world " ; Livingstone commented that there was " a huge gulf between the cultural values of the GLC Labour group and everything that Mrs Thatcher considered right and proper . " The government felt confident that there was sufficient opposition to Livingstone 's administration that they could abolish the GLC : according to a MORI poll in April 1983 , 58 % of Londoners were dissatisfied and 26 % satisfied with Livingstone .
Attempting to fight the proposals , the GLC devoted £ 11 million to a campaign led by Reg Race focusing on press campaigning , advertising , and parliamentary lobbying . The campaign sent Livingstone on a party roadshow conference in which he convinced the Liberal and Social Democratic parties to oppose abolition . Using the slogan " say no to no say " , they publicly highlighted that without the GLC , London would be the only capital city in Western Europe without a directly elected body . The campaign was successful , with polls indicating majority support among Londoners for retaining the Council , and in March 1984 , 20 @,@ 000 public servants held a 24 @-@ hour strike in support . The government nevertheless remained committed to abolition , and in June 1984 the House of Commons passed the Local Government Act 1985 with 237 votes in favour and 217 against . Livingstone and three senior GLC members resigned their seats in August 1984 , to force byelections on the issue of abolition , but the Conservatives declined to contest them and all four were comfortably re @-@ elected on a low turnout .
The GLC was formally abolished at midnight on 31 March 1986 , with Livingstone marking the occasion by holding a free concert at Festival Hall . In his capacity as former leader of the GLC , Livingstone was invited to visit Australia , Israel , and Zimbabwe in the following months by leftist groups in those countries , before he and Allen undertook a 5 @-@ week Himalayan trek to the base camp of Mount Everest .
= = Member of Parliament = =
Livingstone defeated Reg Freeson to represent Labour for the north @-@ west London constituency of Brent East in the 1987 general election . When the election came , he narrowly defeated Conservative candidate Harriet Crawley to become Brent East 's MP , while Thatcher retained the Premiership for a third term . Livingstone found the atmosphere of the Houses of Parliament uncomfortable , labeling it " absolutely tribal " , and asserting that " It 's like working in the Natural History Museum , except not all the exhibits are stuffed . " There was much hostility between him and the Parliamentary Labour Party , who allocated him a windowless office with fellow leftist MP Harry Barnes . He took on Maureen Charleson as his personal secretary , who would remain with him for the next 20 years .
In his maiden speech to Parliament in July 1987 , Livingstone used parliamentary privilege to raise a number of allegations made by Fred Holroyd , a former Special Intelligence Service operative in Northern Ireland . Despite the convention of maiden speeches being non @-@ controversial , Livingstone alleged that Holroyd had been mistreated when he tried to expose MI5 collusion with Ulster loyalist paramilitaries in the 1970s . Thatcher denounced his claims as " utterly contemptible " . In September 1987 Livingstone was elected to Labour 's National Executive Committee ( NEC ) , although was voted off in October 1989 , to be replaced by John Prescott . As Kinnock tried to pull Labour to the centre , Livingstone worked to strengthen socialist elements in the party . He continued to make his opinions known , refusing to pay the controversial poll tax until it was revoked , and being one of the 55 Labour MPs to oppose British involvement in the Gulf War in January 1991 . Conversely , he supported NATO intervention in the Balkans , and the bombing of Serbia .
In the 1992 general election , John Major led the Conservatives to a narrow victory , resulting in Kinnock 's resignation as head of Labour . Livingstone put his name forward as a proposed replacement , with Bernie Grant as his deputy , although they were not selected , with John Smith and Margaret Beckett taking the positions instead . After Smith died in May 1994 , Livingstone again put his name down as a potential leader , although withdrew it due to a lack of support . Instead , Tony Blair was selected , with Livingstone predicting that he would be " the most right @-@ wing leader " in Labour history . Blair and his supporters sought to reform the party by further expunging leftist elements and taking it to the centre ground , thus creating " New Labour " , with Blairite Peter Mandelson asserting that hard left figures like Livingstone represented " the enemy " of reform . Throughout 1995 , Livingstone unsuccessfully fought Blair 's attempts to remove Clause Four ( promoting nationalised industry ) from the Labour constitution , which he saw as a betrayal of the party 's socialist roots . In 1996 , he warned of the growing influence of spin doctors in the party , and called for Blair to sack Alastair Campbell after a High Court judge criticised him in a libel trial . Nevertheless , Blair 's reforms led Labour to a landslide victory in the 1997 general election , resulting in the formation of the first Labour government since 1979 . In December 1997 , Livingstone joined a Labour revolt against Blair 's attempts to cut benefits to single mothers , and in March 1998 publicly criticised Gordon Brown for advocating " an awful lot of Thatcherite nonsense " and attempting to privatise the London Underground through the PPP scheme . However , in 1997 he was re @-@ elected to the NEC , beating Mandelson to the position .
Livingstone continued his association with members of Trotskyite group Socialist Action , with the group 's leader John Ross became his most important adviser , teaching him about economics . Investing in an advanced £ 25 @,@ 000 computer , he and Ross used the machine to undertake complex economic analysis , on the basis of which they began publishing the Socialist Economic Bulletin in 1990 . Two other members of the group , Redmond O 'Neill and Simon Fletcher , also became trusted advisers . When Socialist Action founded a campaign group , the Anti @-@ Racist Alliance , Livingstone came to be closely associated with it . They campaigned around the racist murder of Stephen Lawrence and the rise of the far right British National Party , but were disadvantaged by an ongoing rivalry with the Anti @-@ Nazi League .
As his political significance waned , Livingstone gained more work in the media , commenting that the press " started to use me only once they thought I was harmless " . To receive these outside earnings , he founded a company known as Localaction Ltd . In 1987 he authored an autobiography for HarperCollins , If Voting Changed Anything They 'd Abolish It , conducted journalism for the London Daily News , stood in for BBC Radio 2 disk @-@ jockey Jimmy Young , and served as a judge for that year 's Whitbread Prize . In 1989 , Unwin Hyman published his second book , Livingstone 's Labour : A Programme for the 90s , in which he expressed his views on a variety of issues , while that same year he was employed to promote Red Leicester cheese in adverts for the National Dairy Council and to appear in adverts for British Coal alongside Edwina Currie . In October 1991 Livingstone began writing a column for Rupert Murdoch 's right @-@ wing tabloid The Sun , a controversial move among British socialists . In his column he often discussed his love of amphibians and campaigned for the protection of the great crested newt , on the basis of which he was appointed vice president of the London Zoological Society in 1996 – 97 . He subsequently began to write a food column for Esquire and then The Evening Standard , also making regular appearances on the BBC quiz show Have I Got News For You ? . In 1995 , Livingstone was invited to appear on the track " Ernold Same " by the band Blur .
= = Mayor of London = =
= = = Mayoral election : 2000 = = =
By 1996 , various prominent public figures were arguing for the implementation of directly @-@ elected mayors for large UK cities like London . The idea of a London mayor of a Greater London Authority had been included in Labour 's 1997 election manifesto , and after their election a referendum was scheduled for May 1998 , in which there was a 72 % yes vote with a 34 % turnout . With the first mayoral election scheduled for May 2000 , in March 1998 Livingstone stated his intention to stand as a potential Labour candidate for the position .
Blair did not want Livingstone as London Mayor , claiming the latter was one of those who " almost knocked [ the party ] over the edge of the cliff into extinction " during the 1980s . He and the Labour spin doctors organised a campaign against Livingstone to ensure that he was not selected , with Campbell and Sally Morgan unsuccessfully attempting to get Oona King to denounce Livingstone . They failed to convince Mo Mowlam to stand for the mayorship , and instead encouraged the reluctant Frank Dobson to stand . Recognising that a ' one member , one vote ' election within the London Labour Party would probably see Livingstone selected over Dobson , Blair ensured that a third of the votes would come from the rank @-@ and @-@ file members , a third from the trade unions , and a third from Labour MPs and MEPs , the latter two of which he could pressure into voting for his own preferred candidate , something that Dobson was deeply uncomfortable with . Information on the Blairite campaign against Livingstone became public , costing Dobson much support ; nevertheless , due to the impact of the MPs and MEPs , Dobson won the candidacy with 51 % to Livingstone 's 48 % .
Livingstone proclaimed Dobson to be " a tainted candidate " and stated his intention to run for the Mayoralty as an independent candidate . Aware that this would result in his expulsion from Labour , he publicly stated that " I have been forced to choose between the party I love and upholding the democratic rights of Londoners . " The polls indicated clear support for Livingstone among the London electorate , with his campaign being run by his Socialist Action associates . He gained the support of a wide range of celebrities , from musicians like Fatboy Slim , Pink Floyd , the Chemical Brothers , and Blur , artists like Damian Hirst and Tracey Emin , and those from other fields , among them Ken Loach , Jo Brand , and Chris Evans , the latter of whom donated £ 200 @,@ 000 to the campaign ; half of what Livingstone required . In March 2000 , Livingstone agreed to make a public apology to the House of Commons , after he was criticised over his failure to properly register outside interests worth more than £ 150 @,@ 000 . The election took place in May 2000 , at which Livingstone came first with 58 % of first and second @-@ preference votes ; Conservative candidate Steven Norris came second and Dobson third . Livingstone started his acceptance speech with " As I was saying before I was so rudely interrupted 14 years ago ... "
= = = First mayoral term : 2000 – 04 = = =
Livingstone now had " the largest and most direct mandate of any politician in British history " , receiving an annual salary of £ 87 @,@ 000 . It was the Mayor 's job to oversee a number of subordinate bodies , including the Metropolitan Police , Transport for London ( TfL ) , the London Development Agency , and the London Fire Brigade , and in doing so he was granted a number of executive powers . He would be scrutinised by the elected London Assembly , whose first chairman was Trevor Phillips , a Labour politician who had a reciprocated dislike of Livingstone . Livingstone was permitted twelve principal advisers , many of whom were members of Socialist Action or people whom he had worked with on the GLC . Ross and Fletcher became two of his closest confidants , with Livingstone commenting that " They aren 't just my closest political advisers ... they 're also mostly my best friends . " In 2002 , he promoted six of his senior aides , resulting in allegations of cronyism from Assembly members . The Mayoral office was initially based in temporary headquarters at Romney House in Marsham Street , Westminster , while a purpose @-@ built building was constructed in Southwark ; termed City Hall , it was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in July 2002 , with Livingstone commenting that it resembled a " glass testicle . "
Much of Livingstone 's first two years were devoted to setting up the Mayoral system and administration . He also devoted much time to battling New Labour 's plans to upgrade the London Underground system through a public – private partnership ( PPP ) program , believing it to be too expensive and tantamount to the privatisation of a state @-@ owned service . He furthermore had strong concerns about safety ; PPP would divide different parts of the Underground among various companies , something that he argued threatened a holistic safety and maintenance program . These concerns were shared by the National Union of Rail , Maritime and Transport Workers ( RMT ) and the Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen ( ASLEF ) trade union , who went on strike over the issue , being joined on the picket line by Livingstone . Appointing Bob Kiley as transport commissioner , the duo argued that the upgrade should be carried out in state hands through a public bond issue , as had been done in the case of the New York City Subway . They launched court cases against the government over PPP in 2001 – 02 , but were ultimately unsuccessful , and the project went ahead , with the Underground being privatised in January 2003 .
Although he had initially stated that he would not do so , Livingstone 's administration sought to phase out use of the Routemaster buses , the design for which dated to the 1950s . Although iconic , they were deemed hazardous and responsible for a high number of deaths and serious injuries as passengers climbed onto them , also being non @-@ wheelchair accessible and thus not meeting the requirements of the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 . The process was gradual , with the last Routemaster being decommissioned in December 2005 . The Routemasters were replaced by a new fleet of 103 articulated buses , known colloquially as " bendy buses " , which were launched in June 2002 . While the Routemasters fitted 80 people on at one time , the articulated buses fitted up to 140 passengers , however they were deemed dangerous for cyclists . Attempting to reduce London 's environmental impact , Livingstone created the London Hydrogen Partnership and the London Energy Partnership in his first term as Mayor of London . The Mayor 's Energy Strategy , " green light to clean power , " committed London to reducing its emissions of carbon dioxide by 20 % , relative to the 1990 level , by 2010 .
Livingstone sought to remove the pigeons from Trafalgar Square ; he tried to evict seed sellers and introduced hawks to scare the pigeons off . He pedestrianised the north side of the Square , transforming it into a public space with a cafe , public toilets , and a lift for the disabled . He introduced an annual Saint Patrick 's Day festival to celebrate the contributions of the Irish to London , and revived London 's free anti @-@ racism music festival , now called Rise : London United , later attributing London 's 35 % decrease in racist attacks to this and other anti @-@ racist policies . Continuing his support for LGBT rights , in 2001 he set up Britain 's first register for same @-@ sex couples ; while falling short of legal marriage rights , the register was seen as a step towards the Civil Partnership Act 2004 .
Livingstone 's relationship with Kate Allen ended in November 2001 , although they remained friends . He then started a relationship with Emma Beal , together having two children , Thomas ( born December 2002 ) and Mia ( born March 2004 ) . At a May 2002 party in Tufnell Park , Livingstone got into an argument with Beal 's friend Robin Hedges , a reporter for The Evening Standard . Beal subsequently fell off of a wall and bruised his ribs ; the press claimed that Livingstone had pushed him , although he insisted that he did not . Liberal Democrats on the London Assembly referred the matter to the Standards Board for England , who ruled that there was no evidence for any wrongdoing on Livingstone 's behalf .
As proposed in their election manifesto , in February 2003 Livingstone 's administration introduced a congestion charge covering 8 square miles in central London , charging motorists £ 5 a day for driving through the area . It was introduced in an attempt to deter traffic and reduce congestion ; Livingstone himself took the London Underground to work , and tried to inspire more Londoners to use public transport rather than cars . The policy was highly controversial , and strongly opposed by businesses , resident groups , the roads lobby , and the Labour government ; many commentators recognised that if opposition resulted in the policy being abandoned then it could lead to the end of Livingstone 's political career . That year , the Political Studies Association named Livingstone ' Politician of the Year ' due to his implementation of the ' bold and imaginative ' scheme . The scheme resulted in a marked reduction on traffic in central London , resulting in improved bus services , and by 2007 , TfL could claim that the charge had reduced congestion by 20 % . To further encourage the use of public transport , in June 2003 , the Oyster card system was introduced , while bus and Underground journeys were made free for people aged 11 to 18 .
In 2002 , Livingstone came out in support of a proposal for the 2012 Olympic Games to be held in London . He insisted however that the Games must be held in the East End , and result in an urban regeneration program centred on the Lee Valley . He gained the support of Labour 's culture secretary Tessa Jowell , who convinced the government to back the plans in May 2003 . In May 2004 , the International Olympic Commission put London on the shortlist of potential locations for the Games , alongside Paris , Madrid , Moscow , and New York City ; although Paris was widely expected to be the eventual victor , London would prove successful in its nomination . Another major development project was launched in February 2004 as the London Plan , in which Livingstone 's administration laid out their intentions to deal with the city 's major housing shortage by ensuring the construction of 30 @,@ 000 new homes a year . It stressed that 50 % of these should be deemed " affordable housing " although later critics would highlight that in actuality , the amount of " affordable housing " in these new constructions did not exceed 30 % .
Livingstone had no control over government policy regarding immigration , which had resulted in a significant growth in foreign arrivals coming to London during his administration ; from 2000 to 2005 London 's population grew by 200 @,@ 000 to reach 7 @.@ 5 million . He didn 't oppose this , encouraging racial equality and celebrating the city 's multiculturalism . Livingstone condemned the UK 's involvement in the Iraq War and involved himself in the Stop the War campaign . In November 2003 , he made headlines for referring to US President George W. Bush as " the greatest threat to life on this planet , " just before Bush 's official visit to the UK . Livingstone also organised an alternative " Peace Reception " at City Hall " for everybody who is not George Bush , " with anti @-@ war Vietnam veteran Ron Kovic as the guest of honour .
Livingstone 's success with the congestion charge and rejuvenation of Trafalgar Square led the Labour leadership to reconsider their position on him , with Blair re @-@ admitting him to the party and asking that he stand as their Mayoral candidate for the 2004 election . Livingstone eagerly agreed , and Labour Mayoral candidate Nicky Gavron volunteered to take a subordinate position as his deputy . In campaigning for the election , Livingstone highlighted his record : the congestion charge , free bus travel for under 11s , 1000 extra buses , and 5000 extra police officers , whereas his main competitor , the Conservative Steve Norris , campaigned primarily on a policy of abolishing the congestion charge . Livingstone continued to court controversy throughout the campaign ; in June 2004 he was quoted on The Guardian 's website as saying : " I just long for the day I wake up and find that the Saudi Royal Family are swinging from lamp @-@ posts and they 've got a proper government that represents the people of Saudi Arabia " , for which he was widely criticised . That same month he came under criticism from sectors of the left for urging RMT members to cross picket lines in a proposed Underground strike because the latest offer had been " extremely generous " , leading RMT general secretary Bob Crow to step down as a TfL board member . In the London mayoral election , 2004 , Livingstone was announced as the winner on 10 June 2004 . He won 36 % of first preference votes to Norris 's 28 % and Liberal Democrat Simon Hughes 's 15 % . When all the candidates except Livingstone and Norris were eliminated and the second preferences of those voters who had picked neither Livingstone or Norris as their first choice were counted , Livingstone won with 55 % to Norris 's 45 % .
= = = Second mayoral term : 2004 – 08 = = =
Amid the War on Terror and threat from Al Qaeda , Livingstone sought to build closer ties to the London 's Muslim community , controversially agreeing to meet with Islamist groups like the Muslim Association of Britain alongside moderate organisations . In July 2004 , he attended a conference discussing France 's ban on the burka at which he talked alongside Islamist cleric Yusuf al @-@ Qaradawi . Livingstone described al @-@ Qaradawi as " one of the most authoritative Muslim scholars in the world today " and argued that his influence could help stop the radicalisation of young British Muslims . The move was controversial , with Jewish and LGBT organisations criticising Livingstone , citing al @-@ Qaradawi 's record of anti @-@ Semitic and homophobic remarks , with the meeting leading to a publicised argument between Livingstone and his former supporter Peter Tatchell . Livingstone continued to champion the Palestinian cause in the Israel @-@ Palestine conflict , in March 2005 accusing Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon of being a " war criminal " responsible for the 1982 Sabra and Shatila massacre .
During his second term , Livingstone continued his support for London 's bid to host the 2012 Olympic Games , playing a crucial role in securing vital Russian support for the bid . On 6 July 2005 , in a ceremony held in Singapore attended by Livingstone , London was announced as the victor , resulting in widespread celebration . The following day , British @-@ born Islamist suicide bombers undertook three attacks on the Underground and another on a bus , killing 52 civilians . Livingstone gave a speech from Singapore denouncing the attackers as terrorists , before immediately returning to London . Informing the BBC that Western foreign policy was largely to blame for the attacks , his response to the situation was widely praised , even by opponents . Fearing an Islamophobic backlash against the city 's Muslim minority , he initiated an advertising campaign to counter this , holding a rally for inter @-@ community unity in Trafalgar Square . A second , failed suicide bombing attack took place on 21 July , and in the aftermath police officers shot dead a Brazilian tourist , Jean Charles de Menezes , whom they mistook for a bomber . Police initially lied about the killing , resulting in widespread condemnation , although Livingstone defended the actions of Metropolitan Police commissioner Ian Blair .
After Livingstone left a party in February 2005 , Oliver Finegold , a reporter for the Evening Standard , attempted to ask Livingstone a question in the street . Aware that Finegold was Jewish , Livingstone accused him of acting " just like a concentration camp guard " and asserting that he worked for the " reactionary bigots ... who supported fascism " at the Daily Mail . Although the Evening Standard initially did not deem the comments newsworthy , they were leaked to The Guardian , resulting in accusations of anti @-@ Semitism against Livingstone from the Board of Deputies of British Jews . There were many calls for Livingstone to apologise , including from Tony Blair , the London Assembly , a Holocaust survivors group and his deputy Gavron ( the daughter of a Holocaust survivor ) , but Livingstone refused . The Standards Board for England asked the Adjudication Panel for England to deal with Livingstone on the issue , who in February 2006 found him guilty of bringing his office into disrepute and suspended him from office for a month . The decision was controversial , with Livingstone and many others arguing that an unelected board should not have the power to suspend an elected official . In October 2006 at the High Court of Justice , Justice Collins overturned the decision to suspend Livingstone .
Although he had alienated much of London 's Jewish community , Livingstone denied charges of anti @-@ Semitism , holding regular meetings with the city 's Jewish groups and introducing public Hanukkah celebrations in Trafalgar Square in December 2005 . He came under further accusations of anti @-@ semitism in March 2006 for asserting that the businessmen David and Simon Reuben should return to Iran if they did not like Britain ; he claimed he had mistakenly believed them to be Iranian Muslims , whereas in reality they were Indian Jews . He refused to apologise to the Reubens , instead offering " a complete apology to the people of Iran for the suggestion that they may be linked in any way to the Reuben brothers " .
In March 2006 , Livingstone publicly criticised foreign embassies in London who refused to pay the congestion charge under the conditions of the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations . His criticism focused on US diplomat Robert Tuttle , condemning him as a " chiselling little crook " whose embassy was refusing to pay the £ 1 @.@ 5 million he believed it owed . In February 2007 , Livingstone 's administration doubled the congestion charge zone by extending it westwards into Kensington and Chelsea , despite opposition from resident groups . In October 2007 , the government agreed to go ahead with Crossrail , a £ 16 billion project to construct a train line under central London , linking Berkshire to Essex . Meanwhile , Livingstone felt vindicated in his former opposition to public private partnership when one of the companies who now controlled part of the Underground , Metronet , collapsed in July 2007 , with the state having to intervene to protect the service . Livingstone had also welcomed the construction of skyscrapers in London , giving the go ahead for 15 to be constructed during his Mayoralty , including 30 St Mary Axe and The Shard . He considered it necessary to fill the demand for office space , but was criticised by groups and individuals , most notably Charles , Prince of Wales , concerned about the preservation of historic skylines .
In May 2006 , Livingstone welcomed Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez to London , hosting an event for him at City Hall . This was condemned by various Conservatives claiming that Chávez 's democratic socialist government had undermined pluralistic democracy . Livingstone proceeded to accept the presidency of the pro @-@ Chávez Venezuelan Information Centre . In November 2006 , Livingstone travelled to Latin America to visit Chávez , during which he and his entourage stayed in Cuba at a cost of £ 29 @,@ 000 ; many British sources condemned the visit as a waste of tax @-@ payer 's money . In August 2007 , it was announced that Livingstone had come to an agreement with oil @-@ rich Venezuela ; Chávez 's government would supply £ 16 million a year worth of free oil to TfL , who would use it to subsidise half priced bus fares for 250 @,@ 000 Londoners on benefits . In return , London would provide expertise in running transport , as well as other services such as CCTV and waste management .
Livingstone helped organise the first " Eid in the Square " event at Trafalgar Square in commemoration of the Islamic Eid ul @-@ Fitr festival in October 2006 . In May 2007 , Livingstone travelled to New York City to attend the C40 conference of major world cities to deal with environmentalist issues . One of the leading figures of the conference , he called for other cities to adopt congestion charging as an environmental measure . In August 2007 , he issued a public apology on behalf of London for its role in the transatlantic slave trade . He selected the anniversary of the Haitian Revolution on which to do it , and in his tearful speech asserted that it was the resistance of enslaved persons rather than the philanthropy of wealthy whites that led to the trade 's end .
A week later he attended the unveiling of the statue of Nelson Mandela in Parliament Square , where he met with Nelson Mandela . In June 2007 , he criticised the planned £ 200 million Thames Water Desalination Plant at Beckton , which will be the United Kingdom 's first , calling it " misguided and a retrograde step in UK environmental policy " , and that " we should be encouraging people to use less water , not more . " In October 2007 , London Councils stated Livingstone had gone back on his promise to chair the developing London Waste and Recycling Board , and to provide £ 6 million of funding for the project , because " the government had failed to provide him with absolute control of the Board . "
Livingstone intended to stand again as Labour candidate in the London Mayoral election , 2008 , this time against Conservative candidate Boris Johnson . At the start of the campaign Livingstone took Johnson more seriously than many others were doing , referring to him as " the most formidable opponent I will face in my political career . " Much of Labour 's campaign revolved around criticising Johnson for perceived racist and homophobic comments that he had made in the past , although Johnson strenuously denied that he was bigoted . Livingstone also proposed that if he were to win a third term he would increase the congestion charge fee to £ 25 for the most polluting vehicles , while removing it for the least , and that he would also introduce a cycling scheme based on the Vélib ' system in Paris . As part of his campaign , Livingstone highlighted that by 2008 , the Metropolitan Police had 35 @,@ 000 officers , 10 @,@ 000 more than it had had in 2000 , also highlighting statistics to indicate falling crime rates across the city during his Mayorship . Nevertheless , there had been a recent rise in gang killing among young people , with 27 teenagers having been killed in gang warfare during 2007 , a statistic used by Johnson 's campaign who emphasised the idea that a Johnson administration would be far tougher on youth crime and anti @-@ social behaviour .
Further controversy rocked Livingstone 's campaign in December 2007 when Evening Standard journalist Andrew Gilligan alleged that one of Livingstone 's close advisers , Lee Jasper , had siphoned off at least £ 2 @.@ 5 million from the London Development Agency to fund black community groups with which he was closely associated . Livingstone stood by Jasper and claimed that the Evening Standard campaign was racist , but ultimately agreed to suspend Jasper while a full investigation took place . An independent report into the affair by District auditor Michael Haworth @-@ Maden in July 2009 found no evidence of " misappropriation of funds " but noted " significant " gaps in financial paperwork . The election took place in May 2008 , and witnessed a turnout of approximately 45 % of eligible voters , with Johnson receiving 43 @.@ 2 % and Livingstone 37 % of first @-@ preference votes ; when second @-@ preference votes were added , Johnson proved victorious with 53 @.@ 2 % to Livingstone 's 46 @.@ 8 % .
= = Post @-@ mayoral career = =
= = = Unsuccessful election : 2008 – 14 = = =
Newly elected , Mayor Johnson paid tribute to Livingstone and his " very considerable achievements " , hoping that the new administration could " discover a way in which the mayoralty can continue to benefit from your transparent love of London " . Johnson 's administration nevertheless reversed a number of Livingstone 's policies , for instance overturning the deal for Venezuelan oil . Intent on giving Venezuela the " advice that we promised " , in August 2008 Livingstone announced that he would be advising urban planning in Caracas . Livingstone predicted that in twenty years it could become a " first @-@ world city " , and hoped to help with his " very extensive network of contacts both domestically and internationally " .
In January 2009 , Livingstone responded to the Gaza War by calling for the European Union and the UK to bring home their ambassadors to Israel to express disapproval for the " slaughter and systematic murder of innocent Arabs " . From September 2009 to March 2011 , Livingstone presented the book review programme Epilogue for the Iranian state @-@ sponsored international news channel Press TV , for which he came under criticism from Iranian exile groups . In July 2010 , he spoke at the Durham Miners ' Gala , praising working class culture . He also used the speech to attack spending cuts by the new coalition government , claiming they were not necessary .
In September 2010 , Livingstone criticised public spending cuts announced by the recently elected Conservative @-@ Liberal Democrat coalition government , which he stated amounted to £ 45 billion a year for London alone , and were " beyond Margaret Thatcher 's wildest dreams " as well as threatening to result in widespread division and poverty across the capital . In May 2011 , Livingstone said he was " appalled " that Osama bin Laden had been shot dead by US Special forces " in his pyjamas " and " in front of his kid , " and that the values of a western democracy would have been best demonstrated if Bin Laden had been put on trial and his words challenged .
Livingstone stood for the Labour candidacy as 2012 Mayoral candidate . His campaign attracted criticism when he joked that the election was " a simple choice between good and evil " , and when he was accused of anti @-@ semitism by Jewish Labour supporters for suggesting that being largely wealthy , the Jewish community would not vote for him . He denied making the comments , but nevertheless apologised .
Johnson 's campaign emphasised the accusation that Livingstone was guilty of tax evasion , for which Livingstone called Johnson a " bare @-@ faced liar " . The political scientist Andrew Crines believed that Livingstone 's campaign suffered from its focus on criticising Johnson rather than presenting an alternate and progressive vision of London 's future , also suggesting that after decades in the public eye , Livingstone had come to be seen as an over @-@ familiar and politically tired figure by the London electorate . On 4 May 2012 Livingstone was defeated in the London 2012 Mayoral Elections by the incumbent Mayor , Boris Johnson . There was only a difference of 62 @,@ 538 votes between the 2 candidates with Livingstone receiving 992 @,@ 273 votes and Johnson receiving 1 @,@ 054 @,@ 811 votes . Livingstone criticised bias in the media and declared that he would be bowing out of politics .
He remained publicly critical of Johnson over the coming years ; in April 2014 , he admitted that while he had once feared Johnson as " the most hardline right @-@ wing ideologue since Thatcher " , over the course of Johnson 's mayoralty , he had instead concluded that he was " a fairly lazy tosser who just wants to be there " but who does very little work .
= = = Under Corbyn 's leadership : 2015 – = = =
In May 2015 , Livingstone endorsed Sadiq Khan to be the Labour candidate for the 2016 London mayoral election , and in July then endorsed Jeremy Corbyn in the 2015 Labour Party leadership election . After Corbyn was elected Labour leader , Livingstone was one of his most prominent allies ; in November 2015 Corbyn appointed Livingstone to co @-@ convene Labour 's defence review alongside Maria Eagle . This appointment was criticised by shadow defence minister Kevan Jones , who expressed the view that Livingstone knew little about defence and that it would damage the party 's reputation . Livingstone responded by claiming that Jones – who has spoken about his own clinical depression – needed " psychiatric help " . Jones took offense , and while Livingstone initially refused to apologise , he subsequently did so at Corbyn 's urging .
Livingstone faced further criticism following a television appearance in which he stated that the perpetrators of the 2005 London bombings carried out their actions as retribution for UK involvement in the Iraq War . In March 2016 , Livingstone again courted controversy by comparing a hedge fund 's donation to Labour MP Dan Jarvis to " Jimmy Savile funding a children 's group " ; it subsequently emerged that Livingstone himself had received £ 8 @,@ 000 from a hedge fund , leading to accusations of hypocrisy .
= = = = Suspension from the Labour Party = = = =
In April 2016 , Livingstone commented publicly on the suspension of Labour MP Naz Shah ; she had been removed from the party after it was revealed that she had made comments on Facebook suggesting that Israeli Jews should be relocated to the United States . Livingstone stated that Shah 's postings , which were made before she became an MP at the 2015 general election , were " completely over the top " and " rude " , although he did not deem them antisemitic . He asserted that there is a " well @-@ orchestrated campaign by the Israel lobby to smear anybody who criticises Israeli policy as antisemitic " , and also stated that Adolf Hitler " was supporting Zionism before he went mad and ended up killing six million Jews " .
He defended his claims by reference to Lenni Brenner 's Zionism in the Age of the Dictators , and many commentators suggested that Livingstone was referring to the Haavara Agreement between Nazi Germany and the Zionist Federation of Germany . Livingstone 's statements were criticised by historians , among them Roger Moorhouse , who said that they were historically inaccurate . He also became involved in a public argument on the subject with the Labour MP John Mann .
Livingstone was subsequently suspended from Labour Party membership " for bringing the party into disrepute " . Over 20 Labour MPs called for Livingstone 's suspension , while Jon Lansman , founder of the pro @-@ Corbyn Momentum group , called for Livingstone to leave politics altogether , and Khan called for his expulsion from the party . In a subsequent interview , Livingstone expressed regret both for mentioning Hitler and for offending Jews but added that " I 'm not going to apologise for telling the truth . " Corbyn announced that the decision to expel Livingstone would be made by a National Executive Committee internal inquiry , whilst Livingstone insisted that he would be exonerated on the basis of Brenner 's book , saying " how can the truth be an offence ? " Following this controversy , Livingstone has questioned whether or not he has Jewish ancestry on his mother 's side stating that Greville Janner used to speculate whether or not he was Jewish because " my grandmother ’ s name was Zona . "
Livingstone was sacked in Spring 2016 by LBC . He was quoted by The Daily Telegraph as saying this was because of his comments about Hitler . With the former Conservative minister David Mellor , Livingstone had co @-@ hosted a Saturday morning current affairs programme on LBC for 8 years .
= = Political views = =
Within the Labour Party , Livingstone was aligned with the hard left . Historian Alwyn W. Turner noted that Livingstone 's entire approach to politics revolved not simply around providing public services , but in trying to change society itself ; in his words , he wanted to get away from the concept of " old white men coming along to general management committees and talking about rubbish collection . " Biographer John Carvel , a journalist from The Guardian , remarked that Livingstone 's political motivation was a " fundamental desire ... for a more participative , cooperative society " , leading him to oppose " concentrations of power and ... exploitation in all its forms – economic , racial and sexual . " However , Livingstone has also described his approach to fiscal policy as " monetarist " : " I was a monetarist right from the beginning when I was leader of the GLC . We paid down debt every year . We had an absolutely firm rule . "
Livingstone describes himself as a socialist . In 1987 , he stated that " politics is my religion . It 's my moral framework . I believe a socialist society is inherently the best thing , and that 's like an act of faith . " In 2007 , he stated that " I still believe one day that the idea that the main means of production are owned by private individuals ... will be considered as anti @-@ democratic as the idea serfs could be tied to the land . But I will not be alive when that day comes . " Livingstone had always worked towards a unified socialist front on the British left , and disliked the tendency towards splintering and forming rival factions , usually over issues of political theory , among the socialist community . Although rejecting Marxism , throughout his political career he has worked alongside Marxist far @-@ left groups and has become involved with the " politics of the street " . He has not worked with those Marxist groups , such as the Socialist Workers Party and the Revolutionary Communist Party , who advocate the destruction of the Labour Party as the way forward for socialism , seeing their beliefs as incompatible with his own . Livingstone has consistently opposed the actions of the Israeli government . In a 2005 interview he said that he was not against the existence of Israel , but rather Ariel Sharon 's government ; he recalled that on his 1986 visit to the country he got on well with its left @-@ wing politicians .
Livingstone has consistently rejected being defined under any particular ideological current of socialism . Recognising this , in 2000 , the former Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock asserted that Livingstone could only be defined as a " Kennist " . Livingstone 's understanding of politics arises from his studies of animal behaviour and anthropology ; rejecting the idea that the human species is naturally progressing ( a view advocated by socialists like the Fabian Society ) , Livingstone instead took the view that human society is still coming to terms with the massive socio @-@ economic changes that it experienced upon the development of agriculture during the Neolithic . Highlighting that a hunter @-@ gatherer mode of subsistence is more natural to the human species , he believes that modern society has to adopt many hunter @-@ gatherer values – namely mutual co @-@ operation and emphasis on human relationships rather than consumerism – in order to survive .
= = Personal life = =
Historian Alwyn W. Turner noted that Livingstone was a " gifted communicator and self @-@ publicist " who was able to stump his opponents using his " mischievous sense of humour " . Biographer John Carvel echoed these comments , highlighting that Livingstone had a " talent for public speaking " . Biographer Andrew Hosken noted that many of those who had worked with Livingstone had commented on him being an excellent boss , who was " a good delegator , decisive and supportive " as well as being " a friendly and modest colleague . " Jenny McCartney , a reporter from The Spectator , expressed the view that " in person he is hard to dislike . There 's a notable absence of pomposity in his manner , a propensity to laughter , and his love of an ideological scrap is allied to a calm , sometimes wry style of delivery : it looks fiercer on paper . " In The Guardian , the journalist Hugh Muir described Livingstone as a man who is " happiest in the limelight , discomforted by the periphery " and who also " hates to apologise ... especially when called upon [ to do so ] ... by media or political opponents for whom he has no respect " .
On the issue of nationality , Livingstone has expressed the view that he identifies as English rather than British , although his father was Scottish and he supports the continued existence of the United Kingdom . Although raised into a nominally Christian family , Livingstone renounced religious belief when he was eleven , becoming an atheist . In a 2005 interview he commented that in doing so he had rejected " mumbo @-@ jumbo in favour of rational science . " He is known for his enthusiasm for gardening and keeping and breeding newts . He was the first person to breed the Western Dwarf Clawed Frog Hymenochirus curtipes in captivity . Livingstone is a big fan of The Godfather film franchise , stating that the actions of the criminal organisations within the movies are very much akin to the world of politics .
= = = Family = = =
Livingstone repeatedly attempted to keep his family life private , commenting that " I expect that my private life is not in the public domain and I 'm rude to any journalist who turns up ... at home " . It is known that he has five children . Livingstone married Christine Pamela Chapman in 1973 ; the marriage ended in divorce in 1982 . Around that time he became involved with Kate Allen , now director of Amnesty International in the UK ; the couple separated in November 2001 . He then entered a relationship with his office manager , Emma Beal ; they have a son and a daughter together . Livingstone and Beal married on 26 September 2009 in the Mappin Pavilion of London Zoo . They live in North London .
Livingstone had also fathered three children prior to 2000 ; a boy by one mother and two girls by another . The children were born to two different women while Livingstone was involved with Kate Allen , according to an article by Decca Aitkenhead :
In his memoir , he describes how one was an old friend who was keen to have children but feared she was running out of time . " We had never been involved romantically but I knew her well enough to know she would be a wonderful mother and so I said I would like to be the father of her children . " A daughter was born in 1990 , and another in 1992 . Then another friend said she 'd like to have children : " And we agreed to have a baby . " Their son was born within weeks of his daughter in 1992 .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Throughout his career , Livingstone has polarised public opinion , and was widely recognised as a risk @-@ taker . Supporters described him as the " People 's Ken " and an " anti @-@ politician politician " , opining that he had the common touch with working @-@ class Londoners that most British politicians lacked . He was widely recognised for having improved the status of minority groups in London . He was also deemed a " formidable operator " at City Hall , with an " intimate knowledge " of London . He was also criticised during his career . During his Mayorship , he faced repeated accusations of cronyism for favouring his chosen aides over other staff . One of his supporters , Atma Singh , commented that under Livingstone 's leadership , a culture of bullying pervaded at City Hall , although this was denied by many other staff there .
He was also widely criticised and denounced during his career . During his Mayorship , he faced repeated accusations of cronyism for favouring his chosen aides over other staff . One of his supporters , Atma Singh , commented that under Livingstone 's leadership , a culture of bullying pervaded at City Hall , although this was denied by many other staff there .
During the 1980s , Spitting Image featured a fictionalised version of Livingstone voiced by Harry Enfield . In 1990 , BBC show The Comic Strip produced an episode entitled " GLC : The Carnage Continues ... " in which Robbie Coltrane played a fictionalised portrayal of Charles Bronson playing Livingstone in a Hollywood movie . Kate Bush wrote the song " Ken " for the episode , which was then released as a B @-@ side to her single " Love and Anger " .
= U.S. Route 13 Business ( Wilmington , Delaware ) =
U.S. Route 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) is an 8 @.@ 19 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 18 km ) business route of US 13 that runs through the heart of Wilmington in New Castle County , Delaware , where US 13 bypasses downtown Wilmington to the east , running near Interstate 495 ( I @-@ 495 ) and the Delaware River . US 13 Bus. begins at US 13 at the southern border of Wilmington and heads north toward the downtown area , where it splits into a one @-@ way pair . Past downtown , the business route heads through the northeastern part of the city on North Market Street before continuing through suburban Brandywine Hundred on Philadelphia Pike . US 13 Bus. reaches its northern terminus at US 13 in Claymont . US 13 Bus. is a four @-@ lane road for much of its length .
The Philadelphia Pike was built in the 1820s and improved to a state highway by 1920 . US 13 was designated to run through downtown Wilmington and along Philadelphia Pike in 1926 . During the 1930s , US 13 was shifted from Market Street to a one @-@ way pair on Market and French streets before both directions were moved onto French Street through downtown Wilmington . In the 1950s , the route was shifted to Walnut and French streets in the downtown area . The Walnut Street extension south of downtown , which included a new bridge over the Christina River , opened in 1957 . US 13 Bus. was designated in 1970 when US 13 was routed to bypass Wilmington along the former US 13 Alternate ( US 13 Alt . ) The business route was moved to its current one @-@ way pairing on Walnut and King street in the 1970s .
= = Route description = =
US 13 Bus. branches off of US 13 at the southern edge of Wilmington , just north of I @-@ 495 . From here , the business route heads north on four @-@ lane divided South Walnut Street . Immediately after beginning , the route has a southbound ramp to southbound I @-@ 495 and intersects Rogers Road . US 13 Bus. heads through commercial areas , becoming undivided as it comes to a bridge over Norfolk Southern 's Shellpot Branch railroad line . The route splits into a one @-@ way pair , with the northbound direction following South Walnut Street and the southbound direction following South Market Street , with three northbound lanes and four southbound lanes . The road passes businesses and a few homes and a high @-@ rise apartment complex before the business route crosses the Christina River on the Walnut Street Bridge northbound and the South Market Street Bridge southbound , both of which are drawbridges .
US 13 Bus. heads into downtown Wilmington and crosses under Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line at the Wilmington Station that serves Amtrak and SEPTA 's Wilmington / Newark Line . Immediately after , the business route intersects the eastern terminus of DE 48 , which follows Front Street eastbound and 2nd Street westbound . At this point , US 13 Bus. continues north to follow North Walnut Street northbound and North King Street southbound , with four northbound lanes and three southbound lanes . The road passes downtown businesses and intersects DE 9 ( 4th Street ) near the New Castle County Court House . Continuing through the downtown , the business route carries three lanes in each direction and continues near high @-@
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loaded their results into Soyuz TM @-@ 29 and departed Mir on 28 August 1999 , ending a run of continuous occupation , which had lasted for eight days short of ten years . The station 's gyrodines and main computer were shut down on 7 September , leaving Progress M @-@ 42 to control Mir and refine the station 's orbital decay rate .
Near the end of its life , there were plans for private interests to purchase Mir , possibly for use as the first orbital television / movie studio . The privately funded Soyuz TM @-@ 30 mission by MirCorp , launched on 4 April 2000 , carried two crew members , Sergei Zalyotin and Aleksandr Kaleri , to the station for two months to do repair work with the hope of proving that the station could be made safe . This was , however , to be the last manned mission to Mir — while Russia was optimistic about Mir 's future , its commitments to the International Space Station project left no funding to support the aging station .
Mir 's deorbit was carried out in three stages . The first stage involved waiting for atmospheric drag to reduce the station 's orbit to an average of 220 kilometres ( 140 mi ) . This began with the docking of Progress M1 @-@ 5 , a modified version of the Progress @-@ M carrying 2 @.@ 5 times more fuel in place of supplies . The second stage was the transfer of the station into a 165 × 220 km ( 103 × 137 mi ) orbit . This was achieved with two burns of Progress M1 @-@ 5 's control engines at 00 : 32 UTC and 02 : 01 UTC on 23 March 2001 . After a two @-@ orbit pause , the third and final stage of the deorbit began with the burn of Progress M1 @-@ 5 's control engines and main engine at 05 : 08 UTC , lasting 22 + minutes . Atmospheric reentry ( arbitrarily defined beginning at 100 km / 60 mi AMSL ) occurred at 05 : 44 UTC near Nadi , Fiji . Major destruction of the station began around 05 : 52 UTC and most of the unburned fragments fell into the South Pacific Ocean around 06 : 00 UTC .
= = = Visiting spacecraft = = =
Mir was primarily supported by the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft and had two ports available for docking them . Initially , the fore and aft ports of the core module could be used for dockings , but following the permanent berthing of Kvant @-@ 1 to the aft port in 1987 , the rear port of the new module took on this role from the core module 's aft port . Each port was equipped with the plumbing required for Progress cargo ferries to replace the station 's fluids and also the guidance systems needed to guide the spacecraft for docking . Two such systems were used on Mir ; the rear ports of both the core module and Kvant @-@ 1 were equipped with both the Igla and Kurs systems , whilst the core module 's forward port featured only the newer Kurs .
Soyuz spacecraft provided manned access to and from the station allowing for crew rotations and cargo return , and also functioned as a lifeboat for the station , allowing for a relatively quick return to Earth in the event of an emergency . Two models of Soyuz flew to Mir ; Soyuz T @-@ 15 was the only Igla @-@ equipped Soyuz @-@ T to visit the station , whilst all other flights used the newer , Kurs @-@ equipped Soyuz @-@ TM . A total of 31 ( 30 manned , 1 unmanned ) Soyuz spacecraft flew to the station over a fourteen @-@ year period .
The unmanned Progress cargo vehicles were only used to resupply the station , carrying a variety of cargoes including water , fuel , food and experimental equipment . The spacecraft were not equipped with reentry shielding and so , unlike their Soyuz counterparts , were incapable of surviving reentry . As a result , when its cargo had been unloaded , each Progress was refilled with rubbish , spent equipment and other waste which was destroyed , along with the Progress itself , on reentry . However , in order to facilitate cargo return , ten Progress flights carried Raduga capsules , which could return around 150 kg of experimental results to Earth automatically . Mir was visited by three separate models of Progress ; the original 7K @-@ TG variant equipped with Igla ( 18 flights ) , the Progress @-@ M model equipped with Kurs ( 43 flights ) , and the modified Progress @-@ M1 version ( 3 flights ) , which together flew a total of 64 resupply missions . Whilst the Progress spacecraft usually docked automatically without incident , the station was equipped with a remote manual docking system , TORU , in case problems were encountered during the automatic approaches . With TORU cosmonauts could guide the spacecraft safely in to dock ( with the exception of the catastrophic docking of Progress M @-@ 34 , when the long @-@ range use of the system resulted in the spacecraft 's striking the station , damaging Spektr and causing decompression ) .
In addition to the routine Soyuz and Progress flights , it was anticipated that Mir would also be the destination for flights by the Soviet Buran space shuttle , which was intended to deliver extra modules ( based on the same " 37K " bus as Kvant @-@ 1 ) and provide a much improved cargo return service to the station . Kristall carried two Androgynous Peripheral Attach System ( APAS @-@ 89 ) docking ports designed to be compatible with the shuttle . One port was to be used for Buran ; the other for the planned Pulsar X @-@ 2 telescope , also to be delivered by Buran . The cancellation of the Buran programme , however , meant these capabilities were not realised until the 1990s when the ports were used instead by U.S. Space Shuttles as part of the Shuttle @-@ Mir programme ( after testing by the specially modified Soyuz TM @-@ 16 in 1993 ) . Initially , visiting Space Shuttle orbiters docked directly to Kristall , but this required the relocation of the module to ensure sufficient distance between the shuttle and Mir 's solar arrays . To eliminate the need to move the module and retract solar arrays for clearance issues , a Mir Docking Module was later added to the end of Kristall . The shuttles provided crew rotation of the American astronauts on station and carried cargo to and from the station , performing some of the largest transfers of cargo of the time . With a space shuttle docked to Mir , the temporary enlargements of living and working areas amounted to a complex that was the largest spacecraft in history at that time , with a combined mass of 250 tonnes ( 280 short tons ) .
= = = Mission control centre = = =
Mir and its resupply missions were controlled from the Russian Mission control center ( Russian : Центр управления полётами ) in Korolyov , near the RKK Energia plant . Referred to by its acronym ЦУП ( " TsUP " ) , or simply as ' Moscow ' , the facility could process data from up to ten spacecraft in three separate control rooms , although each control room was dedicated to a single programme ; one to Mir ; one to Soyuz ; and one to the Soviet space shuttle Buran ( which was later converted for use with the ISS ) . The facility is now used to control the Russian Orbital Segment of the ISS . The flight control team were assigned roles similar to the system used by NASA at their mission control centre in Houston , including :
The Flight Director , who provided policy guidance and communicated with the mission management team ;
The Flight Shift Director , who was responsible for real @-@ time decisions within a set of flight rules ;
The Mission Deputy Shift Manager ( MDSM ) for the MCC was responsible for the control room 's consoles , computers and peripherals ;
The MDSM for Ground Control was responsible for communications ;
The MDSM for Crew Training was similar to NASA 's ' capcom , ' or capsule communicator ; usually someone who had served as the Mir crew 's lead trainer .
= = = Unused equipment = = =
Three command and control modules were constructed for the Mir program . One was used in space ; one remained in a Moscow warehouse as a source of repair parts if needed , and the third eventually was sold to an educational / entertainment complex in the U.S. In 1997 , " Tommy Bartlett 's World & Exploratory " purchased the unit and had it shipped to Wisconsin Dells , Wisconsin , where it became the centerpiece of the complex 's Space Exploration wing .
= = = Safety aspects = = =
= = = = Aging systems and atmosphere = = = =
In the later years of the programme , particularly during the Shuttle @-@ Mir programme , Mir suffered from various systems failures . It had been designed for five years of use , but eventually flew for fifteen , and in the 1990s was showing its age , with constant computer crashes , loss of power , uncontrolled tumbles through space and leaking pipes . NASA astronaut John Blaha 's account of the air quality on Mir — " very healthy , it 's not dry , it 's not humid . Nothing smells . " — contradicts sharply the concerns about air quality on the space station that Jerry Linenger relates in his book about his time on the facility . Linenger says that due to the age of the space station , the cooling system had developed tiny leaks too small and numerous to be repaired , that permitted the constant release of coolant , making it unpleasant to breathe the air . He says that it was especially noticeable after he had made a spacewalk and become used to the bottled air in his spacesuit . When he returned to the station and again began breathing the air inside Mir , he was deeply shocked by the intensity of the chemical smell and very worried about the possible negative health effects of breathing such heavily contaminated air .
Various breakdowns of the Elektron oxygen @-@ generating system were a concern ; they led crews to become increasingly reliant on the backup Vika solid @-@ fuel oxygen generator ( SFOG ) systems , which led to a fire during the handover between EO @-@ 22 and EO @-@ 23 . ( see also ISS ECLSS )
= = = = Accidents = = = =
Several accidents occurred which threatened the station 's safety , such as the glancing collision between Kristall and Soyuz TM @-@ 17 during proximity operations in January 1994 . The three most alarming incidents , however , occurred during EO @-@ 23 . The first was on 23 February 1997 during the handover period from EO @-@ 22 to EO @-@ 23 , when a malfunction occurred in the backup Vika system , a chemical oxygen generator later known as solid @-@ fuel oxygen generator ( SFOG ) . The Vika malfunction led to a fire which burned for around 90 seconds ( according to official sources at the TsUP ; astronaut Jerry Linenger , however , insists the fire burned for around 14 minutes ) , and produced large amounts of toxic smoke that filled the station for around 45 minutes . This forced the crew to don respirators , but some of the respirator masks initially worn were broken . Some of the fire extinguishers mounted on the walls of the newer modules were immovable .
The other two accidents concerned testing of the station 's TORU manual docking system to manually dock Progress M @-@ 33 and Progress M @-@ 34 . The tests were to gauge the performance of long @-@ distance docking and the feasibility of removal of the expensive Kurs automatic docking system from Progress spacecraft . However , due to malfunctioning equipment , both tests failed , with Progress M @-@ 33 narrowly missing the station and Progress M @-@ 34 striking Spektr and puncturing the module , causing the station to depressurise and leading to Spektr being permanently sealed off . This in turn led to a power crisis aboard Mir as the module 's solar arrays produced a large proportion of the station 's electrical supply , causing the station to power down and begin to drift , requiring weeks of work to rectify before work could continue as normal .
= = = = Radiation and orbital debris = = = =
Without the protection of the Earth 's atmosphere , cosmonauts were exposed to higher levels of radiation from a steady flux of cosmic rays and trapped protons from the South Atlantic Anomaly . The station 's crews were exposed to an absorbed dose of about 5 @.@ 2 cGy over the course of a 115 @-@ day expedition , producing an equivalent dose of 14 @.@ 75 cSv , or 1133 µSv per day . This daily dose is approximately that received from natural background radiation on Earth in two years . The radiation environment of the station was not uniform , however ; closer proximity to the station 's hull led to an increased radiation dose , and the strength of radiation shielding varied between modules ; Kvant @-@ 2 's being better than the core module , for instance .
The increased radiation levels pose a higher risk of crews developing cancer , and can cause damage to the chromosomes of lymphocytes . These cells are central to the immune system and so any damage to them could contribute to the lowered immunity experienced by cosmonauts . Over time , lowered immunity results in the spread of infection between crew members , especially in such confined areas . Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in cosmonauts . Protective shielding and protective drugs may lower the risks to an acceptable level , but data is scarce and longer @-@ term exposure will result in greater risks .
At the low altitudes at which Mir orbited there is a variety of space debris , consisting of everything from entire spent rocket stages and defunct satellites , to explosion fragments , paint flakes , slag from solid rocket motors , coolant released by RORSAT nuclear powered satellites , small needles , and many other objects . These objects , in addition to natural micrometeoroids , posed a threat to the station as they could puncture pressurised modules and cause damage to other parts of the station , such as the solar arrays . Micrometeoroids also posed a risk to spacewalking cosmonauts , as such objects could puncture their spacesuits , causing them to depressurise . Meteor showers in particular posed a risk , and , during such storms , the crews slept in their Soyuz ferries to facilitate an emergency evacuation should Mir be damaged .
= Chew Valley =
The Chew Valley is an area in North Somerset , England , named after the River Chew , which rises at Chewton Mendip , and joins the River Avon at Keynsham . Technically , the area of the valley is bounded by the water catchment area of the Chew and its tributaries ; however , the name Chew Valley is often used less formally to cover other nearby areas , for example , Blagdon Lake and its environs , which by a stricter definition are part of the Yeo Valley . The valley is an area of rich arable and dairy farmland , interspersed with a number of villages .
The landscape consists of the valley of the River Chew and is generally low @-@ lying and undulating . It is bounded by higher ground ranging from Dundry Down to the north , the Lulsgate Plateau to the west , the Mendip Hills to the south and the Hinton Blewett , Marksbury and Newton St Loe plateau areas to the east . The valley 's boundary generally follows the top of scarp slopes except at the southwestern and southeastern boundaries where flat upper areas of the Chew Valley grade gently into the Yeo Valley and eastern Mendip Hills respectively . The River Chew was dammed in the 1950s to create Chew Valley Lake , which provides drinking water for the nearby city of Bristol and surrounding areas . The lake is a prominent landscape feature of the valley , a focus for recreation , and is internationally recognised for its nature conservation interest , because of the bird species , plants and insects .
The area falls into the domains of councils including Bath and North East Somerset , North Somerset and Mendip . Part of the area falls within the Mendip Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . Most of the undeveloped area is within the Bristol / Bath Green Belt . Many of the villages date back to the time of the Domesday Book and there is evidence of human occupation since the Stone Age . There are hundreds of listed buildings with the churches being Grade I listed . The main commercial centre is Chew Magna .
= = Etymology = =
There is no clear origin for the name " Chew " , found scarcely anywhere else ; however , there have been differing explanations of the etymology , including " winding water " , the ' ew ' being a variant of the French eau , meaning water . The word chewer is a western dialect for a narrow passage , and chare is Old English for turning . One explanation is that the name Chew began in Normandy as Cheux , and came to England with the Norman Conquest during the eleventh century . However , others agree with Ekwall 's interpretation that it is derived from the Welsh cyw meaning " the young of an animal , or chicken " , so that afon Cyw would have been " the river of the chickens " . Other possible explanations suggest it comes from the Old English word ceo , ' fish gill ' .
= = Government and politics = =
The villages in the valley have their own parish councils which have responsibility for local issues . They also elect councillors to district councils e.g. Mendip and Somerset County Council or unitary authorities e.g. Bath and North East Somerset or North Somerset , which have wider responsibilities for services such as education , refuse and tourism .
Each of the villages is also part of a constituency , either North East Somerset or North Somerset . The area is also within the South West England constituency of the European Parliament . Avon and Somerset Constabulary provides police services to the area .
= = History = =
= = = Geology = = =
The western end of the area ( around Nempnett Thrubwell ) consists of the Harptree Beds which incorporate silicified clay , shale and Lias Limestone . Clifton Down Limestone , which includes Calcite and Dolomitic mudstones of the Carboniferous period , is found in the adjoining central band and Dolomitic Conglomerate of the Triassic period . There are two main soil types , both generally well @-@ drained . The mudstones around the lakes give rise to fertile silty clay soils that are a dull dusky red colour because of their high iron content . The clay content means that where unimproved they easily become waterlogged when wet , and hard with cracks and fissures during dry periods . The main geological outcrops around the lake are Mudstone , largely consisting of red Siltstone resulting in the underlying characteristic of the gently rolling valley landscape . Bands of Sandstone of the Triassic period contribute to the undulating character of the area . There are also more recent alluvial deposits beside the course of the River Chew . The transition between the gently sloping landscape of the Upper Chew and Yeo Valleys and the open landscape of the Mendip Hills plateau is a scarp slope of 75 to 235 metres ( 250 – 770 ft ) . The predominant formation is Dolomitic Conglomerate of the Triassic period . It formed as a result of desert erosion and weathering of the scarp slopes . It takes the form of rock fragments mainly derived from older Carboniferous Limestone cemented together by lime and sand which hardened to give the appearance of concrete . The northern boundary is formed by the sides of the Dundry Plateau where the most significant geological formation is the Inferior Oolite of the Jurassic period found on the higher ground around Maes Knoll . This overlays the Lower Lias Clay found on the adjoining slopes . The clays make a poor foundation and landslips are characteristic on the slopes . This area was once connected to the Cotswolds . The intervening land has subsequently been eroded leaving this outlier with the characteristics of the Cotswold Plateau . The unusual geological features have been recognised as Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) for their geological interest including Barns Batch Spinney , Hartcliff Rocks Quarry and Dundry Main Road South Quarry .
The oldest geological formation in the valley is the Supra @-@ Pennant Measures of the Carboniferous period . It is a significant feature towards the north @-@ eastern part of the area and is represented by the Pensford Syncline coal basin , which formed part of the Somerset coalfield . It is a complex formation containing coal seams and is made up of clay and shales . The landscape is typically undulating and includes outcrops of sandstone . Most of the area around Stanton Drew have neutral to acid red loamy soils with slowly permeable subsoils . Soils to the eastern part of the area are slowly permeable clayey and fine silty soils . They are found on Carboniferous clay and shales typical of the Supra @-@ Pennant Measures . They are frequently waterlogged where the topography dictates . They tend towards being acid and are brown to grey brown in colour . In the south and south east of the area there are coal measures which are sufficiently near the surface for coal mining to have taken place around Clutton and High Littleton . In the eastern area of the valley as the River Chew flows through Publow , Woollard and Compton Dando before joining the River Avon at Keynsham there are alluvial deposits of clay soils .
= = = Natural history = = =
The valley has several areas designated as Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) for biological interest , including Blagdon Lake , Burledge Hill , Chew Valley Lake , Compton Martin Ochre Mine , Harptree Combe and two sites at Folly Farm .
= = = = Flora = = = =
The small and medium @-@ sized fields of the valley are generally bounded by hedges and occasionally by tree belts and woodland , some of which date back to the most evident period of enclosure of earlier open fields which took place in the late medieval period . Hedgerows support the nationally rare bithynian vetch ( Vicia bithynica ) . Mature oak ( Quercus ) and ash ( Fraxinus excelsior ) trees are characteristic of the area with occasional groups of scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) and chestnuts ( Castanea sativa ) . Elm ( Ulmus ) trees have been lost in this area , and dead / dying elms are also evident in the surrounding landscape .
= = = = Fauna = = = =
Wildlife abounds in the valley , particularly the water birds around the rivers and lakes , with Chew Valley Lake considered the third most important site in Britain for wintering wildfowl . In addition to the water birds including ducks , shoveller ( Anas clypeata ) , gadwall ( Anas strepera ) and great crested grebes ( Podiceps cristatus ) , a wide variety of other bird species can be seen . These range from small birds such as tits ( Paridae ) and wrens ( Troglodytidae ) to mistle thrush ( Turdidae ) . Larger birds include woodpeckers ( Picidae ) and common buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) .
The valley also has a wide variety of small mammals with larger species including Eurasian badger ( Meles meles ) and deer ( Cervidae ) . The valley is home to fifteen of the sixteen bats found in England including a roost , at Compton Martin Ochre Mine , for greater horseshoe bats ( Rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) . A rare and endangered species , the greater horseshoe bat is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and is listed in Annex II of the 1992 European Community Habitats Directive .
= = = Human habitation = = =
Archaeological excavations carried out before the flooding of Chew Valley Lake found evidence of people belonging to the consecutive periods known as Upper Palaeolithic , Mesolithic and Neolithic ( Old , Middle and New Stone Age ) , Bronze Age and Iron Age , comprising implements such as stone knives , flint blades and the head of a mace , along with buildings and graves . Other evidence of occupation from prehistoric times is provided by the henge monument at Stanton Drew , long barrow at Chewton Mendip , and Fairy Toot tumulus at Nempnett Thrubwell . Maes Knoll fort , on Dundry Down in the northern reaches of the valley , is a Scheduled Ancient Monument that dates from the Iron Age ; it later served as a terminus for the early medieval Wansdyke earthworks .
There is evidence of Roman remains in particular a villa and burial pits . Artefacts from the valley were sent to the British Museum . Other Roman artefacts from the lake are on display at the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery . There are historic parks and mansion houses , including Stanton Drew , Hunstrete , Stowey House , Chew Court , Chew Magna Manor House and Sutton Court . Almost all of the villages have churches dating back to the fifteenth or sixteenth century .
The area around Pensford was an important coal mining area during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when it formed part of the Somerset Coalfield , although there are no working coal mines today . The line of the now disused Bristol and North Somerset Railway runs south from Bristol crossing over the River Chew on the surviving distinctive Pensford Viaduct and on to Midsomer Norton . The area suffered serious flooding during the storm of 10 July 1968 , prompting localised evacuation of populated valley areas in the lower parts of the valley , around Pensford and Keynsham .
= = = = Field patterns = = = =
The small fields in the western part of the area are particularly characteristic of the Chew Valley and date back to the most evident period of enclosure of earlier open fields which took place in the late medieval period . Fields of this category are generally small in size , regular in outline and often the boundaries preserve the outlines of the earlier strip field system . Regional variations in field size and pattern do occur . For example , there is evidence of medieval clearance of woodland on the slopes around Nempnett Thrubwell , south of Bishop Sutton and west and south of Chelwood .
= = Climate = =
Along with the rest of South West England , the Chew Valley has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country . The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures . The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 ° C ( 69 @.@ 8 ° F ) . In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 ° C ( 33 @.@ 8 ° F ) or 2 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 ° F ) are common . In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south @-@ west of England , however convective cloud sometimes forms inland , reducing the number of hours of sunshine . Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1 @,@ 600 hours . In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton . Most of the rainfall in the south @-@ west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection . Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions , which is when they are most active . In summer , a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms . Average rainfall is around 700 mm ( 28 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , and June to August have the lightest winds . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west .
= = Population and demographics = =
Many of the large houses in the valley were built or bought by wealthy merchants from Bristol and Bath who employed local people in their households . Bess of Hardwick ( 1527 – 1606 ) is known to have lived in Sutton Court , Stowey , for a few years in the sixteenth century when , after the death of her first husband Sir William Cavendish , she married Sir William St. Loe , who was Chief Butler of England and captain of the guard to Queen Elizabeth , and owned several manors within the valley and surrounding areas . Around this period a close neighbour was Sir John Popham ( 1533 – 1607 ) who was a judge and the Speaker of Parliament . In the seventeenth century the eminent philosopher John Locke ( 1632 – 1704 ) lived in Belluton ; his house is still known as John Locke 's cottage . In the eighteenth century the poet John Langhorne ( 1735 – 1779 ) became the curate at Blagdon around the time that Augustus Montague Toplady ( 1740 – 1778 ) was the priest . Geologist William Smith ( 1769 – 1839 ) moved to the valley in 1791 to make a valuation survey of the Sutton Court estate and later worked for the Somersetshire Coal Canal Company .
John Sanger , the circus proprietor , was born in Chew Magna in 1816 . William Rees @-@ Mogg , former editor of The Times , took the title Baron Rees @-@ Mogg of Hinton Blewett in 1988 . Jazz clarinettist Acker Bilk lived in Pensford . Dr Phil Hammond and wildlife television producer Richard Brock also live in the valley . Actress Maisie Williams is a native of Clutton .
In the past part of the population worked in coal mining , although there are no working mines in the area now . There is still a fairly large agricultural workforce and in light industry or service industries , although many people commute to surrounding cities for work . According to the 2011 Census the valley has a population of approximately 5 @,@ 000 , largely living in one of the dozen or so villages and in isolated farms and hamlets . The average age of the population is 42 years , with unemployment rates of 1 – 4 % of all economically active people aged 16 – 74 , however these figures are approximations because the ward areas covered and described in the census statistics do not relate exactly to the area of the valley . In the Indices of deprivation 2010 all of the areas within the valley were considered to be in the most affluent third in England .
= = Buildings and settlements = =
The villages tend to have been built at the points where it was possible to cross the rivers and streams . Chew Magna is the business centre with a range of shops , banks etc . Other villages have local shops , often combined with post offices . Most villages have pubs and village halls which provide the majority of the social activity .
The traditional building material is white Lias Limestone , sometimes incorporating red sandstone or conglomerate , with red clay tiled roofs . Buildings , particularly the churches , date back hundreds of years , for example those at Marksbury and Compton Martin , the latter incorporating a columbarium .
= = = Listed buildings = = =
There are hundreds of listed buildings in the valley . Listing refers to a building or other structure officially designated as being of special architectural , historical or cultural significance . The authority for listing is granted by the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 and is administered by English Heritage , an agency of the Department for Culture , Media & Sport . Grade I covers buildings of exceptional interest , Grade II * particularly important buildings of special interest and Grade II buildings of special interest . Listed buildings in the valley include five churches dating back to the fourteenth century or even earlier , with grade I status : Church of St Andrew , Chew Magna , Church of St Bartholomew , Ubley , Church of St James , Cameley , Church of St Margaret , Hinton Blewett and the Church of St Michael the Archangel , Compton Martin .
= = Railway Connections = =
Trains serve Keynsham railway station on the Great Western Main Line and Wessex Main Line with services provided by First Great Western and South West Trains .
Buses also connect with Bristol Temple Meads .
= = Transport = =
At the western end of the valley is the A38 and Bristol Airport , which means parts of the valley are on the flight path . The valley is also crossed by the A37 and they are joined by the A368 . Most of the roads in the valley are small single track lanes with little traffic although a bottleneck often occurs within Chew Magna . The " Chew Valley Explorer " bus route 672 / 674 provides access to the villages in the valley . Cyclists can gain access via part of the Padstow to Bristol West Country Way , National Cycle Network Route 3 .
The Monarch 's Way long distance footpath crosses the valley .
= = Schools = =
Chew Valley School is the main secondary school ( 11 – 18 years ) for the valley . It is situated between Chew Magna and Chew Stoke . The latest ( 2011 ) Ofsted Inspection Report describes this specialist Performing Arts College as a mixed comprehensive school with 1 @,@ 201 pupils on roll . The school is popular and oversubscribed with 226 students in the sixth form . The school has been successful in gaining a number of national and regional awards . There are state primary schools ( 4 – 11 years ) in most of the local villages .
= = Sport and leisure facilities = =
The local villages have football pitches and children 's play areas . Gymnasium facilities , squash courts , badminton etc . , and outdoor all @-@ weather pitches are available at the Chew Valley Leisure Centre between Chew Magna and Chew Stoke . There are a range of clubs and societies for young and old , including Scout groups , gardening society , and the Women 's institute . There are areas in the valley which the Countryside Agency has designated as access land : Burledge Hill ( south of Bishop Sutton ) ( grid reference ST589590 ) , Castle Earthworks ( between Stowey and Bishop Sutton ) ( grid reference ST597592 ) , Knowle Hill ( Newtown south of Chew Magna ) ( grid reference ST583613 ) , Round Hill ( Folly Farm ) ( grid reference ST605608 ) and Shortwood Common ( Litton ) ( grid reference ST595553 ) .
A Bowls club is in Chew Stoke , cricket pitches and teams in Chew Magna and Blagdon . There are football teams in the valley including Chew Valley Football Club and Bishop Sutton F.C .. The rugby club is based next to the leisure centre . The Bishop Sutton Tennis club is the largest in the valley , and there is also a tennis club at East Harptree . Both Chew Valley Lake and Blagdon Lake provide extensive fishing under permit from Bristol Water . The River Chew and most of its tributaries also have fishing but this is generally under licences to local angling clubs . Chew Valley Sailing Club is situated on Chew Valley Lake and provides dinghy sailing at all levels and hosts national and international competitions . Swimming is not allowed in the lakes and there are no swimming pools in the valley ; however these are available locally in Bristol , Bath , Cheddar and Midsomer Norton .
Each October the Chew Valley Arts trail takes place in venues around the valley during which over 50 local artists display their works in such media as painting , printmaking , sculpture , decorative glass , pottery , photography , jewellery and sugar craft . The valley and lakes have been an inspiration to artists and there is a small art gallery at Chew Valley Lake . Live music and comedy events take place in local pubs and village halls , with the village of Pensford holding a music festival every year .
= Sonderbehandlung =
Sonderbehandlung ( abbr . S.B. ) is a German noun meaning special treatment in English , also existing as a verb : sonderbehandeln ( to treat specially ) . While it can refer to any sort of preferential treatment , it is known primarily as a euphemism used by Nazi functionaries and the SS for mass murder . It first came to prominence during Action T4 , where SS doctors killed mentally ill and disabled patients between 1939 and 1941 , and was one of a number of nonspecific words the Nazis used to document mass murder and genocide . Another notable example was Sonderbehandlung 14f13 .
This term was also used to imprecisely refer to the equipment used to perpetrate their crimes , such as gas chambers and Zyklon B. The true meaning of Sonderbehandlung was widely known in the SS , and in April 1943 , Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler was so concerned about the security of it that he had it redacted in a secret report .
Berel Lang states that disguised language was used " ... not only in communications issued to the Jewish public when the intention of those issuing the communications was to deceive the Jews in order to minimize the likelihood of resistance , but also in addresses to the outside world and , perhaps more significantly , in internal communications as well , among officials who unquestionably knew ( who were themselves sometimes responsible for ) the linguistic substitutions stipulated by the language rules . "
= = Background = =
By the summer of 1941 , Action T4 became widespread public knowledge in Germany ( and also in neutral countries and to Germany 's enemies ) , and on August 24 , 1941 , Hitler ordered the joint chief of the operation Dr. Karl Brandt to halt it due to public protest ( however it still continued , not only out of the public eye but in greater intensity ) . Hitler did not want to run the risk of an order publicly embarrassing him again and , as a result , the explicit order to carry out the Holocaust was given by him orally . Even if there had been any written instances of this order , they would have almost certainly been destroyed by the Nazis when they realised their defeat was inevitable .
Where the Nazis had to document murder , Sonderbehandlung was one of a number of euphemisms used . The Action T4 doctors used " desinfiziert " ( decontaminated ) to document the gassing of mentally ill and handicapped individuals . The actual plan to exterminate the Jews of Europe was called " Die Endlösung der Judenfrage " ( Final Solution to the Jewish Question ) . Other words to describe extermination operations included :
" Evakuierung " ( evacuation )
" Aussiedlung " ( expulsion )
" Umsiedlung " ( resettlement )
" Auflockerung " ( thinning out – as in the removal of inhabitants from a ghetto )
" Befriedungsaktion " ( pacification )
" Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion " or " A.B. Aktion " ( special pacification )
" Abwanderung " ( having @-@ been @-@ migrated )
" Säuberung " ( cleansing )
" Sicherheitspolizeilich durchgearbeitet " ( directed or worked through in a manner in accordance with the Sicherheitsdienst )
The Posen speeches made by Heinrich Himmler in October 1943 are the first known documents in which a high @-@ ranking member of the Nazi government spoke explicitly about the perpetration of the Holocaust during the war . Himmler mentions the " Judenevakuierung " or " evacuation of the Jews " , which he uses synonymously with their extermination . At one point in the speech , Himmler says : " elimination of the Jews , extermination , we 're doing it " , briefly pausing in the middle of " elimination " ( Ausschaltung ) before going on to say " extermination " ( Ausrottung ) . His hesitation in the middle of saying " elimination " can be considered as a quick mental check to see whether or not it is acceptable to use such words in front of his given audience . The answer is yes : it is the seniority of the SS in private . This has been compared to another incident of self @-@ verification in the opposite way , where Josef Goebbels , in his Total War speech on February 18 , 1943 , begins to say " Ausrottung des Judentums " ( " extermination of Jewry " ) but switches to saying " Ausschaltung " , bearing in mind that he is speaking very publicly . His resulting phrasing is " Ausrott ... schaltung des Judentums " , which can be likened to " exterm ... elimination " in English .
= = Usage = =
The term first appeared on September 20 , 1939 in a decree by the Gestapo and Sicherheitsdienst chief SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich to all state police departments :
" To avoid any misunderstandings , please take note of the following : ... a distinction must be made between those who may be dealt with in the usual way and those who must be given special treatment . The latter case covers subjects who , due to their most objectionable nature , their dangerousness , or their ability to serve as tools of propaganda for the enemy , are suitable for elimination , without respect for persons , by merciless treatment ( namely , by execution ) .
However , the usage is directed against Germans rather than Jews ( it relates to " the principles of internal state security in the war " ) . Nevertheless , the law allowed for the killing of any person the regime wished . A memo dated six days later from a meeting at the SS @-@ Reichssicherheitshauptamt defines Sonderbehandlung with " execution " following it in brackets .
A report from the Eastern Front dated October 25 , 1941 , reads that " due to the grave danger of epidemic , the complete liquidation of Jews from the ghetto in Vitebsk was begun on October 8 , 1941 . The number of Jews to whom special treatment is to be applied is around 3 @,@ 000 . " An excerpt of a decree dated February 20 , 1942 , from the RSHA and written by Himmler regarding the treatment of " foreign civilian workers " advises that in particularly difficult cases , application should be made to the RSHA for special treatment , adding that " special treatment takes place by hanging . " In a letter to the RSHA , SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer Heinz Trühe requests additional gas vans for " ... a transport of Jews , which has to be treated in a special way ... " The gas vans were vehicles containing an airtight compartment in which the victims were locked and the exhaust gas was pumped into , killing the victims with the combined effects of carbon monoxide poisoning and suffocation .
= = Equipment = =
In German , " Sonder- " , meaning " special " , can be used to form compound nouns . As well as in reference to actions , the Nazis used euphemisms to refer to the actual equipment used to carry out killing . In his letter , Trühe refers to the vans as " S @-@ wagen " ( S @-@ vans ) ; " Sonderwagen " ( special vans ) in full . Other documented references include " Sonderfahrzeug " ( special vehicle ) , " Spezialwagen " ( special van ) , and " Hilfsmittel " ( auxiliary equipment ) .
Several instances of this unspecific language in reference to equipment can be found in documents concerning Auschwitz concentration camp . A letter dated August 21 , 1942 referred to Bunker 1 and Bunker 2 ( farmhouses west of Birkenau converted into gas chambers ) as " Badeanstalten für Sonderaktionen " ( bathing installations for special actions ) . In the letter , this is given in quotes , further suggesting the euphemistic nature of what is meant . On blueprints , the basement gas chambers of Crematoria II and III were simply marked as " Leichenkeller 1 " ( basement morgue 1 ) , and the basement undressing rooms were marked as " Leichenkeller 2 " . However , a letter dated November 27 , 1942 to chief Auschwitz architect SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Karl Bischoff referred to morgue 1 of Crematorium II as the " Sonderkeller " ( special cellar ) . A letter from SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Rudolf Jährling concerning Crematoria II and III to oven builders J.A. Topf and Sons dated March 6 , 1943 , refers to morgue 2 as an " Auskleideraum " ( undressing room ) . The units of prisoners forced to empty gas chambers and load bodies into ovens were known as the Sonderkommando ( special squads ) . A document dated August 26 , 1942 granted the camp authorities to send a truck " ... to Dessau to pick up material for special treatment ... " - Dessau was one of two places where Zyklon B was manufactured . Standard usage of the term for killing at Auschwitz applied . A letter dated October 13 , 1942 , signed by Bischoff , states that construction of new crematoria facilities " ... was necessary to start immediately in July 1942 because of the situation caused by the special actions . " On September 8 , 1943 , 5 @,@ 006 Jews were transferred from Theresienstadt to Auschwitz under the designation " SB six months . " Six months later on March 9 , 1944 , those still alive were gassed . In his diary , SS @-@ Obersturmführer and doctor Johann Kremer describes seeing a mass gassing for the first time :
September 2 , 1942 : For the first time , at 3 : 00 A.M. outside , attended a special action . Dante 's Inferno seems to me almost a comedy compared to this . They don 't call Auschwitz the camp of annihilation for nothing !
Three days later , Kremer described the mass gassing of emaciated prisoners , nicknamed Muslims :
September 5 , 1942 : In the morning attended a special action from the women 's concentration camp ( Muslims ) ; the most dreadful of horrors . Master @-@ Sergeant Thilo ( troop doctor ) was right when he said to me that this is the anus mundi . In the evening towards 8 : 00 attended another special action from Holland [ sic ] . Because of the special rations they get a fifth of a liter of schnapps , 5 cigarettes , 100 g salami and bread , the men all clamor to take part in such actions . Today and tomorrow ( Sunday ) work .
In a letter dated January 29 , 1943 by SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Bischoff to SS @-@ Oberführer Hans Kammler , Bischoff refers to basement morgue 1 of Crematorium II at Auschwitz as a " Vergasungskeller " , literally " gassing cellar " . In the letter , the word is underlined , and at the top of the document is written : " SS @-@ Untersturmführer Kirschnek ! " There was a very clear policy in the architecture office that words such as " gas chamber " should not be used ; Second Lieutenant Kirschnek should be informed of this slip . Citing this unique letter , Robert Jan van Pelt states that in using " special action " or " special treatment " in place of extermination and killing , the first Holocaust deniers were the Nazis themselves , in that they attempted to deny to themselves what they were doing .
= = Sensitivity = =
Heinrich Himmler became increasingly concerned about the security of documenting the destruction of the Jews . On April 9 , 1943 , he wrote a secret letter to Heydrich 's successor as chief of the Gestapo and SD , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Ernst Kaltenbrunner , concerning the Korherr Report . Himmler considered the report " well executed for purposes of camouflage and potentially useful for later times . " The next day , SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Rudolf Brandt passed a message to the author of the report , Richard Korherr , stating :
The Reichsführer @-@ SS has received your report on " The Final Solution of the European Jewish Question " . He wishes that " special treatment of the Jews " not be mentioned anywhere . On page 9 , it must be formulated as follows :
" They were guided :
through the camps in the General Government
through the camps in the Warthegau "
No other formulation is to be employed .
Himmler was so sure that almost everyone knew what " special treatment " meant , and ordered for it to be replaced with the even more vague " durchgeschleust " ( guided through ) , even though the document in question was top secret . The camps in question in the General Government were Treblinka , Sobibor and Belzec extermination camps , and Majdanek concentration camp . The only camp in the Warthegau was Chełmno extermination camp .
= = Nazi perspectives = =
In the course of investigations and criminal proceedings for Nazi war crimes , it was shown that among those involved , there was no doubt what was meant by this term . At his trial , SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann stated that " everybody knew " special treatment meant killing .
According to SS @-@ Gruppenführer and senior SS and Polizeiführer Emil Mazuw :
" During the war , the SS gave no meaning to Sonderbehandlung other than killing . I am certain that high @-@ ranking officers knew it . I don 't know whether the ordinary SS man did or not . According to the terminology used at the time , I understand ' special treatment ' to mean only killing and nothing else . "
= Valene Ewing =
Valene " Val " Ewing ( maiden name Clements , formerly Gibson , Waleska ) , portrayed by Joan Van Ark , is a fictional character in the CBS primetime soap opera Knots Landing , a spin @-@ off from the long @-@ running series Dallas , in which she also appeared . The character originated in 1978 on Dallas as the mother of Lucy Ewing and ex @-@ wife of Gary Ewing ( the second son of oil baron Jock and Miss Ellie Ewing ) . Van Ark made several guest appearances on Dallas before becoming one of the main stars of the spin @-@ off Knots Landing in December 1979 , though she continued to make small appearances in Dallas for the next couple of years . Van Ark played Valene in Knots Landing for thirteen of its fourteen seasons , which made her one of the show 's longest running stars . The character made her last television appearance in 1997 , when she appeared in the reunion miniseries Knots Landing : Back to the Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac . In 2013 , Van Ark reprised her character for the new , updated version of Dallas .
Valene 's storyline in her first two episodes on Dallas focuses on the rebuilding of her relationship with estranged ex @-@ husband Gary Ewing . When Valene arrives in Texas to find her daughter , Lucy Ewing , she is brought back into the drama of the Ewing family . Upon arrival , she is reunited with Gary with whom she slowly falls back in love . Once Dallas became a hit , series creator David Jacobs proceeded to launch a spin @-@ off series titled Knots Landing , which would feature Valene and Gary prominently . The actress had strong input on how they would create her character outline . She recalled , " I remember going to wardrobe and getting a peachy pink waitress uniform , and the shoes . And then I was trying to get that Texas sound , her all important accent . And so we created her layer by layer . "
Van Ark received positive reviews for her portrayal of Valene , and received two Soap Opera Digest award nominations in the category " Outstanding Actress in a Leading Role on a Prime Time Serial " . Greg Hernandez said , " Her character of Valene was a best @-@ selling author , but her personal life was always a mess . She had her husband , Gary , stolen by another woman , then got pregnant by him , her twin babies were kidnapped by a crooked doctor , she was given a drug overdose at gunpoint by her ex @-@ husband 's fiancee , and she racked up enough marriages to give Elizabeth Taylor a run for her money . But she and Gary Ewing ( Ted Shackelford ) made for one of television 's most beloved couples and the audience never stopped rooting for them to get back together . "
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
From the outset , Dallas was centered around the lives of the wealthy Ewing family who lived in Dallas , Texas . Once the show became a success after the initial run as a five @-@ episode miniseries , the producers decided to expand the roles of certain characters . They introduced the parents of Lucy Ewing ( Charlene Tilton ) , who had not been shown on @-@ screen until that point . Actress Joan Van Ark was contacted by series creator David Jacobs about joining the show . Her husband , John Marshall , convinced her to take the opportunity . In an interview for an episode of Celebrity Weddings , Van Ark said : " At the time Dallas came up , I was doing two different jobs . They offered me to join Dallas , which would be shot in Dallas , Texas at Southfork . I read the script and it was buzzed about already ... they were saying this was the hot new show . I said to myself , ' How can I be in Los Angeles doing this , down in Dallas , and then back in New York doing two days worth of Estée Lauder commercials ? ' He ( my husband ) read it and said , ' You 've got to . It 's a wonderful part . So , my husband talked me into a role that would become a fifteen @-@ year chapter in my life . "
When asked about the casting process , Van Ark explained : " It all happened so fast . They sent me a script for a [ Dallas ] two @-@ part guest shot , but I was supposed to be in New York recording commercials . My husband - much like Larry Hagman 's wife , Maj , talked him into playing J.R. - basically talked me into playing Val . " She later added , " I thought the script was wonderful , and [ Valene ] was a great character . But we created her within those two episodes . I remember going to wardrobe and getting a peachy pink waitress uniform , and the shoes . And then I was trying to get that Texas sound , her all important accent . And so we created her layer by layer . " During the second season of Dallas , David Jacobs decided to create a spin @-@ off for the quickly growing franchise . He wanted to create a television show based on " family issues and examining relationships at the middle class level " . The production company , CBS , turned down this idea , as they wanted something more " glitzy " to put on the air , with wealthier characters , which would become Dallas .
After the success of Dallas , Jacobs ' presented his initial idea again and created Knots Landing , with some alterations of his original script . In an interview , Jacobs explained : " Well , that 's pretty good , but you know @-@ and then he pulled out the pages that we 'd left for them a few years ago on Knots Landing , or a year before on Knots , and he said , ' Is there any way we can make this a spin @-@ off ? ' I just took one of the couples and made it , you know , Val and Gary who had already been created on the parent series and putting them into the mix , but when you have four couples and you change one , you sort of have to change the dynamic all the way around . However , once I wrote the script , remarkably little changed from the script and the pilot as you would see it . " Gary Ewing was originally played by actor David Ackroyd , but Ackroyd was unable to sign on for the spin @-@ off , and Ted Shackelford assumed the role . Initially , it was presumed that Charlene Tilton would be joining Knots Landing as Gary and Val 's daughter , but the network decided to keep her on Dallas in order to keep the two shows separate . She did , however , make a guest appearance in the first season .
Van Ark appeared in Knots Landing for thirteen seasons of its fourteen season run before she left to pursue other interests . According to co @-@ star Michele Lee , Van Ark was apparently offered a role on an NBC sitcom after she left the show . The actress reprised her role for the series finale of Knots Landing , where Val is revealed to have been alive the whole time . When asked about her departure in an interview with the Los Angeles Times , she said :
" I could stay forever on the show and be safe . But three years ago I did Night of the Iguana in Williamstown [ Massachusetts ] , and I had a quote from Tennessee Williams taped on my mirror , taken from an essay he 'd written on success . It said , and I 'm paraphrasing here : ' Security is in the shape of a kidney @-@ shaped pool in Los Angeles , where you sit waiting for your residual checks . ' I was in a comfortable spot on Knots , and an artist should not be comfortable . I 'd forgotten that there was a character I 'd loved for 13 years . She was the seed of the show . I am the sole person to spin off from Dallas ( because actor David Ackroyd originated the role of Gary on that show ) . Valene gave Knots a note of spirituality . There was a heart that was Valene . I hope they treat her with respect , that she is seen out with a resolution she deserves . "
= = = Characterization and relationships = = =
Throughout the course of the show , Val was often played up as the good girl character . When asked about whether Val was a weak character , Van Ark said : " God , no . No she wasn ’ t . For the very reason that she went through so much and landed on both feet . She was strong in a realistic kind of way . I do remember that TV Guide did a quote that the three of us can be compared to Earth , Wind and Fire . Michele was the Earth , I was the Wind and Donna was the Fire . I think that really captured it . " Van Ark was later asked about who she saw Val as today . She said , " Of course the dysfunctional elements would come out . Why even bother otherwise ? But of course they would persevere and still be together after all . I think Valene was headed to , and my sister ’ s like this , after years of doing everything for her husband and her children , Valene was going to further her achievements in the professional world . I think if you saw Valene today she ’ d be much more accomplished as a writer and would be very successful overall . " The actress also said :
Since Valene , I ’ ve tried to do anything and everything but play a goody @-@ two @-@ shoes . I love Val , I adore her . But I spent a total of 15 years — if you count the first year I played her on Dallas . That was quite an investment for me as an actress . If you were playing a goody @-@ two @-@ shoes today , the tabloid media would be dying to catch you on a bad day . Look at what they ’ ve done to Tiger Woods . Look at what they ’ ve done to that man . My feeling is his father — or the absence of his father in his life — is ( the root of ) what ’ s going on with Tiger and that marriage . But the media won ’ t leave him alone . No matter who you are , ( the celebrity coverage ) is obsessive and constant . It ’ s hurtful . For me , if they show my face in a bad photo , they latch into me hook , line and sinker . Even Entertainment Tonight now has blood on their hands . It 's brutal . I wonder what they ’ ll do with Alec Baldwin now . He was my brother on Knots . They really threw him under a bus ( when endlessly publicizing his infamous voice @-@ mail rant against daughter Ireland , then 11 , in 2007 ) . He loves that child so much . "
Valene 's relationship with Gary is important to the understanding of her overall character . The Gary / Abby / Valene love triangle , which involved Gary cheating on Valene with Abby Cunningham – the show 's main villain – was a monumental storyline for all three characters . Van Ark described the storyline :
" There wasn ’ t really anything I could think of , but I will mention that Ted and I went in way early , whenever Donna Mills came on the show , and told David Jacobs that it made total sense that Gary would fall for Abby . I can ’ t believe I did that but it really provided me with some great stories . Because they were celebrating Donna Mills and she became the center but Gary and Val were supposed to be this enduring couple . Ted and I were saying Gary and Val should break up and Gary should go with Abby . It was a pretty big deal to break up the couple that the show began with . So ( the producers ) were going toward this , then they pulled away but eventually returned to it . David Jacobs was against it but we convinced him . And it was the longest running story on the show . It took a long time for them to get back together . Eight years . "
Ted Shackelford , who plays Gary , described the love story , " I can 't complain . I mean , Gary spent six or seven years being led down the primrose path by one stupid broad after another . So with Val ... You 'd think after 13 years , at the age they are [ Val is 44 , Gary is 46 ] and the amount of bullshit they 've been through , they would have learned something ! They 'd probably have a very comfortable life by now . But it makes for a dead story line . " When asked about working with Van Ark , he said : " I don 't know how it could get any better . She 's remarkable , and I 'm not blowing smoke up your ass . I 'd tell you if I thought she was a pain in the ass , although sometimes she is a pain in the ass . But my best work is done with Joan . " Van Ark also discussed Valene 's relationship with her daughter , Lucy Ewing . She said , " The spine or the beginning of the series was Gary and Val , coming over from Dallas , so maybe there should have been more Lucy . I do know that CBS and the producers of both shows wanted to keep the two shows separate but in the beginning you had Larry Hagman and others going over to Knots . "
= = Return = =
With the 2012 continuation of Dallas , there was talk of some Knots Landing characters returning to air . Rumors began surfacing that both Van Ark and Shackelford would reprise their roles as Valene and Gary . Ted Shackelford passed on the small role the producers offered him to reprise his role as Gary Ewing on the new series . Van Ark refuted the claims , saying : " Well , rumor has it … I ’ m having lunch with Ted tomorrow . They asked him to come down and be part of it . It was several months ago , and he ’ s deeply into filming The Young and the Restless , the daytime soap for CBS . But if they asked Gary , maybe they ’ ll ask [ for Val ] . " She would , however , love to be involved if the producers asked her , especially to torment fellow cast @-@ member Larry Hagman . " There is no doubt about it . This man I loved so much , Larry Hagman … I was just at his birthday party several months ago … I would kill , that if Val came back , if it was trouble for J.R .. Because they were always at odds . " However , Gary and Valene 's daughter , Lucy Ewing , along with Ray Krebbs have made appearances in the new series . Although both Shackleford and Van Ark appeared in the 1991 series finale of Dallas playing " alternative " versions of Gary and Valene ( the episode depicted a fantasy world in which J.R. had never been born ) , there have been no real crossovers of story or characters from Knots Landing to Dallas or vice versa since the 1985 @-@ 86 season of each show ( which , on Dallas , turned out to be a dream had by Pamela Ewing ) .
On October 17 , 2012 , TV Guide reported that Joan Van Ark and Ted Shackelford are set to return to Dallas , reprising their characters Valene and Gary Ewing for three episodes in the show 's second season , which is set to air in 2013 . According to Joan Van Ark , she will appear as Valene in one episode only .
= = Character Arc = =
= = = Dallas = = =
Valene Ewing first appears in Dallas in 1978 , as the mother of Lucy Ewing ( Charlene Tilton ) and the ex @-@ wife of Gary Ewing ( David Ackroyd , later played by Ted Shackelford ) , the middle son and the black sheep of the Ewing family . Valene and Gary Ewing were first married in their adolescence in 1961 , when Gary was 17 years old and Valene was 15 . When a pregnant Valene persuades Gary to take her to the Southfork Ranch in order to introduce her to his family , they settle down at Southfork , and Miss Ellie gave Gary a job as ranch foreman . However , Gary and Valene were soon pressured and manipulated by Gary 's older brother , J.R. Ewing ( Larry Hagman ) , who constantly tried to undermine and destroy their marriage . Meanwhile , Gary 's father , Jock Ewing , put pressure on Gary to stand up and face his responsibilities for becoming a teenage husband and father @-@ to @-@ be . When Valene gives birth to their daughter Lucy , J.R. makes it clear that the child is a Ewing and will be raised by the Ewings themselves . J.R. ' s constant interference causes Gary and Val 's marriage to collapse . Under the pressure , Gary fell victim to alcoholism , became violent in the process and walked out on Val and Lucy . With Gary gone , Valene is then driven off Southfork by J.R. , but she soon returns to get baby Lucy and flees to Virginia , and later to Tennessee , where she tries to get help from her mother , Lilimae Clements ( Julie Harris ) , to take them in , but they are turned away . At this point , Valene and Lucy had already been tracked down by heavies that were hired by J.R. and the heavies rip Lucy right out of Valene 's arms , and take Lucy back to Southfork to be raised by her paternal grandparents . When Valene later tried to take legal action to get Lucy back , J.R. warned Valene that he 'd kill her if she came back to the state of Texas . Valene is prevented from seeing her daughter again for many years as a result of this .
Valene 's bitterness over her mother 's indifference , and the subsequent loss of Lucy , is not resolved until 1979 when she and Gary move to Knots Landing . Much of this early backstory is told through flashbacks in episodes of Knots Landing , and is only briefly referenced in Dallas . While working in a diner in 1978 , Valene decided to wait for Lucy outside her school and they got to know each other . They stayed in contact with each other in secret for several months afterwards . In the fall of 1978 , Lucy arranges a reunion for her parents . Gary and Valene move back to Southfork for a short time , but their reunion is again undermined by J.R. , who arranged for Gary to take charge of a failing company , hoping that the pressure would drive Gary away . Gary realised that he would fall off the wagon unless he left Southfork , so he departed . J.R. then turned on Valene , trying to bribe her , before ordering her to leave . In December 1979 , Valene and Gary are reunited once more in Dallas , and get married for the second time . Gary 's parents , Jock Ewing ( Jim Davis ) and Miss Ellie Ewing ( Barbara Bel Geddes ) , as well as Gary 's brother , Bobby ( Patrick Duffy ) , and sister @-@ in @-@ law Pamela Barnes Ewing ( Victoria Principal ) , attend the wedding . Shortly afterwards , they move to California to live in a home that Miss Ellie had bought for them as a wedding gift . Valene also appears in the final episode of Dallas during J.R. ' s dream in which she meets Gary for the first time , highlighting the idea that they were destined to meet one way or another .
= = = Knots Landing = = =
After their remarriage , Valene and Gary Ewing move to Knots Landing , a coastal suburb of Los Angeles , California . Valene is initially skeptical of the move , and describes Knots Landing as " no place to start over " . She is struck by her neighbors , the Fairgates , and particularly by Sid 's daughter , Annie , from Sid 's first marriage , who reminds Val of her own daughter , Lucy . Gary is determined to stay , and convinces Val to give Knots Landing a chance . Val becomes involved in Jimmy Carter 's 1980 re @-@ election effort , joining the local chapter of the Carter @-@ Mondale ' 80 campaign . She also signs up neighbor Karen Fairgate ( Michele Lee ) and the pair eventually become best friends , a relationship struck when Annie , on the run , turns to Val for help , and Val convinces her to return to her father and stepmother . Val remained a central character on the show from 1979 to 1992 . Gary and Val 's daughter , Lucy , visits her parents in Knots Landing , and appears in one episode in the show 's first season . Though largely uneducated , Valene discovers she has a talent for writing and writes a thinly @-@ veiled expose of the Ewings of Dallas called " Capricorn Crude " . Gary is extremely critical of the book , which affects their marriage . However , the book is published and Val becomes a best @-@ selling novelist and financially independent . Val leaves Gary after Gary 's affair with his neighbor and business partner , Abby Cunningham ( Donna Mills ) ; and Val keeps the house in Seaview Circle . Gary and Val 's second marriage ended in divorce nearly a year later . Val is subsequently married to Ben Gibson ( Doug Sheehan ) ( 1985 @-@ 1987 ) , and later briefly to Danny Waleska ( Sam Behrens ) ( 1990 ) .
One of Val 's most memorable storylines occurs during the 1984 @-@ 85 season when she is told that her infant twins are stillborn . Val senses that this could not be true as she clearly remembers hearing the babies cry . She suffers a nervous breakdown and disappears from Knots Landing for several months , and is later reunited with her babies , thanks largely to the investigations secretly undertaken by her neighbors Mack and Karen MacKenzie . In 1991 , over 8 years after their second divorce , Gary and Val got married for the third time ( Valene 's fifth marriage , and Gary 's fourth ) . While working on an assignment to write a biography about Greg Sumner ( William Devane ) in 1992 , Valene crosses paths with some mafioso type characters who are targeting Sumner . Fearing that she could expose them , they kidnap Val and she is later believed to have died in a car accident . Joan Van Ark had decided to leave the series in 1992 , at the end of Season 13 , which turned out to be the show 's penultimate season . However , Van Ark came back in the 2 @-@ part finale to the show 's final season in 1993 , when it was discovered that Val was never in the car . Having escaped her kidnappers , she later returns to the cul @-@ de @-@ sac . Valene is seen once again in the 1997 reunion mini @-@ series Knots Landing : Back to the Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac where she begins a new career as a screenwriter , and adapts her best @-@ selling novel " Hostage " , which tells the story of her kidnapping five years earlier , into a film .
= = = Dallas ( 2012 TV series ) = = =
In 2013 , It transpires Gary and Valene have separated again due to Gary falling off the wagon . Sue Ellen Ewing calls Val on behalf of Gary , to tell her that Gary misses her . Val shows up at Southfork with her daughter Lucy , where Gary coldly refuses to return home with her . Val realizes she has returned to Dallas under false pretenses and confronts Sue Ellen , who tells her to resume her relationship with Gary while she still has the chance .
= = Reception = =
For her portrayal of Valene , Van Ark received two Soap Opera Digest awards in the category " Outstanding Actress in a Leading Role on a Prime Time Serial " . Greg Hernandez said , " Before I go on , I have to confess that I was a die @-@ hard fan of Knots Landing , the series on which Joan played sweet Valene Ewing for 14 years . Her character of Valene was a best @-@ selling author but her personal life was always a mess . She had her husband , Gary , stolen by another woman then got pregnant by him , her twin babies were kidnapped by a crooked doctor , she was given a drug overdose at gunpoint by her ex @-@ husband 's fiancee , and she racked up enough marriages to give Elizabeth Taylor a run for her money . But she and Gary Ewing ( Ted Shackleford ) made for one of television 's most beloved couples and the audience never stopped rooting for them to get back together . Joan keeps in touch with Ted ( pictured with Joan , above at a " Knots " reunion a few years back ) , Michelle Lee - who played her best friend Karen - and the great stage star Julie Harris who played her mother . " Knots Landing itself has experienced a tremendous fan following and dedication . Van Ark said of this , " It ’ s amazing . It ’ s like having friends everywhere in the United States . I heard that a group a fans from London were coming in just to see us at this ( autograph convention ) . We get a lot of fan mail from Europe – France , Germany , Russia . Knots has a huge following , and I think fans of the show are loving and loyal . Not many shows last 14 years on prime @-@ time . That ’ s a milestone , and I ’ m very proud of it . "
The Chicago Sun @-@ Times said , " Valene Ewing Gibson would be the first to admit that the past seven years have been no day at the beach . She lost her first husband to a sultry siren who applies eyeliner with a trowel . She opened her heart and her home to a nagging mother who could drive Mother Teresa to slit her wrists . She discovered a long @-@ lost brother who just happened to be a psychotic TV evangelist . She even had a nervous breakdown that left her convinced her name was Verna , and was an ' I do ' away from tying the knot with a scheming sleazeball who was well aware of her family ties to the Ewings of Dallas even if she had forgotten . "
= Gateway Protection Programme =
The Gateway Protection Programme is a scheme operated by the British government in partnership with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) and co @-@ funded by the European Union ( EU ) , offering a legal route for a quota of UNHCR @-@ identified refugees to be resettled in the United Kingdom . Following a proposal by the British Home Secretary , David Blunkett , in October 2001 , the legal basis was established by the Nationality , Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 and the programme itself launched in March 2004 . Since its inception , the programme has enjoyed broad support from the UK 's main political parties .
The Gateway Protection Programme initially had a quota of 500 refugees per year , which was later increased to 750 , but the actual number of refugees resettled in most years has been fewer than the quota permitted . Liberian , Congolese , Sudanese , Burmese , Ethiopian , Mauritanian , Iraqi , Bhutanese , Eritrean , Palestinian , Sierra Leonean and Somali refugees have been resettled under the programme . Refugees have been resettled to a number of locations in England and Scotland . Of the 18 local authorities participating as resettlement locations by 2012 , eight are in the North West region of England and three in Yorkshire and Humberside . Evaluations of the programme have praised it as having a positive impact on the reception of refugees by local communities , but have also noted the difficulties these refugees have faced in securing employment .
= = Programme details = =
The programme is the UK 's " quota refugee " resettlement scheme . Refugees designated as particularly vulnerable by the UNHCR are assessed by the Home Office for eligibility under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees . If they meet the eligibility criteria they are then brought to the UK and granted indefinite leave to remain . The International Organization for Migration ( IOM ) helps facilitate pre @-@ departure medical screening , counselling , dossier preparation , transport and immediate arrival assistance . Once in the UK , refugees are entered into a 12 @-@ month support programme intended to aid their integration . The programme has involved local authorities and NGOs including the British Red Cross , the International Rescue Committee , Migrant Helpline , Refugee Action , the Refugee Arrivals Project , the Refugee Council , Scottish Refugee Council and Refugee Support . These organisations formed the Resettlement Inter @-@ Agency Partnership at the planning stage of the programme , in order to pool their resources and form a partnership for the delivery of services to the resettled refugees .
The programme is distinct from and in addition to ordinary provisions for claiming asylum in the United Kingdom . Since 2008 , it has been co @-@ funded by the European Union , first through the European Refugee Fund and then through its successor , the Asylum , Migration and Integration Fund ( AMIF ) . Over the period 2009 – 14 , the Home Office provided £ 29 @.@ 97 million in funding and the EU £ 18 @.@ 67 million . Anna Musgrave of the Refugee Council argues that the programme " is rarely talked about and the Home Office , in the main , stay fairly quiet about it . "
= = History = =
The Gateway Protection Programme is not the first British refugee resettlement programme . Other , informal resettlement programmes include the Mandate Refugee Scheme , and the UK has also participated in the Ten or More Plan . The former is for so @-@ called " mandate " refugees who have been granted refugee status by UNHCR in third countries . To qualify for the scheme , refugees must have close ties to the UK and it must also be demonstrated that the UK is the most appropriate country for their resettlement . The Ten or More Plan , established by UNHCR in 1973 and administered in the UK by the British Red Cross , is for refugees requiring medical attention not available in their current location . During the 1990s , 2 @,@ 620 refugees were settled in the UK through these two programmes . In 2003 , the UK 's Ten or More Plan had a resettlement goal of 10 people and the Mandate Refugee Scheme 300 . Refugees have also been resettled through specific programmes following emergencies . For example , 42 @,@ 000 Ugandan Asians expelled from Uganda during 1972 – 74 , 22 @,@ 500 Vietnamese during 1979 – 92 , over 2 @,@ 500 Bosnians in the 1990s , and over 4 @,@ 000 Kosovars in 1999 .
A new resettlement programme was proposed by the British Home Secretary , David Blunkett in October 2001 , having been hinted at by the previous Home Secretary , Jack Straw , in a speech to the European Conference on Asylum in Lisbon in June 2000 . The legal basis for the programme 's funding was established by Section 59 of the Nationality , Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 . This act was passed by the House of Commons by 362 votes to 74 in June 2002 and by the House of Lords – at the ninth attempt , following concern about the introduction of measures allowing for the detention of asylum seekers in rural areas ) – in November 2002 .
The Gateway Protection Programme was subsequently established in March 2004 , with the first refugees arriving in the UK on 19 March . Initially , the programme quota was set at 500 per year . The British government has faced criticism from academics and practitioners over the small number of refugees it has resettled in comparison with other developed states . For example , in 2001 the countries with the largest quota schemes were the United States ( 80 @,@ 000 refugees ) , Canada ( 11 @,@ 000 ) and Australia ( 10 @,@ 000 ) . Initially , David Blunkett had intended to raise the quota to 1 @,@ 000 in the second year of the programme 's operation , but local councils ' reluctance to participate in the scheme meant that it was slow to take off . It has been argued that their reluctance showed that hostile attitudes towards asylum seekers had carried over to affect the most genuinely needy refugees . The quota remained at 500 per year until the 2008 / 09 financial year , when it was increased to 750 refugees per year . The number of refugees resettled under the scheme is small in comparison to the number of asylum seekers offered protection in the UK . For example , in 2013 , 17 @,@ 647 initial decisions on asylum claims were made by the Home Office , of which 5 @,@ 734 ( 32 @.@ 5 per cent ) determined the applicant to be a refugee and granted them asylum , 53 ( 0 @.@ 3 per cent ) granted humanitarian protection and 540 ( 3 @.@ 1 per cent ) granted discretionary leave . 11 @,@ 105 applications ( 62 @.@ 9 per cent ) were refused . Worldwide , there were 51 @.@ 2 million forcibly displaced people at the end of 2013 , 16 @.@ 7 million of whom were refugees .
The programme has been supported by the main British political parties at the national level since its inception , and there has also been support from councillors from each of the main parties at the local authority level . On the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the scheme in 2014 , refugee groups and others praised it as a successful programme and called for it to be expanded , particularly in light of the Syrian refugee crisis . In early 2014 , Amnesty International and the Refugee Council campaigned for the government to offer resettlement or humanitarian protection to Syrian refugees above and beyond the Gateway quota of 750 per year , " to ensure that resettlement opportunities continue to be available to refugees from the rest of the world " . The anniversary of the programme was also the occasion of further criticism of the 750 quota , with some commentators arguing that this is mean @-@ spirited and continues to compare unfavourably with the refugee resettlement programmes of states including the United States , Canada and Australia . Others , such as academic Jonathan Darling , have been more skeptical about expanding the scheme , for fear that any such move will be accompanied by greater restrictions on the ability of people to claim asylum in the UK . He argues that " we must be critical of any attempts to expand such a quota @-@ based scheme at the expense of a more progressive asylum system " . Furthermore , he argues that the " hospitality " of the scheme is highly conditional and can be viewed as a form of " compassionate repression " , with the UNHCR , the Home Office and local authorities all involved in " sorting , decision , and consideration over which individuals are the ' exceptional cases ' " , to the exclusion of others .
In September 2015 , in the context of the European migrant crisis , Labour Party leadership candidate Yvette Cooper called for an increase in the number of refugees resettled in the UK to 10 @,@ 000 . The prime minister , David Cameron , subsequently announced that the UK would resettle 20 @,@ 000 refugees from camps in countries bordering Syria over the period to 2020 under the Vulnerable Persons Relocation Scheme , which was established in early 2014 and is distinct from , but modelled on , the Gateway Protection Programme .
= = Refugees resettled = =
The number of refugees resettled under the programme has been below the quota in every year except for 2009 , 2012 and 2013 . Refugees resettled have included Liberians from Guinea and Sierra Leone , Congolese ( DRC ) from Uganda and Zambia , Sudanese from Uganda , Burmese ( including Karen , Mon , Pa 'O and Rohingya people ) from Thailand , Ethiopians from Kenya , and Mauritanians from Senegal . Provision was made for 1 @,@ 000 Iraqi refugees to be resettled in the UK between 1 April 2008 and the end of March 2010 . In 2008 , 236 Iraqis were resettled and as of 18 May , a further 212 had been resettled in 2009 . However , in May 2009 the programme was shut down for those Iraqis resettling due to having worked in support of British occupying forces and therefore at risk for reprisals . This decision was criticised as premature and " mean @-@ spirited " by some members of Parliament . Nonetheless , other Iraqis continue to be resettled under the Gateway Protection Programme and between 2004 and 2014 , a total of 1 @,@ 344 Iraqis were resettled as part of the programme . Other nationalities of refugees resettled under the scheme include Bhutanese , Eritreans , Palestinians , Sierra Leoneans and Somalis .
= = Resettlement locations = =
In March 2009 , out of the 434 local authorities in the UK , 15 were participating in the programme . By 2012 , a total of 18 local authorities had participated . In a review of the scheme , academics Duncan Sim and Kait Laughlin note that " it is clear that , as with asylum seekers dispersed by the UK Borders Agency under Home Office dispersal policy , most refugees have been resettled away from London and south east England , a policy which may lead to separation of extended families " . Of the 18 local authorities , eight are in North West England and three in Yorkshire and Humberside .
The first refugees resettled under the programme were housed in Sheffield , which was the first city to join the scheme and which had branded itself the UK 's first ' City of Sanctuary ' . Others have been housed in cities and towns including Bradford , Brighton and Hove , Bromley , Colchester , Hull , Middlesbrough , Motherwell , Norwich , and the Manchester area including Bolton , Bury , Oldham , Rochdale , Salford , Stockport and Tameside . Sheffield , Bolton and Hull have received the largest numbers , accounting for just under half of all refugees resettled under the programme between 2004 and 2012 . The large proportion of refugees who have been resettled in North West England has been attributed partly to strong leadership on migration issues in Greater Manchester .
In 2007 , North Lanarkshire Council won the " Creating Integrated Communities " category in the UK Housing Awards for its involvement in the Gateway Protection Programme . Research with Congolese refugees settled with North Lanarkshire Council in Motherwell has found that the majority want to stay in the town and that they view it positively both as a location in its own right , and in comparison with other resettlement locations .
In April 2007 , Bolton Museum held an exhibition of photos of Sudanese refugees resettled in the town under the programme . A film , titled Moving to Mars was made about two ethnic Karen families resettled from Burma to Sheffield under the Gateway Protection Programme . The film opened the Sheffield International Documentary Festival in November 2009 and was aired on the television channel More4 on 2 February 2010 . One ethnic Karen refugee resettled with his family in Sheffield in 2006 , Kler Heh , signed a professional contract to play football for Sheffield United F.C. in March 2015 .
On 17 July 2009 , three Congolese men resettled in Norwich under the programme were killed in a car crash on the A1 road . The Home Office released a promotional video in October 2009 that highlighted the success of the programme in resettling the first 15 Congolese families in Norwich in 2006 . In 2011 , the Home Office stopped using Norwich as a resettlement location in favour of locations in Yorkshire and Lancashire , reportedly to the disappointment of the local council .
= = Evaluations = =
Resettlement has been presented as a means of the UK fulfilling its obligations towards displaced people in the context of hostile public attitudes towards asylum seekers . Research has shown that members of the British public are generally well disposed to providing protection to genuine refugees , but are sceptical about the validity of asylum seekers ' claims . A report published in 2005 states that " some participating agencies have been reluctant to pursue a proactive media strategy due to local political considerations and issues relating to the dispersal of asylum seekers " . However , in February 2006 , the Parliamentary Under @-@ Secretary of State for the Home Department Andy Burnham , when asked about how the programme fitted in with community cohesion strategies , stated in the House of Commons that :
" The early evidence from areas in which authorities have participated in the programme shows that it has been successful in challenging some of the attacks on the notion of political asylum that we have heard in recent years . In Bolton and Sheffield in particular , the towns have rallied around the individuals who have come to them . The programme has been a positive experience for the receiving community and , of course , for the vulnerable individuals who have benefited from the protection that those towns have offered " .
A report into the experience of refugees resettled in Brighton and Hove under the scheme between October 2006 and October 2007 was published by the Sussex Centre for Migration Research at the University of Sussex in December 2007 . The report found that the refugees had struggled to gain employment and English language skills . Another evaluation report undertaken for the Home Office and published in 2011 also found that only small numbers of resettled refugees were in paid employment , noting that many were still more concerned about meeting their basic needs .
In February 2009 , the Home Office published a report evaluating the effectiveness of the Gateway Protection Programme . The research it was based upon focused on refugees ' integration into British society in the 18 months following their resettlement . The research found that refugees showed signs of integration , including the formation of social bonds through community groups and places of worship . The report noted that low employment rates and slow progress with acquiring English language skills were particular concerns . Younger refugees and children had made the most progress . No specific language lessons are provided under the Gateway Protection Programme . Instead , Gateway refugees who require help with their English language skills are provided with access to mainstream English for Speakers of Other Languages ( ESOL ) courses , which are run by a range of state , voluntary and community @-@ based organisations . However , the International Catholic Migration Commission ( ICMC ) Europe reports that in Sheffield , it can be difficult for resettled refugees to gain access to ESOL classes because demand has generally exceeded supply – a situation also noted by an evaluation of the scheme 's operation in Motherwell undertaken in 2013 . The Motherwell evaluation found that most of the male refugees were in employment , but that many of them were not in jobs that allowed them to use their skills . The majority of women were not in work , reflecting a lack of job opportunities but also a lack of childcare provision .
A number of programme evaluations have found that many resettled refugees have been the victims of verbal or physical attacks in the UK . The Home Office 's 2009 evaluation notes that between one @-@ quarter and half of each of four groups of Liberian and Congolese refugees resettled under the programme had suffered verbal or physical harassment . An evaluation undertaken by academics at Sheffield Hallam University for the Home Office in 2011 found that one @-@ fifth of the refugees surveyed for the evaluation ( who had been in the UK for a year ) had been the victims of verbal or physical attacks in their first six months in the UK , and just over a fifth had been attacked in the second six months of their resettlement . Many of the victims of this abuse had not reported it to the authorities , and the authors of the evaluation suggest that this is a reason why there was a gap between the perceptions of refugee and service providers , who generally suggested that community relations were good . Verbal and physical attacks against refugees were also noted in the 2013 Motherwell evaluation .
= Third Anglo @-@ Maratha War =
The Third Anglo @-@ Maratha War ( 1817 – 1818 ) was the final and decisive conflict between the British East India Company ( EIC ) and the Maratha Empire in India . The war left the Company in control of most of India . It began with an invasion of the Maratha territory by British East India Company troops , the largest such British controlled force massed in India . The troops were led by the Governor General Hastings ( no relation to Warren Hastings , the first Governor @-@ General of Bengal ) supported by a force under General Thomas Hislop . Operations began against the Pindaris , a band of Muslims and Marathas from central India .
Peshwa Baji Rao II 's forces , supported by those of Mudhoji II Bhonsle of Nagpur and Malharrao Holkar III of Indore , rose against the EIC . Pressure and diplomacy convinced the fourth major Maratha leader , Daulatrao Shinde of Gwalior , to remain neutral even though he lost control of Rajasthan .
British victories were swift , resulting in the breakup of the Maratha Empire and the loss of Maratha independence . The Peshwa was defeated in the battles of Khadki and Koregaon . Several minor battles were fought by the Peshwa 's forces to prevent his capture .
The Peshwa was eventually captured and placed on a small estate at Bithur , near Kanpur . Most of his territory was annexed and became part of the Bombay Presidency . The Maharaja of Satara was restored as the ruler of his territory as a princely state . In 1848 this territory was also annexed by the Bombay Presidency under the doctrine of lapse policy of Lord Dalhousie . Bhonsle was defeated in the battle of Sitabuldi and Holkar in the battle of Mahidpur . The northern portion of Bhonsle 's dominions in and around Nagpur , together with the Peshwa 's territories in Bundelkhand , were annexed by British India as the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories . The defeat of the Bhonsle and Holkar also resulted in the acquisition of the Maratha kingdoms of Nagpur and Indore by the British . Along with Gwalior from Shinde and Jhansi from the Peshwa , all of these territories became princely states acknowledging British control . The British proficiency in Indian war @-@ making was demonstrated through their rapid victories in Khadki , Sitabuldi , Mahidpur , Koregaon , and Satara .
= = The Marathas and the British = =
The Maratha Empire was founded in 1645 by Shivaji of the Bhosle dynasty . Common elements among the citizens of Shivaji 's Maratha Empire were the Marathi language , the Hindu religion , a strong sense of belonging , and a national feeling . Shivaji led resistance efforts to free the Hindus from the Muslim Sultanate of Bijapur and once again established rule of the native Indian Hindus . This kingdom was known as the Hindavi Swarajya ( " Hindu self @-@ rule " ) in the Marathi language . Shivaji 's capital was located at Raigad . Shivaji successfully defended his kingdom from attacks by the Mughal Empire and his Maratha Empire went on to defeat and overtake it as the premier power in India . A key component of the Maratha administration was the council of eight ministers , called the Ashta Pradhan ( council of eight ) . The senior @-@ most member of the Ashta Pradhan was called the Peshwa or the Mukhya Pradhan ( prime minister ) . The Peshwa was the right @-@ hand man of Shivaji .
Shivaji and most of the Maratha warriors belonged to the Maratha caste of the four @-@ tier Hindu caste system , whereas all of the Peshwas belonged to the Brahmin caste . After Shivaji 's death , the Peshwas gradually became the effective rulers of the state .
= = = Growing British power = = =
While the Marathas were fighting the Mughals in the early 18th century , the British held small trading posts in Bombay , Madras and Calcutta . The British fortified the naval base of Bombay after they saw the Marathas defeat the Portuguese at neighbouring Vasai in May 1739 . In an effort to keep the Marathas out of Bombay , the British sent envoys to negotiate a treaty . The envoys were successful , and a treaty was signed on 12 July 1739 that gave the British East India Company rights to free trade in Maratha territory . In the south , the Nizam of Hyderabad had enlisted the support of the French for his war against the Marathas . In reaction to this , the Peshwa requested support from the British , but was refused . Unable to see the rising power of the British , the Peshwa set a precedent by seeking their help to solve internal Maratha conflicts . Despite the lack of support , the Marathas managed to defeat the Nizam over a period of five years .
During the period 1750 – 1761 , British defeated the French East India company in India , and by 1793 they were firmly established in Bengal in the east and Madras in the south . They were unable to expand to the west as the Marathas were dominant there , but they entered Surat on the west coast via the sea .
The Marathas marched beyond the Indus as their empire grew . The responsibility for managing the sprawling Maratha empire in the north was entrusted to two Maratha leaders , Shinde and Holkar , as the Peshwa was busy in the south . The two leaders did not act in concert , and their polices were influenced by personal interests and financial demands . They alienated other Hindu rulers such as the Rajputs , the Jats , and the Rohillas , and they failed to diplomatically win over other Muslim leaders . A large blow to the Marathas came in their defeat on 14 January 1761 at Panipat against the Afghan Ahmad Shah Abdali . An entire generation of Maratha leaders lay dead on the battlefield as a result of that conflict . Between 1761 and 1773 , the Marathas regained the lost ground in the north .
= = = Anglo @-@ Maratha relations = = =
The Maratha gains in the north were undone because of the contradictory policies of Holkar and Shinde and the internal disputes in the family of the Peshwa , which culminated in the murder of Narayanrao Peshwa in 1773 . Due to this , the Marathas virtually disappeared from north India . Raghunathrao was ousted from the seat of Peshwa due to continuing internal Maratha rivalries . He sought help from the British , and they signed the Treaty of Surat with him in March 1775 . This treaty gave him military assistance in exchange for control of Salsette Island and Bassein Fort .
The treaty set off discussions amongst the British in India as well as in Europe because of the serious implications of a confrontation with the powerful Marathas . Another cause for concern was that the Bombay Council had exceeded its constitutional authority by signing such a treaty . The treaty was the cause of the start of the First Anglo @-@ Maratha War . This war was virtually a stalemate , with no side being able to defeat the other . The war concluded with the treaty of Salabai in May 1782 , mediated by Mahadji Shinde . The foresight of Warren Hastings was the main reason for the success of the British in the war . He had destroyed the anti @-@ British coalition and created a division between the Shinde , the Bhonsle , and the Peshwa .
The Marathas were still in a very strong position when the new Governor General of British controlled territories Cornwallis arrived in India in 1786 . After the treaty of Salabai , the British followed a policy of coexistence in the north . The British and the Marathas enjoyed more than two decades of peace , thanks to the diplomacy of Nana Phadnavis , the Brahmin minister in the court of the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao . The situation changed soon after Nana 's death in 1800 . The power struggle between Holkar and Shinde caused Holkar to attack the Peshwa in Pune in 1801 , since the Peshwa sided with Shinde . The Peshwa Baji Rao II fled Pune to safety on a British warship . Baji Rao feared loss of his own powers and signed the treaty of Bassein . This made the Peshwa in effect a subsidiary ally of the British .
In response to the treaty , the Bhonsle and Shinde attacked the British , refusing to accept the betrayal of their sovereignty to the British by the Peshwa . This was the start of the Second Anglo @-@ Maratha War in 1803 . Both were defeated by the British , and all Maratha leaders lost large parts of their territory to the British .
= = = The British East India Company = = =
The British had travelled thousands of miles to arrive in India . They studied Indian geography and mastered local languages to deal with the Indians . They were technologically advanced , with superior equipment to that available locally . Chhabra hypothesizes that even if the British technical superiority were discounted , they would have won the war because of the discipline and organization in their ranks . After the First Anglo @-@ Maratha war , Warren Hastings declared in 1783 that the peace established with the Marathas was on such a firm ground that it was not going to be shaken for years to come .
The British believed that a new permanent approach was needed to establish and maintain continuous contact with the Peshwa 's court in Pune . The British appointed Charles Malet , a senior merchant from Bombay , to be a permanent Resident at Pune because of his knowledge of the languages and customs of the region .
= = Prelude = =
The Maratha Empire had failed to upgrade its guerrilla warfare tactics as their Empire grew . Efforts to modernize the armies were half @-@ hearted and undisciplined : newer techniques were not absorbed by the soldiers while the older methods and experience were lost . The Maratha Empire lacked an efficient spy system , and they were poor students of diplomacy . Maratha artillery was outdated , and they did not manufacture their own guns . Weapons were imported and the supply often failed . Foreign officers were responsible for the handling of the imported guns ; the Marathas never trained their own men in any considerable numbers for the purpose . Military movements were made without knowledge of local geography ; when moving troops or retreating , they would suddenly come across a river and be trapped when they were unable to locate boats or a crossing . The enemy would take advantage of this to gain the best position , and the Marathas would lose the battle or would be overtaken and slaughtered while fleeing .
At the time of the war , the power of the British East India Company was on the rise , whereas the Maratha Empire was on the decline . The British had been victorious in the previous Anglo @-@ Maratha war . The Peshwa of the Maratha Empire at this time was Baji Rao II . Several Maratha leaders who had formerly sided with the Peshwa were now under British control or protection . The British had an arrangement with the Gaekwad dynasty of the Maratha province of Baroda to prevent the Peshwa from collecting revenue in that province . Gaekwad sent an envoy to the Peshwa in Pune to negotiate a dispute regarding revenue collection . The envoy , Gangadhar Shastri , was under British protection . He was murdered , and the Peshwa 's minister Trimbak Dengle was suspected of the crime .
The British seized the opportunity to force Baji Rao into a treaty . The treaty ( The Treaty of Pune ) was signed on 13 June 1817 . Key terms imposed on the Peshwa included the admission of Dengle 's guilt , renouncing claims on Gaekwad , and surrender of significant swaths of territory to the British . These included his most important strongholds in the Deccan , the seaboard of Konkan , and all places north of the Narmada and south of the Tungabhadra rivers . The Peshwa was also not to communicate with any other powers in India . The British Resident Mountstuart Elphinstone also asked the Peshwa to disband his cavalry .
= = = Maratha planning = = =
The Peshwa disbanded his cavalry , but secretly asked them to stand by , and offered them seven months ' advance pay . Baji Rao entrusted Bapu Gokhale with preparations for war . In August 1817 , the forts at Sinhagad , Raigad , and Purandar were fortified by the Peshwa . Gokhale secretly recruited troops for the impending war . Many Bhils and Ramoshis were hired . Efforts were made to unify Bhonsle , Shinde , and Holkar ; even the mercenary Pindaris were approached . The Peshwa identified unhappy Indians in the service of the British Resident Elphinstone and secretly recruited them . One such person was Jaswant Rao Ghorpade . Efforts were made to secretly recruit Europeans as well . Some Indians , such as Balaji Pant Natu , stood steadfastly with the British . Several of the Indian sepoys rejected the Peshwa 's offers , and others reported the matter to their superior officers . On 19 October 1817 , Baji Rao II celebrated the Dassera festival in Pune , where troops were assembled in large numbers . During the celebrations , a large flank of the Maratha cavalry pretended they were charging towards the British sepoys but wheeled off at the last minute . This display was intended as a slight towards Elphinstone and as a scare tactic to prompt the defection and recruitment of British sepoys to the Peshwa 's side . The Peshwa made plans to kill Elphinstone , despite opposition from Gokhale . Elphinstone was fully aware of these developments thanks to the espionage work of Balaji Pant Natu and Ghorpade .
Burton provides an estimate of the strength of various Maratha powers in or around 1817 : He estimated the various Maratha powers totals to 81 @,@ 000 infantry , 106 @,@ 000 horse or cavalry and 589 guns . Of these the Peshwa had the highest number of cavalry at 28 @,@ 000 , along with 14 @,@ 000 infantry and 37 guns . The Peshwa headquarters was in Pune , which was the southernmost location amongst the other Maratha powers . Holkar had the second largest cavalry , amounting to 20 @,@ 000 , and an infantry force of 8 @,@ 000 . His guns totaled to 107 guns . Shinde and Bhonsle had similar numbers of cavalry and infantry , with each having 15 @,@ 000 and 16 @,@ 000 cavalry , respectively . Shinde had 16 @,@ 000 infantry and Bhonsle , 18 @,@ 000 . Shinde had the larger share of guns amounting to 140 whereas Bhonsle had 85 . Holkar , Shinde and Bhonsle were headquartered in Indore , Gwalior and Nagpur respectively . The Afghan leader Amir Khan was located in Tonk in Rajputana and his strength was 12 @,@ 000 cavalry , 10 @,@ 000 infantry and 200 guns . The Pindaris were located north of the Narmada valley in Chambal and Malwa region of central India . Three Pindari leaders sided with Shinde , these were Setu , Karim Khan and Dost Mohammad . They were mostly horsemen with strengths of 10 @,@ 000 , 6 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 000 . The rest of the Pindari chiefs , Tulsi , Imam Baksh , Sahib Khan , Kadir Baksh , Nathu and Bapu were allied with Holkar . Tulsi and Imam Baksh each had 2 @,@ 000 horsemen , Kadir Baksh , 21 @,@ 500 . Sahib Khan , Nathu and Bapu had 1 @,@ 000 , 750 and 150 horsemen .
= = Commencement = =
The Peshwa 's territory was in an area called the Desha , now part of the modern state of Maharashtra . The region consists of the valleys of the Krishna and Godavari rivers and the plateaus of the Sahyadri Mountains . Shinde 's territory around Gwalior and Bundelkhand was a region of rolling hills and fertile valleys that slopes down toward the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plain to the north . The Pindari territory was the valleys and forests of the Chambal , the north western region of the modern state of Madhya Pradesh . It was a mountainous region with a harsh climate . The Pindaris also operated from Malwa , a plateau region in the north west of the state of Madhya Pradesh , north of the Vindhya Range . Holkar was based in the upper Narmada River valley .
The war was mostly a mopping @-@ up operation intended to complete the expansion of the earlier Anglo @-@ Maratha war , which was stopped due to economic concerns of the British . The war began as a campaign against the Pindaris . Seeing that the British were in conflict with the Pindaris , the Peshwa 's forces attacked the British at 16 : 00 on 5 November 1817 with the Maratha left attacking the British right . The Maratha forces comprised 20 @,@ 000 cavalry , 8 @,@ 000 infantry , and 20 guns whereas the British had 2 @,@ 000 cavalry , 1 @,@ 000 infantry , and eight guns . On the Maratha side , an additional 5 @,@ 000 horse and 1 @,@ 000 infantry were guarding the Peshwa at Parvati Hill . The British numbers include Captain Ford 's unit , which was en route from Dapodi to Khadki . The British had also asked General Smith to come to Khadki for the battle but they did not anticipate he would arrive in time .
Three hills in the region were the Parvati Hill , the Chaturshringi Hill , and the Khadki hill . The Peshwa watched the battle from the Parvati Hill whereas the British East India Company troops were based on the Khadki hill . The two hills are separated by a distance of four kilometres . The river Mula is shallow and narrow and could be crossed at several locations . A few canals ( nallas in Marathi ) joined the river and though these were not obstacles , some of them were obscured due to the vegetation in the area .
The Maratha army was a mix of Rohillas , Rajputs , and Marathas . It also included a small force of the Portuguese under their officer , de Pinto . The left flank of the Maratha army , commanded by Moropant Dixit and Raste , was stationed on the flat ground on which the University of Pune stands today . The centre was commanded by Bapu Gokhale and the right was under Vinchurkar . British troop movements began on 1 November 1817 when Colonel Burr moved his forces towards what is now Bund Garden via the Holkar Bridge . The Maratha were successful initially in creating and exploiting a gap in the British left and centre . These successes were nullified by the Maratha horses being thrown into disarray by a hidden canal and the temporary loss of command by Gokhale , whose horse was shot . The Marathas were rendered leaderless when Moropant Dixit on the right was shot dead . The British infantry advanced steadily , firing volley after volley , causing the Maratha cavalry to retreat in a matter of four hours . The British soon claimed victory . The British lost 86 men and the Maratha about 500 .
= = = The Pindaris = = =
After the second Anglo @-@ Maratha war , Shinde and Holkar had lost many of their territories to the British . They encouraged the Pindaris to raid the British territories . The Pindaris , who were mostly cavalry , came to be known as the Shindeshahi and the Holkarshahi after the patronage they received from the respective defeated Maratha leaders . The Pindari leaders were Setu , Karim Khan , Dost Mohammad , Tulsi , Imam Baksh , Sahib Khan , Kadir Baksh , Nathu , and Bapu . Of these , Setu , Karim Khan , and Dost Mohammad belonged to Shindeshahi and the rest to Holkarshahi . The total strength of the Pindaris in 1814 was estimated at 33 @,@ 000 . The Pindaris frequently raided villages in Central India . The result of the Pindari raids was that Central India was being rapidly reduced to the condition of a desert because the peasants were unable to support themselves on the land . They had no option but to join the robber bands or starve . In 1815 , 25 @,@ 000 Pindaris entered the Madras Presidency and destroyed over 300 villages on the Coromandel coast . Another band swept the Nizam 's kingdom while a third entered Malabar . Other Pindari raids on British territory followed in 1816 and 1817 . Francis Rawdon @-@ Hastings saw that there could not be peace or security in India until the predatory Pindaris were extinguished .
= = = British planning = = =
To lead an army against the Pindaris in the hope of engaging them in a regular battle was not possible . To effectively crush the Pindaris , they would have to be surrounded so that they could have no means of escape . Francis Rawdon @-@ Hastings obtained authority from the British government to take action against the Pindaris while performing diplomacy with the principal Maratha leaders to act in concert with him . The Pindaris continued to have the sympathy of almost all the Maratha leaders . In 1817 Rawdon @-@ Hastings collected the strongest British army which had yet been seen in India , numbering roughly 120 @,@ 000 men . The army was assembled from two smaller armies , the Grand Army or Bengal army in the north under his personal command , and the Army of the Deccan under General Hislop in the south . The British plan was to normalize relations with the Shinde , Holkar , and Amir Khan . The three were known to be well disposed towards the Pindaris and harboured them in their territories . Shinde was secretly planning with the Peshwa and the Nepal Ministry to form a coalition against the British . His correspondence with Nepal was intercepted and presented to him in Durbar . He was forced to enter into a treaty by which he pledged to assist the British against the Pindaris and to prevent any new gangs being formed in his territory . Diplomacy , pressure , and the treaty of Gwalior kept Shinde out of the war . Amir Khan disbanded his army on condition of being guaranteed the possession of the principality of Tonk in Rajputana . He sold his guns to the British and agreed to prevent predatory gangs from operating from his territory . The army for the war was composed of two armies , the Grand Army or the Bengal Army with a strength of 40 @,@ 000 troops and the Army of the Deccan with a strength of 70 @,@ 400 . The Grand Army was divided into three divisions and a reserve . The left division was led by Major General Marshall and the central division was under Francis Rawdon @-@ Hastings . The reserve was under General Ochterlony . The second army , the Army of the Deccan was composed of five divisions . The divisions were led by General Hislop , Brigadier General Doveton , General Malcolm , Brigadier General Smith , Lieutenant Colonel Adams . The Army of Deccan comprised 70 @,@ 400 troops , bringing the total strength of the entire composite British East India Company army to 110 @,@ 400 . In addition the Madras and Pune residencies each had two battalions and a detail of an artillery unit . The Madras residency had an additional three troops of the 6th Bengal Cavalry . In October and early November , the first division of the Grand Army was sent to Sind , the second to Chambal , the third to Eastern Narmada . The reserve division was used to pressurise Amir Khan . The effect of the dispatching of the first and second divisions was to cut off Shinde from his potential allies . He and Amir Khan were thus pressured into signing a treaty .
The first and third division of the army of the Deccan were concentrated at Harda to hold the fords of the Narmada . The second division was used placed at Malkapur to keep a watch on the Berar Ghats . The fourth division marched to Khandesh occupying the region between Pune and Amravati ( Berar ) administrative divisions whereas the fifth division was placed at Hoshangabad and the reserve division was placed between the Bhima and Krishna rivers .
= = = Attack on the Pindaris = = =
The attack on the Pindaris was carried out as planned . The Pindaris were attacked , and their homes were surrounded and destroyed . General Hislop from the Madras Residency attacked the Pindaris from the south and drove them beyond the Narmada river , where governor general Francis Rawdon @-@ Hastings was waiting with his army . Karim Khan surrendered to the British and was given lands in Gorakhpur . The principal routes from Central India were occupied by British detachments . The Pindari forces were completely broken up , scattered in the course of a single campaign . They made no stand against the regular troops , and even in small bands they were unable to escape the ring of forces drawn around them . The Pindaris rapidly dispersed over the country . The Pindari chiefs were reduced to the condition of hunted outlaws . The desperate Pindaris expected the Marathas to help them , but none dared to give them even a place of shelter for their families . Karim and Setu had still 23 @,@ 000 men between them but such a force was no match for the armies that surrounded them . In whatever direction they turned they were met by British forces . Defeat followed defeat . One gang made their escape to the south , leaving all their baggage behind them . Many fled to the jungles and perished . Others sought refuge in the villages , but were killed without mercy by the villagers who had not forgotten the sufferings they had been inflicted upon by the Pindaris . The Pindari chiefs Karim Khan and Wasil Mohammed had been present with their Durras at the battle of Mahidpur . Since by this time the Maratha powers had been reduced significantly , the pursuit of Setu and the other leaders was resumed with vigor . All the leaders had surrendered before the end of February and the Pindari system and power was brought to a close . They were removed to Gorakhptir where they obtained grants of land for their subsistence . Karim Khan became a farmer on the small estate he received beyond the Ganges in Gorakpur . Wasil Mohammed attempted to escape . He was found and committed suicide by taking poison . Setu , a Jat by caste , was hunted by John Malcolm from place to place until he had no followers left . He vanished into the jungles of Central India in 1819 and was killed by a tiger .
= = = Flight of the Peshwa = = =
On the orders of Elphinstone , General Smith arrived in Yerwada near Pune on 13 November at the site of the present Deccan College . Smith and his troops crossed the river on 15 November and took up positions at Ghorpadi . On the morning of 16 November , the Marathas were engaged in a battle with the British . While the Maratha generals such as Purandare , Raste , and Bapu Gokhale were ready to advance on to the British forces , they were demoralized after learning that the Peshwa and his brother had fled to Purandar . A force of 5 @,@ 000 additional Marathas was located at the confluence of two rivers — the Mula and the Mutha — under the leadership of Vinchurkar , but they remained idle . Bapu Gokhale retreated to guard the Peshwa in flight . The next morning , General Smith advanced towards the city of Pune and found that the Peshwa had fled towards the city of Satara . During the day Pune surrendered , and great care was taken by General Smith for the protection of the peaceful part of the community . Order was soon re @-@ established . The British forces entered Shanivar Wada on 17 November and the Union flag was hoisted by Balaji Pant Natu . However the saffron flags of the Peshwa were not removed from Kotwali Chavdi until the defeat of Baji Rao at Ashti ; it might seem that the British still believed that the war was not raised by Baji Rao but he was forced to do so under pressure from Bapu Gokhle , Trimabkji Dengle and Moreshwar Dikshit .
The Peshwa now fled to the town of Koregaon . The Battle of Koregaon took place on 1 January 1818 on the banks of the river Bhima , north west of Pune . General Stauton arrived near Koregaon along with 500 infantry , two six @-@ pounder guns , and 200 irregular horsemen . Only 24 of the infantry were of European origin ; they were from the Madras Artillery . The rest of the infantry was composed of Indians employed by the British . The village of Koregaon was on the north bank of the river , which was shallow and narrow at this time of year . The village had a fortified enclosure constructed in the standard Maratha fashion . Stauton occupied the village but was unable to take the fortified enclosure , which was occupied by the Marathas . The British were cut off from the river , their only source of water . A fierce battle ensued that lasted the entire day . Streets and guns were captured and recaptured , changing hands several times . Baji Rao 's commander Trimabkji killed Lt. Chishom thereby avenging the death of Govindrao Gokhle , the only son of Bapu Gokhle . The Peshwa watched the battle from atop a nearby hill about two miles away . The Marathas evacuated the village and retreated during the night . This move on the part of the Marathas may seem justifiable because they were employing the tactics of Ganimi Kawa rather than Rangdi Maslat . The British lost 175 men and about a third of the irregular horse , with more than half of the European officers wounded . The Marathas lost 500 to 600 men . When the British found the village evacuated in the morning , Staunton took his battered troops and pretended to march on to Pune , but actually went to Shirur .
After the battle the British forces under general Pritzler pursued the Peshwa , who fled southwards towards Karnataka with the Raja of Satara . The Peshwa continued his flight southward throughout the month of January . Not receiving support from the Raja of Mysore , the Peshwa doubled back and passed General Pritzler to head towards Solapur . Until 29 January the pursuit of the Peshwa had not been productive . Whenever Baji Rao was pressed by the British , Gokhale and his light troops hovered around the Peshwa and fired long shots . Some skirmishes took place , and the Marathas were frequently hit by shells from the horse artillery . There was , however , no advantageous result to either party . On 7 February General Smith entered Satara and captured the royal palace of the Marathas . He symbolically raised the British flag . The next day , the Bhagwa Zenda — the flag of Shivaji and the Marathas — was raised in its place . To gain the support of the population , the British declared that they would not interfere with the tenets of any religion . They announced that all Watans , Inams , pensions , and annual allowances would be continued provided that the recipients withdrew from the service of Baji Rao . During this time Baji Rao remained in the vicinity of Solapur .
On 19 February , General Smith got word that the Peshwa was headed for Pandharpur . General Smith 's troops attacked the Peshwa at Ashti en route . During this battle , Gokhale died while defending the Peshwa from the British . The Raja of Satara was captured along with his brother and mother . The Maratha king , first imprisoned by Tarabai in the 1750s had lost power much earlier but was reinstated by Madhav rao Peshwa in 1763 after Tarabai 's death . Since then the king had retained a titular position of appointing the Peshwas . The Emperor Alamgir II in his farman to the Peshwa had complimented them for looking after the Chhatrapati family . The Chhatrapati declared in favour of the British and this ended the Peshwa 's legal position as head of the Maratha confederacy , this was done by a jahirnama which stated Peshwas were no longer the head of the Maratha confederacy . However Baji Rao II challenged the jahirnama of removing him from his position as Peshwa by issuing another jahirnama removing Mountstuart Elphinstone as British Resident to his state . The death of Gokhale and the skirmish at Ashti hastened the end of the war . Soon after this Baji Rao was deserted by the Patwardhans .
By 10 April 1818 , General Smith 's forces had taken the forts of Sinhagad and Purandar . Mountstuart Elphinstone mentions the capture of Sinhagadh in his diary entry for 13 February 1818 : " The garrison contained no Marathas , but consisted of 100 Arabs , 600 Gosains , and 400 Konkani . The Killadar was a boy of eleven ; the real Governor , Appajee Punt Sewra , a mean @-@ looking Carcoon . The garrison was treated with great liberality ; and , though there was much property and money in the place , the Killadar was allowed to have whatever he claimed as his own . " On 3 June 1818 Baji Rao surrendered to the British and negotiated the sum of ₹ eight lakhs as annual maintenance . Baji Rao obtained promises from the British in favor of the Jagirdars , his family , the Brahmins , and religious institutions . The Peshwa was sent to Bithur near Kanpur . While the downfall and banishment of the Peshwa was mourned all over the Maratha Empire as a national defeat , the Peshwa seemed unaffected . He contracted more marriages and spent his long life engaged in religious performances and excessive drinking .
= = = Events in Nagpur = = =
Madhoji Bhonsle , also known as Appa Saheb , consolidated his power in Nagpur after the murder of his cousin , the imbecile ruler Parsoji Bhonsle . He entered into a treaty with the British on 27 May 1816 . He ignored the request of the British Resident Jenkins to refrain from contact with Baji Rao II . Jenkins asked Appa Saheb to disband his growing concentration of troops and come to the residency , which he also refused to do . Appa Saheb openly declared support for the Peshwa , who was already fighting the British near Pune . As it was now clear that a battle was in the offing , Jenkins asked for reinforcements from nearby British East India Company troops . He already had about 1 @,@ 500 men under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Hopentoun Scott . Jenkins sent word for Colonel Adams to march to Nagpur with his troops . Like other Maratha leaders , Appa Shaeb employed Arabs in his army . They were typically involved in holding fortresses . While they were known to be among the bravest of troops , they were not amenable to discipline and order . The total strength of the Marathas was about 18 @,@ 000 .
The Residency was to the west of the Sitabardi hill , a 300 @-@ yard ( 270 m ) hillock running north @-@ south . The British East India Company troops occupied the north end of the hillock . The Marathas , fighting with the Arabs , made good initial gains by charging up the hill and forcing the British to retreat to the south . British commanders began arriving with reinforcements : Lieutenant Colonel Rahan on 29 November , Major Pittman on 5 December , and Colonel Doveton on 12 December . The British counterattack was severe and Appa Saheb was forced to surrender . The British lost 300 men , of which 24 were Europeans ; the Marathas lost an equal number . A treaty was signed on 9 January 1818 . Appa Saheb was allowed to rule over nominal territories with several restrictions . Most of his territory , including the forts , was now controlled by the British . They built additional fortifications on Sitabardi hill .
A few days later Appa Saheb was arrested . He was being escorted to Allahabad when he escaped to Punjab to seek refuge with the Sikhs . They turned him down and he was captured once again by the British near Jodhpur . Raja Mansingh of Jodhpur stood surety for him and he remained in Jodhpur , where he died on 15 July 1849 at 44 years of age .
= = = Subjugation of Holkar = = =
Holkar was offered terms similar to those offered to Shinde ; the only difference was that Holkar accepted and respected the independence of Amir Khan . The Court of Holkar was at this time practically nonexistent . When Tantia Jog , an official of the Holkar , urged acceptance of the offer he was suspected of being in collusion with the British . In reality he made the suggestion because he was aware of the power of the British as he had seen their armies in action when he had commanded a battalion in the past . Holkar responded to the Peshwa 's call for insurrection against the British by initiating a battle in Mahidpur .
The battle of Mahidpur between Holkar and the British was fought on 21 December 1817 . The charge on the British side was led by Malcolm himself . A deadly battle ensued lasting from midday until 3 : 00 am . Lieutenant General Thomas Hislop was commander in chief of the Madras army . Hislop came in sight of the Holkar army about 9 : 00 am . The British East India Company 's army lost 800 men but Holkar 's force was destroyed . The British East India Company 's losses were 800 killed or wounded but Holkar 's loss was much larger with about 3 @,@ 000 killed or wounded . These losses meant Holkar was deprived of any means of rising in arms against the British , and this broke the power of the Holkar dynasty . The battle of Mahidpur proved disastrous for the Maratha fortunes . Henry Durand wrote , " After the battle of Mahidpur not only the Peshwa 's but the real influence of the Mahratta States of Holkar and Shinde were dissolved and replaced by British supremacy . " Although the power of the Holkar family was broken , the remaining troops remained hostile and a division was retained to disperse them . The ministers made overtures of peace , and on 6 January 1818 the Treaty of Mandeswar was signed ; Holkar accepted the British terms in totality . Holkar came under British authority as an independent prince subject to the advice of a British Resident .
= = End of the war and its effects = =
At the end of the war , all of the Maratha powers had surrendered to the British . Shinde and the Afghan Amir Khan were subdued by the use of diplomacy and pressure , which resulted in the Treaty of Gwailor on 5 November 1817 . Under this treaty , Shinde surrendered Rajasthan to the British and agreed to help them fight the Pindaris . Amir Khan agreed to sell his guns to the British and received a land grant at Tonk in Rajuptana . Holkar was defeated on 21 December 1817 and signed the Treaty of Mandeswar on 6 January 1818 . Under this treaty the Holkar state became subsidiary to the British . The young Malhar Rao was raised to the throne . Bhonsle was defeated on 26 November 1817 and was captured but he escaped to live out his life in Jodhpur . The Peshwa surrendered on 3 June 1818 and was sent off to Bithur near Kanpur under the terms of the treaty signed on 3 June 1818 . Of the Pindari leaders , Karim Khan surrendered to Malcolm in February 1818 ; Wasim Mohammad surrendered to Shinde and eventually poisoned himself ; and Setu was killed by a tiger .
The war left the British , under the auspices of the British East India Company , in control of virtually all of present @-@ day India south of the Sutlej River . The famed Nassak Diamond was acquired by the Company as part of the spoils of the war . The British acquired large chunks of territory from the Maratha Empire and in effect put an end to their most dynamic opposition . The terms of surrender Malcolm offered to the Peshwa were controversial amongst the British for being too liberal : The Peshwa was offered a luxurious life near Kanpur and given a pension of about 80 @,@ 000 pounds . A comparison was drawn with Napoleon , who was confined to a small rock in the south Atlantic and given a small sum for his maintenance . Trimbakji Dengale was captured after the war and was sent to the fortress of Chunar in Bengal where he spent the rest of his life . With all active resistance over , John Malcolm played a prominent part in capturing and pacifying the remaining fugitives .
The Peshwa 's territories were absorbed into the Bombay Presidency and the territory seized from the Pindaris became the Central Provinces of British India . The princes of Rajputana became symbolic feudal lords who accepted the British as the paramount power . Thus Francis Rawdon @-@ Hastings redrew the map of India to a state which remained more or less unaltered until the time of Lord Dalhousie . The British brought an obscure descendant of Shivaji , the founder of the Maratha Empire , to be the ceremonial head of the Maratha Confederacy to replace the seat of the Peshwa . An infant from the Holkar family was appointed as the ruler of Nagpur under British guardianship . The Peshwa adopted a son , Nana Sahib , who went on to be one of the leaders of the Rebellion of 1857 . After 1818 , Montstuart Elphinstone reorganized the administrative divisions for revenue collection , thus reducing the importance of the Patil , the Deshmukh , and the Deshpande . The new government felt a need to communicate with the local Marathi @-@ speaking population ; Elphinstone pursued a policy of planned standardization of the Marathi language in the Bombay Presidency starting after 1820 .
= Joe Biden presidential campaign , 2008 =
The Joe Biden presidential campaign , 2008 began when Biden , then the senior Senator from Delaware , announced his candidacy for President of the United States on the edition of January 7 , 2007 of Meet the Press . He officially became a candidate on January 31 , 2007 after filing papers with the Federal Elections Commission . Biden had previously run for president in 1988 , but failed to receive the nomination of the Democratic Party . If elected , Biden would have been the first sitting Senator and Roman Catholic to be president since John F. Kennedy , and the first President to be born during World War II . ( b . 1942 )
During the campaign , Biden focused on his plan to achieve political success in the Iraq War through a system of federalization . He touted his record in the Senate as the head of several congressional committees and experience in foreign policy . Despite a few notable endorsements , Biden failed to garner significant support in opinion polls , and was marred by controversial comments made while campaigning . He ultimately dropped out of the race on January 3 , 2008 , after capturing less than 1 % of the vote in the Iowa caucus .
Seven months after conclusion of his campaign , Biden was selected to be Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama 's vice presidential running mate . The pair won in the general election , and were sworn in on January 20 , 2009 .
= = Campaign development = =
= = = Groundwork for the campaign = = =
Biden had run for president once before , but his 1988 presidential campaign had lasted for only three and a half months . He had been forced to withdraw due to controversies arising over reusing other politicians ' speeches without credit , and falsely recollecting parts of his academic record .
Biden first mentioned his intentions to run for president for 2008 on the Don Imus radio show on December 8 , 2004 . In the edition of January 23 , 2006 of The News Journal , Delaware 's largest daily newspaper , columnist Harry F. Themal reported that Biden " occupies the sensible center of the Democratic Party . " Themal concludes that this is the position Biden desires , and that in a campaign " he plans to stress the dangers to the security of the average American , not just from the terrorist threat , but from the lack of health assistance , crime , and energy dependence on unstable parts of the world . "
= = = First @-@ quarter 2007 = = =
Biden declared his candidacy for president on January 31 , 2007 , although he had discussed running for months prior . It had been speculated that Biden would be offered and accept the position of Secretary of State because of his foreign policy experience and credentials . Biden rejected the notion outright , saying " Under no administration will I accept the job of Secretary of State " . He stated that he was focused only on the presidency . At a campaign event , Biden commented , " I know a lot of my opponents out there say I 'd be a great secretary of state . Seriously , every one of them . Do you watch any of the debates ? ' Joe 's right , Joe 's right , Joe 's right . ' " Other candidates commenting that " Joe is right " in the Democratic debates has been converted into a Biden campaign theme and ad .
On January 31 , 2007 as Biden entered the presidential race he attacked frontrunner Hillary Clinton 's plan for the War in Iraq . During an interview on Good Morning America , Biden called Clinton 's plan " a disaster " and " counterproductive " . Biden stated that his plan called for a " political solution " unlike Clinton 's " military solution " . Biden praised Hillary Clinton as a presidential candidate , calling her " fully qualified " . He also spoke highly of Illinois Senator Barack Obama referring to him as " the first mainstream African @-@ American who is articulate and bright and clean and a nice @-@ looking guy . "
During February campaigning Biden appeared on the edition of February 18 , 2007 of Face the Nation , criticizing the new surge policy of the Bush administration in Iraq . He spoke about a piece of legislation that he put forth before the Senate to stall the surge policy from enactment , which would strip the president of the authorization he was given to go to war in 2002 . After the legislation went up for a vote it failed by four votes in the Senate . Biden stated :
While campaigning in March 2007 , Biden stated that he would put a great quantity
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2003 , Biden believed this plan would have helped his campaign among the electorate had he been nominated . The key points included :
Giving Iraq 's major groups a measure of autonomy in their own regions . A central government would be left in charge of interests such as defending the borders and distributing oil revenues .
Guaranteeing Sunnis – who have no oil rights – a proportionate share of oil revenue and reintegrating those who have not fought against Coalition forces .
Increase , not end , reconstruction assistance but insist that Arab States of the Persian Gulf fund it and tie it to the creation of a jobs program and to the protection of minority rights .
Initiate a diplomatic offensive to enlist the support of the major powers and neighboring countries for a political settlement in Iraq and create an Oversight Contact Group to enforce regional commitments .
Begin the phased redeployment of U.S. forces in 2007 and withdraw most of them by 2008 , leaving a small follow @-@ on force for security and policing actions . The plan named as The Biden @-@ Brownback Resolution passed on the Senate floor 75 – 23 on September 25 , 2007 , including 26 Republican votes .
= = = Controversial comments = = =
Controversial comments had adversely affected the campaign of Joe Biden . Washington Post columnist Richard Cohen is quoted as saying that Biden 's candidacy might be endangered by his " manic @-@ obsessive running of the mouth . "
= = = = Indian @-@ Americans = = = =
In July 2006 , while speaking to a group of Indian @-@ Americans in Manchester , New Hampshire , Biden stated in regards to his relationship with the Indian @-@ American community : " I 've had a great relationship . In Delaware , the largest growth in population is Indian Americans — moving from India . You cannot go to a 7 @-@ 11 or a Dunkin ' Donuts unless you have a slight Indian accent . I 'm not joking . " His comment was caught on C @-@ SPAN . When asked to explain further , Biden spokesperson Margaret Aitken stated " The Senator [ Biden ] admires , supports and respects the Indian @-@ American community ... The point Senator Biden was making is that there has been a vibrant Indian @-@ American community in Delaware for decades . It has primarily been made up of engineers , scientists and physicians , but more recently , middle @-@ class families are moving into Delaware and purchasing family @-@ run small businesses ... " The Indian @-@ American activist who was on the receiving end of Biden 's comment later called the media coverage of Biden 's comments " completely unfair , " and stated that he was " 100 percent behind ( Biden ) because he did nothing wrong . "
= = = = Barack Obama = = = =
On January 31 , 2007 , Biden took his first steps into the presidential campaign , but his comments about other candidates overshadowed his entrance . Biden especially drew criticism in the popular press for his evaluation of Senator Barack Obama ; Biden was quoted in the New York Observer as saying : " I mean , you got the first mainstream African @-@ American who is articulate and bright and clean and a nice @-@ looking guy , ... I mean , that 's a storybook , man . " The audio of the interview , posted on the Observer 's website , reportedly includes a significant pause after " African @-@ American " which would drastically change the meaning of the statement . Biden sought to clear up the controversy by apologizing to Obama on the same day and repeated his regret on The Daily Show that same evening : " Look , the other part of this thing that got me in trouble is using the word clean . I should have said fresh . " Some media observers labeled Biden 's announcement a " launch pad disaster . " Jesse Jackson telephoned Biden and reported afterward " Senator Biden ... assured me that he regrets that his remarks were misinterpreted . He was serious and contrite . To me , this was a gaffe , not a statement about his philosophy or ideology . "
The remark did much to undermine the start of Biden 's campaign , and severely damaged his fund @-@ raising ability .
= = Political positions = =
Biden is considered to be a moderate liberal , clocking a 77 @.@ 5 percent liberal voting record in 2006 and lifetime score of 76 @.@ 8 percent . Biden is Pro @-@ Choice on abortion rated 100 % by NARAL and supports a state 's right to have civil unions . He favors a Balanced Budget Amendment and a rollback of the Bush tax cuts . He supports the PATRIOT Act , the war in Afghanistan and voted in favor of authorization of military force into Iraq . He believes a political solution can be met in Iraq through federalization . Biden would favor American military intervention into Sudan to end the Darfur genocide . He supports Gun control and was given an F by the NRA . He opposes the No Child Left Behind Act although he voted in favor of it in 2002 . Biden opposes capital punishment and supports the continuation of the war on drugs . In 2007 he voted in favor of the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Bill and supports a path to citizenship for illegal immigrants . Biden opposes oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and believes that the government must take action against global warming .
= = Aftermath = =
While Biden 's presidential campaign did not last beyond the first caucuses , he created a favorable impression during the debates and increased his stature among Washington politicos . In particular , Barack Obama changed his opinion of Biden , liking how he had handled himself at campaign stops and appreciating his appeal to working class voters .
On May 30 , 2008 , it was reported by The Washington Times that likely Democratic nominee Obama asked Biden to play a " more prominent " and " deeply involved " role in his campaign , with some speculating that Biden was on Obama 's shortlist of vice presidential candidates . On August 23 , 2008 , the Obama campaign announced that Biden would become Barack Obama 's running mate .
= = = Obama – Biden campaign 2008 = = =
Following U.S. Democratic presumptive presidential nominee Barack Obama 's selection of Biden , the Senator 's vice @-@ presidential general election campaign began . During the campaign , he used his political experience to complement Obama , and debated Republican Vice Presidential nominee Sarah Palin . Biden was elected Vice President on November 4 , 2008 , and sworn in on January 20 , 2009 .
= = = FEC fine = = =
On July 16 , 2010 , the Federal Election Commission fined the Biden presidential campaign $ 219 @,@ 000 for campaign finance violations . The commission 's audit revealed the campaign to have accepted contributions above the legal limit , to have failed to properly compensate for a 2007 jet ride , and to have issued checks that were never cashed . A Biden spokesperson said that " Some repayment is commonplace after presidential campaign audits and the repayment ordered here is relatively small . Payment is due to the Treasury 30 days after the FEC issues its formal ruling and ' Biden for President ' will comply with that . "
= Bupropion =
Bupropion is a medication primarily used as an antidepressant and smoking cessation aid . It is marketed as Wellbutrin and Zyban among other trade names . It is one of the most frequently prescribed antidepressants in the United States and Canada , although in many countries this is an off @-@ label use . Bupropion is taken in tablet form and is available only by prescription in most countries .
Bupropion acts as an norepinephrine @-@ dopamine reuptake inhibitor ( NDRI ) . It is an atypical antidepressant different from most commonly prescribed antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( SSRIs ) . It is an effective antidepressant on its own , but is also popular as an add @-@ on medication in cases of incomplete response to first @-@ line SSRI antidepressants . In comparison to many other antidepressants , it does not cause as much weight gain or sexual dysfunction . The most important side effect is an increase in risk for epileptic seizures , which caused the drug to be withdrawn from the market for some time and then caused the recommended dosage to be reduced .
Bupropion is known to affect several different biological targets . It often is described as a norepinephrine @-@ dopamine reuptake inhibitor ( NDRI ) , and is also a nicotinic antagonist . But bupropion does not appear to have significant dopaminergic actions in humans under normal clinical circumstances . Chemically , bupropion belongs to the class of aminoketones and is similar in structure to stimulants such as cathinone and amfepramone , and to phenethylamines in general .
Bupropion was synthesized by Nariman Mehta and patented by Burroughs Wellcome in 1969 , which later became part of what is now GlaxoSmithKline . It was first approved for clinical use in the United States in 1989 . It was originally called by the generic name amfebutamone , before being renamed in 2000 . It is a substituted cathinone ( β @-@ ketoamphetamine ) , and by extension , a substituted amphetamine .
= = Medical uses = =
= = = Depression = = =
Bupropion is one of the most widely prescribed antidepressants , and the available evidence indicates that it is effective in clinical depression — as effective as several other widely prescribed drugs , including fluoxetine ( Prozac ) and paroxetine ( Paxil ) , although trends favoring the efficacy of escitalopram ( Lexapro ) , sertraline ( Zoloft ) and venlafaxine ( Effexor ) over bupropion have been observed . Mirtazapine ( Remeron ) , on the other hand is significantly more effective than bupropion . Bupropion has several features that distinguish it from other antidepressants : for instance , unlike the majority of antidepressants , it does not usually cause sexual dysfunction . Bupropion treatment also is not associated with the sleepiness or weight gain that may be produced by other antidepressants .
In depressed people who experience symptoms of sleepiness and fatigue , bupropion has been found to be more effective than selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( SSRIs ) in alleviating these symptoms . There appears to be a modest advantage for the SSRIs over bupropion in the treatment of anxious depression .
According to surveys , the addition to a prescribed SSRI is a common strategy when people do not respond to the SSRI , even though this is not an officially approved indication . The addition of bupropion to an SSRI ( most commonly fluoxetine or sertraline ) may result in an improvement in some people who have an incomplete response to the first @-@ line antidepressant .
Bupropion was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) , in 2006 , for the prevention of seasonal affective disorder . In some countries ( including Australia , New Zealand and the UK ) this is an off @-@ label use .
= = = Smoking cessation = = =
The next most common use is as an aid for smoking cessation where it reduces the severity of nicotine cravings and withdrawal symptoms . A typical bupropion treatment course lasts for seven to twelve weeks , with the patient halting the use of tobacco about ten days into the course . Bupropion approximately doubles the chance of quitting smoking successfully after three months . One year after treatment , the odds of sustaining smoking cessation are still 1 @.@ 5 times higher in the bupropion group than in the placebo group .
The evidence is clear that bupropion is effective at reducing nicotine cravings . Whether it is more effective than other treatments is not as clear , due to a limited number of studies . The evidence that is available suggests that bupropion is comparable to nicotine replacement therapy , but somewhat less effective than varenicline .
In Australia and the UK smoking cessation is the only licensed indication of bupropion .
= = = Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder = = =
Bupropion has been used as a treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) since at least 2004 , with reports of positive results in both minors and adults . In a double @-@ blind study of children , while aggression and hyperactivity as rated by the children 's teachers were significantly improved in comparison to placebo , parents and clinicians could not distinguish between the effects of bupropion and placebo . The 2007 guideline on the ADHD treatment from American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry notes that the evidence for bupropion is " far weaker " than for the FDA @-@ approved treatments . Its effect may also be " considerably less than of the approved agents ... Thus it may be prudent for the clinician to recommend a trial of behavior therapy at this point , before moving to these second @-@ line agents . " Similarly , the Texas Department of State Health Services guideline recommends considering bupropion or a tricyclic antidepressant as a fourth @-@ line treatment after trying two different stimulants and atomoxetine .
= = = Sexual dysfunction = = =
Bupropion is one of few antidepressants that do not cause sexual dysfunction . A range of studies demonstrate that bupropion not only produces fewer sexual side effects than other antidepressants , but can actually help to alleviate sexual dysfunction . According to a survey of psychiatrists , it is the drug of choice for the treatment of SSRI @-@ induced sexual dysfunction , although this is not an indication approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration . There have also been a few studies suggesting that bupropion can improve sexual function in women who are not depressed , if they have hypoactive sexual desire disorder ( HSDD ) .
= = = Obesity = = =
Bupropion , when used for treating obesity over a period of 6 to 12 months , may result in weight loss of 2 @.@ 7 kg over placebo . This is not much different from the weight loss produced by several other medications , such as sibutramine , orlistat and amfepramone .
It has been studied in combination with naltrexone . Concerns from bupropion include an increase in blood pressure and heart rate . In September 2014 , a combination ( bupropion / naltrexone ) was approved by the US FDA for the treatment of obesity .
= = = Other = = =
There has been controversy about whether it is useful to add an antidepressant such as bupropion to a mood stabilizer in patients with bipolar depression , but recent reviews have concluded that bupropion in this situation does no significant harm and may sometimes give significant benefit .
Bupropion has shown no effectiveness in the treatment of cocaine dependence , but there is weak evidence that it may be useful in treating methamphetamine dependence .
Based on studies indicating that bupropion lowers the level of the inflammatory mediator TNF @-@ alpha , there have been suggestions that it might be useful in treating inflammatory bowel disease or other autoimmune conditions , but very little clinical evidence is available .
Bupropion — like other antidepressants , with the exception of duloxetine ( Cymbalta ) — is not effective in treating chronic low back pain . It does , however , show some promise in the treatment of neuropathic pain .
= = Contraindications = =
The drug label advises that bupropion should not be prescribed to individuals with epilepsy or other conditions that lower the seizure threshold , such as anorexia nervosa , bulimia nervosa , active brain tumors , or concurrent alcohol and / or benzodiazepine use and / or withdrawal . It should be avoided in individuals who are also taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs ) . When switching from MAOIs to bupropion , it is important to include a washout period of about two weeks between the medications . The label recommends that caution should be exercised when treating patients with liver damage , severe kidney disease , and severe hypertension , and in pediatric patients , adolescents and young adults due to the increased risk of suicidal ideation .
= = Side effects = =
Epileptic seizures are the most important adverse effect of bupropion . A high incidence of seizures was responsible for the temporary withdrawal of the drug from the market between 1986 and 1989 . The risk of seizure is strongly dose @-@ dependent , but also dependent on the preparation . The sustained @-@ release preparation is associated with a seizure incidence of 0 @.@ 1 % at daily dosages of less than 300 mg of bupropion and 0 @.@ 4 % at 300 – 400 mg . The immediate release preparation is associated with a seizure incidence of 0 @.@ 4 % for dosages below 450 mg ; the incidence climbs to 5 % for dosages between 450 – 600 mg per day . For comparison , the incidence of unprovoked seizure in the general population is 0 @.@ 07 to 0 @.@ 09 % , and the risk of seizure for a variety of other antidepressants is generally between 0 and 0 @.@ 6 % at recommended dosage levels . Clinical depression itself has been reported to increase the occurrence of seizures , and a study examining FDA clinical trial data has suggested that in most cases , low to moderate doses of antidepressants may not actually increase seizure risk at all . However , this study also found that bupropion and clomipramine were unique among antidepressants in that they were associated with increased incidence of seizures .
The prescribing information notes that hypertension , sometimes severe , was observed in some patients , both with and without pre @-@ existing hypertension . The frequency of this adverse effect was under 1 % and not significantly higher than found with placebo . A review of the available data carried out in 2008 indicated that bupropion is safe to use in patients with a variety of serious cardiac conditions .
In the UK , more than 7 @,@ 600 reports of suspected adverse reactions were collected in the first two years after bupropion 's approval by the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency as part of the Yellow Card Scheme , which monitored side effects . Approximately 540 @,@ 000 people were treated with bupropion for smoking cessation during that period . The MHRA received 60 reports of " suspected [ emphasis MHRA 's ] adverse reactions to Zyban which had a fatal outcome " . The agency concluded that " in the majority of cases the individual 's underlying condition may provide an alternative explanation . " This is consistent with a large , 9 @,@ 300 @-@ patient safety study that showed that the mortality of smokers taking bupropion is not higher than the natural mortality of smokers of the same age .
= = = Psychiatric = = =
Suicidal thoughts and behaviors are rare in clinical trials , and the FDA requires all antidepressants , including bupropion , to carry a boxed warning stating that antidepressants may increase the risk of suicide in persons younger than 25 . This warning is based on a statistical analysis conducted by the FDA which found a 2 @-@ fold increase in suicidal thought and behavior in children and adolescents , and 1 @.@ 5 @-@ fold increase in the 18 – 24 age group . For this analysis the FDA combined the results of 295 trials of 11 antidepressants in order to obtain statistically significant results . Considered in isolation , bupropion was not statistically different from placebo .
Suicidal behavior is less of a concern when bupropion is prescribed for smoking cessation . According to a 2014 Cochrane review , while there is an association with suicide it is unclear if bupropion was the cause .
In 2009 the FDA issued a health advisory warning that the prescription of bupropion for smoking cessation has been associated with reports about unusual behavior changes , agitation and hostility . Some patients , according to the advisory , have become depressed or have had their depression worsen , have had thoughts about suicide or dying , or have attempted suicide . This advisory was based on a review of anti @-@ smoking products that identified 75 reports of " suicidal adverse events " for bupropion over ten years .
Bupropion @-@ induced psychosis may develop in select patient populations , or worsen a pre @-@ existing psychotic syndrome . Symptoms may include delusions , hallucinations , paranoia , and confusion . In most cases these symptoms can be reduced or eliminated by reducing the dose , ceasing treatment or adding antipsychotic medication . However , adding a benzodiazepine to treat psychosis , instead of an antipsychotic , may become a valid alternative according to the model of amphetamine @-@ induced psychosis . Psychotic symptoms are associated with factors such as higher doses of bupropion , a history of bipolar disorder or psychosis , concomitant medications , for example , lithium or benzodiazepines , old age , or substance abuse .
In a large @-@ scale study of programs where bupropion was used for smoking cessation or treatment of depression , no withdrawal symptoms were observed . As of 2002 there were two case reports of people experiencing withdrawal symptoms when discontinuing buproprion taken to aid smoking cessation ; the prescribing information states that dose tapering is not required when discontinuing treatment for smoking cessation .
= = Overdose = =
Bupropion is considered moderately dangerous in overdose .
In the majority of childhood exploratory ingestions involving one or two tablets , children show no apparent symptoms .
For significant overdoses , seizures have been reported in about a third of all cases ; other serious effects include hallucinations , loss of consciousness , and arrhythmias when bupropion was one of several kinds of pills taken in an overdose , fever , muscle rigidity , muscle damage , hypertension or hypotension , stupor , coma , and respiratory failure have been reported . While most people recover , some people have died , and before they died suffered multiple uncontrolled seizures and heart attacks .
= = Interactions = =
Since bupropion is metabolized to hydroxybupropion by the CYP2B6 enzyme , drug interactions with CYP2B6 inhibitors are possible : this includes medications like paroxetine , sertraline , fluoxetine , diazepam , clopidogrel , and orphenadrine . The expected result is the increase of bupropion and decrease of hydroxybupropion blood concentration . The reverse effect ( decrease of bupropion and increase of hydroxybupropion ) can be expected with CYP2B6 inducers , such as carbamazepine , clotrimazole , rifampicin , ritonavir , St John 's wort , phenobarbital , phenytoin and others . Conversely , because bupropion is itself an inhibitor of CYP2D6 ( Ki = 21 μM ) , as is its active metabolite , hydroxybupropion ( Ki = 13 @.@ 3 μM ) , it can slow the clearance of other drugs metabolized by this enzyme .
Bupropion lowers the threshold for epileptic seizures , and therefore can potentially interact with other medications that also lower it , such as carbapenems , cholinergic agents , fluoroquinolones , interferons , chloroquine , mefloquine , lindane , theophylline , systemic corticosteroids ( e.g. , prednisone ) , and some tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , clomipramine ) . The prescribing information recommends minimizing the use of alcohol , since in rare cases bupropion reduces alcohol tolerance , and because the excessive use of alcohol may lower the seizure threshold . Also , bupropion should not be taken by individuals undergoing abrupt cessation of alcohol or benzodiazepine use .
Caution should be observed when combining bupropion with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor ( MAOI ) .
= = Pharmacology = =
= = = Pharmacodynamics = = =
Based on animal and human proteins research , bupropion has been characterized as a weak norepinephrine @-@ dopamine reuptake inhibitor ( NDRI ) . It has also been found to act as a releasing agent of dopamine and norepinephrine ( NDRA ) . However , in actual humans , bupropion is extensively converted in the body into several active metabolites with differing activity and influence on the effects of bupropion during first @-@ pass metabolism . These metabolites are present in significantly higher levels in the body compared to bupropion itself . The most important example of this is bupropion 's most major metabolite , hydroxybupropion , a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor ( and likely releasing agent ) and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor ( nAChR ) antagonist that lacks significant dopaminergic actions , which , with oral bupropion treatment , can reach area under the curve ( AUC ) plasma concentrations that are as much as 16 – 20 times greater than those of bupropion itself . Hence , its effects cannot be understood without reference to its metabolism .
The occupancy of dopamine transporter ( DAT ) sites by bupropion and its metabolites in the human brain as measured by positron emission tomography was 26 % according to GlaxoSmithKline researchers and 14 % in an independent study . Despite this weak DAT occupancy however , a subsequent study looked at the actual extracellular concentrations of dopamine in the human brain after an acute oral treatment of bupropion and failed to observe any increase , concluding that the weak DAT occupancy was not sufficient to increase dopamine levels . In contrast , the same study also looked at dopamine levels in the rat brain after administration of bupropion via intraperitoneal injection and did see an increase , which could have been related to species differences . However , an alternative explanation is that the difference had to do with the different routes of administration employed ( i.e. , oral vs. i.p. ) and the associated differences in pharmacokinetics and metabolism , namely , the bypassing of first @-@ past metabolism with the latter route , that resulted . Although oral bupropion at clinical doses does not appear to have a significant potential for abuse , there are many isolated case reports of bupropion abuse and " cocaine @-@ like " effects in humans who ingested the drug via a non @-@ oral route ( e.g. , injection , insufflation , etc . ) . Notably , awareness of the abuse potential of bupropion via non @-@ conventional routes appears to be especially prominent in correctional facilities .
Bupropion is also known to act as a non @-@ competitive antagonist of the α3β2 , α3β4 , α4β2 , and , very weakly , α7 nACh receptors , and these actions appear to be importantly involved in its beneficial properties not only in smoking cessation , but in depression as well . The metabolites of bupropion also act as non @-@ competitive antagonists of these nACh receptors , and hydroxybupropion is even more potent in comparison . Pharmacological data on bupropion and its metabolites are shown in the table . Bupropion is known to weakly inhibit the α1 adrenergic receptor , with a 14 % potency of its dopamine uptake inhibition , and the H1 receptor , with a 9 % potency .
= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =
Bupropion is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 isoenzyme CYP2B6 . It has several active metabolites : R , R @-@ hydroxybupropion , S , S @-@ hydroxybupropion , threo @-@ hydrobupropion and erythro @-@ hydrobupropion , which are further metabolized to inactive metabolites and eliminated through excretion into the urine . Both bupropion and its primary metabolite hydroxybupropion act in the liver as potent inhibitors of the enzyme CYP2D6 , which metabolizes not only bupropion itself but also a variety of other drugs and biologically active substances . This mechanism creates the potential for a variety of drug interactions .
The biological activity of bupropion can be attributed to a significant degree to its active metabolites , in particular to S , S @-@ hydroxybupropion . GlaxoSmithKline developed this metabolite as a separate drug called radafaxine , but discontinued development in 2006 due to " an unfavourable risk / benefit assessment " .
Bupropion is metabolized to hydroxybupropion by CYP2B6 , an isozyme of the cytochrome P450 system . Alcohol causes an increase of CYP2B6 in the liver , and persons with a history of alcohol use metabolize bupropion faster . Bupropion is metabolized to threo @-@ hydrobupropion via cortisone reductase . The metabolic pathway responsible for the creation of erythro @-@ hydrobupropion remains elusive .
The metabolism of bupropion is highly variable : the effective doses of bupropion received by persons who ingest the same amount of the drug may differ by as much as 5 @.@ 5 times ( with a half @-@ life of 12 – 30 hours ) , while the effective doses of hydroxybupropion may differ by as much as 7 @.@ 5 times ( with a half @-@ life of 15 – 25 hours ) . Based on this , some researchers have advocated monitoring of the blood level of bupropion and hydroxybupropion . The half @-@ lives of erythrohydrobupropion and threohydrobupropion are roughly 23 – 43 hours and 24 – 50 hours respectively .
There have been reported cases of false @-@ positive urine amphetamine tests in persons taking bupropion .
= = Physical and chemical properties = =
= = = Synthesis = = =
Bupropion is a substituted cathinone . It is synthesized in two chemical steps starting from 3 ' -chloro @-@ propiophenone . The alpha position adjacent to the ketone is first brominated followed by nucleophilic displacement of the resulting alpha @-@ bromoketone with t @-@ butylamine and treated with hydrochloric acid to give bupropion as the hydrochloride salt in 75 – 85 % overall yield .
= = History = =
Bupropion was invented by Nariman Mehta of Burroughs Wellcome ( now GlaxoSmithKline ) in 1969 , and the US patent for it was granted in 1974 . It was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) as an antidepressant on 30 December 1985 , and marketed under the name Wellbutrin . However , a significant incidence of epileptic seizures at the originally recommended dosage caused the withdrawal of the drug in 1986 . Subsequently , the risk of seizures was found to be highly dose @-@ dependent , and bupropion was re @-@ introduced to the market in 1989 with a lower maximum recommended daily dose .
In 1996 , the FDA approved a sustained @-@ release formulation of bupropion called Wellbutrin SR , intended to be taken twice a day ( as compared with three times a day for immediate @-@ release Wellbutrin ) . In 2003 , the FDA approved another sustained @-@ release formulation called Wellbutrin XL , intended for once @-@ daily dosing . Wellbutrin SR and XL are available in generic form in the United States and Canada . In Canada , generic XR bupropion is distributed by Mylan . In 1997 , bupropion was approved by the FDA for use as a smoking cessation aid under the name Zyban . In 2006 , Wellbutrin XL was similarly approved as a treatment for seasonal affective disorder .
In April 2008 , the FDA approved a formulation of bupropion as a hydrobromide salt instead of a hydrochloride salt , to be sold under the name Aplenzin by Sanofi @-@ Aventis .
= = = Issue with generic bioequivalence = = =
On 11 October 2007 , two providers of consumer information on nutritional products and supplements , ConsumerLab.com and The People 's Pharmacy , released the results of comparative tests of different brands of bupropion . The People 's Pharmacy received multiple reports of increased side effects and decreased efficacy of generic bupropion , which prompted it to ask ConsumerLab.com to test the products in question . The tests showed that " one of a few generic versions of Wellbutrin XL 300 mg , sold as Budeprion XL 300 mg , didn 't perform the same as the brand @-@ name pill in the lab . " The FDA investigated these complaints and concluded that Budeprion XL is equivalent to Wellbutrin XL in regard to bioavailability of bupropion and its main active metabolite hydroxybupropion . The FDA also said that coincidental natural mood variation is the most likely explanation for the apparent worsening of depression after the switch from Wellbutrin XL to Budeprion XL . On 3 October 2012 , however , the FDA reversed this opinion , announcing that " Budeprion XL 300 mg fails to demonstrate therapeutic equivalence to Wellbutrin XL 300 mg . " The FDA did not test the bioequivalence of any of the other generic versions of Wellbutrin XL 300 mg , but requested that the four manufacturers submit data on this question to the FDA by March 2013 . As of October 2013 the FDA has made determinations on the formulations from some manufacturers not being bioequivalent .
In 2012 , the U.S. Justice Department announced that GlaxoSmithKline had agreed to plead guilty and pay a $ 3 @-@ billion fine , in part for promoting the unapproved use of Wellbutrin for weight loss and sexual dysfunction .
In France , marketing authorization was granted for Zyban on 3 August 2001 , with a maximum daily dose of 300 mg ; only sustained @-@ release bupropion is available , and only as a smoking cessation aid . Bupropion was granted a licence for use in adults with major depression in the Netherlands in early 2007 , with GlaxoSmithKline expecting subsequent approval in other European countries .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Names = = =
Bupropion is the International Nonproprietary Name ( INN ) and British Approved Name ( BAN ) while bupropion hydrochloride is the United States Adopted Name ( USAN ) . Amfebutamone was the former INN .
Bupropion is marketed under many brand names including Aplenzin , Budeprion , Elontril , Wellbutrin , Quomem , Prexaton , Voxra , and Zyban , among others .
= = = Recreational use = = =
According to the US government classification of psychiatric medications , bupropion is " non @-@ abusable " . However , in animal studies , squirrel monkeys and rats could be induced to self @-@ administer bupropion intravenously , which is often taken as a sign of addiction potential . There have been a number of anecdotal and case @-@ study reports of bupropion abuse , but the bulk of evidence indicates that the subjective effects of bupropion via the oral route are markedly different from those of addictive stimulants such as cocaine or amphetamine . That said , bupropion , via non @-@ conventional routes of administration ( e.g. , injection , insufflation ) , is reported to be abused in the United States and Canada , notably in prisons .
= Wolf @-@ Dietrich Wilcke =
Wolf @-@ Dietrich Wilcke ( 11 March 1913 – 23 March 1944 ) was a German Luftwaffe pilot during World War II , a fighter ace credited with 162 enemy aircraft shot down in 732 combat missions . He claimed the majority of his victories over the Eastern Front , and 25 over the Western Front , including four four @-@ engined bombers .
Born in Schrimm in the Province of Posen , Wilcke volunteered for military service in the Reichswehr of the Third Reich in 1934 . Initially serving in the Heer ( Army ) , he transferred to the Luftwaffe ( Air Force ) in 1935 . Following flight training , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader " Richthofen " ( Fighter Wing " Richthofen " ) in April 1936 . After an assignment as fighter pilot instructor he volunteered for service with the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War in early 1939 . After his return from Spain , he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of the 7 . Staffel ( 7th squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) . Following the outbreak of World War II , he claimed his first aerial victory on 7 November 1939 . On 18 May 1940 , during the Battle of France , he was shot down and taken prisoner of war . After the armistice with France , he returned from captivity and was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of the III . Gruppe ( 3rd group ) of JG 53 during the Battle of Britain , claiming 10 victories over England .
Wilcke then fought in the aerial battles of Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . There , after 25 aerial victories , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 6 August 1941 . In September 1941 , he relocated with his group to the Mediterranean Theater , where he was able to claim further victories . At the end of May 1942 , he was transferred to the Stab ( headquarters unit ) of Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) " Udet " , and that August he was appointed as its Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) . Following his 100th aerial victory on 6 September , he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves . During the Battle of Stalingrad , on 17 December , he claimed his 150th aerial victory . On 23 December 1942 , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords , his total now 155 aerial victories .
Subsequent to the presentation of the Swords to his Knight 's Cross , he was officially banned from operational flying . Occasionally he still flew combat missions and on 23 March 1944 , flying in defense of the Reich , he claimed his 162nd and last aerial victory and was killed in action by United States Army Air Forces long @-@ range P @-@ 51 Mustang fighters near Schöppenstedt , in Lower Saxony .
= = Early life and career = =
Wilcke was born on 11 March 1913 at Schrimm in the Province of Posen , part of the Kingdom of Prussia at the time , now Śrem in the Greater Poland Voivodeship , Poland . He was the son of a Hauptmann ( captain ) of Infanterie @-@ Regiment 47 ( 47th Infantry Regiment ) , Hans Wilcke , who died of pneumonia when Wilcke was just four weeks of age . His mother , Hertha von Schuckmann , married again on 14 June 1919 . In 1931 , Wilcke was arrested for attending a then @-@ illegal demonstration of the Nazi Party . Although his loyalty to the Nazi cause is emphasized multiple times in his personal military files , according to biographers Prien and Stemmer , he was a firm opponent of the National Socialist regime ; later in his career , for a time after taking command of III . Gruppe ( 3rd group ) of Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) , he had the Swastikas on his unit 's aircraft painted over . He volunteered for military service in the Reichswehr after receiving his Abitur ( diploma ) . He joined Artillerie @-@ Regiment 6 ( 6th Artillery Regiment ) in Minden as a Fahnenjunker ( officer cadet ) on 1 April 1934 . His legal guardian and stepfather , Friedrich von Scotti , also served in this regiment .
As a Fähnrich ( officer candidate ) , Wilcke was posted to the Kriegsschule ( war school ) in Dresden on 1 October 1934 . On 1 November 1935 , he was transferred to the newly emerging Luftwaffe holding the rank of Oberfähnrich ( senior officer candidate ) . On 20 April 1936 , while serving at the flight school in Perleberg , he was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) . On 15 October he was transferred to Jagdgeschwader " Richthofen " ( Fighter Wing " Richthofen " ) , also known as Jagdgeschwader 132 ( JG 132 — 132nd Fighter Wing ) , named after the World War I fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen and forerunner of Jagdgeschwader 2 ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) " Richthofen " . There he excelled as a pilot and showed exceptional leadership ability and was sent as fighter pilot instructor to the Jagdfliegerschule ( fighter pilot school ) in Werneuchen in the second half of 1937 .
In March 1939 , Wilcke volunteered for service with the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War . For a few weeks , he flew with 1 . Staffel ( 1st squadron ) of Jagdgruppe 88 ( J / 88 — 88th Fighter Group ) without claiming any aerial victories . He was awarded the Spanish Cross in Bronze with Swords for his service in Spain . In Spain he became friends with Werner Mölders and when Mölders was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of the newly created III . Gruppe of JG 53 , he selected Wilcke as Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of the 7 . Staffel ( 7th squadron ) of JG 53 .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday , 1 September 1939 , when German forces invaded Poland . Wilcke , who at the time was still a member of 3 . Staffel ( 3rd squadron ) of JG 53 , flew missions over Poland . He claimed his first aerial victory on 7 November 1939 over the Western Front when he shot down an Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) Potez 630 , a twin @-@ engined fighter , near Völklingen during the Phoney War . For this achievement he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class on 25 November 1939 .
From 2 – 16 January 1940 , Wilcke and other pilots from III . Gruppe went on a ski vacation to the Vorarlberg . On 11 March 1940 , he shot down another Potez at an altitude of 7 @,@ 000 meters ( 23 @,@ 000 feet ) near the " three @-@ nations @-@ corner " north of Metz . He claimed his third victory at 2 : 55 pm on 25 March . 7 . Staffel engaged a flight of Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 at 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . In the resulting aerial battle , Wilcke shot down one of the Moranes over Diedenhofen .
= = = Battle of France and Britain = = =
The Battle of France , the German invasion of France and the Low Countries , began on 10 May 1940 . On 18 May 1940 , he engaged in aerial combat with eight French Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawk fighter aircraft and was shot down west of Rethel . His victor may have been sous lieutenant Camille Plubeau . Wilcke bailed out and was taken prisoner of war . Following the armistice with France , he and Mölders , who had also been a prisoner of war , returned to the unit on 30 June 1940 . Wilcke was promoted to Hauptmann the next day and again took command of 7 . Staffel . On 11 July 1940 , he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class .
On 13 August 1940 , during the Battle of Britain , Wilcke replaced Hauptmann Harro Harder as Gruppenkommandeur of the III . Gruppe . Harder had been last seen at 1 : 35 pm on 12 August and was reported as missing in action following combat east of the Isle of Wight . The day of his appointment , Wilcke almost lost his life as well , when he was forced to bail out after engine failure over the English Channel . He was rescued that night by a Dornier Do 18 flying boat . III . Gruppe flew a bomber escort mission targeting London on 30 August . Wilcke destroyed a barrage balloon on the morning mission and claimed his fourth victory , a Supermarine Spitfire in the vicinity of Dover during his second mission of the day . On 1 September 1940 , on another bomber escort mission that started at 11 : 20 am , Wilcke claimed his fifth victory , a Hawker Hurricane , south of London . He claimed his sixth victory , probably a Fairey Swordfish biplane , on 11 September over the Channel between Dover and Calais .
On 15 September 1940 , III . Gruppe engaged 20 to 30 Royal Air Force ( RAF ) fighters south of London . In the resulting combat , Wilcke claimed the destruction of his second Hurricane . Two days later , on a mission that began at 4 : 35 pm , Wilcke achieved his ninth victory , another Hurricane . He claimed his tenth victory , again a Hurricane , on a mission targeting the London area that took off at 11 : 15 am on 20 September . On the last day of September 1940 , he claimed two more victories to bring his total to 12 ; the action took place during his second mission of the day , which began at 1 : 45 pm , escorting Dornier Do 17s to London . In combat with RAF Spitfires , Wilcke claimed his 13th victory at 11 : 45 am on 10 October 1940 , his final of the Battle of Britain . In recognition of these achievements he was awarded the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) on 1 April 1941 .
= = = Operation Barbarossa = = =
On 8 June 1941 , the bulk of JG 53 's air elements moved via Jever , in northern Germany , to Mannheim @-@ Sandhofen . There the aircraft were given a maintenance overhaul prior to moving east . On 12 June , III . Gruppe was ordered to transfer to a forward airfield at Sobolewo . On 21 June , the Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 53 and its Gruppenkommandeure were summoned to nearby Suwałki , where Generalfeldmarschall ( field marshal ) Albert Kesselring gave the final instructions for the upcoming attack . Wilcke briefed his pilots that evening .
On 22 June , the Geschwader crossed into Soviet airspace in support of Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union , which opened the Eastern Front . III . Gruppe took off on its first mission at 3 : 20 am with the Gruppenstab ( headquarters unit ) and 7 . Staffel targeting Soviet airfields at Alytus and Oranji . Wilcke shot down three Polikarpov I @-@ 15 biplane fighter aircraft . The second mission of the day by III . Gruppe was a Stuka escort mission to Grodno at 6 : 00 am , during which Wilcke claimed another victory . He led another attack at 4 : 10 pm ; while strafing airfields , he claimed his fifth aerial victory of the day , an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " achievement , taking his total to 18 .
On 25 June 1941 , JG 53 was relocated with III . Gruppe arriving at Vilnius at 8 : 30 am . The same day , Wilcke was slightly injured when he collided with another aircraft during takeoff . He claimed his 19th victory on the evening of 30 June 1941 , flying a combat air patrol into the Barysaw area . Wilcke was ordered to form " Gefechtsverband Wilcke " ( " Battle Group Wilcke " ) on 1 July 1941 . He commanded his III . Gruppe and II . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 52 ( JG 52 — 52nd Fighter Wing ) to counter @-@ attack Soviet bombers . On 9 July , Wilcke destroyed a Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 ground attack aircraft . He claimed a victory on 25 July during fighter escort missions in the Vyazma area . On 29 July 1941 , III . Gruppe provided fighter cover for the German armored spearheads in the Dukhovshchina area . During this mission , Wilcke claimed another victory . The next day , over the spearheads at Yartsevo @-@ Bely , Wilcke shot down a Polikarpov I @-@ 180 fighter . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 6 August 1941 for 25 victories . Both Wilcke and Leutnant Herbert Schramm were decorated by Kesselring on 9 August 1941 .
On 23 August 1941 , the 9th Army began its assault on the Soviet forces in the Velikiye Luki area . Wilcke claimed two aerial victories while supporting these operations . III . Gruppe began returning to Germany in early October 1941 . The air elements left the Soviet Union on 4 October , while the ground units were transported back by train to Mannheim on 13 October . Since 22 June 1941 , III . Gruppe had claimed 769 aerial victories for the loss of 6 pilots killed , 7 missing in action , 2 captured and 12 wounded .
= = = North Africa and Malta = = =
After its return to Germany , III . Gruppe was deployed to the Mediterranean Theater . The ground elements of III . Gruppe arrived in Catania in Sicily on 28 November 1941 . Wilcke and his adjutant Jürgen Harder arrived on 2 December , with the rest of the Gruppe arriving the next day . On 6 December 1941 , III . Gruppe was ordered to move to Timimi in Libya . Wilcke claimed his 34th aerial victory on 11 December , during a fighter escort mission for Junkers Ju 88 bombers attacking Bir Hakeim .
III . Gruppe relocated back to Sicily on 17 December 1941 for operations in the Siege of Malta . The island of Malta had a strategically important position in the Mediterranean Sea . With the opening of a new front in North Africa in mid @-@ 1940 , British air and sea forces based on the island could attack Axis ships transporting vital supplies and reinforcements from Europe to North Africa . To counter this threat , the Luftwaffe and the Regia Aeronautica ( Italian Royal Air Force ) conducted bombing raids to neutralize the RAF defenses and the ports . During the siege , Wilcke claimed four victories over RAF fighters in April – May 1942 . He claimed his first victory during the siege , and 35th overall , over a Spitfire fighter on 2 April 1942 . His 36th aerial victory on 22 April may have been Hurricane ( Z4011 ) " B " of No. 185 Squadron flown by Pilot Officer " Sonny " Ormrod , who was killed in the engagement . On 12 May 1942 , III . Gruppe destroyed nine Spitfires , among them one by Wilcke .
= = = Wing commander of JG 3 = = =
On 18 May 1942 , Wilcke was transferred to Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet " ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) , named after the World War I fighter ace Ernst Udet . Operating on the Eastern Front , Wilke became a Geschwaderkommodore of JG 3 " Udet " on 11 August , replacing Oberst ( Colonel ) Günther Lützow , who was posted to the staff of the General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) as Inspector of the Day Fighters on the Eastern Front . Operating from the Chuguyev Airfield , JG 3 " Udet " saw combat in the Kharkov area , present @-@ day Kharkiv , during the Second Battle of Kharkov . On 26 June 1942 , JG 3 " Udet " was assembled at Schtschigry on the southern sector of the Eastern Front for the upcoming summer offensive , supporting the Wehrmacht 's advance towards Stalingrad . In the following months , JG 3 " Udet " was based at airfields at Gorshechnoye , Olkhovatka , Millerovo , Nowy @-@ Cholan , Frolovo , Tuzov and Pitomnik .
On 13 June 1942 , Wilcke claimed his first victory with JG 3 " Udet " , shooting down a Lavochkin @-@ Gorbunov @-@ Gudkov LaGG @-@ 3 fighter for his 39th victory . He followed this with another LaGG @-@ 3 on 22 June , and a LaGG @-@ 3 and a Polikarpov R @-@ 5 reconnaissance bomber on 24 June 1942 . On 3 July 1942 , he claimed three Douglas Boston medium bombers , followed by two LaGG @-@ 3s and another Boston the next day . He became an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " again on 6 July , shooting down a Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobra , a LaGG @-@ 3 , an R @-@ 5 and three Hurricanes . Three days later , he shot down two Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 Sturmovik ground @-@ attack aircraft and , on 10 July , four more Bostons . The next day , he claimed another R @-@ 5 and two Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 1 fighters . On 12 July , he again claimed an R @-@ 5 and two LaGG @-@ 3s before he shot down another LaGG @-@ 3 on 18 July . On 24 July he was credited with a Polikarpov I @-@ 153 biplane fighter and two days later two Hurricanes and two Pe @-@ 2s . On both 27 and 28 July he claimed victory over a LaGG @-@ 3 , his last victories in July 1942 .
Wilcke 's first victories in August 1942 , a Sukhoi Su @-@ 2 light bomber followed by two LaGG @-@ 3s , occurred on 5 and 6 August . On 9 August he filed a victory claim for an unknown aircraft type , bringing his " score " to 79 aerial victories . He took command of JG 3 " Udet " and achieved his first victory as Geschwaderkommodore on 12 August , again over an unknown type of aircraft . He claimed eight further victories of unknown types , two on 13 August , one on 17 August , three on 20 August , and two on 23 August . His first victory on 26 August was identified as a Yakovlev Yak @-@ 7 fighter , the other two that day were again unknown types . Another series of unidentified aircraft shot down followed . He claimed one aircraft destroyed on 28 August , one more on 30 August and four on 31 August , taking his total to 96 aerial victories by the end of August 1942 . Wilcke claimed his next two victories on 3 September and two more on 6 September , all four of unknown types of aircraft . This brought his total to 100 aerial victories . Wilcke was the 20th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . On 9 September 1942 , he became the 122nd officer or soldier of the Wehrmacht honored with the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves .
= = = Battle of Stalingrad = = =
From 10 – 19 September 1942 , Wilcke claimed another series of victories over aircraft of unknown type , which included one on 10 September , one on 12 September , four on 18 September and two on 19 September . On 16 September 1942 , the Soviets launched an offensive north of Stalingrad . Wilcke led about 40 serviceable German fighters against the Soviet 8 Vozdyshnaya Armiya ( 8 VA — 8th Air Army ) , 16 Vozdyshnaya Armiya ( 16 VA — 16th Air Army ) , and 102 Istrebitel 'naya Aviatsionnaya Diviziya Protivo @-@ Vozdushnaya Oborona ( 102 IAD PVO — Fighter Aviation Division of the Home Air Defense ) over Stalingrad . At the time , Wilcke often flew with Hauptmann Walther Dahl as his wingman . On 20 September 1942 , Wilcke shot down two LaGG @-@ 3s . Two days later , he shot down six Yakovlev Yak @-@ 1 fighters over Stalingrad , his third " ace @-@ in @-@ day " feat , taking his total to 116 aerial victories . It is possible that one of his opponents was Leytenant ( Second Lieutenant ) Nikolai Karnachyonok of 434 Istrebitel 'nyy Aviatsionyy Polk ( 434 IAP — 434th Fighter Aviation Regiment ) , who was killed in action that day and was posthumously made a Hero of the Soviet Union .
The Geschwaderstab ( headquarters unit ) was based at the Pitomnik Airfield from 23 September to 21 November 1942 . There Wilcke directed fighter operations for the Battle of Stalingrad . During the previous offensive towards Stalingrad , the Geschwaderstab of JG 3 " Udet " had claimed 137 victories , of which 97 victories were credited to Wilcke . While based at Pitomnik , Wilcke claimed four victories on 24 September , one on 25 September , three on 28 September , four on 29 September , one on 3 October and two more on 24 October . On 25 and 26 October he claimed one victory on each day and his final two while based at Pitomnik on 1 November 1942 , taking his personal total to 135 victories . For these achievements he received the German Cross in Gold , awarded on 3 November 1942 .
In the aftermath of the encirclement of the 6th Army on 23 November 1942 , the Geschwaderstab was moved to Morozovskaya @-@ West , outside the Stalingrad pocket . Wilcke organized fighter escort missions for the transport aircraft delivering supplies for the 6th Army . Pressed by the advancing Soviet armored spearheads , Morozovskaya @-@ West had to be abandoned by the Geschwaderstab on 23 December , and the aircraft were moved to Morozovskaya @-@ South , which was not yet threatened by the Soviet Army . On 3 January 1943 , this airfield had to be abandoned as well and the Geschwaderstab was relocated to Tazinskaya , there it remained until the fighting over the Stalingrad pocket ended . During this period the Geschwaderstab claimed 25 victories , 21 by Wilcke and 4 by Dahl , for the loss in action of two pilots .
Wilcke claimed two victories on 24 November 1942 , an Il @-@ 2 Sturmovik and a Yak @-@ 1 , his first victories in support of the Stalingrad pocket . On 30 November he claimed the destruction of three aircraft of unknown type , one more on 2 December , and three more on 8 December . Four victories claimed on 12 December , one Lavochkin La @-@ 5 and three Yak @-@ 1s , took his total to 148 aerial victories . Wilcke became the fourth German fighter pilot to achieve 150 aerial victories in combat . He achieved this mark on 17 December 1942 , claiming victories 149 – 151 . The next day he claimed victory over three more aircraft . Following this 154th victory , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 23 December 1943 , the 23rd member of the Wehrmacht to be so honored . Along with the Swords came the ban from flying further operational combat missions . Although banned from flying , he was credited with two more victories on the Eastern Front , a Yak @-@ 1 on 28 December and an aircraft of unknown type on 5 January 1943 .
In March 1943 , Wilcke led Geschwaderstab and II. and III . Gruppe during operations against the Kuban bridgehead as part of the IV . Fliegerkorps ( 4th Air Corps ) . In early May 1943 , the Geschwaderstab was ordered out of actions and returned to München @-@ Gladbach , present @-@ day Mönchengladbach . Wilcke had only the Geschwaderstab and I. Gruppe under his effective command and no further combat missions were flown until October 1943 .
= = = Defense of the Reich and death = = =
Wilcke was promoted to Oberst on 1 December 1943 and requested permission to fly operationally and lead his Geschwader from the air . In February 1944 , although still officially banned from flying operations , Wilcke ignored the order and flew several missions leading his Stabsschwarm against the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) in Defense of the Reich missions . He claimed his 157th victory , over a Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning , on 10 February and his 158th , over a Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator , on 24 February . He shot down two Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers on 4 March 1944 , his 159th and 160th aerial victories . On 6 March , his Bf 109G @-@ 6 was crippled in aerial combat and he made an emergency landing at Neuruppin . Combat on 6 March cost both sides heavy losses . The Eighth Air Force lost 75 four @-@ engined bombers and 14 escort fighters , the Luftwaffe lost 65 aircraft ; 36 German pilots were killed and 27 wounded .
On 23 March 1944 , Wilcke led JG 3 " Udet " against a USAAF bomber formation near Braunschweig . On this day , the USAAF was attacking aircraft factories at Braunschweig and other targets of opportunity in Münster , Osnabrück and Achmer . In total , the Eighth Air Force had committed 768 B @-@ 17s and B @-@ 24s bombers to this attack , supported by 841 long @-@ range fighters . The Luftwaffe countered this attack with 13 day fighter Gruppen , mustering 259 fighters on this day . Following combat , the Luftwaffe claimed the destruction of 51 enemy aircraft , including 44 four @-@ engined bombers . The Luftwaffe suffered 16 pilots killed and six wounded as well as 33 aircraft lost . The USAAF admitted the loss of 29 bombers and 5 escort fighters while claiming 62 German aircraft shot down and another 2 destroyed on the ground .
During this engagement , Wilcke shot down a B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bomber and a North American P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter , but was then shot down in his Bf 109G @-@ 6 ( Werknummer 160 613 — factory number ) near Schöppenstedt . It is assumed that the victors were Captain Don Gentile and Captain John Trevor Godfrey of the 4th Fighter Group . By this date , Wilcke had claimed 162 enemy aircraft in 732 combat missions . His death was announced in the Wehrmachtbericht , an information bulletin issued by the headquarters of the Wehrmacht , on 30 March .
Wilcke had been nicknamed " Fürst " ( prince ) by his comrades on account of his attitude towards his men and paternal sense of responsibility . He had also been very conscious of his style and appearance and wore a very expensive and custom tailored leather coat , a trade which also added to his perception and fostered the nickname . His funeral ceremony was held at the airfield in München @-@ Gladbach . Among others , the funeral ceremony was attended by his stepfather . Wilcke was buried in the honor section of the cemetery in Mönchengladbach @-@ Holt .
= = Awards = =
Spanish Cross in Bronze with Swords
Wound Badge in Black
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 700 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 25 November 1939 )
1st Class ( 11 July 1940 )
Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( 1 April 1941 )
German Cross in Gold on 3 November 1942 as Major in Jagdgeschwader 3
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 6 August 1941 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / Jagdgeschwader 53
122nd Oak Leaves on 9 September 1942 as Hauptmann and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet "
23rd Swords on 23 December 1942 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet "
Mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht
= Rocky Balboa ( film ) =
Rocky Balboa is a 2006 American sports drama film written , directed by , and starring Sylvester Stallone who reprises his role as the title character . It is the sixth installment in the Rocky franchise with Balboa in retirement , a widower living in Philadelphia , and the owner and operator of a local Italian restaurant called " Adrian 's " , named after his late wife .
According to Stallone , he was " negligent " in the production of Rocky V , leaving him and many of the fans disappointed with the presumed end of the series . Stallone also mentioned that the storyline of Rocky Balboa parallels his own struggles and triumphs in recent times .
The film also stars Burt Young as Paulie , Rocky 's brother @-@ in @-@ law in his last appearance in the Rocky series and real @-@ life boxer Antonio Tarver as Mason " The Line " Dixon , the current World Heavyweight Champion in the film . Boxing promoter Lou DiBella plays himself and acts as Dixon 's promoter in the film . Milo Ventimiglia plays Rocky 's son Robert , now an adult . A pair of minor characters from the original film return in larger roles : Marie , the young woman that Rocky attempts to steer away from trouble , and Spider Rico , the first opponent Rocky is shown fighting in the 1976 film . There are many references to people and events from previous installments in the series , especially the first .
The film was released on December 20 , 2006 , by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , Columbia Pictures and Revolution Studios . It exceeded box office expectations and critical reaction was positive . Rocky Balboa was released in several formats for its home media release , and DVD sales have exceeded $ 34 million . The film was followed by a sequel / spin @-@ off , Creed , released November 25 , 2015 .
= = Plot = =
Former Philadelphia boxer Rocky Balboa has been retired from boxing for 16 years and lives a quiet life as a widower following the death of his wife , Adrian Pennino Balboa , due to cancer four years earlier . He runs a small but successful Italian restaurant named after her , where he regales his patrons with stories of his past . He also battles personal demons involving his grief over Adrian 's death , the changing times , and his eroding relationship with his son Robert , a struggling corporate employee . Paul " Paulie " Pennino , Rocky 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and best friend , continues to keep by his side , but is tired of reliving the past .
Late one night , Rocky reunites with a much @-@ older " Little " Marie , a once mischievous neighborhood girl Rocky met when she was a child , now working as a bartender at Rocky 's former neighborhood bar , the Lucky Seven . She is a single parent of a teenaged son born out of wedlock : Stephenson , nicknamed " Steps " . Rocky 's friendship with the two blossoms over the following weeks . Marie becomes a hostess at his restaurant and Steps takes to him as a father figure .
Meanwhile , on the professional boxing circuit , Mason " The Line " Dixon reigns as the undisputed yet unpopular world heavyweight champion . ESPN broadcasts a computer simulation of a fight between Rocky ( in his prime ) and Mason — likened to a modern @-@ day version of The Super Fight , a 1970 computer simulation of a 15 @-@ round fight between Rocky Marciano and Muhammad Ali in their prime ( that Marciano " won " by a KO in the 13th round ) — which ends in a controversial KO victory for Balboa , riling the champ . In contrast , the simulation inspires Rocky to take up boxing again — an intention that goes public when he successfully renews his license . Dixon 's promoters pitch the idea of holding a charity exhibition bout at the Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino in Las Vegas to bolster Dixon 's falling popularity .
With some hesitation , both men agree to the match , creating a media buzz that stabs at Rocky 's has @-@ been status and Dixon 's credibility ; Dixon having yet to face a challenging opponent . Robert later makes an effort to discourage Rocky from fighting , blaming his own personal failings on his father 's celebrity shadow , but Rocky rebukes him with some advice : that to succeed in life , " it ain 't about how hard you hit ; it 's about how hard you can get hit , and keep moving forward " , and that blaming others won 't help him . The next day , father and son meet over Adrian 's grave and reconcile ; Robert has quit his job to be at Rocky 's side . Rocky sets straight to training with Apollo Creed 's old trainer Duke who quickly surmises that the slow and arthritic Rocky cannot depend on sparring as he did in the past , and can only compete by building his strength and punching power as much as possible , focusing on " blunt force trauma " to pound his opponent .
The fight becomes an HBO Pay @-@ per @-@ View event billed as " Will Vs . Skill . " Rocky is given little chance , and a TV commentator jokes that it is being called an " exhibition " because it can 't be called an " execution . " But Rocky enters the ring to the tune of Frank Sinatra 's " High Hopes " and wearing the same gold @-@ trimmed black trunks he wore when he beat Apollo Creed and the large crowd is clearly in his corner .
Dixon easily dominates the first round , only to injure his left hand against Rocky 's hip in the second . Rocky makes a dramatic comeback ; he manages to knock Dixon down once and then continues to surprise the audience with his prowess and chin against the younger and faster fighter . Dixon , unprepared for Rocky 's resilience , sends Rocky to one knee in the final round , but the elder fighter pulls himself to his feet for one last assault . The two continue to punish each other until the end . Rocky thanks an appreciative Dixon for the fight and leaves the ring to the adulation of the crowd before the result is even announced . It is a win for Mason Dixon by a narrow split decision , but Rocky clearly does not mind .
Back in Philadelphia , Rocky brings roses to Adrian 's grave again , thanking her for helping him .
= = Cast = =
Sylvester Stallone as Rocky Balboa : Retired boxing legend and former two @-@ time Heavyweight Champion of the World . After a virtual @-@ match created by ESPN determines that if Rocky ( in his prime ) fought the current Heavyweight Champion , Mason Dixon , he would win - publicity and attention from the media , brings Rocky out of retirement to again enter the ring .
Burt Young as Paulie Pennino : Rocky 's moody brother @-@ in @-@ law , best friend and Adrian 's brother .
Milo Ventimiglia as Robert " Rocky " Balboa , Jr . : Rocky and Adrian 's only son .
Geraldine Hughes as Marie : A woman whom Rocky originally met over thirty years ago ( as seen in the first installment of the movie series ) , who becomes a friend , and supporter of Rocky 's return to boxing .
James Francis Kelly III as Stephenson " Steps " : Marie 's son , whom Rocky befriends .
Tony Burton as Tony " Duke " Evers : Rocky 's trainer who has been his head cornerman since Balboa 's second fight with James " Clubber " Lang in Rocky III . Duke previously trained Apollo Creed , who was Rocky 's opponent in the first two films and later his friend in the third and fourth films .
Antonio Tarver as Mason " The Line " Dixon : Reigning Heavyweight Champion of the World , who challenges Rocky to a fight , after the attention of a virtual @-@ match says that Rocky would win . Dixon is shown as the current undisputed heavyweight champion of the world , but a fighter who is not shown the same respect as Rocky was when he was the world champion .
Henry G. Sanders as Martin , Dixon 's trainer .
Pedro Lovell as Spider Rico : Former local club boxer and opponent of Rocky 's early career . With the two now friends , Spider has become a strong Christian , eats for free , and works as dish @-@ washer at Rocky 's restaurant .
Jacob " Stitch " Duran as himself : Dixon 's cut @-@ man .
Mike Tyson makes a cameo appearance at ringside during the Rocky vs. Dixon match . Also appearing are ring announcer Michael Buffer , referee Joe Cortez , ESPN 's Woody Paige , Skip Bayless , Jay Crawford , Brian Kenny , and Dana Jacobson , and HBO 's Jim Lampley , Larry Merchant , and Max Kellerman .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Following the negative reception and poor box office performance of Rocky V , Stallone felt obligated to give his Rocky Balboa character a more proper closure . He began pitching his ideas to MGM studio executives in 1996 but was repeatedly turned down . After Harry E. Sloan became chairman of MGM in 2005 , the new studio executive and his team were willing to listen . Stallone also gained an ally in Revolution Studios president Joe Roth .
= = = Budget and timeline = = =
Filming began in December 2005 in Las Vegas , Nevada . In 2006 , it moved to Los Angeles , California and Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The production budget on the 38 @-@ day shoot was projected to be $ 24 million . The film was scheduled for release during the President 's Day holiday in 2007 , but was moved up to right before Christmas 2006 . In late March 2006 , the first movie teaser was released on the Internet . The full @-@ length trailer accompanied the theatrical release of Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest on July 7 in select theaters .
= = = Casting = = =
The film gives nods to previous installments via the casting . The most obvious is the return of Stallone , Young , and Burton : the only actors to portray the same characters in all six installments . Tarver 's appearance marks the sixth time an active professional boxer has appeared in the series . Previously , Joe Frazier ( Rocky ) , Pedro Lovell ( Rocky ) , Roberto Durán ( Rocky II ) , Tommy Morrison ( Rocky V ) , and Michael Williams ( Rocky V ) have appeared in the series . Stallone initially wanted Roy Jones , Jr. to portray Dixon , but after Jones did not return Stallone 's phone calls , he tapped Tarver to fill the role . The character of Marie appeared in the original Rocky ; she was portrayed by Jodi Letizia . For this film , Marie is portrayed by Geraldine Hughes . ( Letizia did reprise the role for Rocky V , but her scene was deleted . In that version , Marie was homeless on the streets of Philadelphia . ) Another recognizable character who appeared in the previous five films , sportscaster Stu Nahan , provided the commentary for the computer @-@ generated fight between Dixon and Balboa . Nahan was part of the ringside commentary team during all the bouts in the first three films and the Apollo Creed / Ivan Drago fight in Rocky IV ; he was then one of the members of the press , seen asking questions to Rocky upon return from Russia in Rocky V at the start of the movie , and then again towards the end with new champion Tommy Gunn . He was diagnosed with lymphoma during the Rocky Balboa filming , though , and died on December 26 , 2007 . Finally , Pedro Lovell , who portrayed Spider Rico in the original film , returns to the role in Rocky Balboa as a guest and later employee at Rocky 's restaurant .
A number of sports personalities portray themselves . Jim Lampley , Larry Merchant , and Max Kellerman comprise the ringside broadcast team ( all three were commentators for HBO Boxing at the time of the film 's release ) . Sportswriters such as Bert Sugar , Bernard Fernandez and Steve Springer also appear . As for actual boxers , Mike Tyson ( who had retired by the film 's release ) makes a cameo appearance , taunting Dixon as the fighter enters the ring . Lou DiBella , a real @-@ life boxing promoter , portrays himself as Dixon 's promoter . Several of ESPN 's personalities also portray themselves . SportsCenter anchor ( and Friday Night Fights host ) Brian Kenny is the host of the fictional Then and Now series , while Cold Pizza and 1st and 10 hosts Jay Crawford , Dana Jacobson , Skip Bayless , and Woody Paige also appear . Ring announcer Michael Buffer appeared as himself , as did referee Joe Cortez .
Regarding his decision not to have Talia Shire reprise her role as Adrian , Stallone told USA Today that , " in the original script , she was alive . But it just didn 't have the same dramatic punch . I thought , ' What if she 's gone ? ' That would cut Rocky 's heart out and drop him down to ground zero " . Shire herself said that , in her view , " The film has great regard for the process of mourning . Sly utilizes mourning to empower Rocky , and Adrian is made very mythical . "
= = = Music = = =
Composed by Academy Award winner Bill Conti , the Rocky Balboa film score is both an updated composition of Rocky music and a tribute to the music that has been featured in previous Rocky films . Conti , who has acted as composer on every Rocky film except Rocky IV ( which was instead helmed by Vince DiCola when Conti had other commitments at the time ) , chose to compose the score almost entirely from musical themes used in the previous movies . Only one original theme was written specifically for Rocky Balboa , which is the theme written to represent the character of Marie .
The roughly 40 @-@ minute score was recorded in the summer of 2006 at Capitol Studios in Hollywood , California . Conti chose to pre @-@ record the string , brass , and piano tracks and then have those tracks mixed with the work of a 44 @-@ piece orchestra which he conducted . He also performed all of the piano work himself which is something he has done with each movie for which he has composed the score . Stallone also was involved in every part of the process and attended several of the recording sessions . A soundtrack album entitled Rocky Balboa : The Best of Rocky was released by Capitol Records on December 26 , 2006 to coincide with the release of the film , though most of its tracks originate from previous Rocky installments .
In addition to the score , the film features original tracks performed by Natasha Bedingfield , Three 6 Mafia , and Frank Stallone as well as classic tracks such as Frank Sinatra 's " High Hopes " and The Miracles ' " Ooh Baby Baby " . Of the original tracks , the most significant is the Diane Warren song " Still Here " , performed by Bedingfield , which was reported to be the film 's theme in early articles . Though it is still listed in the credits , the song was dropped from the film .
= = Inconsistencies = =
= = = Continuity = = =
A plot element from the fifth film is not addressed in Rocky Balboa 's plot . In the previous film , Rocky was diagnosed with brain damage and advised never to fight again . Stallone clarified this apparent inconsistency in an interview , remarking :
" When Rocky was diagnosed with brain damage , it must be noted that many athletes have a form of brain damage including football players , soccer players , and other individuals in contact sports such as rugby , etc . Rocky never went for a second opinion and yielded to his wife 's wishes to stop . So with the advent of new research techniques into brain damage , Rocky was found to be normal among fighters , and he was suffering the results of a severe concussion . By today 's standards Rocky Balboa would be given a clean bill of health for fighters . "
= = = Cinematography and fight choreography = = =
While the dramatic portions of the movie are shot in an obviously cinematic style , the bout between Balboa and Dixon is shot in a number of different ways . The lead @-@ in to the bout , as well as the first two rounds , are shot in a style similar to a major pay @-@ per @-@ view broadcast . Clips from fights in previous Rocky movies are used during the introductory teaser to introduce Balboa , while stock footage from actual Tarver fights , as well as footage from Dixon 's previous fight ( shown at the beginning of the film ) are used as clips for Dixon 's part of the teaser . The fight itself was shot in high definition to further enhance the TV @-@ style look of the fight .
After the first two rounds , the bout is shot in a more " cinematic " style , reminiscent of the way the fights in the other Rocky films were shot . However , unlike the other films in the series , the fight is less choreographed and more improvised than previous installments and is closer to an actual boxing match than a choreographed fight . This is a departure from the previous films , where every punch , feint , and step was carefully scripted and practiced .
There were also slight continuity problems during the filming of the final fight . This was said to have been due to the fact that real punches were thrown by both Stallone and Tarver , resulting in some swelling and nosebleeds occurring earlier than scripted . " When you see the outtakes you 'll actually see Antonio [ Tarver ] coming up and hooking me , blasting me , and then he starts laughing in hysterics , " explained Stallone . " Then he said " What are you crazy ? ! " And I said " Look , I just couldn 't get out of the way , I didn 't want to get hit . " Just slow . You see it coming , you go " Move head ... head , move ... move . "
= = = Alternate ending = = =
While Rocky loses by split decision in the original theatrical screenplay ( mirroring the ending of the original Rocky ) , an alternative ending was filmed in which the third and final judge 's decision goes in favor of Rocky , making him the winner . The speaker starts " and still ... " for which Dixon enthuses while he continues " still ... Philadelphia 's undisputed heavyweight champion Rocky Balboa ! " . Dixon 's crew jeers while the crowd roars , but Dixon himself is still gracious even in defeat . From there , the ending continues the same as in the original .
= = Distribution = =
Rocky Balboa represents a partnership between Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , Revolution Studios , and Columbia Pictures ( Columbia 's corporate parent Sony holds a 20 % stake in MGM ) . Since the Rocky series was originally produced and distributed by United Artists ( now MGM 's subsidiary studio ) , the partners jointly decided that the film could and should take advantage of MGM 's newly reinvigorated domestic distribution apparatus . 20th Century Fox handles its theatrical and DVD distributions outside of the United States and Canada , while Sony Pictures Home Entertainment handled its American and Canadian video distributions . Television syndication rights are held by Debmar @-@ Mercury and 20th Television under license from Revolution . In the Philippines and Switzerland , Fox released the film through joint ventures with Warner Bros. Entertainment . In Japan , the film was promoted by Fox as Rocky : The Final . It opened across Japan on April 20 , 2007 .
= = = Home release = = =
Rocky Balboa is available in three formats : Blu @-@ ray Disc , DVD , and UMD . It was released in Region 1 on March 20 and Region 2 on May 21 , 2007 . The film has made $ 35 @,@ 622 @,@ 998 in DVD sales . Features on the Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD include : Deleted scenes along with an alternate ending , bloopers , a commentary , and several featurettes . In addition , the Blu @-@ ray version features all of the DVD 's content in 1080p high definition video .
= = = Video game = = =
On December 13 , 2006 , it was officially announced by Ubisoft and MGM that a new Rocky video game , titled Rocky Balboa , was to be made exclusively for the PlayStation Portable handheld console . It was released on March 20 , 2007 , to coincide with the Blu @-@ ray and DVD release .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film was an unexpected box office success and exceeded studio expectations , grossing over three times the opening night estimates of ( at best ) $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and doing so despite a harsh spell of winter weather . The film not only finished third in its opening weekend , grossing $ 12 @,@ 540 @,@ 000 , but eventually became Stallone 's most successful starring role since 1993 's Cliffhanger and the sixth highest grossing boxing film of all time , topped only by the first four Rocky films and Clint Eastwood 's Million Dollar Baby . Total U.S. box office gross receipts were $ 70 @,@ 269 @,@ 899 while the international gross stands at $ 85 @,@ 449 @,@ 806 , making for a total worldwide gross of $ 155 @,@ 721 @,@ 132 .
= = = Critical response = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a 76 % " Certified Fresh " rating , based on 176 reviews , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 5 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Implausible but entertaining and poignant , Rocky Balboa finds the champ in fighting form for the first time in years " . On Metacritic , the film has a score of 63 out of 100 , based on 36 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
On the television show Ebert & Roeper , both Richard Roeper and guest reviewer Aisha Tyler gave the film a " thumbs up " rating . Among other positive reviews were those from Variety , David Edelstien of New York magazine , Ethan Alter of Premiere Magazine , Victoria Alexander of Filmsinreview.com , Jeanne Aufmuth of Palo Alto Weekly , Brett Buckalew of Filmstew.com , The Hollywood Reporter , and Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly .
Some criticism came from Christy Lemire , who described the film as self @-@ parody . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times also criticized the film 's premise as implausible and derivative , and the plot development as cursory . Colm Andrew of the Manx Independent said the film " captures the look and feel of the first Rocky but becomes too much of a sentimental homage " and overall " there is little point in joining Stallone on this ultimately dull nostalgia trip " .
Stallone was quoted as having told reporters that he would rather " do something that he enjoyed badly , than feel bad about not doing something he enjoyed . "
The film was greeted warmly by the majority of the boxing community , with many experts believing the Rocky character is still a key symbol of the sport and that the boxing scenes were the most realistic of any film . On the DVD , Stallone attributes this to the fact that he used realistic sound effects ( the previous installments had become notorious for their unrealistic and loud sounds of punches landing ) and the fact that both Stallone and Tarver threw real punches at each other .
= Agharta ( album ) =
Agharta is a 1975 live double album by American jazz musician Miles Davis . By the time he recorded the album , Davis was 48 years old and had alienated many in the jazz community while attracting younger rock audiences with his radical electric fusion music . After experimenting with different line @-@ ups , he established a stable live band in 1973 and toured constantly for the next two years , despite physical pain from worsening health issues and emotional instability brought on by substance abuse . During a three @-@ week tour of Japan in 1975 , Davis performed two concerts at the Festival Hall in Osaka on February 1 ; the afternoon show produced Agharta and the evening show was released as Pangaea the following year .
Davis led a septet at the concert ; saxophonist Sonny Fortune , bassist Michael Henderson , and guitarist Pete Cosey were given space to improvise against a dense backdrop of riffs , electronic effects , cross @-@ beats , and funk grooves from the rhythm section — drummer Al Foster , guitarist Reggie Lucas , and percussionist James Mtume . Davis controlled their rhythmic and musical direction with hand and head gestures , phrases played on his wah @-@ wah processed trumpet , and drones from an accompanying electric organ . The evolving nature of the performance led to the widespread misunderstanding that Agharta 's music had no compositional basis .
Agharta was first released in Japan by CBS / Sony in August 1975 just before Davis retired due to increasingly poor health and exhaustion . At the record label 's suggestion , it was titled after the legendary subterranean city . Davis enlisted Japanese artist Tadanori Yokoo to design its artwork , which depicted the cityscape of an advanced civilization with elements inspired by Eastern subterranean myths and Afrofuturism . An alternate cover was produced for the album 's 1976 release in North America by Columbia Records .
A highly divisive record , Agharta further challenged Davis ' jazz audience and was widely panned by contemporary critics ; reviewers found the music discordant , and complained of Cosey 's loud guitar sounds and Davis ' sparse trumpet playing . It was reevaluated positively in subsequent years , while a generation of younger musicians was influenced by the band 's abrasive music and cathartic playing , particularly Cosey 's effects @-@ laden free improvisations . Agharta became viewed as an important jazz @-@ rock record , a dramatically dynamic group performance , and the culmination of Davis ' electric period spanning the late 1960s and mid @-@ 1970s .
= = Background = =
In the early 1970s , Miles Davis continued exploring directions radically different from the jazz music that made him renowned in the 1950s and 1960s . The music from this electric period in his career found him experimenting with rock , funk , African rhythms , emerging electronic music technology , and an ever @-@ changing lineup of musicians who played electric instruments . Davis attracted younger audiences as his fusion music became more radical and abstract while alienating older listeners , musicians , and critics in the jazz scene who accused him of selling out . After his 1972 album On the Corner , he began to focus more on performing live , working in the studio only sporadically and haphazardly ; the 1974 releases Big Fun and Get Up with It compiled recordings he made between 1969 and 1974 . By 1973 , Davis had established most of his band 's line @-@ up , a septet featuring bassist Michael Henderson , guitarists Pete Cosey and Reggie Lucas , drummer Al Foster , percussionist James Mtume , and saxophonist Dave Liebman ; Liebman left the group in 1974 and was replaced by Sonny Fortune . Lucas , Foster , and Mtume functioned as the band 's rhythm section , while Cosey , Henderson , and Fortune were given space to improvise as soloists . Their concerts — played frequently at rock venues and festivals — became opportunities for Davis and his sidemen to test new musical ideas and ways to exploit electronic equipment .
Davis toured relentlessly for two years while tolerating intense physical pain and difficulty walking , caused by joint pain from sickle @-@ cell anaemia , badly damaged ankles after a 1972 car wreck , and osteoporosis in his left hip , which had been operated on a decade earlier . He had also developed nodules on his larynx that often left him short of breath , especially when playing the trumpet . To numb the pain , he became increasingly dependent on self @-@ medicating with painkillers , cocaine , and morphine , which combined with his alcohol and recreational drug use led to mood swings ; he would by turns feel vulnerable and hostile . By the end of 1974 , a disappointing showing in Down Beat magazine 's readers poll reinforced to Davis that his reputation had diminished . Unfazed by detractors and personal troubles , he kept his touring schedule intense . " He was like the general looking at the fort and they had a moat and we were going to get in that fort " , Henderson later said . " That was the attitude of the band . We didn 't give a shit what the critics said . People are gonna like what they like , but if you don 't like it , respect it . Respect that I have the right to do what I do . Because with or without you , we 're going to do it anyway . "
In 1975 , the 48 @-@ year old Davis embarked on a three @-@ week tour of Japan ; between January 22 and February 8 , he played 14 concerts in large @-@ hall venues to capacity crowds and enthusiastic reviews . Japanese critic Keizo Takada said Davis was leading his " magnificent and energetic " band just as Duke Ellington had his orchestra : " Miles must be the genius of managing men and bringing out their hidden talent . " Throughout the tour , Davis had been sick with pneumonia and a bleeding ulcer that grew worse , while his hip occasionally and unpredictably slipped out of its socket . Unable to work his trumpet 's volume and effects pedals because of the pain in his legs , he would go down on his knees to press them with his hand during performances . To relieve his pain and perform , Davis used codeine and morphine , smoked , and drank large quantities of Heineken beer . On several occasions , he was able to play two concerts in one day , as he did on February 1 at the Festival Hall in Osaka . " The Japanese people were very beautiful " , Henderson recalled from the concerts . " They came in with their suit and ties on and we proceeded to blow the roof off the suckers with a million amplifiers . " The performances were recorded by Japan 's CBS / Sony record label under the supervision of Teo Macero , Davis ' producer of 15 years . They were released as two double albums — Agharta , featuring the afternoon concert , was first released in Japan in August 1975 and later in North America in 1976 ; the evening show was issued in Japan as Pangaea in 1976 .
= = Composition and performance = =
For the first of the afternoon concert 's two sets , Davis ' septet performed the compositions " Tatu " , " Agharta Prelude " , and " Maiysha " ( from Get Up with It ) , making up Agharta 's first disc of music . The second @-@ set performances of " Right Off " ( from Davis ' 1971 album Jack Johnson ) , " Ife " ( from Big Fun ) , and " Wili ( = For Dave ) " spanned the second disc ; between the " Right Off " and " Ife " segments , the band improvised a passage based on " So What " ( from Davis ' 1959 album Kind of Blue ) for 41 seconds after Henderson started to play its ostinato . The pieces were performed in medleys , which were given generic track titles on the record , such as " Prelude " and " Interlude " . As with his other live releases in the 1970s , Davis refused to have individual compositions specified in the track listing because he felt critics and other listeners often overlooked the music 's intrinsic meaning by indulging in abstract musical analysis . " I 'm not doing anything , it doesn 't need an explanation " , Davis later told Leonard Feather . Music scholars were able to identify the pieces through an examination of what Davis researcher Enrico Merlin called " coded phrases " , which Davis played on trumpet or organ to signify the end of one segment and direct the band toward the next section . He first used such cues and modulations when recording " Flamenco Sketches " in 1959 , Merlin said .
The pieces featured on Agharta were part of a typical set list for the group , but their performances of each sometimes changed almost beyond recognition from concert to concert . This , along with the track names , led to the widespread misunderstanding that the music was mostly or entirely improvised and unstructured . Lucas explained that the band started each performance with a " very defined compositional basis " before developing it further in a highly structured yet " very free way " ; the " Right Off " segment was improvised from the original recording 's E @-@ flat riff . Davis had the band play around a single chord in a piece for several minutes with variations as each member performed in a different time signature ; Foster might have been playing in common time and Mtume in compound duple metre or septuple time , while the guitarists would comp in another tempo altogether . " That 's a lot of intricate shit we were working off this one chord " , Davis remarked . From Lucas ' perspective , this kind of " structured improvisation " resulted in significant interplay between the rhythm section and allowed the band to improvise " a lot more than just the notes that were being played in the solos ; we were improvising the entire song as we went along . "
Like Pangaea and Dark Magus — the two other albums showcasing the septet — Agharta revealed what Amiri Baraka described as Davis ' affinity for minimalism . He abandoned melodic and harmonic conventions in favor of riffs , cross @-@ rhythms , and funk grooves as a backdrop for soloists to improvise throughout . Davis had preferred understated compositions throughout his career but by the mid 1970s he showed a deeper embrace of rhythm , inspired by Afrocentric politics . When Mtume and Cosey joined the band , his live music lost most of its " European sensibilities " and " settled down into a deep African thing , a deep African @-@ American groove " emphasizing rhythm and drums rather than individual solos , Davis said , although he did not completely reject melody . " We ain 't in Africa , and we don 't play just chants . There 's some theory under what we do . " Simon Reynolds , who categorized Agharta as a jazz @-@ rock record , wrote in The Wire that the music " offered a drastic intensification of rock 's three most radical aspects : space , timbre , and groove " . In Martha Bayles ' opinion , it drew from jazz only in its element of free improvisation and from rock only in its use of electronics and " ear @-@ bleeding volume " . The album also showcased Davis ' avant @-@ garde impulses ; according to Greg Tate , the septet created " a pan @-@ ethnic web of avant @-@ garde music " , while Phil Alexander from Mojo said it was " both ambient yet thrashing , melodic yet coruscating " , and suggestive of Karlheinz Stockhausen 's electronic experiments .
During the concert , Davis directed approximately 50 stops or breaks to the band , particularly the rhythm section , by gesturing with his head or hand . These stops served as dramatic turning points in the tension @-@ release structure of the performances , changing their tempo and allowing the band to alternate between quiet passages and intense climaxes . Davis also interjected the performances with drone washes from his Yamaha organ , achieving a " strange , nearly perverse presence " that Mikal Gilmore believed " defined the temper " of the music . Lucas said Davis applied a feel for dynamics he had developed earlier in his career playing jazz but with a greater array of contrasts , including atonal , dissonant chords , and his own bebop trumpet playing set against the group 's funk rhythms . " Extreme textures and extreme volume " , Lucas explained , " were as much part of the palette as the contrasting chord and rhythmic structures . Being equipped like a full rock band , we sometimes literally blew the walls out . " During the " Tatu " and " Agharta Prelude " segments , Davis abruptly stopped and started the septet several times to shift tempos by playing a dissonant , cacophonous organ figure , giving Cosey space to generate eccentric , psychedelic figures and effects . The main theme for " Tatu " had been played at a slower tempo when Cosey first joined Davis ' band , but they played it faster as their rapport grew , especially by the time of the Japanese tour . Cosey credited Davis with having the ability to " transmit thoughts and ideas " to the soloists with his playing .
The rhythmic direction of the music was occasionally interrupted by densely layered percussive and electronic effects , including repeated whirring and grinding sounds . Cosey generated these sounds by running his guitar through a ring modulator and an EMS Synthi A. The latter device was an early synthesizer with knobs and buttons but no keyboard , making it useful for producing abstract noises rather than exact pitches and melodies . He used it to suggest a certain soundscape during each performance , " whether we were in space , or underwater or a group of Africans playing — just different soundscapes " . Onstage , he also had a table set up holding a mbira , claves , agogo bells , and several other hand percussion instruments , which he played or struck with a mallet to indicate a different break or stop . " I would hit them just like they do at [ boxing ] fights ! " , Cosey recalled . His synthesizer sometimes interacted with the experimental sounds Mtume was able to generate from his drum machine , such as during the " Ife " segment . Davis gave the instrument to Mtume after receiving it from Yamaha , the Japanese tour 's sponsor , and told him " see what you can do with it . " Rather than use it to create rhythms , Mtume processed the drum machine through several different pedals and phase shifters such as the Mu @-@ Tron Bi @-@ Phase , creating a sound he said was " total tapestry " .
Unlike Davis ' previous recordings , the cadenzas throughout Agharta were mostly played by Fortune and Cosey . Fortune alternated between soprano and alto saxophones and the flute , performing with a " substance and structure " Gilmore believed was very much indebted to John Coltrane during his A Love Supreme ( 1965 ) period . He performed his longest alto saxophone solo on " Right Off " , which opened the record 's second disc in a " propulsive " segment Gilmore said " flies by like a train ride in a dream , where scenes flash past the window in a fascinating and illusive dream " . Cosey played a Guild S @-@ 100 electric guitar and heavily employed chromaticism , dissonance , and feedback in his improvisations on Agharta . He alternated between several effects pedals set up underneath his table of percussion instruments , including a fuzzbox for distorting guitar sounds and two different wah @-@ wah pedals he used during solos or when playing more mellow tones . Cosey often arranged his guitar strings in different places on the fretboard and never played in standard tuning , using at least 36 different tuning systems , each of which altered the style and sound of his playing . According to Tzvi Gluckin from Premier Guitar , his experimental guitar playing was rooted in the blues and displayed a sense of phrasing that was aggressive and " blistering " yet " somehow also restrained " , particularly in his control of feedback .
Davis had enlisted Cosey to provide his music with sounds from the electric blues and Jimi Hendrix , whose use of distortion and the E @-@ flat tuning was shared by Cosey . According to Charles Shaar Murray , he evoked the guitarist 's echoic , free jazz @-@ inspired solos while Lucas performed in the manner of Hendrix 's more lyrical rhythm and blues songs ; Cosey 's guitar was separated to the left channel and Lucas ' to the right on Agharta . Jazz scholar Stuart Nicholson wrote that Davis utilized his guitarists in a way which realized the " waves of harmonic distortion " Hendrix had explored in his own music . In Murray 's view , the album invoked his influence on Davis more explicitly than any other of his records ; Nicholson considered it to be the " closest approximation " to the music they could have recorded together . Davis veered from succinct and expressive solos to unsentimental wails on his trumpet , which suggested he was still mourning Hendrix 's 1970 death , Murray surmised . That year , Davis had started playing with a wah @-@ wah pedal affixed to his trumpet in order to emulate the register Hendrix achieved on his guitar . By the time of the concert , Davis had developed what Philip Freeman described as " a new tone , the wiggly , shimmering ribbons of sound that are heard on Agharta " , where his wah @-@ wah processed solos often sounded frantic and melancholic , like " twisted streams of raw pain " .
Davis played his trumpet sparsely throughout the concert , often sounding obscured by the rhythm section . His presence on Agharta reflected what John Szwed called " the feel and shape of a musician 's late work , an egoless music that precedes its creator 's death " . Drawing on Theodor W. Adorno 's commentary of Ludwig van Beethoven 's late works , Szwed said " the disappearance of the musician into the work is a bow to mortality . It was as if Miles were testifying to all that he had been witness to for the past thirty years , both terrifying and joyful . " After Lucas ' first and only solo of the show climaxed the " Ife " segment , Davis introduced " Wili ( = For Dave ) " with a few organ chords , culminating in Cosey 's final solo and a trumpet passage by Davis , which Paul Tingen characterized as plaintive and introspective . According to him , live music shows typically developed toward reaching a final climax , but Davis ' concerts " often dissolved into entropy " . On Agharta , Tingen said , a " deep sadness " hung over the music as the energy of the " Wili ( = For Dave ) " piece " slowly drained away " to the record 's fade out . The Japanese CD edition ended with nine more minutes of atmospheric feedback , percussion , and synthesizer sounds .
= = Title and packaging = =
Agharta 's title was proposed by CBS / Sony as a reference to the subterranean utopian city . The city 's legend was one of several Eastern versions of the Hollow Earth theory proposing that an ancient high culture originally lived on the Earth 's surface but was forced to flee below because of some political or geological crisis . The myth depicted the city as a divine source of power , claiming that its inhabitants were highly spiritual , advanced beings who would save the Earth from materialism and destructive technology after a cataclysmic event . It was first conceived by 19th @-@ century French thinker Louis Jacolliot as a land ruled by an Ethiopian ruler ; Alexandre Saint @-@ Yves d 'Alveydre later described it as " drowning in celestial radiances all visible distinctions of race in a single chromatic of light and sound , singularly removed from the usual notions of perspective and acoustics . "
The album 's artwork was designed by Japanese artist Tadanori Yokoo , who had been creating silkscreen prints on themes of Agharta and the mythical kingdom of Shambhala the year before the Festival Hall concert ; his artwork for Carlos Santana 's 1974 album Lotus featured such themes . In the early 1970s , Yokoo had found his growing popularity in Japan distracting and moved to the United States , where he was able to get more of his work published . After returning to Japan , he received a phone call from Davis , who had seen his work and wanted him to create a cover for the Agharta record . Before designing the cover , Yokoo listened to a preliminary tape of the concert , meditated , and reflected on his reading of Raymond W. Bernard 's 1969 book The Hollow Earth . Bernard had written that the city existed in a large cavern in the center of the Earth , while Yokoo said he believed " Agharta could be down there under the sea like Atlantis or even hidden in the jungle like the lost city of El Dorado . " He also drew on elements from other Eastern subterranean myths and Afrofuturism in his design . Critics who eventually saw the album 's packaging thought he had been inspired instead by the psychedelic drugs popular at the time .
The front cover depicted an advanced civilization with a vast landscape of skyscrapers and red , sunburst @-@ like flames rising out of the cityscape as representations of Agharta 's power . Yokoo used a combination of collage , airbrushing , and painting techniques as he had with his previous work , along with postcards collected from his trips to Tahiti and New York City ; the cityscape on the front cover was taken from one of his postcards . The back cover showed the city submerged in water , embedded in coral reefs , and hovered over by a diver , fish , and a squid ascending from the city . According to graphic designers Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell , Yokoo depicted groups of jellyfish , coral reefs , and brightly colored fish to suggest an association between Agharta and Atlantis . The foreground of the back cover 's illustration featured a reptilian creature . Cultural studies researcher Dagmar Buchwald interpreted this image as an allusion to similar ideas about Lemuria , a mythological continent during Earth 's prehistory that was inhabited by an advanced civilization later forced under the Earth 's surface after its homeland was destroyed by a great flood .
A UFO was also depicted on the back cover , either ascending or descending in a spotlight over Agharta . The album 's inside packaging featured images of winged superhuman beings known as the Agharta supermen , who guarded the city 's entrances and secret tunnels . An inscription in the original LP 's gatefold sleeve explained the connection between the UFO and the Agharta supermen : " During various periods in history the supermen of Agharta came to the surface of Earth to teach the human race how to live together in peace and save us from wars , catastrophe , and destruction . The apparent sighting of several flying saucers soon after the bombing of Hiroshima may represent one visitation . " The album 's 1976 North American release had different artwork designed by John Berg , the art director from Davis ' U.S. label Columbia Records . In its liner notes , an inscription said the record should be listened to at the highest possible volume , and Davis was credited for the arrangements . After it was released , Macero received a complaint from Columbia 's accounting department about Davis being compensated $ 2 @,@ 500 per arrangement , arguing that none of the music sounded as if it had been arranged .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Agharta was originally panned by critics , becoming the most widely criticized of Davis ' double albums in the 1970s . According to The Stranger 's Dave Segal , it was one of the most divisive records ever , challenging both critics and the artist 's core audience much in the same way Lou Reed 's Metal Machine Music album had in 1975 . In The New York Times , Robert Palmer wrote that Agharta was marred by long stretches of " sloppy , one @-@ chord jams " , disjointed sounds , and a banal quality clearly rendered by the impeccable Japanese engineering . He complained that Davis ' use of the wah @-@ wah pedal inhibited his ability to phrase notes and that the septet sounded poor " by rock standards " , particularly Cosey , whose overamplified guitar " whined and rumbled like a noisy machine shop " , relegating Lucas to background riffs . Jazz Forum critic Andrzej Trzaskowski said Fortune seemed to be the only jazz musician on the record , finding his solos often flawless while disparaging the performances of Davis , Lucas , and Cosey , whose guitar and synthesizer effects he found pointlessly brutal . In Trzaskowski 's opinion , the individual segments did not cohere as a whole and were further hampered by the clichéd " rock phraseology " of the guitarists , whom he said lacked wit , harmony , and taste . Ian Carr , a biographer of Davis , felt his trumpet sounded fatigued , dejected , and out of place with the band 's intense rhythms and monotonously noisy guitars ; in general , he found the music " too non @-@ Western in the sense of too much rhythm and not enough structure " .
In The Village Voice , Gary Giddins penned an angrily dismissive review of Agharta , in which he charged Davis with failing to assert his musical presence on the terribly " sad " record . A few days after it was published , he was sent a package full of large cotton swabs , industrial @-@ strength scouring pads , and a card that read , " The next time you review Miles Davis clean out your head . " Although Giddins dismissed the message , Agharta grew to become one of his favorite albums from Davis ' electric period , as he reevaluated its elements of drama , relentless tension , and what he considered the best performances of Fortune and Cosey 's careers . " There really is not a moment when the music fails to reflect the ministrations of the sorcerer himself " , Giddins wrote . Nathan Cobb from The Boston Globe reviewed the record favorably in 1976 , calling it " a kind of firestorm for the ' 70s " with a " positively cosmic " rhythmic foundation and Davis " the one who leads the others through the unknown waters of electronic jazz rock " . In Down Beat , Gilmore said the band performed best on the side one and three 's breakneck segments , where Cosey 's ferocious playing " achieved a staggering emotional dimension " lacking on the slower passages , which were redeemed by Davis ' elegiac trumpet . The concert itself was received enthusiastically by the Osaka audience . " I had no idea what [ they ] were going to do " , Henderson recalled . " They gave us a standing ovation that was almost as long as the concert . "
After returning from Japan , Davis fell ill again and was hospitalized for three months . He held a few more concerts and studio sessions with the band , but his health worsened ; their last show on September 5 , 1975 , in Central Park ended abruptly when Davis left the stage and began to cry in pain . He retired soon after — citing physical , spiritual , and creative exhaustion — and lived as a recluse for the next several years , often struggling with bouts of depression and further medical treatment . Agharta was reassessed positively by critics during this period , and in 1980 Davis returned to recording music . He abandoned the direction he had pursued in the 1970s , instead playing a style of fusion far more melodic and accessible to audiences , until his death in 1991 . The day after he died , Prague 's Wenceslas Square saw the opening of the AghaRTA Jazz Centrum , a small jazz club named after the album , hosting nightly performances and an annual jazz festival played by local and international acts . In January of that year , the album was reissued in the U.S. by Columbia on CD , featuring a remaster Tingen said was inferior to the original LP in sound and mix quality . Sony later remastered the album again as part of their Miles Davis reissue campaign and Master Sound series in Japan , which improved its sound using Super Bit Mapping . This remaster was made available in the U.S. for the first time in 2009 , when Agharta was one of 52 albums re @-@ issued in mini @-@ LP replica sleeves as a part of Miles Davis : The Complete Columbia Album Collection , a box set released by Sony Legacy .
Of the albums documenting Davis ' 1973 – 75 band , Agharta was considered by many critics to be the best . For Tingen , it represented the " high plateau " of Davis ' electric explorations ; because he had given the band leeway for constant interplay , the music exhibited an " organic and fluid quality " , with a greater variety of textures , rhythms , timbres , and moods than Dark Magus . Davis biographer Jack Chambers believed it proved far better than most of his other electric albums ; the " Maiysha " and " Jack Johnson " segments , Chambers wrote , " magically brought into focus the musical forces over which many thought Davis had lost control " . Reflecting on his 1970s concert recordings , J. D. Considine contended that Agharta 's " alternately audacious , poetic , hypnotic , and abrasive " music had endured the passage of time best . Although Davis ' use of wah @-@ wah was frequently dismissed in the past as a failed experiment , Richard Cook and Brian Morton wrote in The Penguin Guide to Jazz ( 2006 ) that the effects pedal in fact helped him achieve remarkably adventurous playing on the album , " creating surges and ebbs in a harmonically static line , allowing Miles to build huge melismatic variations on a single note " . Cook named it among Davis ' best works and the culmination of the music he had begun to explore on Bitches Brew ( 1970 ) ; as well as possessing an " epic " sound and scope , Agharta was " a great band record " , in his opinion . " Even though Davis contributed only telling details , he still cued exceptional performances from his men . " Robert Christgau saw it as his finest music since Jack Johnson , an " angry , dissociated , funky " record built on the septet 's virtuos
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. It compared the South American revolution , still in its early stages , with the French and North American ones , and even the revolution in Spain itself , pointing out that none of those relied solely in conspiracies or secret meetings . The document proposes to favor patriots , and fill the state offices with them . Peninsulars , on the other hand , should be carefully monitored , and punished at the slightest proof of action against the Junta , and executed if they were rich or influential . For this end , the Junta would need to create an espionage network . This policy towards peninsulars is coherent with the actions taken against the Liniers counter @-@ revolution , and similar to the one employed by Simón Bolívar in the North shortly after . Moreno thought that José Gervasio Artigas would be an invaluable ally , and that Buenos Aires should use any resource at its disposal to have him join the fight against absolutism . He noted the internal conflicts in Chile and Paraguay , and urged support of local patriots against local royalists .
On the level of international relations , Mariano Moreno rejected slavery in Brazil , a neighboring Portuguese colony . He proposed to distribute large numbers of Gazeta de Buenos Ayres newspapers , filled with libertarian ideas and translated into Portuguese , and provide military support to the slaves if they should riot . He considered the risk of a complete Spanish defeat in the Peninsular War or a restoration of absolutism great menaces , and regarded Britain as a potential ally against them . During a conflict , Britain would be able to provide them with weapons and other goods not produced locally . Critics of Moreno consider him an Anglophile because of this proposal , but the same document also warns against the risk of allowing Britain too much influence in national economy . He criticized the relationship between Britain and Portugal , considering that Portugal was subject to a " shameful slavery " to Britain , and that British influence in Brazil was so high that the Portuguese colonies might eventually become British ones . Moreno held the same ideas about being simultaneously friendly and cautious with Britain in the pages of the Gazeta newspaper .
In the economic field , the document addressed the lack of a bourgeoisie that could turn the political changes into economic development , and proposed to overcome this lack with strong state interventionism . Mariano Moreno proposed that the state invest 200 or 300 million in factories , manufacturing , arts , agriculture , navigation , and other critical areas . There would be no risk of bankruptcy because the state would manage the businesses . With the money generated , the state would then seek seeds and tools , and ultimately allow the continent to be economically autarchic . The initial money that the state would need to become such an active economic force would come from the mines in Potosi , where the slavers had nearly 500 or 600 million . Moreno proposed simply to confiscate the money and nationalize the mines . He reasoned that five or six thousand people would be harmed by such action , but eighty or a hundred thousand would benefit . The state would not manage those areas indefinitely ; Moreno proposed that this should be done only until there was a strong economic activity in each area , and then the state would just observe , making sure that they followed the laws enacted for the common good of society .
Early 19th @-@ century liberalism did not promote confiscation among their common proposals , but an antecedent of this proposal was the Conspiracy of the Equals , promoted by François @-@ Noël Babeuf during the French Revolution . Moreno thought that state @-@ sized fortunes managed by a few individuals were detrimental to civil society , and those individuals would tend to manage the economy for their own benefit , without fixing the problems of society at large .
The document proposed to avoid exporting money , and to include high tariffs on the import of luxury goods . This is often seen as a contradiction of the The Representation of the Hacendados , but each request different things . The Representation opposed the absolute prohibition of trade with Britain , which is not the same than allowing it while following a protectionist policy . As secretary , Moreno reduced the tariffs on national exports , but kept high ones for imports .
= = = Internal disputes = = =
Mariano Moreno and Cornelio Saavedra had disagreements about the events of the May Revolution and the way to run the government ; their disputes became public shortly after the creation of the Junta . Saavedra was the president , and Moreno was a secretary with the support of other vocal members . Ignacio Núñez describes how Morenists felt that the President was attempting to restore in his office the authority of the viceroys , thus downgrading the importance of the other members of the Junta at public events ; while Saavedrists considered that the Secretary was overstepping his authority and did not allow even the appointment of a janitor that was not of his liking . However , Domingo Matheu would clarify in his memoirs that their initial concerns with Saavedra were based more on his desire for honours and privileges than for a real power struggle . Núñez described how Moreno was resisted by some criollos who initially supported the revolution without being aware of the long @-@ term consequences . He was resisted by criollos alarmed by his straightforward way of talking about concepts like self @-@ determination , tyranny , slavery , and freedom . Theologians resented that Moreno cited authors like Rousseau , Voltaire , or Montesquieu rather than Christian philosophers like Saint Augustine or Saint Thomas . He was also resisted by conservative lawyers and by most of the military .
By October , Moreno 's measures started to generate resistance among some who initially supported the May Revolution . Traders did not like the protectionist policy , and some members of the military had close ties with rich people and opposed their punishment . On October 16 it was discovered that ten members of the Cabildo had sworn loyalty to the Regency Council the past July , and they were all jailed . This included Julián Leiva and Juan José de Lezica . Moreno and Saavedra had a dispute when the Junta was deciding what to do . Moreno proposed executing them as a deterrent , accusing them of working with the Montevideo Cabildo , the enemy of the Junta . Saavedra replied that the government should promote leniency , and rejected the use of the Patricians Regiment to carry out such executions . The prisoners were finally exiled to Luján , Ranchos , and Salto , and Leiva was housed by Gregorio Funes in Córdoba .
By this point , the only military support for Moreno was Domingo French , head of " The Star " regiment . Castelli and Belgrano supported him , but were far away from the capital on their respective military campaigns . The activists of the May Revolution supported him as well , as did other members of the Junta and other patriots like Vieytes and Nicolás Rodríguez Peña . Saavedra kept the strong support of the Regiment of Patricians , and added that of the merchants and even some supporters of the former regime who deemed the moderated Saavedra a lesser evil . Moreno sought to modify the military balance of power by reforming the promotion rules . Up until that point , the sons of officials were automatically granted the status of cadet and were promoted just by seniority ; Moreno arranged that promotions were earned by military merits instead . However , in the short run this measure worked against him , as it antagonised members of the military who got promoted precisely because of such rules . He also thought that support from the lower classes was instrumental to the success of the Revolution , and wrote letters to Chiclana instructing him to generate such support at Upper Peru . Such popular involvement would take time to consolidate : the Guerra Gaucha , the War of the Republiquetas , and the rise of José Gervasio Artigas took place later , not as of 1810 .
Saavedra increased his resistance to Moreno 's proposals after the victory at the Battle of Suipacha , considering that the revolution had defeated its enemies and should relax its severity in consequence . The Regiment of Patricians hosted a banquet celebration at the barracks , restricting attendance to the military and supporters of Saavedra . Moreno was not allowed to pass by the guards at the door , which generated a small incident . That same night , Officer Atanasio Duarte , who was drunk , gave a crown of sugar to Saavedra 's wife and saluted Saavedra as if he was the new king or emperor of the Americas . The next day , when Moreno heard about the incident , he wrote the " Honours Suppression decree " , which suppressed the ceremony usually reserved for the president of the Junta and inherited privileges of the office of viceroy . Duarte was exiled , and Moreno 's act was justified by stating that " An inhabitant of Buenos Aires neither drunk nor asleep should be expressed against the freedom of his country " . Saavedra signed the decree without complaint , but Gregorio Funes felt that the Patricians resented Moreno because of this .
The conflicts between Moreno and Saavedra generated international reactions . Lord Strangford complained about the later actions of the Junta , such as the execution of Liniers , which were seen as more violent than the initial ones . Brazil was also concerned because many copies of the Gazeta were being distributed at Rio Grande do Sul , influencing their slaves with libertarian ideas . The Brazilian government sent Carlos José Guezzi to Buenos Aires , with the purpose of mediating in the conflict with the royalists at Montevideo and to ratify the aspirations of Carlota Joaquina to rule as regent . He met Saavedra in his first interview , in July , and got a positive impression of him . Saavedra said that if Carlota 's rights were confirmed by the Spanish monarchy , Buenos Aires would support her , even if it meant they had to stand against the other provinces . The following month he requested a representative for the Court of Brazil , offered Carlota 's mediation with Montevideo , and pointed out that Brazil had forces near the frontier , awaiting orders to attack the revolution . This time , Moreno resisted . Moreno rejected sending a representative , and told him that the Junta did not work for the interests of Brazil , but for those of the United Provinces . He rejected the mediation as well , considering that no mediation was possible under a military threat . Guezzi was immediately sent back to Rio de Janeiro on the first available ship . He described Moreno as " the Robespierre of the day " , and accused the Junta of attempting to build a republic .
In December , the deputies of the other provinces convened by the circular of May 27 arrived to Buenos Aires . Most of them were closer to the ideas of Saavedra , and Gregorio Funes became highly influential over them . They did not agree about which body they should join : the deputies wanted to join the Junta , while Moreno thought that they should start a constituent assembly . Funes , allied with Saavedra , calculated that they could stop Moreno by joining the Junta , as his proposals would be agreed to by a minority . The Junta , with both its original members and the deputies , discussed the topic on December 18 . Funes said that Buenos Aires had no right to rule the other provinces without their consent , and got the support of the other members . He said that there was popular discontent with the Junta . The supporters of Moreno said that such discontent was only among some rebels , and Moreno said that it was only the discontent of the Patricians in respect of the Supressions decree . However , only Paso voted with him , and the deputies joined the Junta . Moreno resigned , but his resignation was rejected . His opposition to the incorporation of the deputies is seen by some historians as an initial step in the conflict between Buenos Aires and the other provinces , which dominated politics in Argentina during the following decades . Some call it a precursor of the Unitarian Party , while others find his words or actions more consistent with the Federal Party . However , historians Paul Groussac and Norberto Piñeiro feel it is inappropriate to extrapolate so far into the future . Piñeiro considered it an error to label Moreno as federal or unitary , proving that this organization been prioritized over the secondary aspect of centralism or federalism , while Groussac similarly notes that Moreno devoted all his energies to the immediate problem of achieving independence without giving much thought to possible long @-@ term scenarios .
= = Political decline and death = =
Hipólito Vieytes was about to make a diplomatic mission to Britain , but Moreno requested that he should be given the appointment instead . Saavedra accepted immediately . He traveled to Britain with his brother Manuel Moreno and his secretary Tomás Guido , on the British schooner Fame . His health declined and there was no doctor on board , but the captain refused requests to land at some earlier port such as in Río de Janeiro ( Brazil ) or Cape Town ( South Africa ) . The captain gave him an emetic in common use at that time , prepared with four grams of antimony potassium tartrate . Moreno had great convulsions as a consequence , and considered that in his state he could not have resisted more than the quarter of a gram . He died shortly afterwards . His body was wrapped in a Union Jack and thrown into the sea , after a volley of musketry .
Manuel Moreno speculated later that he was poisoned by the captain . Manuel Moreno was unsure of whether the captain really given him that substance , or if he substituted something else , or gave an even higher dose . Circumstances did not allow an autopsy to be performed . Further points used to sustain the idea of a murder are the captain 's refusal to land elsewhere , his slow sailing , his administration of the emetic in secrecy , and that he didn 't return to Buenos Aires with the ship . Enrique de Gandía pointed to an irregular ruling of the Junta that appointed a British person named Curtis as Moreno 's replacement for the diplomatic mission in the case of Moreno 's death . The son of Mariano Moreno commented to the historian Adolfo Saldías that his mother , Guadalupe Cuenca , received an anonymous gift of a mourning hand fan and handkerchief , with instructions to use them soon . By that time , the murder of Moreno was a common assumption , and it was mentioned during the trial of residence of the members of the Junta . Juan Madera stated at the trial that Moreno may have requested to go to Britain because he was afraid of being murdered , and that he may have stated this during the meeting when the Junta discussed his resignation . Modern author Manuel Luis Martín studied the health of both Moreno and his family , and concluded that he died of natural causes .
= = Legacy = =
Despite the death of Mariano Moreno , his supporters were still an influential party in Buenos Aires . Morenists accused Saavedra and Funes of plotting to allow the coronation of Carlota , and organized a rebellion with " The Star " Regiment . However , the Saavedrists became aware of it , and organized another rebellion on May 5 and 6 , 1811 . This rebellion requested strong changes in the government : the removal of Morenists Nicolás Rodríguez Peña , Hipólito Vieytes , Miguel Azcuénaga , and Juan Larrea from the Junta ; the exile of Domingo French , Antonio Beruti , Agustín Donado , Gervasio Posadas and Ramón Vieytes ; and the return and trial of Manuel Belgrano . Thus , the Morenist party was set apart from the government .
The Saavedrist hegemony was short @-@ lived . The military defeats of Castelli and Belgrano started a new political crisis , and the First Triumvirate replaced the Junta Grande as the executive power , and then closed it completely . The former supporters of Moreno ( Belgrano , Dupuy , Tomás Guido , Beruti , Monteagudo , French , Vicente López ) would later support the campaign of José de San Martín . The Argentine war of independence would give room to the Argentine Civil War between unitarians and federals . Saavedrists like Martín Rodríguez , Ortiz de Ocampo , de la Cruz — and even Saavedra himself — became unitarians . Manuel Moreno , French , Agrelo , Vicente López , and Pancho Planes opposed both the First Triumvirate and the presidency of unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia . Manuel Moreno and Tomás Guido , in particular , worked in the government of the most powerful federal leader , Juan Manuel de Rosas .
= = = Historical perspectives = = =
Early Argentine historians described Mariano Moreno as the leader of the Revolution and a great historical man . Later liberal historians would embellish this portrayal even more . An example of this tendency is La Revolución de Mayo y Mariano Moreno by Ricardo Levene . Biographers would describe him as a serene statesman , a notable economist , a decided democrat , and a great leader . For those historians , Moreno would have been an anglophile , and " The Representation of the Hacendados " , the government platform of the May Revolution .
Subsequently , revisionist authors would formulate accusations against him , while promoting Saavedra as a popular leader . According to those authors , Moreno was a British agent , a demagogic caudillo , a paranoid , a mere man of theoretical ideas applying European principles that failed in the local context , wrongly portrayed as leader of the Revolution by the liberal historiography . Año X by Hugo Wast is considered the harshest work against Moreno . Moreno was still considered an anglophile , but in a negative light . They blamed Moreno for the harsh policies of the Junta , considering him a terrorist or a predecessor of Marxism ; liberal historians usually concealed these policies .
Modern authors like Ernesto Palacio , Norberto Galasso , and Jorge Abelardo Ramos attempt to rescue the image of Moreno by avoiding both extremes : the sweet liberal Moreno and the horrible one written by revisionists . Those historians do not consider Bernardino Rivadavia a successor of Moreno , and the proposals to seek an alliance with Britain are not seen as the product of anglophilia , but just an example of the limited options available to the Primera Junta . Similarly , they do not attribute much influence to the Representation ... , considering it a mere work for a client that didn 't really influence Cisneros , who would have allowed free trade for international contexts . The harsh policies are acknowledged , but not attributed specifically to Moreno , but rather to the whole Junta , and compared with similar royalist measures used to punish the Chuquisaca , the La Paz revolution , and the indigenous rebellion of Túpac Amaru II .
= = = Journalism = = =
Mariano Moreno is regarded as the first Argentine journalist , as he created the Gazeta de Buenos Ayres . June 7 , the day this newspaper was first available to the public , is recognized in Argentina as " Journalist day " since 1938 . The Gazeta , however , was not the first newspaper in Buenos Aires , but the first one since the May Revolution . The first newspaper was the Telégrafo Mercantil ( 1801 ) , followed by the Semanario de Agricultura Industria y Comercio ( 1802 ) and the Correo de Comercio de Buenos Aires ( 1810 ) , edited during the colonial period .
Moreno was the only one to sign the decree that established the newspaper , but the text implies that it was the result of a discussion of the whole Junta , and not just his initiative . Fellow member of the Junta Manuel Alberti was appointed director of the newspaper . However , Alberti never actually directed the newspaper ; Moreno did . Historian Guillermo Furlong considers that it was really Alberti who directed the newspaper , but the memoirs of José Pedro Agrelo ( a later director ) , Tomás Guido , and Saavedra confirm that the newspaper was managed by Moreno . Moreno has also been promoted as a supporter of the freedom of the press , but the Gazeta ... was actually a state @-@ sponsored newspaper , and the Junta allowed such freedom only for information that was not against the interests of the government . According to Norberto Galasso , that situation would today be considered media bias .
= = Personal life = =
The Moreno family was poor , but could afford a house and some slaves . Ana María Valle y Ramos , Mariano 's mother , was one of the few literate women in Buenos Aires . Mariano Moreno was the firstborn of fourteen children . Mariano moved to Chuquisaca with his brother Manuel Moreno and their friend Tomás Guido once the family raised the money . The long and difficult journey gave Mariano a rheumatism attack ; he had to stay in bed for fifteen days on arrival . He had further attacks years later . Moreno met María Guadalupe Cuenca in this city , after seeing a miniature portrait of her at a silversmith 's house . Both Moreno and María were expected by their families to follow religious studies , and Moreno 's father did not authorize a change . Moreno studied laws all the same , and married María in secret to avoid family resistance . They had a single son , named Mariano like the father .
When Moreno left for Europe on a diplomatic mission in 1811 , his wife and son stayed in Buenos Aires . María wrote many letters to Moreno , with descriptions of ongoing events in the city . Most of them were written when Moreno was already dead ; she did not learn of his fate until the following August , when a letter arrived from Manuel Moreno . She requested a widow 's pension from the First Triumvirate , which was in power by then ; its value was thirty pesos .
= = = Beliefs = = =
Mariano Moreno studied French and Spanish authors of the Age of Enlightenment during his studies at Chuquisaca . Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's The Social Contract was a main influence ; he translated this work to Spanish and used it to justify the actions of the Primera Junta . Contemporary people as Ignacio Núñez and Tomás de Anchorena acknowledged him as the translator . However , as the main page said that the work was " reprinted in Buenos Ayres " , some historians doubt whether it was actually Moreno 's work . Vicente Fidel López claimed that Moreno reprinted the translation made by the Spaniard Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos , but the two translations differ . Paul Groussac thought it was a reprint of an Asturian translation , and Ricardo Levene said that Moreno was not the translator , but neither gave any indication as to who they thought had completed it . Enrique de Gandía considers that the comments of contemporary people and the lack of an earlier similar translation of Rousseau 's work allow us to conclude that Moreno must have been the translator , at least until an earlier translation is found .
Despite his interest in French authors , Mariano Moreno was not Francophile or afrancesado . He kept a strong Spanish cultural heritage , and both Levene and Abelardo Ramos agree in that his stay in Chuquisaca influenced him more than the books . In line with the Spanish Enlightenment , Moreno kept strong religious beliefs . He removed the chapter from Rousseau 's work that is critical of religion , and never became a freemason . He gave up his religious studies to study law and get married , but never actually became a priest , so there was no defrocking . He studied with priests such as Terrazas , who approved and perhaps even encouraged the change of vocation .
= = = Physical aspect = = =
The canonical image of Mariano Moreno is the one from the portrait Mariano Moreno en su mesa de trabajo ( Spanish : Mariano Moreno at his work desk ) . It was done by the Chilean artist Pedro Subercaseaux during the centennial of the May Revolution in 1910 . The historian Adolfo Carranza asked him to design various allegorical pictures of the event . Carranza belonged to the mainstream line of historians who professed great admiration for Moreno , who he described as follows : " He was the soul of the government of the revolution of May , his nerve , the distinguished statesman of the group managing the ship attacked the absolutism and doubt , anxious to reach the goal of his aspirations and his destiny . Moreno was the compass and that also grabbed the helm , as he was the strongest and the ablest of those who came to direct it " . He asked for a picture that was consistent with this image . The portrait depicts him as a friendly man with an open and round face , a wide forehead , and a serene look . Subsequent interpretations , like those of Antonio Estrada , would follow this style , as would portraits of other members of the Junta . However , as this portrait was made a hundred years after the death of the subject , with no known depictions done during his lifetime , it was thus based on the artist 's imagination . It was known that Moreno had clearly visible smallpox scars from the age of eight , but not to the point where they disfigured his face .
Later a portrait of Moreno was discovered that had been done from life , by the Peruvian silversmith Juan de Dios Rivera . This portrait was painted between 1808 or 1809 , before Moreno 's appointment as secretary of the Junta . It is now considered to be the closest representation of Moreno 's real appearance . In this portrait , he is depicted with an elongated face , abundant hair , long sideburns , big eyes , and a pointy nose .
= Kinky Boots ( musical ) =
Kinky Boots is a Broadway musical with music and lyrics by Tony , Emmy and Grammy @-@ winner Cyndi Lauper and a book by Tony @-@ winner Harvey Fierstein . Based on the 2005 film Kinky Boots by Geoff Deane and Tim Firth , which was inspired by true events , the musical tells the story of Charlie Price , who inherits a shoe factory from his father . To save the business , Charlie forms an unlikely partnership with cabaret performer and drag queen , Lola . With Lola 's help , Charlie develops a plan to produce a line of high @-@ heeled boots . In the process , he and Lola discover that they are not so different after all .
Following the show 's conception in 2006 , the creative team was assembled by 2010 . The original production of Kinky Boots premiered at the Bank of America Theatre in Chicago in October 2012 , with both direction and choreography by Jerry Mitchell , and starring Stark Sands and Billy Porter as Charlie and Lola , respectively . It made its Broadway debut at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre on April 4 , 2013 following previews that began on March 3 , 2013 . The musical began its US tour in 2014 .
Having been less well received by theatre critics and at the box office , initially , than another 2013 Broadway production , Matilda the Musical , Kinky Boots entered the 2013 awards season as an underdog . However , less than a month after opening , Kinky Boots surpassed this rival with audiences in weekly box office gross and later enjoyed a post @-@ Tony boost in advance sales . The production earned a season @-@ high 13 nominations and 6 Tony wins , including Best Musical and Best Score for Lauper in her first outing as a Broadway songwriter , making her the first woman to win alone in that category . The musical 's cast album premiered at number one on the Billboard Cast Albums Chart and number fifty @-@ one on the Billboard 200 chart . In 2016 , it won three Laurence Olivier Awards , including Best New Musical .
= = Background and creation = =
Kinky Boots is based on the 2005 British film of the same name , which was , in turn , inspired by a 1999 episode of the BBC2 documentary television series Trouble at the Top . It followed the true story of Steve Pateman , who was struggling to save his family @-@ run shoe factory from closure and decided to produce fetish footwear for men , under the brand name " Divine Footwear " . Daryl Roth , a Tony Award @-@ winning producer , saw the film at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival and fell in love with its " heart and soul " . She felt that its themes resonated and thought that the story had potential as source material for a musical . Independently , Hal Luftig saw the film in London and agreed " that its heart and humanity ( and bigger @-@ than @-@ life leading ' lady ' ) would translate well to musical theatre . " Within a year , Roth secured the rights to adapt the film to the stage and partnered with Luftig , a Tony and Olivier Award @-@ winning producer .
By mid @-@ 2008 , Roth and Luftig were in discussions with a potential director , Jerry Mitchell , but they still had not found writers . When Roth sent Mitchell the DVD of the film , he was enthusiastic about it . Roth and Luftig hired Mitchell to direct and Harvey Fierstein to write the book . Mitchell knew that Fierstein and Cyndi Lauper were friends , and he thought they would make a good team to create the musical . Fierstein agreed and eventually approached Lauper to write the songs because he " saw in the adaptation an opportunity to work with someone with a big musical range , ' somebody who could write club music , ' ... along with show tunes . " Lauper joined the creative team in June 2010 . Lauper 's last project before Kinky Boots had been the album Memphis Blues , while Fierstein was working on Newsies when he began Kinky Boots . The work marked Lauper 's debut as a musical theatre songwriter , although she had some theatrical experience , having performed on Broadway in the 2006 Roundabout Theatre Company production of The Threepenny Opera . Among Fierstein 's prior experiences were works about drag queens : La Cage aux Folles and Torch Song Trilogy . Lauper has said that she identifies with drag queens .
Fierstein and Lauper had both gained previous critical acclaim and honors in their respective fields . Fierstein had won four Tonys : acting and writing awards for Torch Song Trilogy , an acting Tony for Hairspray , and one for writing the book of La Cage ; Lauper is a chart @-@ topping singer @-@ songwriter and actress who had won Grammy , Emmy and many other awards for her songs and performances . Fierstein noted a change in focus between the film " about the saving of a factory " and the musical , which include " drag queens singing as they pass along the assembly line . " He said the main difference is that the musical is , " at its core , about two young men who come from seemingly opposite worlds who figure out that they have a lot in common , beginning with the need to stand up to their dads . " Lauper 's inspirations ranged from listening as a child to her parents ' recordings of South Pacific and West Side Story , as well as musical inspirations as diverse as Aaron Copland 's " Appalachian Spring " and pop singer Lana Del Rey . In a broadcast interview with Patrick Healy of The New York Times , Lauper and Fierstein said that , in adapting the film , they stressed themes of community and the universality of the father @-@ son bond as vehicles to explore the issues of tolerance and self @-@ acceptance .
Kinky Boots was given a reading on October 6 , 2011 . Lauper was actively engaged in refining the material once the cast began readings . In January 2012 , Roth announced that the show would be workshopped that month , and that Stark Sands and Billy Porter had been cast in the starring roles . In August 2012 , the producers announced the Broadway opening date of April 4 , 2013 .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Act I = = =
Charlie Price grows up as the fourth @-@ generation " son " in his family business , Price & Son , a shoe factory in Northampton . Another young boy , growing up in London , is as fascinated by shoes as Charlie is bored by them , but in this case it is a pair of red women 's heels that have attracted his attention , aggravating his strict father . Years pass . Charlie 's father is aging and hopes that Charlie will take over the factory , but Charlie is eager to move to London with his status @-@ conscious fiancée , Nicola , and pursue a career in real estate ( " The Most Beautiful Thing " ) .
Charlie has barely made it into his new flat in London when his father dies suddenly . Charlie hurries home for the funeral , where he finds the factory near bankruptcy . The factory makes good quality men 's shoes , but they are not stylish and not cheap , and the market for them is drying up . Charlie is determined to save the factory and his father 's legacy , though he has no desire to run Price & Sons himself . The workers , many of whom have known Charlie his entire life , do not understand why Charlie had moved away in the first place , and many are hostile and skeptical of the new management .
Returning to London , Charlie meets his friend and fellow shoe salesman Harry , in a pub , to ask for help with the factory . Harry can only offer a temporary solution and advises Charlie not to fight the inevitable ( " Take What You Got " ) . Leaving the pub , Charlie witnesses a woman being accosted by two drunks . He intervenes and is knocked unconscious . He comes to in a seedy nightclub , where the woman he attempted to rescue is revealed to have been the club 's drag @-@ queen headliner , Lola , who performs with her backup troupe of drag dancers , the " angels " ( " Land of Lola " ) . Recuperating from his ordeal in Lola 's dressing room , an uncomfortable Charlie notices that the performers ' high @-@ heeled boots are not designed to hold a man 's weight , but Lola explains that the expensive and unreliable footwear is an essential part of any drag act .
Charlie returns to the factory and begins reluctantly laying off his workers . Lauren , one of the women on the assembly line , explodes at Charlie when given her notice , and stubbornly tells him that other struggling shoe factories have survived by entering an " underserved niche market " . This gives Charlie an idea ( " Land of Lola " reprise ) , and he invites Lola to come to the factory to help him design a women 's boot that can be comfortable for a man ( " Charlie 's Soliloquy " / " Step One " ) .
Lola and the angels arrive at the factory , and she is immediately unsatisfied with Charlie 's first design of the boot . Quickly getting the women of the factory on her side , she draws a quick design of a boot , explaining the most important factor is by far the sex appeal ( " The Sex is in the Heel " ) . George , the factory manager , realizes a way to make her design practical , and an impressed Charlie begs Lola to stay until a prestigious footwear show in Milan in three weeks ' time , to design a new line of " kinky boots " that could save the factory . Lola is reluctant , since she is already receiving crass comments from some of the factory workers , but is flattered by Charlie 's praise , and finally agrees .
Charlie announces that the factory will be moving ahead with production on the boots . He thanks Lauren for giving him the idea , and offers her a promotion . She accepts , and is horrified but thrilled to realize she is falling for him ( " The History of Wrong Guys " ) .
The next day , Lola shows up in men 's clothes and is mocked by the foreman , Don , and his friends . An upset Lola takes refuge in the bathroom , and Charlie attempts to comfort her . Lola explains that her father trained her as a boxer , but disowned her when she showed up for a match in drag . The two discover their similarly complex feelings toward their fathers , and Lola introduces herself by her birth name : Simon ( " Not My Father 's Son " ) .
Nicola arrives from London , and presents Charlie with a plan for the factory that her boss has drawn up : closing it and converting it into condominiums . Charlie refuses , but is shocked to discover that his father had agreed to this plan before he died , presumably because Charlie was not there to run it . He refuses to sell , and soon the workers are celebrating as the first pair of " kinky boots " is finished ( " Everybody Say Yeah " ) .
= = = Act II = = =
Many of the factory workers are not enthusiastic about the radical change in their product line . Some of them , especially the intimidating Don , make Lola feel very unwelcome . Lola taunts him back , enlisting the help of the female factory workers to prove that Lola is closer to a woman 's ideal man than Don ( " What a Woman Wants " ) . Lola presents Don with a unique wager to see who is the better " man " : Lola will do any one thing that Don specifies if Don will do one thing that Lola specifies . Don 's challenge is for Lola to fight him in a boxing match at the pub . Charlie , remembering Lola 's background , is horrified . Lola easily scores against Don in the ring but ultimately lets Don win the match ( " In This Corner " ) . Afterwards , in private , Don asks why she let him win , and Lola replies that she could not be so cruel as to humiliate Don in front of his mates . She gives him her part of the challenge : " accept someone for who they are . "
Charlie is pouring his own money into the factory to ensure it will be ready in time for Milan , and he is getting frantic that the product is not right , angrily forcing his staff to redo what he considers to be shoddy work . Nicola arrives , fed up with Charlie 's obsession over the factory , and breaks up with him . Lola has been making some decisions about production and preparations without consulting Charlie . When he discovers that she has decided to have her angels wear the boots on the runway rather than hiring professional models , an overwhelmed Charlie lashes out at her , humiliating her in front of the other workers . Lola storms out , and the factory workers go home . Alone , Charlie struggles with the weight of his father 's legacy and what it means to be his own man ( " Soul of a Man " ) .
Lauren finds Charlie and tells him to come back to the factory . It is revealed that Don has persuaded all the workers to return to work and to sacrifice a week 's pay to ensure the boots can be finished in time for Milan . Charlie is astonished and grateful , and asks if Don has paid up on his wager by accepting Lola . Lauren explains that the person that Don has accepted is Charlie himself .
As he heads to the airport for Milan , Charlie leaves a heartfelt apology on Lola 's voicemail . Meanwhile , Lola performs her act at a nursing home in her home town . After she leaves the stage , she speaks to her now wheelchair @-@ bound father , who is dying in the home , and reaches a sense of closure ( " Hold Me in Your Heart " ) .
Charlie and Lauren arrive in Milan , but without models Charlie is forced to walk the runway himself . Lauren is thrilled by his dedication ( " The History of Wrong Guys ( Reprise ) " ) but the show threatens to be a disaster . Just as all seems lost , Lola and her angels arrive to save the day . Lauren and Charlie share their first kiss , and the whole company celebrates the success of the " Kinky Boots " ( " Raise You Up / Just Be " ) .
= = Music = =
In Lauper 's first effort at writing for the stage , she found that it required a sustained effort to write songs for the different characters . Lauper joked about the difficulty of writing her first score : " How much of a stretch is it for me to write songs about fashion , funny relationships , people changing their minds and shoes ? " The first song that Lauper wrote was the opening number , which included a wide range of voices . Her process was to conceive a song and sing it into her iPhone , and orchestrator Stephen Oremus would write it down . Oremus would then " ' blow up ' the vocal line into harmonies , create the incidental music that linked scenes and songs " and orchestrate the material . The songs range in style " from pop to funk to new wave to tango , with highly personal lyrics " . New York Times critic Melena Ryzik wrote : " Though there are plenty of hooky , rousing numbers , the emotional heart of Kinky Boots is several ballads about the weight of parental expectations . " The musical uses a twelve @-@ piece orchestra consisting of keyboards , percussion , bass , guitars , reeds , violin , viola , cello , trumpet , and trombone .
= = = Musical numbers = = =
The musical numbers from the 2013 Broadway production are as follows :
‡ Song not included on original Broadway cast album .
The musical numbers from the 2012 Chicago production are as follows :
= = Principal roles and original casts = =
Broadway replacements :
Andy Kelso replaced Stark Sands as Charlie Price on January 27 , 2014 .
Jeanna de Waal replaced Annaleigh Ashford as Lauren on March 4 , 2014 .
Cortney Wolfson replaced Lena Hall as Nicola on March 4 , 2014 .
Haven Burton temporarily replaced Jeanna de Waal as Lauren from June 24 to September 30 , 2014 .
Jeanna de Waal returned to the role of Lauren on October 2 , 2014 .
Haven Burton temporarily replaced Jeanna de Waal as Lauren again from June 23 , 2015 until October 11 , 2015 .
Wayne Brady replaced Billy Porter as Lola / Simon on November 21 , 2015 .
Brady 's final performance was on March 27 as Alan Mingo Jr. assumed the role on March 29 .
Shannon O 'Boyle replaced Cortney Wolfson as Nicola on July 25 , 2016 .
Aaron C. Finley will replace Andy Kelso as Charlie Price on August 8 , 2016 .
Haven Burton will return to the role of Lauren on August 15 , 2016 .
= = Production history = =
= = = Chicago and Broadway = = =
On February 6 , 2012 , the Chicago Tribune reported that Kinky Boots ' producers were considering taking advantage of an incentive program from the State of Illinois for out @-@ of @-@ town tryouts for Broadway shows . The October 2012 pre @-@ Broadway Chicago tryout was announced on February 22 , 2012 . On June 28 , 2012 the full Chicago cast was announced . The production was rehearsed at the New 42nd Street Studios in New York City in September 2012 . The show began its pre @-@ Broadway run at the Bank of America Theatre in Chicago , on October 2 , 2012 , which continued until November 4 , 2012 . The show was directed and choreographed by Mitchell ; scenic design was by David Rockwell , costumes by Gregg Barnes , lighting by Kenneth Posner and sound by John Shivers . The music director and orchestrator was Stephen Oremus . The director and design team had gained previous critical acclaim and theatre or music awards . Mitchell had won a Tony Award for choreographing the 2005 revival of La Cage aux Folles ; Barnes and Posner had won Tonys ; and Rockwell had been nominated for Tonys and other theatre awards .
Mitchell and Rockwell had previously collaborated on Hairspray , Catch Me If You Can and Legally Blonde . Mitchell told The New York Times that the " Everybody Say Yeah " scene , in which the cast celebrates the creation of the first pair of Kinky Boots with a choreographed celebration on conveyor belts , required repeated innovations and adjustments like the eventual addition of safety rails and actor controls for the apparatus . Designer Derek McLane commented that it is not uncommon for repeat choreographer / set designer collaborations to result in intriguing innovation like the conveyor belt dance scene in Kinky Boots . McLane was impressed with the " series of conveyor belts that came apart , moved around , and fit the context of the story " in order to accentuate the choreography of " a troupe of men in four @-@ inch heels " . With respect to the conveyor belts , he said , " They 've never been used as dynamically as this , creating a series of surprises , with the kind of wild athleticism that actually looks dangerous . It 's one of the more thrilling combinations of stage design and choreography that I can recall . "
After the tryout , the team went back to work , adding a new musical number for Charlie and a second song in the drag club , removing another song , and revising the book . The Broadway debut started previews on March 3 , 2013 at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre , with the official opening on April 4 , 2013 . Both the Chicago and original Broadway casts starred Billy Porter as Lola , Stark Sands as Charlie and Annaleigh Ashford as Lauren . Porter , in particular , was singled out for critical praise .
The New York Times noted that in the 2012 – 13 season , most of the new Broadway musicals were " inspired by movies or books " . The paper found the show timely for its treatment of problems that paralleled those at the time of its production , including " chronic unemployment , financial distress and the collapse of manufacturing " . Prior to the June 9 , 2013 Tony Awards , Kinky Boots had trailed its box office competitor , Matilda the Musical , in advance sales . However , less than a month after opening , Kinky Boots surpassed this rival in weekly box office gross . Kinky Boots won a season @-@ high six Tony Awards , including Best Musical . The next day , the show sold $ 1 @.@ 25 million tickets , and its advance ticket sales for future dates became a hot commodity . In the weeks following its Tony wins , the show became so popular that in the beginning of July a special ticket lottery system was created to keep fans from camping outside the theatre . Kinky Boots set a new box @-@ office record at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre , and " recouped its $ 13 @.@ 5 million capitalization in a relatively quick 30 weeks of performances " , which was " faster than any big budget musical in recent history . " In October 2013 , Kinky Boots had the second highest premium @-@ price tickets on Broadway behind only The Book of Mormon . As of 4 February 2015 , the show had grossed just over $ 135 million .
On November 28 , 2013 , members of the cast performed the finale of the show in the nationally televised Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade . Many viewers commented that , in their opinion , the performance was inappropriate for a family program . Fierstein responded that the show 's inclusion in the parade reflected decreasing prejudice and increased tolerance for LGBT people in society . The August 26 , 2015 performance marked the 1000th Broadway performance for the production .
= = = Toronto = = =
The Toronto original cast , led by Alan Mingo Jr as Lola and Graham Scott Fleming as Charlie , began rehearsals with Jerry Mitchel and the Broadway creative team on May 4 , 2015 . It began previews on June 16 , 2015 with its opening night coming on June 28 to critical acclaim .
Initially planned to run from June to September 2015 at the Royal Alexandra Theatre , with a mostly Canadian cast , by the beginning of July , the run was extended to November . The run was later extended to January 3 , to March 6 and finally to May 15 , 2016 , as the final show before the theatre closed for a major renovation .
= = = West End = = =
In January 2014 , it was revealed Mitchell was planning a West End production and was negotiating to secure a theatre for 2015 . On 6 February 2015 , it was confirmed the musical would begin previews at the Adelphi Theatre in London , on 21 August 2015 , with its official opening night coming on 15 September . Tickets went on sale on 2 March . On 23 April 2015 , it was confirmed that Killian Donnelly and Matt Henry would play Charlie and Lola respectively , with other cast members including Amy Lennox as Lauren , Amy Ross as Nicola , Jamie Baughan as Don and Michael Hobbs as George . The West End production became London 's first paperless and mobile ticketing operation . Although the show is set in a British Northampton neighborhood , it took a concerted effort to remove Americanisms from the production after its West End spinoff from the Broadway production . In August 2015 , booking was extended to February 6 , 2016 . In October 2015 , booking was extended to May 28 , 2016 . Booking was extended to September 24 , 2016 in January 2016 . On April 11 , 2016 , it was extended through 14 January 2017 .
= = = Other productions = = =
A US national tour began at the Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas on September 4 , 2014 . The role of Lola is set to be played by Kyle Taylor Parker . Porter took a week off from the Broadway production to perform with the National tour when it visited his home town of Pittsburgh from August 4 through August 9 , 2015 at the Benedum Center .
A South Korean production is planned to run from December 2 , 2014 to February 22 , 2015 at the Chungmu Art Hall ( 충무아트홀 대극장 ) in Seoul .
The Melbourne production is set to open in October 2016 at the Her Majesty 's Theatre and casting is expected to be announced . The cast will include Callum Francis , from the London production as Lola , Toby Francis as Charlie . Joining them are Sophie Wright ( Lauren ) , Damien Bermingham ( Don ) , Teagan Wouters ( Nicola ) and Nathan Carter ( George ) .
Malmö Opera House will open its 2016 / 17 season with the Scandinavian premiere of Kinky Boots on September the 3rd 2016 . It will be sung in Swedish .
= = Critical reaction = =
Upon its October 2012 Chicago opening , Chicago Tribune critic Chris Jones described the show as a " warm , likable , brassy , sentimental , big @-@ hearted and modestly scaled " production . Another reviewer praised the score , book , direction and , particularly , Porter , before suggesting that , before opening on Broadway , it could use a more effective opening number , better pacing in Act 2 and " the budding romance between Charlie and coworker Lauren ... needs more lead @-@ in . In other words , give Ashford , a clear crowd favorite , more to do " .
The musical 's Broadway debut received mixed to positive reviews . The show was awarded a " Critic 's Pick " designation by The New York Times , Time Out New York and New York Magazine , and was included in Entertainment Weekly magazine 's " Must See " list .
Ben Brantley of The New York Times gave a warm review , calling it " inspired " and comparing the work to other successful recent Broadway musicals : " Like The Full Monty ( choreographed by Mr. Mitchell ) and Billy Elliot the Musical , it is set in a hard @-@ times British factory town , where jobs are in jeopardy and spirits need lifting . Like La Cage aux Folles and Priscilla Queen of the Desert , it presents drag queens as the show ’ s official spirit lifters . And like Hairspray , the musical this production most resembles in tone , Kinky Boots is about finding your passion , overcoming prejudice and transcending stereotypes . " Brantley wrote that Lauper 's " love- and heat @-@ seeking score " wowed with her " trademark ... mix of sentimentality and eccentricity " , and that the costumes and boots courtesy of Gregg Barnes made for " big red scene stealers " . He also praised “ Raise You Up / Just Be , ” as " one of the best curtain numbers since ' You Can ’ t Stop the Beat ' sent Hairspray audiences dancing out of the theater . ” Brantley , however , did not extend his praise to Fierstein 's script , writing that his " sticky , sermonizing side " comes through in the second half , where " all the clichés stand naked before you . "
The theatre critic for Time Out New York called the show " the very model of a modern major musical . " The Associated Press termed it " a big ol ’ sweet love story about sons , the families we make and red patent leather . ... Thank goodness for Harvey Fierstein – he spins theatrical magic " , but noted that " the second half is almost completely unnecessary , the English accents are laughable and the footwear puns are relentless . " Entertainment Weekly said " Cyndi Lauper 's infectious score is cause for celebration . " New York Magazine , The New York Post , The Washington Post and Variety all gave mostly favorable reviews .
Los Angeles Times theater critic Charles McNulty criticized Lauper 's " novice mistakes " with a score that " never establishes a compositional through line " and saying that while " Fierstein 's heart is in the right place ... the show 's earnestness sinks it " , adding that " if [ the show ] weren 't such a cheesy commercial mess , it might actually be fun " . Joe Dziemianowicz of the New York Daily News wrote that while the " script has issues like a pair of shoes " that don 't quite fit , " Mitchell 's production moves lickety @-@ split " and " Porter ... is a force of nature as Lola . " But , he added , Lauper 's " multicolored , surprising and fun " score outshines the fancy footwear and proves to be the " real star of this show " . Writing for The Guardian , David Cote noted that the decision to use American actors for an adaptation that maintained the Northampton setting resulted in a disconcerting inconsistency in terms of accents . The Wall Street Journal gave the show a negative review , calling it " an imitation heart @-@ warming British working @-@ class musical with a gay angle and a maudlin ending . ... Kinky Boots is its own spoiler alert , the kind of musical in which you recite the dialogue a half @-@ beat ahead of the actors . ... [ the score ] sounds like ... " Cyndi : The Deservedly Forgotten Late- ' 80s B @-@ Sides . " A review in The Bergen Record said that the show " sorely lacks is a dramatic commitment to what it 's doing . Which is why a show that seems to make few false steps is so relentlessly tedious , " calling it " dull " and " synthetic " . Talkin ' Broadway also gave the show a negative review . The Village Voice , AM New York , and NBC turned in lukewarm reviews .
In 2014 , Kinky Boots began a United States national tour , which has also garnered mostly positive reviews . Democrat and Chronicle raved , “ Flashy , funny and uplifting , Kinky Boots has appeal — and lots of it — for all ‘ ladies , gentleman and those who are yet to make up their mind . ’ ” BroadwayWorld Los Angeles offered “ praise to the entire triple threat ensemble ! “ The Republic countered , “ Despite the fiery showstopper " Sex Is in the Heel , " however , " Kinky Boots " is surprisingly short on sex appeal , and the cheerleaderish troupe of drag queens called Angels don 't have any of the transgressive appeal of the Cagelles from Fierstein 's earlier hit " La Cage aux Folles . " CBS Minnesota summed it up as “ loud , proud and a tubular sensation . ”
In Toronto , Canada , Kinky Boots opened on June 28 to critical acclaim . The Globe and Mail writing " Exuberant ! Inspired ! Terrific ! Splendid fun ! Excellent Canadian Cast ... A tour de force ! " . The Toronto Star wrote " Kinky Boots is the spectacular celebration of song , dance and comedy you 've got to enjoy this summer . Cue the dancing in the street . Bravo ! " . National Post said " THE BEST ! The most inventive musical I 've seen in ages . Joyous ! Ingenious ! Very funny ! " . And TVO stated " A complete triumph . One of the best musicals I 've ever seen . Kinky Boots is crazy good . "
The London production received mostly raves , with the London Evening Standard writing , " The thigh 's the limit for this high @-@ kicking London musical , " calling it " a glorious high @-@ kicking romp , " and adding that " ... its energy is infectious . " Time Out London called it " dazzling , fabulously sassy and uplifting , " explaining " It 's not all glitz and high @-@ kicks ... there are some grittier moments that give the show an edgier feel . " And Digital Spy proclaimed it " hilarious , heartwarming , and a hell of a lot of fun , " offering special praise for the show 's star : " Matt Henry ... truly steals the show ... He is utterly commanding in the role , and you instantly root for him . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
Matilda had been the pre @-@ Award season favorite , but as the season progressed , it became clear that Kinky Boots and the revival of Pippin would provide serious competition . Early in the 2013 awards season , Kinky Boots did well , receiving Drama League Award nominations for Distinguished Production of a Musical and Distinguished Performance , for both Porter and Sands , and winning for Distinguished Production . The show received nine Outer Critics Circle Award nominations , winning three , including Outstanding New Broadway Musical , Outstanding New Score and Outstanding Actor in a Musical ( Porter ) . The musical received only two Drama Desk Award nominations , however , and only one win : Porter for Outstanding Actor in a Musical . New York Times theatre writer Patrick Healy , however , reported that some Tony voters found Matilda " dark " and " a bit chilly " , and accurately predicted that " while the cleverness of Matilda may be enough to win best book , the warmth of Kinky Boots will be enough to score an upset and take the top Tony for best musical . "
Kinky Boots received a season @-@ high 13 Tony Award nominations . Matilda , which The New York Times described as the " unalloyed critical hit " of the season , received 12 nominations , 11 of them in the same categories as Kinky Boots . In addition to its critical success , Matilda had won the Drama Desk Award for outstanding musical and had set a record by winning the most Olivier Awards in history . Nevertheless , Kinky Boots won a season @-@ high six Tonys , including Best Musical , which the press described as an upset , and Lauper 's win for Best Score made her the first woman to win alone in that category . The creative team are Americans , and reviewer David Cote , an American writing in The Guardian , judged that the show 's win was a case of " the balance of love going to a homegrown American musical , Kinky Boots , over the British import Matilda . " The other Tony wins were for best actor ( Porter ) , sound design ( Shivers ) , choreography ( Mitchell ) and orchestrations ( Oremus ) . Fierstein , Sands , Ashford , Mitchell ( as director ) and the three other designers were all nominated but did not win . Kinky Boots also won the 2013 Artios Award for Outstanding Achievement in Casting in the Broadway musical category .
The West End production won the Evening Standard Radio 2 Audience Award for Best New Musical , which was based on voting by the public at the 2015 Evening Standard Theatre Awards . The show earned seven nominations for the 2016 Laurence Olivier Awards , which was second to a revival of Gypsy , which earned eight nominations . Kinky Boots won three Olivier Awards : Best New Musical , Best Actor in a Musical and Best Costume Design , trailing only Gypsy 's four awards .
= = Recordings = =
A Broadway original cast album , produced by Lauper , Oremus and William Wittman was released on May 28 , 2013 . It premiered at number one on the Billboard Cast Albums Chart and number fifty @-@ one on the Billboard 200 chart , making it the highest charting Broadway cast recording since The Book of Mormon 's album was released two years earlier . Before the Chicago tryout , " Sex Is in the Heel " became the first Broadway song to reach the top 10 of the Billboard club charts in 25 years . " Land of Lola " was released as a dance remix by Wayne G. & LFB in June 2013 . The album received a favorable review in Playbill from Steven Suskin and won the Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album .
A West End Original Cast Recording was recorded live at the Adelphi Theatre and released April 1 , 2016 .
= Ramblin ' Wreck =
The Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech is the 1930 Ford Model A Sport coupe that serves as the official mascot of the student body at the Georgia Institute of Technology . The Wreck is present at all major sporting events and student body functions . Its most noticeable role is leading the football team into Bobby Dodd Stadium at Historic Grant Field , a duty which the Wreck has performed since 1961 . The Ramblin ' Wreck is mechanically and financially maintained on campus by students in Ramblin ' Reck Club .
The first mechanical Wreck was a 1914 Ford Model T owned by Dean Floyd Field . Until the current Wreck was donated to the school in 1961 , most of the early Ramblin ' Wrecks were owned by students , faculty or alumni . The modern Wreck has donned a number of different paint jobs and has had several restorations and modifications made to it . These changes were made by various individuals and organizations over the years , including Bobby Dodd and a Georgia Tech Alum at the Ford plant in Hapeville , Georgia . The upkeep of the Wreck has been the sole responsibility of Ramblin ' Reck Club and the Wreck driver since 1987 .
The Ramblin ' Wreck has been the target of several pranks perpetrated by rival schools ; the University of Tennessee once provided the Wreck with an unsolicited new paint job , and the University of Georgia has stolen the Wreck on at least two occasions . Several replica or " false " Wrecks are owned by alumni , or are used for display and do not run . The official Ramblin ' Wreck is considered the only " true " Wreck , and no backups or replacements exist .
= = History = =
The term " Ramblin ' Wreck " has been used to refer to students and alumni of Georgia Tech much longer than the car that now bears the name has been in existence . The expression has its origins in the late 19th century and was used originally to refer to the makeshift motorized vehicles constructed by Georgia Tech engineers employed in projects in the jungles of Central America . The Wrecks were constructed from whatever the engineers could find — mostly old tractor and automotive parts — and were kept running by the engineers ' ingenuity and creativity . Other workers in the area began to refer to these vehicles and the men who drove them as " Rambling Wrecks from Georgia Tech . "
The first " mechanical mascot " at Georgia Tech was a 1914 Ford Model T owned by Dean Floyd Field . Field drove the car to and from class every day from 1916 until 1928 . Field cared so much for the car that he even nicknamed it " Nellie " . The vehicle was distinguished by its metallic black paint job and a large black box fastened to the rear end by a buggy wheel hoop . The black box 's contents were never revealed to the student body and the box became part of the mystique of the Old Ford .
The student body initially nicknamed the vehicle " Floyd 's Flivver " but eventually began to call the car the " Ramblin ' ' Reck . " The first mention of Field 's Ford as a Ramblin ' ' Reck was in 1926 when he performed an overhaul of the car 's motor , body , and paint job with the help of the campus machine shop .
Dean Field found a love for travel with his Model T. He took it all the way to California for seminars on mathematics and education . However , in 1927 rumors began to abound campus that Field was going to buy a Model A. Field quelled the rumors with a personal interview in the last issue of the 1927 Technique . By September 1928 , Field felt he could not travel as much with the dilapidated Model T. To the dismay of the student body the vehicle was discarded by Dean Field in 1928 and a Model A was purchased . Field 's Model A lasted until 1934 in which he bought a Ford V8 . He would drive over 122 @,@ 000 miles ( 196 @,@ 300 km ) in all three cars during his Georgia Tech tenure of 1900 – 1945 .
In memoriam to his retired " Tin Lizzie " , Dean Field started " an Old Ford Race " from the intersection of North Avenue and Techwood Drive in Atlanta to the intersection of Hills Street and Prince Avenue in Athens . The race was sponsored by the Technique , which nicknamed the event the " Flying Flivver Race . " The finish line was facilitated by the University of Georgia student newspaper The Red and Black . The only rule of the race was that the car had to be a pre @-@ 1926 4 @-@ cylinder motor car . The fastest time in the race was achieved by an Essex which completed the 79 @-@ mile ( 126 km ) race in 1 hour and 26 minutes or 55 mph ( 88 km / h ) .
The Tech administration disliked the perilous race and reduced the race to a more peaceful and regulated parade of contraptions known as the Ramblin ' Wreck Parade after races were completed in 1929 and 1930 . The Yellow Jacket Club facilitated the first official Ramblin ' Wreck parade in 1932 . The only break in the parade 's continuous operation occurred with the onset of World War II . There were no parades from 1942 – 1943 and when the parade did continue in 1944 , all wrecks had to be human powered . In 1946 , the Ramblin ' Wreck Parade was allowed to operate combustion engines again . The rules instituted in the 1946 Wreck Parade still remain as the parade has become the featured event for all Tech homecomings .
= = = Mascot for students = = =
Dean of Student Affairs Jim Dull recognized a need for an official Ramblin ' Wreck when he observed the student body 's fascination with classic cars . Fraternities , in particular , would parade around their House Wrecks as displays of school spirit and enthusiasm . It was considered a rite of passage to own a broken down vehicle .
In 1960 , Dull began a search for a new official symbol to represent the Institute . He specifically wanted a classic pre @-@ war Ford . Dull 's search would entail newspaper ads , radio commercials , and other means to locate this vehicle . The search took him throughout the state and country , but no suitable vehicle was found until the autumn of 1960 . Dean Dull spotted a polished 1930 Ford Model A outside of his apartment located in Towers Dormitory . The owner was Captain Ted J. Johnson , Atlanta 's chief Delta Air Lines pilot .
Johnson had purchased the car from a junkyard in 1956 . Johnson and his son , Craig , would restore the car as a father @-@ son project while Craig attended the Georgia Military Academy . The two spent two years and over $ 1 @,@ 800 restoring the vehicle . Johnson utilized spare parts from many different sources to refurbish the rusty hulk . He bought the mahogany dash from a parts dealer in Caracas , Venezuela and used Convair 440 aluminum sheets to replace the flooring . After Craig graduated from high school , he attended Florida State on a track scholarship . In 1960 , Craig 's track team would be in Atlanta competing against Tech . Johnson , wanting to see his son compete , took the Model A to Tech campus , parked it near Towers dormitory , and went to watch Craig compete .
When Johnson returned to his car , he found a note from Dean Dull attached to his windshield . Dull 's note offered to purchase the car to serve as Georgia Tech 's official mascot . Johnson , after great deliberation , agreed to take $ 1 @,@ 000 but would eventually return the money in 1984 so that the car would be remembered as an official donation to Georgia Tech and the Alexander @-@ Tharpe Fund . The Ramblin ' Wreck would be officially transferred to the Athletic Association on May 26 , 1961 .
The Ramblin ' Wreck was unveiled September 30 , 1961 at Grant Field in front of 43 @,@ 501 Tech fans as it led the team onto the field against Rice University . The team prevailed 24 – 0 and the Wreck became an instant success within the Tech family . The Wreck has since led the team onto the field for every home game .
= = = Bobby Dodd 's touch = = =
The current color scheme was selected in 1974 by then athletic director and former head coach Bobby Dodd . The original Wreck decor featured a wooden GT shield on both the driver and passenger @-@ side doors . This shield was removed during Dodd 's revitalization of the old Model A. Dodd chose an old gold paint from a Lincoln car paint catalogue as the base for the new color scheme . He also placed a slightly stretched GT emblem on the door , a Tech helmet on the rear quarter panel , and a 1952 version of the Yellow Jacket on the front quarter panel . According to Tech lore , Bobby Dodd was so enamored with the Lincoln gold that he changed the football helmet and uniform color to match the new Ramblin ' Wreck paint scheme .
The biggest structural change was a support system attached to the car 's frame . The support system runs the length of the running boards and allows the increased weight of cheerleaders or Reck Club members standing on the runningboards .
From 1973 to 1987 , 1947 IE alum Pete George maintained the Ramblin ' Wreck at the Hapeville Ford Plant . George would mastermind the 1974 change of colors as well as a major refurbishment of the Wreck in 1982 in time for Georgia Tech 's 1985 centennial celebration . The car was completely disassembled , rebuilt , and repainted by late 1982 .
= = = Centennial Celebration changes = = =
There were a few noticeable changes to the Ramblin ' Wreck after the 1982 refurbishment . An aftermarket chrome stone guard was added to protect the grill , The emblems on the side were removed and replaced by a basic GT decal on the doors . The 1952 Yellow Jackets were moved to the front tire wells . The white horn was chromed over . The old tire cover was a shield with a football helmet wearing yellow jacket . This was replaced with a white generic naugahyde Ford tire cover . The Old Model A tires and brakes were replaced with Model B whitewall tires and modified brakes .
The Wreck experienced a major transition of ownership after the Centennial Celebration . Since Reck Club had financially maintained the vehicle for so long and Reck Club fell under the Dean of Students rather than the Athletic Association , the vehicle was sold from the Athletic Association to the Institute for zero dollars in 1987 . The transaction further solidified Reck Club 's responsibilities over the car but also made the car more than simply a football mascot . The Old Ford was officially an Institute icon .
After Pete George 's retirement in 1987 , the upkeep of the Wreck fell directly upon the shoulders of the Wreck Drivers and Reck Club . In 1994 , the Hapeville Plant ended their relationship with Reck Club . Since then , the Wreck has been student maintained with the assistance of local Atlanta garages . The Wreck has had numerous mechanical and cosmetic repairs over the years since Pete George 's initial full rebuild .
After 1994 , Reck Club restored the wheels and brakes to original Model A specifications . Reck Club performed a major off body restoration in the Spring of 2000 that saw the car repainted and the motor rebuilt . Pete George , although several years retired , aided Reck Club in its restoration providing funding and labor to the 2000 restoration . After the restoration , a small modification replaced the electrical generator with a more efficient Nu @-@ Rex alternator . In 2007 , Reck Club coordinated their second major restoration following a trailering accident that severely damaged the body and top of the Ramblin ' Wreck .
= = = Modern role of the Wreck = = =
The Ramblin ' Wreck has led the Yellow Jacket football team onto Grant Field almost 300 games . It also makes appearances for other Georgia Tech sports teams : it is often seen before big basketball games at Hank McCamish Pavilion , occasionally parked outside of Russ Chandler Stadium during warm weekend baseball series , and has attended several softball games a year at the new mid @-@ campus stadium .
A symbol of the Institute 's academic and collegiate tradition , the old Model A is often dispatched to special events on campus . It is always present when new buildings are opened or dedicated . On December 5 , 2006 , the Wreck became the first car to drive across the new Fifth Street Bridge .
Every spring , the Institute holds a ceremony , known as When the Whistle Blows , to honor students , staff , and faculty who died during the previous year . The Georgia Tech Whistle is blown once for each person who died , and once more to salute Georgia Tech alumni and friends who may also have died . A procession of the military escort , led by the Ramblin ' Wreck , leads up to the ceremony , during which the Wreck is parked next to the speaker 's stage .
During Tech Homecoming , the Ramblin ' Wreck has several duties . Several days before Homecoming , it acts as a giant gold starter pistol for the Mini 500 tricycle race . The Wreck 's next task is to lead the racers out of the starting line in the Freshman Cake Race . On the day of the Homecoming football game , the Wreck leads the Ramblin ' Wreck Parade , then leads the football team onto the field .
The car is also present at every Freshman Orientation ( FASET ) , Earth Day festival , and other campuswide events .
A ride in the Wreck serves as a gift to many retiring faculty and staff ; a ride onto Grant Field is one of the greatest honors Georgia Tech can bestow . Kim King , for example , received this honor on October 2 , 2004 during halftime of the Miami game .
= = Wreck traditions and specifications = =
There are several lesser known details about the Wreck that are easily missed when it rambles down Techwood Drive . Specific physical details and the actual person behind the wheel are often missed or overlooked . The Wreck is financially maintained through Ramblin ' Reck Club appearances and fundraisers . There is no official source of funding from the Institute , Athletic Association , or Alumni Association . This gives the Wreck a unique level of independence that is atypical amongst college mascots .
When a freshman first reaches campus for FASET ( orientation ) , one of the many traditions that they are introduced to is that freshmen cannot touch the Wreck until the completion of their first year . This rule originated in the 1963 edition of the RAT Rules . If a freshman touches the Wreck between convocation and the last day of classes in the Spring , they will receive bad luck throughout their college career and GT will be cursed to lose to UGA in football that year .
The Wreck is distinguished by its old gold body and white soft top . The soft top has a chrome support strut , which features a brass classic Tech T and 1952 yellow jacket . The body also has two solid white runningboards , which run the length of the vehicle . The running boards support cheerleaders or the occasional Tech student looking for a ride . The interior upholstery is solid white vinyl . The gear shifter knob is a white globe with the classic Tech T painted on it . There are two golden nylon pennants emblazoned with the words " To Hell With Georgia " and " Give ' Em Hell Tech " fastened to the front bumper .
= = = Driver = = =
The Driver of the Ramblin ' Wreck is an elected position within Ramblin ' Reck Club . This position is determined after every football season . The driver manages the car 's public appearances and maintenance . There have only been 46 drivers of the Wreck , making the position of Wreck driver one of the most prestigious positions in all of Georgia Tech 's student organizations .
The driver gets to add their own personal touch every year to the Wreck . The front license plate is chosen by the driver every year and the radiator cap is replaced yearly as well . The cap is typically a flying quail or a wreath . After each driver 's term , the driver gets to keep the two pennants as well .
Dean Dull initiated a group known as the Ramblin ' Reck Committee of the Student Council to aid in his search for a mascot . When the Wreck was found in 1961 , the Ramblin ' Reck Committee was chaired by Dekle Rountree . Rountree would drive the Wreck for school functions and Student Council fundraisers . He was also the first person to drive the Ramblin ' Wreck onto Grant Field . Don Gentry , the president of Reck Club in 1961 , was the first student to drive the Wreck as he aided in retrieving the Model A from Ted Johnson 's home . The Wreck was always maintained by Reck Club but the complete transition of control occurred between 1964 – 1967 . During this period , Reck Club was relieved of its RAT rules enforcement duties and given more wholesome jobs of maintaining the Wreck , upholding traditions , and generating school spirit . There have been three female drivers of the Ramblin ' Wreck in its history . Lisa Volmar , an industrial engineering major , was elected the driver in 1984 and she was the first female driver after 23 consecutive years of male @-@ only drivers .
= = = Reck or Wreck = = =
The name can be spelled either Ramblin ' Wreck or Ramblin ' Reck . In all spellings , there is no g in Ramblin ' . The first references to the 1930 Model A ( 1961 ) spelled the word Reck while the first references to the 1914 Model T owned by Dean Field spelled the word ' Reck ( 1925 ) . Ramblin ' Reck Club has spelled the word Reck since their 1945 club charter . The Institute has adopted the spelling Ramblin ' Wreck and holds a trademark on the phrase . Reck Club still refers to the Ramblin ' Wreck as the Ramblin ' Reck while most other agencies refer to it as the Ramblin ' Wreck .
= = Travelin ' Wreck = =
In its history , the Wreck has appeared at a number of away games and other events away from the Georgia Tech campus . Many of these trips resulted in damage to the Wreck or other interesting anecdotes .
The first away game for the Ramblin ' Wreck was the 1961 game against the Alabama Crimson Tide . The Wreck was freighted by Southern Railway to Birmingham , Alabama . At the time , Alabama played its home games at Legion Field . Before the game the current driver Dekle Rountree decided to traverse the slope up to visit Birmingham 's Vulcan statue . The trip to Birmingham was such a success , a trip to Jacksonville for Tech 's Gator Bowl appearance against Penn State was organized as well . These would be the first road and bowl game appearances for the Wreck in its illustrious career .
In 1963 , the Ramblin ' Reck Committee and Ramblin ' Reck Club organized another road trip for the Wreck . This trip would take the Wreck up to Knoxville for a game against the Tennessee Volunteers . After Tech won the game , the Wreck was stored overnight in Neyland Stadium . Administrators and Tennessee 's Athletic Director Bob Woodruff promised Georgia Tech Athletics that the Wreck would be safe . They were wrong . Tennessee students broke into the storage area and painted the Wreck orange . They wrote " Go Vols " in the paint and covered the gold wheels with paint as well . After the incident , Georgia Tech sent a bill to Tennessee 's Athletic Department asking for restitution . It was believed that Woodruff had aided the students in their efforts after he openly contested the officiating of the football contest .
In 1976 , Tech students took the Wreck to Athens for the annual football game with UGA . After the game , the Wreck 's police escort abandoned the car . The vehicle appeared relatively unprotected and was approached by UGA students attempting to vandalize it . The Tech students responsible for the car 's safekeeping frightened the encroaching Bulldog fans away by producing a concealed 9 mm pistol .
The farthest trips the Ramblin ' Wreck has ever traveled from Atlanta were the 1970 Sun Bowl in El Paso , Texas and Denver , Colorado , in 1990 for Tech 's NCAA Final Four Appearance against UNLV . The Wreck was freighted by van 1 @,@ 400 miles ( 2 @,@ 250 km ) to Denver Coliseum . Along the way , a television crew documented the trip and broadcast the Wreck 's expedition during the Final Four promotions .
The last major roadtrips for the Ramblin ' Wreck were to the 2004 Final Four in San Antonio , Texas , the 2006 ACC Championship Game in Jacksonville , Florida , and the 2009 ACC Championship Game in Tampa 's Raymond James Stadium . The Wreck led the Yellow Jacket football team onto Alltel Stadium 's field for Tech 's first appearance in the ACC Title game , as well as performing the same duty in their second appearance and first win in the ACC Championship Game in 2009 . The Wreck has also been to the Orange Bowl , Gator Bowl , All @-@ American Bowl , Sun Bowl , Peach Bowl , Citrus Bowl , and Champs Sports Bowl .
On June 15 , 2007 , the Wreck was involved in an accident while being towed to a wedding south of Atlanta in a covered car trailer . The trailer failed while carrying the Wreck , in turn causing the truck and trailer to run off the road and into the roadside ditch . The Wreck fell over inside the trailer , causing damage to its side and roof . Despite the severe body damage ( in excess of $ 30 @,@ 000 ) , the Wreck was repaired for the first game of the 2007 season against the Samford Bulldogs .
= = In the media = =
In 1987 , the Ramblin ' Wreck and Dean Jim Dull were featured on ABC @-@ TV 's morning show . Dean Dull shouted into the camera , " I 'm Dean of Students Jim Dull and I 'm a Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech . Good Morning , America ! " Dull was on the show because he had won a make @-@ a @-@ wish contest . All he wanted was for the Ramblin ' Wreck , gold @-@ clad students , and himself to be on the ABC morning show and ABC granted the wish .
The Ramblin ' Wreck has been featured in several newspapers , magazines , and books . The Ramblin ' Wreck is portrayed leading the Georgia Tech football team onto the field on the cover of Al Thomy 's 1973 work Ramblin ' Wreck - A Story of Georgia Tech Football . Pete George 's 1982 refurbishment was featured in the November 1983 edition of the Ford Times . The June 1986 edition of Cars & Parts Magazine featured the Ramblin ' Wreck and the raffle for the Centennial Wreck . The December 1991 Car Collector & Car Classics featured the Wreck on the cover after the National Championship season . The December 2007 Bellsouth Real White Pages for Greater Atlanta featured the Ramblin ' Wreck with censored flags .
The Ramblin ' Wreck has been featured numerous times in Tech 's student newspaper , The Technique , and Atlanta 's primary newspaper , the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution . The Wreck has also been featured in The New York Times and the Associated Press . Local newspapers such as the Cherokee Times , Augusta Chronicle , and Gwinnett Daily Post have also printed articles about the Wreck .
In the week prior to the 2007 home opener , the Ramblin ' Wreck was featured on ESPN First Take . ESPN showed old clips of the Wreck leading the football team onto the field and discussed the possibility of the Wreck not making the football opener after 45 consecutive years of never missing a game .
The Ramblin ' Wreck was featured prominently on the October 18 , 2007 episode of Jim Cramer 's Mad Money . Cramer exited the Wreck 's passenger door to start the show and one of Cramer 's trademark soundboards was attached to the front bumper .
On April 16 , 2009 , a Georgia Tech student riding on the running board of the Ramblin ' Wreck fell and suffered severe head injuries hospitalizing the student for four days . Almost a year later , the student filed suit against Georgia Tech and an auto shop responsible for installing handles on the roof of the car . The lawsuit cites the failure of the auto shop 's handles as the reason for the fall and claims the University promoted the unsafe use of a vehicle by students .
The 2012 edition of EA Sports ' NCAA football video game featured the addition of the Ramblin ' Wreck leading Georgia Tech 's football team onto the field at all games played in Bobby Dodd Stadium . The Ramblin ' Wreck was included in the game alongside many other colleges ' pre @-@ game traditions to " deliver the pride and pageantry of game day " .
= = Ramblin ' replicas = =
There are several vehicles that claim " Ramblin ' Wreck status . " However , there is only one modern official Ramblin ' Wreck . There are no backups or equivalent vehicles .
The most famous of the fake Wrecks is a 1931 Ford Model A Cabriolet known as the Centennial Wreck . This vehicle was refurbished along with the real Wreck in 1985 . The vehicle followed the Ramblin ' Wreck onto the field all of the 1985 football season and was raffled for $ 250 @,@ 000 by Pete George and Georgia Tech in 1986 .
In 1988 , the Alumni Association purchased a 1931 Ford Model A Roadster and restored the vehicle again in 1994 . The Alumni Wreck is distinguished by its spare tire locations on the driver 's side and passenger 's side runningboards and the words " Georgia Tech Alumni Association " printed on the doors . It also has a convertible top . On the real Wreck , the spare is behind the rumble seat and the roof cannot be removed or lowered .
There is a 1930 Ford Model A Sports Coupe shell in the Georgia Tech Hotel . This car has not worked since it has been on campus . The motor is incomplete and the front end lacks the Wreck 's chrome stone guard . This is one of the few replicas that is almost identical in make , model , and paint scheme when compared to the real Ramblin ' Wreck .
There are also several alumni owned vehicles that are painted to resemble the Wreck . These vehicles mimic the look and feel of the Wreck but are not the Ramblin ' Wreck . One of the most famous instances of mistaken identity occurred in 1988 . A father @-@ son duo of Georgia Tech alums attempted to lead the Tech football team onto the field at Sanford Stadium in Athens . After getting inside of the stadium with their gold 1924 Ford Model T , the two were finally stopped by Georgia officials who were informed the real Ramblin ' Wreck had remained in Atlanta .
Several B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses and B @-@ 24 Liberators and at least one F4U Corsair were designated the name Ramblin ' Reck during service in World War II .
The Chicago Brewing Company features an amber ale by the name of Ramblin ' Reck Amber Ale .
= 1952 Kern County earthquake =
The 1952 Kern County earthquake occurred on July 21 in the southern San Joaquin Valley and measured 7 @.@ 3 on the moment magnitude scale . The main shock occurred at 4 : 52 am Pacific Daylight Time ( 11 : 52 UTC ) , killed 12 people and injured hundreds , and caused an estimated $ 60 million in property damage . A small sector of damage near Bealville corresponded to a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI ( Extreme ) , though this intensity rating was not representative of the majority of damage . The earthquake occurred on the White Wolf Fault near the community of Wheeler Ridge and was the strongest to occur in California since the 1906 San Francisco earthquake .
The town of Tehachapi suffered the greatest damage and loss of life from the earthquake , though other locations in Kern County experienced significant damage as well , but its effects were widely felt throughout central and southern California . The July mainshock had a significant aftershock sequence that persisted into July and August with many magnitude 5 + events with intensities of V ( Moderate ) to VII ( Very strong ) . Six of these aftershocks occurred on the day of the mainshock , but the strongest aftershock came on August 22 as a M5.8 event that had a maximum perceived intensity of VIII ( Severe ) and resulted in the deaths of two people and caused an additional $ 10 million in property damage .
Following the event , a field survey was conducted along the fault zone with the goal of estimating the peak ground acceleration of the shock based on visually evaluating precarious rock formations and other indicators . Ground disturbances that were created by the earthquakes were also surveyed , both in the valley and in the foothills , with both vertical and horizontal displacements present in the epicentral area . The strong motion records that were acquired from the event were significant , and a reconnaissance report was recognized for its coverage of the event , and how it set a standard for those types of engineering or scientific papers . Repercussions of the sequence of earthquakes were still being felt in the heavily damaged downtown area of Bakersfield well into the 1990s as city leaders attempted to improve safety of the surviving unreinforced masonry buildings .
= = Tectonic setting = =
At Lebec , California , just south of the epicenter of the July mainshock , the San Andreas Fault comes together with the Garlock Fault , which is positioned at the northern border of the Mojave Desert . The San Andreas has been responsible for considerable seismic activity at its northern and southern sections , and traverses the area near the Transverse Ranges . The Kern Canyon Fault mirrors the path of the Kern River , and was thought to have a connection with the White Wolf Fault , but indicators observed following the July 21 earthquake demonstrated that the two are offset . The Owens Valley Fault , on the east side of the Sierran block , has been mapped and may possibly extend into area that was affected by the 1952 shocks . Other fault zones are present in the region , and have been of interest because they may have been responsible for minor earthquakes , but they are considered not as significant as the Kern Canyon , Owens Valley , and San Andreas Faults .
The 1952 earthquakes were the first to be observed well within Kern County lines . Other strong , but remote events were previously felt in the area , but they were distant enough to cause only occasional destructive effects . The county is bounded on the western side by the Temblor Range which is adjacent to the southern San Andreas Fault . Other large events have affected the area as well , like the January 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake that severely affected Fort Tejon ( about 15 miles ( 24 km ) south of Wheeler Ridge ) .
= = Earthquake = =
The M7.3 earthquake occurred on the strike @-@ slip White Wolf Fault in the southern San Joaqin Valley . Historically , the left @-@ lateral fault has had a component of reverse slip , and at the time of the July mainshock the ratio of reverse / left @-@ lateral slip was about 1 @.@ 2 : 1 . The epicenter of the shock was at the 90 km ( 56 mi ) fault 's southwestern end , at a point where it may end , or merge with the east @-@ west trending Pleito thrust fault . The White Wolf Fault ( as illuminated by the aftershocks ) was found to be curved , with less dip on the northeast end , though that zone also had a higher strike @-@ slip component . Other distinct characteristics on that end of the fault were the shallower shocks and the less overall slip . If the total fault displacement came about as a result of the same type of large @-@ displacement shocks like the one in 1952 , the recurrence interval was proposed to be 170 – 450 years . The 1995 Working Group on California Earthquake Probabilities gave a ( high uncertainty ) slip rate estimate of 2 mm per year .
Mercalli intensities for the mainshock were gauged to be VIII ( Severe ) , especially in Tehachapi and close to the epicenter , but southeast of Bealville 46 cm ( 18 in ) thick reinforced concrete railroad tunnel walls were cracked , tracks were warped , and the gap between tunnel entrances was reduced by up to 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 ft 2 in ) . Because of the extraordinary damage there , an intensity rating of XI ( Extreme ) was assigned specifically for that location .
= = = Damage = = =
Though damage was spread throughout a large area , most was concentrated in the town of Tehachapi where at least 11 were killed and 35 were injured . An early estimate reported in the Los Angeles Times had the damage at $ 2 @.@ 6 million with 700 families affected in Tehachapi alone , where most of the town 's buildings sustained damage . Fifteen homes were destroyed there , 53 were heavily damaged , and another 75 sustained light damage . In Bakersfield , windows were broken and dislodged plaster littered residential and commercial districts , and the county jail was damaged .
To the southwest of Bakersfield in Maricopa , the justice court building , the Maricopa Hotel , the post office , and several businesses were condemned because of heavy damage . In the small town of Taft disruption was light , with the exception of a destroyed wall at a J. C. Penney department store and a single home that was damaged . In the ( former ) settlement of Paloma a fire burned at an oil refinery , and an explosion occurred at refinery in Long Beach due to a cracked pipe , but most of the Greater Los Angeles Area was free from heavy damage due to the distant location ( around 10 miles southwest of Tehachapi ) of the earthquake . Power disruptions affected Van Nuys and Los Angeles and in Long Beach some windows were broken . Other moderate damage in that area included a 2 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) crack on a street in Hollywood and a 90 ft ( 27 m ) crack in a Santa Ana parking lot .
= = = Aftershocks = = =
Through late September , Caltech seismometers recorded 188 aftershocks higher than magnitude 4 @.@ 0 . Six of those on the day of the mainshock were M5 and above , but some of these ( like the 12 : 05 M6.3 shock ) were only felt , and didn 't cause any damage . The July 21 M5.1 shock at 15 : 13 GMT and the July 23 shock at 00 : 38 both damaged buildings in Arvin , and the latter event also caused slight damage in Fresno and near Bakersfield . Three additional shocks on July 23 were particularly destructive . Walls and other portions of buildings that had been previously damaged took a second hit from the 07 : 53 M5.2 event , and a house that saw only minor damage during the mainshock was nearly destroyed by it . Gas and water lines were also severed , and transformers were loosened or dislodged . The 13 : 17 M5.8 shock compounded problems at Tehachapi and Arvin with damage to previously @-@ affected buildings that was described as serious , but the 18 : 13 shock on July 23 only had a slight affect at Arvin .
Two shocks on July 25 that occurred within an hour of each other were felt throughout central California and caused pipeline damage south of Bakersfield and other minor building damage in several locations . Pre @-@ existing ground disturbances were enhanced in Tejon Canyon , and landslides occurred at Caliente Creek Canyon , Oiler Canyon Grade , and on State Route 178 between Kernville and Bakersfield . A number of fires were initiated by the July 29 aftershock ( intensity VII ( Very strong ) ) and other severe damage was caused by it , especially to buildings that had already been damaged ( including one in Bakersfield ) . The strongest aftershock in the sequence came on August 22 as a magnitude 5 @.@ 8 event with a maximum perceived intensity of VIII ( Severe ) . Damage was especially heavy to brick buildings in Bakersfield , and although only a few buildings collapsed outright , 90 of 264 buildings that the shock damaged needed to be brought down completely . Total damage from this event alone was estimated to be $ 10 million , with several injuries , and two additional deaths .
= = = Peak acceleration = = =
Prior to the 1999 Chi @-@ Chi earthquake in Nantou County , Taiwan , little information was available for estimating ground motion that resulted from large ( greater than M7 ) thrust earthquakes , and whether the values seen in that event are commonplace remains unresolved . Foam rubber modeling , numerical modeling , and field studies have shown that intense ground motions close to 1g are possible on the hanging wall side of the fault during some large thrust earthquakes . A common occurrence of shattered rock that has been observed on the hanging wall of thrust faults reinforces the existence of the strong motions , but precarious rock surveys have indicated that smaller ground motions are present on the foot wall side of the fault . Foam rubber modelling studies confirm that the ground motion on the foot wall side can be lower by a factor of up to five , and an example of this imbalance was displayed during the September 1999 M7.6 earthquake in Taiwan .
Rocks are classified as precarious if their toppling accelerations are .3g or less and semi @-@ precarious at .3 – .5g. The area around the White Wolf fault was surveyed by a group of earth scientists with extensive experience estimating thousands of rock formations . The toppling accelerations of many rocks were assessed by the three geologists , with individual estimates usually agreeing within .1g. On the foot wall side , many precarious and semi @-@ precarious rock formations were observed and allowed for peak ground acceleration to be estimated at .5g ( within a kilometer of the fault trace ) while rock shattering and a lack of precarious rocks on the hanging wall side suggested a value near 1g had been experienced at the time of the shock .
= = = Ground effects = = =
Many erratic surface fractures were generated in the San Joaquin Valley along the White Wolf Fault . The cracks were not well @-@ defined , and were the result of the disturbance of the alluvium that makes up the valley floor , rather than cracking along the fault trace . Northeast trending cracks ranging from hairline @-@ width to near five inches wide were seen between Arvin and California State Route 166 , and some showed clear lateral offset , but those were determined to be localized effects . Some of the fractures in the ground were aligned with the fault , and some were perpendicular to the general trend , but the more significant breaks were believed to be a direct result of faulting at depth . This was true in the mountainous areas as well , but some of the breaks at the higher elevations were probably related to slumping . The northeast trending breaks were described in a report from the State of California ( that was prepared by well @-@ known geologists and seismologists ) as " thrusting of the southeast block up and over the northwest block , and / or a lateral movement of the southeast block to the northeast " .
Offset rows of cotton were documented at a number of locations along the northeast trending fault breaks in the valley . An offset of 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) was seen 17 miles ( 27 km ) south of Bakersfield , about .5 mi ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) east of California State Route 99 , and 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southwest of Arvin a north south oriented row was offset with movement towards the west on the south side of the shift . At the same location , an east @-@ west road was dislocated towards the northeast a minimum of 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) , and near the mouth of Comanche Creek ( 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) south of Arvin ) a shallow @-@ sloped fault scarp was raised with a maximum vertical displacement of about 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) .
= = Response = =
Beno Gutenberg , a German @-@ American seismologist , was the director of the Caltech Seismological Laboratory at the time of the shock . He commented about the event first by saying that the energy of the event was 100 times that of the 1933 Long Beach earthquake . In statements made in the July 22 Los Angeles Times , the shock was compared to the 1857 Fort Tejon event . He went on to say , " There is no doubt that yesterday 's quake is the largest Southern California has had in this century and is the largest to occur in this area since modern instruments were available . It 's possible that the 1857 quake might have been more intense . " Charles Richter departed the lab in Pasadena in a mobile seismograph truck bound for the epicentral area to record aftershocks close to the fault , and Harry O. Wood ( the founder of the lab thirty years prior ) visited the lab following the onset of the shocks and commented that it was still not possible to predict the location of large earthquakes .
The American Red Cross called it a major disaster , but getting relief into the area was stalled because of landslides blocking the ridge route running between Los Angeles and Kern counties . California State Route 99 was also blocked by a landslide ten miles south of Gorman , but the highway was quickly reopened later in the day . Two tunnels used by the Southern Pacific Railroad and the Santa Fe Railroad collapsed between Tehachapi and Marcel , and all aircraft not related to the relief effort were ordered not to land at the Tehachapi Municipal Airport . All 417 inmates from the Tehachapi Prison for Women were evacuated because of damage ; the California Department of Corrections stated that the facility was left unusable . Most of the injured received medical care at Kern County General Hospital and some sought treatment at Tehachapi Valley Hospital , where some existing patients were moved to make room for new arrivals .
= = Aftermath = =
Downtown Bakersfield was heavily impacted by the earthquakes , and many damaged buildings were bulldozed to make room for buildings that were eventually constructed with newer architectural styles . After World War II , and with a booming economy , the region was experiencing a period of urban renewal . The Kern County Courthouse , St. Francis Church , and the original Beale Memorial Clock Tower were all damaged and were leveled or rebuilt . In what may have been an overambitious push for renewal , some historic buildings that may have been able to be salvaged also were brought down , though some stood for many years after the earthquakes . Some of Bakersfield 's unreinforced masonry buildings survived the shocks and were still in use years later , but the cost of retrofitting these buildings was often prohibitive for their owners , and the Bakersfield City Council was given the authority to seize or demolish them in 1993 . The city changed its approach in the late 1990s after building owners complained that the upgrade process was too expensive , and the possibility that the city may be left in possession of properties that were left needing the costly renovations .
Following most present day damaging earthquakes , teams of investigators from institutions such as the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute are sent to the affected region to set up instruments to capture strong motion records , and to study the damage and other effects of the event . This has not always been the case , and the 1954 report from Steinbrugge and Moran that thoroughly detailed the effects ( especially to buildings ) of the 1952 shocks put in place a model for how modern earthquake reconnaissance reports are written . The strong motion record that was obtained from the 1952 shock , as well as the accelerogram from the 1940 El Centro earthquake , were the most widely used data sets until the 1971 San Fernando earthquake .
= United States Academic Decathlon =
The Academic Decathlon ( also called AcaDec , AcaDeca or AcDec ) is the only annual high school academic competition organized by the non @-@ profit United States Academic Decathlon Association ( USAD ) . The competition consists of seven multiple choice tests , two performance events , and an essay . Academic Decathlon was created by Robert Peterson in 1968 for local schools in Orange County , California and expanded nationwide in 1981 . That year , 17 states and the District of Columbia participated , a number that has grown to include most of the United States and some international schools . In 2015 Academic Decathlon held its first ever International competition in Shanghai , China . Once known as United States Academic Decathlon , on March 1 , 2013 , it began operating as the Academic Decathlon .
Academic Decathlon is designed to include students from all achievement levels . Teams generally consist of nine members , who are divided into three divisions based on grade point average : Honors ( 3 @.@ 75 – 4 @.@ 00 GPA ) , Scholastic ( 3 @.@ 00 – 3 @.@ 74 GPA ) , and Varsity ( 0 @.@ 00 – 2 @.@ 99 GPA ) . Each team member competes in all ten events against other students in his or her division , and team scores are calculated using the top two overall individual scores from each team in all three divisions . Gold , silver , and bronze medals are awarded for individual events and for overall scores . To earn a spot at the national competition in April , teams must advance through local , regional , and state competitions , though some levels of competition may be bypassed for smaller states . Online competitions , separated into small , medium , and large categories , are also offered . USAD has expanded to include an International Academic Decathlon and has created an Academic Pentathlon for middle schools .
The ten events require knowledge in many academic disciplines . Students must take seven multiple choice tests in art , economics , language and literature , math , music , science and social science . These topics , with the exception of math , are thematically linked each year . One of the multiple choice events , alternating between science or social science , is chosen for the Super Quiz . In addition to the seven objective events , there are three subjective events graded by judges : essay , interview and speech .
Over the years , there have been various small controversies , the most infamous being the scandal involving the Steinmetz High School team , which was caught cheating at the 1995 Illinois state finals . This event was later dramatized in the 2000 film Cheaters . Academic Decathlon has been criticized by educators for the amount of time it requires students to spend on the material , as it constitutes an entire curriculum beyond the one provided by the school . Around the turn of the millennium , several coaches protested the USAD 's decision to publish error @-@ ridden Resource Guides rather than provide topics for students to research .
= = History = =
Academic Decathlon was founded in 1968 by Robert Peterson , the superintendent of schools in Orange County , California . Marvin Cobb , the executive director of the California Academic Decathlon in 2003 , said after Peterson 's death that Peterson intended the competition to encourage not only the highest @-@ level students who already competed in academic competitions ( " [ adding ] a little glory , " as President of the Orange County Academic Decathlon Association put it in 1970 ) , but also to " change C students ' lives " . The inaugural competition , held in December 1968 , hosted 103 students from 20 local high schools . At first only regional contests were held , organized by the Orange County Academic Decathlon Corporation ( OCAD ) with the assistance of the Orange County Department of Education . In 1971 , when the grand jury recommended that the Orange County Department of Education should no longer play a part in the competition , full control was handed over to the OCAD .
In 1979 , the first statewide competition was held , and just over two years later , the newly formed United States Academic Decathlon Association held the first national competition in April 1982 at Loyola Marymount University in California — 200 high schools from 16 states and the District of Columbia competed for the chance to attend . Peterson , inspired by the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , hoped to make Academic Decathlon an international event . At the 1984 Nationals , 32 states as well as Canada , Mexico , New Zealand and South Korea fielded teams . The inclusion of foreign countries did not become a regular occurrence , however . There was no more international participation until 1989 , when teams from Northern Ireland and Rio de Janeiro competed . Since then , only a handful of international schools have competed .
After a 1986 trial competition , Dr. Peterson founded a " International Decathlon for Academics " in 1990 . Competitions were held in 1990 , 1991 and 1992 , but for a number of reasons the competition did not continue . In April 2009 , USAD announced that it would be regularly hosting an online international competition , the International Academic Decathlon , after a successful trial event in 2008 ; however , all 2009 participants but Southbank opted out , leading USAD to issue Southbank an invitation to attend the 2009 U.S. National Competition instead .
Academic Decathlon was originally organized differently than the current competition . The original ten events were aesthetics ( music and visual arts ) , conversation , essay writing , mathematics , practical arts , formal speech , physical science , social science , current events , extracurricular activities , and English literature , grammar , and reading . Over time , those events evolved into : economics , essay , fine arts , interview , language and literature , math , science , social sciences , speech and Super Quiz . It was not until 1998 that fine arts was split into its two constituent tests : art and music . Due to this division , the Super Quiz took the place of one of the other subjects each year . In 1998 , Super Quiz replaced economics ; from 1999 until 2012 , it replaced either science or social science and alternated replacing the two from 2003 to 2012 . Beginning with the 2013 season , the Super Quiz consisted of a relay portion only , encompassing questions from the respective year 's Science , Language and Literature , Music , Social Science , Art , and Economics curriculum .
More than just the events were changed during the 1998 – 99 season — the style of study required of students changed . Prior to that season , students had performed their own research for each event , and test writers did not have to base their questions on material USAD published . However , after a policy change at the beginning of the 1999 – 2000 competition year , test writers were required to base the tests on official USAD materials . After the change in policy , scores vastly increased across the country . That year at Nationals , James E. Taylor High School had the highest team score yet seen at the competition . The following season , USAD once again altered their testing policies ; 50 % of test questions were to come from USAD published " Resource Guides " and 50 % were to come from unspecified sources . Economics focused on business organizations and profiles in individual enterprise rather than macroeconomics and microeconomics as it had for the previous 19 years . A decrease in scores followed these changes ; the national winner that year , El Camino Real High School , scored 5 @,@ 923 fewer points than James E. Taylor High School had the previous year . The following year , USAD settled on an organization of test materials that it would use for almost a full decade , with a mixture of questions from the provided material and independent research . A number of curriculum changes were reversed .
Though the events finally stabilized during the 2000 – 01 season , the USAD administration changed dramatically that year when the program 's executive director , James Alvino , resigned . Alvino had written a religious article that had been included in that year 's Super Quiz Resource Guide . His critics and the USAD Board regarded the inclusion as a conflict of interest , as the material was a persuasive essay that heavily pushed Alvino 's point of view . The season was also significant in that it was the first year that states were allowed to send both their large and small school champions to the national competition . ( Small schools are currently classified as those schools with fewer than 650 students . ) However , this practice was short @-@ lived and was discontinued after the 2002 season . Instead , a small school e @-@ Nationals was introduced during the 2005 – 06 school year . The medium school e @-@ Nationals was established two years later for those schools with between 650 and 1 @,@ 300 students . In 2010 , California Academic Decathlon announced that a large school e @-@ Nationals would be held for the second @-@ highest performing school in each state .
In 2009 , USAD announced the launch of an " Online Middle School Pentathlon Program " , a competition similar to Academic Decathlon , with only essay , language and literature , mathematics , geography or social science , and science as events . Either science or social science would be designated as the Super Quiz topic .
In 2010 , it was announced that high school students who don 't have access to a school team or whose team has been eliminated in an earlier round can participate in an online individual competition .
= = Participation = =
= = = Team makeup and eligibility = = =
The USAD requires a diversity of achievement within each team ; teams must have students who fall into three categories determined by GPA . The Honors category is composed of students with GPAs between 3 @.@ 75 and 4 @.@ 0 . The Scholastic category consists of students with GPAs between 3 @.@ 0 and 3 @.@ 74 . The final group , the Varsity category , contains students whose GPA ranges from 0 @.@ 00 to 2 @.@ 99 . USAD uses a modified GPA scale in which performance @-@ based classes such as music , art or physical education are omitted from the GPA calculation . A grade counts for face value regardless of whether it is from an advanced placement , honors , regular or remedial class . An A is counted as a 4 @.@ 0 , a B as a 3 @.@ 0 , a C as a 2 @.@ 0 , a D as a 1 @.@ 0 , and a F as a 0 . Only final grades taken from the previous two complete school years are used to calculate GPA .
A team typically consists of nine competitors : three honors , three scholastic and three varsity . However , since only the top two scores from each category count towards the team 's total score , a team can compete with as few as six students without any point deduction . Students may compete in a higher category than the one they are assigned to , but generally it is to the students ' advantage to compete in the lowest category they can . Scores in Varsity are typically lower than those in Scholastic , and those in Scholastic are typically lower than those in Honors .
= = = Levels of competition = = =
There are four official levels of competition : local / scrimmage , regional , state , and national ( Rounds 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 respectively ) . With the exception of Round 1 , only the top finishers in each round advance to the next level . California , the state with the largest Academic Decathlon , holds local scrimmages using the Round 1 tests , which are largely for practice and do not determine whether a team can compete at the regional level , which uses Round 2 tests . In the 2008 – 09 season , 43 states participated in statewide Academic Decathlons , though only 35 and an international school participated in the national competition .
= = Events = =
Like an athletic decathlon , the Academic Decathlon has ten events : art , economics , essay , interview , language and literature , math , music , science , social science , and speech . Prior to 2013 , the Super Quiz replaced one of the seven objective events each year ; from 2003 @-@ 2012 , it alternated between replacing science and social science . USAD releases the topics and theme of the following year 's competition in early March , giving students time to prepare for a competition season that runs from November to April . The curriculum is developed by a ten @-@ member panel of former USAD coaches known as the USAD Curriculum Advisory Group . The group contracts with " curriculum developers " , who must have at least a bachelor 's degree in their respective subject , to create the subject area outlines , Resource Guides , and Notebook Dividers . The Super Quiz Resource Guide was formed mostly from articles from peer reviewed journals , but also includes non @-@ peer reviewed articles , which are looked over by a panel of five reviewers and then checked for accuracy by another reviewer . Use of this format was continued for the Science packet in the 2012 @-@ 2013 season .
The events are split up into two groups : the seven objective tests ( art , economics , language and literature , math , music , science and social science ) the three subjective events ( essay , interview and speech ) . In addition , there is a SuperQuiz relay event . The former seven are given as half @-@ hour multiple choice tests , whereas the latter three are graded by judges . The multiple choice exams consist of 50 questions each , with the exception of math , which has 35 questions . Beginning in the 2012 @-@ 2013 season , the SuperQuiz written test was dropped and the oral relay was changed to include questions from six of the objective subjects : art , economics , language and literature , music , science , and social science .
= = = Objective events = = =
In general , the objective events follow a set organizational outline from year to year . Language and literature focuses on a single novel or a set of plays in addition to multiple short literary selections which tend to be poems or excerpts from short stories . The art and music sections include several selections with which students must familiarize themselves in addition to historical information . Economics remains fairly static ; 85 % of the material focuses on a standard course of macroeconomics and microeconomics and the remaining 15 % focuses on the year 's topic . For example , in 2005 the themed material covered the economics of ancient Egypt and Rome . Science and social science reflect the season 's theme . Unlike the other events , there is no basic information that carries over . The math curriculum has varied as well , occasionally dropping and adding new subjects or shifting the weight of particular subjects .
= = = = Super Quiz = = = =
The format of the Super Quiz differs from that of the other subject areas . Added in 1969 , it offers a culminating championship event . The Super Quiz consisted of a forty @-@ question multiple choice test as well as a relay round until 2013 . In 2013 , the multiple @-@ choice portion was eliminated and the relay portion expanded to include six of the objective subjects . Generally referred to as the Super Quiz Relay , it is the only event viewable by the general public . The relay starts with the Varsity students , followed by the Scholastic and the Honors students . Each group is given 10 or 15 questions , depending on the format decided by the state coordinator . These questions are read aloud to the audience and are printed or projected for the competitors . After the questions and answers are read , the students are allowed seven seconds to select the correct answer . The answer is checked on the spot by a judge and scores are immediately displayed to the audience .
= = = Subjective events = = =
The subjective events allow students more creativity than the objective events . The speech event is divided into prepared and impromptu sections . A three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to four @-@ minute long prepared speech is delivered . The student is then given one minute to read three prompts and deliver a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to two @-@ minute impromptu speech . Example prompts have included : " It has been said about our modern times that , ' Invention is the mother of necessity . ' Please discuss . " , " Math has been described as the universal language . Discuss . " and " Why is light , light and dark , dark ? " In the interview , the students are asked a wide variety of questions in a formal environment . Questions range from : " Who is your role model ? " to " How would you alert someone that their zipper is down ? " In both the speech and interview , the competitor is not allowed to reveal his or her school or hometown to ensure neutrality by the judges . In the essay event , students are given 50 minutes to write an essay responding to one of three prompts derived from the language and literature or the Super Quiz curriculum .
= = = Themes and topics = = =
As the competition has evolved , more of the events have been tied into a central theme . For example , the 2008 – 2009 theme was " Latin America with a focus on Mexico " . Language and literature was based on six short selections of literature as well as the novel Bless Me , Ultima by Rudolfo Anaya . Art focused on the art of Mexico and featured several pieces of work , ranging from Olmec earthenware to José Guadalupe Posada 's La Calavera Catrina . The music event included questions on Latin American music and included works by musicians as varied as Manuel de Zumaya , Silvestre Revueltas , Ástor Piazzolla and Xavier Cugat . Social science and economics focused on the history and economy of Mexico respectively . The Super Quiz covered an introduction to evolutionary biology , the historical development of the theory of evolution , natural selection , speciation , mutation , gene flow , genetic drift , and evolutionary developmental biology . Information was also included on Charles Darwin 's voyage on the HMS Beagle .
= = Study materials = =
The United States Academic Decathlon publishes a variety of study materials for the objective events , the profits from which support the program . The Resource Guides and the Basic Guides constitute the majority of the USAD corpus . An art reproduction booklet and music CD contain a particular year 's relevant pieces and are issued separately from the Resource Guides . Study guides are also published and contain detailed topical outlines for each objective subject . These outlines specifically indicate which topics will require independent research beyond the material included in the Resource Guides . USAD also offered Research Guides until 2010 , which outlined the basics of what students ought to research . However , in the 2010 – 2011 competition season , USAD announced that it would be eliminating independent research @-@ based questions from the competitions .
Resource Guides are offered for the art , economics , language and literature , music , science / social science , and Super Quiz events . The Super Quiz Resource Guide is a compendium of previously published articles , whereas the other Resource Guides are composed by individual writers under contract with USAD . The aim of the Resource Guide is to assist students in their study of the topics listed in the subject area outlines . As an example , in 2003 the music topic was Romantic music . Subsequently the Music Resource Guide focused on the development of Romantic music , its characteristics and the influence of the Classical era on the Romantic era . A large part of the guide focused on information about that year 's composers : Beethoven , Berlioz , Rossini , Chopin , Mendelssohn , Verdi , Mussorgsky , Wagner , Bizet , Brahms , Tchaikovsky , Mahler and Strauss . Similarly , the art topic assigned was Romantic art in the European tradition . The Art Resource Guide included sections detailing the lives and works of relevant artists such as Joseph Mallord William Turner , Claude Monet , Albert Bierstadt , and Camille Pissarro .
In the 1990s , various companies were established to research subjects and provide practice tests to teams . Two of the major ones were Acalon Cards and Exams and DemiDec , formed by former coach Dan Spetner and former Decathlete Daniel Berdichevsky , respectively . The two offer exams and study guides that can augment or replace USAD 's official materials . USAD explicitly discouraged teams from ordering materials from third @-@ party companies in the late 1998 , though it later removed their discouragement from the curriculum page . USAD republished their discouragement just a few weeks after removing it , but did not publish such a warning in 2002 .
In 2000 , several coaches who had led their teams to Nationals during the 1990s resigned in protest over Academic Decathlon 's decision to sell nearly $ 1 @,@ 000 of study materials rather than simply providing topics for students to independently research . Teams felt obligated to buy the guides because USAD based the official tests on them . Teams also denounced the hundreds of errors they found in the official guides ; coaches were sometimes forced to instruct their students to deliberately give the wrong answer in the official competition . Richard Golenko , coach of the 1996 J. Frank Dobie High School team that won the national competition , said that the decision to market guides shifted Academic Decathlon 's emphasis to memorization over critical thinking . Coach Jim Hatem of Los Angeles and Coach Mark Johnson of El Camino 's 1998 winning team fumed over esoteric " trick " questions that USAD had begun asking . James Alvino , USAD 's executive director at that time , argued that the expensive study materials were necessary to continue funding nearly 75 % of the program 's $ 1 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 operating budget and to provide a fairer playing field for less wealthy schools , but did acknowledge that USAD would attempt to reduce prices , remove the more trivial questions , and base smaller portions of the tests on the official Resource Guide .
Basic Guides were formerly issued for students which , unlike the Resource Guides , remained the same from year to year . The Art Basic Guide focuses on art fundamentals , such as the elements of art , principles of composition , and different 2 @-@ D and 3 @-@ D techniques . Additionally , a brief introduction to art history is included . The Economics Basic Guide reviews fundamental economic concepts in addition to the basics of macroeconomics and microeconomics . The Language and Literature Basic Guide provides students with a basic grounding in the analysis of literature and introduces key terms such as synecdoche , metonymy , assonance , and aphorism . The Math Basic Guide offers a general overview of major topics in high school math , including algebra , geometry , trigonometry , calculus , and statistics . The Music Basic Guide begins by introducing the student to topics in music theory such as harmonics , rhythm , tempo , and the circle of fifths . It also includes information on a wide variety of instruments and a brief history of Western music . However , beginning in the 2010 – 2011 competition season , the Basic Guides were incorporated into the year 's Resource Guides .
The National Association of Secondary School Principals ( NASSP ) has criticized the intense amount of studying required by students as " excess fact @-@ mongering " . In the 1980s , the Association did not endorse Academic Decathlon , citing what it believes was an excessive amount of time involved with the studying necessary to win . It stated that while it is not opposed to the academic portion of the competition , it disliked the " national dimension " of it . However , beginning in 2008 , the Association placed USAD on their " National Advisory List of Student Contests and Activities " . The list consists of programs that a NASSP committee believes meets their requisite quality standards .
= = Scoring and winning = =
Each of the ten events is worth 1 @,@ 000 points , for a possible 10 @,@ 000 @-@ point individual total . Only the top two scores from the Honors , Scholastic and Varsity divisions are counted for the team score . Until 2013 , 60 @,@ 000 was the maximum possible team score . In 2013 , Super Quiz became a 10 @,@ 000 point event that only counts for the team score , making the maximum possible team score 70 @,@ 000 . With the exception of math and Super Quiz , the objective tests each have 50 questions worth 20 points a piece . The math test is weighted more heavily , with 35 questions worth approximately 28 @.@ 6 points per question . Until 2013 , the Super Quiz written test contained 40 questions , each worth 15 points . Depending on the state director , the relay component of Super Quiz contained either 5 or 10 questions , each worth 80 or 40 points respectively . Starting in 2013 , the Super Quiz contained only the relay component with 5 or 10 questions , each worth approximately 333 @.@ 3 or 166 @.@ 7 questions respectively . The written test was sometimes omitted at the state level even before 2013 if a state director wished to weigh the Super Quiz Relay more heavily . Perfect scores of 1 @,@ 000 in events are recorded regularly , and there have been cases of dozens of medal winners for a single event because of perfect and near @-@ perfect scores . Gold , silver and bronze medals are awarded in each event and for each division ( Honors , Scholastic , and Varsity ) . All tying participants are awarded medals .
The medals ' design is the " AD " portion of the official USAD logo , encircled by " United States " at the top , " Academic Decathlon " at the bottom , and four stars of increasing size on either side . Though the medals are given out only to winners of the competitions , teams can order them along with other study materials . The medals given at state and local competitions are of a different design than those given at Nationals .
The interview and speech events are graded by two to three judges . The scores from the judges are averaged to give a maximum of 1 @,@ 000 points per event . The essay is graded with a rubric and is read by two different judges whose scores are then averaged . If the difference between the judges ' scores differs by 200 points or more , then a third reader is asked to grade the student 's essay . The two scores that are closest in value are averaged to give the final score .
A benchmark for the Decathlon elite is obtaining an individual score of over 9 @,@ 000 points . It was not until 1992 , 24 years after the program 's inception , that Tyson Rogers achieved this feat at the national competition . Since then , numerous students have broken the 9 @,@ 000 point barrier . The current highest individual score is 9 @,@ 461 @.@ 4 , achieved by Kris Sankaran from Moorpark High School at the 2009 California state competition . State champion scores vary greatly from year to year . As an example , for the 2002 – 03 season , scores ranged from 24 @,@ 785 to 49 @,@ 910 points . National champion scores have been as low as 45 @,@ 857 @.@ 0 points and as high as 54 @,@ 081 points . The 54 @,@ 081 score produced by the 2012 Granada Hills Charter High School team at the National Championship stands as the record for the highest team score .
= = = Controversies = = =
Three days before the 1995 Illinois state competition , Steinmetz High
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cephalitis killed about 40 horses , or approximately 18 % of the herd . The population on Cumberland Island is one of seven feral horse herds on US barrier islands .
= = Characteristics = =
A 2009 resource assessment of the Cumberland Island National Seashore by the National Parks Conservation Association ( NPCA ) estimated that there were approximately 200 feral horses on Cumberland Island . As of 2010 , 121 horses were counted on the island during the yearly census . Censuses conducted between 2000 and 2010 have counted between 120 and 154 horses . Not all horses are counted during the census , and park management estimates that approximately 50 horses are missed in the counts each year , bringing the 2010 total to around 170 horses . The life span of horses on Cumberland Island is approximately half that of their ancestors , due to infestations of parasites and disease . They also suffer from digestive issues linked to the ingestion of a great amount of sand , which causes intestinal blockages and abdominal distension .
A study published in 2000 by researchers from the University of Georgia and the US Fish and Wildlife Service looked at data collected between 1986 and 1990 in an effort to better understand the herd dynamics of the Cumberland Island herd . The study found that band instability was high , with mares not generally forming close relationships with each other and commonly switching which stallion they banded with , and juveniles dispersing quickly . The researchers attributed this to a lack of territory , with bands frequently inhabiting overlapping areas , along with a high number of bachelor stallions ( those without mares ) . They also saw a high number of co @-@ dominant stallions , where two or more stallions would lead a band together , and alternate breeding of the band 's mares . Foals born on Cumberland Island were less likely to survive than comparable foals in western feral herds , with survival rates of 58 @.@ 8 @-@ 61 @.@ 1 % and 80 % respectively . This was found to be especially true in animals born after 1 June , which was attributed to higher temperatures , higher insect levels and reduced food availability . The number of horses in the Cumberland bands was comparable to western bands and those on some eastern islands . However , Assateague and Shackleford Banks horses tended to have larger bands , with an average of 8 @.@ 1 and 12 @.@ 3 horses per band , respectively .
= = Controversy and management = =
An initial study published in 1988 by a researcher from Oak Ridge National Laboratory demonstrated the then @-@ current population of 180 horses was over @-@ grazing the island . The researcher recommended reducing the herd size to between 49 and 73 animals , which she contended was the maximum size that the island could support without environmental damage . The study showed that the horses were significantly reducing plant stocks on the island , and reducing future plant production due to trampling . A 1991 study of genetic variation in feral horse herds on eastern US barrier islands was conducted by researchers from the University of Georgia and University of Kentucky . The study concluded that a herd of 122 was the minimum size necessary to prevent inbreeding . The researchers noted that they were looking at herd size solely as it related to genetic variation , and did not take environmental damage into consideration . In addition , it was found that due to the large amount of introduced blood from outside horses , the Cumberland Island horses were not genetically unique . Due to this , and the ongoing environmental damage , it was concluded that the horses met neither the genetic nor the environmental requirements for feral horses on public lands , and that the herd should be reduced or removed completely . The researchers conceded , however , that their analysis did not take " local historical and cultural elements " into consideration , only environmental and genetic .
In 1995 , the NPS began the process of developing a management plan for the Cumberland Island horse . After compiling information , they released a draft environmental assessment in early 1996 and began taking public comment on a potential management plan . Public opinion was severely divided , with environmentalists approving of the management plan , which would have likely resulted in the reduction or removal of the herd , and animal rights activists and island residents protesting the plan . However , before a plan could be implemented , US Representative Jack Kingston included a provision in a federal appropriations bill that prevented any management of the horses . Kingston made the change to the bill after touring the island , but without consultation with the NPS . He initially claimed that he personally did not see significant damage to the island from the horses , and that the herd size had decreased . However , upon later questioning , he refused to expand upon his observations of the damage to the island . The provision expired in 1997 , but effectively halted momentum toward a park management plan . The study published in 2000 recommended a management strategy that reduced herd populations to environmentally @-@ recommended sizes through a combination of off @-@ island adoption to private owners and contraceptives . The researchers recommended that contraceptive use be focused on the female members of the herd , due to the high numbers of bachelor stallions .
In 2009 , a study was conducted by the Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources at the University of Georgia to determine public opinion on the management of the feral livestock ( horses and pigs ) on the island . The researchers found that 68 % of visitors believed the horses were damaging the habitat of the island , there was no consensus on a solution to the problem . The majority of visitors tended to prefer non @-@ lethal methods of managing the population , as opposed to non @-@ management or complete eradication . At that time , park management felt that although the horses were popular with tourists , they were also destructive to beach ecosystems , including an increase in erosion where horses had eaten grasses that previously held sand in place . The 2009 NPCA report emphasized the negative impact that the horses were having on the island environment , and endorsed study findings that between 50 and 70 animals would be an appropriate population for the island . However , the report also noted the management challenges resulting from the " public and political appeal for the animals " , but stated that a management plan is necessary . Potential solutions offered by the NPCA included eradicating the herd , confining a reduced herd to a portion of the island , and using contraceptives to reduce herd numbers . As of April 2014 , there was no management plan published by the NPS , which considers the herd " feral , free @-@ ranging and unmanaged " .
= 1924 Cuba hurricane =
The 1924 Cuba hurricane is the earliest officially classified Category 5 Atlantic hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson scale . It formed on October 14 in the western Caribbean , slowly organizing as it tracked northwestward . By October 16 , it attained hurricane status to the east of the Yucatán Peninsula , and subsequently executed a small counterclockwise loop . On October 18 , the hurricane began undergoing rapid deepening , and the next day it reached an estimated peak intensity of 165 mph ( 270 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , it struck extreme western Cuba at peak intensity , becoming the strongest hurricane on record to hit the country . Later the hurricane weakened greatly , striking southwestern Florida with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) in a sparsely populated region . While crossing the state it weakened to tropical storm status , and after accelerating east @-@ northeastward , it was absorbed by a cold front on October 23 south of Bermuda .
Across the western Caribbean Sea , the developing storm produced heavy rainfall and increased winds . Strong winds in western Cuba caused severe damage , with two small towns nearly destroyed . About 90 people were killed in the country , all in Pinar del Río Province . Later , the hurricane brought heavy rainfall to southern Florida , which caused flooding and crop damage . Damage was light in the state , and there were no casualties .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 14 , a tropical depression was first observed over the western Caribbean Sea , just off the eastern Honduras coast . It was a large and weak tropical cyclone , moving slowly northwestward and gradually intensifying . On October 15 , it is estimated the depression attained tropical storm status , and its strengthening became more steady . The next day , the storm reached hurricane status about 130 mi ( 215 km ) southeast of Cozumel , Quintana Roo . Around that time , it began to execute a small counterclockwise loop off the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula . By October 18 the hurricane completed the loop , during which its winds increased to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) ; this is the equivalence of a major hurricane , or a Category 3 on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The estimation of its strength at this point was based on subsequent analysis of peripheral recordings of atmospheric pressure and maximum sustained winds by ships and land stations .
Beginning late on October 18 as it tracked north @-@ northeastward toward Cuba , the hurricane underwent rapid deepening , evidenced by a ship wind report of 120 mph ( 193 km / h ) . This wind report was initially thought to be the peak intensity of the cyclone ; however , subsequent research confirmed further deepening , based on very low pressures recorded across the region . A ship in the radius of maximum winds reported a reading of 922 mbar ; the barometer on the ship was found to be 5 mbar too high , resulting in a pressure of 917 mbar . Additionally , a station on land reported a pressure of 932 mbar ( 27 @.@ 52 inHg ) . Based on the readings , the Hurricane Research Division estimated the hurricane attained a minimum central pressure of 910 mbar very near the western coast of Cuba ; this suggested peak winds of 165 mph ( 270 km / h ) . Late on October 19 , the hurricane made landfall in extreme western Cuba in Pinar del Río Province . José Carlos Millás , director of the National Observatory at Havana , believed that " this hurricane [ was ] one of the most severe ever experienced in our latitudes . "
After exiting Cuba into the Gulf of Mexico , the hurricane weakened greatly . On October 20 it passed a short distance west of Key West , Florida , and very early on October 21 the hurricane moved over Marco Island with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . The cyclone weakened further as it turned eastward through the state , deteriorating to tropical storm status as it passed near or over Miami . It accelerated east @-@ northeastward , moving over the Abaco Islands in The Bahamas . Gradually weakening , the storm interacted with an approaching cold front ; late on October 23 it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , and shortly thereafter it was absorbed by the front .
= = Impact and records = =
As a developing tropical cyclone , the storm produced increased winds and lower pressures in the Swan Islands , off the coast of Honduras . Heavy rainfall occurred throughout Jamaica , causing street flooding and several mudslides , but little damage . No disruptions were reported to communications or railway travel . The storm brushed eastern Belize while located off the coast , producing 3 @.@ 62 inches ( 21 @.@ 9 mm ) of rainfall and light winds .
In extreme western Cuba , damage was very severe from the strong winds , likened to the impact of a tornado . Severe damage was reported in Los Arroyos and Arroyos de Mantua . In the latter location , around a dozen people were killed , 50 were injured , and nearly every building in the town was severely damaged ; heavy losses also occurred to the tobacco crop . Across western Pinar del Río Province , the hurricane destroyed all communication links . Further from the center , the capital city of Havana recorded southerly winds of 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) , as well as a minimum pressure of about 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 50 inHg ) . Around the country , the hurricane capsized several ships , primarily fishing vessels . The death toll in the country was estimated at around 90 . In the days after the storm , Cuban President Zayas authorized about $ 30 @,@ 000 in relief aid to send to hurricane victims in Pinar del Río .
Several days prior to striking Florida , the outer circulation began producing rainfall across the state . Storm warnings were issued along the east and west coastlines northward to Cedar Key and Titusville . Later , hurricane warnings were issued for much of the same area , and schools in the Tampa area were closed as the storm was expected to move ashore . The hurricane first affected Florida when it passed west of Key West , where sustained winds of 66 mph ( 107 km / h ) , along with gusts to 74 mph ( 120 km / h ) , were reported . Little damage occurred in the region , limited to downed trees ; this was due to advance warning by the U.S. Weather Bureau , which advised ships to remain at port and for residents to secure property . Later , the hurricane moved ashore in a sparsely populated region of southwestern Florida . Damage was reported in Fort Myers and Punta Gorda and communications were temporarily cut , although no deaths were reported . Heavy rainfall was reported along its path , and one location accumulated 23 @.@ 22 inches ( 590 mm ) in a 24 ‑ hour period ; this established a new one @-@ day rainfall record in the state . A station in Miami recorded 12 @.@ 18 inches ( 309 mm ) , and wind gusts in the area approached hurricane force . The combination of winds and rain damaged 5 % of the local citrus and avocado crop . The rainfall flooded streets , homes , and commercial buildings in the Miami area , and hundreds of people were left without telephone access . No impact was reported in the Bahamas .
After a reanalysis of hurricanes between 1921 and 1925 , the Hurricane Research Division determined this hurricane attained winds of 165 mph ( 270 km / h ) , making it a Category 5 on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The hurricane is the earliest known to have attained the intensity , besting the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane , which was previously thought to be the earliest storm of this intensity . It is also the only one on record to make landfall on Cuba at Category 5 status . A hurricane in 1846 that hit the country was also thought to have struck at Category 5 status , although the storm existed prior to the start of the Atlantic hurricane database . When the steamship " Toledo " recorded an atmospheric pressure of 922 mbar ( 27 @.@ 22 inHg ) in the storm , it was the lowest pressure recorded in an Atlantic hurricane , breaking the previous record of 924 mbar ( 27 @.@ 28 inHg ) in the Atlantic hurricane of 1853 . The record during this storm lasted until the 1932 Cuba hurricane , when a pressure of 915 mbar ( 27 @.@ 02 inHg ) was reported . The reading of 932 mbar ( 27 @.@ 52 inHg ) at Los Arroyos in Mantua , Pinar del Río remains the lowest pressure recorded on land in Cuba .
= Manchester Metrolink =
Metrolink ( also known as Manchester Metrolink ) is a light rail tram system in Greater Manchester , England . The system is owned by Transport for Greater Manchester ( TfGM ) and operated and maintained under contract by RATP Group . In 2015 / 16 , 34 @.@ 3 million passenger journeys were made on the system .
The network consists of seven lines which radiate from Manchester city centre to termini at Altrincham , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Bury , East Didsbury , Eccles , Manchester Airport and Rochdale . Metrolink has 93 stops along 57 miles ( 92 km ) of standard @-@ gauge track making it the largest light rail system in the United Kingdom . It consists of a mixture of on @-@ street track shared with other traffic ; reserved track , segregated from other traffic , often running alongside the roadway or in the central reservation , and converted former railway lines . It is operated by a fleet of Bombardier Flexity Swift M5000s .
A light rail system for Greater Manchester emerged from the failure of the 1970s Picc @-@ Vic tunnel scheme to obtain central government funding . A light @-@ rail scheme was proposed in 1982 as the least expensive rail @-@ based transport solution for Manchester city centre and the surrounding Greater Manchester metropolitan area . Government approval was granted in 1988 and the network began operating services between Bury Interchange and Victoria on 6 April 1992 , becoming the United Kingdom 's first modern street @-@ running rail system ; the 1885 @-@ built Blackpool tramway being the only heritage tram system in the UK that had survived up to Metrolink 's creation .
Expansion of Metrolink has been a key strategy of transport planners in Greater Manchester , who have overseen its development in successive projects , known as Phases 1 , 2 , 3a , 3b and 2CC . A second line through Manchester city centre to eliminate the current bottleneck will be operational by the end of 2016 and work on an extension from Pomona station to the Trafford Centre is expected to commence in 2016 with an estimated operational date of 2019 . Furthermore , TfGM have endorsed more speculative expansion proposals for new lines to Stockport , a loop around Wythenshawe , and the addition of tram @-@ train technology .
= = History = =
= = = Predecessors = = =
Manchester 's first tram age had begun in 1877 with the first horse trams of Manchester Suburban Tramways Company and ceased as early as in 1949 , when the last line of the municipal Manchester Corporation Tramways was displaced by motor buses . That company had managed most of the electrification of the trams , executed 1901 to 1903 . Since 1938 , some trams had been displaced by trolleybuses . Electric traction on tyres in the streets of Manchester ended in 1966 .
= = = Origins = = =
A light rail system for Greater Manchester was born of the failure to obtain central government funding for the Picc @-@ Vic scheme linking the existing railway systems north and south of the city centre via a tunnel . Greater Manchester 's railway network suffered from poor north – south connections , relying on bus connections through the city centre by means of the Centrelink bus service . Piccadilly and Victoria were built in the 1840s by rival companies on cheaper land on the fringes of the city centre . As early as 1839 , in anticipation of the stations being built , a connecting underground railway tunnel was proposed but abandoned on economic grounds , as was an overground suspended @-@ monorail in 1966 . SELNEC Passenger Transport Executive — the body tasked with improving public transport for Manchester and its surrounding municipalities in the 1960s – made draft proposals for a Picc @-@ Vic tunnel , " a proposed rail route beneath the city centre " forming " the centrepiece of a new electrified railway network for the region " . Despite investigatory tunnelling under the Manchester Arndale shopping centre , when the Greater Manchester County Council presented the project to the United Kingdom Government in 1974 , it was unable to secure the necessary funding , and was abandoned on economic grounds when the County Council dropped the plans in 1977 .
In 1982 , the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive ( GMPTE ; the successor to SELNEC PTE ) concluded that a street @-@ level light rail system to replace or complement the region 's under @-@ used heavy railways was the cheapest solution to improving Greater Manchester 's rail transport network . A Rail Study Group , composed of officials from British Rail , Greater Manchester County Council and GMPTE formally endorsed the scheme in 1984 . Abstract proposals based on light rail systems in North America and continental Europe , and a draft 62 @-@ mile ( 100 km ) network consisting of three lines were presented by the Rail Study Group to the UK Government for taxpayer funding . Following route revisions in 1984 and 1987 , and a trial on 9 February 1987 using Docklands Light Railway rolling stock on a freight @-@ only line adjacent to Debdale Park , funding was granted by HM Treasury with the strict condition that the system be constructed in phases . Additional taxpayer funding came from the European Regional Development Fund and bank lending .
= = = Phase 1 , Bury , Altrincham and Manchester city centre = = =
Conversion of the East Lancashire Railway ( Bury @-@ to @-@ Victoria ) and Manchester , South Junction and Altrincham Railway ( Altrincham @-@ to @-@ Piccadilly ) heavy rail lines , and creation of a street @-@ level tramway through Manchester city centre to unite the lines as a single 19 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 30 @.@ 9 km ) network , was chosen for Phase 1 because the two heavy rail lines were primarily used for commuting to central Manchester , and would improve north – south links and access to the city centre . The required parliamentary authority to proceed with Phase 1 was obtained with two Acts of Parliament – the Greater Manchester ( Light Rapid Transit System ) Act 1988 and Greater Manchester ( Light Rapid Transit System ) ( No. 2 ) Act 1988 .
On 27 September 1989 , following a two @-@ stage tender exercise , the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Authority awarded a contract to the GMA Group ( a consortium composed of AMEC , GM Buses , John Mowlem & Company , and a General Electric Company subsidiary ) who formed Greater Manchester Metro Limited to design , build , operate and maintain Phase 1 of Metrolink . The contract was approved by Michael Portillo on behalf of the Department for Transport on 24 October 1989 , and formally signed on 6 June 1990 .
The Bury line was closed in stages between 13 July 1991 and 17 August 1991 , after which the 1200V DC third rail electrified line was adapted for a 750 V DC overhead line operation . In Manchester city centre , a tramway – built with network expansion in mind – from Victoria to Piccadilly via Market Street and Piccadilly Gardens connected Bury to Altrincham via Manchester ; The overhead structures and wiring of the Altrincham line were adapted for light rail . As well as upgrades to signalling and stations on the network , a combined headquarters , depot and control centre was built at Cheetham Hill on Queens Road , north of Victoria station , at a cost of £ 8 million ( £ 15 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) .
Initially projected to open in September 1991 , then promised for 21 February 1992 , Metrolink began operation on 6 April 1992 with a service between Victoria and Bury . Along with the Tyne and Wear Metro and Docklands Light Railway , it helped to reintroduce light rail to the United Kingdom . The network was expanded beyond Victoria to G @-@ Mex tram stop on 27 April 1992 ; a service through to Altrincham joined the network on 15 June 1992 , completing Phase 1 and enabling use of all 26 T @-@ 68 vehicles acquired for the operation . Queen Elizabeth II declared Metrolink open at a ceremony in Manchester on 17 July 1992 , adding that Metrolink would improve communication between northern and southern Greater Manchester . After the ceremony the Queen visited Manchester Town Hall and rode from St Peter 's Square to Bury to visit Bury Town Hall .
Then costing £ 145 million ( £ 270 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) Phase 1 was expected to carry 10 million passengers per year , but surpassed this figure by the 1993 / 94 fiscal year , and every year thereafter . In recognition of passenger demands and the decommissioning of the Arndale bus station after the 1996 Manchester bombing , adjustments were made to Phase 1 to the design of Manchester City Council 's city centre masterplan , by modifying Market Street tram stop to handle two @-@ way traffic , demolishing High Street tram stop in 1998 and creating a new stop for Shudehill Interchange in 2002 . Sections of track in the city centre were relaid following damage to the road surface adjacent to the line . By 2003 , Phase 1 was deemed a " long @-@ term success " by GMPTE , and , with overcrowding at peak times , carried more than 15 million passengers per year .
= = = Phase 2 , Salford Quays , Eccles = = =
Extension of the Metrolink network was intended to be continuous with successive expansion phases delivered in strict order of priority . GMPTE wanted to repeat its " success " with Phase 1 by converting other parts of Greater Manchester 's under @-@ utilised suburban rail network . However , changes in circumstances and new opportunities , combined with a shift in government policy following the early 1990s recession stalled the immediate expansion of Metrolink after Phase 1 . Phase 1a , a proposed east – west route from Eastlands to Dumplington via Salford Quays was muted by uncertainty surrounding the Manchester bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics , the ( unbuilt ) Trafford Centre , and regeneration of Manchester Docks respectively . Nevertheless , throughout the 1990s , the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Authority continued to acquire rights to construct Metrolink lines under the Transport and Works Act 1992 .
During the 1990s , Salford Quays became a business district specifically redeveloped for commerce , leisure , culture and tourism with a high density of business units and modern housing , complemented by a cinema complex , office blocks , and waterfront promenade . As it had poor public transport integration and no rail provision , it was earmarked for a potential Metrolink line as early as 1986 and legal authority to construct the line through the Quays was acquired in 1990 . The Quays received millions of pounds of investment and a public consultation and public inquiry resulted in government endorsement in 1994 . In autumn 1995 a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) Metrolink line branching from Cornbrook tram stop to Eccles via Salford Quays capitalising on the regenerated Quayside was confirmed as Phase 2 of Metrolink . No funding came from central government and money was raised from the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Authority ( GMPTA ) , the European Regional Development Fund and private developers . In April 1997 Altram , a consortium of the Serco , Ansaldo and John Laing was appointed to construct the Eccles Line ; Serco , responsible for the Sheffield Supertram would operate the whole network under contract ; Ansaldo provided six additional vehicles — T @-@ 68As – and signalling equipment . Construction work officially began on 17 July 1997 .
The Eccles Line was officially opened as far as Broadway tram stop on 6 December 1999 by the Prime Minister , Tony Blair , who praised Metrolink as " exactly the type of scheme needed to solve the transport problems of the metropolitan areas of the country " ; a service to Eccles Interchange joined the network on 21 July 2000 , and was officially declared open by Anne , Princess Royal at a ceremony on 9 January 2001 . On completion , Phases 1 and 2 gave Metrolink a total route length of 24 miles ( 39 km ) . Phase 2 was predominantly privately funded and cost £ 160 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( £ 242 @,@ 870 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . Salford City Council considered Phase 2 " an important contribution to Salford 's public transport network , providing a fast and frequent service between Eccles , Salford Quays and Manchester city centre " . But , in competition with comparatively quicker and cheaper buses , the line navigated the Quays on a slow and meandering route , and failed to reach its initial passenger targets . Patronage increased during the 2000s as the Eccles Line steadily increased in popularity in keeping with a rise in passenger numbers across the whole Metrolink system and was beginning to become overcrowded by the end of the decade .
= = = Phase 3 = = =
In 2000 , officials and transport planners in Greater Manchester considered Metrolink to be a " phenomenal success " . The system was exceeding patronage targets and reducing traffic congestion on roads running parallel to its lines . Consequently , when the Transport Act 2000 required passenger transport executives to produce local transport plans , GMPTE 's top public transport priority was a third phase of Metrolink expansion , which would create four new lines along key transport corridors in Greater Manchester : the Oldham and Rochdale Line ( routed northeast to Oldham and Rochdale ) , the East Manchester Line ( routed east to East Manchester and Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne ) , the South Manchester Line ( routed southeast to Chorlton @-@ cum @-@ Hardy and East Didsbury ) , and the Airport Line ( routed south to Wythenshawe and Manchester Airport ) . The East Manchester Line would capitalise on serving the City of Manchester Stadium , a host venue of the 2002 Commonwealth Games . Satisfied it would deliver a key policy commitment with faster expansion and greater value from economies of scale , GMPTE and the Association of Greater Manchester Authorities ( AGMA ) lobbied central government to provide partial funding to upgrade the current network with a new depot , passenger information displays , and construct four new lines in a single Phase 3 contract ( dubbed the " Big Bang " ) worth £ 489 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( £ 742 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) .
Conceding that it would be " very difficult " to bring Metrolink to the City of Manchester Stadium by 2002 , the Government accepted its importance to Greater Manchester and the Commonwealth Games on 22 March 2000 , with an announcement from Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott that a £ 289 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 government contribution to fund Phase 3 would make Metrolink " the envy of Europe " . The remaining £ 200 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 was assembled from the private sector by July 2000 . Following the announcement , preparatory work such as legal costs , land acquisition and construction of rail bridges over the River Medlock was actioned . However , Metrolink made a loss in 2002 and failed to reduce traffic congestion in Manchester city centre . Costs for Phase 3 implementation were revised in the December after the 2002 Commonwealth Games , totalling £ 820 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 203 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , meaning Metrolink required a Government contribution of at least £ 520 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . With costs predicted to rise further , and concerns raised over light rail procurement nationally , on 20 July 2004 , Alistair Darling ( the Secretary of State for Transport ) announced the Government had withdrawn its share of funding Metrolink due to excessive costs .
In response , highlighting the legal costs and demolition of homes , schools and offices in anticipation of the new lines , the Get Our Metrolink Back on Track ( or Back on Track ) campaign spearheaded by the Manchester Evening News and Members of Parliament from Greater Manchester was organised to lobby the Department for Transport to fund Phase 3 . On 16 December 2004 Alistair Darling announced that the government would fund Phase 3 – but not at any price , capping its investment for Metrolink enhancements at £ 520 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . An initial £ 102 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 funding package was granted by the Government in July 2005 for Phase 3 preparatory work , and a Carillion @-@ led track renewal programme for 12 miles ( 19 km ) of Phase 1 line – still using original British Rail track – that was causing damage to vehicles and discomfort for passengers . Following negotiations between central government and GMPTE and AGMA , Phase 3 funding was confirmed by Douglas Alexander on 6 July 2006 , albeit with adjustments ( such as axing the Wythenshawe Loop ) and splitting the project into two stages : Phase 3a , elements of expansion funded by government investment ; and Phase 3b , elements requiring an alternative funding source . The MPact @-@ Thales consortium , composed of Laing O 'Rourke , VolkerRail and the Thales Group , was appointed to design , build and maintain the 20 miles ( 32 km ) of new line plus a new depot at Old Trafford . A 0 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) spur off the Eccles Line to the new MediaCityUK development at Salford Quays , funded separately by the Northwest Regional Development Agency ( NWRDA ) , would also fall to Mpact @-@ Thales .
= = = = Phase 3a , Oldham , Rochdale , East Manchester Line = = = =
Phase 3a , dubbed the " Mini Bang " , or " Little Bang " , was an extension scheme approved by the government on 6 July 2006 , with final sign off and release of Treasury funds in May 2008 . In addition to the separately NWRDA @-@ funded spur from the Eccles Line to MediaCityUK , Phase 3a involved converting the 14 @-@ mile ( 23 km ) Oldham Loop heavy rail line from Victoria to Rochdale via Oldham , building a new 1 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) South Manchester Line from Trafford Bar to St Werburgh 's Road in Chorlton @-@ cum @-@ Hardy ( on a closed section of Cheshire Lines Committee railway ) , and construction of a new 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) East Manchester Line from Piccadilly to Droylsden . The Oldham and Rochdale and South Manchester Lines were funded by a £ 244 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lump sum from the government . The East Manchester Line to Droylsden was funded by borrowings by GMPTE that would be repaid over 30 years using fare revenue from Metrolink .
The Oldham Loop Line , subsidised by GMPTE and used for suburban commuting , closed on 3 October 2009 allowing work to convert the line from heavy rail to Metrolink , although preparatory work on Central Park tram stop and a flyover at Newton Heath over the heavy Caldervale Line commenced in 2005 . Conversion of the Oldham Loop for Metrolink allowed for the addition of new stops along the line , including Monsall , South Chadderton , and Newbold ; Kingsway Business Park tram stop was authorised at a late stage of planning in July 2011 once the Phase 3b @-@ Drake Street tram stop was abandoned ( on technical and economic grounds ) and additional funding was procured from Rochdale Metropolitan Borough Council and Kingsway Business Park 's private developer Wilson Bowden .
The planned opening of Phase 3a services was initially delayed on each line by months due to faults with a new £ 22 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital signalling and control system known as the Tram Management System , or TMS , designed by the Thales Group . Services on the spur from the Eccles Line to MediaCityUK tram stop were expected to commence during Summer 2010 , and began on 20 September 2010 , serving MediaCityUK , a 200 @-@ acre ( 81 ha ) development for creative and digital mass media organisations , and The Lowry , a combined theatre @-@ gallery and Greater Manchester 's most visited tourist attraction . On its inauguration , TMS experienced several faults on the expanded Eccles Line , causing " chaos " at MediaCityUK , and 24 service delays on the network between September 2010 and February 2011 . On the South Manchester Line , services to St Werburgh 's Road tram stop were expected to commence in spring 2011 , but delayed until 7 July 2011 , due to problems with TMS . On the Oldham and Rochdale Line , services from Manchester to Central Park and Oldham Mumps were expected to open in spring 2011 and autumn 2011 respectively , but problems with TMS and the need to renew structures delayed services until 13 June 2012 , when 7 @.@ 1 miles ( 11 @.@ 4 km ) of the line from Victoria to Oldham Mumps tram stop opened in a single stage .
After three months in operation , Metrolink services to Oldham were hailed a " huge success " by TfGM , with 250 @,@ 000 passengers on the line between June and September , strengthening TfGM 's position that Phase 3a would raise daily ridership on Metrolink to 90 @,@ 000 . Originally planned to open in spring 2012 , then delayed to autumn 2012 , a service on the Oldham and Rochdale Line from Oldham Mumps as far as Shaw and Crompton tram stop began on 16 December 2012 . In January 2013 , a contract dispute between TfGM and Thales Group over missed deadlines and poor performance of TMS resulted in TfGM withholding payments for unfulfilled construction targets . Services to Rochdale and Droylsden were scheduled for a spring 2012 opening date , but delayed by months because of problems with the implementation of TMS , prompting outrage from Members of Parliament representing these areas . The East Manchester Line to Droylsden opened to selected residents of Manchester and Tameside on 8 February 2013 , and to the general public on 11 February 2013 . On 28 February 2013 , passenger services expanded along the 4 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) stretch of the Oldham and Rochdale Line between Shaw and Crompton and Rochdale railway station , completing Phase 3a , and giving Metrolink a total network length of 43 miles ( 69 km ) . On 9 May 2013 , TMS was successfully implemented in the City Zone , providing real @-@ time passenger information displays at all stops in Manchester city centre .
= = = = Phase 3b : Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , East Didsbury and Manchester Airport = = = =
Phase 3b was revealed in July 2006 when Phase 3 was split into two smaller phases . A range of motivators pushed transport planners to pursue Phase 3b , including attracting new passengers , value to the economy , reduction of road traffic congestion , regeneration , and improved access to town centres , business districts and labour markets . Under Phase 3b plans , Metrolink proposed to extend the East Manchester Line by 2 @.@ 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) from Droylsden to Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne ; extend the South Manchester Line by 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) from St Werburgh 's Road to Didsbury ; and create a new 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) Airport Line to Manchester Airport from a junction at St Werburgh 's Road . Phase 3b enacted plans first drawn up in 1983 , laid before Parliament in 1988 , and approved by the government in 1991 to re @-@ route and extend the Oldham and Rochdale Line at a cost of £ 124 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 with a street running route through Oldham and Rochdale town centres , both of which were poorly served by using the outlying Oldham Mumps and Rochdale railway stations alone .
Tasked with procuring funds for Phase 3b from sources other than central Government , in July 2007 GMPTE and AGMA submitted a bid to the Transport Innovation Fund , which would release a multimillion @-@ pound sum for public transport improvements linked to viable anti @-@ road traffic congestion strategies . A referendum on the Greater Manchester Transport Innovation Fund was held in Greater Manchester on 19 December 2008 , in which 79 % of voters rejected plans for public transport improvements linked to a peak @-@ time weekday @-@ only Greater Manchester congestion charge . In May 2009 , Greater Manchester Integrated Transport Authority ( formerly GMPTA ) and AGMA agreed to create the Greater Manchester Transport Fund , £ 1.5billion raised from a combination of a levy on council tax in Greater Manchester , government grants , contributions from the Manchester Airports Group , Metrolink fares and third @-@ party funding for " major transport schemes " in the region . Phase 3b was approved with funding on a line @-@ by @-@ line basis between March and August 2010 .
Construction work for all Phase 3b lines began in March 2011 . On the Airport Line , a 580 @-@ tonne steel bridge was erected in Wythenshawe over the M56 motorway on 25 November 2012 . Following the closure of Mosley Street tram stop on 17 May 2013 , the 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) route of the South Manchester Line from St Werburgh 's Road to East Didsbury tram stop was the first section of Phase 3b line to open on 23 May 2013 – three months ahead of schedule . The East Manchester Line was completed on 9 October 2013 with a new service routed 2 @.@ 1 miles ( 3 @.@ 4 km ) between Droylsden and Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne tram stop , taking the total system length to 47 @.@ 7 miles ( 76 @.@ 8 km ) . The Oldham and Rochdale Line was completed with a street @-@ running service through Oldham Town Centre on 27 January 2014 , and the addition of a street @-@ running service between Rochdale railway station and Rochdale Town Centre on 31 March 2014 , taking the total system length to 48 @.@ 5 miles ( 78 @.@ 1 km ) .
On 3 November 2014 , the network once again expanded , with a 14 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 23 @.@ 3 km ) extension to Manchester Airport railway station , bringing the length of the system to 92 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 57 @.@ 5 mi ) , making it the longest tramway in the United Kingdom , and the longest light railway . It opened more than one year early , and at a cost of £ 368 million .
= = = Phase 2CC = = =
The Second City Crossing ( also known as 2CC ) is a second Metrolink route across Manchester city centre , first proposed in 2011 as a means to improve capacity , flexibility and reliability as the rest of the system expands due to phases 3a and 3b . Funded by the Greater Manchester Transport Fund , its 0 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) route will begin at a rebuilt St Peter 's Square tram stop , and run along Princess Street , Cross Street and Corporation Street to rejoin the existing Metrolink line by Victoria station . Following the submission of a planning document under the Transport and Works Act 1992 , and a public inquiry held throughout 2013 , the Second City Crossing was granted approval on 8 October 2013 by the Secretary of State for Transport , Patrick McLoughlin , and signed off on 28 October 2013 by the Greater Manchester Combined Authority . Construction started in early 2014 with Exchange Square tram stop and the first tracks of the line were laid in late November 2014 . Exchange Square joined the network as a new stop on the crossing in December 2015 , meaning a Shaw and Crompton @-@ to @-@ Exchange Square service could begin . Completion of the whole line is expected in 2016 / 17 .
= = Operator = =
Metrolink is owned by TfGM and operated and maintained by private transport firms under an operating and maintenance ( O & M ) contract . Between 1992 and 1997 Metrolink was operated and maintained as a concession by Greater Manchester Metro Limited , between 1997 and 2007 by Serco . From 2007 until 2011 it was operated and maintained by Stagecoach Metrolink – part of the Stagecoach Group . Metrolink RATP Dev , a part of the French state @-@ owned RATP Group which operates the Paris Métro , bought the Metrolink contract from Stagecoach on 1 August 2011 .
In October 2015 , TfGM announced RATP Group , Keolis / Amey , National Express and Transdev had been shortlisted to bid for the next contract starting in July 2017 .
Metrolink has been headed by Peter Cushing since February 2013 .
= = = Branding and public relations = = =
The name Metrolink and a system @-@ wide aquamarine , black and grey corporate branding and vehicle livery was devised by Fitch RS and Design Triangle , and first revealed at a press launch in June 1988 . Previously , during the planning and promotional stages , the system was known as Project Light Rail , and borrowed an orange and brown identity used by Greater Manchester Transport and GM Buses . In August 1991 , in partnership with BBC Manchester , Metrolink ran a " Nickname Metrolink " competition to find an affectionate short name for the system , comparable to " The Tube " for London Underground and " The L " for the Chicago elevated transit system . Most submissions were inspired by textile manufacturing , Greater Manchester 's historic staple industry , using names such as " The Thread " and " The Shuttle " , but the winning entry was " The Met " . In 2008 , a distinctive yellow and metallic silver vehicle livery , and corresponding yellow system @-@ wide corporate re @-@ branding was introduced by Manchester @-@ based Hemisphere Design and Marketing Consultancy , designed in partnership with Peter Saville , Dalton Maag and Design Triangle . Yellow was chosen by Hemisphere for its high visibility and to reflect Greater Manchester 's culture of confidence and optimism .
Metrolink has been a " Football Development Partner " with the Manchester Football Association since August 2010 , meaning it is the association 's Official Travel Partner , and supports grassroots association football in Greater Manchester by selecting a " Team of the Month " . Metrolink is a sponsor of the annual Manchester Food and Drink Festival . On 6 December 2010 , to celebrate the soap opera 's 50th anniversary , Coronation Street featured a storyline with an explosion which caused a crash on the Metrolink system at Weatherfield . Although a fictitious event , at least six calls were made to GMPTE asking if services had been affected .
Transport planners in Greater Manchester describe Metrolink as both " an icon of Greater Manchester " , and " an integral part of the landscape in Greater Manchester " . The Guardian describes Metrolink as " Manchester 's efficient and much @-@ loved tram system " . Under ownership of the Guardian Media Group , the Manchester Evening News spearheaded the Get Our Metrolink Back on Track campaign in 2004 – 05 . Under Trinity Mirror ownership , the Manchester Evening News used the Freedom of Information Act 2000 to reveal that Metrolink received over 10 @,@ 000 complaints between May 2011 and May 2012 .
In 2013 , then Manchester City F.C. manager Roberto Mancini and players Joe Hart , Vincent Kompany and James Milner recorded special stop announcements to be used on Metrolink 's East Manchester Line on dates when Manchester City play at home at the City of Manchester Stadium ( served by the Etihad Campus tram stop ) . The announcements were first used on 17 February 2013 , for Manchester City 's FA Cup Fifth Round tie against Leeds United A.F.C ..
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Stops and lines = = =
As of December 2015 , Metrolink has a network length of 57 miles ( 92 km ) and 93 stops — along seven lines which radiate from a " central triangular junction at Piccadilly Gardens which forms the hub of the Metrolink system " in the City Zone . The lines are : the Airport Line ( which terminates at Manchester Airport ) , the Altrincham Line ( which terminates in Altrincham ) , the Bury Line ( which terminates in Bury ) , the East Manchester Line ( which terminates in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne ) , the South Manchester Line ( which terminates in East Didsbury ) , the Eccles Line ( which terminates in Eccles ) , and the Oldham and Rochdale Line ( which terminates in Rochdale ) . Some stops , such as Cornbrook , are shared between lines , and may be used as interchange stations ; others , such as Altrincham Interchange , are transport hubs which integrate with heavy rail and bus stations . Each stop has at least one high @-@ floor platform measuring a minimum of 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide , accessed by ramp , stairs , escalator , lift or combination thereof . Low @-@ floor platforms commonly used for light rail throughout the world were ruled out for Metrolink because the system inherited 90 @-@ centimetre ( 35 in ) high @-@ floor platforms from British Rail on lines formerly used for heavy rail . Shelters and canopies at stops were supplied by JCDecaux , and ticket vending machines by Scheidt & Bachmann . Card readers are installed on all stop platforms , ready for the TfGM ' My Get Me There ' smart card being trialled in 2014 ; and when this is fully implemented all smart card users will touch @-@ in and touch @-@ out at a platform reader . Each line has track with standard gauge specification , powering vehicles electrically from 750 V DC overhead lines . Between 1992 and 2007 , electricity for the Metrolink system was procured by the operator , based on price only . In 2007 , GMPTE changed the contractual requirements to ensure that sustainable power would be factored into choosing an energy supplier , and in July 2007 , Metrolink became the first light rail network in the UK with electricity supplied entirely from sustainable energy via hydropower . Now , energy for the system is generated by biomass .
= = = Depots = = =
Metrolink House at Queens Road in Cheetham Hill is the headquarters of Metrolink . Constructed during Phase 1 , it served jointly as a control centre , HQ , office space , and depot for the storage , maintenance and repair of vehicles . Under the original proposals , Metrolink House was much larger , with a design which would support network expansion , but this design did not obtain the necessary planning permission from Manchester City Council . Consequently , Metrolink House was scaled down to a 4 @-@ hectare ( 9 @.@ 9 @-@ acre ) £ 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 site with limited capacity , and , in light of Phase 3a network expansion , Metrolink built a second depot at Elsinore Road in Old Trafford in 2011 . This second depot occupies the site of a former warehouse , and can house up to 96 vehicles . On 7 May 2013 Metrolink completed the transfer of its main operational functions from Cheetham Hill to Old Trafford , meaning its control room – known as the Network Management Centre – is housed jointly with the Customer Services team by its newer depot .
= = = Wi @-@ Fi = = =
In July 2013 , the Transport for Greater Manchester Committee announced that it planned to enhance the experience of travelling on Metrolink by tapping in to Manchester City Council 's grant from the UK Urban Broadband Fund and using it to provide Metrolink passengers with free Wi @-@ Fi when on board . The scheme began with a trial on a single tram – number 3054 – connected to the FreeBeeMcr broadband network with the intention of rolling it out across the whole Metrolink network by Spring 2015 . It was rolled out fleet wide in March 2015 .
= = = Proposed changes and expansion = = =
= = = = Buckley Wells = = = =
Buckley Wells tram stop has been proposed to provide better passenger access in southern Bury , and would be on the Bury Line between Bury Interchange and Radcliffe tram stop .
= = = = Middleton extension = = = =
As of 2013 , Rochdale Metropolitan Borough Council aspires to link Middleton to the Metrolink network by constructing a branch off the Bury Line routed from Bowker Vale tram stop to Middleton town centre . Rochdale Council first proposed this extension of Metrolink to Middleton in 2008 , and priced the scheme at £ 80 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Oldham extension = = = =
In January 2016 , Jim McMahon , MP for Oldham West and Royton , proposed two loop extensions to the metrolink system around Oldham . The link would add a spur from Westwood tram stop to Middleton town centre , before joining the Bury line near Bowker Vale , in line with the proposed Middleton extension .
The Ashton Loop would extend the line beyond Ashton town centre to Oldham Mumps . Both would connect Rochdale to its neighbouring towns without the need to travel in and out of Manchester city centre . Initial high level feasibility work was undertaken by officials at Transport for Greater Manchester which demonstrated the route is technically possible .
= = = = Salford expansion = = = =
In Salford City Council 's 2004 – 2016 unitary development plan :
Extending from Eccles Interchange along the A57 road to Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell and then across the Manchester Ship Canal to the Trafford Centre .
Re @-@ opening the Tyldesley Loopline from Eccles to Little Hulton via Walkden with Metrolink services .
Tram @-@ train between Manchester and Wigan via Salford , as proposed by the Regional Spatial Strategy for North West England .
= = = = Stalybridge extension = = = =
As of 2011 , Tameside Metropolitan Borough Council aspires to extend the East Manchester Line from Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne to Stalybridge .
= = = = Stockport tram @-@ train strategy = = = =
In January 2015 Stockport Metropolitan Borough adopted a Rail Strategy proposing substantial conversion of current rail alignments around Stockport to tram @-@ train operation , running into an interchange at Stockport bus station . These proposed services expand on , and are consistent with , those outlined in the TfGM tram @-@ train strategy document . Earlier plans ( now discarded ) had envisaged the Metrolink line to East Didsbury being extended to Stockport along the Mersey Valley . The revised plan proposes instead a revised alignment for this link via Edgeley and Stockport railway station .
Stockport town centre to Manchester city centre via Heaton Norris , Reddish South and Belle Vue ( linking with the proposed Manchester – Marple tram @-@ train line ) ;
Stockport town centre to Manchester Airport via Edgeley and Baguley ;
Stockport town centre to Altrincham via Edgeley and Baguley ;
Stockport town centre to East Didsbury ( and on to Manchester city centre ) , via Edgeley and Gorsey Bank ;
Hazel Grove to East Didsbury via Gorsey Bank .
In the Rail Strategy , Stockport MBC also outline longer term aspirations to establish tram @-@ train services between Stockport town centre and Marple ; and between Stockport town centre and Ashton town centre .
= = = = Trafford Park line = = = =
TfGM holds powers to commission a new line from Pomona to Port Salford via Trafford Park and the Trafford Centre , and committed to procuring a funding mechanism for its construction in 2011 . Drawing on proposals made by Trafford Metropolitan Borough Council in 1984 , TfGM made this a strategic priority in each of its local transport plans since the Transport Act 2000 , attesting that Metrolink provision will improve public access to key attractions , support the development of business and freight zones , and reduce traffic congestion on the M60 motorway . In 2004 , Peel Holdings raised concerns that the lack of Metrolink provision to the Trafford Centre may impact on its Chill Factore development , and offered to contribute towards its cost . In summer 2013 , the Greater Manchester Combined Authority and the Greater Manchester Local Enterprise Partnership announced it may fund the construction of the line as far as a stop at the Trafford Centre using the Earnback mechanism of the Greater Manchester City Deal ; with an extension to Port Salford and Eccles to be developed and costed separately . TfGM estimated that it would require £ 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to open this route to passengers by its target of 2018 / 19 ( subject to a satisfactory business case , Transport and Works Act Order and public consultation ) . In November 2014 , the UK Treasury confirmed earnback funding for the Trafford Park Line as part of the devolution deal for the Greater Manchester Combined Authority .
= = = = Tram @-@ trains = = = =
Metrolink and the TfGM Committee have prepared five costed proposals for extending Metrolink using tram @-@ train technology over the existing heavy rail network in the region ; along the Mid @-@ Cheshire Line ( between Stockport and Hale ) , the Hope Valley Line ( between Manchester and Marple ) , the Glossop Line ( between Manchester and the dual termini at Hadfield and Glossop ) , the Manchester to Sheffield Line ( between Manchester and Hazel Grove ) , and along the Manchester to Southport Line ( between Manchester and Wigan via Atherton ) , with an estimated total funding requirement of £ 870 million as of 2013 . TfGM intend to proceed to the identification of potential rail industry funding options , subject to a review of lessons from a tram @-@ train pilot scheme in Sheffield .
= = = = Wythenshawe Loop = = = =
Although axed in 2005 to control costs , the Wythenshawe Loop on the Airport Line remains an aspiration of TfGM . As of October 2014 there is renewed interest from TFGM , particularly as the route could link with HS2 Manchester Interchange . It would create a loop from Roundthorn tram stop to the University Hospital of South Manchester ( Wythenshawe Hospital ) and Newall Green and back to Roundthorn , and improve access between Wythenshawe and Manchester city centre on a route which is physically impaired by the River Mersey and M60 motorway .
= = Rolling stock = =
Metrolink is operated by fleet of M5000 trams , the number of which will reach 120 by 2017 . The first M5000 trams were introduced in 2009 , and replaced the former fleet of thirty @-@ two T @-@ 68 and T @-@ 68A trams , which had operated the network since opening in 1992 , these were withdrawn from service during 2012 – 14 .
In order to be compatible with the former heavy rail stations Metrolink inherited , the network uses high @-@ floor trams with a platform height of 900 mm ( 35 in ) .
= = = M5000 = = =
In December 2009 , Metrolink took delivery of the first M5000 tram . Built by Bombardier Transportation and Vossloh Kiepe , the initial eight M5000s were ordered to allow services to be increased . They are part of the Flexity Swift range of light rail vehicles , and have a design similar to the K5000 vehicle used on the Cologne Stadtbahn .
With the approval of the spur to MediaCityUK , a further four were ordered . To provide rolling stock for the phase 3 extensions and replace the existing fleet , the order was increased successively to 94 . In December 2013 , a further ten M5000s were ordered to provide trams for the Trafford Park line planned to open in 2020 , while in the interim supporting a service between MediaCityUK and Manchester city centre and other capacity enhancements . In September 2014 , a further 16 were ordered , this will bring the fleet up to 120 .
= = = Ancillary vehicles = = =
Metrolink has one Special Purpose Vehicle from 1991 . Numbered 1027 with its support wagon 1028 , it is a bespoke diesel @-@ powered vehicle with a crane , inspection platform , mobile workshop , and capacity for a driver and three passengers . It was designed to assist with vehicle recovery and track and line repairs .
= = = Former fleet = = =
= = = = T @-@ 68 / 68A = = = =
To commence operations , a fleet of 26 T @-@ 68 trams were delivered in 1992 . To provide extra trams for the Eccles Line , six modified T @-@ 68A trams were purchased in 1999 . The T @-@ 68A vehicles were based on the original T @-@ 68s , but had modifications replacing destination rollblinds with dot matrix displays , and retractable couplers and covered bogies necessary for the high proportion of on @-@ street running close to motor traffic .
Three of the earlier T @-@ 68 fleet were similarly equipped , and were known as T @-@ 68Ms . Mechanically and electrically the T @-@ 68M vehicles remained essentially a T @-@ 68 , but had modifications to its brakes , mirrors , and speed limiters to suit the Eccles line . Initially only these vehicles were permitted to operate the Eccles line but the entire fleet was modified between 2008 and 2012 for universal running , under a program known as the T @-@ 68X Universal Running programme .
All of the T @-@ 68 and T @-@ 68As were withdrawn between April 2012 and April 2014 .
Tram no . 1007 , the first to pass through the City Centre on the opening day , is due to be restored into Heaton Park Tramway , and is believed to be the only T @-@ 68 to be kept from scrapping etc .
= = Incidents = =
Unlike some Metro systems in the United Kingdom , the Manchester Metrolink has a high degree of street interaction between pedestrians and motorists with on @-@ street running trams - this is most notable in Manchester city centre . All trams are equipped with a standard horn and a warning horn . A number of fatal incidents have occurred on the network since opening in 1992 :
On 18 October 2002 , a pedestrian died after a collision with a tram after falling onto tram tracks near Manchester Central .
On 25 June 2005 , a pedestrian died after a collision with a tram at Navigation Road stop .
On 5 June 2011 , a pedestrian died after a collision near Piccadilly Gardens .
On 15 December 2011 , a blind man died after a collision with a tram near St Peters ' Square .
On 6 February 2013 , a pedestrian died after a collision with a tram at the Failsworth stop .
On 11 January 2014 , a pedestrian died after a collision with a tram at the Market Street stop .
On 16 February 2016 , a cyclist died after a collision with a tram at the Robinswood Road stop .
= = Travelling = =
= = = Service and hours of operation = = =
Before inauguration , GMPTE 's original concept was for Metrolink 's operator to provide a service every ten minutes from Bury @-@ to @-@ Piccadilly and Altrincham @-@ to @-@ Piccadilly 6 a.m. – Midnight , Monday to Saturday . Greater Manchester Metro Limited , the system 's original operator , argued for adjustments , citing the need to provide an efficient and commercially viable operation in line with vehicle running times and passenger demand . Due to power limitations , this pattern was modified to a twelve @-@ minute service throughout the day , doubling to a six @-@ minute service in peak periods , resulting in a " ten trams per hour " service pattern on routes running from Altrincham and Bury to Manchester every six minutes . Operators are required to provide this level of service at least 98 % of the time , or incur a financial penalty charge . This six @-@ minute service pattern has been adopted on the rest of the network as the system has grown . Heavy snowfall during the winter of 2009 / 10 impaired Metrolink services and the operator was criticised for failing to have cold weather procedures . This prompted a program to improve reliability and performance of the system in freezing conditions . Metrolink operated icebreaker @-@ style vehicles at night during snowfall in January 2013 to provide normal services .
A survey in 2012 revealed that passengers who used Metrolink everyday for commuting rated service levels as poor and / or unreliable , with those respondents particularly frustrated by delays and disruptions . TfGM recognised that the older vehicles in its fleet – the T68 / T68As — were outdated and the cause of much disruption , and agreed to replace them with M5000s by 2014 . Among those who used Metrolink less regularly , the system scored far better in the survey . A survey in 2014 by the non @-@ departmental government body Passenger Focus found that of the five major light rail systems in the United Kingdom – Metrolink , Sheffield Supertram , NET , Midland Metro and Blackpool tramway – Metrolink had the lowest overall satisfaction rating in the United Kingdom . Respondents were surveyed on value for money , punctuality , seating availability , tram stations and overall satisfaction . Metrolink was below average on all criteria , and 47 % believed Metrolink was value for money compared to a national average of 60 % .
In January 2016 , Transport for General Manchester agreed a baseline Service Specification to grade bidders seeking to operate the concession from July 2017 ; once the Second City Crossing is in operation . In the baseline service pattern , there are no designated ' peak ' periods of service operation ; instead there will be an ' enhanced ' service operating from start of service to 8pm Monday to Friday , and to 6pm Saturday ; and a ' core ' service running at all other times . In the ' enhanced ' service pattern , trams will run with a 6 @-@ minute frequency to Shaw & Oldham , Bury , Ashton , Altrincham , Manchester Airport and East Didsbury ; and with a 12 @-@ minute frequency to Rochdale , Eccles and MediacityUK . When the Trafford line opens , services will run to the Trafford Centre with a 12 @-@ minute frequency . In the ' core ' service pattern , all lines will run with a 12 @-@ minute frequency .
Services I & J operate only on a Sunday between 08 : 00 & 17 : 30 instead of services G & H ( shown above )
= = = Ticketing = = =
Metrolink fares were originally set by the system 's operator , but are now set by the TfGM Committee at levels that cover both the running costs and the cost of borrowing that has part @-@ funded the expansion of the system ; Metrolink receives no public subsidy . Fares typically rise each January above the rate of inflation . The fare tariff is based on a division of the network 's stations into fare zones . Persons under 16 years of age , persons of pensionable age , and people with disabilities qualify for concessionary fares , some of which are mandatory and others discretionary , as determined by the Greater Manchester Combined Authority . The Greater Manchester Combined Authority permits reduced fares for persons under 16 years of age , and free or reduced fares on Metrolink after 9 : 30 a.m. for pensioners . In normal circumstances , tickets cannot be purchased on board Metrolink vehicles , and must be purchased from a ticket vending machine before boarding the vehicle . Fare evasion in 2006 was estimated at 2 – 6 % of all users , and in 2012 at 2 @.@ 5 % of all users . Checking tickets and passes and issuing Standard fares is the responsibility of Metrolink 's Passenger Services Representatives ( PSRs ) , who provide security and assistance on the network ; between 1992 and 2008 , Greater Manchester Police had a dedicated Metrolink unit responsible for policing the system . The original ticket vending machines were designed by Thorn EMI . In 2005 GMPTE announced that rail passengers travelling from within Greater Manchester into Manchester city centre can use the Metrolink service between the eight City Zone stations for free . Passengers must present a valid rail ticket , correctly dated with Manchester Ctlz as the destination . In 2007 TfGM rolled out new ticket vending machines , designed to accept credit / debit card payments and permit the purchase of multiple tickets in a single transaction . These were replaced in 2009 with touchscreen machines , designed with the Scheidt & Bachmann Ticket XPress system . In October 2012 , TfGM announced it was devising a simpler zonal fare system , comparable to London fare zones , and preparing to introduce get me there , the region 's new contactless smartcard system , for use on all public transport modes in Greater Manchester , including Metrolink .
= = Tram services = =
Monday to Saturday service :
Seven services which all run every 12 minutes :
( A ) Altrincham – Etihad Campus
( B ) Altrincham – Deansgate @-@ Castlefield ( peak only , 07 : 00 – 20 : 00 )
( C ) Bury – East Didsbury
( D ) Bury – Piccadilly ( peak only , 07 : 00 – 20 : 00 )
( E ) Eccles – Piccadilly via MediaCityUK
( F ) Manchester Airport – Cornbrook
( G ) Rochdale Town Centre – Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne
( H ) Shaw & Crompton – Exchange Square
One early morning service which runs every 20 minutes :
( K ) Manchester Airport – Firswood ( 03 : 00 – 06 : 00 )
The combined Monday – Saturday daytime frequency on the Bury and Altrincham routes is every 6 minutes . ( Deansgate – Altrincham & Bury – Market Street )
Sunday and public holiday service :
Six services which all run every 12 minutes from 09 : 00 – 17 : 30 and every 15 minutes at all other times .
( A ) Altrincham – Etihad Campus
( C ) Bury – East Didsbury
( E ) Eccles – Piccadilly via MediaCityUK
( F ) Manchester Airport – Cornbrook
( G ) Rochdale Town Centre – Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne ( after 17 : 30 )
( H ) Shaw & Crompton – Exchange Square ( after 17 : 30 )
( I ) Rochdale Town Centre – Exchange Square ( 08 : 00 – 17 : 30 )
( J ) Victoria – Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne ( 08 : 00 – 17 : 30 )
One early morning service which runs every 20 minutes :
( K ) Manchester Airport – Firswood ( 03 : 00 – 06 : 00 )
= = Patronage = =
The Department for Transport reported passenger journeys for the 2015 / 16 financial year at 34 @.@ 3 million ; a 10 @.@ 1 % increase from 31 @.@ 2 million the previous year . Patronage has risen steadily since its opening , from a start @-@ point of 8 @.@ 1 million in the 1992 / 93 fiscal year . Travel increased from 18 @.@ 2 million journeys in 2001 / 02 to 20 million journeys in 2008 / 09 ; numbers fell to 18 @.@ 7 million in 2009 while parts of the system were closed for upgrades , but recovered to 19 @.@ 6 million for the 2009 / 10 fiscal year . Metrolink revised its method for calculating passenger boardings in 2010 / 11 , meaning figures are not directly comparable with previous years . TfGM projects that 41 @.@ 7 million passenger journeys per year will be made on the Metrolink system by 2016 / 17 .
A survey in 2012 revealed that 12 % , or around one in 10 people in Greater Manchester use Metrolink to travel to work , and 8 % use the system every day . The system is most commonly used by 21- to 30 @-@ year olds , and was used most markedly by residents of the Metropolitan Borough of Bury — accounting for around a third of their commuter journeys .
= Emma Goldman =
Emma Goldman ( June 27 [ O.S. June 15 ] , 1869 – May 14 , 1940 ) was an anarchist known for her political activism , writing , and speeches . She played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europe in the first half of the 20th century .
Born in Kovno , Russian Empire ( present @-@ day Kaunas , Lithuania ) to a Jewish family , Goldman emigrated to the United States in 1885 . Attracted to anarchism after the Haymarket affair , Goldman became a writer and a renowned lecturer on anarchist philosophy , women 's rights , and social issues , attracting crowds of thousands . She and anarchist writer Alexander Berkman , her lover and lifelong friend , planned to assassinate industrialist and financier Henry Clay Frick as an act of propaganda of the deed . Frick survived the attempt on his life in 1892 and Berkman was sentenced to 22 years in prison . Goldman was imprisoned several times in the years that followed , for " inciting to riot " and illegally distributing information about birth control . In 1906 , Goldman founded the anarchist journal Mother Earth .
In 1917 , Goldman and Berkman were sentenced to two years in jail for conspiring to " induce persons not to register " for the newly instated draft . After their release from prison , they were arrested — along with hundreds of others — and deported to Russia . Initially supportive of that country 's October Revolution which brought the Bolsheviks to power , Goldman reversed her opinion in the wake of the Kronstadt rebellion and denounced the Soviet Union for its violent repression of independent voices . In 1923 , she published a book about her experiences , My Disillusionment in Russia . While living in England , Canada , and France , she wrote an autobiography called Living My Life . After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War , she traveled to Spain to support the anarchist revolution there . She died in Toronto on May 14 , 1940 , aged 70 .
During her life , Goldman was lionized as a free @-@ thinking " rebel woman " by admirers , and denounced by detractors as an advocate of politically motivated murder and violent revolution . Her writing and lectures spanned a wide variety of issues , including prisons , atheism , freedom of speech , militarism , capitalism , marriage , free love , and homosexuality . Although she distanced herself from first @-@ wave feminism and its efforts toward women 's suffrage , she developed new ways of incorporating gender politics into anarchism . After decades of obscurity , Goldman 's iconic status was revived in the 1970s , when feminist and anarchist scholars rekindled popular interest in her life .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family = = =
Emma Goldman 's Orthodox Jewish family lived in the Lithuanian city of Kaunas ( called Kovno at the time , part of the Russian Empire ) . Goldman 's mother Taube Bienowitch had been married before , to a man with whom she had two daughters — Helena in 1860 and Lena in 1862 . When her first husband died of tuberculosis , Taube was devastated . Goldman later wrote : " Whatever love she had had died with the young man to whom she had been married at the age of fifteen . "
Taube 's second marriage was arranged by her family and , as Goldman puts it , " mismated from the first " . Her second husband , Abraham Goldman , invested Taube 's inheritance in a business that quickly failed . The ensuing hardship combined with the emotional distance of husband and wife to make the household a tense place for the children . When Taube became pregnant , Abraham hoped desperately for a son ; a daughter , he believed , would serve as one more sign of failure . They eventually had three sons , but their first child was Emma .
Emma Goldman was born on June 27 , 1869 . Her father used violence to punish his children , beating them when they disobeyed him . He used a whip only on Emma , the most rebellious of them . Her mother provided scarce comfort , calling only rarely on Abraham to tone down his beatings . Goldman later speculated that her father 's furious temper was at least partly a result of sexual frustration .
Goldman 's relationships with her elder half @-@ sisters , Helena and Lena , were a study in contrasts . Helena , the oldest , provided the comfort they lacked from their mother ; she filled Goldman 's childhood with " whatever joy it had " . Lena , however , was distant and uncharitable . The three sisters were joined by brothers Louis ( who died at the age of six ) , Herman ( born in 1872 ) , and Moishe ( born in 1879 ) .
= = = Adolescence = = =
When Emma was a young girl , the Goldman family moved to the village of Papilė , where her father ran an inn . While her sisters worked , she became friends with a servant named Petrushka , who excited her " first erotic sensations " . Later in Papilė she witnessed a peasant being whipped with a knout in the street . This event traumatized her and contributed to her lifelong distaste for violent authority .
At the age of seven , Goldman moved with her family to the Prussian city of Königsberg ( then part of the German Empire ) , and she enrolled in a Realschule . One teacher punished disobedient students — targeting Goldman in particular — by beating their hands with a ruler . Another teacher tried to molest his female students and was fired when Goldman fought back . She found a sympathetic mentor in her German teacher , who loaned her books and even took her to an opera . A passionate student , Goldman passed the exam for admission into a gymnasium , but her religion teacher refused to provide a certificate of good behavior and she was unable to attend .
The family moved to the Russian city of Saint Petersburg , where her father opened one unsuccessful store after another . Their poverty forced the children to work , and Goldman took an assortment of jobs including one in a corset shop . As a teenager Goldman begged her father to allow her to return to school , but instead he threw her French book into the fire and shouted : " Girls do not have to learn much ! All a Jewish daughter needs to know is how to prepare gefilte fish , cut noodles fine , and give the man plenty of children . "
Goldman pursued an independent education on her own , however , and soon began to study the political turmoil around her , particularly the Nihilists responsible for assassinating Alexander II of Russia . The ensuing turmoil intrigued Goldman , even though she did not fully understand it at the time . When she read Chernyshevsky 's novel , What Is to Be Done ? ( 1863 ) , she found a role model in the protagonist Vera , who adopts a Nihilist philosophy and escapes her repressive family to live freely and organize a sewing cooperative . The book enthralled Goldman and remained a source of inspiration throughout her life .
Her father , meanwhile , continued to insist on a domestic future for her , and he tried to arrange for her to be married at the age of fifteen . They fought about the issue constantly ; he complained that she was becoming a " loose " woman , and she insisted that she would marry for love alone . At the corset shop , she was forced to fend off unwelcome advances from Russian officers and other men . One persistent suitor took her into a hotel room and committed what Goldman called " violent contact " ; two biographers call it rape . She was stunned by the experience , overcome by " shock at the discovery that the contact between man and woman could be so brutal and painful . " Goldman felt that the encounter forever soured her interactions with men .
= = = Rochester , New York = = =
In 1885 , Helena made plans to move to New York to join her sister Lena and her husband . Goldman wanted to join her sister , but their father refused to allow it . Despite Helena 's offer to pay for the trip , Abraham turned a deaf ear to their pleas . Desperate , Goldman threatened to throw herself into the Neva River if she could not go . He finally agreed , and on December 29 , 1885 , Helena and Emma arrived at New York 's Castle Garden . They moved into the Rochester home Lena had made with her husband Samuel . Fleeing the rising antisemitism of Saint Petersburg , their parents and brothers joined them a year later . Goldman began working as a seamstress , sewing overcoats for more than ten hours a day , earning two and a half dollars a week . She asked for a raise and was denied ; she quit and took work at a smaller shop nearby .
At her new job , Goldman met a fellow worker named Jacob Kershner , who shared her love for books , dancing , and traveling , as well as her frustration with the monotony of factory work . After four months , they married in February 1887 . Once he moved in with Goldman 's family , however , their relationship faltered . On their wedding night she discovered that he was impotent ; they became emotionally and physically distant . Before long he became jealous and suspicious . She , meanwhile , was becoming more engaged with the political turmoil around her — particularly the fallout of the 1886 Haymarket affair in Chicago and the anti @-@ authoritarian political philosophy of anarchism . Less than a year after the wedding , they were divorced ; he begged her to return and threatened to poison himself if she did not . They reunited , but after three months she left once again . Her parents considered her behavior " loose " and refused to allow Goldman into their home . Carrying her sewing machine in one hand and a bag with five dollars in the other , she left Rochester and headed southeast to New York City .
= = = Most and Berkman = = =
On her first day in the city , Goldman met two men who would forever change her life . At Sachs 's Café , a gathering place for radicals , she was introduced to Alexander Berkman , an anarchist who invited her to a public speech that evening . They went to hear Johann Most , editor of a radical publication called Freiheit and an advocate of " propaganda of the deed " — the use of violence to instigate change . She was impressed by his fiery oration , and he took her under his wing , training her in methods of public speaking . He encouraged her vigorously , telling her that she was " to take my place when I am gone . " One of her first public talks in support of " the Cause " was in Rochester . After convincing Helena not to tell their parents of her speech , Goldman found her mind a blank once on stage . Suddenly ,
something strange happened . In a flash I saw it — every incident of my three years in Rochester : the Garson factory , its drudgery and humiliation , the failure of my marriage , the Chicago crime ... I began to speak . Words I had never heard myself utter before came pouring forth , faster and faster . They came with passionate intensity ... The audience had vanished , the hall itself had disappeared ; I was conscious only of my own words , of my ecstatic song .
Enchanted by the experience , she refined her public persona during subsequent engagements . Quickly , however , she found herself arguing with Most over her independence . After a momentous speech in Cleveland , she felt as though she had become " a parrot repeating Most 's views " and resolved to express herself on the stage . Upon her return in New York , Most became furious and told her : " Who is not with me is against me ! " She left Freiheit and joined with another publication , Die Autonomie .
Meanwhile , she had begun a friendship with Berkman , whom she affectionately called Sasha . Before long they became lovers and moved into a communal apartment with his cousin Modest " Fedya " Stein and Goldman 's friend , Helen Minkin , in rural Woodstock , Illinois . Although their relationship had numerous difficulties , Goldman and Berkman would share a close bond for decades , united by their anarchist principles and commitment to personal equality .
In 1892 , Goldman joined with Berkman and Stein in opening an ice cream shop in Worcester , Massachusetts . After only a few months of operating the shop , however , Goldman and Berkman were deflected from the venture by their involvement in the Homestead Strike .
= = = Homestead plot = = =
One of the first political moments that brought Berkman and Goldman together was the Homestead Strike . In June 1892 , a steel plant in Homestead , Pennsylvania owned by Andrew Carnegie became the focus of national attention when talks between the Carnegie Steel Company and the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers ( AA ) broke down . The factory 's manager was Henry Clay Frick , a fierce opponent of the union . When a final round of talks failed at the end of June , management closed the plant and locked out the workers , who immediately went on strike . Strikebreakers were brought in and the company hired Pinkerton guards to protect them . On July 6 , a fight broke out between three hundred Pinkerton guards and a crowd of armed union workers . During the twelve @-@ hour gunfight , seven guards and nine strikers were killed .
When a majority of the nation 's newspapers came out in support of the strikers , Goldman and Berkman resolved to assassinate Frick , an action they expected would inspire the workers to revolt against the capitalist system . Berkman chose to carry out the assassination , and ordered Goldman to stay behind in order to explain his motives after he went to jail . He would be in charge of the deed ; she of the word . Berkman tried and failed to make a bomb , then set off for Pittsburgh to buy a gun and a suit of decent clothes . Goldman , meanwhile , decided to help fund the scheme through prostitution . Remembering the character of Sonya in Fyodor Dostoevsky 's novel Crime and Punishment ( 1866 ) , she mused : " She had become a prostitute in order to support her little brothers and sisters ... Sensitive Sonya could sell her body ; why not I ? " Once on the street , she caught the eye of a man who took her into a saloon , bought her a beer , gave her ten dollars , informed her she did not have " the knack " , and told her to quit the business . She was " too astounded for speech " . She wrote to Helena , claiming illness , and asked her for fifteen dollars .
On July 23 , Berkman gained access to Frick 's office with a concealed handgun and shot Frick three times , then stabbed him in the leg . A group of workers — far from joining in his attentat — beat Berkman unconscious , and he was carried away by the police . Berkman was convicted of attempted murder and sentenced to 22 years in prison ; his absence from her life was very difficult for Goldman . Convinced Goldman was involved in the plot , police raided her apartment and — finding no evidence — pressured her landlord into evicting her . Worse , the attentat had failed to rouse the masses : workers and anarchists alike condemned Berkman 's action . Johann Most , their former mentor , lashed out at Berkman and the assassination attempt . Furious at these attacks , Goldman brought a toy horsewhip to a public lecture and demanded , onstage , that Most explain his betrayal . He dismissed her , whereupon she struck him with the whip , broke it on her knee , and hurled the pieces at him . She later regretted her assault , confiding to a friend : " At the age of twenty @-@ three , one does not reason . "
= = = " Inciting to riot " = = =
When the Panic of 1893 struck in the following year , the United States suffered one of its worst economic crises ever . By year 's end , the unemployment rate was higher than 20 % , and " hunger demonstrations " sometimes gave way to riots . Goldman began speaking to crowds of frustrated men and women in New York . On August 21 , she spoke to a crowd of nearly 3 @,@ 000 people in Union Square , where she encouraged unemployed workers to take immediate action . Her exact words are unclear : undercover agents insist she ordered the crowd to " take everything ... by force " , while Goldman later recounted this message : " Well then , demonstrate before the palaces of the rich ; demand work . If they do not give you work , demand bread . If they deny you both , take bread . " Later in court , Detective @-@ Sergeant Charles Jacobs offered yet another version of her speech .
A week later she was arrested in Philadelphia and returned to New York City for trial , charged with " inciting to riot " . During the train ride , Jacobs offered to drop the charges against her if she would inform on other radicals in the area . She responded by throwing a glass of ice water in his face . As she awaited trial , Goldman was visited by Nellie Bly , a reporter for the New York World . She spent two hours talking to Goldman , and wrote a positive article about the woman she described as a " modern Joan of Arc " .
Despite this positive publicity , the jury was persuaded by Jacobs ' testimony and scared by Goldman 's politics . The assistant District Attorney questioned Goldman about her anarchism , as well as her atheism ; the judge spoke of her as " a dangerous woman " . She was sentenced to one year in the Blackwell 's Island Penitentiary . Once inside she suffered an attack of rheumatism and was sent to the infirmary ; there she befriended a visiting doctor and began studying medicine . She also read dozens of books , including works by the American activist @-@ writers Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau ; novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne ; poet Walt Whitman , and philosopher John Stuart Mill . When she was released after ten months , a raucous crowd of nearly three thousand people greeted her at the Thalia Theater in New York City . She soon became swamped with requests for interviews and lectures .
To make money , Goldman decided to pursue the medical work she had studied in prison . However , her preferred fields of specialization — midwifery and massage — were not available to nursing students in the US . Thus , she sailed to Europe , lecturing in London , Glasgow , and Edinburgh . She met with renowned anarchists like Errico Malatesta , Louise Michel , and Peter Kropotkin . In Vienna , she received two diplomas and put them immediately to use back in the US . Alternating between lectures and midwifery , she conducted the first cross @-@ country tour by an anarchist speaker . In November 1899 she returned to Europe , where she met the anarchist Hippolyte Havel , with whom she went to France and helped organize the International Anarchist Congress on the outskirts of Paris .
= = = McKinley assassination = = =
On September 6 , 1901 , Leon Czolgosz , an unemployed factory worker and registered Republican with a history of mental illness , shot US President William McKinley twice during a public speaking event in Buffalo , New York . McKinley was hit in the breastbone and stomach , and died eight days later . Czolgosz was arrested , and interrogated around the clock . During interrogation he claimed to be an Anarchist and said he had been inspired to act after attending a speech held by Goldman . The authorities used this as a pretext to charge Goldman with planning McKinley 's assassination . They tracked her to a residence in Chicago she shared with Havel , as well as Mary and Abe Isaak , an anarchist couple . Goldman was arrested , along with Abe Isaak , Havel , and ten other anarchists .
Earlier , Czolgosz had tried but failed to become friends with Goldman and her companions . During a talk in Cleveland , Czolgosz had approached Goldman and asked her advice on which books he should read . In July 1901 , he had appeared at the Isaak house , asking a series of unusual questions . They assumed he was an infiltrator , like a number of police agents sent to spy on radical groups . They had remained distant from him , and Abe Isaak sent a notice to associates warning of " another spy " .
Although Czolgosz repeatedly denied Goldman 's involvement , the police held her in close custody , subjecting her to what she called the " third degree " . She explained their distrust of him , and it was clear she had not had any significant contact with Czolgosz . No evidence was found linking Goldman to the attack , and she was eventually released after two weeks of detention . Before McKinley died , Goldman offered to provide nursing care , referring to him as " merely a human being " . Czolgosz , despite considerable evidence of mental illness , was convicted of murder and executed .
Throughout her detention and after her release , Goldman steadfastly refused to condemn Czolgosz 's actions , standing virtually alone in doing so . Friends and supporters — including Berkman — urged her to quit his cause . But Goldman defended Czolgosz as a " supersensitive being " and chastised other anarchists for abandoning him . She was vilified in the press as the " high priestess of anarchy " , while many newspapers declared the anarchist movement responsible for the murder . In the wake of these events , socialism gained support over anarchism among US radicals . McKinley 's successor , Theodore Roosevelt , declared his intent to crack down " not only against anarchists , but against all active and passive sympathizers with anarchists " .
= = = Mother Earth and Berkman 's release = = =
After Czolgosz 's execution , Goldman withdrew from the world . Scorned by her fellow anarchists , vilified by the press , and separated from her love , she retreated into anonymity and nursing . " It was bitter and hard to face life anew , " she wrote later . Using the name E. G. Smith , she vanished from public life and took on a series of private nursing jobs . When the US Congress passed the Anarchist Exclusion Act , however , a new wave of activism rose to oppose it , carrying Goldman back into the movement . A coalition of people and organizations across the left end of the political spectrum opposed the law on grounds that it violated freedom of speech , and she had the nation 's ear once again .
When an English anarchist named John Turner was arrested under the Anarchist Exclusion Act and threatened with deportation , Goldman joined forces with the Free Speech League to champion his cause . The league enlisted the aid of Clarence Darrow and Edgar Lee Masters , who took Turner 's case to the US Supreme Court . Although Turner and the League lost , Goldman considered it a victory of propaganda . She had returned to anarchist activism , but it was taking its toll on her . " I never felt so weighed down , " she wrote to Berkman . " I fear I am forever doomed to remain public property and to have my life worn out through the care for the lives of others . "
In 1906 , Goldman decided to start a publication of her own , " a place of expression for the young idealists in arts and letters " . Mother Earth was staffed by a cadre of radical activists , including Hippolyte Havel , Max Baginski , and Leonard Abbott . In addition to publishing original works by its editors and anarchists around the world , Mother Earth reprinted selections from a variety of writers . These included the French philosopher Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon , Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin , German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche , and British writer Mary Wollstonecraft . Goldman wrote frequently about anarchism , politics , labor issues , atheism , sexuality , and feminism .
On May 18 of the same year , Alexander Berkman was released from prison . Carrying a bouquet of roses , she met him on the platform and found herself " seized by terror and pity " as she beheld his gaunt , pale form . Neither was able to speak ; they returned to her home in silence . For weeks , he struggled to readjust to life on the outside ; an abortive speaking tour ended in failure , and in Cleveland he purchased a revolver with the intent of killing himself . He returned to New York , however , and learned that Goldman had been arrested with a group of activists meeting to reflect on Czolgosz . Invigorated anew by this violation of freedom of assembly , he declared " My resurrection has come ! " and set about securing their release .
Berkman took the helm of Mother Earth in 1907 , while Goldman toured the country to raise funds to keep it functional . Editing the magazine was a revitalizing experience for Berkman ; his relationship with Goldman faltered , however , and he had an affair with a 15 @-@ year @-@ old anarchist named Becky Edelsohn . Goldman was pained by his rejection of her , but considered it a consequence of his prison experience . Later that year she served as a delegate from the US to the International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam . Anarchists and syndicalists from around the world gathered to sort out the tension between the two ideologies , but no decisive agreement was reached . Goldman returned to the US and continued speaking to large audiences .
= = = Reitman , essays , and birth control = = =
For the next ten years , Goldman traveled around the country nonstop , delivering lectures and agitating for anarchism . The coalitions formed in opposition to the Anarchist Exclusion Act had given her an appreciation for reaching out to those of other political persuasions . When the US Justice Department sent spies to observe , they reported the meetings as " packed " . Writers , journalists , artists , judges , and workers from across the spectrum spoke of her " magnetic power " , her " convincing presence " , her " force , eloquence , and fire " .
In the spring of 1908 , Goldman met and fell in love with Ben Reitman , the so @-@ called " Hobo doctor " . Having grown up in Chicago 's tenderloin district , Reitman spent several years as a drifter before attaining a medical degree from the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Chicago . As a doctor , he attended to people suffering from poverty and illness , particularly venereal diseases . He and Goldman began an affair ; they shared a commitment to free love , but whereas Reitman took a variety of lovers , Goldman did not . She tried to reconcile her feelings of jealousy with a belief in freedom of the heart , but found it difficult .
Two years later , Goldman began feeling frustrated with lecture audiences . She yearned to " reach the few who really want to learn , rather than the many who come to be amused " . Thus she collected a series of speeches and items she had written for Mother Earth and published a book called Anarchism and Other Essays . Covering a wide variety of topics , Goldman tries to represent " the mental and soul struggles of twenty @-@ one years " . In addition to a comprehensive look at anarchism and its criticisms , the book includes essays on patriotism , women 's suffrage , marriage , and prisons .
When Margaret Sanger , an advocate of access to contraception , coined the term " birth control " and disseminated information about various methods in the June 1914 issue of her magazine The Woman Rebel , she received aggressive support from Goldman , who had already been an active in efforts to increase birth control access for several years . In 1916 , Goldman was arrested for giving lessons in public on how to use contraceptives . Sanger , too , was arrested under the Comstock Law , which prohibited the dissemination of " obscene , lewd , or lascivious articles " — including information relating to birth control . Although they later split from Sanger over charges of insufficient support , Goldman and Reitman distributed copies of Sanger 's pamphlet Family Limitation ( along with a similar essay of Reitman 's ) . In 1915 Goldman conducted a nationwide speaking tour in part to raise awareness about contraception options . Although the nation 's attitude toward the topic seemed to be liberalizing , Goldman was arrested on February 11 , 1916 , as she was about to give another public lecture . Goldman was charged with violating the Comstock Law . Refusing to pay a $ 100 fine , Goldman spent two weeks in a prison workhouse , which she saw as an " opportunity " to reconnect with those rejected by society .
= = = World War I = = =
Although US President Woodrow Wilson was re @-@ elected in 1916 under the slogan " He kept us out of the war " , at the start of his second term he decided that Germany 's continued deployment of unrestricted submarine warfare was sufficient cause for the US to enter World War I. Shortly afterward , Congress passed the Selective Service Act of 1917 , which required all males aged 21 – 30 to register for military conscription . Goldman saw the decision as an exercise in militarist aggression , driven by capitalism . She declared in Mother Earth her intent to resist conscription , and to oppose US involvement in the war .
To this end , she and Berkman organized the No Conscription League of New York , which proclaimed : " We oppose conscription because we are internationalists , antimilitarists , and opposed to all wars waged by capitalistic governments . " The group became a vanguard for anti @-@ draft activism , and chapters began to appear in other cities . When police began raiding the group 's public events to find young men who had not registered for the draft , however , Goldman and others focused their efforts on spreading pamphlets and other written work . In the midst of the nation 's patriotic fervor , many elements of the political left refused to support the League 's efforts . The Women 's Peace Party , for example , ceased its opposition to the war once the US entered it . The Socialist Party of America took an official stance against US involvement , but supported Wilson in most of his activities .
On June 15 , 1917 , Goldman and Berkman were arrested during a raid of their offices which yielded " a wagon load of anarchist records and propaganda " for the authorities . The New York Times reported that Goldman asked to change into a more appropriate outfit , and emerged in a gown of " royal purple " . The pair were charged with conspiracy to " induce persons not to register " under the newly enacted Espionage Act , and were held on US $ 25 @,@ 000 bail each . Defending herself and Berkman during their trial , Goldman invoked the First Amendment , asking how the government could claim to fight for democracy abroad while suppressing free speech at home :
We say that if America has entered the war to make the world safe for democracy , she must first make democracy safe in America . How else is the world to take America seriously , when democracy at home is daily being outraged , free speech suppressed , peaceable assemblies broken up by overbearing and brutal gangsters in uniform ; when free press is curtailed and every independent opinion gagged ? Verily , poor as we are in democracy , how can we give of it to the world ?
However , the jury found Goldman and Berkman guilty . Judge Julius Marshuetz Mayer imposed the maximum sentence : two years ' imprisonment , a $ 10 @,@ 000 fine each , and the possibility of deportation after their release from prison . As she was transported to Missouri State Penitentiary ( now Jefferson City Correctional Center ) , Goldman wrote to a friend : " Two years imprisonment for having made an uncompromising stand for one 's ideal . Why that is a small price . "
In prison , she was again assigned to work as a seamstress , under the eye of a " miserable gutter @-@ snipe of a 21 @-@ year @-@ old boy paid to get results " . She met the socialist Kate Richards O 'Hare , who had also been imprisoned under the Espionage Act . Although they differed on political strategy — Kate O 'Hare believed in voting to achieve state power — the two women came together to agitate for better conditions among prisoners . Goldman also met and became friends with Gabriella Segata Antolini , an anarchist and follower of Luigi Galleani . Antolini had been arrested transporting a satchel filled with dynamite on a Chicago @-@ bound train . She had refused to cooperate with authorities , and was sent to prison for 14 months . Working together to make life better for the other inmates , the three women became known as " The Trinity " . Goldman was released on September 27 , 1919 .
= = = Deportation = = =
Goldman and Berkman were released from prison during America 's Red Scare of 1919 – 20 , when public anxiety about wartime pro @-@ German activities had morphed into a pervasive fear of Bolshevism and the prospect of an imminent radical revolution . Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer and J. Edgar Hoover , head of the US Department of Justice 's General Intelligence Division , were intent on using the Anarchist Exclusion Act and its 1918 expansion to deport any non @-@ citizens they could identify as advocates of anarchy or revolution . " Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman , " Hoover wrote while they were in prison , " are , beyond doubt , two of the most dangerous anarchists in this country and return to the community will result in undue harm . "
At her deportation hearing on October 27 , she refused to answer questions about her beliefs on the grounds that her American citizenship invalidated any attempt to deport her under the Anarchist Exclusion Act , which could be enforced only against non @-@ citizens of the US . She presented a written statement instead : " Today so @-@ called aliens are deported . Tomorrow native Americans will be banished . Already some patrioteers are suggesting that native American sons to whom democracy is a sacred ideal should be exiled . " Louis Post at the Department of Labor , which had ultimate authority over deportation decisions , determined that the revocation of her husband 's American citizenship in 1908 had revoked hers as well . After initially promising a court fight , she decided not to appeal his ruling .
The Labor Department included Goldman and Berkman among 249 aliens it deported en masse , mostly people with only vague associations with radical groups who had been swept up in government raids in November . Buford , a ship the press nicknamed the " Soviet Ark , " sailed from the Army 's New York Port of Embarkation on December 21 . Some 58 enlisted men and four officers provided security on the journey and pistols were distributed to the crew . Most of the press approved enthusiastically . The Cleveland Plain Dealer wrote : " It is hoped and expected that other vessels , larger , more commodious , carrying similar cargoes , will follow in her wake . " The ship landed her charges in Hanko , Finland on Saturday , January 17 , 1920 . Upon arrival in Finland , authorities there conducted the deportees to the Russian frontier under a flag of truce .
= = = Russia = = =
Goldman initially viewed the Bolshevik revolution in a positive light . She wrote in Mother Earth that despite its dependence on Communist government , it represented " the most fundamental , far @-@ reaching and all @-@ embracing principles of human freedom and of economic well @-@ being " . By the time she neared Europe , however , she expressed fears about what was to come . She was worried about the ongoing Russian Civil War and the possibility of being seized by anti @-@ Bolshevik forces . The state , anti @-@ capitalist though it was , also posed a threat . " I could never in my life work within the confines of the State , " she wrote to her niece , " Bolshevist or otherwise . "
She quickly discovered that her fears were justified . Days after returning to Petrograd ( Saint Petersburg ) , she was shocked to hear a party official refer to free speech as a " bourgeois superstition " . As she and Berkman traveled around the country , they found repression , mismanagement , and corruption instead of the equality and worker empowerment they had dreamed of . Those who questioned the government were demonized as counter @-@ revolutionaries , and workers labored under severe conditions . They met with Vladimir Lenin , who assured them that government suppression of press liberties was justified . He told them : " There can be no free speech in a revolutionary period . " Berkman was more willing to forgive the government 's actions in the name of " historical necessity " , but he eventually joined Goldman in opposing the Soviet state 's authority .
In March 1921 , strikes erupted in Petrograd when workers took to the streets demanding better food rations and more union autonomy . Goldman and Berkman felt a responsibility to support the strikers , stating : " To remain silent now is impossible , even criminal . " The unrest spread to the port town of Kronstadt , where a military response was ordered . In the fighting that ensued , approximately 1 @,@ 000 rebelling sailors and soldiers were killed and two thousand more were arrested . In the wake of these events , Goldman and Berkman decided there was no future in the country for them . " More and more " , she wrote , " we have come to the conclusion that we can do nothing here . And as we can not keep up a life of inactivity much longer we have decided to leave . "
In December 1921 , they left the country and went to the Latvian capital city of Riga . The US commissioner in that city wired officials in Washington DC , who began requesting information from other governments about the couple 's activities . After a short trip to Stockholm , they moved to Berlin for several years ; during this time she agreed to write a series of articles about her time in Russia for Joseph Pulitzer 's newspaper , the New York World . These were later collected and published in book form as My Disillusionment in Russia ( 1923 ) and My Further Disillusionment in Russia ( 1924 ) . The titles of these books were added by the publishers to be scintillating and Goldman protested , albeit in vain .
= = = England , Canada , and France = = =
Goldman found it difficult to acclimate to the German leftist community . Communists despised her outspokenness about Soviet repression ; liberals derided her radicalism . While Berkman remained in Berlin helping Russian exiles , she moved to London in September 1924 . Upon her arrival , the novelist Rebecca West arranged a reception dinner for her , attended by philosopher Bertrand Russell , novelist H. G. Wells , and more than two hundred others . When she spoke of her dissatisfaction with the Soviet government , the audience was shocked . Some left the gathering ; others berated her for prematurely criticizing the Communist experiment . Later , in a letter , Russell declined to support her efforts at systemic change in the Soviet Union and ridiculed her anarchist idealism .
In 1925 , the spectre of deportation loomed again , but a Scottish anarchist named James Colton offered to marry her and provide British citizenship . Although they were only distant acquaintances , she accepted and they were married on June 27 , 1925 . Her new status gave her peace of mind , and allowed her to travel to France and Canada . Life in London was stressful for Goldman ; she wrote to Berkman : " I am awfully tired and so lonely and heartsick . It is a dreadful feeling to come back here from lectures and find not a kindred soul , no one who cares whether one is dead or alive . " She worked on analytical studies of drama , expanding on the work she had published in 1914 . But the audiences were " awful " and she never finished her second book on the subject .
Goldman traveled to Canada in 1927 , just in time to receive news of the impending executions of Italian anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti in Boston . Angered by the many irregularities of the case , she saw it as another travesty of justice in the US . She longed to join the mass demonstrations in Boston ; memories of the Haymarket affair overwhelmed her , compounded by her isolation . " Then , " she wrote , " I had my life before me to take up the cause for those killed . Now I have nothing . "
In 1928 , she began writing her autobiography , with the support of a group of admirers , including journalist H. L. Mencken , poet Edna St. Vincent Millay , novelist Theodore Dreiser and art collector Peggy Guggenheim , who raised $ 4 @,@ 000 for her . She secured a cottage in the French coastal city of Saint @-@ Tropez and spent two years recounting her life . Berkman offered sharply critical feedback , which she eventually incorporated at the price of a strain on their relationship . Goldman intended the book , Living My Life , as a single volume for a price the working class could afford ( she urged no more than $ 5 @.@ 00 ) ; her publisher Alfred A. Knopf , however , released it as two volumes sold together for $ 7 @.@ 50 . Goldman was furious , but unable to force a change . Due in large part to the Great Depression , sales were sluggish despite keen interest from libraries around the US . Critical reviews were generally enthusiastic ; The New York Times , The New Yorker , and Saturday Review of Literature all listed it as one of the year 's top non @-@ fiction books .
In 1933 , Goldman received permission to lecture in the United States under the condition that she speak only about drama and her autobiography — but not current political events . She returned to New York on February 2 , 1934 to generally positive press coverage — except from Communist publications . Soon she was surrounded by admirers and friends , besieged with invitations to talks and interviews . Her visa expired in May , and she went to Toronto in order to file another request to visit the US . However , this second attempt was denied . She stayed in Canada , writing articles for US publications .
In February and March 1936 , Berkman underwent a pair of prostate gland operations . Recuperating in Nice and cared for by his companion , Emmy Eckstein , he missed Goldman 's sixty @-@ seventh birthday in Saint @-@ Tropez in June . She wrote in sadness , but he never read the letter ; she received a call in the middle of the night that Berkman was in great distress . She left for Nice immediately but when she arrived that morning , Goldman found that he had shot himself and was in a nearly comatose paralysis . He died later that evening .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
In July 1936 , the Spanish Civil War started after an attempted coup d 'état by parts of the Spanish Army against the government of the Second Spanish Republic . At the same time , the Spanish anarchists , fighting against the Nationalist forces , started an anarchist revolution . Goldman was invited to Barcelona and in an instant , as she wrote to her niece , " the crushing weight that was pressing down on my heart since Sasha 's death left me as by magic " . She was welcomed by the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo ( CNT ) and Federación Anarquista Ibérica ( FAI ) organizations , and for the first time in her life lived in a community run by and for anarchists , according to true anarchist principles . " In all my life " , she wrote later , " I have not met with such warm hospitality , comradeship and solidarity . " After touring a series of collectives in the province of Huesca , she told a group of workers : " Your revolution will destroy forever [ the notion ] that anarchism stands for chaos . " She began editing the weekly CNT @-@ FAI Information Bulletin and responded to English @-@ language mail .
Goldman began to worry about the future of Spain 's anarchism when the CNT @-@ FAI joined a coalition government in 1937 — against the core anarchist principle of abstaining from state structures — and , more distressingly , made repeated concessions to Communist forces in the name of uniting against fascism . She wrote that cooperating with Communists in Spain was " a denial of our comrades in Stalin 's concentration camps " . Russia , meanwhile , refused to send weapons to anarchist forces , and disinformation campaigns were being waged against the anarchists across Europe and the US . Her faith in the movement unshaken , Goldman returned to London as an official representative of the CNT @-@ FAI .
Delivering lectures and giving interviews , Goldman enthusiastically supported the Spanish anarcho @-@ syndicalists . She wrote regularly for Spain and the World , a biweekly newspaper focusing on the civil war . In May 1937 , however , Communist @-@ led forces attacked anarchist strongholds and broke up agrarian collectives . Newspapers in England and elsewhere accepted the timeline of events offered by the Second Spanish Republic at face value . British journalist George Orwell , present for the crackdown , wrote : " [ T ] he accounts of the Barcelona riots in May ... beat everything I have ever seen for lying . "
Goldman returned to Spain in September , but the CNT @-@ FAI appeared to her like people " in a burning house " . Worse , anarchists and other radicals around the world refused to support their cause . The Nationalist forces declared victory in Spain just before she returned to London . Frustrated by England 's repressive atmosphere — which she called " more fascist than the fascists " — she returned to Canada in 1939 . Her service to the anarchist cause in Spain was not forgotten , however . On her seventieth birthday , the former Secretary @-@ General of the CNT @-@ FAI , Mariano Vázquez , sent a message to her from Paris , praising her for her contributions and naming her as " our spiritual mother " . She called it " the most beautiful tribute I have ever received " .
= = = Final years = = =
As the events preceding World War II began to unfold in Europe , Goldman reiterated her opposition to wars waged by governments . " [ M ] uch as I loathe Hitler , Mussolini , Stalin and Franco " , she wrote to a friend , " I would not support a war against them and for the democracies which , in the last analysis , are only Fascist in disguise . " She felt that Britain and France had missed their opportunity to oppose fascism , and that the coming war would only result in " a new form of madness in the world " . This position was vastly unpopular , as Hitler 's attacks on Jewish communities reverberated throughout the Jewish diaspora .
= = = Death = = =
On Saturday , February 17 , 1940 , Goldman suffered a debilitating stroke . She became paralyzed on her right side , and although her hearing was unaffected , she could not speak . As one friend described it : " Just to think that here was Emma , the greatest orator in America , unable to utter one word . " For three months she improved slightly , receiving visitors and on one occasion gesturing to her address book to signal that a friend might find friendly contacts during a trip to Mexico . She suffered another stroke on May 8 , however , and on May 14 she died in Toronto , aged 70 .
The US Immigration and Naturalization Service allowed her body to be brought back to the United States . She was buried in German Waldheim Cemetery ( now named Forest Home Cemetery ) in Forest Park , Illinois , a western suburb of Chicago , among the graves of other labor and social activists including Ben Reitman and those executed after the Haymarket affair . The bas relief on her grave marker was created by sculptor Jo Davidson .
= = Philosophy = =
Goldman spoke and wrote extensively on a wide variety of issues . While she rejected orthodoxy and fundamentalist thinking , she was an important contributor to several fields of modern political philosophy . She was influenced by many diverse thinkers and writers , including Mikhail Bakunin , Henry David Thoreau , Peter Kropotkin , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Nikolai Chernyshevsky , and Mary Wollstonecraft . Another philosopher who influenced Goldman was Friedrich Nietzsche . In her autobiography , she wrote : " Nietzsche was not a social theorist , but a poet , a rebel , and innovator . His aristocracy was neither of birth nor of purse ; it was the spirit . In that respect Nietzsche was an anarchist , and all true anarchists were aristocrats . "
= = = Anarchism = = =
Anarchism was central to Goldman 's view of the world and she is today considered one of the most important figures in the history of anarchism . First drawn to it during the persecution of anarchists after the 1886 Haymarket affair , she wrote and spoke regularly on behalf of anarchism . In the title essay of her book Anarchism and Other Essays , she wrote :
Anarchism , then , really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion ; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property ; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government . Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth ; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life , according to individual desires , tastes , and inclinations .
Goldman 's anarchism was intensely personal . She believed it was necessary for anarchist thinkers to live their beliefs , demonstrating their convictions with every action and word . " I don 't care if a man 's theory for tomorrow is correct , " she once wrote . " I care if his spirit of today is correct . " Anarchism and free association were to her logical responses to the confines of government control and capitalism . " It seems to me that these are the new forms of life , " she wrote , " and that they will take the place of the old , not by preaching or voting , but by living them . "
At the same time , she believed that the movement on behalf of human liberty must be staffed by liberated humans . While dancing among fellow anarchists one evening , she was chided by an associate for her carefree demeanor . In her autobiography , Goldman wrote :
I told him to mind his own business , I was tired of having the Cause constantly thrown in my face . I did not believe that a Cause which stood for a beautiful ideal , for anarchism , for release and freedom from conventions and prejudice , should demand denial of life and joy . I insisted that our Cause could not expect me to behave as a nun and that the movement should not be turned into a cloister . If it meant that , I did not want it . " I want freedom , the right to self @-@ expression , everybody 's right to beautiful , radiant things . "
= = = = Tactical uses of violence = = = =
Goldman , in her political youth , held targeted violence to be a legitimate means of revolutionary struggle . Goldman at the time believed that the use of violence , while distasteful , could be justified in relation to the social benefits it might accrue . She advocated propaganda of the deed — attentat , or violence carried out to encourage the masses to revolt . She supported her partner Alexander Berkman 's attempt to kill industrialist Henry Clay Frick , and even begged him to allow her to participate . She believed that Frick 's actions during the Homestead strike were reprehensible and that his murder would produce a positive result for working people . " Yes , " she wrote later in her autobiography , " the end in this case justified the means . " While she never gave explicit approval of Leon Czolgosz 's assassination of US President William McKinley , she defended his ideals and believed actions like his were a natural consequence of repressive institutions . As she wrote in " The Psychology of Political Violence " : " the accumulated forces in our social and economic life , culminating in an act of violence , are similar to the terrors of the atmosphere , manifested in storm and lightning . "
Her experiences in Russia led her to qualify her earlier belief that revolutionary ends might justify violent means . In the afterword to My Disillusionment in Russia , she wrote : " There is no greater fallacy than the belief that aims and purposes are one thing , while methods and tactics are another .... The means employed become , through individual habit and social practice , part and parcel of the final purpose .... " In the same chapter , however , Goldman affirmed that " Revolution is indeed a violent process , " and noted that violence was the " tragic inevitability of revolutionary upheavals ... " Some misinterpreted her comments on the Bolshevik terror as a rejection of all militant force , but Goldman corrected this in the preface to the first US edition of My Disillusionment in Russia :
The argument that destruction and terror are part of revolution I do not dispute . I know that in the past every great political and social change necessitated violence ... Black slavery might still be a legalized institution in the United States but for the militant spirit of the John Browns . I have never denied that violence is inevitable , nor do I gainsay it now . Yet it is one thing to employ violence in combat , as a means of defense . It is quite another thing to make a principle of terrorism , to institutionalize it , to assign it the most vital place in the social struggle . Such terrorism begets counter @-@ revolution and in turn itself becomes counter @-@ revolutionary .
Goldman saw the militarization of Soviet society not as a result of armed resistance per se , but of the statist vision of the Bolsheviks , writing that " an insignificant minority bent on creating an absolute State is necessarily driven to oppression and terrorism . "
= = = Capitalism and labor = = =
Goldman believed that the economic system of capitalism was incompatible with human liberty . " The only demand that property recognizes , " she wrote in Anarchism and Other Essays , " is its own gluttonous appetite for greater wealth , because wealth means power ; the power to subdue , to crush , to exploit , the power to enslave , to outrage , to degrade . " She also argued that capitalism dehumanized workers , " turning the producer into a mere particle of a machine , with less will and decision than his master of steel and iron . "
Originally opposed to anything less than complete revolution , Goldman was challenged during one talk by an elderly worker in the front row . In her autobiography , she wrote :
He said that he understood my impatience with such small demands as a few hours less a day , or a few dollars more a week .... But what were men of his age to do ? They were not likely to live to see the ultimate overthrow of the capitalist system . Were they also to forgo the release of perhaps two hours a day from the hated work ? That was all they could hope to see realized in their lifetime .
Goldman realized that smaller efforts for improvement such as higher wages and shorter hours could be part of a social revolution .
= = = The state – militarism , prison , voting , speech = = =
Goldman viewed the state as essentially and inevitably a tool of control and domination . As a result , Goldman believed that voting was useless at best and dangerous at worst . Voting , she wrote , provided an illusion of participation while masking the true structures of decision @-@ making . Instead , Goldman advocated targeted resistance in the form of strikes , protests , and " direct action against the invasive , meddlesome authority of our moral code " . She maintained an anti @-@ voting position even when many anarcho @-@ syndicalists in 1930s Spain voted for the formation of a liberal republic . Goldman wrote that any power anarchists wielded as a voting bloc should instead be used to strike across the country . She disagreed with the movement for women 's suffrage , which demanded the right of women to vote . In her essay " Woman Suffrage " , she ridicules the idea that women 's involvement would infuse the democratic state with a more just orientation : " As if women have not sold their votes , as if women politicians cannot be bought ! " She agreed with the suffragists ' assertion that women are equal to men , but disagreed that their participation alone would make the state more just . " To assume , therefore , that she would succeed in purifying something which is not susceptible of purification , is to credit her with supernatural powers . "
Goldman was also a passionate critic of the prison system , critiquing both the treatment of prisoners and the social causes of crime . Goldman viewed crime as a natural outgrowth of an unjust economic system , and in her essay " Prisons : A Social Crime and Failure " , she quoted liberally from the 19th @-@ century authors Fyodor Dostoevsky and Oscar Wilde on prisons , and wrote :
Year after year the gates of prison
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hells return to the world an emaciated , deformed , will @-@ less , shipwrecked crew of humanity , with the Cain mark on their foreheads , their hopes crushed , all their natural inclinations thwarted . With nothing but hunger and inhumanity to greet them , these victims soon sink back into crime as the only possibility of existence .
Goldman was a committed war resister , believing that wars were fought by the state on behalf of capitalists . She was particularly opposed to the draft , viewing it as one of the worst of the state 's forms of coercion , and was one of the founders of the No @-@ Conscription League — for which she was ultimately arrested ( 1917 ) , imprisoned and deported ( 1919 ) .
Goldman was routinely surveilled , arrested , and imprisoned for her speech and organizing activities in support of workers and various strikes , access to birth control , and in opposition to World War I. As a result , she became active in the early 20th century free speech movement , seeing freedom of expression as a fundamental necessity for achieving social change . Her outspoken championship of her ideals , in the face of persistent arrests , inspired Roger Baldwin , one of the founders of the American Civil Liberties Union . Goldman 's and Reitman 's experiences in the San Diego free speech fight ( 1912 ) were notorious examples of state and capitalist repression of the Industrial Workers of the World 's campaign of free speech fights .
= = = Feminism and sexuality = = =
Although she was hostile to the suffragist goals of first @-@ wave feminism , Goldman advocated passionately for the rights of women , and is today heralded as a founder of anarcha @-@ feminism , which challenges patriarchy as a hierarchy to be resisted alongside state power and class divisions . In 1897 , she wrote : " I demand the independence of woman , her right to support herself ; to live for herself ; to love whomever she pleases , or as many as she pleases . I demand freedom for both sexes , freedom of action , freedom in love and freedom in motherhood . "
A nurse by training , Goldman was an early advocate for educating women concerning contraception . Like many feminists of her time , she saw abortion as a tragic consequence of social conditions , and birth control as a positive alternative . Goldman was also an advocate of free love , and a strong critic of marriage . She saw early feminists as confined in their scope and bounded by social forces of Puritanism and capitalism . She wrote : " We are in need of unhampered growth out of old traditions and habits . The movement for women 's emancipation has so far made but the first step in that direction . "
Goldman was also an outspoken critic of prejudice against homosexuals . Her belief that social liberation should extend to gay men and lesbians was virtually unheard of at the time , even among anarchists . As German sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld wrote , " she was the first and only woman , indeed the first and only American , to take up the defense of homosexual love before the general public . " In numerous speeches and letters , she defended the right of gay men and lesbians to love as they pleased and condemned the fear and stigma associated with homosexuality . As Goldman wrote in a letter to Hirschfeld , " It is a tragedy , I feel , that people of a different sexual type are caught in a world which shows so little understanding for homosexuals and is so crassly indifferent to the various gradations and variations of gender and their great significance in life . "
= = = Atheism = = =
A committed atheist , Goldman viewed religion as another instrument of control and domination . Her essay " The Philosophy of Atheism " quoted Bakunin at length on the subject and added :
Consciously or unconsciously , most theists see in gods and devils , heaven and hell , reward and punishment , a whip to lash the people into obedience , meekness and contentment .... The philosophy of Atheism expresses the expansion and growth of the human mind . The philosophy of theism , if we can call it a philosophy , is static and fixed .
In essays like " The Hypocrisy of Puritanism " and a speech entitled " The Failure of Christianity " , Goldman made more than a few enemies among religious communities by attacking their moralistic attitudes and efforts to control human behavior . She blamed Christianity for " the perpetuation of a slave society " , arguing that it dictated individuals ' actions on Earth and offered poor people a false promise of a plentiful future in heaven . She was also critical of Zionism , which she saw as another failed experiment in state control .
= = Legacy = =
Goldman was well known during her life , described as — among other things — " the most dangerous woman in America " . After her death and through the middle part of the 20th century , her fame faded . Scholars and historians of anarchism viewed her as a great speaker and activist , but did not regard her as a philosophical or theoretical thinker on par with , for instance , Kropotkin .
In 1970 , Dover Press reissued Goldman 's biography , Living My Life , and in 1972 , feminist writer Alix Kates Shulman issued a collection of Goldman 's writing and speeches , Red Emma Speaks . These works brought Goldman 's life and writings to a larger audience , and she was in particular lionized by the women 's movement of the late 20th century . In 1973 , Shulman was asked by a printer friend for a quotation by Goldman for use on a T @-@ shirt . She sent him the selection from Living My Life about " the right to self @-@ expression , everybody 's right to beautiful , radiant things " , recounting that she had been admonished " that it did not behoove an agitator to dance " . The printer created a statement based on these sentiments that has become one of Goldman 's most famous quotations , even though she probably never said or wrote it as such : " If I can 't dance I don 't want to be in your revolution . " Variations of this saying have appeared on thousands of T @-@ shirts , buttons , posters , bumper stickers , coffee mugs , hats , and other items .
The women 's movement of the 1970s that " rediscovered " Goldman was accompanied by a resurgent anarchist movement , beginning in the late 1960s , which also reinvigorated scholarly attention to earlier anarchists . The growth of feminism also initiated some reevaluation of Goldman 's philosophical work , with scholars pointing out the significance of Goldman 's contributions to anarchist thought in her time . Goldman 's belief in the value of aesthetics , for example , can be seen in the later influences of anarchism and the arts . Similarly , Goldman is now given credit for significantly influencing and broadening the scope of activism on issues of sexual liberty , reproductive rights , and freedom of expression .
Goldman has been depicted in numerous works of fiction over the years , including Warren Beatty 's 1981 film Reds , in which she was portrayed by Maureen Stapleton , who won an Academy Award for her performance . Goldman has also been a character in two Broadway musicals , Ragtime and Assassins . Plays depicting Goldman 's life include Howard Zinn 's play , Emma ; Martin Duberman 's Mother Earth ( 1991 ) ; Jessica Litwak 's Emma Goldman : Love , Anarchy , and Other Affairs ( Goldman 's relationship with Berkman and her arrest in connection with McKinley 's assassination ) ; Lynn Rogoff 's Love Ben , Love Emma ( Goldman 's relationship with Reitman ) ; and Carol Bolt 's Red Emma . Ethel Mannin 's 1941 novel Red Rose is also based on Goldman 's Life .
Goldman has been honored by a number of organizations named in her memory . The Emma Goldman Clinic , a women 's health center located in Iowa City , Iowa , selected Goldman as a namesake " in recognition of her challenging spirit . " Red Emma 's Bookstore Coffeehouse , an infoshop in Baltimore , Maryland adopted her name out of their belief " in the ideas and ideals that she fought for her entire life : free speech , sexual and racial equality and independence , the right to organize in our jobs and in our own lives , ideas and ideals that we continue to fight for , even today " .
Paul Gailiunas and his late wife Helen Hill co @-@ wrote the anarchist song " Emma Goldman " , which was performed and released by the band Piggy : The Calypso Orchestra of the Maritimes in 1999 . The song was later performed by Gailiunas ' new band The Troublemakers and released on their 2004 album Here Come The Troublemakers .
= = Works = =
Goldman was a prolific writer , penning countless pamphlets and articles on a diverse range of subjects . She authored six books , including an autobiography , Living My Life , and a biography of fellow anarchist Voltairine de Cleyre .
= = = Books written by Emma Goldman = = =
Anarchism and Other Essays . New York : Mother Earth Publishing Association , 1910 .
The Social Significance of the Modern Drama . Boston : Gorham Press , 1914 .
My Disillusionment in Russia . Garden City , New York : Doubleday , Page and Co . , 1923 .
My Further Disillusionment in Russia . Garden City , New York : Doubleday , Page and Co . , 1924 .
Living My Life . New York : Knopf , 1931 .
Voltairine de Cleyre . Berkeley Heights , New Jersey : Oriole Press , 1932 .
= = = Edited collections = = =
Red Emma Speaks : Selected Writings and Speeches . New York : Random House , 1972 . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 47095 @-@ 8 .
Emma Goldman : A Documentary History Of The American Years , Volume 1 – Made for America , 1890 – 1901 . Berkeley : University of California Press , 2003 . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 08670 @-@ 8 .
Emma Goldman : A Documentary History Of The American Years , Volume 2 – Making Speech Free , 1902 – 1909 . Berkeley : University of California Press , 2004 . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 22569 @-@ 4 .
Emma Goldman : A Documentary History of the American Years , Volume 3 – Light and Shadows , 1910 – 1916 . Stanford : Stanford University Press , 2012 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8047 @-@ 7854 @-@ X.
= = = Journal article = = =
Goldman , Emma ( 2002 ) [ 1910 ] . " The traffic in women " . Hastings Women 's Law Journal , symposium issue : Sexual Slavery : the Trafficking of Women and Girls into the United States for Sexual Exploitation ( University of California , Hastings College of the Law ) 13 ( 1 ) : 9 – 20 . Pdf .
= 1967 – 68 Manchester City F.C. season =
The 1967 – 68 season was Manchester City F.C. ' s seventy @-@ sixth season of league football , and second consecutive season in the Football League First Division . In the third full season under the management of Joe Mercer and Malcolm Allison , Manchester City were unfancied at the start of the season following a mid @-@ table finish in 1966 – 67 Following the signing of forward Francis Lee , the club embarked on an unbeaten run that saw the club challenge at the top of the table . A televised victory against Tottenham Hotspur in snowy conditions proved particularly notable , becoming known as the Ballet on Ice .
Going into the final match of the season , Manchester City led the table . A 4 – 3 win at Newcastle United clinched the club 's second league title , winning the First Division by two clear points over club rivals Manchester United . The league championship was the first trophy of the most successful period in Manchester City 's history . Under Mercer and Allison , the club won a further three trophies in the following two seasons .
= = Background and pre @-@ season = =
The 1966 – 67 season had been Manchester City 's first in the top flight after winning promotion from the Second Division in 1966 . A fifteenth @-@ place finish consolidated the club 's place in the division . Club captain Johnny Crossan struggled with injuries in 1966 – 67 , and was sold to Middlesbrough for £ 34 @,@ 500 in the close season . Tony Book succeeded him as captain . The club made no major signings before the start of the season , though Tony Coleman , a winger with a wild off @-@ field reputation , had arrived from Doncaster Rovers at the tail @-@ end of the 1966 – 67 season . Mercer had reservations about signing Coleman , but Allison convinced Mercer that he could pacify a man he once described as " the nightmare of a delirious probation officer " . City also attempted to sign England international goalkeeper Gordon Banks , but were outbid by Stoke City .
The team travelled to Europe in pre @-@ season , playing friendlies against Eintracht Braunschweig and Standard Liège . After returning to England they played Portsmouth at Fratton Park , winning 2 – 0 , and finished their preparations with a resounding home win against Borussia Dortmund . Between matches , the players followed a fitness plan created by former athlete Joe Lancaster , under instruction from Malcolm Allison . The training regime was initially unpopular with the players ; the severity of the first session caused some players to vomit .
= = Football League First Division = =
City 's season opened with a 0 – 0 draw at home to Liverpool . City were awarded a penalty , but new captain Tony Book hit it wide . Two defeats followed , at Southampton and Stoke . The Stoke defeat led to a tactical switch . Mike Summerbee , who played wide on the right at the start of the season , was moved to centre @-@ forward . The change reaped immediate dividends , with Summerbee playing a leading role in a 4 – 2 win against Southampton . This was the first in a run of five straight wins , after which Manchester City had caught up with the league leaders . During this run of wins young winger Stan Bowles made his league debut , scoring twice in a 5 – 2 win against Sheffield United .
Manchester City 's first transfer business of the season brought goalkeeper Ken Mulhearn to the club from Stockport County on 21 September , a deal that involved City 's back @-@ up goalkeeper Alan Ogley moving in the opposite direction . Harry Dowd kept goal in the next match , a 1 – 0 defeat at Arsenal , but then dislocated a finger , prompting a debut for Mulhearn in the season 's first Manchester derby . Mulhearn was reputedly so nervous before the match that Allison locked him in the medical room until he calmed down . Colin Bell scored the opener after five minutes , but two Bobby Charlton goals meant a win for Manchester United . In the second half of the match , Bowles exchanged punches with Brian Kidd , though neither man was sent off , largely thanks to the intervention of their respective captains . The derby loss was followed by a third consecutive defeat , at Sunderland .
A couple of days after the Roker Park defeat , Manchester City completed the signing of centre @-@ forward Francis Lee from Bolton Wanderers for a club record £ 60 @,@ 000 . During negotiations Mercer stated to Lee that " we feel we 've got the start of a good side . We are just one player short , and we think you are that player . " Lee made his debut in a 2 – 0 win at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers , the start of an 11 match unbeaten run , including a 6 – 0 win against Leicester City .
= = = Ballet on Ice = = =
Midway through their unbeaten run , City faced Tottenham Hotspur at home in snowy conditions , in a match televised on Match of the Day . As the teams came out onto the frozen pitch , commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme called the Manchester City team as " the most exciting team in England " . Aided by a modification to the studs on their boots suggested by Tony Book , City produced one of their best footballing performances in their history . One Spurs player was quoted as saying , " It was extraordinary . City moved like Olympic speed skaters while we were falling around like clowns on a skid patch . " Tottenham took an early lead through Jimmy Greaves , but Bell equalised before half @-@ time , and in the second half City besieged Tottenham , scoring three more times to win 4 – 1 . After the match City trailed the league leaders by only a single point .
The match was named as Match of the Day 's " Match of the Season " , and as the only match at Maine Road that season to be recorded for television , is the foremost recorded example of the 1967 – 68 team in action .
The unbeaten run came to an end at Christmas , with back @-@ to @-@ back defeats in matches against West Bromwich Albion causing the club to fall to fourth place . The team commenced 1968 with a seven match unbeaten run , starting with consecutive 3 – 0 wins at Nottingham Forest and Sheffield United , and culminating in a 5 – 1 defeat of Fulham to go top of the table . The run came to an end with a defeat at Don Revie 's Leeds United , which also meant City were overtaken at the top of the table by local rivals Manchester United . A visit to United 's Old Trafford ground then followed . United took an early lead , but City rallied to win 3 – 1 .
In late April , after City won 1 – 0 against Sheffield Wednesday and title rivals Manchester United lost to West Bromwich Albion , City were in a position where winning their final three games would all but guarantee the championship . In the first of the three , a home match against Everton , City won 2 – 0 in a match featuring Tony Book 's first league goal for the club . Next was Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane . City took a 3 – 0 lead before half time , eventually winning 3 – 1 .
= = = Title decider at Newcastle = = =
Going into the final match , City were level on points with neighbours Manchester United , with City holding the advantage in goal average – the first decider if teams finished level on points – but needing to win to be sure of staying above their cross @-@ city rivals . Liverpool were three points behind , but had a game in hand , so could still win the title if both City and United faltered . City faced tenth @-@ placed Newcastle United at St James ' Park ; United were at home to bottom @-@ half Sunderland . Bookmakers made United slight favourites for the title .
Mike Summerbee opened the scoring on 13 minutes , but Newcastle soon equalised . Neil Young made it 2 – 1 , but again Newcastle equalised . A second strike by Young was disallowed for offside , and at half @-@ time the score was 2 – 2 . Straight after half @-@ time Young scored again , and Francis Lee scored a fourth on 63 minutes . A late Newcastle goal set up a nervy finish , but City held on to win 4 – 3 and secure the title . The win was compounded by a 2 – 1 victory by Sunderland over Manchester United , giving City the title . Liverpool won one of their remaining games but lost the other , missing their chance to leapfrog United into second by one point .
= = = Matches = = =
P
= Matches played ; W =
Matches won ; D
= Matches drawn ; L =
Matches lost ; F
= Goals for ; A =
Goals against ; Pts = Points
= = = Results summary = = =
N.B. Points awarded for a win : 2
= = FA Cup = =
As a top @-@ flight side , Manchester City entered the FA Cup in the third round , and were drawn at home to Reading of the Third Division . With City unusually wearing their maroon change kit , the match finished goalless , with Tony Coleman missing a penalty . The replay at Elm Park was a one @-@ sided affair . City won 7 – 0 , Mike Summerbee scoring a hat @-@ trick . In the fourth round , another home tie finished 0 – 0 , this time against Leicester City . In the replay Manchester City squandered a 2 – 0 lead and lost 4 – 3 .
= = League Cup = =
Manchester City 's League Cup run saw two notable debuts for young players . In the Second round against Leicester City , Stan Bowles scored twice in a 4 – 0 win . In the next round against Blackpool , Joe Corrigan made the first of his 605 appearances for the club . City progressed after a replay . Fulham were the opponents in the Fourth round , meaning City visited Craven Cottage for the second time in as many weeks . However , they could not replicate their league win , and lost 3 – 2 .
= = Squad statistics = =
= = = Squad = = =
Appearances for competitive matches onlySource :
= = Transfers = =
= = Legacy = =
The league championship was Manchester City 's first trophy since the 1956 FA Cup . The triumph was the first of the most successful period in the club 's history . Under Mercer and Allison the club went on to win the FA Cup in 1969 , and the League Cup and European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1970 . The Mercer @-@ Allison partnership changed in October 1971 , with Allison taking the manager 's role , and came to an end in June 1972 when Mercer left to take charge of Coventry City .
As a result of the title win , Manchester City entered European competition for the first time . However , Malcolm Allison 's prediction that the club would " terrify Europe " proved inaccurate , with the club losing to Fenerbahçe in the first round of the European Cup .
= Star Trek : The Next Generation ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation commenced airing in broadcast syndication in the United States on November 21 , 1988 , and concluded on July 17 , 1989 , after airing 22 episodes . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. Season two featured changes to the main cast , following the departure of Gates McFadden . Diana Muldaur was cast as Dr. Katherine Pulaski for a single season before the return of McFadden in season three . Academy Award winner Whoopi Goldberg also joined the cast after pursuing a role from the producers .
There were significant changes backstage to the writing team . Maurice Hurley became head writer , and following extensive re @-@ writes to " The Royale " and " Manhunt " , Tracy Tormé left the writing team . Likewise , following the submission of a script for " Blood and Fire " , David Gerrold allowed his contract to run out due to issues with Gene Roddenberry and Leonard Maizlish , Roddenberry 's lawyer . Other departing writers included Leonard Mlodinow and Scott Rubenstein , while Melinda M. Snodgrass , Hans Beimler and Richard Manning joined the team . At the end of the season , Hurley also left the team . Production designer Herman F. Zimmerman left the show and was replaced by Richard James , who remained with the show for the rest of the series .
The 1988 Writers Guild of America strike caused the season to be shortened to 22 episodes , and was later blamed for the lack of quality of the first few episodes . The strike also resulted in the writing team using an unused script from the aborted Star Trek : Phase II to open the season , entitled " The Child " . Budgetary changes allowed for individual episode funding to be carried between episodes , but this resulted in a lack of funding towards the end of the season which the crew attempted to solve by creating a clip show , " Shades of Grey " .
" The Child " opened to 10 @.@ 9 million viewers , and ratings peaked with both " A Matter of Honor " and " The Measure of a Man " , which were watched by 11 @.@ 3 million . Although a decrease in viewers saw the lowest number of viewers for a first @-@ run episode in the series in " Manhunt " , the show became the third most @-@ watched series in its timeslot . Critics praised the episodes " The Measure of a Man " and " Q Who " , but found " Shades of Grey " to be one of the worst episodes of the entire Star Trek franchise . The season was first released on DVD on May 7 , 2002 on Region 1 , and was subsequently released on Regions 2 and 3 . The region @-@ free Blu @-@ ray releases came in December 2012 , with " The Measure of the Man " and " Q Who " receiving a limited theatrical release .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The second season saw Maurice Hurley being promoted to head writer after the departure of Robert Lewin . Hurley had been brought on board during the first season . His prior experience had been with shows such as The Equalizer and Miami Vice , and he later explained that he took the position because it challenged him . The 1988 Writers Guild of America strike had caused problems at the end of the first season , and these continued as the development of season two started , resulting in a shortened season . Executive producer Rick Berman blamed a decrease in quality at the start of season two on the lack of time available for proper development due to the writer 's strike . Hurley felt that the writing on the show managed to get into a rhythm during the second half of the first season , and that the strike stopped that and resulted in his eventually leaving the series . He also criticised the lack of character arcs in the series , saying that " I did some good , some bad , some mediocre , but it 's not a show that I could continue to do . It 's not where I come from . "
Hurley had objected to the violent and gory scenes seen in the first season episode " Conspiracy " , written by Tracy Tormé , and Tormé continued to feel alienated by Hurley . Tormé stepped down from his role as co @-@ executive story editor , taking credit instead as a creative consultant . Following Hurley 's modifications to Tormé 's scripts for " The Royale " and " Manhunt " , Tormé elected to be credited under a pseudonym only . At one point , Roddenberry had thought that Tormé would become eventual showrunner , but the writer left due to the re @-@ writes required under Hurley 's tenure . Hannah Louise Shearer also left the team between seasons , due to differences with Hurley , but contributed stories in later seasons . Other writers joined the team during the second season , including The Tears of the Singers author Melinda M. Snodgrass , who sold the script for " The Measure of a Man " . Hans Beimler and Richard Manning were hired in the newly created positions of executive script consultants . They had both been story editors for the final eight episodes of the first season . Snodgrass later explained that , " Once I came on board there suddenly seemed to be this climate of discussion among the writers about what we wanted to do with the show . My impression was that this was a new phenomenon . We were a little bit more on the same wavelength . " She was hired as a story editor following the submission of her first episode , alongside Leonard Mlodinow and Scott Rubenstein . The other two editors left after four more episodes , with Snodgrass remaining as the sole story editor for the rest of the season .
= = = = " Blood and Fire " = = = =
Another writer who left the show during season two was David Gerrold . He wrote an episode for The Original Series called " The Trouble with Tribbles " and came on @-@ board The Next Generation before the pilot and wrote the first version of the bible for the series . Rick Berman stated in an early memo that the new series was intended to be an issues @-@ based show in the same mold as the original . Creator Gene Roddenberry concurred , and under questioning from fans at a convention which Gerrold also attended , Roddenberry agreed that it was time for a homosexual character to appear in Star Trek . Roddenberry told his staff that " Times have changed and we have got to be aware of it . " This resulted in Gerrold pitching a story called " Blood and Fire " , which included two homosexual crew members and an AIDS allegory . Roddenberry cleared the idea to be produced into a script , and Gerrold went off to appear on a Star Trek cruise having received a telegram telling him that everyone in the office was pleased with the new story .
Upon his return , he found that the story was not going to be used in the current form . Gerrold later said that " I was told that Gene 's lawyer did not like the script and felt that this was not a good episode , and so on his advice , it seems , the script was cancelled . That 's what I was told by someone who was in a position to know . I don 't have any proof in writing , so I have to qualify it by saying someone told me . " Official sources stated that Paramount became involved , and that the company felt the story was inappropriate for younger viewers in the syndicated marketplace and that complaints would be received from parents . The script was given to Herbert Wright to re @-@ write . Roddenberry gave Wright a number notes on the script , who accidentally handed over notes on the script to Gerrold which were written by Roddenberry 's lawyer , Leonard Maizlish . Due to the workload on Wright at the time , Gerrold offered to make a first attempt at the re @-@ write with the intention of removing the homosexual characters . However , after initially clearing that with Roddenberry , Wright later received a phone call from him telling Wright not to let Gerrold work on it . Shortly after , Wright received a second call from Maizlish to reinforce the message that Gerrold must not be allowed to work on the script .
After numerous revisions by Wright , including a version called " Blood and Ice " , the script was eventually dropped from the schedule . Gerrold asked for his contract not to be renewed following the problems with the episode . Ernie Over , Roddenberry 's personal assistant at the time , later said that the claims were blown out of proportion by Gerrold , that " Blood and Fire " was simply a bad script .
= = = Development = = =
The series bible stated the intention to create new villains for the new show , but after the failure of the Ferengi , the Romulans were introduced in the final episode of the first season and continued to be featured throughout season two . The cybernetic Borg were introduced in the episode " Q Who " , modified from the insectoid race that Hurley had intended to introduce in a longer version of the season one finale " The Neutral Zone " . The Borg returned sporadically throughout the rest of the series , appearing in five further episodes . But unlike other alien adversaries created for The Next Generation , they became the only one to transition into films with Star Trek : First Contact . A further change seen in season two , which increased later in the season , was an increased focus on the trio of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard , Commander William T. Riker and Lt Cmdr. Data , reminiscent of Captain James T. Kirk , Dr. Leonard McCoy and Commander Spock in Star Trek : The Original Series . This relegated the other cast members to background roles for the majority of episodes .
Paramount changed the way that individual episodes were funded , with overspending on some episode budgets allowed on the proviso that it would be recouped by a reduction in others . Due to the effects of the writer 's strike , the writing staff searched the scripts from Star Trek : Phase II , a series which was cancelled before being filmed ; the first planned episode had been developed into Star Trek : The Motion Picture . From those scripts , one was identified with potential for season two ; it resulted in the opening episode " The Child " . The role of Lt. Ilia was rewritten in the story to become a part for Marina Sirtis as Counselor Deanna Troi . Sirtis praised this development , as she felt she had been overlooked during the first season due to the presence of both McFadden and Denise Crosby .
Episodes were developed to touch on social issues in the same manner as The Original Series . " The Child " featured a brief debate on abortion , " Up the Long Ladder " discussed cloning , and " Loud as a Whisper " was about accepting the legitimacy of sign language for the deaf . Problems arose when the estate of Arthur Conan Doyle threatened to sue the producers if the show used Sherlock Holmes once more following the episode " Elementary , Dear Data " . Budgetary reasons resulted in the season ending with the episode " Shades of Grey " , a clip show consisting mostly of footage of earlier episodes . That episode was filmed over three days instead of the usual seven , and was agreed by the production staff to be one of the worst episodes of any Star Trek series .
= = = Make @-@ up and set design = = =
Following issues with his make @-@ up throughout the first season , Michael Dorn 's Klingon prosthetics were modified . Michael Westmore made the headpiece simpler , and Dorn took to wearing a headband under the headpiece to reduce a skin rash on his forehead . The headpiece was then glued down around the edges .
The bridge set was moved from Stage 6 to the larger Stage 8 on the Paramount lot between season 1 and 2 , and in the process was re @-@ assembled slightly asymmetrically , an error no one noticed despite remaining that way through the rest of the series . Other modifications made to the bridge set included redesigned rear bridge stations so that LeVar Burton 's character Geordi La Forge , in his new role as Chief Engineer , could have a work station on the bridge , and modifications to several chairs to fit the actors better . A viewscreen was added to the observation lounge and a new set was created to represent the Ten @-@ Forward lounge . The lounge was the final set to be designed for The Next Generation by Herman Zimmerman . He explained that " Ten @-@ Forward became the place where ordinary crew and the officers could co @-@ mingle , and where aliens who were not allowed on the bridge could interact with other crew @-@ members . It was a very important set for the telling of stories . "
= = = Casting = = =
Before the second season , there was a change to the main cast . Gates McFadden , who portrayed Dr. Beverly Crusher , was fired from the show and replaced with Diana Muldaur , who played a new character called Dr. Katherine Pulaski . Rick Berman later said that " There were those who believed at the end of the first season that they didn 't like the way her character was developing , vis @-@ a @-@ vis Gates ' performance , and managed to convince Mr. Roddenberry of that " . He said that he did not agree with the decision . Roddenberry decided to write Crusher out rather than killing the character to allow for McFadden 's return in the future . Keith DeCandido later suggested that it was Maurice Hurley who wanted McFadden out of the show , and after he left at the end of the season , the door was open for her to return . Pulaski was intended to be reminiscent of Dr. Leonard McCoy from The Original Series . Muldaur had appeared twice in The Original Series , first as Dr. Anne Mulhull in " Return to Tomorrow " and later as Dr. Miranda Jones in " Is There in Truth No Beauty ? " . She had also appeared in a Roddenberry @-@ led pilot , Planet Earth .
Christina Pickles had also been considered for the part , and Berman stated that she was the second choice for the role . Muldaur was offered a main cast credit , but declined in favor of a " special guest appearance " credit , and went into the role expecting only to be in the show for a single season . Muldaur left after season two , with McFadden returning as Crusher for season three . Muldaur said that " People have tried to create some kind of something out of it , but she played one part and I played a totally different part ... it would not have been good to have continued very much longer , even though everyone was really lovely " .
Another actress to join the show was Academy Award winner Whoopi Goldberg , who had been a long @-@ time Star Trek fan . She credited Nichelle Nichols as Uhura in The Original Series as an inspiration , saying " Well , when I was nine years old Star Trek came on , I looked at it and I went screaming through the house , ' Come here , mum , everybody , come quick , come quick , there 's a black lady on television and she ain 't no maid ! ' I knew right then and there I could be anything I wanted to be . " To appear on the show , Goldberg contacted the producers initially through LeVar Burton . The producers did not believe her as they felt that a movie star such as Goldberg would not want to appear in Star Trek , and ignored calls from her agent , until Goldberg called them personally . A meeting was arranged between her and Rick Berman , and she agreed to appear in six episodes of season two . Her character , Guinan , was named after Mary " Texas " Guinan , a prohibition @-@ era speakeasy owner .
Guest stars in season two included Teri Hatcher , who appeared in the episode " The Outrageous Okona " before she gained the role of Lois Lane in the Superman television series Lois and Clark . She was not credited for the role as transporter chief B.G. Robinson after the majority of her scenes were cut from the final episode , resulting in her requesting that the credit be removed . That episode also featured a guest appearance by Billy Campbell , who had been the second choice in the original casting for Commander William Riker . He gained the role in the episode after contacting casting agent Junie Lowry and asking to be in an episode . Musician Mick Fleetwood made a cameo as an Antedean ambassador in the episode " Manhunt " , although he did not have any lines . Robert O 'Reilly , who appeared in " Manhunt " , later gained the part of the Klingon Gowron in season three . His character became Klingon Chancellor , and he appeared in several more TNG episodes as well as having a recurring role in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . O 'Reilly 's final appearance in Star Trek was as yet another character , in the Star Trek : Enterprise episode " Bounty " .
= = = Crew = = =
Following work on Star Trek V : The Final Frontier , production designer Herman F. Zimmerman elected to leave the franchise . He had intended to pursue a career in design for films , but after working on Black Rain , he returned to Star Trek with Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country and took on the role of production designer for Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . For The Next Generation , he recommended Richard James as his successor . James took the position as an interim measure while a permanent candidate was looked for . He ended up staying with The Next Generation as lead production designer for the rest of the series , and afterwards joined Star Trek : Voyager in the same role . John M. Dwyer left with Zimmerman , and Jim Mees was brought in to replace him . Andrew Probert , the designer of the Enterprise @-@ D , left his role as principal illustrator to join The Walt Disney Company . He was replaced by Rick Sternbach , who was supervised by James in his new role .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
By the end of season one , The Next Generation had become the highest @-@ rated first @-@ run hour @-@ long syndicated series , and the third highest @-@ rated syndicated show overall , behind only Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy . The first episode of season two , " The Child " , aired on November 21 , 1988 to Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 9 million . After an initial slight decrease in viewers over the next five episodes , the season broke the 11 million mark with " Unnatural Selection " and then peaked as the next two episodes , " A Matter of Honor " and " The Measure of a Man " , were both watched by 11 @.@ 3 million viewers . After this , the ratings decreased gradually until " Manhunt " , watched by 8 @.@ 9 million and receiving the lowest ratings for a first @-@ run broadcast of a Next Generation episode . " Shades of Grey " closed the season on July 17 , 1989 , watched by 9 @.@ 8 million viewers . Despite the higher ratings seen in the earlier part of the season , it was only from " Q Who " onwards that The Next Generation rose to become the third most @-@ viewed series in its timeslot .
= = = Reviews = = =
Keith DeCandido for Tor.com said that second season was the one on which the rest of the series was based , with characters taking long @-@ term roles such as Geordi La Forge as Chief Engineer and Worf at the Tactical station . DeCandido said that the addition of Goldberg as Guinan was " delightful " , but that Diana Muldaur as Dr. Pulaski " didn 't entirely work as a character " . In his view , the episodes during season two were varied in quality . He gave " Q Who " ten out of ten , while he gave " Shades of Grey " a zero . It was the first time he awarded the top score to an episode ; none of the first season had qualified . He gave the season an overall mark of seven out of ten and said that " Far too many people say that TNG didn 't come into its own until the third season , and frankly , I think that that estimation comes a year too late . "
Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " gave full marks of four out of four to both " The Measure of a Man " and " Q Who " . His highlight of the former was the performance of Patrick Stewart as Picard in the courtroom setting , while of the latter , he said that it was the " most absolutely necessary episode of TNG 's second season " . Like DeCandido , Epsicokhan gave " Shades of Grey " a score of zero and described it as " the most pointless episode of TNG ever made " . IGN 's Scott Collura thought that season two was an improvement over the roughness of season one and was the first time that the show stepped out from the shadow of The Original Series . He stated that several of the more memorable elements of Star Trek were introduced in this season , such as the Borg . He said that " The Measure of a Man " was the highlight of the season , while he described " Shades of Grey " as " Riker 's Cheap @-@ Ass Trip Down Memory Lane " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Episodes in season two of The Next Generation were nominated for eight Emmy Awards . " Q Who " was nominated in three categories , winning two : Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series . These were the only Emmy Awards won by the show ; the other episodes nominated were " Elementary , Dear Data " in two categories , while " A Matter of Honor " , " The Child " and " Unnatural Selection " were each nominated once . For the second year in a row , Wil Wheaton was nominated for a Youth in Film Awards , this time for Best Young Actor in a Family Syndicated Show . This year marked his first and only win , out of three nominations . The show also won the award for Best Syndicated Family Drama or Comedy . Melinda M. Snodgrass received the only nomination for the series at the Writers Guild of America Awards for Best Episodic Drama for the episode " The Measure of a Man " .
= = Cast = =
The following actors and actresses appear in the season :
= = = Main cast = = =
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = Episodes = =
In the following table , episodes are listed by the order in which they aired .
= = Home media release = =
The Blu @-@ ray release of season two includes an extended version of " The Measure of a Man " , using cut footage that writer Melinda M. Snodgrass had kept on VHS . The released version includes a hybrid version with both the remastered high @-@ definition footage interspersed with the footage from the VHS tape . The additional twelve minutes of footage is raw , and features no music or special effects , but it was the first episode of The Next Generation to receive an extended cut . The Blu @-@ ray releases of seasons one and two of The Next Generation were awarded the Saturn Award for Best Television Series release at the 2013 awards .
" The Measure of a Man " and " Q Who " received a limited theatrical release for one night on November 29 , 2012 . The version of " The Measure of a Man " shown was the extended version . It was the second cinema release for episodes of The Next Generation , as " Where No One Has Gone Before " and " Datalore " had been released to promote the Blu @-@ ray release of the first season .
= Turkey vulture =
The turkey vulture ( Cathartes aura ) , also known in some North American regions as the turkey buzzard ( or just buzzard ) , and in some areas of the Caribbean as the John crow or carrion crow , is a vulture that is the most widespread of the New World vultures . One of three species in the genus Cathartes of the family Cathartidae , the turkey vulture ranges from southern Canada to the southernmost tip of South America . It inhabits a variety of open and semi @-@ open areas , including subtropical forests , shrublands , pastures , and deserts .
Like all New World vultures , it is not closely related to the Old World vultures of Europe , Africa , and Asia . The two groups strongly resemble each other because of convergent evolution ; natural selection often leads to similar body plans in animals that adapt independently to the same conditions .
The turkey vulture is a scavenger and feeds almost exclusively on carrion . It finds its food using its keen eyes and sense of smell , flying low enough to detect the gases produced by the beginnings of the process of decay in dead animals . In flight , it uses thermals to move through the air , flapping its wings infrequently . It roosts in large community groups . Lacking a syrinx — the vocal organ of birds — its only vocalizations are grunts or low hisses . It nests in caves , hollow trees , or thickets . Each year it generally raises two chicks , which it feeds by regurgitation . It has very few natural predators . In the United States , the vulture receives legal protection under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 .
= = Taxonomy = =
The turkey vulture received its common name from the resemblance of the adult 's bald red head and its dark plumage to that of the male wild turkey , while the name " vulture " is derived from the Latin word vulturus , meaning " tearer , " and is a reference to its feeding habits . The word buzzard is used by North Americans to refer to this bird , yet in the Old World that term refers to members of the genus Buteo . The generic term Cathartes means " purifier " and is the Latinized form from the Greek kathartēs / καθαρτης . The turkey vulture was first formally described by Linnaeus as Vultur aura in his Systema Naturae in 1758 , and characterised as V. fuscogriseus , remigibus nigris , rostro albo ( " brown @-@ gray vulture , with black wings and a white beak " ) . It is a member of the family Cathartidae , along with the other six species of New World vultures , and included in the genus Cathartes , along with the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture and the lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture . Like other New World vultures , the turkey vulture has a diploid chromosome number of 80 .
The taxonomic placement of the turkey vulture and the remaining six species of New World vultures has been in flux . Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles , the New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world . Some earlier authorities suggested that the New World vultures were more closely related to storks . More recent authorities maintained their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order , Cathartiformes .
However , recent genetic studies have made it clear that neither New World or Old World vultures are close to falcons , nor are New World vultures close to storks . Both are basal members of the clade Afroaves , with Old World vultures comprising several groups within the family Accipitridae , also containing eagles , kites , and hawks , while New World vultures in Cathartiformes are a sister group to Accipitriformes ( containing the osprey and secretarybird along with Accipitridae ) .
There are five subspecies of turkey vulture :
C. a. aura is the nominate subspecies . It is found from Mexico south through South America and the Greater Antilles . This subspecies occasionally overlaps its range with other subspecies . It is the smallest of the subspecies but is nearly indistinguishable from C. a. meridionalis in color .
C. a. jota , the Chilean turkey vulture , is larger , browner , and slightly paler than C. a. ruficollis . The secondary feathers and wing coverts may have gray margins .
C. a. meridionalis , the western turkey vulture , is a synonym for C. a. teter . C. a. teter was identified as a subspecies by Friedman in 1933 , but in 1964 Alexander Wetmore separated the western birds , which took the name meridionalis , which was applied earlier to a migrant from South America . It breeds from southern Manitoba , southern British Columbia , central Alberta and Saskatchewan south to Baja California , south @-@ central Arizona , southeast New Mexico , and south @-@ central Texas . It is the most migratory subspecies , migrating as far as South America , where it overlaps the range of the smaller C. a. aura . It differs from the eastern turkey vulture in color , as the edges of the lesser wing coverts are darker brown and narrower .
C. a. ruficollis is found in Panama south through Uruguay and Argentina . It is also found on the island of Trinidad . It is darker and more black than C. a. aura , with brown wing edgings which are narrower or absent altogether . The head and neck are dull red with yellow @-@ white or green @-@ white markings . Adults generally have a pale yellow patch on the crown of the head .
C. a. septentrionalis is known as the eastern turkey vulture . The eastern and western turkey vultures differ in tail and wing proportions . It ranges from southeastern Canada south through the eastern United States . It is less migratory than C. a. meridionalis and rarely migrates to areas south of the United States .
= = Description = =
A large bird , it has a wingspan of 160 – 183 cm ( 63 – 72 in ) , a length of 62 – 81 cm ( 24 – 32 in ) , and weight of 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 3 kg ( 1 @.@ 8 to 5 @.@ 1 lb ) . Birds in the northern limit of the species ' range average larger in size than the vulture from the neotropics . 124 birds from Florida averaged 2 kg ( 4 @.@ 4 lb ) while 65 and 130 birds from Venezuela were found to average 1 @.@ 22 and 1 @.@ 45 kg ( 2 @.@ 7 and 3 @.@ 2 lb ) , respectively . It displays minimal sexual dimorphism ; sexes are identical in plumage and in coloration , although the female is slightly larger . The body feathers are mostly brownish @-@ black , but the flight feathers on the wings appear to be silvery @-@ gray beneath , contrasting with the darker wing linings . The adult 's head is small in proportion to its body and is red in color with few to no feathers . It also has a relatively short , hooked , ivory @-@ colored beak . The irises of the eyes are gray @-@ brown ; legs and feet are pink @-@ skinned , although typically stained white . The eye has a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid .
The two front toes of the foot are long and have small webs at their bases . Tracks are large , between 9 @.@ 5 and 14 cm ( 3 @.@ 7 and 5 @.@ 5 in ) in length and 8 @.@ 2 and 10 @.@ 2 cm ( 3 @.@ 2 and 4 @.@ 0 in ) in width , both measurements including claw marks . Toes are arranged in the classic , anisodactyl pattern . The feet are flat , relatively weak , and poorly adapted to grasping ; the talons are also not designed for grasping , as they are relatively blunt . In flight , the tail is long and slim . The black vulture is relatively shorter @-@ tailed and shorter @-@ winged , which makes it appear rather smaller in flight than the turkey vulture , although the body masses of the two species are roughly the same . The nostrils are not divided by a septum , but rather are perforate ; from the side one can see through the beak . It undergoes a molt in late winter to early spring . It is a gradual molt , which lasts until early autumn . The immature bird has a gray head with a black beak tip ; the colors change to those of the adult as the bird matures . Captive longevity is not well known . As of 2015 there are two captive birds over 40 years old : the Gabbert Raptor Center on the University of Minnesota campus is home to a turkey vulture named Nero with a confirmed hatch year of 1974 , and another female bird , named Richard , lives at the Lindsay Wildlife Museum in Walnut Creek , CA . Richard hatched in 1974 and arrived at the museum later that year . The oldest wild captured banded bird was 16 years old .
Leucistic ( sometimes mistakenly called " albino " ) turkey vultures are sometimes seen .
The turkey vulture , like most other vultures , has very few vocalization capabilities . Because it lacks a syrinx , it can only utter hisses and grunts . It usually hisses when it feels threatened , or when fighting with other vultures over a carcass . Grunts are commonly heard from hungry young and from adults in their courtship display .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The turkey vulture has a large range , with an estimated global occurrence of 28 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . It is the most abundant vulture in the Americas . Its global population is estimated to be 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 individuals . It is found in open and semi @-@ open areas throughout the Americas from southern Canada to Cape Horn . It is a permanent resident in the southern United States , though northern birds may migrate as far south as South America . The turkey vulture is widespread over open country , subtropical forests , shrublands , deserts , and foothills . It is also found in pastures , grasslands , and wetlands . It is most commonly found in relatively open areas which provide nearby woods for nesting and it generally avoids heavily forested areas .
This bird with its crow @-@ like aspect gave foot to the naming of the Quebrada de los Cuervos ( Crows Ravine ) in Uruguay , where they dwell together with the lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture and the black vulture .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The turkey vulture is gregarious and roosts in large community groups , breaking away to forage independently during the day . Several hundred vultures may roost communally in groups which sometimes even include black vultures . It roosts on dead , leafless trees , and will also roost on man @-@ made structures such as water or microwave towers . Though it nests in caves , it does not enter them except during the breeding season . The turkey vulture lowers its night @-@ time body temperature by about 6 degrees Celsius to 34 ° C ( 93 ° F ) , becoming slightly hypothermic .
This vulture is often seen standing in a spread @-@ winged stance . The stance is believed to serve multiple functions : drying the wings , warming the body , and baking off bacteria . It is practiced more often following damp or rainy nights . This same behavior is displayed by other New World vultures , by Old World vultures , and by storks . Like storks , the turkey vulture often defecates on its own legs , using the evaporation of the water in the feces and / or urine to cool itself , a process known as urohidrosis . It cools the blood vessels in the unfeathered tarsi and feet , and causes white uric acid to streak the legs . The turkey vulture has few natural predators . Adult , immature and fledging vultures may fall prey to great horned owls , red @-@ tailed hawks , golden eagles and bald eagles , while eggs and nestlings may be preyed on by mammals such as raccoons and opossums . Foxes can occasionally ambush an adult but species that can climb are more likely to breach and predate nests than adults . Its primary form of defense is regurgitating semi @-@ digested meat , a foul @-@ smelling substance which deters most creatures intent on raiding a vulture nest . It will also sting if the predator is close enough to get the vomit in its face or eyes . In some cases , the vulture must rid its crop of a heavy , undigested meal in order to take flight to flee from a potential predator . Its life expectancy in the wild ranges upward of 16 years , with a captive life span of over 30 years being possible .
The turkey vulture is awkward on the ground with an ungainly , hopping walk . It requires a great deal of effort to take flight , flapping its wings while pushing off the ground and hopping with its feet . While soaring , the turkey vulture holds its wings in a shallow V @-@ shape and often tips from side to side , frequently causing the gray flight feathers to appear silvery as they catch the light . The flight of the turkey vulture is an example of static soaring flight , in which it flaps its wings very infrequently , and takes advantage of rising thermals to stay soaring .
= = = Diet = = =
The turkey vulture feeds primarily on a wide variety of carrion , from small mammals to large grazers , preferring those recently dead , and avoiding carcasses that have reached the point of putrefaction . They may rarely feed on plant matter , shoreline vegetation , pumpkin , coconut and other crops , live insects and other invertebrates . In South America , turkey vultures have been photographed feeding on the fruits of the introduced oil palm . They rarely , if ever , kill prey themselves . The turkey vulture can often be seen along roadsides feeding on roadkill , or near bodies of water , feeding on washed @-@ up fish . They also will feed on fish or insects which have become stranded in shallow water . Like other vultures , it plays an important role in the ecosystem by disposing of carrion which would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease .
The turkey vulture forages by smell , an ability that is uncommon in the avian world , often flying low to the ground to pick up the scent of ethyl mercaptan , a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals . The olfactory lobe of its brain , responsible for processing smells , is particularly large compared to that of other animals . This heightened ability to detect odors allows it to search for carrion below the forest canopy . King vultures , black vultures , and condors , which lack the ability to smell carrion , follow the turkey vulture to carcasses . The turkey vulture arrives first at the carcass , or with greater yellow @-@ headed vultures or lesser yellow @-@ headed vultures , which also share the ability to smell carrion . It displaces the yellow @-@ headed vultures from carcasses due to its larger size , but is displaced in turn by the king vulture and both types of condor , which make the first cut into the skin of the dead animal . This allows the smaller , weaker @-@ billed turkey vulture access to food , because it cannot tear the tough hides of larger animals on its own . This is an example of mutual dependence between species .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The breeding season of the turkey vulture varies according to latitude . In the southern United States , it commences in March , peaks in April to May , and continues into June . In more northerly latitudes , the season starts later and extends into August . Courtship rituals of the turkey vulture involve several individuals gathering in a circle , where they perform hopping movements around the perimeter of the circle with wings partially spread . In the air , one bird closely follows another while flapping and diving .
Eggs are generally laid in the nesting site in a protected location such as a cliff , a cave , a rock crevice , a burrow , inside a hollow tree , or in a thicket . There is little or no construction of a nest ; eggs are laid on a bare surface . Females generally lay two eggs , but sometimes one and rarely three . The eggs are cream @-@ colored , with brown or lavender spots around their larger end . Both parents incubate , and the young hatch after 30 to 40 days . Chicks are altricial , or helpless at birth . Both adults feed the chicks by regurgitating food for them , and care for them for 10 to 11 weeks . When adults are threatened while nesting , they may flee , or they may regurgitate on the intruder or feign death . If the chicks are threatened in the nest , they defend themselves by hissing and regurgitating . The young fledge at about nine to ten weeks . Family groups remain together until fall .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The turkey vulture is sometimes accused of carrying anthrax or hog cholera , both livestock diseases , on its feet or bill by cattle ranchers and is therefore occasionally perceived as a threat . However , the virus that causes hog cholera is destroyed when it passes through the turkey vulture 's digestive tract . This species also may be perceived as a threat by farmers due to the similar black vulture 's tendency to attack and kill newborn cattle . The turkey vulture does not kill live animals but will mix with flocks of black vultures and will scavenge what they leave behind . Nonetheless , its appearance at a location where a calf has been killed gives the incorrect impression that the turkey vulture represents a danger to calves . The droppings produced by turkey vultures and other vultures can harm or kill trees and other vegetation . The turkey vulture can be held in captivity , though the Migratory Bird Treaty Act prevents this in the case of uninjured animals or animals capable of returning to the wild . In captivity , it can be fed fresh meat , and younger birds will gorge themselves if given the opportunity .
The turkey vulture species receives special legal protections under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 in the United States , by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds in Canada , and by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Game Mammals in Mexico . In the US it is illegal to take , kill , or possess turkey vultures , and violation of the law is punishable by a fine of up to $ 15 @,@ 000 and imprisonment of up to six months . It is listed as a species of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List . Populations appear to remain stable , and it has not reached the threshold of inclusion as a threatened species , which requires a decline of more than 30 percent in ten years or three generations .
= Jimmy Lavender =
James Sanford " Jimmy " Lavender ( March 25 , 1884 – January 12 , 1960 ) was an American professional baseball player who played in Major League Baseball as a pitcher from 1912 to 1917 . He played a total of five seasons with the Chicago Cubs of the National League from 1912 to 1916 ; after being traded to the Philadelphia Phillies , he played an additional season in 1917 . During his playing days , his height was listed at 5 feet 11 inches ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) , his weight as 165 pounds ( 75 kg ) , and he batted and threw right @-@ handed . Born in Barnesville , Georgia , he began his professional baseball career in minor league baseball in 1906 at the age 22 . He worked his way through the system over the next few seasons , culminating with a three @-@ season stint with the Providence Grays of the Eastern League from 1909 to 1911 .
Lavender primarily threw the spitball , and used it to win 16 games as a 28 @-@ year @-@ old rookie in 1912 . In July 1912 , he defeated Rube Marquard , ending Marquard 's consecutive win streak at 19 games , which at the time tied the record for the longest win streak for a pitcher in MLB history . Lavender 's early success as a rookie soon turned to mediocrity as his career progressed , winning no more than 11 games in any season afterward . On August 31 , 1915 , he threw a no @-@ hitter against the New York Giants .
He was traded to the Phillies before the 1917 season , and he played one season for the team , winning six games before retiring from major league baseball . Lavender returned to Georgia , worked on his farm in Montezuma , Georgia , and played professional baseball in an independent league . He died in Cartersville , Georgia at the age of 75 .
= = Early life = =
James Sanford Lavender was born on March 25 , 1884 in Barnesville , Georgia into a wealthy family . He attended public schools until the age of 15 , when he was enrolled at Gordon College , a military academy located in Barnesville . He played little baseball while there , but he did enjoy participating in football . He later attended Georgia Tech and studied mechanical engineering ; he played a few games for his class ' baseball team as well .
= = Minor league career = =
In 1906 , at the age of 22 , he began his professional baseball career with the Cordele team in the class @-@ D Georgia State League . The following season , he was promoted to the Danville Red Sox of the class @-@ C Virginia League . On May 15 , he pitched the Red Sox to a 6 – 2 victory over the Portsmouth Truckers , allowing just one hit . With Danville , he had a 13 – 16 win – loss record in 307 innings pitched . It was during this time period that a scout who worked for Connie Mack discovered Lavender , who then sent him through a training camp and assigned him to the Holyoke Papermakers of the class @-@ B Connecticut League in 1908 ; he finished with a 21 – 17 win – loss record . From 1909 to 1911 , he played with the Providence Grays of the class @-@ A Eastern League for three seasons , winning a career @-@ high 19 games in 1911 .
It was reported on September 1 , 1911 that Lavender was drafted by the Chicago Cubs in the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) draft . Charles Murphy , the Cubs ' owner , drafted him with intent of then trading him to a Montreal minor league team as compensation for an earlier trade that brought Ward Miller to the Cubs . The Providence team owner , Frank Navin ( who also owned the Detroit Tigers of the American League ( AL ) ) , appealed the transaction to the National Commission , forerunner to the modern @-@ day Commissioner of Baseball . The commission ruled that Murphy had to either keep Lavender for one year , or return him to Providence . Murphy chose to keep Lavender , and his contract was approved on February 9 , 1912 by NL president Thomas Lynch .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Chicago Cubs = = =
= = = = 1912 – 1913 seasons = = = =
Lavender made his MLB debut on April 23 , 1912 as a relief pitcher in a 5 – 3 loss to the Pittsburgh Pirates . On June 28 , versus the Pirates , he threw a one @-@ hit shutout in a 3 – 0 win , and collected three hits as a hitter . On July 1 , he shutout Pittsburgh once more , this time in a 12 @-@ inning , 1 – 0 victory . He threw his third consecutive complete game shutout on July 5 , a 4 – 0 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals . Lavender took a 33 @-@ inning consecutive scoreless inning streak into his next start , a home game against the New York Giants and pitcher Rube Marquard . He gave up five hits and defeated the Giants 7 – 2 , ending Marquard 's consecutive win streak at 19 games , which at the time tied the record for the longest streak in baseball history . The loss appeared to affect Marquard for the remainder of the season , though he regained his form in the 1912 World Series . During the 1913 season , upon the ending of an 11 @-@ game winning streak by Washington Senators pitcher Joe Boehling , Marquard commented , " I know just how Boehling feels . I know how I felt after Lavender beat me in Chicago last year after I had won nineteen straight , and I can sympathize with the Washington youngster . " Lavender would have continued success against the Giants throughout his career .
Lavender 's primary pitch was the spitball , and his method of preparation was to lick the ball . In a game on July 19 , Lavender was about to load the ball when he smelled a liniment on the ball . He reported this to the home plate umpire , who then ejected the Phillies manager , Red Dooin , from the game . Dooin had been caught doing this to another spitballer , Marty O 'Toole , a few days earlier . On September 26 , Lavender and the Cubs were ahead 9 – 0 in the top half of the ninth inning versus Cincinnati , when the Reds scored 10 runs against Lavender and two other pitchers to take the lead 10 – 9 . The Cubs ultimately prevailed and gained the victory by scoring two runs in the bottom half of the ninth . Lavender started just one more game in 1912 , a 3 – 2 victory on October 5 against St. Louis . Following the season , the Cubs played a series of exhibition games with the Chicago White Sox of the American League called the City Series . Lavender started the first game against Ed Walsh , and the game ended after nine innings with a scoreless tie . Lavender gave six hits and Walsh just one . After the two teams played to a 12 @-@ inning tie two days later , Lavender pitched the Cubs to victory in game three . Two additional victories gave the Cubs a 3 – 0 series lead , but the White Sox were able to win four straight games , twice defeating Lavender , including in the series finale . He completed his rookie season with his career @-@ high 16 victories , against 13 losses , and a 3 @.@ 04 earned run average ( ERA ) in 2512 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
To begin the 1913 season , Lavender was the team 's opening day starting pitcher in a 5 – 3 loss to St. Louis on April 12 . After his successful rookie season , he was largely ineffective in the first half of 1913 season ; so much so that manager Johnny Evers was contemplating putting Lavender on waivers if he had not regained his form from the previous season . Lavender showed signs of improvement , surrendering just three hits in a 12 – 2 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 30 , followed by a 5 – 1 win over the Reds on July 3 . This rebound was short @-@ lived , however ; Chicago lost his next four starts before a 6 – 5 win over the Boston Braves on July 27 . He pitched in 40 games , half of which were in relief , and had a 10 – 14 win – loss record . His ERA increased to 3 @.@ 66 , and he led the NL in hit batsmen with 13 .
= = = = 1914 – 1916 seasons = = = =
His initial appearance of the 1914 season was in relief on April 17 , a game in which he pitched 42 ⁄ 3 innings , and gave up three runs in 6 – 5 victory over the Reds . He followed that with two consecutive strong games as the starting pitcher , allowing just one unearned run in each game ; the second was a complete game against the Reds . On June 12 , he started the game against New York , only to be injured in the third inning when he was hit in the hand by a ball batted by Fred Merkel , and had to leave the game . The injury did not cause Lavender to lose much playing time . He pitched a four @-@ inning relief appearance on June 19 , followed by a complete game shutout on June 27 against the Reds . On August 17 , he pitched a second shutout during the season , a 3 @-@ 0 victory over the Brooklyn Robins .
Lavender created a controversy in a game on September 23 , when he was caught altering the baseball by rubbing it against an emery board that he had attached to his uniform 's pant leg , an illegal act . At the time , the fine for such an infraction was a five @-@ dollar fine . The Phillies players noticed that the pitcher was constantly scratching the side of his leg . They asked the umpire to search the pitcher . Lavender refused to be searched and ran into the outfield , and the umpire refused to chase Lavender . Eventually , a particularly fast Phillies player , Hans Lobert , was able to catch up with him and grab the offending item . As a result of this incident , AL president , Ban Johnson , decreed that any pitcher in his league caught using sandpaper to alter the baseball , would be suspended for 30 days and fined $ 100 . This rule became the forebearer of the rule banning other pitches as well , including the spitball . In his 37 games pitched in 1914 , 28 were as the starting pitcher . His win – loss record was 11 – 11 , and he lowered his ERA down to 3 @.@ 07 in 2141 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
Lavender got off to quick start in 1915 , pitching a complete game victory against St. Louis on April 16 . He then missed time due to suffering a broken rib attempting to climb out of a bathtub . His next appearance was not until May 7 , when he pitched two innings in relief . He regained his starting role on May 21 , hurling his second complete game victory of the season , this time against Boston . In the first game of a doubleheader on August 31 , Lavender threw a no @-@ hitter against the New York Giants , a 2 – 0 victory . He struck out eight batters and walked just one . At the conclusion of the season , the Cubs played the Chicago White Sox of the American League in an exhibition series . Lavender pitched a shutout in game two , but the White Sox were declared victors after winning four games to the Cubs ' one . His totals for the 1915 season included 41 games pitched , a 10 – 16 win – loss record , a career @-@ low 2 @.@ 58 ERA , and a career @-@ high 117 strikeouts .
Though Lavender seemed to pitch well to begin the 1916 season , his record of 1 – 6 though June 10 was a direct contrast to his low 2 @.@ 89 ERA . In his next start , against the Giants on June 14 , he allowed only an infield single to Benny Kauff . The New York Sun noted that Kauff 's single was as a result of a ground ball that took a bad hop and bounced away from the fielder . Lavender continued to pitch well throughout the season , both starting and in relief , culminating with a complete game shutout against Pittsburgh on September 9 , his fourth shutout of the season . However , in his last four appearances , he was credited with the loss in three , and his ERA rose from 2 @.@ 05 to 2 @.@ 83 . His season win – loss record was 10 – 14 in 36 games and 188 innings pitched .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
= = = = 1917 season = = = =
On December 19 , 1916 , it was reported that during the NL meetings , Chicago had traded Lavender 's rights to the Phillies for pitcher Al Demaree . However , it was not official until April 2 , 1917 , with Chicago sending an additional $ 5 @,@ 000 to complete the deal . In March , Lavender signed with Philadelphia . He made his Philadelphia debut on April 27 , pitching a complete game victory against the Giants , allowing five hits and one run . Lavender faced his former club , the Cubs , for the first time on May 19 , and pitched the last three innings for the victory . At this point in the season , he was pitching well , his ERA was 1 @.@ 57 and he had a 2 – 1 win – loss record .
He soon began to falter , giving up four earned runs in four innings against the Cubs on May 22 and losing consecutive starts against New York and Pittsburgh . Then in a start against Cincinnati , he surrendered 15 hits and seven earned runs ; his ERA had now risen to 3 @.@ 29 . He had regained his form over the course of the months of July and August , lowering his ERA to 2 @.@ 69 after his game on September 8 . He lost much of his effectiveness later , however , allowing 14 hits and 10 earned runs against Boston on September 10 , and three more runs against Brooklyn in five relief innings on September 13 . After a short one @-@ inning appearance on September 25 , he started the game on October 3 against the Giants . He gave up five earned runs in five innings pitched and received the loss . It was his last major league appearance . In his one season with Philadelphia , he pitched in 28 games , and had a 6 – 8 record . His final career record was 63 @-@ 76 , with a 3 @.@ 09 ERA and 547 strikeouts in 1 @,@ 207 innings pitched .
During the off @-@ season , Philadelphia planned to trade or sell Lavender , even though he had earlier announced his retirement from the game . Philadelphia 's asking price for his rights was $ 1 @,@ 000 , but they received no offers . Christy Mathewson , manager of the Reds , was reported to have had interest in Lavender , the pitcher 's success against the Giants still fresh in Mathewson 's mind . Though Philadelphia had a meeting with Cincinnati , Mathewson was unable to attend , and no trade discussions materialized . The San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League expressed interest in Lavender , but he stressed that he was retired and that he would only consider a trade to Atlanta of the Southern Association so that he could be near his farm in Montezuma . In 1922 , it was reported that he signed with Atlanta after playing well for an independent team in Dawson , Georgia .
= = Post @-@ baseball life = =
After his playing career ended , Lavender returned to Georgia and worked on his farm in Montezuma , Georgia . He died on January 12 , 1960 , at the age of 75 , in Cartersville , Georgia , and is interred at Felton Cemetery in Montezuma .
= = In popular culture = =
Author Vincent Starrett , who penned The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes , created a series of short stories featuring a gentlemanly , cultured detective named " Jimmie Lavender " . Starrett stated that the name was perfect for his character , and received permission from the former pitcher for use of the name . A collection of these stories were featured in the 1944 book The Case Book of Jimmie Lavender .
= Byron McLaughlin =
Byron Scott McLaughlin ( born September 29 , 1955 ) is an American retired professional baseball player , alleged counterfeit shoes manufacturer , and convicted money launderer . His baseball career spanned nine seasons , four of which were spent in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) with the Seattle Mariners ( 1977 – 1980 ) , and the California Angels ( 1983 ) . McLaughlin , a right @-@ handed pitcher used primarily in relief , compiled a major league record of 16 – 25 with a 5 @.@ 11 earned run average , five complete games , 14 saves , and 74 strikeouts in 3781 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
After his career , McLaughlin allegedly worked in the counterfeit consumer goods industry in Mexico making knock @-@ off athletic footwear , which included shoes designed to look like Converse , Vans , and Adidas . In 1990 , he was arrested for trafficking the counterfeit shoes and money laundering . He pleaded guilty to the money laundering charges , and proceeded to post bail . Before being sentenced , McLaughlin fled and his current whereabouts are unknown .
= = Early life = =
McLaughlin was born on September 29 , 1955 in Van Nuys , California . He attended Santa Monica High School in Santa Monica , California and Los Angeles Valley College . He played high school baseball at Santa Monica , and played the position of outfielder in his last three years .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Early career = = =
On December 24 , 1974 , the Montreal Expos signed McLaughlin as an amateur free agent . He was assigned to their minor league organization where he played seven games as a position player with the West Palm Beach Expos of the Class @-@ A Florida State League . In those games , he batted .313 with one run scored , five hits , and one run batted in ( RBI ) . In June 1974 , McLaughlin was released by the Expos . On March 4 , 1975 , McLaughlin signed with the Baltimore Orioles . He began the season with the rookie @-@ level Bluefield Orioles of the Appalachian League . McLaughlin was used as a pitcher when he joined Bluefield . He compiled a 1 – 2 record with a 7 @.@ 46 earned run average ( ERA ) , one save , and 32 strikeouts in 14 games , two starts with Bluefield that year . He was promoted to the Class @-@ A Lodi Orioles during the season . With Lodi , McLaughlin went 0 – 1 with a 4 @.@ 67 ERA , and 12 strikeouts in 12 games , all in relief . Years later , McLaughlin gave an interview to the Associated Press where he said he was bitter at the Baltimore organization for releasing him . In 1976 , McLaughlin joined the Class @-@ A Victoria Cowboys of the Gulf States League . The Cowboys were a non @-@ affiliated minor league team . That season , McLaughlin went 10 – 4 with a 3 @.@ 05 ERA in 15 games , 14 starts . During his tenure with the Cowboys , the California Angels were reportedly interested in buying McLaughlin 's contract , but nothing ever came of it .
= = = Seattle Mariners = = =
On January 8 , 1977 , McLaughlin signed with the Seattle Mariners . On April 1 , 1977 , the Mariners loaned him to the Nuevo Laredo Mexican League franchise . At the time , the Mariners did not have a complete minor league organization . In the Mexican League that season , McLaughlin compiled a record of 18 – 13 with a 1 @.@ 84 ERA and 221 strikeouts as his team , the Tescolotes , won the league championship . On September 11 , 1977 , he was returned to the Mariners . McLaughlin made his Major League Baseball ( MLB ) debut on September 18 , against the Kansas City Royals at Kaufman Stadium . In 11 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , he gave @-@ up five hits , four runs ( all earned ) , and struck out one in his only major league appearance that season .
McLaughlin split the 1978 season between the major leagues and minors . McLaughlin made his season debut with Seattle on April 25 , against the California Angels . In that game , which also marked his first MLB start , McLaughlin gave up three runs ( all earned ) and struck out 10 in six innings pitched . He came away with the loss , which was his first MLB decision . In late June the Mariners sent him down to the minor leagues . With the San Jose Missions , who were the Mariners Triple @-@ A affiliate at the time , he went 5 – 2 with a 3 @.@ 50 ERA , and 52 strikeouts in eight games , all starts . Two of those starts were complete games . McLaughlin was called back up to the majors in July after pitcher John Montague was placed on the disabled list . McLaughlin 's first major league win came on August 16 , against the Baltimore Orioles . In the majors that season , McLaughlin went 4 – 8 with a 4 @.@ 37 ERA and 87 strikeouts in 20 games , 17 starts . Four of his starts were complete games . After the 1978 season , McLaughlin pitched in the Mexican Pacific League , where he led all pitchers with a 1 @.@ 05 ERA and 143 strikeouts .
In March 1979 , McLaughlin re @-@ signed with the Mariners . McLaughlin spent the entire regular season with the Mariners that year . He made his season debut on April 6 , against the Cleveland Indians , where he pitched seven innings , and came away with a win . In mid @-@ April , he missed a game after bruising his hand in his hotel room when he was practicing his pitching motion . McLaughlin earned his first major league save on June 6 , against the Detroit Tigers . On July 3 , he threw his only complete game of the season in a game against the Minnesota Twins . In August , McLaughlin missed a game to get married in Mexico . On August 14 , it was reported by The Miami News that McLaughlin was carrying a .357 Magnum when he traveled . With Seattle that season , McLaughlin compiled a record of 7 – 7 with a 4 @.@ 22 with 14 saves , and 74 strikeouts in 47 games , seven starts .
In 1980 , McLaughlin started the season with the Seattle Mariners . In June , the Cleveland Indians were reportedly attempting to trade for McLaughlin and teammate Larry Milbourne in exchange for Bo Díaz . However , nothing ever came of the deal . With Seattle that season , he went 3 – 6 with a 6 @.@ 85 ERA , two saves , and 41 strikeouts in 45 games , four of which were starts . Over his four @-@ year tenure with the Mariners , McLaughlin had a combined record of 14 – 21 with a 5 @.@ 10 ERA , five complete games , 16 saves , and 203 strikeouts in 113 games . Of those games , he made 28 starts and finished 47 .
= = = Later career = = =
On December 12 , 1980 , McLaughlin was traded to the Minnesota Twins in exchange for Willie Norwood . McLaughlin played with the Twins during spring training in 1981 . However , on March 31 , Minnesota released him . In the 1981 and 1982 seasons , McLaughlin played in the Mexican
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. Kriplespac then reveals that they are all actually inside a spaceship , which he activates and takes into low orbit . From there , he instructs Heinrich to attack and kill Conker as revenge for destroying the Tediz , which were also his creations . Conker pulls a switch that opens an air lock , pulling Von Kriplespac and Berri 's corpse into space . After Conker briefly battles Heinrich with the aid of a robotic suit , Heinrich takes one last lunge at him , when suddenly the entire game freezes . Conker expresses disbelief that the developers of the game apparently did not beta test the game properly , and breaks the fourth wall to ask some software engineers to assist him in his current situation . The programmers give Conker a Katana and teleport him to the Panther King 's throne room , where he decapitates Heinrich . As a result , he is crowned the new King of the land .
As characters from the previous chapters of the game gather around to congratulate him , Conker realizes that he should have brought Berri back to life when he was negotiating with programmers . He calls them out to bring her back to life , only to realize that they have left already . Conker then gives a closing monologue , in which he discusses appreciating what one already has instead of always wanting more , stating that " the grass is always greener , and you don 't really know what it is you have until it 's gone . " The credits roll , and afterwards Conker is seen back at the same pub he was seen in at the start of the game , drowning his sorrows in Scotch whisky . He drunkenly exits the bar as it begins to storm outside , and leaves in the direction opposite the one he took previously .
= = Development and marketing = =
Conker 's Bad Fur Day was developed by Rare and directed by Chris Seavor . The game was announced to be in development at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in June 1997 , under the title Conker 's Quest . A year later , it was revealed that the game 's title was changed to Twelve Tales : Conker 64 and players would be able to control Conker in action @-@ based settings and Berri in strategy @-@ based settings , with the possibility of two player split @-@ screen gameplay . Early screenshots suggested that the game would be targeted at a family audience and feature cute characters and colourful settings . Rare had a history of making games of this sort and at first Twelve Tales : Conker 64 appeared to be similar . However , Rare was influenced by a critical reception of the prototype game 's cuteness , resulting in a game design overhaul . The fact that the game was delayed several times and not mentioned for almost a year led to speculation that the game was quietly cancelled . Rare later clarified that the game was " still being worked on by a full team and with the same level of dedication as when it was first announced . "
In 2000 , it was announced that Conker was retooled into a controversial game titled Conker 's Bad Fur Day with a large amount of scatological humour . According to the developers , " We already had the main character ( although he was eventually remodeled ) and a good deal of code already written , so the best option seemed to be to change the game 's direction . Mature humor was a key element . " Several aspects of the game were designed to attract an adult audience . Unlike in Banjo @-@ Kazooie and Donkey Kong 64 , item collecting was mostly discarded and character abilities were simplified with " context sensitive " pads . The game also relies heavily on cutscenes and features a large number of film parodies . Some offensive content was censored under the supervision of Nintendo , including cutscenes with Pokémon and a joke at the expense of the Ku Klux Klan . Seavor , however , remarked that " pretty much 99 @.@ 9 % of the game remained . "
In 2013 , the developers explained that they had originally drawn inspiration from their deep analysis of the gameplay and camera mechanics of Super Mario 64 . According to them , " We were just copying Mario , weren 't we ? Which , to this day , is still the best 3D camera . " A lot of time and care was spent on system performance optimisation , animation details , and audiovisual appeal . For example , to increase the number of simultaneous light sources to four , one programmer spent four months deciphering and rewriting the Nintendo @-@ supplied Japanese @-@ commented microcode for the Nintendo 64 's Reality Coprocessor , while another microcoded the support for MP3 , reverberation , and Dolby Pro Logic surround sound . A developer also spent weeks optimising the system 's ability to display distant backdrops as texture tiles to enhance gameplay navigation and visual appeal . Due in part to its extensive vocal track , Conker 's Bad Fur Day is one of the few Nintendo 64 games that features a 64MB cartridge .
Conker 's Bad Fur Day was first released on 5 March 2001 in North America . Advertisements for the game were featured in adult magazines such as Playboy , and video commercials were geared towards an adult audience . As Nintendo was known for its family @-@ friendly games like Mario and Pokémon , the game was the subject of controversy . According to Rare , " Nintendo initially had concerns regarding this issue , because kids might confuse the product as being aimed at them , but I 'm sure you 'll agree if you 've seen the box that Nintendo is making sure nobody makes that mistake . " Nintendo of America declined to acknowledge the game in its Nintendo Power magazine and KB Toys , which specialised in toys and video games for children , decided not to sell the game . In Europe , the game was published and distributed by THQ on 6 April 2001 , after Nintendo of Europe declined to publish it .
= = Reception = =
Conker 's Bad Fur Day received critical acclaim , with an aggregate review score of 92 out of 100 at Metacritic . Many publications and websites declared the graphics were the best on the Nintendo 64 . Critics noted that the game featured a number of technical effects that were uncommon at the time , especially for a Nintendo 64 game , such as dynamic shadowing , coloured lighting , large areas with a long draw distance , no distance fog , detailed facial animations , lip syncing , and individually rendered fingers on some characters . Shane Satterfield of GameSpot went so far as to say that the game " makes other Nintendo 64 games look like 16 @-@ bit software . " IGN 's Matt Casamassina praised the detailed 3D worlds , " fantastic " texture work , and cute character designs . He remarked that " Conker himself is equipped with an in @-@ game facial animation system that realistically portrays his different moods as he travels the lands . When he 's scared , he looks it , and when he 's pissed off players will actually be able to see his teeth showing in a frown . " Reviewers noted occasional drops in the frame rate , but most agreed it did not interfere with the gameplay .
Critics also gave high marks for the game 's audio and diverse vocal track , which easily outnumbered that of other voiced Nintendo 64 games such as Perfect Dark or Turok 2 : Seeds of Evil . The voice acting was praised highly for its different accents and styles , with " cleverly lewd " scripts and " dead @-@ on " movie spoofs . Similar to Rare 's earlier game Banjo @-@ Kazooie , the soundtrack was credited for its different arrangements of specific songs that gradually change as players move from one area to the next , and for its rich and creative instrumentation . Reviewers also highlighted the number of sound effects . Satterfield observed that " there are literally dozens of sounds just for Conker 's footsteps " .
The gameplay was highlighted for its variety and unconventional context @-@ sensitive systems . Matt Casamassina credited Rare for reducing the number of items to collect and simplifying the moves with context @-@ sensitive pads , stating that they " help keep the action shifting , refreshing , and always exciting . " In contrast , Game Revolution 's Johnny Liu criticised its simplistic action , short length and linear nature . Similarly , GameSpot noted that the game 's linearity " cuts its length considerably " . The game 's camera system was criticised by several reviewers . Geraint Evans of N64 Magazine felt that it does not allow players to properly judge their position within their surroundings , while GameSpot remarked that it can get caught on objects or refuse to obey commands . The multiplayer was described as inventive and was praised for its numerous options . Shane Satterfield , however , remarked : " While the extra [ multiplayer ] modes do add some longevity to [ Conker 's Bad Fur Day ] , the majority of them fail to stand the test of time . " Most reviewers agreed the jokes were clever and funny . According to Casamassina , " Is it over the top ? Yes . Is it lowbrow ? Yes . And yet , it 's also very well delivered and smart too -- and it 's funny . Really , honestly , funny " . Game Revolution noted that the game " has its crosshairs directly aimed at the college audience " and that " it works perfectly for the peeps who 've grown up with Mario and are now looking for someone less dorky " .
Conker 's Bad Fur Day was awarded the 2001 BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for sound , IGN 's Game of the Month for March 2001 , and GameSpot 's Best Platform Game for 2001 . In 2009 , Official Nintendo Magazine placed Conker 's Bad Fur Day at # 97 on their list of 100 Greatest Nintendo Games Ever , and GameTrailers rated it # 1 on their list of Top Ten Funniest Games . In 2010 , UGO included the game at # 3 on their list of The 11 Weirdest Game Endings . Although the game fared well with critics in both the United Kingdom and United States , it sold worse than expected ( only about 55 @,@ 000 copies as of April 2001 ) , partly due to its prohibitively high cost , advertisements exclusive to the older audience , and release towards the end of the Nintendo 64 's life cycle . Despite these factors , the game has enjoyed a cult following due to its unique styling .
= = Legacy = =
After the release of Conker 's Bad Fur Day , Rare began development of a direct sequel referred to as Conker 's Other Bad Day . Chris Seavor revealed that the game would deal with " Conker 's somewhat unsuccessful tenure as King . He spends all the treasured money on beer , parties and hookers . Thrown into prison , Conker is faced with the prospect of execution and the game starts with his escape , ball and chain attached , from the Castle 's highest tower . " However , the sequel was ultimately cancelled .
In 2002 , Rare was purchased by Microsoft and decided to develop a remake of Conker 's Bad Fur Day . The remake , titled Conker : Live & Reloaded , was released for the Xbox in 2005 to generally favourable critical reception . Developers noted that it was difficult to port the game to the Xbox system because Bad Fur Day 's microcoded performance optimisations had been deeply customised for the Nintendo 64 hardware . Conker : Live & Reloaded features updated graphics and a multiplayer mode that supports the Xbox Live service . Additionally , some aspects in the single @-@ player mode were adjusted : several minor obscenities within the voice dialogue that are present in the Nintendo 64 game were censored at Microsoft 's request , the camera control was refined and improved with a zoom function , and an auto @-@ targeting system was added to the game .
After the release of Live & Reloaded , Rare began work on another game in the Conker universe titled Conker : Gettin ' Medieval . The game was to be multiplayer focused and did not feature Conker as a main character , with Rare instead hoping to focus on other characters in the series . However , the game was ultimately cancelled . Conker returned in a new episodic campaign for the sandbox game Project Spark . The campaign , titled Conker 's Big Reunion , is set ten years after the events of Bad Fur Day and Seavor reprised his voice roles . The first episode of the campaign was released in April 2015 , but the remaining ones were cancelled the following September . Conker 's Bad Fur Day is also included as part of the Rare Replay compilation for Xbox One . The compilation was released on August 4 , 2015 .
= Harbhajan Singh =
Harbhajan Singh Plaha ( pronunciation ; born 3 July 1980 in Jalandhar , Punjab , India ) , commonly known as Harbhajan Singh , is an Indian international cricketer and former captain of IPL team Mumbai Indians and Punjab state for the 2012 – 13 Ranji Trophy season . A specialist spin bowler , he has the second @-@ highest number of Test wickets by an off spinner , behind Sri Lanka 's Muttiah Muralitharan . Harbhajan made his Test and One Day International ( ODI ) debuts in early 1998 . His career was initially affected by investigations into the legality of his bowling action , as well as several disciplinary incidents . However , in 2001 , with leading leg spinner Anil Kumble injured , Harbhajan 's career was resuscitated after Indian captain Sourav Ganguly called for his inclusion in the Border @-@ Gavaskar Trophy team . In that series victory over Australia , Harbhajan established himself as the team 's leading spinner by taking 32 wickets , becoming the first Indian bowler to take a hat trick in Test cricket . He is also an Officer in the Punjab Police and has held the rank of a Superintendent of police ( India ) , reporting to Punjab Police HQ at Barnala .
A finger injury in mid @-@ 2003 sidelined him for much of the following year , allowing Kumble to regain his position as the first choice spinner in Tests and ODI 's . Harbhajan reclaimed a regular position in the team upon his return in late 2004 , but often found himself watching from the sidelines in Test matches outside the Indian subcontinent with typically only one spinner , Kumble , being used . Throughout 2006 and into early 2007 , Harbhajan 's accumulation of wickets fell and his bowling average increased , and he was increasingly criticised for bowling defensively with less loop . Following India 's first @-@ round elimination from the 2007 Cricket World Cup , Harbhajan was replaced by other spinners in the national squad for both formats . He regained a regular position in the team in late 2007 , but became the subject of more controversy . In early 2008 , he was given a ban by the International Cricket Council ( ICC ) for racially vilifying Andrew Symonds . The ban was revoked upon appeal , but in April , Harbhajan was banned from the 2008 Indian Premier League and suspended from the ODI team by the Board of Control for Cricket in India ( BCCI ) for slapping Sreesanth after a match . He appeared in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling 's Indian promotion , Ring Ka King . He was in the World Cup @-@ winning team of 2011 Cricket World Cup .
He was conferred the Padma Shri , India 's fourth highest civilian honour , in 2009 .
= = Early years and personal life = =
Harbhajan was born into a Sikh family . He is the only son of Sardar Sardev Singh Plaha , a businessman who owned a ball bearing and valve factory . Growing up with five sisters , Harbhajan was in line to inherit the family business , but his father insisted that he concentrate on his cricket career and represent India .
Harbhajan was trained as a batsman by his first coach Charanjit singh Bhullar , but converted to spin bowling after his coach 's untimely death saw him turn to the tutelage of Davinder Arora . Arora credits Harbhajan 's success to a work ethic that included a three @-@ hour training session in the morning , followed by an afternoon session lasting from 3 pm until after sunset .
Following the death of his father in 2000 , Harbhajan became the family head , and by 2001 had organised marriages for three of his sisters . In 2002 he ruled out his own marriage until at least 2008 . In 2005 he again fended off marriage rumours linking him to a Bangalore @-@ based bride , stating that he would only make a decision " after a couple of years " , and that he would be seeking a Punjabi bride selected by his family . In a country where cricketers are idolised , Harbhajan 's performances have brought him government accolades and lucrative sponsorships . Following his performance against Australia in 2001 , the Government of Punjab awarded him Rs . 5 lakhs , a plot of land , and an offer to become a Deputy Superintendent of Police in Punjab Police , which he accepted .
Despite having a job with the constabulary , Harbhajan sustained minor injuries in March 2002 in an altercation with police outside the team hotel in Guwahati . The scuffle broke out when Harbhajan remonstrated with officers after they refused to allow a photographer into the hotel . Harbhajan cut his bowling arm and injured his elbow when he was struck by the police . Extensive negotiations from local officials and organisers were required to dissuade Harbhajan and captain Sourav Ganguly from leaving the area after Ganguly said that the Indian team would abandon the scheduled match against Zimbabwe .
Singh was caught at Auckland airport for failing to declare that he had filthy boots in his luggage . His only excuse was that he " couldn 't be bothered " complying with New Zealand quarantine laws . He was fined $ 200 on the spot .
One of his common nicknames , outside India , is The Turbanator , deriving from his skill as a bowler in terminating the innings of the opposing team , and the fact that , as a Sikh , he wears a black turban whenever he plays . Among Indians , Harbhajan is more commonly known as bhajji . It was estimated in 2005 that Harbhajan was the most recognised and commercially viable Indian cricketer after Sachin Tendulkar , in part due to his colourful personality and iconic turban , as well as his reputation for enjoying the celebrity social scene . His signing for English county team Surrey in 2005 , based at The Oval in London , was partly attributed to his marketability . Harbhajan had generated a large personal following in the western London suburb of Southall , which boasts a majority Punjabi Sikh population , when he lived there in 1998 while training under Fred Titmus .
In 2006 Harbhajan 's endorsements generated controversy when he appeared without his turban in an advertisement for Royal Stag whisky . This angered many orthodox Sikhs , leading to anti @-@ Harbhajan protests in the Sikh holy city of Amritsar , with effigies of Harbhajan being burnt . The Sikh clergy and Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee demanded an apology from him and asked Seagram 's to withdraw the advert , on the basis that it had " hurt the feelings of Sikhs " . Harbhajan quickly issued an apology , but he was also unhappy at the clergy 's interference , stating " If they were unhappy , they should have called me and talked to me like a son " .
Harbhajan Singh married his longtime girlfriend , actress Geeta Basra , on 29 October 2015 in Jalandhar .
= = Early career = =
Harbhajan broke into the Punjab Under @-@ 16s at the age of 15 years and 4 months in November of the 1995 – 96 season , and took 7 / 46 and 5 / 138 on debut against Haryana , setting up a nine @-@ wicket win . He scored 56 in his next match against Delhi and then took 11 / 79 in his third match against Himachal Pradesh , orchestrating an innings win . He ended with 32 wickets at 15 @.@ 15 and 96 runs at 48 @.@ 00 in four matches . He was rewarded with selection for North Zone Under @-@ 16s , a team that represents all of northern India for a one @-@ day series , in which he took two wickets at 43 @.@ 50 in four matches and scored 18 runs . At the end of the season , he was called into the national Under @-@ 19 team at the age of 15 years and 9 months for a youth One Day International against South Africa . He took 1 / 19 from seven overs in an Indian win .
In 1996 – 97 , Harbhajan was promoted to the Punjab Under @-@ 19s and he took 15 wickets at 20 @.@ 20 in three matches , although he managed only two runs with the bat . This included match figures of 8 / 54 in an innings win over Jammu and Kashmir .
Harbhajan made his first @-@ class cricket debut in late 1997 against Services , during the 1997 – 98 Ranji Trophy season . He took a total of 3 / 35 in an innings win but was dropped back to the Under @-@ 19s the following week . He then took 5 / 75 and 7 / 44 in two matches to earn a recall to the senior team . He then took a total of 7 / 123 in the next two matches for Punjab to earn selection for North Zone in the Duleep Trophy .
Harbhajan 's season was interrupted when he represented India at the Under @-@ 19 World Cup in January 1998 . He played in six matches , taking eight wickets at 24 @.@ 75 with a best of 3 / 5 against Kenya .
Returning to India he played in three more Ranji Trophy matches , and from a total of six matches , he took 18 wickets at an average of 22 @.@ 50 , ranking outside the top 20 in wicket taking . He took a total of 5 / 131 as North lost to East Zone by five wickets .
Despite the superior statistics of other bowlers in domestic cricket , Harbhajan was the selected for the Indian Board President 's XI to play the touring Australian cricket team ahead of the Tests . He managed only 1 / 127 , and was ignored for the first two Tests before being selected to make his Test debut in the Third Test against Australia in Bangalore , where he scored 4 not out and a duck , and recorded the modest match figures of 2 / 136 as Australia won the match by eight wickets . He was subsequently overlooked for the triangular ODI tournament in India that followed the Tests , involving Zimbabwe in addition to Australia , but was selected for all group matches in the triangular tournament that followed soon after in Sharjah , where he made his ODI debut against New Zealand . He took 1 / 32 from ten overs on debut as India narrowly won by 15 runs . He then took 3 / 41 in the next match , a defeat against Australia , but then struggled in the second qualifying match against the same team , taking 1 / 63 in eight overs . He was subsequently dropped for the final against Australia , which India won , and ended the series with five wickets at 33 @.@ 20 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 36 .
Harbhajan was fined and given a suspended ban for one ODI by the match referee in his first international series , when his on @-@ field behaviour was adjudged to breach the ICC Code of Conduct . The incident in question was his altercation with Ricky Ponting after dismissing him .
Harbhajan was then omitted from the team during a home triangular ODI tournament against Bangladesh and Kenya , after taking 0 / 18 from four overs in his only match of the tournament against the former opponent , but was recalled for the Singer Trophy in Sri Lanka and also involving New Zealand . Playing in all five matches , Harbhajan claimed eight wickets at an average of 24 @.@ 12 and economy of 4 @.@ 38 in this tournament , taking at least one scalp in each match . Harbhajan was retained for the final and took 1 / 57 , his worst return for the series , in an Indian win . After being omitted for the Sahara Cup series against Pakistan in Toronto , Harbhajan played in a weakened Indian team at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia . The matches were not given ODI status by the ICC , and India chose to send their better players to the Sahara Cup instead . India won their first two matches against Antigua and Canada , but Harbhajan managed only a total of 1 / 48 from 11 overs . The Indians then needed to beat a full @-@ strength Australian outfit to win their group and progress to the semi @-@ finals . Harbhajan was punished and went wicketless , conceding 50 runs in eight overs as Australia won by 146 runs , knocking India out of contention .
Harbhajan was then recalled to the first @-@ choice team and took five wickets at an average of 22 @.@ 60 at 3 @.@ 89 runs an over from three matches on a tour to Zimbabwe , in what would prove to be his last ODI appearances for India for more than two years . In all , he took 18 ODI wickets at an average of 27 @.@ 2 during the 1998 .
After taking 2 / 38 and 3 / 60 in an innings win in a tour match , Harbhajan was retained in the Test team , taking 2 / 42 and 3 / 63 in the only Test on the Zimbabwe tour . He was unbeaten on 15 in the second innings as the final wicket fell and India succumbed to a 51 @-@ run defeat .
Returning to India , Harbhajan started the 1998 – 99 domestic season well , taking 3 / 54 and 5 / 39 in an innings win over Services , before following up with 6 / 69 and 1 / 93 in the next match against Delhi , claiming his first five @-@ wicket innings haul . He then took 6 / 63 and scored 31 in the first innings of a match for the Board PResident 's XI against a touring West Indies A , and was taken on the tour of New Zealand in December . In a tour match against Central Districts , Harbhajan struggled , aggregating 2 / 112 . He only played in one Test during the tour , and went wicketless , conceding 72 runs . Upon returning to India , he took a total of 3 / 158 for India A in a match against the touring Pakistanis ahead of the Tests . After being omitted for the First Test lost in Chennai , he was recalled for the latter two matches against Pakistan , and took five wickets at 34 @.@ 60 as the matches were split . He then took 3 / 127 in a high @-@ scoring draw against Sri Lanka . In all , he claimed 13 wickets at an average of 36 @.@ 8 in five Tests for the season . When he was free of international fixtures for the season , he played in the Ranji Trophy matches , claiming 27 wickets at an average of 24 @.@ 59 in five matches , including his first five @-@ wicket haul at first @-@ class level . He also registered his maiden first @-@ class fifty , scoring an unbeaten 67 against Tamil Nadu cricket team .
Harbhajan took four wickets at 33 @.@ 00 during the one @-@ dayers during the season and was overlooked for the ODI team for the whole season and missed selection for the 1999 Cricket World Cup . In September 2003 , he played for India A in a one @-@ day series against their Australian counterparts in Los Angeles . Harbhajan took eight wickets at 17 @.@ 00 at 3 @.@ 77 runs an over in the five matches , with a best of 3 / 38 .
After taking 4 / 91 against the touring team for the Board President 's XI at the start of the season , Harbhajan managed to retain his Test position for the late 1999 home series against New Zealand , as India fielded a three @-@ pronged spin attack on dusty tracks , taking six wickets at an average of 32 @.@ 66 as the hosts prevailed 1 – 0 in the two Tests .
= = International exile = =
After taking eight wickets in his next two Ranji matches , Harbhajan was selected to tour Australia in 1999 – 2000 , as the second spinner . He did not play in the Tests , with India opting to field only Anil Kumble in the team . Australia whitewashed India 3 – 0 , and Harbhajan struggled in his only first @-@ class outing against Tasmania , taking 0 / 141 , a portent of future unsuccessful tours to Australia .
Harbhajan was not part of the ODI squad for the Australian tour and upon returning to India in early 2000 needed strong first @-@ class results to maintain his Test position . He went wicketless against Hyderabad , and was selected for the Board President 's XI match against the touring South Africans . He took 2 / 88 and 2 / 59 and scored 38 and 39 to prevent the hosts being bowled out and defeated , but was dropped as the second slow bowler , as Murali Kartik became Kumble 's spinning partner . Harbhajan returned to domestic action , taking 24 wickets in Punjab 's remaining four first @-@ class matches . He ended the Indian season with 46 first @-@ class wickets at 26 @.@ 23 .
In mid @-@ 2000 an opportunity arose when Harbhajan was selected in the first group of trainees sent to the National Cricket Academy to study under Erapalli Prasanna and Srinivas Venkataraghavan , two off spin bowlers from the Indian spin quartet of the 1970s . However , his behaviour did not conform to requirements , and he was expelled on disciplinary grounds . His sponsorship job with Indian Airlines was also reviewed as a result of his indiscipline . Harbhajan later admitted that he had been at fault earlier in his career .
Following his run @-@ ins with Indian cricket administrators , there was nothing to indicate that Harbhajan 's chances of national selection had improved at the start of 2000 – 01 . Despite Kumble being injured , Harbhajan was again overlooked as Kartik , Sunil Joshi , and debutant Sarandeep Singh were entrusted with the spin bowling duties in Test matches against Bangladesh and Zimbabwe on the subcontinent . Having made little success in this phase of his international career , averaging 37 @.@ 75 per Test wicket to date , and overlooked by selectors , Harbhajan faced a difficult decision . His father had recently died ; as the family 's only son , Harbhajan was now obliged to support his mother and unmarried sisters . He contemplated quitting cricket and moving to the United States to drive trucks for a living . After being out of the team for more than 12 months , there was little overt indication of the sudden rise that would occur in his cricketing career only a few months later .
During the first half of the season , still in international exile , Harbhajan continued to pick up wickets on the domestic circuit . In five Ranji Trophy matches , he claimed 28 wickets at 13 @.@ 96 . He claimed 3 / 29 and 3 / 39 against Himachal Pradesh , 2 / 53 and 5 / 88 against Jammu and Kashmir , 4 / 77 and 2 / 33 against Haryana and 5 / 40 against Services in the first four matches , all of which ended in innings wins for Punjab . He then took a total of 4 / 32 in a 199 @-@ run win over Delhi . Harbhajan 's batting , which had rarely been productive up to this point in his career , also improved . He scored a career @-@ best 84 against Haryana and added 52 against Services , aggregating 207 runs at 51 @.@ 75 . After taking eight wickets at 21 @.@ 12 in six one @-@ dayers , Harbhajan was selected for North in the Duleep Trophy , but his early @-@ season form deserted him . He took five wickets at 39 @.@ 00 in two matches , although he did continue his productive run with the bat , scoring 130 runs at 32 @.@ 50 with three scores above 35 .
= = 2001 Border @-@ Gavaskar Trophy = =
With Kumble injured before the home series in March 2001 against the visiting Australians , Harbhajan , whose previous best Test figures were only 3 / 30 , was the only capped spinner in the Indian team for the First Test . He had been recalled after captain Sourav Ganguly publicly called for his inclusion in the team . He was to lead the spin attack against an Australian team which had set a world record with 15 consecutive Test victories , and was searching for its first ever series victory on Indian soil since 1969 . In a warm @-@ up match for India A , Harbhajan had taken 2 / 63 and 3 / 81 against the tourists . Harbhajan started well in the First Test in Mumbai , taking three quick wickets in a spell of 3 / 8 , to reduce Australia to 99 / 5 in response to India 's first innings of 176 . However , a counter @-@ attacking 197 @-@ run partnership between Matthew Hayden and Adam Gilchrist in just 32 overs , saw Harbhajan concede 103 runs from his last 17 overs , to end with 4 / 121 . Despite being struck for many sixes into the crowd , it was still Harbhajan 's best statistical analysis at Test level , as Australia proceeded to a crushing 10 @-@ wicket victory , their sixteenth consecutive Test victory in succession .
With leading paceman Javagal Srinath ruled out of the series with a finger injury during the First Test , the teams met for the Second Test in Kolkata , with an even bigger burden on Harbhajan . Public opinion was sceptical about India 's chances of stopping Australia 's winning streak , with former captain Bishan Bedi lamenting the demise of Indian cricket . Australia were again in control on the first day , having scored 193 / 1 , with Hayden having struck Harbhajan out of the attack . Harbhajan fought back to reduce Australia to 252 / 7 , taking five wickets in the final session , including Ricky Ponting , Gilchrist and Shane Warne in successive balls to become the first Indian to claim a Test hat @-@ trick . After a prolonged wait for the third umpire to adjudicate whether Sadagoppan Ramesh had managed to catch Warne before the ball hit the ground , the near @-@ capacity crowd at Eden Gardens erupted when he was given out . Harbhajan eventually finished with 7 / 123 as Australia were bowled out for 445 . India batted poorly and were forced to follow @-@ on , but a 376 @-@ run partnership between V. V. S. Laxman and Rahul Dravid , who batted together for an entire day , allowed India to set Australia an imposing target of 384 to win on the final day . Australia appeared to be safely batting out the match for a draw , until losing 7 / 56 in the final session , collapsing from 166 / 3 to be bowled out for 212 . Harbhajan claimed four of the wickets , to finish with 6 / 73 for the innings and a match tally of 13 / 196 . India ended Australia 's 16 @-@ match world record winning streak , and became only the third team to win a Test after being forced to follow on ( Australia having lost all three of those matches ) .
The teams arrived in Chennai for the deciding Third Test , and Australia 's batsmen again seized control after winning the toss , reaching 340 / 3 on the second morning . Then , Australian captain Steve Waugh padded away a delivery from Harbhajan . The ball spun back into Waugh 's stumps , who pushed the ball away with his glove , becoming only the sixth batsman in Tests to be given out " handled the ball " . Waugh 's dismissal instigated another Australian batting collapse , losing 6 wickets for 51 runs to be bowled out for 391 , with Harbhajan taking all six in a spell of 6 / 26 , to finish with 7 / 133 . After India 's batsmen gained a first @-@ innings lead of 110 , the Australian batsmen were again unable to cope with Harbhajan in the second innings , who took 8 / 84 to end with match figures of 15 / 217 . India appeared to be heading for an easy victory at 101 / 2 chasing 155 , before losing 6 / 50 to be 151 / 8 . Harbhajan walked to the crease , and struck the winning runs .
He was named man of the match and man of the series , having taken 32 wickets at 17 @.@ 03 for the series , when none of his team @-@ mates managed more than three . The Wisden 100 study conducted by Wisden in 2002 rated all four of Harbhajan 's efforts in the Second and Third Tests in the top 100 bowling performances of all time , the most for any bowler . He paid tribute to his father , who had died just six months earlier . His performance led to him usurping Anil Kumble 's position as India 's first @-@ choice spinner .
= = Later career = =
Harbhajan is considered to be one of the legends in Indian cricket . Harbhajan 's Test success saw him recalled to the ODI team after more than two years . He was unable to reproduce his Test form against Australia , managing only four wickets at an average of 59 @.@ 25 and economy rate of 5 @.@ 04 . His best performance was a 3 / 37 in a 118 @-@ run win in the third match , and a cameo batting performance of 46 runs from 34 balls , including three sixes , in a losing run chase in the fourth fixture . He was dropped from the ODI team during a subsequent triangular tournament in Zimbabwe in 2001 after only managing two wickets at 69 @.@ 00 in four matches although he had been economical at 3 @.@ 63 runs an over . Harbhajan was also unable to maintain his form in the Test series against Zimbabwe . Harbhajan began the tour well with 13 wickets in two warm @-@ up matches , including a match haul of 10 / 80 against the CFX Academy , but could not repeat such performances in the Tests . He took eight wickets at 29 @.@ 12 in the two @-@ Test series , which was drawn 1 – 1 , but did manage to post his first Test half @-@ century , reaching 66 in the First Test in Bulawayo , before scoring 31 in the first innings of the Second Test as the Indian batsmen struggled and ceded their series lead . The Indians subsequently toured Sri Lanka in mid @-@ 2001 , enjoying spinning wickets similar to those in India . Harbhajan managed to establish himself in the ODI team with eleven wickets at 21 @.@ 18 at the low economy rate of 3 @.@ 42 in seven matches in the ODI tournament with the hosts and New Zealand . Ironically however , his best performances , in which he conceded less than 30 runs in his ten overs three times , all ended in Indian defeats . In contrast to his ODI improvement , Harbhajan 's Test form deteriorated further , yielding only four wickets at 73 @.@ 00 in three Tests , while Sri Lankan spinner Muttiah Muralitharan was named man of the series with 23 wickets , in what was billed as a contest between the world 's two leading off @-@ spinners . With the Tests locked at 1 – 1 Harbhajan managed only 2 / 185 in the Third Test as the hosts accumulated 6 / 610 declared and won by an innings . He scored 79 runs at 15 @.@ 80 for the series .
Harbhajan was omitted from the Indian team in favour of Kumble as the first @-@ choice spinner on the following tour of South Africa , only playing in the later matches when India fielded two spinners . Nevertheless , Harbhajan continued to do well in the ODIs , taking nine wickets at 20 @.@ 44 in six matches at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 53 , winning his first man of the match award in the ODI form in an ODI against South Africa in Bloemfontein after taking 3 / 27 from his ten overs . He scored 62 runs at 15 @.@ 50 , including a rearguard 37 that was not enough to prevent an embarrassing 70 @-@ run loss to Kenya . After being omitted for the First Test , which India lost , his disciplinary problems continued when he was one of four Indian players fined and given a suspended one match suspension for dissent and attempting to intimidate the umpire by over @-@ appealing in the Second Test . India managed to draw the match , but Harbhajan struggled and took 1 / 89 and 2 / 79 . The off spinner continued his poor overseas Test form in what would have been the Third Test . However , India defied the ICC by playing banned batsman Virender Sehwag , while Mike Denness , the match referee who handed down the penalties , was locked out of the stadium , so the match was stripped of Test status . Harbhajan continued to be ineffective , taking only 1 / 104 , although he showed resistance with the bat , scoring 29 and 30 when many specialist batsmen failed , as India slumped to an innings defeat .
Harbhajan 's Test fortunes improved immediately upon the start of the 2001 – 02 international season in India . Playing in his first international match at his home ground in Mohali , Punjab , Harbhajan took match figures of 7 / 110 , including 5 / 51 in the first innings , to help India win the First Test by ten wickets against the touring English team . He continued his steady form throughout the series with another five wicket haul in the Second Test in Ahmedabad , to end with thirteen wickets at 24 @.@ 53 for the series , although he went wicketless in 27 @.@ 1 overs in the Third and final Test . Harbhajan 's good home form persisted in the Test matches against Zimbabwe , taking twelve wickets at 19 @.@ 66 in two games . In the First Test , he took 4 / 46 in the second innings to seal an innings victory after going wicketless in the second innings . His 2 / 70 and 6 / 62 in the Second Test in Delhi saw him named man of the match in a Test for the second time in his career . As in the first instance , he hit the winning runs , a straight @-@ driven six , after India had lost six wickets and threatened to collapse in pursuit of a modest 122 for victory . He also performed strongly in the ODIs during the Indian season , taking twenty wickets at 19 @.@ 75 in ten matches and taking his first five wicket haul in ODIs . In the five matches against England , he took ten wickets at 20 @.@ 10 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 27 . His best result was a 5 / 43 in the last of these matches , but a late collapse handed the tourists a five @-@ run win . He did better against the Zimbabweans , taking 10 wickets in five matches at an average of 19 @.@ 40 and an economy rate of 4 @.@ 06 . This included a 4 / 33 in the final match . He also scored 39 runs without defeat for the series , including a 24 not out as India were skittled for 191 in one match . As Harbhajan was ensconced in the Indian team for the first team , he only played in two RAnji Trophy matches for Punjab , taking 13 wickets at 20 @.@ 01 and scoring 71 runs at 17 @.@ 75 .
Harbhajan 's overseas difficulties returned during the tour of the West Indies in mid @-@ 2002 . He injured his shoulder while fielding in a tour match in which he started well with a total of 5 / 70 , and was forced to miss the First Test in Guyana . After taking only six wickets at 38 upon his return to the team for the Second and Third Tests , he was dropped for the Fourth Test , but was recalled again for the Fifth Test at Sabina Park , after Kumble was injured . Despite taking improved match figures of 8 / 180 , including 5 / 138 in the first innings , Harbhajan was unable to prevent an Indian defeat after the batting collapsed in the first innings . He claimed three wickets in the three match ODI series at 33 @.@ 00 , conceding 4 @.@ 71 runs per over .
Despite his performance at Sabina Park , Harbhajan was dropped again when Kumble returned for the First Test on the tour to England at Lord 's , where the hosts prevailed . India 's coach John Wright later admitted that Harbhajan 's omission had been a mistake . Harbhajan returned for the final three Tests with moderate success , taking 12 wickets at 34 @.@ 16 , improving as the English summer wore on . After claiming 3 / 175 in the drawn Second Test , he struck form in the tour match against Essex , taking 7 / 83 and 1 / 23 . He then took 3 / 40 and 1 / 56 as India levelled the series in the Third Test at Headingley , before taking 5 / 115 in the first innings of the Fourth Test at The Oval , as well as managing his second Test half @-@ century of 54 at Trent Bridge in the Second Test . He ended the series with 90 runs at 22 @.@ 50 @.@ for the entire tour , Harbhajan aggregated 28 wickets at 27 @.@ 60 . Harbhajan had modest results in the Natwest Trophy . After being dropped after one wicketless match , he was dropped and then took 4 / 46 against Sri Lanka in the last match before the final to ensure his retention , but went wicketless in the decider , which India won . He played in three ODIs and took four wickets at 37 @.@ 25 at 4 @.@ 96 .
The 2002 ICC Champions Trophy in Sri Lanka at the end of the tour brought moderate results with six wickets at 30 @.@ 66 at an economy rate of only 3 @.@ 68 , and a best of 3 / 27 from ten overs in the firstwashed out final against the host nation . Harbhajan helped restrict Sri Lanka to 5 / 244 , but rain ended proceedings with India at 0 / 14 . He then took 1 / 34 the next day during a replay of the final . This time the hosts made 7 / 222 and a downpour again thwarted the players , with India at 1 / 38 when play was called off and the trophy shared .
As was the case in the previous season , Harbhajan 's return to Indian soil coincided with an improvement in results . He took 1 / 37 and 7 / 48 in an innings victory at Mumbai in the First Test against the West Indies , and then contributed match figures of 3 / 56 , 4 / 79 and 37 in an eight @-@ wicket victory in Chennai which saw him named man of the match . A haul of 5 / 115 in the Third Test at Calcutta was the best in a high scoring match , and with 20 wickets at 16 @.@ 75 and 69 runs at 17 @.@ 25 , Harbhajan was named as the man of the series . He was unable to transfer his performances to the ODI format , taking only five wickets at 49 @.@ 00 against the same team at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 44 . Harbhajan took only five wickets at 18 @.@ 80 in the subsequent Test tour to New Zealand , in a series where five pace bowlers averaged less than 20 on green , seaming tracks . India lost the series 2 – 0 and Harbhajan 's 20 and 18 in the Second Test amounted for more than 15 % of India 's match total . The off spinner then took 1 / 56 in one ODI before heading for his World Cup debut in South Africa .
Harbhajan had a mixed tournament at the 2003 Cricket World Cup , taking 11 wickets at 30 @.@ 45 with an economy rate of 3 @.@ 92 in ten matches . He was the first @-@ choice spinner and played in all matches but one , being dropped for the victory against arch @-@ rivals Pakistan in the group phase . His counterpart , Kumble , played in only three matches . Harbhajan was steady throughout the tournament , never taking more than two wickets in a match , and never conceding more than 42 runs from his quota of ten overs , except in the two matches against Australia , who went through the tournament without defeat . In the group match , Harbhajan was the second highest score , with a counter @-@ attacking 28 as India collapsed for 125 , but when it was his turn to bowl , the Australians attacked him and scored 49 runs from his 44 balls without losing a wicket in a decisive nine @-@ wicket win . In the final , Ganguly elected to field and Harbhajan was the only Indian bowler to take a wicket , taking 2 / 49 from eight overs . In contrast , the Australians scored at 7 @.@ 38 runs per over from the other bowlers to reach 2 / 359 , the highest total in a World Cup final , and win by 125 runs . He was the fourth leading wicket taker for India overall and his tournament bowling average was worse than those of Zaheer Khan , Ashish Nehra and Javagal Srinath . He finished the season with six wickets at 14 @.@ 00 at 3 @.@ 65 runs per over in three matches in an ODI tournament in Bangladesh , where he was fined for abusing an umpire .
= = Finger injury = =
After experiencing pains in his spinning finger during the World Cup , Harbhajan was scheduled to undergo surgery in mid @-@ 2003 in Australia , but the surgery was delayed as he sought to play through the pain . He underwent physiotherapy in lieu of surgery and was declared fit for a two @-@ match Test series at home against New Zealand in late 2003 . His performance was substantially worse than his previous displays on Indian soil , taking only six wickets at an average of 50 @.@ 00 as both matches ended in high @-@ scoring draws . Aside from his debut series , it was his worst series bowling average on Indian soil . Despite a triangular ODI series against New Zealand and Australia in which he managed only four wickets at 40 @.@ 50 in four matches and spent time in the sidelines , the Indian team attempted to manage his injury rather than have his finger operated on , and took him on the 2003 – 04 tour of Australia . As with his previous visit four years earlier , Harbhajan had an unhappy time , taking 2 / 159 in a tour match against Victoria . After an ineffective 1 / 169 in the First Test at Brisbane , his injury deteriorated and he underwent major finger surgery , sidelining him for a predicted five months . Kumble replaced him and took 24 wickets in the remaining three Tests in strak contrast of Harbhajan 's struggles in Australia . Kumble bowled India to victory in the following Test against Pakistan in Multan , taking 6 / 71 to reclaim his position as the No. 1 spinner .
After a seven @-@ month layoff , Harbhajan returned to represent India in ODIs in the Asia Cup in July 2004 , where he took four wickets at 39 @.@ 75 in four matches at 3 @.@ 97 runs per over . His performance improved on the tour to England for an ODI series against England and the 2004 ICC Champions Trophy , taking eight wickets at 14 @.@ 00 , conceding only 2 @.@ 80 runs an over , including 3 / 28 against England and 3 / 33 against Kenya and hitting as an unbeaten 41 against England at The Oval as India 's batting collapsed to a substantial defeat .
Harbhajan made his Test return against Australia , who were again seeking their first series win on Indian soil since 1969 in the late 2004 home series . Harbhajan took 5 / 146 in the first innings and 6 / 78 in the second innings in addition to making a run out to reduce Australia from 103 / 3 to 228 all out . Despite this , India required 457 in their second innings to win , slumping to 125 / 8 before Harbhajan ( 42 ) and Irfan Pathan helped India to reach 239 after a rearguard counter @-@ attack , still a 217 @-@ run loss . Harbhajan was less effective in the drawn Second Test in Chennai , with match figures of 5 / 198 , which was washed out with India still needing 210 more runs on the last day with all ten wickets in hand . Harbhajan then withdrew from the Third Test in Nagpur due to illness . Australia won the match easily , clinching the series . Harbhajan returned for the final Test in Mumbai . After failing to take a wicket in the first innings , he claimed 5 / 29 in the second to help India bowl Australia out for 93 and claim a dramatic 14 @-@ run victory . Harbhajan ended the series with 21 wickets at 24 @.@ 00 and 69 runs at 13 @.@ 80 .
A Test series in India against South Africa followed , with Harbhajan taking match figures of 4 / 166 in the drawn First Test in Kanpur , before producing a man of the match performance in the Second Test in Calcutta to lead India to a 1 – 0 series win . After taking 2 / 54 in the first innings , he took 6 / 78 in the second , including South Africa 's first five batsman to help dismiss the tourists for 222 . This set up a run @-@ chase of 117 , which India reached with eight wickets in hand . Harbhajan was the leading wicket @-@ taker for the series , with 13 victims at an average of 23 @.@ 61 . He ended 2004 with a quiet tour of Bangladesh , scoring a 47 in the Second Test and taking four wickets at 41 @.@ 75 in two Tests and one wicket at 94 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 22 in two ODIs . He had a relatively light workload , bowling only 47 @.@ 4 overs in the Tests , as Irfan Pathan frequently scythed through the Bangladeshi batsmen with the new ball , taking three five wicket hauls . He then returned to India and took a total of 6 / 172 in North Zone 's seven @-@ wicket win over South .
His performance in Bangladesh saw him dropped for the First Test in the early 2005 series against Pakistan on his home ground in Mohali , with Kumble being the only spinner selected on the pace @-@ friendly surface . India were in control of the match for four days , and needed only four wickets on day five , but were unable to break the Pakistani lower @-@ order until play was almost over and the tourists had taken a lead , and the match ended in a draw . Harbhajan was recalled for the Second Test in Calcutta and took match figures of 4 / 145 in an Indian victory . Despite taking 6 / 152 in a marathon 51 @-@ over spell in the first innings of the Third Test in Bangalore , Pakistan won the match to level the series after India collapsed on the final day . Harbhajan finished the series with 10 wickets at 33 @.@ 20 . His performance in the subsequent ODI series was even worse , managing only three wickets at 73 @.@ 66 in five matches at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 80 . In spite of the poor end to the season , his performance in the year since finger surgery in the long form of the game saw him nominated for the 2005 ICC Test Player of the Year . Harbhajan spent the international off @-@ season playing for Surrey in English county cricket , citing the improvement that other international players had gained from such an experience . It was his first stint in county cricket , after a planned season at Lancashire in 2003 was cancelled due to injury . After taking six wickets in his opening two first @-@ class fixtures , he struck form against Hampshire , taking 6 / 36 and 2 / 47 in an innings triumph . In is fourth and final first @-@ class match , against Gloucestershire , Harbhajan took a total of 6 / 193 and equalled his previous first @-@ class best of 84 . He ended with 20 wickets at 25 @.@ 85 and 124 runs at 31 @.@ 00 . In the Twenty20 competition , he had less success in the new format , taking four wickets at 38 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 6 @.@ 60 in eight matches . In all he spent six weeks with the county .
= = Chappell era = =
Harbhajan 's first outings under newly appointed coach Greg Chappell came at the Indian Oil Cup in Sri Lanka in August 2005 . He took five wickets at 31 @.@ 40 , conceding 4 @.@ 02 runs per over in four matches , but was wicketless in the final , which was won by the host nation . This was followed by a tour of Zimbabwe , which was marred by tension between the new coach and Indian captain Ganguly . This broke into the public arena when Ganguly claimed that he was asked to resign as captain . Harbhajan played in all five matches in the Videocon Tri @-@ Series involving Zimbabwe and New Zealand with little success , managing only two wickets at 99 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 77 , both of them against an inexperienced Zimbabwe team crippled by a mass exodus of white players from the Mugabe regime . Harbhajan had a quiet Test series against Zimbabwe , taking six wickets at 31 @.@ 00 . He was only required to bowl 58 overs , as the majority of the Zimbabwean batsmen were removed after being unable to cope with Pathan 's swing which was likened to " Frisbees at high speed " , leaving little work for the spinners . He managed to claim his 200th Test wicket in the First Test , and in doing so became the second youngest player to reach the mark after Kapil Dev . Harbhajan 's batting was notable for an exceptionally aggressive 18 @-@ ball innings in the First Test in Bulawayo , where he struck four fours and three sixes in a cameo innings of 37 .
Harbhajan 's difficulties were compounded when he earned the ire of cricket authorities by publicly attacking Chappell and defending Ganguly after the team returned to India . He claimed that Chappell had used " double standards " and instilled " fear and insecurity " into the team . The Punjab Cricket Association called him to explain his actions , but he was not punished after offering an apology . In early 2006 , Harbhajan changed his stance publicly , praising Chappell for the team 's improved form , stating " He has great knowledge about the game and it has been a very successful year for us under him . He has lifted our team to great heights " .
Harbhajan was under pressure to perform when Sri Lanka toured India in late 2005 following his attack on Chappell and the replacement of Ganguly , who had frequently supported him during previous career difficulties , with new captain Rahul Dravid . In addition , his home ODI form had been poor in the previous three years , managing only 12 wickets at 56 in 16 matches , with an economy rate of 4 @.@ 8 . In the three Challenger Trophy matches at the start of the season , he took five wickets at 24 @.@ 20 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 25 . He responded by claiming 3 / 35 in the first ODI in Nagpur after Sri Lanka had raced to 50 in just 6 @.@ 3 overs . The Sri Lankan batsmen hit the Indian fast bowlers out of the attack , scoring 74 runs in the first 10 overs and forcing Dravid to delay the Power Play and introduce Harbhajan . This sparked a collapse , with 4 wickets taken for 14 runs , resulting in a 152 @-@ run Indian victory . Harbhajan took 2 / 19 in the next match , and aggregated six wickets at 26 in the first four matches , at a low economy rate of 3 @.@ 43 , with a series of performances noted for skilful variations in pace and flight , helping India gain an unassailable 4 – 0 series lead . He was subsequently rested for the fifth ODI , and ended the series as the most economical bowler , conceding only 3 @.@ 62 runs per over .
He put on another strong personal performance in the first ODI of the following series against South Africa in Hyderabad , where he struck an aggressive unbeaten 37 from 17 balls , including two sixes , to help India recover to 249 / 9 , before taking 1 / 35 from his 10 overs . He was unable to prevent an Indian loss , and was fined after pointing Ashwell Prince to the pavilion after dismissing him . Harbhajan ended the series with five wickets at 27 @.@ 40 , and was again India 's most economical bowler , conceding 3 @.@ 92 runs per over .
The year ended with a three Test series against Sri Lanka . After the first match in Chennai was washed out by monsoonal rains , Harbhajan took match figures of 4 / 137 as India took a 1 – 0 series lead in Delhi . He finished the calendar year with a man of the match performance in Ahmedabad , which saw India seal a 2 – 0 series victory with a 259 run victory . He took 7 / 62 in the first innings , including six of Sri Lanka 's top eight batsmen . He precipitated a middle @-@ order batting collapse , with 6 wickets falling for 82 runs , which allowed India to take a 193 @-@ run first innings lead . Harbhajan later contributed an aggressive innings of 40 not out from 51 balls , in an unbroken 49 @-@ run final @-@ wicket partnership with Kumble in the second innings , their display of unorthodox hitting stretching India 's lead to 508 runs . His prospects of a half century were cut short by a declaration from acting captain Virender Sehwag , but he was compensated with opening the bowling , as Sehwag employed a novel tactic of assigning the new ball to a spinner . He took 3 / 79 to finish with match figures of 10 / 141 , ending the year on a high note after he had been embroiled in the leadership struggle only three months earlier .
= = Test decline = =
2006 began with Harbhajan 's first tour to arch @-@ rivals Pakistan . The First Test was a high scoring draw held in Lahore , where Harbhajan recorded his worst ever Test figures of 0 / 176 , conceding more than five runs an over in a match where 1 @,@ 089 runs were scored for the loss of just eight wickets . In a match in which many batting records fell , Harbhajan was hit for 27 runs in one over by Shahid Afridi , just one short of the world record . The second Test in Faisalabad was another high scoring draw , with the aggregate runs being the fourth highest in Test history . Harbhajan took 0 / 101 and 0 / 78 . His 81 overs in the series were the fourth highest amount of overs in any Test series without taking a wicket . When he was given the opportunity to make use of the batting surface in India 's only innings in Faisalabad , he managed a brisk 38 , including two sixes . Harbhajan was dropped for the Third Test in Karachi , where a green pitch promised to favour seam bowling , and Kumble was the only spinner used . After sustaining an injury , Harbhajan was sent home during the subsequent ODI series without playing a match , ending his tour without taking a wicket .
A return to Indian soil for the Test series against England failed to ease Harbhajan 's wicket @-@ taking difficulties . He managed match figures of 2 / 172 in the drawn First Test in Nagpur , and 1 / 83 in the Second Test in Mohali , where his main contribution was to hit 36 runs , helping India to a first innings lead . Despite taking 3 / 89 and 2 / 40 in the Third Test in Mumbai , Harbhajan ended the series with eight wickets at an average of 48 @.@ 00 , nearly twice his career average on Indian soil . Despite his difficulties in Test cricket , Harbhajan 's ODI form remained strong , as he top @-@ scored with a rearguard 37 out of 203 and then took 5 / 31 in a man of the match performance in the first ODI against England in Delhi , sparking a collapse of 7 / 47 which secured a 39 @-@ run victory . He ended the series with 12 wickets at 15 @.@ 58 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 74 from five matches , and topped the wicket @-@ taking list despite being rested for the last match , as well as having the best bowling average and economy rate . India took the series 5 – 1 , Harbhajan taking 3 / 30 in their only loss .
Harbhajan was unable to maintain his ODI form on the tour to the West Indies , where he managed three wickets at 64 in five matches , although he continued to be economical , conceding 3 @.@ 91 runs per over . He was omitted from the Test team for the opening two Tests as India opted to use three pace bowlers and Anil Kumble , scrapping the five bowler strategy used since early 2006 . The reasons for the return to the four @-@ man attack were unclear , with performance , fatigue and injury variously offered as explanations . Harbhajan was recalled for the Third Test in St Kitts after the pace attack was unable to dismiss the West Indian batsmen , with local captain Brian Lara stating that his team , who had three wickets in hand at the end of play , would have been lucky to draw the Second Test had Harbhajan been playing . In a drawn match , Harbhajan claimed the leading match figures of 6 / 186 , as well as contributing an unbeaten 38 in the first innings . Harbhajan 's 5 / 13 in 27 balls in the first innings in the Fourth Test saw the hosts lose their last six wickets for 23 , to give India a 97 run first innings lead . India went on secure a victory in a low scoring match in three days and win the series 1 – 0 , although Harbhajan was punished in the second innings , conceding 65 runs in 16 overs without taking a wicket . It was India 's first series victory in the Caribbean in 35 years , with Harbhajan contributing 11 wickets at 24 @.@ 00 .
The 2006 – 07 season began with the DLF Cup in Malaysia , where Harbhajan made a good start to the season , taking six wickets at 19 @.@ 16 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 59 in four matches . He was man of the match against the West Indies , scoring 37 in a 78 @-@ run partnership to push India to 162 , before taking 3 / 35 to secure a 16 @-@ run victory . India failed to reach the final , contested by Australia and the West Indies . Harbhajan was unable to maintain his form in the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy held in India , managing only two wickets at 51 @.@ 50 and saving his worst performance of 0 / 49 in the final group match against Australia on his home ground in Punjab . India won only one of their three matches and were eliminated , although Harbhajan continued to be tidy , conceding 3 @.@ 67 runs per over . The tour of South Africa in late 2006 saw even less success , taking only one wicket in three ODI matches while conceding 161 runs at the expensive economy rate of 5 @.@ 75 . He finished the year watching from the sidelines as India fielded Kumble as the only spinner in the three Test series , which India lost 2 – 1 . Apart from the injury hit 2003 , it was Harbhajan 's least productive year in Test cricket since he became a regular team member in 2001 , managing only 19 wickets at 52 @.@ 78 .
Harbhajan returned for the early 2007 ODI series against the West Indies and Sri Lanka in India , taking seven wickets at 36 @.@ 00 in seven matches at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 27 . Despite criticism that he was afraid to toss the ball up , and was concentrating on bowling flat in a defensive run @-@ saving style , Harbhajan was selected as the off spin bowler in the Indian squad for the 2007 Cricket World Cup , while Ramesh Powar , who had been more expensive but had taken more wickets in recent times , was omitted . A statistical study showed that since the start of 2006 , Harbhajan has been the second most economical bowler in the final 10 overs of ODIs .
During the 2007 Cricket World Cup , Harbhajan started as India 's first @-@ choice spinner and played in their first match against Bangladesh . He took 0 / 30 from his ten overs , but India lost the match as their batsmen collapsed and Bangladesh had no need to take risks against the bowling . Harbhajan was dropped in favour of Kumble for the second match against Bermuda , which India won easily . Harbhajan was recalled for the final group match against Sri Lanka , and had little effect , taking 0 / 53 from his ten overs as India were set 255 for victory . Harbhajan made an unbeaten 17 as India collapsed to 185 to lose the match and be eliminated in the group phase . Following the failed campaign , the Indian selectors made multiple changes to the national team and Harbhajan was dropped for the tours of Bangladesh and England . Rajesh Pawar , Piyush Chawla and Powar were the spinners selected to partner Kumble . Harbhajan 's waning wicket @-@ taking and his lack of flight were again perceived to be the cause of his problems .
In the meantime , Harbhajan played in two ODIs for the Asian Cricket Council against a combined African team , taking 1 / 53 and 3 / 48 as the Asians won both matches . He then returned to Surrey for a second season of county cricket in an attempt to rediscover his form while his compatriots were touring England , staying throughout July and August . After easing into the season with six wickets in the first two first @-@ class matches , Harbhajan found a rich vein of form , taking 4 / 64 and 5 / 64 against Worcestershire , before following up with 5 / 34 and 6 / 57 against Kent , finishing off by scoring 29 to help guide Surrey home by four wickets after they had stumbled in pursuit of 107 . He ended the first @-@ class campaign with five and six wickets against Durham and Hampshire respectively and totalled 37 wickets at 18 @.@ 54 in only six outings . He was not so successful in the one @-@ dayers , taking six wickets at 29 @.@ 50 and an economy rate of 4 @.@ 65 in five matches .
= = Recall = =
Harbhajan returned to international cricket as part of India 's squad for the ICC World Twenty20 tournament in South Africa in September 2007 , which India won , having been rank outsiders at the start of the tournament with many senior players opting out of the competition . He played in all six of India 's matches and totalled seven wickets at 26 @.@ 00 and an economy rate of 7 @.@ 91 . In the opening pool match against Pakistan , Harbhajan hit the stumps in a bowl @-@ out after scores were tied ; India won 3 – 0 after three rounds . In the semi @-@ final against Australia , Harbhajan bowled Michael Clarke and conceded only three runs in his final over , the 18th of the match , to turn the match towards India . The final against Pakistan was the only match in which Harbhajan did not bowl his full quota of four overs , after being struck for three sixes in his third over by Misbah @-@ ul @-@ Haq , who led a late charge towards the target . India prevailed by five runs in the final over , Misbah being the last man to fall .
Harbhajan was recalled to the ODI squad during India 's home season in 2006 – 07 , which comprised series against Australia and Pakistan . In ten ODIs , he took seven wickets at 61 @.@ 71 125 and an economy rate of 4 @.@ 59 , much higher than his career average . He scored 101 runs at 33 @.@ 66 in these matches , including an unbeaten 38 in one match against Pakistan . He was then recalled to the Test squad , and with India fielding two spinners in its home series against Pakistan , Harbhajan accompanied Kumble in all three Tests . Playing in Tests for the first time in 16 months , he took 10 wickets at 44 @.@ 10 , much higher than his career average in India . His best result was 5 / 122 in the first innings of the Second Test at Eden Gardens . He toured Australia and played in three of the four Tests — India persisted with two spinners in all venues except for the Third Test at the pace @-@ friendly WACA Ground . As he was during his previous visits to Australia , Harbhajan was ineffective with the ball . In the First Test in Melbourne , he took match figures of 3 / 162 , before taking 4 / 200 in the Second Test in Sydney . Upon his recall in Adelaide , he took 1 / 128 in Australia 's only innings on a placid surface , ending the series with eight wickets at 61 @.@ 25 . However , he did manage to take Ponting 's wicket for three consecutive innings in the first two Tests , leading to much speculation about the Australian captain 's difficulties against the off spinner . After the third dismissal in the Sydney Test , Harbhajan celebrated by running a distance before twice rolling over on the ground . Harbhajan 's most noted contribution with the bat came in the Second Test when he came to the crease with India at 345 / 7 , still 118 runs behind Australia , after a middle @-@ order collapse of 4 / 52 . He made 63 runs in a 129 @-@ run partnership with Tendulkar , which enabled India to gain a first @-@ innings lead . In the Fourth Test , he came to the crease at 7 / 359 and scored 63 in a 107 @-@ run rearguard partnership with captain Kumble , allowing India to reach 529 . He failed to reach double figures in his four other innings and ended with 142 runs at 23 @.@ 66 .
= = Altercations with Andrew Symonds and Sreesanth = =
While Harbhajan was batting during his 63 on the third day of the Second Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground , he became involved in an altercation with Australia 's Andrew Symonds . As a result of this , he was charged with a Level 3 offence of racially abusing Symonds by calling the Australian — of Caribbean descent — a " monkey " . Harbhajan and Tendulkar , his batting partner at the time of the incident , denied this . At a hearing after the conclusion of the Test , match referee Mike Procter found Harbhajan guilty and banned him for three Tests . This decision generated controversy because no audio or video evidence was available , and the conviction relied on the testimony of the Australian players . The Indian team initially threatened to withdraw from the series pending an appeal against Harbhajan 's suspension , however BCCI president Sharad Pawar later claimed that the tour would proceed even if the second hearing was unsuccessful .
On 29 January , following the Fourth Test , the appeal hearing was conducted in Adelaide by ICC Appeals Commissioner Justice John Hansen . The result was that the racism charge was not proved , resulting in the revocation of the three @-@ Test ban imposed by Procter . However , Harbhajan was found guilty of using abusive language and fined 50 % of his match fee . Hansen later admitted he " could have imposed a more serious penalty if he was made aware by the ICC of the bowler 's previous transgressions " — including a suspended one @-@ Test ban . It was reported that senior players from both sides had written a letter to Hansen requesting that the charge be downgraded . According to this report , the letter was signed by Tendulkar and Ponting and counter @-@ signed by Michael Clarke , Hayden and Symonds .
In the aftermath of the hearing , Hayden called Harbhajan an " obnoxious weed " during a radio interview , which earned him a code of conduct violation charge from Cricket Australia .
Following the appeal , Harbhajan played in all eight of India 's round @-@ robin matches in the Commonwealth Bank series , which also involved Sri Lanka , taking five wickets at 39 @.@ 00 . In the two finals matches , Australia suffered a top @-@ order collapse and lost their first three wickets with only 24 and 32 runs on the board respectively . Symonds and Hayden — with whom Harbhajan clashed during the summer — led a recovery with stands of 100 and 89 respectively . In both matches , Harbhajan had a hand in removing both of his bitter opponents . In the first final in Sydney , he removed both in the space of four overs , caught from his bowling . In the second final in Brisbane , he completed the run out of Hayden after a mix @-@ up , and then trapped Symonds leg before wicket in the same over . Australia lost the momentum and their run @-@ rate slowed , and India went on to win the series 2 – 0 . Harbhajan ended with 2 / 38 and 1 / 44 from his 10 overs in the respective matches .
Following the tour of Australia , India hosted South Africa in a three @-@ Test series . The First Test in Chennai was a high @-@ scoring draw in which 1 @,@ 498 runs were scored for the loss of 25 wickets . Harbhajan was the top wicket @-@ taker for the match , with figures of 5 / 161 and 3 / 101 . In the Second Test in Ahmedabad , he was India 's leading wicket @-@ taker for the third consecutive innings , taking 4 / 135 as the home team lost by an innings . With India needing a win in the Third Test in Kanpur to avoid series defeat , Harbhajan again took the leading bowling figures in both innings , with 3 / 52 and 4 / 44 . His second innings effort helped bowl out the tourists for 121 and set up an eight @-@ wicket win . As a result of his efforts , Harbhajan was named man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series , having taken 19 wickets at 25 @.@ 94 . In contrast to his efforts in Australia , he struggled with the bat , scoring 11 runs at 2 @.@ 75 . He was troubled by South African paceman Dale Steyn , who dismissed him all four times by breaking through his defences , bowling him once and trapping him lbw the other three times .
Harbhajan was involved in further controversy after an 2008 Indian Premier League ( IPL ) match between Mumbai Indians and Kings XI Punjab at Mohali in April 2008 . While the teams were shaking hands , he slapped Punjab paceman and Indian team @-@ mate Sreesanth in the face . Harbhajan , who had stood in as the Mumbai captain for the first three matches of the tournament to that point , all of which were lost , had apparently been angered by Sreesanth 's aggressive sending @-@ off of his batsmen as Punjab coasted to a decisive victory . The Kings XI Punjab lodged an official complaint to the IPL . The match referee Farokh Engineer found Harbhajan guilty of a level 4 @.@ 2 offence , banning him from the remainder of the IPL and preventing him from claiming his entire season 's salary . Harbhajan made up with Sreesanth , and said that " I have been punished for the wrong I did " . Harbhajan had taken five wickets at 16 @.@ 40 at an economy rate of 8 @.@ 20 and scored 30 runs at 15 @.@ 00 in the three matches before his ban . On 14 May , the BCCI disciplinary committee found Harbhajan guilty under Rule 3 @.@ 2 @.@ 1 of their regulations and handed down the maximum punishment of five @-@ match ban from ODIs . Harbhajan faces the prospect of a life ban if he commits significant disciplinary breaches in the future . As a result , Harbhajan missed the tri @-@ series in Bangladesh and the 2008 Asia Cup in Pakistan , and India went down in the final of both tournaments after qualifying first on both occasions . He would have been eligible for selection after the first two matches of the Asia Cup , but the selectors omitted him entirely .
= = International revival = =
Harbhajan returned to international cricket for the tour of Sri Lanka in July and August . In the First Test at Colombo , he took 2 / 149 as Sri Lanka amassed 600 / 6 declared and won by an innings . In the Second Test in Galle , he took 6 / 102 to help India take a first innings lead of 37 and then took 4 / 51 in the second innings to help India level the series with a 170 @-@ run win . It was his fifth ten @-@ wicket match haul and his first outside India . He was again India 's leading wicket @-@ taker in the Third Test defeat , with 3 / 104 and 1 / 44 . He was India 's leading wicket @-@ taker with 16 scalps at 28 @.@ 12 , twice as many the second most @-@ prolific Indian . In the subsequent ODI series , he played in the first four matches , taking six wickets at 18 @.@ 83 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 80 , including 3 / 40 in the win in the fourth match , which sealed the series . He was rested from the final dead rubber .
At the start of the Indian season , Harbhajan took 2 / 32 and 4 / 31 as the Rest of India defeated Delhi in the Irani Trophy . This was followed by the First Test against Australia in Bangalore . Harbhajan took Ponting 's wicket in taking 1 / 103 in the first innings , but not before the Australian captain had scored 123 . In reply to Australia 's 430 , India were in trouble at 195 / 6 when Harbhajan came in to bat . He scored a rearguard 54 , putting on 80 with fellow bowler Zaheer Khan , to reduce India 's deficit to 70 . He then took 2 / 76 in the second innings as the match ended in a draw . Ponting later cited Harbhajan and Zaheer 's partnership as the passage of play that prevented an Australian win . In the Second Test at his home ground in Mohali , Harbhajan took 2 / 60 in the first innings as India took a 201 @-@ run first innings lead . In the second innings Australia were chasing 516 for victory and had started aggressively , reaching 49 / 0 after seven overs . Harbhajan was introduced into the attack and removed Hayden and Simon Katich in his first over and then Mike Hussey in his next . This triggered Australia 's collapse to 58 / 5 and their eventual defeat by 320 runs . Harbhajan was unable to find a fourth wicket , which would have seen him reach 300 Test wickets on his home ground , and ended with 3 / 36 . He was then ruled out of the drawn Third Test because of a toe injury . Harbhajan returned for the Fourth Test in Nagpur and dismissed Ponting for the tenth time in Tests in the first innings to register his 300th wicket . He ended with 3 / 94 as India took an 86 @-@ run lead . However , a batting collapse meant that India were 6 / 166 at tea on day four , only 252 runs ahead and facing possible defeat if Australia could clean up the tail quickly . Harbhajan then scored 52 , combining in a 107 @-@ run partnership with captain Mahendra Singh Dhoni to guide India out of trouble . India then successfully defended the target of 380 to win by 172 runs , with Harbhajan taking 4 / 64 including top @-@ scorer Hayden and the final wicket . Harbhajan was the equal @-@ leading wicket @-@ taker for the series along with Ishant Sharma , taking 15 wickets at 28 @.@ 86 . He also scored 125 runs at 41 @.@ 66 , helping to prevent two defeats . The series also saw the end of Harbhajan 's partnership with Kumble , who missed the Second Test due to injury and then retired after suffering another wound in the next match . As a result , Harbhajan started a new pairing with leg spinner Amit Mishra .
In the five @-@ match home ODI series against England , Harbhajan took seven wickets at 30 @.@ 29 and an economy rate of 5 @.@ 04 as India won 5 – 0 . He took one wicket in each of the matches , except the third match in Kanpur . In that match , he took 3 / 31 , registered his 200th ODI wicket and was named man @-@ of @-@ the match . During the two Tests , Harbhajan was the equal @-@ leading wicket @-@ taker with eight wickets at 35 @.@ 00 and he also scored 69 runs at 34 @.@ 50 . This included a 40 in the first innings of the First Test to help India reach 241 after a top @-@ order collapse , keeping India 's deficit to 75 ; they went on to win the match . Harbhajan ended the year as the third @-@ highest wicket @-@ taker in the world , and the highest among Indian players . He was named by Wisden in their selection of the Test team of the year .
Harbhajan then missed the ODI tour of Sri Lanka at the beginning of the year with a hamstring injury . He recovered in time to be recalled for the tour of New Zealand . Harbhajan was the leading wicket @-@ taker from both sides in both ODIs and Tests . Harbhajan was India 's most economical bowler in the two T20 internationals at the start of the tour , taking a total of 2 / 34 from eight overs and scoring 21 in the first match ; the hosts prevailed in both games . In series that saw four of the five ODIs truncated by rain , Harbhajan took five wickets at 29 @.@ 60 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 69 . He took 3 / 27 in the opening match , and then took 2 / 56 from ten overs in the third game , in which both teams passed 330 , helping India to wins in both matches . In the First Test , Harbhajan took 1 / 57 and 6 / 63 to help set up a ten @-@ wicket win . It was only the second time that he had taken five wickets in an innings outside the subcontinent . However , he was disappointing in a high @-@ scoring draw in the Second Test , taking 2 / 120 as the hosts amassed 9 / 619 declared . In the Third Test , India suffered a middle @-@ order collapse on the first afternoon , and a counter @-@ attacking 60 by Harbhajan helped them to 379 . He then took 3 / 43 and 4 / 59 ; New Zealand had only two wickets in hand when rain caused the match to end in a draw with more than a day 's playing time lost . Harbhajan ended with 16 wickets at 21 @.@ 37 and 94 runs at 23 @.@ 50 .
India won both series , their first series win in New Zealand since 1981 and 1968 for ODIs and Tests respectively .
Harbhajan then played the full 2009 Indian Premier League season in South Africa , taking 12 wickets at 21 @.@ 33 and an economy rate of 5 @.@ 81 in 13 matches . He was one of the most economical bowlers in the competition , and took 1 / 9 in four overs against Punjab to win the man of the match award . He ended the season with 4 / 17 against Delhi , but it was not enough to prevent a four @-@ wicket defeat .
Harbhajan was part of the Indian team that attempted to defend their crown at the 2009 World Twenty20 . However they lost all three of their matches in the Super 8s round and were eliminated . Harbhajan took 3 / 30 in one of those matches against England , and ended the tournament with five wickets at 26 @.@ 20 and an economy rate of 6 @.@ 55 . During the tour of the West Indies that followed , Harbhajan took three wickets at 45 @.@ 33 , conceding almost a run a ball in three ODIs as India prevailed 2 – 1 .
In September , Harbhajan took 5 / 56 in the final of the Compaq Cup to help secure a 46 @-@ run Indian win over the hosts Sri Lanka . It was his first five @-@ wicket haul in three years and capped off a tournament in which he took six wickets at 22 @.@ 00 in three matches . He then struggled at the 2009 ICC Champions Trophy in South Africa , taking 1 / 71 from ten overs against Pakistan and 0 / 54 from nine overs against Australia . India lost to Pakistan and the latter match was washed out . He then took 2 / 14 from eight overs against the West Indies , but it was not enough to prevent India from being eliminated in the first round , despite winning the match .
After his travails in South Africa , Harbhajan started the Indian season with eight wickets at 12 @.@ 87 in three Challenger Trophy one @-@ dayers for India Blue . He then played in a home ODI series against Australia taking eight wickets at 33 @.@ 87 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 51 in six games . This included a best of 2 / 23 in the sixth match , but he made a more influential contribution in the first match with the bat , striking 49 at the death as India came within striking distance of their target before he fell in the last over and the hosts ended five runs adrift of the target . He scored a similarly rapid 31 in the fourth match , but India fell 24 runs short . Harbhajan ended the series with 81 runs at 20 @.@ 25 .
In the three home Tests against Sri Lanka , Harbhajan was the highest wicket @-@ taker with 13 scalps , but these came at an average cost of 41 @.@ 00 . After taking 2 / 189 in the drawn First Test , he aggregated 5 / 152 and 6 / 192 as India took the next two fixtures by an innings . In the subsequent ODI series , he took six wickets at 35 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 88 as India won 3 – 1 . He took 2 / 58 from his ten overs in the first match , which proved to be tidy in the context of a match in which both teams passed 410 and India prevailed by three runs .
During the tri @-@ series in Bangladesh in January 2010 , Harbhajan took six wickets at 24 @.@ 00 in three matches . He missed the First Test due to neck pain but returned to take a total of 2 / 123 as India completed a clean sweep with a ten @-@ wicket win in the Second Test .
During New Zealand 's tour of India in November 2010 , Harbhajan scored his maiden Test century during the First Test in Ahmedabad . This was the 100th century by an Indian in the second innings and he reached triple figures with a six . His 115 , along with Laxman 's 91 saved the game for India after they had collapsed to 5 / 15 . Harbhajan was named man of the match . He followed on in the next test with 111 * in India 's 1st innings , becoming the first no . 8 batsman to score back @-@ to @-@ back test centuries .
After an ordinary performance with the ball in the 5 @-@ match ODI series in West Indies in June 2011 ( where he was the vice captain to skipper Suresh Raina ) ( took 4 wickets from 3 matches , best of 3 / 32 ) , he helped his team revive from dire straits in the 1st Test in Sabina Park at Kingston , Jamaica . With India struggling at 85 / 6 , he along with Suresh Raina initiated a counter @-@ attack to string an aggressive 146 @-@ run partnership with Suresh Raina ( 82 of 115 balls , 15 fours ) to help India reach 246 . Harbhajan scored 70 from 74 balls ( 10 fours , 1 six ) .
= = 2011 Exclusion = =
Following a few poor performances , Harbhajan was injured in India 's tour of England in the summer / monsoon of 2011 and was ruled out of the rest of the series . He returned to competitive cricket to lead the Mumbai Indians to 2011 Champions League Twenty20 title , but fell out of favor with the national selectors . He was not chosen in the home series squad against England in October and West Indies in November and December . Mumbai Indians won their first ever championship under his captaincy , winning the Champions League by 31 runs . Harbhajan was man of the match for his contribution . Harbhajan was also not selected for the Australian tour and the 2012 Asia Cup in Bangladesh . He went to play the IPL 2012 which was not that successful for him , but took his team to semi final while being captain . Harbhajan is now going to play for Essex in England but is not selected for the Sri Lankan tour before the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 . In his debut match for Essex against Gloucestershire , Harbhajan did not take any wicket on 12 July 2012 , conceding 33 runs in his 12 overs . He has , however , been included in 30 probables for the World T20 tournament being held in Sri Lanka in September 2012 . He has been recalled to the Test squad after a gap of more than a year against New Zealand starting in the end of August 2012 . Harbhajan was dropped from the test team after the 2013 series against Australia . He was called back to the test team after 2 years for a solitary test against Bangladesh .
= = 2015 @-@ 2016 Inclusion = =
Following performances in IPL for Mumbai Indians in 2015 and 2014 , he was included in the test team captained by Virat Kohli against Bangladesh for the one @-@ off test match in Fatullah . He took 3 wickets in that test to overtake Wasim Akram in the list of most test match wickets to become the ninth highest wicket @-@ taker in Tests . He was then called up for the ODI and T20I teams when a second @-@ string Indian side toured Zimbabwe to play 3 One @-@ day and 2 Twenty @-@ 20 matches . Though he did not take many wickets in that tour , he was impressive maintaining a tight line and stopping the flow of runs . Harbhajan returned with figures of 2 / 29 ( in 4 overs ) in his first T20 international over two and a half years . He was in the squad for the 3 test away series against Sri Lanka led by Virat Kohli . He replaced injured Ashwin in series against South Africa . He was also part of the team that played 3 T20I matches against Australia , home series against Sri Lanka , Asia Cup in Bangladesh . He played only one match in the Asia Cup against UAE . He was also part of the T20 World Cup that took place in India but did not play any of the matches .
= = Centuries = =
= = = Test Centuries = = =
= = Playing style = =
Harbhajan is an attacking @-@ minded bowler who is regarded for his ball control and ability to vary his length and pace , although he is often criticised for his flat trajectory . His main wicket @-@ taking ball climbs wickedly on the unsuspecting batsman from a good length , forcing him to alter his stroke at the last second . With a whippy bowling action , he was reported for throwing in November 1998 . Although forced to travel to England for tests , his action was cleared by former English player Fred Titmus .
He has developed an ability to bowl the doosra , which was the subject of an official report by match referee Chris Broad , on @-@ field umpires Aleem Dar and Mark Benson , and TV umpire Mahbubur Rahman after the Second Test between India and Bangladesh at Chittagong , Bangladesh in December 2004 . The ICC cleared his action in May 2005 , saying that the straightening of his elbow fell within the permitted limits .
Among off spinners , Harbhajan is the second highest wicket @-@ taker in Test history , behind Muttiah Muralitharan of Sri Lanka . He is the third @-@ highest Test wicket @-@ taker among all Indians . Harbhajan average with the ball in home Test matches hovers in the mid @-@ 20s . All five of his man of the match awards and both of his man of the series awards have been obtained in India . Outside India , his bowling average climbs to around 40 . Statistically , his bowling in Test matches is most effective against the West Indies and Australia . As of May 2008 , his most productive hunting grounds have been Eden Gardens in Calcutta , where he has taken 38 wickets at 23 @.@ 10 in six Tests , while the Chepauk in Chennai , where he has claimed two man of the match awards , has yield 34 wickets at 24 @.@ 25 in five Tests . Harbhajan has claimed his wickets most cheaply at Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai , where he has taken 22 wickets at 19 @.@ 45 . Compared to Muralitharan , Harbhajan is less reliant on targeting the stumps for his dismissals ; he captures more than 60 % of his wickets via catches and less than 25 % by bowling or trapping batsmen leg before wicket , whereas the corresponding figures for Muralitharan are in the 40s . Harbhajan 's off spin complements Kumble 's leg spin . While Harbhajan is known for his emotional and extroverted celebrations , which are part of a deliberate strategy of aggression , Kumble is known for his undemonstrative and composed approach . Both spinners have opined that they bowl more effectively in tandem via persistent application of pressure to batsmen , but statistics have shown that while Kumble has performed better when paired with Harbhajan , Harbhajan has been more effective in Kumble 's absence .
Harbhajan has been particularly successful against Australian batsman Ricky Ponting , taking his wicket on ten occasions in Test cricket .
In an interview in 2001 , Harbhajan stated his ambition to become an all @-@ rounder . Although he has recorded a few half @-@ centuries at Test level , his batting average hovers around 15 in both Tests and ODIs . However , in the span of four years starting from 2003 , he has shown improved performance , averaging around 20 with the bat . His style is frequently described as unorthodox , with pundits agreeing with his self @-@ assessment attributing his batting achievements to his hand @-@ eye coordination , rather than his footwork or technique . The aggression in Harbhajan 's bowling also extends to his batting , with a Test strike rate in the 60s , placing him in the ten highest strike rates among players who have scored more than 1000 runs in Test cricket . Harbhajan Singh Is also a useful lower @-@ down the order batsman . For Mumbai Indians he had made valuable 49 runs of 18 balls to guide the MI to a seemingly impossible win over the DC . In the 2011 test , he also scored quickfire 70 of 72 balls to stabilise India 's batting
= = Awards = =
= = = Test cricket = = =
= = = = Man of the Series awards = = = =
= = = = Man of the Match awards = = = =
= = = ODI cricket = = =
= = = = Man of the match awards = = = =
= = = = Match performance of Last Seven Matches = = = =
= = Test wicket milestones = =
1st : Greg Blewett ( Australia )
50th : Ricky Ponting ( Australia )
100th : Wavell Hinds ( West Indies )
150th : Nathan Astle ( New Zealand )
200th : Charles Coventry ( Zimbabwe )
250th : Ricky Ponting ( Australia )
300th : Ricky Ponting ( Australia )
350th : JP Duminy ( South Africa )
400th : Carlton Baugh ( West Indies )
= = Filmography = =
= Typhoon Wayne ( 1983 ) =
Typhoon Wayne was an intense tropical cyclone that brought significant flooding to the Philippines in July 1983 . The typhoon originated from an area of disturbed weather that formed far from land towards the end of July . Late on July 22 , Wayne developed gale @-@ force winds while moving west . The next day , it was estimated to have become a typhoon , and Wayne subsequently entered a period of rapid deepening . During the morning hours of July 24 , the typhoon was estimated to have reached its peak intensity of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) , but soon began to weaken due to interaction with land . By the time it moved ashore in southern China on July 25 , Wayne had weakened considerably . After moving inland , Wayne weakened rapidly . The following day , Wayne was no longer a tropical cyclone .
Typhoon Wayne became the second typhoon to strike the Philippines within nine days . Furthermore , 42 people lost their lives in flood waters while attempting to cross a temporary bridge . A total of 28 persons were hurt and 39 were rescued , and there were initially reports of up to 200 people missing . Although Wayne passed south of Taiwan , moderate flooding was reported due to rough seas . Elsewhere , in China , Wayne was the fifth most intense typhoon on record to impact Fujian between 1960 and 2005 . Throughout China , 440 persons were injured , 105 people died , and 30 @,@ 000 dwellings collapsed . Overall , 147 people were killed due to Typhoon Wayne .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Wayne originated from an elongated surface trough west of Truk . Initially , the trough was poorly organized , but after 1200 UTC on July 21 , satellite imagery indicated an increase in the organization and convective activity of the system . Based on this , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued late on July 21 by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . Early the next day , Hurricane Hunters estimated that the system developed into a tropical depression , and the JTWC subsequently initialized warnings . Around this time , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started monitoring the system .
During the next 24 hours , Wayne began to intensify and was soon upgraded into a tropical storm by the JTWC . The JMA first classified the low as a tropical storm at 1800 UTC on July 22 while the system generally moved west . By early July 23 , the JTWC upgraded the storm into a typhoon while the JMA upgraded the system to a severe tropical storm . Around this time , aircraft reconnaissance revealed an eyewall and a small inner core . Six hours later , the JMA upgraded Wayne to a typhoon . Later that day , the JMA announced that Wayne attained winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . The storm continued to rapidly deepen , and within 24 hours , Typhoon Wayne had more than doubled in intensity according to the JTWC . Meanwhile , the cyclone moved westward along the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge in a low wind shear environment . At 0600 UTC on July 24 , the JTWC estimated that the storm attained peak intensity of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , a Category 4 hurricane @-@ equivalent on the United States Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . According to the JTWC , Wayne was also a super typhoon . Early on July 24 , the JMA reported that Typhoon Wayne attained peak intensity of 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) ( equivalent to a Category 3 on the SSHWS ) , which it maintained for 12 hours before weakening slightly . As Super Typhoon Wayne passed north of Luzon , the low @-@ level atmospheric circulation was disrupted north of the storm by the high terrain of Taiwan and thus Wayne weakened . Wayne then began a more northwestward track and made landfall approximately 560 km ( 350 mi ) east of Hong Kong . At the time of landfall on July 25 , the JMA estimated winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) , equivalent to a mid @-@ level Category 2 system on the SSHWS . Wayne struck the coast of China at typhoon strength according to JTWC , but rapidly dissipated as it moved inland over the mountainous terrain of southeastern China . By 0000 UTC on July 26 , the JMA ceased monitoring Typhoon Wayne .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Upon affecting the Philippines , Typhoon Wayne became the second system to strike Luzon in nine days after Typhoon Vera . There , 42 people lost their lives including two children and 12 woman when they drowned in flood waters while trying to cross a damaged , but temporary bridge that was built after the 1981 Pacific typhoon season . The bridge was 150 ft ( 45 m ) long and 1 yd ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide and was responsible for connecting Talisay and Cebu . Many of the deceased were swept downstream the Managua River , which was situated 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) below the bridge . Additionally , 28 people were injured and 39 were rescued . Initially , an estimated 100 to 200 people were listed as missing , many of which were believed to have drowned in floodwaters . Many motorists were stranded due to flooding .
Despite veering south of Taiwan , Wayne generated high waves , which flooded farmland . A total of 1 @,@ 482 acres ( 600 ha ) of banana crops were flooded . Typhoon Wayne was the fifth most intense tropical cyclone to impact Fujian between 1960 and 2005 . Heavy rainfall led to severe flooding in Fujian and Guangdong . Across China , 105 persons perished . In addition , 440 persons were injured and 30 @,@ 000 dwellings collapsed . Although little damage was reported , winds of 43 km / h ( 27 mph ) and gusts of 56 km / h ( 35 mph ) were measured at Waglan Island. in Tia Po Kau , a slight storm surge was measured , peaking at 2 @.@ 18 m ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) . Nearby , in Tatin 's Carin , a peak rainfall total of 113 @.@ 9 mm ( 4 @.@ 48 in ) was recorded .
= Walter de Lacy ( died 1085 ) =
Walter de Lacy ( died 27 March 1085 ) was a Norman nobleman who came to England after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 . He received lands in Herefordshire and Shropshire , and served King William I of England by leading military forces during 1075 . He died in 1085 and one son inherited his lands . Another son became an abbot .
= = Early life = =
Walter was originally from Lassy , in Normandy . He had a brother , Ilbert de Lacy . Ilbert was the ancestor of the de Lacy family of Pontefract . Both Walter and Ilbert jointly held the Norman lands that were held of the Bishop of Bayeux .
= = Career in England = =
Walter was given the lordship of Weobley in Herefordshire after the Conquest . He is already attested in the Welsh Marches by 1069 , when he is recorded stopping a Welsh attack and then raiding into Wales in retribution . Walter and Ilbert may have come to England in the household of Odo of Bayeux , the Bishop of Bayeux and half @-@ brother of King William the Conqueror . Although some historians , such as W. E. Wightman , have argued that Walter was a follower of William fitzOsbern , others , including C. P. Lewis and K. S. B. Keats @-@ Rohan , have argued that Walter was an independent agent in England . By the time of Walter 's death , he held a block of lands in Herefordshire along the border with Wales . Another group of lands was centered on Ludlow in Shropshire . These two groupings of lands allowed Walter to help defend the border of England against Welsh raids . Walter also had other lands in Berkshire , Gloucestershire , Worcestershire , and Oxfordshire . Walter kept a large number of his manors in demesne , managing them directly rather than giving them as fiefs to his knightly followers . Some of these lands in Hereford , including Holme Lacy , were held of the Bishop of Hereford through feudal tenure . In total , Domesday Book records Walter 's lands as being worth £ 423 in income per year and as comprising 163 manors in 7 different counties . He was one of 21 individuals with land valued at more than £ 400 at the time of the survey .
In 1075 , Walter was one of the leaders of the force that prevented Roger de Breteuil from joining up with the other rebels during the Revolt of the Earls . Walter had joined forces with Wulfstan the Bishop of Worcester , Æthelwig the Abbot of Evesham Abbey , and Urse d 'Abetot the Sheriff of Worcester .
= = Family and death = =
Walter married Emma or Emmelina and they had three sons – Roger , Hugh and Walter . Roger was the heir to Weobley and Walter became Abbot of Gloucester Abbey . Occasionally the elder Walter is claimed to have married twice – once to Emma and once to an Ermeline , but this is probably a confusion of the variations of Emma 's name . Walter and Emma also had a daughter who became a nun at St Mary 's Abbey , Winchester . A niece was married to Ansfrid de Cormeilles . Considerable confusion exists about Sybil , the wife of Pain fitzJohn . C. P. Lewis names her as the daughter of Walter , but W. E. Wightman calls her the daughter of Hugh , Walter 's son . Yet another pedigree has her as the daughter of Agnes , the daughter of Walter . In this rendition , favoured by Bruce Coplestone @-@ Crow , Agnes was married to Geoffrey Talbot .
The elder Walter died on 27 March 1085 , falling off some scaffolding at Saint Guthlac 's Priory when he was inspecting the progress of the building at that monastery . He was buried in the chapter house at Gloucester Abbey . He was a benefactor to Gloucester Abbey , as well as Saint Guthlac 's .
= Adventure Time ( season 4 ) =
The fourth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time , created by Pendleton Ward , originally aired on Cartoon Network in the United States . The series is based on a short produced for Frederator 's Nicktoons Network animation incubator series Random ! Cartoons . The season debuted on April 2 , 2012 , and the season finale was aired on October 22 , 2012 . The season follows the adventures of Finn , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . Finn and Jake live in the post @-@ apocalyptic Land of Ooo . Along the way , they interact with the other main characters of the show : Princess Bubblegum , The Ice King , and Marceline the Vampire Queen .
The first episode of the season , " Hot to the Touch " was watched by 2 @.@ 655 million viewers ; this marked a slight decrease in viewers watching Cartoon Network when compared to the previous season 's debut . The season ended with the cliffhanger " The Lich " , which was viewed by 2 @.@ 589 million viewers ; the story was resolved at the start of season five . The season was met with largely positive critical reception . In addition , several episodes were nominated for awards ; The episodes " Princess Cookie " , " The Hard Easy " , " Lady & Peebles " , and " Goliad " were all nominated for Annie Awards . The episode " Card Wars " , however , won a Golden Reel Award .
During the production of the season Ward and the series ' crew sought to over come what they called the " season four blues " by writing more interesting and different stories than what had previously aired . The season was storyboarded and written by Cole Sanchez , Rebecca Sugar , Tom Herpich , Skyler Page , Ako Castuera , Jesse Moynihan , Bert Youn , Somvilay Xayaphone , and Steve Wolfhard while being produced by Cartoon Network Studios and Frederator Studios . Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released after the season finished airing . The full season set was released on October 7 , 2014 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept = = =
The season follows the adventures of Finn the Human , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . Finn and Jake live in the post @-@ apocalyptic Land of Ooo . Along the way , they interact with the other main characters of the show : Princess Bubblegum , The Ice King , and Marceline the Vampire Queen . Common storylines revolve around : Finn and Jake discovering strange creatures , battling the Ice King , and battling monsters in order to help others . Various other episodes deal with Finn attempting to woo Flame Princess .
= = = Production = = =
On April 6 , 2011 , Eric Homan announced through Frederator 's official blog that , although he was unable to " confirm nor deny " whether the series had been renewed for a fourth season , " if there were a fourth season planned [ ... ] writing would begin next week . " On April 28 , 2011 , Ward officially announced that , with the storyboards for season three nearing completion , much of the production staff had shifted its focus onto the show 's fourth season . The first episode to enter into production was " Five Short Graybles " , based on its production number . However , it was later the second episode aired .
During the writing for the season , Ward and series ' head writer Kent Osborne noted that it was increasingly difficult to produce new episode concepts because the writers had " already used a lot of cool ideas " . Osborne called this slump the " season four blues " . Ward went on to clarify that , " everything 's still coming out super weird and interesting — but it just gets a little harder . You have to dig deeper . " To combat these issues , the writer staff tried different story writing methods , such as a technique called exquisite corpse , in which one writer starts a story on a sheet of paper , and the paper is folded and another writer tries to finish it . Ward , however , noted that " the ideas are usually terrible " . They also decided to experiment with different types of storytelling and to introduce more new characters to the show .
This season 's episodes were produced in a process similar to previous seasons ' episodes . First , all of the episodes began as simple two @-@ to @-@ three @-@ page outline that contained the necessary plot information . These outlines were then handed off to storyboard artists , who would then expand the rough outline into a full storyboard . The episodes ' design and coloring were done in Burbank , California . Animation was handled overseas in South Korea , either by Rough Draft Korea or by Saerom Animation . The season was storyboarded and written by Cole Sanchez , Rebecca Sugar , Tom Herpich , Skyler Page , Ako Castuera , Moynihan , Bert Youn , Somvilay Xayaphone , and Steve Wolfhard . Ward was proud with the writing staff for the season , saying , " Everyone [ on the writing staff ] is super talented [ ... ] And they 're all a bunch of brainiacs , super smart " . He explained that " They 're amazing in helping us because they let us write really cool ideas [ because ] they 're really supportive , is what I am trying to say , of what we 're trying to do . " The season was produced by Cartoon Network Studios and Frederator Studios . The series is rated TV @-@ PG .
= = Cast = =
The voice actors include voice acting veterans John DiMaggio ( who portrays Jake the Dog ) , Tom Kenny ( who plays The Ice King ) , and Hynden Walch ( who voices Princess Bubblegum ) . In addition , Jeremy Shada portrays the voice of Finn the Human , and Olivia Olson portrays Marceline the Vampire Queen . Ward himself provides the voice for several minor characters , as well as Lumpy Space Princess . Former storyboard artist Niki Yang voices the sentient video game console BMO , as well as Jake 's girlfriend Lady Rainicorn in Korean . Polly Lou Livingston , a friend of Pendleton Ward 's mother , Bettie Ward , plays the voice of the small elephant Tree Trunks . Jessica DiCicco voices Flame Princess , who becomes Finn 's new romantic interest . Season four also features the reappearance of The Lich , the series ' principal antagonist . The Lich is portrayed by Ron Perlman . The Adventure Time cast records their lines together in group recordings as opposed to different recording sessions with each voice actor . This is to record more natural @-@ sounding dialogue among the characters . Hynden Walch has described these group recordings as akin to " doing a play reading — a really , really out there play . "
Several voice actors and actresses reprise their characters in this season . Andy Milonakis returns as N.E.P.T.R. in " Hot to the Touch " and " BMO Noire " . Ron Lynch again voices Pig in " Dream of Love " . Martin Olson reprises his role as Hunson Abadeer in the two @-@ parter episode " Return to the Nightosphere " / " Daddy 's Little Monster " . Miguel Ferrer voices Death in " Sons of Mars " . In the same episode , Ward voices Abraham Lincoln , a throw @-@ back to the series ' pilot episode . Erik Estrada again voices the titular character in " King Worm " . George Takei voices the anthropomorphic heart villain Ricardio in " Lady & Peebles " . Justin Roiland returns as the Earl of Lemongrab in " You Made Me " ; the episode would also see him voice Lemongrab 's genetically created twin . Keith David once again voices the Flame King in " Ignition Point " . Lou Ferrigno returns in " The Lich " to voice Billy .
Emo Philips makes his debut as Cuber in the episode " Five Short Graybles " . Bobcat Goldthwait and Susie Essman voice the spider couple in " Web Weirdos " . Writer Graham Linehan 's daughter Wendy appears as the titular character in " Goliad " , and Linehan 's son Henry voices Stormo . Donald Faison lends his voice to the character Baby @-@ Snaps in " Princess Cookie " . Tom Gammill , Melissa Villasenor , Kenny , and Ferrer voice the four @-@ headed deity Grob Gob Glob Grod in " Sons of Mars " . Matthew Broderick voices the Dream Warrior in " Who Would Win " , and Gammill returns in the same episode as The Farm . Paul F. Tompkins appears as Furnius in " Ignition Point " . Both Brian Doyle @-@ Murray and Jonathan Katz lend their voices to the episode " The Hard Easy " as Prince Huge and the Mud Scamp elder , respectively . Katz was originally supposed to voice a character in the previous season , but had to bow out due to a scheduling conflict .
Various other characters are voiced by Tom Kenny , Dee Bradley Baker , Maria Bamford , Steve Little , and Kent Osborne .
= = Reception and release = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The season debuted on April 2 , 2012 , with the episode " Hot to the Touch " . The episode was watched by 2 @.@ 655 million viewers . This marked a slight decrease from the third season premiere , which had been viewed by 2 @.@ 686 million viewers . The episode was number one among kids aged 2 – 11 , 6 – 11 , and 9 – 14 , as well as boys aged 2 – 11 , 6 – 11 and 9 – 14 . The season 's sixteenth episode , " Burning Low " was seen by 3 @.@ 504 million viewers , making it the most @-@ watched episode of the series to air . The twenty @-@ third episode of the season , " The Hard Easy " , was the 100th episode produced of the entire show , although it was the 101st aired . It aired on October 1 , 2012 . The season finale , " The Lich " , aired on October 22 , 2012 , and was viewed by 2 @.@ 589 . It ranked as the number one television episode in its timeslot among all kids aged 2 – 11 , 6 – 11 , and 9 – 14 , and all boy demographics .
= = = Reviews and accolades = = =
Mike LeChevallier of Slate magazine award the fourth season of the show four stars out of five . In the review , LeChevallier positively complimented the show for " growing up " with its characters , and that " the show 's dialogue is among the best of any current animated series . " He concluded that the series possesses " strikingly few faults " . Season four was the first season that was reviewed by The A.V. Club ; reviewer Oliver Sava wrote that in its fourth year , the show " transformed into a different beast " and that it was the show 's " strongest season yet " . Each episode was graded by The A.V. Club with a different letter grade ; the season received three " C " grade entries , eight " B " grade installments , and thirteen " A " grade episodes .
Four of the season 's episodes were nominated for Annie Awards . " Princess Cookie " was nominated Best Animated Television Production For Children , " The Hard Easy " was nominated for Design in an Animated Television / Broadcast Production , and " Lady & Peebles " and " Goliad " were both nominated Storyboarding in an Animated Television / Broadcast Production . None of the episodes managed to win , however . The episode " Card Wars " won a Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing : Sound Effects , Foley , Dialogue and ADR Animation in Television .
= = = Home media = = =
Warner Home Video released several DVDs , consisting of region 1 and region 2 formats ; Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow , Fionna and Cake , Jake the Dad , The Suitor , Princess Day , Finn the Human , Frost & Fire , The Enchiridion , and Card Wars were created for region 1 markets containing some episodes from the fourth season . The season four DVD and Blu @-@ ray was released on October 7 , 2014 . All DVD releases can be purchased on the Cartoon Network Shop , and the individual episodes can be downloaded from both the iTunes Store and Amazon.com.
= = Episodes = =
= = DVD release = =
= M @-@ 43 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 43 is a state trunkline highway in southwestern and central parts of the US state of Michigan . The highway runs from South Haven to Webberville along an indirect path through both rural areas and larger cities . The trunkline follows three overall segments : a southeasterly track from South Haven to Kalamazoo , a northeasterly course to the Hastings area and an easterly route through the Lansing area .
The M @-@ 43 designation dates back to at least July 1 , 1919 , when it was used on a series of roadways running between Kalamazoo and St. Charles . Its northern- and easternmost sections were transferred to other highways in the 1930s . Additions to M @-@ 43 extended it to its current termini . Several sections of the highway were realigned during its history , one of these changes led to the creation of a business loop in Grand Ledge . Another former segment of the trunkline in the Lansing area has been renumbered M @-@ 143 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 43 begins at an intersection with BL I @-@ 196 in South Haven . Known locally as Bailey Avenue , the road heads out of the city to the southwest , intersecting County Road A @-@ 2 before running over Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) . From there , the road continues to the southeast near the airport through the rural areas of Van Buren County . The road runs through mixed woodland and fields before passing through Bangor . After Bangor , the route heads due east past Glendale and then intersects M @-@ 40 north of Paw Paw .
After the junction with M @-@ 40 , the highway then enters Kalamazoo County and has an interchange with US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) just before entering the city of Kalamazoo on Main Street near the north side of the campus of Western Michigan University . Through downtown , M @-@ 43 runs concurrently with both of the city 's business loops for I @-@ 94 and US 131 . Eastbound traffic along the combined highway is routed on Michigan Avenue , while westbound traffic uses Kalamazoo Avenue . Business US 131 ( Bus . US 131 ) turns north at Park Street and BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 43 continues east . After the two traffic directions merge back together and cross the Kalamazoo River , BL I @-@ 94 turns to the southeast , and M @-@ 43 follows Riverview Drive to an intersection with Gull Road . There M @-@ 43 begins to head northeast out of the city . The highway passes in front of the Borgess Medical Center and along a row of retail and commercial properties next to Gull Road . The trunkline then travels through a rural area for a brief period before entering the community of Richland where it merges with M @-@ 89 .
M @-@ 43 and M @-@ 89 run concurrently for a mile north of Richland before M @-@ 89 heads off to the west while M @-@ 43 continues north . After the concurrency ends , M @-@ 43 turns east and then back north to run between Little Long and Gull lakes . It is at this point where M @-@ 43 begins its northward trek . The road continues on a general north @-@ northeast track through rural areas and beside several lakes in Barry County before meeting M @-@ 179 and M @-@ 37 . M @-@ 43 merges with the latter highway and together they run into Hastings . Downtown , M @-@ 37 leaves town to the south , while M @-@ 43 heads north before curving around the east , passing through farmfields approaching the community of Woodland . After leaving town , the road meets M @-@ 66 , and together they head north to a junction with M @-@ 50 .
M @-@ 43 then turns east with M @-@ 50 , and they briefly run together before M @-@ 50 diverges to the southeast . Now known as the Grand Ledge Highway , M @-@ 43 continues its easterly path across northern Eaton County before dipping south briefly to travel around the south side of Grand Ledge . Just south of town , M @-@ 43 has a junction with M @-@ 100 and then follows Saginaw Highway . The highway then has a junction with I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 69 in Delta Township before continuing into Lansing , merged with BL I @-@ 69 .
In Lansing , the highway travels splits to follow the one @-@ way streets of Saginaw ( eastbound ) and Oakland ( westbound ) near the Sparrow Specialty Hospital . BL I @-@ 69 / M @-@ 43 then crosses the Grand River and passes Marshall Park . The trunkline then passes over US 127 just before the paired one @-@ way streets merge back together on Grand River Avenue . After the merge , M @-@ 43 heads southeast through East Lansing , passing the main campus of Michigan State University and Spartan Stadium . The road continues on its southeast path , traveling by the Meridian Mall as it enters Meridian Township . From here the road travels through Williamston before terminating at an interchange with I @-@ 96 just south of Webberville at exit 122 .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 43 like all other state trunkline highways . As a part of those responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic along its roadways using a metric called average annual daily traffic . This is a calculation of the traffic levels for a roadway segment for any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT determined that the highest traffic volume along M @-@ 43 was east of the I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 69 interchange at 38 @,@ 927 vehicles per day . The highest commercial traffic was west of the interchange at 645 trucks daily . The lowest volumes were at Woodland with only 1 @,@
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Marion County , Kentucky on August 29 , 1830 . He was the son of Joseph Percy and Maria Irvine ( McElroy ) Knott . He was tutored by his father from an early age , and later attended public school in Marion and Shelby counties . In 1846 , he began to study law . In May 1850 , he relocated to Memphis , Missouri , where he was admitted to the bar and commenced practice in 1851 . He also served in the offices of the circuit court and county clerks .
Knott married Mary E. Forman on November 17 , 1852 . Forman died during the birth of the couple 's first child in August 1853 . On January 14 , 1858 , Knott married his cousin , Sarah R. McElroy .
= = Political career = =
Knott 's political career began in 1857 when he was elected to represent Scotland County in the Missouri House of Representatives . He served as chair of the judiciary committee and conducted the impeachment hearings against Judge Albert Jackson . Knott resigned his seat in the legislature in August 1858 to accept Governor Robert M. Stewart 's appointment to fill the unexpired term of Missouri 's attorney general , Ephraim B. Ewing . In 1860 , he was elected to a full term as attorney general .
In January 1861 , Missouri called a convention to determine whether it would follow the lead of other pro @-@ slavery states and secede from the Union . Knott was sympathetic to the southern cause , but opposed the methods of the secessionists . The Unionist position carried the convention by an 80 @,@ 000 @-@ vote majority . Knott resigned his position as attorney general rather than take an oath of allegiance required by the federal government . As a result of his refusal , he was disbarred from practice in the state of Missouri and imprisoned for a short time .
= = = In the House of Representatives = = =
In 1863 , Knott returned to Kentucky and re @-@ opened his legal practice in Lebanon . He was elected as a Democrat to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1867 . As a legislator , he opposed the Reconstruction agenda of the Radical Republicans and ratification of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments . He was re @-@ elected to a second term , but did not stand for re @-@ election in 1870 .
Knott 's most notable action as a legislator occurred near the end of his first stint in Congress . On January 27 , 1871 , he delivered a satirical speech ridiculing a bill that would have provided fifty @-@ seven land grants and financial concessions to railroads to further their westward expansion . In the speech , Knott singled out the Bayfield and St. Croix Railroad 's proposed line from the St. Croix River to Duluth , Minnesota to make his point . He derided the remoteness of the town and the need for a railroad to it by repeatedly referring to a map and asking where Duluth was located . Following the speech , the railroad bill was killed and Congress adjourned for the day .
Knott 's speech , known as Duluth ! or The Untold Delights of Duluth , brought him national acclaim and copies of the speech were reprinted and sold . Residents of Duluth apparently were not offended by the speech , extending an offer for Knott to visit the city ; Knott accepted the offer in 1891 . In 1894 , a city near Duluth was incorporated as " Proctorknott " ; in 1904 , it adopted its present name of Proctor , Minnesota .
In 1871 , Knott made an unsuccessful bid to become governor of Kentucky , losing the Democratic nomination to Preston Leslie . He was re @-@ elected to the House of Representatives in 1875 , serving four consecutive terms . He chaired the House Judiciary Committee for the first three of these terms . In 1876 , he was named one of the managers of impeachment proceedings against ex @-@ Secretary of War William W. Belknap .
= = = As governor of Kentucky = = =
Knott was one of several candidates seeking the Democratic gubernatorial nomination in 1883 . Other prominent candidates included Congressman Thomas Laurens Jones , former Confederate general Simon Bolivar Buckner , Judge John S. Owsley , and Louisville mayor Charles Donald Jacob . Balloting began on May 16 , 1883 , with Jones as the leading vote @-@ getter but unable to secure a majority . After four ballots , Jacob withdrew his name , and Knott moved into the lead . The following day , Owsley dropped out of the balloting , and Knott extended his lead . Though Buckner remained on the ballot , the race came down to Jones and Knott . Delegates from Owen County switched to Knott , and other counties soon followed suit . Jones withdrew , and Knott was nominated unanimously .
In the general election , Knott defeated Republican Thomas Z. Morrow by a margin of nearly 45 @,@ 000 votes . During his term in office , he asked the legislature to conduct a thorough reform of the state 's tax system , but the legislators ' only response was to create a board of equalization charged with making equitable tax assessments . The legislature also refused to grant the Railroad Commission all the powers Knott had requested .
Knott 's most successful initiatives were in the area of education . Under his leadership , the state established a normal school for blacks in Frankfort and created a state teacher 's organization . New legislation spelled out , often for the first time in the state 's history , the duties and responsibilities of educators , administrators , and school boards .
Knott 's major shortcomings were in deterring crime . Despite the feuds that continued to rage in the state , including one that lasted several years in Rowan County , Knott refused to acknowledge lawlessness as a problem . Overcrowding of prisons prompted Knott to employ his pardon power liberally . The legislature approved the construction of the Kentucky State Penitentiary at Eddyville , but it was Knott 's predecessor , Luke P. Blackburn , who laid most of the groundwork for this project .
= = Later life and death = =
Following his term as governor , Knott continued his legal practice in Frankfort . He declined two separate appointments offered to him by President Grover Cleveland . The first was to become Territorial Governor of Hawaii ; the other was an appointment to the Interstate Commerce Commission . Knott served as a special assistant to Kentucky 's attorney general in 1887 and 1888 , and in 1891 , he was chosen as a delegate to the state constitutional convention .
Knott became a professor of civics and economics at Centre College in Danville , Kentucky in 1892 . In 1894 , Knott and Centre president William C. Young organized a law department at the college ; Knott became the department 's first dean . An illness forced him to retire in 1902 . He died in Lebanon on June 18 , 1911 , and was buried at the Ryder Cemetery in Lebanon . Knott County , Kentucky was formed in 1884 and named in his honor .
= Battle of the Assunpink Creek =
The Battle of the Assunpink Creek , also known as the Second Battle of Trenton , was a battle between American and British troops that took place in and around Trenton , New Jersey , on January 2 , 1777 , during the American Revolutionary War , and resulted in an American victory .
Following a surprise victory at the Battle of Trenton early in the morning of December 26 , 1776 , General George Washington of the Continental Army and his council of war expected a strong British counter @-@ attack . Washington and the council decided to meet this attack in Trenton , and established a defensive position south of the Assunpink Creek .
Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis led the British forces southward in the aftermath of the December 26 battle . Leaving 1 @,@ 400 men under Lieutenant Colonel Charles Mawhood in Princeton , Cornwallis advanced on Trenton with about 5 @,@ 000 men on January 2 . His advance was significantly slowed by defensive skirmishing by American riflemen under the command of Edward Hand , and the advance guard did not reach Trenton until twilight . After assaulting the American positions three times , and being repulsed each time , Cornwallis decided to wait and finish the battle the next day . Washington moved his army around Cornwallis 's camp that night and attacked Mawhood at Princeton the next day . That defeat prompted the British to withdraw from most of New Jersey for the winter .
= = Background = =
On the night of December 25 – 26 , 1776 , George Washington , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Continental Army crossed the Delaware River with his army , and attacked the Hessian garrison at Trenton on the morning of December 26 . The Hessian garrison was surrounded and quickly defeated . Washington crossed the river again and returned to his camp in Pennsylvania that afternoon . On December 30 , Washington moved his army back to Trenton and stationed his men on the south side of the Assunpink Creek .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Washington 's appeal = = =
At Trenton Washington faced a dilemma . All but a handful of his men 's enlistments were expiring on December 31 , and he knew that the army would collapse unless he convinced them to stay . So , on the 30th , Washington appealed to his men to stay one month longer for a bounty of ten dollars . He asked any men who wanted to volunteer to poise their firelocks , but not a man turned out . Washington then wheeled his horse around and rode in front of the troops , saying " My brave fellows , you have done all I asked you to do , and more than could be reasonably expected ; but your country is at stake , your wives , your houses and all that you hold dear . You have worn yourselves out with fatigues and hardships , but we know not how to spare you . If you will consent to stay only one month longer , you will render that service to the cause of liberty and to your country which you probably never can do under any other circumstances . " At first no one stepped forward , but then one soldier stepped forward , and he was followed by most of the others , leaving only a few in the original line .
= = = Preparations = = =
On January 1 , money from Congress arrived in Trenton and the men were paid . Washington also received a series of resolves from Congress including one that gave Washington powers similar to those of a military dictator . Washington decided that he would stand and fight at Trenton , and ordered General John Cadwalader , who was at Crosswicks with 1 @,@ 800 militia , to join him in Trenton . On December 31 Washington learned that an army of 8 @,@ 000 men under the command of General Charles Cornwallis was moving to attack him at Trenton .
Washington ordered his men to build earthworks that were parallel to the south bank of the Assunpink Creek . The lines extended about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) down the south end of the stream . However , one of Washington 's aides , Joseph Reed , pointed out that there were fords up stream that the British could cross , and then they would be in position to drive in Washington 's right flank . Washington could not escape across the Delaware because all of his boats were a few miles upstream . Washington told his officers that he planned to move the army and that their current position was only temporary .
= = = British movement = = =
Cornwallis , who had been planning to return to Britain , had his leave canceled . He rode to Princeton to catch up with General James Grant , who had moved with 1 @,@ 000 troops to reinforce Princeton . Cornwallis arrived , and was convinced by Grant and Carl von Donop to attack Trenton with their combined forces .
By January 1 , 1777 , Cornwallis and his army had reached Princeton . On January 2 , Cornwallis left part of his force there under the command of Charles Mawhood , and with 5 @,@ 500 men , set off down the road to Trenton , 11 miles ( 18 km ) away . Cornwallis 's army had 28 cannon and marched in three columns . When Cornwallis reached Maidenhead , he detached Colonel Alexander Leslie with 1 @,@ 500 men and ordered them to remain there until the following morning .
= = The battle = =
= = = Delaying actions = = =
Out in front of his army , Cornwallis placed a skirmish line of Hessian jägers and British light infantry . Two days before , Washington had troops under the command of Matthias Alexis Roche de Fermoy place an outer defensive line halfway between Trenton and Princeton , with the goal of delaying the British advance . As the British approached , Fermoy returned to Trenton , drunk . Colonel Edward Hand took over his command .
As the British came within range , the American riflemen opened fire . The American riflemen took cover in the woods , ravines and even in bends in the road , and each time the British would line up in a battle line , the riflemen would fall back and fire from cover . After Hand was forced to abandon the American position along Five Mile Run , he took up a new position , a heavily wooded area on the south bank of Shabakunk Creek . Hand deployed his men in the trees where they were so well protected from view that the British could not see them as they crossed the bridge over the stream . The riflemen fired at them from point @-@ blank range . The intense fire confused the British into thinking that the entire American army was up against them and they formed into battle lines , bringing up their cannon . The British searched the woods for a half an hour looking for the Americans , but Hand had already withdrawn to a new position .
By three in the afternoon , the British had reached a ravine known as Stockton Hollow , about a half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from Trenton where the Americans were forming another line of defense . Washington wanted to hold the British off until nightfall , when darkness would prevent the British from attacking his defenses on the south side of Assunpink Creek . The British , with artillery in position , attacked Hand 's new position , and he gave way , slowly falling back into Trenton . Along the way , Hand had his troops fire from behind houses . As Hand 's troops came to the creek , the Hessians charged at them with bayonets fixed , causing chaos among the Americans . Washington , seeing the chaos , rode out through the crowd of men crossing the bridge , and shouted that Hand 's rear guard pull back and regroup under the cover of the American artillery .
= = = British assault = = =
As the British prepared to attack the American defenses , cannon and musket fire was exchanged between the opposing sides . The British moved across the bridge , advancing in solid columns , and the Americans all fired together . The British fell back , but only for a moment . The British charged the bridge again , but were driven back by cannon fire . The British charged one final time , but the Americans fired canister shot this time , and the British lines were raked with fire . One soldier said , " The bridge looked red as blood , with their killed and wounded and their red coats . "
= = American withdrawal = =
= = = Cornwallis ' decision = = =
When Cornwallis arrived in Trenton with the main army , he called a council of war as to whether or not he should continue to attack . Cornwallis ' quartermaster general , William Erskine , urged Cornwallis to strike right away , saying " If Washington is the General I take him to be , his army will not be found there in the morning . " But James Grant disagreed , and argued that there was no way for the Americans to retreat , and that the British troops were worn out , and that it would be better for them to attack in the morning after they had rested . Cornwallis did not want to wait until morning , but he decided that it would be better than sending his troops out to attack in the dark . Cornwallis said , " We 've got the old fox safe now . We 'll go over and bag him in the morning . " Cornwallis then moved his army to a hill north of Trenton for the night .
= = = Washington 's decision = = =
During the night , the American artillery , under the command of Henry Knox , occasionally fired shells into Trenton to keep the British on edge . As Cornwallis had , Washington also called for a council of war . Using the road leading to Princeton , and his council of war agreed to make an attempt against the British garrison there . By 2 am the army was on its way to Princeton . Washington left behind 500 men and two cannons to keep the fires burning and to make noise with picks and shovels to make the British think they were digging in . By morning , these men too had evacuated , and when the British came to attack , all of the American troops were gone .
= = Casualties = =
Casualty estimates are widely divergent . Howard Peckham records the fighting on January 2 as two separate engagements , both of which he categorizes as " skirmishes " . In the first , at Five Mile Run , he gives no American losses . In the second , at Stockton Hollow , he gives the American casualties as 6 killed , 10 wounded and 1 deserted . William S. Stryker , on the other hand , gives the entire American loss on January 2 as 1 killed and 6 wounded , while David Hackett Fischer says that they had 100 killed and wounded .
Peckham gives the British losses at Five Mile Run as 1 Hessian killed and those for Stockton Hollow as " at least " 10 killed , 20 wounded and 25 captured . Edward J. Lowell gives the Hessian losses on January 2 as 4 killed and 11 wounded . David Hackett Fischer gives the British casualties as 365 killed , wounded or captured .
= = Aftermath = =
By morning , Washington had reached Princeton . After a brief battle , the British there were decisively defeated and a substantial number of the garrison under command of Mawhood was captured . With their third defeat in ten days , Cornwallis ' superior , General William Howe ordered the army to withdraw from southern New Jersey and most of the way back to New York . This they did , leaving forward positions at New Brunswick . Washington moved his army to Morristown for winter quarters .
= Asashōryū Akinori =
Asashōryū Akinori ( 朝青龍 明徳 , born 27 September 1980 , as Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj , Mongolian Cyrillic : Долгорсүрэнгийн Дагвадорж ) is a Mongolian former sumo wrestler ( rikishi ) . He was the 68th yokozuna in the history of the sport in Japan and became the first Mongol to reach sumo 's highest rank in January 2003 . He was one of the most successful yokozuna ever . In 2005 he became the first wrestler to win all six official tournaments ( honbasho ) in a single year . Over his entire career , he won 25 top division tournament championships , placing him fourth on the all @-@ time list .
From 2004 until 2007 , Asashōryū was sumo 's sole yokozuna , and was criticized at times by the media and the Japan Sumo Association for not upholding the standards of behaviour expected of a holder of such a prestigious rank . He became the first yokozuna in history to be suspended from competition in August 2007 when he participated in a charity soccer match in his home country despite having withdrawn from a regional sumo tour claiming injury . After a career filled with a multitude of other controversies , both on and off the dohyō , his career was cut short when he retired from sumo in February 2010 after allegations that he assaulted a man outside a Tokyo nightclub .
= = Early life and sumo background = =
Asashōryū comes from a family with a strong background in Mongolian wrestling , with his father and two of his elder brothers all achieving high ranks in the sport . He also trained in judo in Mongolia . He originally came to Japan as an exchange student , together with his friend , the future Asasekiryū , where they attended Meitoku Gijuku High School in Kochi Prefecture . They both trained together at the sumo club there .
= = Early career = =
He was recruited by the former ōzeki Asashio of the Wakamatsu stable ( now Takasago stable ) , who gave him the shikona of Asashōryū , literally " morning blue dragon , " Asa being a regular prefix in the Wakamatsu stable . He made his professional debut in January 1999 . At that time , fellow Mongolians Kyokushūzan and Kyokutenhō were in the top division and stars back in their home country , but Asashōryū was quick to overtake them both . He attained elite sekitori status in September 2000 by winning promotion to the jūryō division , and reached the top makuuchi division just two tournaments later in January 2001 . In May 2001 , he made his san 'yaku debut at komusubi rank and earned his first sanshō award , for Outstanding Performance .
In 2002 , Asashōryū put together back @-@ to @-@ back records of 11 – 4 , 11 – 4 and 12 – 3 and was promoted to sumo 's second highest rank of ōzeki in July . In November 2002 , he took his first top division tournament championship ( yūshō ) with a 14 – 1 record . It took Asashōryū only 23 tournaments from his professional debut to win his first top division title , the fastest ever . In January 2003 , he won his second straight championship . Shortly after the tournament , Asashōryū was granted the title of yokozuna , the highest rank in sumo . His promotion coincided with the retirement of the injury @-@ plagued Takanohana , last Japanese born yokozuna to date .
= = Yokozuna career = =
While his first tournament as yokozuna ended in a disappointing 10 – 5 record , he won a further twenty @-@ three tournaments . Combined with his two yūshō as an ōzeki , he had twenty @-@ five career championships in the top division . This puts him in fourth place on the all @-@ time list , behind only Hakuhō , Taihō , and Chiyonofuji .
= = = 2003 = = =
Asashōryū nominally shared the yokozuna rank with Musashimaru , but in fact his rival only fought a handful of bouts in 2003 due to injury . The two did not meet in competition all year . Asashōryū won his first championship as a yokozuna in May 2003 and came back from an injury sustained in the July tournament to win his third title of the year in September . Musashimaru announced his retirement in November , leaving Asashōryū as sumo 's only yokozuna .
= = = 2004 = = =
Asashōryū began 2004 with two consecutive perfect 15 – 0 tournament wins ( zensho @-@ yūshō ) in January and March . Nobody had attained zensho yusho since 1996 ; yet Asashōryū went on to add three more such titles after 2004 , for a career total of five . Only Hakuhō , with eleven , Taihō , with eight , and Chiyonofuji and Kitanoumi with seven , have recorded more 15 – 0 scores . His unbeaten run continued into the first five days of the May 2004 tournament , giving him a winning streak of 35 bouts in total , the longest run since Chiyonofuji 's 53 in 1988 . Although he was then upset by maegashira Hokutōriki , he gained revenge by defeating Hokutōriki in a playoff on the final day to claim the championship . On 27 November 2004 , Asashōryū became the first wrestler to win five tournaments in a year since Chiyonofuji achieved the feat in 1986 , and won his ninth Emperor 's Cup . Asashōryū 's below average 9 – 6 score in the Autumn basho of 2004 , the only one he did not win , was attributed in part to the official ceremony for his marriage , which was held in August 2004 ( although he had actually married in December 2002 ) . The hectic social round that inevitably follows Japanese weddings affected his pre @-@ tournament preparations , as it prevented him from doing any training .
= = = 2005 = = =
He continued to dominate sumo in 2005 , becoming the first wrestler ever to win all six honbasho ( sumo tournaments ) in the same year . The great yokozuna Taihō achieved the feat of six consecutive tournament victories twice , but never in a calendar year . Asashōryū lost only six bouts all year ( 0 – 1 – 0 – 2 – 2 – 1 ) . One of those rare losses came on 11 September 2005 , at the start of the Aki Basho when he dropped his first Shonichi ( Day 1 ) bout during his tenure as yokozuna . On 26 November 2005 , a visibly emotional Asashōryū wept after winning his eighty @-@ third bout of the year , ( surpassing Kitanoumi 's record set in 1978 ) and clinching the tournament at the same time . The six championships of 2005 ( including two more 15 – 0 wins in January and May ) combined with his victory from the final tournament of 2004 , meant Asashōryū became the first man in sumo history to win seven consecutive tournament championships .
= = = 2006 = = =
Asashōryū 's consecutive basho streak came to an end in January 2006 , when ōzeki Tochiazuma took the first tournament championship of the year . Asashōryū 's performance in January was a surprisingly poor 11 – 4 but he successfully rebounded by winning the March tournament . However , his six losses in those tournaments matched his loss total for all of 2005 . In the May tournament , he sustained an injury to the ligaments in his elbow on the second day falling off of the dohyo in a surprising loss to Wakanosato and was visibly slow to rise from the ground . He was absent from the tournament the next day and later released a statement confirming he was withdrawing from the tournament . Doctors told him he would not be able to compete for two months , which meant he would miss the July tournament as well . However , Asashōryū was ready by the start of the July tournament and won with a 14 – 1 record . In the following tournament , Asashōryū won his eighteenth career title with a 13 – 2 record . He also won the final tournament of 2006 for his nineteenth career title , the fifth he has won with a perfect 15 – 0 record .
= = = 2007 = = =
In January 2007 , Asashōryū posted a 14 – 1 record , his fourth straight championship since returning from injury , and became the fifth man to win twenty career championships . In March , he dropped his first two bouts but then won thirteen in a row for a 13 – 2 score . However , this was not enough to win the title — he lost a playoff for the first time in his career , to fellow Mongolian Hakuhō . In May he turned in a below par 10 – 5 record , losing to all four ōzeki and maegashira Aminishiki ( although he appeared to be carrying an injury ) . Hakuhō won this tournament as well and was promoted to yokozuna immediately afterwards . Asashōryū had been the sole yokozuna for a total of 21 tournaments since the retirement of Musashimaru in November 2003 – the longest period of time in sumo history . In July he lost to Aminishiki once again on the opening day but rallied to win the next fourteen bouts , taking his 21st title with a 14 – 1 record . He was suspended by the Sumo Association from the next two tournaments ( see below ) .
= = = 2008 = = =
Asashōryū returned to tournaments in January 2008 . On the final day , he faced Hakuhō in a battle of 13 – 1 yokozuna , but was defeated , giving him a final record of 13 – 2 . In March the two yokozuna faced off for the title again on the last day , marking only the fifth time in the last 30 years that two yokozuna have contested the championship on the last day of two consecutive tournaments . In this rematch , Asashōryū was the victor , winning his 22nd title , thus equalling Takanohana 's haul of tournament championships .
In the May tournament he lost to Kisenosato on the opening day . He injured his back in this match and subsequent losses to Kotoōshū ( the eventual winner of the tournament ) and Chiyotaikai put him out of contention .
Asashōryū got off to a bad start in the July tournament by losing to Toyonoshima on the first day . After a second loss to maegashira Tochinonada on day five , he pulled out of the tournament on the sixth day citing pain in his elbow . The September tournament unfolded in a similarly poor fashion . After compiling a lacklustre 5 – 4 record through the first nine days , Asashōryū forfeited his tenth @-@ day match to maegashira Gōeidō and withdrew . He had elbow pain , and presented a medical certificate .
He returned to Mongolia in October 2008 , staying until shortly before the tournament in Kyushu in November , which he did not enter . He stated that he would not withdraw for a third time partway through a tourney , and suggested that he would retire if his comeback proved unsuccessful .
= = = 2009 = = =
The January 2009 honbasho , Asashōryū 's first full tournament since May 2008 , was a remarkable success . He won his first fourteen matches , losing only on the last day to Hakuhō . He then won the resulting playoff to earn his 23rd championship and pass Takanohana on the all @-@ time list to become the fourth ever wrestler to have won 23 tournaments ( the other three being Taihō , Kitanoumi and Chiyonofuji ) . His victory came exactly twenty years after yokozuna Hokutoumi also returned from three tournaments out to win the championship with a 14 – 1 record . Sumo Association head Musashigawa described Asashōryū 's comeback as " amazing . " Ticket sales and television ratings showed a marked increase as his winning run continued . After his playoff win Asashōryū announced to the crowd , " Everyone , thank you very much . Really . I am back . "
In the following tournament in March he went undefeated for the first nine days but then lost to three of the five ōzeki over the next five days , putting him out of contention for the championship . He also lost his final day match to Hakuhō to finish at 11 – 4 . In the May tournament he lost early to Aminishiki , then won ten in a row before falling to Harumafuji on Day 14 . He again lost to Hakuhō , on the final day , finishing at 12 – 3 .
Asashōryū returned to Mongolia after the May tournament to receive treatment for a bruised chest suffered in his defeat to Harumafuji . In June he received the Hero of Labour Award from outgoing Mongolian President Nambaryn Enkhbayar , the highest government award in Mongolia and equivalent to the Japanese People 's Honour Award . He performed poorly in the July tournament with a 10 – 5 record , his worst finish in just over two years .
He damaged ligaments in his right knee during a regional tour of Akita in August 2009 ( the first time he has injured his knee ) , hampering his preparations for the September tournament . Despite this , he won his first 14 matches , before finally losing to Hakuhō , leaving both wrestlers at 14 – 1 . Asashōryū would win the resulting playoff to win his 24th yūshō , tying him with Kitanoumi for third on the all @-@ time yūshō list . The triumph took place on his 29th birthday . He finished on 11 – 4 in the Kyushu tournament in November , losing his last four matches .
= = = 2010 = = =
In the January 2010 tournament Asashōryū clinched his 25th yūshō on Day 14 after beating Harumafuji to go 13 – 1 , two wins ahead of Hakuhō on 11 – 3 . He was however beaten by Hakuhō on the final day for the seventh straight time in regulation matches , and he finished on 13 – 2 .
= = History = =
= = = Match @-@ fixing speculation and lawsuits = = =
In January 2007 , The Shūkan Gendai , a weekly tabloid magazine , reported that Asashōryū had paid opponents about ¥ 800 @,@ 000 ( $ 10 @,@ 000 ) per fight to allow him to win the previous November 2006 tournament with a perfect score . Asashōryū denied these claims in court on 3 October 2008 , during the first ever court appearance by a yokozuna . He appeared as part of a lawsuit brought by the Japan Sumo Association and about 30 other wrestlers seeking around ¥ 660 million ( $ 8 @.@ 12 million ) from Shūkan Gendai 's publisher , Kodansha Ltd . He said the allegations were " complete lies ... I am very sad and disgusted . " Also appearing in court , in defence of the magazine , was former wrestler Itai , who had made similar allegations of bout @-@ fixing in 2000 regarding his own career . Itai suggested that Asashōryū 's win over Chiyotaikai in the November 2006 tournament was an example of a fixed match .
On 26 March 2009 , the Tokyo District Court ordered Kodansha , the publisher of the magazine , and Yorimasa Takeda , the freelance writer of the articles , to pay ¥ 42 @.@ 90 million ( $ 437 @,@ 000 ) in damages , believed to be the highest award for libel damages against a magazine in Japanese history . Chief judge Yasushi Nakamura stated that the reporting was " slipshod in the extreme . "
= = = Suspension = = =
After his tournament victory in July 2007 , Asashōryū decided to skip the regional summer tour of Tōhoku and Hokkaidō beginning on 3 August because of injury . The medical forms submitted to the Japan Sumo Association indicated that injuries to his left elbow and a stress fracture in his lower back would require six weeks of rest to heal . However , he was then seen on television participating in a soccer match for charity with Hidetoshi Nakata in his homeland of Mongolia . He was reported to have done so at the request of the Japanese Foreign Ministry and the Mongolian government . However , the suggestion that he had exaggerated the extent of his injuries to avoid his duties on the exhibition tour caused a media storm .
Asashōryū was ordered to return to Japan and on 1 August 2007 , the Sumo Association suspended him for the upcoming September tournament as well as the next one in November , the first time in the sport 's history that an active yokozuna has been suspended from a main tournament . They also announced that Asashōryū and his stablemaster Takasago would have their salaries cut by 30 % for the next four months . He was also instructed to restrict his movements to his home , his stable , and the hospital . Isenoumi , a Director of the Sumo Association , called Asashōryū 's behaviour " a serious indiscretion . Given that a yokozuna should act as a good example for the other wrestlers , this punishment for his action is appropriate . " It was the most severe punishment ever imposed on a yokozuna since the Grand Tournament system was adopted over 80 years ago . Asashōryū responded by saying he would get his injuries treated and prepare for the winter regional tour and the January 2008 tournament . However , his stablemaster reported that Asashōryū was finding the severity of the punishment difficult to deal with , and two doctors from the Sumo Association diagnosed him as suffering from acute stress disorder , and then dissociative disorder . On 28 August he was allowed to return to Mongolia for treatment . After recuperation and onsen treatment , he returned to Japan on 30 November 2007 , apologising for his actions at a press conference .
= = = Assault allegations and subsequent retirement = = =
During the January 2010 tournament , a tabloid magazine claimed Asashōryū punched his personal manager after getting drunk during a night out in downtown Nishiazabu . After the tournament Asashōryū was reprimanded by Japan Sumo Association ( JSA ) head Musashigawa , and he apologised once again for his behaviour . However , it subsequently emerged that it was not his manager but a restaurant employee who was attacked , reportedly sustaining a broken nose . The man did not file a report with the police , and on 31 January 2010 , Asashōryū told the authorities that he had reached a settlement with him . Despite this , the police did not rule out the possibility of questioning Asashōryū about the assault .
Subsequently , on 4 February 2010 , he announced his decision to retire , after discussing the matter at a meeting with the Board of Directors of the Sumo Association . He stated , " I feel heavy responsibility as a yokozuna that I have caused trouble to so many people . I am the only person who can put an end to it all . I think it 's my destiny that I retire like this . " Asashōryū did not comment directly on the brawl , except to say that what actually happened was " quite different " to media reports . " I decided to step down to bring this to a closure . "
Asashōryū referred to criticism for not showing hinkaku ( dignity ) as a yokozuna . " Everybody talks about dignity , but when I went into the ring , I felt fierce like a devil . " Asked what his most memorable bout was , he chose his first win over Musashimaru in May 2001 , with his parents watching him .
JSA Chief Director Musashigawa revealed that directors were debating on that day whether to punish Asashōryū . " He felt compelled to resign for misconduct that was inexcusable , and the board accepted . I want to apologize to all of the fans and to the person injured in the incident . " The Yokozuna Deliberation Council had recommended his retirement , and would have pressed for his dismissal if he had not chosen to go .
In Mongolia , there was anger at the news . One high @-@ ranking Mongolian official accused the Sumo Association of using the incident as an excuse to get rid of Asashōryū before he could reach Taihō 's 32 tournament victories . " I feel that they did not want him to break the record for most titles . This behavior is unjust . The Mongolian people disapprove . " The Zuunii Medee newspaper called for sumo broadcasts in Mongolia to be suspended . Reacting to the tense mood among the Mongolian public , a spokesman at the Foreign Ministry of Mongolia issued a statement that the " resignation of Asashōryū will have no influence to the friendship between Mongolian and Japanese citizens . " and he requested people stay calm . Reaction in Japan was more mixed , with some of the public saying the yokozuna had to go while others said they would miss him . Many Japanese media compared his case with earlier yokozuna Maedayama who was forced to resign in 1949 after dropping out of a tournament claiming illness but subsequently photographed at a baseball game . Both his stablemaster and the Sumo Association received criticism for their handling of this incident and Asashōryū in general .
As Asashōryū never obtained Japanese citizenship , he was not eligible to stay in the sumo world as an oyakata , or coach . He was , however , entitled to a formal retirement ceremony , or danpatsu @-@ shiki , at the Ryōgoku Kokugikan and was also given a retirement allowance by the Sumo Association , believed to be around ¥ 120 million ( $ 1 @.@ 34 million ) .
Asashōryū gave a press conference in Mongolia on 11 March , and denied committing any " act of violence , " but said he did not regret his decision to retire . He claimed it was " an undeniable fact " that there were people within the Sumo Association " trying to push me out of sumo " and that he could have gone on to win 30 or more tournament titles . Asked about rumours that he would enter mixed martial arts , he replied , " I haven 't really thought about what to do next . " He refused to take any questions from Japanese reporters .
He was questioned voluntarily by investigators in May , and reportedly said that his hand " may have struck " the man , but he denied assault . In July police reported him to the public prosecutors . His former stablemaster Takasago said if Asashōryū was indicted then his retirement ceremony may be cancelled . However , in the event it went ahead as planned on 3 October , with around 380 dignitaries taking turns in snipping his oichiomage or topknot before Takasago made the final cut . Asashoryu said to the 10 @,@ 000 fans at the Kokugikan , " In another life as a Japanese , I would like to become a yokozuna with Japanese spirit ... I want to show everyone that I can become a better person . "
= = = Other events = = =
Asashōryū received criticism from Sumo Association officials and the media throughout his yokozuna career for various other infractions of the strict code of conduct expected of top sumo wrestlers , both on the dohyō and off it . His breaches of etiquette during tournament bouts ranged from merely accepting the prize money with the wrong hand , to raising his arms in victory after clinching the championship , to giving opponents an extra shove after the bout was already over ( such as Hakuhō in May 2008 ) , and appealing to judges to overturn the referee 's decision . In July 2003 he pulled on fellow Mongolian Kyokushūzan 's mage ( traditional Japanese top knot ) during their bout on day five of the tournament , resulting in an immediate hansoku @-@ make , or disqualification . He was the first yokozuna to be disqualified from a bout . They reportedly brawled in the communal bath afterwards , and Asashōryū was also accused of breaking the wing mirror of Kyokushūzan 's car . Some Japanese fans called on him to " go back to Mongolia " after this incident . During the same year , Asashōryū was taking interviews from journalists when he called a Korean journalist a " kimchi bastard " ( キムチ野郎 , kimuchi yarō ) , sparking controversy within South Korean newspapers . He also had an uneasy relationship with his stablemaster Takasago . In July 2004 he apologized after a row with Takasago over his wedding arrangements resulted in him being seen drunk in public and damaging the stable property , and his tendency to return to Mongolia without informing his stablemaster led to embarrassments like being unable to attend the funeral of Takasago stable 's previous head coach Fujinishiki in December 2003 . He was also sometimes seen in public in a business suit or in casual dress instead of the traditional kimono that wrestlers are expected to wear .
= = Post @-@ sumo career = =
Immediately after his retirement from sumo there was speculation that Asashōryū would switch to mixed martial arts , and he was reported to be forming an MMA camp for Mongolian athletes . However , he has instead become a businessman . Asashōryū had business interests in Mongolia whilst still active in sumo , launching the family holding company as early as 2003 . Based in Ulanbaatar and investing exclusively inside Mongolia , the company has assets in banking , real estate and mining . In 2012 his wealth was estimated to be between USD50 and 75 million . He is also active in philanthropy , establishing the Asashoryu Foundation which has supported the Mongolian Olympic team , given scholarships to Mongolian college students studying in Mongolia and Japan , and donated English language textbooks to schools .
He became a member of the Democratic Party in May 2013 .
= = Fighting style = =
Asashōryū was a relative lightweight early in his career , weighing just 129 kg ( 284 lb ) , in 2001 , and relied on speed and technique to compete against often much heavier opponents . However , he gradually put on weight and by 2010 was about 148 kg ( 326 lb ) , right on average . In his later career he tended to confront his opponents head on with the intention of out @-@ muscling them . In training , he was reported to do multiple repetitions of biceps curls with 30 kg ( 66 lb ) dumb @-@ bells , and whilst in the gym with NHK commentator Hiro Morita in 2008 he reportedly bench pressed 200 kg ( 440 lb ) . He had an intense approach to keiko ( training ) , and some high @-@ profile wrestlers avoided training with him , fearing injury .
Asashōryū 's favoured techniques according to his Sumo Association profile were migi @-@ yotsu / yori , a left hand outside , right hand inside grip on his opponent 's mawashi ( belt ) , and tsuppari , a series of rapid thrusts to the chest . His most common winning kimarite throughout his career were yorikiri ( force out ) , oshidashi ( push out ) , uwatenage ( outer arm throw ) , shitatenage ( inner arm throw ) and tsukidashi ( thrust out ) . He used 45 different kimarite in his career , a wider range than most wrestlers . In July 2009 he defeated Harumafuji by an " inner thigh throw " or yaguranage , a technique not seen in the top division since 1975 . His trademark , however , was tsuriotoshi , or " lifting body slam " , a feat of tremendous strength normally only used on much smaller and weaker opponents . In 2004 Asashōryū twice dumped the 158 kg ( 348 lb ) Kotomitsuki using this technique .
= = Family = =
Asashōryū 's brothers are active in other combat sports : Dolgorsürengiin Sumyaabazar is a mixed martial arts fighter , and Dolgorsürengiin Serjbüdee , a professional wrestler , competes in New Japan Pro Wrestling under the name Blue Wolf ( after the Mongolian Blue Wolf legend ) . All Dolgorsüren brothers have strong backgrounds in Mongolian wrestling .
Asashōryū first met his wife in high school when they were both 15 years old . They divorced in 2009 having been separated for several years . He has a son and a daughter .
= = Career record = =
= Thomcord =
Thomcord is a seedless table grape variety and a hybrid of the popular Thompson Seedless or Sultanina grape ( a Vitis vinifera variety ) and Concord grape ( a Vitis labrusca variety ) . Thomcord was developed in 1983 by Californian grape breeders working for the Agricultural Research Service ( ARS ) , an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) , as part of a test to better understand a new seedless grape breeding procedure .
Its aromatic , " labrusca " flavor is similar to that of Concord , but mellowed by the mild , sweet taste from Thompson Seedless . Thomcord grows well in hot , dry climates , ripens between late July and mid @-@ August , and tolerates powdery mildew . It is a productive variety , yielding an average of 15 @.@ 1 kg ( 33 lb ) of grapes per vine , but has produced as much as 30 to 32 kg ( 66 to 71 lb ) per vine in grower trials . The berries weigh between 2 @.@ 72 and 3 @.@ 38 g ( 0 @.@ 096 and 0 @.@ 119 oz ) and have a medium @-@ thick , blue @-@ black skin that adheres to the fruit , unlike Concord , which has a thick skin that can slip off the pulp easily . The aborted seeds in the fruit body are relatively small , but larger than those in Thompson Seedless .
The plant is not restricted for propagation and distribution . Virus @-@ free propagation material is available from the Foundation Plant Services ( FPS ) at the University of California , Davis , and its genetic material is archived at the National Plant Germplasm System . After 17 years of testing , it was declared ready for use in 2003 . It is currently available in supermarkets .
= = Description = =
Thomcord grape is a hybrid of Thompson Seedless grape ( Vitis vinifera , or Sultanina ) , which is popular in supermarkets during the summer , and seeded Concord grape ( Vitis labrusca ) , commonly used to make grape juice and jelly . It is a plump , juicy , seedless table grape and is slightly firmer than Concord . Thomcord has a blue @-@ black skin with medium thickness and a whitish bloom . Unlike Concord , whose tough skin separates easily from the fruit , Thomcord has a more edible skin that clings to the flesh , much like Thompson Seedless . It has an aromatic flavor , similar to the Concord in taste ( " labrusca " ) , though lighter due to the sweet , mild taste from Thompson Seedless .
Thomcord is suitable for hot , dry growing conditions , more so than Concord and other Concord seedless types . Its adaptability to hot dry climates was derived from Thompson Seedless . It grows well in California 's vineyards , particularly the San Joaquin Valley , just like Thompson Seedless . The plant is tolerant of ( but not resistant to ) powdery mildew , and is less susceptible to the fungus than Ruby Seedless , but more susceptible than Mars , Venus , Niabell , and Cayuga White varieties . The fungus can affect its leaves , stems , rachis ( stem of the grape cluster ) , and berries . The grape ripens in the summer ( mid @-@ season ) , between late July and mid @-@ August .
= = = Production details = = =
Thomcord is a productive variety , with a yield comparable to Thompson Seedless . When two cordons ( arms ) of the vines are trained horizontally on wires ( " bilateral @-@ trained " ) and are pruned to remove most of the previous year 's growth ( " spur @-@ pruned " ) during the winter , it can produce up to 13 – 16 kg ( 29 – 35 lb ) per vine , or an average of 15 @.@ 1 kg ( 33 lb ) . In 2002 , cane @-@ pruned vines of Thomcord were significantly more productive than Sovereign Coronation and were comparable to the Venus variety , averaging 21 @.@ 3 kg ( 47 lb ) per vine . Unlike Thompson Seedless , which has its cluster size thinned as a normal production practice , Thomcord 's is not thinned because of its smaller cluster size . The grape clusters range in weight between 259 and 534 g ( 0 @.@ 571 and 1 @.@ 177 lb ) and average 340 g ( 0 @.@ 75 lb ) , have medium to slightly loose tightness ( or are " well @-@ filled " , meaning the individual pedicels are not easily visible ) , and have a conical shape with a small wing .
Compared with Thompson Seedless , the berry weight and diameter of Thomcord are larger , but cluster tightness is similar . The berry length ranged between 18 @.@ 2 and 18 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 72 and 0 @.@ 72 in ) and the diameter ranged from 16 @.@ 7 to 17 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 66 to 0 @.@ 68 in ) in tests between 2001 and 2002 . The berries weigh between 2 @.@ 72 and 3 @.@ 38 g ( 0 @.@ 096 and 0 @.@ 119 oz ) , averaging 2 @.@ 85 g ( 0 @.@ 101 oz ) in 2002 , which is on par with Venus , but heavier than Sovereign Coronation , and even more so than Thompson Seedless . The fruit 's size has not been shown to increase appreciably by girdling the vines or by applying gibberellic acid when the berries set .
The aborted seeds of Thomcord are small , but in some years they can become sclerified ( a thickening and lignification of the walls of plant cells and the subsequent dying off of the protoplasts ) , making them more noticeable inside the medium @-@ soft flesh . There are usually two aborted seeds per berry , which averaged between 14 and 22 @.@ 3 mg in 2001 and 2002 . This varied in comparison to Venus depending on the year and location , was comparable to the Sovereign Coronation , and was significantly smaller than the Sovereign Rose and Saturn varieties . However , as with the other cultivars , it was consistently larger than Thompson Seedless , which had the smallest aborted seeds .
= = = Vegetative description = = =
The mature leaves on the vine have three lobes with open upper lateral sinuses ( spaces between the lobes ) of medium depth . The main vein is slightly longer than the petiole ( stalk attaching the leaf blade to the stem ) , and the petiole sinus opens widely . Between the veins on the underside of both the mature and young leaf there are dense hairs that lie flat against the surface . The teeth on the edge of the leaf blade are convex on both sides , medium in size , and short relative to their width . Young leaf blades are dark copper red on the upper surface .
The shoots have at least three consecutive tendrils . Young shoots are fully open and have very dense hairs of medium anthocyanin coloration that lie flat against the tip . The internode of the young shoot is green with red stripes on the front ( dorsal ) side and solid green on the back ( ventral ) side .
= = History = =
In 1983 , research horticulturist David W. Ramming and technician Ronald L. Tarailo — Californian grape breeders working for the ARS , the chief scientific research agency of the USDA — crossed Thompson Seedless and Concord in order to answer a technical question about a newly developed procedure for breeding novel , superior seedless grapes . The researchers wanted to demonstrate that plants created from embryo culture were derived from fertilized eggs ( zygotic ) instead of the maternal tissue ( somatic ) . From 1231 emasculations ( removal of male flower parts to control pollination ) of Thompson Seedless , the researchers produced 130 ovules using embryo rescue procedures . From these , 40 embryos developed and three seedlings were planted . The original seedling of Thomcord was planted in 1984 in plots in cooperation with California State University , Fresno . It was later selected in 1986 by Ramming and Tarailo and tested in the San Joaquin Valley under the name A29 @-@ 67 , and was introduced as " Thomcord . "
The new hybrid was tested and scrutinized for 17 years before it was declared ready for growers and gardeners and was released on 11 September 2003 . Around 2008 , trials outside of California were just beginning . Thomcord quickly became a hit at farmers ' markets while it was being tested , and it has appeared in the fresh @-@ fruit section at supermarkets . This continued the long @-@ standing success of the ARS ' grape @-@ breeding research in California , which has developed some of the most popular seedless grapes on the market as well as red , white , and black grapes varieties for hobbyists and professional growers since 1923 .
Although it has been called a " sentimental favorite " at farmers ' markets , it is not expected to become a major commercial variety because its flavor is not as neutral as more popular grapes , such as Thompson Seedless , Crimson Seedless , or Flame Seedless . However , Ramming predicted that it would become a specialty item , much like the Muscat varieties , due to its distinctive , Concord @-@ like flavor . Because of its strong reception at farmers ' markets , it could compete with Concord and Niabell varieties in eastern markets , according to Ramming .
= = Availability = =
The Foundation Plant Services ( FPS ) at the University of California , Davis indexed Thomcord and found it to be free of known viruses . The FPS offers certified virus @-@ free propagation material . The FPS also deposited genetic material in the National Plant Germplasm System , which offers material for research , including development and commercialization of new cultivars . The ARS does not offer Thomcord plants for distribution .
Thomcord is a public variety and is not restricted in its propagation and distribution .
= NSB Class 64 =
NSB Class 64 ( Norwegian : NSB type 64 ) is a class of three electric multiple units built by Strømmens Værksted for the Norwegian State Railways . Delivered in 1935 , they were built for the opening of the Hardanger Line and served there until 1985 , when the line closed and the trains were retired . They also periodically served on the Flåm Line . The delivery consisted of three motor cars and four carriages , with each train consisting of up to three units . The motor cars were 16 @.@ 3 meters ( 53 ft ) long , had a power output of 464 kilowatts ( 622 hp ) and were capable of 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) . The motor units were given road numbers 505 through 507 . Two of the units have been preserved by the Norwegian Railway Club and are at Garnes Station .
= = History = =
The Hardanger Line opened in 1935 as a steep and curvy branch of the Bergen Line to connect Bergen to the Hardangerfjord . The line was 27 @.@ 45 kilometers ( 17 @.@ 06 mi ) long , had a maximum gradient of 4 @.@ 5 percent , a minimum curve radius of 180 meters ( 591 ft ) , a maximum speed of 40 km / h ( 25 mph ) , a maximum permitted axle load of 12 tonnes ( 12 long tons ; 13 short tons ) , standard gauge and a 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC electrification system . In 1931 , NSB had taken delivery of its first electric multiple unit , the Class 62 , for use on commuter trains on the Drammen Line . For the Hardanger Line , NSB ordered similar units , but these were modified to have a higher power output . Three motor cars and four carriages were delivered in 1934 . The mechanical components and assembly were done by Strømmens Værksted , while the electrical equipment was made by Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri ( NEBB ) . The class was similar to the future Class 65 , and was regarded as a prototype . Class 64 were the shortest multiple units ever used by NSB .
From 21 November 1944 , when the Flåm Line received electric traction , Class 64 trains were also used there . The Flåm Line is even steeper and more curved than the Hardanger Line , so the trains received track brakes . In 1947 , El 9 locomotives were delivered for the Flåm Line . Class 64 trains continued to be used periodically on the Flåm Line when there was insufficient availability of El 9s , as well as in periods with very little or very much traffic .
Unit 64 @.@ 07 was retired on 20 December 1982 after rust damage had been found on it . By 1984 , the carriages were in such bad shape that they needed to be replaced . Trailers from Class 65 and Class 67 were taken into use , and for a short period a Class 91 trailer . On 28 August 1985 , passenger traffic on the line was terminated and the two remaining trains were retired . Reasons for the termination included a lack of sufficient political support for financing new trains , and also that Class 64 was no longer suitable for use . The last two trains have been preserved by the Norwegian Railway Club and are stored at Garnes Station , part of the Old Voss Line .
= = Specifications = =
The units each had four NEBB EDTM384 motors , giving a combined power output of 464 kilowatts ( 622 hp ) . They had an overall length of 16 @.@ 3 meters ( 53 ft ) , weighed 35 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 34 @.@ 9 long tons ; 39 @.@ 1 short tons ) and had a Bo @-@ Bo wheel arrangement . The motor cars had a capacity for 38 passengers and a maximum speed of 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) . Because of the steep gradients , the units had a low weight combined with high power output , and had both track brakes and dynamic braking . They were originally given road numbers 18505 though 18507 , but this was later changed to 64 @.@ 05 through 64 @.@ 07 .
= Varaha =
Varaha ( Sanskrit : वराह , " boar " ) is the avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu in the form of a boar . Varaha is listed as third in the Dashavatara , the ten principal avatars of Vishnu . When the demon Hiranyaksha stole the earth ( personified as the goddess Bhudevi ) and hid her in the primordial waters , Vishnu appeared as Varaha to rescue her . Varaha slew the demon and retrieved the Earth from the ocean , lifting it on his tusks , and restored Bhudevi to her place in the universe .
Varaha may be depicted completely as a boar or in an anthropomorphic form , with a boar 's head and human body . His consort , Bhudevi , the earth , is often depicted as a young woman , lifted by Varaha . The earth may be depicted as a mass of land too .
= = Iconography = =
Like Vishnu 's first two avatars - Matsya ( fish ) and Kurma ( turtle ) , the third avatar Varaha is depicted either in zoomorphic form as an animal ( a wild boar ) , or anthropomorphically . The main difference in the anthropomorphic form portrayal is that the first two avatars are depicted with a torso of a man and the bottom half as animal , while Varaha has an animal ( boar ) head and a human body . The portrayal of the anthropomorphic Varaha is similar to the fourth avatar Narasimha ( portrayed as a lion @-@ headed man ) , who is the first avatar of Vishnu that is not completely animal .
In the zoomorphic form , Varaha is often depicted as a free @-@ standing boar colossus , for example , the monolithic sculpture of Varaha in Khajuraho ( c . 900 @-@ 925 ) made in sandstone , is 2 @.@ 6 metres ( 8 ft 6 in ) long and 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 5 ft 7 in ) high . The sculpture may not resemble a boar realistically , and may have his features altered for stylistic purposes . The earth , personified as the goddess Bhudevi , clings to one of Varaha 's tusks . Often the colossus is decorated by miniature figurines of gods and goddesses and other world creatures appearing all over his body , which signify the whole of creation . Such sculptures are found in Eran , Muradpur , Badoh , Gwalior , Jhansi and Apasadh .
In the anthropomorphic form , Varaha often has a stylized boar face , like the zoomorphic models . The snout may be shorter . The position and size of the tusks may also be altered . The ears , cheeks and eyes are generally based on human ones . Early sculptors in Udayagiri and Eran faced the issue of how to attach the boar head to the human body and did not show a human neck . However , in Badami , the problem was resolved by including a human neck . While some sculptures show a mane , it is dropped and replaced by a high conical crown - typical of Vishnu iconography - in others . Varaha sculptures generally look up to the right ; there are very rare instances of left @-@ facing Varaha depictions .
Varaha has four arms , two of which hold the Sudarshana chakra ( discus ) and shankha ( conch ) , while the other two hold a gada ( mace ) , a sword , or a lotus or one of them makes the varadamudra ( gesture of blessing ) . Varaha may be depicted with all of Vishnu 'a attributes in his four hands : the Sudarshana chakra , the shankha , the gada and the lotus . Sometimes , Varaha may carry only two of Vishnu 's attributes : a shankha and the gada personified as a female called Gadadevi . Varaha is often shown with a muscular physique and in a heroic pose . He is often depicted triumphantly emerging from the ocean as he rescues the earth .
The earth may be personified as the goddess Bhudevi in Indian sculpture . Bhudevi is often shown as a small figure in the icon . She may be seated on or dangling from one of Varaha 's tusks , or is seated on the corner of his folded elbow or his shoulder and supports herself against the tusk or the snout , as being lifted from the waters . In later Indian paintings , the whole earth or a part of it is depicted lifted up by Varaha 's tusks . In Mahabalipuram , a rare portrayal shows an affectionate Varaha looking down to Bhudevi , who he carries in his arms . The earth may be portrayed as a globe , a flat stretch of mountainous land or an elaborate forest landscape with buildings , temples , humans , birds and animals . The defeated demon may be depicted trampled under Varaha 's feet or being killed in combat by Varaha 's gada . Nagas ( snake gods ) and their consorts Naginis ( snake goddesses ) , residents of the underworld , may be depicted as swimming in the ocean with hands folded as a mark of devotion . Varaha may be also depicted standing on a snake or other minor creatures , denoting the cosmic waters .
Two iconographical forms of Varaha are popular . Yajna Varaha - denoting Yajna ( sacrifice ) - is seated on a lion @-@ throne and flanked by his consorts Bhudevi and Lakshmi . As Pralaya Varaha - indicative of lifting the earth from the stage of the pralaya ( the dissolution of the universe ) , he is dedicated only with Bhudevi . Varaha may be depicted with Lakshmi alone too . In such sculptures , he may be depicted identical to Vishnu in terms of iconography with Vishnu 's attributes ; the boar head identifying the icon as Varaha . Lakshmi may be seated on his thigh in such portrayals .
Varaha often features in the Dashavatara stele - where the ten major avatars of Vishnu are portrayed - sometimes surrounding Vishnu . In the Vaikuntha Vishnu ( four headed Vishnu ) images , the boar is shown as the left head . Varaha 's shakti ( energy or consort ) is the Matrika ( mother goddess ) Varahi , who is depicted with a boar head like the god .
= = Legends = =
The earliest versions of the Varaha legend are found in the Taittiriya Aranyaka and the Shatapatha Brahmana . They narrate that the universe was filled with the primordial waters . The earth was the size of a hand and was trapped in it . The god Prajapati ( the creator @-@ god Brahma ) in the form of a boar ( varaha ) plunges into the waters and brings the earth out . He also marries the earth thereafter . The Shatapatha Brahmana calls the boar as Emusha . The epic Ramayana and the Vishnu Purana - considered sometimes as the oldest of the Puranic scriptures - are the first to associate Varaha with Vishnu . Various Puranic scriptures including the Agni Purana , the Bhagavata Purana , the Devi Bhagavata Purana , the Padma Purana , the Varaha Purana , the Vayu Purana and the Vishnu Purana narrate the legend of Varaha with some variations .
The gate @-@ keepers of Vishnu 's abode Vaikuntha , Jaya and Vijaya are cursed by the four Kumaras , sages who roam the world in the form of children , to be born as asuras ( demons ) . They are born on earth as Hiranyaksha and Hiranyakashipu to the sage Kashyapa and his wife Diti and were one of the Daityas , a race of demons originating from Diti . The demon brothers are manifestations of pure evil and create havoc in the universe . The elder brother Hiranyaksha practises tapas ( austerities ) and blessed by Brahma with a boon that makes him indestructible by any animal or human . He and his brother torment the inhabitants of earth as well as the gods and engage in war with the latter . Hiranyaksha takes the earth ( personified as the goddess Bhudevi ) and hides her in the primordial waters . In some versions of the tale , the earth gives a loud cry of distress as she is kidnapped by the demon ; in others , she assumes the form of a cow and appeals to Vishnu to rescue her from the clutches of the demon . In some variants , the distressed gods led by Brahma along with the sages go to Vishnu for help . In some versions , the kidnap of the earth by Hiranyaksha is dropped . Instead , the earth sinks on her own to Rasatala ( underworld ) due to the weight of the mountains or due to the torture of the demons .
Since Hiranyaksha had not included the boar in the list of animals that would not be able to kill him , Vishnu assumes this form with huge tusks and goes down to the primordial ocean . In the Bhagavata Purana , Varaha emerges as a tiny beast ( a size of a thumb ) from the nostrils of Brahma , but soon starts to grow . Varaha 's size increases to that of an elephant and then to that of an enormous mountain . The scriptures emphasize his gigantic size . The Vayu Purana describes Varaha as 10 yojanas ( The range of a yojana is disputed and ranges between 6 – 15 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 3 mi ) ) in width and a 1000 yojanas in height . He is large as a mountain and blazing like the sun . Dark like a rain cloud in complexion , his tusks are white , sharp and fearsome . His body is the size of the space between the earth and the sky . His thunderous roar is frightening . In one instance , his mane is so fiery and fearsome that Varuna , the god of the waters , requests Varaha to save him from it . Varaha complies and folds his mane .
In the ocean , Varaha encounters Hiranyaksha , who obstructs his path and challenges him for a duel . In some versions , the demon also mocks Varaha as the beast and warns him not to touch earth . Ignoring the demon 's threats , Varaha lifts the earth on his tusks . Hiranyaksha charges towards the boar in rage with a mace . The two fiercely fight with maces . Finally , Varaha slays the demon after a thousand @-@ year duel . Varaha rises from the ocean with the earth in his tusks and places her gently above it in her original position , as the gods and the sages sing Varaha 's praises .
Further , the earth goddess Bhudevi falls in love with her rescuer Varaha . Vishnu - in his Varaha form - marries Bhudevi , making her one of the consorts of Vishnu . In one narrative , Vishnu and Bhudevi indulge in vigorous embraces and as a result , Bhudevi becomes fatigued and faints , sinking a little in the primordial ocean . Vishnu again acquires the form of Varaha and rescues her , reinstating her in her original position above the waters . Some scriptures state that Bhudevi gives birth to Varaha 's son , an asura called Narakasura .
The scripture Varaha Purana is believed to be narrated by Vishnu to Bhudevi , as Varaha . The Purana is devoted more to the " myths and genealogies " connected to the worship of Vishnu .
Some Saiva Puranas narrate a tale in which the god Shiva defeats Varaha . In Kalika Purana , Varaha had amorous dalliance with Bhudevi . He and his three boar sons then create mayhem in the world , which necessitates Shiva to take the form of Sharabha , to kill Varaha . Vaishnava scriptures not only refute this story , some texts also speak of Vishnu 's " ugra rupa " Gandaberunda eventually killing the Sharabha .
= = Evolution = =
Varaha was originally described as a form of Brahma , but later on was crystallized as the avatar of Vishnu . The earliest Varaha images are found in Mathura , dating to the 1st and 2nd century CE . The cult of Varaha seems to have been popular in the Gupta era ( 4th @-@ 6th century ) in Central India , considering the large number of Varaha sculptures and inscriptions found . A red sandstone sculpture of Varaha in boar form with an inscription is traced to the reign of Toramana ( late 5th to early 6th century CE ) . Early sculptures of Varaha generally depict him in his boar form . Anthropomorphic depictions of Varaha with human body and boar ’ s head become popular in the later period . Other early sculptures exist in the cave temples in Badami in Karnataka ( 6th century ) and Varaha Cave Temple in Mahabalipuram ( 7th century ) ; both in South India and Ellora Caves ( 7th century ) in Western India . In the Udayagiri Caves ( Cave 5 ) in Madhya Pradesh , an image of Varaha rescuing the earth sculpted in sandstone ( dated to 401 @-@ 450 CE ) is seen ; and a zoomoriphic image from 8th century from Bago @-@ Pathari is now with the Archeological Museum at Gwalior . By 7th century , images of Varaha were found in all regions of India . By the 10th century , temples dedicated to Varaha were established in Khajuraho ( existent , but worship has ceased ) , Udaipur , Jhansi ( now in ruins ) etc .
In the first millennium , the boar was worshipped as a symbol of virility . The Chalukya dynasty ( 543 – 753 ) was the first dynasty to adopt Varaha in their crest and minted coins with Varaha on it . The Gurjara @-@ Pratihara king Mihira Bhoja ( 836 – 885 CE ) assumed the title of Adi @-@ varaha and also minted coins depicting the Varaha image . Varaha was also adopted as a part of royal insignia by the Chola ( 4th century BCE – 1279 CE ) and Vijayanagara Empires ( 1336 – 1646 CE ) of South India . In Karnataka , a zoomorphic image of Varaha is found in a carving on a pillar in Aihole , which is interpreted as the Vijayanagara emblem , as it is seen along with signs of a cross marked Sun , a disc and a conch .
However , the boar and its relative the pig started being seen as polluting since the 12th century , due to Muslim influence on India . Muslims consider the pig and its meat unclean . This led to a decline in Varaha worship to a certain extent .
= = Symbolism = =
In the Vishnu Purana , Varaha represents yajna ( sacrifice ) , as the eternal upholder of the earth . His feet represent the Vedas ( scriptures ) . His tusks represent sacrificial stakes . His teeth are offerings . His mouth is the altar with tongue of sacrificial fire . The hair on his head denotes the sacrificial grass . The eyes represent the day and the night . His coarse hair represents sexual prowess . The head represents the seat of the Brahmin ( priest ) . The mane represents the hymns of the Vedas . His nostrils are for oblation . His joints represent the various ceremonies . The ears are said to indicate rites ( voluntary and obligatory ) . Thus , Varaha is the embodiment of the Supreme Being who brings order amidst chaos in the world by his sacrifice .
Varaha symbolizes the resurrection of the earth from a pralaya ( dissolution of the universe ) and the establishment of a new kalpa ( aeon ) . Symbolism also attributes that evolution from water could relate to the geological phenomenon of the tectonic age . It could also represent the rescue of earth from “ false cults ” .
= = Temples = =
The oldest Varaha temple is located in Jawad , Madhya Pradesh which was built in 11th century named Nav Toran Temple . Nav or Nou means Nine and Toran means Pillars , this is where temple gets its name . It is said that there is a tunnel beneath the temple that goes to the Chittorgarh Fort and Maharana Pratap used to come through that tunnel often to worship the deity of the temple .
The most prominent temple of Varaha is the Sri Varahaswami Temple in Tirumala , Andhra Pradesh . It is located on the shores of a temple pond , called the Swami Pushkarini , in Tirumala , near Tirupati ; to the north of the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple ( another temple of Vishnu in the form of Venkateswara ) . The region is called Adi @-@ Varaha Kshestra , the abode of Varaha . The legend of the place is as follows : at the end of Satya Yuga ( the first in the cycle of four aeons ; the present one is the fourth aeon ) , devotees of Varaha requested him to stay on earth , so Varaha ordered his mount Garuda to bring his divine garden Kridachala from his abode Vaikuntha to Venkata hills , Tirumala . Venkateswara is described as having taken the permission of Varaha to reside in these hills , where his chief temple , Tirumala Venkateswara Temple , stands . Hence , pilgrims are prescribed to worship Varaha first and then Venkateswara . In the Atri Samhita ( Samurtarchanadhikara ) , Varaha is described to be worshipped in three forms here : Adi Varaha , Pralaya Varaha and Yajna Varaha . The image in the sanctum is of Adi Varaha .
Another important temple is the Bhuvarahaswami Temple in Srimushnam town , to the northeast of Chidambaram , Tamil Nadu . It was built in the late 16th century by Krishnappa II , a Thanjavur Nayak ruler . The image of Varaha is considered a swayambhu ( self manifested ) image , one of the eight self @-@ manifested Swayamvyakta Vaishnava kshetras . An inscription in the prakaram ( circumambulating passage around the main shrine ) quoting from the legend of the Srimushna Mahatmaya ( a local legend ) mentions the piety one derives in observing festivals during the 12 months of the year when the sun enters a particular zodiacal sign . This temple is venerated by Hindus and Muslims alike . Both communities take the utsava murti ( festival image ) in procession in the annual temple festival in the Tamil month of Masi ( February – March ) . The deity is credited with many miracles and called Varaha saheb by Muslims .
Varaha shrines are also included in Divya Desams ( a list of 108 abodes of Vishnu ) . They include Adi Varaha Perumal shrine Tirukkalvanoor , located in the Kamakshi Amman Temple complex , Kanchipuram and Thiruvidandai , 15 km from Mahabalipuram .
In Muradpur in West Bengal , worship is offered to an in @-@ situ 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) zoomorphic image of Varaha ( 8th century ) , one of the earliest known images of Varaha . A 7th century anthropomorphic Varaha image of Apasadh is still worshipped in a relatively modern temple . Other temples dedicated to Varaha are located across India in the states of Andhra Pradesh , Haryana Pradesh at Baraha Kalan , Karnataka at Maravanthe and Kallahalli , Kerala , Madhya Pradesh , Odisha at Yajna Varaha Temple , and Lakhmi Varaha Temple , Rajasthan at Pushkar , Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh .
= The Lodger ( Doctor Who ) =
" The Lodger " is the eleventh episode of the fifth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One on 12 June 2010 . It was written by Gareth Roberts , who based the story on his 2006 Doctor Who Magazine comic strip " The Lodger " .
The episode features the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) stranded on Earth and separated from his companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) , when an unknown force prevents his time travelling spaceship , the TARDIS , from landing . To investigate , he moves into the flat of Craig Owens ( James Corden ) and attempts to fit in with ordinary humans while unknowingly playing matchmaker for Craig and his good friend Sophie ( Daisy Haggard ) .
Showrunner Steven Moffat was a fan of Roberts ' original comic strip and enthused him to adapt it into an episode for the series . While some elements of the comic strip remain , Roberts wrote most of it from scratch . " The Lodger " replaced a slot held by an episode that was pushed back due to budgetary constraints and was consequently one of the last to be filmed . The episode was watched by a final 6 @.@ 44 million viewers , the least @-@ watched episode of the fifth series of Doctor Who . However , it achieved the joint highest Appreciation Index of the series at the time of broadcast and received positive to mixed reviews from critics . Praise was given to the acting of Smith and Corden , but reviewers expressed disappointment over the resolution .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
After stepping out of the TARDIS in modern @-@ day Colchester , the Doctor is blown off his feet by a blast of air , and the TARDIS , Amy still inside , dematerialises into the time vortex and refuses to rematerialise . With Amy 's help , the Doctor tracks the disturbance to the second floor of a house . The Doctor opts to take a room for rent offered by the downstairs tenant , Craig Owens , in order to determine what is present on the second floor without alerting whatever it is to his Time Lord nature . Neither Craig nor the Doctor are aware that people are being lured off the street to the second floor flat and never leaving again , but the Doctor is conscious of localised time loops and disturbances aboard the TARDIS that coincide with noises from the second floor .
Over two days , the Doctor attempts to adapt to human life . He learns about Craig , an office worker with little aspiration to move onward . Craig is stuck in a platonic relationship with his co @-@ worker , Sophie . The Doctor becomes overly involved in Craig 's life , becoming the star player in Craig 's local football club , filling in for him at the call centre when Craig falls ill , and encouraging Sophie to follow her dream of traveling overseas to help animals . Craig , who has not yet professed his love for Sophie , becomes upset ; he accosts the Doctor and demands that he leave , which forces the Doctor to reveal his history and his reason for being in the flat .
Sophie arrives while they argue and is lured upstairs ; the Doctor and Craig follow , learning from Amy that Craig 's building has never had a second floor . Inside , they find an alien ship housing a primitive time engine . The ship crashed some time ago and has used a perception filter to disguise itself as part of Craig 's house . The ship 's emergency holographic program has been drawing in passersby , all who have a desire to escape , to find a replacement pilot for itself , but they were killed in the attempt . The machine identifies the Doctor as a possible pilot and tries to draw him to the controls , but the Doctor warns that if he should touch the controls , the ship could explode and take the solar system with it . The Doctor convinces Craig to touch the controls since he does not want to leave due to his love for Sophie , which will counteract the ship 's protocols . Craig does so , and he and Sophie admit their love and share a kiss that breaks the ship 's hold on the Doctor and themselves . The three escape in time to see the perception filter turn off and the ship implode , leaving Craig 's undamaged one @-@ story flat below .
Craig and Sophie thank the Doctor , Craig giving him a spare set of keys in case he ever needs it . Aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor directs Amy to write the note that led him to Craig 's house , using a red pen in his jacket ; she rummages around and finds the engagement ring from her husband @-@ to @-@ be , Rory , whom she had forgotten after he was consumed by the crack in space and time and erased from existence . A similar crack appears behind Craig 's refrigerator , and widens .
= = = Continuity = = =
On Craig 's fridge is a postcard advertising the Van Gogh exhibit at the Parisian Musée d 'Orsay , which the Doctor , Amy and Van Gogh himself visited in the previous episode . At the end of the episode , the Doctor instructs Amy to leave him a note with Craig 's address , which his younger self had at the start of the episode . Amy is shown leaving the note in the series finale , " The Big Bang " , when the Doctor 's timeline rewinds and he revisits points in his past . The spaceship control room reappeared in " The Impossible Astronaut " / " Day of the Moon " , where it was connected to the Order of the Silence . Corden returned to play Craig in the episode " Closing Time " of the next series , Gareth Roberts ' sequel to this story .
= = Production = =
" The Lodger " is based on a short comic strip of the same name , written by Gareth Roberts for Doctor Who Magazine issue 368 in 2006 . The comic features the Tenth Doctor , who spends several days staying in Mickey Smith 's flat , waiting for Rose Tyler and the TARDIS to catch him up in a few days , and by chance saving the Earth by hiding it from the passing space fleet of a violent alien race . The story was based on ideas that Roberts had since a child to imagine the Doctor experiencing everyday human life and his enjoyment of stories set on Earth rather than in space . Roberts ' original comic strip appealed to new executive producer Steven Moffat , who enthused to Roberts that he had " got to do " " The Lodger " as an episode . Roberts had previously had the idea to make the television version , but he had never mentioned it . Roberts considered " The Lodger " less an adaptation than was previously done by Paul Cornell for " Human Nature " / " The Family of Blood " , taken from Cornell 's novel , and instead wrote most of the episode from scratch .
Elements of the comic 's story carry over into the episode , such as his confusion between a sonic screwdriver and a toothbrush , and the Doctor 's aptitude at football . However , Roberts said that the episode was " a completely different situation " from the comic strip , as the Doctor did not know Craig as he did Mickey , and there was the added enemy of the upstairs apartment . When Roberts began writing for the episode , he knew the series ' overarching plot but was not aware who was to be cast as the Eleventh Doctor . Roberts based the Doctor 's lines on those written in Moffat 's completed scripts and further characterization was added by Matt Smith 's reading of the lines .
The episode also contains several cultural references . When the Doctor is having a shower , he is heard singing " La donna è mobile " , which his third incarnation sang in Inferno . When the Doctor introduces himself to the time ship 's Avatar , he claims to be " Captain Troy Handsome of International Rescue , " which is a reference to both Captain Troy Tempest from Stingray and International Rescue from Thunderbirds , both series created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson . Steven Cooper of Slant Magazine also saw a reference to the Emergency Medical Hologram the Doctor from Star Trek : Voyager , as the Doctor continued " Please state the nature of your emergency . "
" The Lodger " made up the seventh and final production block of the series along with " Amy 's Choice " . The read @-@ through for both episodes took place on 17 February 2010 in the Upper Boat Studios . The story replaced another one , " The Doctor 's Wife " , when the latter was pushed back to the next series due to budgetary constraints . Location filming took place in Cardiff in early March 2010 . The house in which Craig has his flat is in Westville Road , and the location for the football match was Victoria Park ; the play area there had previously been used as a location in " Forest of the Dead " . Matt Smith performed his own athletics in the football match shots ; he has had previous experience as a youth footballer , having played for the youth teams of Northampton Town , Nottingham Forest and Leicester City before a back injury turned him towards acting . As such , little choreography was needed for the sequence .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Lodger " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 12 June 2010 . In the United States , it was broadcast on sister station BBC America on 10 July 2010 . In the UK , overnight figures for the episode were 4 @.@ 6 million , facing competition from the build @-@ up to England 's match in the 2010 FIFA World Cup . When final consolidated ratings were calculated , it showed that the episode was watched by an average of 6 @.@ 44 million viewers , with 5 @.@ 98 million on BBC One and a further 0 @.@ 46 million on a simulcast on BBC HD . It was the sixth highest @-@ rated programme of the week on BBC One , and the twenty @-@ first highest @-@ rated of the week across all channels . Although it was the second most watched programme of the day , it was the least watched fifth series episode of Doctor Who . However , it received an Appreciation Index of 87 , considered " excellent " and the joint highest of the series at time of broadcast .
A Region 2 DVD and Blu @-@ ray containing the episode together with " Vincent and the Doctor " , " The Pandorica Opens " and " The Big Bang " was released on 6 September 2010 . It was then re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Lodger " was met with positive to mixed reviews from critics . Gavin Fuller , writing for The Daily Telegraph , called the episode " a delight " , " thoroughly enjoyable " and " often amusing " . In particular he praised Corden and Haggard for avoiding the usual " cliches of romcom " , and Smith 's portrayal of The Doctor as almost @-@ but @-@ not @-@ quite human . However , he expressed some disappointment that the origin of the lurking time machine was not explained . Dan Martin of The Guardian called it " one of the strongest episodes of the year " . He praised the acting of Smith and Corden , but wondered why the Doctor did not use his usual alias of " John Smith " when posing as a human .
Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern praised Corden and Smith , but said it did not " quite tick [ his ] boxes " . He was not engaged by the upstairs villain , wished for more " laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments than good @-@ humoured banter " and disliked that the Doctor seemed " diminished " when thrown into the everyday atmosphere . In a review for IGN , Matt Wales rated it 7 out of 10 and referred to it as " one of the fluffier episodes " in terms of plot , but he said it was an " enjoyable little duck @-@ out @-@ of @-@ water adventure " . He called Smith " an absolute joy to watch " and said that Corden and Haggard " [ acquitted ] themselves admirably " . However , he criticised the " more traditional Who elements " , such as the alien threat that the directing left " devoid of almost all tension " , Amy 's occasional appearances that did not seem to gel with the rest of the story , and the short resolution , where " the whole thing collapsed into an incomprehensible muddle " .
SFX magazine 's Russell Lewin gave " The Lodger " three and a half out of five stars , saying it was " brimming with witty dialogue " and was a " pleasant diversion " before the finale . He ranked it " mid @-@ table " among the other episodes of the series . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club graded it an A- , saying it was a " funny outing " that allowed Smith to show comic depth as the Doctor , as well as praising the guest stars . Though he referred to the alien up the stairs as a " pretty standard @-@ issue " , he liked it for being a metaphor of " the trap of complacency and the ways staying in a rut can lead to safety , stagnancy , and ignorance of the peril encroaching just outside one 's four walls " .
= Matriarch of the Blues =
Matriarch of the Blues is an album by Etta James , released in December 2000 through the record label Private Music . The album 's title reflects James ' nickname as " matriarch of the blues " . Marking James ' return to blues following attempts at country music and jazz and pop standards , the album consisted primarily of rhythm and blues covers . James ' sons , Donto and Sametto , are credited as engineers , mixers and producers , among other contributions ; the album features Mike Finnigan on the Hammond organ , guitarist Leo Nocentelli , and performances on multiple instruments by Jimmy Zavala .
Matriarch of the Blues received mixed critical reception . Following its release , the album reached a peak position of number two on Billboard 's Top Blues Albums chart . Billboard 's final issue for 2001 included Matriarch as number ten on its list of Top Blues Albums for the year . The album was nominated for Best Contemporary Blues Album at the 44th Grammy Awards .
= = Background and composition = =
Entertainment Weekly considered Matriarch of the Blues to be James ' reclamation as the " mother of the blues " following recent attempts at country music and jazz and pop standards . Rolling Stone grouped Matriarch in a " trifecta " with James ' previous two studio albums , Life , Love & the Blues ( 1998 ) and Heart of a Woman ( 1999 ) . Prior to the album 's release , James performed at the eighteenth annual San Francisco Jazz Festival at the Masonic Auditorium . The concert lasted over three house and featured an eight @-@ piece band , members of which included her sons Donto and Sametto .
Matriarch is composed of rock , soul and blues standards between five and seven minutes in length . People magazine contributors described James ' vocals as " deeply funky " . Mike Finnigan performed the Hammond B3 organ , Leo Nocentelli featured on guitar , and Jimmy Zavala contributed performances on multiple instruments . James ' two sons — Donto and Sametto — produced and engineered , and played drums and bass , respectively .
The album begins with the sound of a motorcycle engine . Bob Dylan 's " Gotta Serve Somebody " is delivered , according to Parke Puterbaugh of Rolling Stone , with " the air of Old Testament @-@ style authority it demands " . James does not modify the lyrics , singing " You can call me Bobby , you can call me Zimmy " . " Don 't Let My Baby Ride " , originally by Deadric Malone and O. V. Wright , adds a bit of sensuality to the album with the line " If his jeans are too tight ... you might see what you like . " Other covers include Al Green 's " Rhymes " , " Try a Little Tenderness " ( Jimmy Campbell and Reg Connelly , Harry M. Woods ) , and Otis Redding 's " Hawg for Ya " . The tempo of The Rolling Stones ' " Miss You " is slowed down to a " sensual simmer " . James modified the gender mentioned in the lyrics , singing " Puerto Rican boys just dying to meet you " . Following " Hawg " are Malone 's " You 're Gonna Make Me Cry " , which features vocals by Finnigan , Sandy Jones ' " Walking the Back Streets " , and Benny Latimore 's " Let 's Straighten It Out " . Closing the album are John Fogerty 's " Born on the Bayou " , " Come Back Baby " ( Ray Charles , Lightnin ' Hopkins ) , and Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller 's " Hound Dog " .
= = Reception = =
Matriarch of the Blues received mixed critical reception . Allmusic 's Matthew Robinson wrote that James " coast [ ed ] " through the album and the backing band lacked " youthful vitality " . Robinson thought the album 's opening track " Gotta Serve Somebody " came across more as a " sleepy suggestion " . However , he felt the " draggier pace and intermittent woofs " in " Miss You " added sex appeal and complimented the " funkification " of " Born on the Bayou " and " Hound Dog " . Associated Press contributor Gene Bright wrote a positive review of the album but was disappointed with James ' cover of " Miss You " , writing " the song just can 't be slowed and manipulated with any success " . People magazine contributors felt that the motorcycle introduction was unnecessary and considered the album to be more " full @-@ throated gospel @-@ rock " than blues . However , they wrote that James sounded " as sexy and full of sass as she did nearly half a century ago " . With James ' sons contributing to the album , Bill Milkowski of JazzTimes called the album a " real family affair " and " worthy follow @-@ up " to Heart of a Woman . In his review for Out , Barry Walters complimented Donto and Sametto 's rhythm performances . Walters admitted that James all of the notes available to her in the 1960s but wrote that her " interpretive abilities are sharper than ever " .
The Morning Call 's Larry Printz published a negative review , concluding that James ' performance was mediocre and that the " nuances in [ her ] once @-@ formidable voice are long gone " . Printz also criticized the slow tempo throughout the album and accused James of " coasting " on her legendary status . James Sullivan of Entertainment Weekly wrote that James ' " voice isn 't quite the nasty snarl it once was , but the attitude remains " . Sullivan thought " Hound Dog " was the album 's best composition . Rolling Stone 's Marie Elsie St. Léger wrote that James provided a " healthy dose of rootsy feminism and mettle " with her " passionately seasoned and gravel @-@ edged voice " . St. Léger also complimented James and her performance for having " inimitable depth " and for " making no apologies and needing no permission to sing it like she feels it . " Parke Puterbaugh of Rolling Stone named " Don 't Let My Baby Ride " , " Hawg for Ya " and " Come Back Baby " as the album 's greatest tracks . In his review , Puterbaugh concluded that the album is a " solid return to roots " , allowing James the right to reclaim her titular throne .
= = Chart performance and recognitions = =
The album reached a peak position of number two on Billboard 's Top Blues Albums chart . The album entered the chart at number seven the week of December 20 , 2000 . Matriarch climbed to number four by the week of January 27 , 2001 . By its fifteenth week on the chart the album had fallen to number seven and by its twenty @-@ fifth week on the chart ( week of June 16 , 2001 ) the album remained at number thirteen . Billboard 's final issue for 2001 included Matriarch of the Blues as number ten on its list of Top Blues Albums for the year . James and the album were nominated for Best Contemporary Blues Album at the 44th Grammy Awards , but lost to Delbert McClinton for the album Nothing Personal .
= = Track listing = =
" Gotta Serve Somebody " ( Bob Dylan ) – 6 : 48
" Don 't Let My Baby Ride " ( Deadric Malone , O. V. Wright ) – 5 : 16
" Rhymes " ( Al Green , Teenie Hodges ) – 4 : 35
" Try a Little Tenderness " ( Jimmy Campbell , Reg Connelly , Harry M. Woods ) – 4 : 47
" Miss You " ( Mick Jagger , Keith Richards ) – 5 : 59
" Hawg for Ya " ( Otis Redding ) – 3 : 45
" You 're Gonna Make Me Cry " ( Deadric Malone ) – 6 : 17
" Walking the Back Streets " ( Sandy Jones , Jr . ) – 7 : 07
" Let 's Straighten It Out " ( Curtis , Latimore , Scotomayer ) – 5 : 24
" Born on the Bayou " ( John Fogerty ) – 4 : 41
" Come Back Baby " ( Ray Charles , Lightnin ' Hopkins ) – 5 : 57
" Hound Dog " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller ) – 3 : 43
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= Æthelred , Lord of the Mercians =
Æthelred , Lord of the Mercians ( or Ealdorman Æthelred of Mercia ; died 911 ) became ruler of English Mercia shortly after the death of its last king , Ceolwulf II in 879 . His rule was confined to the western half , as eastern Mercia was then part of the Viking @-@ ruled Danelaw . Æthelred 's ancestry is unknown . He was probably the leader of an unsuccessful Mercian invasion of Wales in 881 , and soon afterwards he acknowledged the lordship of King Alfred the Great of Wessex . The alliance was cemented by the marriage of Æthelred to Alfred 's daughter Æthelflæd .
In 886 Alfred took possession of London , which had suffered greatly from several Viking occupations ; as it had traditionally been a Mercian town , he handed control to Æthelred . In 892 the Vikings renewed their attacks , and the following year Æthelred led an army of Mercians , West Saxons and Welsh to victory over a Viking army at the Battle of Buttington . He spent the next three years fighting them alongside Alfred 's son , the future King Edward the Elder . At some time in the decade 899 to 909 , Æthelred 's health may have declined , and Æthelflæd may have become the effective ruler of Mercia .
After Æthelred 's death , Æthelflæd ruled as Lady of the Mercians until her own death in 918 . The couple 's only child , a daughter called Ælfwynn , then ruled briefly until deposed by her uncle , King Edward .
= = Background = =
Mercia was the dominant kingdom in southern England in the eighth century , and maintained its position until it suffered a decisive defeat by King Egbert of Wessex at the Battle of Ellandun in 825 . Egbert briefly conquered Mercia , but it recovered its independence in 830 , and thereafter the two kingdoms became allies , which was to be an important factor in English resistance to the Vikings . The Mercians traditionally held overlordship over Wales , and in 853 King Burgred of Mercia obtained the assistance of King Æthelwulf of Wessex in an invasion of Wales in order to reassert their hegemony . The same year , Burgred married Æthelwulf 's daughter .
In 865 the Viking Great Heathen Army landed in East Anglia , and used it as a starting point for an invasion . The East Anglians were forced to buy peace , and the following year the Vikings invaded Northumbria , where they established an obscure Northumbrian man called Egbert as puppet king in 867 . They then moved on to Nottingham in Mercia , where they spent the winter of 867 – 868 . Burgred was joined by King Æthelred of Wessex and his brother , the future King Alfred , for a combined attack on the Vikings , but they refused an engagement and in the end the Mercians bought peace with them . The following year , the Vikings conquered East Anglia . They returned to Mercia in 872 ; two years later they expelled Burgred , and Ceolwulf became king with their support . Ceolwulf was described by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as " a foolish king 's thegn " who was a puppet of the Vikings , but the historian Ann Williams regards this view as partial and distorted : he was accepted as a true king by the Mercians and by King Alfred .
In 877 the Vikings divided Mercia , taking the eastern part for themselves and leaving Ceolwulf with the west . The Vikings went on to attack Wessex , leaving Ceolwulf free to renew Mercian claims of hegemony in Wales . At almost the same time as Alfred 's victory over the Vikings in 878 at the Battle of Edington , Ceolwulf defeated and killed Rhodri Mawr , king of the north Welsh territory of Gwynedd . After Ceolwulf 's disappearance in 879 , Mercia began to fall under the hegemony of Wessex .
= = Life = =
= = = Early rule = = =
Æthelred 's descent is unknown , and he does not appear to have been closely related to his immediate predecessors , although his name suggests possible descent from earlier Mercian kings . He may have been related to King Alfred 's Mercian father @-@ in @-@ law , Æthelred Mucel , and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Æthelwulf , who appears to have been a member of Æthelred 's court from the mid 880s . Æthelred may have been the man of the same name who attested two Mercian charters in the late 860s , but he is not listed in the two surviving charters of Ceolwulf . Lists of witnesses to charters show that Æthelred 's witan ( council ) shared bishops and at least two ealdormen with Ceolwulf , but Ceolwulf 's thegns all disappeared . In the view of Ian Walker : " He was a royal ealdorman whose power base lay in the south @-@ west of Mercia in the former kingdom of the Hwicce around Gloucester . "
It is not known when Æthelred took over following Ceolred 's death or disappearance , but in the view of Thomas Charles @-@ Edwards , a historian of medieval Wales , Æthelred was almost certainly " Edryd Long @-@ Hair " , the leader of a Mercian army which invaded Gwynedd in 881 , and was defeated by Rhodri Mawr 's sons at the Battle of the Conwy . This was described by Welsh annals as " revenge by God for Rhodri " . The defeat forced Æthelred to abandon his ambitions in north Wales , but he continued to exercise overlordship over the south @-@ eastern Welsh kingdoms of Glywysing and Gwent . According to Alfred 's Welsh biographer Asser , Æthelred 's " might and tyrannical behaviour " forced these kingdoms to submit to the protection of King Alfred 's lordship . By 883 , Æthelred had accepted Alfred 's lordship . Charles @-@ Edwards suggests that in 881 – 882 he tried to maintain his dominance in south @-@ east Wales , but Alfred offered his protection to Glywysing and Gwent , and in 882 – 883 Æthelred accepted that West Saxon power made continued independence impossible . Charles @-@ Edwards comments :
The implication of all this is that the Mercian submission to Alfred – a crucial step in the creation of a single English kingdom – occurred not just because of one battle , Alfred 's victory over the Great Army at Edington in 878 , but also because of another , more distant battle , " God 's revenge " on the Mercians at the Conwy , when Anarawd of Gwynedd and his brothers defeated Æthelred and so brought about that collapse of the Mercian hegemony in Wales from which Alfred was only too pleased to benefit .
When Æthelred made a grant to Berkeley Abbey in 883 , he did it with the approval of King Alfred , thus acknowledging Alfred 's lordship . Thereafter he usually acted with Alfred 's permission , but issued some charters in his own name without reference to Alfred , such as at a meeting in Risborough in Buckinghamshire in 884 , showing that English Mercia extended quite far south @-@ east towards London .
After the Battle of Edington in 878 , Alfred established a network of fortified settlements , called burhs , in Wessex to protect his people and territory against Viking attacks , and when Æthelred accepted Alfred 's lordship the burhs were extended into Mercia . One of the burhs was Worcester , where Æthelred worked with its bishop and used the standing Roman walls in the town 's defences . Over the next two generations Worcester was transformed from an ecclesiastical settlement to a town with a diverse population of craftsmen .
London suffered severely from Viking attacks and was several times occupied by Viking armies . In 886 Alfred took possession of London , and according to Asser he " restored " the city and " made it habitable again " . He then handed control to Æthelred . Historians , however , disagree about the circumstances . According to Frank Stenton , Alfred recovered London by force from the Vikings and handed it to Æthelred because it had previously been a Mercian town , and he respected the traditions of other kingdoms . Marios Costambeys takes a similar view , arguing that Alfred 's decision was probably due to the need to maintain unity among the English who were outside Viking territory . Alfred Smyth suggests that the Chronicle 's account reflects bias in Alfred 's favour , and that Æthelred took charge because he had a greater role in London 's recovery than the West Saxon chronicler was willing to admit . Some versions of the Chronicle state that Alfred besieged London in 883 , and Simon Keynes argues that Alfred probably took London at that time and that the " occupation " in 886 may have been a restoration of London 's defences following Viking attacks close to the city in 885 .
Anglo @-@ Saxon London , called Lundenwic , was located a mile west of Roman Londinium , but Lundenwic was undefended , and the restoration was carried out inside the walls of the old Roman city , especially an area close to the River Thames now called Queenhithe , but which was then known as Æthelred 's Hythe after its Mercian ruler . Æthelred moved quickly to restore the area ; in 889 he and Alfred granted property there to the Bishop of Worcester , and in 899 they made another grant to the Archbishop of Canterbury . Both bishops were , like Æthelred , Mercians and strong allies of King Alfred , who had the right to all tolls from markets along the river bank .
After the restoration of London , Alfred received the submission of " all the English people who were not under subjection to the Danes " , and the alliance between Wessex and Mercia was cemented by the marriage of Æthelred to Alfred 's oldest daughter , Æthelflæd . She is first recorded as Æthelred 's wife in a charter of 887 , but Keynes thinks that the marriage may have taken place two or three years earlier , and the historian Maggie Bailey dates it to between 882 and 887 , with the most likely political context being the occupation of London in 886 . Æthelred was probably much older than his wife . They had a daughter , Ælfwynn , and according to the twelfth century chronicler , William of Malmesbury , she was their only child . In King Alfred 's will , drawn up in the 880s , Æthelred was left a sword worth 100 mancuses .
In 892 , two Viking armies attacked eastern England , and Æthelred took part in the defence . After the defeat of one Viking leader , Hastein , Alfred became godfather to one of Hastein 's two sons and Æthelred to the other . Soon afterwards , the English captured Hastein 's wife and children , but they were returned to him because the sons were godsons of the English leaders . In 893 , Æthelred brought troops from London to join Alfred 's son Edward against a Viking army at Thorney in Buckinghamshire , but the Vikings were too strong for a direct attack so they were allowed to leave English territory . Later in the year , a larger Viking force marched from Essex through Mercia to the Welsh border , followed by Æthelred with a joint force of Mercians and West Saxons . Welsh kings joined Æthelred to meet the Vikings at the Battle of Buttington , where according to Smyth " these invaders were utterly routed ... in what was the most decisive battle in the war " , although Marios Costambeys states that the Vikings eventually cut their way out and retreated back to Essex . The Viking army finally dispersed in 896 . For much of the time , Alfred had been in the west country defending Devonshire , and in the view of Richard Abels : " King Alfred had little to do directly with the great victories enjoyed by the English in 893 – 896 . His son , Edward , and his ealdormen , in particular his son @-@ in @-@ law , Æthelred , had won the glory . "
In the last years of the ninth century , three sub @-@ ealdormen ruled Mercia under Æthelred . Æthelflæd 's uncle , Æthelwulf , controlled western and possibly central Mercia , while the south and east were ruled by Æthelfrith , the father of Æthelstan Half @-@ King . Alhhelm was responsible for the lands bordering the northern Danelaw . Æthelwulf and Alhhelm are not recorded after the turn of the century , and Æthelfrith may have been Æthelflæd 's chief lieutenant when Æthelred 's health collapsed soon afterwards . Keynes sees Æthelfrith as an ealdorman of West Saxon origin , probably appointed by Alfred to look after his interests in south @-@ east Mercia .
Evidence from charters show that Æthelred and Æthelflæd supported religious communities . In 883 they freed Berkeley Abbey from obligations to the king 's feorm ( payments in kind ) , and in 887 they confirmed the possession of land and transferred manpower to Pyrton Minster in Oxfordshire . In 901 they gave land to Much Wenlock Abbey , and donated a gold chalice weighing thirty mancuses in honour of its former abbess , Saint Mildburgh . In 903 they negotiated a settlement over a former monastic estate which the bishops of Worcester had been trying to recover since the 840s , and Bishop Wærferth wrote " we never could get anywhere until Æthelred became lord of the Mercians " .
= = = Later life = = =
Some historians believe that at an unknown time in the decade 899 to 909 , Æthelred 's health collapsed and Æthelflæd became the effective ruler of Mercia . Cyril Hart and Maggie Bailey believe that it occurred by 902 . Bailey cites " Mercian Register " entries from 902 showing Æthelflæd acting alone or in conjunction with Edward in military operations . Irish annals called the Three Fragments also suggest that Æthelred was unable to take an active part in government from about 902 , although he did attend a meeting in 903 with King Edward , Æthelflæd and Ælfwynn . In 1998 Keynes suggested that Æthelred may have been incapacitated by illness at the end of his life , but in a summary of his career in 2014 Keynes does not mention this , stating that Æthelred and Æthelflæd cooperated with King Edward in campaigns against the Vikings . Martin Ryan also makes no mention of a decline in Æthelred 's health , describing him as joining Edward in encouraging thegns to purchase land in Viking territories . In Michael Livingston 's view , he campaigned with Edward in Northumbria in 909 , and may have died as a result of wounds sustained at the Battle of Tettenhall in 910 .
According to William of Malmesbury , King Edward 's eldest son , the future King Æthelstan , was sent to be brought up at the court of Æthelred and Æthelflæd after Edward remarried in about 900 . This is supported by one independent piece of evidence . According to a transcript dating from 1304 in York 's archives , in 925 Æthelstan gave a grant of privileges to St Oswald 's Priory in Gloucester " according to a pact of paternal piety which formerly he pledged with Æthelred , ealdorman of the people of the Mercians " . When King Edward died in 924 , Æthelstan initially faced opposition at the West Saxon court , but was accepted as king in Mercia .
After Æthelred 's death in 911 , Æthelflæd ruled as " Lady of the Mercians " , but she did not inherit the Mercian territories of London and Oxford , which were taken by Edward . Æthelflæd died in 918 , and their daughter Ælfwynn briefly ruled Mercia until deposed by Edward the Elder , who took the territory under his direct control .
= = = St Oswald 's Priory , Gloucester = = =
Gloucester seems to have been the main seat of Æthelred 's and Æthelflæd 's power , and before 900 they founded a new minster there , dedicated to St Peter . In 909 a West Saxon and Mercian army raided Viking territory and seized the bones of the Northumbrian king and martyr , St Oswald , from Bardney in Lincolnshire . The bones were translated to the new Gloucester minster , which was renamed St Oswald 's Priory in his honour . Both Æthelred and Æthelflæd were buried there . The historian Martin Ryan sees the new minster as something like a Mercian royal mausoleum , to replace the one at Repton destroyed by the Vikings .
= = Æthelred 's status = =
Æthelred 's status is unclear , and this is reflected in the varying titles given to him by different historians . He is sometimes called " ealdorman " , but also " Lord of the Mercians " and " subking " . Coinage issued in English Mercia in Ceolred 's time named him as king , but in Æthelred 's time it named the West Saxon king , yet Æthelred issued some charters in his own name , implying royal authority . West Saxon sources refer to him as an ealdorman , emphasising Mercian subordination to the West Saxon monarchy , whereas Mercian ones describe him as Lord of the Mercians , and Celtic ones sometimes as King of Mercia . The late tenth @-@ century chronicler Æthelweard , who used sources independent of surviving versions of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , called him " King of the Mercians " .
King Edward 's influence over Mercia is unclear , and he may have had less power than his father . Edward 's charters show Æthelred and Æthelflæd as accepting his royal authority , but their own charters make no reference to an overlord , and some use expressions such as " holding , governing and defending the sole rule of the Mercians " , which come close to describing them as king and queen .
Pauline Stafford comments that " Alfred 's dominance in the 890s over Æthelred , Lord of the Mercians , was as debatable at the time as it still is . " In the view of Ann Williams , " though he accepted West Saxon overlordship , Æthelred behaved rather as a king of Mercia than an ealdorman " , and Charles Insley states that Mercia remained an independent kingdom until 920 . To the Welsh and Irish looking east , Mercian rulers still kept all their old regality until Æthelflæd 's death in 918 , and Nick Higham argues that : " Celtic visions of Æthelred and Æthelflæd as king and queen certainly offer a different , and equally valid , contemporary take on the complex politics of this transition to a new English state . "
Keynes takes the West Saxon view , arguing that Alfred created the " kingdom of the Anglo @-@ Saxons " , inherited by his son Edward the Elder in 899 , and Æthelred ruled Mercia under the king . Keynes points out that according to Asser , the Welsh king Anarawd submitted to Alfred on the same terms as Æthelred — " Namely that in every respect he would be obedient to the royal will " . Keynes regards the designation " K. [ King ] Æthelred II " in the Handbook of British Chronology as a " delightfully provocative " extension of the " received wisdom " that Mercia retained a real measure of independence in Æthelred 's time . However , Keynes also says :
Æthelred usually acted with the permission of or in association with King Alfred , but occasionally he acted independently of him . Although sometimes described as plain dux or ealdorman , his status was clearly quite different from that of other duces , for he is also accorded styles which aspire to divine grace and which appear to verge on the royal . In other words , there is no mistaking that the Mercians retained a conception of their ruler as a rightful successor to earlier kings , and a conception of their land as a kingdom with its own identity ; but there is also no mistaking that Æthelred moved in an Alfredian world .
= Pinkham Notch =
Pinkham Notch ( elevation 2032 ft . / 619 m ) is a mountain pass in the White Mountains of north @-@ central New Hampshire , United States . The notch is a result of extensive erosion by the Laurentide ice sheet during the Wisconsinian ice age . Pinkham Notch was eroded into a glacial U @-@ shaped valley whose walls are formed by the Presidential , Wildcat , and Carter @-@ Moriah ranges . Due to the volatility of the area 's climate and rugged character of the terrain , a number of rare or endemic ecosystems have developed throughout the notch .
The notch was discovered in 1784 by Jeremy Belknap , but its isolation prevented further development for several years . The construction of New Hampshire Route 16 has led to increased accessibility and a rise in tourism . Its location makes it a hub for hiking and skiing .
= = Geography = =
The notch separates the Presidential Range , which forms the western wall , from the Wildcat Range , which forms the eastern wall . Two rivers drain the notch ; the Ellis River drains the south end and is a tributary of the Saco , and the Peabody River drains the north end and is a tributary of the Androscoggin .
The bulk of the western slope of the notch is formed by Mount Washington , the highest peak in the northeast United States , reaching 6 @,@ 288 feet ( 1 @,@ 917 m ) above sea level . Mount Washington rises more than 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) above the floor of the notch . A number of glacial cirques are found on this side of the notch . The Great Gulf and its tributary cirques form the largest cirque in the White Mountains . South of the Great Gulf is Huntington Ravine , with a rocky , precipitous headwall renowned for its rock and ice climbing . The slope then dips into the Ravine of Raymond Cataract , a non @-@ glacial " V @-@ shaped " valley with a notable waterfall . After this comes Tuckerman Ravine , with a uniform , smoother headwall that is known for its high @-@ quality skiing . After passing the Gulf of Slides , a smaller and lesser @-@ known cirque , the notch opens up and continues until Jackson .
The eastern slope of the notch consists of the Wildcat and Carter @-@ Moriah Ranges , slightly lower than the Presidential Range to the west . The Wildcat Range consists of five peaks , named A , B , C , D , and E from northeast to southwest in order of height . Wildcat A is the highest , at 4 @,@ 422 feet ( 1 @,@ 348 m ) . From the main ridge , the slopes drop very steeply , but not precipitously , to the floor of the notch . The Wildcat Mountain Ski Area occupies the western slopes of Wildcat up to the col between D and E peaks . As the notch rounds E peak , the slope becomes extremely steep , and Wildcat Ridge begins to drop to the end of the notch .
The Carter @-@ Moriah Range lies to the north of Wildcat Ridge , forming the eastern side of Pinkham Notch all the way to the Androscoggin River . From south to north , the peaks overlooking the notch are Carter Dome ( 4 @,@ 832 ft / 1 @,@ 473 m ) , Mount Hight ( 4 @,@ 675 ft / 1 @,@ 425 m ) , South Carter Mountain ( 4 @,@ 420 ft / 1 @,@ 347 m ) , Middle Carter Mountain ( 4 @,@ 600 ft / 1 @,@ 402 m ) , North Carter Mountain ( 4 @,@ 530 ft / 1 @,@ 381 m ) , Imp Mountain ( 3 @,@ 720 ft / 1 @,@ 134 m ) , and Mount Moriah ( 4 @,@ 049 ft / 1 @,@ 234 m ) .
= = Environment = =
The climate , and as a result , the flora and fauna , of Pinkham Notch varies greatly with elevation . As elevations increase on the walls of the notch , climate and ecosystems change to those of increasingly northern occurrence . Biomes range from a low @-@ elevation northern hardwood forest at the base of Mount Washington to alpine @-@ Arctic vegetation near the summit comparable to vegetation found at the latitude of Labrador .
= = = Below 2500 ft . — Northern hardwood forest = = =
The lowest elevations of Pinkham Notch are occupied by a northern hardwood forest . This forest type is primarily deciduous and consists mostly of sugar maple , American beech , and yellow birch . There is also a proliferation of understory and forest floor plants ; common examples include wild sarsaparilla , painted trillium , hobblebush , and Indian cucumber @-@ root .
The northern hardwood forest also contains the greatest diversity of animal life in the notch . Mammals include chipmunks , raccoons , white @-@ tailed deer , black bears , and moose . There are also a large number of birds in this forest ; frequently seen are red @-@ eyed vireos , hermit thrushes , and ovenbirds . Amphibians are also found in the northern hardwood forest . Red efts , the terrestrial stage of development for the red @-@ spotted newt , congregate in large numbers after heavy rains ; also present are American toads , spring peepers , and wood frogs .
At around 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , species from higher forest zones begin to mix with the northern hardwoods in what is known as the " transition zone " . As elevation within this zone increases , species from the lower hardwood forest begin to drop out . By 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) , yellow birch is the only deciduous species that remains , and the forest becomes a spruce @-@ fir forest .
= = = 2500 ft. to 4000 ft . — Spruce / fir forest = = =
As elevation increases , the forest is subjected to colder temperatures , increased moisture , and acidic , infertile soils . As a result , conifers , or " softwoods " become the dominant species . Two trees , red spruce and balsam fir , are present throughout this zone , with paper birch , striped maple and mountain ash present in its lower levels . Like the hardwood forest below it , the spruce @-@ fir forest also holds understory plants ; commonly found are wood sorrel , Indian pipes , Canada mayflowers , and bluebead lilies . Fungi are also common in the moist environment .
Most of the animals in the spruce @-@ fir forest have ranges that extend into the balsam fir forest higher up . Warblers are abundant ; more than ten species exist in this forest type . Other common birds include brown @-@ capped chickadees , spruce grouse , and yellow @-@ capped woodpeckers . Mammals include the red squirrel and the pine marten .
= = = 4000 ft. to timberline — Balsam fir forest = = =
As elevation continues to increase , only the hardiest trees remain in the forest , which is composed almost exclusively of balsam fir . Most of the understory plants and animals from the upper spruce @-@ fir zone , however , can be found in this forest . Moisture causes nutrients to be stripped from the soil and brought to lower elevations , and decomposition takes place at a rate that is too slow to replenish them .
In the upper reaches of the balsam fir zone , winds and temperatures are extreme enough to force the trees into stunted , " bonsai @-@ like " shapes . Known as krummholz , from the German word for " crooked wood " , trees in this area are often bent into bizarre shapes by the combined effects of wind , temperature , and airborne ice particles . Branches that are perpendicular to the prevailing winds are often killed , leaving " flag trees " that point in the direction of the wind . Eventually , conditions become extreme enough to prevent any tree growth ; the elevation at which this occurs is known as tree line , and usually occurs at around 4 @,@ 500 ft ( 1 @
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visually challenged people . She also was the brand ambassador Celebrity Cricket League for its two first seasons .
= = Early life and background = =
Shriya Saran Bhatnagar was born on 11 September 1982 in the Haridwar in Northern India , to Pushpendra Saran Bhatnagar and Neeraja Saran Bhatnagar . Her father worked for Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited and her mother was a Chemistry teacher in Delhi Public School , Ranipur in Haridwar and Delhi Public School , Mathura Road , New Delhi . Saran completed her schooling from both schools where her mother had taught . She has an elder brother named Abhiroop who lives in Mumbai . Her family lived in the small town of BHEL colony in Haridwar when she was growing up . She later studied at Lady Shri Ram College in Delhi and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in literature . Saran is an accomplished dancer . She was first trained as a child by her mother in Kathak and Rajasthani folk dance , and later trained in Kathak style by Shovana Narayan . She was involved with many dance teams in college and with her teacher . They would incorporate social issues into their dance routines .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career ( 2001 – 03 ) = = =
While in her sophomore year at the LSR College in Delhi , Saran got her first opportunity to appear in front of the camera for a video shoot . Following her dance teacher 's recommendation , she was invited to appear in the music video of Renoo Nathan 's " Thirakti Kyun Hawa " . Shot in Banaras , the video was seen by Ramoji Films who offered her the lead role of Neha in their film Ishtam . Saran accepted the part , and even before it was released she was signed to four more films , including Nuvve Nuvve , in which she played a millionaire 's daughter who falls for a middle class man . In 2002 , she starred in Santosham , co @-@ starring Nagarjuna , Prabhu Deva and Gracy Singh , which was her first commercial success . The film took the Nandi Award for Best Feature Film and Filmfare Best Film Award ( Telugu ) . Saran played a girl who lets someone she loves go with another , but wins him back later in life . For her performance , she earned a nomination for the CineMAA Award for Best Actor- Female , giving her a good foothold in the Telugu industry in the early part of her career .
In 2003 , Saran acted a supporting role in her first Hindi film , Tujhe Meri Kasam , starring debutants Ritesh Deshmukh and Genelia D 'Souza in leading roles . She also performed the lead female role in several Telugu films including Tagore , which was screened at the International Indian Film Academy Awards , and was a commercial success . She followed it with her Tamil film debut in Enakku 20 Unakku 18 , alongside Tarun and Trisha Krishnan , which was simultaneously shot in Telugu as Nee Manasu Naaku Telusu , in which she played a football coach . Though she acted in films in three languages that year , overall eight of the first ten films of her career were in Telugu .
= = = Career fluctuations ( 2004 – 07 ) = = =
In 2004 , Saran acted in two Telugu and two Hindi films , including Nenunnanu , where she played a student in classical singing . She had ten 2005 releases , nine of which were Telugu films , the most notable for her being Chatrapathi . There she appeared opposite Prabhas , and earned her first nomination for the Filmfare Best Telugu Actress Award . A reviewer for Moviebuzz said that as an action film , Saran 's character of the lead 's love interest was not well developed ; that she was there primarily for the songs . Meanwhile , she tried to make her comeback in Tamil with Mazhai , a remake of the Telugu film Varsham . Neither the movie nor her performance were received well . Also in 2005 , she appeared as one of only three characters in the film Mogudu Pellam O Dongodu , which was about a married couple 's first night together , and made a guest appearance in a children 's film called Bommalata , which won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu . Saran 's only lead role in 2006 , excluding three special appearances , was in the Tamil film Thiruvilayadal Arambam .
In 2007 , she was chosen to play the lead female role opposite Rajinikanth in S. Shankar 's Sivaji : The Boss , which was the most expensive Indian film at that time . R. G. Vijayasarathy wrote in his review for Rediff that aside from her beauty , Saran " proves that she can act too " . Her performance earned her a South Scope Style Award for Best Tamil Actress , her first award win , and a nomination at the Vijay Awards . The role also made her a star in the south Indian film industry . During this phase of her career , she made several special appearances in item numbers , including in the films Devadasu , Munna , and Tulasi .
Also in 2007 , Saran made her comeback in Hindi cinema with Awarapan , which was a joint production between India and Pakistan , and in which she played a Muslim girl and had to learn Urdu . This was her fourth Hindi film , but the others had failed to make any impact . Sanjay Ram , writing for Business of Cinema , gave the film 2 @.@ 5 of 5 stars , and said that Saran provided a brief but compelling performance . Saran later said that the film strengthened her conviction that all religions are equal . Later that year she appeared in one more Tamil film , Azhagiya Tamil Magan opposite Vijay . Though critics exalted her looks , her performance received mixed reviews , with one reviewer , Nandhu Sundharam of Rediff , going so far as to say that her " acting is as bad as her looks are good " . That same year Saran made a special appearance in a scene in the Kannada film Arasu . In all she appeared in six films in 2007 , in four different languages .
= = = American cinema debut ( 2008 – 12 ) = = =
In 2008 , Saran then made her American cinema debut in Ashok Amritraj 's The Other End of the Line . She played the role of Priya Sethi who works as a telephone operator in an Indian call centre , while acting alongside Jesse Metcalfe , Anupham Kher and Tara Sharma . Shriya 's performance was praised by critics , particularly her on @-@ screen chemistry with Jesse Metcalfe . John Anderson , writing for Variety magazine , said it was " a winning Stateside debut for beautiful Indian actress Shriya Saran . "
Saran acted in the Hindi film Mission Istaanbul with Zayed Khan , Vivek Oberoi and Shabbir Ahluwalia also in 2008 . She played the character of Anjali Sagar which was inspired by the character of Romila Dutta played by Preity Zinta in the film Lakshya ; a journalist who desires to have a child with her husband , which leads to their separation , since he is reluctant . Bollywood Hungama critics said that her character was wasted , as again she gets very little screen time . However , she did pick up the Stardust Exciting New Face Award .
Her most important 2009 release was the commercially successful Tamil film Kanthaswamy , alongside Vikram . She earned a nomination at the Vijay Awards . Vikram himself said in an interview that her role was on par with his , and she easily stole the show on most occasions . Of her character in the film , Saran said that it was the best she has done so far . Also that year she appeared as the female lead in Thoranai . A reviewer said that her glamour and the songs were the only high points of the film . For Thoranai and Kanthaswamy together , she received her third award win , the Amrita Mathrubhumi Award for Best Actress . She then appeared in another English film , Cooking with Stella , which is a comedy , but also takes a look at the serious nature of relationships between servants and employers . It was selected to the Toronto International Film Festival , which Saran attended .
In 2010 , Saran made her Malayalam debut with Pokkiri Raja , in which she appeared opposite Mammootty and Prithviraj . The film was declared a super hit in the first week , breaking the record in Malayalam cinema for opening week gross income , though it was not received well critically , and it was said of Saran that all she had to do was look pretty . She then enacted her first lead role in a Telugu film after five years , in the commercially successful action @-@ comedy film Don Seenu opposite Ravi Teja , where she plays the sister of a mobster . In the opinion of some critics , she stole the show with her dances and romantic scenes . The year 2010 was her second busiest after 2005 , having appeared in eight films in all , this time in four languages .
In 2011 , Saran appeared in Rowthiram , where she worked with Tamil actor Jeeva for the first time . The film received fairly low reviews . Although some reviews said that Saran was not given much opportunity to show her acting skills , mainly just adding a romantic touch to a mostly violent film , she was referred to by another as the pivot around which the film revolves . Her performance earned her Best Actress Award at the International Tamil Film Awards . Her only other film in 2011 was a special appearance in a song for Tamil film Rajapattai .
Saran 's first release of 2012 was her second Malayalam project , Casanovva , co @-@ starring Mohanlal and directed by Rosshan Andrrews . The movie was delayed many times , and it was rumored that Saran would leave the project , but in October 2010 , the producer of the film announced that shooting would commence in Dubai with Shriya Saran among the cast . It was released on 26 January . Her next release was in Gali Gali Mein Chor Hai , from director Rumy Jafry , which began shooting in September 2011 , and released on 3 February . She then was seen in the critically average comedic Telegu film Nuvva Nena with actors Allari Naresh and Sharwanand , followed by Sekhar Kammula 's much delayed Life is Beautiful .
Saran has starred in Deepa Mehta 's long delayed English project Midnight 's Children , which is based on Salman Rushdie 's highly acclaimed novel of the same name . It was filmed under the working title of Winds of Change . It was screened at several film festivals in late 2012 in Canada and finally made its general release in India on February 1 , 2013 .
= = = 2013 – present = = =
In early 2013 , Saran appeared in an item number in the film Zila Ghaziabad . This was her first item number in a Hindi film . On 7 June Saran 's Pavitra was released , in which she played a prostitute . At a press conference in Hyderabad , she said that the film is very special for her , and that she was touched by the sensitivity that director / writer Janardhana Maharshi gave to the topic . According to a review from The Times of India , the most cinematic part of the film is a sensual number " Sukumara Ra Ra ... " in which the camera shows in the curves of the main character . He summed up the review saying , " Besides Shriya Saran 's curves there is nothing in this movie that 's worth watching per se . " Her bi @-@ lingual film Chandra directed by Roopa Iyer was simultaneously made in Kannada and Tamil languages . She played the role of a princess in the film opposite Kannada actor Prem Kumar . The film released in Kannada on 27 June 2013 , and in Tamil on 14 February 2014 . It became a moderate success at the Kannada box office . The film marked Saran 's return to Tamil cinema after more than five years .
Saran 's first film of 2014 , released May 23 , was the Telugu family comedy Manam , which was a success in India and America . Saran 's first film of 2015 was Gopala Gopala , a remake of Bollywood blockbuster Oh , My God , released in the January festive season . She will next appear in director Karan Bhutani 's Hindi film Valmiki Ki Bandook , which is currently under production . She appeared opposite Ajay Devgan in Drishyam , a remake of the Malayalam film of the same name , which turned to be a box office success . In mid January 2016 , she made a special appearance in Nagarjuna 's Oopiri , while also signing her next Hindi film Tadka opposite Nana Patekar . In May 2016 , she was selected as a female lead in Balakrishna 's 100th film Gautamiputra Satakarni .
= = Other works = =
In 2003 , Saran hosted the 50th Filmfare South Award with actor R. Madhavan . She was a part of Tamil director Mani Ratnam 's stage show , Netru , Indru , Naalai , an event which sought to raise funds for " The Banyan " , a voluntary organisation which rehabilitates homeless women with mental illness in Chennai . She was one of the guests alongside actor Surya Sivakumar at the season 3 finale of TV dance show Maanada Mayilada .
Saran was the first actress , and the third celebrity after Shah Rukh Khan and Aamir Khan to deliver a lecture to students at the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad ( IIM @-@ A ) on 12 February 2010 . She said that , " The Indian media and entertainment industry is the fastest growing sector at present , so considering this IIM Ahmedabad had started a new program CFI – Contemporary Film Industry – A Business Perspective . I was there to give a lecture to 2nd year students of CFI and did a lot of research for the lecture for nearly five days . " She held a lecture on marketing and branding of a film . In 2011 , she gave a lecture to students at the Indian Institutes of Technology ( IIT ) Madras on the history of films , and films as a medium of cultural exchange .
= = = Endorsements = = =
Saran started her modelling career by acting in a Pond 's Creams advertisement . She then did a Coca @-@ Cola advertisement alongside Tamil actor Vijay which was directed by prominent director Rajiv Menon . She also starred in a Fair & Lovely creams advertisement during her early career . Shriya Saran is also appointed brand ambassador for Pantene Shampoo . In 2007 , she became the brand ambassador of Saravana Stores . She is now the brand ambassador of the Lux and Head & Shoulders . Saran was also signed as brand ambassador along with actor Saif Ali Khan for Brooke Bond Taj Mahal Tea . Saran says no to soft drinks advertisements because she feels that soft drinks may harm children 's health . In 2011 , Saran was appointed as the promotional model for McVitie 's by United Biscuits along with actress Bipasha Basu . In 2013 , Saran was appointed as brand ambassador for Colgate Active Salt Healthy White toothpaste , along with Bollywood actress Kareena Kapoor . In 2014 , she was signed as brand ambassador for Karnataka Milk Federation ( KMF ) .
= = = CCL ( Celebrity Cricket League ) = = =
On the sports front , Saran is brand ambassador of Celebrity Cricket League ( CCL ) , a concept that mixes two passions in India , film and cricket . In April 2010 , she danced with Shah Rukh Khan at the fourth season opening ceremony of the Indian Premier League ( IPL ) , another cricket league .
In 2007 , Saran launched the first issue of Galatta Cinema and has been featured on its cover many times . In 2008 , she was featured in , and appeared on the cover of the June issue of Maxim India . Editor Anup Kutty said , " We had been thinking of getting someone who bridges this strange divide we have between the North , South and the West ... Shreya fit the bill perfectly . " She has appeared on various other magazine covers over the years , including Jade and South Scope . In 2012 , she again did a photoshoot for Maxim India .
= = Personal life = =
Saran is very reluctant to talk about her private life , and usually denies that reported linkups are romantic in nature . She is Hindu .
Saran is well known for her charity work . She describes herself as someone used to " sharing time and resources with the underprivileged since childhood . " She says that " celebrities can show the way by sensitising people to social issues , campaigning for causes or being part of fund @-@ raisers . " Her family has always encouraged her to think of the needy .
Saran is a brand ambassador for the Naandi Foundation , and for the Save A Child 's Heart Foundation ( SACH ) , which works for the benefit of poor children and people affected by natural calamities . She helps finance a Prevention of Aids foundation . In 2009 , Saran joined with other eminent personalities to promote ' The Joy of Giving Week ' , to encourage people from all walks of life to engage in acts of giving . She regularly participates in carnivals and campaigns that associate with children benefits . She is associated with animal welfare and the Blue Cross of India . She is also associated with an NGO called World Vision that finds parents for deprived kids , and works for Apollo ’ s RDF to raise funds for underprivileged children .
In 2011 , she opened a Spa which exclusively employs the visually challenged . It is called Shree Spa , and is located in Mumbai . Saran has said " When I studied in DPS Mathura Road in Delhi , there was a school for blind exactly opposite to our school . I used to go there every week and spend time seeing how these students played cricket and did other things normally . That is what inspired me to do something for these people " . In an interview to TOI , the actress said , " We feel sympathetic towards them but we never employ them . We are scared because we have not grown up with them . While these people might be visually impaired , their other senses are very strong . So they can effectively give foot and back massages and treatments like reflexology . It 's important to understand that you are not doing a favour on them but they are doing a favour on you " .
In January 2008 , Saran was the subject of a controversy , when a Hindu organisation in Chennai lodged a police complaint against Saran , objecting to the outfit worn by her during the 175th day celebration of her film , Sivaji : The Boss . In a complaint , the Hindu Makkal Katchi ( HMK ) alleged that Shriya 's outfit had " offended Hindu culture " . Shriya publicly apologised to Tamilians and Hindus , saying it was a mistake , and that she had " great respect for the tradition and culture of Tamil Nadu [ ... ] I was shooting for a Hindi film in Thanjavur . I came to the function directly from the shooting , [ ... ] I was unaware of the repercussions because of the attire I wore during the function . "
On working in different regional film industries in India she has stated , " I don ’ t consider Kollywood or Bollywood as separate entities . For me , there ’ s only a single category , the Indian film industry , which is extremely rich owing to its diverse genres and languages . " She is fluent in Hindi , English , and can understand Telugu and Tamil well . On 19 January 2013 , she quit Twitter due to derogatory comments from her followers . However , she rejoined Twitter with a new account on 27 January 2015 .
= = Filmography = =
As Actress
= = Awards = =
Honours and recognitions
2010 – T. Subbarami Reddy Lalitha Kala Parishath Awards for Contributions to Telugu Cinema
2010 – Featured in a poll conducted by Rediff about woman achievers in Indian entertainment , ranking her among the top actresses
2014 – GR8 Women 's Award
Rankings on The Times of India 's list of " 50 Most Desirable Women " : 13th in 2010 , 15th in 2011 , 18th in 2012 , 7th in 2013 , 5th in 2014 and 6th in 2015
Rankings on Hyderabad Times most desirable woman for south , 3rd in 2013 , 2nd in 2014 , 2nd in 2015
Brand Ambassador for SIIMA AWARDS in 2013 , 2014 and 2015
= Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Soviet Union ) =
The Ministry of External Relations ( MER ) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) ( Russian : Министерство внешних сношений СССР ) , formed on 16 July 1923 , was one of the most important government offices in the Soviet Union . It was known as the People 's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs ( Russian : Народный комиссариат по иностранным делам ) , or Narkomindel , until 1946 . The Ministry was known as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Russian : Министерство иностранных дел ) , or MFA , from 1946 to 1991 . The MER , at the all @-@ Union level , was established on 6 July 1923 , after the signing of the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR , and was based upon the People 's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) , formed in 1917 . The Ministry was led by a Commissar prior to 1946 , a Minister of Foreign Affairs prior to 1991 , and a Minister of External Relations in 1991 . Every leader of the Ministry was nominated by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers and confirmed by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , and was a member of the Council of Ministers .
The Ministry of External Relations negotiated diplomatic treaties , handled Soviet foreign affairs along with the International Department of the Central Committee and aided in the guidance of international communism and anti @-@ imperialism , both strong themes of Soviet policy . Before Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary , the organisational structure of the MER mostly stayed the same . As many other Soviet agencies , the MER had an inner @-@ policy group known as the Collegium , made up of the minister , the two first deputy ministers and nine deputy ministers , among others . Each deputy minister usually headed his own department .
= = Duties and responsibilities = =
The primary duty of the foreign ministry was directing the general line of Soviet foreign policy . The MER represented the country abroad and participated in talks with foreign delegations on behalf of the Soviet government . It also appointed diplomatic officers , with the exception of Soviet ambassadors , who were appointed by the Council of Ministers . The MER was responsible for taking care of the USSR 's economic and political interests abroad , although economic interests were also the joint responsibility of the Ministry of Foreign Trade . The State Committee of the Council of Ministers on Cultural Links with Foreign Nations and the Ministry of Culture worked jointly with the MER in regards to the protection of Soviet citizens abroad , the exercise of overall Soviet consular relations abroad and the promotion of Soviet culture abroad . A less visible duty of the MER was its role in the coordination of Soviet intelligence operations abroad .
Exit visas were issued by the federal MER , but also by its all @-@ union foreign affairs ministries and by the Ministry of Internal Affairs . The same was true for the civilian external passports that were issued to Soviet citizens .
= = Organisation and structure = =
The inner policy making group of the ministry was the Collegium . The members of the Collegium were usually the minister , the two first deputy ministers , the nine deputy ministers , a chief of the general secretariat and fourteen other members . In total there were 27 members of the Collegium in 1990 . Each deputy minister was responsible for a department . The remaining members controlled either a department or an administrative body of the ministry . A Collegium in the USSR was , in many ways , the same as collective leadership . The Collegium coordinated decision making regarding the allocation of specific tasks on the basis of the MER 's policy . This body was expected to review new directives ordered by the minister and note their successes and failures . Mikhail Gorbachev 's " new thinking " abroad was made official in the Collegium in 1988 , such as by setting goals for improving diplomatic relations and creating " decent , human , material and spiritual living conditions for all nations " . Furthermore , the Collegium noted that the improvements in international efforts " to save the world " was the best " class notion of socialism . " It believed that if socialism could create a more peaceful world , socialism would truly have carried out a " world revolution . "
The federal Ministry of External Relations and its local all @-@ union affiliates would regularly convene at the federal Council of Ministers and its Union Republics branches to discuss the policy , duties and responsibilities of the MER . This joint gathering led to more participation from the union republics on foreign policy implementation , elaboration and coordination . This organ also discussed international problems and solved such problems in the international arena .
Because the communist regimes of Eastern Europe collapsed in 1989 , there was no longer any distinction between the Eastern and Western European departments . A separate administration body known as " embassy affairs " existed for servicing the Soviet diplomatic corps abroad . In 1986 , the Soviet government created new MER departments to deal with arms control and disarmament . The MER also created new regional departments , such as the Department of the Pacific . This was a radical change , since the MER 's structure had mostly remained unchanged since the Russian Empire . A Soviet textbook describes MER 's organisation and structure as follows :
An important branch of the central apparatus , from the point of view of day @-@ to @-@ day operational diplomatic guidance , is the executive diplomatic division . The nature of activities engaged in by these divisions is determined by their territorial and functional characteristics . Territorial departments handle questions of foreign relations with specific groups of states . These groups of countries are divided by regions .
The reorganisation efforts that took place in 1986 and the beginning of 1987 led to the replacement of many senior diplomats . The government also introduced a new principle which stated , " Once an ambassador has been at the same post for 4 or 5 years , he loses the edge of his perceptiveness . The optimum period of service in one and the same post is three years as a maximum . "
= = Ideology and policy @-@ making = =
Ideology was a key component of Soviet foreign policy . Soviet diplomacy was built on the ideas of Marxism @-@ Leninism ; Vladimir Lenin understood that compromise is an important element in foreign diplomacy and was a proponent of peaceful coexistence with the capitalist powers . A primary goal of the emphasis placed on coexistence and compromise was to “ prevent the imperialist states from attacking the USSR while it was restoring the Russian economy following the Civil War and , later , while it was undertaking industrial development . Therefore , " certain agreements with the imperialist countries in the interest of socialism " could sometimes be reached . The relationship between policy and ideology remained an active issue until the dissolution of the Soviet Union . According to an unknown former director of the Moscow State Institute of International Relations , all successful diplomatic activities by the Soviet side were based on the principles of Marxism @-@ Leninism and the Soviet evaluation of other countries in certain fields , such as social development . The Directorate for Planning Foreign Policy Measures , an organ of the MER , analysed international relations and tried to predict future events , although it never actually planned the policy of the MER . Soviet foreign affairs minister Eduard Shevardnadze claimed that Soviet foreign policy , and the " new thinking " approach laid out by Gorbachev , had become the cornerstone of maintaining stable diplomatic relations throughout the world .
There are many examples of rivalry between party and state in Soviet history . In foreign policy the state was represented by the MER , while the International Department ( ID ) represented the party . The ID 's foreign policy approach was more ideological than the MER 's , which followed a policy of détente , literally meaning the easing of strained relations with the First World . Historian Jan Adams explained the conflict in the following manner :
" Deeply embedded and seemingly inescapable conflict between these two major Soviet foreign policy institutions and their missions . On the other hand , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs seeks to cultivate formal state to state relationships ; on the other hand the ID pursues the party 's dream of building a communist world at the expense of capitalism . "
The MER used much more of its human and financial resources for propaganda purposes and so @-@ called " active measures " than other non @-@ Soviet affiliated foreign ministries . This included dissemination of views supported by the Soviet government , harassment , censorship , radio jamming , forgeries and general disinformation . Disinformation had become an important component of day @-@ to @-@ day operations in Soviet foreign affairs . Because of this , during most of its lifespan the Soviet MER had a much higher budget than its counterpart non @-@ Soviet ministries , especially when comparing the MER to the foreign ministries of the Western Bloc . Shevardnadze claimed that the Soviet government used an estimate of 700 billion rubles alone on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( known as such until 1991 ) to support " ideological confrontations " with the First World .
= = History = =
The People 's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) was established in 1917 . The Commissar was a member of the Council of the People 's Commissars . The People 's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs replaced the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire after the October Revolution . In 1946 the Council of People 's Commissars was renamed the Council of Ministers and the People 's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs was renamed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs .
As Soviet foreign minister , Andrei Gromyko noted in his memoirs that working with Nikita Khrushchev was not always an easy task . As Gromyko tells it , " Khrushchev would constantly throw new ideas back and forth . " His ideas were not always supported , but , as Gromyko noted , Khrushchev had a positive impact on Soviet foreign policy . Leonid Brezhnev , according to Gromyko , was a man much easier to do business with because he compensated for his lack of skills by discussing subjects openly within the Politburo . While he was easier to do business with in some areas , Brezhnev 's slowness and lack of knowledge in certain fields made him hard to discuss foreign policy with . However , Gromyko noted that his disease should be taken in consideration . Mikhail Gorbachev 's " new thinking " led to friendlier foreign relations with the Western countries , but his domestic policies destabilised the country , and in 1991 the Soviet Union dissolved . In 1991 , before the country 's dissolution , the Ministry was renamed the Ministry of External Relations . The ministry was succeeded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation in 1992 after Russia declared itself the legal successor to the USSR .
= = Commissars and ministers = =
The following persons headed the Commissariat / Ministry as commissars ( narkoms ) , ministers , and deputy ministers during the Soviet era :
= Keeps Gettin ' Better =
" Keeps Gettin ' Better " is a song by American singer Christina Aguilera , taken from her first greatest hits album , Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits ( 2008 ) . It was released on September 9 , 2008 , by RCA Records as the only single from the album . The song was written and produced by Linda Perry , with additional songwriting from Aguilera . After giving birth to her son Max , she looked to " come up with something new and fresh " , developing a " futuristic " era of her career . " Keeps Gettin ' Better " is an electroclash and electropop song , and was inspired by the likes of Andy Warhol and Goldfrapp . Its lyrics portray Aguilera as a superhero .
Upon its release , " Keeps Gettin ' Better " received generally mixed reviews from music critics . At a time when dance music was becoming increasingly prominent , the song was criticized for its lack of originality , but was deemed " catchy " and a welcome change from Aguilera 's fifth studio album Back to Basics ( 2006 ) . It became Aguilera 's highest debut on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number seven . The song additionally topped the US Hot Dance Club Play chart . Elsewhere , it peaked at number four in Canada , while charting inside the top twenty in Austria , Germany , Ireland , Italy , Japan , Slovakia and the United Kingdom .
The accompanying music video , directed by Peter Berg , features Aguilera in an editing room , producing the music video on a green screen . Using the equipment there , she creates several characters , including a blonde 1960 's inspired hippie character , another based on Catwoman and a futuristic blue @-@ haired version of herself . Aguilera debuted the song during a live performance at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards . Wearing a catsuit , she sang a remixed version of her debut single " Genie in a Bottle " ( 1999 ) , before performing " Keeps Gettin ' Better " . Aguilera also performed the song during a promotional tour for the album , and as part of a medley of her greatest hits on the 36th Annual American Music Awards .
= = Background = =
" Keeps Gettin ' Better " was released almost a year after Aguilera gave birth to her first son , Max . She told MSN that " Growing into being a woman , a mother , it 's a very different time in my life , and also where I 'm at musically " . Throughout her career , Aguilera has been noted for her reinventions . She stated that with " Keeps Gettin ' Better " , she wished to " come up with something new and fresh " , calling the new redefined era of her music " futuristic " . Aguilera said that the development of new songs featured on Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits was influenced by artists such as Blondie , Velvet Underground and Nico . Visually , artists Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein were credited as influences for the album . After stating the theme of the record was futuristic , she said to MTV News that the era has a " very pop @-@ art feel visually " . Aguilera also stated that she had been " diving deep " into " electro in particular " at the time , noting that she had started connections to collaborate with prominent dance artists Goldfrapp and Ladytron . While talking to MTV News , Aguilera discussed the influence behind the track and the album , and said :
I wanted to give [ fans ] a little sneak preview of what 's to come [ with the VMA performance ] . The vein of the new material is a futuristic take on what is inspiring me at the moment ... and it 's got a very pop @-@ art feel , visually . [ There 's a ] throwback to Andy Warhol and all the colors and vividness and bright boldness that was in that artwork . I 'm a big collector of pop art and graffiti art at this point , too — D * Face and Banksy , also Roy Lichtenstein ... and it 's been very fun venturing off into that zone .
= = Composition = =
" Keeps Gettin ' Better " was written by Aguilera and Linda Perry , while production was done by the latter . It is an electropop song , written in the key of F minor . Aguilera 's vocals in the track span from the note of F3 to the note of C5 . Meanwhile , Shahryar Rizvi from the Dallas Observer described it as electroclash . The song has also been noted by The Times as an " electro @-@ glam " number . Described as a " muscular , percussive arena @-@ ready " track , the song garnered comparisons to Goldfrapp 's Supernature album and Britney Spears ' song " Womanizer " . An " instantly engaging " electropop beat begins the track ; it additionally features " space @-@ age sounds " in response to its futuristic concept , with a " throbbing " synth line . Lyrically , themes of female empowerment and being a superhero are dominant on the track . Aguilera sings , " Some days I 'm a super bitch " . The lyrics derive from Aguilera 's experience as a mother . While talking to MSN , she said :
After having my own child , it 's pretty amazing what females are capable of . We 're Supergirl , we do it all : we give the love , we give the milk . On the other hand , I 'm running a business . I 'm running my career . That comes with being labeled a bitch . If that 's what I 'm gonna be called by being assertive and knowing who I am and what I want out of life , then so be it . I will wear that label proudly . For me it 's about turning that word into a positive .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Chris Willman from Entertainment Weekly responded to the new additions of the compilation saying , " The singer has banished melisma and belting from these electronic confections , and her chops sound just as hot set on simmer . " Nick Butler from Sputnikmusic positively received the song and " Dynamite " saying " Christina the pop singer is dead , long live Electro Christina " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy called the song a " welcome change " from Aguilera 's 2006 Back to Basics album , but stated that the song is not one of Aguilera 's best singles . Fraser McAlpine from BBC wrote a mixed review for the song , recognizing Aguilera 's maturity in the lyrics . However , he confessed that this could easily be a song by Pink , who might have made a better job of making it her own . Allmusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that the singer was instantly overshadowed by fellow singer Britney Spears , but " Keeps Gettin ' Better " proves that no other teen pop singer of her era has a better track than Aguilera , concluding that if the new songs are any indication , the title of the hits compilation [ Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits ] is no lie either .
Gavin Martin from The Mirror gave a mixed response , as he said : " Nothing dates as quickly as pop that dares to call itself futuristic " . Martin awarded the song 3 / 5 and concluded with " It 's not that this new number from the forthcoming Greatest Hits set is bad – but it 's a whole lot more routine than it pretends to be . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented on the possibly outdated dance theme . Responding to the new additions of the record including " Keeps Gettin ' Better " , he noted : " Not exactly what one would call original , but if it 's true the singer 's next studio album will reprise this electro @-@ pop sound , Aguilera deserves credit for refusing to play it safe . " Bill Lamb from About.com awarded the track three stars . He noted Aguilera 's dance @-@ inspired effort , at a time of dance dominance in the industry , negatively and stated that " the catchy electro @-@ pop vibe isn 't enough to make it one of her more memorable efforts . " Rolling Stone noted that in the compilation , Aguilera 's old singles are " weighed down by four bland attempts at 2008 's trendy , Lady Gaga @-@ jacking electropop " . Paul Thompson and Amy Phillips from Pitchfork Media said that the track was " basically a ripoff " of Goldfrapp 's " Ooh La La " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Keeps Gettin ' Better " sold 143 @,@ 895 legal downloads in its first week dated September 30 , 2008 , debuting at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 a few weeks later . This has become Aguilera 's highest debut on the chart and became her first top ten hit since " Ain 't No Other Man " in 2006 . As of August 2014 , it has sold 1 @.@ 156 million digital copies in the US . The song has performed well on the Canadian Hot 100 chart ; it debuted at number 16 , and a week later the song became the " Greatest Airplay , Sales Gainer " , peaking at number four . However , the track only spent one week within the top ten . It debuted and peaked at number 21 in Swedish Singles Chart , and reached number 14 in the United Kingdom . On September 21 , 2008 , the song debuted and peaked on the Australian ARIA Charts at number 26 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
Directed by Peter Berg , the music video for the song is said to have been influenced by films Minority Report and the James Bond series , and was conceived to show Aguilera " through time and fashion in an homage to her 10 @-@ year career " according to a statement by her label . Popjustice saw the music video in progress on October 22 , 2008 , in the edit they reported that the music video was produced on a green screen , but the concept of the video was to be Aguilera in an edit suite pressing various flashing buttons , editing what was her own music video . Aguilera herself discussed the production of the video , saying " I really enjoyed making the video for ' Keeps Gettin ' Better ' , being an artist who likes to play around with different looks , it was a lot of fun to portray various characters within the same shoot . " The music video debuted on iLike , an online music service on October 27 , 2008 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video starts with multi colored , digital waves which then merge into a scene where Aguilera is sat in an editing suite overlooking a sound and edit board . Pressing flashing buttons , multiple large screens stand in front of the desk and correspond to her choice of button selected . The first images shown on the screens feature Aguilera as Catwoman , a futuristic blue haired character , and a 1960s influenced hippie before focusing on the 60 's inspired character . The blond character is shown to be holding an old fashioned handheld video camera filming scenes of high rise buildings , all the while showing shots of Aguilera editing the on screen projection . The blond hippie inspired character is then seen in a second setting , riding a bicycle through a grassy field at times performing dance movements to the song and lip @-@ synching .
Aguilera then takes a touch screen Nokia 5800 XpressMusic phone from her pocket with an image of a futuristic blue haired character , after producing a scene of a convertible car , she inputs the character from the phone onto the screen and into the car and the blue haired character is then shown driving . Aguilera then produces silhouettes of a catwoman style figure , until Aguilera as the catwoman character is shown , wearing a leather catsuit with cat ears , lighting bolts shoot from her hands until another scene featuring the same character shows her alongside a black motorbike holding a gun . Shots of both the blue haired character and catwoman lead to a scene featuring a blond Aguilera moving inside of the screens accompanied by multi @-@ colored digital waves , before shots of the catwoman style character on a motorbike , shooting the gun are presented . Shots of the different scenes including one of Aguilera at the desk accompanied by a toy robot are shown finishing as Aguilera turns the screens off .
= = = Reception = = =
Gil Kaufman from MTV News called the video " geektastic " . Popjustice also gave the video a positive review , saying : " The video 's a riot of costume changes , makeovers , multiple ' scenarios ' and Christina even seems to look like she 's having fun . We 'd sort of forgotten the single was even coming out , but the video makes it all seem quite exciting . " The Sun commented that " has done the impossible – made the blue rinse sexy " . Anna Pickard from The Guardian heavily compared Aguilera to Britney Spears in the video , saying : " We 're at a final count of four Christinas to five Britneys . [ ... ] We can 't be seen to have achieved a perfect Xtina / Britney balance . [ ... ] We 'd probably need a guest appearance from Madonna for that " . She also felt that " the 30 @-@ second Target advert is better than the whole video . But still : any release that makes it compulsory to type ' Christina Aguilera Keeps Getting Better ' is surely a clever ploy " .
= = Live performances = =
At a press conference in Paramount Studios in Los Angeles , Aguilera confirmed that she would be performing at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards on September 7 , 2008 . She discussed about allowing her newly born son , Max , to watch the performance , saying : " This will be his first time watching me perform on television , but only for a little while because he 's not really allowed to watch television yet . I 'll make an exception for the VMAs . " Aguilera discussed the concept of the performance beforehand saying : " You 're going to get a first look and a first listen at my new image and my new sound . The last album , the style and sound was about vintage glam — this one is all about the future " . The performance began with Aguilera standing in a tower of neon @-@ lit boxes , singing " Genie 2 @.@ 0 " while wearing second @-@ skin leather catsuit accessorized with silver armbands , a black @-@ leather cat mask , black cape and platinum @-@ blond hair . Then , she began performing " Keeps Gettin ' Better " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy called the performance " sassy , slickly @-@ choreographed " .
Aguilera made an appearance at the Thisday Africa Rising at the London 's Royal Albert Hall , where she performed several old hits and " Keeps Gettin ' Better " . She also performed the song as part of the tour in Kiev , Ukraine , on October 20 and 21 . The last date was held on October 24 in Abu Dhabi , at the Emirates Palace Hotel . On November 23 , Aguilera promoted her greatest hits album by performing at the 36th Annual American Music Awards . She opened the show with a seven @-@ minute medley including six of her greatest hits . Los Angeles Times ' Todd Martens commented about the performance : " Things get started in familiar territory , with an Aguilera medley , the first of what is sure to be many whiplash @-@ inducing musical performances this evening . But unlike her MTV VMA run @-@ down , Aguilera backs into " Genie in a Bottle " rather than opening with it . [ ... ] Opening with the ballad allowed Aguilera to flex her vocal muscles , but the zipping between songs never allowed her - or her background dancers - to catch a groove " .
= = Track listings = =
= No. 1 Aircraft Depot RAAF =
No. 1 Aircraft Depot ( No. 1 AD ) was a maintenance unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Formed in July 1921 at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , it moved to the nearby RAAF Laverton in March 1926 . As well as servicing aircraft and other equipment , in its early years the depot supported survey flights in Australia and the Pacific region . Its strength increased from 350 staff in the 1930s to over 2 @,@ 000 during World War II , when it assembled , tested and repaired aircraft ranging from Tiger Moths to Spitfires to B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses . The depot also engaged in aircraft research and development . Shortly after the war it introduced the first jets into RAAF service . In 1961 , No. 1 AD ceased airframe maintenance , but continued to service aero engines . By the 1970s its main focus was ground @-@ based equipment , though it still handled some aircraft components . The depot was disbanded in December 1994 , its functions having been taken over by other units and private contractors . At the time of its disbandment , it was the oldest RAAF unit in continuous operation .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ war years = = =
No. 1 Aircraft Depot ( No. 1 AD ) was one of the first units formed by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) after the new service was established ( as the Australian Air Force ) on 31 March 1921 . The original components of No. 1 AD became known as such in April 1921 , though the unit did not formally come into existence until July . Prior to this it comprised two elements in Melbourne , one at Spotswood handling the aircraft and equipment of the Imperial Gift , and another at North Fitzroy responsible for motor vehicle repair . When No. 1 AD was officially established at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , on 1 July , the Spotswood component was dissolved , while North Fitzroy continued to operate as a detachment . The unit 's inaugural commanding officer was Squadron Leader Bill Anderson , who was in overall charge of Point Cook .
In January 1922 the depot was organised into a headquarters with stores , aircraft repair , and engine repair sections . The vehicle repair section at North Fitzroy was transferred to Point Cook that April . Point Cook 's corrosive seaside atmosphere was however deemed an unsuitable long @-@ term location for aircraft maintenance . In September 1921 , the government purchased land at Laverton , near a railway station eight kilometres inland from Point Cook , for the express purpose of constructing a dedicated home for No. 1 AD as the " warehouse of the Air Force " . The depot , staffed by eight officers and seventy @-@ seven other ranks , relocated to the new base on 1 March 1926 . It occupied a large hangar that included an administration block , which along with living quarters and ancillary buildings had cost £ 300 @,@ 000 to build .
As well as receiving , assembling , testing and maintaining RAAF equipment , No. 1 AD was responsible for supporting research flights . In July 1927 , it was the departure point for the Northern Survey Flight , comprising a De Havilland DH.50 and two DH.9s , which reconnoitered northern and central Australia under the command of the Chief of the Air Staff , Wing Commander ( later Air Marshal Sir ) Richard Williams . The following month , No. 1 AD formed a Papuan Survey Flight , consisting of two Supermarine Seagull III amphibious biplanes under the command of Flight Lieutenant ( later Air Vice Marshal ) Ellis Wackett , to photograph the Papuan and New Guinean coasts as far north as Aitape . Wing Commander Bill Anderson returned to command the depot from April to August 1929 , handing over to Wing Commander Adrian Cole , who served in the post until December 1932 .
By the mid @-@ 1930s , No. 1 AD comprised some 350 staff , servicing a range of aircraft that included the Westland Wapiti , Bristol Bulldog , Hawker Demon , De Havilland Dragon Rapide , Avro Cadet , Avro Anson , and North American NA @-@ 16 . The NA @-@ 16 was later augmented by the purchase of the more advanced North American NA @-@ 33 , which was licensed and built in Australia by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation as the CAC Wirraway . No. 1 AD 's commanding officers during this decade included Wing Commanders Frank McNamara ( February 1933 to April 1936 ) , Frank Lukis ( April 1936 to January 1938 ) , and Arthur Murphy ( January 1938 to May 1940 ) . To cope with a new policy of rapid expansion of the RAAF , a Recruit Training Section was formed under the depot 's auspices in March 1935 ; it was reorganised as Recruit Training Squadron on 1 September 1936 . On 3 May 1937 , Recruit Training Squadron acquired its own sub @-@ unit , the Communications and Survey Flight , utilising Tugan Gannets and Dragon Rapides for ongoing photographic survey work .
= = = World War II = = =
Although many squadrons were raised at RAAF Station Laverton during World War II , the base 's prime focus continued to be its aircraft depot . Following the outbreak of hostilities in September 1939 , No. 1 AD began expanding to handle the RAAF 's growing number of training and combat aircraft , among them De Havilland Tiger Moths , CAC Wirraways , Lockheed Hudsons , Hawker Hurricanes , and Curtiss P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . The depot assembled and tested new aircraft , and ferried them to operational areas such as northern Australia and New Guinea . It was also responsible for the maintenance of in @-@ service aircraft , including their engines , instruments , and armament . As well as RAAF equipment , No. 1 AD repaired damaged US aircraft such as B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses . The depot undertook research and development on various types , including Supermarine Spitfires , CAC Boomerangs , and Wackett Woomerass . It also ran comparative performance studies on Spitfires , Boomerangs , Kittyhawks , Brewster Buffalos , and Mitsubishi Zeros .
In the case of the Boomerang , for example , 105 CA @-@ 12s were delivered to No. 1 AD for testing between July 1942 and June 1943 . As soon as the aircraft started arriving , the depot commenced handling and armament trials that continued for six months , identifying and overcoming such issues as the aircraft 's guns freezing at high altitudes , and unusual levels of carbon monoxide in the cockpit . Fighter aces Alan Rawlinson and Wilfred Arthur , along with a United States Army Air Forces pilot , conducted comparative trials between a Boomerang , a Kittyhawk , a Buffalo , and a Bell Airacobra . The depot began despatching the Boomerangs to their operational units in March 1943 , and the following month performance tested a turbocharged version of the CA @-@ 14 , though this model never entered production . No. 1 AD 's Special Duties and Performance Flight was responsible for conducting performance trials during the early war years ; in December 1943 it became a separate organisation , No. 1 Aircraft Performance Unit , which would evolve into the Aircraft Research and Development Unit ( ARDU ) in 1947 . Among the depot 's wartime commanding officers was Wing Commander John Lerew , who held the post from December 1942 until November 1943 . During his tenure , after investigating the crash of a Vultee Vengeance , he designed a clip to prevent the accidental release of the pilot 's safety harness , which was later adopted for all such harnesses . By January 1945 , No. 1 AD 's strength had increased to its highest level of 2 @,@ 339 staff .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
A Gloster Meteor jet made its first flight in Australia from Laverton in 1946 . By May 1947 , No. 1 AD had assembled the first De Havilland Vampire jet in Australia for its maiden flight . In October the same year , the first helicopter in RAAF service , a Sikorsky S @-@ 51 , arrived at the depot . In 1950 , No. 1 AD received the sole high @-@ performance piston @-@ engined CAC CA @-@ 15 to be built , which had been sent to be " converted to components " ( scrapped ) . The depot took delivery of the first Australian @-@ built English Electric Canberra jet bomber in July 1953 . Shortly afterwards , it modified the three Canberras of No. 1 Long Range Flight prior to the unit taking part in the 1953 London @-@ to @-@ Christchurch air race . In September that year , the first Australian @-@ built Sabre jet fighter was delivered .
By 1961 , when all airframe maintenance at Laverton was transferred to Nos. 2 and 3 Aircraft Depots , No. 1 AD had serviced forty @-@ two different aircraft types throughout its existence . It continued to maintain aero engines , and began supporting telecommunications equipment as well . The engine repair facilities at No. 1 AD were closed down in 1968 . Staff were transferred to No. 3 Aircraft Depot at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , to prepare for the introduction of the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber to Australian service and concentrate on maintaining the new aircraft 's engines . No. 1 AD 's focus thereafter shifted to ground equipment that supported navigational aids , air traffic control , telecommunications and motor transport for the Air Force and other sections of defence and government .
No. 1 AD was presented with a Queen 's Colour on 6 November 1981 . By September the following year its strength was down to 235 staff , but it pioneered the support of various new technologies for the Air Force , in fields such as electroplating , fibre optics , and electronics . It was also responsible for developing and testing components for the F @-@ 111 , Macchi MB @-@ 326 and McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet jets . From 1986 , restructuring and outsourcing began to impact heavily upon the RAAF 's technical services . By the 1990s , No. 1 AD 's functions had largely been taken over by other units and private contractors , and it was disbanded on 2 December 1994 . It was , at the time , the oldest RAAF unit in continuous operation and , according to the RAAF Historical Section , the oldest continuously operating maintenance depot of any air force .
= Murder of Dwayne Jones =
Dwayne Jones was a Jamaican 16 @-@ year @-@ old who was killed by a violent mob in Montego Bay in 2013 , after he attended a dance party dressed in women 's clothing . The incident attracted national and international media attention and brought increased scrutiny to the status of LGBT rights in Jamaica .
Perceived as effeminate , Jones was bullied in school and , at the age of 14 , was forced out of his family home by his father . He moved into a derelict house in Montego Bay with transgender friends . On the evening of 21 July 2013 , they went to the Irwin area of the city and attended a dance party . When some men at the party discovered that the cross @-@ dressing Jones was not a woman , they confronted and attacked him . Jones was beaten , stabbed , shot , and run over by a car ; he died in the early hours of the morning . Police investigated the murder but did not arrest or charge anyone for the crime , which remains unsolved .
The event made newspaper headlines in Jamaica and was reported on in the United Kingdom and the United States . While voices on social media accused Jones of provoking his killers by cross @-@ dressing in public , the murder was condemned by Jamaican educators and the country 's Justice Minister . In the wake of the attack , both domestic and international organisations devoted to LGBT rights and human rights – among them Human Rights Watch , Jamaicans for Justice , and the Jamaica Forum for Lesbians , All @-@ Sexuals & Gays – asked the Jamaican authorities for a proper investigation and for legal recognition of LGBT rights on the island .
= = Background = =
= = = Jones ' biography = = =
Raised in an impoverished slum in Montego Bay , a city in northwest Jamaica , Jones faced bullying at high school from students who perceived his behaviour as effeminate . When Jones was 14 , his father ejected him from the family home and encouraged neighbours to chase him out of the neighbourhood . After a period sleeping in bushes and on beaches , he began squatting in a derelict house in the hills above Montego Bay with two transgender friends , Keke and Khloe , both 23 at the time of Jones ' death . Jones was known among friends as " Gully Queen " , a reference to the storm drainage systems which many homeless LGBT Jamaicans live in . Friends noted that Jones desired to become a teacher or to work in the tourist industry . He also wanted to become a performer like the American pop star Lady Gaga , and had won a local dancing competition . Khloe described him as " a diva " who was " always very feisty and joking around " .
= = = Anti @-@ LGBT sentiment in Jamaica = = =
In 2006 , Time magazine asked whether Jamaica was " the most homophobic place on Earth " , and answered that it " may be the worst offender " . The country 's laws criminalising same @-@ sex activity between males were introduced in 1864 , during the British colonial administration . According to the Sexual Offences Act of 2009 , any man convicted under these laws must register as a sex offender . These laws have been cited as contributing to wider homophobic attitudes among the Jamaican populace , including the view that gay people are criminals regardless of whether or not they have committed any crime . Anti @-@ LGBT perspectives have been furthered by the island 's conservative Christian churches . Many reggae and dancehall songs , among them Buju Banton 's " Boom Bye Bye " , call for the killing of gays . Writing for the International Business Times in the summer of 2013 , the journalist Palash Gosh noted that while Jamaica was " awash in crime and violence , gays and lesbians are particularly prominent targets of wanton brutality . " In the mid @-@ 2000s , two of Jamaica 's best @-@ known LGBT rights activists , Brian Williamson and Steve Harvey , were murdered . In the summer of 2013 , Human Rights Watch carried out five weeks of fieldwork among Jamaica 's LGBT community , reporting that over half of those interviewed had experienced violence as a result of their sexual orientation or gender identity , sometimes on more than one occasion .
= = Murder = =
On the evening of 21 July 2013 – when Jones was 16 – he dressed in female clothing and attended a dance party with Keke and Khloe called Henessey Sundays , held at a bar in the Irwin area . They arrived by taxi at around 2 am . Jones successfully passed as a girl at the party , and several males danced with him . Although he initially kept his biological sex a secret from others at the party , fearing homophobic persecution , he revealed his identity to a girl he had previously been to church with . The girl informed her male friends , who accosted him outside the venue , demanding to know , " Are you a woman or a man ? " One of the men used a lantern to examine Jones ' feet , claiming that they were too large to be those of a biological woman . Discovering his sex , they started calling him " batty boy " and other homophobic epithets . Khloe tried to get him to avoid confrontation , whispering in his ear , " Walk with me , walk with me " , but Jones refused , instead insisting to those assembled that he was female .
When someone pulled on Jones ' bra strap , he ran away , and the crowd pursued and attacked him further down the road . He was beaten , stabbed , shot and run over by a car . He slipped in and out of consciousness for two hours before another attack finally killed him . There were no reports of anyone trying to help him during the altercation . Khloe was also attacked and almost raped , but escaped by hiding first in a church and then in neighbouring woods . Khloe commented , " When I saw Dwayne 's body , I started shaking and crying . It was horrible . " Police arrived at the scene at 5 am to find the body dumped in bushes along Orange Main Road . They launched an investigation into the homicide , inviting friends and family of the victim to contact them . Jones ' family declined to claim the body , and his father refused to talk to the press about the incident .
On 14 August , Deputy Superintendent of Police Steve Brown announced that fourteen statements had been collected and that the investigation was progressing . As of May 2014 , however , no one had been arrested or charged , and in August 2015 the crime was still considered unsolved . In October 2013 , a group of men set fire to the place Jones had lived in as a squatter , forcing its four occupants to flee , in what was also believed to be an anti @-@ LGBT hate crime . Everald Morgan , an officer at the St James Public Health Department , requested that police provide protection for the four youths made homeless by the arson attack , but they declined to do so . Meanwhile , a charity named Dwayne 's House was set up in Jones ' memory to aid homeless LGBT youth in Jamaica .
= = Reaction = =
= = = In Jamaica = = =
Jones ' murder made headline news across Jamaica . Jamaica 's Justice Minister , Senator Mark Golding , condemned the killing and called for an end to " depraved acts of violence " in Jamaica . He added that " all well @-@ thinking Jamaicans " should embrace " the principle of respect for the basic human rights of all persons " and express tolerance towards minority groups such as the LGBT community . Annie Paul , the Publications Officer of the Jamaican campus of the University of the West Indies ( UWI ) , stated that on the basis of comments provided on social media , she thought that most Jamaicans believed that Jones provoked his own murder by cross @-@ dressing within a society that did not tolerate such behaviour . Newton D. Duncan , the UWI Professor of Paediatric Surgery , similarly noted that the " overwhelming majority " of Jamaicans believed that cross @-@ dressers are homosexuals and deserve punishment . He added that this was a common misconception , because the majority of cross @-@ dressers were heterosexual . He condemned the attack and compared it to the lynching of an African @-@ American man in Harper Lee 's novel To Kill a Mockingbird , drawing links between the anti @-@ LGBT violence of Jamaica and the anti @-@ black violence of the mid @-@ 20th century United States .
Writing in the Jamaican broadsheet The Gleaner , Carolyn Cooper , Professor of Literary and Cultural Studies at UWI , condemned the group who committed Jones ' murder . She blamed their behaviour on the selective use of the Bible , noting that while many Jamaicans embrace those Biblical passages which condemn same @-@ sex sexual activity and cross @-@ dressing , they are themselves typically guilty of many other Biblical sins , such as adultery and murder . She commented that Jones had been killed just for being himself and expressed the hope that his killers face legal prosecution for their crime . The following week she published a follow @-@ up article in which she responded to several emails that she had received which claimed that the real victims of the scenario were the men whom Jones deceived when he was dancing with them . She reiterated her condemnation of Jones ' killers , remarking that rather than retaliating violently , they should have brushed it off with a humorous comment .
Jaevion Nelson , an HIV / AIDS campaigner and human rights advocate , also published an article on the subject in The Gleaner . He noted that his initial reaction was to question why Jones had gone to the dance party and why he wasn 't satisfied in attending Jamaica 's underground gay parties . He added that he had subsequently realised that adopting this viewpoint was rooted in " the culture of violence " by which a victim is blamed for what happened to them . He called on Jamaicans to be tolerant of LGBT individuals , and to focus on " rebuilding this great nation on the principles of inclusivity , love , equality and respect with no distinctions whatsoever " . Also in The Gleaner , Sheila Veléz Martínez , a law professor at the University of Pittsburgh , condemned the murder as " alarming evidence " of the high rates of homophobia in Jamaican society .
On 25 July , the Jamaica Forum for Lesbians , All @-@ Sexuals & Gays ( J @-@ FLAG ) , an LGBT rights organisation , issued a public statement expressing their " deep concern " regarding the case , and offering their condolences to Jones ' friends and family . They encouraged local people to aid the police in locating the perpetrators of the attack , which they asserted was an affront to Jamaica 's democracy . J @-@ FLAG 's director Dane Lewis later commented that despite an increase in homophobic violence , Jamaican society was becoming more tolerant toward LGBT people ; he attributed this to the actions of individuals like Jones , who have helped improve the public visibility of LGBT people in Jamaican society . Another LGBT rights organisation , Quality of Citizenship Jamaica , issued a press release calling for the government and churches to engage with LGBT organisations to establish common ground which could be undergirded by the principle of " true respect for all , " found in the nation 's National Anthem . Human rights organisation Jamaicans for Justice called on Prime Minister Portia Simpson @-@ Miller and religious leaders to condemn the murder , also commenting on what they saw as a lack of media coverage and public outrage about the incident , adding that " we must ask ourselves what this says about us as a people . "
= = = Internationally = = =
News of Jones ' murder attracted international media attention , resulting in condemnation of the killing by human rights groups . Graeme Reid , the LGBT Rights Program director at Human Rights Watch in New York , issued a statement that the Jamaican government should send an " unequivocal message " that there would be " zero tolerance " of anti @-@ LGBT violence . Reid noted that Jamaica 's Prime Minister had vowed to decriminalise same @-@ sex sexual activity in her 2011 election campaign but had yet to implement that promise . He encouraged the Jamaican authorities to take action to investigate Jones ' murder and to promote respect for the country 's LGBT citizens .
In a February 2014 briefing , the US Department of State Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy , Human Rights , and Labor , Uzra Zeya , cited Jones ' case as well as the torture and murder of Cameroonian HIV / AIDS activist Eric Ohena Lembembe as examples of the " troubling acts of violence " against LGBT individuals that had happened across the globe in the previous year .
In the United Kingdom , a black LGBT organization , the Out and Proud Diamond Group ( OPDG ) , in association with the Peter Tatchell Foundation , organised a protest outside Jamaica 's London embassy on 28 August . Talking to press , the OPDG 's Marvin Kibuuka condemned Jones ' murder and called for supporters to actively oppose the persecution of LGBT people in both Jamaica and elsewhere . Peter Tatchell later asserted that the lack of action by Simpson @-@ Miller and the police was tantamount to colluding with those guilty of an anti @-@ LGBT hate crime .
In her introduction to an academic study of " queerness and children 's literature " , Laura Robinson , an Associate Professor of English at the Royal Military College of Canada , cited Jones ' murder alongside the 2013 Russian LGBT propaganda law as an example in which youth issues intersected with LGBT issues . She added that Jones was a " child who did not end up having what Judith Butler calls a ' livable life ' . "
= Bhale Bhale Magadivoy =
Bhale Bhale Magadivoy ( English : You are an interesting man ) is a 2015 Indian Telugu @-@ language romantic comedy film written and directed by Maruthi Dasari . Jointly produced by Bunny Vasu , V. Vamsi Krishna Reddy , and Pramod Uppalapati under their production companies GA2 Pictures and UV Creations , Bhale Bhale Magadivoy features Nani and Lavanya Tripathi in the lead roles , and Murli Sharma , Ajay , Naresh , Sithara , and Vennela Kishore in supporting roles . The film revolves around Lucky , an absent @-@ minded plant scientist and his efforts to hide his inherent memory @-@ related flaws from Nandana , a benevolent kuchipudi dancer with whom he is in a relationship .
The title Bhale Bhale Magadivoy was borrowed from a song of the same name composed by M. S. Viswanathan for K. Balachander 's 1978 Telugu film Maro Charitra . Gopi Sunder composed the film 's soundtrack and background score . Production commenced in March 2013 , and the film 's principal photography was completed in July 2015 . Including post @-@ production tasks , the film was completed in seven months . Though mostly shot in and around Hyderabad , one of the songs was filmed in Goa .
Produced on a budget of around ₹ 70 — 90 million , Bhale Bhale Magadivoy was released on 4 September 2015 in 700 screens across the globe . It received positive reviews from critics and was a box office success , grossing over ₹ 550 million globally in its full run . It also became the fourth @-@ highest grossing Telugu film of all time at the United States box office , where it was released in 115 screens . The production of the film 's Kannada remake , Gandu Endare Gandu , commenced in February 2016 .
= = Plot = =
Lucky is an absent @-@ minded junior botanist who is easily distracted by other tasks while working on his current research . His father arranges his marriage with the daughter of Panduranga Rao , a senior botanist . Rao decides to break the alliance after learning about Lucky 's mental condition and warns him not to show up again . On his way to donate blood to his boss , Lucky falls in love with Nandana , a kuchipudi dance teacher , and gets diverted . He creates a positive impression by unknowingly donating blood to one of her students .
In their frequent meetings , Lucky keeps forgetting things ( such as going out without his shoes , giving away his motorbike keys to a beggar , etc . ) , but manages to hide this shortcoming from Nandana by claiming he is a philanthropist . He is unaware of the fact that Nandana is Rao 's daughter , the young woman whom he was supposed to marry before . Rao 's friend 's son Ajay , a police inspector , also falls in love with Nandana , while she is waiting for Lucky 's proposal . When he tries to propose on her birthday , Lucky ends up taking Nandana 's pregnant sister @-@ in @-@ law , who is experiencing labour pains , to a nearby hospital . After the delivery , Nandana proposes to Lucky , and they become a couple .
Nandana informs Lucky that her father has accepted their proposal and wants to meet him . Lucky and Rao meet as strangers when Rao insults Lucky after an incident with a little girl who was about to fall into a pond . Lucky later realises that Nandana is Rao 's daughter and flees . Lucky and Nandana plan to meet later . Lucky makes a friend of his pose as Nandana 's lover , and joins Rao as an apprentice .
When Nandana 's relatives attend the naming ceremony of the new born child , Rao 's nephew assumes Lucky 's friend is her potential lover , and all the others assume Lucky is Nandana 's suitor . Rao 's nephew becomes further confused when Lucky visits a sick Nandana to spend some quality time with her . Days later , Rao wants Lucky to escort Nandana and her relatives to Srisailam . Lucky , driving , misses a turn and reaches the outskirts of Bangalore . He takes them to a nearby temple and explains that it is a very special and historically significant temple .
Ajay , who is confused about the identity of Nandana 's lover ( as Lucky and his friend keep changing places depending on who is around at the moment ) manages to get a video of Lucky romancing Nandana . When they all arrive back home , Ajay reveals Lucky 's mental condition to Nandana , and they break up . On the day of Nandana 's engagement with Ajay , Rao , who has become aware of the sincerity of Lucky 's love , advises her to choose Lucky over Ajay . When Ajay makes it clear he intends to marry Nandana by force , Rao challenges Lucky to stop it , this time without forgetting .
Rao meets Lucky and reveals that he has been aware of his love for Nandana since the moment she and Lucky met at the hospital , and that , since then , he has been watching to see how Lucky 's amnesia might affect his relationship with Nandana . Lucky visits the temple where the marriage is scheduled to take place but ends up forgetting , instead buying a lemon soda . However , this turns out to be a trick , as he wants to lure Ajay 's henchmen into a false sense of security . He reaches the original marriage venue ( actually an aluminium factory ) in time with help from Ajay 's henchmen and marries Nandana there after a duel with Ajay .
A week later , Rao visits Nandana and Lucky , and during their conversations , Rao says that Ajay has been missing for a week and his father is concerned . Lucky remembers that he tied Ajay with a rope at the factory . When he reaches the spot , and Ajay asks why he did not release him , Lucky replies , " Sorry boss , I forgot ! " .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
V. Vamsi Krishna Reddy and Pramod Uppalapati signed Maruthi Dasari to direct a film starring Nani and Lavanya Tripathi under their banner UV Creations . The film , as yet untitled , was formally announced in February 2015 , before the release of Nani 's Yevade Subramanyam . Maruthi wanted to tell the story of a person who has a shortcoming that makes him think he is not worthy of being loved . Bunny Vasu co @-@ produced the film under the banner GA2 Pictures , a sub @-@ division of Geetha Arts , with Allu Aravind as the film 's presenter , making it a joint venture with UV Creations . The film was officially launched on 2 March 2015 at Hyderabad and was titled Bhale Bhale Magadivoy after a song of the same name composed by M. S. Viswanathan for K. Balachander 's Maro Charitra ( 1978 ) . Gopi Sunder composed the film 's music . Nizar Shafi and S. B. Uddhav were the film 's cinematographer and editor respectively .
Nani played the role of Lakkaraju , called Lucky , an absentminded young man who often forgets the task he is currently performing when he is distracted by something else . He initially wanted to turn down Maruthi 's proposal due to the latter 's previous risqué films . After listening to the script , he liked the absence of irrelevant comedy tracks . Tripathi plays the role of Nandana , an innocent kuchipudi dancer . Regarding her looks , Tripathi said that the emphasis was on " graceful attires , simple accessories and kohl @-@ rimmed eyes " . She was previously trained in kathak , and two teachers assisted her with the dance as a part of her preparation for the character . Murli Sharma plays the role of Tripathi 's conservative father ; he said he found the role difficult to portray as most of his previous roles were more aggressive in nature . Vennela Kishore was selected to play a supporting role . Naresh and Sithara play Nani 's parents , and Ajay , Praveen , and Srinivasa Reddy play supporting roles in the film .
Principal photography commenced on 3 March 2015 , and Nani joined the set two days later . The song " Endaro " was filmed as a montage number with scenes featuring the humorous consequences of the protagonist 's poor memory and his girlfriend 's reactions to them . By late May 2015 , the filming of talkie portions was almost done and a few song sequences were filmed at Ramoji Film City . For one particular scene , Nani delivered eight pages of dialogue in a single take . The song " Hello Hello " was filmed in Goa during the rains , which was a spontaneous decision by the filmmakers . The principal photography was completed on 28 July 2015 at Saradhi Studios in Ameerpet , Hyderabad . Including post @-@ production tasks , the film was completed in seven months . Singer Chinmayi , who dubbed for Tripathi in her Telugu debut Andala Rakshasi ( 2012 ) , also dubbed for her character in this film . Tripathi said that she wanted Chinmayi to dub for her lines because she had a good understanding of the character and the situations and had a voice similar to hers .
= = Music = =
Gopi Sunder composed the film 's soundtrack , which consisted of five songs . The lyrics were written by Ramajogayya Sastry , Sri Mani , and Bhaskarabhatla . The tune of " Endaro Mahanubhavulu " , one of Tyagaraja 's Pancharatna Kriti , was adapted for the song " Endaro " , which was composed in classical fusion style , and the lyrics were tweaked to suit the situation . Renuka Arun provided the vocals . She was recommended to Sunder by a guitarist in his group when the former intended to select a singer who " has a strong inclination towards Carnatic music but with an exposure to fusion music " . Sachin Warrier , who sang for Saheba Subramanyam ( 2014 ) , the Telugu version of Sunder 's Malayalam musical Thattathin Marayathu ( 2012 ) , was selected to sing the song " Motta Modatisari " . He initially recorded the song 's raw cut intended to be used while filming . Warrier was chosen to sing for the final version as well , since the film 's team found his voice apt . He was helped by its lyricist Ramajogayya Sastry and an assistant director in pronoucing the words correctly . Karthik provided the vocals for three songs : " Bhale Bhale Magadivoy " , " How How " , and " Hello Hello " . The first of the three was released on 12 August 2015 at a FM station in Hyderabad . The rest of the soundtrack album was released three days later at a promotional event held in Hyderabad , with actor Allu Arjun attending as guest of honour . Lahari Music marketed the soundtrack album .
Reviewing the song " Bhale Bhale Magadivoy " , Karthik Srinivasan of The Hindu stated that Sunder " ups the ante for the phrase 's use with a super bouncy tune , going one up on Mickey J. Meyer 's African @-@ style remake of the original " , adding that Karthik and Mohana Bhogaraju " are in lively form singing this one " . The Hindu stated that Sunder treated the song " Endaro " like a " classic rock song , with drums and violin dominating impressively , even as Renuka is in scintillating form , bringing classical chops to what is treated as a complex , contemporary pop song " , adding that it is " less ambitious and sticks faithfully " to the original .
Deepu Joseph of The Times of India gave the soundtrack album 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and called it an album that " has something in it for everyone and it sure to be a hit " . Joseph called " Endaro " an " absolute fusion masterpiece as Gopi Sunder wonderfully fuses Carnatic , rock and Jazz elements as Renuka Arun 's voice sounds majestic and takes the song to the next level " . Behindwoods gave the soundtrack album 3 out of 5 stars and stated that the it is " one of the most melodious albums released in Telugu over the recent times " and that Sunder " sure knows how to blend modernity with rock steady classical music ! " .
Track listing
= = Release and reception = =
Bhale Bhale Magadivoy was released on 4 September 2015 in 700 screens across the globe , competing with Dynamite and Jayasurya , the Telugu dubbed version of Paayum Puli . CineGalaxy Inc. acquired the film 's overseas theatrical distribution rights . The film was released in 115 screens across the United States .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Bhale Bhale Magadivoy received positive reviews from critics . Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu found the film to be a " laugh riot " and stated that Bhale Bhale Magadivoy " puts logic aside but there 's plenty of situational humour where you 'll find yourself laughing aloud and having a good time . And these laughs are with [ rather ] than at the protagonist " . N. Sethumadhavan of the Bangalore Mirror called the film a " fresh breeze " and stated that the film " reasserts that Nani is a talent to watch " and that Maruthi " has indeed surprised us with a clean family entertainer " . Sify called the film a " cool entertainer " and stated that it is a " neatly packaged romcom about a mini Ghajini 's travails " .
Pranita Jonnalagedda of The Times of India gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and stated that Bhale Bhale Magadivoy comes across as a " breath of fresh air " because it " successfully keeps itself away from the regular formula of romantic comedies [ and is ] devoid of the oh @-@ so @-@ overused cliches " and is a " delight for anyone looking for wholesome entertainment " . Suresh Kavirayani of the Deccan Chronicle also gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and stated that the film can be watched for " some hilarious scenes and Nani 's brilliance performance [ sic ] " . Behindwoods gave the film 2 @.@ 75 out of 5 stars and called it a " fun ride that will entertain you throughout " and added , " What amazes the most is the film doesn 't resort to a predictable narration . The movie is filled with plenty of twists to keep the audience hooked from the scratch to finish line and it is the primary USP of the film " .
= = = Box office = = =
Bhale Bhale Magadivoy collected US $ 70 @,@ 132 from the premier shows at the United States and US $ 164 @,@ 459 on the first day , taking its total to US $ 234 @,@ 591 ( ₹ 15 @.@ 6 million ) , which trade analyst Taran Adarsh called a " smashing start " . The first weekend figures at the United States box office stood at US $ 718 @,@ 378 ( ₹ 48 million ) . It grossed ₹ 140 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 90 million in its first weekend at the global box office . The film grossed ₹ 230 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 110 million in its first week at the global box office , recovering production costs . It collected US $ 1 @,@ 034 @,@ 228 at the United States box office in eight days and became the 15th Telugu film to cross the US $ 1 million mark there . It also became the fifth @-@ highest grossing Telugu film of 2015 at the United States box office .
The film collected US $ 265 @,@ 376 from 84 screens at the United States box office in its second weekend , taking its ten @-@ day total to $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( ₹ 87 @.@ 1 million ) . It collected US $ 1 @,@ 356 @,@ 673 ( ₹ 89 @.@ 1 million ) in 17 days , and US $ 1 @,@ 426 @,@ 527 ( ₹ 92 @.@ 4 million ) in 38 days at the United States box office , thus becoming the fourth @-@ highest grossing Telugu film of all time after Baahubali : The Beginning , Srimanthudu , and Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) . The film grossed more than ₹ 550 million globally in its lifetime , and the United States box office figures stood at approximately ₹ 100 million . It was one of the few small @-@ budget Telugu films to cross the US $ 1 million mark and also the first blockbuster in Nani 's career .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Remakes = =
Bhale Bhale Magadivoy is being remade into Kannada as Gandu Endare Gandu by Ramesh Arvind ; Ganesh and Shanvi Srivastava reprise the roles of Nani and Tripathi from the original . It is jointly produced by Allu Aravind and Rockline Venkatesh . A Tamil remake with G. V. Prakash Kumar as the protagonist was announced in October 2015 .
= Agung =
The agung is a set of two wide @-@ rimmed , vertically suspended gongs used by the Maguindanao , Maranao , Sama @-@ Bajau and Tausug people of the Philippines as a supportive instrument in kulintang ensembles . The agung is also ubiquitous among other groups found in Palawan , Panay , Mindoro , Mindanao , Sabah , Sulawesi , Sarawak and Kalimantan as an integral part of the agung orchestra .
= = Description = =
The agung is a large , heavy , wide @-@ rimmed gong shaped like a kettle gong. of the agung produces a bass sound in the kulintang orchestra and weighs between 13 and 16 pounds , but it is possible to find agungs weigh as low as 5 pounds or as high as 20 or 30 pounds each , depending on the metal ( bronze , brass or iron ) used to produce them .
Though their diameters are smaller than the gandingan ’ s , at roughly 22 inches ( 560 mm ) to 24 inches ( 610 mm ) in length , they have a much deeper turned @-@ in takilidan ( rim ) than the latter , with a width of 12 to 13 inches ( 330 mm ) including the knob .
They are hung vertically above the floor at or a bit below the waist line , suspended by ropes fastened to structures like strong tree limb , beam of a house , ceiling , or gong stand .
The larger , lower pitched gong of the two is called the pangandungan by the Maguindanao and the p 'nanggisa @-@ an by the Maranao . Played on the musician 's right , it provides the main part , which it predominantly played on the accents of the rhythmic structure .
The smaller , higher pitched gong , the thicker of the two , is called the panentekan by the Maguindanao and the p 'malsan or pumalsan by the Maranao . Found on the player ’ s left , it is mainly played on the weaker double and triple beats of the rhythmic structure , in counterpoint to the pangandungan 's part .
= = Origins = =
Scholars seem to agree that the origins of the agung are in Indonesia , noting that the word agung / agong is derived from the Malay agong and Indonesian / Javanese ageng .
Further evidence of this comes from a British explorer , Thomas Forrest , who in the 1770s wrote Filipinos were “ fond of musical gongs which came from Cheribon on Java and have round knobs on them . ”
= = Technique = =
The agung is usually performed while standing beside the instrument , holding the upper edge of its flange between the thumb and other fingers with the left hand while striking the knob with the right hand . The mallets , called balu , are made from short sticks about half a foot in length and padded with soft but tough material such as rubber at one end . Using these balus , players handle the agung similar to the way a brass tom @-@ tom is played .
A series of solid , fast decaying sounds are produced using dampening techniques . The desired effect is produced after striking the knob , by leaving one ’ s hand or knee or the mallets themselves on it . When one player is using two gongs , the assistant holding the lower @-@ pitched gong positions it at an angle and dampens its surface using their hands .
Recently , new ways of handling the agung have emerged , including grasping a portion of the boss rather than the flange to dampen or using regular strokes upon the busel while striking the surrounding gong surface with the opposite , wooden end of the beater . The latter technique , called katinengka , is used by downriver musicians to produce metallic sounds during kulintang performances .
Different combinations of players , gongs and mallets can be used for playing the agung : two players with each assigned their own gong or just one . When playing alone , the agung player could either play both gongs with the player holding the higher @-@ pitched gongs face @-@ to @-@ face , with the lower one held at an angle by an assistant for stability , or just one gong . The latter style , common among downriver Maguindanaos in Simuay , who consider this style an old one , uses only the higher @-@ pitch gong for it , unlike the lower @-@ pitched gong , is considered the lead gong , therefore having primary importance . An example of this is when single gong agungs are used during a tagunggo piece .
The number of mallets used by the player could also vary as well . For most occasions , only one mallet is used but for other techniques , the player could use two mallets , one in each hand . An even more interesting technique uses only one balu but requires the player to play the agung in reverse order of pitches . Called patuy , this technique and the one with two mallets are normally reserved only for competition and exhibition instances .
= = Uses = =
= = = Kulintang ensemble = = =
The main use for the agung in Maguindanao and Maranao society is as a supportive / accompanying instrument of an orthodox kulintang ensemble . Using basic patterns and interlocking rhythms , a player would use the agung to complement the melody played by the kulintang . The patterns players use are normally considered freer than either the babendil or the dabakan ; players could manipulate the patterns freely as long as they conform , reaffirm , reinforce and even generate the rhythmic mode of the piece . The length of the patterns themselves may vary depending on how they fit into the melodic improvisation . Rapid style is useful especially during exhibition of playing skills .
Among both the Maguindanao and the Maranao , the agung embodies all that is masculine and thus the agung is traditionally considered a masculine instrument . To be considered a good player , one must possess strength , stamina ( playing extremely fast tempos with no mistakes ) and endurance . Players must also exhibit improvisation skills for different patterns to be considered as having quality musicianship — lest the audience considers the patterns played repetitions and mundane .
Because of the highly skilled nature required for playing the agung , it is not uncommon to see agung players have friendly rivalries during a performance , using tricks in an attempt to throw others off @-@ beat . For instance , if the p ’ nanggisa ’ s elaborations are so elusive that the p ’ mals has a hard time ornamenting or if the reversed happens and the p ’ mals ornaments to the point the p ’ nanggisa ’ s performance is engulfed , the player that cannot keep up is usually embarrassed , becoming the butt of jokes . Normally agung players switch off after each piece , but during instances like this where one player cannot handle the part being played , players either remain at their gongs or switch during the performance . It is also possible for agung players to switch places with the dabakan after two pieces . Even though the players compete , they still understand they are a single entity , closely accompanying the melody , employ different variations without destroying the music ’ s basic patterns .
= = = Interactions with the opposite sex = = =
There was also a secondary motive for men , especially young males , for learning the agung : the ability to interact with young , unmarried women . Both Maranao and Maguindanao cultures traditionally adhere to Islamic customs which prohibit dating or causal conversation between the opposite sexes ( unless married to or related to by blood ) and therefore performances such as kulintang music provided the opportunity for such a connection . Among the Maguindanao , the rhythmic modes of duyog and sinulog a kamamatuan allowed agung players to serenade the young , unmarried women on the kulintang . Tidto , the other rhythmic mode , could also be used but players rarely use this for serenading since the kulintang player is usually an older woman .
= = = Contest = = =
The latter mode actually is reserved specifically for solo agung contest . Unlike other Southern Filipino groups who participate in group contest , the Maguindanao are unique in that they also hold solo agung contest to find out who in the community is the best papagagung ( expert agung player ) . Tidto is prefect for such contest since the agung is often the focus of attention , the focal point during the ensemble during this mode . Players normally perform two or more versions playing the three types of techniques discussed above .
= = = Signaling and the supernatural = = =
Other than its use in the kulintang ensemble , the agung also had other non @-@ ensemble uses among the Maguindanao and Maranao . The agung has been used to warn others of impending danger , announcing the time of day and other important occasions . For instance , long ago the sultan would beat the agung repeatedly to announce the onset of a meeting or during the fasting month of Ramadhan , the agung would ring either at three in the morning to indicate the signal to eat ( sawl ) or at sunset , to mark the end for fasting that day . And supposedly due to the deep , loud sound the agung produces , people believed that it possessed supernatural powers . For instance , during an earthquake , the locals of Maguindanao would strike the agung in a fast , loud rhythm called baru @-@ baru , believing its vibrations would either lessen or even halt the jolt of an earthquake .
= = Similar agung instruments = =
= = = Kulintang ensembles = = =
In the Sulu Archipelago , the kulintang orchestra uses not two but three low @-@ sounding agungs , which serve as accompaniment in Tausug , Samal and Yakan ensembles . For the Tausug and Samal , the largest of the agungs with a wide turned @-@ in rim is called the tunggalan or tamak , which provides slow , regular beats , similar to the Maguindanaon pangandungan and Maranao p ’ nanggisa @-@ an . The smaller pair of agungs , the duahan , syncopate with the tunggalan / tamak . These are further classified : the wider @-@ rimmed duahan is called the pulakan and the narrower one is called the huhugan or buahan by the Tausug and bua by the Samal .
= = = In agung ensembles = = =
Agungs also play a major role in agung orchestras — ensembles composed of large hanging , suspended or held , knobbed gongs which act as drones without any accompanying melodic instrument like a kulintang . Such orchestras are prevalent among Indigenous Philippine groups ( Bagobo , Bilaan , Bukidon , Hanunoo , Magsaka , Manabo , Mangyan , Palawan , Subanun , Suludnon , T ’ boli , Tagakaolu , Tagbanwa and the Tiruray ) , regions in Kalimantan and Indonesia ( Iban , Modang , Murut ) and Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysia ( Bidayuh , Iban , Kadazan @-@ Dusun , Kajan , Kayan ) , places where agung orchestras take precedence over kulintang @-@ like orchestras . The composition and tuning of these orchestras vary widely from one group to another . For instance , the Hanunoo of Mindoro have a small agung ensemble consisting of only two light gongs played by two musicians on the floor in a simple duple rhythm while the Manobo have an ensemble ( called an ahong ) consisting of 10 small agungs hung vertically on a triangular frame . It includes three musicians : one standing up , playing the melody , and the rest sitting . The ahong is divided by purpose , with the higher @-@ pitched gongs ( kaantuhan ) carrying the melody , three to four lower @-@ pitched gongs ( gandingan ) playing melodic ostinato figures , and the lowest @-@ pitched gong ( bandil ) setting the tempo .
The Tiruray call their agung ensemble a kelo @-@ agung , kalatong , or karatung . It is made up of five shallow bossed gongs of graduating size , each played by one person . The smallest , the segaron , is used as the lead instrument , providing a steady beat . The Manobo sagabong ensemble follows a similar format , consisting of five small gongs , each held by one musician playing a unique pattern with rubber mallets , interlocking with other parts . The T ’ boli and Palawan have similar agung ensembles : the T ’ boli ensemble is composed of three to four agungs with two to three of them collectively called semagi which play variations , and the other agung , tang , providing a steady beat . The Palawan call their ensemble , composed of four gongs , a basal . It includes one to two large humped , low @-@ sounding agungs and a pair of smaller humped , higher @-@ pitched sanangs which produce metallic sounds . The Subanon also have an agung ensemble similar to the Tiruray karatung , called a gagung sua .
Both the Bagabo and the B ’ laan refer to their agung ensemble as a tagunggo , a set of eight metal gongs suspended on a harness , which is played by two , three , or more people . Seven of the smaller @-@ sized gongs produce a running melody with the eighth , largest gong playing syncopation with the other gongs to produce a particular rhythm . The Manabo also have an agung ensemble similar to the tagunggo , called a tagungguan .
The Kadazan @-@ Dusun , located on the western coast of Sabah , refer to their agung ensemble as a tawag or bandil , which consists of six to seven large gongs in shoreline groups and 7 – 8 large gongs for those in interior valleys . In southwestern Sarawak , Bidayuh agung ensembles consist of nine large gongs divided into four groups ( taway , puum , bandil , and sanang ) , while among the Iban of Sawarak , Brunei , Kalimantan , agung ensembles are smaller in comparison .
Such ensembles can either perform alone or with one or two drums , played with the hands or wooden sticks , as accompaniment . They play either homophonically or in an interlocking fashion with the gongs . These agung orchestras often perform at many types of social events , including agriculture rituals , weddings , victory celebrations , curing rites , rituals for the dead , entertainment for visitors , and other community rituals .
Historically among the main lowland Philippine groups ( Tagalog , Visayan , Kapampangan , Ilocano ) agung orchestras similar to the ones found today among non @-@ hispanised indigenous groups in the country , were among the main instrumental ensembles used up until the 17th century , as evidenced by the agung ensemble encountered by Pigafetta in Cebu in the 16th century , similar in set up ( two sanang , two agung and one gimbal ) to the basal ensemble of the Palawan people .
= Bahadur Shah I =
Bahadur Shah ( Urdu : بہادر شاه اول — Bahādur Shāh Awwal ) ( 14 October 1643 – 27 February 1712 ) , the seventh Mughal emperor of India , ruled from 1707 until his death in 1712 . Born Mu 'azzam , Shah was the third son of Aurangzeb with his Muslim Rajput wife Nawab Bai and the grandson of Shah Jahan . In his youth , he conspired to overthrow his father and ascend to the throne a number of times . Shah 's plans were intercepted by the emperor , who imprisoned him several times . From 1696 to 1707 , he was governor of Akbarabad ( later known as Agra ) , Kabul and Lahore .
After Aurangzeb 's death Shah 's brother , Muhammad Azam Shah , declared himself successor before his defeat in the Battle of Jajau . During his reign , Shah bloodlessly annexed the Rajput states of Jodhpur and Amber and sparked controversy in the khutba by inserting the declaration of Ali as wali . His reign was also disturbed by the Sikh leader Banda Singh Bahadur , who led a rebellion against him . Bahadur Shah was buried in the Moti Masjid at Mehrauli in Delhi .
= = Early life = =
Mu 'azzam was born on 14 October 1643 in Burhanpur to the sixth Mughal emperor , Aurangzeb , and his wife Begum Nawab Bai .
= = = Life during the reign of Shah Jahan = = =
During his grandfather 's reign Muzzam was appointed vizer of Lahore from 1653 @-@ 1659 . In 1663 , when he was twenty years old , Mu 'azzam was made the governor of the Deccan province . The most important issue in front of him was to curb the rise of Shivaji , who was on the ascendant in the area , and had carved out his own kingdom .
= = = = Campaign against Pune = = = =
In 1663 itself , Mu 'azzam attacked Pune which was Shivaji 's base at that time . However , the Mughal army was defeated and Muazzam himself was captured . He spent seven years as a prisoner of the Marathas.after his grandfather Shah Jahan died at Agra fort Prince Muzzam was sent to Agra to by orders his father Muzzam buried his grandfather to Taj Mahal .
Mu 'azzam 's imprisonment was not severe , and indeed he was kept in the lap of luxury by his captors . This was the custom with regard to high @-@ born and potentially useful captives , and it was quite normal for captive and captor to become friends and even allies . Shivaji 's own son , Sambhaji , was at roughly the same time a prisoner of the Mughals .
= = = During the reign of Aurangzeb = = =
In 1670 , Mu 'azzam organised an insurgency to overthrow Aurangzeb and proclaim himself the Mughal emperor . This plan may have been hatched at the instigation of the Marathas , and Mu 'azzam 's own inclinations and sincerity are difficult to gauge . Anyway , Aurangzeb learned about the plot and sent Mu 'azzam 's mother Begum Nawab Bai ( a Hindu Rajput princess by birth ) to dissuade Mu 'azzam from rebellion . Nawab Bai brought Mu 'azzam back to the Mughal court , where he spent the next several years under Aurangzeb 's supervision . However , Mu 'azzam revolted in 1680 on the pretext of protesting Aurangzeb 's treatment of Rajput chiefs . Once again , Aurangzeb followed his previous policy to dissuade Mu 'azzam with gentleness and then to place him under greater vigilance .
For the next seven years , from 1681 to 1687 , Mu 'azzam was a " grudgingly obedient son " .
= = = = Treason = = = =
In 1681 , he was sent by Aurangzeb to the Deccan to crush a revolt raised by his step @-@ brother Sultan Muhammad Akbar . According to the historian Munis Faruqui , Mu 'azzam deliberately failed in his mission . In 1683 , he was ordered by Aurangzeb to march to the Konkan region to prevent the still rebellious Akbar from fleeing the country , but again Mu 'azzam 's " half @-@ hearted " mission failed to achieve the assigned goal . Nevertheless , the emperor still persisted in entrusting his son with responsibilities , and in 1687 , Aurangzeb ordered Mu 'azzam to march against the sultanate of Golconda . Within weeks , the emperor 's spies intercepted treasonous messages exchanged between Mu 'azzam and Abul Hasan , the ruler of Golconda . This was something which could not be mistaken for incompetence ; it was clearly treason . Aurangzeb charged Mu 'azzam with treason and imprisoned him ; his harem was " shipped off to faraway Delhi " , and the ladies were also charged with treason . Mu 'azzam 's loyal servants were moved by his father into the imperial service , and the remaining servants were sacked . Aurangzeb forbade Mu 'azzam to cut his nails or hair for six months , gave orders depriving him of " good food or cold water . " He was not to meet anybody without his father 's prior consent .
Around 1694 , Aurangzeb rehabilitated Mu 'azzam and allowed him " to rebuild his household " , rehiring some of his servants who had been dismissed . Aurangzeb continued to spy on his son , appointing his men to Mu 'azzam 's household , sending informants to his harem and choosing his representatives at the imperial court . Mu 'azzam and his sons were transferred from the Deccan to north India , and were forbidden to lead military expeditions in that region for the rest of Aurangzeb 's reign . In 1695 , Aurangzeb sent Mu 'azzam to the Punjab region to fight the chieftains and subdue a rebellion by the Sikh Guru Gobind Singh . Although the commander imposed " heavy taxation " on the rajas , he thought it necessary to leave the Sikhs undisturbed in their fortified city of Anandpur and refused to wage war against them out of " genuine respect " for their religion . That year Mu 'azzam was appointed governor of Akbarabad , and in 1696 he was transferred to Lahore . After the death of Amin Khan ( governor of Kabul ) he assumed that position in 1699 , holding it until his father 's death in 1707 .
= = Reign = =
= = = War of succession = = =
Without appointing a crown prince , Aurangzeb died in 1707 when Mu 'azzam was governor of Kabul and his half @-@ brothers ( Muhammad Kam Bakhsh and Muhammad Azam Shah ) were the governors of the Deccan and Gujarat respectively . All three sons intended to win the crown , and Kam Bakhsh began minting coins in his name . Azam prepared to march to Agra and declare himself successor , but was defeated by Mu 'azzam at the Battle of Jajau in June 1707 . Azam and his son , Ali Tabar , were killed in the battle . Mu 'azzam ascended the Mughal throne at age 63 on 19 June 1707 , with the title of Bahadur Shah I.
= = = Annexations = = =
= = = = Amber = = = =
With his predecessors unable to make significant gains in Rajputana , after ascending the throne , Shah made plans to annexe cities of the region to the Mughal empire . On 10 November Shah began his march to Amber ( in Rajputana , present day Rajasthan state of India ) , visiting the tomb of Salim Chishti in Fatehpur Sikri on 21 November . In the meantime , Shah 's aid Mihrab Khan was ordered to take possession of Jodhpur . Shah reached Amber on 20 January 1708 . Though the monarch of the kingdom was Jai Singh , his brother Bijai Singh resented his rule . Shah ruled that because of the dispute , the region would become part of the Mughal empire and the city was renamed as Islamabad . Jai Singh 's goods and properties were confiscated on the pretext that he supported Shah 's brother Azam Shah during the war of Shah 's succession and Bijai Singh was made the governor of Amber on 30 April 1708 . Shah gave him the title of Mirza Rajah , and he received gifts valued at 100 @,@ 000 rupees . Amber passed into Mughal hands without a war .
= = = = Jodhpur = = = =
Jaswant Singh was the leader of the Rathore in Jodhpur ( in Rajputana , in present @-@ day Indian state Rajasthan ) during Aurangzeb 's reign . During a war of succession Singh sided with Aurangzeb 's older brother Dara Shikoh , who was killed by Aurangzeb . Singh was pardoned , became titular ruler of the region and was appointed governor of the province of Kabul before his death on 18 December 1678 . After his death , Aurangzeb ordered Singh 's widows and his son Ajit Singh to be brought to Delhi and with plans of forcefully absorbing Ajit Singh in the Mughal army in the future . Though Durgadas Rathore of the Rathore clan who was ambitous of conquering Jodhpur from the Mughals , took advantage of this opportunity and fought a war to prevent Aurangzeb getting hold of Ajit , he faced defeat but the widows and Singh managed to flee from Delhi to Jodhpur . After Aurangzeb 's death , during Shah 's half brother Muhammad Azam Shah 's rule Singh marched to Jodhpur and took it from Mughal rule .
In Amber he announced his intention to march to Jodhpur when Mihrab Khan defeated Ajit Singh at Mairtha , and he reached the town on 21 February 1708 . His men were sent to bring Singh to the city for an interview with him , where Singh received " special robes of honour " and a jewelled scarf . Then , he headed towards Ajmer ( in Rajputana , in present @-@ day Indian state Rajasthan ) and reached the city on 24 March , where he visited the Dargah Sharif .
= = = = Udaipur = = = =
The city of Udaipur ( in Rajputana , present day Indian state of Rajasthan ) was annexed to the Mughal empire by Akbar in 1567 . However the city was lost to the Sisodias during the reign of his grandson Shah Jahan . Shah also had intention of recapturing Udaipur .
In Jodhpur , Bahadur Shah got the news that the Maharana Amar Singh II had fled from Udaipur to the hills . His messengers gave him the message that Singh got " afraid " by the happenings in Amber and Jodhpur and thought that his kingdom would also be annexed by the emperor . According to the Bahadur Shah Nama chronicle , because of this incident the emperor called Amar Singh an " unbeliever " . Bahadur Shah waged war against the king until his brother Muhammad Kam Bakhsh 's insurgency diverted him southward .
= = = Rajput Rebellion = = =
While the emperor was on his way to Deccan to punish Muhammad Kam Bakhsh the three Rajput Raja 's of Amber , Udaipur and Jodhpur made a joint resistance to the Mughals . The Rajputs first expelled the commandants of Jodhpur and Hindaun @-@ Bayana and recovered Amber by a night attack . They next killed Sayyid Hussain Khan Barha , the commandant of Mewat and many other officers ( September , 1708 ) . The emperor , then in the Deccan had to patch up a truce by restoring Ajit Singh and Jai Singh to the Mughal Service .
= = = Kam Bakhsh 's uprising = = =
= = = = Court rivalry = = = =
His half @-@ brother , Muhammad Kam Bakhsh , marched to Bijapur in March 1707 with his soldiers . When the news of Aurangzeb 's death spread through the city , the city 's monarch , King Sayyid Niyaz Khan surrendered the fort to him without a fight . Ascending the throne , Kam Bakhsh made Ahsan Khan , who served in the army as the bakshi ( general of the armed forces ) , and made his advisor Taqarrub Khan as chief minister and gave himself the title of Padshah Kam Bakhsh @-@ i @-@ Dinpanah ( Emperor Kam Bakhsh , Protector of Faith ) . He then conquered Kulbarga and Wakinkhera .
Rivalry developed between Taqarrub Khan and Ahsan Khan . Ahsan Khan had developed a marketplace in Bijapur where , without permission from Kam Bakhsh , he did not tax the shops . Taqarrub Khan reported it to Kam Bakhsh , who ordered the practise stopped . In May 1707 , Kam Bakhsh sent Ahsan Khan to conquer the states of Golkonda and Hyderabad . Although the king of Golconda refused to surrender , Subahdar of Hyderabad Rustam Dil Khan did so .
Taqarrub Khan made a conspiracy to eliminate Ahsan Khan , alleging that meetings of Ahsan Khan , Saif Khan ( Kam Bakhsh 's archery teacher ) , Arsan Khan , Ahmad Khan , Nasir Khan and Rustam Dil Khan ( all of them Kam Bakhsh 's former teachers and members of the then court ) to discuss public business were a conspiracy to assassinate Kam Bakhsh " while on his way to the Friday prayer at the great mosque " . After informing Kam Bakhsh of the matter , he invited Rustam Dil Khan for dinner ; arrested en route , Rustam Dil Khan was killed by being crushed under the feet of an elephant . Saif Khan 's hands were amputated , and Arshad Khan 's tongue was cut off . Ahsan Khan ignored warnings by close friends that Kam Bakhsh would arrest him , but he was imprisoned and his property seized . In April 1708 , Shah 's envoy Maktabar Khan came to Kam Bakhsh 's court . When Taqarrub Khan told Kam Bakhsh that Maktabar Khan intended to dethrone him , Kam Bakhsh invited the envoy and his entourage to a feast and executed them .
= = = = March to South India = = = =
In May 1708 , the emperor wrote a letter to Kam Bakhsh which he hoped would " be a warning " against proclaiming himself an independent sovereign and began a journey to the Tomb of Aurangzeb to pay his respects to his father . Kam Bakhsh thanked him in a letter , " without either explaining or justifying [ his actions ] " .
When he reached Hyderabad on 28 June 1708 , he learned that Kam Bakhsh had attacked Machhlibandar to seize over three million rupees ' worth of treasure hidden in its fort . The subahdar of the province , Jan Sipar Khan , refused to hand over the money . Enraged , Kam Bakhsh confiscated his properties and ordered the recruitment of four thousand soldiers for the attack . In July , the garrison at the Kulbarga fort declared their independence and garrison leader Daler Khan Bijapuri " reported his desertion from Kam Bakhsh " . On 5 November 1708 Shah 's camp reached Bidar , 67 miles ( 108 km ) north of Hyderabad . Historian William Irvine wrote that as his " camp drew nearer desertions from Kam Bakhsh became more and more frequent " . On 1 November , Kam Bakhsh captured Pam Naik 's ( zamindar , the landlord of Wakinkhera ) holdings after Naik abandoned his army .
According to Irvine , more soldiers deserted as the emperor 's group neared . When Kam Bakhsh 's general told him that his failure to pay his soldiers was the reason for their desertion , he replied : " What need have I of enlisting them ? My trust is in God , and whatever is best will happen . "
Thinking that Kam Bakhsh might flee to Persia , the emperor ordered his prime minister Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung to agree with Madras Presidency governor Thomas Pitt to pay him 200 @,@ 000 rupees for Kam Bakhsh 's capture . On 20 December , Kam Bakhsh was reported to have a cavalry of 2 @,@ 500 and an infantry of 5 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Death of Kam Bakhsh = = = =
On 20 December 1708 , the emperor marched towards Talab @-@ i @-@ Mir Jumla , on the outskirts of Hyderabad , with " three hundred camels , [ and ] twenty thousand rockets " for war with Shah . He made his son Jahandar Shah commander of the advance guard , later replacing him with Khan Zaman . On 12 January 1709 , Bahadur Shah reached Hyderabad and prepared his troops . Although Kam Bakhsh had little money and few soldiers left , the royal astrologer had predicted that he would " miraculously " win the battle .
At sunrise the following day , the Mughal army charged towards Kam Bakhsh . His 15 @,@ 000 troops were divided into two bodies : one led by Mumin Khan , assisted by Rafi @-@ ush @-@ Shan and Jahan Shah , and the second under Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung . Two hours later Kam Bakhsh 's camp was surrounded , and Zulfiqar Khan impatiently attacked him with his " small force " .
With his soldiers outnumbered and unable to resist the attack , Kam Bakhsh joined the battle and shot two quivers of arrows at his opponents . According to Irvine , when he was " weakened by loss of blood " , Bahadur Shah took him and his son Bariqullah prisoner . A dispute arose between Mumin Khan and Zulfikar Khan Nusrat Jung over who had captured them , with Rafi @-@ us @-@ Shan ruling in favour of the latter . Kam Bakhsh was brought by palanquin to the emperor 's camp , where he died the next morning .
= = Sikh rebellion = =
Unlike previous Mughal rulers who divided power between Mughal and Rajput chiefs , during Bahadur Shah 's reign all power resided with him . The Sikh khalsa ( army ) , under the leadership of Banda Singh Bahadur , and their army defeated the Mughals in battle at Samana , Sirhind and Rahon and captured the cities of Samana , Sirhind , Malerkotla , Saharanpur , Rahon , Behat , Ambheta , Ropar and Jalandhar from 1709 to 1712 . With an army of eighty thousand soldiers , he also besieged the city of Jalalabad in present @-@ day Afghanistan .
= = = Efforts at suppression = = =
He signed peace treaties with Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and Man Singh of Amber before fighting him . He also ordered the Nawab of Awadh Asaf @-@ ud @-@ Daula , provincial governor Khan @-@ i @-@ Durrani , Moradabad faujdar Muhammad Amin Khan Chin , Delhi subahdar Asad Khan and Jammu faujdar Wazid Khan to accompany him into battle . Shah left Ajmer for the Punjab on 17 June 1710 , mobilising groups opposed to Bahadur on the way . When he learned about Shah 's plans , Bahadur unsuccessfully appealed to Ajit Singh and Man Singh for help . In the meantime , Shah had reoccupied Sonipat , Kaithal and Panipat en route . In October , his commander Feroze Khan wrote to him that he had " chopped three hundred heads of rebels " ; Khan sent them to the emperor , who displayed them mounted on spears .
On 1 November 1710 the emperor reached the city of Karnal , where Mughal cartogapher Rustam Dil Khan gave him a map of Thanesar and Sirhind . Six days later , a small group of Sikhs were defeated at Mewati and Banswal . The city of Sirhind fell to the Mughals on 7 December ; its besieger , general Mohammad Amin Khan Bahadur , gave him a golden key ring commemorating the victory . After failing to recapture Sadaura he marched towards Lohgarh , where Bahadur was hiding . On 30 November he attacked the Lohgarh fort , capturing three guns , matchlocks and three trenches from the rebels . With little ammunition left , Bahadur and a " few hundred of his followers fled " . His follower , Gulab Singh ( who was " dressed like " Bahadur ) , entered the fight and was killed . The emperor issued orders to the rulers of Kumaon and Srinagar that if Bahadur tried to enter their province , he should be " sent to the Emperor " .
Suspecting that Bahadur was allied with Bhup Prakash , the king of Nahan , the emperor has Prakash imprisoned in January 1711 ; his mother begged in vain for his release . After she sent him captured followers of Bahadur he ordered that " ornaments worth 100 @,@ 000 rupees should be manufactured " for her , and Prakash was released a month later . Shukan Khan Bahadur and Himmet Diler Khan were sent to Lahore to end Bahadur 's rebellion , and their unsuccessful attempt was reinforced by a garrison of five thousand soldiers . Shah also pressed Rustam Dil Khan and Muhammad Amin Khan to join them .
Bahadur was hiding in Alhalab , 7 miles ( 11 km ) from Lahore . When Mughal workers came to repair a bridge in the village , his followers disinformed them that he was preparing to attack Delhi via Ajmer . Bahadur received soldiers from village ruler Ram Chand for his march against the Mughals , and besieged Fatehabad in April 1711 . After learning from messenger Rustan Jung that he crossed the Ravi River , the emperor attacked with artillery led by Isa Khan . In the July battle , Bahadur was defeated and fled to the Jammu hills . Forces led by Isa Khan and Muhammad Amin Khan followed , but failed to capture him . The emperor issued an edict to the zamindars ( landlord ) of Jammu to take the Sikh captive if possible .
Bahadur was attacked by Muhammad Amin Khan at the river Satluj , escaping to the Garhwal hills . Finding him " invincible " , the emperor went to Ajit Singh and Jai Singh for help . In October 1711 , a joint Mughal @-@ Rajput force marched towards Sadaura . Bahadur escaped the ensuing siege , this time taking refuge at Kulu in present @-@ day Himachal Pradesh .
= = = Khutba controversy = = =
After ascending the throne , Bahadur Shah altered the public prayer ( or khutba ) for the monarch said every Friday by giving the title wali to Ali — the fourth Sunni and the first Shia caliph . Because of this , the citizens of Lahore resented reciting the khutba .
To solve the problem , he went to Lahore in September 1711 and had discussions with Haji Yar Muhammad , Muhammad Murad and " other well @-@ known men " . At their meeting , he read " books of authority " to justify using the word wasi . He had a heated argument with Yar Muhammad , saying that martyrdom by a king was the only thing he wanted . Yar Muhammad ( supported by the emperor 's son , Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan ) recruited troops against Shah , but no war was fought. he held the khatib ( chief reciter ) at the Badshahi Mosque responsible for the matter , and had him arrested . On 2 October , although the army was deployed at the mosque the old khutba ( which did not call Ali " wasi " ) was read .
= = Death = =
According to historian William
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y within the context of Canada 's participation in the First World War . The Canadian National Vimy Memorial and Beaumont @-@ Hamel Newfoundland Memorial sites comprise close to 80 percent of conserved First World War battlefields in existence and between them receive over one million visitors each year .
= = = Vimy memorial = = =
Allward constructed the memorial on the vantage point of Hill 145 , the highest point on the ridge . The memorial contains a large number of stylized features , including 20 human figures , which help the viewer in contemplating the structure as a whole . The front wall , normally mistaken for the rear , is 7 @.@ 3 metres ( 24 ft ) high and represents an impenetrable wall of defence . There is a group of figures at each end of the front wall , next to the base of the steps . The Breaking of the Sword is located at the southern corner of the front wall while Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless is located at the northern corner . Collectively , the two groups are The Defenders and represent the ideals for which Canadians gave their lives during the war . There is a cannon barrel draped in laurel and olive branches carved into the wall above each group , to symbolize peace . In Breaking of the Sword , three young men are present , one of whom is crouching and breaking his sword . This statue represents the defeat of militarism and the general desire for peace . This grouping of figures is the most overt image to pacifism in the monument , the breaking of a sword being extremely uncommon in war memorials . The original plan for the sculpture included one figure crushing a German helmet with his foot . It was later decided to dismiss this feature because of its overtly militaristic imagery . In Sympathy of the Canadians for the Helpless , one man stands erect while three other figures , stricken by hunger or disease , are crouched and kneeling around him . The standing man represents Canada 's sympathy for the weak and oppressed .
The figure of a cloaked young female stands on top and at the centre of the front wall and overlooks the Douai Plains . The woman has her head bowed , her eyes cast down , and her chin resting in one hand . Below her at ground level is a sarcophagus , bearing a Brodie helmet , a sword and draped in laurel branches . The saddened figure of Canada Bereft , also known as Mother Canada , is a national personification of the young nation of Canada , mourning her dead . The statue , a reference to traditional images of the Mater Dolorosa and presented in a similar style to that of Michelangelo 's Pietà , faces eastward looking out to the dawn of the new day . Unlike the other statues on the monument , stonemasons carved Canada Bereft from a single 30 tonne block of stone . The statue is the largest single piece in the monument and serves as a focal point . The area in front of the memorial was turned into a grassed space , which Allward referred to as the amphitheatre , that fanned out from the monument 's front wall for a distance of 270 feet ( 82 m ) while the battle damaged landscape around the sides and back of the monument were left untouched .
The twin pylons rise to a height 30 metres above the memorial 's stone platform ; one bears the maple leaf for Canada and the other the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis for France and both symbolize the unity and sacrifice of the two countries . At the top of the pylons is a grouping of figures known collectively as the Chorus . The most senior figures represent Justice and Peace ; Peace stands with a torch upraised , making it the highest point in the region . The pair is in a style similar to Allward 's previously commissioned statues of Truth and Justice , located outside the Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa . The remainder of the Chorus is located directly below the senior figures : Faith , Hope and Truth on the eastern pylon ; and Honour , Charity and Knowledge on the western pylon . Around these figures are shields of Canada , Britain , and France . Large crosses adorn the outside of each pylon . The First World War battle honours of the Canadian regiments and a dedicatory message to Canada 's war dead in both French and English are located at the base of the pylons . The Spirit of Sacrifice is located at the base between the two pylons . In the display , a young dying soldier is gazing upward in a crucifixion @-@ like pose , having thrown his torch to a comrade who holds it aloft behind him . In a lightly veiled reference to the poem In Flanders Fields , by John McCrae , the torch is passed from one comrade to another in an effort to keep alive the memory of the war dead .
The Mourning Parents , one male and one female figure , are reclining on either side of the western steps on the reverse side of the monument . They represent the mourning mothers and fathers of the nation and are likely patterned on the four statues by Michelangelo on the Medici Tomb in Florence , Italy . Inscribed on the outside wall of the monument are the names of the 11 @,@ 285 Canadians killed in France and whose final resting place is unknown . Most Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorials present names in a descending list format in a manner that permits the modification of panels as remains are found and identified . Allward instead sought to present the names as a seamless list and decided to do so by inscribing the names in continuous bands , across both vertical and horizontal seams , around the base of the monument . As a consequence , as remains were discovered it was not possible to remove commemorated names without interrupting the seamless list and as a consequence there are individuals who have a known grave but are commemorated on the memorial . The memorial contains the names of four posthumous Victoria Cross recipients ; Robert Grierson Combe , Frederick Hobson , William Johnstone Milne , and Robert Spall .
= = = Moroccan Division Memorial = = =
The Moroccan Division Memorial is dedicated to the memory of the French and Foreign members of the Moroccan Division , killed during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 . The monument was raised by veterans of the division and inaugurated on 14 June 1925 , having been built without planning permission . Excluding the various commemorative plaques at the bottom front facade of the Memorial ; Campaign battles are inscribed on the left and right hand side corner view of the memorial . The veterans of the division later funded the April 1987 installation of a marble plaque that identified the Moroccan Division as the only divisions where all subordinate units had been awarded the Legion of Honour .
The Moroccan Division was initially raised as the Marching Division of Morocco . The division comprised units of varying origins and although the name would indicate otherwise , did not in fact contain any units originating from Morocco . Moroccans were part of the Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion which was formed from the merger of the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment with 2nd Marching Regiment of the 2nd Foreign Regiment , both also part of the Moroccan Division Brigades . The division contained Tirailleurs and Zouaves , of principally Tunisian and Algerian origin and most notably Legionnaires from the 2nd Marching Regiment of the 1st Foreign Regiment and the 7th Algerian Tirailleurs Regiment . The French Legionnaires came , as attested to by a plaque installed on the memorial , from 52 different countries and included amongst them American , Polish , Russian , Italian , Greek , German , Czech , Swedish and Swiss volunteers , such as writer Blaise Cendrars .
In the battle , General Victor d 'Urbal , commander of the French Tenth Army , sought to dislodge the Germans from the region by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette . When the attack began on 9 May 1915 , the French XXXIII Army Corps made significant territorial gains . The Moroccan Division , which was part of the XXXIII Army Corps , quickly moved through the German defences and advanced 4 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) into German lines in two hours . The division managed to capture the height of the ridge , with small parties even reaching the far side of the ridge , before retreating due to a lack of reinforcements . Even after German counter @-@ attacks , the division managed to hold a territorial gain of 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 yd ) . The division did however suffer heavy casualties . Those killed in the battle and commemorated on the memorial include both of the division 's brigade commanders , Colonels Gaston Cros and Louis Augustus Theodore Pein .
= = = Grange Subway = = =
The First World War 's Western Front included an extensive system of underground tunnels , subways , and dugouts . The Grange Subway is a tunnel system that is approximately 800 metres ( 870 yd ) in length and once connected the reserve lines to the front line . This permitted soldiers to advance to the front quickly , securely , and unseen . A portion of this tunnel system is open to the public through regular guided tours provided by Canadian student guides .
The Arras @-@ Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft , porous yet extremely stable nature of the chalk underground . As a result , pronounced underground warfare had been a feature of the Vimy sector since 1915 . In preparation for the Battle of Vimy Ridge , five British tunnelling companies excavated 12 subways along the Canadian Corps ' front , the longest of which was 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 300 yd ) in length . The tunnellers excavated the subways at a depth of 10 metres to ensure protection from large calibre howitzer shellfire . The subways were often dug at a pace of four metres a day and were often two metres tall and one metre wide . This underground network often incorporated or included concealed light rail lines , hospitals , command posts , water reservoirs , ammunition stores , mortar and machine gun posts , and communication centres .
= = = Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mike Watkins memorial = = =
Near the Canadian side of the restored trenches is a small memorial plaque dedicated to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mike Watkins MBE . Watkins was head of Explosive Ordnance Disposal at the Directorate of Land Service Ammunition , Royal Logistic Corps , and a leading British explosive ordnance disposal expert . In August 1998 , he died in a roof collapse near a tunnel entrance while undertaking a detailed investigative survey of the British tunnel system on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial site . Watkins was no stranger to the tunnel system at Vimy Ridge . Earlier the same year , he participated in the successful disarming of 3 tonnes of deteriorated ammonal explosives located under a road intersection on the site .
= = = Visitors ' centre = = =
The site has a visitors ' centre , staffed by Canadian student guides , which is open seven days a week . During the memorial restoration , the original visitors ' centre near the monument was closed and replaced with a temporary one , which remains in use today . The visitors ' centre is now near the preserved forward trench lines , close to many of the craters created by underground mining during the war and near the entrance of the Grange Subway . Construction of a new CA $ 5 million visitors ' centre is expected to be completed by April 2017 , in advance of the 100th anniversary of the battle .
= = Sociocultural influence = =
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial site has considerable sociocultural significance for Canada . The idea that Canada 's national identity and nationhood were born out of the Battle of Vimy Ridge is an opinion that is widely published in military and general histories of Canada . Historian Denise Thomson suggests that the construction of the Vimy memorial represents the culmination of an increasingly assertive nationalism that developed in Canada during the interwar period . Hucker suggests that the memorial transcends the Battle of Vimy Ridge and now serves as an enduring image of the whole First World War , while expressing the enormous impact of war in general . Hucker also suggest that the 2005 restoration project serves as evidence of a new generation 's determination to remember Canada 's contribution and sacrifice during the First World War . The Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada recognized the importance of the site by recommending its designation as a National Historic Site of Canada ; it was so designated , one of only two outside of Canada , in 1997 . The other is the Beaumont @-@ Hamel Newfoundland Memorial , also in France . Remembrance has also taken other forms : the Vimy Foundation , having been established to preserve and promote Canada 's First World War legacy as symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge , and Vimy Ridge Day , to commemorate the deaths and casualties during the battle . Local Vimy resident Georges Devloo spent 13 years until his death in 2009 offering car rides to Canadian tourists to and from the memorial at no charge , as a way of paying tribute to the Canadians who fought at Vimy . The memorial is not without its critics . Alana Vincent has argued that constituent parts of the monument are in conflict and as a result the message conveyed by the monument is not unified . Visually , Vincent argues there is a dichotomy between the triumphant pose of the figures at the top of the pylons and the mourning posture of those figures at the base . Textually , she argues the inscription text celebrating the victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge strikes a very different tone to the list of names of the missing at the base of the monument .
The memorial is regularly the subject or inspiration of other artistic projects . In 1931 , Will Longstaff painted Ghosts of Vimy Ridge , depicting ghosts of men from the Canadian Corps on Vimy Ridge surrounding the memorial , though the memorial was still several years away from completion . The memorial has been the subject of stamps in both France and Canada , including a French series in 1936 and a Canadian series on the 50th anniversary of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The Canadian Unknown Soldier was selected from a cemetery in the vicinity of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and the design of the Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is based upon the stone sarcophagus at the base of the Vimy memorial . The Never Forgotten National Memorial was intended to be a 24 @-@ metre ( 79 ft ) statue inspired by the Canada Bereft statue on the memorial , before the project was cancelled in February 2016 . A 2001 Canadian historical novel The Stone Carvers by Jane Urquhart involves the characters in the design and creation of the memorial . In 2007 , the memorial was a short @-@ listed selection for the Seven Wonders of Canada . The Royal Canadian Mint released commemorative coins featuring the memorial on a number of occasions , including a 5 cent sterling silver coin in 2002 and a 30 dollar sterling silver coin in 2007 . The Sacrifice Medal , a Canadian military decoration created in 2008 , features the image of Mother Canada on the reverse side of the medal . A permanent bas relief sculpted image of the memorial is presented in the gallery of the grand hall of the Embassy of France in Canada to symbolize the close relations between the two countries . The memorial is featured on the reverse of the Frontier Series Canadian polymer $ 20 banknote , which was released by the Bank of Canada on 7 November 2012 .
= At Newport 1960 =
At Newport 1960 is a live album by Muddy Waters performed at Newport Jazz Festival in Newport , Rhode Island , with his backing band , consisting of Otis Spann ( piano , vocals ) , Pat Hare ( guitar ) , James Cotton ( harmonica ) , Andrew Stevens ( bass ) and Francis Clay ( drums ) , on July 3 . Waters 's performances across Europe in the 1950s and at Newport helped popularize blues to a broader audience , especially to whites . The album is said to be one of the first live blues albums .
The album was released in the US on November 15 that year , featuring eight songs , including " I Got My Brand on You " to " Goodbye Newport Blues " . In 2001 , Chess Records released a remastered version , which includes three bonus tracks recorded in Chicago in June . At Newport 1960 never charted , but it received critical acclaim and was influential for future bands . It was ranked on several music lists , including at number 348 on Rolling Stone 's " 500 Greatest Albums of all Time " in 2003 .
= = Background = =
After releasing his debut album The Best of Muddy Waters ( 1958 ) , a greatest hits collection , and Sings Big Bill Broonzy ( 1960 ) , a collection of covers of songs by the blues musician Big Bill Broonzy , Waters performed at the Newport Jazz Festival . Waters had already been a well @-@ known blues musician across Europe and the United States in the ' 50s . His successful performances with his electric blues band , consisting of his half @-@ brother Otis Spann ( piano , vocals ) , Pat Hare ( guitar ) , James Cotton ( harmonica ) , Andrew Stevens ( bass ) and Francis Clay ( drums ) , increasingly popularized the blues in mainstream music in the United States and Europe , especially among white audiences .
= = Recording = =
The gig was scheduled on July 3 , Sunday afternoon . The day before , performances by Ray Charles and singing group Lambert , Hendricks and Ross were met with crowd rushes . About 300 drunken hipsters made an uproar during Charles ' performance caused by poor police security . The policemen attacked with teargas and water hoses . The riots became so out of control that the National Guard was called in at midnight to calm the crowd . When Waters and his band arrived on the scheduled day , they intended to drive back on the next day , until driver James Cotton saw John Lee Hooker standing at a corner , his guitar on his back without a guitar case . Cotton said Hooker should get into his car to get the musicians out of harm 's way . At the same time , the city council decided to cancel the concert , but concert promoter George Wein convinced them when he said that the United States Information Agency ( USIA ) planned to film the festival to teach American culture in other countries .
Before Waters ' performance , his band backed Otis Spann , who was the band leader , and John Lee Hooker . At about 17 p.m. , Waters entered the stage , wearing black , while the rest of the band wore white formal dress . At Newport 1960 opens with then @-@ unreleased " I Got My Brand on You " , which was recorded one month prior , and " ( I 'm Your ) Hoochie Coochie Man " , both written by Willie Dixon . Next are the Big Joe Williams cover " Baby Please Don 't Go " , Oden 's " Soon Forgotten " , Dixon 's " Tiger in Your Tank " and Broonzy 's " I Feel So Good " . During the latter he performed hip swings , and during " I 've Got My Mojo Working " , which he played a second time , he performed Elgin movements , then a foxtrot with Cotton . At the end he did a jitterbug ; when he returned to the microphone and performed the move a second time , he received massive cheers from the audience . At the end of this song , every bluesman gathered at the stage to perform medleys of blues standards . Jazz poet and directorate of Newport Langston Hughes spontaneously wrote a finishing song , the slow " Goodbye Newport Blues " , this time Spann with as singer , as Waters was too exhausted to perform .
The album was released in the United States in November 15 , the same year they performed their concert in Newport , on the MCA label , and produced by Leonard Chess . A CD version was released in 1987 , but one bootleger already released a different version in the early 90s . It was digitally remastered in 2001 by MCA , with a significantly better quality in bass and singing . The remastered version contains three bonus tracks recorded in Chicago in June 1960 .
= = Album cover = =
The album cover depicts Muddy Waters at the Newport Jazz Festival holding a semi @-@ acoustic guitar . When the photographer , Burt Goldblatt , asked him to pose for the cover , Waters left his Fender Telecaster ( which he played during the concert ) on the stage and instead held the semi @-@ acoustic guitar , belonging to his friend John Lee Hooker .
= = Critical reception = =
At Newport 1960 received positive critical reception . It was generally praised for the powerful and fizzy performance by Waters and his band . Cub Koda , writing for Allmusic , said that Waters " lays it down tough and cool with a set that literally had [ the audience ] dancing in the aisles by the set close " . Furthermore , he remarked that the opening track , " I Got My Brand on You " , " positively burns the relatively tame " . Matthew Oshinsky , in 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , praised the " merciless refrain " in " Hoochie Coochie Man " and the " unvarnished moaning " in " Baby Please Don 't Go " . He also enjoyed Muddy 's powerful baritone , Cotton 's harmonica playing , Spann 's " pub piano " – like playing and the overall danceable music .
Chris Smith , in 101 Albums That Changed Popular Music , praised Waters 's " growly vocal presentation , energetic stage presence , and electrifying ( literally and figuratively ) performances . " The album was ranked number 348 on Rolling Stone 's " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " in 2003 , in which the band 's playing was described as " tough , tight and in the groove " and Cotton 's harmonica jams were mentioned as " a special treat . " In Vibe ' magazine 's " 100 Essential Albums of the 20th Century " , a critic called the album " immortal . " The album is mentioned in The Rough Guide to Blues 100 Essential CDs .
Many musicians and bands , such as the Rolling Stones , Jimi Hendrix , AC / DC and Led Zeppelin , have been influenced by his electric sound and used this and his greatest hits album in creating a hard rock sound . At Newport 1960 was one of the first live blues albums .
= = Track listing = =
" I Got My Brand on You " ( Willie Dixon ) – 4 : 24
" I 'm Your Hoochie Coochie Man " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 50
" Baby , Please Don 't Go " ( McKinley Morganfield ) – 2 : 52
" Soon Forgotten " ( James Oden ) – 4 : 08
" Tiger in Your Tank " ( Dixon ) – 4 : 12
" I Feel So Good " ( Bill Broonzy ) – 2 : 48
" Got My Mojo Working " ( Preston Foster ) – 4 : 08
" Got My Mojo Working , Part 2 " ( Foster ) – 2 : 38
" Goodbye Newport Blues " ( Langston Hughes , Morganfield ) – 4 : 38
= = = 2001 remastered issue bonus tracks = = =
" I Got My Brand on You " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 22
" Soon Forgotten " ( Oden ) – 2 : 41
" Tiger in Your Tank " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 17
" Meanest Woman " ( Morganfield ) – 2 : 18
Tracks 1 , 2 , 7 , 8 were credited to McKinley Morganfield on the original LP .
= = Personnel = =
= John Stossel =
John Frank Stossel ( born March 6 , 1947 ) is an American consumer television personality , author , and libertarian pundit . In October 2009 , Stossel left his long @-@ time employment at ABC News to join the Fox Business Channel and Fox News Channel . He is the host of a weekly news show on Fox Business , Stossel , which was first broadcast on December 10 , 2009 . Stossel also regularly provides analysis , appearing on various Fox News programs , which include weekly appearances on The O 'Reilly Factor . He also writes a Fox News Blog , " John Stossel 's Take " . Stossel has also been a nationally syndicated newspaper columnist since February 2011 . Stossel was diagnosed with lung cancer in 2016 .
Stossel 's style combines reporting and commentary . It reflects a libertarian political philosophy and views on economics which are largely supportive of the free market . He began his journalism career as a researcher for KGW @-@ TV , was a consumer reporter at WCBS @-@ TV in New York City , and then joined ABC News as a consumer editor and reporter on Good Morning America . Stossel went on to be an ABC News correspondent , joining the weekly news magazine program 20 / 20 , going on to become co @-@ anchor .
As a reporter , Stossel has received numerous honors including 19 Emmy Awards , and he has been honored five times for excellence in consumer reporting by the National Press Club . Stossel has written three books recounting how his experiences in journalism shaped his socioeconomic views , Give Me a Break in 2004 , Myths , Lies , and Downright Stupidity in 2007 , and No They Can 't ! Why Government Fails but Individuals Succeed in 2012 . ABC said : " His reporting goes against the grain of the established media and offers the network something fresh and different ... [ but ] makes him a target of the groups he offends . " Stossel has also served as a spokesman for the Stuttering Foundation of America .
= = Early life = =
John F. Stossel was born on March 6 , 1947 , in Chicago Heights , Illinois , the younger of two sons , to Jewish parents who left Germany before Hitler rose to power . They joined a Congregationalist church in the U.S. , and Stossel was raised Protestant . He grew up on Chicago 's affluent North Shore and graduated from New Trier High School . Stossel characterizes his older brother , Tom , as " the superstar of the family " , commenting , " While I partied and played poker , he studied hard , got top grades , and went to Harvard Medical School . " Stossel characterizes himself as having been " an indifferent student " while in college , commenting , " I daydreamed through half my classes at Princeton , and applied to grad school only because I was ambitious , and grad school seemed like the right path for a 21 @-@ year @-@ old who wanted to get ahead . " Although he had been accepted to the University of Chicago 's School of Hospital Management , Stossel was " sick of school " and thought taking a job would inspire him to embrace graduate studies with renewed vigor .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Stossel intended to go work at Seattle Magazine , but it had gone out of business by the time he graduated . His contacts there , however , got him a job at KGW @-@ TV in Portland , Oregon , where Stossel began as a newsroom gofer , working his way up to researcher and then writer . After a few years , the news director told Stossel to go on the air and read what he wrote . Stossel , who confesses to having been frightened of being on the air , has expressed embarrassment at watching videos of his early performances . Nonetheless , Stossel says his fear spurred him to improve , examining broadcasts of David Brinkley and Jack Perkins to imitate them . Stossel also struggled with a stuttering problem he had harbored since childhood . After a few years of on @-@ air reporting , Stossel was hired by WCBS @-@ TV in New York City , by Ed Joyce , the same news director who hired Arnold Diaz , Linda Ellerbee , Dave Marash , Joel Siegel and Lynn Sherr . Stossel was disappointed at CBS , feeling that the journalism was of a lower quality than in Portland , and disliking the lesser quantity of time devoted to research there . Stossel cites union work rules that discouraged the extra work that Stossel felt allowed employees to be creative , which he says represented his " first real introduction to the deals made by special interests " . Stossel also " hated " Joyce , who he felt was " cold and critical " , though Stossel credits Joyce with allowing him the freedom to pursue his own story ideas , and with recommending the Hollins Communications Research Institute in Roanoke , Virginia , that largely cured Stossel 's stuttering problem .
Stossel grew continuously more frustrated with having to follow the assignment editor 's vision of what was news . Perhaps because of his stuttering , he had always avoided covering what others covered , feeling he could not succeed if he was forced to compete with other reporters by shouting out questions at news conferences . However , this led to the unexpected realization for Stossel that more important events were those that occurred slowly , such as the women 's movement , the growth of computer technology , and advancements in contraception , rather than daily events like government pronouncements , elections , fires or crime . One day , Stossel bypassed the assignment editor to give Ed Joyce a list of story ideas the assignment editor had rejected . Joyce agreed that Stossel 's ideas were better , and approved them .
= = = 20 / 20 = = =
In 1981 Roone Arledge offered Stossel a job at ABC News , as a correspondent for 20 / 20 and consumer reporter for Good Morning America . His " Give Me a Break " segments for the former featured a skeptical look at subjects from government regulations and pop culture to censorship and unfounded fear . The series was spun off into a series of one @-@ hour specials with budgets of half a million dollars that began in 1994 . They include :
" Give Me a Break " – regular segment
You Can 't Even Talk About It – 2009
Bailouts and Bull ( in association with ReasonTV ) – 2009
Age of Consent – 2009
John Stossel 's Politically Incorrect Guide to Politics – 2008
Sex in America – 2008
Sick in America , Whose Body Is It Anyway ? – 2007
Cheap In America – 2007
Myths , Lies and Downright Stupidity – 2007
Cheap in America – 2006
Stupid in America : How We Cheat Our Kids – 2006
Privilege in America : Who 's Shutting You Out ? – 2006
War on Drugs : A War on Ourselves – 2002
Freeloaders – 2001
John Stossel Goes to Washington – Spring 2001
Is America # 1 ? – 1999
Greed – 1999
Nuts for Nintendo – 1988
Common Sense – 1995
Are We Scaring Ourselves to Death ?
Junk Science : What You Know That May Not Be So
Boys and Girls Are Different
You Can 't Say That !
The Power of Belief
During the course of his work on 20 / 20 , Stossel discovered Reason magazine , and found that the libertarian ideas of its writers made sense to him . Stossel was named co @-@ anchor of 20 / 20 in May 2003 , while he was writing his first book , Gimme a Break : How I Exposed Hucksters , Cheats , and Scam Artists and Became the Scourge of the Liberal Media , which was published in 2004 . In it , he details his start in journalism and consumer reporting , and how he evolved to harbor libertarian beliefs .
= = = Fox News Channel and Fox Business Network = = =
In September 2009 , it was announced that Stossel was leaving Disney 's ABC News and joining News Corp. ' s Fox News Channel and Fox Business Network . In addition to appearing on The O 'Reilly Factor every Tuesday night , he now hosts a one @-@ hour weekly program for Fox Business Network and a series of one @-@ hour specials for Fox News Channel , as well as making regular guest appearances on Fox News programs .
The program , entitled Stossel , debuted December 10 , 2009 , on Fox Business Network . The program looks at consumer @-@ focused topics , such as civil liberties , the business of health care , and free trade . His blog , " Stossel ’ s Take " , is published on both FoxBusiness.com and FoxNews.com.
= = = Publications = = =
Stossel has written three books . Give Me a Break : How I Exposed Hucksters , Cheats , and Scam Artists and Became the Scourge of the Liberal Media is a 2005 autobiography from Harper Perennial documenting his career and philosophical transition from liberalism to libertarianism . It describes his opposition to government regulation , his belief in free market and private enterprise , support for tort reform , and advocacy for shifting social services from the government to private charities . It was a New York Times bestseller for 11 weeks . Myths , Lies , and Downright Stupidity : Get Out the Shovel – Why Everything You Know Is Wrong , which was published in 2007 by Hyperion , questions the validity of various conventional wisdoms , and argues that the belief he is conservative is untrue . On April 10 , 2012 , Threshold Editions , an imprint of Simon & Schuster , published Stossel 's third book No , They Can 't : Why Government Fails – But Individuals Succeed . It argues that government policies meant to solve problems instead produce new ones , and that free individuals and the private sector perform tasks more efficiently than the government does .
With financial support from the libertarian Palmer R. Chitester Fund , Stossel and ABC News launched a series of educational materials for public schools in 1999 entitled " Stossel in the Classroom " . It was taken over in 2006 by the Center for Independent Thought and releases a new DVD of teaching materials annually . In 2006 , Stossel and ABC released Teaching Tools for Economics , a video series based on the National Council of Economics Education standards .
Since February 2011 , Stossel has written a weekly newspaper column for Creators Syndicate . His articles appear in such online publications as Newsmax , Reason , and Townhall .
= = Political and personal beliefs = =
= = = Contrarianism = = =
Stossel 's news reports and writings attempt to debunk popular beliefs . His Myths and Lies series of 20 / 20 specials challenges a range of widely held beliefs . He also hosted The Power of Belief ( October 6 , 1998 ) , an ABC News Special that focused on assertions of the paranormal and people 's desire to believe . Another report outlined the belief that opposition to DDT is misplaced and that the ban on DDT has resulted in the deaths of millions of children , mostly in poor nations .
= = = Libertarianism = = =
As a libertarian , Stossel says that he believes in both personal freedom and the free market . He frequently uses television airtime to advance these views and challenge viewers ' distrust of free @-@ market capitalism and economic competition . He received an Honoris Causa Doctorate from Francisco Marroquin University , a libertarian university in Guatemala , in 2008 . He told The Oregonian , on October 26 , 1994 :
I started out by viewing the marketplace as a cruel place , where you need intervention by government and lawyers to protect people . But after watching the regulators work , I have come to believe that markets are magical and the best protectors of the consumer . It is my job to explain the beauties of the free market .
I 'm a little embarrassed about how long it took me to see the folly of most government intervention . It was probably 15 years before I really woke up to the fact that almost everything government attempts to do , it makes worse .
Stossel argues that individual self @-@ interest , or " greed " , creates an incentive to work harder and to innovate . He has promoted school choice as a way to improve American schools , believing that when people are given a choice , they will choose the schools best suited for their children . Referring to educational tests that rank American students lower than others he says :
The people who run the international tests told us , " the biggest predictor of student success is choice . " Nations that " attach the money to the kids " and thereby allow parents to choose between different public and private schools have higher test scores . This should be no surprise ; competition makes us better .
Stossel has criticized government programs for being inefficient , wasteful , and harmful . He has also criticized the American legal system , opining that it provides lawyers and vexatious litigators the incentive to file frivolous lawsuits indiscriminately . Stossel contends that these suits often generate more wealth for lawyers than for deserving clients , stifle innovation and personal freedoms , and cause harm to private citizens , taxpayers , consumers and businesses . Although Stossel concedes that some lawsuits are necessary in order to provide justice to people genuinely injured by others with greater economic power , he advocates the adoption in the U.S. of the English rule as one method to reduce the more abusive or frivolous lawsuits .
Stossel opposes corporate welfare , bailouts and the war in Iraq . He also opposes legal prohibitions against pornography , marijuana , recreational drugs , gambling , ticket scalping , prostitution , polygamy , homosexuality , and assisted suicide , and believes most abortions should be legal . He advocates lower and simpler taxes , and has endorsed or explored various ideas in his specials and on his TV series for changing the tax system , including switching to a flat tax , and replacing the income tax with the FairTax .
When the Department of Labor reissued federal guidelines in April 2010 governing the employment of unpaid interns under the Fair Labor Standards Act based on a 1947 Supreme Court decision , Stossel criticized the guidelines , appearing in a police uniform during an appearance on the Fox News program America Live , commenting , " I ’ ve built my career on unpaid interns , and the interns told me it was great – I learned more from you than I did in college . " Asked why he did not pay them if they were so valuable , he said he could not afford to .
= = = Agnosticism = = =
In the 16 December 2010 episode of Stossel titled “ Skeptic or Believer , ” Stossel identified himself as an agnostic , explaining that although he had no belief in God , he did not believe God was an impossibility .
= = Praise and criticism = =
= = = Awards = = =
Stossel has won 19 Emmy Awards . He was honored five times for excellence in consumer reporting by the National Press Club , has received a George Polk Award for Outstanding Local Reporting and a Peabody Award . According to Stossel , when he was in favor of government intervention and skeptical of business , he was deluged with awards , but in 2006 he stated , " They like me less ... Once I started applying the same skepticism to government , I stopped winning awards . " On April 23 , 2012 , Stossel was awarded the Chapman University Presidential Medal , by the current president , James Doti , and chancellor , Danielle Struppa . The award has been presented to only a handful of people over the past 150 years . Stossel received an honorary doctorate from Universidad Francisco Marroquín .
= = = Praise = = =
The Nobel Prize – winning Chicago School monetarist economist Milton Friedman lauded Stossel , stating : " Stossel is that rare creature , a TV commentator who understands economics , in all its subtlety . " Steve Forbes , the editor of Forbes magazine , described Stossel as riveting and " one of America ’ s ablest and most courageous journalists . " P. J. O 'Rourke , best @-@ selling author of Eat the Rich and Parliament of Whores praised Stossel , stating :
... about John Stossel 's fact @-@ finding . He seeks the truths that destroy truisms , wields reason against all that 's unreasonable , and ... puncture ( s ) sanctimonious idealism .... He makes the maddening mad . And Stossel ’ s tales of the outrageous are outrageously amusing .
An article published by the libertarian group Advocates for Self Government notes praise for Stossel . Independent Institute Research Analyst Anthony Gregory , writing on the libertarian blog , LewRockwell.com , described Stossel as a " heroic rogue ... a media maverick and proponent of freedom in an otherwise statist , conformist mass media . " Libertarian investment analyst Mark Skousen said Stossel is " a true libertarian hero " .
= = = Criticism and controversy = = =
Progressive organizations such as Fairness and Accuracy In Reporting ( FAIR ) and Media Matters for America ( MMfA ) have criticized Stossel 's work , for what they perceived as a lack of balance of coverage and distortion of facts . For example , Stossel was criticized for a segment on his October 11 , 1999 , show during which he argued that AIDS research has received too much funding , " 25 times more than on Parkinson 's , which kills more people . " FAIR responded that AIDS had killed more people in the United States in 1999 , but Stossel was speaking in more broad terms than a single country over a single year .
In a February 2000 Salon.com feature on Stossel entitled " Prime @-@ time propagandist " , David Mastio wrote that Stossel has a conflict of interest in donating profits from his public speaking engagements to , among others , a non @-@ profit called " Stossel in the Classroom " which includes material for use in schools , some of which uses material made by Stossel .
University of Texas economist James K. Galbraith has alleged that Stossel , in his September 1999 special Is America # 1 ? , used an out @-@ of @-@ context clip of Galbraith to convey the notion that Galbraith advocated the adoption by Europe of the free market economics practiced by the United States , when in fact Galbraith actually advocated that Europe adopt some of the United States ' social benefit transfer mechanisms such as Social Security , which is the economically opposite view . Stossel denied any misrepresentation of Galbraith 's views and stated that it was not his intention to convey that Galbraith agreed with all of the special 's ideas . However , he re @-@ edited that portion of the program for its September 2000 repeat , in which Stossel paraphrased , " Even economists who like Europe 's policies , like James Galbraith , now acknowledge America 's success . "
= = = = Organic vegetables = = = =
A February 2000 story about organic vegetables on 20 / 20 included statements by Stossel that tests had shown that neither organic nor conventional produce samples contained any pesticide residue , and that organic food was more likely to be contaminated by E. coli bacteria . The Environmental Working Group objected to his report , mainly questioning his statements about bacteria , but also managed to determine that the produce had never been tested for pesticides . They communicated this to Stossel , but after the story 's producer backed Stossel 's recollection that the test results had been as described , the story was rebroadcast months later , uncorrected , and with a postscript in which Stossel reiterated his claim . Later , after a report in The New York Times confirmed the Environmental Working Group 's claims , ABC News suspended the producer of the segment for a month and reprimanded Stossel . Stossel apologized , saying that he had thought the tests had been conducted as reported . However , he asserted that the gist of his report had been accurate .
= = = = Frederick K. C. Price = = = =
In a March 2007 segment about finances and lifestyles of televangelists , 20 / 20 aired a clip of Apostle Frederick K. C. Price , a TV minister , that was originally broadcast by the Lifetime Network in 1997 . Price alleged that the clip portrayed him describing his wealth in extravagant terms , when he was actually telling a parable about a rich man . ABC News twice aired a retraction and apologized for the error . In August 2010 , a lower court 's dismissal of the minister 's defamation suit against ABC , Price v. Stossel , was overturned by the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals .
= = = = “ Sick Sob Stories ” = = = =
In an opinion piece published in The Wall Street Journal in September 2007 called " Sick Sob Stories " , Stossel described the case of Tracy and Julie Pierce that was explored in Michael Moore ’ s film , Sicko . Julie Pierce criticized Stossel , saying her husband would have been saved by the Canadian health care system , and she thought Stossel should have interviewed her and her doctor before writing about them . Stossel expressed sympathy , but said she had been misled to believe the treatment was routinely available in Canada . He said that the treatment is also considered “ experimental ” in Canada , and is provided there even more rarely than in the United States .
Stossel did not title the piece “ Sick Sob Stories ” ; that title was given to the piece by The Wall Street Journal .
= = = = Global warming = = = =
Stossel challenges the notion that man @-@ made global warming would have net negative consequences , pointing to assertedly warmer periods in human history . Central to his argument is the idea that groups and individuals get much more public attention , donations , and government funding when they proclaim " this will be terrible " than groups that say " this is nothing to worry about . " He points to groups like the World Wildlife Fund , Greenpeace , the Environmental Defense Fund , the Natural Resources Defense Council , and to activists such as Rachel Carson and former U.S. Vice President Al Gore as examples of environmental scaremongers .
In 2001 , the media watchdog organization FAIR criticized Stossel 's reportage of global warming in his documentary , Tampering with Nature , for using " highly selective ... information " that gave " center stage to three dissenters from among the 2 @,@ 000 members of the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which recently released a report stating that global temperatures are rising almost twice as fast as previously thought . "
Stossel groups supporters of the scientific consensus on climate change with astrologers and psychics in his second book , Myths , Lies and Downright Stupidity . He claims that proposals surrounding the proposed solutions to reduce global warming are " myths , " which will not only not solve the problem but will " restrict freedom . "
= = = = David Schultz incident = = = =
On December 28 , 1984 , during an interview for 20 / 20 on professional wrestling , wrestler David Schultz struck Stossel after Stossel stated that he thought professional wrestling was " fake " . Stossel stated that he suffered from pain and buzzing in his ears eight weeks after the assault . Stossel sued and obtained a settlement of $ 425 @,@ 000 from the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . In his book , Myths , Lies , and Downright Stupidity , he writes that he has come to regret doing so , having adopted the belief that lawsuits harm many innocent people . Schultz maintains that he attacked Stossel on orders from Vince McMahon , the head of the then @-@ WWF .
= = Personal life = =
Stossel lives in New York City , in the apartment building The Beresford , with his wife , Ellen Abrams . They have two children , Lauren , and Max . They also own a home in Massachusetts .
Stossel came to embrace his Jewish heritage after marrying his wife , who is Jewish , and their children have been raised in that tradition . Stossel identified himself as an agnostic in the December 16 , 2010 , episode of Stossel , explaining that he had no belief in God but was open to the possibility .
Stossel 's brother , Thomas P. Stossel , is a Harvard Medical School professor and co @-@ director of the Hematology Division at Boston 's Brigham and Women 's Hospital . He has served on the advisory boards of pharmaceutical companies such as Merck and Pfizer . Stossel 's nephew is journalist and magazine editor Scott Stossel .
On April 20 , 2016 , Stossel , who stated that he had never smoked , revealed that he had lung cancer which was caught early and given an excellent prognosis .
= = Books = =
Give Me a Break : How I Exposed Hucksters , Cheats , and Scam Artists and Became the Scourge of the Liberal Media ... ( Paperback ed . ) . Harper Paperbacks . 2005 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 052915 @-@ 4 .
Myths , Lies and Downright Stupidity : Get Out the Shovel – Why Everything You Know is Wrong ( Paperback ed . ) . Hyperion . 2007 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7868 @-@ 9393 @-@ 5 .
No , They Can 't : Why Government Fails – But Individuals Succeed . Threshold Editions . 2012 . ISBN 1451640943 .
= = = Biographies and articles about Stossel = = =
ABC News Biography
Johnson , Peter . " Stossel 's evolution from activist to contrarian angers some of his fans " , USA Today , April 30 , 2006
" John Stossel : Myth @-@ Buster " , FrontPageMag.com
Sullum , Jacob . " Risky Journalism : ABC 's John Stossel bucks a fearful establishment " Reason , April 1997 .
= = = Articles by Stossel = = =
John Stossel 's 20 / 20 Web Page
John Stossel 's Newspaper Columns
John Stossel 's contributions to Reason Magazine
" Confessions of a Welfare Queen : How rich bastards like me rip off taxpayers for millions of dollars " is an excerpt from his first book .
John Stossel 's Column on Creators.com
= Evan Lorne =
Major Evan Lorne , USAF is a fictional character in the Canadian – American Sci @-@ Fi Channel television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 and Stargate Atlantis , two military science fiction shows about military teams exploring the galaxy via a network of alien transportation devices . Played by Kavan Smith , Evan Lorne was first introduced as a recurring character in the seventh season of Stargate SG @-@ 1 , holding the military rank of Major in the United States Air Force . He joins the Atlantis expedition after " The Siege " as one of the personnel on the Daedalus class battlecruiser .
Lorne was a recurring character in seasons seven and ten in Stargate SG @-@ 1 and season two – season five in Stargate Atlantis . Smith was originally supposed to play another character in Stargate Atlantis , but the producers eventually decided to keep Lorne , since he was popular with the fans according to Smith himself . He appears in a total of 29 episodes .
= = Character arc = =
Lorne first appears in Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode " Enemy Mine " . Lorne reappears as a part of the new personnel sent after the Wraith siege by the Daedalus and serves as Atlantis ' military second @-@ in @-@ command under Lieutenant Colonel John Sheppard . In " Runner " , he assists Sheppard , Teyla Emmagan , and Rodney McKay in the search for Aiden Ford . Lorne possesses the ATA gene , but it has never been revealed whether his gene is natural or artificial . He is seen piloting a Puddle Jumper in several episodes including " Condemned " and " The Hive " .
Lorne is one of the Atlantis Expedition members in " This Mortal Coil " that the Replicators take the form of , but they are all killed by Oberoth . In an alternate timeline shown in the episode " The Last Man " , Lorne is a Major General and appears to be in command of the Stargate Command ( SGC ) . Lorne also appears as the team leader of the SG @-@ 1 unit in an alternate universe in the SG @-@ 1 season 10 episode " The Road Not Taken " .
In " Doppleganger " , Lorne threatens Sheppard while sleepwalking , believing him to be a Replicator . Lorne is stunned by Ronon Dex , and while being questioned by Dr. Kate Heightmeyer says that he " hadn 't had a sleepwalking incident since he was ten . " Lorne 's mother , an art teacher , taught him how to paint on weekends when he was growing up , and Lorne rekindles this muse during his stay on Atlantis . In " Tabula Rasa " , Lorne , while being semiamnesiac , takes a severe overdose of a delaying medicine that is supposed to hold back the illness . This causes him ( and all of his team ) to become paranoid , aggressive and confused and they resort to shooting with stunners everyone they see even if they are not affected by the sickness . Eventually , though , a picture of Sheppard convinced him to assist Ronon treat the sick . He later apologised to Sheppard . Originally from San Francisco , California , Lorne also has a sister who has two young boys . He loves ice cream .
= = Conceptual history = =
The character was introduced in the Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode " Enemy Mine " . Kavan Smith had formed a close relationship with director Peter DeLuise before being cast . When the development of the episode was finished , there were no plans of expanding Lorne 's role in the franchise . Smith himself felt the part would not " necessarily " lead anywhere big . Sometime after shooting " Enemy Mine " , the producers wanted to talk to Smith about the possibility of having him return to the spin off series , Stargate Atlantis . After the talk , Smith auditioned for a part , he won and received a different character . According to Smith , this character was more of a " military guy " , but the producers eventually decided to give Smith back his old character , Lorne .
When talking about season two of Stargate Atlantis , staff writer , Martin Gero said Lorne had become the most notable recurring character of the series . In an interview with Smith , it was revealed that Lorne 's first name was decided to be " Evan " , later confirmed by executive producer , Joseph Mallozzi . While fans on the other hand , have given him the first name , Marcus ( or , alternately , Nick ) , the producers or writers have not responded to this . In the episode " Spoils of War " , a character was going to call him " Uncle Evan " , this scene was cut off , because of time constraints .
At first , plot information about the episode , " Coup D 'etat " was a bit scarce . Many fans speculated that they were going to kill Lorne off the show . Smith went and had a brief talk with the writing staff , responding to his worries that it was a part of a " cliffhanger " . According to Smith , the only reason for making Lorne a recurring character was the positive feedback from fans . " Sunday " became the first episode to reveal information about Lorne 's backstory . Smith described Lorne as " that sort of faithful , loyal guy that everybody kind of knows , " and representing a " steady constant . " On his own weblog , Joseph Mallozzi said that Lorne as a character would become more active during season 5 .
= = Reception = =
Cynthia from Sci Fi Universe commented that Kavan Smith played a character who had the " same name " as the character he originally portrayed in Stargate SG @-@ 1 , but was " not really the same guy " . Concluding her review saying she reacted positive towards the evolution of the character . When talking about science fiction fandom , Smith said that he was " shocked " about the fan response to his character , further stating that this could only be possible in a science fiction television series . In the interview , Smith said that his " character seems to be developing ... I feel like his career is sort of moving ahead . " In an interview , Smith said he had evolved a strong fanbase , which started with his more obscure earlier work and has since followed him throughout his career . Because of the strong fan response , Smith has started to attend various Stargate conventions .
= Good Cop Bad Dog =
" Good Cop Bad Dog " is the 22nd episode of the American comedy television series Modern Family 's second season and the 46th episode overall . The episode originally aired on May 11 , 2011 on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode was written by Abraham Higginbotham & Jeffrey Richman and was guest directed by former child star Fred Savage . It guest starred Lin @-@ Manuel Miranda as Guillermo , the Grocery Store worker who tries to convince Jay to invest with him .
In the episode , Jay advises a dog trainer , while Phil and Claire switch parenting duties to the kids ' chagrin . Mitchell has an extra Lady Gaga ticket when Cameron ends up sick . The episode introduces the Pritchett 's new dog that will appear for the rest of the season and for a majority of the third .
" Good Cop Bad Dog " received positive reviews from critics with many praising Ty Burrell 's performance . The episode was viewed by more than 10 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 2 rating / 11 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , marking an 8 percent rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " Mother 's Day " . The episode was also the highest @-@ rated scripted program of the original week it aired among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . Burrell eventually received an Emmy for his performance in the episode .
= = Plot = =
In the Dunphy household , Alex ( Ariel Winter ) and Haley ( Sarah Hyland ) are furious at Manny ( Rico Rodriguez ) and Luke ( Nolan Gould ) for barging into their room while they were changing . This leads to their mother , Claire ( Julie Bowen ) to yell at them , while their dad , Phil ( Ty Burrell ) attempts to push himself away from Claire 's anger behind her back . Annoyed , Claire confronts Phil about how he always makes her play the ' bad cop ' role in their family and keeps the ' good cop ' role for himself . He reluctantly agrees to switch roles with her . Claire takes Manny and Luke go @-@ carting ( although Phil had been quite keen to go ) , while Phil has to stay and make the girls clean their bathroom . The go @-@ carting goes horribly as Luke gets sick from drinking a milkshake he did not want . Meanwhile , Phil goes berserk when the girls lie to him about cleaning the bathroom and jump on their car to stop them from leaving , before forcing them to clean the bathroom under his direct supervision and then he had them clean his bathroom . That evening , Phil and Claire admit that they cannot handle each other 's natural parent roles , and agree to go back to normal .
Meanwhile , Gloria ( Sofía Vergara ) wants to help a grocery @-@ store worker , Guillermo ( Lin @-@ Manuel Miranda ) , so she convinces Jay ( Ed O 'Neill ) to let Guillermo pitch him a business idea : a dog @-@ training system labeled " The Good @-@ doggy / Bad @-@ doggy Training System " , which consists of two sets of dog treats , one of them being bland and the other a tastier one with bacon . The pitch goes wrong when Guillermo 's dog , Stella ( Brigitte ) , chews on Jay 's pillow and seems to prefer the bad doggy treat . Seeing that Gloria 's blind encouragement is doing him no favours , Jay adopts a firm , frank tone with Guillermo and tells him that , while he has obvious skill , enthusiasm and charisma , his idea is not good . Guillermo , who had invested five years of his life in this idea , leaves in tears . Gloria follows him to apologize , but Guillermo admits that he found Jay 's honesty refreshing , and has decided to reorganize his life , which means moving back in with his sister to go back to school , but it also means that he must give the dog away . Gloria allows the dog to stay with them much to Jay 's anger , which is increased when Manny walks in and believes the dog is a present for him . Jay drives the dog to the pound but Stella 's sweet face makes him take her back home .
Mitchell ( Jesse Tyler Ferguson ) has bought tickets to a Lady Gaga concert , but his plans go south when Cameron ( Eric Stonestreet ) gets sick . This causes Mitchell to be torn on whether he should stay with Cameron or go to the concert . He eventually tries to be supporting and attempts to subtly persuade Cameron to let him go , as Claire has advised him to do . Mitchell tries to sneak away after noticing that Cameron has drunk most of a cough syrup that would " put down a Grizzly " , but he is caught when Cam wakes up . Mitchell then gives a speech about how selfish he has been to Cameron , before realizing Cameron has fallen asleep once more . He then sneaks off to the concert and comes back before Cameron wakes up again . When Cameron does wake up , Mitchell acts as if he never went out , unaware that his glow stick is still visible underneath his shirt . As Cameron returns to bed , he pleasantly informs Mitchell that his glow @-@ stick is still flashing , and switches off the light to reveal it .
= = Production = =
" Good Cop Bad Dog " was written by Abraham Higginbotham and Jeffrey Richman , the former receiving third writing credit for the series having previously written " The Kiss " and " Regrets Only " and the latter receiving his fourth writing credit for the series . Higginbotham received a story credit for the episode , as well . The episode was directed by guest director Fred Savage , best known for his performance in The Wonder Years .
The episode was filmed on March 3 , and March 4 , 2011 . The episode features a guest appearance by Puerto Rican @-@ American composer and singer Lin @-@ Manuel Miranda . The episode marks the introduction of the Pritchett 's new dog , a French Bulldog played by Brigette . According to Rico Rodriguez , who plays Manny on the show , " She 'll probably be in the last three episodes of the season and then in multiple episodes next year [ ... ] [ She ] has fit in very well " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on May 11 , 2011 , " Good Cop Bad Dog " was viewed by an estimated 10 @.@ 113 million households and received a 4 @.@ 2 rating / 11 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked an 8 percent rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " Mother 's Day " . In its timeslot , " Good Cop Bad Dog " was outperformed by Fox reality television series , American Idol which received a 6 @.@ 9 rating / 20 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . However the series defeated CBS crime drama Criminal Minds which received a 3 @.@ 1 rating / 8 % share , a rerun of NBC reality series , Minute to Win It which received a 0 @.@ 9 rating / 2 % share and The CW reality series , America 's Next Top Model with received a 0 @.@ 8 rating / 2 % share . " Good Cop Bad Dog " was the most @-@ watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 , and the twenty @-@ third most @-@ watched show among all viewers . Added with the DVR viewers , the episode received a 6 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 2 @.@ 2 rating to the original viewership .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics with many commenting on Ty Burrell 's performance .
Entertainment Weekly writer Leseley Savage praised the episode 's theme commenting that " while tonight 's theme of switching roles definitely wasn 't subtle , it was still clever . " She named Burrell the " MVP " saying that " When he jumped onto the roof of their car , I nearly died " .
The A.V. Club 's Donna Bowman wrote that the episode showed " flashes of brilliance in this half hour that were equally due to the situations set up by the writers and to the talents of the cast " . Despite the mainly positive review , she criticized the Mitchell and Cameron plot for not having " much warmth " . She ultimately gave the episode a B + while readers of the article gave it a B.
New York writer Rachael Maddux praised the episode for " revealing new sides of several personalities " commenting that " our favorite moments over the last twenty @-@ something Modern Family episodes have almost entirely involved learning something new about these characters " .
CNN reviewer Henry Hanks wrote , " Wednesday night 's Modern Family was an example of the series at the top of its game . " He also called Burrell the " this week 's MVP " .
TV Squad writer Joel Keller praised Phil and Claire 's plot for recycling a standard television trope while still having " the biggest laughs " . Keller criticized the Mitchell and Cam subplot " because Cam 's personality was tamped down by sickness " and later wrote , " Yes , I just said you can rehash stuff if done well . This one wasn 't done well . "
Not all reviews were positive . Christine Ziemba of Paste called the episode " uneven " , but wrote that " it still had its moments " . She praised Ty Burrell 's performance calling him " the episode ’ s scene stealer " . She ultimately gave the episode a 6 @.@ 9 / 10 calling it " respectable " .
Sam Morgan of Hollywood.com complimented the writers for attempting to write a " classic MF episode " but concluded , " It had some very funny bits , but that heart it searched far and wide for just wasn ’ t there " .
= Spanish general election , 1936 =
Legislative elections were held in Spain on 16 February 1936 . At stake were all 473 seats in the unicameral Cortes Generales . The winners of the 1936 elections were the Popular Front , a left @-@ wing coalition of the Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party ( PSOE ) , Republican Left ( Spain ) ( IR ) , Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya ( ERC ) , Republican Union Party ( UR ) , Communist Party ( PCE ) , Acció Catalana ( AC ) and other parties . They commanded a narrow lead in terms of the popular vote , but a significant lead over the main opposition party , Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right ( CEDA ) , of the political right in terms of seats . The election had been prompted by a collapse of a government led by Alejandro Lerroux , and his Radical Republican Party . Manuel Azaña would replace Manuel Portela Valladares , caretaker , as prime minister , after what were widely considered fair elections – although limited cases of electoral fraud did occur . They were the last of three elections held during the Spanish Second Republic , coming three years after the 1933 general election which had brought the first of Lerroux 's governments to power . The poor result for the political right would help bring about the July coup , and the ensuing civil war . The right @-@ wing military coup initiated by Generals Sanjurjo and Franco ultimately brought about the end of parliamentary democracy in Spain until the 1977 general election .
= = Background = =
After the 1933 election , the Radical Republican Party ( RRP ) lead a series of governments , with Alejandro Lerroux as a moderate Prime Minister . On 26 September 1935 , the CEDA announced it would no longer support the RRP 's minority government ; it was replaced by a RRP cabinet , led by Lerroux once more , that included three members of the CEDA . The concession of posts to CEDA prompted the Asturian miners ' strike of 1934 . Some time later , Robles once again prompted a cabinet collapse , and five members of Lerroux 's new government were conceded to CEDA , including Robles himself . Since the 1933 elections , farm workers ' wages had been halved , and the military purged of republican members and reformed ; those loyal to Robles had been promoted . However , since CEDA 's entry into the government , no constitutional amendments were ever made ; no budget was ever passed .
In 1935 , Manuel Azaña Díaz and Indalecio Prieto started to unify the left , and combat its extreme elements , including the staging of large , popular rallies , in what would become the Popular Front . Lerroux 's Radical government collapsed after two significant scandals , including the Straperlo affair . However , president Niceto Alcalá Zamora did not allow the CEDA to form a government , and called elections . Zamora had become disenchanted with Robles 's obvious desire to do away with the republic and establish a corporate state , and his air of pride . He was looking to strengthen a new centre party in place of the Radicals , but the election system did not favour this . Portela Valladares was thus chosen to form a caretaker government in the meantime . The Republic had , as its opponents pointed out , faced twenty @-@ six separate government crises . Portela failed to get the required support in the parliament to rule as a majority . The government was dissolved on 4 January ; the date for elections would be 16 February .
In common with the 1933 election , Spain was divided into multi @-@ member constituencies ; for example , Madrid had 17 representatives . However , each member of the electorate could vote for somewhat less than that – in Madrid 's case , 13 . This favoured coalitions , as in Madrid in 1933 when the Socialists won 13 members and the right , with only 5 @,@ 000 votes less , secured only the remaining 4 .
= = Election = =
The campaigning for the election was generally in accordance with the law and peaceful , with few problems . Certain press restrictions were lifted . The political right repeatedly warned of the risk of a ' red flag ' – communism – over Spain ; the Radical Republican Party , led by Lerroux , concentrated on besmirching the Centre Party . CEDA , which continued to be the main party of the political right , struggled to gain the support of the monarchists , but managed to . Posters , however , had a distinctly fascist appeal , showing leader Gil @-@ Robles alongside various autocratic slogans . Whilst few campaign promises were made , a return to autocratic government was implied . Funded by considerable donations from large landowners , industrialists and the Catholic Church – which had suffered under the previous Socialist administration – the Right printed millions of leaflets , promising a ' great Spain ' . In terms of manifesto , the Popular Front proposed going back to the sort of reforms its previous administration , including important agrarian reforms , and those to do with the treatment of strikes . It would also release political prisoners , helping to secure the votes of the CNT and FAI , although as organisations they remained outside the growing Popular Front ; the Popular Front had the support of votes from anarchists . The Communist Party campaigned under a series of revolutionary slogans ; however , they were strongly supportive of the Popular Front government . " Vote Communist to save Spain from Marxism " was a Socialist joke at the time . Devoid of strong areas of working class support , already taken by syndicalism and anarchism , they concentrated on their position within the Popular Front .
34 @,@ 000 members of the Civil Guards and 17 @,@ 000 Assault Guards enforced security on election day , many freed from their regular posts by the carabineros . Six people were killed during the elections , and perhaps another 30 injured . Ballots were generally fair and in accordance with the 1931 constitution , although three cases of electoral fraud occurred . The first was in Galicia , in north @-@ west Spain , and orchestrated by the incumbent government ; there also , in A Coruña , by the political left . The voting in Granada was forcibly ( and unfairly ) dominated by the government . In some villages , the police stopped anyone not wearing a collar from voting . Wherever the Socialists were poorly organised , farm workers continued to vote how they were told by their bosses or caciques . Similarly , some right @-@ wing voters were put off from voting in strongly socialist areas . However , such instances were comparatively rare . The first results to be released , in the evening of the 14 , from urban areas , were encouraging for the Popular Front .
= = Outcome = =
Just under 10 million people voted , with an abstention rate of 28 percent , a level of apathy higher than might be suggested by the ongoing political violence . A small number of coerced voters and anarchists formed part of the abstainers . The elections of 1936 were narrowly won by the Popular Front , with vastly smaller resources than the political right , who followed Nazi propaganda techniques . The exact numbers of votes differ among historians ; Brenan assigns the Popular Front 4 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 votes , the Right around 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and the centre 450 @,@ 000 . It was a comparatively narrow victory in terms of votes , but Paul Preston describes it as a ' triumph of power in the Cortes ' – the Popular Front won 267 deputies and the Right only 132 , and the imbalance caused by the nature of Spain 's electoral system since the 1932 election law came into force . The same system had benefited the political right in 1933 . The political centre did badly . Lerroux 's Radicals , incumbent until his government 's collapse , were electorally devastated ; many of their supporters had been pushed to the right by the increasing instability in Spain . Portela Valladares had formed the Centre Party , but had not had time to build it up . Worried about the problems of a minority party losing out due to the electoral system , he made a pact with the right , but this was not enough to ensure success . Leaders of the centre , Lerroux , Cambó and Melquíades Álvarez , failed to win seats . The Falangist party , under José Antonio Primo de Rivera received only 46 @,@ 000 votes , a very small fraction of the total cast . This seemed to show little appetite for a takeover of that sort . The allocation of seats between coalition members was a matter of agreement between them . The official results ( Spanish : escrutinio ) were recorded on 20 February . The Basque Party , who had not at the time of the election been part of the Popular Front , would go on to join it . In 20 seats , no alliance or party had secured 40 % of the vote ; 17 were decided by a second vote on 3 March . In these runoffs , the Popular Front won 8 , the Basques 5 , the Right 5 and the Centre 2 . In May , elections were reheld in two areas of Granada where the new government alleged there had been fraud ; both seats were taken from the national Right victory in February by the Left .
Despite a relatively small mandate in terms of votes , some socialists took to the streets to free political prisoners , without waiting for the government to do so officially . There were claims of an imminent socialist or anarchist takeover . The right had firmly believed , at all levels , that they would win . Portela would , a year later , claim that Gil @-@ Robles and General Francisco Franco had approached him within days to the election to propose a military takeover . Portela resigned , even before a new government could be formed . However , the Popular Front , which had proved an effective election tool , did not translate into a Popular Front government . Largo Caballero and other elements of the political left were not prepared to work with the republicans , although they did agree to support much of the proposed reforms . Manuel Azaña Díaz was called upon to form a government , but would shortly replace Zamora as president . The right began to conspire as to how to best overthrow the republic , rather than taking control of it .
= = Results = =
= = = Seats = = =
= USS Portland ( CA @-@ 33 ) =
USS Portland ( CL / CA – 33 ) , the lead ship of her class of cruiser , was the first ship of the United States Navy named after the city of Portland , Maine . Launched in 1932 , she saw a number of training and goodwill cruises in the interwar period . In World War II , she saw extensive service beginning at the 1942 Battle of Coral Sea , where she escorted the aircraft carrier Yorktown and picked up survivors from the sunken carrier Lexington . She screened for Yorktown again in the Battle of Midway , picking up her survivors as well . She then supported the carrier Enterprise during the initial phase of the Guadalcanal Campaign later that year , and was torpedoed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . The torpedo inflicted heavy damage which put her out of action for six months as she was repaired in Sydney , Australia and later San Diego , California .
Returning to action in mid @-@ 1943 , she saw action in many of the major campaigns of the Pacific War , conducting shore bombardments in support of campaigns at the Aleutian Islands , Gilbert and Marshall Islands , Mariana Islands , and New Guinea . She was involved in the October 1944 Battle of Leyte Gulf , engaging Japanese ships in the decisive Battle of Surigao Strait . She then conducted shore bombardments at Lingayen Gulf and Corregidor Island , and in 1945 supported landings during the Battle of Okinawa until the end of the war .
Following World War II , Portland accepted the Japanese surrender in the Caroline Islands and then undertook several Operation Magic Carpet cruises to bring U.S. troops home . She was decommissioned in 1946 and scrapped by 1962 . In her extensive service she accrued 16 battle stars , making her one of the most decorated ships in the U.S. fleet .
= = Design and construction = =
Portland was the lead ship of the third class of " treaty cruisers " to be constructed by the United States Navy following the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 , following the two vessels of the Pensacola @-@ class ordered in 1926 and the six vessels of the Northampton @-@ class ordered in 1927 . Ordered for the U.S. Navy in Fiscal Year 1930 . Portland was originally designated as a light cruiser , because of her thin armor , and given the hull classification symbol CL @-@ 33 . She was reclassified a heavy cruiser , because of her 8 @-@ inch guns , with the symbol CA @-@ 33 on 1 July 1931 , in accordance with the London Naval Treaty .
Portland was designed for a standard displacement of 10 @,@ 258 long tons ( 10 @,@ 423 t ) , and a full @-@ load displacement of 12 @,@ 755 long tons ( 12 @,@ 960 t ) . However , Portland only displaced 9 @,@ 800 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) when completed . In 1943 , a light tripod was added forward of the second funnel on the ship , and a prominent fire @-@ control director was installed aft .
Her four Parsons GT geared turbines each drove a propeller shaft using steam provided by eight Yarrow boilers . Portland 's power plant generated 107 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 80 @,@ 000 kW ) and she had a designed maximum speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . The ship reached , however , 32 @.@ 7 knots ( 60 @.@ 6 km / h ; 37 @.@ 6 mph ) on sea trials . She rolled badly until fitted with bilge keels . Portland was designed for a range of 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of nine Mark 9 8 " / 55 caliber guns arrayed in three triple mounts , a superfiring pair forward and one aft . She was armed with eight 5 " / 25 caliber guns for anti @-@ aircraft defense , and she also had two QF 3 pounder Hotchkiss saluting guns . In 1945 , her anti @-@ aircraft defenses were upgraded , receiving twenty four Bofors 40 mm guns which were arranged in four quad mounts and four twin mounts . Portland was also upgraded with seventeen Oerlikon 20 mm cannons .
She was originally designed with 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of armor for deck and side protection , but during construction her armor was increased . As completed , the ship was protected with 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 83 mm ) of belt armor which increased to 5 inches ( 130 mm ) around the magazines . Her armor was between 2 inches ( 51 mm ) and 5 @.@ 75 inches ( 146 mm ) thick on the transverse bulkheads , while armor on her main deck was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick . Armor on her barbettes was 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick , armor on her gunhouses was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick , and armor on her conning tower was 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) thick .
Additionally , the Portland @-@ class cruisers were designed with space to be outfitted as fleet flagships , with accommodations for an Admiral and his staff to operate . The class also featured two aircraft catapult amidships , and she could carry four aircraft which were stored in a hangar . Her total crew complement varied , with a regular designed crew complement of 848 , a wartime complement of 952 , and a complement 1 @,@ 229 when the cruiser was operating as a fleet flagship .
Portland was laid down by Bethlehem Steel at its Quincy Shipyard on 17 February 1930 . The machinery was provided by the builders . Portland was launched on 21 May 1932 and commissioned on 23 February 1933 . She was the first ship named for the city of Portland , Maine , and sponsored by the daughter of Ralph D. Brooks of Portland , and with Captain Herbert F. Leary as her first commander . Her sailors would later nickname her " Sweet Pea . "
= = Service history = =
Departing Boston on 1 April 1933 , the cruiser arrived Gravesend Bay , New York late in the day on 3 April . The next evening , she was dispatched on her first assignment to the scene of the airship Akron , which had crashed at sea . Thirty six minutes after receiving the message , she was underway and on route to the crash site . She was the first naval vessel on scene , and began coordinating the search and rescue effort with other ships arriving . In spite of her efforts , 73 were killed in the crash , including Admiral William Moffett , Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics .
Portland steamed from San Diego , California on 2 October 1935 along with Houston , which was carrying President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The president spent much of his trip fishing with his party . After visiting Panama and several other ports , the two ships steamed to Charleston , South Carolina , where the President disembarked . Portland spent the remainder of the interwar era with the Scouting Force , Cruiser Division 5 and later in the United States Pacific Fleet conducting peacetime training and a number of goodwill missions . She crossed the equator for the first time on 20 May 1936 during fleet maneuvers .
When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 , Portland was two days away , en route to Midway Atoll as part of a carrier group escorting aircraft carrier Lexington . From December 1941 to 1 May 1942 , she operated between the West Coast , Hawaii , and Fiji on patrol .
= = = Battle of Coral Sea = = =
Portland joined Task Force 17 ( TF 17 ) , commanded by Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher and centered around the carrier Yorktown escorted by Portland as well as cruisers Astoria and Chester plus the destroyers Hammann , Anderson , Perkins , Morris , Russell , and Sims and oiler Neosho and Tippecanoe . TF 17 departed Tongatabu on 27 April en route to the Coral Sea . On the morning of 1 May , TF 17 joined with Task Force 11 ( TF 11 ) about 300 nmi ( 350 mi ; 560 km ) northwest of New Caledonia . TF 17 completed refueling the next day , but TF 11 reported that they would not be finished fueling until 4 May . Fletcher elected to take TF 17 northwest towards the Louisiades .
At 17 : 00 on 3 May , Fletcher was notified that a force of Japanese troops had been sighted at Tulagi the day before , approaching the southern Solomons . TF 17 changed course and proceeded at 27 kn ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) towards Guadalcanal to launch airstrikes against the Japanese forces at Tulagi the next morning . On 4 May , from a position 100 nmi ( 120 mi ; 190 km ) south of Guadalcanal ( 11 ° 10 ′ S 158 ° 49 ′ E ) , TF 17 launched airstrikes against Japanese forces off Tulagi After recovering its aircraft late in the evening of 4 May , TF17 retired towards the south . The next morning , TF 17 rendezvoused with TF 11 and Task Force 44 ( TF 44 ) at a predetermined point 320 nmi ( 370 mi ; 590 km ) south of Guadalcanal ( 15 ° S 160 ° E ) . Prompted by reports the Japanese would attack Port Moresby , the force moved to the Louisiades to engage the Japanese the next day . Portland was assigned to Task Group 17 @.@ 2 under Rear Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid together with cruisers Minneapolis , New Orleans , Astoria , Chester , and five destroyers from Destroyer Squadron One . She screened for Yorktown throughout the operation , including during Japanese air attacks on the two carriers on 8 May . Following the battle , she was to escort the damaged Lexington , but after fires on that carrier became uncontrollable she was abandoned and sunk . Portland took on 722 of her survivors . She suffered no casualties herself , though at least four of her sailors were transferred to the Neosho shortly before the battle and were lost when that ship was sunk .
= = = Battle of Midway = = =
After brief repairs at Tongatabu , Portland took on a new commander , Captain Laurence DuBose . She then steamed for Pearl Harbor escorting Yorktown , before heading to Midway Atoll to set a trap for Japanese forces attacking there . On 4 June , after Dive @-@ Bombers from carriers Yorktown and Enterprise had sunk three Japanese carriers , aircraft from Japanese carrier Hiryū responded with an attack on Yorktown that afternoon . Portland was to her port , providing anti @-@ aircraft defense along with cruisers Pensacola and Vincennes . A Japanese air attack came at 14 : 00 and another after 16 : 30 , and Yorktown was struck several times with torpedoes . With increasing damage , the carrier was abandoned and its survivors picked up by five destroyers and then transferred to Portland . In all , 2 @,@ 046 of Yorktown 's crew transferred to the cruiser . She then steamed toward Pearl Harbor and met the submarine tender Fulton and transferred the Yorktown survivors aboard her on 6 June . During 7 June she searched for downed naval aviators and the next day joined the group of carrier Saratoga . They steamed for the Aleutian Islands to counter a Japanese force there but were recalled to Pearl Harbor two days later .
= = = Guadalcanal campaign = = =
Portland accompanied the invasion fleet to Guadalcanal , escorting Enterprise . She remained off the coast protecting the landings at Tulagi and Guadalcanal from 7 – 9 August . In this duty , she missed the Battle of Savo Island and withdrew two days later following Enterprise . She then remained in the area to support the Guadalcanal operations and to protect communications lines for the attacking forces .
Remaining with Enterprise , she later participated in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons . On 24 August she was posted to air defense to the port of Enterprise , and though she and her sisters were able to down a number of Japanese aircraft , the carrier was hit at 18 : 34 . She continued to protect the carrier through 25 August , when Allied forces prevented reinforcement of Japanese units in the Solomons by a large naval armada under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto . Following the battle she escorted Enterprise to Pearl Harbor and was then ordered on a secret mission to the Gilbert Islands to conduct a raid on Tarawa with light cruiser San Juan . She took aboard Rear Admiral Mahlon S. Tisdale and was designated Task Unit 16 @.@ 9 @.@ 1 . Between 14 : 10 and 14 : 51 on 15 October she attacked Japanese ships near the island , damaging a transport and a destroyer and suffering one damaged aircraft before she withdrew and rejoined the Enterprise task group near the Solomons .
She then steamed south to take part in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands as one of the escorts for Enterprise . The carrier came under heavy air attack at 10 : 12 on 24 October , and Portland suffered her first wartime damage as one of her 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 28 mm ) guns exploded in firing and again when one of her AA guns depressed too low and damaged the splinter shield , injuring 19 officers and enlisted men . In heavy fighting Enterprise was hit once but Portland and the task group shot down several aircraft . At 11 : 53 the bridge lost control of steering , and before it could regain control , a Japanese submarine was spotted . The submarine struck Portland with three torpedoes , but all three did not detonate , likely because the submarine had fired too close and they had no time to arm .
Two weeks later , she participated in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal from 12 – 15 November , which resulted in heavy damage to both forces but broke up the determined Japanese effort to disrupt the landing of 6 @,@ 000 American troops on Guadalcanal , to bombard Henderson Field , and to land 7 @,@ 000 reinforcements of their own . At the outbreak of the battle , Portland was escorting a convoy traveling to Guadalcanal from New Caledonia as part of Task Force 67 . After a four @-@ day journey they arrived and began to offload supplies on 12 November and were countered by a Japanese air attack of 46 aircraft . That night , she was among a force of five cruisers and eight destroyers under Daniel J. Callaghan which steamed to counter an approaching Japanese force . They spotted a Japanese force of two battleships , one cruiser and eleven destroyers and immediately opened fire , sinking the Japanese destroyer Akatsuki . Shortly thereafter , Portland was struck by a torpedo fired by either the destroyer Inazuma or the destroyer Ikazuchi at 01 : 58 , causing heavy damage to her stern . The torpedo struck the starboard side , which blew off both inboard propellers , jammed the rudder five degrees to starboard , and jammed her Number Three turret in train and elevation . A four degree list was quickly corrected by shifting ballast , but the steering problem could not be overcome and the ship was forced to steam in circles to starboard . The blast disrupted her steering column , forcing her to steer in a circle . At the end of her first circle , she fired on Japanese battleship Hiei , with her forward turrets . The Japanese ship returned fire , but all salvos passed over the cruiser . In the four six @-@ gun salvos returned by Portland , she succeeded in starting fires in the Japanese ship . At dawn , she was one of three U.S. ships still too damaged to withdraw on her own power . Then again at 06 : 30 , still circling , Portland opened fire on the abandoned hulk of Japanese destroyer Yudachi at a range of 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) . After the sixth salvo , Yudachi exploded , rolled over , and sank within five minutes . She was eventually able to correct the steering problem and withdraw on her own power . She later received a Meritorious Unit Commendation for her actions in the battle . She suffered 18 killed , 17 wounded in the battle .
With the assistance of Higgins boats , a YP , and a tug , Portland anchored at Tulagi on 14 November . From there , she was towed to Sydney , Australia by the tugboat Navajo and escorted by the destroyers Meade and Zane for preliminary repairs prior to overhaul in the United States . She arrived at Sydney 30 November but did not enter drydock until 24 December after Chester and New Orleans were repaired . During this time the crew was given extended shore leave . Two of the ship 's sailors died in accidents during this leave . She left Australia after preliminary repairs , escorted by destroyer HMAS Warramunga . Following short stops at Samoa and Pearl Harbor , the ship arrived at Mare Island Navy Yard on 3 March 1943 .
= = = 1943 – 1944 = = =
After operational training in southern Californian waters , Portland steamed for the Aleutians late in May , arriving on 11 June and bombarding Kiska on 26 July . After covering a reconnaissance landing on Little Kiska on 17 August , she called at Pearl Harbor on 23 September , there to San Francisco in early October , then back to Pearl Harbor in mid @-@ October . From November 1943 to February 1944 , Portland participated in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaigns . She bombarded Tarawa on 20 November supporting landings there for several days . She was lightly damaged by a friendly depth charge when a nearby destroyer erroneously detected a Japanese submarine . In December 1943 she moved to the Marshall Islands escorting the new Essex @-@ class carrier Lexington . While Lexington came under air attack , none of the Japanese planes came within range of Portland and she did not open fire . She returned to Pearl Harbor on 25 December , and went into drydock to repair her rudder and propellers .
After repairs , she joined Task Group 51 under Rear Admiral Harry W. Hill for an attack on Darrit , steaming for that island on 23 January and arriving 30 January . After shelling the island for 30 minutes , it was discovered no Japanese were ashore . She then moved to support operations on Eniwetok Atoll on 8 February , providing shore bombardment on Parry Island ahead of landings which took place on 19 February . She then screened carriers conducting airstrikes at Palau , Yap , Ulithi , and Woleai between 30 March and 1 April . She then joined with a carrier force assigned to cover the landings around Hollandia and Tanahmerah on New Guinea , which took place from 21 – 24 April . She steamed northward with the carrier force and struck Truk with five other cruisers and destroyers . Portland then bombarded Satawan in the Nomei Group . Following this series of operations , Portland returned to Mare Island for a more extensive overhaul , which was completed in August . She returned to the western Pacific for shore bombardments of Peleliu from 12 – 14 September . The cruiser supported the landing on Peleliu on 15 September , providing artillery to support the advance of Allied forces . She provided gunfire support at Peleliu through 29 September , and then steamed for Seeadler Harbor , Manus Island in the Admiralties .
= = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = =
Portland next joined Cruiser Division 4 for the next major campaign against the Philippines . She arrived off Leyte on 17 October , entering the Gulf the next day , and began two days of shore bombardments to prepare for the troop landings there . On the night of 24 October , a strong Japanese force consisting of two battleships , one heavy cruiser , and four destroyers headed for Surigao Strait with the apparent intent of raiding shipping in Leyte Gulf . The Japanese force advanced in rough column up the narrow strait during darkness , but was met with a large U.S. force of cruisers , destroyers and battleships , including Portland . She and her sisters steamed across the top of the strait , crossing the T of the Japanese force . The Japanese were first met by PT boats , then in succession by three coordinated destroyer torpedo attacks , and finally by devastating gunfire from American battleships and cruisers disposed across the northern end of the strait . Portland took the Japanese cruiser Mogami under fire , scoring three hits on her at 04 : 02 , striking the compass platform and AA defense center . She continued firing on the Mogami for ten minutes She continued to fire on the stranded Mogami until 05 : 30 , striking several hits , including on the ship 's bridge . The Battle of Surigao Strait was a decisive defeat for the Japanese force , with most of its ships being destroyed .
= = = 1945 = = =
From 3 January to 1 March 1945 , Portland participated in the operations at Lingayen Gulf and Corregidor . Arriving off Lingayen Gulf on 5 January , and bombarding the vicinity of Cape Bolinao , she entered the Gulf the same day and commenced bombardment of the eastern shore but discontinued immediately when a large wave of Japanese kamikaze planes approached . Portland entered Manila Bay on 15 February , and bombarded the south shore of Corregidor in preparation for landings there . She returned to Leyte Gulf on 1 March for repairs and replenishment , having seen five months of continuous action .
From 26 March to 20 April , she conducted shore bombardments of Okinawa in support of the Allied landings during the Okinawa campaign . Portland endured twenty @-@ four air raids , shot down four Japanese aircraft , and assisted in downing two others . From 8 May to 17 June , she supported ground forces on Okinawa providing artillery support for ground forces , departing on 17 June for maintenance at Leyte before returning to Buckner Bay on 6 August , where she remained conducting shore bombardments until the end of the war .
= = Post @-@ war = =
With the termination of hostilities , Portland was designated flagship of Vice Admiral George D. Murray , Commander Mariana Islands , who was to accept the surrender of the Carolines . The ship steamed to Truk Atoll and there Murray , acting for Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz , accepted the formal capitulation of the senior Japanese military and civilian officials in ceremonies aboard Portland . She was then selected for Operation Magic Carpet duty , and returned to Pearl Harbor from 21 – 24 September embarking 600 troops for transportation to the United States . She crossed the Panama Canal on 8 October and arrived at Portland , Maine for Navy Day celebrations on 27 October . She then conducted two trans @-@ Atlantic crossings in November and December , bringing troops home from the European Theater . She reported on 11 March 1946 to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for inactivation and assignment to the Reserve Fleet . She decommissioned at Philadelphia Navy Yard on 12 July 1946 and was maintained in the United States Reserve Fleet . While she was identified as one of the few ships that fought through the entire war and not missed any major battle , no attempt was made to save her as a museum ship at either Portland Maine , or Portland Oregon . She was struck from the Navy List on 1 March 1959 and sold to Union Minerals and Alloys Corp. in New York on 6 October . She was scrapped at Wainwright Shipyard in Panama City , Florida during 1961 and 1962 .
Her tripod mast was preserved at Fort Allen Park , Portland . She received 16 battle stars for World War II service , making her among the most decorated US ships of World War II .
= Battle of Shiloh =
The Battle of Shiloh , also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing , was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War , fought April 6 – 7 , 1862 , in southwestern Tennessee . A Union army under Major General Ulysses S. Grant had moved via the Tennessee River deep into Tennessee and was encamped principally at Pittsburg Landing , Tennessee on the west bank of the river , where Confederate forces under Generals Albert Sidney Johnston and Pierre G. T. Beauregard launched a surprise attack on Grant 's army . Johnston was killed in action during the fighting ; Beauregard , who thus succeeded to command of the army , decided against pressing the attack late in the evening . Overnight Grant was reinforced by one of his own divisions stationed further north and was joined by three divisions from another Union army under Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell . This allowed them to launch an unexpected counterattack the next morning which completely reversed the Confederate gains of the previous day .
On April 6 , the first day of the battle , the Confederates struck with the intention of driving the Union defenders away from the river and into the swamps of Owl Creek to the west . Johnston hoped to defeat Grant 's Army of the Tennessee before the anticipated arrival of General Don Carlos Buell 's Army of the Ohio . The Confederate battle lines became confused during the fierce fighting , and Grant 's men instead fell back to the northeast , in the direction of Pittsburg Landing . A Union position on a slightly sunken road , nicknamed the " Hornet 's Nest , " defended by the men of Brig. Gens . Benjamin M. Prentiss 's and William H. L. Wallace 's divisions , provided critical time for the remainder of the Union line to stabilize under the protection of numerous artillery batteries . Wallace was mortally wounded when the position collapsed , while several regiments from the two divisions were eventually surrounded and surrendered . General Johnston was shot in the leg and bled to death while personally leading an attack . Beauregard , his second in command , acknowledged how tired the army was from the day 's exertions and decided against assaulting the final Union position that night .
Tired but unfought and well @-@ organized men from Buell 's army and a division of Grant 's army arrived in the evening of April 6 and helped turn the tide the next morning , when the Union commanders launched a counterattack along the entire line . Confederate forces were forced to retreat from the area , ending their hopes of blocking the Union advance into northern Mississippi . The Battle of Shiloh was the bloodiest battle in American history up to that time , although it was superseded the next year by the Battle of Chancellorsville and , soon after , the three @-@ day Battle of Gettysburg , which would prove to be the bloodiest of the war .
= = Background and plans = =
= = = Military situation = = =
After the losses of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in February 1862 , Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston withdrew his forces into western Tennessee , northern Mississippi , and Alabama to reorganize . Johnston established his base at Corinth , Mississippi , the site of a major railroad junction and strategic transportation link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River , but left the Union troops with access into southern Tennessee and points farther south via the Tennessee River .
In early March , Union Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck , then commander of the Department of the Missouri , ordered Grant to remain at Fort Henry , and on March 4 turned field command of the expedition over to a subordinate , Brig. Gen. C. F. Smith , who had recently been nominated as a major general . ( Various writers assert that Halleck took this step because of professional and personal animosity toward Grant ; however , Halleck shortly restored Grant to full command , perhaps influenced by an inquiry from President Abraham Lincoln . ) Smith 's orders were to lead raids intended to capture or damage the railroads in southwestern Tennessee . Brig. Gen. William T. Sherman 's troops arrived from Paducah , Kentucky , to conduct a similar mission to break the railroads near Eastport , Mississippi . Halleck also ordered Grant to advance his Army of West Tennessee ( soon to be known by its more famous name , the Army of the Tennessee ) on an invasion up the Tennessee River . Grant left Fort Henry and headed upriver ( south ) , arriving at Savannah , Tennessee , on March 14 , and established his headquarters on the east bank of the river . Grant 's troops set up camp farther upriver : five divisions at Pittsburg Landing , Tennessee , and a sixth at Crump 's Landing , four miles from Grant 's headquarters .
Meanwhile , Halleck 's command was enlarged through consolidation of Grant 's and Buell 's armies and renamed the Department of the Mississippi . With Buell 's Army of the Ohio under his command , Halleck ordered Buell to concentrate with Grant at Savannah . Buell began a march with much of his army from Nashville , Tennessee , and headed southwest toward Savannah . Halleck intended to take the field in person and lead both armies in an advance south to seize Corinth , Mississippi , where the Mobile and Ohio Railroad linking Mobile , Alabama , to the Ohio River intersected the Memphis and Charleston Railroad . The railroad was a vital supply line connecting the Mississippi River at Memphis , Tennessee to Richmond , Virginia .
= = Opposing forces and initial movements = =
= = = Union = = =
Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant 's Army of the Tennessee of 44 @,@ 895 men consisted of six divisions :
1st Division ( Maj. Gen. John A. McClernand ) : 3 brigades ;
2nd Division ( Maj. Gen. W. H. L. Wallace ) : 3 brigades ;
3rd Division ( Maj. Gen. Lew Wallace ) : 3 brigades ;
4th Division ( Brig. Gen. Stephen A. Hurlbut ) : 3 brigades ;
5th Division ( Brig. Gen. William T. Sherman ) : 4 brigades ;
6th Division ( Brig. Gen. Benjamin M. Prentiss ) : 2 brigades ;
Of the six divisions encamped on the western side of the Tennessee River in early April , only Lew Wallace 's 3rd Division was at Crump 's Landing ; the remainder were farther south ( upriver ) at Pittsburg Landing . Grant developed a reputation during the war for being more concerned with his own plans than with those of the enemy . His encampment at Pittsburg Landing displayed his most consequential lack of such concern — his army was spread out in bivouac style , with many of his men surrounding a small , log meetinghouse named Shiloh Church ( Shiloh is a Hebrew word meaning " place of peace " ) , passing the time waiting for Buell 's army with drills for his many raw troops , without establishing entrenchments or other significant defensive measures .
In his memoirs , Grant reacted to criticism of his lack of entrenchments : " Besides this , the troops with me , officers and men , needed discipline and drill more than they did experience with the pick , shovel and axe . ... under all these circumstances I concluded that drill and discipline were worth more to our men than fortifications . " Lew Wallace 's division was 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) downstream ( north ) from Pittsburg Landing , at Crump 's Landing , a position intended to prevent the placement of Confederate river batteries , to protect the road connecting Crump 's Landing to Bethel Station , Tennessee , and to guard the Union army 's right flank . In addition , Wallace 's troops could strike the railroad line connecting Bethel Station to Corinth , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the south .
The portion of Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell 's Army of the Ohio that was engaged in the battle consisted of four divisions :
2nd Division ( Brig. Gen. Alexander M. McCook ) : 3 brigades ;
4th Division ( Brig. Gen. William " Bull " Nelson ) : 3 brigades ;
5th Division ( Brig. Gen. Thomas L. Crittenden ) : 2 brigades ;
6th Division ( Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood ) : 2 brigades ;
On April 5 , the eve of battle , the first of Buell 's divisions , under the command of Brig. Gen. William " Bull " Nelson , reached Savannah . Grant instructed Nelson to encamp there instead of immediately crossing the river . The remainder of Buell 's army , still marching toward Savannah with only portions of four of his divisions , totaling 17 @,@ 918 men , did not reach the area in time to have a significant role in the battle until its second day . Buell 's three other divisions were led by Brig. Gens . Alexander M. McCook , Thomas L. Crittenden , and Thomas J. Wood . ( Wood 's division appeared too late even to be of much service on the second day . )
= = = Confederate = = =
On the Confederate side , Johnston named his newly assembled force the Army of Mississippi . He concentrated almost 55 @,@ 000 men around Corinth , Mississippi , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) southwest of Grant 's troops at Pittsburg Landing . Of these men , 40 @,@ 335 departed from Corinth on April 3 , hoping to surprise Grant before Buell arrived to join forces . They were organized into four large corps , commanded by :
I Corps ( Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk ) , with 2 divisions under Brig. Gen. Charles Clark and Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Cheatham ;
II Corps ( Maj. Gen. Braxton Bragg ) , with 2 divisions under Brig. Gens . Daniel Ruggles and Jones M. Withers ;
III Corps ( Maj. Gen. William J. Hardee ) , with 3 brigades under Brig. Gens . Thomas C. Hindman , Patrick Cleburne , and Sterling A. M. Wood ;
Reserve Corps ( Brig. Gen. John C. Breckinridge ) , with 3 brigades under Cols . Robert Trabue and Winfield S. Statham , and Brig. Gen. John S. Bowen , and attached cavalry ;
= = = Comparison between Union and Confederate armies = = =
On the eve of battle , Grant 's and Johnston 's armies were of comparable size , but the Confederates were poorly armed with antique weapons , including shotguns , hunting rifles , pistols , flintlock muskets , and even a few pikes ; however , some regiments , notably the 6th and 7th Kentucky Infantry , had Enfield rifles . The troops approached the battle with very little combat experience ; Braxton Bragg 's men from Pensacola and Mobile were the best trained . Grant 's army included 32 out of 62 infantry regiments who had combat experience at Fort Donelson . One half of his artillery batteries and most of his cavalry were also combat veterans .
= = = Johnston 's plan = = =
Johnston 's plan was to attack Grant 's left , separate the Union army from its gunboat support and avenue of retreat on the Tennessee River , and drive it west into the swamps of Snake and Owl Creeks , where it could be destroyed . The attack on Grant was originally planned for April 4 , but it was delayed forty @-@ eight hours due to heavy rain . As a result , Johnston 's second in command , P. G. T. Beauregard , again feared that the element of surprise had been lost and recommended withdrawing to Corinth . But Johnston once more refused to consider retreat . Beauregard was concerned that the sounds of marching and the Confederate soldiers test @-@ firing their rifles after two days of rain had cost them the element of surprise . Beauregard urged Johnston not to attack Grant .
Johnston , who refused to accept Beauregard 's advice , made the decision to attack and then remarked , " I would fight them if they were a million . " Despite Beauregard 's well @-@ founded concern , most of the Union forces did not hear the marching army approach and were unaware of the enemy camps less than 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away .
= = Battle , April 6 ( first day : Confederate assault ) = =
= = = Early morning attack = = =
Before 6 a.m. on Sunday , April 6 , Johnston 's army was deployed for battle , straddling the Corinth Road . The army had spent the entire night bivouacking in order of battle within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the Union camp near Sherman 's headquarters at Shiloh Church . Their approach and dawn assault achieved a strategic and tactical surprise . The Union army had sent out no scouts or regular patrols and did not have any vedettes in place for early warning . Grant telegraphed a message to Halleck on the night of April 5 , " I have scarcely the faintest idea of an attack ( general one ) being made upon us , but will be prepared should such a thing take place . " Grant 's declaration proved to be overstated . Sherman , the informal camp commander at Pittsburg Landing , did not believe the Confederates had a major assault force nearby ; he discounted the possibility of an attack from the south . Sherman expected that Johnston would eventually attack from the direction of Purdy , Tennessee , to the west . When Col. Jesse Appler , 53rd Ohio Infantry , warned Sherman that an attack was imminent , the general angrily replied , " Take your damned regiment back to Ohio . There are no Confederates closer than Corinth . "
Around 3 a.m. , Col. Everett Peabody , commanding Brig. Gen. Benjamin Prentiss 's 1st Brigade , sent a patrol of 250 infantry men from the 25th Missouri and the 12th Michigan out on reconnaissance . The patrol , under the command of Maj. James P. Powell , met fire from Confederates who then fled into the woods . A short time later , 5 : 15 a.m. , they encountered Confederate outposts manned by the 3rd Mississippi Battalion , and a spirited fight lasted about an hour . Arriving messengers and sounds of gunfire from the skirmish alerted the nearest Union troops , who formed battle line positions before the Confederates were able to reach them ; however , the Union army command had not adequately prepared for an attack on their camps . By 9 a.m. Union forces at Pittsburgh Landing were either engaged or moving toward the front line .
The confusing alignment of the Confederate troops helped reduce the effectiveness of the attack , since Johnston and Beauregard had no unified battle plan . Earlier , Johnston had telegraphed Confederate President Jefferson Davis his plan for the attack : " Polk the left , Bragg the center , Hardee the right , Breckinridge in reserve . " His strategy was to emphasize the attack on his right flank to prevent the Union army from reaching the Tennessee River , its supply line and avenue of retreat . Johnston instructed Beauregard to stay in the rear and direct men and supplies as needed , while he rode to the front to lead the men on the battle line . This effectively ceded control of the battle to Beauregard , who had a different concept , which was simply to attack in three waves and push
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the Union army eastward to the river . The corps of Hardee and Bragg began the assault with their divisions in one line , nearly 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) wide and about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from its front to its rear column . As these units advanced , they became intermingled and difficult to control . Corps commanders attacked in line without reserves , and artillery could not be concentrated to effect a breakthrough . At about 7 : 30 a.m. , from his position in the rear , Beauregard ordered the corps of Polk and Breckinridge forward on the left and right of the line , diluting their effectiveness . The attack therefore went forward as a frontal assault conducted by a single linear formation , which lacked both the depth and weight needed for success . Command and control , in the modern sense , were lost from the onset of the first assault .
= = = Grant and his army rally = = =
The Confederate assault , despite its shortcomings , was ferocious , causing some of the numerous inexperienced Union soldiers in Grant 's new army to flee to the river for safety . Others fought well , but were forced to withdraw under strong pressure from the Confederates , and attempted to form new defensive lines . Many Union regiments fragmented entirely ; the companies and sections that remained on the field attached themselves to other commands . Sherman , who had been negligent in preparing for an attack , became one of its most important elements . He appeared everywhere along his lines , inspiring his raw recruits to resist the initial assaults , despite the staggering losses on both sides . Sherman received two minor wounds and had three horses shot out from under him . Historian James M. McPherson cites the battle as the turning point of Sherman 's life , helping him to become one of the North 's premier generals . Sherman 's division bore the brunt of the initial attack . Despite heavy fire on their position and their left flank crumbling , Sherman 's men fought stubbornly , but the Union troops slowly lost ground and fell back to a position behind Shiloh Church . McClernand 's division temporarily stabilized the position . Overall , however , Johnston 's forces made steady progress until noon , rolling up Union positions one by one . As the Confederates advanced , many threw away their flintlock muskets and grabbed rifles dropped by the fleeing Union troops .
Grant was about 10 miles ( 16 km ) downriver at Savannah , Tennessee , when he heard the sound of artillery fire . ( On April 4 , he had been injured when his horse fell and pinned him underneath . He was convalescing and unable to move without crutches . ) Before leaving Savannah , Grant ordered Bull Nelson 's division to march along the east side of the river , to a point opposite Pittsburg Landing , where it could be ferried over to the battlefield . Grant then took his steamboat , Tigress , to Crump 's Landing , where he gave Lew Wallace his first orders , which were to wait in reserve and be ready to move . Grant proceeded to Pittsburg Landing , arriving about 8 : 30 a.m. ; most of the day went by before the first of these reinforcements arrived . ( Nelson 's division arrived around 5 p.m. ; Wallace 's appeared about 7 p.m. ) Wallace 's slow movement to the battlefield would become particularly controversial .
= = = Lew Wallace 's division = = =
On the morning of April 6 , around 8 : 00 or 8 : 30 a.m. , Grant 's flagship stopped alongside Wallace 's boat moored at Crump 's Landing and gave orders for the 3rd Division to be held ready to move in any direction . Wallace concentrated his troops at Stoney Lonesome , although his westernmost brigade remained at Adamsville . He then waited for further orders , which arrived between 11 and 11 : 30 a.m. Grant ordered Wallace to move his unit up to join the Union right , a move that would have been in support of Sherman 's 5th Division , which was encamped around Shiloh Church when the battle began . The written orders , transcribed from verbal orders that Grant gave to an aide , were lost during the battle and controversy remains over their wording . Wallace maintained that he was not ordered to Pittsburg Landing , which was to the left rear of the army , or told which road to use . Grant later claimed that he ordered Wallace to Pittsburg Landing by way of the River Road ( also called the Hamburg – Savannah Road ) .
Around noon , Wallace began the journey along the Shunpike , a route familiar to his men . A member of Grant 's staff , William Rowley , found Wallace between 2 and 2 : 30 p.m. on the Shunpike , after Grant wondered where Wallace was and why he had not arrived on the battlefield , while the main Union force was being slowly pressed backward . Rowley told Wallace that the Union army had retreated , Sherman was no longer fighting at Shiloh Church , and the battle line had moved northeast toward Pittsburg Landing . If Wallace continued in the same direction , he would have found himself in the rear of the advancing Confederate troops .
Wallace had to make a choice : he could launch an attack and fight through the Confederate rear to reach Grant 's forces closer to Pittsburg Landing , or reverse his direction and march toward Pittsburg Landing via a crossroads to the River Road . Wallace chose the second option . ( After the war , Wallace claimed that his division might have attacked and defeated the Confederates if his advance had not been interrupted , but later conceded that the move would not have been successful . ) Rather than realign his troops so the rear guard would be in the front , Wallace made a controversial decision to countermarch his troops to maintain the original order , only facing in the other direction . The move further delayed Wallace 's troops as they marched north along the Shunpike road , then took a crossover to reach the River Road to the east , and headed south toward the battlefield .
Wallace 's division began arriving at Grant 's position about 6 : 30 p.m. , after a march of about 14 miles ( 23 km ) in seven hours over poor and muddy roads . It formed line on the battlefield about 7 p.m. , when the fighting was nearly over for the day . Although Grant showed no disapproval at the time , his later endorsement of Wallace 's battle report was negative enough to severely damage Wallace 's military career . Today , Wallace is better remembered as the author of Ben @-@ Hur .
= = = Hornet 's Nest = = =
On the main Union defensive line , starting around 9 a.m. , Prentiss 's and W. H. L. Wallace 's divisions established and held a position nicknamed the " Hornet 's Nest " , in a field along a road , now popularly called the " Sunken Road , " although there is little physical justification for that name . The Confederates assaulted the position for several hours rather than simply bypassing it , and suffered heavy casualties . Historians ' estimates of the number of separate charges range from 8 to 14 . The Union forces to the left and right of the Nest were forced back , making Prentiss 's position a prominent point in the line . Coordination within the Nest was poor , and units withdrew based solely on their individual commanders ' decisions . The pressure increased when W. H. L. Wallace , commander of the largest concentration of troops in the position , was mortally wounded . Union regiments became disorganized and companies disintegrated as the Confederates , led by Brig. Gen. Daniel Ruggles , assembled more than 50 cannons into " Ruggles 's Battery " to blast the line at close range . Confederates surrounded the Hornet 's Nest , and it fell after holding out for seven hours . Prentiss surrendered himself and the remains of his division to the Confederates . A large portion of the Union survivors , an estimated 2 @,@ 200 to 2 @,@ 400 men , were captured , but their sacrifice bought time for Grant to establish a final defense line near Pittsburg Landing .
While dealing with the Hornet 's Nest , the South suffered a serious setback with the death of their commanding general . Albert Sidney Johnston was mortally wounded at about 2 : 30 p.m. as he led attacks on the Union left through the Widow Bell 's cotton field against the Peach Orchard . Johnston was shot in his right leg , behind the knee . Deeming the leg wound to be insignificant , he sent his personal surgeon to care for wounded Confederates and the Union soldiers they had captured . In the doctor 's absence , Johnston bled to death within an hour from a torn popliteal artery that caused internal bleeding and blood to collect unnoticed in his riding boot . Jefferson Davis considered Johnston to be the most effective general they had ( this was two months before Robert E. Lee emerged as the pre @-@ eminent Confederate general ) . Johnston was the highest @-@ ranking officer from either side to be killed in combat during the Civil War . Beauregard assumed command , but his position in the rear , where he relied on field reports from his subordinates , may have given him only a vague idea of the disposition of forces at the front . Beauregard ordered Johnston 's body shrouded for secrecy to avoid damaging morale and resumed attacks against the Hornet 's Nest . This was likely a tactical error , because the Union flanks were slowly pulling back to form a semicircular line around Pittsburg Landing . If Beauregard had concentrated his forces against the flanks , he might have defeated the Union army at the landing , and then reduced the Hornet 's Nest position at his leisure .
= = = Defense at Pittsburg Landing = = =
The Union flanks were being pushed back , but not decisively . Hardee and Polk caused Sherman and McClernand on the Union right to retreat in the direction of Pittsburg Landing , leaving the right flank of the Hornet 's Nest exposed . Just after Johnston 's death , Breckinridge , whose corps had been in reserve , attacked on the extreme left of the Union line , driving off the understrength brigade of Col. David Stuart and potentially opening a path into the Union rear and the Tennessee River . However , the Confederates paused to regroup and recover from exhaustion and disorganization , then followed the sounds of the guns toward the Hornet 's Nest , and an opportunity was lost . After the Hornet 's Nest fell , the remnants of the Union line established a solid three @-@ mile ( 5 km ) front around Pittsburg Landing , extending west from the river and then north , up the River Road , keeping the approach open for the expected , although belated , arrival of Lew Wallace 's division . Sherman commanded the right of the line , McClernand took the center , and on the left , the remnants of W. H. L. Wallace 's , Hurlbut 's , and Stuart 's men mixed with thousands of stragglers who were crowding on the bluff over the landing . The advance of Buell 's army , Col. Jacob Ammen 's brigade of Bull Nelson 's division , arrived in time to be ferried over and join the left end of the line . The defensive line included a ring of more than 50 cannons and naval guns from the river ( the gunboats USS Lexington and USS Tyler ) . A final Confederate charge of two brigades , led by Brig. Gen. Withers , attempted to break through the line but was repulsed . Beauregard called off a second attempt after 6 p.m. , as the sun set . The Confederate plan had failed ; they had pushed Grant east to a defensible position on the river , not forced him west into the swamps .
= = = Evening lull = = =
The evening of April 6 was a dispiriting end to the first day of one of the bloodiest battles in American history . The cries of wounded and dying men on the fields between the armies could be heard in the Union and Confederate camps throughout the night . Exhausted Confederate soldiers bedded down in the abandoned Union camps . The Union troops were pushed back to the river and the junction of the River ( Hamburg – Savannah Road ) and the Corinth @-@ Pittsburg Landing Roads . Around 10 p.m. a thunderstorm passed through the area . Coupled with the continuous shelling from the Union gunboats Lexington and Tyler , it made the night a miserable experience for both sides .
A famous anecdote encapsulates Grant 's unflinching attitude to temporary setbacks and his tendency for offensive action . Sometime after midnight , Sherman encountered Grant standing under a tree , sheltering himself from the pouring rain and smoking one of his cigars , while considering his losses and planning for the next day . Sherman remarked , " Well , Grant , we 've had the devil 's own day , haven 't we ? " Grant looked up . " Yes , " he replied , followed by a puff . " Yes . Lick ' em tomorrow , though . "
Beauregard sent a telegram to President Davis announcing a complete victory . He later admitted , " I thought I had Grant just where I wanted him and could finish him up in the morning . " Many of his men were jubilant , having overrun the Union camps and taken thousands of prisoners and tons of supplies . Grant still had reason to be optimistic : Lew Wallace 's 5 @,@ 800 men ( minus the two regiments guarding the supplies at Crump 's Landing ) and 15 @,@ 000 of Don Carlos Buell 's army began to arrive that evening . Wallace 's division took up a position on the right of the Union line and was in place by 1 a.m. ; Buell 's men were fully on the scene by 4 a.m. , in time to turn the tide the next day .
Beauregard caused considerable historical controversy with his decision to halt the assault at dusk . Braxton Bragg and Albert Sidney Johnston 's son , Col. William Preston Johnston , were among those who bemoaned the so @-@ called " lost opportunity at Shiloh . " Beauregard did not come to the front to inspect the strength of the Union lines ; he remained at Shiloh Church . He also discounted intelligence reports from Col. Nathan Bedford Forrest ( and bluster from prisoner of war General Prentiss ) that Buell 's men were crossing the river to reinforce Grant . In defense of his decision , Beauregard 's troops were simply exhausted , there was less than an hour of daylight left , and Grant 's artillery advantage was formidable . In addition , he had received a dispatch from Brig. Gen. Benjamin Hardin Helm in northern Alabama that indicated Buell was marching toward Decatur and not Pittsburg Landing .
= = Battle , April 7 ( second day : Union counterattack ) = =
On Monday morning , April 7 , the combined Union armies numbered 45 @,@ 000 men ; the Confederates suffered as many as 8 @,@ 500 casualties the first day and their commanders reported no more than 20 @,@ 000 effectives due to stragglers and deserters . ( Buell disputed that figure after the war , stating that there were 28 @,@ 000 ) . The Confederates had withdrawn south into Prentiss 's and Sherman 's former camps , while Polk 's corps retired to the Confederate bivouac established on April 5 , which was 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) southwest of Pittsburg Landing . No line of battle was formed , and few if any commands were resupplied with ammunition . The soldiers were consumed by the need to locate food , water , and shelter for a much @-@ needed night 's rest .
Beauregard , unaware that he was now outnumbered , planned to continue the attack and drive Grant into the river . To his surprise , Union forces started moving forward in a massive counterattack at dawn . Grant and Buell launched their attacks separately ; coordination occurred only at the division level . Lew Wallace 's division was the first to see action , about 5 : 30 a.m. , at the extreme right of the Union line . Wallace continued the advance , crossing Tilghman Branch around 7 a.m. and met little resistance . Changing direction and moving to the southwest , Wallace 's men drove back the brigade of Col. Preston Pond . On Wallace 's left were the survivors of Sherman 's division , then McClernand 's , and W. H. L. Wallace 's ( now under the command of Col. James M. Tuttle ) . Buell 's army continued to the left with Bull Nelson 's , Crittenden 's , and McCook 's divisions . The Confederate defenders were so badly commingled that little unit cohesion existed above the brigade level . It required more than two hours to locate Gen. Polk and bring up his division from its bivouac to the southwest . By 10 a.m. , Beauregard had stabilized his front with his corps commanders from left to right : Bragg , Polk , Breckinridge , and Hardee . In a thicket near the Hamburg @-@ Purdy Road , the fighting was so intense that Sherman described in his report of the battle " the severest musketry fire I ever heard . "
On the Union left , Nelson 's division led the advance , followed closely by Crittenden 's and McCook 's men , down the Corinth and Hamburg @-@ Savannah roads . After heavy fighting , Crittenden 's division recaptured the Hornet 's Nest area by late morning , but the Crittenden and Nelson forces were repulsed by determined counterattacks from Breckinridge . Wallace 's and Sherman 's men on the Union right made steady progress , driving Bragg and Polk to the south . As Crittenden and McCook resumed their attacks , Breckinridge was forced to retire . By noon Beauregard 's line paralleled the Hamburg @-@ Purdy Road .
In early afternoon , Beauregard launched a series of counterattacks from the Shiloh Church area , aiming to control the Corinth Road . The Union right was temporarily driven back by these assaults at Water Oaks Pond . Crittenden , reinforced by Tuttle , seized the junction of the Hamburg @-@ Purdy and East Corinth roads , driving the Confederates into Prentiss 's old camps . Nelson resumed his attack and seized the heights overlooking Locust Grove Branch by late afternoon . Beauregard 's final counterattack was flanked and repulsed when Grant moved Col. James C. Veatch 's brigade forward .
= = = Confederate retreat = = =
Realizing that he had lost the initiative , was low on ammunition and food , and had more than 10 @,@ 000 of his men killed , wounded , or missing , Beauregard could go no further . He withdrew beyond Shiloh Church , leaving 5 @,@ 000 men under Breckinridge as a covering force , and massed Confederate batteries at the church and on the ridge south of Shiloh Branch . Confederate forces kept the Union men in position on the Corinth Road until 5 p.m. , then began an orderly withdrawal southwest to Corinth . The exhausted Union soldiers did not pursue much farther than the original Sherman and Prentiss encampments . Lew Wallace 's division crossed Shiloh Branch and advanced nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , but received no support from other units and was recalled . They returned to Sherman 's camps at dark . The battle was over .
For long afterwards , Grant and Buell quarreled over Grant 's decision not to mount an immediate pursuit with another hour of daylight remaining . Grant cited the exhaustion of his troops , although the Confederates were certainly just as exhausted . Part of Grant 's reluctance to act could have been the unusual command relationship he had with Buell . Although Grant was the senior officer and technically was in command of both armies , Buell made it quite clear throughout the two days that he was acting independently .
= = Fallen Timbers , April 8 = =
On April 8 , Grant sent Sherman south along the Corinth Road on a reconnaissance in force to confirm that the Confederates had retreated , or if they were regrouping to resume their attacks . Grant 's army lacked the large organized cavalry units that would have been better suited for reconnaissance and vigorous pursuit of a retreating enemy . Sherman marched with two infantry brigades from his division , along with two battalions of cavalry , and met Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood 's division of Buell 's army . Six miles ( 10 km ) southwest of Pittsburg Landing , Sherman 's men came upon a clear field in which an extensive camp was erected , including a Confederate field hospital . The camp was protected by 300 troopers of Confederate cavalry , commanded by Col. Nathan Bedford Forrest . The road approaching the field was covered by fallen trees for more than 200 yards ( 180 m ) .
As skirmishers from the 77th Ohio Infantry approached , having difficulty clearing the fallen timber , Forrest ordered a charge . The wild melee , with Confederate troops firing shotguns and revolvers and brandishing sabers , nearly resulted in Sherman 's capture . As Col. Jesse Hildebrand 's brigade began forming in line of battle , the Southern troopers started to retreat at the sight of the strong force , and Forrest , who was well in advance of his men , came within a few yards of the Union soldiers before realizing he was all alone . Sherman 's men yelled out , " Kill him ! Kill him and his horse ! " A Union soldier shoved his musket into Forrest 's side and fired , striking him above the hip , penetrating to near the spine . Although he was seriously wounded , Forrest was able to stay on horseback and escape ; he survived both the wound and the war . The Union lost about 100 men , most of them captured during Forrest 's charge , in an incident that has been remembered with the name " Fallen Timbers " . After capturing the Confederate field hospital , Sherman encountered the rear of Breckinridge 's covering force , but determined the enemy was making no signs of renewing its attack and withdrew back to the Union camps .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Reactions and effects = = =
In the immediate aftermath of the battle , Northern newspapers vilified Grant for his performance during the battle on April 6 , especially for being surprised and unprepared . Reporters , many far from the battle , spread the story that Grant had been drunk , falsely alleging that this had resulted in many of his men being bayoneted in their tents because of a lack of defensive preparedness . Despite the Union victory , Grant 's reputation suffered in Northern public opinion . Many credited Buell with taking control of the broken Union forces and leading them to victory on April 7 . Calls for Grant 's removal overwhelmed the White House . President Lincoln replied with one of his most famous quotations about Grant : " I can 't spare this man ; he fights . " Although all of the Union division commanders fought well , Sherman emerged as an immediate hero after Grant and Halleck commended him especially . His steadfastness under fire and amid chaos atoned for his previous melancholy and his defensive lapses preceding the battle . In retrospect , however , Grant is recognized positively for the clear judgment he was able to retain under the strenuous circumstances , and his ability to perceive the larger tactical picture that ultimately resulted in victory on the second day .
= = = Subsequent events = = =
Nevertheless , Grant 's career suffered temporarily in the aftermath of Shiloh . Halleck combined and reorganized his armies , relegating Grant to the powerless position of second @-@ in @-@ command . In late April and May , the Union armies , under Halleck 's personal command , advanced slowly toward Corinth and captured it , while an amphibious force on the Mississippi River destroyed the Confederates ' River Defense Fleet and captured Memphis , Tennessee . Halleck was promoted to be general in chief of all the Union armies . With Halleck 's departure to the East , Grant was restored to command and eventually pushed down the Mississippi River to besiege Vicksburg , Mississippi . After the surrender of Vicksburg and the fall of Port Hudson in the summer of 1863 , the Mississippi River was under Union control and the Confederacy was cut in two . Command of the Army of Mississippi fell to Braxton Bragg , who was promoted to full general on April 6 , and during the fall of 1862 , he led it on an unsuccessful invasion of Kentucky , culminating in his retreat from the Battle of Perryville .
= = = Casualties = = =
The two @-@ day battle of Shiloh , the costliest in American history up to that time , resulted in the defeat of the Confederate army and frustration of Johnston 's plans to prevent the two Union armies in Tennessee from joining together . Union casualties were 13 @,@ 047 ( 1 @,@ 754 killed , 8 @,@ 408 wounded , and 2 @,@ 885 missing ) ; Grant 's army bore the brunt of the fighting over the two days , with casualties of 1 @,@ 513 killed , 6 @,@ 601 wounded , and 2 @,@ 830 missing or captured . Confederate casualties were 10 @,@ 699 ( 1 @,@ 728 killed , 8 @,@ 012 wounded , and 959 missing or captured ) . The dead included the Confederate army 's commander , Albert Sidney Johnston ; the highest ranking Union general killed was W. H. L. Wallace . Both sides were shocked at the carnage . Three more years of such bloodshed remained and eight larger and bloodier battles were yet to come . Grant later came to realize that his prediction of one great battle bringing the war to a close would probably not occur . The war would continue , at great cost in casualties and resources , until the Confederacy succumbed or the Union was divided . Grant also learned a valuable personal lesson on preparedness that ( mostly ) served him well for the rest of the war .
= = Battlefield preservation = =
Shiloh 's importance as a Civil War battle , coupled with the lack of widespread agricultural or industrial development in the battle area after the war , led to its development as one of the first five battlefields restored by the federal government in the 1890s . Government involvement eventually proved insufficient to preserve the land on which the battle took place . ( The federal government had saved just over 2 @,@ 000 acres at Shiloh by 1897 , and consolidated those gains by adding another 1 @,@ 700 acres by 1954 . ) Preservation eventually slowed . Since 1954 , only 300 additional acres of the saved land had been preserved . Private preservation organizations stepped in to fill the void . The Civil War Trust became the primary agent of these efforts , preserving 1 @,@ 158 acres at Shiloh since its inception . The land preserved by the Trust at Shiloh included tracts over which Confederate divisions passed as they fought Grant 's men on the battle 's first day and their retreat during the Union counteroffensive on day two . A 2012 campaign focused in particular on a section of land which was part of the Confederate right flank on day one and on several tracts which were part of the Battle of Fallen Timbers .
Shiloh National Military Park is managed by the National Park Service .
= = Honors and commemoration = =
The United States Postal Service released a commemorative stamp on the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Shiloh , first issued through the Shiloh , Tennessee , Post Office on April 7 , 1962 . It was the second in a series of five stamps marking the Civil War Centennial .
= = In popular culture = =
The Battle of Shiloh was depicted in the 1962 film How the West Was Won , directed by John Ford . The all @-@ star cast includes ( in alphabetical order ) Carroll Baker , Lee J. Cobb , Henry Fonda , Carolyn Jones , Karl Malden , Gregory Peck , George Peppard , Robert Preston , Debbie Reynolds , James Stewart , Eli Wallach , John Wayne , and Richard Widmark . The film is narrated by Spencer Tracy .
Simulation games The Battle of Shiloh was depicted in the wargame " Bloody April : The Battle of Shiloh , 1862 " , published in 1979 by SPI ( Simulation Publications Inc ) . The game is a grand @-@ tactical , regimental @-@ level simulation , and is the 2nd game in the SPI " Great Battles of the American Civil War " game system , following " Terrible Swift Sword " ( Gettysburg ) . With 1200 unit counters and two maps , the game is of unusual size and complexity . It is now out of print .
In May 2016 , " Bloody April " , a computer game based on the SPI title was released by HexWar Games , Ltd . ( Scotland ) , for iPhone / iPad / Mac platforms . This single @-@ player game ( with computer opponent ) presents several scenarios covering the two @-@ day battle .
= = = Memoirs and primary sources = = =
Grant , Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant . 2 vols . Charles L. Webster & Company , 1885 – 86 . ISBN 0 @-@ 914427 @-@ 67 @-@ 9 .
U.S. War Department , The War of the Rebellion : a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office , 1880 – 1901 .
= I. M. Pei =
Ieoh Ming Pei ( born April 26 , 1917 ) , commonly known as I. M. Pei , is a Chinese American architect . In 1948 , Pei was recruited by New York real estate magnate William Zeckendorf . There he spent seven years before establishing his own independent design firm I. M. Pei & Associates in 1955 , which became I. M. Pei & Partners in 1966 and later in 1989 became Pei Cobb Freed & Partners . Pei retired from full @-@ time practice in 1990 . Since then , he has taken on work as an architectural consultant primarily from his sons ' architectural firm Pei Partnership Architects . His first major recognition came with the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado ; his new stature led to his selection as chief architect for the John F. Kennedy Library in Massachusetts . He went on to design Dallas City Hall and the East Building of the National Gallery of Art .
He returned to China for the first time in 1975 to design a hotel at Fragrant Hills , and designed Bank of China Tower , Hong Kong , a skyscraper in Hong Kong for the Bank of China fifteen years later . In the early 1980s , Pei was the focus of controversy when he designed a glass @-@ and @-@ steel pyramid for the Musée du Louvre in Paris . He later returned to the world of the arts by designing the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center in Dallas , the Miho Museum in Japan , the Suzhou Museum in Suzhou , and the Museum of Islamic Art in Qatar .
Pei has won a wide variety of prizes and awards in the field of architecture , including the AIA Gold Medal in 1979 , the first Praemium Imperiale for Architecture in 1989 , and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Cooper @-@ Hewitt , National Design Museum in 2003 . In 1983 , he won the Pritzker Prize , sometimes called the Nobel Prize of architecture .
= = Childhood = =
Pei 's ancestry traces back to the Ming Dynasty , when his family moved from Anhui province to Suzhou . Finding wealth in the sale of medicinal herbs , the family stressed the importance of helping the less fortunate . Ieoh Ming Pei was born on April 26 , 1917 to Tsuyee Pei and Lien Kwun , and the family moved to Hong Kong one year later . The family eventually included five children . As a boy , Pei was very close to his mother , a devout Buddhist who was recognized for her skills as a flautist . She invited him , his brothers , and his sisters to join her on meditation retreats . His relationship with his father was less intimate . Their interactions were respectful but distant .
Pei 's ancestors ' success meant that the family lived in the upper echelons of society , but Pei said his father was " not cultivated in the ways of the arts " . The younger Pei , drawn more to music and other cultural forms than to his father 's domain of banking , explored art on his own . " I have cultivated myself " , he said later .
At the age of ten , Pei moved with his family to Shanghai after his father was promoted . Pei attended Saint Johns Middle School , run by Protestant missionaries . Academic discipline was rigorous ; students were allowed only one half @-@ day each month for leisure . Pei enjoyed playing billiards and watching Hollywood movies , especially those of Buster Keaton and Charlie Chaplin . He also learned rudimentary English skills by reading the Bible and novels by Charles Dickens .
Shanghai 's many international elements gave it the name " Paris of the East " . The city 's global architectural flavors had a profound influence on Pei , from the Bund waterfront area to the Park Hotel , built in 1934 . He was also impressed by the many gardens of Suzhou , where he spent the summers with extended family and regularly visited a nearby ancestral shrine . The Shizilin Garden , built in the 14th century by a Buddhist monk , was especially influential . Its unusual rock formations , stone bridges , and waterfalls remained etched in Pei 's memory for decades . He spoke later of his fondness for the garden 's blending of natural and human @-@ built structures .
Soon after the move to Shanghai , Pei 's mother developed cancer . As a pain reliever , she was prescribed opium , and assigned the task of preparing her pipe to Pei . She died shortly after his thirteenth birthday , and he was profoundly upset . The children were sent to live with extended family ; their father became more consumed by his work and more physically distant . Pei said : " My father began living his own separate life pretty soon after that . " His father later married a woman named Aileen , who moved to New York later in her life .
= = Education and formative years = =
As Pei neared the end of his secondary education , he decided to study at an overseas university . He was accepted to a number of schools , but decided to enroll at the University of Pennsylvania . Pei 's choice had two roots . While studying in Shanghai , he had closely examined the catalogs for various institutions of higher learning around the world . The architectural program at the University of Pennsylvania stood out to him . The other major factor was Hollywood . Pei was fascinated by the representations of college life in the films of Bing Crosby , which differed tremendously from the academic atmosphere in China . " College life in the U.S. seemed to me to be mostly fun and games " , he said in 2000 . " Since I was too young to be serious , I wanted to be part of it ... You could get a feeling for it in Bing Crosby 's movies . College life in America seemed very exciting to me . It 's not real , we know that . Nevertheless , at that time it was very attractive to me . I decided that was the country for me . "
In 1935 Pei boarded the SS President Coolidge and sailed to San Francisco , then traveled by train to Philadelphia . What he found , however , differed vastly from his expectations . Professors at the University of Pennsylvania based their teaching in the Beaux @-@ Arts style , rooted in the classical traditions of Greece and Rome . Pei was more intrigued by modern architecture , and also felt intimidated by the high level of drafting proficiency shown by other students . He decided to abandon architecture and transferred to the engineering program at Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) . Once he arrived , however , the dean of the architecture school commented on his eye for design and convinced Pei to return to his original major .
MIT 's architecture faculty was also focused on the Beaux @-@ Arts school , and Pei found himself uninspired by the work . In the library he found three books by the Swiss @-@ French architect Charles @-@ Édouard Jeanneret @-@ Gris , better known as Le Corbusier . Pei was inspired by the innovative designs of the new International style , characterized by simplified form and the use of glass and steel materials . Le Corbusier visited MIT in November 1935 , an occasion which powerfully affected Pei : " The two days with Le Corbusier , or ' Corbu ' as we used to call him , were probably the most important days in my architectural education . " Pei was also influenced by the work of US architect Frank Lloyd Wright . In 1938 he drove to Spring Green , Wisconsin , to visit Wright 's famous Taliesin building . After waiting for two hours , however , he left without meeting Wright .
Although he disliked the Beaux @-@ Arts emphasis at MIT , Pei excelled in his studies . " I certainly don 't regret the time at MIT " , he said later . " There I learned the science and technique of building , which is just as essential to architecture . " Pei received his Bachelor of Architecture degree in 1940 . He planned to return to China immediately afterward , but the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War forced him to change his plans . Pei 's father urged him to remain in the United States , and he worked for two years at the Boston engineering firm of Stone & Webster .
While visiting New York City in the late ' 30s , Pei met a Wellesley College student named Eileen Loo . They began dating and they married in the spring of 1942 . She enrolled in the landscape architecture program at Harvard University , and Pei was thus introduced to members of the faculty at Harvard 's Graduate School of Design ( GSD ) . He was excited by the lively atmosphere , and joined the GSD in December 1942 .
Less than a month later , Pei suspended his work at Harvard to join the National Defense Research Committee , which coordinated scientific research into US weapons technology during World War II . Pei 's background in architecture was seen as a considerable asset ; one member of the committee told him : " If you know how to build you should also know how to destroy . " The fight against Germany was ending , so he focused on the Pacific War . The US realized that its bombs used against the stone buildings of Europe would be ineffective against Japanese cities , mostly constructed from wood and paper ; Pei was assigned to work on incendiary bombs . Pei spent two and a half years with the NDRC , but has revealed few details .
In 1945 Eileen gave birth to a son , T 'ing Chung ; she withdrew from the landscape architecture program in order to care for him . Pei returned to Harvard in the autumn of 1945 , and received a position as assistant professor of design . The GSD was developing into a hub of resistance to the Beaux @-@ Arts orthodoxy . At the center were members of the Bauhaus , a European architectural movement that had advanced the cause of modernist design . The Nazi regime had condemned the Bauhaus school , and its leaders left Germany . Two of these , Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer , took positions at the Harvard GSD . Their iconoclastic focus on modern architecture appealed to Pei , and he worked closely with both men .
One of Pei 's design projects at the GSD was a plan for an art museum in Shanghai . He wanted to create a mood of Chinese authenticity in the architecture without using traditional materials or styles . The design was based on straight modernist structures , organized around a central courtyard garden , with other similar natural settings arranged nearby . It was very well received ; Gropius , in fact , called it " the best thing done in [ my ] master class " . Pei received his master 's degree in 1946 , and taught at Harvard for another two years .
= = Career = =
= = = 1948 – 56 : Early career with Webb and Knapp = = =
In the spring of 1948 Pei was recruited by New York real estate magnate William Zeckendorf to join a staff of architects for his firm of Webb and Knapp to design buildings around the country . Pei found Zeckendorf 's personality the opposite of his own ; his new boss was known for his loud speech and gruff demeanor . Nevertheless , they became good friends and Pei found the experience personally enriching . Zeckendorf was well connected politically , and Pei enjoyed learning about the social world of New York 's city planners .
His first project for Webb and Knapp was an apartment building with funding from the Housing Act of 1949 . Pei 's design was based on a circular tower with concentric rings . The areas closest to the supporting pillar handled utilities and circulation ; the apartments themselves were located toward the outer edge . Zeckendorf loved the design and even showed it off to Le Corbusier when they met . The cost of such an unusual design was too high , however , and the building never moved beyond the model stage .
Pei finally saw his architecture come to life in 1949 , when he designed a two @-@ story corporate building for Gulf Oil in Atlanta , Georgia . The building was demolished in February 2013 although the front facade will be retained as part of an apartment development . His use of marble for the exterior curtain wall brought praise from the journal Architectural Forum . Pei 's designs echoed the work of Mies van der Rohe in the beginning of his career as also shown in his own weekend @-@ house in Katonah in 1952 . Soon Pei was so inundated with projects that he asked Zeckendorf for assistants , which he chose from his associates at the GSD , including Henry N. Cobb and Ulrich Franzen . They set to work on a variety of proposals , including the Roosevelt Field Shopping Mall . The team also redesigned the Webb and Knapp office building , transforming Zeckendorf 's office into a circular space with teak walls and a glass clerestory . They also installed a control panel into the desk that allowed their boss to control the lighting in his office . The project took one year and exceeded its budget , but Zeckendorf was delighted with the results .
In 1952 Pei and his team began work on a series of projects in Denver , Colorado . The first of these was the Mile High Center , which compressed the core building into less than twenty @-@ five percent of the total site ; the rest is adorned with an exhibition hall and fountain @-@ dotted plazas . One block away , Pei 's team also redesigned Denver 's Courthouse Square , which combined office spaces , commercial venues , and hotels . These projects helped Pei conceptualize architecture as part of the larger urban geography . " I learned the process of development , " he said later , " and about the city as a living organism . " These lessons , he said , became essential for later projects . The hyperbolic paraboloid structure was removed when the Denver Pavilions facility was constructed . In 1982 , he returned to design the 16th Street Mall , essentially converting a street into a pedestrian only shopping district .
Pei and his team also designed a united urban area for Washington , D.C. , L 'Enfant Plaza ( named for French @-@ American architect Pierre Charles L 'Enfant ) . Pei 's associate Araldo Cossutta was the lead architect for the plaza 's North Building ( 955 L 'Enfant Plaza SW ) and South Building ( 490 L 'Enfant Plaza SW ) . Vlastimil Koubek was the architect for the East Building ( L 'Enfant Plaza Hotel , located at 480 L 'Enfant Plaza SW ) , and for the Center Building ( 475 L 'Enfant Plaza SW ; now the United States Postal Service headquarters ) . The team set out with a broad vision that was praised by both the Washington Post and Washington Star ( which rarely agreed on anything ) , but funding problems forced revisions and a significant reduction in scale .
In 1955 Pei 's group took a step toward institutional independence from Webb and Knapp by establishing a new firm called I. M. Pei & Associates . ( The name changed later to I. M. Pei & Partners . ) They gained the freedom to work with other companies , but continued working primarily with Zeckendorf . The new firm distinguished itself through the use of detailed architectural models . They took on the Kips Bay residential area on the east side of Manhattan , where Pei set up Kips Bay Towers , two large long towers of apartments with recessed windows ( to provide shade and privacy ) in a neat grid , adorned with rows of trees . Pei involved himself in the construction process at Kips Bay , even inspecting the bags of concrete to check for consistency of color .
The company continued its urban focus with the Society Hill project in central Philadelphia . Pei designed the Society Hill Towers , a three @-@ building residential block injecting cubist design into the 18th @-@ century milieu of the neighborhood . As with previous projects , abundant green spaces were central to Pei 's vision , which also added traditional townhouses to aid the transition from classical to modern design .
From 1958 to 1963 Pei and Ray Affleck developed a key downtown block of Montreal in a phased process that involved one of Pei 's most admired structures in the commonwealth , the cruciform tower known as the Royal Bank Plaza ( Place Ville Marie ) . According to the Canadian Encyclopedia " its grand plaza and lower office buildings , designed by internationally famous US architect I. M. Pei , helped to set new standards for architecture in Canada in the 1960s ... The tower 's smooth aluminum and glass surface and crisp unadorned geometric form demonstrate Pei 's adherence to the mainstream of 20th @-@ century modern design . "
Although these projects were satisfying , Pei wanted to establish an independent name for himself . In 1959 he was approached by MIT to design a building for its Earth science program . The Green Building continued the grid design of Kips Bay and Society Hill . The pedestrian walkway at the ground floor , however , was prone to sudden gusts of wind , which embarrassed Pei . " Here I was from MIT , " he said , " and I didn 't know about wind @-@ tunnel effects . " At the same time , he designed the Luce Memorial Chapel in at Tunghai University in Taichung , Taiwan . The soaring structure , commissioned by the same organisation that had run his middle school in Shanghai , broke severely from the cubist grid patterns of his urban projects .
The challenge of coordinating these projects took an artistic toll on Pei . He found himself responsible for acquiring new building contracts and supervising the plans for them . As a result , he felt disconnected from the actual creative work . " Design is something you have to put your hand to , " he said . " While my people had the luxury of doing one job at a time , I had to keep track of the whole enterprise . " Pei 's dissatisfaction reached its peak at a time when financial problems began plaguing Zeckendorf 's firm . I. M. Pei and Associates officially broke from Webb and Knapp in 1960 , which benefited Pei creatively but pained him personally . He had developed a close friendship with Zeckendorf , and both men were sad to part ways .
= = = = NCAR and Related Projects = = = =
Pei was able to return to hands @-@ on design when he was approached in 1961 by Walter Orr Roberts to design the new Mesa Laboratory for the National Center for Atmospheric Research outside Boulder , Colorado . The project differed from Pei 's earlier urban work ; it would rest in an open area in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains . He drove with his wife around the region , visiting assorted buildings and surveying the natural environs . He was impressed by the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs , but felt it was " detached from nature " .
The conceptualization stages were important for Pei , presenting a need and an opportunity to break from the Bauhaus tradition . He later recalled the long periods of time he spent in the area : " I recalled the places I had seen with my mother when I was a little boy — the mountaintop Buddhist retreats . There in the Colorado mountains , I tried to listen to the silence again — just as my mother had taught me . The investigation of the place became a kind of religious experience for me . " Pei also drew inspiration from the Mesa Verde cliff dwellings of the Ancient Pueblo Peoples ; he wanted the buildings to exist in harmony with their natural surroundings . To this end , he called for a rock @-@ treatment process that could color the buildings to match the nearby mountains . He also set the complex back on the mesa overlooking the city , and designed the approaching road to be long , winding , and indirect .
Roberts disliked Pei 's initial designs , referring to them as " just a bunch of towers " . Roberts intended his comments as typical of scientific experimentation , rather than artistic critique ; still , Pei was frustrated . His second attempt , however , fit Roberts ' vision perfectly : a spaced @-@ out series of clustered buildings , joined by lower structures and complemented by two underground levels . The complex uses many elements of cubist design , and the walkways are arranged to increase the probability of casual encounters among colleagues .
Once the laboratory was built , several problems with its construction became apparent . Leaks in the roof caused difficulties for researchers , and the shifting of clay soil beneath caused cracks in the buildings which were expensive to repair . Still , both architect and project manager were pleased with the final result . Pei refers to the NCAR complex as his " breakout building " , and he remained a friend of Roberts until the scientist died in March 1990 .
The success of NCAR brought renewed attention to Pei 's design acumen . He was recruited to work on a variety of projects , including the S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University , the Sundrome terminal at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City , and dormitories at New College of Florida .
= = = = Kennedy Library = = = =
After President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963 , his family and friends discussed how to construct a library that would serve as a fitting memorial . A committee was formed to advise Kennedy 's widow Jacqueline , who would make the final decision . The group deliberated for months and considered many famous architects . Eventually , Kennedy chose Pei to design the library , based on two considerations . First , she appreciated the variety of ideas he had used for earlier projects . " He didn 't seem to have just one way to solve a problem , " she said . " He seemed to approach each commission thinking only of it and then develop a way to make something beautiful . " Ultimately , however , Kennedy made her choice based on her personal connection with Pei . Calling it " really an emotional decision " , she explained : " He was so full of promise , like Jack ; they were born in the same year . I decided it would be fun to take a great leap with him . "
The project was plagued with problems from the outset . The first was scope . President Kennedy had begun considering the structure of his library soon after taking office , and he wanted to include archives from his administration , a museum of personal items , and a political science institute . After the assassination , the list expanded to include a fitting memorial tribute to the slain president . The variety of necessary inclusions complicated the design process and caused significant delays .
Pei 's first proposed design included a large glass pyramid that would fill the interior with sunlight , meant to represent the optimism and hope that Kennedy 's administration had symbolized for so many in the US . Mrs. Kennedy liked the design , but resistance began in Cambridge , the first proposed site for the building , as soon as the project was announced . Many community members worried that the library would become a tourist attraction , causing particular problems with traffic congestion . Others worried that the design would clash with the architectural feel of nearby Harvard Square . By the mid @-@ 70s , Pei tried proposing a new design , but the library 's opponents resisted every effort . These events pained Pei , who had sent all three of his sons to Harvard , and although he rarely discussed his frustration , it was evident to his wife . " I could tell how tired he was by the way he opened the door at the end of the day , " she said . " His footsteps were dragging . It was very hard for I. M. to see that so many people didn 't want the building . "
Finally the project moved to Columbia Point , near the University of Massachusetts Boston . The new site was less than ideal ; it was located on an old landfill , and just over a large sewage pipe . Pei 's architectural team added more fill to cover the pipe and developed an elaborate ventilation system to conquer the odor . A new design was unveiled , combining a large square glass @-@ enclosed atrium with a triangular tower and a circular walkway .
The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum was dedicated on October 20 , 1979 . Critics generally liked the finished building , but the architect himself was unsatisfied . The years of conflict and compromise had changed the nature of the design , and Pei felt that the final result lacked its original passion . " I wanted to give something very special to the memory of President Kennedy , " he said in 2000 . " It could and should have been a great project . " Pei 's work on the Kennedy project boosted his reputation as an architect of note .
= = = = " Pei Plan " in Oklahoma City = = = =
The Pei Plan was an urban redevelopment initiative designed for downtown Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , in the 1960s and 1970s . It is the informal name for two related commissions by Pei – namely the Central Business District General Neighborhood Renewal Plan ( design completed 1964 ) and the Central Business District Project I @-@ A Development Plan ( design completed 1966 ) . It was formally adopted in 1965 , and implemented in various public and private phases throughout the 1960s and 1970s .
The plan called for the demolition of hundreds of old downtown structures in favor of renewed parking , office building , and retail developments , in addition to public projects such as the Myriad Convention Center and the Myriad Botanical Gardens . It was the dominant template for downtown development in Oklahoma City from its inception through the 1970s . The plan generated mixed results and opinion , largely succeeding in re @-@ developing office building and parking infrastructure but failing to attract its anticipated retail and residential development . Significant public resentment also developed as a result of the destruction of multiple historic structures . As a result , Oklahoma City 's leadership avoided large @-@ scale urban planning for downtown throughout the 1980s and early 1990s , until the passage of the Metropolitan Area Projects ( MAPS ) initiative in 1993 .
= = = = Dallas City Hall = = = =
Kennedy 's assassination led indirectly to another commission for Pei 's firm . In 1964 the acting mayor , Erik Jonsson , began working to change the community 's image . Dallas was known and disliked as the city where the president had been killed , but Jonsson began a program designed to initiate a community renewal . One of the goals was a new city hall , which could be a " symbol of the people " . Jonsson , a co @-@ founder of Texas Instruments , learned about Pei from his associate Cecil Howard Green , who had recruited the architect for MIT 's Earth Sciences building .
Pei 's approach to the new Dallas City Hall mirrored those of other projects ; he surveyed the surrounding area and worked to make the building fit . In the case of Dallas , he spent days meeting with residents of the city and was impressed by their civic pride . He also found that the skyscrapers of the downtown business district dominated the skyline , and sought to create a building which could face the tall buildings and represent the importance of the public sector . He spoke of creating " a public @-@ private dialogue with the commercial high @-@ rises " .
Working with his associate Theodore Musho , Pei developed a design centered on a building with a top much wider than the bottom ; the facade leans at an angle of 34 degrees . A plaza stretches out before the building , and a series of support columns holds it up . It was influenced by Le Corbusier 's High Court building in Chandigarh , India ; Pei sought to use the significant overhang to unify building and plaza . The project cost much more than initially expected , and took 11 years . Revenue was secured in part by including a subterranean parking garage . The interior of the city hall is large and spacious ; windows in the ceiling above the eighth floor fill the main space with light .
The city of Dallas received the building well , and a local television news crew found unanimous approval of the new city hall when it officially opened to the public in 1978 . Pei himself considered the project a success , even as he worried about the arrangement of its elements . He said : " It 's perhaps stronger than I would have liked ; it 's got more strength than finesse . " He felt that his relative lack of experience left him without the necessary design tools to refine his vision , but the community liked the city hall enough to invite him back . Over the years he went on to design five additional buildings in the Dallas area .
= = = = Hancock Tower , Boston = = = =
While Pei and Musho were coordinating the Dallas project , their associate Henry Cobb had taken the helm for a commission in Boston . John Hancock Insurance chairman Robert Slater hired I. M. Pei & Partners to design a building that could overshadow the Prudential Tower , erected by their rival .
After the firm 's first plan was discarded due to a need for more office space , Cobb developed a new plan around a towering parallelogram , slanted away from the Trinity Church and accented by a wedge cut into each narrow side . To minimize the visual impact , the building was covered in large reflective glass panels ; Cobb said this would make the building a " background and foil " to the older structures around it . When the Hancock Tower was finished in 1976 , it was the tallest building in New England .
Serious issues of execution became evident in the tower almost immediately . Many glass panels fractured in a windstorm during construction in 1973 . Some detached and fell to the ground , causing no injuries but sparking concern among Boston residents . In response , the entire tower was reglazed with smaller panels . This significantly increased the cost of the project . Hancock sued the glass manufacturers , Libbey @-@ Owens @-@ Ford , as well as I. M. Pei & Partners , for submitting plans that were " not good and workmanlike " . LOF countersued Hancock for defamation , accusing Pei 's firm of poor use of their materials ; I. M. Pei & Partners sued LOF in return . All three companies settled out of court in 1981 .
The project became an albatross for Pei 's firm . Pei himself refused to discuss it for many years . The pace of new commissions slowed and the firm 's architects began looking overseas for opportunities . Cobb worked in Australia and Pei took on jobs in Singapore , Iran , and Kuwait . Although it was a difficult time for everyone involved , Pei later reflected with patience on the experience . " Going through this trial toughened us , " he said . " It helped to cement us as partners ; we did not give up on each other . "
= = = = National Gallery East Building , Washington , DC = = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , directors of the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , declared the need for a new building . Paul Mellon , a primary benefactor of the gallery and a member of its building committee , set to work with his assistant J. Carter Brown ( who became gallery director in 1969 ) to find an architect . The new structure would be located to the east of the original building , and tasked with two functions : offer a large space for public appreciation of various popular collections ; and house office space as well as archives for scholarship and research . They likened the scope of the new facility to the Library of Alexandria . After inspecting Pei 's work at the Des Moines Art Center in Iowa and the Johnson Museum at Cornell University , they offered him the commission .
Pei took to the project with vigor , and set to work with two young architects he had recently recruited to the firm , William Pedersen and Yann Weymouth . Their first obstacle was the unusual shape of the building site , a trapezoid of land at the intersection of Constitution and Pennsylvania Avenues . Inspiration struck Pei in 1968 , when he scrawled a rough diagram of two triangles on a scrap of paper . The larger building would be the public gallery ; the smaller would house offices and archives . This triangular shape became a singular vision for the architect . As the date for groundbreaking approached , Pedersen suggested to his boss that a slightly different approach would make construction easier . Pei simply smiled and said : " No compromises . "
The growing popularity of art museums presented unique challenges to the architecture . Mellon and Pei both expected large crowds of people to visit the new building , and they planned accordingly . To this end , he designed a large lobby roofed with enormous skylights . Individual galleries are located along the periphery , allowing visitors to return after viewing each exhibit to the spacious main room . A large mobile sculpture by American artist Alexander Calder was later added to the lobby . Pei hoped the lobby would be exciting to the public in the same way as the central room of the Guggenheim Museum in New York . The modern museum , he said later , " must pay greater attention to its educational responsibility , especially to the young " .
Materials for the building 's exterior were chosen with careful precision . To match the look and texture of the original gallery 's marble walls , builders re @-@ opened the quarry in Knoxville , Tennessee , from which the first batch of stone had been harvested . The project even found and hired Malcolm Rice , a quarry supervisor who had overseen the original 1941 gallery project . The marble was cut into three @-@ inch @-@ thick panels and arranged over the concrete foundation , with darker blocks at the bottom and lighter blocks on top .
The East Building was honored on May 30 , 1978 , two days before its public unveiling , with a black @-@ tie party attended by celebrities , politicians , benefactors , and artists . When the building opened , popular opinion was enthusiastic . Large crowds visited the new museum , and critics generally voiced their approval . Ada Louise Huxtable wrote in The New York Times that Pei 's building was " a palatial statement of the creative accommodation of contemporary art and architecture " . The sharp angle of the smaller building has been a particular note of praise for the public ; over the years it has become stained and worn from the hands of visitors .
Some critics disliked the unusual design , however , and criticized the reliance on triangles throughout the building . Others took issue with the large main lobby , particularly its attempt to lure casual visitors . In his review for Artforum , critic Richard Hennessy described a " shocking fun @-@ house atmosphere " and " aura of ancient Roman patronage " . One of the earliest and most vocal critics , however , came to appreciate the new gallery once he saw it in person . Allan Greenberg had scorned the design when it was first unveiled , but wrote later to J. Carter Brown : " I am forced to admit that you are right and I was wrong ! The building is a masterpiece . "
Starting in 2005 , the joints attaching the marble panels to the walls began to show signs of strain , creating a risk of panels falling off the building onto the public below . In 2008 officials decided that it would be necessary to remove and reinstall all the panels . The project is scheduled for completion in 2013 .
= = = = Fragrant Hills , China = = = =
After US President Richard Nixon made his famous 1972 visit to China , a wave of exchanges took place between the two countries . One of these was a delegation of the American Institute of Architects in 1974 , which Pei joined . It was his first trip back to China since leaving in 1935 . He was favorably received , returned the welcome with positive comments , and a series of lectures ensued . Pei noted in one lecture that since the 1950s Chinese architects had been content to imitate Western styles ; he urged his audience in one lecture to search China 's native traditions for inspiration .
In 1978 Pei was asked to initiate a project for his home country . After surveying a number of different locations , Pei fell in love with a valley that had once served as an imperial garden and hunting preserve known as Fragrant Hills . The site housed a decrepit hotel ; Pei was invited to tear it down and build a new one . As usual , he approached the project by carefully considering the context and purpose . Likewise , he considered modernist styles inappropriate for the setting . Thus , he said , it was necessary to find " a third way " .
After visiting his ancestral home in Suzhou , Pei created a design based on some simple but nuanced techniques he admired in traditional residential Chinese buildings . Among these were abundant gardens , integration with nature , and consideration of the relationship between enclosure and opening . Pei 's design included a large central atrium covered by glass panels that functioned much like the large central space in his East Building of the National Gallery . Openings of various shapes in walls invited guests to view the natural scenery beyond . Younger Chinese who had hoped the building would exhibit some of Cubist flavor for which Pei had become known were disappointed , but the new hotel found more favour with government officials and architects .
The hotel , with 325 guest rooms and a four @-@ story central atrium , was designed to fit perfectly into its natural habitat . The trees in the area were of special concern , and particular care was taken to cut down as few as possible . He worked with an expert from Suzhou to preserve and renovate a water maze from the original hotel , one of only five in the country . Pei was also meticulous about the arrangement of items in the garden behind the hotel ; he even insisted on transporting 230 short tons ( 210 t ) of rocks from a location in southwest China to suit the natural aesthetic . An associate of Pei 's said later that he never saw the architect so involved in a project .
During construction , a series of mistakes collided with the nation 's lack of technology to strain relations between architects and builders . Whereas 200 or so workers might have been used for a similar building in the US , the Fragrant Hill project employed over 3 @,@ 000 workers . This was mostly because the construction company lacked the sophisticated machines used in other parts of the world . The problems continued for months , until Pei had an uncharacteristically emotional moment during a meeting with Chinese officials . He later explained that his actions included " shouting and pounding the table " in frustration . The design staff noticed a difference in the manner of work among the crew after the meeting . As the opening neared , however , Pei found the hotel still needed work . He began scrubbing floors with his wife and ordered his children to make beds and vacuum floors . The project 's difficulties took an emotional and physical strain on the Pei family .
The Fragrant Hill Hotel opened on October 17 , 1982 but quickly fell into disrepair . A member of Pei 's staff returned for a visit several years later and confirmed the dilapidated condition of the hotel . He and Pei attributed this to the country 's general unfamiliarity with deluxe buildings . The Chinese architectural community at the time gave the structure little attention , as their interest at the time centered on the work of American postmodernists such as Michael Graves .
= = = = Javits Convention Center , New York = = = =
As the Fragrant Hill project neared completion , Pei began work on the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center in New York City , for which his associate James Freed served as lead designer . Hoping to create a vibrant community institution in a run @-@ down neighborhood on Manhattan 's west side , Freed developed a glass @-@ coated structure with an intricate space frame of interconnected metal rods and spheres .
The convention center was plagued from the start by budget problems and construction blunders . City regulations forbid a general contractor having final authority over the project , so architects and program manager Richard Kahan had to coordinate the wide array of builders , plumbers , electricians , and other workers . The forged steel globes to be used in the space frame came to the site with hairline cracks and other defects ; 12 @,@ 000 were rejected . These and other problems led to media comparisons with the disastrous Hancock Tower . One New York City official blamed Kahan for the difficulties , indicating that the building 's architectural flourishes were responsible for delays and financial crises . The Javits Center opened on April 3 , 1986 , to a generally positive reception . During the inauguration ceremonies , however , neither Freed nor Pei was recognized for their role in the project .
= = = = Le Grand Louvre , Paris = = = =
When François Mitterrand was elected President of France in 1981 , he laid out an ambitious plan for a variety of construction projects . One of these was the renovation of the Louvre Museum . Mitterrand appointed a civil servant named Emile Biasini to oversee it . After visiting museums in Europe and the United States , including the US National Gallery , he asked Pei to join the team . The architect made three secretive trips to Paris , to determine the feasibility of the project ; only one museum employee knew why he was there . Pei finally agreed that a reconstruction project was not only possible , but necessary for the future of the museum . He thus became the first foreign architect to work on the Louvre .
The heart of the new design included not only a renovation of the Cour Napoléon in the midst of the buildings , but also a transformation of the interiors . Pei proposed a central entrance , not unlike the lobby of the National Gallery East Building , which would link the three major buildings . Below would be a complex of additional floors for research , storage , and maintenance purposes . At the center of the courtyard he designed a glass and steel pyramid , first proposed with the Kennedy Library , to serve as entrance and anteroom skylight . It was mirrored by another inverted pyramid underneath , to reflect sunlight into the room . These designs were partly an homage to the fastidious geometry of the famous French landscape architect André Le Nôtre ( 1613 – 1700 ) . Pei also found the pyramid shape best suited for stable transparency , and considered it " most compatible with the architecture of the Louvre , especially with the faceted planes of its roofs " .
Biasini and Mitterrand liked the plans , but the scope of the renovation displeased Louvre director André Chabaud . He resigned from his post , complaining that the project was " unfeasible " and posed " architectural risks " . The public also reacted harshly to the design , mostly because of the proposed pyramid . One critic called it a " gigantic , ruinous gadget " ; another charged Mitterrand with " despotism " for inflicting Paris with the " atrocity " . Pei estimated that 90 percent of Parisians opposed his design . " I received many angry glances in the streets of Paris , " he said . Some condemnations carried nationalistic overtones . One opponent wrote : " I am surprised that one would go looking for a Chinese architect in America to deal with the historic heart of the capital of France . "
Soon , however , Pei and his team won the support of several key cultural icons , including the conductor Pierre Boulez and Claude Pompidou , widow of former French President Georges Pompidou , after whom another controversial museum was named . In an attempt to soothe public ire , Pei took a suggestion from then @-@ mayor of Paris Jacques Chirac and placed a full @-@ sized cable model of the pyramid in the courtyard . During the four days of its exhibition , an estimated 60 @,@ 000 people visited the site . Some critics eased their opposition after witnessing the proposed scale of the pyramid .
To minimize the impact of the structure , Pei demanded a method of glass production that resulted in clear panes . The pyramid was constructed at the same time as the subterranean levels below , which caused difficulties during the building stages . As they worked , construction teams came upon an abandoned set of rooms containing 25 @,@ 000 historical items ; these were incorporated into the rest of the structure to add a new exhibition zone .
The new Louvre courtyard was opened to the public on October 14 , 1988 , and the Pyramid entrance was opened the following March . By this time , public opinion had softened on the new installation ; a poll found a fifty @-@ six percent approval rating for the pyramid , with twenty @-@ three percent still opposed . The newspaper Le Figaro had vehemently criticized Pei 's design , but later celebrated the tenth anniversary of its magazine supplement at the pyramid . Prince Charles of Britain surveyed the new site with curiosity , and declared it " marvelous , very exciting " . A writer in Le Quotidien de Paris wrote : " The much @-@ feared pyramid has become adorable . " The experience was exhausting for Pei , but also rewarding . " After the Louvre , " he said later , " I thought no project would be too difficult . " The Louvre Pyramid has become Pei 's most famous structure .
= = = = Meyerson Symphony Center , Dallas = = = =
The opening of the Louvre Pyramid coincided with four other projects on which Pei had been working , prompting architecture critic Paul Goldberger to declare 1989 " the year of Pei " in The New York Times . It was also the year in which Pei 's firm changed its name to Pei Cobb Freed & Partners , to reflect the increasing stature and prominence of his associates . At the age of seventy @-@ two , Pei had begun thinking about retirement , but continued working long hours to see his designs come to light .
One of the projects took Pei back to Dallas , Texas , to design the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center . The success of city 's performing artists , particularly the Dallas Symphony Orchestra then being led by conductor Eduardo Mata , led to interest by city leaders in creating a modern center for musical arts that could rival the best halls in Europe . The organizing committee contacted 45 architects , but at first Pei did not respond , thinking that his work on the Dallas City Hall had left a negative impression . One of his colleagues from that project , however , insisted that he meet with the committee . He did and , although it would be his first concert hall , the committee voted unanimously to offer him the commission . As one member put it : " We were convinced that we would get the world 's greatest architect putting his best foot forward . "
The project presented a variety of specific challenges . Because its main purpose was the presentation of live music , the hall needed a design focused on acoustics first , then public access and exterior aesthetics . To this end , a professional sound technician was hired to design the interior . He proposed a shoebox auditorium , used in the acclaimed designs of top European symphony halls such as the Amsterdam Concertgebouw and Vienna Musikverein . Pei drew inspiration for his adjustments from the designs of the German architect Johann Balthasar Neumann , especially the Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers . He also sought to incorporate some of the panache of the Paris Opéra designed by Charles Garnier .
Pei 's design placed the rigid shoebox at an angle to the surrounding street grid , connected at the north end to a long rectangular office building , and cut through the middle with an assortment of circles and cones . The design attempted to reproduce with modern features the acoustic and visual functions of traditional elements like filigree . The project was risky : its goals were ambitious and any unforeseen acoustic flaws would be virtually impossible to remedy after the hall 's completion . Pei admitted that he did not completely know how everything would come together . " I can imagine only 60 percent of the space in this building , " he said during the early stages . " The rest will be as surprising to me as to everyone else . " As the project developed , costs rose steadily and some sponsors considered withdrawing their support . Billionaire tycoon Ross Perot made a donation of US $ 10 million , on the condition that it be named in honor of Morton H. Meyerson , the longtime patron of the arts in Dallas .
The building opened and immediately garnered widespread praise , especially for its acoustics . After attending a week of performances in the hall , a music critic for The New York Times wrote an enthusiastic account of the experience and congratulated the architects . One of Pei 's associates told him during a party before the opening that the symphony hall was " a very mature building " ; he smiled and replied : " Ah , but did I have to wait this long ? "
= = = = Bank of China , Hong Kong = = = =
A new offer had arrived for Pei from the Chinese government in 1982 . With an eye toward the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong from the British in 1997 , authorities in China sought Pei 's aid on a new tower for the local branch of the Bank of China . The Chinese government was preparing for a new wave of engagement with the outside world and sought a tower to represent modernity and economic strength . Given the elder Pei 's history with the bank before the Communist takeover , government officials visited the 89 @-@ year @-@ old man in New York to gain approval for his son 's involvement . Pei then spoke with his father at length about the proposal . Although the architect remained pained by his experience with Fragrant Hill , he agreed to accept the commission .
The proposed site in Hong Kong 's Central District was less than ideal ; a tangle of highways lined it on three sides . The area had also been home to a headquarters for Japanese military police during World War II , and was notorious for prisoner torture . The small parcel of land made a tall tower necessary , and Pei had usually shied away from such projects ; in Hong Kong especially , the skyscrapers lacked any real architectural character . Lacking inspiration and unsure of how to approach the building , Pei took a weekend vacation to the family home in Katonah , New York . There he found himself experimenting with a bundle of sticks until he happened upon a cascading sequence .
The design that Pei developed for the Bank of China Tower was not only unique in appearance , but also sound enough to pass the city 's rigorous standards for wind @-@ resistance . The tower was planned around a visible truss structure , which distributed stress to the four corners of the base . Using the reflective glass that had become something of a trademark for him , Pei organized the facade around a series of boxed X shapes . At the top , he designed the roofs at sloping angles to match the rising aesthetic of the building . Some influential advocates of feng shui in Hong Kong and China criticized the design , and Pei and government officials responded with token adjustments .
As the tower neared completion , Pei was shocked to witness the government 's massacre of unarmed civilians at the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 . He wrote an opinion piece for The New York Times titled " China Won 't Ever Be the Same " , in which he said that the killings " tore the heart out of a generation that carries the hope for the future of the country " . The massacre deeply disturbed his entire family , and he wrote that " China is besmirched . "
= = = 1990 – present : museum projects = = =
As the 1990s began , Pei transitioned into a role of decreased involvement with his firm . The staff had begun to shrink , and Pei wanted to dedicate himself to smaller projects allowing for more creativity . Before he made this change , however , he set to work on his last major project as active partner : The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland , Ohio . Considering his work on such bastions of high culture as the Louvre and US National Gallery , some critics were surprised by his association with what many considered a tribute to low culture . The sponsors of the hall , however , sought Pei for specifically this reason ; they wanted the building to have an aura of respectability from the beginning . As in the past , Pei accepted the commission in part because of the unique challenge it presented .
Using a glass wall for the entrance , similar in appearance to his Louvre pyramid , Pei coated the exterior of the main building in white metal , and placed a large cylinder on a narrow perch to serve as a performance space . The combination of off @-@ centered wraparounds and angled walls was , Pei said , designed to provide " a sense of tumultuous youthful energy , rebelling , flailing about " .
The building opened in 1995 , and was received with moderate praise . The New York Times called it " a fine building " , but Pei was among those who felt disappointed with the results . The museum 's early beginnings in New York combined with an unclear mission created a fuzzy understanding among project leaders for precisely what was needed . Although the city of Cleveland benefited greatly from the new tourist attraction , Pei was unhappy with it .
At the same time , Pei designed a new museum for Luxembourg , the Musée d 'art moderne Grand @-@ Duc Jean , commonly known as the Mudam . Drawing from the original shape of the Fort Thüngen walls where the museum was located , Pei planned to remove a portion of the original foundation . Public resistance to the historical loss forced a revision of his plan , however , and the project was nearly abandoned . The size of the building was halved , and it was set back from the original wall segments to preserve the foundation . Pei was disappointed with the alterations , but remained involved in the building process even during construction .
In 1995 Pei was hired to design an extension to the Deutsches Historisches Museum , or German Historical Museum in Berlin . Returning to the challenge of the East Building of the US National Gallery , Pei worked to combine a modernist approach with a classical main structure . He described the glass cylinder addition as a " beacon " , and topped it with a glass roof to allow plentiful sunlight inside . Pei had difficulty working with German government officials on the project ; their utilitarian approach clashed with his passion for aesthetics . " They thought I was nothing but trouble " , he said .
Pei also worked at this time on two projects for a new Japanese religious movement called Shinji Shumeikai . He was approached by the movement 's spiritual leader , Kaishu Koyama , who impressed the architect with her sincerity and willingness to give him significant artistic freedom . One of the buildings was a bell tower , designed to resemble the bachi used when playing traditional instruments like the shamisen . Pei was unfamiliar with the movement 's beliefs , but explored them in order to represent something meaningful in the tower . As he said : " It was a search for the sort of expression that is not at all technical . "
The experience was rewarding for Pei , and he agreed immediately to work with the group again . The new project was the Miho Museum , to display Koyama 's collection of tea ceremony artifacts . Pei visited the site in Shiga Prefecture , and during their conversations convinced Koyama to expand her collection . She conducted a global search and acquired more than 300 items showcasing the history of the Silk Road .
One major challenge was the approach to the museum . The Japanese team proposed a winding road up the mountain , not unlike the approach to the NCAR building in Colorado . Instead , Pei ordered a hole cut through a nearby mountain , connected to a major road via a bridge suspended from ninety @-@ six steel cables and supported by a post set into the mountain . The museum itself was built into the mountain , with 80 percent of the building underground .
When designing the exterior , Pei borrowed from the tradition of Japanese temples , particularly those found in nearby Kyoto . He created a concise spaceframe wrapped into French limestone and covered with a glass roof . Pei also oversaw specific decorative details , including a bench in the entrance lobby , carved from a 350 @-@ year @-@ old keyaki tree . Because of Koyama 's considerable wealth , money was rarely considered an obstacle ; estimates at the time of completion put the cost of the project at US $ 350 million .
During the first decade of the 2000s , Pei designed a variety of buildings , including the Suzhou Museum near his childhood home . He also designed the Museum of Islamic Art in Doha , Qatar at the request of the Al @-@ Thani Family . Although it was originally planned for the corniche road along Doha Bay , Pei convinced project coordinators to build a new island to provide the needed space . He then spent six months touring the region and surveying mosques in Spain , Syria , and Tunisia . He was especially impressed with the elegant simplicity of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo .
Once again , Pei sought to combine new design elements with the classical aesthetic most appropriate for the location of the building . The rectangular boxes rotate evenly to create a subtle movement , with small arched windows at regular intervals into the limestone exterior . The museum 's coordinators were pleased with the project ; its official website describes its " true splendour unveiled in the sunlight " , and speaks of " the shades of colour and the interplay of shadows paying tribute to the essence of Islamic architecture " .
The Macao Science Center in Macau was designed by Pei Partnership Architects in association with I. M. Pei . The project to build the science center was conceived in 2001 and construction started in 2006 . The center was completed in 2009 and opened by the Chinese President Hu Jintao . The main part of the building is a distinctive conical shape with a spiral walkway and large atrium inside , similar to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York . Galleries lead off the walkway , mainly consisting of interactive exhibits aimed at science education . The building is in a prominent position by the sea and is now a landmark of Macau .
= = Style and method = =
Pei 's style is described as thoroughly modernist , with significant cubist themes . He is known for combining traditional architectural elements with progressive designs based on simple geometric patterns . As one critic writes : " Pei has been aptly described as combining a classical sense of form with a contemporary mastery of method . " In 2000 , biographer Carter Wiseman called Pei " the most distinguished member of his Late @-@ Modernist generation still in practice " . At the same time , Pei himself rejects simple dichotomies of architectural trends . He once said : " The talk about modernism versus post @-@ modernism is unimportant . It 's a side issue . An individual building , the style in which it is going to be designed and built , is not that important . The important thing , really , is the community . How does it affect life ? "
Pei 's work is celebrated throughout the world of architecture . His colleague John Portman once told him : " Just once , I 'd like to do something like the East Building . " But this originality does not always bring large financial reward ; as Pei replied to the successful architect : " Just once , I 'd like to make the kind of money you do . " His concepts , moreover , are too individualized and dependent on context to give rise to a particular school of design . Pei refers to his own " analytical approach " when explaining the lack of a " Pei School " . " For me , " he said , " the important distinction is between a stylistic approach to the design ; and an analytical approach giving the process of due consideration to time , place , and purpose ... My analytical approach requires a full understanding of the three essential elements ... to arrive at an ideal balance among them . "
On a matter of personal style and his method of business negotiation , Mr. Pei once told a television reporter during an interview about an amusing event that happened in his career . A client was inclined to disburse less treasure for a particular design , and the architect replied " My name is I. M. Pei , not I am Not Pay . " The client paid the asking price .
= = Awards and honors = =
In the words of his biographer , Pei has won " every award of any consequence in his art " , including the Arnold Brunner Award from the National Institute of Arts and Letters ( 1963 ) , the Gold Medal for Architecture from the American Academy of Arts and Letters ( 1979 ) , the AIA Gold Medal ( 1979 ) , the first Praemium Imperiale for Architecture from the Japan Art Association ( 1989 ) , the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Cooper @-@ Hewitt , National Design Museum , and the 2010 Royal Gold Medal from the Royal Institute of British Architects . In 1983 he was awarded the Pritzker Prize , sometimes called the Nobel Prize of architecture . In its citation , the jury said : " Ieoh Ming Pei has given this century some of its most beautiful interior spaces and exterior forms ... His versatility and skill in the use of materials approach the level of poetry . " The prize was accompanied by a US $ 100 @,@ 000 award , which Pei used to create a scholarship for Chinese students to study architecture in the US , on the condition that they return to China to work . In being awarded the 2003 Henry C. Turner Prize by the National Building Museum , then @-@ museum board chair Carolyn Brody praised his impact on construction innovation : " His magnificent designs have challenged engineers to devise innovative structural solutions , and his exacting expectations for construction quality have encouraged contractors to achieve high standards . "
In 1992 , Pei was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George H.W. Bush .
= = Personal life = =
Pei 's wife of over seventy years , Eileen Loo , predeceased him in June 2014 . They had three sons , T 'ing Chung ( 1946 – 2003 ) , Chien Chung ( b . 1946 ) and Li Chung ( b . 1949 ) , and a daughter , Liane ( b . 1960 ) . T 'ing Chung was an urban planner and alumnus of his father 's alma mater MIT and Harvard . Chieng Chung and Li Chung , who are both Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni , founded and run Pei Partnership Architects . Liane is a lawyer .
= The Chase ( U.S. game show ) =
The Chase is an American television quiz show based on the British program of the same name . The program involves a quiz competition in which contestants attempt to win money by challenging a quiz show genius known as the " chaser " . The show premiered on August 6 , 2013 , on Game Show Network , and received a nomination at the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game Show . In the United Kingdom and Ireland the show is seen on Challenge under the title The Chase USA .
The series is hosted by Brooke Burns and features Mark Labbett ( nicknamed " The Beast " ) as the chaser . The American version of the show follows the same general format as the original UK version ; however , the American version of the program features three contestants instead of four . Also , while the UK and Australian versions feature one of a panel of chasers who rotate from one episode to the next , the American version features Labbett as the only chaser .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Cash Builder and individual chases = = =
Three new contestants compete on each episode as a team . Each contestant first plays individually against the chaser , starting with a round where they try to answer as many questions correctly as possible during a one @-@ minute rapid @-@ fire round , with each correct answer adding $ 5 @,@ 000 to their bank . After the minute is up , the contestant competes head to head against the chaser in order to retain their bank and continue to the Final Chase . During celebrity episodes , contestants start with $ 5 @,@ 000 already in the bank .
In the Chase , the contestant 's goal is to answer enough questions correctly to move the earned winnings into the team bank without being caught by the chaser , whose job is to catch them by capitalizing on mistakes made by the player . The contestant must answer five questions correctly without being caught to bank the money and continue to the Final Chase , providing the contestant does not play for one of two additional offers given at the start of the round . These offers include having a contestant play for a lower amount and start one step closer to the bank , while being required to answer only four questions correctly without being caught . In addition , the contestant can also play for a higher amount of money , but must instead answer six questions correctly without being caught . On rare occasions , the chaser may escalate the stakes by offering a " super offer " for an even higher amount , with the contestant being required to answer seven questions correctly without being caught . Usually , the contestant is permitted to talk briefly with his or her teammates ( if he or she has yet to play or has moved on to the Final Chase ) for advice as to which offer to take .
After deciding which amount to play for , the prize money is displayed on a seven @-@ space gameboard , with the appropriate number of spaces away from the bank depending upon the contestant 's decision . The chaser starts the round off of the gameboard eight spaces away from the bank . Both the contestant and chaser are then presented with the same multiple choice question , and each locks @-@ in their answer separately . After one has selected their answer , they may not change it and the other has five seconds to answer after them , otherwise they are locked out and do not advance on the gameboard . For each question the contestant answers correctly , the prize money earned moves one step closer to the team bank . For each question answered correctly by the chaser , he moves one step closer to the prize money . Additional questions are asked until the contestant reaches the end of the board ( thus banking the prize money ) , or the chaser catches the contestant eliminating them from the game . No movement is made by the contestant and / or the chaser if an incorrect answer is provided or if they are locked out by the time limit . All three contestants take part in separate rounds to determine which of them will advance to the Final Chase and how much prize money will be at stake . If all three contestants fail to win their individual chases , the team selects one contestant to play the Final Chase alone for a total of $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @,@ 000 per contestant ) . During celebrity episodes , celebrity contestants that get caught leave with $ 5 @,@ 000 for their respective charities .
= = = The Final Chase = = =
The Final Chase is played on a gameboard , with the team receiving a head start of one space for each member who advanced to this round . During the commercial break , the team chooses between two sets of questions , labeled " A " and " B " , with the chaser playing the other set of questions . The contestants have two minutes to answer as many questions as possible . After a question is asked , contestants are only permitted to respond or pass a question after first ringing @-@ in . If a contestant rings @-@ in but another contestant answers , the question is treated as a wrong regardless if the answer was correct . If there is only one contestant in the Final Chase , then he or she does not ring @-@ in . Each question answered correctly within the time limit moves the team one space ahead on the board .
After time expires , the chaser is then given two minutes to catch the team by correctly answering a new series of questions , with each correct answer moving him one space along the board . If the chaser answers incorrectly or passes , the clock is stopped briefly and the team is given a chance to answer the question . A correct answer pushes the chaser back one space , or moves the team ahead by one if he has not moved on to the gameboard . An incorrect answer provides no movement for the chaser at all . Regardless of the outcome , the clock begins running again and the chaser continues to answer questions . If the chaser runs out of time before catching the team , the team splits the banked money equally ; however , if the chaser catches the team before time expires , the team leaves with no money . On celebrity episodes , if the chaser catches the team before time runs out , the team leaves with $ 15 @,@ 000 divided equally .
= = Production = =
In April 2012 , Fox ordered two pilot episodes to be taped in London for consideration to be added to the network 's U.S. programming lineup . Bradley Walsh , presenter of the British version of The Chase , was featured as the show 's host , while Labbett and Jeopardy ! champion Brad Rutter were the chasers . Fox passed up the opportunity to add the series to its lineup .
After Fox 's plans to launch The Chase fell through , GSN , in conjunction with ITV Studios America , picked up the series with an eight episode order on April 9 , 2013 , and announced Burns as the show 's host and Labbett as the chaser on May 29 . Dan Patrick was originally considered to host the series ; however , those plans eventually fell through . The first season premiered on August 6 , 2013 . Despite the show having not yet premiered at the time , the network ordered a second season of eight episodes on July 1 , 2013 , which premiered on November 5 . On March 18 , 2014 , GSN announced plans to renew the series for a third season , with both Burns and Labbett returning to the show . The third season premiered on July 8 , 2014 . After airing nine episodes , the series went on a hiatus , before returning with five additional new season three episodes on November 11 , 2014 . On August 21 , 2014 , GSN proceeded to renew the series for a fourth season , which began airing January 27 , 2015 . After the seventh episode of the season , the series went on another hiatus ; new episodes from the fourth season resumed airing July 16 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Chase has been generally well received by critics . Michael Tyminski of Manhattan Digest gave a positive review of the series , calling it " a breath of fresh air " and praising Burns and Labbett in their respective roles . Tyminski added that while the level difficulty is not always on par with other quiz shows such as Jeopardy ! , the show avoids a " painfully slow pace " .
Similarly , John Teti of The A.V. Club called the show a " pretty good adaptation " of its UK counterpart , but also noted the presence of " dick @-@ related questions " in the series . Teti also maintained that although the British version of the show was " better " , the American version " still holds its own " . Additionally , The Chase was ranked number 9 on Douglas Pucci 's ( of TV Media Insights ) list of best new television shows of 2013 .
= = = Accolades = = =
The Chase was also one of two GSN originals ( the other being The American Bible Challenge ) to be honored at the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards in 2014 with an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Game Show ; however , the series lost to Jeopardy !
= = = Ratings = = =
The Chase has become one of the highest rated original programs in GSN 's history . The series debuted to 511 @,@ 000 total viewers during its premiere while maintaining 90 % of its audience with 461 @,@ 000 total viewers during the second episode airing that night . On January 28 , 2014 , The Chase set a new series high in terms of total viewers and adults 18 – 49 , with 827 @,@ 000 and 234 @,@ 000 viewers respectively .
Although the season 3 premiere fell in the ratings from its series high , earning 494 @,@ 000 viewers with only 73 @,@ 000 in the 18 – 49 demographic , the premiere of the fourth season saw a sizeable rise over the previous season 's premiere , earning 749 @,@ 000 total viewers .
= = Merchandise = =
On December 18 , 2013 , Barnstorm Games released a mobile version of the game for iOS and Android . The app features Labbett as chaser and can be played by up to four people . The only differences between the app and the show are that four choices are presented for questions in the Cash Builder and the Final Chase rounds and that no Final Chase is played if all players are caught in their individual chases .
= Hurricane Waldo ( 1985 ) =
Hurricane Waldo was a Pacific hurricane that caused significant flooding in Kansas during October 1985 . After developing into a tropical depression on October 7 , it steadily intensified , becoming a tropical storm within a day . Waldo reached hurricane intensity on October 8 . After peaking as a moderate Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , it re @-@ curved to the east , making landfall at peak intensity near Culiacan . Afterward , it rapidly dissipated . In all , Waldo caused moderate damage in Sonora . The remnants of the storm combined with a cold front over the Great Plains . Significant flooding and one death was recorded in Kansas . Many rivers and creeks overflowed its banks .
= = Meteorological history = =
Waldo originated from a developing disturbance first noted by Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) on October 5 based on data from ship reports . By 0000 UTC October 7 , a circulation became evident on satellite imagery . Based on this , the EPHC upgraded the system into a tropical depression about 300 mi ( 480 km ) west of the Mexican coast . Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression began to turn to the northwest in response to a strong upper @-@ level trough over Baja California Peninsula . Passing over 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) sea surface temperatures , the tropical cyclone intensified into Tropical Storm Waldo about 12 hours after developing . The storm began to intensify rapidly . Meanwhile , the tropical storm passed 92 mi ( 148 km ) east of Socorro Island . Tropical Storm Waldo then began to turn to the north and while located 130 miles ( 210 km ) south of Baja California Sur , Waldo was upgraded into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
After reaching hurricane status the strengthening cyclone attained Category 2 hurricane status on October 9 . Shortly thereafter , a ship reported a sea level pressure of 982 mb ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) just outside the center of circulation . Meanwhile , Hurricane Waldo reached its peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Four hours after Hurricane Waldo 's peak , the storm made landfall near Culiacan . The storm rapidly dissipated during the afternoon of October 9 , while the system was located inland over Mexico . The remnants of Waldo merged with a cold front and produced heavy rains across the Great Plains and Mississippi River Valley .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In parts of Sinaloa , people were evacuated and then granted refuge in shelters . In Los Mochis , the Mexican Army was put on standby in the event the Fuerte River flooded . While no deaths or injuries were reported , much farmland and 600 houses were destroyed . The Juarez River bursts its banks , flooding at least eight neighborhoods in Culiacán . Telephone service in Los Mochis , Guarmuchil , and Guasave was cut when a communications tower was blown over . In Los Mochis , some schools and homes were destroyed and a few trees were uprooted . A total of 10 @,@ 000 people were left homeless across the state . The peak rainfall total in Mexico from Waldo was 9 @.@ 61 inches ( 244 mm ) in Jocuixtita / San Igancio ; heavy rain was also recorded along southern Baja California Sur .
In the United States , heavy rainfall prompted flood watches for most of west Texas . The National Weather Service even noted the possibility of 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rain in some areas across the state . Waldo contributed to rain heavy enough to cause some flash flooding in the Permian Basin area of Texas . Flood waters rose , leaving motorists stranded . One motorist was stranded for 30 minutes before begin rescued by another car . Odessa , Texas received about 2 in ( 51 mm ) in a four and half @-@ hour period . Torrential rainfall was recorded in Texas , but the highest official rainfall total in the United States was 6 @.@ 6 in ( 170 mm ) , recorded in Hobbs , New Mexico . Flash floods affected the southern one – third of the state from rainfall associated from Waldo . Damage was estimated between $ 100 @,@ 000 – $ 1 million ( 1985 USD ) , mostly to crops , roads , and buildings .
With help from a cold front , Waldo contributed to major flooding in Kansas that forced many rivers and creeks to overflow their banks . A total of 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 110 mm ) of rain fell in some locations . In the rural town of Raymond , a 52 @-@ year @-@ old man died from a heart attack while moving to higher ground due to rising floodwaters . Approximately 15 people were evacuated from their homes in Easton due to the overflow of the nearby Stranger Creek . Some of the evacuated resident slept at the nearby senior center for the night where the American Red Cross delivered items such as blankets , food , and clothes to the victims of the flood . In Kansas City , Waldo produced 1 ft ( 30 cm ) of water on roads , but none of the nearby homes received extensive damage . The Sedgwick County , the county fire department freed 35 trapped people from rising flood waters , six of which were rescued via helicopter . County workers were forced to use sandbags to prevent the dike along Cowskin creek from breaking . The Salt Creek overflowed its banks ; subsequently , Highway 68 closed in Osage County . Within six days after the dissipation of Hurricane Waldo , the remnants had produced heavy rainfall as far north as Michigan with flooding recorded as far north as Iowa . Waldo 's rain were comparable to Atlantic Hurricane Gloria though the wind speeds were much lower .
= Hurricane Julia ( 2010 ) =
Hurricane Julia was the easternmost Category 4 hurricane recorded in the Atlantic basin since reliable satellite observations became available . The twelfth tropical cyclone , fifth hurricane and fourth major hurricane of the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season , Julia rapidly developed on September 12 from a tropical wave near Cape Verde . Passing near the islands , the system quickly organized into Tropical Storm Julia the next day . On September 14 , Julia attained hurricane status and subsequently entered a trend of rapid intensification ; the storm strengthened from a minimal hurricane to a low @-@ end Category 4 in only 24 hours . After peaking in intensity , further development was impeded as interaction with nearby Hurricane Igor began to occur ; the storm was downgraded to a tropical storm by September 18 . It subsequently moved into a region of unfavorable conditions , heading toward lower sea surface temperatures . Correspondingly , Julia entered an extratropical transition on September 20 , and advisories on the storm were discontinued by that time .
As Julia never posed any significant threat to land , damage related to the storm was minimal . Trace amounts of rain reportedly fell across the Cape Verde islands , causing locally light flooding and minor inconveniences . Gusts battering the territory peaked at 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , resulting in some wind damage to crops . In addition , these winds produced rough sea conditions , and high waves posed few threats along coastlines .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Julia trace back to a vigorous tropical wave , or an equatorward low @-@ pressure area , which emerged into the Atlantic along the western coast of Africa on September 11 . At the time , the system maintained deep convection and strong easterly winds , prompting the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to commence tracking the system as an area of interest . As the wave moved generally westward at 10 to 15 mph ( 16 to 24 km / h ) , a quick increase in organization as well as a significant drop in surface pressure became notable . The system continued to organize , and several hours later , the NHC noted only a slight increase would suffice for the development of a tropical cyclone . By September 12 , a tropical depression developed , and the NHC initiated advisories at 1500 UTC that day . At the time , the cyclone was situated 250 mi ( 400 km ) southeast of the southernmost islands of Cape Verde .
For several hours , steady strengthening continued as the depression maintained a westward track . Operationally , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Julia early on September 13 , though post @-@ analysis confirmed the storm had reached winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) twelve hours after formation . For several hours , no significant change occurred in its intensity or organization as Julia passed near Cape Verde , though the storm gradually retraced to the west @-@ northwest along the southern periphery of a deep @-@ layer ridge . Slow intensification resumed as the storm bypassed the Cape Verde islands ; by early September 14 , it displayed a ragged , banded eye @-@ like feature in satellite imagery . Due to locally high sea surface temperatures of about 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) , a period of rapid intensification subsequently commenced ; within hours , Julia attained Category 1 hurricane status . Though located over an area with relatively low oceanic heat content , Julia continued to intensify rapidly under low vertical wind shear and over favorable sea surface temperatures ; as such , the hurricane was upgraded to Category 2 status on September 15 . In less than two hours , the hurricane deepened to reach Category 3 intensity , becoming the fourth major hurricane of the season . The rapid intensification trend continued , and Julia eventually strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane six hours later . Based on satellite estimates , its winds peaked at 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 948 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 99 inHg ) , though operationally estimated at 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) , respectively .
Upon peaking in intensity , Julia accelerated slightly as it re @-@ curved toward the northwest along a mid to upper @-@ level low to its southwest . In addition , this system generated unfavorable southerly flow aloft , inducing a slight weakening of the storm . By early September 16 , Julia 's eye became indistinguishable on satellite images , and the storm further dropped to below major hurricane status . Upon doing so , Julia became embedded within a south @-@ southeasterly steering current along deep @-@ layer ridging in its vicinity , resulting in a more westward track . Though still a hurricane , the relatively small tropical system moved to the east of the much larger Hurricane Igor . Concurrently , Igor 's outflow began impinging on Julia 's circulation , and due to colder sea surface temperatures , the storm weakened below hurricane intensity late on September 17 . Henceforth , Julia re @-@ accelerated as it further curved northward around the contiguous ridge , nearly merging with Igor as a result . Progressively tracking to the north over the next hours , Julia subsequently executed a turn to the northeast , then to the east . Proceeding eastward , the low @-@ level center of the storm became partially exposed on September 18 ; however , for several hours thereafter , convection gradually redeveloped over its center . Despite the deep convection , vertical wind shear again increased over the system , causing the storm to enter an extratropical transition . It is estimated Julia degenerated into a post @-@ tropical low by 1800 UTC on September 20 , while located about 1095 mi ( 1750 km ) west of the Azores . The resultant storm meandered around over the Atlantic for several days , continuing generally eastward before executing an elongated loop to the south . Following this erratic track , the remnants of Hurricane Julia proceeded northwestward and came within 350 mi ( 563 km ) of Bermuda , where they were once again briefly monitored by the NHC . However , chance of redevelopment dwindled , as conditions were not conducive for tropical formation ; convection nearly diminished entirely , and the NHC discontinued monitoring the system on September 28 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Immediately upon developing into a tropical depression , Julia posed a threat to Cape Verde . At the time , at least 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) of precipitation was expected , with locally accumulations of up to 8 in ( 203 mm ) . In response , the Government of Cape Verde issued a tropical storm warning for the southern portion of the archipelago , which included Maio , Sao Tiago , Fogo , and Brava . The tropical storm warning remained in effect after Julia intensified into a tropical storm ; it was finally discontinued early on September 14 .
Since Julia stayed at sea and never directly struck land as a significant cyclone , there were no reports of major damage or casualties . Across southern Cape Verde , intermittent rains and some gusty winds were reported when the storm neared the islands . Winds reached between 24 and 30 mph ( 38 and 48 km / h ) ; the only known report of rainfall accumulations was in Sal , where no more than 0 @.@ 39 in ( 9 @.@ 9 mm ) of precipitation was recorded . During the passage of the storm , authorities canceled several local and international flights across Cape Verde . In Sao Tiago , floods triggered several landslides , resulting in the isolation of the community of Covão Grande from roadways . Several communities also reported wind damage to maiz crops . In addition , rough seas with waves of 9 @.@ 8 to 14 @.@ 8 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 5 m ) resulted in minor disruptions along coastlines .
= Hurricane Cosme ( 2007 ) =
Hurricane Cosme was a minimal hurricane that threatened Hawaii in mid @-@ July 2007 . The sixth tropical cyclone , third named storm and first hurricane of the 2007 Pacific hurricane season , Cosme originated from a tropical wave that emerged off the coast of Africa on June 27 and tracked westward before emerging in the eastern Pacific . A system along the wave organized , and it was classified as a tropical depression on July 14 , a tropical storm on July 15 , and a hurricane on July 16 . Cosme reached peak intensity as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , but quickly weakened due to cooler waters . Steadily decreasing in strength , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression before passing to the south of the Hawaiian Islands . The depression crossed into the Central Pacific and degenerated into a remnant low by July 23 .
Because Cosme stayed far from land , effects were mostly minor . Swells up to 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) and up to 6 @.@ 94 in ( 176 mm ) of rainfall were reported , in addition to wind gusts of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . No fatalities or injuries were reported , and only minimal damage occurred .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Cosme can be traced back to a tropical wave that left the coast of Africa on June 27 , 2007 . Due to a lack of associated convection , the wave was difficult to track across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) estimated that the wave emerged into the Pacific Ocean on July 8 . Because the system was embedded within the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , development was initially slow . However , when it separated from the ITCZ on July 13 , the disturbance increased in convective organization , and was classified as Tropical Depression Six @-@ E about midway between Mexico and Hawaii . It tracked westward at 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) due to steering currents of a tropical easterly flow . Although wind shear was generally light , ocean temperatures were only marginal for tropical cyclone intensification . Forecasters experienced difficulty in locating the exact center of circulation . By July 14 , convection had steadily decreased , although the storm 's movement was initially uncertain due to its location within a broad low pressure area . Early on July 15 the depression 's appearance on satellite imagery improved , and at 1800 UTC the NHC upgraded the depression to tropical storm status , and gave it the name " Cosme " .
Shortly after attaining tropical storm status , the previously @-@ broad circulation consolidated as banding features developed . The inner core gradually condensed and tightened , as indicated by an AMSR @-@ E overpass . On July 16 an eye began to form and Cosme intensified to attain winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Tracking northwest towards a weakness in the mid @-@ level ridge , the cyclone continued to intensify and was upgraded to Hurricane Cosme late on July 16 , about 1 @,@ 600 mi ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) east of Hilo . The hurricane reached peak intensity with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , although due to cooler waters it quickly weakened to a tropical storm , as the eye became ragged and cloud @-@ filled .
By July 17 , the cloud pattern had deteriorated , and its winds decreased to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The center subsequently became exposed , with just a few thunderstorms confined to the southwest portion of the storm as it began to accelerate to the west . As easterly vertical wind shear increased , convection temporarily reformed in a concentrated area southwest of the center . As Cosme reached steadily cooler water temperatures , it was downgraded to a tropical depression late on July 18 about 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) southeast of Hilo , Hawaii ; at around the same time , the storm entered the forecast responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center . Tracking westward at 14 mph ( 23 km / h ) , maximum sustained winds were 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) with localized higher gusts . Gradually weakening , Tropical Depression Cosme passed south of the Hawaiian Islands on July 20 with a minimum central pressure of 1010 mbar . On July 22 , the depression came within 180 mi ( 290 km ) of Johnston Island , and later that day , it degenerated into a remnant low .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Initially , Cosme was predicted to make landfall on Hawaii as a tropical storm . In anticipation of the storm , the National Weather Service issued a flash flood watch for the island of Hawaii on July 20 . Also , small craft advisories were in effect for Maui and Hawaii ; wind advisories were issued for summits in those regions . High surf advisories were also put into effect for coastal areas . The Hawaii County Civil Defense prepared for the storm by planning for increases in emergency response personnel and opening of evacuation centers . County crews worked to clean out drains and culverts to prevent flooding .
Because the depression stayed far from land , the effects were mostly minor and little damage was reported . A strong trade wind swell north of Cosme generated waves up to 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) high . Rain bands produced up to 6 @.@ 94 in ( 176 mm ) of rainfall , causing small stream and drainage ditch flooding , as well as ponding on roadways in portions of Hilo , Puna , and Kau . The rainfall helped to relieve a persistent drought which had existed for several months . Wind gusts reached 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in southern portions of Hawaii , causing no known damage .
= Royal National College for the Blind =
The Royal National College for the Blind ( RNC ) is a co @-@ educational specialist residential college of further education based in the English city of Hereford . Students who attend the college are aged over 16 and blind or partially sighted . They can study a wide range of qualifications at RNC , from academic subjects such as English and mathematics to more vocational topics such as performing arts . Alongside regular further education subjects and vocational training , the College offers training in mobility , independent living and personal development .
Founded in 1871 in London as the Royal Normal College and Academy for the Blind , the college had a number of homes before moving to its campus in Hereford ; it was renamed the Royal National College for the Blind in the late 1970s . It has been a pioneer in the education of visually impaired people in Britain since the Victorian era , and , as of 2010 , is the only college for visually impaired students in the United Kingdom to have been awarded Beacon Status in recognition of its outstanding teaching and learning .
RNC hosts the UK 's first VI Sports Academy , having begun as the home of the first football academy for visually impaired players and the England blind football team . It hosted the 2010 World Blind Football Championship and also served as a training facility for participants in the 2012 Paralympic Games . The college is actively involved in the development of assistive technology , including student participation in the Tech Novice Cafe , run for members of the public who are not confident in computer use . Two notable devices were developed at RNC ; the Mountbatten Brailler , an electronic braille writer , and the T3 , a talking tactile device that helped with the reading of maps and diagrams .
Early in the 21st century , there was dramatic departmental restructuring at the college , and a significant redevelopment and modernisation of the Hereford campus . The campus , located on Venns Lane , Hereford , is
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home to RNC 's teaching , residential and leisure facilities . Students live in halls of residence , which enable them to gain a level of independence within the college environment . RNC operates a leisure facility , thePoint4 , which is open to the public , and conferencing and hotel accommodation under the name Gardner Hall . Principal Mark Fisher took over from his predecessor ( Sheila Tallon ) in December 2015 .
The college is a registered charity ( number 1000388 ) , and its Patron is Charles , Prince of Wales . There are several high @-@ profile supporters , including Dave Clarke , former captain of the England and Great Britain blind football teams . RNC has a number of notable people among its alumni , including former Home Secretary David Blunkett . The college was the subject of a 2007 film for the Channel 4 Cutting Edge documentary strand , which followed three students through their first term of study . The film won a 2008 Royal Television Society Award .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The college was established in 1871 by the English philanthropist Thomas Rhodes Armitage and the American anti @-@ slavery campaigner Francis Joseph Campbell , who lost his sight as a young boy . Campbell had originally planned to establish a college for the blind in the United States , but was persuaded by Armitage that London would be a more suitable location . At the time , English schools for the blind did not provide their students with the skills to become independent and , dissatisfied with this situation , Armitage dreamed of establishing a school whose emphasis was on music and which would prepare its students for careers as organists , piano tuners , and music teachers .
With donations of £ 3 @,@ 000 , the college enrolled its first two students on 1 March 1872 . Queen Victoria became its first Patron , while several prominent members of her family became Vice @-@ Patrons . Among those to become governors of the College were Duke of Westminster , Lord Shaftesbury , Lord Lichfield and the Right Hon. W. H. Smith , M.P. At the time of its founding it was called " The Royal Normal College and Academy for the Blind " , the word Normal being an American expression referring to teacher training offered by the college , with Campbell recruiting many of his teaching staff from the United States .
Originally located in two small buildings on Anerley Hill near London 's Crystal Palace , the college later moved to larger accommodation at Westow Street , Upper Norwood after rapidly outgrowing its original premises . In its early days , the college was considered very progressive and experimental in its approach to education . A history of the college on its website describes the curriculum as " liberal and advanced for its day " , and emphasis was placed on physical activities such as swimming , cycling and roller @-@ skating . Students even took part in a morning of tobogganing following a heavy fall of snow . By the end of the 19th century , the college had over 200 students . Until the Second World War the college admitted 11- to 15 @-@ year @-@ olds , but in 1945 the principal of RNC and headmaster of Worcester College for the Blind came to an agreement that Worcester would provide secondary education and RNC would take students over the age of 16 .
As well as being one of its founders , Francis Joseph Campbell served as RNC 's first principal , from 1871 until his retirement in 1912 . He was knighted as a Knight Bachelor by King Edward VII in 1909 , for his services to blind people . He was succeeded by his son , Guy Marshall Campbell , and following his death in 1929 Guy 's widow , Louie Bealby Campbell took over the position . The role of principal passed outside the Campbell family for the first time upon Louie Bealby Campbell 's retirement in 1934 .
= = = Relocation = = =
In the 20th century , the college moved location several times before establishing itself at its present campus in Hereford . The first of these moves occurred at the beginning of the Second World War , when the college was evacuated from its London site and moved to a mansion named Great Maytham in Rolvenden in west Kent . However , because of the threat of a German invasion , the authorities soon advised another move , and this time , with 24 hours notice and the help of the London Society for the Blind , a temporary home was found for RNC in Dorton , near Aylesbury , Buckinghamshire . At the time of the move most of the students were on holiday , although some thirty had remained at the college along with several staff members .
The college did not return to London because the Upper Norwood site – which was being used as a hospital following RNC 's move to Kent – was bombed in 1940 during the Blitz , then acquired by the authorities . The college had to close temporarily , until a permanent new home could be found , but in 1941 it purchased new premises at Rowton Castle near Shrewsbury and relocated there . The castle was built in the 17th Century and is situated in 17 acres ( 69 @,@ 000 m2 ) of grounds six miles ( 10 km ) west of Shrewsbury . This accommodation had limited space , and throughout its time in Shrewsbury RNC acquired other premises in and around the town . Albrighton Hall , about three miles ( 5 km ) from Shrewsbury , was acquired in 1955 and adapted for residential and training purposes for male students , and Hardy House was obtained as a new residential area for female students in 1958 . Plans to enlarge the Rowton site were seriously affected when , in 1953 , fire destroyed much of the buildings and 38 pianos and organs . The alarm was raised by one of the students , and everybody present was evacuated to safety . Training was able to continue after Henshaw 's Institution for the Blind took students and staff as a temporary measure .
RNC remained in Shropshire for many years until , in 1978 , more suitable accommodation was found that would enable RNC to consolidate its teaching and residential accommodation into one campus , and the college moved to its current home in Hereford . The site had previously been the campus of Hereford College of Education , a former teacher training college . In 1978 the college adopted its present name , the Royal National College for the Blind . RNC was opened at its new campus by Prince Charles , who arrived in Hereford by helicopter to perform the ceremony in 1979 .
= = = Hereford = = =
In the early 2000s the halls of residence at the Hereford campus underwent an extensive £ 1 @.@ 5 million upgrade . The blocks were originally built when the campus was being used as a teacher training college during the 1960s and were updated to include modern facilities such as larger student bedrooms with en @-@ suite bathrooms and space for televisions and computers , and improved social areas .
In 2006 the college announced an extensive expansion of its campus , including new halls of residence , a sports and complementary therapy building and a new outdoor floodlit sports pitch . The £ 21.5m sports development would be the venue for the 2010 World Blind Football Championship . A £ 10 million fundraising campaign , Building Brighter Futures , was created to raise the funds required to complete the project , and construction work began in the summer of 2007 . The complex , thePoint4 , was originally named The Point after a nearby block of flats . It includes a bistro and conference facilities , and commenced operation in April 2009 , and was officially opened on 24 June by BBC sports presenter and Daily Mail columnist Des Kelly . In 2008 the college was nominated as one of the sites for the 2012 Paralympic Games and acted as a pre @-@ Games training camp for Paralympic athletes .
RNC was the subject of a 2007 documentary for the Channel Four series Cutting Edge , which followed three young students ( Steve Markham , Daniel Angus and Selina Litt ) during their first term at the college . The film examines their individual journeys towards greater independence as they encounter the unique challenges that being visually impaired presents , as well as how they deal with the everyday issues that affect all teenagers , such as sex , relationships , partying and their future plans after graduation . The documentary , Blind Young Things , was first aired on 30 April 2007 , and won a Royal Television Society award for Channel Four and the Cutting Edge team in 2008 .
In September 2009 the college became the permanent home of the National BlindArt Collection , a collection of paintings , sculptures , installations and other works of art designed to engage all the senses and to provide people who are visually impaired with greater accessibility to art . In November 2009 RNC announced that it had been forced to send a third of its students home following an outbreak of swine flu on campus . During the heavy winter snowfall of 2009 – 2010 the college 's sports facilities were utilised by the Hereford United team for training after the bad weather conditions made using their own grounds at Edgar Street difficult .
In January 2010 two students from the college appeared with the fashion consultant Gok Wan in an edition of the Channel 4 series How to Look Good Naked ... with a Difference , where they took part in a photo shoot . The series sought to highlight confidence issues among people with disabilities . In February 2010 the college secured a £ 90 @,@ 000 grant from the Learning and Skills Improvement Service to install a music video production studio enabling bands to record material and showcase their work .
RNC celebrated its 140th anniversary in March 2012 with a day of events at its campus and a street collection in Hereford .
= = = Restructuring = = =
In the late 2000s RNC underwent significant restructuring as it responded to changes in the world of employment and therefore the courses that it offered its students . However , some of the college 's changes provoked criticism from staff and students who argued these were not in RNC 's best interest . There was some controversy over the college 's decision to reduce the availability of courses in piano tuning , traditionally regarded as a secure profession for visually impaired people , while fears were expressed that the decrease in A Level subjects would lead to RNC becoming a sport rather than an academic orientated college . Responding to these concerns in July 2008 , the then principal Christine Steadman told In Touch , the BBC Radio 4 news programme for visually impaired listeners ; " It 's about what the local authorities , what the learning and skills council , what the Welsh Assembly for government will purchase from us . And at the moment we are reducing a small number of A Level courses but at the same time we 're extending other courses , for example we 've got level 3 Braille being taught for the first time at the college , we 're not cutting A Levels , we 're just responding to the needs of the learners that are coming through our doors . " In an interview in January 2010 , current principal Geoff Draper said that piano tuning would be taught at the college if there was a demand for it , and suggested RNC could look to bringing in international students to fill places .
The changes led to significant department reorganisations within RNC , with several dozen staff members being summarily dismissed without explanation ; some were replaced by volunteers . A number of former college employees made complaints regarding the manner in which their employment was ended . In July 2008 the college lecturers union , the University and College Union , called for greater consultation between management and staff at the college . Speaking in a 2009 interview with In Touch Ian Pickford , who was brought in as interim principal following Christine Steadman 's departure , claimed that the atmosphere of the college had changed and issued a challenge to any student or member of staff who was still unhappy to meet with him to discuss their concerns .
Financial concerns were raised in 2009 over the cost of the new leisure complex , and because of a change in the source of student funding from the Learning and Skills Council to Local Education Authorities . The college was facing a shortfall of at least £ 500 @,@ 000 in 2009 and its auditors expressed doubt about RNC 's ability to continue as a going concern . In response Ian Pickford said that much of thePoint4 's costs had been paid for through donations and that the shortfall issue was being addressed through cutbacks , including some redundancies . Of the auditors ' concerns he said ; " I think post the banking crisis a lot of auditors are incredibly nervous about making bland statements in terms of the future of organisations and therefore they frequently now put those sort of caveats in to protect their position going forward . "
= = Assistive technology = =
The college is actively involved in the development and use of assistive technology to aid visually impaired people in their everyday lives . For example , working with a United States @-@ based software engineer , RNC produced the T3 ( Talking Tactile Tablet ) , a touch sensitive device for interpreting tactile images such as diagrams , charts and maps . The device is connected to a computer and run with a programme CD , and has a tactile surface which produces touchable icons that provide audio feedback when they are pressed . The device was originally developed for educational purposes but can be adapted for other uses . In 2005 Hereford Museum and Art Gallery became the first in the United Kingdom to invest in the technology . The T3 was later marketed internationally with the help of the UK Trade & Investment 's passport initiative – a scheme which gives new exporters the training , planning and support they need to succeed in overseas markets .
The Mountbatten , an electronic Braille writing machine and embosser , was pioneered and developed at the college by Ernest Bate . Work began on the project following a bequest in the will of the late Lord Louis Mountbatten for the development of a modern , low cost , portable brailler . It has been available since 1991 , and is manufactured by Quantum Technology , a company based in Australia . In the early 1990s two RNC lecturers , Clive Ellis and Tony Larkin , invented the Hoople , a hoop @-@ shaped mobility aid for blind people which performs a similar role to a white cane , but is designed for use in a rural environment and on rough terrain . RNC lecturer Nigel Berry designed the Fingerprints Braille course , which was first published in 1993 and is now widely used to teach adult beginners to touch @-@ read and write grade 2 Braille .
RNC is involved in the RoboBraille project which allows visually impaired Internet users to have text translated into Braille and MP3 audio format via email . The system , developed in Denmark , was launched in June 2006 and won a British Computer Society Social Contribution Project Award in 2007 . ClearText , which enables visually impaired users to browse the web more easily by making text easier for them to read , was developed in conjunction with the college . In 2009 RNC lecturer Tony Sales developed Vinux , an accessible version of the Linux operating system for the visually impaired .
= = Education = =
RNC provides full @-@ time and shorter courses in vocational and academic subjects for approximately 200 students aged 16 and above . In 2008 there were 196 students in attendance , 74 of whom were aged 16 to 18 and 122 aged 19 years and over . Younger students often join the college straight from school , while adult students are from a diverse range of backgrounds . Students have often been visually impaired since birth or may have lost their sight in later life as a result of illness or accident . Some students have additional disabilities such as autistic spectrum disorder and other medical needs . They can attend the college on a daily or residential basis , and accommodation is provided for those who board . There were 152 residential and 44 day students in 2008 .
Courses vary in length from a few weeks to two years . There are no formal academic requirements for entry into RNC , but potential students are invited to attend an assessment at the college before being offered a place to determine the level of support they will need during their studies . The assessment typically includes an evaluation of a person 's level of vision , their mobility and independence skills , any residential support they may require , basic literacy and numeracy skills tests , and an interview with the leader of the course they wish to take .
Study programmes at RNC are designed to prepare visually impaired students for progression into further education , university or employment . The development of independent living and personal skills is also encouraged . The college is divided into several different areas of study . These include Leisure , Therapies and Sport ( including courses and qualifications in massage , complementary therapies , and sport treatment and management ) ; Music , Media , Performance and Art ( including courses and qualifications in music technology , media and art ) ; Information and Communication Technology ( including courses and qualifications in office skills and the European Computer Driving Licence ) ; Business , Administration and Customer Service ; Secondary level qualifications – General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) and General Certificate of Education Advanced Level ( A @-@ Level ) qualifications in subjects such as English , mathematics , French and psychology ; and Braille reading . On top of academic and vocational study students are also taught to develop independence and mobility skills for day @-@ to @-@ day living . Topics covered here include the use of a white cane and becoming familiar with the surrounding environment , using public transport safely and confidently , cooking and laundry skills , and using cash machines or making Chip and PIN credit card transactions .
Traditionally courses in Piano Tuning and Piano Technology were also available at the college . However , these were significantly reduced in the late 2000s because of a decline in the number of students studying the subjects . There has also been a reduction in the number of A @-@ levels available for study owing to changes in the types of courses education funding bodies supporting students at RNC are willing to pay for .
RNC began to offer its first Higher Education ( or university level ) qualification in January 2010 with the launch of the Certificate in Higher Education : Working with People with Visual Impairment Programme . The qualification is offered in collaboration with St Joseph 's Centre for the Visually Impaired in Dublin and the University of Worcester .
Following an inspection by the Office for Standards in Education , Children 's Services and Skills ( Ofsted ) in 2004 the quality of the college 's teaching was graded as " outstanding " , and in 2005 RNC was one of only eight colleges in the UK to be awarded Learning and Skills Beacon Status . It is the only college for visually impaired students to have Beacon status , which is only given to educational establishments which have received a first @-@ class Ofsted inspection report . RNC was again praised by Ofsted in 2009 for its continued good progress when Inspectors graded the college as " outstanding " across all six areas inspected and said it had gained ground since its last inspection in 2006 .
= = Campus = =
RNC has four halls of residence , three of which ( Armitage , Campbell and Dowdell ) have been updated in recent years to include modern facilities in accordance with Care Standards and Disability Discrimination Act requirements . Specific accommodation has been adapted for wheelchair users , while some rooms have sensory fire alarm calls to alert those who are hard of hearing . Halls are divided into flats accommodating several students . Each flat has a number of single rooms with shared kitchen and dining facilities , and a central lounge .
Because it was not possible to upgrade Gardner Hall , a new modern block , Orchard Hall , was built to replace it . Gardner became an assessment centre for prospective students . In September 2009 Gardner was made available as a venue for hire for functions such as weddings . In addition to the halls of residence , the college also owns several houses both on and off campus which enable students to gain a greater level of independent living . There is a restaurant which provides meals , or students can choose to be self @-@ catering . All accommodation has kitchen facilities .
On @-@ campus facilities include a gym , sports hall , a floodlit all @-@ weather football pitch and tennis courts . RNC 's thePoint4 complex offers sporting , leisure and conference facilities , as well as a bistro , and is open to both students and members of the general public . Other facilities at RNC include the Flexible Learning Centre , which features the latest assistive technology and learning resources and is open seven days a week , a student social club which is licensed to sell alcohol to students who are 18 and over , and a student common room . The college has an active Students ' Union which plays an important role in college life , being responsible for organising leisure activities both on and off campus . There are also on @-@ campus medical facilities .
In December 2008 the Hereford Times reported that the college would be home to a sculpture by the Herefordshire @-@ based contemporary artist Walenty Pytel that he would create using an original drawing produced by an RNC student . The piece , depicting a man running in a Futurist style and titled the 4Runner was unveiled in September 2009 and stands on a 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) plinth outside the entrance of the sports and leisure complex .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
RNC is the home of the first football academy for visually impaired players . The Football Academy was officially opened in August 2008 by former England footballer Sir Trevor Brooking and offers visually impaired students the opportunity to include football as part of their study programme with a view to playing the game at a national level . The college is the home of the England blind football team , which is supported by the Football Association and coached by former professional footballer Tony Larkin . The game is played as a five @-@ a @-@ side match using a ball filled with ballbearings to enable players to hear its position . Teams consist of four blind players and a sighted goalkeeper who offers directions along with the coach and a sighted guide behind the opposition goalpost . RNC is helping to develop a national blind football league . In 2010 RNC hosted the World Blind Football Championship at its campus . The tournament got under way on Saturday 14 August with the opening match between England and Spain , and was won by Brazil following a 2 – 0 win against Spain in the final on 22 August . Members of England 's blind football team travelled to Los Angeles in November 2011 to promote the sport in the United States , and took part in a day 's training with former England captain David Beckham . The trip was organised by supermarket chain Sainsbury 's as part of their sponsorship deal with the footballer .
Blind cricket , which is played basically the same as conventional cricket but using larger stumps and wickets and a white ball so that players may see it much more easily , is also played at the college , and RNC has its own cricket team , which competes in the British Blind Sport ( BBS ) National Cricket League . The college also features acoustic shooting , a sport which uses air rifles fitted with photoelectric cells which convert light reflected from targets into sound .
As well as football , cricket and acoustic shooting , students at RNC can participate in a wide range of other sporting and athletic activities , including horse riding , swimming , ten pin bowling , weight training , circuit training and martial arts . Away from sport , other activities include art and design , ceramics , drama and dance , photography and gardening . There are shopping excursions and trips to the cinema and theatre , while clubs and societies include a dining club and the RNC choir .
= = Notable people and alumni = =
The college is a charitable organisation and is registered with the Charity Commission , the government body which oversees charities in England and Wales . It has a number of high @-@ profile supporters which include Charles , Prince of Wales , who is the current Patron , a position he has held since 1997 . The current president is Mrs Jessica White , and there are several public figures who serve as vice presidents . These include the Archbishop of Canterbury , the Archbishop of York , the Archbishop of Westminster , Countess Mountbatten of Burma and Michael Buerk . In 2008 the BBC sports presenter Gabby Logan and Daily Mail columnist Des Kelly both became Patrons of the England Blind Football team .
Since the Principalship passed outside the Campbell family in 1934 a number of individuals have held the position . Among them are Lance Marshall who was principal at the time the college moved to its Hereford campus in 1978 , followed by Colin Housby @-@ Smith and then Roisin Burge . Christine Steadman oversaw the college 's restructuring during her tenure in the late 2000s and proved to be unpopular with staff and students ; Steadman resigned in November 2008 . Geoff Draper , a former Colonel in the British Army , was appointed to the position on 7 December 2009 . The present incumbent is Sheila Tallon , who succeeded Draper in September 2011 .
Graduates of the college include David Blunkett , British Labour Party politician and former Home Secretary , and Alfred Hollins , English composer and organist . Giles McKinley , who starred in a groundbreaking television commercial for Sauza Tequila during the 1990s , is a former RNC student . The actor Ryan Kelly , who in 1997 , became the first completely blind student to join the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School , and plays the role of Jack " Jazzer " McCreary in Radio 4 's The Archers , attended RNC . The Paralympic cyclist Anthony Kappes also studied at the college .
= Adiantum viridimontanum =
Adiantum viridimontanum , commonly known as Green Mountain maidenhair fern , is a rare fern found only in outcrops of serpentine rock in New England and Eastern Canada . The leaf blade is cut into finger @-@ like segments , themselves once @-@ divided , which are borne on the outer side of a curved , dark , glossy rachis ( the central stalk of the leaf ) . These finger @-@ like segments are not individual leaves , but parts of a single compound leaf . The " fingers " may be drooping or erect , depending on whether the individual fern grows in shade or sunlight . Spores are borne under false indusia ( rolled flaps of tissue ) at the edge of the subdivisions of the leaf , a characteristic unique to the genus Adiantum .
Until 1991 , A. viridimontanum was grouped with the western maidenhair fern , A. aleuticum , which grows both in western North America and as a disjunct on serpentine outcrops in eastern North America . At one time , A. aleuticum itself was classified as a variety ( A. pedatum var. aleuticum ) of the northern maidenhair fern , A. pedatum . However , after several years of study , botanist Cathy Paris recognized that A. aleuticum was a distinct species , and that some of the specimens that had been attributed to that taxon ( group of organisms ) were a third , hybrid species intermediate between A. pedatum and A. aleuticum . She named the new species A. viridimontanum for the site of its discovery in the Green Mountains in Vermont ; it has since been located in Quebec and in one site on serpentine in coastal Maine .
A. viridimontanum is difficult to distinguish from its parent species in the field . It can generally be separated from A. pedatum by the shape of the ultimate segments ( the smallest divisions of the leaf ) , and by its habitat on thin , exposed serpentine soils rather than in rich woodlands . It more closely resembles A. aleuticum ; however , the stalks of the ultimate segments and the false indusia are longer and the spores larger .
Due to its limited distribution and similarity to other Adiantum species within its range , little is known of its ecology . It thrives on sunny , disturbed areas where ultramafic rock is covered with thin soil , such as road cuts , talus slopes , and asbestos mines . Individual plants seem long @-@ lived , and new individuals only infrequently reach maturity . It is one of four species endemic to serpentine in eastern North America and is considered globally threatened due to its habitat restrictions .
= = Description = =
Adiantum viridimontanum is a medium @-@ sized , deciduous , terrestrial fern , about 2 feet ( 60 cm ) wide and 1 to 2 feet ( 30 to 60 cm ) high . Its fronds range from 30 to 75 cm ( 12 to 30 in ) in length from the base of the stem to the tip . Like many ferns , the frond of A. viridimontanum is divided into a series of leaflets , known as pinnae , and the pinnae are further divided into pinnules . The shape of the frond in A. pedatum , A. aleuticum , and A. viridimontanum is very similar . They are usually described as having a rachis that forks into two branches , which curve outwards and backwards . Several pinnae grow from the outer side of the curve of each rachis branch , with the longest pinnae located closest to the fork of the rachis . The fingerlike pinnae are pinnately divided into short @-@ stalked pinnules .
However , this interpretation of the frond architecture ( pedately divided into pinnae , then pinnately divided into pinnules ) presents a problem : no other species of Adiantum , nor any other member of the Polypodiaceae sensu lato ( the family in which Adiantum was once included ) has a forking rachis . In fact , these species are not pedate , but pseudopedate . What appears to be a fork in the rachis is in fact the junction between the rachis and a basal pinna . That basal pinna makes up one of the two curving branches ; the rachis runs straight up the first fingerlike segment on the other branch , while the remainder of that curving branch is made up of the other basal pinna . Both basal pinnae are further divided and subdivided to create the other fingerlike segments . Therefore , even though they appear structurally similar , the longest and most central fingerlike segment represents the tip of the frond , pinnately divided into pinnae ( the first level of division of the frond ) , while the two shorter fingerlike segments immediately on either side of it are pinnae , pinnately divided into pinnules ( the second level of division ) . Each fingerlike segment thereafter represents a level of division one greater than the one that precedes it . Therefore , the final , pinnate subdivisions of each fingerlike segment may be referred to as " ultimate segments " to avoid the technical inaccuracy of calling them pinnules .
The rhizome shows little branching , with intervals of 4 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 5 mm between nodes . It measures 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 5 mm in diameter . The rhizome and the stipe ( the part of the stem below the leaf ) have bronze @-@ colored scales . The stipe and rachis range from chestnut brown to dark purple in color and are glabrous ; the stipe is about 2 to 3 mm in diameter while the rachis is smaller , 1 to 2 mm . The basal pinnae are from three to seven times pinnate ( due to the pseudopedate structure of the blade ) , while the apical parts of the blade ( and the corresponding segments of the basal pinnae ) are once @-@ pinnate . The penultimate segments of the blade ( the apparent " pinnae " , or fingerlike segments ) are typically lanceolate in shape . The overall arrangement of the penultimate segments ranges from drooping and fan @-@ shaped on plants growing in the shade to funnel @-@ shaped on plants growing in full sun ; under the latter conditions , the segments stand stiffly erect .
The ultimate segments of the divided blade ( the apparent " pinnules " ) are borne on short , dark stalks of 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 5 mm , with the dark color often spreading into the base of each segment . They are long and obliquely triangular , the basiscopic margin forming the hypotenuse . The tip of the segments is typically acute , but entire ( not pointed ) . They measure from 9 @.@ 5 to 22 @.@ 5 mm in length and 4 @.@ 2 to 7 @.@ 5 mm in breadth , the average length being about 2 @.@ 5 times the breadth . Their tissue is herbaceous ( firmly leafy ) to chartaceous ( parchment @-@ like ) in texture , and bright green to bluish @-@ green in color . As in other members of Adiantum , the glabrous leaves shed water when young . Under shady conditions , the ultimate segments lie within the plane of the blade , but tend to twist out of the plane when grown in the sun . The acroscopic margins of these segments are lobed , with narrow ( less than 1 @.@ 0 mm ) incisions lying between lobes . In fertile segments , these lobes are recurved to form false indusia beneath the leaf . These are transversely oblong , from 2 to 5 mm in length and from 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 4 mm in width .
The sporangia ( the fern 's spore @-@ bearing structures ) are borne on the underside of the leaf beneath the false indusium , a trait found in all members of Adiantum and not in any species outside it . The sori are round , and are found on veins ending in the false indusium , below the veins ' ends . The spores are tetrahedral to globose , yellow in color , and measure 41 to 58 micrometers ( μm ) in diameter ( averaging 51 @.@ 4 μm ) , on average larger than other species in the A. pedatum complex . Spores appear in the summer and fall . The species has a chromosome number of 116 in the sporophyte .
= = = Identification = = =
Adiantum viridimontanum closely resembles the other species in the A. pedatum complex ( A. pedatum and A. aleuticum ) , and distinguishing the three in the field is difficult . Paris and Windham , in their study of the complex , noted that while each species , collectively , can be distinguished from the others , no single morphological character was absolutely distinctive among species . Sterile triploid hybrids between A. viridimontanum and the other two species may occur , further complicating field identification .
One potentially distinguishing character is the shape of the ultimate segments in the middle part of the leaf blade , which are oblong in A. pedatum and long @-@ triangular or reniform ( kidney @-@ shaped ) in A. viridimontanum and some specimens of A. aleuticum . Furthermore , A. viridimontanum can grow in both shade and sun , while A. pedatum grows in shade only .
Adiantum viridimontanum can be separated from the morphologically similar individuals of A. aleuticum by the greater length of the stalks on the medial ultimate segments and of the false indusia , measuring greater than 0 @.@ 9 mm and greater than 3 @.@ 5 mm , respectively , in A. viridimontanum . Spore size is also a useful character ( although not easily measured in the field ) ; the average A. viridimontanum spore measures 51 @.@ 4 μm in diameter . While A. aleuticum spores can reach up to 53 μm , they average about 43 μm . In A. aleuticum growing as a disjunct on eastern serpentine ( the specimens most likely to be confused with A. viridimontanum ) , the rhizome is much more frequently branched , with intervals of 1 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 0 mm between nodes .
= = Taxonomy = =
All species in the genus Adiantum are currently placed in the subfamily Vittarioideae of family Pteridaceae on the basis of molecular phylogenetic evidence .
The work which led to the recognition of Adiantum viridimontanum as a distinct taxon began in the early 20th Century . Following the discovery of disjunct specimens of western maidenhair fern , then classified as A. pedatum var. aleuticum , on the serpentine tableland of Mount Albert by Merritt Lyndon Fernald in 1905 , botanists began to search for western maidenhair on ultramafic outcrops elsewhere in Quebec and Vermont . It was first identified in Vermont by L. Frances Jolley in 1922 at Belvidere Mountain in Eden . In 1983 , William J. Cody transferred A. pedatum growing on serpentine , both in eastern and western North America , to A. pedatum ssp. calderi instead . Many of the stations for the fern in Vermont were described in 1985 , in a survey of ultramafic outcrops in that state .
From 1983 to 1985 , Cathy A. Paris , then a graduate student , gathered specimens of A. pedatum from non @-@ serpentine soils in the Midwest and Vermont , and from serpentine soils in New England and Canada , for biosystematic analysis . In 1988 , Paris and Michael D. Windham published the results of this analysis , revealing A. pedatum in North America to be a cryptic species complex . They showed that A. pedatum sensu lato included two well @-@ distinguished diploid taxa , one found in the Eastern woodlands , and the other found both in the Western mountains and as a disjunct on serpentine in the East . However , not all of the serpentine disjuncts proved to belong to the Western taxon . Several of them , including most of the specimens in Vermont , were found to be tetraploid , forming a taxon distinguishable from the two diploids . Isozyme banding patterns suggested that the tetraploid had arisen by hybridization between the eastern subspecies of non @-@ serpentine woodlands and the western and serpentine taxon , followed by a duplication of the hybrid genome through polyploidy ( allowing the chromosomes to pair and restoring sexual fertility ) . This allotetraploid was also morphologically intermediate between the two taxa , although it more closely resembled the serpentine taxon ( hence its referral to var. aleuticum before Paris 's work ) . Paris formally described the tetraploid as a new species , A. viridimontanum , in 1991 , and also separated the western and serpentine taxon from A. pedatum as the species A. aleuticum . The type specimen of A. viridimontanum was collected from a talus slope at the old asbestos mine on Belvidere Mountain on August 28 , 1985 . The sequencing of several chloroplast DNA loci has revealed that the A. viridimontanum chloroplast genome most closely resembles that of A. aleuticum , suggesting that A. aleuticum was the maternal parent of A. viridimontanum .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Adiantum viridimontanum is narrowly distributed in New England and Quebec . Seven stations in Vermont lie in the Missisquoi Valley , in the northern Green Mountains , giving the fern its common name . The ultramafic rocks of this area extend northwards into Quebec , where eight stations are known in southern Quebec and six in the Thetford Mines area . It is also known from one station on serpentine on Deer Isle , Maine .
The fern thrives in thin serpentine soils on sunny , disturbed habitats such as roadcuts and talus slopes , in dunite and other ultramafic rocks . Anthropogenic disturbance has removed thicker soils and increased sun exposure in many of these sites ; for instance , many of the Quebec stations are in asbestos mines , both abandoned and active . In more natural habitats , frost weathering and erosion may promote rock fall and maintain suitable habitat .
The eastern serpentine outcrops where A. viridimontanum thrives have relatively few endemics , compared to serpentine exposures globally . A. viridimontanum is one of only five taxa ( four species and a variety ) that are strictly endemic to serpentine in eastern North America , and two of these , A. aleuticum and Aspidotis densa , grow on non @-@ serpentine substrates elsewhere in North America .
= = Ecology = =
Adiantum viridimontanum largely reproduces asexually by branching rather than sexually through spores . While wind @-@ blown spores can result in sexual reproduction for the species , most spores probably fall within a relatively short radius of the plant . In addition , reproduction through spore dispersal requires the spore to land in suitable conditions for generating a gametophyte , typically in bright sunlight on thin serpentine soils . These requirements allow A. viridimontanum to colonize recently disturbed sites on ultramafic outcrops , where bedrock has been exposed and competing plants have been removed . The populations appear stable , with the long life of individuals compensating for low recruitment rates .
Little is known about the role of A. viridimontanum in the ecosystem . In general , ferns are less susceptible to herbivory than flowering plants due to higher levels of toxic and distasteful compounds in their foliage . A. viridimontanum is not known to be threatened by a particular predator or disease .
= = Conservation = =
Under the NatureServe conservation status system , A. viridimontanum is considered globally vulnerable ( G3 ) . It is considered imperiled ( S2 ) in Vermont and vulnerable ( S3 ) in Quebec ; it has not yet been classified in Maine .
Conservation of A. viridimontanum is primarily limited by its restricted habitat on serpentine cliffs and talus slopes . However , these sites are also of little value to humans . The most likely threat to the species is expansion of asbestos mining , which often occurs near populations of the fern , or other reuse of abandoned asbestos mines . Road construction might also threaten some sites , although this is mitigated by the fern 's ability to flourish on disturbed serpentine . None of the sites are as yet known to be invaded by non @-@ native plants . The species is considered more difficult to cultivate than either of its parent species .
= Hurricane Audrey =
Hurricane Audrey was an extremely destructive tropical cyclone which primarily impacted areas of the South Central United States in June 1957 . The first named storm and hurricane of the annual hurricane season , it first formed on June 25 , 1957 from a tropical wave which moved into the Bay of Campeche , developing so quickly that it was never recorded at tropical depression status . Situated within favorable conditions for tropical development , Audrey quickly strengthened , reaching hurricane status just a few hours after being classified as a tropical cyclone . Moving generally northwards , it continued to strengthen as it approached the United States Gulf Coast . On June 27 , the hurricane reached peak sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) , making it a major hurricane . At the time , Audrey had a minimum barometric pressure of 945 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) . The hurricane made landfall at the same intensity between the mouth of the Sabine River and Cameron , Louisiana later that day , causing unprecedented destruction across the region . Once inland , Audrey rapidly weakened and turned extratropical over Louisiana on June 28 , before fully dissipating on June 29 .
Prior to making landfall , Audrey severely disrupted offshore drilling operations in the Gulf of Mexico . Damages from offshore oil facilities alone was estimated at $ 16 million . Audrey caused much of its destruction near the border between Texas and Louisiana upon its first and only landfall . The hurricane 's strong winds resulted in widespread property and infrastructural damage . Power outages also resulted from the strong winds . However , as typical with most landfalling tropical cyclones , most of the destruction at the coast was the result of the hurricane 's strong storm surge , which was amplified by Audrey 's rapid deepening just prior to landfall . The hurricane 's storm surge was reported to have peaked as high as 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) , helping to inundate coastal areas . Damage from the surge alone extended 25 mi ( 40 km ) inland . The rough seas killed nine people offshore after capsizing the boat they were in . Further inland in Louisiana , the storm spawned two tornadoes , causing additional damage . The hurricane also dropped heavy rainfall , peaking at 10 @.@ 63 in ( 270 mm ) near Basile , Louisiana . In Louisiana and Texas , where Audrey first impacted , damages totaled $ 128 million .
After moving inland and transitioning into an extratropical cyclone , Audrey caused additional damage across the interior United States . The storm produced 23 tornadoes across Mississippi and Alabama , causing $ 600 @,@ 000 in losses and killing two people . As it moved towards the northeast , moisture associated with the extratropical remnants of Audrey intersected with a weather front over the Midwestern United States , producing record rainfall that peaked at 10 @.@ 20 in ( 259 @.@ 08 mm ) in Paris , Illinois . The resultant flooding resulted in ten fatalities . Elsewhere in the United States , the storm brought strong winds , causing additional damage . Further north in Canada , 15 people were killed in Ontario and Quebec . Strong winds and torrential rainfall disrupted transportation services . In Quebec , ten people were killed in the Montreal area , making Audrey the deadliest hurricane to strike the Canadian province in recorded history . The storm was also considered the worst storm to strike Quebec in at least 20 years . In the United States , Audrey killed at least 416 people , the majority of which were in Cameron Parish Louisiana , though the final death total may never be known . Damage totaled $ 147 million in the country , at the time the fifth @-@ costliest hurricane recorded in the US since 1900 . The name Audrey was later retired from usage as an identifier for an Atlantic hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
Between June 20 and 25 , 1957 , an ill @-@ defined tropical wave moved across the Caribbean Sea , over the Yucatán Peninsula , and into the Bay of Campeche . The system was difficult to trace until a report on June 24 from Carmen , Mexico confirmed the presence of a low pressure area . Later that evening , a shrimp boat in the Bay of Campeche reported sustained winds of 40 to 45 mph ( 65 to 75 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1008 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 78 inHg ) . As the disturbance developed , a large trough extended from a low over the Hudson Bay into the Gulf of Mexico . The " latitudinal superposition " of these systems resulting in the intensification of both . Situated over an area of high sea surface temperatures ( approximately 85 ° F ( 29 ° C ) ) and within a region of favorable upper @-@ level divergence , the tropical disturbance rapidly deepened overnight . The system was declared a tropical depression early on June 25 as it became stationary over the southern Gulf of Mexico . An aircraft reconnaissance mission into the storm on June 25 revealed that the system had already intensified into a hurricane , reporting winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . At this time , Audrey was located approximately 380 mi ( 610 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas .
After attaining hurricane status , Audrey began to slowly move northward in response troughing in the upper @-@ levels of the atmosphere . Continued reconnaissance missions into the storm revealed a well @-@ developed structure , indicating that the system had become increasingly powerful . Only one observation close to the storm 's center was made from this point until its landfall ; the tanker Tillamook encountered the hurricane 's western eyewall between 0910 and 1025 UTC on June 27 . During this time , a pressure of 969 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 62 inHg ) was measured . According to the Hurricane Database , Audrey attained winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) shortly after passing this tanker , making it a Category 4 on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . Around 1430 UTC on June 27 , the eye of Audrey made landfall between the mouth of the Sabine River and Cameron , Louisiana . Adjustments were made to the strength of Hurricane Audrey winds were previously thought to have been at approximately 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) . Later research showed the maximum sustained winds only reached 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) .
After maintaining its eye 60 mi ( 95 km ) inland , Audrey dramatically weakened and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it turned northeastward over Louisiana , and reached Tennessee as a 995 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 39 inHg ) low . At this point , the system interacted with a wave extending from a polar front near Chicago , Illinois and subsequently re @-@ intensified . Curving northward and later northwestward around another extratropical low , the system attained a pressure of 974 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 76 inHg ) as it moved near Lake Huron . The rapid deepening of Audrey as an extratropical cyclone was stated to be similar to that of Hurricane Hazel in 1954 . By this point , the system was again producing hurricane @-@ force winds , with Jamestown , New York reporting gusts up to 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . By June 29 , the system became entangled with the other cyclone and was eventually absorbed into its circulation over southern Quebec .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
The name " Audrey " was soon retired and will never be used again to name a hurricane . Because of this , it was the only use of the name Audrey for the Atlantic Basin . Hurricane Audrey left $ 147 million ( 1957 USD ) in damage and at least 416 fatalities in the US , most in eastern Texas and western Louisiana . Audrey is ranked as the sixth deadliest hurricane to hit the United States mainland since accurate record @-@ keeping began in 1900 . No future hurricane caused as many fatalities in the United States until Katrina in 2005 .
= = = Gulf of Mexico = = =
One mobile drilling rig sank , with four tenders suffering damage when pulled loose from their mooring and running aground . The damage from all offshore oil facilities totaled US $ 16 million ( 1957 dollars ) .
= = = Texas and Louisiana = = =
Shortly after Audrey was classified as a tropical cyclone , the United States Weather Bureau advised ships in the path of the storm to exercise caution and small craft to remain in port on June 26 . In addition , the Weather Bureau requested for Texas and Louisiana to issue hurricane watches for their coasts . These requested watches were later succeeded by a hurricane warning for the entire Louisiana coast later that day . This warning was later extended westward to include areas of the Texas coast south to High Island , Texas . Northwest storm warnings were issued for the upper Texas coast north of Galveston , Texas , while southeast storm warnings were issued for coastal areas between the western border of Mississippi and Pensacola , Florida . These warnings remained posted until Audrey made landfall . Small craft warnings were issued the next day for coastal areas between Brownsville , Texas and Pensacola , Florida .
Residents in exposed low @-@ lying areas were urged to evacuate , due to the potential for high and damaging storm surge . Evacuation procedures in Texas began on June 27 , starting with residents in the Bolivar Peninsula area . Several power lines were redirected to Fort Davis to act as an emergency supply in the event of a mass evacuation . In Louisiana , schools were set up as emergency shelters . All residents on Grand Isle were urged to evacuate after the island was isolated from the mainland during Hurricane Flossy a year prior ; 3 @,@ 400 residents later evacuated from the island to cities in southern Louisiana . However , 600 residents remained on the island during the storm . Civil defense groups in the state placed key personnel in the area on 24 @-@ hour duty .
= = = = Texas = = = =
Although making landfall near the border between Texas and Louisiana , areas of eastern Texas saw relatively less damage associated with Audrey . In Port Arthur , Texas , winds gusted to 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) , while the barometric pressure fell to 966 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 52 inHg ) . The strong winds blew down communication lines and uprooted trees . Storm surge heights exceeded 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in coastal areas north of Galveston . Further south in Corpus Christi , Texas , storm tides peaked at 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal , washing out portions of Mustang Island Park Road . A 0 @.@ 75 mi ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) section of Texas State Highway 87 between High Island and Sabine Pass , Texas was later closed after sections of the highway were washed out by high water . Further inland , rainfall peaked at 7 @.@ 35 in ( 187 mm ) at Jefferson County Airport , setting a daily rainfall record . Overall , Audrey caused $ 8 million in damages and nine deaths in Texas .
= = = Elsewhere in the United States = = =
While moving inland , Audrey spawned 23 tornadoes which killed two people and injured 14 others in Mississippi and Alabama , while causing $ 600 @,@ 000 ( 1957 USD ) in damage . In the Midwest , the flow of moisture from Audrey intersected a weather front to its north , creating a large storm with associated rainfall of 5 inches ( 130 mm ) to 11 inches ( 280 mm ) extending from central Missouri east @-@ northeast across central Illinois and central Indiana . The 10 @.@ 20 inches ( 259 mm ) of rain that fell in Paris , Illinois led to a monthly precipitation record for June of 17 @.@ 65 inches ( 448 mm ) and its wettest year on record with a total of 61 @.@ 59 inches ( 1 @,@ 564 mm ) . It also flooded the entire town . The storm dropped huge amounts of rain that caused significant flooding , leaving 10 fatalities . In Pennsylvania , the storm produced 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) sustained winds while winds of 95 – 100 mph ( 153 – 161 km / h ) were reported in New York . In Canada , winds up to 80 mph ( 129 km / h ) were reported and there were 15 fatalities .
As an extratropical cyclone , Audrey brought hurricane @-@ force winds as far east as St. Albans , Vermont , where a gust of 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) was measured . Throughout the state , countless tress and power lines were downed . In Maine , rough seas stirred up by the storm forced yachts to be grounded .
= = = Canada = = =
The remnants of Audrey entered Ontario with tropical storm force winds after crossing Lake Ontario . Heavy rainfall in the province washed out roads and rail lines . Six people were trapped in Algonquin Provincial Park for four days due to dangerous river currents and downed trees blocking roads . One boy drowned and a firefighter died due to the storm , and three other people died in Ontario due to traffic accidents . In neighboring Quebec , the remnants of Audrey were considered the worst storm in about 20 years , and over 100 houses were damaged by floods . The Montreal district of Saraguay lost power for several days . Throughout Montreal , there were 10 deaths , nine of which due to traffic accidents . This made Audrey the deadliest tropical cyclone in Quebec on record .
= Zaolzie =
Zaolzie [ zaˈɔlʑɛ ] is the Polish name for an area now in the Czech Republic which was disputed between interwar Poland and Czechoslovakia . The name means " lands beyond the Olza River " ; it is also called Śląsk zaolziański , meaning " trans @-@ Olza Silesia " . Equivalent terms in other languages include Zaolší ( Zaolží ) in Czech and Olsa @-@ Gebiet in German . The Zaolzie region was created in 1920 , when Cieszyn Silesia was divided between Czechoslovakia and Poland . Zaolzie forms the eastern part of the Czech portion of Cieszyn Silesia . The division did not satisfy any side , and persisting conflict over the region led to its annexation by Poland in October 1938 , following the Munich Agreement . After German invasion of Poland in 1939 , the area became a part of Nazi Germany until 1945 . After the war , the 1920 borders were restored .
Historically , the largest specified ethnic group inhabiting this area were those identifying as Poles . Under Austrian rule , Cieszyn Silesia was initially divided into three ( Bielitz , Friedek and Teschen ) , and later into four districts ( plus Freistadt ) . One of them , Frýdek , had a mostly Czech population , the other three were mostly inhabited by Poles . During the 19th century the number of ethnic Germans grew . After declining at the end of the 19th century , at the beginning of the 20th century and later from 1920 to 1938 the Czech population grew significantly ( mainly as a result of immigration and the assimilation of locals ) and Poles became a minority , which they are to this day . Another significant ethnic group were the Jews , but almost the entire Jewish population was exterminated during World War II .
In addition to the Polish , Czech and German national orientations there was another group living in the area , the Ślązakowcy , who claimed a distinct Silesian national identity . This group enjoyed popular support throughout the whole of Cieszyn Silesia although its strongest supporters were among the Protestants in eastern part of the Cieszyn Silesia ( now part of Poland ) and not in Zaolzie itself .
= = Name and territory = =
The term Zaolzie ( meaning " the trans @-@ Olza " , i.e. " lands beyond the Olza " ) is used predominantly in Poland and also commonly by the Polish minority living in the territory . In Czech it is mainly referred to as České Těšínsko / Českotěšínsko ( " land around Český Těšín " ) , or as Těšínsko or Těšínské Slezsko ( meaning Cieszyn Silesia ) . The Czech equivalent of Zaolzie ( Zaolší or Zaolží ) is rarely used . The term of Zaolzie is also used by some foreign scholars , e.g. American ethnolinguist Kevin Hannan .
The term Zaolzie denotes the territory of the former districts of Český Těšín and Fryštát , in which the Polish population formed a majority according to the 1910 Austrian census . It makes up the eastern part of the Czech portion of Cieszyn Silesia . However , Polish historian Józef Szymeczek notes that the term is often mistakenly used for the whole Czech part of Cieszyn Silesia .
Since the 1960 reform of administrative divisions of Czechoslovakia , Zaolzie has consisted of Karviná District and the eastern part of Frýdek @-@ Místek District .
= = History = =
After the Migration Period the area was settled by Slavs , which were later organized into the Golensizi tribe . The tribe had a large and important gord situated in contemporary Chotěbuz . In the 880s or the early 890s the gord was raided and burned , most probably by an army of Svatopluk I of Moravia , and afterwards the area could have been subjugated by Great Moravia , which is however questioned by historians like Zdeněk Klanica , Idzi Panic , Stanisław Szczur .
After the fall of Great Moravia in 907 the area could have been under the influence of Bohemian rulers . In the late 10th century Poland , ruled by Bolesław I Chrobry , began to contend for the region , which was crossed by important international routes . From 950 to 1060 it was under the rule of the Duchy of Bohemia , and from 1060 it was part of Poland . The written history explicitly about the region begins on 23 April 1155 when Cieszyn / Těšín was first mentioned in a written document , a letter from Pope Adrian IV issued for Walter , Bishop of Wrocław , where it was listed amongst other centres of castellanies . The castellany was then a part of Duchy of Silesia . In 1172 it became a part of Duchy of Racibórz , and from 1202 of Duchy of Opole and Racibórz . In the first half of the 13th century the Moravian settlement organised by Arnold von Hückeswagen from Starý Jičín castle and later accelerated by Bruno von Schauenburg , Bishop of Olomouc , began to press close to Silesian settlements . This prompted signing of a special treaty between Duke Władysław of Opole and King Ottokar II of Bohemia on December 1261 which regulated a local border between their states along the Ostravice River . In order to strengthen the border Władysław of Opole decided to found Orlová monastery in 1268 . In the continued process of feudal fragmentation of Poland the Castellany of Cieszyn was eventually transformed in 1290 into the Duchy of Cieszyn , which in 1327 became an autonomic fiefdom of the Bohemian crown . Upon the death of Elizabeth Lucretia , its last ruler from the Polish Piast dynasty in 1653 , it passed directly to the Czech kings from the Habsburg dynasty . When most of Silesia was conquered by Prussian king Frederick the Great in 1742 , the Cieszyn region was part of the small southern portion that was retained by the Habsburg monarchy ( Austrian Silesia ) .
Up to the mid @-@ 19th century members of the local Slav population did not identify themselves as members of larger ethnolinguistic entities . In Cieszyn Silesia ( as in all West Slavic borderlands ) various territorial identities pre @-@ dated ethnic and national identity . Consciousness of membership within a greater Polish or Czech nation spread slowly in Silesia .
From 1848 to the end of the 19th century , local Polish and Czech people co @-@ operated , united against the Germanizing tendencies of the Austrian Empire and later of Austria @-@ Hungary . At the end of the century , ethnic tensions arose as the area 's economic significance grew . This growth caused a wave of immigration from Galicia . About 60 @,@ 000 people arrived between 1880 and 1910 . The new immigrants were Polish and poor , about half of them being illiterate . They worked in coal mining and metallurgy . For these people the most important factor was material well @-@ being ; they cared little about the homeland from which they had fled . Almost all of them assimilated into the Czech population . Many of them settled in Ostrava ( west of the ethnic border ) , as heavy industry was spread through the whole western part of Cieszyn Silesia . Even today , ethnographers find that about 25 @,@ 000 people in Ostrava ( about 8 % of the population ) have Polish surnames . The Czech population ( living mainly in the northern part of the area : Bohumín , Orlová , etc . ) declined numerically at the end of the 19th century , assimilating with the prevalent Polish population . This process shifted with the industrial boom in the area .
= = = Decision time ( 1918 – 1920 ) = = =
Originally , both national councils ( the Polish Rada Narodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego in its declaration " Ludu śląski ! " of 30 October 1918 and the Czech Zemský národní výbor pro Slezsko in its declaration of 1 November 1918 ) claimed the whole Cieszyn Silesia for themselves .
On 31 October 1918 , at the dusk of World War I and the dissolution of Austria @-@ Hungary , the majority of the area was taken over by local Polish authorities supported by armed forces . The interim agreement of 2 November 1918 reflected the inability of the two national councils to come to final delimitation . On 5 November 1918 , the area was divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia by an interim agreement of two local self @-@ government councils ( Czech Zemský národní výbor pro Slezsko and Polish Rada Narodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego ) . Before that , the majority of the area was taken over by Polish local authorities . In 1919 both councils were absorbed by the newly created and independent central governments in Prague and Warsaw . The former was not satisfied with this compromise and on 23 January 1919 invaded the area while Poland was engaged in its war against the West Ukrainian National Republic .
The reason for the Czech invasion in 1919 was primarily the organisation of elections to the Sejm ( parliament ) of Poland in the disputed area . The elections were to be held in the whole of Cieszyn Silesia . The Czechs claimed that the polls must not be held in the disputed area as the delimitation was only interim and no sovereign rule should be executed there by any party . When the Czech demand was rejected by the Poles , the Czechs decided to resolve the issue by force .
Czech units were held up near Skoczów and a ceasefire was signed on 3 February . The new Czechoslovakia claimed the area partly on historic and ethnic grounds , but especially on economic grounds . The area was important for the Czechs as the crucial railway line connecting Czech Silesia with Slovakia crossed the area ( the Košice @-@ Bohumín Railway , which was one of only two railroads that linked the Czech provinces to Slovakia at that time ) . The area is also very rich in black coal . Many important coal mines , facilities and metallurgy factories are located there . The Polish side based its claim to the area on ethnic criteria : a majority ( 69 @,@ 2 % ) of the area 's population was Polish according to the last ( 1910 ) Austrian census .
In this very tense atmosphere it was decided that a plebiscite would be held in the area asking people which country this territory should join . Plebiscite commissioners arrived there at the end of January 1920 , and after analysing the situation declared a state of emergency in the territory on 19 May 1920 . The situation in the area remained very tense , with mutual intimidation , acts of terror , beatings and even killings . A plebiscite could not be held in this atmosphere . On 10 July both sides renounced the idea of a plebiscite and entrusted the Conference of Ambassadors with the decision . Eventually , on 28 July 1920 , by a decision of the Spa Conference , Czechoslovakia received 58 @.@ 1 % of the area of Cieszyn Silesia , containing 67 @.@ 9 % of the population . It was this territory that became known , originally from the Polish standpoint , as Zaolzie – the Olza River marked the boundary between the Polish and Czechoslovak parts of the territory .
The most vocal support for union with Poland had come from within the territory awarded to Czechoslovakia , while some of the strongest opponents of Polish rule came from the territory awarded to Poland .
= = = = 1918 @-@ 19 = = = =
Historian Richard M. Watt writes , " On 5 November 1918 , the Poles and the Czechs in the region disarmed the Austrian garrison ( ... ) The Poles took over the areas that appeared to be theirs , just as the Czechs had assumed administration of theirs . Nobody objected to this friendly arrangement ( ... ) Then came second thoughts in Prague . It was observed that under the agreement of 5 November , the Poles controlled about a third of the duchy 's coal mines . The Czechs realized that they had given away rather a lot ( ... ) It was recognized that any takeover in Teschen would have to be accomplished in a manner acceptable by the victorious Allies ( ... ) , so the Czechs cooked up a tale that the Teschen area was becoming Bolshevik ( ... ) The Czechs put together a substantial body of infantry – about 15 @,@ 000 men – and on 23 January 1919 , they invaded the Polish @-@ held areas . To confuse the Poles , the Czechs recruited some Allied officers of Czech background and put these men in their respective wartime uniforms at the head of the invasion forces . After a little skirmishing , the tiny Polish defense force was nearly driven out . "
In 1919 , the matter went to consideration in Paris before the World War I Allies . Watt claims the Poles based their claims on ethnographical reasons and the Czechs based their need on the Teschen coal , useful in order to influence the actions of Austria and Hungary , whose capitals were fuelled by coal from the duchy . The Allies finally decided that the Czechs should get 60 percent of the coal fields and the Poles were to get most of the people and the strategic rail line . Watt writes : " Czech envoy Edvard Beneš proposed a plebiscite . The Allies were shocked , arguing that the Czechs were bound to lose it . However , Beneš was insistent and a plebiscite was announced in September 1919 . As it turned out , Beneš knew what he was doing . A plebiscite would take some time to set up , and a lot could happen in that time – particularly when a nation 's affairs were conducted as cleverly as were Czechoslovakia 's . "
Watt argues that Beneš strategically waited for Poland 's moment of weakness , and moved in during the Polish @-@ Soviet War crisis in July 1920 . As Watt writes , " Over the dinner table , Beneš convinced the British and French that the plebiscite should not be held and that the Allies should simply impose their own decision in the Teschen matter . More than that , Beneš persuaded the French and the British to draw a frontier line that gave Czechoslovakia most of the territory of Teschen , the vital railroad and all the important coal fields . With this frontier , 139 @,@ 000 Poles were to be left in Czech territory , whereas only 2 @,@ 000 Czechs were left on the Polish side " .
" The next morning Beneš visited the Polish delegation at Spa . By giving the impression that the Czechs would accept a settlement favorable to the Poles without a plebiscite , Beneš got the Poles to sign an agreement that Poland would abide by any Allied decision regarding Teschen . The Poles , of course , had no way of knowing that Beneš had already persuaded the Allies to make a decision on Teschen . After a brief interval , to make it appear that due deliberation had taken place , the Allied Council of Ambassadors in Paris imposed its ' decision ' . Only then did it dawn on the Poles that at Spa they had signed a blank check . To them , Beneš ' stunning triumph was not diplomacy , it was a swindle ( ... ) As Polish Prime Minister Wincenty Witos warned : ' The Polish nation has received a blow which will play an important role in our relations with the Czechoslovak Republic . The decision of the Council of Ambassadors has given the Czechs a piece of Polish land containing a population which is mostly Polish ... The decision has caused a rift between these two nations which are ordinarily politically and economically united ' ( ... ) . "
The affair soured the Prague @-@ Warsaw relationship .
= = = = View by Victor S. Mamatey = = = =
Another account of the situation in 1918 – 1919 is given by historian Victor S. Mamatey . He notes that when the French government recognised Czechoslovakia 's right to the " boundaries of Bohemia , Moravia , and Austrian Silesia " in its note to Austria of 19 December , the Czechoslovak government acted under the impression it had French support for its claim to Cieszyn Silesia as part of Austrian Silesia . However , Paris believed it gave that assurance only against German @-@ Austrian claims , not Polish ones . Paris , however , viewed both Czechoslovakia and Poland as potential allies against Germany and did not want to cool relations with either . Mamatey writes that the Poles " brought the matter before the peace conference that had opened in Paris on 18 January . On 29 January , the Council of Ten summoned Beneš and the Polish delegate Roman Dmowski to explain the dispute , and on 1 February obliged them to sign an agreement redividing the area pending its final disposition by the peace conference . Czechoslovakia thus failed to gain her objective in Teschen . "
With respect to the arbitration decision itself , Mamatey writes that " On 25 March , to expedite the work of the peace conference , the Council of Ten was divided into the Council of Four ( The " Big Four " ) and the Council of Five ( the foreign ministers ) . Early in April the two councils considered and approved the recommendations of the Czechoslovak commission without a change – with the exception of Teschen , which they referred to Poland and Czechoslovakia to settle in bilateral negotiations . " When the Polish @-@ Czechoslovak negotiations failed , the Allied powers proposed plebiscites in the Cieszyn Silesia and also in the border districts of Orava and Spiš ( now in Slovakia ) to which the Poles had raised claims . In the end , however , no plebiscites were held due to the rising mutual hostilities of Czechs and Poles in Cieszyn Silesia . Instead , on 28 July 1920 the Spa Conference ( also known as the Conference of Ambassadors ) divided each of the three disputed areas between Poland and Czechoslovakia .
= = = Part of Czechoslovakia ( 1920 – 1938 ) = = =
The local Polish population felt that Warsaw had betrayed them and they were not satisfied with the division of Cieszyn Silesia . About 12 @,@ 000 to 14 @,@ 000 Poles were forced to leave to Poland . It is not quite clear how many Poles were in Zaolzie in Czechoslovakia . Estimates ( depending mainly whether the Silesians are included as Poles or not ) range from 110 @,@ 000 to 140 @,@ 000 people in 1921 . The 1921 and 1930 census numbers are not accurate since nationality depended on self @-@ declaration and many Poles filled in Czech nationality mainly as a result of fear of the new authorities and as compensation for some benefits . Czechoslovak law guaranteed rights for national minorities but reality in Zaolzie was quite different . Local Czech authorities made it more difficult for local Poles to obtain citizenship , while the process was expedited when the applicant pledged to declare Czech nationality and send his children to a Czech school . Newly built Czech schools were often better supported and equipped , thus inducing some Poles to send their children there . Czechs schools were built in ethnically almost entirely Polish municipalities . This and other factors contributed to the cultural assimilation of Poles and also to significant emigration to Poland . After few years , the heightened nationalism typical for the years around 1920 receded and local Poles increasingly co @-@ operated with Czechs . Still , Czechization was supported by Prague , which did not follow certain laws related to language , legislative and organizational issues . Polish deputies in Czechoslovak National Assembly frequently tried to put those issues on agenda . One way or the other , more and more local Poles thus assimilated into the Czech population .
= = = Part of Poland ( 1938 – 1939 ) = = =
Within the region originally demanded from Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in 1938 was the important railway junction city of Bohumín ( Polish : Bogumin ) . The Poles regarded the city as of crucial importance to the area and to Polish interests . On 28 September , Edvard Beneš composed a note to the Polish administration offering to reopen the debate surrounding the territorial demarcation in Těšínsko in the interest of mutual relations , but he delayed in sending it in hopes of good news from London and Paris , which came only in a limited form . Beneš then turned to the Soviet leadership in Moscow , which had begun a partial mobilisation in eastern Belarus and the Ukrainian SSR on 22 September and threatened Poland with the dissolution of the Soviet @-@ Polish non @-@ aggression pact . The Czech government was offered 700 fighter planes if room for them could be found on the Czech airfields . On 28 September , all the military districts west of the Urals were ordered to stop releasing men for leave . On 29 September , 330 @,@ 000 reservists were up throughout the western USSR .
Nevertheless , the Polish leader , Colonel Józef Beck , believed that Warsaw should act rapidly to forestall the German occupation of the city . At noon on 30 September , Poland gave an ultimatum to the Czechoslovak government . It demanded the immediate evacuation of Czechoslovak troops and police and gave Prague time until noon the following day . At 11 : 45 a.m. on 1 October the Czechoslovak foreign ministry called the Polish ambassador in Prague and told him that Poland could have what it wanted . The Polish Army , commanded by General Władysław Bortnowski , annexed an area of 801 @.@ 5 km ² with a population of 227 @,@ 399 people . Administratively the annexed area was divided between two counties : Frysztat and Cieszyn County . At the same time Slovakia lost to Hungary 10 @,@ 390 km ² with 854 @,@ 277 inhabitants .
The Germans were delighted with this outcome , and were happy to give up the sacrifice of a small provincial rail centre to Poland in exchange for the ensuing propaganda benefits . It spread the blame of the partition of the Republic of Czechoslovakia , made Poland a participant in the process and confused political expectations . Poland was accused of being an accomplice of Nazi Germany – a charge that Warsaw was hard @-@ put to deny .
The Polish side argued that Poles in Zaolzie deserved the same ethnic rights and freedom as the Sudeten Germans under the Munich Agreement . The vast majority of the local Polish population enthusiastically welcomed the change , seeing it as a liberation and a form of historical justice , but they quickly changed their mood . The new Polish authorities appointed people from Poland to various key positions from which locals were fired . The Polish language became the sole official language . Using Czech ( or German ) by Czechs ( or Germans ) in public was prohibited and Czechs and Germans were being forced to leave the annexed area or become subject to Polonization . Rapid Polonization policies then followed in all parts of public and private life . Czech organizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited . The Roman Catholic parishes in the area belonged either to the Archdiocese of Breslau ( Archbishop Bertram ) or to the Archdiocese of Olomouc ( Archbishop Leopold Prečan ) , respectively , both traditionally comprising cross @-@ border diocesan territories in Czechoslovakia and Germany . When the Polish government demanded after its takeover that the parishes there be disentangled from these two archdioceses , the Holy See complied . Pope Pius XI , former nuncio to Poland , subjected the Catholic parishes in Zaolzie to an apostolic administration under Stanisław Adamski , Bishop of Katowice .
Czechoslovak education in the Czech and German language ceased to exist . About 35 @,@ 000 Czechoslovaks emigrated to core Czechoslovakia ( the later Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia ) by choice or forcibly . The behaviour of the new Polish authorities was different but similar in nature to that of the Czechoslovak ones before 1938 . Two political factions appeared : socialists ( the opposition ) and rightists ( loyal to the new Polish national authorities ) . Leftist politicians and sympathizers were discriminated against and often fired from work . The Polish political system was artificially implemented in Zaolzie . The local Poles continued to feel like second @-@ class citizens and a majority of them were dissatisfied with the situation after October 1938 . Zaolzie remained a part of Poland for only 11 months until the invasion of Poland started on 1 September 1939 .
When Poland entered the Western camp in April 1939 , General Gamelin reminded General Kasprzycki of the Polish role in the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia . According to historian Paul N. Hehn , Poland ’ s annexation of Teschen may have contributed to the British and French reluctance to attack the Germans with greater forces in September 1939 .
Richard M. Watt describes the Polish capture of Teschen in these words :
Amid the general euphoria in Poland – the acquisition of Teschen was a very popular development – no one paid attention to the bitter comment of the Czechoslovak general who handed the region over to the incoming Poles . He predicted that it would not be long before the Poles would themselves be handing Teschen over to the Germans .
Watt also writes that
the Polish 1938 ultimatum to Czechoslovakia and its acquisition of Teschen were gross tactical errors . Whatever justice there might have been to the Polish claim upon Teschen , its seizure in 1938 was an enormous mistake in terms of the damage done to Poland 's reputation among the democratic powers of the world .
Daladier , the French Prime Minister , told the US ambassador to France that " he hoped to live long enough to pay Poland for her cormorant attitude in the present crisis by proposing a new partition . " The Soviet Union was so hostile to Poland over Munich that there was a real prospect that war between the two states might break out quite separate from the wider conflict over Czechoslovakia . The Soviet Prime Minister , Molotov , denounced the Poles as " Hitler 's jackals " .
In his postwar memoirs , Winston Churchill compared Germany and Poland to vultures landing on the dying carcass of Czechoslovakia and lamented that " over a question so minor as Teschen , they [ the Poles ] sundered themselves from all those friends in France , Britain and the United States who had lifted them once again to a national , coherent life , and whom they were soon to need to sorely . ... It is a mystery and tragedy of European history that a people capable of every heroic virtue ... as individuals , should repeatedly show such inveterate faults in almost every aspect of their governmental life . "
= = = World War II = = =
On 1 September 1939 Nazi Germany invaded Poland , starting World War II in Europe , and subsequently made Zaolzie part of the Military district of Upper Silesia . On 26 October 1939 Nazi Germany unilaterally annexed Zaolzie as part of Landkreis Teschen . During the war , strong Germanization was introduced by the authorities . The Jews were in the worst position , followed by the Poles . Poles received lower food rations , they were supposed to pay extra taxes , they were not allowed to enter theatres , cinemas , etc . Polish and Czech education ceased to exist , Polish organizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited . Katowice 's Bishop Adamski was deposed as apostolic administrator for the Catholic parishes in Zaolzie and on 23 December 1939 Cesare Orsenigo , nuncio to Germany , returned them to their original archdioceses of Breslau or Olomouc , respectively , with effect of 1 January 1940 .
The German authorities introduced terror into Zaolzie . The Nazis especially targeted the Polish intelligentsia , many of whom died during the war . Mass killings , executions , arrests , taking locals to forced labour and deportations to concentration camps all happened on a daily basis . The most notorious war crime was a murder of 36 villagers in and around Żywocice on 6 August 1944 . This massacre is known as the Żywocice tragedy ( Polish : Tragedia Żywocicka ) . The resistance movement , mostly composed of Poles , was fairly strong in Zaolzie . So @-@ called Volksliste – a document in which a non @-@ German citizen declared that he had some German ancestry by signing it ; refusal to sign this document could lead to deportation to a concentration camp – were introduced . Local people who took them were later on enrolled in the Wehrmacht . Many local people with no German ancestry were also forced to take them . The World War II death toll in Zaolzie is estimated at about 6 @,@ 000 people : about 2 @,@ 500 Jews , 2 @,@ 000 other citizens ( 80 % of them being Poles ) and more than 1 @,@ 000 locals who died in the Wehrmacht ( those who took the Volksliste ) . Also a few hundred Poles from Zaolzie were murdered by Soviets in the Katyn massacre . Percentage @-@ wise , Zaolzie suffered the worst human loss from the whole of Czechoslovakia – about 2 @.@ 6 % of the total population .
= = = Since 1945 = = =
Immediately after World War II , Zaolzie was returned to Czechoslovakia within its 1920 borders , although local Poles hoped it would again be given to Poland . While most Czechoslovaks of German ethnicity were expelled , the local Polish population again suffered discrimination , as many Czechs blamed them for the discrimination by the Polish authorities in 1938 – 1939 . Polish organizations were banned , and the Czechoslovak authorities carried out many arrests and dismissed many Poles from work . The situation had somewhat improved when the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took power in February 1948 . Polish property deprived by the German occupants during the war was never returned .
As to the Catholic parishes in Zaolzie pertaining to the Archdiocese of Breslau Archbishop Bertram , then residing in the episcopal Jánský vrch castle in Czechoslovak Javorník ( Jauernig ) , appointed František Onderek ( 1888 – 1962 ) as vicar general for the Czechoslovak portion of the Archdiocese of Breslau on 21 June 1945 . In July 1946 Pope Pius XII elevated Onderek to Apostolic Administrator for the Czechoslovak portion of the Archdiocese of Breslau ( colloquially : Apostolic Administration of Český Těšín ; Czech : Apoštolská administratura českotěšínská ) , seated in Český Těšín , thus disentangling the parishes from Breslau 's jurisdiction . On 31 May 1978 Pope Paul VI merged the apostolic administration into the Archdiocese of Olomouc through his Apostolic constitution Olomoucensis et aliarum .
Poland signed a treaty with Czechoslovakia in Warsaw on 13 June 1958 confirming the border as it existed on 1 January 1938 . After the Communist takeover of power , the industrial boom continued and many immigrants arrived in the area ( mostly from other parts of Czechoslovakia , mainly from Slovakia ) . The arrival of Slovaks significantly changed the ethnic structure of the area , as almost all the Slovak immigrants assimilated into the Czech majority in the course of time . The number of self @-@ declared Slovaks is rapidly declining . The last Slovak elementary school was closed in Karviná several years ago . Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993 , Zaolzie has been part of the independent Czech Republic . However a significant Polish minority still remains there .
= = = In the European Union = = =
The entry of both the Czech Republic and Poland to the European Union in May 2004 , and especially the entry of the countries to the EU 's passport @-@ free Schengen zone in late 2007 , reduced the significance of territorial disputes , ending systematic controls on the border between the countries . Signs prohibiting passage across the state border were removed , with people now allowed to cross the border freely at any point of their choosing .
The area now belongs mostly to the Cieszyn Silesia Euroregion with a few municipalities in the Euroregion Beskydy .
= = Census data = =
Ethnic structure of Zaolzie based on census results :
Sources : Zahradnik 1992 , 178 – 179 . Siwek 1996 , 31 – 38 .
= Cyclone Gillian =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Gillian was the second most powerful of the 2013 – 14 Australian region cyclone season and the strongest in the basin in four years . It developed on 8 March , 2014 , in the Gulf of Carpentaria offshore northern Australia . It drifted southeastward , moving over northwestern Queensland on 10 March as a weak tropical cyclone , and subsequently turned to the southwest and later to the west . Unfavourable wind shear , land interaction , and dry air prevented much restrengthening , and for several days Gillian was a weak tropical low . The storm moved northward and curved westward around the Top End of northwestern Australia , and subsequently moved across several islands in Indonesia , first Timor on 18 March . On 21 March , Gillian again became a tropical cyclone as it moved away from Indonesia . The next day , it passed just southeast of Christmas Island as an intensifying storm , and subsequently Gillian underwent rapid deepening . On 23 March , the Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) estimated peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) . On the same day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated peak 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , making it a Category 5 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Increased wind shear caused the cyclone to rapidly weaken , and both BoM and JTWC discontinued advisories on Gillian on 26 March .
The cyclone affected northern Australia with gusty winds and some rainfall , while on the Indonesian island of Java , it produced strong waves . While moving near Christmas Island , Gillian downed thousands of trees and damaged the roof of one of the oldest buildings on the island . Winds gusted to 96 km / h ( 60 mph ) , making it the first cyclone to affect Christmas Island in six years . The storm also affected the search for missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Gillian were from a weak tropical low that persisted in the eastern Arafura Sea on 6 March . The next day , the system moved into the Gulf of Carpentaria , where it developed convection , or thunderstorms , which organised into curved rainbands . The thunderstorms were located west of a circulation , was exposed due to moderate wind shear . At 06 : 00 UTC on 8 March , the Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) office in Darwin began issuing warnings on the developing tropical low . Around that time , the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , indicated the high potential for tropical cyclogenesis due to the increasingly organised circulation and convection . At 09 : 00 UTC on 8 March , the BoM upgraded the low to Tropical Cyclone Gillian , and six hours later , the JTWC initiated advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 17P . After its formation , Gillian moved slowly southward toward Queensland within an area of weak steering currents . Despite ongoing wind shear , forecasters anticipated strengthening due to warm water temperatures and favourable outflow . The storm turned more toward the southeast due to the influence of a ridge to the northeast . Early on 10 March , Gillian made landfall along the western Cape York Peninsula of Queensland , after weakening below tropical cyclone status .
A strengthening ridge to the south turned the storm to the southwest , bringing Gillian back over water ; however , the circulation became poorly @-@ defined and the convection decreased due to land interaction . Early on 11 March the JTWC discontinued advisories . When Gillian was downgraded to a tropical low , the proximity to land and continued wind shear prevented initial redevelopment . The system tracked westward through the Gulf of Carpentaria due to the ridge to the south , passing just north of Mornington Island on 12 March . The next day , the convection reorganised as the circulation became better defined . On 14 March , the JTWC again assessed a high potential for Gillian redeveloping into a tropical cyclone , noting the appearance of a central dense overcast . At 06 : 00 UTC on the same day , the BoM again upgraded Gillian to tropical cyclone status in the central Gulf of Carpentaria . Due to a weak trough in the region , the storm turned to the northeast . Increasing wind shear again caused the storm to lose organisation early on 15 March , prompting the BoM to downgrade Gillian to a tropical low .
Dry air prevented the convection from initially reorganising after Gillian was downgraded . With a ridge to the south , the low turned westward around the Top End of northwestern Australia . On 17 March , the system moved north of 10 ° S , into the area of warning responsibility of the Indonesian Agency for Meteorology , Climatology and Geophysics . By that time , the low @-@ level circulation was disconnected from its mid @-@ level circulation , and land interaction with Indonesia was expected to prevent redevelopment . Late on 18 March , the storm moved over the island of Timor , and over the subsequent two days passed over several other Indonesian islands . On 21 March , the convection reorganised due to a drop in wind shear , and at 12 : 00 UTC that day , the BoM again upgraded Gillian to tropical cyclone status while the storm was about 380 km ( 235 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Jakarta . On the same day , the JTWC also re @-@ initiated advisories on the storm , noting that the circulation had improved as it moved away from Indonesia . With low wind shear and favourable outflow , Gillian gradually intensified while moving southwestward around the ridge . On 22 March , the storm passed just north of Christmas Island while Gillian was developing an eye ; by that time , the 10 minute sustained winds had increased to 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) within an environment favourable for continued strengthening .
At 12 : 00 UTC on 22 March , the BoM upgraded the storm to a Category 3 on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale with 10 minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , the equivalent of a minimal hurricane ; a few hours later , the JTWC followed suit . The cyclone continued to rapidly intensify , with a well @-@ defined anticyclone providing good outflow and very low wind shear . At 12 : 00 UTC on 23 March , the BoM estimated Gillian attained peak 10 minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) , making it a Category 5 on the Australian scale , while located about 1000 km ( 620 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Jakarta ; the agency also estimated peak gusts of 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) . At 18 : 00 UTC on 23 March , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . By that time , the eye had contracted to a diameter of 22 km ( 14 mi ) , but was beginning to undergo an eyewall replacement cycle . In addition , Gillian was experiencing increased wind shear due to an approaching trough , indicative of weakening . It continued around the ridge and turned more to the south over open waters well to the west of Western Australia . The eye became less distinct , and early on 25 March Gillian weakened below Category 3 intensity on the Australian scale . On the same day , the JTWC also downgraded the cyclone to tropical storm strength , noting the storm 's rapid weakening corresponded to a decline in Dvorak numbers – a system to estimate intensity via satellites . The circulation became exposed from the convection , and BoM downgraded Gillian to a tropical low on 26 March , the same day that the JTWC discontinued advisories after the circulation began dissipating .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Much of Far North Queensland was affected by rain for over a week as Gillian slowly moved through the Gulf of Carpentaria . The heaviest rains , averaging 150 to 250 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 to 9 @.@ 8 in ) , fell along a corridor along southern part of the Cape York Peninsula from the Mitchell @-@ Alice Rivers National Park to Cooktown . 227 @.@ 4 mm ( 8 @.@ 95 in ) of rain from 9 – 15 March with gusts up to 57 km / h ( 35 mph ) in Kowanyama , Queensland . On 17 March , Gillian brushed the Top End region , bringing only minor rainfall to coastal areas . Winds reached 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) in the Wessel Islands .
Across Java , Indonesia , the storm produced moderate to heavy rains . After re @-@ intensifying into a tropical cyclone , swells of 3 to 5 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 16 @.@ 4 ft ) from the storm affected southern shores of the island . Though well to the north of Cyclone Gillian , the system 's circulation drew moisture away from Riau western Indonesia , leaving behind fire @-@ prone conditions . Due in part to illegal logging and slash @-@ and @-@ burn land clearing , several new forest fires began by 23 March .
On 20 March , the BoM issued a cyclone watch for Christmas Island , and the next day upgraded it to a cyclone warning . The first cyclone to affect Christmas Island since Cyclone Rosie in 2008 , Gillian approached the island as a category 2 system , causing light to moderate damage . Only one structure on the island , the Immigration Detention Centre , is constructed to cyclone @-@ standards on the island . Island administrator Jon Stanhope stated that the 1 @,@ 700 asylum seekers were likely safer than residents in permanent homes . Gale @-@ force winds , peaking at 96 km / h ( 60 mph ) , battered the island for 15 hours . Several homes lost their roof and one family had to be evacuated ; however , most structures were left unscathed . The roof of the Rumah Tinggi Bar and Restaurant , one of the oldest buildings on the island , was torn off . Thousands of trees were reportedly downed across the island , with jungles sustaining significant losses , and there were power outages due to significant damage to the islands powerlines . Gillian also dropped 181 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) of rainfall over a 24 ‑ hour period on the island .
On 23 March , several aircraft at Subang airport in Malaysia taking part in the 26 @-@ nation search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 were grounded due to inclement weather . It was noted that Gillian could hamper rescue efforts in the southern corridor search for the aircraft . Following the discovery of possible debris from the aircraft about 2 @,@ 500 km ( 1 @,@ 600 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Australia , fears arose that large swells from the storm could sink the possible wreckage and make the investigation " almost impossible . "
= Let the Right One In ( film ) =
Let the Right One In ( Swedish : Låt den rätte komma in ) is a 2008 Swedish romantic horror film directed by Tomas Alfredson , based on the 2004 novel of the same title by John Ajvide Lindqvist , who also wrote the screenplay . The film tells the story of a bullied 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy who develops a friendship with a vampire child in Blackeberg , a suburb of Stockholm , in the early 1980s . Alfredson , unconcerned with the horror and vampire conventions , decided to tone down many elements of the novel and focus primarily on the relationship between the two main characters . Selecting the lead actors involved a year @-@ long process with open castings held all over Sweden . In the end , the 11 @-@ year @-@ olds Kåre Hedebrant and Lina Leandersson were chosen for the leading roles . They were subsequently commended by both Alfredson and film reviewers for their performances .
The film received critical acclaim and won several awards , including the " Founders Award for Best Narrative Feature " at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival and the European Fantastic Film Festivals Federation 's 2008 Méliès d 'Or ( Golden Méliès ) for the " Best European Fantastic Feature Film " , as well as four Guldbagge Awards from the Swedish Film Institute and the Saturn Award for Best International Film .
= = Plot = =
Oskar , a meek 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy , resides with his mother Yvonne in the western Stockholm suburb of Blackeberg in 1981 and occasionally visits his father Erik in the countryside . It is not clear why Erik is living apart from Yvonne , but on one such visit , when Oskar and Erik are enjoying a cosy night playing games , a drunken neighbour arrives and Erik starts to drink heavily with him , breaking up the father / son evening .
Oskar 's classmates regularly bully him , and he spends his evenings imagining revenge , collecting clippings from newspapers and magazines about grisly murders . One night he meets Eli , who appears to be a pale girl of his age . Eli has recently moved into the next @-@ door apartment with an older man , Håkan . Eli initially informs Oskar that they cannot be friends . Over time , however , they begin to form a close relationship , with Oskar lending his Rubik 's Cube to Eli , and the two exchanging Morse code messages through their adjoining wall . Håkan requests that Eli stop seeing Oskar . After questioning Oskar about a cut on his cheek , Eli learns that the boy is being bullied by schoolmates and encourages him to stand up for himself . This inspires Oskar to enroll for weight @-@ training classes after school .
Earlier , Håkan stops and kills a passerby on a busy footpath near a main road to harvest fresh blood for Eli , but he fails to return with any when he is interrupted by an oncoming dog walker . Eli is prompted to waylay and kill a local man , Jocke , making his way home from a bar after having said goodnight to his best friend , Lacke . A local cat @-@ loving recluse , Gösta , witnesses the attack from his flat , but hardly believes what he has seen and later refuses to report the incident . Håkan hides Jocke 's body in an ice @-@ hole in the local lake . Håkan later makes another well @-@ prepared but incompetently executed effort to obtain blood for Eli by trapping a teenage boy in a changing room after school . The boy 's friends are waiting for him to emerge , and go to see what is holding him up . Before he is discovered , Håkan pours concentrated hydrochloric acid onto his own face , disfiguring it to prevent the authorities from identifying him and tracing Eli . Eli learns that Håkan has been taken to the hospital and scales the building to access his restricted room . Håkan opens the window for Eli and offers his neck to her for feeding ; after she has fed , Håkan falls out of the window on the snow . Now alone , Eli goes to Oskar 's apartment and spends the night with him , during which time they agree to " go steady " . While Eli states , " I 'm not a girl " , Oskar ( ambiguously ) either ignores this or accepts the homoerotic status of the relationship .
During an ice skating field trip at the lake , some of Oskar 's fellow students discover Jocke 's body . At the same time , Oskar finally stands up to his tormentors and strikes the leader of the bullies , Conny , on the side of the head with a pole , splitting his ear . Some time later , Oskar shows Eli a private place he knows . Unaware that Eli is a vampire , Oskar suggests that they form a blood bond , and cuts his hand , asking Eli to do the same . Eli , thirsting for blood but not wanting to harm Oskar , laps up his spilled blood before running away . Lacke 's girlfriend , Virginia , is subsequently attacked by Eli . Lacke turns up in time to interrupt the attack . Virginia survives , but she soon discovers that she has become painfully sensitive to sunlight . Thirsting for blood , she pays a visit to Gösta , only to be fiercely attacked by his cats . In the hospital , Virginia , who has realized what she has become , asks an orderly to open the blinds in her room . When the sunlight streams in , she bursts into flames .
On realizing her true nature , Oskar confronts Eli , who admits to being a vampire . Oskar is initially upset by Eli 's need to kill people for survival . However , Eli insists that their bloodthirsty natures are alike , in that Oskar wants to kill and Eli needs to kill , and she encourages Oskar to " be me , for a little while . "
Lacke , who has lost everything because of Eli , tracks her down to the closed @-@ off apartment . Breaking in , he discovers Eli asleep in the bathtub . Lacke prepares to kill Eli , but Oskar , who was hiding inside the apartment , interferes ; Eli immediately wakes up , jumps on Lacke and kills him , feeding on his blood . Eli thanks Oskar and kisses him in gratitude . However , an upstairs neighbor is angrily knocking on the ceiling due to the disturbance the fight has caused . Eli realizes that it is no longer safe to stay and leaves the same night .
The next morning , Oskar receives a phone call from Conny 's friend , Martin , who lures Oskar out to resume the after @-@ school fitness program at the local swimming pool . The bullies , led by Conny and his sadistic older brother Jimmy , start a fire to draw Mr Ávila , the teacher in charge , outside , enter the pool @-@ area and order the other children to clear out , which leaves Oskar trapped alone in the pool . Jimmy forces Oskar under the water , threatening to stab his eye out if he does not hold his breath for three minutes . While Oskar is being held underwater , Eli arrives and rescues Oskar by killing and dismembering the bullies except for the most reluctant of their number , Andreas , who is left sobbing on a bench .
Later , Oskar is traveling on a train with Eli in a box beside him , safe from sunlight . From inside , Eli taps the word " kiss " to Oskar in Morse code , to which he taps back " puss " ( small kiss in Swedish ) .
= = Cast = =
Kåre Hedebrant as Oskar
Lina Leandersson as Eli
Elif Ceylan as Eli ( Voice )
Susanne Ruben as Aged Eli
Per Ragnar as Håkan
Henrik Dahl as Erik
Karin Bergquist as Yvonne
Peter Carlberg as Lacke
Ika Nord as Virginia
Mikael Rahm as Jocke
Karl Robert Lindgren as Gösta
Anders T. Peedu as Morgan
Pale Olofsson as Larry
Cayetano Ruiz as Magister Ávila
Patrik Rydmark as Conny
Johan Sömnes as Andreas
Mikael Erhardsson as Martin
Rasmus Luthander as Jimmy
Sören Källstigen as Erik 's friend
Bernt Östman as Virginia 's nurse
Kajsa Linderholm as Oskar 's Teacher
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film project started in late 2004 when John Nordling , a producer at the production company EFTI , contacted Ajvide Lindqvist 's publisher Ordfront to acquire the rights for a film adaption of Ajvide Lindqvist 's novel . " At Ordfront they just laughed when I called , I was like the 48th they put on the list . But I called John Ajvide Lindqvist and it turned out we had the same idea of what kind of film we should make . It wasn 't about money , but about the right constellation " . A friend introduced Tomas Alfredson to the novel . While he normally does not like to receive books , because " it 's a private thing to choose what to read " , he decided after a few weeks to read it . The depiction of bullying in the novel affected Alfredson deeply . " It 's very hard and very down @-@ to @-@ earth , unsentimental ( ... ) I had some period when I grew up when I had hard times in school ( ... ) So it really shook me " , he told the Los Angeles Times . Ajvide Lindqvist already knew Alfredson 's previous work , and he and Alfredson discovered that they " understood each other very well " .
In addition to EFTI , co @-@ producers included Sveriges Television and the regional production @-@ centre Filmpool Nord . The production of the film involved a total budget of around 29 million SEK , including support from the Swedish Film Institute and Nordisk Film- & TV Fond and WAG .
= = = Screenplay = = =
Lindqvist had insisted on writing the screenplay himself . Alfredson , who had no familiarity with the vampire and horror genres , initially expressed skepticism at having the original author do the adaptation , but found the end result very satisfying . Many of the minor characters and events from the book were removed , and focus directed primarily on the love story between the two leads . In particular , many aspects of the character Håkan , including him being a paedophile , were toned down , and his relationship with Eli was mostly left open to interpretation . Alfredson felt that the film could not deal with such a serious theme as pedophilia in a satisfying manner , and that this element would detract from the story of the children and their relationship . Still , the film provided a few hints , of which Alfredson mentions one in the director 's comments ( Håkan likes children , for the wrong reasons ) .
A key passage in the novel details what happens when a vampire enters a room uninvited , an action that traditional vampire lore usually prohibits . Alfredson originally wanted to omit this from the film , but Ajvide Lindqvist was adamant that it had to be included . Alfredson was initially nervous about the scene . He realized in post @-@ production that the sound effects and music made it " American , in a bad way " , and had to be removed for the scene to work . The end result , which shows Eli slowly beginning to bleed from her eyes , ears , and pores , received positive notices from many critics . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian described it as a " haemophilia of rejection " .
The novel presents Eli as an androgynous boy , castrated centuries before by a sadistic vampire nobleman . The film handles the issue of Eli 's gender more ambiguously : a brief scene in which Eli changes into a dress offers a glimpse of a suggestive scar but no explicit elaboration . When Oskar asks Eli to become his girlfriend , Eli tries to tell Oskar " I 'm not a girl " . An actress plays Eli 's character , but her voice was considered to be too high pitched , so it was dubbed by voice actress Elif Ceylan . According to an interview with the director , as the film was originally conceived , flashbacks explained this aspect in more detail , but these scenes were eventually cut . In the end , Ajvide Lindqvist was satisfied with the adaptation . When Alfredson showed him eight minutes of footage for the first time , he " started to cry because it was so damn beautiful " . He subsequently described the film as a " masterpiece " . " It doesn 't really matter that [ Alfredson ] didn 't want to do it the way I wanted it in every respect . He could obviously never do that . The film is his creative process " , he said .
= = = Casting = = =
Casting of the lead actors took almost a year , with open castings held all over Sweden . Kåre Hedebrant , selected to audition for the role as Oskar after an initial screening at his school , eventually landed the role . Lina Leandersson responded to an online advertisement seeking a 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy or girl " good at running " . After three more auditions , she was selected to play Eli .
Alfredson has described the casting process as the most difficult part of making the film . He had particular concerns about the interaction between the two leads , and the fact that those who had read the book would have a preconceived notion of how the characters were supposed to look . He wanted the actors to look innocent , and be able to interact in front of the camera . They were supposed to be " mirror images of each other . She is everything he isn 't . Dark , strong , brave , and a girl . ( ... ) Like two sides of the same coin . " On another occasion , Alfredson stated that " [ c ] asting is 70 percent of the job ; it 's not about picking the right people to make the roles . It is about creating chords , how a B and A minor interact together , and are played together . "
In the end , Alfredson expressed satisfaction with the result , and has frequently lauded Hedebrant and Leandersson for being " extremely intelligent " , " incredibly wise " , and " unprecedentedly fantastic . "
= = = Filming = = =
Although the film takes place in Blackeberg , a suburb of Stockholm , principal photography took place in Luleå ( in the north of Sweden ) to ensure enough snow and cold weather . The area where the filming took place dated from around the same time as Blackeberg , and has similar architecture . However , Alfredson shot a few scenes in the Blackeberg area . In particular , the scene where Eli leaps down on Virginia from a tree , was shot in the town square of Blackeberg . Another scene , where Eli attacks Jocke in an underpass , was shot in the nearby suburb Råcksta . The original Blackeberg underpass that Lindqvist had envisioned was deemed too high to fit in the picture . Some of the outdoor close @-@ up scenes were made in a super cold studio .
The jungle gym where much of the interaction between Oskar and Eli takes place was constructed specifically for the film . Its design was intended to suit the CinemaScope format better than a regular jungle gym , which would typically have to be cropped height @-@ wise .
Most of the filming used a single , fixed , Arri 535B camera , with almost no handheld usage , and few cuts . Tracking shots relied on a track @-@ mounted dolly , rather than Steadicam , to create calm , predictable camera movement . The crew paid special attention to lighting . Cinematographer Hoyte van Hoytema and director Alfredson invented a technique they called " spray light " . In an interview , van Hoytema describes it as follows : " If you could capture dull electrical light in a can and spray it like hairspray across Eli ’ s apartment , it would have the same result as what we created " . For the emotional scenes between Oskar and Eli , van Hoytema consistently diffused the lighting .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The film contains around 50 shots with computer @-@ generated imagery . Alfredson wanted to make them very subtle and almost unnoticeable . The sequence where multiple cats attack Virginia , one of the most complicated scenes to film , required several weeks of drafting and planning . The crew used a combination of real cats , stuffed cats and computer @-@ generated imagery .
The film features analogue sound @-@ effects exclusively throughout . The lead sound @-@ designer Per Sundström explained : " The key to good sound effects is working with natural and real sounds . ( ... ) These analogue sounds can be digitally reworked as much as necessary , but the origin has to be natural " . Sundström designed the soundscape to come as close to the actors as possible , with audible heartbeats , breathing , and swallowing . Late in production it was also decided to overdub actress Lina Leandersson 's voice with a less feminine one , to underline the backstory . " She 's 200 years old , not twelve . We needed that incongruity . Besides , it makes her menacing " , Sundström said . Both men and women up to the age of forty auditioned for the role . After a vote , the film team ended up selecting Elif Ceylan , who provides all of Eli 's spoken dialogue . Footage of Ceylan eating melon or sausage was combined with various animal noises to emulate the sound of Eli biting into her victims and drinking their blood .
The sound crew won a Guldbagge Award for Best Achievement from the Swedish Film Institute , for the " nightmarishly great sound " in the film .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Swedish composer Johan Söderqvist wrote the score . Alfredson instructed him to write something that sounded hopeful and romantic , in contrast to the events that take place in the film . Söderqvist has described the outcome as consisting of both darkness and light , and emphasized melody and harmony as the most important qualities of the music .
The Slovak National Symphony Orchestra performed the score ; two years earlier they had performed the score for the first Swedish vampire movie , Frostbiten . It placed fourth on Ain 't It Cool News ' Top 10 Best Scores Of 2008 List , being described as " scrupulously weaving together strains of bone @-@ chillingly cold horror with the encompassing warmth of newly acquired love " . If magazine described the score as " the most beautifully emotional score yet to grace the undead . It ’ s a feeling of tender melancholy that delivers its scares in a subtle , chamber orchestra way " .
The song " Kvar i min bil " , written and performed by Per Gessle , resonates repeatedly through the film . Originally an outtake from Gessle 's solo album En händig man , the song was specially provided for the film , to resemble the sound of popular 1980s pop group Gyllene Tider . Gessle has described the song as a " bluesy tune with a nice guitar hook ” . Other songs in the film include " Försonade " from 1968 , written and performed by future ABBA member Agnetha Fältskog , " Flash in the Night " from 1981 , written by Tim Norell and Björn Håkansson and performed by Secret Service , and " Dags å välja sida " by Peps Blodsband .
On November 11 , 2008 , MovieScore Media released the film soundtrack in a limited edition of 500 copies . It contains 21 of Söderqvist 's original scores from the film .
= = Release = =
Let the Right One In received its first performance at the Gothenburg Film Festival in Sweden on 26 January 2008 where Alfredson won the Festival 's Nordic Film Prize . It subsequently played at several other film festivals , including the Tribeca Film Festival in New York ( 24 April 2008 ) , where it won the Founders Award for Best Narrative Feature , the Edinburgh Film Festival on 25 Jun 2008 where it won the Rotten Tomatoes Critical Consensus Award , and the Neuchâtel International Fantastic Film Festival in Switzerland on 3 July 2008 where it won the Méliès d 'Argent ( Silver Méliès ) . The Swedish premiere was originally planned for 18 April 2008 , but following the positive response from the festival screenings , the producers decided to postpone the release until autumn , to allow for a longer theatrical run . At one time there was a plan to release the film for a special series of screenings in Luleå , beginning 24 September and lasting seven days . This was canceled when the Swedish Film Institute announced that Everlasting Moments had been selected over Let the Right One In as Sweden 's submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film . The distributors released it on 24 October 2008 in Sweden , Norway , and as a limited release in the United States . In Australia , the film was released on 19 March 2009 . The film was released in cinemas in the UK on 10 April 2009 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Swedish critics generally expressed positive reactions to the film . In 26 reviews listed at the Swedish @-@ language review site Kritiker.se it achieved an average rating of 4 @.@ 0 out of 5 . Svenska Dagbladet gave the film a rating of 5 out of 6 and hailed Alfredson for his ability to " tell [ stories ] through pictures instead of words about a society where hearts are turned to icicles and everyone is left on their own , but also about love warm and red like blood on white melting snow " . Göran Everdahl for SVT 's Gomorron Sverige gave the film 4 out of 5 and described the film as " kitchen sink fantasy " that " gives the vampire story back something it has been missing for a long time : the ability to really frighten us " . Expressen and Göteborgs @-@ Posten were less impressed and gave the film 3 out of 5 . Expressen criticized it for being unappealing to those uninitiated in vampire films while Göteborgs @-@ Posten believed the supporting characters had lost the emotional depth that made the novel so successful .
Let the Right One In received widespread critical acclaim in the U.S. As of 2014 the film has a 98 % " Certified fresh " rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on 175 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 . Additionally , Metacritic has reported an average score of 82 out of 100 based on 30 reviews which indicates " universal acclaim " . Reviewers have commented on the beautiful cinematography and its quiet , restrained approach to the sometimes bloody and violent subject matter . KJ Doughton of Film Threat thought the visuals in the ending were fresh and inventive and would be talked about for years to come . Roger Ebert gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , calling it a vampire movie that takes vampires seriously , drawing comparisons to Nosferatu and to Nosferatu the Vampyre . He described it as a story of " two lonely and desperate kids capable of performing dark deeds without apparent emotion " , and praised the actors for " powerful " performances in " draining " roles . Ebert later called the film " The best modern vampire movie " . One negative review came from Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly , who gave the movie a " C " , characterizing it as a " Swedish head @-@ scratcher " , with " a few creepy images but very little holding them together " .
Bloody Disgusting ranked the film first in their list of the ' Top 20 Horror Films of the Decade ' , with the article saying " It ’ s rare enough for a horror film to be good ; even rarer are those that function as genuine works of art . Let the Right One In is one of those films – an austerely beautiful creation that reveals itself slowly , like the best works of art do . The simplicity of the story allows Swedish director Tomas Alfredson to focus on these two pre @-@ teen characters with a penetrating insight that not only makes it a great vampire film but a great coming @-@ of @-@ age film as well . At its core , the film is , simply , a human story , a pensive meditation on the transcendent possibilities of human connection . Most of all , it ’ s a film that sticks with you , and whose stature will continue to grow in the decades to come . "
The film was ranked # 15 in Empire magazine 's 2010 list of " The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema " . In their rationale , the authors noted that , " in these days where every second movie seems to feature vampires , it takes a very special twist on the legend to surprise us – but this one knocked us out and then bit us in the jugular " , and found that the " strange central friendship " between the two lead characters was what made the film " so frightening , and so magnetic " . In the early 2010s , Time Out conducted a poll with several authors , directors , actors and critics who have worked within the horror genre to vote for their top horror films . Let the Right One In placed at number 28 on their top 100 list .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released in North America on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in March 2009 by Magnet Films , and in the UK in August by Momentum Pictures . The American discs feature both the original Swedish dialogue and an English dubbed version , while the European versions feature only the Swedish , and an audio @-@ descriptive track in English . Icons of Fright reported that the American release had been criticized for using new , oversimplified English subtitles instead of the original theatrical subtitles . Following customer complaints , Magnet stated that they would release an updated version with the original theatrical subtitles , but will not exchange current discs . Director Tomas Alfredson also expressed his dissatisfaction with the DVD subtitles , calling it a " turkey translation " . " If you look on the ' net , people are furious about how bad it is done " , he added . The UK release retains the theatrical subtitles .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Alfredson won the Gothenburg Film Festival 's Nordic Film Prize as director of Let the Right One In on the grounds that he " succeeds to transform a vampire movie to a truly original , touching , amusing and heart @-@ warming story about friendship and marginalisation " . Let the Right One In was nominated in five categories for the Swedish Film Institute 's 2008 Guldbagge Award , eventually winning for best directing , screenplay and cinematography as well as a Best Achievement @-@ award to production designer Eva Norén . In awarding the film the " Founders Award for Best Narrative Feature " , the top award at the Tribeca Film Festival , the jury described the film as a " mesmerizing exploration of loneliness and alienation through masterful reexamination of the vampire myth " . The film also won the Méliès d 'Argent ( Silver Méliès ) at the Swiss Neuchâtel International Fantastic Film Festival ( NIFFF ) and went on to win the Méliès d 'Or ( Golden Méliès ) for the " Best European Fantastic Feature Film " , awarded by the European Fantastic Film Festivals Federation of which NIFFF is a part . Other awards include the first Rotten Tomatoes Critical Consensus Award at the Edinburgh Film Festival .
Despite being an internationally successful film , Let the Right One In was not submitted by Sweden for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film . The details surrounding the film 's eligibility for the award resulted in some confusion . Being released on 24 October 2008 , the film would normally be eligible for submission for the 82nd Academy Awards . However , the producers decided to release it on 24 September as a seven @-@ day limited run only in Luleå . This would be exactly enough to meet the criteria for the 81st Academy Awards instead . When the Swedish Film Institute on 16 September announced that Jan Troell 's Everlasting Moments had been selected instead of Let the Right One In , the Luleå screenings were cancelled . Despite the fact that the film was released within the eligibility period for the 82nd Academy Awards , it wasn 't among the films considered because the Swedish Film Institute doesn 't allow a film to be considered twice .
= = American version = =
After the release of Let the Right One In took place , Cloverfield director Matt Reeves signed on to write and direct an English @-@ language version for Overture Films and Hammer Films . Hammer Films acquired the rights at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival , where Let the Right One In won the " Founders Award for Best Narrative Feature " , and Overture films planned to release the film in 2010 . Alfredson has expressed unhappiness about the idea of a remake , saying that " Remakes should be made of movies that aren 't very good , that gives you the chance to fix whatever has gone wrong " and expressing concern that the end result would be too mainstream . Alfredson was initially asked to direct the remake , but he turned it down stating that " I am too old to make the same film twice and I have other stories that I want to tell . " Lindqvist , in contrast , said that he had heard that Reeves " will make a new film based on the book , and not remake the Swedish film " and so " it 'll be something completely different , but it 's going to be really interesting to see . " Hammer Films producer Simon Oakes referred to the project as a remake of the film and later not as a remake , but just as " Reeves ' version " . Let Me In was released in late 2010 starring Chloë Grace Moretz and Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee as Abby and Owen , Eli 's and Oskar 's respective counterparts , and received very positive reviews despite not performing well at the box office .
= Hunter Mariners =
The Hunter Mariners were an Australian professional rugby league club based in the Hunter Region 's largest city , Newcastle . Hunter was formed in mid @-@ 1995 and was later disbanded at the end of 1997 . The club was formed because of the Super League war , which was the rivalry between the traditional Australian Rugby League competition and the new media driven Super League competition . The team competed in the inaugural and only Super League season in 1997 , as well as that year 's World Club Challenge .
The Mariners faced much adversity in the Newcastle region because of the Australian Rugby League 's Newcastle Knights team being already well established in the region . The club played its home games at Topper Stadium and missed out on the finals of the 1997 Super League season , but made the grand final of the World Club Challenge . The team was overshadowed by the Newcastle Knights who won the ARL competition and were admitted into the 1998 re @-@ united competition . The Mariners were disbanded after being left out of the new competition because they believed that the Hunter region could not support two entities .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
The New South Wales Rugby League competition ( NSWRL ) had been formed in 1908 as the first rugby league competition in Australia . There was a Newcastle based club in the first two seasons of the Sydney @-@ based competition , but they eventually left to form their own Newcastle Rugby League competition . It was not until 1988 that another Newcastle based team was admitted into the NSWRL . In 1995 , the Australian Rugby League ( ARL ) took control of the competition amid the beginning of the Super League war . It was then that News Limited began proposing and deliberating a rival rugby league competition and the twenty teams which competed in the 1995 ARL season were split between the Super League and ARL competitions .
The Newcastle Knights , the Newcastle @-@ based team formed in 1988 , aligned itself with the ARL and the new Super League competition was left without a Newcastle @-@ based team . The Super League then established their own Newcastle @-@ based team . The financially successful Newcastle Wests Leagues Club was given a licence to form a club for the 1996 inaugural Super League season .
In July 1995 , it was officially announced that the Newcastle @-@ based team would be called the " Hunter Mariners " . However , in the middle of 1995 , members of the Newcastle Wests Leagues Club did not want the club involved in the rebel competition , and the club held a meeting after 5 @,@ 000 fans signed a petition objecting to the club ’ s involvement . After this , and when local unions became involved in the protest , the Leagues Club abandoned the licence . The club then became owned and supported by News Limited .
In early 1996 , the Hunter Mariners club was officially launched , without a home ground , but on that same day the Super League was banned from running its rebel competition . Originally the Mariners were allowed to use the Newcastle Knights home ground Marathon Stadium by the Showground Trust , but the Supreme Court found that they had no rights to play there . The club eventually played at Topper Stadium , sharing the ground with the National Soccer League 's Newcastle Breakers , and used over $ 1 million to upgrade facilities at the stadium . After an appeal in mid @-@ 1996 , the Super League was officially allowed to run the competition , which began in 1997 .
= = = 1997 Super League Telstra Cup = = =
The Mariners lost their first three games of the premiership season , their first a narrow loss on their home ground . However , after the first loss at home , the Mariners were able to win seven consecutive matches at Topper Stadium . Despite this home ground record , Mariners were never able to win away from home . They lost all nine matches played away from their stadium , and subsequently missed out on the finals for the Super League season .
The Mariners were able to produce some representative players throughout their one season . Noel Goldthorpe and Robbie Ross were selected in the Super League Tri @-@ Series and Goldthorpe scored the winning points for New South Wales in the final of that series . Tyran Smith , Tony Iro and Kevin Iro were all selected for the New Zealand representative team . While mid @-@ year find Brett Kimm
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orley was the club ’ s sole selection for Australia in the Super League Test series against Great Britain .
= = = 1997 World Club Championship = = =
The Super League had also begun a rugby league competition in England , and they had created a mixed competition , encompassing Super League clubs from Australia , New Zealand , France and England , known as the World Club Challenge . The 1997 World Club Championship was held in order to crown " the best club in the world " . The Mariners were a part of Australasia ’ s group A and competed in England , before returning to complete the Australian part of the competition . The Mariners won all three games in England , over Paris Saint @-@ Germain , Castleford and Sheffield . They returned home to again win the three games at Topper Stadium and therefore made the finals of the competition .
The finals system meant that they would have to play their finals match in England against English Super League club Wigan . The Mariners shocked the club and the league by winning 22 – 18 . That score line would again be repeated in the grand final qualifier against Australian club Cronulla , another match the Mariners were expected to lose . But the Mariners were able to defeat the Australian Super League runners @-@ up to take themselves to the grand final of the competition . Against the winners of the Super League grand final , Brisbane , the Mariners were blown away by the competition favourites . In what would be their final rugby league match as a club , the Mariners were down at half @-@ time 26 – 4 and the final scoreline of 36 – 12 prevented the Mariners taking out a A $ 1 million prize .
= = = Demise = = =
The agreement of the ARL and Super League was to unify and become one competition , to be known as the National Rugby League ( NRL ) , was that only twenty teams would compete in the competition in 1998 . This meant that three of the twenty @-@ two teams from both competitions was to be demised with the addition of a new Melbourne based team . With the other Newcastle @-@ based team , the Newcastle Knights winning the 1997 premiership , they were admitted into the new competition , however the NRL saw that two Newcastle based teams would not be financially viable .
Late in 1997 , the club was offered to merge with Gold Coast @-@ based team the Gold Coast Chargers , which would be known as the Gold Coast Mariners and would be based in the Gold Coast . However the Gold Coast party withdrew late to go alone in the 1998 competition , and while the Mariners tried to do the same , they , along with South Queensland Crushers and Western Reds , were not admitted into the NRL competition , thus ending their tenure as a first @-@ grade rugby league team .
= = Representative players = =
Players from the Hunter Mariners that have represented another teams while at the club include Australian international Brett Kimmorley and New Zealand internationals Kevin Iro , Tony Iro and Tyran Smith . Robbie Ross and Noel Goldthorpe also played for New South Wales in the State of origin .
= = Players = =
In the Super League season , the Mariners used a total of twenty @-@ nine players over the eighteen games .
= = Records and statistics = =
= = = Individual records = = =
Scott Hill , Peter Gregory , and Tony Stone share the record of playing all eighteen Super League games for the Mariners , being the players with the most first grade games . Nick Zisti , however is the Mariner 's most prolific record holder , with the most first grade points for the team with 76 points . This encompasses the most tries for the team with nine as well as most goals with twenty . Zisti has the most tries and goals in a match with three and five scored respectively in a match . The Mariners have only had three representatives , Robbie Ross and Noel Goldthorpe represented New South Wales in the Super League Tri @-@ Series while Brett Kimmorley represented Australia in the Super League test matches .
= = = Team honours = = =
Their home ground success , winning seven from nine matches , was never able to attract decent figure crowds , their highest reaching 7 @,@ 719 . Compared with the Super League competition average of 12 @,@ 347 and the nearby Newcastle Knights had an average of 14 @,@ 257 home attendances . With crowds at these levels , the Mariners were unsuccessfully competing in the Newcastle area .
= Existence ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Existence " is the twenty @-@ first episode and eighth season finale of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files and 182nd episode overall . The episode first premiered on Fox in the United States on May 20 , 2001 , and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on June 28 , 2001 on Sky1 . It was written by executive producer Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners . " Existence " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 4 and was watched by 8 @.@ 58 million households and 14 million viewers , overall . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) — as well as ex @-@ FBI agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , continuing from the previous episode , " Essence " , a new type of alien , called a Super Soldier programmed to destroy any traces of alien involvement on Earth , is introduced . Mulder , Doggett , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , and Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) help Scully escape from Billy Miles with Special Agent Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) to a remote town . Shortly after , Skinner kills Krycek and Scully delivers an apparently normal baby with the alien Super Soldiers surrounding her . Without explanation , the aliens leave the area as Mulder arrives .
" Existence " is a story milestone for the series . It , along with previous season eight episodes starting with " Per Manum " , helped to introduce the story arc featuring the super @-@ soldiers which continued throughout the ninth season . The episode was the last to feature Fox Mulder 's character until the series finale the following year . As such , the last scene with Doggett and Reyes in Kersh 's office was intended to show the " New X @-@ Files " without David Duchovny .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with a metal box brought in containing the remains of Billy Miles . The coroner examines it and notices a small piece of metal . After he leaves the room , the metal begins to spin , growing into what looks like the beginnings of a spine . Meanwhile , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and Monica Reyes arrive at the abandoned town where Special Agent John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) was born .
Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) is seated in a chair in Assistant Director Walter Skinner 's office , where he is shown a video from the morgue . Skinner tells him that Miles is somehow alive and still out to get Scully and her unborn child . Suddenly , Agent Gene Crane comes to Doggett and tells him that there is a person — Knowle Rohrer — who wants to see him , about issues concerning Miles and Scully . This leaves Fox Mulder and Skinner to interrogate Krycek . Rohrer fabricates a story to Doggett that Miles is part of a Military Project to create a super soldier and that Scully had a chip put in the back of her neck during her abduction to make her pregnant with the first organic version of a super soldier .
In Skinner 's office , Krycek gets up from his chair and starts leaving out the doorway . Skinner goes after him , then turns around and sees Miles approaching behind him . Skinner just manages to escape with Krycek ( who was purposely closing the elevator doors on Skinner ) , but Miles ' hand breaks through the elevator , injuring Skinner . At the hospital , Mulder distrusts what Doggett has been told by Knowle Rohrer , so the two set out to find out how trustworthy Rohrer really is . Meanwhile , at Doggett 's abandoned hometown where Reyes and Scully are hiding out , Reyes sees someone running off and follows whoever it is . A car pulls up and she meets a trooper who agrees to help with the birth . As Mulder and Doggett pull into the garage , they find Krycek with a passenger , who happens to be Rohrer . Mulder believes that Rohrer and Krycek are colluding together . Doggett covertly pursues Rohrer and learns that Rohrer has an accomplice : Agent Crane .
Mulder 's own problems arise when his cell phone rings and Krycek disappears from his car . Mulder , after learning what Doggett has witnessed , believes that Crane gave Krycek access to the FBI . Suddenly , Krycek smashes through the car window with his prosthetic hand and destroys the cell phone . Krycek aims his gun at Mulder and tells him to get out . Krycek is about to pull the trigger when a bullet administered by Skinner pierces his arm . Krycek tries to pick his gun up again , but Skinner shoots his hand , rendering it useless . Krycek pushes his gun over and tells Skinner to shoot Mulder . Instead , Skinner raises his gun and shoots Krycek in the head . Doggett attempts to apprehend Rohrer and Crane but ends up being chased by the two . The pursuit ends up in the FBI garage and ends violently with Crane being run over and Rohrer crashing his car into the garage wall . Both men are presumed dead .
Scully goes into labour and Reyes helps her deliver an apparently normal baby with the alien Super Soldiers surrounding them . Without explanation , the aliens leave the area as Mulder arrives . While Doggett and Reyes report to the FBI Headquarters , Doggett initiates an investigation into Kersh after a late night meeting between him and Rohrer . Mulder takes Scully and their newborn baby back to her apartment . After marveling over the baby and discussing recent events , the two agents share a long , passionate kiss .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
" Existence " was written during filming , which led to Kim Manners — the director of the episode — helping with the script . Because of this , several of the action scenes , such as the fight at the FBI headquarters , were Manners ' ideas . The last scene with Doggett and Reyes in Kersh 's office is the birth of the " New X @-@ Files " without David Duchovny . From here on , Monica Reyes became a main character on the show . Star Trek : The Next Generation regular Denise Crosby briefly appears as Scully 's gynecologist . The episode features the last appearance of Nicholas Lea , sans the series finale . Reportedly , Lea had become tired of the role and was growing weary of the ambiguous nature of the character . When Lea learned that his character was to be killed off in " Existence " , he reportedly welcomed the news . The night the episode aired , Lea wrote on his personal website : " I felt that [ Krycek ] wasn 't getting a fair shake anyway . [ ... ] I wanted more in @-@ depth ideas about the character and it never came to pass . It kind of stopped being fun to play . "
The final scene of the episode featuring Mulder and Scully kissing almost was not filmed . Initially , the script called for Mulder to kiss Scully 's forehead . Both Duchovny and Manners argued that the scene was " mundane " and that they had " been teasing and doing that bull for so long " that they wanted " a real kiss at this point " . During the birth of Scully 's child , several allusions to the story of the birth of Jesus are made , including Mulder following a star to find Scully and The Lone Gunmen bringing gifts for the baby , much like the Three Wise Men . Scully 's child was portrayed by Jerry Shiban , who is the son of John Shiban , a producer who worked on The X @-@ Files as well as The Lone Gunmen . He was the first of seven babies to represent the character and the only one to play Baby William for a single episode .
= = = Effects and filming = = =
The episode featured several elaborate CGI scenes . The first scene with the vertebrae was entirely computer generated by visual effects head John Wash . Alex Krycek was killed by a CGI bullet straight through the head , which again was Manners ' idea . Extra money was budgeted for Krycek 's death . Mitch Pileggi was very happy when he was told he would be killing Krycek ; he explained , " when they came to me and told me that I was the one that was going to kill Krycek , I was elated . Not because I wanted Nick to go away or anything , it was just from a character stand @-@ point ; Skinner just wanted to kill Krycek so bad . " Manners later called it one of his " favorite scenes [ he 'd ] ever directed " and one of the " best scenes [ he 's ] seen in a long time on television . "
The car scene with Gillian Anderson and Annabeth Gish was shot at Kanan Road , Malibu . Anderson and Gish sat in what is known as an insert car , while the crew sat in a pickup car in front of them . The birth scene was filmed at the old Paramount Movie Ranch . According to director Kim Manners , the most difficult scene to shoot was in the elevator with Mitch Pileggi and Nicholas Lea . Gish had never worked much with guns before joining The X @-@ Files cast , so the producers got a retired LAPD officer to teach her more about firearms . She did some shooting practices before returning to the set . The FBI garage scenes were shot in Century City and took a total of four days to finish .
The episode also contains a scene wherein Reyes serenades Scully with " karaoke renditions " of whale calls . Gish later noted that " [ Series creator Chris Carter ] gave me a tape of whale songs , which was hysterical to be playing in my trailer . " Carter was inspired to write the scene after a friend gave him a Paul Winter album that incorporated whale sounds into the music . Carter later explained that , " I just thought it was kind of much like [ Reyes ' ] character to appreciate that . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Existence " premiered on May 20 , 2001 in the United States on Fox . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 4 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 4 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 58 million households and by 14 million viewers , overall . In the United Kingdom , " Existence " premiered on June 28 , 2001 and received 0 @.@ 65 million viewers , placing The X @-@ Files number three in the top ten broadcasts for Sky1 that week behind Star Trek : Voyager and The Simpsons . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Will the beginning be the end ? " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Existence " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " . While offering a positive opinion in regards to the finale as a whole , he felt that " Existence " dragged more so than " Essence " , resulting in a less interesting episode . He also felt that the overarching mythology of the series had long ago become too convoluted to make sense , but that the " human pieces of the show still work , and that includes Doggett . " Contra Costa Times columnists George Avalos and Michael Liedtke were pleased with the episode noting that the last scene was " beautifully written " . Avalos and Liedtke also reacted positively to the death of Alex Krycek at the hands of Skinner , saying it was the best scene in the episode . Despite their praise , however , they stressed that " Existence " was not as exciting as the previous episode , " Essence , " or the 1998 The X @-@ Files feature film . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity gave the episode an A- rating , noting that " season eight 's finale goes out with a big fat juicy kiss between Mulder and Scully , at long last " . Gareth Wigmore of TV Zone was positive toward both " Essence " and " Existence " . Wigmore gave the episodes a 9 out of 10 rating and wrote " the reason that this two @-@ parter works is that its plot is simple enough for the audience to still have a handle on " .
Not all reviews were positive . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a more mixed two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a scathing review and awarded it no stars out of four . She heavily derided the plot , and wrote , " Thus endeth the Mulder @-@ and @-@ Scully era of The X @-@ Files , and what a load of sanctimonious crap it turned out to be ! "
= I Am ... World Tour ( album ) =
I Am ... World Tour is a live DVD / CD concert film and live album by American R & B recording artist Beyoncé . Beyoncé produced , directed , and edited the concert film for her own production company Parkwood Pictures . The DVD was filmed in the presence of more than a million fans during her worldwide I Am ... World Tour , running from March 2009 through February 2010 , in support of her third studio album , I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . The DVD release is a combination of performances from the tour , including guest appearances from Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West , as well as backstage moments . Beyoncé explained that the idea of filming her worldwide performances came when she realized that she was feeling lonely . She edited the DVD for nine months and it serves as her directorial debut .
The DVD was released in three separate editions ; standard , deluxe and Blu @-@ ray . In the United States , the standard edition was only made available exclusively at Wal @-@ Mart on November 26 , 2010 . The deluxe edition was released in several countries around the world on the same date . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released from December 3 , 2010 in a list of selected countries only . She promoted it by appearing on several shows , including ABC 's Nightline and by holding a screening of her DVD in New York , in presence of several fans and artists on November 21 , 2010 . Prior to the release , numerous trailers were posted on Beyoncé 's official website . I Am ... World Tour premiered exclusively on ABC on November 25 , 2010 as a 90 @-@ minute Thanksgiving special .
Upon the release of the DVD , it received mixed to positive reviews from music critics who generally praised the high @-@ energy performances of the songs as well as Beyoncé 's vocals . I Am ... World Tour debuted at number one on the Billboard Music DVD Chart , giving Beyoncé her second consecutive number one DVD ( and third overall ) in the United States . It was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . The DVD was also successful worldwide , peaking inside the top ten on the DVD charts in every country after its release . It became the best @-@ selling music DVD of 2010 in the world and seventh best @-@ selling of 2011 . I Am ... World Tour was nominated in the category for Best Long Form Music Video at the 54th Grammy Awards .
= = Background and release = =
To promote I Am ... Sasha Fierce , Beyoncé embarked on the worldwide I Am ... Tour with several performances . The tour kicked off in Edmonton , Canada on March 26 , 2009 , in support of the album . The European leg of the tour started on April 26 , 2009 , in Zagreb , Croatia and ended on June 9 , 2009 , in London , England . On June 21 , 2009 , she began the third leg of the tour in the United States and finished in August with a 4 @-@ day stint at Encore Las Vegas on the Las Vegas Strip . Starting on September 15 , 2009 , the fourth leg began in Melbourne , Australia and finished on September 24 in Perth , Australia . Beyoncé then went on performing in Asia , the Middle East , Europe , Africa , and the United Kingdom , before finishing the 2009 portion of the tour on November 24 in Belfast , Northern Ireland . The tour had its final leg in 2010 , visiting Latin America . Starting on February 4 , 2010 , in Florianópolis , Brazil , she visited five other places before ending in Trinidad on February 18 , 2010 . According to Pollstar , the tour earned $ 17 @.@ 2 million between January 1 , and June 30 , 2010 , which added onto her total of $ 86 million for her first 93 concerts in 2009 , bringing the tour total to $ 103 @.@ 2 million for the 97 shows .
While Beyoncé was on tour , she played at a Las Vegas residency at the Encore Theatre in Las Vegas . Titled I Am ... Yours , the August 2 , 2009 show was recorded and later released as a DVD , audio CD and television special in late November 2009 .
After Beyoncé finished her concert at the Trent FM Arena in Nottingham , England on November 20 , 2009 , she announced to the crowd that a new album would be released the next year . I Am ... World Tour features performances from Beyoncé 's tour . She explained that the idea of filming her worldwide performances came when she realized that she was feeling lonely , stating " there was one moment I was in China and I was in this huge suite and I looked out the window and there were just thousands of people walking and I couldn 't believe my life ... I guess I was a bit lonely and I wanted to talk to someone so I opened up my computer and I just talked . " Additionally , Beyoncé revealed that the DVD will show more of her intimate side . The album 's track listing was confirmed on November 12 , 2010 . Both Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West make guest appearances on the DVD . In November 2010 , there was a sweepstakes to win tickets to an exclusive screening of the DVD .
In the United States , the standard edition of the DVD was released exclusively at Wal @-@ Mart stores on November 26 , 2010 . The deluxe edition of I Am ... World Tour includes the concert DVD , a live audio CD , an exclusive documentary , and a 40 @-@ page four @-@ color booklet of never before seen photos of her journey around the world , made available on November 30 , 2010 in several countries . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on December 7 , 2010 . A live instrumentals album was released digitally February 1 , 2011 and on doubled sided vinyl on February 22 and February 28 . This is Beyoncé 's third release of this nature but the first live instrumental album to have a physical release ; the live instrumentals album from The Beyoncé Experience Live and I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas were her first two , only released digitally .
= = Production and filming = =
I Am ... World Tour was produced , directed , and edited by Beyoncé for her own production company Parkwood Pictures . It contains tour footage from 108 shows that took place in 78 cities , 32 countries , and 6 continents in the presence of 1 @.@ 1 million fans around the world . The show is a combination of performance clips from the tour , as well as backstage moments . I Am ... World Tour also serves as the directorial debut for Beyoncé . On this occasion , she confessed that it was a lot of work for her . Nevertheless , she was very happy and eager for her fans to see her DVD directed by herself . She explained , " I 'm so excited – this is my directorial debut . I am just thrilled that my fans are going to be in the theatre with me and I can 't wait for everyone to see it . It took me nine months to edit because I wanted to show a little bit of each show , each performance on tour , and it was 116 shows , so you can only imagine how much work it was , [ but ] it was worth it . " At the New York City screening of the DVD , Beyoncé further explained that she was completely " hands @-@ on " , deciding which moments made the final cut and which ones wound up on the cutting @-@ room floor , stating , " It was hard work . I learned so much . I have a new respect for directors and I think I would like to do more of it . " Some of the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage were shot by Beyoncé on her laptop . The DVD captures concert footage from cities in Europe , Asia , South America , and the United States , all edited into one concert . However , I Am ... World Tour was significantly recorded at London 's larger O2 Arena , a few months after the I Am ... Yours concert . A live CD of the concert , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary of her life along the tour and a 20 @-@ page book of exclusive photos are all included in the package . According to a press release , " it is meant to create the ne plus ultra Knowles concert experience , seen from her perspective " .
= = About the show = =
In addition to offering behind @-@ the @-@ scenes glimpses into Beyoncé 's intimate world on tour , the film also features performances of over twenty songs with staging , choreography , lighting and production values . In between performances of " If I Were a Boy " , which included a medley with Alanis Morissette 's " You Oughta Know " , viewers get glimpses of her childhood from old video footage . The footage transitions from Beyoncé dancing up a storm in her childhood home , to sleepless nights on tour where she worries about her health after nine consecutive days of touring , rehearsing , and recording . Despite her struggles , she sings Destiny 's Child songs , " Bootylicious " and " Survivor " , and asks for a guest appearance from Kanye West . For " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , Beyoncé 's performance is accompanied by YouTube footage of fans mimicking her moves , and a short video clip of US President Barack Obama .
In some of the raw moments captured in the documentary , Beyoncé appears completely bare . During one video , Beyoncé cries and asks herself : " Why did God give me this life ? Sometimes it 's overwhelming . Why did God give me my talent , my gift , my family . But I know you ’ re not supposed to question God . " She told Entertainment Tonight : " I wanted to do something a little different with the film ... I wanted people to re @-@ experience the show in a different way . Everyone that had been to the show -- I wanted them to see things that they didn 't get to see . I figured it would be cool for everyone to see it from my point of view . It 's a peek behind the curtain ... honestly , more than no makeup , the emotions and just being so real and raw , I don 't think I 'd be able to let down my guard the way I did if anybody was in the room . " The last minutes of the film get very sentimental , with a performance of Etta James 's classic " At Last " set to the backdrop of Civil Rights @-@ era footage , followed by a close @-@ up moment when Beyoncé admits that her life can be overwhelming , although she is blessed , stating , " I 'm grateful ... I 'm alive and I 'm living my dreams . " The film 's final performance shows Beyoncé performing " Halo " and sees her paying tribute to Michael Jackson . She also splices in footage of an old video from the night she attended her first Michael Jackson concert as a child . At the end of the performance , the whole production wraps as Beyoncé throws up the Roc sign and exits the stage .
= = Marketing and promotion = =
A thirty @-@ four second promo trailer of I Am ... World Tour was launched on several websites in early November 2010 . The concert film premiered exclusively on ABC on November 25 , 2010 as a 90 @-@ minute Thanksgiving special . A year before , over Thanksgiving itself , the network aired I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas , shot at the Encore Theater , Las Vegas , on August 2 , 2009 . Several other trailers kept dropping on Beyoncé ' official website in November . Beyoncé made an appearance at the School of Visual Arts Theater in New York City 's Chelsea neighborhood on November 21 , 2010 to premiere the concert film . On November 22 , 2010 , she held a screening of the DVD in New York , in presence of her parents and artists such as Mary J. Blige , Jennifer Hudson , Amel Larrieux , Tyson Beckford , Alicia Keys , and AJ Calloway . Additionally , in an interview with the Associated Press on the same day , Beyoncé revealed that the DVD will show more of her intimate side , stating : " I felt like I 've done so many different things , it 's time for me to show a bit of who I am . The hardest thing was showing that , because a lot of things that I filmed , I filmed in my computer , and I would never have gotten so open if someone else was in the room . " On November 23 , 2010 , Beyoncé was interviewed by Cynthia McFadden on ABC 's Nightline where she stated " I feel like I wanted the fans to be able to see the things that I see ... It 's a lot of things that I reveal about myself that I would never give to another director . "
On November 22 , 2010 , Rolling Stone organized a competition where I Am ... World Tour was one of the gifts for readers of the magazine . On December 1 , 2010 , Entertainment Weekly offered a six @-@ foot tall version of the poster signed by Beyoncé to one of the first ten people who posted a qualifying comment on the related post on their Facebook wall concerning the giveaway of the first ten copies of the DVD . On December 8 , 2010 , Perthnow collaborated with Beyoncé 's official website for a competition where twenty copies of the album were available . Fans completed an entry form and signed up to receive one of the copies .
= = Critical reception = =
Andy Kellman of AllMusic awarded the DVD three out of five stars and stated , " for anyone but the most devout fans of Beyoncé , this will be overkill , and it doesn 't have as much of the playfulness such as the pleasing diversions as the I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas set . " Simon Gage of Daily Express awarded it four out of five stars , complimenting Beyoncé 's dance moves and praising her vocal capabilities , going on saying that she is " probably the most electric performer since Tina Turner " and calling her the " Queen of R & B " . She also praised the quality of the songs " Crazy In Love " , " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " and " Halo " . Ian Drew of Us Weekly complimented the " high @-@ energy performances " of Beyoncé on her Destiny 's Child songs and enjoyed the black @-@ and @-@ white behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage . He also added that the singer is " most revelatory when tearing up over [ her ] missing husband Jay @-@ Z on the road . " New York 's Amy Odell described the DVD as a " cinematic masterpiece " . Jam ! ' s Darryl Sterdan gave the album a rating of three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and said , " More than two hours of powerhouse vocal performances and high @-@ energy choreography , accompanied by endless costume changes , eye @-@ popping production and general fabulousness . You 'll get tired just watching it . " Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald awarded it three out of five stars , stating that the good thing about the DVD is that it has a " wider range of songs " , nevertheless they do not have the same " rump @-@ rattling power " of the songs in The Beyoncé Experience simply because some songs are too short in duration , for instance " Bootylicious " . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly wrote that although Beyoncé showed an emotional side of herself during the DVD , " Still , the shows go on in their high @-@ heeled , wonderfully choreographed glory . "
Jon Pareles of The New York Times compared the DVD with Taylor Swift 's Journey to Fearless which aired as a special the same day as I Am ... World Tour . He noted , " Beyoncé 's I Am ... World Tour placed her before much larger audiences , documenting her choreographed razzle @-@ dazzle as she played arenas and stadiums in 2009 @-@ 10 . " He further said , " Beyoncé didn ’ t explain : she performed . With costumes that made her a comic @-@ book heroine , a cyborg , a club hottie , and a white @-@ clad vision of purity , she worked her big stages with hip @-@ pumping moves and a soul diva 's voice , from creamy to raspy . The documentary quietly flaunted her consistency as a trouper in montages that segued multiple shows — supertitled in small type — with Beyoncé in the same outfit making the same moves , while the fans ' nationalities changed around her . Yet for all her superhuman pep , she also came across as warmer than Ms. Swift . She grinned knowingly after belting a phrase into the bleachers , and she drew listeners into her own pop generalities . Andy Gill of The Independent was much less impressed with the DVD , qualifying it as an " unsatisfying , incoherent entertainment experience " even though she liked the way " the visual spectacle put everything in perspective " . The concert film received a nomination for a NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Variety – Series or Special in 2011 . I Am ... World Tour was nominated in the category for Best Long Form Music Video at the 54th Grammy Awards , held on February 12 , 2012 .
= = Chart performance = =
The live album debuted at number one on the Billboard Music DVD Chart in November , 2010 . It sold 37 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and 31 @,@ 000 copies in its second week of release in the US . It spent nine non @-@ consecutive weeks at number one in its fifteen weeks of charting . By December 26 , 2010 , I Am ... World Tour had sold 139 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . I Am ... World Tour became the best @-@ selling music DVD of 2010 and the third best @-@ selling DVD of 2011 in the US . The album also debuted and peaked at number forty on the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart for the issue dated December 18 , 2010 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , I Am ... World Tour has shipped over 200 @,@ 000 copies in the US , giving the DVD a double @-@ platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
On the chart issue dated December 2 , 2010 , I Am ... World Tour debuted and peaked at number four on the Irish Music DVD Chart . On December 11 , 2010 , the DVD debuted at number six on the UK Music Video Chart . It descended the chart for the next three weeks , before peaking at number five on January 8 , 2011 . It stayed on that position on the chart for three consecutive weeks . It was last seen in the top forty of the chart on May 21 , 2011 at number thirty eight . It also peaked at number thirty seven on the UK R & B Albums Chart on July 9 , 2011 . On the chart issue dated December 4 , 2010 , I Am ... World Tour debuted at number one on the Dutch Music DVD Chart . The next week , it stayed on the top for a second week and fell to number three on December 18 , 2010 . I Am ... World Tour peaked at number six on the Flanders Music DVD Chart for the chart issue dated December 4 , 2010 . On December 11 , 2010 , it peaked at number ten on the Wallonia Music DVD Chart . For the week ending December 6 , 2010 , the DVD debuted at number nine on the French Music DVD Chart and later , it became its peak position . On the Czech Music Video Chart , the DVD peaked at number sixteen . On the Italian DVD Music Chart , I Am ... World Tour debuted at number eleven for the week ending January 25 , 2010 which later became its peak position in that country . In 2011 , the DVD was certified gold by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry ( ZPAV ) .
On December 6 , 2010 , I Am ... World Tour debuted at number six on the Australian Music DVD Chart , with more than 7 @,@ 500 copies sold in the first week and hence achieved a gold certification on the same date . It was later certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for selling 15 @,@ 000 copies . It was the fortieth best @-@ selling DVD in Australia in 2010 and 2011 . On the New Zealand Music DVD Chart , I Am ... World Tour debuted at number five for the chart issue dated May 30 , 2011 . The next week it moved to number four which became its peak position in that country . In 2010 , I Am ... World Tour became the best @-@ selling music DVD in the world . The next year , it was the seventh best @-@ selling DVD worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .
= Hurricane Florence ( 1953 ) =
Hurricane Florence was a minimal Atlantic hurricane that struck the Florida Panhandle in September of the 1953 season . The eighth storm and fifth hurricane of the season , Florence developed in the western Caribbean from a tropical wave near Jamaica on September 23 . It produced heavy rainfall on the nearby island , and later caused damage in western Cuba . The storm quickly intensified into a hurricane over the Yucatan Channel , and as it moved north through the Gulf of Mexico , Florence 's maximum sustained winds reached 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . On September 26 , the hurricane hit in a sparsely populated region of western Florida , and shortly after landfall became an extratropical cyclone .
Damage from Florence , with 421 houses damaged and another three destroyed . The winds destroyed the roofs of three evacuation shelters , resulting in one injury . The city of Apalachicola , Florida was temporarily isolated due to the storm 's impact . There were no deaths associated with Florence , and damage totaled $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1953 USD , $ 1 @.@ 77 million 2016 USD ) . After becoming extratropical , the remnants continued to the northeast , producing rainfall along its path before dissipating on September 28 southeast of New England .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Florence were from a tropical wave that moved through the Lesser Antilles into the eastern Caribbean Sea on September 21 . The wave tracked generally westward , and spawned a tropical storm on September 23 about 100 mi ( 160 km ) southeast of Jamaica . Given the name Florence , the storm steadily intensified after developing , although a well @-@ defined circulation was not observed until September 24 . That day , Florence attained hurricane status in the Yucatán Channel between the Yucatán Peninsula and the western tip of Cuba .
After turning north and entering the Gulf of Mexico , Florence quickly intensified , with the Hurricane Hunters estimating winds of 125 to 140 mph ( 205 to 225 km / h ) ; the official peak intensity was reported as 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) , along with a pressure of 968 @.@ 0 mb ( 28 @.@ 59 inHg ) . However , the estimate of the peak winds may have been too high , as ships in the region did not confirm them . On September 26 , it began quickly weakening , due to a combination of colder water temperatures and cool air . At around 1800 UTC that day , Florence made landfall in a sparsely populated area between Fort Walton and Panama City Beach , Florida with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Within six hours after moving ashore , the hurricane had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone near the borders of Florida , Alabama , and Georgia . The remnants of Florence turned the northeast along a cold front , crossing Georgia before emerging near Savannah . The storm paralleled the Carolinas just offshore , dissipating on September 28 southeast of New England .
= = Preparations and impact = =
While the storm was first developing , Florence dropped heavy rainfall up to 10 in ( 250 mm ) in Jamaica , which isolated villages and blocked roads . Early in its existence , Hurricane Florence produced strong winds and waves along the west coast of Cuba , producing locally heavy damage . Prior to the hurricane making landfall on the United States Gulf Coast , the Weather Bureau issued warnings and recommended evacuations , which were credited in preventing any deaths or major injuries . In Florida and Alabama , the National Guard were activated in the event of heavy damage being caused , although they were ultimately not required . The Air Force flew hundreds of planes away from the region for safety . In addition , the Coast Guard drove along the beach to warn people of the approaching hurricane . In Panama City , Florida , about 10 @,@ 000 people were evacuated . All warnings related to the hurricane were lowered by the New Orleans U.S. Weather Bureau office at 4 pm CDT on September 26 . Offshore , a United States Coast Guard ship came to a standstill for 18 hours from the morning of September 25 into the early morning hours of September 26 while battling the cyclone out in the Gulf of Mexico .
The strongest winds recorded were 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) at Eglin Air Force Base . Although Florence made landfall in Florida , the heaviest rainfall related to Florence was 14 @.@ 71 in ( 374 mm ) in Lockhart , Alabama . Two intense rainbands , one on each side of the center , were responsible for the heaviest rainfall from the hurricane , including hourly rainfall rates of over 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) . Panama City reported 3 @.@ 66 in ( 93 millimetres ) in a three @-@ hour period . The combination of winds and heavy rainfall caused minor crop damage in the Florida panhandle and southeastern Alabama . Along the coast , Florence damaged 421 houses and destroyed three others . The winds destroyed the roofs of three shelters – one at Eglin Air Force Base and two in Crestview , Florida , forcing the evacuees to leave for safer areas ; one person was injured in the process . The winds also destroyed the roofs of nine houses in Crestview . Strong waves , reaching up to 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) in height , damaged 100 ft ( 30 m ) of a fishing pier in Panama City . The waves also washed over portions of U.S. Route 98 near Apalachicola , leaving the city isolated after power lines were downed .
Due to the strongest winds affecting a sparsely populated area near the coast , overall damage in the United States was minor , estimated around $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1953 USD , $ 1 @.@ 77 million 2016 USD ) . Heavy rainfall was reported in portions Alabama , including a total of 8 @.@ 72 in ( 221 mm ) , one inch shy of the 24 ‑ hour precipitation record in Montgomery set in 1892 . There , the rainfall backed up sewer drains , flooding homes and cars . The storm left about 4 @,@ 000 people without electricity in the area . While Florence moved across the southeastern United States , the heaviest rainfall fell to the near and left of its center , due to interaction with a cold front .
= 1938 – 39 Oregon Webfoots men 's basketball team =
The 1938 – 39 Oregon Webfoots men 's basketball team was a Division I college basketball team that represented the University of Oregon . The Webfoots , coached by Howard Hobson , played in the Pacific Coast Conference ( PCC ) and compiled a 29 – 5 win – loss record in regular and postseason competition . After winning the PCC title , they became the champions of the inaugural NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament .
Coming off a season in which the Webfoots were defeated in the PCC championship series by Stanford , the team returned all five of their starters . Known for their fast break offense , Oregon 's players were nicknamed the " Tall Firs " and held a height advantage over most teams . After several early @-@ season wins , the Webfoots went on an extended road trip to the East Coast , becoming the first West Coast team to do so . The team suffered two losses on the trip , to City College of New York ( CCNY ) and Bradley , but posted seven victories as well . Oregon won 10 consecutive games at one point in PCC competition , and clinched a Northern Division championship with a win in the next @-@ to @-@ last contest of the regular season . In the best @-@ of @-@ three PCC championship series , against California , the Webfoots won in two games to earn the team 's first conference championship since 1919 .
Oregon was invited to compete in the West Regional of the NCAA Tournament , and beat Texas in their first game to reach the regional final , where the team won against Oklahoma . At the first NCAA Tournament final , versus Ohio State , the Webfoots claimed a 46 – 33 victory behind a game @-@ high 15 points by John H. Dick . Three players from the 1938 – 39 Oregon men 's basketball team were selected as All @-@ Americans , and Hobson and Lauren Gale have been honored by the Basketball Hall of Fame .
= = Background = =
The 1937 – 38 Webfoots posted a win – loss record of 14 – 6 in Pacific Coast Conference play . In the conference 's North division , the Webfoots won the title by a one @-@ game margin over Washington . The Webfoots were led by Lauren Gale , who was the PCC North division 's leader in scoring with 12 @.@ 5 points per game in conference play ; his overall average was 12 @.@ 4 . Oregon advanced to the best @-@ of @-@ three PCC championship series , but lost two consecutive games to Stanford by margins of 52 – 39 and 59 – 51 . That ended the team 's hopes of being crowned PCC champions . Following the decisive game of the series , player Bobby Anet said at a team meeting , " Next year , we 're going to win everything . "
= = Roster and schedule = =
Oregon 's entire starting lineup returned from the 1937 – 38 team that had lost in the conference championship playoff ; it included 6 ' 8 " center Slim Wintermute , who was known for his shot @-@ blocking ability . Forward Gale , who was 6 ' 4 " , had what sportswriter Michael Russell called " enormous hands ( that ) allowed him to fake opponents while palming the ball with one hand " ; he was the PCC points @-@ scoring leader in 1938 – 39 . Anet , a 5 ' 8 " guard , was " the heart of the team " , according to Russell , due to his ability to dribble and run the floor quickly . He was the Webfoots ' captain , and was responsible for calling timeouts and engaging in conversations with referees . Other players on the team included 6 ' 4 " forward John H. Dick and 5 ' 11 " guard Wally Johansen . Newspaper editor L. H. Gregory called the Oregon team the " Tall Firs " due to the height of the team 's players , since Oregon was taller than most other teams of the era . Eight of the eleven men on the roster came from Oregon , and the other three from neighboring Washington . Anet and Johansen , along with forwards Earl Sandness and Ted Sarpola , had played for Astoria High School ; Anet and Johansen had won multiple state championships before joining Oregon . Ford Mullen , a future Major League Baseball player , was a backup guard on the team . Along with Mullen , the Webfoots ' reserves included guard Matt Pavalunas and forwards Bob Hardy and Ted Sarpola . The team normally played up to nine players in a game , foregoing a regular substitute for Wintermute ; when he needed a rest , Dick or Gale often changed positions to play center , allowing for a third forward to be inserted into the lineup . The Webfoots ' head coach was Howard Hobson , who was in his fourth season on the job . In his previous three seasons , he had led the Webfoots to a total win – loss record of 63 – 28 .
Oregon 's preferred offensive game plan was to play an attacking fast break style of basketball . In response , opposing teams with shorter players often played a slower @-@ paced offense . Oregon 's fast break was unique among West Coast basketball teams , who were not accustomed to facing such an offensive style . Dick said of the team 's attack that " We wanted to keep the pressure on ( the opponent ) mentally – more so than physically . Never give them a moment 's rest . " Hobson frequently tracked Oregon 's attempted shots in both competition and practice sessions , and built the offense around his players ' strengths . On defense , the team switched between zone and man @-@ to @-@ man styles depending on how its opponent played .
= = Regular season = =
The Webfoots began the 1938 – 39 season by defeating Portland 51 – 24 on November 29 , 1938 . Oregon 's second game was also against a team based in Portland , which represented the Multnomah Athletic Club . The Webfoots won by an 83 – 25 final score . In a closer game with a team representing Signal Oil , Oregon stretched its winning streak to three games with a 46 – 34 triumph . The team then recorded a victory over Pacific Packards , by a 54 – 39 final score .
Following those games , the Webfoots embarked on a long trip through the Eastern United States ; they were the first college basketball team from the West Coast to do so . Nine games were set up in as many cities , with eight held on the East Coast and one in San Francisco before the team returned home . In scheduling the extended trip away from Oregon , Hobson sought to show the team " different styles of play and officiating " and help them prepare for games later in the season . As a result of the extended travel , a University of Oregon student newspaper nickname the club the " Wandering Webfoots " . The first game of the trip came in December at New York City 's Madison Square Garden against City College of New York ( CCNY ) . Oregon had a poor start to the game ; according to the Sporting News , the team was " confused by officials ' interpretation of legal and illegal screens to the moving picks set by City College of New York . " CCNY took an early 10 @-@ point lead , but Oregon cut its deficit in half by the end of the first half , and tied the game at 30 – 30 . Despite Oregon 's comeback attempt , CCNY won 38 – 36 to hand the Webfoots their first loss of the season . The trip continued on December 19 with a game at Convention Hall in Philadelphia , against local team Saint Joseph 's . Oregon won easily by a 54 – 44 margin , as Gale and Wintermute led the Webfoots with 13 points each .
Future stops included Chicago , Cleveland , and Detroit , among other locations . Starting with the St. Joseph 's game , the Webfoots had a streak in which they played four games in five days before Christmas Eve . On December 20 , Oregon routed Miami ( Ohio ) 74 – 38 , as Sarpola led the team with 20 points . Wintermute suffered an ankle injury during the game . The Webfoots then defeated Canisius by a 12 @-@ point margin . In the next game , against an undefeated Wayne State team , the Webfoots entered halftime tied at 22 – 22 and needed a late burst of scoring , led by Gale and Johansen , to clinch an 11 @-@ point victory . After the Miami ( Ohio ) game , Wintermute missed three of the team 's following four games . The Webfoots won without him in their next two games , but not in the game in which he returned to action against Bradley . In Peoria , Illinois , Oregon fell behind by 17 points at halftime and lost 52 – 39 , as Bradley center Dar Hutchins tallied 17 points while defended by Wintermute , who was playing through his ankle injury . Following their loss to Bradley , Oregon traveled to the Chicago Coliseum for a game against Western Illinois State Teachers College . Despite being without the services of Wintermute again , the Webfoots posted a 60 – 45 victory . Drake , the Webfoots ' opponent on December 29 in Chicago , was defeated by 11 points . The final game of the road trip , held in San Francisco on New Year 's Eve , saw the Webfoots lose to Stanford . The stretch proved profitable for the school , which made $ 4 @,@ 400 off of the East Coast games , and Dick credited the trip for giving the Webfoots exposure to different styles of play than they had been accustomed to .
= = = Conference play = = =
The Webfoots then entered play in the PCC , with four games scheduled against each of the four other teams in the conference 's Northern Division ; Oregon hosted each club twice and played two games at all opposing teams ' arenas . At the beginning of 1939 , the Webfoots began its PCC schedule with consecutive home games against Washington State on January 6 and 7 . In the first , Oregon entered halftime with a nine @-@ point advantage and prevailed by a 46 – 35 margin . They lost the second , 39 – 34 , for their only home defeat of the season ; the loss broke a 23 @-@ game winning streak at McArthur Court , the Webfoots ' arena .
Oregon then began a 10 @-@ game winning streak , their longest since the start of the 1937 – 38 season . Oregon State was the Webfoots ' first opponent during the streak , on January 13 ; Oregon prevailed 31 – 26 . In two higher @-@ scoring contests at Washington State on January 17 and 18 , the Webfoots claimed 56 – 44 and 57 – 31 victories , respectively . A five @-@ game road trip concluded with games in Idaho on January 20 and 21 . The contests were closer than those against Washington State , but the Webfoots won 38 – 30 in the first game and 35 – 31 in the second to improve to 6 – 1 in conference play . Oregon 's next five games were at home , beginning with a second encounter against Oregon State , on January 27 that they won by a seven @-@ point margin . Washington traveled to Oregon for games on January 31 and February 1 , and 57 – 49 and 58 – 42 victories moved the Webfoots ' winning streak to eight . They then concluded their four @-@ game season series with Idaho , winning by 17 points in each game . On February 18 , the Webfoots ' streak ended with a 50 – 31 upset loss to Oregon State , which would be their last of the season . Six days later , Oregon posted a 48 – 37 win over the Beavers at home . That game was the Webfoots ' last appearance for the 1938 – 39 regular season at McArthur Court ; it was the school 's 100th win at the arena since it was opened in 1927 .
With two games left in the regular season , the Webfoots held a one @-@ game lead over Washington , with a pair of contests scheduled in Seattle against the Huskies . Oregon required one victory to clinch the Northern Division championship . On March 3 , the Webfoots defeated Washington in the first game of the series 39 – 26 ; Gale led the team in scoring with 11 points , as the team won despite missing 53 of their 67 field goal attempts . Anet suffered a dislocated finger and was held out of the second game against Washington , which took place the following day . The Webfoots claimed a two @-@ point win , their fourth of the season over Washington . Of the Huskies ' five losses in 1938 – 39 , all but one was against the Webfoots . By the end of the regular season , Oregon had won the PCC North Division with a 14 – 2 conference record , and had a 24 – 5 record overall .
= = Postseason = =
= = = PCC championship series = = =
By winning the PCC Northern Division , Oregon earned the right to play the winner of the Southern Division in a best @-@ of @-@ three playoff series , with the games held at McArthur Court . In addition to the PCC championship , the winner would gain a berth in the first NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , which the National Association of Basketball Coaches would run . The series was slated to be held between March 10 – 13 , but a tie between California and Southern California for first place in the Southern Division necessitated a one @-@ game playoff . Rumors began that the PCC championship series would be postponed by one week , which would have prevented the winner from competing in the NCAA Tournament ; the event was scheduled to begin on March 20 . In response , Oregon declared that they would not play if the series was scheduled to end after March 14 . Despite the school 's claim , it agreed to a rescheduling approved by PCC member schools , in which the series was set for March 16 – 18 . Hobson declared that Oregon would accept an invitation to the NCAA Tournament , following hints that the PCC champion might be passed over for a bid in favor of a PCC team that did not receive a shortened rest between games . California won the Southern Division playoff 42 – 36 over Southern California to become the Webfoots ' opponent in the PCC championship series . Dick later noted that he considered it vital for Oregon to sweep the Golden Bears in two games , to avoid an overnight trip to San Francisco for the NCAA Tournament and secure an off day in the Webfoots ' schedule .
In front of a crowd that included members of the Webfoots ' 1919 conference championship team , which had won the title over California , Oregon took a one @-@ point halftime lead on a late 30 @-@ foot shot by Johansen . The team switched its defense from zone to man @-@ to @-@ man for the second half and went on an early second half run to open up a 14 @-@ point lead with 12 minutes left . The Golden Bears made multiple comeback bids as the half progressed , but the Webfoots held on to win 54 – 49 and move ahead in the series . More than half of Oregon 's points were scored by Gale and Wintermute , who had 18 and 11 respectively . The second game of the series was closely contested in the first half , but Oregon opened a 25 – 23 lead at halftime and extended their advantage to eight points before a run of three baskets by California . A stretch featuring three scores by Dick helped the Webfoots rebuild their lead later in the second half , and they clinched a two @-@ game sweep with a 53 – 47 victory . Dick and Wintermute contributed 16 points apiece . It was Oregon 's first PCC championship in 20 seasons .
= = = NCAA Tournament = = =
Oregon received an invitation to the NCAA Tournament 's West Regional , which was held on March 20 and 21 in San Francisco . First , Oregon faced Texas in the first round , in a matchup of teams considered superior to either of their potential opponents in the regional final , according to analysts . The Webfoots scored 10 of the game 's first 12 points , led by Dick and Wintermute , and held a three @-@ point halftime advantage . After Texas had closed their deficit to one point multiple times in the second half , Oregon went on a scoring run and eventually opened a 19 @-@ point lead . The Webfoots defeated Texas by a final score of 56 – 41 . Wintermute had 14 points in the game , and Dick added 13 . In the regional final against Oklahoma , a 10 – 0 run to close the first half put the Webfoots in front , 21 – 14 . Oregon took advantage of Oklahoma 's strategy of attempting to play a fast @-@ paced game and extended their lead in the second half . Dick had 14 points and Gale and Wintermute scored 11 and 10 , respectively , as Oregon advanced to the national championship game with a 55 – 37 victory . All three of the Webfoots ' leading scorers in the regional final were selected to the all @-@ Western regional squad , as determined by Kansas head coach Phog Allen . Hobson commented on his team 's NCAA Tournament opponents that " We were head and shoulders above [ both ] , but not so with Washington and California . "
The title game was held on March 27 in Northwestern University 's Patten Gymnasium . Oregon 's opponent was Ohio State , who had won the East Regional by winning against Wake Forest and Villanova . Oregon took advantage of the Buckeyes ' defense , which was designed to stop Gale and Wintermute , by using Gale as " a decoy " , in his words . This created an opportunity for contributions from the Webfoots ' other players , including Dick , who led both teams by scoring 15 points . On Ohio State 's offensive possessions , the Webfoots used a match @-@ up zone defense , which held the Buckeyes ' field goal percentage to 17 percent for the game ; in addition , Oregon gained a rebounding advantage . The Webfoots held a five @-@ point lead at halftime , having led by as much as seven . After Ohio State closed to within one point , Oregon pulled away in the second half to win the national championship , 46 – 33 . Afterward came what Dick termed " a two @-@ handed trophy presentation " ; during the game , Anet had broken a figure off the top of the championship trophy while attempting to gain possession of the ball by the sideline . On the team 's way back to the University of Oregon , a crowd of 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 people greeted the Webfoots in The Dalles , Dick 's birthplace , and presented him with what Sporting News writer Joe Gergen called " the first championship watch in NCAA Tournament history . " The train stopped in several other cities on the way to Eugene , where a parade was held for the Webfoots .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
At the end of the season , Anet , Gale , and Wintermute were selected as All @-@ Americans . In the 1939 – 40 season , the Webfoots were unable to defend their PCC championship , finishing second behind Oregon State in the division ; the following season , all but one of the players from the championship team had graduated , and the Webfoots ended tied for third . The team did not win the Northern Division again until 1944 – 45 . Hobson left the program before the 1947 – 48 season to become Yale 's men 's basketball head coach . Gale and Wintermute later played professional basketball in the National Basketball League ; both were members of the same team , the Detroit Eagles , and Anet declined an offer to join them . Dick briefly played Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) basketball before embarking on a military career of over 30 years after the U.S. entered World War II . Anet and Johansen joined a Eugene , Oregon @-@ based AAU team , the Rubenstein 's Oregonians , and helped the club win a state title and reach the quarterfinals of the AAU 's national basketball tournament in 1940 . Bob Hardy and Mullen both played minor league baseball , and Mullen reached the major leagues with the Philadelphia Phillies in 1944 .
Hobson was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1965 , and Gale followed him into the Hall 12 years later . The entire 1938 – 39 Oregon team was enshrined in the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame in 1984 , and Anet , Dick , Gale , Hobson , Johansen , and Wintermute were inducted as individuals . The University of Oregon Athletic Hall of Fame selected the team and Hobson as part of its inaugural class of inductees in 1992 . Dick and Gale ( 1993 ) , Wintermute ( 1994 ) , and Anet and Johansen ( 1996 ) were also inducted in later years . All five of the team 's starters have had their numbers retired by the university .
= Anyang Halla =
Anyang Halla ( Hangul : 안양 한라 ; hanja : 安養 漢拏 ) is a professional ice hockey team based in Anyang in Gyeonggi @-@ do , South Korea . It is one of the founding and current members of the Asia League Ice Hockey ( AL ) . Formed in 1994 , it is the oldest professional ice hockey team , and one of only three professional teams , in South Korea . The Halla Group contributes three billion won annually to run the club .
At its inception the team was based out of Mok @-@ dong , Seoul and named the Mando Winia . In 1998 the team took the name of Mando 's parent company , Halla . After the collapse of the Korean Ice Hockey League in 2003 they were the only team to survive . They joined four Japanese teams to create the new Asia League Ice Hockey . In 2005 the team relocated and took the name of their new hometown as their own , playing all current home games out of the Anyang Sports Complex Arena . After two years of finishing in 5th place , they became the first non @-@ Japanese team to finish first in the regular season in 2008 – 09 . However , they failed to defeat the Nippon Paper Cranes in the semi @-@ finals . In the following season Halla again finished in first and managed to win the semi @-@ final and final series giving them their first play @-@ off series win and first Asia League Championship . The club captured their second AL title after the league cancelled the championship final due to the earthquake in Japan . Asia League announced Halla and Tohoku Free Blades as the co @-@ champions .
= = Team history = =
= = = 1994 – 2003 : pre @-@ Asia League Ice Hockey = = =
The team was originally founded in 1994 by the Halla Group to help promote hockey in Korea . The Halla Group also felt that by creating an ice hockey team , it would help them to fulfill their role as a responsible corporation by providing something to the community . The team was originally named " Mando Winia " . It was so named because Mando is a subsidiary company of Halla and Winia is a brand of air conditioner sold by the company . In 1997 the team was disbanded for a short time during the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis . However , the chairman of Halla Group , Chung Mong @-@ won , fought to keep the team .
As a member of the Korean Ice Hockey League the team won the championship five times . During this time , the team also changed their name from " Mando Winia " to " Halla Winia " . The team first looked at adding foreign players to their roster in late 2001 with other members of the Korean League . In 2003 , the team was one of the founding members of Asia League Ice Hockey .
= = = 2003 – present : Asia League Ice Hockey = = =
While the team participates primarily in the Asia League , they also play in tournaments like the All Korea Ice Hockey Championship each year . In the inaugural year of Asia League Ice Hockey , Halla played a shortened seasons of only 16 games , and failed to break .500 . In the following year they brought Esa Tikkanen , a veteran player of 20 NHL seasons , on board . He was brought on primarily to coach the players but he also played during the team 's games . Tikkanen felt that as the players played against more skilled teams their own skill level showed greater improvement . He also felt that they should play more games and that the season was too short . That year the team was also noted for showing great improvement over the first year 's effort . Halla finished the season winning 18 games out of 42 with 5 ties . Their top offensive player , Marco Poulsen , finished 5th in the overall points race , however they didn 't reach their goal that year of making the playoffs , finishing in 5th place one spot out of the playoffs . In the off @-@ season the team changed their name from Anyang Halla Winia to Anyang Halla with the expiration of the sponsorship contract . As well they hired Otakar Vejvoda to be the team 's new coach . Vejvoda was considered a legend in the Czech Extraliga both for his skill as a player and a coach .
In the 2005 – 06 season Halla improved on the previous year 's performance finishing in second place . The league saw a reduced season of only 38 games . Song Dong @-@ hwan was the leader in goals for the league with 31 and Patrik Martinec ranked 2nd in assists with 44 . Martinec ranked number 2 on the total points list while Song finished in fourth place . Halla also scored the most short @-@ handed goals of any team in the league with 11 . The city of Anyang won an award for being " The best Hockey Town in Asia " . The team made the play @-@ offs for the first time since the league 's formation . They received a bye in the first round and played Kokudo , the winner of the 3rd place and 6th place match @-@ up . Anyang managed to win only a single game out of the first three which were played on home ice . They were eliminated in the 4th game which was played in Kokudo 's home rink by a score of 5 – 1 . Kokudo went on to be the league champions for the second year in a row .
After the conclusion of the 2005 – 06 season there were some roster changes . Two of the team 's top players , Song Dong @-@ hwan and Jang Jong @-@ moon , had to report for compulsory military service . Starting goaltender , Kim Sung @-@ Bae , retired after the previous season . Even though they were missing these players they were noted for having more players with more than 10 goals and 10 assists than in the previous season . With the departure of Song offensive output dropped slightly , the team 's top offensive player finished 7th overall in goals with 21 . However Martinec won the assists race with 53 and the overall points total with 71 . The team shared top spot in the short @-@ handed goals with 2 other teams , scoring 10 over the course of the season . With a further shortened season of only 34 games the team finished in 5th place and faced the other Korean team , Kangwon Land in the quarter finals . During the regular season Kangwon won 6 of 7 meetings , and the quarter finals were no different . Kangwon swept Halla in 3 games , the final game ending in 3 – 2 with a last minute desperate bid by Halla to tie the game .
The next season saw the AL further reduce the amount of games played to just 30 . In the pre @-@ season Halla won the Anyang Cup , which is a pre @-@ season tournament held in Anyang . The team 's record in the regular season remained relatively the same and they finished again in 5th place . Lee Yu @-@ Won was the top offensive player with 16 goals and was tied for 4th place with 3 other players . Martinec continued to contribute many assists to the team and finished in second place with 29 , one point off first . He finished in 4th place in the overall point totals . Halla did not have another player in the top 10 . The team once again led the league in short @-@ handed goals and gave up the fewest short @-@ handed goals against along with the Oji Eagles . In the playoffs the Halla faced the Nippon Paper Cranes in the first round . During the regular season the two teams split their series , each winning 2 games . The playoffs told a different story , and Nippon swept Halla in 3 games . Halla lost each game by a single goal . Vejvoda praised Nippon 's goalie for his excellent play and commended his players for their effort .
Following the defeat in the post @-@ season Halla replaced Vejvoda as head coach with Shim Eui @-@ Sik . Shim had spent his entire professional career playing for Halla and during the 2007 – 2008 season he was the coach of Little Halla . As a player Shim had 30 points in 80 games . He vowed to reorganize the team and set his sights on a league championship . The team 's general manager also hired Samuel H. Kim , then an analyst for SBS Sports and previously an NHL reporter from Vancouver , as a scout for the organization . Halla moved away from the heavy Czech influence which had previously dominated the team and filled 3 of the 4 spots for foreign players on the team with players from North America . Brock Radunske , Brad Fast and Jon Awe became the first three players from North America to play for the team . They also arranged for Eric Thurston , the head coach of University of Alberta 's team , to spend the first 3 weeks of the training camp assisting the new coach and new North American players . Martinec was the only Czech player to remain on the team . In addition to the new foreigner players , Song Dong @-@ hwan and Jang Jong @-@ moon returned from military service . In the 2008 pre @-@ season Anyang Cup , Halla finished 4th out of 5 teams . The AL increased the number of regular season games for the 2008 – 09 season to 36 . In September head coach Shim was suspended for 5 games for refusal to play . The incident stemmed from a goal that was scored as the final buzzer sounded during a 21 September game against High1 . Halla entered the dressing room and refused to return to the ice . The league considered the game a forfeit . Anyang Halla finished the season in first place with a total of 76 points . Their defeat of their rivals High1 in the final game of the season marks the first time a non @-@ Japanese team had finished first place in the Asia League . Brock Radunske captured the titles for both the most goals scored with 29 and most points on the season with 57 . Martinec finished in second place for the second year in a row in the assists category with 47 . Overall the team finished with 5 players in the top 10 in the overall points tally . For the first time the team ended the season with the number one powerplay scoring 54 goals . In contrast to earlier seasons the team did not lead the league in short @-@ handed goals , ranking in the middle of the pack both in goals for and against . They were the only team not shutout during the regular season . After receiving a bye in the first round of the play @-@ offs Halla had to face the Nippon Paper Cranes in the semi @-@ final . They returned to Anyang for game 6 of the series leading 3 – 2 . They were expected to win the series but Nippon 's Ilmura scored two game @-@ winning goals and the Japanese club defeated Anyang in 7 games .
Halla opened the 2009 – 10 season with a loss on home ice , but at the midpoint of the season they were tied for first place with the Oji Eagles . The league maintained the number of games at 36 . The first half of the season saw Halla plagued with injuries . Particularly hard hit were the team 's foreign imports . After the third game of the season Jon Awe was diagnosed with a sports hernia that required surgery and was scheduled to miss 8 – 12 weeks . On 29 November , Brad Fast received a knee injury that would sideline him for 4 – 6 months , ending his season . Brock Radunske was also on the injury list with a concussion , while Patrik Martinec was day to day with a lower @-@ body injury . Halla replaced Awe quickly with Dustin Wood , who has played in both the American Hockey League and Deutsche Eishockey Liga . Fast was replaced by Lee Don @-@ ku from Yonsei University . Halla also had several other regular players injured including Kim Won @-@ jun , Kim Kyu @-@ hun , and Lee Seung @-@ yup . After 18 games Halla led the league with 94 goals . On 31 January 2010 Halla defeated the Oji Eagles in overtime by a score of 4 – 3 , clinching first place for the second year in a row . The win also set up a semi @-@ final match @-@ up against Korean rivals High1 , guaranteeing that a Korean team would appear in the final for the first time in league history . Halla won all of their series against opposing teams , except against their rival High1 . Of 18 possible points available in their six @-@ game series , Halla took only eight . They were the only team to win a series against the Nippon Paper Cranes . The team led the league in goals scored with 180 . Individually , Kim Ki @-@ sung led the team in goals scored with 22 , while Patrik Martinec again led with 40 assists and 51 points . Halla finished with five players in the top ten point list . The team also led in both powerplay goals for , with 57 , powerplay percentage , with 34 @.@ 97 % , and shorthanded goals for , with 10 . In the annual end of season awards , Patrik Martinec took the award for Most Valuable Player and Best Playmaking . Cho Min @-@ ho took the award for Young Guy of the Year . Anyang city won the award for Best Hockey Town for the second time for their spirit and sell @-@ out crowds . Anyang Halla defeated High1 by a score of 5 – 2 to win the semi @-@ finals three games to one , winning their first play @-@ off series and becoming the first Korean team to play for the Championship Cup . Halla faced the Cranes , who had knocked them out of the playoffs twice , in the final . The series went to the full five games and four of the games went to overtime . Brock Radunske scored two overtime winners and assisted Kim Woo @-@ Jae in scoring the overtime winner in game five , making Halla the first non @-@ Japanese team to win the Asia League Championship . Radunske was named MVP while head coach Shim was named " Coach of the Year " . After retiring as a player , Martinec signed a 1 @-@ year deal to work as an assistant coach on the team .
Like the previous season , Halla lost the opening game against High1 . However , they once again found themselves on top at the midpoint of the season . The team was second in the league in goals scored with 65 . Halla retained Dustin Wood who was brought in as a replacement in the previous season . On 14 November 2010 the team defended their Korea Domestic Championship title against High1 by defeating them 5 – 1 in the final game of the week @-@ long tournament . After finishing first two consecutive years , Halla finished in fourth place one point behind the Free Blades . They won their season series against all teams except the Cranes and Eagles . They also finished fifth in goals scored with 130 , one behind High1 , but allowed the second fewest goals with 94 , three behind the Eagles . While the team 's penalty kill was ranked fifth in the league , they were tied for the most short @-@ handed goals with the Cranes with six goals . Their powerplay was ranked third , and they gave up the second fewest short @-@ handed goals . Brock Radunske led the team with 20 goals and finished fourth in the league . Cho Min @-@ ho also made the top ten ranking and finished in eight place with 18 goals . Kim Ki @-@ sung was the only Halla player to make the top ten in assists and finished in tenth place with 27 . Overall Cho Min @-@ ho led the team with 44 points and finished ninth in the league . Dustin Wood led the team in penalty minutes with 45 . With their fourth @-@ place finish , Halla had to face the Eagles in the first round of the playoffs . The series began in Japan , but Halla took two of three games and upon returning to South Korea they won the fourth game of the best @-@ of @-@ five series and knocked the Eagles out . The Free Blades defeated the Cranes and Halla were set to face them on 12 March 2011 in Sendai , Japan . However , a 9 @.@ 0 magnitude earthquake struck the Sendai area about one hour after the team landed there to prepare for the games . The League immediately cancelled the three games scheduled in Sendai and on 22 March 2011 they officially cancelled the final series , award co @-@ championship titles to both Anyang Halla and Tohoku Free Blades . This decision made Halla only the second team to capture back @-@ to @-@ back championships since the league 's inception .
= = Community contributions = =
As a team and organization the Halla have engaged in charitable work . In 2008 they had two charity games on 27 and 28 December . The admission fee was waved and instead fans were asked to make donations . The proceeds were donated to the poor children of Anyang city as well as the sick children 's hospital . On 19 December 2009 The Anyang Halla organization donated 20 @,@ 000 won for each goal that had been scored in the season to charity , totaling just over 2 million won . On 25 and 26 December 2010 Halla repeated their charity game series , and offered free admission to the game in exchange for donations to the sick children 's hospitals in Gyeonggi Province . After the cancellation of the final series , the team held a charity game on 22 March 2011 to raise money for the Japanese earthquake victims . Instead of raising a trophy to celebrate their championship , the team took a final photo holding signs of sympathy and encouragement for Japan . The team raised almost 20 million won in donations for Japan . The team maintains a yearly tradition of giving free admission to students who take the College Scholastic Ability Test ( CSAT ) to promote rest and comfort after the difficult exam .
= = Media = =
The Anyang Halla Hockey Club launched a new radio broadcast deal in 2007 with Afreeca.com. On 11 May 2009 , SBSsports acquired a 5 @-@ year broadcast contract with the club .
= = Arena = =
The Anyang Sports Complex Ice Arena ( Hangul : 안양종합운동장 빙상장 ) was opened on 24 November 2000 . It seats 1 @,@ 284 spectators . The Arena also contains a basketball court and is home to the Anyang KGC . It has a seating for 6 @,@ 690 people . The ice rink is also used for short track and figure skating among other sports . The team previously used the Mok @-@ dong Ice Rink .
= = Team colors and mascots = =
= = = Logo = = =
The Anyang Halla logo features a black triangle in the background surrounded by a white and black border . A growling polar bear is shown protruding from the top half of the triangle and underneath the team name " Halla " is shown in stylized gold letters . Below the team name is a semicircular shape which contains the city name " Anyang " in white letters on a blue background .
= = = Jerseys = = =
As the team changed its name from the Winia to the Halla the uniforms had minor changes made to them . The logo changed names and the uniforms had colored shoulders removed from them . The current home jerseys feature a solid blue background with yellow stripes on the cuffs and bottom of the body as well as
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= Charles A. May =
Charles Augustus May ( 1818 – 1864 ) was an American officer of the United States Army who served in the Mexican War and other campaigns over a 25 @-@ year career . He is best known for successfully leading a cavalry charge against Mexican artillery at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma .
May spent most of his career in the Second Regiment of Dragoons , but also had a brief stint in the First Regiment of Dragoons . As a lieutenant , he participated in the Second Seminole War , where he was responsible for the capture of an important tribal chief . During the Mexican War , he commanded a squadron during Zachary Taylor 's expedition , and saw action in the Battles of Palo Alto , Resaca de la Palma , Monterrey , and Buena Vista . He distinguished himself in those actions and was eventually promoted to the rank of brevet colonel , with a permanent rank of major . May later served in various parts of the American frontier , including during the Bleeding Kansas crisis .
He resigned his commission in 1861 and took a job as a railroad executive in New York City , but died three years later . His name is included in a verse that commemorates Mexican War heroes from Maryland in the state song , " Maryland , My Maryland " .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
May was born in Washington , D.C. on August 9 , 1818 , the son of a doctor in a prominent Baltimore family . He received a civil education , but applied for a commission directly to President Andrew Jackson , who was impressed by his soldierly appearance , bearing , and skill at horsemanship . In 1836 , he entered the United States Army as a second lieutenant in the Second Regiment of Dragoons . During the Second Seminole War , May was responsible for the capture of King Philip ( Ee @-@ mat @-@ la ) , the Seminole nation 's principal chieftain . He was promoted from first lieutenant to captain on February 2 , 1841 .
= = = Mexican War service = = =
On March 8 , 1846 , after a final attempt to pressure Mexico to settle on a boundary for Texas , Secretary of War William L. Marcy ordered Brigadier General Zachary Taylor to move his army , which included May 's dragoon squadron , to the Rio Grande . Taylor 's destination was the river 's north bank , directly opposite the Mexican town of Matamoros , which stood at a natural choke @-@ point and controlled access to well @-@ traveled routes to the south . When Taylor refused to leave the region , Mexican cavalry ambushed a dragoon detachment under Captain Seth B. Thornton on April 25 , 1846 , which officially commenced hostilities . On May 8 , 1846 , the two main forces met at the Battle of Palo Alto , where May 's squadron was held in reserve and mounted an unsuccessful cavalry charge .
= = = = Battle of Resaca de la Palma = = = =
Searching for more favorable terrain , the Mexican commander led his army five miles to the south . On May 9 , 1846 , the pursuing American element met them at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma . General Taylor 's force received heavy fire from a battery of eight Mexican artillery pieces , which halted its advance . Taylor ordered Captain May to lead his unit , a squadron consisting of D and E companies of the Second Dragoons , to silence the enemy guns . May told his men to " Remember your Regiment and follow your officers ! " Today , the phrase is the unofficial motto of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment , which traces its lineage to May 's unit .
He led his cavalry squadron on the charge and , despite heavy casualties , secured the objective and silenced the guns before being forced to withdraw due to a lack of infantry support . The dragoons also captured one of the Mexican commanders , General Rómulo Díaz de la Vega , on the gun line . With the Mexican artillery out of action , the 8th Infantry Regiment and 5th Infantry Regiment were able to maneuver forward and eventually drove the enemy from their positions . Of approximately eighty men , the dragoons lost one lieutenant , seven privates , and twenty @-@ eight horses , with an additional ten privates wounded . Colonel David E. Twiggs , the regimental commander , commented that " After the unsurpassed , if not unequalled charge of Captain May 's squadron , the enemy was unable to fire a gun . " In his official after @-@ action report , Taylor wrote that " The charge of cavalry against the enemy 's batteries on the 9th , was gallantly led by Captain May , and had complete success . " After the battle , May received two brevets to the rank of lieutenant colonel .
= = = = Battle of Monterrey = = = =
After Resaca de la Palma , Mexican forces were cleared from the Texan side of the Rio Grande , but additional operations were required to force Mexico to agree to the border . The Mexican commander , General Mariano Arista , withdrew his forces to Linares , with Taylor in pursuit for sixty miles before returning to Fort Brown for reinforcements . He then marched against Monterrey . The heavily fortified city had a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ man garrison under Arista 's replacement , General Pedro de Ampudia , but its supply line running south to Saltillo was vulnerable . Lacking the heavy artillery needed for a siege , Taylor planned a double envelopment , with one division executing a turning movement to cut the supply line and attack from the west and south , and his other two divisions assaulting the north side of the city .
May 's squadron was attached as a direct @-@ reporting unit to the newly promoted General Twiggs ' 1st Texas Division , which was to be committed to the north side of Monterrey . On September 21 , Taylor launched his attack on the city , but failed to synchronize his two forces . Poor Mexican leadership allowed the Americans to avert disaster , and after some intense urban fighting , General Ampudia offered Taylor an eight @-@ week ceasefire that was highly favorable to the Mexicans . Taylor accepted , which caused President James K. Polk , furious at the agreement , to transfer most of his forces to Winfield Scott .
= = = = Battle of Buena Vista = = = =
On February 20 , 1847 , May led a reconnaissance force that included an attached company of Texas Rangers under Major Ben McCulloch and artillery section of six @-@ pounder guns under Captain J.M. Washington . During the mission , the advanced element encountered small units of Mexican General José Vicente Miñón 's cavalry brigade and spotted a dust cloud to the south , presumably produced by a much larger force . Lieutenant Samuel Sturgis was captured during a reconnoiter before May 's force caught up with the advanced element , spotted more Mexican lancers , and took up defensive positions . After scouting parties failed to locate the main enemy force , May 's unit returned to camp to report to General Taylor . After riding 80 miles in 24 hours , the only fire encountered was from the American sentries as May 's force re @-@ entered friendly lines .
Three days later , on February 23 , 1847 , after having moved to better defensive terrain , General Taylor 's force was met by General Antonio López de Santa Anna 's numerically superior army just south of Saltillo for the Battle of Buena Vista . May 's squadron was reinforced with Troops A and E of the First Dragoons and a squadron of Arkansas cavalry under the command of Captain Albert Pike . The American line was thrown into jeopardy when Colonel Bowles of the Second Indiana Regiment ordered his unit to retreat for reasons unknown . With skillful artillery support from Washington 's guns , the situation was restored by the Second Illinois Regiment and rallied Indianans . At that point , Taylor arrived with May 's dragoons and the First Mississippi Rifles under Colonel Jefferson Davis , which halted General Anastasio Torrejón 's cavalry . Miñón 's brigade of 1 @,@ 500 Mexican lancers flanked the American line and assaulted the supply trains guarded by the Kentucky and Arkansas cavalry , and in the process killed former governor Colonel Archibald Yell . The dragoons counterattacked Miñón 's flank and routed the Mexican lancers . May was wounded during the action . On May 24 , 1848 , he was promoted from brevet lieutenant colonel to brevet colonel for his gallantry , backdated to the day of the battle .
= = = Later years = = =
After the Mexican War , May was posted to several different parts of the American frontier , including California , New Mexico , and Texas . He served with the First Regiment of Dragoons in the Kansas Territory during its violent abolitionist clashes . On March 3 , 1855 , he was promoted to major and exchanged positions with another officer to return to his old unit , the Second Dragoons . On October 27 , 1855 , the regiment marched to Texas , under the command of Albert Sidney Johnson .
May resigned his commission as a brevet colonel on April 20 , 1861 , and moved to New York City , where he served as the vice president of the Eighth Avenue Railroad . He died there on December 24 , 1864 at the age of 46 . He had a history of heart problems and poor health dating back to at least 1850 .
May was described variously as a courageous , sometimes reckless , and unpopular officer . Samuel Chamberlain , who served in the First Dragoons and wrote scathing descriptions of most of his contemporaries , was most critical of May . Chamberlain believed May had received unjustified praise for his actions at Resaca de la Palma and referred to him as the " Murat of America " and an " ass in the lion 's skin " . In 1861 , James Ryder Randall referred to " dashing May " alongside other Mexican War heroes from Maryland in a poem that later became the state song , " Maryland , My Maryland " .
= SS Edmund Fitzgerald =
SS Edmund Fitzgerald was an American Great Lakes freighter that sank in a Lake Superior storm on November 10 , 1975 , with the loss of the entire crew of 29 . When launched on June 7 , 1958 , she was the largest ship on North America 's Great Lakes , and she remains the largest to have sunk there .
For 17 years Fitzgerald carried taconite iron ore from mines near Duluth , Minnesota , to iron works in Detroit , Toledo , and other Great Lakes ports . As a " workhorse , " she set seasonal haul records six times , often breaking her own previous record . Captain Peter Pulcer was known for piping music day or night over the ship 's intercom while passing through the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers ( between Lakes Huron and Erie ) , and entertaining spectators at the Soo Locks ( between Lakes Superior and Huron ) with a running commentary about the ship . Her size , record @-@ breaking performance , and " DJ captain " endeared Fitzgerald to boat watchers .
Carrying a full cargo of ore pellets with Captain Ernest M. McSorley in command , she embarked on her ill @-@ fated voyage from Superior , Wisconsin , near Duluth , on the afternoon of November 9 , 1975 . En route to a steel mill near Detroit , Fitzgerald joined a second freighter , SS Arthur M. Anderson . By the next day , the two ships were caught in a severe storm on Lake Superior , with near hurricane @-@ force winds and waves up to 35 feet ( 11 m ) high . Shortly after 7 : 10 p.m. , Fitzgerald suddenly sank in Canadian ( Ontario ) waters 530 feet ( 160 m ) deep , about 17 miles ( 15 nautical miles ; 27 kilometers ) from Whitefish Bay near the twin cities of Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan , and Sault Ste . Marie , Ontario — a distance Fitzgerald could have covered in just over an hour at her top speed . Although Fitzgerald had reported being in difficulty earlier , no distress signals were sent before she sank ; Captain McSorley 's last message to Anderson said , " We are holding our own . " Her crew of 29 perished , and no bodies were recovered .
Many books , studies , and expeditions have examined the cause of the sinking . Fitzgerald might have fallen victim to the high waves of the storm , suffered structural failure , been swamped with water entering through her cargo hatches or deck , experienced topside damage , or shoaled in a shallow part of Lake Superior . The sinking of Edmund Fitzgerald is one of the best @-@ known disasters in the history of Great Lakes shipping . Gordon Lightfoot made it the subject of his 1976 hit song " The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald " after reading an article , " The Cruelest Month " , in the November 24 , 1975 , issue of Newsweek . The sinking led to changes in Great Lakes shipping regulations and practices that included mandatory survival suits , depth finders , positioning systems , increased freeboard , and more frequent inspection of vessels .
= = History = =
= = = Design and construction = = =
Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company of Milwaukee , Wisconsin , invested in the iron and minerals industries on a large @-@ scale basis , including the construction of Fitzgerald , which represented the first such investment by any American life insurance company . In 1957 , they contracted Great Lakes Engineering Works ( GLEW ) , of River Rouge , Michigan , to design and construct the ship " within a foot of the maximum length allowed for passage through the soon @-@ to @-@ be completed Saint Lawrence Seaway . " Fitzgerald was the first laker built to the maximum St. Lawrence Seaway size , which was 730 feet ( 222 @.@ 5 m ) long , 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 m ) wide , and with a 25 foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) draft . The moulded depth ( roughly speaking , the vertical height of the hull ) was 39 ft ( 12 m ) . The hold depth ( the inside height of the cargo hold ) was 33 ft 4 in ( 10 @.@ 16 m ) . GLEW laid the first keel plate on August 7 the same year .
With a deadweight capacity of 26 @,@ 000 long tons ( 29 @,@ 120 short tons ; 26 @,@ 417 t ) , and a 729 @-@ foot ( 222 m ) hull , Fitzgerald was the longest ship on the Great Lakes , earning her the title Queen of the Lakes until September 17 , 1959 , when the 730 @-@ foot ( 222 @.@ 5 m ) SS Murray Bay was launched . Fitzgerald 's three central cargo holds were loaded through 21 watertight hatches , each 11 by 48 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 by 14 @.@ 6 m ) of 5 ⁄ 16 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 7 @.@ 9 mm ) steel . Originally coal @-@ fired , her boilers were converted to burn oil during the 1971 – 72 winter layup . In 1969 , the ship 's maneuverability was improved by the installation of a diesel @-@ powered bow thruster .
By ore freighter standards , the interior of Fitzgerald was luxurious . Her J.L. Hudson Company @-@ designed furnishings included deep pile carpeting , tiled bathrooms , drapes over the portholes , and leather swivel chairs in the guest lounge . There were two guest state rooms for passengers . Air conditioning extended to the crew quarters , which featured more amenities than usual . A large galley and fully stocked pantry supplied meals for two dining rooms . The Fitzgerald pilothouse was outfitted with " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art nautical equipment and a beautiful map room . "
= = = Name and launch = = =
Northwestern named the ship after its president and chairman of the board , Edmund Fitzgerald . Fitzgerald 's own grandfather had himself been a lake captain , and his father owned the Milwaukee Drydock Company that built and repaired ships . More than 15 @,@ 000 people attended Fitzgerald 's christening and launch ceremony on June 7 , 1958 . But the event was plagued by misfortunes : When Elizabeth Fitzgerald , wife of Edmund Fitzgerald , tried to christen the ship by smashing a champagne bottle over the bow , it took her three attempts to break it . A delay of 36 minutes followed while the shipyard crew struggled to release the keel blocks . Upon sideways launch , the ship crashed violently into a pier . On September 22 , 1958 , Fitzgerald completed nine days of sea trials .
= = = Career = = =
Northwestern 's normal practice was to purchase ships for operation by other companies . In Fitzgerald 's case , they signed a 25 @-@ year contract with Oglebay Norton Corporation to operate the vessel . Oglebay Norton immediately designated the Fitzgerald flagship of its Columbia Transportation fleet .
Fitzgerald was a record @-@ setting " workhorse , " often beating her own milestones . The vessel 's record load for a single trip was 27 @,@ 402 long tons ( 30 @,@ 690 short tons ; 27 @,@ 842 t ) in 1969 . For 17 years , Fitzgerald carried taconite from Minnesota 's Iron Range mines near Duluth , Minnesota , to iron works in Detroit , Toledo , and other ports . She set seasonal haul records six different times . Her nicknames included " Fitz " , " Pride of the American Flag " , " Mighty Fitz " , " Toledo Express " , " Big Fitz " , and the " Titanic of the Great Lakes " . Loading Fitzgerald with taconite pellets took about four and a half hours while unloading took around 14 hours . A round trip between Superior , Wisconsin , and Detroit , Michigan , usually took her five days and she averaged 47 similar trips per season . The vessel 's usual route was between Superior , Wisconsin , and Toledo , Ohio , although her port of destination could vary . By November 1975 , Fitzgerald had logged an estimated 748 round trips on the Great Lakes and covered more than a million miles , " a distance roughly equivalent to 44 trips around the world . "
Up until a few weeks before her loss , passengers had traveled on board as company guests . Frederick Stonehouse wrote :
Stewards treated the guests to the entire VIP routine . The cuisine was reportedly excellent and snacks were always available in the lounge . A small but well stocked kitchenette provided the drinks . Once each trip , the captain held a candlelight dinner for the guests , complete with mess @-@ jacketed stewards and special " clamdigger " punch .
Because of her size , appearance , string of records , and " DJ captain , " Fitzgerald became a favorite of boat watchers throughout her career . Although Captain Peter Pulcer was in command of Fitzgerald on trips when cargo records were set , " he is best remembered ... for piping music day or night over the ship 's intercom system " while passing through the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers . While navigating the Soo Locks he would often come out of the pilothouse and use a bullhorn to entertain tourists with a commentary on details about Fitzgerald .
In 1969 , Fitzgerald received a safety award for eight years of operation without a time @-@ off worker injury . The vessel ran aground in 1969 , and she collided with SS Hochelaga in 1970 . Later that same year , she struck the wall of a lock , an accident repeated in 1973 and 1974 . During 1974 , she lost her original bow anchor in the Detroit River . None of these mishaps , however , were considered serious or unusual . Freshwater ships were built to last more than half a century , and Fitzgerald should still have had a long career ahead of her when she sank .
= = = Final voyage and wreck = = =
Fitzgerald left Superior , Wisconsin , at 2 : 15 p.m. on the afternoon of November 9 , 1975 , under the command of Captain Ernest M. McSorley . She was en route to the steel mill on Zug Island , near Detroit , Michigan , with a cargo of 26 @,@ 116 long tons ( 29 @,@ 250 short tons ; 26 @,@ 535 t ) of taconite ore pellets and soon reached her full speed of 16 @.@ 3 miles per hour ( 14 @.@ 2 kn ; 26 @.@ 2 km / h ) . Around 5 p.m. , Fitzgerald joined a second freighter under the command of Captain Jesse B. " Bernie " Cooper , Arthur M. Anderson , destined for Gary , Indiana , out of Two Harbors , Minnesota . The weather forecast was not unusual for November and the National Weather Service ( NWS ) predicted that a storm would pass just south of Lake Superior by 7 a.m. on November 10 .
SS Wilfred Sykes loaded opposite Fitzgerald at the Burlington Northern Dock # 1 and departed at 4 : 15 p.m. , about two hours after Fitzgerald . In contrast to the NWS forecast , Captain Dudley J. Paquette of Sykes predicted that a major storm would directly cross Lake Superior . From the outset , he chose a route that took advantage of the protection offered by the lake 's north shore in order to avoid the worst effects of the storm . The crew of Sykes followed the radio conversations between Fitzgerald and Anderson during the first part of their trip and overheard their captains deciding to take the regular Lake Carriers ' Association downbound route . The NWS altered its forecast at 7 : 00 p.m. , issuing gale warnings for the whole of Lake Superior . Anderson and Fitzgerald altered course northward seeking shelter along the Ontario coast where they encountered a winter storm at 1 : 00 a.m. on November 10 . Fitzgerald reported winds of 52 knots ( 96 km / h ; 60 mph ) and waves 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high . Captain Paquette of Sykes reported that after 1 a.m. , he overheard McSorley say that he had reduced the ship 's speed because of the rough conditions . Paquette said he was stunned to later hear McSorley , who was not known for turning aside or slowing down , state that " we 're going to try for some lee from Isle Royale . You 're walking away from us anyway ... I can 't stay with you . "
At 2 : 00 a.m. on November 10 , the NWS upgraded its warnings from gale to storm , forecasting winds of 35 – 50 knots ( 65 – 93 km / h ; 40 – 58 mph ) . Until then , Fitzgerald had followed Anderson , which was travelling at a constant 14 @.@ 6 miles per hour ( 12 @.@ 7 kn ; 23 @.@ 5 km / h ) , but the faster Fitzgerald pulled ahead at about 3 : 00 a.m. As the storm center passed over the ships , they experienced shifting winds , with wind speeds temporarily dropping as wind direction changed from northeast to south and then northwest . After 1 : 50 p.m. , when Anderson logged winds of 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) , wind speeds again picked up rapidly and it began to snow at 2 : 45 p.m. , reducing visibility ; Anderson lost sight of Fitzgerald , which was about 16 miles ( 26 km ) ahead at the time .
Shortly after 3 : 30 p.m. , Captain McSorley radioed Anderson to report that Fitzgerald was taking on water and had lost two vent covers and a fence railing . The vessel had also developed a list . Two of Fitzgerald 's six bilge pumps ran continuously to discharge shipped water . McSorley said that he would slow his ship down so that Anderson could close the gap between them . In a broadcast shortly afterward , the United States Coast Guard ( USCG ) warned all shipping that the Soo Locks had been closed and they should seek safe anchorage . Shortly after 4 : 10 p.m. , McSorley called Anderson again to report a radar failure and asked Anderson to keep track of them . Fitzgerald , effectively blind , slowed to let Anderson come within a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) range so she could receive radar guidance from the other ship .
For a time , Anderson directed Fitzgerald toward the relative safety of Whitefish Bay ; then at 4 : 39 p.m. , McSorley contacted the USCG station in Grand Marais , Michigan , to inquire whether the Whitefish Point light and navigation beacon were operational . The USCG replied that their monitoring equipment indicated that both instruments were inactive . McSorley then hailed any ships in the Whitefish Point area to report the state of the navigational aids , receiving an answer from Captain Cedric Woodard of Avafors between 5 : 00 and 5 : 30 p.m. that the Whitefish point light was on but not the radio beacon . Woodard testified to the Marine Board that he overheard McSorley say , " Don 't allow nobody on deck , " as well as something about a vent that Woodard could not understand . Some time later , McSorley told Woodard , " I have a ' bad list , ' I have lost both radars , and am taking heavy seas over the deck in one of the worst seas I have ever been in . "
By late in the afternoon of November 10 , sustained winds of over 50 knots ( 93 km / h ; 58 mph ) were recorded by ships and observation points across eastern Lake Superior . Anderson logged sustained winds as high as 58 knots ( 107 km / h ; 67 mph ) at 4 : 52 p.m. , while waves increased to as high as 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) by 6 : 00 p.m. Anderson was also struck by 70 @-@ to @-@ 75 @-@ knot ( 130 to 139 km / h ; 81 to 86 mph ) gusts and rogue waves as high as 35 feet ( 11 m ) .
The last communication from the ship came at approximately 7 : 10 p.m. , when Anderson notified Fitzgerald of an upbound ship and asked how she was doing . McSorley reported , " We are holding our own . " She sank minutes later . No distress signal was received , and ten minutes later , Anderson lost the ability either to raise Fitzgerald by radio or to detect her on radar .
= = = Search = = =
Captain Cooper of Anderson first called the USCG in Sault Ste . Marie at 7 : 39 p.m. on channel 16 , the radio distress frequency . The USCG responders instructed him to call back on channel 12 because they wanted to keep their emergency channel open and they were having difficulty with their communication systems , including antennas blown down by the storm . Cooper then contacted the upbound saltwater vessel Nanfri and was told that she could not pick up Fitzgerald on her radar . Despite repeated attempts to raise the USCG , Cooper was not successful until 7 : 54 p.m. when the officer on duty asked him to keep watch for a 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) outboard lost in the area . At about 8 : 25 p.m. , Cooper again called the USCG to express his concern about Fitzgerald and at 9 : 03 p.m. reported her missing . Petty Officer Philip Branch later testified , " I considered it serious , but at the time it was not urgent . "
Lacking appropriate search @-@ and @-@ rescue vessels to respond to the Fitzgerald disaster , at approximately 9 : 00 p.m. , the USCG asked Anderson to turn around and look for survivors . Around 10 : 30 p.m. , the USCG asked all commercial vessels anchored in or near Whitefish Bay to assist in the search . The initial search for survivors was carried out by Anderson , and a second freighter , SS William Clay Ford . The efforts of a third freighter , the Toronto @-@ registered SS Hilda Marjanne , were foiled by the weather . The USCG sent a buoy tender , Woodrush , from Duluth , Minnesota , but it took two and a half hours to launch and a day to arrive at the search area . The Traverse City , Michigan , USCG station launched an HU @-@ 16 fixed @-@ wing search aircraft that arrived on the scene at 10 : 53 p.m. while an HH @-@ 52 USCG helicopter with a 3 @.@ 8 @-@ million @-@ candlepower searchlight arrived at 1 : 00 a.m. on November 11 . Canadian Coast Guard aircraft joined the three @-@ day search and the Ontario Provincial Police established and maintained a beach patrol all along the eastern shore of Lake Superior .
Although the search recovered debris , including lifeboats and rafts , no survivors were found . On her final voyage , Fitzgerald 's crew of 29 consisted of the captain , the first , second and third mates , five engineers , three oilers , a cook , a wiper , two maintenance men , three watchmen , three deckhands , three wheelsmen , two porters , a cadet and a steward . Most of the crew was from Ohio and Wisconsin ; their ages ranged from 21 @-@ year @-@ old deckhand Mark Andrew Thomas to Captain McSorley , 63 years old and planning his retirement .
Fitzgerald is among the largest and best @-@ known vessels lost on the Great Lakes but she is not alone on the Lake Superior seabed in that area . In the years between 1816 , when Invincible was lost , and 1975 , when Fitzgerald sank , the Whitefish Point area had claimed at least 240 ships .
= = Wreck discovery and surveys = =
= = = Wreck discovery = = =
A U.S. Navy Lockheed P @-@ 3 Orion aircraft , piloted by Lt. George Conner and equipped to detect magnetic anomalies usually associated with submarines , found the wreck on November 14 , 1975 . Fitzgerald lay about 15 miles ( 13 nmi ; 24 km ) west of Deadman 's Cove , Ontario , 17 miles ( 15 nmi ; 27 km ) from the entrance to Whitefish Bay to the southeast , in Canadian waters close to the international boundary at a depth of 530 feet ( 160 m ) . A further November 14 – 16 survey by the USCG using a side scan sonar revealed two large objects lying close together on the lake floor . The U.S. Navy also contracted Seaward , Inc . , to conduct a second survey between November 22 and 25 .
= = = Underwater surveys = = =
From May 20 to 28 , 1976 , the U.S. Navy dived the wreck using its unmanned submersible , CURV @-@ III , and found Fitzgerald lying in two large pieces in 530 feet ( 160 m ) of water . Navy estimates put the length of the bow section at 276 feet ( 84 m ) and that of the stern section at 253 feet ( 77 m ) . The bow section stood upright in the mud , some 170 feet ( 52 m ) from the stern section that lay capsized at a 50 @-@ degree angle from the bow . In between the two broken sections lay a large mass of taconite pellets and scattered wreckage lying about , including hatch covers and hull plating .
In 1980 , during a Lake Superior research dive expedition , marine explorer Jean @-@ Michel Cousteau , the son of Jacques Cousteau , sent two divers from RV Calypso in the first manned submersible dive to Fitzgerald . The dive was brief , and although the dive team drew no final conclusions , they speculated that Fitzgerald had broken up on the surface .
The Michigan Sea Grant Program organized a three @-@ day dive to survey the Fitzgerald in 1989 . The primary objective was to record 3 @-@ D videotape for use in museum educational programs and production of documentaries . The expedition used a towed survey system ( TSS Mk1 ) and a self @-@ propelled , tethered , free swimming remotely operated underwater vehicle ( ROV ) . The Mini Rover ROV was equipped with miniature stereoscopic cameras and wide angle lenses in order to produce 3 @-@ D images . The towed survey system and the Mini Rover ROV were designed , built and operated by Chris Nicholson of Deep Sea Systems International , Inc . Participants included the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the National Geographic Society , the United States Army Corps of Engineers , the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society ( GLSHS ) , and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service , the latter providing RV Grayling as the support vessel for the ROV . The GLSHS used part of the five hours of video footage produced during the dives in a documentary and the National Geographic Society used a segment in a broadcast . Frederick Stonehouse , who wrote one of the first books on the Fitzgerald wreck , moderated a 1990 panel review of the video that drew no conclusions about the cause of Fitzgerald 's sinking .
Canadian explorer Joseph B. MacInnis organized and led six publicly funded dives to Fitzgerald over a three @-@ day period in 1994 . Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution provided Edwin A. Link as the support vessel , and their manned submersible , Celia . The GLSHS paid $ 10 @,@ 000 for three of its members to each join a dive and take still pictures . MacInnis concluded that the notes and video obtained during the dives did not provide an explanation why Fitzgerald sank . The same year , longtime sport diver Fred Shannon formed Deepquest Ltd . , and organized a privately funded dive to the wreck of Fitzgerald , using Delta Oceanographic 's submersible , Delta . Deepquest Ltd. conducted seven dives and took more than 42 hours of underwater video while Shannon set the record for the longest submersible dive to Fitzgerald at 211 minutes . Prior to conducting the dives , Shannon studied NOAA navigational charts and found that the international boundary had changed three times before its publication by NOAA in 1976 . Shannon determined that based on GPS coordinates from the 1994 Deepquest expedition , " at least one @-@ third of the two acres of immediate wreckage containing the two major portions of the vessel is in U.S. waters because of an error in the position of the U.S. – Canada boundary line shown on official lake charts . "
Shannon 's group discovered the remains of a crew member partly dressed in coveralls and wearing a life jacket lying face up on the lake bottom alongside the bow of the ship , indicating that at least one of the crew was aware of the possibility of sinking . The life jacket had deteriorated canvas and " what is thought to be six rectangular cork blocks ... clearly visible . " Shannon concluded that " massive and advancing structural failure " caused Fitzgerald to break apart on the surface and sink .
MacInnis led another series of dives in 1995 to salvage the bell from Fitzgerald . The Sault Tribe of Chippewa Indians backed the expedition by co @-@ signing a loan in the amount of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Canadian engineer Phil Nuytten 's atmospheric diving suit , known as the " Newtsuit , " was used to retrieve the bell from the ship , replace it with a replica , and put a beer can in Fitzgerald 's pilothouse . That same year , Terrence Tysall and Mike Zee set multiple records when they used trimix gas to scuba dive to Fitzgerald . The pair are the only people known to have touched the Fitzgerald wreck . They also set records for the deepest scuba dive on the Great Lakes and the deepest shipwreck dive , and were the first divers to reach Fitzgerald without the aid of a submersible . It took six minutes to reach the wreck , six minutes to survey it , and three hours to resurface to avoid decompression sickness , also known as " the bends . "
= = = Restrictions on surveys = = =
Under the Ontario Heritage Act , activities on registered archeological sites require a license . In March 2005 , the Whitefish Point Preservation Society accused the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society ( GLSHS ) of conducting an unauthorized dive to Fitzgerald . Although the director of the GLSHS admitted to conducting a sonar scan of the wreck in 2002 , he denied such a survey required a license at the time it was carried out .
An April 2005 amendment to the Ontario Heritage Act allowed the Ontario government to impose a license requirement on dives , the operation of submersibles , side scan sonars or underwater cameras within a designated radius around protected sites . Conducting any of those activities without a license would result in fine of up to CAD $ 1 million . On the basis of the amended law , to protect wreck sites considered " watery graves " , the Ontario government issued updated regulations in January 2006 , including an area with a 500 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) radius around Fitzgerald and other specifically designated marine archeological sites . In 2009 , a further amendment to the Ontario Heritage Act imposed licensing requirements on any type of surveying device .
= = Theories on the cause of sinking = =
Extreme weather and sea conditions play a role in all of the published theories regarding Fitzgerald 's sinking , but they differ on the other causal factors .
= = = Waves and weather theory = = =
In 2005 NOAA and the NWS ran a computer simulation , including weather and wave conditions , covering the period from November 9 , 1975 , until the early morning of November 11 . Analysis of the simulation showed that two separate areas of high wind appeared over Lake Superior at 4 : 00 p.m. on November 10 . One had speeds in excess of 43 knots ( 80 km / h ; 49 mph ) and the other winds in excess of 40 knots ( 74 km / h ; 46 mph ) . The southeastern part of the lake , the direction in which Fitzgerald was heading , had the highest winds . Average wave heights increased to near 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) by 7 : 00 p.m. , November 10 , and winds exceeded 50 mph ( 43 kn ; 80 km / h ) over most of southeastern Lake Superior .
Fitzgerald sank at the eastern edge of the area of high wind where the long fetch , or distance that wind blows over water , produced significant waves averaging over 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) by 7 : 00 p.m. and over 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) at 8 : 00 p.m. The simulation also showed one in 100 waves reaching 36 feet ( 11 m ) and one out of every 1 @,@ 000 reaching 46 feet ( 14 m ) . Since the ship was heading east @-@ southeastward , the waves likely caused Fitzgerald to roll heavily .
At the time of the sinking , the ship Arthur M. Anderson reported northwest winds of 57 mph ( 50 kn ; 92 km / h ) , matching the simulation analysis result of 54 mph ( 47 kn ; 87 km / h ) . The analysis further showed that the maximum sustained winds reached near hurricane force of about 70 mph ( 61 kn ; 110 km / h ) with gusts to 86 miles per hour ( 75 kn ; 138 km / h ) at the time and location where Fitzgerald sank .
= = = Rogue wave theory = = =
A group of three rogue waves , often called " three sisters , " was reported in the vicinity of Fitzgerald at the time she sank . The " three sisters " phenomenon is said to occur on Lake Superior as a result of a sequence of three rogue waves forming that are one @-@ third larger than normal waves . When the first wave hits a ship 's deck , before its water drains away the second wave strikes . The third incoming wave adds to the two accumulated backwashes , suddenly overloading the deck with tons of water .
Captain Cooper of Anderson reported that his ship was " hit by two 30 to 35 foot seas about 6 : 30 p.m. , one burying the aft cabins and damaging a lifeboat by pushing it right down onto the saddle . The second wave of this size , perhaps 35 foot , came over the bridge deck . " Cooper went on to say that these two waves , possibly followed by a third , continued in the direction of Fitzgerald and would have struck about the time she sank . This theory postulates that the " three sisters " compounded the twin problems of Fitzgerald 's known list and her slower speed in heavy seas that already allowed water to remain on her deck for longer than usual .
The Edmund Fitzgerald episode of the 2010 television series Dive Detectives features the wave @-@ generating tank of the National Research Council 's Institute for Naval Technology in St. John 's , and the tank 's simulation of the effect of a 17 @-@ meter ( 56 ft ) rogue wave upon a scale model of Fitzgerald . The simulation indicated such a rogue wave could almost completely submerge the bow or stern of the ship with water , at least temporarily .
= = = Cargo @-@ hold flooding theory = = =
The July 26 , 1977 , USCG Marine Casualty Report suggested that the accident was caused by ineffective hatch closures . The report concluded that these devices failed to prevent waves from inundating the cargo hold . The flooding occurred gradually and probably imperceptibly throughout the final day , finally resulting in a fatal loss of buoyancy and stability . As a result , Fitzgerald plummeted to the bottom without warning . Video footage of the wreck site showed that most of her hatch clamps were in perfect condition . The USCG Marine board concluded that the few damaged clamps were probably the only ones fastened . As a result , ineffective hatch closure caused Fitzgerald to flood and founder .
From the beginning of the USCG inquiry , some of the crewmen 's families and various labor organizations believed the USCG findings could be tainted because there were serious questions regarding their preparedness as well as licensing and rules changes . Paul Trimble , a retired USCG vice admiral and president of the Lake Carriers Association ( LCA ) , wrote a letter to the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) on September 16 , 1977 , that included the following statements of objection to the USCG findings :
The present hatch covers are an advanced design and are considered by the entire lake shipping industry to be the most significant improvement over the telescoping leaf covers previously used for many years ... The one @-@ piece hatch covers have proven completely satisfactory in all weather conditions without a single vessel loss in almost 40 years of use ... and no water accumulation in cargo holds ...
It was common practice for ore freighters , even in foul weather , to embark with not all cargo clamps locked in place on the hatch covers . Maritime author Wolff reported that depending on weather conditions , all the clamps were eventually set within one to two days . Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes was dismissive of suggestions that unlocked hatch clamps caused Fitzgerald to founder . He said that he commonly sailed in fine weather using the minimum number of clamps necessary to secure the hatch covers .
The May 4 , 1978 , NTSB findings differed from the USCG . The NTSB made the following observations based on the CURV @-@ III survey :
The No. 1 hatch cover was entirely inside the No. 1 hatch and showed indications of buckling from external loading . Sections of the coaming in way of the No. 1 hatch were fractured and buckled inward . The No. 2 hatch cover was missing and the coaming on the No. 2 hatch was fractured and buckled . Hatches Nos. 3 and 4 were covered with mud ; one corner of hatch cover No. 3 could be seen in place . Hatch cover No. 5 was missing . A series of 16 consecutive hatch cover clamps were observed on the No. 5 hatch coaming . Of this series , the first and eighth were distorted or broken . All of the 14 other clamps were undamaged and in the open position . The No. 6 hatch was open and a hatch cover was standing on end vertically in the hatch . The hatch covers were missing from hatches Nos. 7 and 8 and both coamings were fractured and severely distorted . The bow section abruptly ended just aft of hatch No. 8 and the deck plating was ripped up from the separation to the forward end of hatch No. 7 .
The NTSB conducted computer studies , testing and analysis to determine the forces necessary to collapse the hatch covers and concluded that Fitzgerald sank suddenly from flooding of the cargo hold " due to the collapse of one or more of the hatch covers under the weight of giant boarding seas " instead of flooding gradually due to ineffective hatch closures . The NTSB dissenting opinion held that Fitzgerald sank suddenly and unexpectedly from shoaling .
= = = Shoaling theory = = =
The LCA believed that instead of hatch cover leakage , the more probable cause of the Fitzgerald loss was shoaling or grounding in the Six Fathom Shoal northwest of Caribou Island when the vessel " unknowingly raked a reef " during the time the Whitefish Point light and radio beacon were not available as navigation aids . This theory was supported by a 1976 Canadian hydrographic survey , which disclosed that an unknown shoal ran a mile further east of Six Fathom Shoal than shown on the Canadian charts . Officers from Anderson observed that Fitzgerald sailed through this exact area . Conjecture by proponents of the Six Fathom Shoal theory concluded that Fitzgerald 's downed fence rail reported by McSorley could occur only if the ship " hogged " during shoaling , with the bow and stern bent downward and the midsection raised by the shoal , pulling the railing tight until the cables dislodged or tore under the strain . Divers searched the Six Fathom Shoal after the wreck occurred and found no evidence of " a recent collision or grounding anywhere . " Maritime authors Bishop and Stonehouse wrote that the shoaling theory was later challenged on the basis of the higher quality of detail in Shannon 's 1994 photography that " explicitly show [ s ] the devastation of the Fitzgerald . " Shannon 's photography of Fitzgerald 's overturned stern showed " no evidence on the bottom of the stern , the propeller or the rudder of the ship that would indicate the ship struck a shoal . "
Maritime author Stonehouse reasoned that " unlike the Lake Carriers , the Coast Guard had no vested interest in the outcome of their investigation . " Author Bishop reported that Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes argued that through their support for the shoaling explanation , the LCA represented the shipping company 's interests by advocating a theory that held LCA member companies , the American Bureau of Shipping , and the U.S. Coast Guard Service blameless .
Paul Hainault , a retired professor of mechanical engineering from Michigan Technological University , promoted a theory that began as a student class project . His hypothesis held that Fitzgerald grounded at 9 : 30 a.m. on November 10 on Superior Shoal . This shoal , charted in 1929 , is an underwater mountain in the middle of Lake Superior about 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of Copper Harbor , Michigan . It has sharp peaks that rise nearly to the lake surface with water depths ranging from 22 to 400 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 to 121 @.@ 9 m ) , making it a menace to navigation . Discovery of the shoal resulted in a change in recommended shipping routes . A seiche , or standing wave , that occurred during the low @-@ pressure system over Lake Superior on November 10 , 1975 , caused the lake to rise 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) over the Soo Locks 's gates to flood Portage Avenue in Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan , with 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) of water . Hainault 's theory held that this seiche contributed to Fitzgerald shoaling 200 feet ( 61 m ) of her hull on Superior Shoal , causing the hull to be punctured mid @-@ body . The hypothesis contended that the wave action continued to damage the hull , until the middle third dropped out like a box , leaving the ship held together by the center deck . The stern section acted as an anchor and caused Fitzgerald to come to a full stop , causing everything to go forward . The ship broke apart on the surface within seconds . Compressed air pressure blew a hole in the starboard bow , which sank 18 degrees off course . The rear kept going forward with the engine still running , rolled to port and landed bottom up .
= = = Structural failure theory = = =
Another published theory contends that an already weakened structure , and modification of Fitzgerald 's winter load line ( which allows heavier loading and travel lower in the water ) , made it possible for large waves to cause a stress fracture in the hull . This is based on the " regular " huge waves of the storm and does not necessarily involve rogue waves .
The USCG and NTSB investigated whether Fitzgerald broke apart due to structural failure of the hull and because the 1976 CURV III survey found the Fitzgerald sections were 170 feet ( 52 m ) from each other , the USCG 's formal casualty report of July 1977 concluded that she had separated upon hitting the lake floor . The NTSB came to the same conclusion as USCG because :
The proximity of the bow and stern sections on the bottom of Lake Superior indicated that the vessel sank in one piece and broke apart either when it hit bottom or as it descended . Therefore , the Fitzgerald did not sustain a massive structural failure of the hull while on the surface ... The final position of the wreckage indicated that if the Fitzgerald had capsized , it must have suffered a structural failure before hitting the lake bottom . The bow section would have had to right itself and the stern portion would have had to capsize before coming to rest on the bottom . It is , therefore , concluded that the Fitzgerald did not capsize on the surface .
After maritime historian Frederick Stonehouse moderated the panel reviewing the video footage from the 1989 ROV survey of Fitzgerald , he concluded that the extent of taconite coverage over the wreck site showed that the stern had floated on the surface for a short time and spilled taconite into the forward section ; thus the two sections of the wreck did not sink at the same time . The 1994 Shannon team found that the stern and the bow were 255 feet ( 78 m ) apart leading Shannon to conclude that Fitzgerald broke up on the surface . He said :
This placement does not support the theory that the ship plunged to the bottom in one piece , breaking apart when it struck bottom . If this were true , the two sections would be much closer . In addition , the angle , repose and mounding of clay and mud at the site indicate the stern rolled over on the surface , spilling taconite ore pellets from its severed cargo hold , and then landed on portions of the cargo itself .
The stress fracture theory was supported by the testimony of former crewmen . Former Second Mate Richard Orgel , who served on Fitzgerald in 1972 and 1973 , testified that " the ship had a tendency to bend and spring during storms ' like a diving board after somebody has jumped off . ' " Orgel was quoted as saying that the loss of Fitzgerald was caused by hull failure , " pure and simple . I detected undue stress in the side tunnels by examining the white enamel paint , which will crack and splinter when submitted to severe stress . " George H. " Red " Burgner , Fitzgerald 's steward for ten seasons and winter ship @-@ keeper for seven years , testified in a deposition that a " loose keel " contributed to the vessel 's loss . Burgner further testified that " the keel and sister kelsons were only ' tack welded ' " and that he had personally observed that many of the welds were broken . Burgner was not asked to testify before the Marine Board of Inquiry .
When Bethlehem Steel Corporation permanently laid up Fitzgerald 's sister ship , SS Arthur B. Homer , just five years after going to considerable expense to lengthen her , questions were raised as to whether both ships had the same structural problems . The two vessels were built in the same shipyard using welded joints instead of the riveted joints used in older ore freighters . Riveted joints allow a ship to flex and work in heavy seas , while welded joints are more likely to break . Reports indicate that repairs to Fitzgerald 's hull were delayed in 1975 due to plans to lengthen the ship during the upcoming winter layup . Homer was lengthened to 825 feet ( 251 m ) and placed back in service by December 1975 , not long after Fitzgerald foundered . In 1978 , without explanation , Bethlehem Steel Corporation denied permission for the chairman of the NTSB to travel on Homer . Homer was permanently laid up in 1980 and broken for scrap in 1987 .
Retired GLEW naval architect Raymond Ramsey , one of the members of the design team that worked on the hull of Fitzgerald , reviewed her increased load lines , maintenance history , along with the history of long ship hull failure and concluded that Fitzgerald was not seaworthy on November 10 , 1975 . He stated that planning Fitzgerald to be compatible with the constraints of the St. Lawrence Seaway had placed her hull design in a " straight jacket [ sic ? ] . " Fitzgerald 's long @-@ ship design was developed without the benefit of research , development , test , and evaluation principles while computerized analytical technology was not available at the time she was built . Ramsey noted that Fitzgerald 's hull was built with an all @-@ welded ( instead of riveted ) modular fabrication method , which was used for the first time in the GLEW shipyard . Ramsey concluded that increasing the hull length to 729 feet ( 222 m ) resulted in a L / D slenderness ratio ( the ratio of the length of the ship to the depth of her structure ) that caused excessive multi @-@ axial bending and springing of the hull , and that the hull should have been structurally reinforced to cope with her increased length .
= = = Topside damage theory = = =
The USCG cited topside damage as a reasonable alternative reason for Fitzgerald sinking and surmised that damage to the fence rail and vents was possibly caused by a heavy floating object such as a log . Historian and mariner Mark Thompson believes that something broke loose from Fitzgerald 's deck . He theorized that the loss of the vents resulted in flooding of two ballast tanks or a ballast tank and a walking tunnel that caused the ship to list . Thompson further conjectured that damage more extensive than Captain McSorley could detect in the pilothouse let water flood the cargo hold . He concluded that the topside damage Fitzgerald experienced at 3 : 30 p.m. on November 10 , compounded by the heavy seas , was the most obvious explanation for why she sank .
= = Possible contributing factors = =
The USCG , NTSB , and proponents of alternative theories have all named multiple possible contributing factors to the foundering of Fitzgerald .
= = = Weather forecasting = = =
The NWS long range forecast on November 9 , 1975 , predicted that a storm would pass just south of Lake Superior and over the Keweenaw Peninsula , extending into the Lake from Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . Captain Paquette of Wilfred Sykes had been following and charting the low pressure system over Oklahoma since November 8 and concluded that a major storm would track across eastern Lake Superior . He therefore chose a route that gave Sykes the most protection and took refuge in Thunder Bay , Ontario , during the worst of the storm . Based on the NWS forecast , Arthur M. Anderson and Edmund Fitzgerald instead started their trip across Lake Superior following the regular Lake Carriers Association route , which placed them in the path of the storm . The NTSB investigation concluded that the NWS failed to accurately predict wave heights on November 10 . After running computer models in 2005 using actual meteorological data from November 10 , 1975 , Hulquist of the NWS said of Fitzgerald 's position in the storm , " It ended in precisely the wrong place at the absolute worst time . "
= = = Inaccurate navigational charts = = =
After reviewing testimony that Fitzgerald had passed near shoals north of Caribou Island , the USCG Marine Board examined the relevant navigational charts . They found that the Canadian 1973 navigational chart for the Six Fathom Shoal area was based on Canadian surveys from 1916 and 1919 and that the 1973 U.S. Lake Survey Chart No. 9 included the notation , " Canadian Areas . For data concerning Canadian areas , Canadian authorities have been consulted . " Thereafter , at the request of the Marine Board and the Commander of the USCG Ninth District , the Canadian Hydrographic Service conducted a survey of the area surrounding Michipicoten Island and Caribou Island in 1976 . The survey revealed that the shoal ran about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) further east than shown on Canadian charts . The NTSB investigation concluded that , at the time of the Fitzgerald foundering , Lake Survey Chart No. 9 was not detailed enough to indicate Six Fathom Shoal as a hazard to navigation .
= = = Lack of watertight bulkheads = = =
Mark Thompson , a merchant seaman and author of numerous books on Great Lakes shipping , stated that if her cargo holds had watertight subdivisions , " the Fitzgerald could have made it into Whitefish Bay . " Frederick Stonehouse also held that the lack of watertight bulkheads caused Fitzgerald to sink . He said :
The Great Lakes ore carrier is the most commercially efficient vessel in the shipping trade today . But it 's nothing but a motorized barge ! It 's the unsafest commercial vessel afloat . It has virtually no watertight integrity . Theoretically , a one @-@ inch puncture in the cargo hold will sink it .
Stonehouse called on ship designers and builders to design lake carriers more like ships rather than " motorized super @-@ barges " making the following comparison :
Contrast this [ the Fitzgerald ] with the story of the SS Maumee , an oceangoing tanker that struck an iceberg near the South Pole recently . The collision tore a hole in the ship 's bow large enough to drive a truck through , but the Maumee was able to travel halfway around the world to a repair yard , without difficulty , because she was fitted with watertight bulkheads .
After Fitzgerald foundered , Great Lakes shipping companies were accused of valuing cargo payloads more than human life , since the vessel 's cargo hold of 860 @,@ 950 cubic feet ( 24 @,@ 379 m3 ) had been divided by two non @-@ watertight traverse " screen " bulkheads . The NTSB Fitzgerald investigation concluded that Great Lakes freighters should be constructed with watertight bulkheads in their cargo holds .
The USCG had proposed rules for watertight bulkheads in Great Lakes vessels as early as the sinking of Daniel J. Morrell in 1966 and did so again after the sinking of Fitzgerald , arguing that this would allow ships to make it to refuge or at least allow crew members to abandon ship in an orderly fashion . The LCA represented the Great Lakes fleet owners and was able to forestall watertight subdivision regulations by arguing that this would cause economic hardship for vessel operators . A few vessel operators have built Great Lakes ships with watertight subdivisions in the cargo holds since 1975 , but most vessels operating on the lakes cannot prevent flooding of the entire cargo hold area .
= = = Lack of instrumentation = = =
A fathometer was not required under USCG regulations , and Fitzgerald lacked one , even though fathometers were available at the time of her sinking . Instead , a hand line was the only method Fitzgerald had to take depth soundings . The hand line consisted of a piece of line knotted at measured intervals with a lead weight on the end . The line was thrown over the bow of the ship and the count of the knots measured the water depth . The NTSB investigation concluded that a fathometer would have provided Fitzgerald additional navigational data and made her less dependent on Anderson for navigational assistance .
Fitzgerald had no system to monitor the presence or amount of water in her cargo hold , even though there was always some present . The intensity of the November 10 storm would have made it difficult , if not impossible , to access the hatches from the spar deck . The USCG Marine Board found that flooding of the hold could not have been assessed until the water reached the top of the taconite cargo . The NTSB investigation concluded that it would have been impossible to pump water from the hold when it was filled with bulk cargo . The Marine Board noted that because Fitzgerald lacked a draft @-@ reading system , the crew had no way to determine whether the vessel had lost freeboard ( the level of a ship 's deck above the water ) .
= = = Increased load lines , reduced freeboard = = =
The USCG increased Fitzgerald 's load line in 1969 , 1971 , and 1973 to allow 3 feet 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 997 mm ) less minimum freeboard than Fitzgerald 's original design allowed in 1958 . This meant that Fitzgerald 's deck was only 11 @.@ 5 feet ( 3 @.@ 5 m ) above the water when she faced 35 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) waves during the November 10 storm . Captain Paquette of Sykes noted that this change allowed loading to 4 @,@ 000 tons more than what Fitz was designed to carry .
Concerns regarding Fitzgerald 's keel @-@ welding problem surfaced during the time the USCG started increasing her load line . This increase and the resultant reduction in freeboard decreased the vessel 's critical reserve buoyancy . Prior to the load @-@ line increases she was said to be a " good riding ship " but afterwards Fitzgerald became a sluggish ship with slower response and recovery times . Captain McSorley said he did not like the action of a ship he described as a " wiggling thing " that scared him . Fitzgerald 's bow hooked to one side or the other in heavy seas without recovering and made a groaning sound not heard on other ships .
= = = Maintenance = = =
NTSB investigators noted that Fitzgerald 's prior groundings could have caused undetected damage that led to major structural failure during the storm , since Great Lakes vessels were normally drydocked for inspection only once every five years . It was also alleged that when compared to Fitzgerald 's previous captain , McSorley did not keep up with routine maintenance and did not confront the mates about getting the requisite work done . After August B. Herbel , Jr . , president of the American Society for Testing and Materials , examined photographs of the welds on Fitzgerald , he stated , " the hull was just being held together with patching plates . " Other questions were raised as to why the USCG did not discover and take corrective action in its pre @-@ November 1975 inspection of Fitzgerald given that her hatch coamings , gaskets , and clamps were poorly maintained .
= = = Complacency = = =
On the fateful evening of November 10 , 1975 , McSorley reported he had never seen bigger seas in his life . Paquette , master of Wilfred Sykes , out in the same storm , said , " I 'll tell anyone that it was a monster sea washing solid water over the deck of every vessel out there . " The USCG did not broadcast that all ships should seek safe anchorage until after 3 : 35 p.m. on November 10 , many hours after the weather was upgraded from a gale to a storm .
McSorley was known as a " heavy weather captain " who " ' beat hell ' out of the Fitzgerald and ' very seldom ever hauled up for weather ' " . Paquette held the opinion that negligence caused Fitzgerald to founder . He said , " in my opinion , all the subsequent events arose because ( McSorley ) kept pushing that ship and didn 't have enough training in weather forecasting to use common sense and pick a route out of the worst of the wind and seas . " Paquette 's vessel was the first to reach a discharge port after the November 10 storm ; she was met by company attorneys who came aboard Sykes . He told them that Fitzgerald 's foundering was caused by negligence . Paquette was never asked to testify during the USCG or NTSB investigations .
The NTSB investigation noted that Great Lakes cargo vessels could normally avoid severe storms , and called for the establishment of a limiting sea state applicable to Great Lakes bulk cargo vessels . This would restrict the operation of vessels in sea states above the limiting value . One concern was that shipping companies pressured the captains to deliver cargo as quickly and cheaply as possible regardless of bad weather . At the time of Fitzgerald 's foundering , there was no evidence that any governmental regulatory agency tried to control vessel movement in foul weather despite the historical record that hundreds of Great Lakes vessels had been wrecked in storms . The USCG took the position that only the captain could decide when it was safe to sail .
The USCG Marine Board issued the following conclusion :
The nature of Great Lakes shipping , with short voyages , much of the time in very protected waters , frequently with the same routine from trip to trip , leads to complacency and an overly optimistic attitude concerning the extreme weather conditions that can and do exist . The Marine Board feels that this attitude reflects itself at times in deferral of maintenance and repairs , in failure to prepare properly for heavy weather , and in the conviction that since refuges are near , safety is possible by " running for it . " While it is true that sailing conditions are good during the summer season , changes can occur abruptly , with severe storms and extreme weather and sea conditions arising rapidly . This tragic accident points out the need for all persons involved in Great Lakes shipping to foster increased awareness of the hazards which exist .
Mark Thompson countered that " the Coast Guard laid bare [ its ] own complacency " by blaming the sinking of Fitzgerald on industry @-@ wide complacency since it had inspected Fitzgerald just two weeks before she sank . The loss of Fitzgerald also exposed the USCG 's lack of rescue capability on Lake Superior . Thompson said that ongoing budget cuts had limited the USCG 's ability to perform its historical functions . He further noted that USCG rescue vessels were unlikely to reach the scene of an incident on Lake Superior or Lake Huron within 6 to 12 hours of its occurrence .
= = Legal settlement = =
Under maritime law , ships fall under the jurisdiction of the admiralty courts of their flag country . As Fitzgerald was sailing under the U.S. flag , even though she sank in foreign ( Canadian ) waters , she was subject to U.S. admiralty law . With a value of $ 24 million , Fitzgerald 's financial loss was the greatest in Great Lakes sailing history . In addition to the crew , 26 @,@ 116 long tons ( 29 @,@ 250 short tons ; 26 @,@ 535 t ) of taconite sank along with the vessel . Two widows of crewmen filed a $ 1 @.@ 5 million lawsuit against Fitzgerald 's owners , Northwestern Mutual , and its operators , Oglebay Norton Corporation , one week after she sank . An additional $ 2 @.@ 1 million lawsuit was later filed . Oglebay Norton subsequently filed a petition in the U.S. District Court seeking to " limit their liability to $ 817 @,@ 920 in connection with other suits filed by families of crew members . " The company paid compensation to surviving families about 12 months in advance of official findings of the probable cause and on condition of imposed confidentiality agreements . Robert Hemming , a reporter and newspaper editor , reasoned in his book about Fitzgerald that the USCG 's conclusions " were benign in placing blame on [ n ] either the company or the captain ... [ and ] saved the Oglebay Norton from very expensive lawsuits by the families of the lost crew . "
= = Subsequent changes to Great Lakes shipping practice = =
The USCG investigation of the Fitzgerald sinking resulted in 15 recommendations regarding load lines , weathertight integrity , search and rescue capability , lifesaving equipment , crew training , loading manuals , and providing information to masters of Great Lakes vessels . NTSB 's investigation resulted in 19 recommendations for the USCG , four recommendations for the American Bureau of Shipping , and two recommendations for NOAA . Of the official recommendations , the following actions and USCG regulations were put in place :
1 . In 1977 , the USCG made it a requirement that all vessels of 1 @,@ 600 gross register tons and over use depth finders .
2 . Since 1980 , survival suits have been required aboard ship in each crew member 's quarters and at their customary work station with strobe lights affixed to life jackets and survival suits .
3 . A LORAN @-@ C positioning system for navigation on the Great Lakes was implemented in 1980 and later replaced with Global Positioning System ( GPS ) in the 1990s .
4 . Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons ( EPIRB ) are installed on all Great Lakes vessels for immediate and accurate location in event of a disaster .
5 . Navigational charts for northeastern Lake Superior were improved for accuracy and greater detail .
6 . NOAA revised its method for predicting wave heights .
7 . The USCG rescinded the 1973 Load Line Regulation amendment that permitted reduced freeboard loadings .
8 . The USCG began the annual pre @-@ November inspection program recommended by the NTSB . " Coast Guard inspectors now board all U.S. ships during the fall to inspect hatch and vent closures and lifesaving equipment . "
Karl Bohnak , an Upper Peninsula meteorologist , covered the sinking and storm in a book on local weather history . In this book , Joe Warren , a deckhand on Anderson during the November 10 , 1975 , storm , said that the storm changed the way things were done . He stated , " After that , trust me , when a gale came up we dropped the hook [ anchor ] . We dropped the hook because they found out the big ones could sink . " Mark Thompson wrote , " Since the loss of the Fitz , some captains may be more prone to go to anchor , rather than venturing out in a severe storm , but there are still too many who like to portray themselves as ' heavy weather sailors . ' "
= = Memorials = =
The day after the wreck , Mariners ' Church in Detroit rang its bell 29 times ; once for each life lost . The church continued to hold an annual memorial , reading the names of the crewmen and ringing the church bell , until 2006 when the church broadened its memorial ceremony to commemorate all lives lost on the Great Lakes .
The ship 's bell was recovered from the wreck on July 4 , 1995 . A replica engraved with the names of the 29 sailors who lost their lives replaced the original on the wreck . A legal document signed by 46 relatives of the deceased , officials of the Mariners ' Church of Detroit and the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historic Society ( GLSHS ) " donated the custodian and conservatorship " of the bell to the GLSHS " to be incorporated in a permanent memorial at Whitefish Point , Michigan , to honor the memory of the 29 men of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald . " The terms of the legal agreement made the GLSHS responsible for maintaining the bell , and forbade it from selling or moving the bell or using it for commercial purposes . It provided for transferring the bell to the Mariners ' Church of Detroit if the terms were violated .
An uproar occurred in 1995 when a maintenance worker in St. Ignace , Michigan , refurbished the bell by stripping the protective coating applied by Michigan State University experts . The controversy continued when the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum tried to use the bell as a touring exhibit in 1996 . Relatives of the crew halted this move , objecting that the bell was being used as a " traveling trophy . " The bell is now on display in the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum in Whitefish Point near Paradise , Michigan .
An anchor from Fitzgerald lost on an earlier trip was recovered from the Detroit River and is on display at the Dossin Great Lakes Museum in Detroit , Michigan . The Dossin Great Lakes Museum also hosts a Lost Mariners Remembrance event each year on the evening of November 10 . Artifacts on display in the Steamship Valley Camp museum in Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan , include two lifeboats , photos , a movie of Fitzgerald and commemorative models and paintings . Every November 10 , the Split Rock Lighthouse in Silver Bay , Minnesota emits a light in honor of Edmund Fitzgerald .
On August 8 , 2007 , along a remote shore of Lake Superior on the Keweenaw Peninsula , a Michigan family discovered a lone life @-@ saving ring that appeared to have come from Fitzgerald . It bore markings different from those of rings found at the wreck site , and was thought to be a hoax . Later it was determined that the life ring was not from Fitzgerald , but had been lost by the owner , whose father had made it as a personal memorial .
The Royal Canadian Mint commemorated the Fitzgerald in 2015 with a colored silver collector coin , with a face value of $ 20 .
= = = Musical and theater tributes = = =
In 1976 , Ontario singer @-@ songwriter Gordon Lightfoot wrote , composed , and recorded the song " The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald " for his album Summertime Dream . On NPR 's Saturday Morning Edition on February 14 , 2015 , Gordon Lightfoot said he was inspired to write the song when he saw the name misspelled " Edmond " in Newsweek magazine two weeks after the sinking ; Lightfoot said he felt that it dishonored the memory of the 29 who died . Lightfoot 's popular ballad made the sinking of Fitzgerald one of the most well @-@ known disasters in the history of Great Lakes shipping . The original lyrics of the song show a degree of artistic license compared to the events of the actual sinking : it states the destination as Cleveland instead of Detroit and , in light of new evidence about what happened , Lightfoot has modified one line for live performances , changing “ When suppertime came the old cook came on deck / Saying ‘ Fellas , it ’ s too rough to feed ya . ’ / At 7 p.m. a main hatchway caved in / He said , ‘ Fellas , it 's been good to know ya . ” to “ When suppertime came the old cook came on deck / Saying ‘ Fellows it ’ s too rough to feed ya . ’ / At 7 p.m. it grew dark , it was then / He said , ‘ Fellas , it 's been good to know ya . ’ ” The song has been covered by many performers . The Toronto rock band Rheostatics recorded it for their second album , Melville , and their live album Double Live . The Dandy Warhols also covered the song in their The Black Album in 2004 .
In 1986 , writer Steven Dietz and songwriter / lyricist Eric Peltoniemi wrote the musical Ten November in memory of Fitzgerald 's sinking . In 2005 , the play was re @-@ edited into a concert version called The Gales of November , which opened on the 30th anniversary of the sinking at the Fitzgerald Theater in St. Paul , Minnesota . Shelley Russell , a professor of theater at Northern Michigan University , wrote a play called Holdin ' Our Own ; the play was performed at the university in 2000 .
A piano concerto titled " The Edmund Fitzgerald " was composed by American composer Geoffrey Peterson in 2002 ; it premiered by the Sault Symphony Orchestra in Sault Ste . Marie , Ontario , in November 2005 as another 30th anniversary commemoration .
= = = Commercialization = = =
The fame of Fitzgerald 's image and story have made it public domain and subject to commercialization . A " cottage industry " has evolved across the Great Lakes region from Two Harbors , Minnesota , to Whitefish Point , the incident 's " ground zero " . Memorabilia on sale include Christmas ornaments , T @-@ shirts , coffee mugs , Edmund Fitzgerald beer , videos , and other items commemorating the vessel and its loss .
= Martha Logan =
Martha Logan is a fictional character played by Jean Smart in the television series 24 . As the first lady of the United States within the 24 universe , she is the capable yet mercurial wife of President Charles Logan . Critics praised Martha Logan as the breakout character of the show 's 2005 @-@ 2006 season .
In developing Martha Logan 's character , the show 's writers drew upon the historic example of a prominent whistleblower in the Watergate scandal , Martha Beall Mitchell . Similar to the real @-@ life model , Martha Logan becomes contemptuous of her husband 's conduct in office and decides to go public and end his career . Martha Logan takes part in a plot to get her husband to confess that he conspired with terrorists . Yet her mental health problems undermine her credibility and raise the possibility that she may be forced into treatment at an inpatient facility . After the events of the fifth season she was committed to a mental health facility .
= = Concept and creation = =
The inspiration for Martha Logan was Martha Beall Mitchell , the wife of John N. Mitchell , Attorney General during the Nixon administration . Mrs. Mitchell was a key whistleblower who contacted the press to disclose facts about the Watergate scandal , and for a time her statements were discredited because people believed she had a mental illness . Nixon said that " Watergate would have not occurred without Martha Mitchell . "
Howard Gordon , the executive producer of 24 , said that , during character development , they " wanted an actress that had the strength and intelligence to be a first lady , yet have the unpredictability of never knowing when she might snap . " Jean Smart was their first choice . Smart later told The New York Times that she decided she was eager to play the role after reading the character 's introductory scene , and commented that in her almost 30 years of acting she had come across few roles that offered the possibilities that this one did : a character that is sexy , mysterious , and powerful , yet is mentally unstable and has lost her trust and respect for her husband .
Smart also said of the opening scene that : " It encapsulates that character in one moment and says so much about her impulsiveness . We could not have accomplished that with a dozen speeches . When I saw it in the script , I thought ' this is great , this lady is going to be fun to play . ' "
On her first day on set , Smart was shocked to learn the producers wanted to cut the scene , a decision she felt was a mistake . She said " They had done this brilliant thing and now they were going to undo it . They were just being practical . They said , " It would be hours to get you back , your hair , your make @-@ up . " Smart spoke to the hair and makeup artists and guaranteed producers they could get it right in two takes ; they did it in one , and the scene stayed in .
Jean Smart 's character and Martha Mitchell were both labeled " unstable . " Although the real Martha Mitchell was not mentally ill , the fictional Martha Logan is , and with Smart 's input the writers enhanced this aspect of the character . Smart has said of Martha that she is an impulsive , powerful , and capable woman , and that she is intelligent , but has some " chemical problems " .
= = Characterization = =
Martha received a Bachelor of Arts in Art History from Stanford University . Prior to becoming a figure in politics , she served as a member of the Santa Barbara Museum Board of Trustees . She was once the most trusted adviser for the indecisive President Logan . She has also been portrayed as mentally ill , afflicted by depression and anxiety . Martha is a close personal friend of David Palmer .
= = Appearances = =
= = = 24 : Season 5 = = =
Prior to his death , Palmer asks to meet Martha to discuss a " matter of national security " involving Charles Logan . After his death , Martha believes that Palmer was killed to thwart the meeting , not knowing that her husband was involved in his murder .
Several hours later , Martha is frustrated to see her husband negotiating with terrorist Vladimir Bierko and his willingness to compromise Yuri Suvarov and his wife 's safety . Aaron Pierce eventually saves her from the ambush on the Suvarovs ' motorcade . Martha continues to question Logan 's motives as her husband attempts to prevent her from finding out about his role in Palmer 's death .
When Charles reveals that he was involved in the plot to assassinate Palmer , she is deeply shocked and says that she can never forgive him . Contemplating suicide , Logan comes into her room , begging for forgiveness . Rather than accepting his apology , Martha tells him that she is horrified to be his wife .
After Jack Bauer fails to obtain a confession from Logan , she screams in public that he is a murderer during Palmer 's funeral . Afterwards , President Logan hits her , and threatens to put Martha in an asylum for life . During his tirade , Logan acknowledges all of his misdeeds , unaware that there is a small listening device on his pen . The confession quickly reaches the Attorney General , who orders the U.S. Marshals to arrest Logan . As Charles is escorted away by agents , he turns to stare at Martha , who smiles at him in triumph .
= = = 24 : Season 6 = = =
Following Day 5 , Martha was admitted to a mental health facility in Vermont . Martha is romantically involved with Secret Service agent Aaron Pierce . After being persuaded to call Russian first lady Anya Suvarov to enlist her assistance in a diplomatic matter , Martha and Charles have a discussion , in which she verbally assaults Charles , and in a fit of rage , stabs him in the shoulder , severely injuring him . Several minutes after she is arrested , Martha calls Anya .
In a Reddit AMA writers Manny Coto and Evan Katz mentioned Aaron Pierce again , informing fans that Martha is currently " alive and well , being tended to by Aaron Pierce . "
= = Critical reception = =
Joe Rhodes of The New York Times devoted a review to the character on February 19 , 2006 :
About the only thing viewers might not have been able to anticipate was that this season 's break @-@ out character would be a high @-@ strung , sharp @-@ tongued and off @-@ her @-@ meds first lady of the United States , a woman who screams , " I will have your family eating dog food out of a can " at Secret Service agents trying to keep her away from a presidential news conference .
Rhodes described Martha Logan 's debut scene as " perhaps the most memorable character debut in 24 history . " In the debut scene , she proclaimed , " I look like a wedding cake " just before dunking her face into the bathroom sink . Her marriage to President Logan was described by producer Howard Gordon as " one of the highlights of this year . " Smart was also nominated for an Emmy for her performance , Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Category , but lost the award to Blythe Danner .
= Udema =
An udema ( Swedish pronunciation : [ ˈɵdɛma ] or [ ˈudɛma ] ; also udenma ) was a type of warship built for the Swedish archipelago fleet in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . It was developed for warfare in the Archipelago Sea in the Baltic and along the coasts of Svealand and Finland against the Russian navy . The udema was designed by the prolific naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman for use in an area of mostly shallow waters and groups of islands and islets that extend from Stockholm all the way to the Gulf of Finland .
The udema was of an innovative new design with a single line of guns along the ship 's centerline , a foreshadowing of the
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dreadnought battleships of the early 20th century . The design proved impractical for its time , however , and only three udemas were built between 1760 and 1776 .
= = Background = =
In the early 18th century , the establishment of Russian naval power in the Baltic challenged the interests of Sweden , one of the major powers in the Baltic . The Swedish empire at the time included territory in Northern Germany , all of modern Finland and most of the Baltic states , a dominion held together by the Baltic sea routes . Russian Tsar Peter the Great had established a new capital and naval base in Saint Petersburg in 1703 . During the Great Northern War Sweden lost its Baltic state territories , and suffered from Russian raiding in Finland and along the chain of islands and archipelagos that stretched all the way from the Gulf of Finland to the capital of Stockholm . The Swedes began building inshore flotillas of shallow @-@ draft vessels , beginning with smaller versions of the traditional Mediterranean warships , the galleys . Most of these were more akin to galiots and were complemented with gun prams . The disastrous war with Russia ( 1741 – 43 ) and the minor involvement in Prussia in the Seven Years ' War ( 1757 – 62 ) showed the need for further expansion and development of the inshore flotillas with more specialized vessels .
Traditional galleys were effective as troop transports for amphibious operations , but were severely under @-@ gunned , especially in relation to their large crews ; a galley with a 250 @-@ man crew , most of whom were rowers , would typically be armed with only one 24 @-@ pounder cannon and two 6 @-@ pounders , all in the bow . However , they were undecked and lacked adequate shelter for the rower @-@ soldiers , great numbers of which succumbed to illness in the war of 1741 – 43 . The Swedish military invested heavily in an " archipelago fleet " ( skärgårdsflottan ) , a separate branch of the armed forces that organizationally belonged to the army . In 1756 , it was even officially designated Arméns flotta , " Navy of the Army " . It was in many ways a highly independent organization that attracted a social and cultural elite and enjoyed the protection of Gustav III after his 1772 coup that empowered him as an absolute monarch .
Several new ships were designed by the naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman to bolster the hitting @-@ power of the new Swedish maritime forces , to provide it with better naval defense and to improve its fire support capabilities during amphibious operations . The result was four new vessels that combined the maneuverability of oar @-@ powered galleys with the superior rigs and more comfortable living conditions of sailing ships : the udema , pojama , turuma and hemmema , named after the Finnish regions of Uusimaa ( " Uudenmaan " in genitive form ) , Pohjanmaa , Turunmaa and Hämeenmaa ( Tavastia ) . All four have been referred to as skärgårdsfregatter , " archipelago frigates " , in Swedish and English historical literature , though the smaller udema and pojama were also described as " archipelago corvettes " originally .
= = Design = =
The first udema was built in 1760 and had two masts ( mainmast and foremast ) that were originally rigged with lateen sails . It was later provided with a square sail rig similar to that of a polacca bark without topgallant sails . It had a low hull with a small quarterdeck structure and an arrangement of guns that was unique for its time . Its main armament consisted of a single line of eight 12 @-@ pound guns along the centerline of the ship and two 12 @-@ pounders in the bow facing forwards . The centerline guns used pivoting carriages that could be rotated 360 degrees and aimed to either side of the ship , similar to the main guns of the dreadnought battleships of the 20th century .
The first udema Gamla was c . 30 m ( 100 ft ) long and with a draft of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) . The later udemas , Torborg and Ingeborg , carried a mizzen mast , and were both longer and wider , 37 m ( 121 ft ) long and almost 9 m ( 29 ft ) wide with a draft of just over 3 m ( 10 ft ) . Torborg , built in 1772 , had three additional 12 @-@ pounders , eleven in the centerline and two in the bow facing forwards , housed under a decked superstructure with gun ports , but with the rowing seats left undecked . This arrangement proved to be less successful with reports about problems with splintering and lingering gunpowder smoke . She was also a poor sailer and slow under oars , earning the udema a poor reputation .
The Ingeborg , built in 1776 , had an eight @-@ 12 @-@ pounder centerline armament which was open to the elements , but two heavy 18 @-@ pounders in the bow and two 6 @-@ pounder chase guns in the stern . The rowing benches with room for three men per bench were on either side of the centerline battery , but had to swing forwards and outwards to allow the guns to pivot to either side .
For additional maneuverability , the udema carried 14 to 18 pairs of oars . Rowers sat on the weather deck on either side of the main armament with the oar ports placed on a rectangular outrigger which improved their leverage . However , they were positioned on either side of the centerline battery and could not row under fire ; in action , the udema had to rely on its sails for propulsion .
The concept of hybrid frigates with oar propulsion capabilities was not new . Small " galleasses " had been built for the English Tudor navy as early as the mid @-@ 16th century . The Royal Navy , its successor , later equipped the equivalent of sixth rates with oar ports on or below the gundeck as early as the 1660s . " Shebecks " , Baltic variations on the Mediterranean xebecs , had been introduced in the Russian navy for inshore duties during the 18th century . Both of these have been suggested as possible inspirations for af Chapman 's new designs .
= = Service = =
Only three udemas were built for the Swedish navy . Russian ship builders copied the Swedish designs , particularly around the time of the war of 1788 – 90 , and it is believed by some historians that a type named simply " secret vessel " could have been a Russian udema . Other historians question this conclusion ; the number of guns ( 44 in total ) may suggest a considerably larger turuma , one of the larger " archipelago frigates " .
The three Swedish udemas served in the Finnish archipelago squadrons throughout the war of 1788 – 90 by supporting amphibious operations , raiding the opposing Russian archipelago fleet , and protecting the left flank of the Swedish army 's operations on the Finnish mainland . Udemas fought in both the First and Second Battles of Svensksund . The latter battle , one of the largest naval battles ever fought , was a disastrous defeat for the Russians and one of Sweden 's greatest naval victories ever ; the udema Ingeborg was among the few Swedish vessels lost .
Like the other specialized archipelago vessels , the udema proved to have only limited advantages . While it had superior firepower , its sailing qualities were poor , even compared with galleys , and were slow even under oars . The unconventional artillery layout was also deemed to be too weak and radical . The Second Battle of Svensksund showed that the smaller gunboats and gunsloops were far more efficient for the same operations and had almost entirely replaced the " archipelago frigates " by the Finnish War of 1808 – 09 , where Sweden finally lost all of its Finnish possessions .
= = Influence = =
Historian Lars @-@ Olof Berg suggests that the radical new design of rotating gun mounts , though somewhat of a disappointment in Swedish service , may have influenced shipbuilders in other countries . Russian floating batteries were equipped with similar mounts by 1790 . Designs were also presented and built in Great Britain and the US . Pivoting mounts were used in the US " gunboat navy " under Thomas Jefferson , even in much smaller craft , though they often proved risky since the recoil could destabilize vessels with a small displacement , especially if the guns were fired over the side . The genuine breakthrough for true centerline armament layouts , however , did not come until the advent of armored steamships in the late 19th century . The name " udema " has been carried on in the uninflected Finnish form Uusimaa for 20th century ships of the Finnish navy .
= = Ships = =
Only three udemas were built , all of them for the Swedish archipelago fleet . They are listed in the table below with basic information where it is actually known .
= Is It Scary =
" Is It Scary " is a song by American recording artist Michael Jackson . The song was originally written to have been featured in the 1993 film Addams Family Values , but the plans were canceled after contract conflicts . The song was recorded for Jackson 's 1997 remix album , Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix . " Is It Scary " was written and produced by Jackson , Jimmy Jam ( James Harris III ) and Terry Lewis .
" Is It Scary " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Musically , the song was viewed by music critics as showing a " darker side " of Jackson , and compared the song 's composition to the music of Marilyn Manson . In November 1997 , a radio edit version of the song was released as a promotional single in the Netherlands , while promo singles containing remixes were released in the United States and the United Kingdom .
= = Background = =
" Is It Scary " was originally written by Michael Jackson , James Harris III and Terry Lewis for the 1993 film Addams Family Values . Paramount Pictures had signed Jackson to record a horror @-@ themed song for the film ( which became " Is It Scary " ) and to promote it with a video , but the song was dropped from the soundtrack due to contractual difficulties . The song was among those considered for inclusion on Jackson 's 1995 double album , HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , but it was not chosen as it did not complement the other tracks on the album . Jackson subsequently wrote the song into his 1997 short film , Ghosts . Jackson reused lyrics from " Is It Scary " for the film 's title track , which is also included on his Blood on the Dance Floor album . Jackson , Harris and Lewis were given producing credit for the song on Blood on the Dance Floor .
A remix of " Is It Scary " , called " DJ Greek 's Scary Mix " , was included on a three @-@ track ' minimax ' CD single that was released as part of the Ghosts Deluxe Collector Box Set . Remixes of " Is It Scary " were also included on Jackson 's canceled single , " Smile " . The radio edit for " Is It Scary " was later included on the third disc of the deluxe edition of Jackson 's greatest hits album King of Pop in 2008 in the United Kingdom . " Is It Scary " was also featured on the deluxe edition of King of Pop in France . Samples of " Is It Scary " and " Threatened " ( from Jackson 's tenth studio album Invincible ) are featured in the " Thriller " segment of the concert documentary film , Michael Jackson 's This Is It ( 2009 ) . Tommy D. also produced a remix of the song , but this mix was never officially released . However , this mix leaked in the internet in November 2010 .
= = Composition = =
Is It Scary clocks in at 5 : 35 and is sorted into the categories of goth rock , soul , operatic pop , and funk rock . The song is performed in alternating keys of Ab and A major , at a tempo of 109 beats per minute . Jackson 's vocal range on the song is Ab3 @-@ A5 .
= = Promotion = =
" Is It Scary " was never lifted as a commercial single , but it was given out to radio stations and dance clubs to promote Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix . Promo CD singles containing a radio edit and 12 " promos containing three remixes of the song were released to the Netherlands . The United States and the United Kingdom received 12 " promo singles containing remixes of the song by Deep Dish , while the UK also received 12 " promos with remixes of the song by Eddie Arroyo known as " Eddie 's Love Mixes " . Due to lack of a full release , " Is It Scary " did not enter any music charts .
= = Critical reception = =
" Is It Scary " generally received positive to mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Jim Farber , writer for the New York Daily News , commented that " Is It Scary ' boasts a few innovative sounds but no real melodies " . Roger Catlin of The Hartford Courant stated that " the most intriguing pairing " was " Ghosts " and " Is It Scary " because Jackson " asks those who 've only read about him in tabloids if he seems monstrous " . Anthony Violanti , a writer for The Buffalo News , remarked that Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix 's songs " Superfly Sister " , " Ghosts " and " Is It Scary " were " programmed plastic soul that makes you wonder how someone as talented as Jackson can churn out such tracks " .
Jae @-@ Ha Kim , a writer for Chicago Sun @-@ Times , noted , that " Is It Scary " shows a " darker side of Jackson than even the tabloids would have you believe " . Neil Strauss , a writer for The New York Times , described " Is It Scary " as " sounding more like the ghoulish rocker Marilyn Manson than the Motown prodigy that he is . " A longtime commentator on Jackson 's public life , J. Randy Taraborrelli , gave a retrospective analysis on Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix 's critical reviews in the biography , The Magic & the Madness ( 2004 ) . Taraborrelli argued that certain sections of the world took interest in tabloid stories about Jackson 's personal life over his musical career .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Official Remixes = =
Album Version - 5 : 35
Radio Edit - 4 : 11
Deep Dish Dark & Scary Remix - 12 : 07
Deep Dish Dark & Scary Remix ( Radio Edit ) - 4 : 38
Deep Dish Double O @-@ Jazz Dub - 8 : 35
Eddie 's Love Mix - 8 : 00
Eddie 's Love Mix ( Radio Edit ) - 3 : 50
Eddie 's Rub @-@ A @-@ Dub Mix - 4 : 33
Downtempo Groove Mix - 4 : 32 ( Incorrectly given as 4 : 50 on sleeve )
DJ Greek Scary Remix - 7 : 11
Tommy D 's Death Row Mix ( Unreleased ) - 4 : 15
" Is It Scary " / " Threatened " ( Immortal version ) - 5 : 03
= = Personnel = =
Written and composed by Michael Jackson , James Harris III and Terry Lewis
Produced by Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis , and Michael Jackson
Arranged by Michael Jackson , and Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis
Recorded and mixed by Steve Hodge
Solo and background vocals , vocal arrangement by Michael Jackson
Keyboard programming by Andrew Scheps
Drum programming by Jeff Taylor
Additional programming by Rob Hoffman
All instruments performed by Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis
Assistant engineers by Brad Yost , Xavier Smith , Ryan Arnold , Steve Baughman and Steve Durkee
= MTR =
The Mass Transit Railway ( MTR ) is the rapid transit railway system in Hong Kong . Opened in 1979 , the system now includes 218 @.@ 2 km ( 135 @.@ 6 mi ) of rail with 155 stations , including 87 railway stations and 68 light rail stops . The MTR system is operated by MTR Corporation Limited ( MTRCL ) . It is one of the most profitable systems in the world , with a high farebox recovery ratio of 186 % .
Under the government 's rail @-@ led transport policy , the MTR system is a common mode of public transport in Hong Kong , with over five million trips made in an average weekday . It consistently achieves a 99 @.@ 9 % on @-@ time rate on its train journeys . As of 2014 , the MTR has a 48 @.@ 1 % market share of the franchised public transport market , making it the most popular transport option in Hong Kong . The integration of the Octopus smart card fare @-@ payment technology into the MTR system in September 1997 has further enhanced the ease of commuting on the MTR .
Construction of the MTR was prompted by a study , released in 1967 , commissioned by the Hong Kong Government in order to find solutions to the growing road congestion problem caused by the expansion of the territory 's economy . Construction started soon after the release of the study , and the first line opened in 1979 . The MTR was immediately popular with residents of Hong Kong ; as a result , subsequent lines have been built to cover more territory . There are continual debates regarding how and where to expand the MTR network .
As a successful railway operation , the MTR has served as a model for other newly built systems in the world , particularly in mainland China .
= = Early development ( 1960 – 2000 ) = =
= = = Initial proposals = = =
During the 1960s , the government of Hong Kong saw a need to accommodate increasing road traffic as Hong Kong 's economy continued to grow strongly . In 1966 , British transportation consultants Freeman , Fox , Wilbur Smith & Associates were appointed to study the transportation system of Hong Kong . The study was based on the projection of the population of Hong Kong for 1986 , estimated at 6 @,@ 868 @,@ 000 . On 1 September 1967 , the consultants submitted the Hong Kong Mass Transport Study to the government , which recommended the construction of a 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) rapid @-@ transit rail system in Hong Kong . The study suggested that four rail lines be developed in six stages , with a completion date set between December 1973 and December 1984 . Detailed positions of lines and stations were presented in the study . These four lines were Kwun Tong Line ( from Western Market to Ma Yau Tong ) , Tsuen Wan Line ( from Admiralty to Tsuen Wan ) , Island Line ( from Kennedy to Chai Wan Central ) , and Shatin Line ( from Tsim Sha Tsui to Wo Liu Hang ) .
The study was submitted to the Legislative Council on 14 February 1968 . The consultants received new data from the 1966 by @-@ census on 6 March 1968 . A short supplementary report was submitted on 22 March 1968 and amended in June 1968 . The by @-@ census indicated that the projected 1986 population was reduced by more than one million from the previous estimate to 5 @,@ 647 @,@ 000 . The dramatic reduction affected town planning . The population distribution was largely different from the original study . The projected 1986 populations of Castle Peak New Town , Sha Tin New Town , and , to a lesser extent , Tsuen Wan New Town , were revised downward , and the plan of a new town in Tseung Kwan O was shelved . In this updated scenario , the consultants reduced the scale of the recommended system . The supplementary report stated that the originally suggested four tracks between Admiralty Station and Mong Kok Station should be reduced to two , and only parts of the Island Line , Tsuen Wan Line , and Kwun Tong Line should be constructed for the initial system . The other lines would be placed in the list of extensions . This report led to the final study in 1970 .
In 1970 , a system with four lines was laid out and planned as part of the British consultants ' new report , Hong Kong Mass Transit : Further Studies . The four lines were to be the Kwun Tong Line , Tsuen Wan Line , Island Line , and East Kowloon Line . However , the lines that were eventually constructed were somewhat different compared to the lines that were originally proposed by the Hong Kong Mass Transport Study .
In 1972 , the Hong Kong government authorised construction of the Initial System , a 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) system that roughly translates to the Kwun Tong Line between Kwun Tong and Prince Edward , Tsuen Wan Line between Prince Edward and Admiralty , and Island Line between Sheung Wan and Admiralty of today . Negotiations with four major construction consortia started in 1973 . The government 's intention was to tender the entire project , based on the British design , as a single tender at a fixed price . A consortium from Japan signed an agreement to construct the system in early 1974 , but in December of the same year , it pulled out of the agreement for reasons stemming from fears of the oil crisis .
= = = Modified Initial System = = =
Several weeks later , in early 1975 , a government agency called the Mass Transport Provisional Authority was established to oversee the project . It announced that the Initial System would be reduced to 15 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 7 mi ) , and renamed it the " Modified Initial System " . Plans for a single contract were abandoned in favour of 25 engineering contracts and 10 electrical and mechanical contracts . In addition , the government @-@ owned Mass Transit Railway Corporation ( MTRC ) was established to replace the Mass Transport Provisional Authority .
Construction of the Modified Initial System ( now part of the Kwun Tong Line and Tsuen Wan Line ) commenced in November 1975 . The northern section was completed on 30 September 1979 and was opened on 1 October 1979 by Governor Murray MacLehose . Trains on this route ran from Shek Kip Mei Station to Kwun Tong Station , initially in a four @-@ car configuration . The first train drivers were trained on the London Underground . The route from Tsim Sha Tsui Station to Shek Kip Mei Station opened in December 1979 . The early stations were designed under the supervision of Roland Paoletti , the chief architect at MTR .
In 1980 , the first harbour crossing was made by an MTR train as the Kwun Tong Line was extended to Chater Station , since renamed Central Station . Trains were extended to six cars to accommodate an increase in passenger numbers .
= = = Line extensions = = =
The government approved construction of the Tsuen Wan Line in 1977 , then known as the Tsuen Wan Extension , and works commenced in November 1978 . The project added a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) section to the MTR system , from Prince Edward to Tsuen Wan . The line started service on 10 May 1982 with a total cost of construction ( not adjusted for inflation ) of HK $ 4 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 526 million ) . The plan was modified from that in the 1970 report Hong Kong Mass Transit : Further Studies , with Kwai Chung Station , Lap Sap Wan Station , and a planned depot at Kwai Chung next to Lap Sap Wan Station being replaced by stations at Kwai Hing and Kwai Fong and a depot at Tsuen Wan . Several stations also had names different to that during planning : So Uk Station became Cheung Sha Wan , Cheung Sha Wan became Lai Chi Kok , and Lai Chi Kok became Lai Wan ( later renamed as Mei Foo ) .
When service of this line started , the section of the Kwun Tong Line from Chater to Argyle ( since renamed Central and Mong Kok stations respectively ) was transferred to the Tsuen Wan Line . Thus , Waterloo station ( since renamed Yau Ma Tei Station ) became the terminus of the Kwun Tong Line , and both Argyle and Prince Edward stations became interchange stations . This change was made because system planners expected the traffic of the Tsuen Wan Line to exceed that of the Kwun Tong Line . This forecast proved to be accurate , necessitating a bypass from the northwestern New Territories to Hong Kong Island . The Tung Chung Line was therefore launched in 1998 with an interchange station at Lai King for that purpose .
Although land acquisitions were made for a station at Tsuen Wan West , beyond Tsuen Wan station , as part of the Tsuen Wan branch , the station was never built . This is not to be confused with the modern @-@ day Tsuen Wan West Station on West Rail Line , which lies on a newly reclaimed area near the former ferry pier .
Since opening in 1982 , the Tsuen Wan Line is the line whose alignment has remained the same for the longest time . For example , the Kwun Tong Line 's alignment has changed twice since its opening – the taking over of Tsuen Wan Line from Mong Kok to Central , and the taking over of Eastern Harbour Crossing section by the Tseung Kwan O Line .
Government approvals were granted for construction of the Island Line in December 1980 . Construction commenced in October 1981 . On 31 May 1985 , the Island Line was opened with service between Admiralty Station and Chai Wan Station . Both Admiralty and Central Stations became interchange stations with the Tsuen Wan Line . Furthermore , each train was extended to eight cars . On 23 May 1986 , the Island Line was extended to Sheung Wan Station . Construction was delayed for one year , as government offices which were located over the station had to be moved before the construction could start .
In 1984 , the government approved the construction of the Eastern Harbour Crossing , a tunnel to be used by cars and MTR trains . The Kwun Tong Line was extended across the harbour on 5 August 1989 to Quarry Bay Station , which became an interchange station for the Kwun Tong Line and the Island Line . An intermediate station , Lam Tin , started operations on 1 October 1989 .
= = = Airport connection = = =
The Airport Express and Tung Chung Line started services in 1998 . The decision was made in October 1989 to construct a new international airport at Chek Lap Kok on Lantau Island to replace the overcrowded Kai Tak International Airport . The government invited the MTRC to build a train line , then known as the Lantau Airport Railway , to the airport . Construction started in November 1994 , after the Chinese and British governments settled their financial and land disagreements .
The new line was included in the financing plans of the new Hong Kong International Airport as the airport was not considered viable without direct public transport links . Construction costs were also shared by the MTRC , which was granted many large @-@ scale developments in the construction plans for the new stations .
The Lantau Airport Railway turned into two MTR lines , the Tung Chung Line and the Airport Express . The Tung Chung Line was officially opened on 21 June 1998 by Hong Kong Chief Executive Tung Chee Hwa , and service commenced the next day . The Airport Express opened for service on 6 July 1998 along with the new Hong Kong International Airport .
The Airport Express also offers flight check @-@ in facilities at Kowloon Station and Hong Kong Station – the in @-@ town check @-@ ins offer a more convenient and time @-@ saving routine ; a free shuttle bus service transports travellers from these stations to their respective hotels as well . Porters are also available to help transport luggage from and onto trains . It is the second most popular means of transport to the airport after buses . In 2012 , it had a 21 @.@ 8 % of share of the traffic to and from the airport . However , this has drastically declined from a peak of 32 % in 1999 .
= = Recent projects ( 2000 – 2010 ) = =
= = = Tseung Kwan O Line = = =
The Quarry Bay Congestion Relief Works extended the Hong Kong Island end of the Kwun Tong Line from Quarry Bay to North Point via a pair of 2 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) tunnels . The project was initiated due to overcrowding at Quarry Bay and persistent passenger complaints about the five @-@ minute walk from the Island Line platforms to the Kwun Tong Line platform . Construction began in September 1997 and was completed in September 2001 at a cost of HK $ 3 @.@ 0 billion ( US $ 385 million ) . As with most earlier interchange stations , a cross @-@ platform interchange arrangement was provided here in both directions .
Construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line ( called the Tseung Kwan O Extension Line in the planning stage ) was approved on 18 August 1998 to serve new housing developments . Construction began on 24 April 1999 and the line officially opened in 2002 . It took over the existing Kwun Tong Line tracks running through the Eastern Harbour Tunnel , so that the full line stretches from Po Lam to North Point . When the line was opened , the Kwun Tong Line was diverted to Tiu Keng Leng on the new line . Construction costs were partly covered by the Hong Kong Government and private developers which linked construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line to new real estate and commercial developments .
= = = Interchange stations = = =
The interchange between the Tsuen Wan Line and the Kwun Tong Line , as well as that between the Kwun Tong Line and the Tseung Kwan O Line , are two stations long , allowing cross @-@ platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line . For example , when passengers are travelling on the Kwun Tong Line towards Tiu Keng Leng , getting off at Yau Tong would allow them to switch trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards North Point . Whereas , staying on the train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow them to board the Tseung Kwan O Line trains towards Po Lam / LOHAS Park . This design makes interchanging more convenient and passengers do not have the need to change to different levels . However this interchange arrangement is not available for all transferring passengers at Kowloon Tong , Central , Hong Kong , Quarry Bay , Nam Cheong ( except transfer between Tuen Mun and Hong Kong bound trains ) , Mei Foo , Tai Wai Station ( except alighting from Ma On Shan Line to change to southbound trains for East Rail Line ) and Sunny Bay ( except transfer between Tung Chung and Disneyland Resort bound trains ) stations , mainly because this service is available only when there are two continuous stations shared as interchange stations by two lines .
Two major works were undertaken to ease interchange between the Kwun Tong Line and East Rail Line . The modification of Kowloon Tong Station started in June 2001 . A new pedestrian link to Kowloon Tong Station southern concourse and a new entrance ( Exit D ) opened on 15 April 2004 to cope with the increase in interchange passenger flow . Modification to Tsim Sha Tsui Station involved upgrading station facilities and concourse layout to facilitate access from the East Tsim Sha Tsui Station via its pedestrian links . New entrances to the subway links were opened on 19 September 2004 ( Exit G ) and 30 March 2005 ( Exit F ) , with the whole scheme completed in May 2005 .
= = = Disneyland Resort Line = = =
The Disneyland Resort Line , previously known as Penny 's Bay Rail Link , provides service to the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort which was opened on 12 September 2005 . Service to Sunny Bay station on the Tung Chung Line started in 2005 . The new line and the Disneyland Resort station opened on 1 August 2005 . It is a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) single @-@ track railway that runs between Sunny Bay station and Disneyland Resort station . The Disneyland Resort station itself was designed to blend in with the ambiance of the resort . The line operates fully automated trains running every four to ten minutes without a driver . The carriages are refurbished M @-@ Train rolling stock to match the recreational and adventurous nature of the 3 @.@ 5 @-@ minute journey .
= = = Airport Express extension = = =
The AsiaWorld – Expo Station is an extension of the Airport Express serving a new international exhibition centre , AsiaWorld – Expo , at Hong Kong International Airport . The station opened on 20 December 2005 along with the exhibition centre . To cope with the projected increase in patronage , Airport Express trains were lengthened to eight carriages from the previous seven . Additional trains are also deployed on the Tung Chung Line during major exhibitions and events .
= = = Privatisation and merger = = =
On 5 October 2000 the operator of the MTR network , MTR Corporation Limited ( MTRCL ) , became Hong Kong 's first rail company to be privatised , marking the beginning of the Hong Kong government 's initiative to dissolve its interests in public utilities . Prior to its listing on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange , the Mass Transit Railway Corporation ( MTRC ) was wholly owned by the Hong Kong government . The offering involved the sale of about one billion shares , and the company now has the largest shareholder base of any company listed in Hong Kong . In June 2001 , MTRCL was transferred to the Hang Seng Index .
MTRCL has often developed properties next to stations to complement its already profitable railway business . Many recently built stations were incorporated into large housing estates or shopping complexes . For example , Tsing Yi station is built next to the Maritime Square shopping centre and directly underneath the Tierra Verde housing estate .
On 11 April 2006 , MTRCL signed a non @-@ binding memorandum of understanding with the Hong Kong government , the owner of Kowloon @-@ Canton Railway Corporation , to merge the operation of the two railway networks in Hong Kong in spite of the strong opposition by the KCRC staff . The minority shareholders of the corporation approved the proposal at an extraordinary general meeting on 9 October 2007 , allowing MTRCL to take over the operation of the KCR network and combine the fare system of the two networks on 2 December 2007 .
On 2 December 2007 the Kowloon – Canton Railway Corporation ( KCRC ) granted a 50 @-@ year service concession ( which may be extended ) of the KCR network to MTRCL , in return for making annual payments to KCRC , thereby merging the railway operations of the two corporations under MTRCL 's management . At the same time MTRCL changed its Chinese name from " 地鐵有限公司 " ( Subway Limited Company ) to " 香港鐵路有限公司 " ( Hong Kong Railway Limited Company ) , but left its English name unchanged . After the merger , the MTR network included three more lines — East Rail Line , West Rail Line , and Ma On Shan Line — as well as the Light Rail network and Guangdong Through Train to Guangzhou .
On 28 September 2008 , fare zones of all urban lines , East Rail Line , Ma On Shan Line and West Rail Line were merged . A passenger could travel on these networks with only one ticket , except where a transfer is made between Tsim Sha Tsui and East Tsim Sha Tsui stations , where two tickets are required . Student discounts on Octopus Card were also issued .
= = = Tseung Kwan O Line extension to LOHAS Park = = =
The LOHAS Park Spur Line is an extension of the Tseung Kwan O Line , splitting off after Tseung Kwan O Station . It serves the new residential development of LOHAS Park ( formerly " Dream City " ) , a 3 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 330 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate with fifty residential towers . The project is divided into 9 to 13 phases and is about halfway complete as of 2016 . These high rises will sit above LOHAS Park Station , which opened on 26 July 2009 .
= = Newly built extensions ( 2010 – present ) = =
= = = West Island Line = = =
The West Island Line , first put forward to the government on 21 January 2003 , is an extension of the Island Line . It serves the Western District of Hong Kong Island . The construction of the West Island Line started on 10 August 2009 . Kennedy Town Station and HKU Station opened on 28 December 2014 . Sai Ying Pun Station opened later , on 29 March 2015 , due to construction delays .
= = = Future expansions = = =
Several future projects on the MTR have been put forward by MTRCL to the Hong Kong Government , with some already under construction . The network was expanded significantly with the merger of MTRCL and the government @-@ owned KCRC . A non @-@ binding Memorandum of Understanding was signed on the eleventh of April 2006 to grant MTRCL operation of the existing KCR network with a service concession of 50 years . The new Sha Tin to Central Link that was originally awarded to KCRC is also to be operated by MTRCL .
Provisions are made to upgrade the existing infrastructure of the MTR . New subway links to the stations are also being made for better access . A further proposal to extend the existing Kwun Tong Line to Whampoa Garden , together in a tie @-@ up with the Sha Tin to Central Link expansion have been made in April 2006 . In March 2008 , the MTR Corporation welcomed the Government 's decision for the Corporation to proceed with further planning and design for the Kwun Tong Line Extension and the Shatin to Central Link . The construction of the Kwun Tong Line Extension is expected to be completed at the end of 2016 . The Sha Tin to Central Link from Tai Wai to Hung Hom is expected to be completed in 2019 , and the section from Hung Hom to Admiralty is expected to be completed in 2021 .
The South Island Line , first put forward to the government by MTRCL on 21 January 2003 , only received approval on 30 June 2005 after its heavily modified fourth proposal . This consisted of the South Island Line ( East ) from Admiralty to South Horizons and the South Island Line ( West ) that connects HKU to Wong Chuk Hang . The South Island Line ( East ) is expected to be finished by the end of 2016 .
The Northern Link will be a new line which connects West Rail Line with the Lok Ma Chau Spur Line of East Rail Line . It also has Au Tau , Ngau Tam Mei , San Tin , a future interchange station between East Rail Line and Northern Link , Kwu Tung and finally Lok Ma Chau , which will become a terminus for both lines , just like Hung Hom nowadays .
The North Island Line is a planned extension of the Tseung Kwan O Line that will interchange at the future Tamar Station with the Tung Chung Line . It will alleviate traffic in the Northern part of Hong Kong Island . There will be three new stations : Tamar , Exhibition ( which will be an interchange between the North Island Line and the North South Corridor ) , and Causeway Bay North . Construction is expected to begin in 2021 and finish in 2026 . The cost is estimated to be HK $ 20 billion in 2013 prices .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Rail network = = =
= = = Station facilities , amenities and services = = =
The architecture of MTR stations is less artistic , instead focusing on structural practicability . With the high level of daily passenger traffic , facilities of the MTR stations are built with durability and accessibility in mind . After extensive retrofitting , the MTR system has become , in general , disabled @-@ friendly — the trains have dedicated wheelchair space , the stations have special floor tiles to guide the blind safely on the platforms , and there are extra wide entry and exit gates for wheelchairs as well . On board the rolling stock , there are also flashing system maps on select trains while Active Line Diagrams and traditional route maps are installed on the others . Infopanels as well as on Newsline Express TVs onboard trains display important messages such as next station announcements as well as operational messages .
= = = = Telecommunications = = = =
A full GSM ( GSM @-@ 900 and GSM @-@ 1800 ) , CDMA and TDMA mobile phone network is in place throughout the MTR system of stations and tunnels allowing passengers to stay connected underground . Currently , full 3G network coverage in all stations and tunnels ( except underground section on East Rail Line and West Rail Line ) for the MTR system has been provided by 3 Hong Kong , SmarTone @-@ Vodafone and PCCW Mobile . Passengers with subscription services will be able to make video calls and access high speed video content on their mobile phones regardless whether the train is above ground or under ground . The MTR has already extended the Wi @-@ Fi service to all of the Airport Express trains and the expansion of the service to other MTR routes is still under consideration by MTR . As of 8 July 2013 , all 84 stations on the MTR offer free Wi @-@ Fi service to passengers with a limitation of 15 minutes per session and a maximum of five sessions per day .
In late 2015 it was announced that all 400 payphones in the MTR system would be removed in early 2016 . The contract with the service provider , Shinetown Telecom , was expiring , and the MTR Corporation said that no one had tendered a proposal to take over the contract .
= = = = Announcements = = = =
When the transport started , announcements of information including arriving stations were made in British English and in Cantonese . Since 2004 , in order to accommodate Mainland Chinese visitors under the Individual Visit Scheme , Standard Mandarin Chinese has been added to the repertory .
= = = = Public toilets = = = =
Unlike many other metro systems around the world , " main line " MTR stations originally did not have toilet facilities available for public use . Passengers may use MTR staff toilets at all stations on request . In 2006 , MTRCL said it would not consider retrofitting existing underground toilets , because of the challenge of installing new piping and toilet facilities . Only stations on the Airport Express and Disneyland Resort Line had access to toilet facilities . All former KCR stations ( on the East Rail Line , West Rail Line , and Ma On Shan Line ) , merged into the MTR network in 2007 , have public toilets .
During Legco Rail Merger Bill discussions , MTR Corporation received criticism from Hong Kong Legislative Council Members for their unwillingness to install toilet facilities in main line stations . MTRCL indicated in rail merger discussions that it would carry out a review of the feasibility of installing public toilets at or in the vicinity of its above @-@ ground railway stations . Discussions between the Government and MTRCL have taken into account Legco members ' request for a stronger commitment by the corporation to the provision of public toilets on new railway lines . This resulted in MTRCL agreeing to include the provision of toilet facilities within , or adjacent to , stations in the overall design parameters for all future new railway lines , subject to planning and regulatory approval and any concerns raised by residents in the vicinity about the location of external ventilation exhausts .
Toilets have since been retrofitted into several existing MTR stations , including Sheung Wan Station , Ngau Tau Kok Station , Quarry Bay Station , Mong Kok Station , and Prince Edward Station . In addition , newly opened stations such as those of the West Island Line have toilets . The MTR plans to install public toilets at all interchange stations by 2020 .
= = = = Commerce and journals = = = =
Prior to the privatisation of MTRC , MTR stations only had branches of the Hang Seng Bank , and Maxim 's Cakes stores , and a handful of other shops . Since then , the number and types of shops have increased at certain stations , turning them into miniature shopping centres . ATMs and convenience stores are now commonplace .
The MTR has contracted with publishers for the distribution of free magazines and newspapers in MTR stations . Recruit was the first free magazine which was solely distributed in stations ( before railway merger ) since July 1992 , but the contract was terminated in July 2002 . Another recruitment magazine Jiu Jik ( 招職 ) , published by South China Morning Post , replaced Recruit as the only free recruitment magazine distributed in MTR stations bi @-@ weekly . The Metropolis Daily ( 都市日報 ) , published by Metro International , is the first free newspaper distributed free in MTR stations during weekdays ( except public holidays ) ; and in 2005 , there is another weekend newspaper Express Post ( 快線週報 ) , distributed every Saturday except public holidays . The Metropop ( 都市流行 ) , a weekly magazine featuring cultural affairs and city trends also published by Metro International , started its distribution in MTR stations every Thursday since 27 April 2006 , a few months after the termination of Hui Kai Guide ( 去街 Guide ) in 2006 . MTR Stations on ex @-@ KCR lines feature two free Chinese @-@ language newspapers , namely am730 and Headline Daily . MTR promotes reading of these newspapers by adding special coupons and promotion offers inside the newspapers , for example , a free trip to Lok Ma Chau or a free keyring . On the Kwun Tong Line , East Rail Line , Ma On Shan Line and West Rail Line , Newsline Express is available .
= = = MTR Bus = = =
At various stations of the MTR network , the MTRCL ( which took over from KCR ) has set up feeder buses which enhance the convenience of taking the MTR . These bus routes , which normally consist of one to two stops , terminate at housing estates and go past major landmarks . The feeder bus routes on the East Rail Line are run under the MTR name but are operated by Kowloon Motor Bus .
= = = Rolling stock = = =
Six types of Electric Multiple Unit rolling stock operate on the MTR network and four generations of light rail vehicles operate on the Light Rail network . All utilise either 1 @,@ 432 mm ( 4 ft 8 3 ⁄ 8 in ) rail gauge ( near standard gauge ) or 1 @,@ 435 mm ( 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) ( standard gauge ) . Except for Airport Express trains , all trains are designed with features to cope with high density passenger traffic on frequently used services , for example , seating arrangements , additional ventilation fans , and additional sets of extra wide doors . These configurations allow the MTR to run at 101 @,@ 000 passengers per hour per direction ( p / h / d ) on its busy suburban East Rail Line and 85 @,@ 000 p / h / d on its urban metro network .
= = = = Metro Cammell EMU ( DC ) = = = =
Known as M @-@ Trains , the oldest model of MTR since its operation , M @-@ Trains can be divided into different " Stocks " . The M @-@ Stock ( or " CM @-@ Stock " ) of M @-@ Train are the oldest trains on the MTR , built originally by Metro Cammell ( now Alstom ) and refurbished by United Goninan . The M @-@ Train uses sliding doors , unlike K @-@ Stocks and Grupo CAF Trains which use plug doors . They are in service on Kwun Tong Line , Tsuen Wan Line , Island Line and Tseung Kwan O Line .
Except for Airport Express and Disneyland Resort Line trains , all trains are designed with features to cope with high density passenger traffic on frequently used services . The Disneyland Resort Line uses driverless M @-@ Trains with their appearance overhauled to suit the atmosphere and theme of the line . Windows on each carriage and the handrails inside are made into the shape of Mickey Mouse 's head , and there are bronze @-@ made Disney characters decorating the interior of the carriages .
= = = = Adtranz @-@ CAF EMU = = = =
The Tung Chung Line and the Airport Express are operated by CAF Trains specified to their respective lines . Initially run in seven @-@ car formations , they have now been lengthened to eight cars . These two variations are built jointly by Adtranz ( now Bombardier Transportation ) and Grupo CAF ( CAF ) between 1994 – 97 . Since 2006 , K @-@ Stock has also been used on the Tung Chung line .
= = = = Rotem EMU = = = =
The K @-@ Stock are built jointly by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Hyundai Rotem , first put into service on the Kwun Tong Line . Subsequently in 2006 , four additional sets joined the Tung Chung Line to cope with the increasing passenger traffic . K @-@ Stock trains have come under criticism when it was first put into service due to delays and door safety issues . There have been incidents where passengers have been injured by its doors and other service reliability issues have led to MTRCL " minimising the number of Korean trains for passenger service until a higher reliability of the systems concerned is achieved " .
= = = = CNR Changchun EMU = = = =
The contract ( C6554 @-@ 07E ) for 10 new sets of trains was awarded to Changchun Railway Vehicles Co . Limited in October 2008 with a further 12 trains ordered in the summer of 2011 . These MTR trains were delivered to Hong Kong between 2011 and 2013 to enhance train frequency on the existing lines to cater for ongoing patronage growth on the existing Island Line , Kwun Tong Line , Tsuen Wan Line and Tseung Kwan O Line . These trains will feature new 22 " LCD TVs , like their counterpart trains on former @-@ KCR lines equipped with Newsline Express , offering better infotainment such as news and announcements . The first of these trains entered revenue service on 7 December 2011 on the Kwun Tong Line . They are tested service on Tsuen Wan Line and Tseung Kwan O Line . They have also been tested running on the Island Line , but have not been in service yet .
= = = = SP1900 / 1950 EMU = = = =
Both East Rail Line and West Rail Line use the SP1900 while Ma On Shan Line uses SP1950 , a shorter model of the SP1900 . The electrification system used on these lines is 25 kV AC , 50 Hz , as opposed to the 1 @.@ 5 – kV DC used on the urban lines . Should the need arise in the future , dual voltage trains such as those utilised on Oresund Bridge would be required .
These two models of rolling stock are from the former KCRC network ( KCR East Rail , West Rail and Ma On Shan Rail ) . They did not receive major changes after the merger of the two companies except for the updated route map , the exterior company logo and such . The capability of this EMU fleet is similar to those on the urban network .
= = = = Metro Cammell EMU ( AC ) = = = =
The older Metro Cammell EMUs are also used on East Rail Line . There are 351 cars which have been built ( 29 sets + 3 surplus cars ) since 1982 .
= = = = Light Rail vehicles = = = =
Rolling stock running on the Light Rail system were ordered from three different manufacturers : Commonwealth Engineering ( Comeng ) , Kawasaki Heavy Industries and United Goninan . They are designed to run on the standard gauge and utilize 750 V DC through overhead lines . Trams are usually operated with one or two carriages while the second carriage functions as only a trailer . The arrangement allows each car to load approximately 300 passengers with 26 seats , while four sets of poach seats provide flexible riding for passengers .
In addition , the Light Rail will be modernised as part of a 20th Anniversary Activity according to the MTR . Trains will include better disabled facilities as well as a totally new interior . The MTR will refurbish 69 older trains and buy 22 new ones . The first trains have been completed and were scheduled to be put into service in November 2009 . The whole project is expected to be completed in 2011 .
= = Fares and tickets = =
After the rail merger , there are three different fare classes on the MTR : Adult , Students and Concessionary . Only children below the age of 12 and senior citizens 65 years or older are eligible for the concessionary rate on all lines . Full @-@ time Hong Kong students between the ages of 12 and 25 qualify for the concessionary rate using a personalized Octopus Card on all lines except on Airport Express , or travel to or from cross @-@ border stations ( Lo Wu / Lok Ma Chau ) . Children below the age of 3 travel free ( unless they exceed the height range ) .
The fare of MTR between any two particular stations is not calculated using a particular formula , and must be lookup up from the fare table . Fares for the Airport Express Line are significantly higher . Services to checkpoint termini are also more expensive than ordinary fares . Adult fares range from HK $ 3 @.@ 6 to $ 52 @.@ 6 ( US $ 0 @.@ 46 – 6 @.@ 74 ) . Concessionary fares are usually half the adult fare , and range from HK $ 1 @.@ 50 to $ 27 @.@ 00 . Student fares are the same as child and elderly fare on the urban lines , but are the same as the Adult fares for journeys to or from checkpoint termini , and range from HK $ 1 @.@ 50 to $ 51 @.@ 00 . The fare is subject to adjustment in June every year .
Prior to May 2009 , MTR did not provide concessionary fares for the disabled . Legislators such as social welfare constituency legislator Fernando Cheung Chiu @-@ hung and those from Hong Kong 's Association for Democracy and People 's Livelihood had for years demanded that such concessions be put in place . In May 2009 , MTR eventually agreed to offer the disabled concessionary fares with HK $ 2 million sponsorship from Transport and Housing Bureau and under the condition that Legislative Council amends the Disability Discrimination Ordinance .
Single journey tickets and Octopus card reloads can be purchased at vending machines while tourist passes , Octopus cards and other special tickets must be purchased at the ticket counter . Credit cards are only accepted to purchase Airport Express tickets .
= = = Octopus cards = = =
The Octopus card is a rechargeable contactless smart card used in an electronic payment system in Hong Kong developed by Australian company ERG Group . It was launched in September 1997 for use on the MTR ( and KCR , now operated by MTR ) and now is the most widely used electronic cash system for transactions in Hong Kong as many retailers ( including supermarkets , car parks and fast food outlets ) are fitted with readers . The technology used was Sony 's Felica line of smartcard . The Octopus card uses radio frequency identification ( RFID ) technology so that users need only hold the card in front of the reader , without taking it out of handbags and wallets .
Except for the Airport Express , MTR fares are slightly lower when using an Octopus card compared to using single journey tickets . For example , the cost of the three @-@ minute journey from Admiralty to Tsim Sha Tsui across the Victoria Harbour is ( as of September 2015 ) HK $ 9 @.@ 4 using the Octopus card , compared with HK $ 10 @.@ 0 for a single @-@ journey ticket .
= = = Tourist pass = = =
The Tourist Day Pass gives tourists unlimited MTR rides for one day ( with the exception of MTR Bus routes , the First Class of the East Rail Line , the Airport Express , as well as journeys to and from Lo Wu , Lok Ma Chau and Racecourse stations ) . Each pass costs HK $ 55 and are available at all the MTR Customer Service Centres . Tourist Day Pass must be used within 30 days upon the day of issue . The Airport Express Tourist Octopus Cards are also available . Cardholders may enjoy three days of unlimited rides on the MTR ( except Airport Express , East Rail Line First Class , Lo Wu and Lok Ma Chau stations ) refundable deposit of HK $ 50 and choice of either a single ( HK $ 220 ) or round trip ( HK $ 300 ) on the Airport Express .
= = = Other fares = = =
A touchless smart card system is used for single journey tickets . These tickets are pre @-@ paid for between pre @-@ determined stations , and are good for only one trip . There are no return tickets , except on the Airport Express . As of mid @-@ 2013 , less than 5 per cent of MTR customers travelled on single journey tickets .
Fares for the Airport Express are substantially different from main line fares . Apart from single tickets , same @-@ day return tickets ( same price as a single ) , and one @-@ month return tickets are also available .
A one @-@ day pass can be used for unlimited travel to and from Hong Kong Disneyland within the same day , and costs HK $ 50 . This pass can be purchased from any MTR Customer Service Centres or Airport Express Customer Service Centres .
= = Performance = =
Since the merger in 2007 , MTR has consistently achieved a 99 @.@ 9 % on @-@ time rate , meaning out of the 5 @.@ 2 million passengers on average each working day , 5 @.@ 195 million passengers arrive within 5 minutes of scheduled time . This makes MTR one of the most efficient rapid transit systems on the planet . MTR must report all delays of more than eight minutes to the government . There were 143 reportable incidents in 2013 . MTR is fined HK $ 1 million for having delays of 31 minutes to an hour , with higher fines for longer delays .
= = Regulations and safety = =
According to the Mass Transit Railway By @-@ Law , eating or drinking , and smoking are not allowed in the paid area of stations or in trains . Offenders will be fined up to HK $ 5000 .
Various campaigns and activities are taken to help ensure that the MTR is a safe system to travel on . Poster campaigns displaying information on topics such as escalator safety are a common sight in all MTR stations , and announcements are made regularly as safety reminders to travelling passengers . Bylaws were also introduced to deter potentially dangerous actions on the MTR , such as the ban on flammable goods on the MTR and rushing into trains when the doors are closing . Penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment have been imposed for such offences .
Police officers patrol the trains and stations , and police posts are available at some stations . The Hong Kong Police Force has a Railway District responsible for the MTR . Closed @-@ circuit television cameras are installed in stations and on some of the newer trains .
The entire Tung Chung Line and Airport Express , as well those stations added by the Tseung Kwan O Line , has platform screen doors ( PSDs ) , ordered from Swiss glass door manufacturer Kaba Gilgen AG , installed upon construction . So does the entire West Rail Line ( except Hung Hom Station ) , inherited from KCR . These doors make platforms safer by preventing people from falling onto the rails , even though MTRCL did not heavily promote it directly . However , the primary motivation was to separate the stations from the tunnels , hence allowing substantial energy savings on station air @-@ conditioning and tunnel ventilation . Automatic platform gates ( APGs ) have also been installed at the Sunny Bay and Disneyland Resort stations . Their heights are half of the PSDs and only prevent people from falling onto the rails . MTR has finished installing the APGs on all of the above @-@ ground stations of the MTR except on the East Rail and Ma On Shan lines ; they will be installed there as part of the Sha Tin to Central Link project .
In June 2000 , MTRCL proceeded with its plans to retrofit 2 @,@ 960 pairs of platform screen doors at all 30 underground stations on the Kwun Tong Line , Tsuen Wan Line , and Island Line in a six @-@ year programme . The programme made MTR the world 's first railway to undertake the retrofitting of PSDs on a passenger @-@ carrying system already in operation . A prototype design was first introduced at Choi Hung Station in the 3rd quarter of 2001 . The whole installation scheme was completed in October 2005 , ahead of the forecast completion date in 2006 . MTRCL said that part of the cost had to be assumed by passengers . HK $ 0 @.@ 10 per passenger trip was levied on Octopus card users to help fund the HK $ 2 billion retrofit programme . This levy was ended in 2013 after raising more than HK $ 1 billion .
= = Visual identity = =
The MTR visual identity , which includes logo , vehicle livery , signage , route maps and passenger information , was updated in 1995 – 1998 by Lloyd Northover , the British design consultancy founded by John Lloyd and Jim Northover .
= = MTR Service Update = =
MTR Service Update is an online service that provides MTR service information through Twitter and Facebook . It was founded by a group of post @-@ 80s MTR employees and passengers . Messages are provided in Traditional Chinese and English . Although some of the founders are MTR employees , the service is not officially provided by MTR .
The service was founded because of the dissatisfaction of the MTR on handling the message of service disruptions . The service was based on one provided for the London Underground . Because the service is user @-@ driven , the involvement of passengers is very important . The MTR Service update team are now facing the problem on no data source in the areas which have a low level of participation , such as Tseung Kwan O.
Aside from providing a service to Twitter , the team have also developed mobile applications for popular mobile platforms . For Android , there is TrainBoard and Swiftzer MetroRide .
= = Social outreach = =
= = = Art promotion = = =
With the objective " not only bring MTR passengers more time for life , but also more time for art " , the Art in MTR Initiative has been a success since its reception in 1998 , where the Airport Express Artwork Programme was the pioneer project . Thereafter , live performances , art exhibitions , display of artwork by established and emerging artists , students and young children have been brought into the MTR stations . MTRCL have even made art part of the station architecture when building new stations or renovating existing ones . Artworks are exhibited in different forms on the network , including " arttube " , open art gallery , community art galleries , roving art , living art , and art in station architecture .
= = = MTR HONG KONG Race Walking = = =
MTR and Hong Kong Amateur Athletic Association have jointly hosted MTR HONG KONG Race Walking annually in spring since 2005 . The race walking competition aims at promoting healthy living in Hong Kong . The race begins and ends on the ground above Central MTR Station , namely Chater Garden , Chater Road , Ice House Street and Des Voeux Road Central in Central . There is a fun walk apart from the regular competition . The event attracted over 800 participants in 2005 and 1 @,@ 500 in 2012 . Other than Hongkongers , the event also attracts athletes from various countries . The race raises fund for Better Health for a Better Hong Kong , a Hospital Authority project for the working population .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Destruction of conservation area in Yuen Long = = =
The MTR Corporation came under fire in June 2011 after their work on the cross @-@ border high @-@ speed railway line encroached on a conservation area in Pat Heung , Yuen Long . 34 trees were felled and an entire slope was concreted over in the conservation area . The Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department issued summonses to the corporation for offences under the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance . In September 2011 , a fine of HK $ 15 @,@ 000 was imposed by the court . The MTR Corporation admitted that 34 trees were felled by mistake ; all were common native woodland species and no rare tree species were affected . The corporation said owing to a technical misalignment of relevant drawings , the plan submitted to the Environmental Protection Department did not include the part of the Conservation Area which was included in the gazettal plan of their works . The corporation became aware that part of the approved tree removal works may have encroached onto the Conservation Area during construction , and proactively reported the situation to the government . Evaluation and measures have been taken to prevent similar incidents from happening again .
= = = Tree felling and failure to preserve indigenous species = = =
The MTR Corporation came under fire again in September 2011 after felling dozens of trees in Admiralty as part of construction work for the South Island Line . Green activists denounced the tree felling as " unprofessional " , and Ken So Kwok @-@ yin , chief executive of the Conservancy Association and a certified tree arborist , said that the explanations offered by the MTR Corporation as to why the trees were felled were " unacceptable " . The MTR Corporation is felling approximately 4 @,@ 000 trees in connection with the construction of the South Island Line , raising concerns from environmental groups and the public about its commitment to protecting Hong Kong 's natural environment .
= = = Limits on oversized luggage = = =
The corporation has limits on the size of items allowed on trains . The MTR system is facing pressure from the increasing number of passengers transporting goods and other oversized baggage , and is apparently overwhelmed by parallel traders , and was criticised for allowing parallel traders to board trains with their exports . It was accused of double standards in enforcement when while images of passengers pushing overladen trollies are appearing on social network sites on a regular basis , whilst students carrying large musical instruments are reported to have been stopped and issued with written warnings . Leading musicians also joined in the criticism of MTR 's unreasonable stance on large instruments ; some citizens invited players of celli and other large instruments to congregate on 3 October 2015 with their equipment at Tai Wai Station , where the majority of these instances occurred . Following the public uproar , MTR issued a press release in the early hours on acknowledged societal discontent and announced a one @-@ month review of the policy on oversized items to see whether there was room for fine @-@ tuning that would not compromise on passenger safety . The corporation said that staff would continue executing existing policy until any revisions are made .
= Woolly mammoth =
The woolly mammoth ( Mammuthus primigenius ) is a species of mammoth that lived during the Pleistocene epoch , and was one of the last in a line of mammoth species , beginning with Mammuthus subplanifrons in the early Pliocene . The woolly mammoth diverged from the steppe mammoth about 400 @,@ 000 years ago in eastern Asia . Its closest extant relative is the Asian elephant . The appearance and behaviour of this species are among the best studied of any prehistoric animal because of the discovery of frozen carcasses in Siberia and Alaska , as well as skeletons , teeth , stomach contents , dung , and depiction from life in prehistoric cave paintings . Mammoth remains had long been known in Asia before they became known to Europeans in the 17th century . The origin of these remains was long a matter of debate , and often explained as being remains of legendary creatures . The mammoth was identified as an extinct species of elephant by Georges Cuvier in 1796 .
The woolly mammoth was roughly the same size as modern African elephants . Males reached shoulder heights between 2 @.@ 7 and 3 @.@ 4 m ( 8 @.@ 9 and 11 @.@ 2 ft ) and weighed up to 6 tonnes ( 6 @.@ 6 short tons ) . Females averaged 2 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 9 metres ( 8 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 ft ) in height and weighed up to 4 tonnes ( 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) . A newborn calf weighed about 90 kilograms ( 200 lb ) . The woolly mammoth was well adapted to the cold environment during the last ice age . It was covered in fur , with an outer covering of long guard hairs and a shorter undercoat . The colour of the coat varied from dark to light . The ears and tail were short to minimise frostbite and heat loss . It had long , curved tusks and four molars , which were replaced six times during the lifetime of an individual . Its behaviour was similar to that of modern elephants , and it used its tusks and trunk for manipulating objects , fighting , and foraging . The diet of the woolly mammoth was mainly grass and sedges . Individuals could probably reach the age of 60 . Its habitat was the mammoth steppe , which stretched across northern Eurasia and North America .
The woolly mammoth coexisted with early humans , who used its bones and tusks for making art , tools , and dwellings , and the species was also hunted for food . It disappeared from its mainland range at the end of the Pleistocene 10 @,@ 000 years ago , most likely through climate change and consequent shrinkage of its habitat , hunting by humans , or a combination of the two . Isolated populations survived on St. Paul Island until 6 @,@ 400 years ago and Wrangel Island until 4 @,@ 000 years ago . After its extinction , humans continued using its ivory as a raw material , a tradition that continues today . It has been proposed the species could be recreated through cloning , but this method is as yet infeasible because of the degraded state of the remaining genetic material .
= = Taxonomy = =
Remains of various extinct elephants were known by Europeans for centuries , but were generally interpreted , based on biblical accounts , as the remains of legendary creatures such as behemoths or giants . It was also theorised that they were remains of modern elephants that had been brought to Europe during the Roman Republic , for example the war elephants of Hannibal and Pyrrhus of Epirus , or animals that had wandered north . The first woolly mammoth remains studied by European scientists were examined by Hans Sloane in 1728 and consisted of fossilised teeth and tusks from Siberia . Sloane was the first to recognise that the remains belonged to elephants . Sloane turned to another biblical explanation for the presence of elephants in the Arctic , asserting that they had been buried during the Great Flood , and that Siberia had previously been tropical prior to a drastic climate change . Others interpreted Sloane 's conclusion slightly differently , arguing the flood had carried elephants from the Tropics to the Arctic . Sloane 's paper was based on travellers ' descriptions and a few scattered bones collected in Siberia and Britain . He discussed the question of whether or not the remains were from elephants , but drew no conclusions . In 1738 , Johann Philipp Breyne argued that mammoth fossils represented some kind of elephant . He could not explain why a tropical animal would be found in such a cold area as Siberia , and suggested that they might have been transported there by the Great Flood . In 1796 , French anatomist Georges Cuvier was the first to identify the woolly mammoth remains not as modern elephants transported to the Arctic , but as an entirely new species . He argued this species had gone extinct and no longer existed , a concept that was not widely accepted at the time .
Following Cuvier 's identification , Johann Friedrich Blumenbach gave the woolly mammoth its scientific name , Elephas primigenius , in 1799 , placing it in the same genus as the Asian elephant . This name is Latin for " first elephant " . Cuvier coined the name Elephas mammonteus a few months later , but the former name was subsequently used . In 1828 , Joshua Brookes used the name Mammuthus borealis for woolly mammoth fossils in his collection that he put up for sale , thereby coining a new genus name . It is unclear where and how the word " mammoth " originated . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , it comes from an old Vogul word mēmoŋt ' earth @-@ horn ' . It may be a version of mehemot , the Arabic version of the biblical word " behemoth " . Another possible origin is Estonian , where maa means earth , and mutt means mole . The word was first used in Europe during the early 17th century , when referring to maimanto tusks discovered in Siberia . Thomas Jefferson , who had a keen interest in palaeontology , is partially responsible for transforming the word mammoth from a noun describing the prehistoric elephant to an adjective describing anything of surprisingly large size . The first recorded use of the word as an adjective was in a description of a wheel of cheese ( the " Cheshire Mammoth Cheese " ) given to Jefferson in 1802 .
The taxonomy of extinct elephants was complicated by the early 20th century , and in 1942 , Henry Fairfield Osborn 's posthumous monograph on the Proboscidea was published , wherein he used various taxon names that had previously been proposed for mammoth species , including replacing Mammuthus with Mammonteus , as he believed the former name to be invalidly published . Mammoth taxonomy was simplified by various researchers from the 1970s onwards , all species were retained in the genus Mammuthus , and many proposed differences between species were instead interpreted as intraspecific variation . Osborn chose two molars ( found in Siberia and Osterode ) from Blumenbach 's collection at Göttingen University as the lectotype specimens for the woolly mammoth , since holotype designation was not practised in Blumenbach 's time . Vera Gromova further proposed the former should be considered the lectotype with the latter as paralectotype . Both molars were thought lost by the 1980s , and the more complete " Taimyr mammoth " found in Siberia in 1948 was therefore proposed as the neotype specimen in 1990 . Resolutions to historical issues about the validity of the genus name Mammuthus and the type species designation of E. primigenius were also proposed . The paralectotype molar ( specimen GZG.V.010.018 ) has since been located in the Göttingen University collection , identified by comparing it with Osborn 's illustration of a cast .
= = = Evolution = = =
The earliest known members of Proboscidea , the clade which contains modern elephants , existed about 55 million years ago around the Tethys Sea . The closest known relatives of the Proboscidea are the sirenians ( dugongs and manatees ) and the hyraxes ( an order of small , herbivorous mammals ) . The family Elephantidae existed six million years ago in Africa and includes the modern elephants and the mammoths . Among many now extinct clades , the mastodon ( Mammut ) is only a distant relative of the mammoths , and part of the separate family Mammutidae , which diverged 25 million years before the mammoths evolved . The following cladogram shows the placement of the genus Mammuthus among other proboscideans , based on characteristics of the hyoid bone in the neck :
In 2005 , researchers assembled a complete mitochondrial genome profile of the woolly mammoth , which allowed them to trace the close evolutionary relationship between mammoths and Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ) . A 2015 DNA review confirmed Asian elephants as the closest living relative of the woolly mammoth . African elephants ( Loxodonta africana ) branched away from this clade around 6 million years ago , close to the time of the similar split between chimpanzees and humans . Before the publication of the Neanderthal genome , many researchers expected the first fully sequenced nuclear genome of an extinct species would be that of the mammoth . A 2010 study confirmed these relationships , and suggested the mammoth and Asian elephant lineages diverged 5 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 8 million years ago , while African elephants diverged from an earlier common ancestor 6 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 8 million years ago . In 2008 , much of the woolly mammoth 's chromosomal DNA was mapped . The analysis showed that the woolly mammoth and the African elephant are 98 @.@ 55 % to 99 @.@ 40 % identical . The team mapped the woolly mammoth 's nuclear genome sequence by extracting DNA from the hair follicles of both a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old mammoth retrieved from permafrost , and another that died 60 @,@ 000 years ago . In 2012 , proteins were confidently identified for the first time , collected from a 43 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old woolly mammoth .
Since many remains of each species of mammoth are known from several localities , it is possible to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the genus through morphological studies . Mammoth species can be identified from the number of enamel ridges ( or lamellar plates ) on their molars ; primitive species had few ridges , and the number increased gradually as new species evolved to feed on more abrasive food items . The crowns of the teeth became deeper in height and the skulls became taller to accommodate this . At the same time , the skulls became shorter from front to back to minimise the weight of the head . The short and tall skulls of woolly and Columbian mammoths ( Mammuthus columbi ) are the culmination of this process .
The first known members of the genus Mammuthus are the African species M. subplanifrons from the Pliocene , and M. africanavus from the Pleistocene . The former is thought to be the ancestor of later forms . Mammoths entered Europe around 3 million years ago . The earliest European mammoth has been named M. rumanus ; it spread across Europe and China . Only its molars are known , which show that it had 8 – 10 enamel ridges . A population evolved 12 – 14 ridges , splitting off from and replacing the earlier type , becoming M. meridionalis about 2 – 1 @.@ 7 million years ago . In turn , this species was replaced by the steppe mammoth ( M. trogontherii ) with 18 – 20 ridges , which evolved in eastern Asia around 1 million years ago . The Columbian mammoth evolved from a population of M. trogontherii that had crossed the Bering Strait and entered North America about 1 @.@ 5 million years ago ; it retained a similar number of molar ridges . Mammoths derived from M. trogontherii evolved molars with 26 ridges 400 @,@ 000 years ago in Siberia and became the woolly mammoth . Woolly mammoths entered North America about 100 @,@ 000 years ago .
Individuals and populations showing transitional morphologies between each of the mammoth species are known , and primitive and derived species coexisted as well until the former disappeared . The different species and their intermediate forms have therefore been termed " chronospecies " . Many taxa intermediate between M. primigenius and other mammoths have also been proposed , but their validity is uncertain ; depending on author , they are either considered primitive forms of an advanced species or advanced forms of a primitive species . Distinguishing and determining these intermediate forms has been called one of the most long lasting and complicated problems in Quaternary palaeontology . Regional and intermediate species and subspecies include M. intermedius , M. chosaricus , M. p. primigenius , M. p. jatzkovi , M. p. sibiricus , M. p. fraasi , M. p. leith @-@ adamsi , M. p. hydruntinus , M. p. astensis , M. p. americanus , M. p. compressus , and M. p. alaskensis have been proposed .
A 2011 genetic study showed that two examined specimens of the Columbian mammoth were grouped within a subclade of woolly mammoths . This suggests that the two populations interbred and produced fertile offspring . A North American type formerly referred to as M. jeffersonii may be a hybrid between the two species . A 2015 study suggested that the animals in the range where M. columbi and M. primigenius overlapped formed a metapopulation of hybrids with varying morphology . It also suggested that Eurasian M. primigenius had a similar relationship with M. trogontherii , in areas where their range overlapped .
= = Description = =
The appearance of the woolly mammoth is probably the best known of any prehistoric animal due to the many frozen specimens with preserved soft tissue and depictions by contemporary humans in their art . Fully grown males reached shoulder heights between 2 @.@ 7 and 3 @.@ 4 m ( 8 @.@ 9 and 11 @.@ 2 ft ) and weighed up to 6 tonnes ( 6 @.@ 6 short tons ) . This is almost as large as extant male African elephants , which commonly reach 3 – 3 @.@ 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 2 ft ) , and is less than the size of the earlier mammoth species M. meridionalis and M. trogontherii , and the contemporary M. columbi . The reason for the smaller size is unknown . Female woolly mammoths averaged 2 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 9 m ( 8 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 ft ) in height and were built more lightly than males , weighing up to 4 tonnes ( 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) . A newborn calf would have weighed about 90 kg ( 200 lb ) . These sizes are deduced from comparison with modern elephants of similar size . Few frozen specimens have preserved genitals , so the gender is usually determined through examination of the skeleton . The best indication of sex is the size of the pelvic girdle , since the opening that functions as the birth canal is always wider in females than in males . Though the mammoths on Wrangel Island were smaller than those of the mainland , their size varied , and they were not small enough to be considered " dwarves " . It has been claimed that the last woolly mammoth populations decreased in size and increased their sexual dimorphism , but this was dismissed in a 2012 study .
Woolly mammoths had several adaptations to the cold , most noticeably the layer of fur covering all parts of the body . Other adaptations to cold weather include ears that are far smaller than those of modern elephants ; they were about 38 cm ( 15 in ) long and 18 – 28 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 0 in ) across , and the ear of the 6 – 12 month old frozen calf " Dima " was under 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) long . The small ears reduced heat loss and frostbite , and the tail was short for the same reason , only 36 cm ( 14 in ) long in the " Berezovka mammoth " . The tail contained 21 vertebrae , whereas the tails of modern elephants contain 28 – 33 . Their skin was no thicker than that of present @-@ day elephants , between 1 @.@ 25 and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 49 and 0 @.@ 98 in ) . They had a layer of fat up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick under the skin , which helped to keep them warm . Woolly mammoths had broad flaps of skin under their tails which covered the anus ; this is also seen in modern elephants .
Other characteristic features depicted in cave paintings include a large , high , single @-@ domed head and a sloping back with a high shoulder hump ; this shape resulted from the spinous processes of the back vertebrae decreasing in length from front to rear . These features were not present in juveniles , which had convex backs like Asian elephants . Another feature shown in cave paintings was confirmed by the discovery of a frozen specimen in 1924 , an adult nicknamed the " Middle Kolyma mammoth " , which was preserved with a complete trunk tip . Unlike the trunk lobes of modern elephants , the upper " finger " at the tip of the trunk had a long pointed lobe and was 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , while the lower " thumb " was 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and was broader . The trunk of " Dima " was 76 cm ( 2 @.@ 49 ft ) long , whereas the trunk of the adult " Liakhov mammoth " was 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long . The well @-@ preserved trunk of a juvenile specimen nicknamed " Yuka " was described in 2015 , and it was shown that it possessed a fleshy expansion a third above the tip . Rather than oval as the rest of the trunk , this part was ellipsoidal in cross section , and double the size in diameter . The feature was also shown to be present in two other specimens , of different sexes and ages .
= = = Coat = = =
The coat consisted of an outer layer of long , coarse " guard hair " , which was 30 cm ( 12 in ) on the upper part of the body , up to 90 cm ( 35 in ) in length on the flanks and underside , and 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) in diameter , and a denser inner layer of shorter , slightly curly under @-@ wool , up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long and 0 @.@ 05 mm ( 0 @.@ 0020 in ) in diameter . The hairs on the upper leg were up to 38 cm ( 15 in ) long , and those of the feet were 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long , reaching the toes . The hairs on the head were relatively short , but longer on the underside and the sides of the trunk . The tail was extended by coarse hairs up to 60 cm ( 24 in ) long , which were thicker than the guard hairs . It is likely that the woolly mammoth moulted seasonally , and that the heaviest fur was shed during spring . Since mammoth carcasses were more likely to be preserved during autumn , it is possible that only the winter coat has been preserved in frozen specimens . Modern elephants have much less hair , though juveniles have a more extensive covering of hair than adults . Comparison between the over @-@ hairs of woolly mammoths and extant elephants show that they did not differ much in overall morphology . Woolly mammoths had numerous sebaceous glands in their skin , which secreted oils into their hair ; this would have improved the wool 's insulation , repelled water , and given the fur a glossy sheen .
Preserved woolly mammoth fur is orange @-@ brown , but this is believed to be an artefact from the bleaching of pigment during burial . The amount of pigmentation varied from hair to hair and also within each hair . A 2006 study sequenced the Mc1r gene ( which influences hair colour in mammals ) from woolly mammoth bones . Two alleles were found : a dominant ( fully active ) and a recessive ( partially active ) one . In mammals , recessive Mc1r alleles result in light hair . Mammoths born with at least one copy of the dominant allele would have had dark coats , while those with two copies of the recessive allele would have had light coats . A 2011 study showed that light individuals would have been rare . A 2014 study instead indicated that the colouration of an individual varied from non @-@ pigmented on the overhairs , bi @-@ coloured , non @-@ pigmented and mixed red @-@ brown guard hairs , and non @-@ pigmented underhairs , which would give a light overall appearance .
= = = Dentition = = =
Woolly mammoths had very long tusks ( modified incisor teeth ) , which were more curved than those of modern elephants . The largest known male tusk is 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) long and weighs 91 kg ( 201 lb ) , but 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 7 m ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 9 ft ) and 45 kg ( 99 lb ) was a more typical size . Female tusks were smaller and thinner , averaging at 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) and weighing 9 kg ( 20 lb ) . The sheaths of the tusks were parallel and spaced closely . About a quarter of the length was inside the sockets . The tusks grew spirally in opposite directions from the base and continued in a curve until the tips pointed towards each other , sometimes crossing . In this way , most of the weight would have been close to the skull , and there would be less torque than with straight tusks . The tusks were usually asymmetrical and showed considerable variation , with some tusks curving down instead of outwards and some being shorter due to breakage . Calves developed small milk tusks a few centimetres long at six months old , which were replaced by permanent tusks a year later . Tusk growth continued throughout life but became slower as the animal reached adulthood . The tusks grew by 2 @.@ 5 – 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 5 @.@ 91 in ) each year . Some cave paintings show woolly mammoths with small or no tusks , but it is unknown whether this reflected reality or was artistic license . Female Asian elephants have no tusks , but there is no fossil evidence that any adult woolly mammoths lacked them .
Woolly mammoths had four functional molar teeth at a time , two in the upper jaw and two in the lower . About 23 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) of the crown was within the jaw , and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) was above . The crown was continually pushed forwards and up as it wore down , comparable to a conveyor belt . The teeth had up to 26 separated ridges of enamel , which were themselves covered in " prisms " that were directed towards the chewing surface . These were quite wear resistant and kept together by cementum and dentine . A mammoth had six sets of molars throughout a lifetime , which were replaced five times , though a few specimens with a seventh set are known . The latter condition could extend the lifespan of the individual , unless the tooth consisted of only a few plates . The first molars were about the size of those of a human , 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) , the third were 15 cm ( 6 in ) 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long , and the sixth were about 30 cm ( 1 ft )
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ticket . Nevertheless , Gold Democrats began plans to hold their own convention , which took place in September . Many Cleveland supporters decried Bryan as no true Democrat , but a fanatic and socialist , his nomination procured through demagoguery . Some of the Democratic political machines , such as New York 's Tammany Hall , decided to ignore the national ticket and concentrate on electing local and congressional candidates . Large numbers of traditionally Democratic newspapers refused to support Bryan , including the New York World , whose circulation of 800 @,@ 000 was the nation 's largest , and major dailies in cities such as Philadelphia , Detroit , and Brooklyn . Southern newspapers stayed with Bryan ; they were unwilling to endorse McKinley , the choice of most African Americans , though few of them could vote in the South . Newspapers that supported other parties in western silver states , such as the Populist Rocky Mountain News of Denver , Colorado , and Utah 's Republican The Salt Lake Tribune , quickly endorsed Bryan .
Following his nomination in June , McKinley 's team had believed that the election would be fought on the issue of the protective tariff . Chicago banker Charles G. Dawes , a McKinley advisor who had known Bryan when both lived in Lincoln , had predicted to McKinley and his friend and campaign manager , Mark Hanna , that if Bryan had the chance to speak to the convention , he would be its choice . McKinley and Hanna gently mocked Dawes , telling him that Bland would be the nominee . In the three weeks between the two conventions , McKinley spoke only on the tariff question , and when journalist Murat Halstead telephoned him from Chicago to inform him that Bryan would be nominated , he responded dismissively and hung up the phone . When Bryan was nominated on a silver platform , the Republicans were briefly gratified , believing that Bryan 's selection would result in an easy victory for McKinley .
Despite the confidence of the Republicans , the nomination of Bryan sparked great excitement through the nation . His program of prosperity through free silver struck an emotional chord with the American people in a way that McKinley 's protective tariff did not . Many Republican leaders had gone on vacation for the summer , believing that the fight , on their terms , would take place in the fall . Bryan 's endorsement , soon after Chicago , by the Populists , his statement that he would undertake a nationwide tour on an unprecedented scale , and word from local activists of the strong silver sentiment in areas Republicans had to win to take the election , jarred McKinley 's party from its complacency .
= = = Populist nominee = = =
The Populist strategy for 1896 was to nominate the candidate most supportive of silver . Populist leaders correctly believed the Republicans unlikely to nominate a silver man . They hoped the Democrats either would not endorse silver in their platform or if they did , that the Democratic candidate would be someone who could be painted as weak on silver . Bryan 's sterling record on the issue left the Populists with a stark choice : They could endorse Bryan , and risk losing their separate identity as a party , or nominate another candidate , thus dividing the pro @-@ silver vote to McKinley 's benefit . According to Stanley Jones , " the Democratic endorsement of silver and Bryan at Chicago precipitated the disintegration " of the Populist Party ; it was never again a force in national politics after 1896 .
Even before their convention in late July , the Populists faced dissent in their ranks . Former Populist governor of Colorado Davis H. Waite wrote to former congressman Ignatius Donnelly that the Democrats had returned to their roots and " nominated a good & true man on the platform . Of course I support him . " Populist Kansas Congressman Jerry Simpson wrote , " I care not for party names . It is the substance we are after , and we have it with William J. Bryan . " Many Populists saw the election of Bryan , whose positions on many issues were not far from theirs , as the quickest path to the reforms they sought ; a majority of delegates to the convention in St. Louis favored him . However , many delegates disliked Sewall because of his wealth and ownership of a large business , and believed that nominating someone else would keep Populist issues alive in the campaign . Although they nominated Bryan for president , they chose Georgia 's Thomas E. Watson as vice @-@ presidential candidate ; some hoped Bryan would dump Sewall from his ticket . Bryan did not ; Senator Jones ( as the new Democratic National Committee chairman , in charge of the campaign ) stated , " Mr. Sewall , will , of course , remain on the ticket , and Mr. Watson can do what he likes . "
Historian R. Hal Williams , in his book about the 1896 campaign , believes that the Populist nomination did Bryan little good ; most Populists would have voted for him anyway and the endorsement allowed his opponents to paint him and his supporters as extremists . The vice presidential squabble , Williams argues , worried voters who feared that instability would follow a Bryan victory , and drove them towards McKinley . Populist leader Henry Demarest Lloyd described silver as the " cow @-@ bird " of the Populist Party , which had pushed aside all other issues . The National Silver Party , mostly former Republicans , met at the same time as the Populists ; both conventions were in St. Louis . They quickly endorsed Bryan and Sewall , urging all silver forces to unite behind that ticket .
= = = New York visit = = =
After the Democratic convention , Bryan had returned triumphantly to Lincoln , making speeches along the way . At home , he took a short rest , and was visited by Senator Jones to discuss plans for the campaign . Bryan was not interested in campaign organization ; what he wanted from the DNC was enough money to conduct a national tour by train . The campaign , as it proved , was badly organized : This was Jones ' first national campaign , and the party structure in many states was either only newly in the control of silver forces , or in gold states wanted no part of the national ticket . With little money , poor organization , and a hostile press , Bryan was his campaign 's most important asset , and he wanted to reach the voters by traveling to them . According to Stanley Jones in his study of the 1896 campaign , " Bryan expected that he alone , carrying to the people the message of free silver , would win the election for his party . "
Bryan set the formal acceptance of his nomination for August 12 at New York 's Madison Square Garden ; he left Lincoln five days earlier by rail , and spoke 38 times along the way , sometimes from the trackside in his nightgown . While speaking in McKinley 's hometown of Canton , Ohio , Bryan yielded to impulse and called upon his rival at his home with Congressman Bland ; the Republican candidate and his wife , somewhat startled , received the two men hospitably in a scene Williams calls , " surely bizarre . " August 12 was an extremely hot day in New York , especially for the crowd jammed into the Garden ; when Missouri Governor William J. Stone , chair of the notification committee , essayed a lengthy speech , he was drowned out by the crowd , which wanted to hear " the Boy Orator of the Platte " . Many were disappointed ; the Democratic candidate read a two @-@ hour speech from a manuscript , wishing to look statesmanlike , and fearing that if he spoke without a script , the press would misrepresent his words . Many seats were vacant before he concluded .
After several days in upstate New York , during which he had a dinner with Senator Hill at which the subject of politics was carefully avoided , Bryan began a circuitous journey back to Lincoln by train . At a speech in Chicago on Labor Day , Bryan varied from the silver issue to urge regulation of corporations . According to Stanley Jones ,
The period of this tour , in the return from New York to Lincoln , was the high point of the Bryan campaign . Bryan was well rested . After invading " the enemy 's country " , he was returning to his own territory . Wherever his train went people , who had travelled from nearby farms and villages , waved and shouted encouragement . Their enthusiasm at the unrehearsed rear platform appearances and in the formal speeches was spontaneous and contagious . The smell of victory seemed to hang in the air . Perhaps a vote taken then would have given Bryan the election .
= = = Whistle @-@ stop tour = = =
Bryan 's plan for victory was to undertake a strenuous train tour , bringing his message to the people . Although Hanna and other advisors urged McKinley to get on the road , the Republican candidate declined to match Bryan 's gambit , deciding that not only was the Democrat a better stump speaker , but that however McKinley travelled , Bryan would upstage him by journeying in a less comfortable way . McKinley 's chosen strategy was a front porch campaign ; he would remain at home , giving carefully scripted speeches to visiting delegations , much to the gratification of Canton 's hot dog vendors and souvenir salesmen , who expanded facilities to meet the demand . Meanwhile , Hanna raised millions from business men to pay for speakers on the currency question and to flood the nation with hundreds of millions of pamphlets . Starved of money , the Democrats had fewer speakers and fewer publications to issue . Bryan 's supporters raised at most $ 500 @,@ 000 for the 1896 campaign ; McKinley 's raised at least $ 3 @.@ 5 million . Among the foremost supporters of Bryan was publisher William Randolph Hearst who both contributed to Bryan 's campaign and slanted his newspapers ' coverage in his favor .
On September 11 , 1896 , Bryan departed on a train trip that continued until November 1 , two days before the election . At first , he rode in public cars , and made his own travel arrangements , looking up train schedules and even carrying his own bags from train station to hotel . By early October , the DNC , at the urging of Populist officials who felt Bryan was being worn out , procured the services of North Carolina journalist Josephus Daniels to make travel arrangements , and also obtained a private railroad car , The Idler — a name Bryan thought somewhat inappropriate due to the strenuous nature of the tour . Mary Bryan had joined her husband in late September ; on The Idler , the Bryans were able to eat and sleep in relative comfort .
During this tour , Bryan spoke almost exclusively on the silver question , and attempted to mold the speeches to reflect local issues and interests . He did not campaign on Sundays , but on most other days spoke between 20 and 30 times . Crowds assembled hours or days ahead of Bryan 's arrival . The train bearing The Idler pulled in after a short journey from the last stop , and after he was greeted by local dignitaries , Bryan would give a brief speech addressing silver and the need for the people to retake the government . The shortness of the speech did not dismay the crowds , who knew his arguments well : they were there to see and hear William Jennings Bryan — one listener told him that he had read every one of his speeches , and had ridden 50 miles ( 80 km ) to hear him , " And , by gum , if I wasn 't a Republican , I 'd vote for you . " After a brief interval for handshakes , the train would pull out again , to another town down the track .
Throughout the nation , voters were intensely interested in the campaign , studying the flood of pamphlets . Speakers for both parties found eager audiences . Arthur F. Mullen , a resident of O 'Neill , Nebraska , described the summer and fall of 1896 :
O 'Neill buzzed with political disputation from dawn till next dawn . A bowery had been built for the Fourth of July picnic and dance . Ordinarily , it was torn down after that event . In 1896 it was kept as a forum , and by day and night men and women met there to talk about the Crime of ' 73 , the fallacies of the gold standard , bimetallism and international consent , the evils of the tariff , the moneybags of Mark Hanna , the front porch campaign of McKinley . They read W. H. Harvey 's Coin 's Financial School to themselves , their friends , and opponents ... They read Bryan when they couldn 't go off to listen to him .
Bryan rarely emphasized other issues than silver ; leader of a disparate coalition linked by the silver question , he feared alienating some of his supporters . He occasionally addressed other subjects : in an October speech in Detroit , he spoke out against the Supreme Court 's decision ruling the federal income tax unconstitutional . He promised to enforce the laws against the trusts , procure stricter ones from Congress , and if the Supreme Court struck them down , to seek a constitutional amendment . In what Williams describes as " a political campaign that became an American legend " , Bryan traveled to 27 of the 45 states , logging 18 @,@ 000 miles ( 29 @,@ 000 km ) , and in his estimated 600 speeches reached some 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 listeners .
= = = Attacks and Gold Democrats ; the final days = = =
Republican newspapers painted Bryan as a tool of Governor Altgeld , who was controversial for having pardoned the surviving men convicted of involvement in the Haymarket bombing . Others dubbed Bryan a " Popocrat " . On September 27 , The New York Times published a letter by an " eminent alienist " who , based on an analysis of the candidate 's speeches , concluded that Bryan was mad . The paper editorialized on the same page that even if the Democratic candidate was not insane , he was at least " of unsound mind " . For the most part , Bryan ignored the attacks , and made light of them in his account of the 1896 campaign . Republican newspapers and spokesmen claimed that Bryan 's campaign was expensively financed by the silver interests . This was not the case : the mining industry was seeing poor times , and had little money to donate to Bryan . In his account , Bryan quoted a letter by Senator Jones : " No matter in how small sums , no matter by what humble contributions , let the friends of liberty and national honor contribute all they can to the good cause . "
In September , the Gold Democrats met in convention in Indianapolis . Loyal to Cleveland , they wanted to nominate him . However , the President ruled this out ; his Cabinet members also refused to run . Not even supporters thought the Gold Democrats would win ; the purpose was to have a candidate who would speak for the gold element in the party , and who would divide the vote and defeat Bryan . Illinois Senator John M. Palmer was eager to be the presidential candidate , and the convention nominated him with Kentucky 's Simon Bolivar Buckner as his running mate . Palmer was a 79 @-@ year @-@ old former Union general , Buckner a 73 @-@ year @-@ old former Confederate of that rank ; the ticket was the oldest in combined age in American history , and Palmer the second @-@ oldest presidential candidate ( behind Peter Cooper of the Greenback Party ; Bryan was the youngest ) . The Gold Democrats received quiet financial support from Hanna and the Republicans . Palmer proved an able campaigner who visited most major cities in the East , and in the final week of his campaign , told listeners , " I will not count it any great fault if next Tuesday you decide to cast your ballots for William McKinley . "
The South and most of the West were deemed certain to vote for Bryan . When early @-@ voting Maine and Vermont went strongly Republican in September , this meant that McKinley would most likely win the Northeast . These results made the Midwest the crucial battlefield that would decide the presidency . Bryan spent most of October there — 160 of his final 250 train stops were in the Midwest . Early Republican polls had shown Bryan ahead in crucial Midwestern states , including McKinley 's Ohio . Much of the blizzard of paper the Republican campaign was able to pay for concentrated on this area / By September , this had its effect as silver sentiment began to fade . Morgan noted , " full organization , [ Republican ] party harmony , a campaign of education with the printed and spoken word would more than counteract " Bryan 's speechmaking . Beginning in September , the Republicans concentrated on the tariff question , and as Election Day , November 3 , approached , they were confident of victory .
William and Mary Bryan returned to Lincoln on November 1 , two days before the election . He was not yet done with campaigning , however ; on November 2 , he undertook a train journey across Nebraska in support of Democratic congressional candidates . He made 27 speeches , including seven in Omaha , the last concluding a few minutes before midnight . His train reached Lincoln after the polls opened ; he journeyed from train station to polling place to his house escorted by a mounted troop of supporters . He slept much of the evening of election day , to be wakened by his wife with telegrams showing the election was most likely lost .
= = = Election = = =
The 1896 presidential election was close by modern measurements , but less so by the standards of the day , which had seen close @-@ run elections over the previous 20 years . McKinley won with 7 @.@ 1 million votes to Bryan 's 6 @.@ 5 million , 51 % to 47 % . The electoral vote was not as close : 271 for McKinley to 176 for Bryan . The nation was regionally split , with the industrial East and Midwest for McKinley , and with Bryan carrying the Solid South and the silver strongholds of the Rocky Mountain states . McKinley did well in the border states of Maryland , West Virginia , and Kentucky . Although Bryan claimed that many employers had intimidated their workers into voting Republican , Williams points out that the Democrats benefited from the disenfranchisement of southern African Americans . Palmer received less than 1 % of the vote , but his vote total in Kentucky was greater than McKinley 's margin of victory there . Confusion over ballots in Minnesota resulted in 15 @,@ 000 voided votes and may have thrown that state to the Republicans .
In most areas , Bryan did better among rural voters than urban . Even in the South , Bryan attracted 59 % of the rural vote , but only 44 % of the urban vote , taking 57 % of the southern vote overall . The only areas of the nation where Bryan took a greater percentage of the urban than the rural vote were New England and the Rocky Mountain states ; in neither case did this affect the outcome , as Bryan took only 27 % of New England 's vote overall , while taking 88 % of the Rocky Mountain city vote to 81 % of the vote there outside the cities . McKinley even won the urban vote in Nebraska . Most cities that were financial or manufacturing centers voted for McKinley . Those that served principally as agricultural centers or had been founded along the railroad favored Bryan . The Democratic Party preserved control in the eastern cities through machine politics and the continued loyalty of the Irish @-@ American voter ; Bryan 's loss over the silver issue of many German @-@ American voters , previously solidly Democratic , helped ensure his defeat in the Midwest . According to Stanley Jones , " the only conclusion to be reached was that the Bryan campaign , with its emphasis on the free coinage of silver at 16 to 1 , had not appealed to the urban working classes . "
On November 5 , Bryan sent a telegram of congratulations to McKinley , becoming the first losing presidential candidate to do so , " Senator Jones has just informed me that the returns indicate your election , and I hasten to extend my congratulations . We have submitted the issues to the American people and their will is law . " By the end of 1896 , Bryan had published his account of the campaign , The First Battle . In the book , Bryan made it clear that the first battle would not be the last , " If we are right , we shall yet triumph . "
= = Appraisal and legacy = =
Michael Kazin , Bryan 's biographer , notes the many handicaps he faced in his 1896 campaign : " A severe economic downturn that occurred with Democrats in power , a party deserted by its men of wealth and national prominence , the vehement opposition of most prominent publishers and academics and ministers , and hostility from the nation 's largest employers " . According to Kazin , " what is remarkable is not that Bryan lost but that he came as close as he did to winning . " Williams believes that Bryan did better than any other Democrat would have , and comments , " The nominee of a divided and discredited party , he had come remarkably close to winning . " Bryan 's own explanation was brief : " I have borne the sins of Grover Cleveland . "
The consequences of defeat , however , were severe for the Democratic Party . The 1896 presidential race is generally considered a realigning election , when there is a major shift in voting patterns , upsetting the political balance . McKinley was supported by middle @-@ class and wealthy voters , urban laborers , and prosperous farmers ; this coalition would keep the Republicans mostly in power until the 1930s . The election of 1896 marked a transition as the concerns of the rural population became secondary to those of the urban ; according to Stanley Jones , " the Democratic Party reacted with less sensitivity than the Republicans to the hopes and fears of the new voters which the new age was producing " . This was evidenced in the tariff question : Bryan spent little time addressing it , stating that it was subsumed in the financial issue ; Republican arguments that the protective tariff would benefit manufacturers appealed to urban workers and went unrebutted by the Democrats .
One legacy of the campaign was the career of William Jennings Bryan . He ran for president a second time in 1900 and a third time in 1908 , each time losing . Through the almost three decades before his death in 1925 , he was ever present on political platform and speaking circuit , fighting first for silver , and then for other causes . Bryan served as Secretary of State under President Woodrow Wilson from 1913 to 1915 , resigning as Wilson moved the nation closer to intervention in World War I. His final years were marked with controversy , such as his involvement in the Scopes Monkey Trial in the final weeks of his life , but according to Kazin , " Bryan 's sincerity , warmth , and passion for a better world won the hearts of people who cared for no other public figure in his day " .
Despite his defeat , Bryan 's campaign inspired many of his contemporaries . Writers such as Edgar Lee Masters , Hamlin Garland and his fellow Nebraskan , Willa Cather , like Bryan came from the prairies ; they wrote of their admiration for him and his first battle . The poet Vachel Lindsay , 16 years old in 1896 , passionately followed Bryan 's first campaign , and wrote of him many years later :
= = Results = =
Source ( Popular Vote ) : Leip , David . " 1896 Presidential Election Results " . Dave Leip 's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections . Retrieved May 19 , 2012 . Source ( Electoral Vote ) : " Electoral College Box Scores 1789 – 1996 " . National Archives and Records Administration . Retrieved May 19 , 2012 .
= Cyclone Percy =
Cyclone Percy was the seventh named storm of the 2004 – 05 South Pacific cyclone season and the fourth and final severe tropical cyclone to form during the 2004 – 05 South Pacific cyclone season .
Percy was also the most damaging of the February cyclones as it battered the Cook Islands , which were still recovering from the impacts of Cyclones Meena , Nancy and Olaf . Percy then devastated the island of Tokelau , leaving many homeless and millions in dollars in property damages ( although exact damage figures are unavailable ) . Because of warnings in anticipation of the storm , there were no deaths and there were only a few injuries .
= = Meteorological history = =
On February 23 , the Fiji Meteorological Service 's Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 10F , had developed within the monsoon trough about 700 kilometres ( 435 mi ) to the west of the Tuvaluan atoll : Funafuti .
10F was first identified as a tropical disturbance embedded in an active monsoon trough at 23 / 0000 UTC , approximately 380 miles to the west of Funafuti and moving eastwards about 05 to 10 knots . The system was then located just south of a 250 @-@ hPa ridge axis , in a diffluent region . Shear and diurnal variations were evidently influencing development . SST was around 31 ° C. Later on the 24th , shear had decreased markedly . Outflow was favourable and developing in all quadrants . Overnight , the depression underwent explosive development with the deep convection increasing spatially and in organization whilst cooling . Spiral bands were also wrapping tightly around the llcc . By 24 / 1800 UTC , TD10F was named Tropical Cyclone Percy , while located roughly 100 miles to the east of Funafuti and moving east @-@ southeast at 14 knots under a deep west @-@ northwest steering flow .
A discernible area of low pressure formed east of Tonga on February 23 . The area of low pressure moved eastward , where it strengthened into Tropical Depression 10F a day later . Since the depression was located in an area of low wind shear and warm water temperatures , it was able to quickly strengthen into Tropical Storm Percy . At this point in time , Percy was located 120 miles ( 190 km ) east of Fongafale , Tuvalu , and was moving towards the east @-@ southeast at 14 kt ( 16 mph , 26 km / h ) . On February 26 , Percy reached Category 1 status , while located 400 miles ( 644 km ) north of American Samoa . While Percy moved east @-@ southeast , a shortwave trough developed southwest of the storm . The trough caused the cyclone to intensify even further to a Category 3 storm as it passed between Fakaofa and Swains Island . Percy then reached Category 4 status north of Pago Pago as it winds reached over 135 mph ( 115 knots , 213 km / h ) and the barometric pressure at its center fell to 925 millibars . On February 27 , Cyclone Percy encountered a high pressure ridge which slowed its forward speed . Because of this , the cyclone 's structure became elliptical , which caused the cyclone to weaken back to Category 3 status . By February 28 , Percy bypassed the Pukapuka and Nassau Islands as a Category 3 cyclone as it continued to move east @-@ southeast .
By then , the cyclone was re @-@ organizing as the storm steered to the southeast . On March 2 , Percy reached its second peak intensity . Its winds reached 160 mph ( 140 knots , 265 km / h ) on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and an estimated barometric pressure of 900 millibars . Cyclone Percy maintained Category 5 status for 18 hours , while located 110 mi ( 177 km ) west of Palmerston Island . After reaching Category 5 status , Percy began to weaken , due to increasing wind shear . During its weakening phase , Cyclone Percy passed south of Tropical Depression 20S . Pulled by an upper level trough , Percy swung to the east , passing Tropical Depression 24S in the process , before being caught up by another trough . By March 4 , the center of Percy became detached from the main area of convection and Percy quickly weakened to a tropical storm . Tropical Storm Percy then quickly accelerated to 20 kt ( 23 mph , 37 km / h ) as it became an extratropical storm . Percy briefly entered the New Zealand area of responsibility before becoming extratropical at 1200 UTC . By March 5 , the remnants of Percy finally dissipated 700 mi ( 1127 km ) southwest of Rarotonga .
= = Preparations = =
When Percy quickly reached cyclone strength , forecasters began to issue watches and warnings for the American Samoa and Tokelau areas , which were impacted by earlier storms Nancy and Olaf . As Percy continued to move eastward , forecasters predicted the storm to strengthen into a Category 2 or Category 3 storm within 12 – 24 hours. meanwhile , forecasters issued gale warnings for Tokelau . On 26 February , forecasters predicted Percy would stay on its current track and miss the island of Atafu by 50 – 70 miles ( 80 – 113 km ) , even though the storm could bring damaging gale force winds and heavy rains to the island . However , forecasters predicted Percy would make landfall on Tokelau . In American Samoa , hurricane warnings were issued for Swains Island , while the rest of American Samoa remained under a hurricane watch . Later , the gale warnings for Tokelau were changed to hurricane warnings as Percy moved to within 75 miles ( 121 km ) north of Atafu . In Nukunou and Fakaofo , forecasters predicted that the cyclone would bring 60 @-@ 70 mph ( 95 – 111 km / h ) winds , heavy rains and possible flooding in low lying areas .
Forecasters predicted that Cyclone Percy was going to turn to the southeast and hit the islands of Pukapuka and Nassau directly . Because of this , evacuations were ordered and emergency shelters were activated in Rarotonga . Forecasters also predicted that Percy was going to cause a strong storm surge . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center and NOAA also predicted that the storm was going to strengthen further within 12 – 24 hours . In addition , forecast models predicted that Cyclone Percy would take a similar track like Cyclone Olaf weeks earlier . That prompted officials in the southern Cook Islands to order evacuations .
= = Impact = =
Like the earlier cyclones Meena , Nancy , and Olaf , Percy left widespread damage across Swains Island , Tokelau , and the northern Cook Islands . However , because of well @-@ executed warnings , there were no deaths and there were only a few injuries . Percy was the worst cyclone to strike Tokelau since a similar cyclone hit the area in 1966 .
= = = American Samoa and Tokelau = = =
The strong winds from Percy knocked out power and communications infrastructure in Swains Island . Efforts to re @-@ establish contact with the island were unsuccessful for a week . After the storm , however , all eight people who rode out the storm survived , though nine of the eleven buildings on the islands were destroyed or severely damaged . Damage in American Samoa was minimal . In Tokelau , Percy damaged trees and knocked down powerlines . During the height of the storm , one person was injured by flying debris , and two others were swept out to sea , but all three survived . In Nokonunu , the cyclone destroyed the only school and damaged 80 % of the structures . The local hospital completely lost power during the storm and its emergency generator was overwhelmed by the flooding .
In Fakaofo , the storm surge from Percy damaged a sea wall and caused major beach erosion . One house was destroyed while others were severely damaged . Percy also damaged much of the coconut harvest and 50 % of the livestock were killed by the cyclone . Atafu also suffered similar damage as the storm damaged a UHF tower and several storage sheds . Damage to crops was also significant as the storm damaged much of the banana and pandanus harvests . The schools in Atafu suffered only minimal damage ( mostly wind damage ) .
= = = Cook Islands = = =
The northern Cook Islands were hardest hit by Percy as the storm left 640 people homeless , of which 600 were in Pukapuka , and 40 were in Nassau . Of the buildings and houses destroyed or severely damaged , only ten were left standing . One person was rescued when his fishing boat stalled during the storm . Percy also damaged a solar power station , making it inoperable . Percy also battered the southern Cook Islands while weakening , although the damage there was minimal .
= = Aftermath = =
Relief efforts followed after Cyclone Percy . In Swains Island , a rescue plane dropped food and supplies . In Tokelau and northern Cook Islands , the governments of Australia and New Zealand offered over $ 200 @,@ 000 dollars ( 2005 USD ) in relief aid .
In Tokelau , many of the local officials feared about contamination since the cyclone had scattered human waste , trash , and other debris in the ocean and across the island . There was also an increase of mosquitoes and other insects , increasing the threat of a dengue fever outbreak . In addition , the storm damaged many of the hospitals , making treatment of the injured or displaced difficult . Criticism of government preparedness followed after Percy as emergency plans were not easily understood by the local population . In Nukunonu , the school , which was destroyed by Percy , was poorly built and vulnerable , and there was no early warning system . Also , many of the population had little time to prepare for the storm because of a social event held hours earlier .
= OS T2000 =
T2000 was an electric train formerly used on the Oslo Metro of Oslo , Norway . Six double @-@ car multiple units were built by Strømmens Verksted and AEG in 1994 . Each was 18 metres ( 59 ft ) long , and could carry 185 passengers , of which 60 could be seated in two compartments per car . Maximum speed was 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . Bought by Oslo Sporveier , they were owned by Kollektivtransportproduksjon , and operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift .
The T2000 operated on Line 1 of the T @-@ bane , and replaced the aging HkB 600 teak wagons used on the Holmenkoll Line . The units were equipped with both third rail and overhead wire collectors , so they could operate on the Common Line and on the Holmenkoll Line . The trains were a prototype for a new design intended to replace the aging T1000 stock , but the MX3000 was chosen instead , as the T2000 did not perform satisfactorily . The T2000 were taken out of service in 2009 .
= = Background = =
When Holmenkolbanen , the operator of the Holmenkoll Line , was merged into Oslo Sporveier in 1975 , plans were put in place to replace the old teak cars with faster units that could operate from Nationaltheatret to Frognerseteren in 25 minutes — allowing a turn @-@ around time of one hour . At the time there had been two separate pools of trains for the eastern and western networks . On the eastern metro , the T1000 units were in use , while the western network was using older material . During the 1980s , some T1000 stock had been rebuilt with pantograph , and taken into use on the western network .
Oslo Sporveier was highly satisfied with the SL79 articulated trams that had been delivered during the 1980s . In 1985 , work started on the development of a modified version for the western suburban lines . The stock on the Holmenkoll and Kolsås Line was the first that needed to be replaced . The new stock was considered to be a limited trial . If it met performance expectations , future orders could be made to replace the T1000 stock when the latter reached the end of its economical life in around 2000 . The required specification for the new train was published in October 1988 .
On 22 October 1987 , a fatal accident occurred when one of the old HkB 600 units suffered a catastrophic failure of its braking system , and rolled down the Holmenkoll Line , finally tipping over at Midtstuen . One person was killed and four were seriously injured , leading to a safety inspection of the old teak cars used on the line ; the HkB 600 units were withdrawn from service , but were reintroduced after some refits .
The initial proposal had called for 22 units , to replace all of the Kolsås and Holmenkoll Line stock . However , the Sognsvann and Røa Line was upgraded to metro standard between 1992 and 1995 , and could start using T1000 stock with only third @-@ rail support . At the time , the eastern network used third @-@ rail , while the western network used overhead wire . The upgrade used non @-@ utilised stock , so the order for T2000 was reduced to 12 units .
= = Construction = =
The order was placed with ABB Strømmen and AEG in August 1991 . The high development cost was subsidised by the Norwegian government , who saw the project as potentially establishing a new industrial export product . Electrical components were built by AEG in Berlin , while the bogies were built by MAN in Nuremberg . The bodywork was built at Strømmen , with profiles from Alusuisse , and the trains were assembled in Strømmen .
The six two @-@ car sets were delivered between 2 November and 22 December 1994 . The first official public presentation was made on 8 December , but the units did not enter regular service until April 1995 . The cars were numbered 2001 – 2012 . In 1995 , a unit was test @-@ run in Paris during an International Association of Public Transport convention .
= = Specifications = =
Each car 's aluminum body was 18 @,@ 000 mm ( 710 in ) long , 3 @,@ 650 mm ( 144 in ) high and 3 @,@ 300 mm ( 130 in ) wide . The latter was 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) wider than the HkB 600 , since the new trains would no longer have ski boxes on the outside . The empty weight of a car was 31 t ( 31 long tons ; 34 short tons ) . Capacity was for 60 seated and 125 standing passengers . There was a driver 's cabin at one end of each car . Passengers sat in two compartments ; the forward had conventional 2 + 2 seating , while the back section had 1 + 2 + 1 seating with two aisles . Wagon 2012 was delivered with 2 + 3 seating in the forward section . Each car had three doors on each side .
Both cars had two bogies , with power on all axles , giving a Bo 'Bo ' wheel arrangement . Four traction motors , each of 143 kW ( 192 hp ) , powered the car , giving a top speed of 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) and an acceleration of 1 @.@ 3 m / s2 ( 4 @.@ 3 ft / s2 ) . The trains were equipped with both pantograph and contact shoe , the current for both of which is supplied at 750 volt direct current . The trains could not be connected for multiple running with the T1000 trains .
= = Legacy = =
The T2000 class was prone to technical problems , and was not as reliable as the older T1000 stock . It soon became evident that no more would be ordered . The Norwegian State Railways had been considering a modified version for use on the Flåm and Voss Lines , but those plans were also soon abandoned . Another possibility considered was to build modified T2000 cars for use on the Oslo Metro Ring Line ; at the time it was planned that the Ring Line would share track with the mainline Gjøvik Line at Grefsen , so the Oslo Metro rolling stock using this section would need to be able to support 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC . However , a parallel section of dedicated metro track was built instead , at Grefsen .
Oslo Sporveier opted for the all @-@ new MX3000 from Siemens as a replacement for the T1000 stock instead of the T2000 . Although its design was found to be unsuitable , the T2000 was initially not planned to be replaced by the MX3000 , as the line was to remain with overhead wires and none of the new MX3000 trains are equipped with pantographs . However , following Oslo 's decision to host the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2011 , it was decided to upgrade the Holmenkollen Line to full metro standard , allowing longer than two @-@ car trains . A proposal to downgrade the line to light rail standard and make it part of the Oslo Tramway was rejected .
In 2009 , all twelve T2000 units were taken out of service , before the last of the much older T1300 . Kollektivtransportproduksjon , the successor of Oslo Sporveier , stated that procuring spare parts was becoming nearly impossible and that the small size of the series forced high maintenance costs . The initial orders for MX3000 trains did not call for sufficient numbers to replace the T2000 . Kollektivtransportproduksjon has estimated the cost of renovating the units so they can run for 15 more years at NOK 50 million . Alternatively , the city council has been recommended by Kollektivtransportproduksjon to purchase 15 new MX3000 three @-@ car trains for NOK 250 million .
In 2010 , Ruter decided to scrap all of the T2000 wagons , after only 16 years in operation , and ten of the wagons were sold for NOK 100 @,@ 000 a piece to the recycling company Hellik Teigen at Hokksund . The two remaining wagons will be preserved and displayed at the Oslo Tramway Museum . Ruter stated that it would cost about NOK 50 million to keep them in operation . Nevertheless , Ruter was in 2011 forced by the owner Oslo Vognselskap to keep renting the wagons for 22 million NOK each year , even though they were not in operation . Oslo Vognselskap stated the reason behind this was the contract which lasted for 30 years .
= Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve =
Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve is an annual television special that airs every New Year 's Eve on ABC . The special broadcasts from New York City 's Times Square , and prominently features coverage of its annual ball drop event , along with live and pre @-@ recorded musical performances by popular musicians from Times Square and Hollywood , respectively .
Its creator and namesake was the entertainer Dick Clark , who conceived New Year 's Rockin ' Eve as a younger @-@ skewing competitor to Guy Lombardo 's popular and long @-@ running New Year 's Eve big band broadcasts on CBS . The first two editions , which were hosted by Three Dog Night and George Carlin , respectively , and featured Dick Clark assuming the role of Times Square reporter , were broadcast by NBC for 1973 and 1974 , respectively . In 1974 @-@ 75 , the program moved to its current home of ABC , and Clark assumed the role of host .
Following the death of Guy Lombardo and the decline of the Royal Canadians ' special , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve grew in popularity , and became ingrained in pop culture — even prompting Clark himself to make appearances on other programs in parody of his role . To this day , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve has consistently remained the highest @-@ rated New Year 's Eve special broadcast by the United States ' major television networks ; its 2012 edition peaked at 22 @.@ 6 million home viewers — not including viewers watching from public locations which are not measured by Nielsen .
Dick Clark hosted New Year 's Rockin ' Eve annually from 1973 through 2004 , and served as a Times Square correspondent alongside Peter Jennings for ABC News 's special coverage of year 2000 celebrations . The complications of a stroke suffered by Clark in December 2004 had a major effect on his role in the special . After having Regis Philbin serve as a guest host for 2005 , Clark returned for the 2006 edition to serve as a host : due to speech impediments that had resulted from his stroke , he ceded hosting duties to Ryan Seacrest . The death of Dick Clark on April 18 , 2012 left Ryan Seacrest as the sole host of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve beginning with its 2012 – 13 edition . Seacrest has most recently been joined by Jenny McCarthy as a correspondent from Times Square , with Fergie of The Black Eyed Peas serving as the presenter of the Hollywood concert segments .
= = Format = =
New Year 's Rockin ' Eve is primarily broadcast from Times Square in New York City , providing coverage of the New Year 's Eve festivities held there , culminating with the long @-@ running ball drop leading to midnight and the New Year . The special also features pre @-@ recorded segments featuring performances by popular musicians ; since the 2006 – 07 edition , these concert segments ( branded since the 2014 @-@ 15 edition as the " Billboard Hollywood Party " ) have been presented from a studio in Los Angeles by Fergie of The Black Eyed Peas . Since the 2005 – 06 edition , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve has also featured live performances from a stage in Times Square .
Since 2000 – 01 's edition , coverage has begun with a segment airing in primetime : initially airing at 10 : 00 p.m. ET / PT , beginning with the 2012 @-@ 13 edition , the show was extended to 8 : 00 p.m. ET / PT to accommodate musical retrospective specials that aired from the 2011 @-@ 12 to 2013 @-@ 14 editions . These specials primarily featured countdowns of archived music performances from the Dick Clark Productions library , including the top New Year 's Rockin ' Eve performances , and the " 30 Greatest Women in Music " . On the 2014 @-@ 15 edition , the retrospective specials were dropped , leaving the Primetime portion occupying the entire ABC primetime lineup .
Following late local programming , the main New Year 's Rockin ' Eve broadcast begins at 11 : 30 p.m. ET / PT ; this segment of the broadcast can be tape delayed ( either by ABC 's west coast feed , or at the discretion of affiliates in the Central and Mountain Time zones ) so the countdown corresponds to local time . After the conclusion of festivities from Times Square , the special continues into Part 2 , which consists of further pre @-@ recorded concert segments . Part 2 runs into the early morning hours — as late as 3 : 00 a.m. ET / PT .
Since 2005 , Ryan Seacrest has hosted the live show outside in Times Square ( along with a celebrity correspondent providing additional reports from attendees ) . From his return and until his death , Dick Clark hosted a limited number of segments from Times Square Studios approaching midnight , but still participated in the countdown and his tradition of kissing his wife , Kari Wigton , at midnight .
= = History = =
= = = Before Rockin ' Eve = = =
Prior to the premiere of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , the most well @-@ known New Year 's Eve program was the annual big band remote of bandleader Guy Lombardo and his Royal Canadians , broadcast from the ballroom of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . Guy Lombardo hosted 48 straight New Year 's Eve broadcasts on CBS until his death in 1977 , beginning on radio in 1928 ( and for a period , splitting with NBC Radio following midnight ET ) , and on CBS Television from 1956 to 1976 ( which also featured coverage of the ball drop in Times Square ) . Lombardo was also well known for his band 's performance of the song " Auld Lang Syne " at midnight , which helped make the standard synonymous with the New Year 's holiday in North America .
= = = Conception , premiere = = =
At the time , Dick Clark was well @-@ known to viewers as the host of American Bandstand , a music series produced from the studios of Philadelphia television station WFIL @-@ TV ( now WPVI @-@ TV ) and broadcast by ABC ( which itself aired a New Year 's Eve special on December 31 , 1959 ) .
In the 1970s , Clark felt that Guy Lombardo 's New Year 's specials were outdated and did not appeal well to younger viewers ; he believed that only older viewers would be interested in big band music accompanied by " people dancing cheek @-@ to @-@ jowl in their tuxedos and funny hats . " In response , he decided to produce a more youthful New Year 's Eve special of his own to compete . Clark 's new program would be known as New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , a name chosen to signify the major contrast between his special and the more formal atmosphere of Guy Lombardo 's special . The first edition , Three Dog Night 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 1973 , was aired by NBC on December 31 , 1972 and was hosted by the members of the rock band Three Dog Night . The special featured pre @-@ recorded musical performances from the ballroom of the Queen Mary in Long Beach , California by Blood , Sweat & Tears , Helen Reddy , Al Green , and Three Dog Night . Clark served as a reporter from Times Square for live coverage of the ball drop and arrival of 1973 . The second special , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 1974 , also on NBC , was hosted by comedian George Carlin and featured pre @-@ recorded musical performances by The Pointer Sisters , Billy Preston , Linda Ronstadt and Tower of Power once again from the Queen Mary ballroom . Beginning with the 1975 edition , the program moved to ABC and Clark assumed hosting duties .
= = = Rise in popularity = = =
After Guy Lombardo 's death in 1977 , CBS and the Royal Canadians attempted to continue their New Year 's Eve broadcasts from the Waldorf @-@ Astoria for 1977 – 78 . However , the effects of Lombardo 's absence led to a decline in viewership , allowing New Year 's Rockin ' Eve to overtake the Royal Canadians in viewership in only its fifth year on @-@ air . The threat of the new special also prompted CBS to drop the Royal Canadians entirely in 1979 in favor of a new special , Happy New Year , America , which premiered for New Year 's Eve 1979 – 80 . With its recent success , Clark began hoping that New Year 's Rockin ' Eve would become a television tradition of its own , lamenting that " Lombardo would always win [ in New York ] because of the Waldorf and 35 years of tradition , but we finally got it wrested . " Clark 's hopes soon became reality , as New Year 's Rockin ' Eve had displaced Guy Lombardo as the most popular and most @-@ watched New Year 's Eve special on American television in the years following .
The 1980 edition was co @-@ hosted by Erin Moran and John Schneider of Happy Days and The Dukes of Hazzard respectively , and continued with Clark 's goal to showcase acts that represented the previous year by featuring Barry Manilow , Blondie , Chic , The Oak Ridge Boys , and the Village People as performers . The 1988 edition was co @-@ hosted by China Beach cast members Marg Helgenberger and Brian Wimmer from the Cocoanut Grove club at the Ambassador Hotel . Mark Curry and Holly Robinson of the ABC sitcom Hangin ' with Mr. Cooper co @-@ hosted for 1993 – 94 , with segments at Walt Disney World featuring performances by acts such as Brooks and Dunn and Kiss , along with the marriage of two California firefighters , Laura Turpin and Bob Hutnyan .
The 1994 – 95 edition was co @-@ hosted with Margaret Cho and Steve Harvey , and included musical performances from Melissa Etheridge , Hootie & the Blowfish and Salt @-@ N @-@ Pepa .
The 1996 – 97 edition was co @-@ hosted by Stacey Dash and Donald Faison of the ABC comedy series Clueless , and included performances by Jann Arden , Kiss , " Weird Al " Yankovic , The Presidents of the United States of America , and The Tony Rich Project . This edition also marked the 25th anniversary of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve ; Clark marked this accomplishment by discussing the greatest challenges he had faced hosting the special ; including being unable to hear his director over the loud crowds of Times Square , harsh weather conditions , and a year where the emcee had to contend with a group of 30 nude attendees in the background . Clark aimed to continue hosting the special through the year 2000 . Ultimately , Clark hosted the program nearly uninterrupted through 2004 .
The popularity of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve also resulted in Clark making appearances on other television series to reference his role . In a Y2K @-@ themed segment of The Simpsons ' Halloween special " Treehouse of Horror X " entitled " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " , Clark made a cameo appearance hosting a New Year 's Eve event in Springfield . The Y2K bug caused the emcee to melt , exposing him as a robot . In an interview following the episode 's airing with its writer , Ron Hauge , Clark said that the episode gave the " biggest response " he had ever gotten from anything he had ever done . Clark made a further appearance during the pilot episode of fellow Matt Groening series Futurama , " Space Pilot 3000 " , where Clark 's head ( as preserved in a jar ) is seen hosting a version of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve leading into the year 3000 . In the 1994 film Forrest Gump , footage of Clark from the first edition of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve is seen on a television at a bar during a scene of the film taking place on New Year 's Eve in 1972 . New Year 's Rockin ' Eve was also the subject of an episode of the sitcom Friends , " The One with the Routine " , where characters Ross and Monica Geller attend a studio taping as audience members , and try to get on @-@ camera by performing a dance number to draw attention to themselves .
= = = ABC 2000 Today , 2001 primetime expansion = = =
New Year 's Rockin ' Eve was temporarily placed on hiatus for New Year 's Eve 1999 – 2000 . Instead , Clark participated in ABC News 's day @-@ long telecast , ABC 2000 Today , which as part of an international broadcast consortium , televised festivities from around the world celebrating the arrival of the year 2000 . Clark joined host Peter Jennings and ABC News reporter Jack Ford as correspondents for the festivities from Times Square . Clark took on a similar role on ABC 2000 Today as he did on New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , including conducting his traditional countdown alongside Ford at midnight on the East Coast . However , unlike New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , festivities from Times Square were also broadcast live across the entire country instead of tape @-@ delayed for the West Coast , since the special broadcast midnight festivities in other cities and time zones for the remainder of the night , as they had done throughout the day .
Clark , Ford , and Jennings were among a total of more than 1 @,@ 000 members of the ABC News division that were part of the broadcast . They were all under the direction of ABC 's Roger Goodman . The ABC 2000 Today telecast overall also received a Peabody Award . Reflecting on the event , Clark was enthusiastic about his participation , feeling that New Year 's Eve 2000 was one of the biggest nights he had ever spent in Times Square .
New Year 's Rockin ' Eve returned to ABC the following New Year 's Eve for the arrival of 2001 . The 2000 – 01 edition also introduced a new primetime hour at 10 : 00 p.m. ET / PT , which featured additional segments and music performances to lead into the main program . Clark felt positive about the program 's expansion into primetime – believing that viewers , no matter where they were , wanted to know what was going on in Times Square on New Year 's Eve . Clark was joined by Fox & Friends anchor Steve Doocy , and Michelle Madison as reporters in Times Square . Comedian Wayne Brady hosted concert segments in Hollywood , which included performances by Lonestar , Boyz II Men , 98 Degrees , Baha Men , and Third Eye Blind among others .
The 2002 edition of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , its 30th edition , featured pre @-@ recorded concert performances from tours by Aerosmith , Destiny 's Child , and Elton John during the primetime hour , followed by studio segments ( again hosted by Wayne Brady ) featuring performances by Blink @-@ 182 , Bush , Busta Rhymes , Jessica Simpson , LFO , The O 'Jays , and Pink . The primetime hour of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 2002 was also preceded by ABC 2002 , a follow @-@ up to the ABC 2000 special , hosted by Peter Jennings from the Rose Center for Earth and Space . The two @-@ hour special featured a " meaningful and reflective " view on New Year 's celebrations from around the world , and also included performances by Arlo Guthrie , Sting , and U2 . Clark personally felt that 2002 , since it was the first in the wake of the September 11 attacks , was the most " nerve @-@ racking " New Year 's Eve he had ever experienced .
= = = Dick Clark 's stroke , effects on Rockin ' Eve = = =
On December 6 , 2004 , it was reported that Clark had been hospitalized after suffering from a minor stroke . Despite Clark indicating his participation in New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 2005 in a prepared statement , reports soon surfaced that the stroke may had been serious enough to prevent him from hosting at all . It was officially announced on December 14 that Dick Clark would not be hosting , and that Regis Philbin would fill in for Clark . In a statement , Clark said that he was thankful that Philbin was able to quickly step in on short notice to host the show , and hoped that he would do a good job . Philbin was optimistic about his role , considering it the " best temp job ever . "
Various personalities paid tribute to Clark throughout the night on New Year 's Eve ; the New Year 's Rockin ' Eve broadcast featured special celebrity messages for Clark , and revelers in Times Square were seen with signs saluting Clark . During CNN 's coverage , revelers in Times Square told CNN 's Jason Carroll that Philbin was " all right " filling in for Clark ( but still had Anderson Cooper and Carroll too ) . Mayor Michael Bloomberg also spoke with Philbin on Clark 's absence during the show , noting that " it isn 't that we don 't like Regis , but we want [ Clark ] back next year . " Philbin 's hosting received mixed reviews : Richard Huff of the New York Daily News noted that Philbin 's hosting was " stiff " at first , and suggested that he would have performed better if he had a co @-@ host to interact with like his daytime talk show . In conclusion , he considered Philbin 's performance to be " suitable – although not spectacular . " Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times believed that Philbin was feeling " surprisingly nervous " in his role at host , and felt that " rowdy crowds " ( which Philbin chose to avoid by staying in the studio ) and the success of Rod Stewart 's career ( which Philbin pounced on to promote his new album , " When You 're Smiling " ) were bothering him .
= = = = Dick Clark 's return = = = =
In August 2005 , ABC announced that Dick Clark would return to New Year 's Rockin ' Eve for its 2006 edition , marking his first television appearance since the stroke . For that broadcast , it was also announced Clark would be joined by a new co @-@ host , media personality and American Idol host Ryan Seacrest . Seacrest had previously hosted Fox 's competing New Year 's Eve Live — which , ironically , would be hosted by Philbin that year . Speaking to USA Today , Seacrest reminisced on having watched New Year 's Rockin ' Eve in his childhood , stating that " I knew when I was on other shows , I knew we weren 't going to beat Dick Clark . He is New Year 's Eve . " As a part of a long @-@ term deal with Dick Clark Productions , Seacrest also became an executive producer for the special . In an interview with People Magazine in December 2005 , Seacrest revealed that while Clark had not completely recovered from the stroke , and that his speech was not exactly like how it was beforehand , Clark had made great progress since the original diagnosis .
Alongside pre @-@ recorded performances from Hollywood hosted by actress and pop singer Hilary Duff , the 2006 edition also featured a live performance by Mariah Carey directly inside Times Square – the first such performance in the show 's history . Live performances from Times Square became a regular feature during future editions of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve .
During the program , Clark made limited on @-@ air appearances , but still conducted his traditional countdown , and also recollected on his recent experiences :
Public curiosity over Clark 's condition ( how he talked ) and his return to television helped Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 2006 draw in over 20 million viewers throughout the night , and score a 7 @.@ 1 audience share among the key demographic of 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds . Reaction to Clark 's appearance was mixed . While some TV critics ( including Tom Shales of The Washington Post , in an interview with the CBS Radio Network ) felt he was not in good enough shape to do the broadcast , stroke survivors and many of Clark 's fans praised the emcee for being a role model for people dealing with post @-@ stroke recovery . The New York Times ' Brian Stelter compared Seacrest 's new role as co @-@ host of Rockin ' Eve to being like a " traffic cop " , " tossing to bands and correspondents and to Mr. Clark for the countdown . "
= = = = Ryan Seacrest becomes host = = = =
Following the 2006 edition , Dick Clark Productions announced that Seacrest had agreed to remain a host for future editions of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve . As he was still afflicted with speech impediments that resulted from dysarthria , a lingering effect of his stroke , Clark 's role in the special was reduced ; he continued to make limited on @-@ air appearances from Times Square Studios as co @-@ host near midnight , and still conducted his traditional countdown , but Seacrest hosted the majority of the program outside in Times Square itself .
The 2008 edition featured live performances from Times Square by Carrie Underwood , Miley Cyrus , and the Jonas Brothers . Fergie hosted concert segments from Hollywood , which also featured performances by Akon , Natasha Bedingfield , Sean Kingston , OneRepublic , Plain White T 's , Taylor Swift and will.i.am. Seacrest 's increased role as host was recognized beginning on the 2009 edition , where the special was officially re @-@ titled Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest . It featured live performances by the Jonas Brothers , Taylor Swift , and Lionel Richie , with Kellie Pickler serving as a correspondent . Hollywood segments featured performances by Fall Out Boy , Jesse McCartney , Natasha Bedingfield , Ne @-@ Yo , The Pussycat Dolls , Solange , Robin Thicke and will.i.am.
For its 2010 edition , headlining performances in Times Square included Daughtry , and Jennifer Lopez ( who infamously wore a dark @-@ colored catsuit for her performance to mixed reviews ) , while Melissa Rycroft served as a correspondent . Fergie hosted concert segments on @-@ location from Las Vegas , Nevada , featuring performances by her group The Black Eyed Peas , Colbie Caillat , Robin Thicke , Keri Hilson , Selena Gomez , Justin Bieber , David Guetta , and Orianthi . American Idol season 8 runner @-@ up Adam Lambert was also reportedly scheduled to perform , but was dropped from both Rockin ' Eve and a scheduled appearance on fellow ABC program Jimmy Kimmel Live ! in response to his controversial performance at the American Music Awards ( which are also produced by Dick Clark Productions ) . Neither ABC nor Dick Clark Productions ever confirmed whether or not Lambert had been booked at all , however .
The 2011 edition featured live performances by Kesha and Taio Cruz , and actress Jenny McCarthy served as a reporter from Times Square . Fergie reprised her role as host for the pre @-@ recorded Hollywood segments , which included performances by Avril Lavigne ( who performed the world premiere of " What the Hell " , the first single from her then @-@ upcoming album Goodbye Lullaby ) , Natasha Bedingfield ( who performed her latest single " Strip Me " ) , Jennifer Hudson , Ne @-@ Yo , Train , Mike Posner , Willow Smith , Jason Derülo , Far East Movement , La Roux , Kesha , Drake , and closing the show , the supergroup NKOTBSB ( the combined Backstreet Boys and New Kids on the Block ) . Viewership for the 2011 edition peaked at around 19 million viewers .
= = = 40th anniversary ; death of Dick Clark = = =
Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest 2012 , was once again hosted by Seacrest , with Clark co @-@ hosting what would become his final appearance on the program . Fergie co @-@ hosted for the sixth consecutive year for the pre @-@ taped Hollywood segments , while comedian Jenny McCarthy returned for her second year corresponding from Times Square . Musical guests in Times Square included Lady Gaga ( who also joined Mayor Michael Bloomberg in activating the ball drop ) , Justin Bieber , Pitbull and Hot Chelle Rae . Performers in the Hollywood segments included Taio Cruz , Nicki Minaj , Blink @-@ 182 , Florence + the Machine , LMFAO , Gym Class Heroes , OneRepublic , The Band Perry , will.i.am , Christina Perri , and Robin Thicke . To celebrate the 40th anniversary of the first edition of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , the primetime portion of the show was preceded by a two @-@ hour retrospective special focusing on memorable music performances from the show 's 40 @-@ year history .
New Year 's Rockin ' Eve 2012 brought ABC 's highest ratings on New Year 's Eve since ABC 2000 Today ; an average 8 @.@ 4 million viewers watched the 40th anniversary retrospective , the primetime hour brought in 12 @.@ 9 million viewers , and the first hour of the main broadcast peaked at 22 @.@ 6 million viewers . These numbers exclude viewership from locations such as bars and New Year 's Eve parties , as they are not counted in the Nielsen ratings .
On April 18 , 2012 , Dick Clark died after suffering a heart attack following surgery to fix an enlarged prostate . Following Clark 's death , ABC declined to comment on future New Year 's coverage , nor did Dick Clark Productions comment on the future of the franchise .
= = = 2013 @-@ present = = =
In August 2012 , ABC confirmed via a press release that New Year 's Rockin ' Eve would return for its 2012 – 13 edition . Ryan Seacrest , Jenny McCarthy and Fergie reprised their roles as host , Times Square reporter and Hollywood host , respectively . Carly Rae Jepsen , Neon Trees , Psy with MC Hammer , and Taylor Swift performed live in Times Square , while the Hollywood segments of the show included performances by Brandy , Flo Rida , Ellie Goulding , Jason Aldean , Justin Bieber , Karmin , OneRepublic , Pitbull and The Wanted . The primetime hour of the program was preceded by a two @-@ hour tribute special , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve Celebrates Dick Clark . Clark 's legacy was also recognized by the Times Square Alliance , organizers of the ball drop : a triangular Waterford Crystal panel engraved with Dick Clark 's name was presented to his widow Kari Wigton , and installed on the ball .
On October 23 , 2013 , Dick Clark Productions confirmed the 2013 – 14 edition of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , and announced that Ryan Seacrest had signed a multi @-@ year deal of unspecified length to continue serving as host and executive producer of the special . Seacrest stated that he would " forever be both sentimental and grateful " about his involvement in the special , and that he was " excited to work together to create new traditions and fun moments on the show that only live television can deliver . " Fellow producer Allen Shapiro credited Seacrest 's involvement in New Year 's Rockin ' Eve for its " extended and expanded " success . Fergie and McCarthy reprised their roles once again , and the primetime portion of the program was preceded by a two @-@ hour special , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve Presents the 30 Greatest Women in Music . The Hollywood segments included performances by Ariana Grande , Capital Cities , Daughtry , Fall Out Boy , The Fray , Enrique Iglesias , Jason Derülo , Jennifer Hudson , and Robin Thicke . Blondie , Icona Pop , Macklemore and Ryan Lewis , and Miley Cyrus performed in Times Square , and the special also featured a performance by Billy Joel , broadcast live from Barclays Center . In Canada , the special was aired in simulcast for first time by City , replacing its coverage of concert festivities at Toronto 's Nathan Phillips Square ( City continued to sponsor the event , however ) . While viewership was down by 5 % , New Year 's Rockin ' Eve was still the highest @-@ rated among the New Year 's specials .
On February 7 , 2014 , ABC reached a long @-@ term deal with Dick Clark Productions , seeing both New Year 's Rockin Eve and the DCP @-@ produced American Music Awards remain on the network through the end of 2023 . Taylor Swift and Florida Georgia Line headlined from Times Square for the 2014 @-@ 15 edition of New Year 's Rockin Eve ; they were among 38 acts featured in total during the special . Fergie hosted the re @-@ christened Billboard Hollywood Party segments of the special , and also performed . The special featured studio appearances by Bastille , Charli XCX , Idina Menzel , Iggy Azalea , Magic ! , Meghan Trainor , One Direction , Pentatonix , Ella Henderson , and Rixton . The special featured live performances by Gavin DeGraw and Lady Antebellum from the Bash on Broadway New Year 's festivities in Nashville , and a performance by Elton John from his New Year 's concert at Barclays Center .
On October 28 , 2015 , Carrie Underwood was announced as a live headliner from Times Square for the 2015 @-@ 16 edition . She was joined by Demi Lovato , Luke Bryan , and Wiz Khalifa , the last of whom performed " See You Again " with Charlie Puth . On November 18 , One Direction was announced as a headliner for the Billboard Hollywood Party segments , in what was their final televised performance before their planned hiatus . Additional Los Angeles performers included Alessia Cara , Andy Grammer , DNCE , Ellie Goulding , Elle King , Fall Out Boy , Macklemore and Ryan Lewis , Nathan Sykes , Nick Jonas , Omi , Pentatonix , Rachel Platten , Tove Lo , and Walk the Moon . The special also featured a performance by Jimmy Buffett from his New Year 's concert at Barclays Center . New Year 's Rockin ' Eve was once again the highest rated of the New Year 's Eve specials across the major networks ; for the late @-@ night portion , while overall household viewership was down by 7 % , ratings in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic were up by 3 % .
= French battleship Charlemagne =
Charlemagne was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the French Navy in the mid @-@ 1890s , name ship of her class . She spent most of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron ( escadre de la Méditerranée ) . Twice she participated in the occupation of the port of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos , then owned by the Ottoman Empire , once as part of a French expedition and another as part of an international squadron .
When World War I began in August 1914 , she escorted Allied troop convoys for the first two months . Charlemagne was ordered to the Dardanelles in November 1914 to guard against a sortie into the Mediterranean by the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben . In 1915 , she joined British ships in bombarding Turkish fortifications under the command of Rear Admiral ( contre @-@ amiral ) Emile Guépratte . The ship was transferred later that year to the squadron assigned to prevent any interference by the Greeks with Allied operations on the Salonica front . Charlemagne was placed in reserve and then disarmed in late 1917 . She was condemned in 1920 and later sold for scrap in 1923 .
= = Design and description = =
Charlemagne was 117 @.@ 7 metres ( 386 ft 2 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 3 metres ( 66 ft 7 in ) . At deep load , she had a draught of 7 @.@ 4 metres ( 24 ft 3 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 4 metres ( 27 ft 7 in ) aft . She displaced 11 @,@ 275 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 097 long tons ) at deep load . Her crew consisted of 727 officers and enlisted men .
The ship used three 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines , one engine per shaft . Rated at 14 @,@ 500 PS ( 10 @,@ 700 kW ) , they produced 15 @,@ 295 metric horsepower ( 11 @,@ 249 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials using steam generated by 20 Belleville water @-@ tube boilers . Charlemagne reached a top speed of 18 @
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ly lighted by a single lamp at either end . The room in which the Committee sat round a table of green cloth was incongruously gay with the clocks , the bronzes , the mirrors , the tapestries , of the ruined country .
= = = First Empire = = =
Pope Pius VII stayed in the building while preparing to crown Napoléon I Emperor of the French . While residing there , the Pope received various " bodies of the State , the clergy , and the religious corporations . " Additionally , Emperor Napoléon 's procession began at the Pavillon de Flore .
= = = Second Empire = = =
The pavilion underwent significant structural alteration during the reign of Napoléon III , who in 1861 authorized its complete demolition and reconstruction under the supervision of architect Hector Lefuel . Performed between 1864 and 1868 , Lefuel 's reconstruction added significant detail and sculpture to the work , which is thus noted as an example of Second Empire Neo @-@ Baroque architecture . Furthermore , Napoléon III commissioned sculptor Jean @-@ Baptiste Carpeaux to create a piece that would evoke " Flore " ( in English Flora ) , the Roman goddess who represents flowers and spring .
The structure formed the corner edifice of a combined Palais du Louvre and Palais des Tuileries complex until the Palais des Tuileries was destroyed during the Paris Commune insurrection in 1871 . On May 23 , 1871 , incendiary fires set by twelve members of the Paris Commune , a revolutionary government that briefly ruled Paris from the March 26 , 1871 to May 28 , 1871 , inflicted severe damage to the Palais des Tuileries .
= = = The Third Republic and later = = =
The ruins of the Tuileries Palace were pulled down in 1882 during the French Third Republic . The Pavillon de Flore and the Pavillon de Marsan are the only portions of the Palais des Tuileries complex still in existence .
The destruction of the Tuileries Palace affected the aesthetic relationship between the Palais du Louvre and the Arc de Triomphe , as it could now be seen that the two structures were not on the same axis . The Palais des Tuileries had served to disguise the fact that the Palais du Louvre is skewed slightly ( 6 @.@ 33 ° ) relative to the Axe historique ( also known as the Voie Triomphale ) , a seven @-@ kilometre straight line of structures and thoroughfares , including the Place de la Concorde , Champs @-@ Élysées , the Arc de Triomphe and the Grande Arche de La Défense .
= James Sullivan ( governor ) =
James Sullivan ( April 22 , 1744 – December 10 , 1808 ) was a lawyer and politician in Massachusetts . He was an early associate justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court , served as the state 's attorney general for many years , and as governor of the state from 1807 until his death .
Sullivan was born and raised in Berwick , Maine ( then part of Massachusetts ) , and studied law with his brother John . After establishing a successful law practice , he became actively involved in the Massachusetts state government during the American Revolutionary War , and was appointed to the state 's highest court in March 1776 . He was involved in drafting the state constitution and the state 's ratifying convention for the United States Constitution . After resigning from the bench in 1782 he returned to private practice , and was appointed Attorney General in 1790 . During his years as judge and attorney general he was responsible for drafting and revising much of the state 's legislation as part of the transition from British rule to independence . While attorney general he worked with the commission that established the border between Maine and New Brunswick , and prosecuted several high @-@ profile murder cases .
Sullivan was a political partisan , supporting the Democratic @-@ Republican Party and subscribing to Jeffersonian republican ideals . He supported John Hancock and Samuel Adams in their political careers , and was a frequent contributor , often under one of many pseudonyms , to political dialogue in the state 's newspapers . He ran unsuccessfully for governor several times before finally winning the office in 1807 . He died in office during his second term .
In addition to his political pursuits Sullivan engaged in charitable and business endeavors . He was a leading proponent of the Middlesex Canal and the first bridge between Boston and Cambridge , and was instrumental in the development of Boston 's first public water supply . He was the founding president of the Massachusetts Historical Society , and held membership in a variety of other charitable organizations . He wrote one of the first histories of his native Maine , and a legal text on land titles . Legal historian Charles Warren calls him one of the most important legal figures of the time in Massachusetts .
= = Life = =
James Sullivan was born on April 22 , 1744 , the fourth son of John Sullivan and Margery Brown Sullivan , in Berwick , in a part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay that is now the state of Maine . Sullivan 's father was from County Limerick , and his mother was a child aboard the ship on which they came over . When she was older he wooed and wed her . The elder Sullivan was a schoolteacher and farmer in Berwick . Sullivan was educated at home , and any prospects for military service were dashed when his foot was crushed in a childhood accident . He was also afflicted with epilepsy while relatively young , and suffered generally mild seizures ( but sometimes lasting several hours ) for the rest of his life . While convalescing from his foot injury he read a great deal , learning Latin and the classics . His elder brother John , who was studying law , was instructed to supply his brother with law books and training . Sullivan studied law in his brother 's law practice in Durham , New Hampshire , and was eventually admitted to the bar in Massachusetts . He established a practice first in Georgetown , then shortly afterward in Biddeford , where he was the town 's first resident lawyer . In 1768 he married Hetty Odiorne , the daughter of a successful Portsmouth , New Hampshire merchant .
Sullivan 's law practice flourished , and by the time he was 30 , he was one of York County 's leading citizens . He supplemented his legal work by acting as an agent for Boston @-@ based merchant interests , including John Hancock , one of Boston 's wealthiest men . For his services as a lawyer defending land claims , in 1773 Sullivan was offered a tract within one of the claims he defended . He accepted , and the property was organized as Limerick Plantation , named after the birthplace of his father . In 1775 he helped settle the town ( personally assisting in the clearing of land ) , which on March 6 , 1787 would be incorporated as the town of Limerick . According to John Adams , Sullivan used his financial rewards to invest in local real estate , including farmlands and mills .
= = = Revolution = = =
Sullivan was an early and outspoken opponent of British colonial policies leading to the revolution . He was elected to the provincial assembly in 1774 . When it first met in June , Sullivan was a leader in calling for a Continental Congress . When Governor Thomas Gage indefinitely delayed the next meeting of the assembly the following October , its members met anyway , establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress . This body exercised de facto control over Massachusetts during the early years of the American Revolutionary War . In addition to sitting in the provincial congress , Sullivan was a leading organizer of colonial defenses in York County , sitting on its committee of correspondence and other bodies . He was sent in 1775 as part of a commission to inspect the troops and facilities at Fort Ticonderoga in upstate New York , which was nominally under the control of Benedict Arnold , who had been issued a Massachusetts colonel 's commission and succeeded in capturing it with the assistance of Ethan Allen . The arduous journey made Sullivan ill for several months afterward .
In late 1775 Sullivan was a member of the committee that drafted legislation establishing the Massachusetts State Navy . Under its terms , three positions were established for admiralty judges ; Sullivan was appointed to be the admiralty judge for the eastern district ( i.e. Maine ) in addition to his other duties . During his period of service in the provincial congress he drafted a large amount of legislation and was tireless in his activities on many committees . He resigned this post when in March 1776 he was offered a seat on the Superior Court of Judicature ( as the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court was then known ) .
= = = Judicial service and postwar activities = = =
At the time of his appointment to the bench , the position was seen as particularly risky , because it was a clear representation of anti @-@ British authority whose placeholders were thought to be risking their lives should the British succeed in putting down the rebellion . The most noteworthy case Sullivan sat on was a preliminary hearing in Commonwealth v. Nathaniel Jennison , one of the Quock Walker cases where the court in 1783 decided that slavery was incompatible with the state constitution . Sullivan publicly expressed opposition to slavery , and predicted in his writings that the issue would become contentious in the future .
Sullivan participated in the 1779 convention that drafted the new state constitution . Between 1780 and 1782 he and the rest of the court were active in harmonizing the state 's laws with the document , revising and discarding old statutes , and assisting in the drafting of new ones .
In 1779 Sullivan was awarded an honorary degree from Harvard College . He served on the court until 1782 , when he resigned because his salary was insufficient to meet his expenses , and he could no longer afford to cover the difference . He opened a law office in Boston , and moved into a house in Menotomy ( now Arlington , then still part of Cambridge ) . Although he was elected to represent Massachusetts at the Congress of the Confederation from 1782 to 1783 he did not attend , again for financial reasons . He was politically active in the state , however , supporting John Hancock and then Samuel Adams for governor . He was a prolific writer , contributing frequently to the political discourse that took place in Massachusetts ' many newspapers under a variety of pseudonyms .
In 1787 Sullivan participated in the defense of individuals charged in participation in Shays ' Rebellion , an uprising in the rural parts of the state begun the previous year . This activity earned him criticism from stalwart pro @-@ government members of the Massachusetts Bar .
When Massachusetts debated ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788 , Sullivan was one of a number of Massachusetts politicians who expressed reservations about the document , but generally supported ratification . In the debate he proposed that the convention conditionally adopt the Constitution , subject to Congress considering and acting on a suite of amendments . The seven amendments Sullivan proposed were primarily designed to increase state powers at the expense of Congress and the federal courts ; for example , one would have allowed state supreme courts to issues writs of habeas corpus for persons charged with federal crimes .
= = = Attorney General = = =
John Hancock rewarded Sullivan for his support in 1790 with an appointment as the state 's attorney general , a post he held until 1807 . Although he supported the Democratic @-@ Republican Party , his views were relatively moderate , so he retained the post of state attorney general despite the dominance of the Federalists in the state .
Much of Sullivan 's legal work after independence was framed by republican ideals . His republicanism was expressed in wide @-@ ranging support for individual rights , including those of women , children , and minorities , and manifested in letters to contemporaries including John Adams , cases he argued as a lawyer , and decisions he made as a judge . As attorney general he defended the state in a Loyalist recovery action involving the rights of married women ( who at the time had few rights under the common law doctrine of coverture ) , arguing that Loyalist William Martin 's wife had in her own right abandoned the property in question .
Sullivan supported harsh laws confiscating the property of Loyalists who fled the country or fought with the British , although he later took on as clients personal friends who were Loyalists seeking to recover their property . In his native Maine he had a mixed record , representing the state against large @-@ scale land proprietors , but also taking work from the latter ( who included some of the most powerful politicians in the state ) . His interest in the tangled difficulties surrounding land titles in Maine prompted him to write a seminal work on the subject in 1801 , The History of Land Titles in Massachusetts .
The two cases with the highest profile that Sullivan prosecuted while attorney general were both criminal cases . In 1801 he prosecuted the Dedham murderer Jason Fairbanks , who had retained Federalist Harrison Gray Otis as his defense council . Fairbanks was convicted of murdering a local woman , but escaped after his conviction , and was eventually captured near the Canadian border and hanged . Sullivan and Otis faced off again in 1807 in the sensational trial of Thomas Selfridge , accused of murdering Charles Austin . Selfridge , an older Federalist attorney , had been retained to assist in the collection of a debt from Austin 's Republican father . In the politically charged atmosphere of the day in Boston , Selfridge , fearing for his own safety , had armed himself with a dueling pistol . The younger Austin had , apparently on his own initiative , sought to beat Selfridge with a cane , and Selfridge fatally shot him in the encounter . Selfridge was defended by a cadre of Federalist lawyers including Otis and Christopher Gore , and was acquitted of murder by a jury whose foreman was Patriot and Federalist Paul Revere .
Sullivan continued to take private legal work even while he served as attorney general . In a career spanning more than forty years , his law practice was among the largest and most successful in the state . He was an acknowledged expert on admiralty law , and is described by legal historian Charles Warren as one of the most important legal figures of the time in Massachusetts .
= = = Maine – New Brunswick border commission = = =
In 1796 Sullivan was appointed by Secretary of State Timothy Pickering to be the United States agent to the binational commission established under the terms of the Jay Treaty to formalize the border between Maine and the British ( now Canadian ) province of New Brunswick . The southern portion of the border had been defined as the Saint Croix River in the 1783 1783 Treaty of Paris which ended the American Revolutionary War , but there was some question as to which river this actually was , because the area was at the time sparsely peopled , poorly surveyed , and maps of the area contained conflicting references to the named river .
Sullivan 's responsibility was to gather relevant maps and legal documents , and then present a legal case for the United States ' claim for what the border should be . In addition to researching materials in Massachusetts archives , Sullivan spent a significant amount of time exploring the poorly surveyed and remote Passamaquoddy Bay , attempting to build a case that the Magaguadavic River was the river intended by the treaty negotiators . Which river it was hinged on the location of a 1604 French settlement on an island in the river , and the commissioners and agents explored the area and ordered surveys . The surveys located evidence of the settlement on Saint Croix Island , after which the commission fixed the southern portion of the border on what is now known as the Saint Croix River . ( The disposition of some islands in the bay was not settled , and the northern portion of the border would not be fixed until the 1842 Webster @-@ Ashburton Treaty . )
= = = Governor = = =
Sullivan received the Republican nomination for governor in 1797 and 1798 , but lost to Federalist Increase Sumner ( in 1798 by a landslide after the XYZ Affair lent strength to the Federalist cause ) . Republicanism eventually began gaining ground in Massachusetts , and Sullivan was again nominated in 1805 and 1806 for governor , losing both times to the popular incumbent Governor Caleb Strong . In 1806 the Republicans gained control of the Massachusetts legislature , which managed to very nearly deny Strong a narrow victory . With fewer than 200 votes in the balance , the Republican @-@ controlled legislature scrutinized the returns in a partisan manner , discarding ballots that had misspelled Strong 's name while retaining those that misspelled Sullivan 's and performing tallies in ways that favored their candidate . This process concluded with a finding that Strong in fact lacked a majority of votes , which was what was then required to carry the election , as opposed to the modern plurality requirement . Strong 's Federalist allies in the legislature were able to publicize the partisan nature of the analysis , resulting in a hostile public backlash . He was proclaimed the winner after further , less biased , analysis corrected the count in his favor . In 1807 Sullivan again faced Strong , but was this time decisively victorious , carrying the eastern counties ( present @-@ day Maine ) by a wide margin amid a series of Republican victories throughout New England .
Although Sullivan sought in some ways to be a moderate voice in the highly partisan disagreements between Federalists and Republicans , he supported the policy of President Thomas Jefferson in embargoing trade with Great Britain and France , who were then embroiled in the Napoleonic Wars . The Embargo Act of 1807 had a significant negative impact on shipping interests based in Massachusetts ports , and Federalists sought to use this , and the threats of war emanating from the Jefferson administration , to unseat Sullivan in 1808 . Federalist Senator Timothy Pickering wrote an open letter raising the specter of war and charging Jefferson with failing to publish critical documents in ongoing negotiations . He then asked Sullivan to formally send it to the state legislature , with the view that this would imply Sullivan 's agreement with its content . Sullivan refused , after which Federalists used that fact to charge that Republicans generally were withholding damaging information . Sullivan 's defense included letters by Senator John Quincy Adams countering the Federalist charges . While this was sufficient to ensure Sullivan 's reelection in 1808 , control of the legislature was returned to the Federalists . Republicans were unhappy with Sullivan 's handling of the political attacks , and for his refusal to remove Federalists from patronage positions in the government .
The Federalist legislature immediately launched attacks on Sullivan and the Republicans , which Sullivan was not immediately able to respond to . In the spring of 1808 , before the May opening of the legislature , Sullivan 's health began to decline ( epilepsy and an " organic disease of the heart " ) , so he was unable to seize the initiative . When he finally made his speech to the assembly , he failed to respond to the political aspects of the dispute , and called for national unity in dealing with outside interests . His warnings to Jefferson on the nature of the contentious disputes going on in the state were attributed by Jefferson to his declining mental state . Cognizant of Sullivan 's precarious health , the Federalists sought a delay in electing a slate of electors for the Electoral College in the 1808 presidential election . Sullivan , who would have vetoed a slate of Federalist electors ( as they were then chosen by the legislature and not by popular vote , the Federalist legislative majority would have assured this ) , he acquiesced in the hopes that elective actions in other states would moot the decision made in Massachusetts . Sullivan also came under criticism by political partisans on both sides for issuing large numbers of exemptions to the embargo , ostensibly to avoid civil strife in the event of a grain shortage .
When the legislature met in November , it rejected a proposal by Sullivan that popular elections determine the state 's electoral slate , and instead chose a Federalist slate supporting Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for president in a vote boycotted by many Republicans . Based on widespread opinion that the Federalists were likely to lose the presidential election , Sullivan , his health failing , forwarded the electoral votes on to Congress . He died in office on December 10 , 1808 , aged 64 , and was interred in Boston 's Granary Burying Ground in a tomb shared by colonial governor Richard Bellingham .
= = Business , economic development , and charity = =
In addition to his political and legal activities , Sullivan engaged in a wide variety of civic and charitable work . He was a founding member and the first president of the Massachusetts Historical Society , was a charter member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , and was involved with the Massachusetts Humane Society , the Society for the Propagation of the Faith among the Indians , and a charitable society that supported Congregationalist ministers .
Sullivan was a major moving force and leading director of the company that oversaw the Middlesex Canal ( construction of which began in 1793 ) . The canal connected the Merrimack River at present @-@ day Lowell ( then still East Chelmsford ) to the port of Boston , ending roughly at Sullivan Square , which is named in his honor . He was deeply involved in the canal , purchasing the necessary land and supervising the construction . At the same time he was also involved in the company formed to build the first bridge across the Charles River connecting Boston to Cambridge , and was instrumental in the development of Boston 's first public water supply , a wooden aqueduct from Jamaica Pond .
= = Family and legacy = =
Sullivan 's brothers were active participants in the Revolutionary War . John , Daniel , and Eben , all served in the Continental Army . John served with some distinction until he retired from the army to enter New Hampshire politics in 1779 ; Eben was captured in the Battle of The Cedars in 1776 , and spent some time as a captive among the Mohawk , where he was subjected to torture ; Daniel was also captured in action and died aboard a British prison ship . Sullivan , Maine is named for his brother Daniel , one of the early settlers of that area , and several places in New Hampshire are named for John . In 1808 , while Sullivan was governor , a small fortification now known as Fort Sullivan was constructed in Calais , Maine . Who it is named for is uncertain : one early Eastport historian states that John and James are both likely candidates , preferring John for his association with General Henry Dearborn , who ordered the fort 's construction .
Sullivan and his first wife Hettie had nine children , two of whom died young , and one son who died in 1787 due to the hardships of militia service during Shays ' Rebellion . Hettie died in 1786 , and he afterward married Martha Langdon , the widowed sister of New Hampshire politician John Langdon .
Sullivan 's enduring interest in Maine led him to write The History of the District of Maine ( published in 1795 ) , the first work to document that history . Maine historian Charles Clark writes that Sullivan 's History , while neither thoroughly researched nor particularly well written , is an " un @-@ self @-@ conscious expression of romantic nationalism " that is " picturesque , romantic , [ and ] inspired " . Sullivan also predicted that Maine would eventually separate from Massachusetts , because " it is so large and populous , and its situation so peculiar , that it cannot remain long " a part of the other state .
= = Works = =
Sullivan , James ( 1784 ) . Strictures in the Rev. Mr. Thatcher 's Pamphlet . Boston : Benjamin Edes and Sons .
Sullivan , James ( 1795 ) . The History of the District of Maine . Boston : I. Thomas and E. T. Andrews . OCLC 15730995 .
Sullivan , James ( 1801 ) . The History of Land Titles in Massachusetts . Boston : I. Thomas and E. T. Andrews . OCLC 60728198 .
= Malacostraca =
Malacostraca is the largest of the six classes of crustaceans , containing about 40 @,@ 000 living species , divided among 16 orders . Its members , the malacostracans , display a great diversity of body forms and include crabs , lobsters , crayfish , shrimp , krill , woodlice , scuds ( Amphipoda ) , mantis shrimp and many other less familiar animals . They are abundant in all marine environments and have colonised freshwater and terrestrial habitats . They are segmented animals , united by a common body plan comprising 20 body segments ( rarely 21 ) , and divided into a head , thorax , and abdomen .
= = Etymology = =
The name Malacostraca was coined by the French zoologist Pierre André Latreille in 1802 . He was curator of the arthropod collection at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris . The name comes from the Greek roots μαλακός ( malakós , meaning " soft " ) and ὄστρακον ( óstrakon , meaning " shell " ) . The name is misleading , since the shell is only soft immediately after moulting , and is usually hard . Malacostracans are sometimes contrasted with entomostracans , a name applied to all crustaceans outside the Malacostraca , and named after the obsolete taxon Entomostraca .
= = Description = =
The class Malacostraca includes about 40 @,@ 000 species , and " arguably ... contains a greater diversity of body forms than any other class in the animal kingdom " . Its members are characterised by the presence of three tagmata ( specialized groupings of multiple segments ) – a five @-@ segmented head , an eight @-@ segmented thorax and an abdomen with six segments and a telson , except in the Leptostraca , which retain the ancestral condition of seven abdominal segments . Malacostracans have abdominal appendages , a fact that differentiates them from all other major crustacean taxa except Remipedia . Each body segment bears a pair of jointed appendages , although these may be lost secondarily .
= = = Tagmata = = =
The head bears two pairs of antennae , the first of which is often biramous ( branching into two parts ) and the second pair bear exopods ( outer branches ) which are often flattened into antennal scales known as scaphocerites . The mouthparts consist of pairs each of mandibles , maxillules ( second pair of mouthparts ) and maxillae . Usually a pair of stalked compound eyes is present , although in some taxa the eyes are unstalked , reduced or lost .
Up to three thoracic segments may be fused with the head to form a cephalothorax ; the associated appendages turn forward and are modified as maxillipeds ( accessory mouthparts ) . A carapace may be absent , present or secondarily lost , and may cover the head , part or all of the thorax and some of the abdomen . It is variable in form and may be fused dorsally with some of the thoracic segments or occasionally be in two parts , hinged dorsally . Typically , each of the thoracic appendages is biramous and the endopods are the better developed of the branches , being used for crawling or grasping . Each endopod consist of seven articulating segments ; the coxa , basis , ischium , merus , carpus , propodus and dactylus . In decapods , the claw is formed by the articulation of the dactylus against an outgrowth of the propodus . In some taxa , the exopods are lost and the appendages are uniramous .
There is a clear demarcation between the thorax and the six or seven @-@ segmented abdomen . In most taxa , each abdominal segment except the last carries a pair of biramous pleopods used for swimming , burrowing , gas exchange , creating a current or brooding eggs . The first and second abdominal pleopods may be modified in the male to form gonopods ( accessory copulatory appendages ) . The appendages of the last segment are typically flattened into uropods , which together with the terminal telson , make up the " tail fan " . It is the sudden flexion of this tail fan that provides the thrust for the rapid escape response of these crustaceans and the tail fan is also used in steering . In Leptostraca , the appendages on the telson instead form caudal rami ( spine @-@ like protrusions ) .
= = = Internal anatomy = = =
The digestive tract is straight and the foregut consists of a short oesophagus and a two @-@ chambered stomach , the first part of which contains a gizzard @-@ like " gastric mill " for grinding food . The walls of this have chitinous ridges , teeth and calcareous ossicles . The fine particles and soluble material are then moved into the midgut where chemical processing and absorption takes place in one or more pairs of large digestive caeca . The hindgut is concerned with water reclamation and the formation of faeces and the anus is situated at the base of the telson .
Like other crustaceans , malacostracans have an open circulatory system in which the heart pumps blood into the hemocoel ( body cavity ) where it supplies the needs of the organs for oxygen and nutrients before diffusing back to the heart . The typical respiratory pigment in malacostracans is haemocyanin . Structures that function as kidneys are located near the base of the antennae . A brain exists in the form of ganglia close to the antennae , there are ganglia in each segment and a collection of major ganglia below the oesophagus . Sensory organs include compound eyes ( often stalked ) , ocelli ( simple eyes ) , statocysts and sensory bristles . The naupliar eye is a characteristic of the nauplius larva and consists of four cup @-@ shaped ocelli facing in different directions and able to distinguish between light and darkness .
= = Ecology = =
Malacostracans live in a wide range of marine and freshwater habitats , and three orders have terrestrial members : Amphipoda ( Talitridae ) , Isopoda ( Oniscidea , the woodlice ) and Decapoda ( terrestrial hermit crabs , crabs of the families Ocypodidae , Gecarcinidae , and Grapsidae , and terrestrial crayfish ) . They are abundant in all marine ecosystems , and most species are scavengers , although some , such as the porcelain crabs , are filter feeders , and some , such as mantis shrimps , are carnivores .
= = Life cycle = =
Most species of malacostracans have distinct sexes ( a phenomenon known as gonochorism ) , although a few species exhibit hermaphroditism . The female genital openings or gonopores are located on the sixth thoracic segment or its appendages , while the male gonopores are on the eighth segment or its appendages , or in a small number of species , on the seventh . The naupliar larval stages are often reduced and take place before hatching , but where they occur , a metamorphosis usually occurs between the larval and the adult forms . Primitive malacostracans have a free @-@ swimming naupliar larval stage .
= = Mating = =
Mating behavior has been studied in the freshwater shrimp Caridina ensifera . Multiple paternity , common in the Malacostrica , also occurs in C. ensifera . Reproductive success of sires was found to correlate inversely with their genetic relatedness to the mother . This finding suggests that sperm competition and / or pre- and post @-@ copulatory female choice occurs . Female choice may increase the fitness of progeny by avoiding inbreeding that can lead to expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations .
= = Phylogenetics = =
The monophyly of Malacostraca is widely accepted . This is supported by several common morphological traits which are present throughout the group and is confirmed by molecular studies . However , a number of problems make it difficult to determine the relationships between the orders of Malacostraca . These include differences in mutation rates in different lineages , different patterns of evolution being apparent in different sources of data , including convergent evolution , and long branch attraction .
There is less agreement on the status of the subclass Phyllocarida with its single extant order , Leptostraca , depending on whether foliaceous ( leaf @-@ like ) limbs have a single or multiple origin . Some authors advocate placing Phyllocarida in Phyllopoda , a group used in former classification systems , which would then include branchiopods , cephalocarids and leptostracans . A molecular study by American biologists Trisha Spears and Lawrence Abele concluded that phylogenetic evidence did not support the monophyly of this grouping , and that Phyllocarida should be regarded as a subclass of Malacostraca that had diverged from the main lineage at an early date .
= = = Subclass Phyllocarida = = =
Leptostraca is the only extant order of Phyllocarida , the other two orders , Archaeostraca and Hoplostraca being extinct . Leptostracans are thought to be the most primitive of the malacostracans and date back to the Cambrian period . They range in length from 1 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) , most being suspension feeders though some are carnivores or scavengers . They have a two part carapace which encloses the head , the whole thorax and part of the abdomen and are the only malcostracans with seven abdominal segments . Three families are known with several genera and about twenty species . They are found worldwide from the intertidal zone to the deep ocean , all but one species being benthic ( living on the seabed ) .
= = = Subclass Hoplocarida = = =
Stomatopoda is the only extant order of Hoplocarida , the other two orders , Aeschronectida and Archaeostomatopoda being extinct . Stomatopodans , commonly known as mantis shrimps , range in length from 5 to 36 cm ( 2 to 14 in ) and are predators . They have a dorso @-@ ventrally flattened body and a shield @-@ like carapace and are armed with powerful , raptorial claws normally carried in a folded position . There are about 300 species , most living in tropical and subtropical seas although some live in temperate areas . They are benthic , mostly hiding in cracks and crevices or living in burrows , some emerging to forage while others are ambush predators .
= = = Subclass Eumalacostraca = = =
The Eumalocostraca contains the vast majority of the approximately 40 @,@ 000 living species of malacostracans and consists of three superorders , Syncarida , Peracarida and Eucarida . Syncaridans are mostly small and found in freshwater and subterranean habitats . Peracaridans are characterised by having a marsupium in which they brood their young . They are found in marine , freshwater and terrestrial habitats and include Amphipoda , Cumacea , Isopoda and Mysida . Eucarida includes lobsters , crabs , shrimps , prawns and krill .
= = = Fossil record = = =
The first malacostracans appeared sometime in the Cambrian , when animals belonging to the Phyllocarida appeared .
= = Classification = =
The following classification of living malacostracans is based on An Updated Classification of the Recent Crustacea ( 2001 ) by the American marine biologists Joel W. Martin , curator of crustaceans at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County , and George E. Davies . Extinct orders have been added to this and are indicated by an obelisk ( † ) .
Class Malacostraca Latreille , 1802
Subclass Phyllocarida Packard , 1879
† Archaeostraca Claus 1888
† Hoplostraca Schram , 1973
Leptostraca Claus , 1880
Subclass Hoplocarida Calman , 1904
† Aeschronectida Schram , 1969
† Archaeostomatopoda Schram , 1969
Stomatopoda Latreille , 1817
Subclass Eumalacostraca Grobben , 1892
Superorder Syncarida Packard , 1885
† Palaeocaridacea Brooks , 1979
Bathynellacea Chappuis , 1915
Anaspidacea Calman , 1904
Superorder Peracarida Calman , 1904
Spelaeogriphacea Gordon , 1957
Thermosbaenacea Monod , 1927
Lophogastrida Sars , 1870
Mysida Haworth , 1825
Mictacea Bowman et al . , 1985
Amphipoda Latreille , 1816
Isopoda Latreille , 1817
Tanaidacea Dana , 1849
Cumacea Krøyer , 1846
Superorder Eucarida Calman , 1904
Euphausiacea Dana , 1852
Amphionidacea Williamson , 1973
Decapoda Latreille , 1802
= 11 ( Bryan Adams album ) =
11 is the eleventh studio album by Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Bryan Adams . The album was released by Polydor Records on March 17 , 2008 . 11 was the first release of new Adams material since Colour Me Kubrick in 2005 and the first studio album in four years since Room Service . Adams , Jim Vallance , Eliot Kennedy , Gretchen Peters , Trevor Rabin and Robert John " Mutt " Lange received producing and writing credits . Similar to Adams ' previous material , the themes in 11 are mainly based on love , romance , and relationships . 11 received generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics .
Three songs were released from the album in various forms : " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " , " Tonight We Have the Stars " and " She 's Got a Way " , of which all were released internationally . " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " was the only one to have any lasting effects on the music chart , reaching mostly the Top 50 , Top 100 and Top 200 in Europe and Canada . Adams was nominated for a Juno Award in the category " Best Artist " in 2009 for this record .
The album peaked within the top ten in eleven territories worldwide , including Canada ( with sales just below 10 @,@ 000 units in its first week ) , the United Kingdom , Germany , Denmark and Switzerland . 11 charted within the top twenty in three other territories . The album has sold approximately half @-@ a @-@ million copies , which might be considered somewhat disappointing compared to Adams previous albums sales . However CD sales dropped for all artists during this time across the board .
The track " Flower Grown Wild " , was reportedly written about the now deceased Amy Winehouse .
= = Conception = =
In an interview on Canada AM , Adams said the title 11 was picked because it was his 11th studio album , when soundtrack album Spirit : Stallion of the Cimarron is included . In addition , Adams mentioned there was no hidden meaning behind the title , it was his eleventh studio release and contained eleven tracks , " there are no secondary meanings " as Adams later mentioned in an interview with the BBC . The album 's cover was taken during a photo shoot in a hotel in Switzerland , while Adams was doing a self @-@ photo story for an Italian men 's magazine . Adams ended up liking the photo so much that he ended up using it as the album 's cover
As with the previous album , Room Service , significant portions of the album were produced while on tour . According to co @-@ writer Jim Vallance modern technology and equipment made it a lot easier to record the album . Adams recorded the album while on tour , making use of the time between playing on stage and readying himself for the next gig . Vallance and Adams recorded the album normally while sitting backstage or in an hotel room with small devices which they usually carried along on tours , but especially during their off days . Adams , in an interview , mentioned that when recording a song , they needed to set up mattresses against the windows , and having microphones run through the toilet .
11 was originally going to be an acoustic record , aiming for the " soft @-@ hard approach " perfected by the British rock group , The Who . However , after a long tour , some of the acoustic songs started growing on him , which led to changes . Adams would record for a few hours , until he wheeled the whole recording kit back onstage . " It makes me a little more interested in going on tour , " he said in retrospect . Adams who was never fully committed to the idea of creating a full @-@ fledged acoustic album , decided not to after seeing an acoustic band opening for him during one of his concerts . What he saw made him certain that he was not able to create such an album .
= = Writing and themes = =
When the writing season for 11 had ended , Adams and his companions had written 30 songs . After a selection process , 19 of these songs were removed , however some of them made it to the deluxe edition released later in 2008 . The first single , " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " was written in 2007 , and went through two or three changes before Adams made the finishing touches . Originally , it had another title , and a different melody , and as Adams later put it ; " in the course of listening to the music and spending time with it , you do end up changing it .
Adams hadn 't worked together on an album with Vallance since the late @-@ 1980s . They teamed up after , as Adams said , " throwing ideas back and forth " from 2003 until the album was released . Vallance would send MP3 audio files by e @-@ mail to Adams during the recording seasons . Adams would then add some elements to them and send them back . They continued doing this until a song was completed ; Vallance claimed it took longer for them to write songs than during their previous collaborations , but felt the end product was just as good .
The main themes in the album , in Adams words are ; " searching for something " . The lyrical meaning behind track number four , " Oxygen " is what a person needs in order to survive . In other words " The person you are with is giving you the air you breathe " , and that people in general " need each other 100 % . " The album 's first single , " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " is about keeping an open mind . " The theme of " Broken Wings " is about " somebody who taught me how to fly " , a metaphor which for " putting your trust in somebody who can give you faith and the belief that you can succeed . " " Something to Believe In " is based upon the affirmation of life and faith , while " Walk on By " warns the listener of distrustfulness . As with other albums , according to Adams , he likes to end the album with a melancholic song , such as " Something to Believe In " in 11 , it 's not the last track however . " Flowers Gone Wild " touches on the same theme as two songs he wrote in the early 1980s , " Cover Girl " and " The Best Is Yet To Come " , are based upon the murdered playboy bunny Dorothy Stratten . But also people with misplaced emotions and their unfulfilled needs , which are pushed forth by the media , which Adams says , leads people to lose their " sense of decency " . Adams explained further ; " It 's a sort of new love affair with an old story , devouring our celebrities and leaving them when we are done . "
= = Release = =
The finishing touches to the album were done in September 2007 , but the European release of the album was delayed until March 2008 . The album was released independently in the United States exclusively through Wal @-@ Mart and Sam 's Club retail stores on May 13 , 2008 . The deal was brokered one month after the albums international release . On October 5 , 2008 a Deluxe Edition of 11 was announced on Adams website . The album featured new tracks and contained a DVD . The Deluxe Edition was released on November 10 , 2008 in the UK , and November 11 , in Canada . The new CD featured the original 11 tracks , a new song " Saved " and the inclusion of two B @-@ sides , " Way of the World " and " Miss America " . The remix of " She 's Got a Way " replaces the original version , but includes another remix done by Chicane . The DVD features Adams , and his backing band , rehearsing the material from the album . It also contains behind the scenes footages .
= = = Critical response = = =
11 overall received mixed , but mostly unflattering reviews from critics . Music reviewer Chris Jones from the BBC wrote generally positively about 11 in his review . He concluded that it was another strong album , even if Adams voice sounded dispassionate on some tracks . The Canadian website Jam ! gave the album an average review . Reviewer Darryl Stedan found the lyrics clichéd , predictable and , while not criticising it , described it as an album " that didn 't really mean much . " Ryan Wasoba from the alternatively weekly magazine , Houston Press wrote favorably of the record in a backhanded way , commenting that 11 's appeal laid in its " inoffensiveness " and " digestibility " . In another favorable review , Daily Mail writer Adrian Thrills said the album highlight was " Oxygen " , commenting on the similarities with the music of Bob Dylan . Amy O 'Brian of The Vancouver Sun wrote favorably of the new album , while at the same time criticising it for its clichés , bad lyrics and for its too @-@ familiar melodies , and concluded , " It 's cheesy and overdone , but the truth is that it just might give Adams his first hit in a decade . "
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave the record two out of five stars , saying that Adams ' " fondness for obvious hooks " had " flattened into clichés " . Matt O 'Leary from Virgin Media criticised the album for Adams 's " over @-@ familiar trademark " and very clichéd , made the over @-@ familiar sound of 11 a little more " irksome " . O 'Leary gave the album two out of five stars . The Sunday Times reviewer Steve Jelbert wrote , " Eleven studio albums into his career , the Canadian rocker returns with a set so devoid of surprises that it could easily have been created with a computer program . " He continued by criticising the album for what he saw as mundane lyrical metaphors , attempts of copying U2 and rigid one @-@ note basslines . He concluded however that the album was better than Lenny Kravitz latest effort , It Is Time for a Love Revolution . Chuck Arnold and Christina Tapper of People gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and stated that the 11 songs " show that , at 48 , Adams is still capable of capturing the essence of young , unbridled love . Sure , the guy can get sappy , but he 's always sincere . "
= = = Chart and commercial performance = = =
11 was Adams ' first studio album to be released in four years , since Room Service in 2004 . In the album 's first week of release it sold just below 10 @,@ 000 units in Canada , and debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart and stayed on the chart for four weeks . This marked the first time since Waking Up the Neighbours in 1991 , that Adams was able to top the Canadian record chart . In the United States , it debuted at number 80 on the Billboard 200 on the charts issue date of May 31 , 2008 and stayed on the chart for four weeks . 11 was Adams ' first studio album since 18 til I Die in the US to crack the top 100 . 11 stayed longer on the American and Canadian record than did Room Service . 11 peaked at three on the European Albums Chart and stayed on the chart for ten weeks , the album and reached seven at the Independent Albums Chart and stayed there for five weeks . At the 2009 Juno Awards Adams was nominated for " Artist of the Year " due to 11 .
Internationally , 11 was a commercial success . The album peaked at number one in two countries , India and Switzerland . It also charted within the top ten in several countries , including the United Kingdom , Switzerland , India , Germany , Austria , Denmark , Portugal and The Netherlands . France was the album 's least successful charting territory , peaking within the top 200 at number 157 . Switzerland was the only country in Europe were 11 managed to top a record chart . After staying there for a full 13 weeks if fell off the chart from 81 . Because of sales of over 15 @,@ 000 units , the album was certified gold in Switzerland and Denmark . The album has sold over half a million units worldwide .
The first single , " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " was released as a download only single in the UK on March 17 , 2008 . Although it was officially released to US radio on March 1 , 2008 , it proved somewhat popular on Adult Contemporary radio stations where it peaked at # 21 . In Canada " I Thought I 'd Seen Everything " was officially released to radio in March , 2008 . The song reached the top 50 on the Canadian Hot 100 where it peaked at # 47 . " Tonight We Have the Stars " , the second single , was released as a digital single on June 6 , 2008 . The third and last single , " She 's Got a Way " was released in September and did not chart anywhere in North America or Europe .
= = 11 Tour = =
In support of 11 , Adams started the " 11 concerts , 11 cities " tour , having concerts in 11 different countries in just 11 days . The intimate shows at some spectacular venues will see Adams perform an acoustic set , on stage , with just his guitar and harmonica . The London show was on the March 11 , 2008 at St. James Church in Piccadilly . The last stop of his 11 days concert tour was in Copenhagen , Denmark on March 17 . After the " 11 concerts , 11 cities " tour , Adams continued to promote his album , this time on an acoustic tour touring with such musical acts as Foreigner and Rod Stewart . Later , in an interview , he was asked what song he felt sounded the best acoustically , Adams responded ;
" Well , they all work acoustically , because they were all written on an acoustic guitar . This album started out as an acoustic record and halfway through I sort of switched gears and decided to make sort of an acoustic rock record . When I play the songs live , it has actually sort of led me into a path of this next tour , which is my first American acoustic tour . I feel confident enough with these songs and with the songs in the past that the show is going to be quite interesting , sort of hearing these songs stripped down completely , just myself and a guitar . "
What is interesting is this was to be the beginning of Adams 's Bare Bones tour , which still tours the world in between his usually band shows .
= = Track listing = =
Source :
= = Personnel = =
There were 11 personnel members .
Bryan Adams – guitar , vocals , bass ( tracks 1 – 3 ) , production
Keith Scott – guitar ( tracks 2 – 5 , 7 , 9 , 12 – 14 )
Colin Cripps – guitar ( all except tracks 8 , 11 , 13 ) , backing vocals ( track 7 )
Gary Breit – hammond organ , piano ( tracks 1 – 3 , 5 , 7 – 10 , 12 , 14 )
Eliot Kennedy – bass ( tracks 4 , 6 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 14 ) , piano ( tracks 6 , 12 ) , backing vocals ( tracks 7 , 13 )
Norm Fisher – bass ( track 13 )
Robert John " Mutt " Lange – bass ( track 5 ) , production ( tracks 1 , 5 )
Mickey Curry – drums ( tracks 1 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 13 )
Pat Steward – drums ( tracks 2 – 5 , 8 , 12 and 14 ) , tambourine ( track 14 )
Jim Vallance – drums ( track 10 )
Máire Breatnach – fiddle ( track 8 ) , viola ( track 11 )
= = = Additional personnel = = =
There were 13 additional personnel members .
Pointless Brothers – backing vocals ( track 6 )
Kathleen Edwards – backing vocals ( track 7 )
Teese Gohl – string arrangement ( tracks 7 , 8 )
Gavin Greenway – string arrangement ( track 11 )
Hal Beckett – string conductor ( tracks 7 , 8 , 11 )
Bob Clearmountain – mixing
Olle Romo – editing
Ben Dobie – recording
Bryan Gallant – additional recording
Kirk Mcnally – additional recording
Roger Monk – string recording ( track 8 )
Chicane – remixer for track 15
J. Hockley – additional production and recording for track 15
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Florida mouse =
The Florida mouse ( Podomys floridanus ) is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae . It is the only species in the genus Podomys , which is the only mammal genus endemic to Florida . The Florida mouse ( also known as the big @-@ eared deermouse , the Florida deermouse , and the gopher mouse ) is found only in a limited area in central peninsular Florida and in one small area in the Florida panhandle . The mouse inhabits some of Florida 's hottest and driest areas in the high pinelands , sandhills , flatlands , and coastal scrub .
The mouse is an omnivore , measures 195 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) in total length , has relatively large ears , and displays brown to orange upperparts and white underparts . The mouse breeds throughout the year , and raises its two or three young per litter in the nesting chambers and passages it constructs in the burrow of the gopher tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus ) . Real estate development and a decline in the gopher tortoise population threaten the mouse 's future . The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN .
= = Description = =
The Florida mouse displays a soft and silky pelage , brown above and orange on the cheeks , shoulders , and lower sides . Underparts are white . The young are gray . The species has a skunk @-@ like odor . The mouse has relatively large , nearly naked ears ( 16 mm long or more ) , a relatively short tail approximately 80 % of total body length , and large hind feet ( 24 mm long or more ) with five , rather than the usual six , plantar tubercles . There is no difference in appearance between males and females .
The mouse looks like Peromyscus , and was once placed as a monotypic subgenus in the genus Peromyscus The greater size and distinctive coloration of Podomys floridanus distinguish it from the cotton mouse ( Peromyscus gossypinus ) and oldfield mouse ( Peromyscus polionotus ) , which also occur in Florida .
In 1973 , a biochemical polymorphism study was conducted in four sample areas of the species . Electrophoretically demonstrable variation was found in one or more populations at 15 of 39 ( 38 % ) of the loci examined , and two and sometimes three alleles per locus were detected . At the least , the findings give an indication of the kind of genetic variation that may be found between populations within a species . The amount of variation was similar to findings in examinations of Peromyscus polionotus , Sigmodon , and Dipodomys .
Average measurements reported in 1993 of 30 adults were : total length 195 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) 178 – 220 mm ( 7 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 7 in ) ; tail 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) 80 – 101 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 0 in ) ; hind foot 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) 24 – 28 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 – 1 @.@ 10 in ) ; ear 19 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) 16 – 21 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 – 0 @.@ 85 in ) . The diploid number is 48 and dentition 1 / 1 0 / 0 0 / 0 3 / 3 total 16 .
= = Taxonomy = =
The mouse was first described by Frank Chapman in 1889 in a paper in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History , from a specimen collected at Gainesville , Florida . The species was named as a separate subgenus of Peromyscus by Wilfred Hudson Osgood in 1909 , but generic recognition was disputed in the 1980s . Michael Carleton and Guy Musser supported the ranking in 1993 . No subspecies have been described .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Podomys is the only mammal genus endemic only to Florida . The Florida mouse is found coast to coast in central peninsular Florida . An isolated population is found in the Florida panhandle at Franklin County , Florida . The species occurs from north @-@ central Florida south to Highlands County and Sarasota County . It is found along the Atlantic coast from St. Johns County south to Miami @-@ Dade County .
The mouse inhabits some of Florida 's driest locations . It is common in the sand pine ( Pinus clausa ) scrub and the high pinelands of turkey oak ( Quercus laevis ) and longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) , and is found in the slash pine ( Pinus elliottii ) and turkey oak habitat of the southern ridge sandhills , and in scrubby flatlands , and in coastal scrub associations . Home ranges average roughly 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) , and are smaller in the flatlands . Populations are greater in the scrub and flatlands than in the highlands . Its largest populations may occur within Ocala National Forest and the scrubs along Lake Wales Ridge .
= = Behavior = =
The Florida mouse is nocturnal , and is active throughout the year except on especially cold nights . The mouse can climb , but is primarily a terrestrial species . In laboratory experiments , P. floridanus used its forepaws to dig and throw substrate backwards while other species mainly used their hindfeet to do the same .
= = = Shelter = = =
The Florida mouse has been called the gopher mouse because it shares the long , deep burrow of the gopher tortoise ( Gopherus polyphemus ) . The mouse makes nest chambers , small side passages , sometimes a pad of oak leaves and wiregrasses for chamber floors , and small chimney openings in the roof of the burrow . It uses these openings , the main entrance , and side passages for entrance to and exit from the burrow . In the absence of gopher tortoise burrows , the mouse will use those of the oldfield mouse ( Peromyscus polionotus ) or will make its own .
= = = Diet = = =
The Florida mouse is an omnivore and its diet consists of acorns when available , insects , seeds , nuts , fungi , and other plant material and vertebrates . A 1987 report indicates the mouse feeds on engorged ticks ( Ornithodorus turicata americanus ) that parasitize gopher frogs ( Rana areolata ) and gopher tortoises .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Florida mice breed throughout the year with a peak between July and December , a lesser peak in January and February , and a lull or cessation in April and May . Unlike most murids , copulatory behavior lacks intravaginal thrusting , the intromission thrust is more intense than the dismount , there is no lock , and ejaculation occurs with every thrust .
Gestation is about 23 or 24 days . The mice dig side burrows off the main burrow of the gopher tortoise , line them with shredded plant material , and use them as nurseries . In eight litters of young conceived in the wild but born in the laboratory , litter size numbers varied from two to four for an average of 3 @.@ 1 per litter . The young are born in nests in the burrow . Newborn weigh 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 9 g ( 0 @.@ 067 – 0 @.@ 102 oz ) and measure in total length 44 mm ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) ; tail length 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) ; and hind foot length 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) . Teeth begin appearing on the fourth day , the young are active and agile about the 10th day , and the eyes open about the 16th day . Nursing is virtually non @-@ stop for the first two weeks of life . Weaning occurs at three to four weeks , and the young display adult behavior at this time .
= = = Survival = = =
Ectoparasites are seven species of mites , five ticks , five fleas , a louse , and the subdermal botfly larva , Cuterebra . Known endoparasites are three species of protozoans found in fecal smears , one trematode , four cestodes , seven nematodes , and nymphal pentastomids found in various internal organs .
In 2010 , exact population size was unknown , but estimated to be in the several thousands and decreasing . Presumed predators are snakes , birds of prey , bobcats , raccoons , and foxes . A high number of shortened tails have been observed in the mice and a modified integument in the tail facilitates tail loss , probably as an anti @-@ predator mechanism .
Few wild individuals have a lifespan of over a year , though captive individuals may live for several years . One captive male lived seven years , four months .
= = Relations with humans and conservation = =
The species in all probability has little or no direct impact or influence on human interests and concerns but agricultural and real estate development are a threat to the species ' very narrow habitat . Collecting specimens in the dry ridges is complicated by the millions of ants which eat the bait in the trap the moment it is set on the ground . Live collecting is the alternative , but the bait is usually digested by the time the animal is taken from the trap , making food research difficult if not impossible .
As early as 1998 , the Florida mouse was a federal C2 candidate taxon , and considered Threatened by the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals . The mouse was named a Species of Special Concern by the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission . The Florida mouse inhabits a restricted habitat in the United States and that habitat is threatened not only by agricultural and real estate development but by wildfire suppression . Habitat decline is expected to continue into the future . The mouse is dependent upon gopher tortoise burrows , but disease and habitat loss are responsible for decline in the tortoise population . Red imported fire ants ( Solenopsis invicta ) threaten both tortoise and mouse populations . The IUCN has listed the species as Vulnerable and recommends further study of the species , maintenance of viable populations of gopher tortoises , and the preservation and management of suitable habitat for the species . The mouse is protected on several conservation lands across central Florida . Occurrences of the Florida mouse are protected at Archbold Biological Station , Ocala National Forest , and others .
= Guy Fawkes Night =
Guy Fawkes Night , also known as Guy Fawkes Day , Bonfire Night and Firework Night , is an annual commemoration observed on 5 November , primarily in Great Britain . Its history begins with the events of 5 November 1605 , when Guy Fawkes , a member of the Gunpowder Plot , was arrested while guarding explosives the plotters had placed beneath the House of Lords . Celebrating the fact that King James I had survived the attempt on his life , people lit bonfires around London , and months later the introduction of the Observance of 5th November Act enforced an annual public day of thanksgiving for the plot 's failure .
Within a few decades Gunpowder Treason Day , as it was known , became the predominant English state commemoration , but as it carried strong Protestant religious overtones it also became a focus for anti @-@ Catholic sentiment . Puritans delivered sermons regarding the perceived dangers of popery , while during increasingly raucous celebrations common folk burnt effigies of popular hate @-@ figures , such as the pope . Towards the end of the 18th century reports appear of children begging for money with effigies of Guy Fawkes and 5 November gradually became known as Guy Fawkes Day . Towns such as Lewes and Guildford were in the 19th century scenes of increasingly violent class @-@ based confrontations , fostering traditions those towns celebrate still , albeit peaceably . In the 1850s changing attitudes resulted in the toning down of much of the day 's anti @-@ Catholic rhetoric , and the Observance of 5th November Act was repealed in 1859 . Eventually the violence was dealt with , and by the 20th century Guy Fawkes Day had become an enjoyable social commemoration , although lacking much of its original focus . The present @-@ day Guy Fawkes Night is usually celebrated at large organised events , centred on a bonfire and extravagant firework displays .
Settlers exported Guy Fawkes Night to overseas colonies , including some in North America , where it was known as Pope Day . Those festivities died out with the onset of the American Revolution . Claims that Guy Fawkes Night was a Protestant replacement for older customs like Samhain are disputed , although another old celebration , Halloween , has lately increased in popularity , and according to some writers , may threaten the continued observance of 5 November .
= = Origins and history in England = =
Guy Fawkes Night originates from the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 , a failed conspiracy by a group of provincial English Catholics to assassinate the Protestant King James I of England and replace him with a Catholic head of state . In the immediate aftermath of the 5 November arrest of Guy Fawkes , caught guarding a cache of explosives placed beneath the House of Lords , James 's Council allowed the public to celebrate the king 's survival with bonfires , so long as they were " without any danger or disorder " . This made 1605 the first year the plot 's failure was celebrated . The following January , days before the surviving conspirators were executed , Parliament passed the Observance of 5th November Act , commonly known as the " Thanksgiving Act " . It was proposed by a Puritan Member of Parliament , Edward Montagu , who suggested that the king 's apparent deliverance by divine intervention deserved some measure of official recognition , and kept 5 November free as a day of thanksgiving while in theory making attendance at Church mandatory . A new form of service was also added to the Church of England 's Book of Common Prayer , for use on that date .
Little is known about the earliest celebrations . In settlements such as Carlisle , Norwich and Nottingham , corporations provided music and artillery salutes . Canterbury celebrated 5 November 1607 with 106 pounds of gunpowder and 14 pounds of match , and three years later food and drink was provided for local dignitaries , as well as music , explosions and a parade by the local militia . Even less is known of how the occasion was first commemorated by the general public , although records indicate that in Protestant Dorchester a sermon was read , the church bells rung , and bonfires and fireworks lit .
= = = Early significance = = =
According to historian and author Antonia Fraser , a study of the earliest sermons preached demonstrates an anti @-@ Catholic concentration " mystical in its fervour " . Delivering one of five 5 November sermons printed in A Mappe of Rome in 1612 , Thomas Taylor spoke of the " generality of his [ a papist 's ] cruelty , " which had been " almost without bounds " . Such messages were also spread in printed works like Francis Herring 's Pietas Pontifica ( republished in 1610 as Popish Piety ) , and John Rhode 's A Brief Summe of the Treason intended against the King & State , which in 1606 sought to educate " the simple and ignorant … that they be not seduced any longer by papists " . By the 1620s the Fifth was honoured in market towns and villages across the country , though it was some years before it was commemorated throughout England . Gunpowder Treason Day , as it was then known , became the predominant English state commemoration . Some parishes made the day a festive occasion , with public drinking and solemn processions . Concerned though about James 's pro @-@ Spanish foreign policy , the decline of international Protestantism , and Catholicism in general , Protestant clergymen who recognised the day 's significance called for more dignified and profound thanksgivings each 5 November .
What unity English Protestants had shared in the plot 's immediate aftermath began to fade when in 1625 James 's son , the future Charles I , married the Catholic Henrietta Maria of France . Puritans reacted to the marriage by issuing a new prayer to warn against rebellion and Catholicism , and on 5 November that year , effigies of the pope and the devil were burnt , the earliest such report of this practice and the beginning of centuries of tradition . During Charles 's reign Gunpowder Treason Day became increasingly partisan . Between 1629 and 1640 he ruled without Parliament , and he seemed to support Arminianism , regarded by Puritans like Henry Burton as a step toward Catholicism . By 1636 , under the leadership of the Arminian Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud , the English church was trying to use 5 November to denounce all seditious practices , and not just popery . Puritans went on the defensive , some pressing for further reformation of the Church .
Bonfire Night , as it was occasionally known , assumed a new fervour during the events leading up to the English Interregnum . Although Royalists disputed their interpretations , Parliamentarians began to uncover or fear new Catholic plots . Preaching before the House of Commons on 5 November 1644 , Charles Herle claimed that Papists were tunnelling " from Oxford , Rome , Hell , to Westminster , and there to blow up , if possible , the better foundations of your houses , their liberties and privileges " . A display in 1647 at Lincoln 's Inn Fields commemorated " God 's great mercy in delivering this kingdom from the hellish plots of papists " , and included fireballs burning in the water ( symbolising a Catholic association with " infernal spirits " ) and fireboxes , their many rockets suggestive of " popish spirits coming from below " to enact plots against the king . Effigies of Fawkes and the pope were present , the latter represented by Pluto , Roman god of the underworld .
Following Charles I 's execution in 1649 , the country 's new republican regime remained undecided on how to treat 5 November . Unlike the old system of religious feasts and State anniversaries , it survived , but as a celebration of parliamentary government and Protestantism , and not of monarchy . Commonly the day was still marked by bonfires and miniature explosives , but formal celebrations resumed only with the Restoration , when Charles II became king . Courtiers , High Anglicans and Tories followed the official line , that the event marked God 's preservation of the English throne , but generally the celebrations became more diverse . By 1670 London apprentices had turned 5 November into a fire festival , attacking not only popery but also " sobriety and good order " , demanding money from coach occupants for alcohol and bonfires . The burning of effigies , largely unknown to the Jacobeans , continued in 1673 when Charles 's brother , the Duke of York , converted to Catholicism . In response , accompanied by a procession of about 1 @,@ 000 people , the apprentices fired an effigy of the Whore of Babylon , bedecked with a range of papal symbols . Similar scenes occurred over the following few years . On 17 November 1677 , anti @-@ Catholic fervour saw the Accession Day tilt marked by the burning of a large effigy of the pope — his belly filled with live cats " who squalled most hideously as soon as they felt the fire " — and two effigies of devils " whispering in his ear " . Two years later , as the exclusion crisis reached its zenith , an observer noted that " the 5th at night , being gunpowder treason , there were many bonfires and burning of popes as has ever been seen " . Violent scenes in 1682 forced London 's militia into action , and to prevent any repetition the following year a proclamation was issued , banning bonfires and fireworks .
Fireworks were also banned under James II , who became king in 1685 . Attempts by the government to tone down Gunpowder Treason Day celebrations were , however , largely unsuccessful , and some reacted to a ban on bonfires in London ( born from a fear of more burnings of the pope 's effigy ) by placing candles in their windows , " as a witness against Catholicism " . When James was deposed in 1688 by William of Orange — who importantly , landed in England on 5 November — the day 's events turned also to the celebration of freedom and religion , with elements of anti @-@ Jacobitism . While the earlier ban on bonfires was politically motivated , a ban on fireworks was maintained for safety reasons , " much mischief having been done by squibs " .
= = = Guy Fawkes Day = = =
William III 's birthday fell on 4 November , and for orthodox Whigs the two days therefore became an important double anniversary . William ordered that the thanksgiving service for 5 November be amended to include thanks for his " happy arrival " and " the Deliverance of our Church and Nation " . In the 1690s he re @-@ established Protestant rule in Ireland , and the Fifth , occasionally marked by the ringing of church bells and civic dinners , was consequently eclipsed by his birthday commemorations . From the 19th century , 5 November celebrations there became sectarian in nature . Its celebration in Northern Ireland remains controversial , unlike in Scotland , where bonfires continue to be lit in various Caledonian cities . In England though , as one of 49 official holidays , for the ruling class 5 November became overshadowed by events such as the birthdays of Admiral Edward Vernon , or John Wilkes , and under George II and George III , with the exception of the Jacobite Rising of 1745 , it was largely " a polite entertainment rather than an occasion for vitriolic thanksgiving " . For the lower classes , however , the anniversary was a chance to pit disorder against order , a pretext for violence and uncontrolled revelry . At some point , for reasons that are unclear , it became customary to burn Guy Fawkes in effigy , rather than the pope . Gradually , Gunpowder Treason Day became Guy Fawkes Day . In 1790 The Times reported instances of children " ... begging for money for Guy Faux " , and a report of 4 November 1802 described how " a set of idle fellows ... with some horrid figure dressed up as a Guy Faux " were convicted of begging and receiving money , and committed to prison as " idle and disorderly persons " . The Fifth became " a polysemous occasion , replete with polyvalent cross @-@ referencing , meaning all things to all men " . Lower class rioting continued , with reports in Lewes of annual rioting , intimidation of " respectable householders " and the rolling through the streets of lit tar barrels . In Guildford , gangs of revellers who called themselves " guys " terrorised the local population ; proceedings were concerned more with the settling of old arguments and general mayhem , than any historical reminiscences . Similar problems arose in Exeter , originally the scene of more traditional celebrations . In 1831 an effigy was burnt of the new Bishop of Exeter Henry Phillpotts , a High Church Anglican and High Tory who opposed Parliamentary reform , and who was also suspected of being involved in " creeping popery " . A local ban on fireworks in 1843 was largely ignored , and attempts by the authorities to suppress the celebrations resulted in violent protests and several injured constables .
On several occasions during the 19th century The Times reported that the tradition was in decline , being " of late years almost forgotten " , but in the opinion of historian David Cressy , such reports reflected " other Victorian trends " , including a lessening of Protestant religious zeal — not general observance of the Fifth . Civil unrest brought about by the union of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland in 1800 resulted in Parliament passing the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 , which afforded Catholics greater civil rights , continuing the process of Catholic Emancipation in the two kingdoms . The traditional denunciations of Catholicism had been in decline since the early 18th century , and were thought by many , including Queen Victoria , to be outdated , but the pope 's restoration in 1850 of the English Catholic hierarchy gave renewed significance to 5 November , as demonstrated by the burnings of effigies of the new Catholic Archbishop of Westminster Nicholas Wiseman , and the pope . At Farringdon Market 14 effigies were processed from the Strand and over Westminster Bridge to Southwark , while extensive demonstrations were held throughout the suburbs of London . Effigies of the 12 new English Catholic bishops were paraded through Exeter , already the scene of severe public disorder on each anniversary of the Fifth . Gradually , however , such scenes became less popular . With little resistance in Parliament , the thanksgiving prayer of 5 November contained in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer was abolished , and in March 1859 the Anniversary Days Observance Act repealed the Observance of 5th November Act . As the authorities dealt with the worst excesses , public decorum was gradually restored . The sale of fireworks was restricted , and the Guildford " guys " were neutralized in 1865 , although this was too late for one constable , who died of his wounds . Violence continued in Exeter for some years , peaking in 1867 , when incensed by rising food prices and banned from firing their customary bonfire , a mob was twice in one night driven from Cathedral Close by armed infantry . Further riots occurred in 1879 , but there were no more bonfires in Cathedral Close after 1894 . Elsewhere , sporadic instances of public disorder persisted late into the 20th century , accompanied by large numbers of firework @-@ related accidents , but a national Firework Code and improved public safety has in most cases brought an end to such things .
= = = Songs , Guys and decline = = =
One notable aspect of the Victorians ' commemoration of Guy Fawkes Night was its move away from the centres of communities , to their margins . Gathering wood for the bonfire increasingly became the province of working @-@ class children , who solicited combustible materials , money , food and drink from wealthier neighbours , often with the aid of songs . Most opened with the familiar " Remember , remember , the fifth of November , Gunpowder Treason and Plot " . The earliest recorded rhyme , from 1742 , is reproduced below alongside one bearing similarities to most Guy Fawkes Night ditties , recorded in 1903 at Charlton on Otmoor :
Organised entertainments also became popular in the late 19th century , and 20th @-@ century pyrotechnic manufacturers renamed Guy Fawkes Day as Firework Night . Sales of fireworks dwindled somewhat during the First World War , but resumed in the following peace . At the start of the Second World War celebrations were again suspended , resuming in November 1945 . For many families , Guy Fawkes Night became a domestic celebration , and children often congregated on street corners , accompanied by their own effigy of Guy Fawkes . This was sometimes ornately dressed and sometimes a barely recognisable bundle of rags stuffed with whatever filling was suitable . A survey found that in 1981 about 23 percent of Sheffield schoolchildren made Guys , sometimes weeks before the event . Collecting money was a popular reason for their creation , the children taking their effigy from door to door , or displaying it on street corners . But mainly , they were built to go on the bonfire , itself sometimes comprising wood stolen from other pyres ; " an acceptable convention " that helped bolster another November tradition , Mischief Night . Rival gangs competed to see who could build the largest , sometimes even burning the wood collected by their opponents ; in 1954 the Yorkshire Post reported on fires late in September , a situation that forced the authorities to remove latent piles of wood for safety reasons . Lately , however , the custom of begging for a " penny for the Guy " has almost completely disappeared . In contrast , some older customs still survive ; in Ottery St Mary men chase each other through the streets with lit tar barrels , and since 1679 Lewes has been the setting of some of England 's most extravagant 5 November celebrations , the Lewes Bonfire .
Generally , modern 5 November celebrations are run by local charities and other organisations , with paid admission and controlled access . In 1998 an editorial in the Catholic Herald called for the end of " Bonfire Night " , labelling it " an offensive act " . Author Martin Kettle , writing in The Guardian in 2003 , bemoaned an " occasionally nannyish " attitude to fireworks that discourages people from holding firework displays in their back gardens , and an " unduly sensitive attitude " toward the anti @-@ Catholic sentiment once so prominent on Guy Fawkes Night . David Cressy summarised the modern celebration with these words : " the rockets go higher and burn with more colour , but they have less and less to do with memories of the Fifth of November ... it might be observed that Guy Fawkes ' Day is finally declining , having lost its connection with politics and religion . But we have heard that many times before . "
= = = Similarities with other customs = = =
Historians have often suggested that Guy Fawkes Day served as a Protestant replacement for the ancient Celtic and Nordic festivals of Samhain , pagan events that the church absorbed and transformed into All Hallow 's Eve and All Souls ' Day . In The Golden Bough , the Scottish anthropologist James George Frazer suggested that Guy Fawkes Day exemplifies " the recrudescence of old customs in modern shapes " . David Underdown , writing in his 1987 work Revel , Riot , and Rebellion , viewed Gunpowder Treason Day as a replacement for Hallowe 'en : " just as the early church had taken over many of the pagan feasts , so did Protestants acquire their own rituals , adapting older forms or providing substitutes for them " . While the use of bonfires to mark the occasion was most likely taken from the ancient practice of lighting celebratory bonfires , the idea that the commemoration of 5 November 1605 ever originated from anything other than the safety of James I is , according to David Cressy , " speculative nonsense " . Citing Cressy 's work , Ronald Hutton agrees with his conclusion , writing , " There is , in brief , nothing to link the Hallowe 'en fires of North Wales , Man , and central Scotland with those which appeared in England upon 5 November . " Further confusion arises in Northern Ireland , where some communities celebrate Guy Fawkes Night ; the distinction there between the Fifth , and Halloween , is not always clear . Despite such disagreements , in 2005 David Cannadine commented on the encroachment into British culture of late 20th @-@ century American Hallowe 'en celebrations , and their effect on Guy Fawkes Night :
Nowadays , family bonfire gatherings are much less popular , and many once @-@ large civic celebrations have been given up because of increasingly intrusive health and safety regulations . But 5 November has also been overtaken by a popular festival that barely existed when I was growing up , and that is Halloween ... Britain is not the Protestant nation it was when I was young : it is now a multi @-@ faith society . And the Americanised Halloween is sweeping all before it — a vivid reminder of just how powerfully American culture and American consumerism can be transported across the Atlantic .
Reporting on the same topic , in 2012 the BBC 's Tom de Castella concluded :
It 's probably not a case of Bonfire Night decline , but rather a shift in priorities ... there are new trends in the bonfire ritual . Guy Fawkes masks have proved popular and some of the more quirky bonfire societies have replaced the Guy with effigies of celebrities in the news – including Lance Armstrong and Mario Balotelli – and even politicians . The emphasis has moved . The bonfire with a Guy on top – indeed the whole story of the Gunpowder Plot – has been marginalised . But the spectacle remains .
Another celebration involving fireworks , the five @-@ day Hindu festival of Diwali ( normally observed between mid @-@ October and November ) , in 2010 began on 5 November . This led The Independent to comment on the similarities between the two , its reporter Kevin Rawlinson wondering " which fireworks will burn brightest " .
= = In other countries = =
Gunpowder Treason Day was exported by settlers to colonies around the world , including members of the Commonwealth of Nations such as Australia , New Zealand , Canada and various Caribbean nations . The day is still marked in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , and in Saint Kitts and Nevis , but a fireworks ban by Antigua and Barbuda during the 1990s reduced its popularity in that country . In Australia , Sydney ( founded as a penal colony in 1788 ) saw at least one instance of the parading and burning of a Guy Fawkes effigy in 1805 , while in 1833 , four years after its founding , Perth had Gunpowder Treason Day listed as a public holiday . By the 1970s , Guy Fawkes Night had become less common in Australia . Some measure of celebration remains in New Zealand , Canada and South Africa .
In North America the commemoration was at first paid scant attention , but the arrest of two boys caught lighting bonfires on 5 November 1662 in Boston suggests , in historian James Sharpe 's view , that " an underground tradition of commemorating the Fifth existed " . In parts of North America it was known as Pope Day , celebrated mainly in colonial New England , but also as far south as Charleston . In Boston , founded in 1630 by Puritan settlers led by John Winthrop , an early celebration was held in 1685 , the same year that James II assumed the throne . Fifty years later , again in Boston , a local minister wrote " a Great number of people went over to Dorchester neck where at night they made a Great Bonfire and plaid off many fireworks " , although the day ended in tragedy when " 4 young men coming home in a Canoe were all Drowned . " Ten years later the raucous celebrations were the cause of considerable annoyance to the upper classes and a special Riot Act was passed , to prevent " riotous tumultuous and disorderly assemblies of more than three persons , all or any of them armed with Sticks , Clubs or any kind of weapons , or disguised with vizards , or painted or discolored faces , on in any manner disguised , having any kind of imagery or pageantry , in any street , lane , or place in Boston . " With inadequate resources , however , Boston 's authorities were powerless to enforce the Act . In the 1740s gang violence became common , with groups of Boston residents battling for the honour of burning the pope 's effigy . But by the mid @-@ 1760s these riots had subsided , and as colonial America moved towards revolution , the class rivalries featured during Pope Day gave way to anti @-@ British sentiment . In author Alfred Young 's view , Pope Day provided the " scaffolding , symbolism , and leadership " for resistance to the Stamp Act in 1764 – 65 , forgoing previous gang rivalries in favour of unified resistance to Britain .
The passage in 1774 of the Quebec Act , which guaranteed French Canadians free practice of Catholicism in the Province of Quebec , provoked complaints from some Americans that the British were introducing " Popish principles and French law " . Such fears were bolstered by opposition from the Church in Europe to American independence , threatening a revival of Pope Day . Commenting in 1775 , George Washington was less than impressed by the thought of any such resurrections , forbidding any under his command from participating :
As the Commander in Chief has been apprized of a design form 'd for the observance of that ridiculous and childish custom of burning the Effigy of the pope — He cannot help expressing his surprise that there should be Officers and Soldiers in this army so void of common sense , as not to see the impropriety of such a step at this Juncture ; at a Time when we are solliciting , and have really obtain 'd , the friendship and alliance of the people of Canada , whom we ought to consider as Brethren embarked in the same Cause . The defence of the general Liberty of America : At such a juncture , and in such Circumstances , to be insulting their Religion , is so monstrous , as not to be suffered or excused ; indeed instead of offering the most remote insult , it is our duty to address public thanks to these our Brethren , as to them we are so much indebted for every late happy Success over the common Enemy in Canada .
Generally , following Washington 's complaint , American colonists stopped observing Pope Day , although according to The Bostonian Society some citizens of Boston celebrated it on one final occasion , in 1776 . The tradition continued in Salem as late as 1817 , and was still observed in Portsmouth , New Hampshire , in 1892 . In the late 18th century , effigies of prominent figures such as two Prime Ministers of Great Britain , the Earl of Bute and Lord North , and the American traitor General Benedict Arnold , were also burnt . In the 1880s bonfires were still being lit in some New England coastal towns , although no longer to commemorate the failure of the Gunpowder Plot . In the area around New York , stacks of barrels were burnt on election day eve , which after 1845 was a Tuesday early in November .
= Daara J =
Daara J ( pronounced [ daːɻa ʄiː ] , which means " the school " in Wolof ) are a Senegalese rap duo that consists of N 'Dongo D and Faada Freddy . Their music takes influence from hip hop , Afro @-@ Cuban rhythms , and reg
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, and U.S. News & World Report ranks NYU 9th for social psychology and 9th for behavioral neuroscience .
U.S. News & World Report ranks the New York University School of Law 1st for tax law and 1st for international law . The publication also ranks The Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service 6th in public policy . The NYU Department of Philosophy is globally ranked 1st by the The Philosophical Gourmet Report and the QS World University Rankings . In The Los Angeles Times , NYU Tisch School of Arts is ranked 1st for film by Ranker . NYU is ranked 1st for New Ivies by college resource guide Unigo . In 2006 , NYU was named by Kaplan as one of the " New Ivies " . The annual Global Employability Survey in The New York Times ranks NYU 11th nationally and 29th globally for employability . For four consecutive years NYU has been ranked as America 's " # 1 dream school " by the Princeton Review . NYU is consistently ranked as a " Top 10 Dream College " for both parents and students according to The Princeton Review . Alongside Stanford University , Harvard College , Princeton University , and Massachusetts Institute of Technology , NYU is one of few universities to regularly appear in the top 10 list for both parents and students . NYU ranks 19th in the world based on the number of patents generated .
= = Student life = =
= = = Student government = = =
The Student Senators Council is the governing student body at NYU . The SSC has been involved in controversial debates on campus , including a campuswide ban on the sale of Coca @-@ Cola products in 2005 , and the Graduate Student Organizing Committee unionization in 2001 and subsequent strike in 2005 . This ban was lifted by the University Senate on February 5 , 2009 .
= = = Student organizations = = =
NYU has over 450 student clubs and organizations on campus . In addition to the sports teams , fraternities , sororities , and study clubs , there are many organizations on campus that focus on entertainment , arts , and culture . These organizations include various student media clubs : for instance , the daily student newspaper the Washington Square News , the NYU Local daily blog , The Plague comedy magazine , " Washington Square Local web @-@ based satire news source , and the literary journals Washington Square Review and The Minetta Review , as well as student @-@ run event producers such as the NYU Program Board and the Inter @-@ Residence Hall Council . It also operates radio station WNYU @-@ FM 89 @.@ 1 with a diverse college radio format , transmitting to the entire New York metropolitan area from the original campus , and via booster station WNYU @-@ FM1 which fills in the signal in lower Manhattan from atop one of the Silver Towers , next to the football field at the Washington Square campus .
The New York University Mock Trial team is consistently ranked as one of the best collegiate mock trial teams in the country . NYU has qualified for the National Championship Tournament for 10 consecutive seasons and placed in the top 10 during each of those years . In the 2009 – 2010 season , NYU won the 26th National Championship Tournament in Memphis over rival Harvard . The following season , they qualified for the final round once more only to be the runners @-@ up to UCLA . In the American Mock Trial Association 's 2015 – 2016 power rankings , NYU ranks third , behind Harvard and Yale .
During the University Heights era , an apparent rift evolved with some organizations distancing themselves from students from the downtown schools . The exclusive Philomathean Society operated from 1832 to 1888 ( formally giving way in 1907 and reconstituted into the Andiron Club ) . Included among the Andiron 's regulations was " Rule No.11 : Have no relations save the most casual and informal kind with the downtown schools " . The Eucleian Society , rival to the Philomathean Society , was founded in 1832 . The Knights of the Lamp was a social organization founded in 1914 at the School of Commerce . This organization met every full moon and had a glowworm as its mascot . The Red Dragon Society , founded in 1898 , is thought to be the most selective society at NYU . In addition , NYU 's first yearbook was formed by fraternities and " secret societies " at the university .
NYU has traditions which have persisted across campuses . Since the beginning of the 20th century initiation ceremonies have welcomed incoming NYU freshmen . At the Bronx University Heights Campus , seniors used to grab unsuspecting freshmen , take them to a horse @-@ watering trough , and then dunk them head @-@ first into what was known colloquially as " the Fountain of Knowledge " . This underground initiation took place until the 1970s . Today freshmen take part in university @-@ sponsored activities during what is called " Welcome Week " . In addition , throughout the year the university traditionally holds Apple Fest ( an apple @-@ themed country fest that began at the University Heights campus ) , the Violet Ball ( a dance in the atrium of Bobst Library ) , Strawberry Fest ( featuring New York City 's longest Strawberry Shortcake ) , and the semi @-@ annual midnight breakfast where Student Affairs administrators serve free breakfast to students before finals .
Students publish a campus comedy magazine , The Plague . Like many college humor magazines , this often pokes fun at popular culture as well as campus life and the idiosyncrasies of New York University . The Plague was founded in 1978 by Howard Ostrowsky along with Amy Burns , John Rawlins , Joe Pinto and Dan Fiorella , and is currently published once per semester . It is not NYU 's first humor magazine , as The Medley was a humor magazine published by the Eucleian Society from 1913 to 1950 .
= = = Greek life = = =
Some of the first fraternities in the country were formed at NYU . Greek life first formed on the NYU campus in 1837 when Psi Upsilon chartered its Delta Chapter . The first fraternities at NYU were social ones . With their athletic , professional , intellectual , and service activities , later groups sought to attract students who also formed other groups . Since then , Greek letter organizations have proliferated to include 25 social fraternities and sororities . As of 2014 , approximately 13 % of NYU students are members of fraternities or sororities .
Four governing boards oversee Greek life at the university . The Interfraternity Council ( IFC ) has jurisdiction over all twelve recognized fraternities on campus . Eight sororities are under the jurisdiction of the Panhellenic Council ( PhC ) , which features seven national sororities ( ΔΦΕ , ΑΕΦ , ΑΣΤ , ΠΒΦ , KKΓ , ZTΑ , ΔΓ ) and two local sororities ( AΦΖ and ΘΦΒ ) . Five multicultural organizations maintain membership in the Multicultural Greek Council ( MGC ) , including two fraternities and three sororities . All three of the aforementioned boards are managed under the auspices of the Inter @-@ Greek Council .
Greek organizations have historical significance at NYU . Delta Phi Epsilon , Zeta Psi , Alpha Epsilon Pi , Tau Delta Phi , Alpha Kappa Psi and Delta Sigma Pi were founded at NYU . Zeta Psi Fraternity of North America was chartered in 1847 , Delta Sigma Pi in 1907 , and Alpha Epsilon Pi in 1913 . Delta Phi Epsilon was founded in 1917 . The NYU Gamma chapter of Delta Phi , founded in 1841 , is the longest continuously active fraternity chapter in the world , having never gone inactive since its establishment . Delta Phi is also the oldest continuously active fraternity in the United States , being the only organization in the original Union Triad to remain active since its institute . The NYU Gamma chapter of Zeta Beta Tau is the oldest active ZBT chapter in the country .
= = = ROTC = = =
NYU does not have an ROTC program on campus . However , NYU students may participate in the U.S. Army ROTC program through NYC Army ROTC , headquartered at Fordham University .
= = Athletics = =
NYU 's sports teams are referred to as the NYU Violets , the colors being the trademarked hue " NYU Violet " and white . Since 1981 , the school mascot has been a bobcat , whose origin can be traced back to the abbreviation then being used by the Bobst Library computerized catalog — short : Bobcat . NYU 's sports teams include baseball , men 's and women 's varsity basketball , cross country , fencing , golf , soccer , softball , swimming and diving , tennis , track and field , volleyball , and wrestling . All of NYU 's sports teams participate in the NCAA 's Division III and the University Athletic Association , with the exception of fencing , which participates in Division I. While NYU has had All @-@ American football players , the school has not had a varsity football team since 1952 .
NYU students also compete in club and intramural sports , including badminton , baseball , basketball , crew , cycling , equestrianism , ice hockey , lacrosse , martial arts , rugby , softball , squash , tennis , triathlon , and ultimate . The Coles Sports and Recreation Center serves as the home base of several of NYU 's intercollegiate athletic teams . Many of NYU 's varsity teams play their games at various facilities and fields throughout Manhattan because of the scarcity of space for playing fields near campus . In 2002 , NYU opened the Palladium Athletic Facility as the second on @-@ campus recreational facility .
= = Faculty and alumni = =
NYU has 470 @,@ 000 living alumni as of 2015 . At least thirty @-@ six Nobel Prize winners winners are affiliated with NYU . Notable graduating classes include among others , 1941 , which graduated three later Nobel Prize laureates ( Julius Axelrod , Gertrude B. Elion and Clifford Shull ) , Olympic Gold Medalist John Woodruff , sportscaster Howard Cosell and sociologist Morris Janowitz ; 1951 included professor emeritus at MIT and former DARPA director Jack Ruina and Cathleen Synge Morawetz , first woman recipient of National Medal of Science ; 1957 included Pulitzer Prize winning author Frank McCourt and president of Technion @-@ Israel Institute of Technology Josef Singer ; 1964 included former Chief Engineer of NASA Johnson Space Center , Jay Greene and film director Martin Scorsese ; and 1977 included : former Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan ; IRS Commissioner Mark Everson ; INSEAD Dean Gabriel Hawawini ; Pulitzer , Oscar and Tony Award winner John Patrick Shanley ; NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman ; NASDAQ CEO Robert Greifeld ; Ma Ying @-@ jeou president of Republic of China ( Taiwan ) ; Guillermo Endara president of Republic of Panama , Clive Davis music industry executive , and Cathy Minehan , Federal Reserve Chairman Boston .
= = = Postgraduation statistics = = =
NYU ranked 7th among the World ’ s top 100 universities for producing millionaires , as compiled by Times Higher Education World University Rankings . NYU ranked 5th globally among universities with the highest number of alumni worth $ 30 million or more , as compiled by ABC News . CNBC ranked NYU 4th globally among universities with the most billionaire graduates .
= = In popular culture = =
NYU has been portrayed in books , movies and television shows , and the campus of NYU has been the backdrop for a number of different books and movies .
= Dusky shark =
The dusky shark ( Carcharhinus obscurus ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , occurring in tropical and warm @-@ temperate continental seas worldwide . A generalist apex predator , the dusky shark can be found from the coast to the outer continental shelf and adjacent pelagic waters , and has been recorded from a depth of 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) . Populations migrate seasonally towards the poles in the summer and towards the equator in the winter , traveling hundreds to thousands of kilometers . One of the largest members of its genus , the dusky shark reaches 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) in length and 347 kg ( 765 lb ) in weight . It has a slender , streamlined body and can be identified by its short round snout , long sickle @-@ shaped pectoral fins , ridge between the first and second dorsal fins , and faintly marked fins .
Adult dusky sharks have a broad and varied diet , consisting mostly of bony fishes , sharks and rays , and cephalopods , but also occasionally crustaceans , sea stars , bryozoans , sea turtles , marine mammals , carrion , and garbage . This species is viviparous with a three @-@ year reproductive cycle ; females bear litters of 3 – 14 young after a gestation period of 22 – 24 months , after which there is a year of rest before they become pregnant again . Females are capable of storing sperm for long periods , as their encounters with suitable mates may be few and far between due to their nomadic lifestyle and low overall abundance . Dusky sharks are one of the slowest @-@ growing and latest @-@ maturing sharks , not reaching adulthood until around 20 years of age .
Because of its slow reproductive rate , the dusky shark is very vulnerable to human @-@ caused population depletion . This species is highly valued by commercial fisheries for its fins , used in shark fin soup , and for its meat , skin , and liver oil . It is also esteemed by recreational fishers . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened worldwide and Vulnerable off the eastern United States , where populations have dropped to 15 – 20 % of 1970s levels . The dusky shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans due to its large size , but there are few attacks attributable to it .
= = Taxonomy = =
French naturalist Charles Alexandre Lesueur published the first scientific description of the dusky shark in an 1818 issue of Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia . He placed it in the genus Squalus and gave it the specific epithet obscurus ( Latin for " dark " or " dim " ) , referring to its coloration . Subsequent authors have recognized this species as belonging to the genus Carcharhinus . Lesueur did not designate a type specimen , though he was presumably working from a shark caught in North American waters .
Many early sources gave the scientific name of the dusky shark as Carcharias ( later Carcharhinus ) lamiella , which originated from an 1882 account by David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert . Although Jordan and Gilbert referred to a set of jaws that came from a dusky shark , the type specimen they designated was later discovered to be a copper shark ( C. brachyurus ) . Therefore , C. lamiella is not considered a synonym of C. obscurus but rather of C. brachyurus . Other common names for this species include bay shark , black whaler , brown common gray shark , brown dusky shark , brown shark , common whaler , dusky ground shark , dusky whaler , river whaler , shovelnose , and slender whaler shark .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
Teeth belonging to the dusky shark are fairly well represented in the fossil record , though assigning Carcharhinus teeth to species can be problematic . Dusky shark teeth dating to the Miocene ( 23 @-@ 5 @.@ 3 Ma ) have been recovered from the Kendeace and Grand Bay formations in Carriacou , the Grenadines , the Moghra Formation in Egypt , Polk County , Florida , and possibly Cerro La Cruz in northern Venezuela . Teeth dating to the Late Miocene or Early Pliocene ( 11 @.@ 6 @-@ 3 @.@ 6 Ma ) are abundant in the Yorktown Formation and the Pungo River , North Carolina , and from the Chesapeake Bay region ; these teeth differ slightly from the modern dusky shark , and have often been misidentified as belonging to the oceanic whitetip shark ( C. longimanus ) . Dusky shark teeth have also been recovered from the vicinity of two baleen whales in North Carolina , one preserved in Goose Creek Limestone dating to the Late Pliocene ( c . 3 @.@ 5 Ma ) , and the other in mud dating to the Pleistocene @-@ Holocene ( c . 12 @,@ 000 years ago ) .
In 1982 , Jack Garrick published a phylogenetic analysis of Carcharhinus based on morphology , in which he placed the dusky shark and the Galapagos shark ( C. galapagensis ) at the center of the " obscurus group " . The group consisted of large , triangular @-@ toothed sharks with a ridge between the dorsal fins , and also included the bignose shark ( C. altimus ) , the Caribbean reef shark ( C. perezi ) , the sandbar shark ( C. plumbeus ) , and the oceanic whitetip shark . This interpretation was largely upheld by Leonard Compagno in his 1988 phenetic study , and by Gavin Naylor in his 1992 allozyme sequence study . Naylor was able to further resolve the interrelationships of the " ridge @-@ backed " branch of Carcharhinus , finding that the dusky shark , Galapagos shark , oceanic whitetip shark , and blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) comprise its most derived clade .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the dusky shark extends worldwide , albeit discontinuously , in tropical and warm @-@ temperate waters . In the western Atlantic Ocean , it is found from Massachusetts and the Georges Bank to southern Brazil , including the Bahamas and Cuba . In the eastern Atlantic Ocean , it has been reported from the western and central Mediterranean Sea , the Canary Islands , Cape Verde , Senegal , Sierra Leone , and possibly elsewhere including Portugal , Spain , Morocco , and Madeira . In the Indian Ocean , it is found off South Africa , Mozambique , and Madagascar , with sporadic records in the Arabian Sea , the Bay of Bengal , and perhaps the Red Sea . In the Pacific Ocean , it occurs off Japan , mainland China and Taiwan , Vietnam , Australia , and New Caledonia in the west , and from southern California to the Gulf of California , around Revillagigedo , and possibly off northern Chile in the east . Records of dusky sharks from the northeastern and eastern central Atlantic , and around tropical islands , may in fact be of Galapagos sharks . Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite evidence suggest that Indonesian and Australian sharks represent distinct populations .
Residing off continental coastlines from the surf zone to the outer continental shelf and adjacent oceanic waters , the dusky shark occupies an intermediate habitat that overlaps with its more specialized relatives , such as the inshore sandbar shark , the pelagic silky shark ( C. falciformis ) and oceanic whitetip shark , the deepwater bignose shark , and the islandic Galapagos shark and silvertip shark ( C. albimarginatus ) . One tracking study in the northern Gulf of Mexico found that it spends most of its time at depths of 10 – 80 m ( 33 – 262 ft ) , while making occasional forays below 200 m ( 660 ft ) ; this species has been known to dive as deep as 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) . It prefers water temperatures of 19 – 28 ° C ( 66 – 82 ° F ) , and avoids areas of low salinity such as estuaries .
The dusky shark is nomadic and strongly migratory , undertaking recorded movements of up to 3 @,@ 800 km ( 2 @,@ 400 mi ) ; adults generally move longer distances than juveniles . Sharks along both coasts of North America shift northward with warmer summer temperatures , and retreat back towards the equator in winter . Off South Africa , young males and females over 0 @.@ 9 m ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) long disperse southward and northward respectively ( with some overlap ) from the nursery area off KwaZulu @-@ Natal ; they join the adults several years later by a yet @-@ unidentified route . In addition , juveniles spend spring and summer in the surf zone and fall and winter in offshore waters , and as they approach 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) in length begin to conduct a north @-@ south migration between KwaZulu @-@ Natal in the winter and the Western Cape in summer . Still @-@ larger sharks , over 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) long , migrate as far as southern Mozambique . Off Western Australia , adult and juvenile dusky sharks migrate towards the coast in summer and fall , though not to the inshore nurseries occupied by newborns .
= = Description = =
One of the largest members of its genus , the dusky shark commonly reaches a length of 3 @.@ 2 m ( 10 ft ) and a weight of 160 – 180 kg ( 350 – 400 lb ) ; the maximum recorded length and weight are 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) and 347 kg ( 765 lb ) respectively . Females grow larger than males . This shark has a slender , streamlined body with a broadly rounded snout no longer than the width of the mouth . The nostrils are preceded by barely developed flaps of skin . The medium @-@ sized , circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . The mouth has very short , subtle furrows at the corners and contains 13 @-@ 15 ( typically 14 ) tooth rows on either side of both jaws . The upper teeth are distinctively broad , triangular , and slightly oblique with strong , coarse serrations , while the lower teeth are narrower and upright , with finer serrations . The five pairs of gill slits are fairly long .
The large pectoral fins measure around one @-@ fifth as long as the body , and have a falcate ( sickle @-@ like ) shape tapering to a point . The first dorsal fin is of moderate size and somewhat falcate , with a pointed apex and a strongly concave rear margin ; its origin lies over the pectoral fin free rear tips . The second dorsal fin is much smaller and is positioned about opposite the anal fin . A low dorsal ridge is present between the dorsal fins . The caudal fin is large and high , with a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . The dermal denticles are diamond @-@ shaped and closely set , each bearing five horizontal ridges leading to teeth on the posterior margin . This species is bronzy to bluish gray above and white below , which extends onto the flanks as a faint lighter stripe . The fins , particularly the underside of the pectoral fins and the lower caudal fin lobe ) darken towards the tips ; this is more obvious in juveniles .
= = Biology and ecology = =
As an apex predator positioned at the highest level of the trophic web , the dusky shark is generally less abundant than other sharks that share its range . However , high concentrations of individuals , especially juveniles , can be found at particular locations . Adults are often found following ships far from land , such as in the Agulhas Current . A tracking study off the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina reported an average swimming speed of 0 @.@ 8 km / h ( 0 @.@ 50 mph ) . The dusky shark is one of the hosts of the sharksucker ( Echeneis naucrates ) . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Anthobothrium laciniatum , Dasyrhynchus pacificus , Platybothrium kirstenae , Floriceps saccatus , Tentacularia coryphaenae , and Triloculatum triloculatum , the monogeneans Dermophthirius carcharhini and Loimos salpinggoides , the leech Stibarobdella macrothela , the copepods Alebion sp . , Pandarus cranchii , P. sinuatus , and P. smithii , the praniza larvae of gnathiid isopods , and the sea lamprey ( Petromyzon marinus ) .
Full @-@ grown dusky sharks have no significant natural predators . Major predators of young sharks include the ragged tooth shark ( Carcharias taurus ) , the great white shark ( Carcharodon carcharias ) , the bull shark ( C. leucas ) , and the tiger shark ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) . Off KwaZulu @-@ Natal , the use of shark nets to protect beaches has reduced the populations of these large predators , leading to a dramatic increase in the number of juvenile dusky sharks ( a phenomenon called " predator release " ) . In turn , the juvenile sharks have decimated populations of small bony fishes , with negative consequences for the biodiversity of the local ecosystem .
= = = Feeding = = =
The dusky shark is a generalist that takes a wide variety of prey from all levels of the water column , though it favors hunting near the bottom . A large individual can consume over a tenth of its body weight at a single sitting . The bite force exerted by a 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long dusky shark has been measured at 60 kg ( 130 lb ) over the 2 mm2 ( 0 @.@ 0031 in2 ) area at the tip of a tooth . This is the highest figure thus far measured from any shark , though it also reflects the concentration of force at the tooth tip . Dense aggregations of young sharks , forming in response to feeding opportunities , have been documented in the Indian Ocean .
The known diet of the dusky shark encompasses pelagic fishes , including herring and anchovies , tuna and mackerel , billfish , jacks , needlefish and flyingfish , threadfins , hairtails , lancetfish , and lanternfish ; demersal fishes , including mullets , porgies , grunts , and flatheads , eels , lizardfish , cusk eels , gurnards , and flatfish ; reef fishes , including barracudas , goatfish , spadefish , groupers , scorpionfish , and porcupinefish ; cartilaginous fishes , including dogfish , sawsharks , angel sharks , catsharks , thresher sharks , smoothhounds , smaller requiem sharks , sawfish , guitarfish , skates , stingrays , and butterfly rays ; and invertebrates , including cephalopods , decapod crustaceans , barnacles , and sea stars . Very rarely , the largest dusky sharks may also consume sea turtles , marine mammals ( mainly as carrion ) , and human refuse .
In the northwestern Atlantic , around 60 % of the dusky shark 's diet consists of bony fishes , from over ten families with bluefish ( Pomatomus saltatrix ) and summer flounder ( Paralichthys dentatus ) being especially important . Cartilaginous fishes , mainly skates and their egg cases , are the second @-@ most important dietary component , while the lady crab ( Ovalipes ocellatus ) is also a relatively significant food source . In South African and Australian waters , bony fishes are again the most important prey type . Newborn and juvenile sharks subsist mainly on small pelagic prey such as sardines and squid ; older sharks over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long broaden their diets to include larger bony and cartilaginous fishes . The run of the southern African pilchard ( Sardinops sagax ) , occurring off the eastern coast of South Africa every winter , is attended by medium and large @-@ sized dusky sharks . Pregnant and post @-@ partum females do not join , possibly because the energy cost of gestation leaves them unable to pursue such swift prey . One South African study reported that 0 @.@ 2 % of the sharks examined had preyed upon bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other requiem sharks , the dusky shark is viviparous : the developing embryos are initially nourished by a yolk sac , which is converted into a placental connection to the mother once the yolk supply is exhausted . Mating occurs during spring in the northwestern Atlantic , while there appears to be no reproductive seasonality in other regions such as off South Africa . Females are capable of storing masses of sperm , possibly from multiple males , for months to years within their nidamental glands ( an organ that secretes egg cases ) . This would be advantageous given the sharks ' itinerant natures and low natural abundance , which would make encounters with suitable mates infrequent and unpredictable .
With a gestation period estimated at up to 22 – 24 months and a one @-@ year resting period between pregnancies , female dusky sharks bear at most one litter of young every three years . The litter size ranges from 3 to 16 , with 6 to 12 being typical , and does not correlate with female size . Sharks in the western Atlantic tend to produce slightly smaller litters than those from the southeastern Atlantic ( averaging 8 versus 10 pups per litter ) . Depending on region , birthing may occur throughout the year or over a span of several months : newborn sharks have been reported from late winter to summer in the northwestern Atlantic , in summer and fall off Western Australia , and throughout the year with a peak in fall off southern Africa . Females move into shallow inshore habitats such as lagoons to give birth , as such areas offer their pups rich food supplies and shelter from predation ( including from their own species ) , and leave immediately afterward . These nursery areas are known along the coasts of KwaZulu @-@ Natal , southwestern Australia , western Baja California , and the eastern United States from New Jersey to North Carolina .
Newborn dusky sharks measure 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 0 m ( 2 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long ; pup size increases with female size , and decreases with litter size . There is evidence that females can determine the size at which their pups are born , so as to improve their chances of survival across better or worse environmental conditions . Females also provision their young with energy reserves , stored in a liver that comprises one @-@ fifth of the pup 's weight , which sustains the newborn until it learns to hunt for itself . The dusky shark is one of the slowest @-@ growing shark species , reaching sexual maturity only at a substantial size and age ( see table ) . Various studies have found growth rates to be largely similar across geographical regions and between sexes . The annual growth rate is 8 – 11 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) over the first five years of life . The maximum lifespan is believed to be 40 – 50 years or more .
= = Human interactions = =
The dusky shark is considered to be potentially dangerous to humans because of its large size , though little is known of how it behaves towards people underwater . As of 2009 , the International Shark Attack File lists it as responsible for six attacks on people and boats , three of them unprovoked and one fatal . However , attacks attributed to this species off Bermuda and other islands were probably in reality caused by Galapagos sharks . Shark nets used to protect beaches in South Africa and Australia entangle adult and larger juvenile dusky sharks in some numbers . From 1978 to 1999 , an average of 256 individuals were caught annually in nets off KwaZulu @-@ Natal ; species @-@ specific data is not available for nets off Australia . Young dusky sharks adapt well to display in public aquariums .
The dusky shark is one of the most sought @-@ after species for shark fin trade , as its fins are large and contain a high number of internal rays ( ceratotrichia ) . In addition , the meat is sold fresh , frozen , dried and salted , or smoked , the skin is made into leather , and the liver oil is processed for vitamins . Dusky sharks are taken by targeted commercial fisheries operating off eastern North America , southwestern Australia , and eastern South Africa using multi @-@ species longlines and gillnets . The southwestern Australian fishery began in the 1940s and expanded in the 1970s to yield 500 – 600 tons per year . The fishery utilizes selective demersal gillnets that take almost exclusively young sharks under three years old , with 18 – 28 % of all newborns captured in their first year . Demographic models suggest that the fishery is sustainable , provided that the mortality rate of sharks over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long is under 4 % .
In addition to commercial shark fisheries , dusky sharks are also caught as bycatch on longlines meant for tuna and swordfish ( and usually kept for its valuable fins ) , and by recreational fishers . Large numbers of dusky sharks , mostly juveniles , are caught by sport fishers off South Africa and eastern Australia . This shark was once one of the most important species in the Florida trophy shark tournaments , before the population collapsed .
= = = Conservation = = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened worldwide and Vulnerable in the northwestern Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico . The American Fisheries Society has also assessed North American dusky shark populations as Vulnerable . Its very low reproductive rate renders the dusky shark extremely susceptible to overfishing .
Stocks off the eastern United States are severely overfished ; a 2006 stock assessment survey by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) showed that its population had dropped to 15 – 20 % of 1970s levels . In 1997 , the dusky shark was identified as a Species of Concern by the NMFS , meaning that it warranted conservation concern but there was insufficient information for listing on the U.S. Endangered Species Act ( ESA ) . Commercial and recreational retention of dusky sharks was prohibited in 1998 , but this has been of limited effectiveness due to high bycatch mortality on multi @-@ species gear . In addition , some 2 @,@ 000 dusky sharks were caught by recreational fishers in 2003 despite the ban . In 2005 , North Carolina implemented a time / area closure to reduce the impact of recreational fishing . To aid conservation efforts , molecular techniques using polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) have been developed that can identify whether marketed shark parts ( e.g. fins ) are from prohibited species like the dusky shark , versus similar allowed species such as the sandbar shark .
= Second Battle of Kharkov =
The Second Battle of Kharkov , was an Axis counter @-@ offensive in the region around Kharkov ( now Kharkiv ) against the Red Army Izium bridgehead offensive conducted 12 – 28 May 1942 , on the Eastern Front during World War II . Its objective was to eliminate the Izium bridgehead over Seversky Donets or the " Barvenkovo bulge " ( Russian : Барвенковский выступ ) which was one of the Soviet offensive 's staging areas . After a winter counter @-@ offensive that drove German troops away from Moscow and also depleted the Red Army 's reserves , the Kharkov offensive was a new Soviet attempt to expand upon their strategic initiative , although it failed to secure a significant element of surprise .
On 12 May 1942 , Soviet forces under the command of Marshal Semyon Timoshenko launched an offensive against the German 6th Army from a salient established during the winter counter @-@ offensive . After initial promising signs , the offensive was stopped by German counterattacks . Critical errors by several staff officers and by Joseph Stalin , who failed to accurately estimate the 6th Army 's potential and overestimated their own newly trained forces , led to a German pincer attack which cut off advancing Soviet troops from the rest of the front . The operation caused almost 300 @,@ 000 Soviet casualties compared to just 20 @,@ 000 for the Germans and their allies .
= = Background = =
= = = General situation on the Eastern Front = = =
By late February 1942 , the Soviet winter counter @-@ offensive , had pushed German forces from Moscow on a broad front and then ended in mutual exhaustion . Stalin was convinced that the Germans were finished and would collapse by the spring or summer 1942 , as he said in his speech of 7 November 1941 . Stalin decided to exploit this perceived weakness on the Eastern Front by launching a new offensive in the spring . Stalin 's decision faced objections from his advisors , including the Chief of the Red Army General Staff , General Boris Shaposhnikov , and generals Aleksandr Vasilevsky and Georgy Zhukov , who argued for a more defensive strategy . Vasilevsky wrote " Yes , we were hoping for [ German reserves to run out ] , but the reality was more harsh than that " . According to Zhukov , Stalin did believe that the Germans were able to carry out operations simultaneously along two strategic axes , he was sure that the opening of spring offensives along the entire front would destabilize the German Army , before it had a chance to initiate what could be a mortal offensive blow on Moscow . Despite the caution urged by his generals , Stalin decided to try to keep the German forces off @-@ balance through " local offensives " .
= = = Choosing the strategy = = =
After the conclusion of the winter offensive , Stalin and the Soviet Armed Forces General Staff ( Stavka ) believed that the eventual German offensives would aim for Moscow , with a big offensive to the south as well , mirroring Operation Barbarossa and Operation Typhoon in 1941 . Although Stavka believed that the Germans had been defeated before Moscow , the seventy divisions which faced Moscow remained a threat . Stalin , most generals and front commanders believed that the principal effort would be a German offensive towards Moscow . Emboldened by the success of the winter offensive , Stalin was convinced that local offensives in the area would wear down German forces , weakening German efforts to mount another operation to take Moscow . Stalin had agreed to prepare the Red Army for an " active strategic defence " but later gave orders for the planning of seven local offensives , stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea . One area was Kharkov , where action was originally ordered for March .
Early that month , the Stavka issued orders to Southwestern Strategic Direction headquarters for an offensive in the region , after the victories following the Rostov Strategic Offensive Operation and the Barvenkovo – Lozovaya Offensive Operation in the Donbas region . The forces of Marshal Semyon Timoshenko and Lieutenant General Kirill Moskalenko penetrated German positions along the northern Donets River , east of Kharkov . Fighting continued into April , with Moskalenko crossing the river and establishing a tenuous bridgehead at Izium . In the south , the Soviet 6th Army had limited success defending against German forces , which managed to keep a bridgehead of their own on the east bank of the river . Catching the attention of Stalin , it set the pace for the prelude to the eventual offensive intended to reach Pavlohrad and Sinelnikovo and eventually Kharkov and Poltava .
By 15 March , Soviet commanders introduced preliminary plans for an offensive towards Kharkov , assisted by a large number of reserves . On 20 March , Timoshenko held a conference in Kupiansk to discuss the offensive and a report to Moscow , prepared by Timoshenko 's chief of staff , General Lieutenant Ivan Baghramian , summed up the conference , although arguably leaving several key intelligence features out . The build @-@ up of Soviet forces in the region of Barvenkovo and Vovchansk continued well into the beginning of May . Final details were settled following discussions between Stalin , Stavka and the leadership of the Southwestern Strategic Direction led by Timoshenko throughout March and April , with one of the final Stavka directives issued on 17 April .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Soviet order of battle = = =
By 11 May 1942 , the Red Army was able to allocate six armies under two fronts , amongst other units . The Soviet Southwestern Front had the 21st Army , 28th Army , 38th Army and the 6th Army . By 11 May , the 21st Tank Corps had been moved into the region with the 23rd Tank Corps , with another 269 tanks . There were also three independent rifle divisions and a rifle regiment from the 270th Rifle Division , concentrated in the area , supported by the 2nd Cavalry Corps in Bogdanovka . The Soviet Southern Front had the 57th and 9th armies , along with thirty rifle divisions , a rifle brigade and the 24th Tank Corps , the 5th Cavalry Corps and three Guards rifle divisions . At its height , the Southern Front could operate eleven guns or mortars per kilometer of front .
Forces regrouping in the sector ran into the rasputitsa , which turned much of the soil into mud . This caused severe delays in the preparations and made reinforcing the Southern and Southwestern Front take longer than expected . Senior Soviet representatives criticized the front commanders for poor management of forces , an inability to stage offensives and for their armchair generalship . Because the regrouping was done so haphazardly , the Germans received some warning of Soviet preparations . Moskalenko , the commander of the 38th Army , placed the blame on the fact that the fronts did not plan in advance to regroup and showed a poor display of front management . ( He commented afterwards that it was no surprise that the " German @-@ Fascist command divined our plans " . )
= = = Soviet leadership and manpower = = =
The primary Soviet leader was Marshal Semyon Timoshenko , a veteran of World War I and the Russian Civil War . Timoshenko had achieved some success at the Battle of Smolensk in 1941 but was eventually defeated . Timoshenko orchestrated the victory at Rostov during the winter counter @-@ attacks and more success in the spring offensive at Kharkov , before to the battle . Overseeing the actions of the army was Military Commissar Nikita Khrushchev .
The average Soviet soldier suffered from inexperience . With the Soviet debacle of the previous year ameliorated only by the barest victory at Moscow , most of the original manpower of the Red Army had been killed , wounded or captured by the Germans , with casualties of almost 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 just from the Battle of Moscow . The typical soldier in the Red Army was a conscript and had little to no combat experience and tactical training was practically nonexistent . Coupled with the lack of trained soldiers , the Red Army also began to suffer from the loss of Soviet industrial areas and a temporary strategic defence was considered necessary .
The General Chief of Staff , Marshal Vasilevsky , recognised that the Soviet Army of 1942 was not ready to conduct big offensive operations against the well @-@ trained German army , because it did not have quantitative and qualitative superiority over the Wehrmacht and because leadership was being rebuilt after the defeats of 1941 . ( This analysis is retrospective and is an analysis on Soviet conduct during their strategic offensives in 1942 , and even beyond , such as Operation Mars in October 1942 and the Battle of Târgul Frumos in May 1944 . )
= = = German preparations = = =
Unknown to the Soviet forces , the German 6th Army , under the newly appointed General Paulus , was issued orders for Operation Fredericus on 30 April 1942 . This operation was to crush the Soviet armies within the Izium salient south of Kharkov , created during the Soviet spring offensives in March and April . This task was given to the 6th Army and the final directive issued on 30 April gave a start date of 18 May .
The Germans had made a big effort to reinforce Army Group South and transferred Field Marshal Fedor von Bock , former commander of Army Group Center during Operation Barbarossa and Operation Typhoon . On 5 April 1942 , Hitler issued Directive 41 , which made the south the main area of operations under Case Blue the summer campaign , at the expense of the other fronts . The divisions of Army Group South were brought up to full strength in late April and early May . The strategic objective was illustrated after the victories of Erich von Manstein and the 11th Army in the Crimea . The main objective remained Caucasus , its oil fields and as a secondary objective , the city of Stalingrad .
The plan to begin Operation Fredericus in April led to more forces being allocated to the area of the German 6th Army . Unknown to the Soviet forces , the German army was regrouping in the center of operations for the offensive around Kharkov . On 10 May , Paulus submitted his final draft of Operation Fridericus and feared a Soviet attack . By then , the German army opposite Timoshenko was ready for the operation towards Caucasus .
= = Soviet offensive = =
= = = Initial success = = =
The Red Army offensive began at 6 : 30 a.m. on 12 May 1942 , led by a concentrated hour @-@ long artillery bombardment and a final twenty @-@ minute air attack upon German positions . The ground offensive began with a dual pincer movement from the Volchansk and Barvenkovo salients at 7 : 30 a.m. The German defences were knocked out by air raids , artillery @-@ fire and coordinated ground attacks against German fortifications . The fighting was so fierce that the Soviets inched forward their second echelon formations , preparing to throw them into combat as well . Fighting was particularly ferocious near the Soviet village of Nepokrytaia , where the Germans launched three local counter @-@ attacks . By dark the deepest Soviet advance was 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . Moskalenko , discovered the movement of several German reserve units and realised that the attack had been opposed by two German divisions , not the one expected , indicating poor Soviet reconnaissance and intelligence @-@ gathering before the battle . A captured diary of a dead German general alluded to the Germans knowing about Soviet plans in the region .
Next day Paulus obtained three infantry divisions and a panzer division for the defence of Kharkov and the Soviet advance was slow , achieving little success except on the left flank . Bock had warned Paulus not to counter @-@ attack without air support , although this was later reconsidered , when several Soviet tank brigades broke through VIII Corps ( General Walter Heitz ) in the Volchansk sector , only 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from Kharkov . In the first 72 hours the 6th Army lost 16 battalions conducting holding actions and local counter @-@ attacks in the heavy rain and mud . By 14 May the Red Army had made impressive gains , several Soviet divisions were so depleted that they were withdrawn and Soviet tank reserves were needed to defeat the German counter @-@ attacks , German losses were estimated to be minimal , with only 35 – 70 tanks believed to have been knocked out in the 3rd and 23rd Panzer divisions .
= = = Luftwaffe = = =
Hitler immediately turned to the Luftwaffe to help blunt the offensive . At this point , its close support corps was deployed in the Crimea , taking part in the siege of Sevastopol . 8th Air Corps under the command of Wolfram von Richthofen was initially ordered to deploy to Kharkov from the Crimea , but the command was rescinded . In an unusual move , Hitler kept it in the Crimea , but did not put the corps under the command of Luftflotte 4 ( Air Fleet 4 ) , which already contained 6th Air Corps , under the command of General Kurt Pflugbeil , and Fliegerführer Süd ( Flying Command South ) , a small anti @-@ shipping command based in the Crimea . Instead , he allowed Richthofen to take charge of all operations over Sevastopol . The siege in the Crimea was not over , and the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula had not yet been won . Still , Hitler was pleased with the progress there and content to keep Richthofen where he was and withdraw air support from Fliegerkorps VIII in order to prevent a Soviet breakthrough at Kharkov . The use of the Luftwaffe to compensate for the German Army 's lack of firepower suggested that the OKW saw the Luftwaffe primarily as a ground support arm . This angered Richthofen who complained that the Luftwaffe was treated as " the army 's whore " . Now that he was not being redeployed to Kharkov , Richthofen also complained about the withdrawal of his units to the region , arguing that the Kerch and Sevastopol battles were ongoing and owing to the transfer of aerial assets to Kharkov , victory in the Crimea was no longer guaranteed . In reality , the Soviet units at Kerch were already routed and the Axis position at Sevastopol was comfortable .
The news that powerful air support was on its way to bolster the 6th Army boosted German morale . Army commanders , such as Paulus and Bock , placed so much confidence in the Luftwaffe that they ordered their forces not to risk an attack without air support . In the meantime , Fliegerkorps VI , was forced to use every available aircraft . Although meeting more numerous Soviet air forces , he achieved air superiority and limited the German ground forces ' losses to Soviet aviation , but with some crews flying more than 10 missions per day . By 15 May , Pflugbeil was reinforced and received Kampfgeschwader 27 ( Bomber Wing 27 , or KG 27 ) , Kampfgeschwader 51 ( KG 51 ) , Kampfgeschwader 55 ( KG 55 ) and Kampfgeschwader 76 ( KG 76 ) equipped with Junkers Ju 88 and Heinkel He 111 bombers . Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 ( Dive Bomber Wing 77 , or StG 77 ) also arrived to add direct ground support . Pflugbeil now had 10 bomber , six fighter and four Junkers Ju 87 Stuka Gruppen ( Groups ) . Logistical difficulties meant that only 54 @.@ 5 per cent were operational .
= = = German defence = = =
German close air support also began to take its toll , forcing units such as the Soviet 38th Army onto the defensive . It ranged over the front , operating dangerously close to the changing frontline . Air interdiction and direct ground support damaged Soviet supply lines and rear areas , also inflicting large losses on their armoured formations . General Franz Halder remarked the air attacks went a long way to breaking the Soviet offensive . The Soviet air force could do very little to stop these air attacks . Not only did the Luftwaffe attack the enemy , it also carried out vital supply missions . Bombers dropped supplies to encircled German units , which could continue to hold out until a counter @-@ offensive relieved them .
On 14 May , the Germans continued to attack Soviet positions in the north in localised offensives and by then , the Luftwaffe had gained air superiority over the Kharkov sector , forcing Timoshenko to move his own air assets forward in order to effectively counter the bolstered Luftflotte 4 . The Luftwaffe won air superiority over their numerically superior , but technically inferior opponents . The air battles depleted the Soviet fighter strength , allowing the German strike aircraft the chance to influence the land battle even more . Nonetheless , the Soviet forces pushed on , disengaging from several minor battles and changing the direction of their thrusts . However , in the face of continued resistance and local counterattacks , the Soviet attack ebbed , especially when combined with the invariably heavy air raids . By the end of the day , the 28th Army could no longer conduct offensive operations against German positions .
Ironically , the Soviet southern pincer did not suffer as terribly as had the shock groups in the north . They achieved spectacular success the first three days of combat , with a deep penetration of German positions . Although intensive fighting also marked the battles in the south , the Red Army routed several key German battalions , including many made up of personnel of foreign descent , including some Hungarian units . The success of the Southern Shock group , however , has been attributed to the fact that the early penetrations in the north had directed German reserves there , thus limiting the reinforcements to the south . But , by 14 May , Hitler had briefed General Ewald von Kleist and ordered his 1st Panzer Army to grab the initiative in a bold counteroffensive , setting the pace for the final launching of Operation Friderikus .
= = = Second phase of the offensive = = =
On 15 and 16 May , another attempted Soviet offensive in the north met the same resistance encountered on the three first days of the battle . German bastions continued to hold out against Soviet assaults . The major contribution to Soviet frustration in the battle was the lack of heavy artillery , which ultimately prevented the taking of heavily defended positions . One of the best examples of this was the defense of Ternovaya , where defending German units absolutely refused to surrender . The fighting was so harsh that , after advancing an average of five kilometers , the offensive stopped for the day in the north . The next day saw a renewal of the Soviet attack , which was largely blocked by counterattacks by German tanks ; the tired Soviet divisions could simply not hold their own against the concerted attacks from the opposition . The south , however , achieved success , much like the earlier days of the battle , although Soviet forces began to face heavier air strikes from German aircraft . The Germans , on the other hand , had spent the day fighting holding actions in both sectors , launching small counterattacks to whittle away at Soviet offensive potential , while continuously moving up reinforcements from the south , including several aircraft squadrons transferred from the Crimea . Poor decisions by the 150th Rifle Division , which had successfully crossed the Barvenkovo River , played a major part in the poor exploitation of the tactical successes of the southern shock group .
= = = 1st Panzer Army counterattacks = = =
On 17 May , supported by Fliegerkorps VI , the German army took the initiative , as Kleist 's 3rd Panzer Corps and 44th Army Corps began a counterattack on the Barvenkovo bridgehead from the area of Aleksandrovka in the south . Aided greatly by air support , Kleist was able to crush Soviet positions and advanced up to ten kilometres in the first day of the attack . Many of the Soviet units were sent to the rear that night to be refitted , while others were moved forward to reinforce tenuous positions across the front . That same day , Timoshenko reported the move to Moscow and asked for reinforcements and described the day 's failures . Vasilevsky 's attempts to gain approval for a general withdrawal were rejected by Stalin .
On 18 May , the situation worsened and Stavka suggested once more stopping the offensive and ordering the 9th Army to break out of the salient . Timoshenko and Khruschev claimed that the danger coming from Wehrmacht 's Kramatorsk group was exaggerated , and Stalin refused the withdrawal again . The consequences of losing the air battle were also apparent . On 18 May the Fliegerkorps VI destroyed 130 tanks and 500 motor vehicles , while adding another 29 tanks destroyed on 19 May .
On 19 May , Paulus , on orders from Bock , began a general offensive from the area of Merefa in the north of the bulge in an attempt to encircle the remaining Soviet forces in the Izium salient . Only then did Stalin authorize Zhukov to stop the offensive and fend off German flanking forces . However , it was already too late . Quickly , the Germans achieved considerable success against Soviet defensive positions . The 20 May saw more of the same , with the German forces closing in from the rear . More German divisions were committed to the battle that day , shattering several Soviet counterparts , allowing the Germans to press forward . The Luftwaffe also intensified operations over the Donets River to prevent Soviet forces escaping . Ju 87s from StG 77 destroyed five of the main bridges and damaged four more while Ju 88 bombers from Kampfgeschwader 3 ( KG 3 ) inflicted heavy losses on retreating motorised and armoured columns .
Although Timoshenko 's forces successfully regrouped on 21 May , he ordered a withdrawal of Army Group Kotenko by the end of 22 May , while he prepared an attack for 23 May , to be orchestrated by the 9th and 57th Armies . Although the Red Army desperately attempted to fend off advancing Wehrmacht and launched local counterattacks to relieve several surrounded units , they generally failed . By the end of May 24 , Soviet forces opposite Kharkov had been surrounded by German formations , which had been able to transfer several more divisions to the front , increasing the pressure on the Soviet flanks and finally forcing them to collapse .
= = = Soviet encirclement = = =
The 25 May saw the first major Soviet attempt to break the encirclement . German Major General Hubert Lanz described the attacks as gruesome , made en masse . By 26 May , the surviving Red Army soldiers were forced into crowded positions in an area of roughly fifteen square kilometers . Soviet attempts to break into the German encirclement from the east were continuously blocked using tenacious defensive manoeuvres and German air power . Groups of Soviet tanks and infantry that attempted to escape and succeeded in breaking through German lines were caught and destroyed by Ju 87s from StG 77 . In the face of determined German operations , Timoshenko ordered the official halt of all Soviet offensive manoeuvres on 28 May , while attacks to break out of the encirclement continued until 30 May . Nonetheless , less than one man in ten managed to break out of the " Barvenkovo mousetrap " . Beevor puts Soviet losses in terms of prisoners as 240 @,@ 000 ( with the bulk of their armour ) , while Glantz — citing Krivosheev — gives a total of 277 @,@ 190 overall Soviet casualties . Both tend to agree on a low German casualty count , with the most formative rounding being at 20 @,@ 000 dead , wounded and missing . Regardless of the casualties , Kharkov was a major Soviet setback ; it put an end to the successes of the Red Army during the winter counteroffensive .
= = Analysis and conclusions = =
Many authors have attempted to pinpoint the reasons for the Soviet defeat . Several Soviet generals have placed the blame on the inability of Stavka and Stalin to appreciate the Wehrmacht 's military power on the Eastern Front after their defeats in the winter of 1941 – 1942 and in the spring of 1942 . On the subject , Zhukov sums up in his memoirs that the failure of this operation was quite predictable , since the offensive was organized very ineptly , the risk of exposing the left flank of the Izium salient to German counterattacks being obvious on a map . Still according to Zhukov , the main reason for the stinging Soviet defeat lay in the mistakes made by Stalin , who underestimated the danger coming from German armies in the southwestern sector ( as opposed to the Moscow sector ) and failed to take steps to concentrate any substantial strategic reserves there to meet any potential German threat . Furthermore , Stalin ignored sensible advice provided by his own General Chief of Staff , who recommended organising a strong defence in the southwestern sector in order to be able to repulse any Wehrmacht attack .
Additionally , the subordinate Soviet generals ( especially South @-@ Western Front generals ) were just as willing to continue their own winter successes , and much like the German generals , under @-@ appreciated the strength of their enemies , as pointed out a posteriori by the commander of the 38th Army , Kirill Moskalenko . The Soviet winter counteroffensive weakened the Wehrmacht , but did not destroy it . As Moskalenko recalls , quoting an anonymous soldier , " these fascists woke up after they hibernated " .
Stalin 's willingness to expend recently conscripted armies , which were poorly trained and poorly supplied , illustrated a misconception of realities , both in the capabilities of the Red Army and the subordinate arms of the armed forces , and in the abilities of the Germans to defend themselves and successfully launch a counteroffensive . The latter proved especially true in the subsequent Case Blue , which led to the Battle of Stalingrad , though this was the battle in which Paulus faced an entirely different outcome .
The battle had shown the potential of the Soviet armies to successfully conduct an offensive . This battle can be seen as one of the first major instances in which the Soviets attempted to preempt a German summer offensive . This later unfolded and grew as Stavka planned and conducted Operation Mars , Operation Uranus and Operation Saturn . Although only two of the three were victories , it still offers concise and telling evidence of the ability of the Soviets to turn the war in their favor . This finalised itself after the Battle of Kursk in July 1943 . The Second Battle of Kharkov also had a positive effect on Stalin , who started to trust his commanders and his Chief of Staff more ( allowing the latter to have the last word in naming front commanders for instance ) . After the great purge in 1937 , failing to anticipate the war in 1941 , and underestimating German military power in 1942 , Stalin finally fully trusted his military .
Within the context of the battle itself , the failure of the Red Army to properly regroup during the prelude to the battle and the ability of the Germans to effectively collect intelligence on Soviet movements played an important role in the outcome . Poor Soviet performance in the north and equally poor intelligence @-@ gathering at the hands of Stavka and front headquarters , also eventually spelled doom for the offensive . Nonetheless , despite this poor performance , it underscored a dedicated evolution of operations and tactics within the Red Army which borrowed and refined the pre @-@ war theory , Soviet deep battle .
= Aquaman ( TV pilot ) =
Aquaman is a television pilot developed by Smallville creators Al Gough and Miles Millar for The WB Television Network , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Gough and Millar wrote the pilot , which was directed by Greg Beeman . Justin Hartley starred as Arthur " A.C. " Curry , a young man living in a beachside community in the Florida Keys who learns about his powers and destiny as the Prince of Atlantis .
The Aquaman pilot was expected to debut in the fall schedule of 2006 , but following the merger of the WB and UPN , the resulting CW Network opted not to buy the series . After they passed on the pilot , it was made available online through iTunes in the United States and became the number @-@ one most downloaded television show on iTunes . It received generally favorable reviews , was later released on other online markets , and aired on Canadian television network YTV .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The concept of Aquaman stemmed from a fifth season episode of Smallville , " Aqua " . The episode featured Arthur Curry ( Alan Ritchson ) coming to Smallville to stop an underwater weapons project being developed by LuthorCorp . " Aqua " became the highest rated episode for Smallville that season , but it was never meant to be a backdoor pilot for an Aquaman series . However , as work progressed on " Aqua " , the character was recognized to have potential for his own series . Miles Millar and Alfred Gough , the creators of Smallville , also considered a series featuring Lois Lane , but felt more confident about Aquaman . Millar said , " [ Aquaman ] was the first idea where we really thought we had a franchise where we could see 100 episodes . "
Alan Ritchson was not considered for the role in the new series , because Gough and Millar did not consider it a spin @-@ off from Smallville . Gough said in November 2005 , " [ The series ] is going to be a different version of the ' Aquaman ' legend . " Gough did express the idea of a crossover with Smallville at some point . There was initial speculation that the show 's title would not be Aquaman . Tempest Keys and Mercy Reef were rumored to be the working titles for the series . The show would eventually be listed as Aquaman , when it was later released on iTunes . Greg Beeman , who has produced and directed episodes of Smallville , was hired to direct the pilot .
= = = Casting = = =
The role of Arthur Curry was originally given to Will Toale , after Gough and Millar saw over 400 candidates from England , Australia , Canada and the United States . Before filming began , Toale was replaced with Justin Hartley . A CW spokesman said , " We have made the decision to go in a different direction with the Aquaman role and wish [ Toale ] the best of luck in all of his endeavors . " Graham Bentz was cast as a young Arthur Curry , while Adrianne Palicki was cast as a Siren named Nadia . Ving Rhames , Amber McDonald , Denise Quiñones , Rick Peters , and Lou Diamond Phillips filled in the rest of the regular cast members .
Four of the cast members guest starred on Smallville before the Aquaman pilot . Denise Quiñones played Andrea Rojas in the season five episode " Vengeance " , while Adrianne Palicki appeared in the season three episode " Covenant " . Rick Peters was cast as Bob Rickman in the season one episode " Hug " . Kenny Johnson , who briefly appears as the Sheriff in the pilot 's opening , guest starred in the season five episode " Mortal " .
= = = Filming = = =
Production was based in North Miami , Florida ; filming began in March 2006 with an estimated budget of $ 7 million . Practical and exterior footage was shot around Coconut Grove , Miami . Some scenes were filmed on location at the Homestead Joint Air Reserve Base adjacent to Homestead , Florida . The 482nd Fighter Wing Airmen were used as extras while filming at the base , along with several of their fighter aircraft . The production was expected to continue in June of that year , had it been given the greenlight .
Some of the actors received training from Staff Sergeant Leo Castellano on the proper way to present arms . Much of the filming took place underwater ; Hartley filmed his underwater scenes without a tank , breathing from the safety divers ' tanks around him for the scenes out on the ocean . Hartley had never been scuba diving and was not a diver , but did say that he was a good swimmer . Entity FX , the firm which did the special effects for Smallville since its second season , was contracted to work on the Aquaman pilot .
= = Cast and characters = =
Justin Hartley as Arthur " A.C. " Curry / Aquaman : The central character of the show . He runs a dive shop in his day @-@ to @-@ day life . However , Arthur is aware of his special abilities , but uses them for fun before learning in the pilot episode of his destiny as the lost Prince of Atlantis .
Lou Diamond Phillips as Tom Curry : A Coast Guard officer . While in his rookie year , he rescues the infant Arthur ( then named Orin ) , Atlanna , and McCaffery from shark @-@ infested waters . He later falls in love with Atlanna , marrying her and adopting her son .
Denise Quiñones as Lt. Rachel Torres : A fighter pilot . She meets Arthur when he rescues her after her jet crashes in the ocean . She is then asked by Brigman to aid in his investigation .
Rick Peters as Admiral Brigman : A U.S. Navy officer who has been investigating the apparent resurfacing of people around Mercy Reef who were lost in the Bermuda Triangle , some , as much as 40 years ago .
Ving Rhames as McCaffery : A lighthouse keeper and A.C. ' s mentor . He is also an Atlantean .
Amber McDonald as Eva : A.C. ' s business partner ; together they run a dive shop in Tempest Keys . The two are close friends .
Adrianne Palicki as Nadia : A siren and the villain of the story . She is the one responsible for the murder of Atlanna .
Daniella Wolters as Atlanna : A.C. ' s mother ; she was taken from him when he was young , and her disappearance has mystified A.C. ever since . She was the first to call him " Orin " .
= = Pilot summary = =
A.C. and his mother Atlanna are flying over the Bermuda Triangle . As they get closer , Atlanna 's necklace begins to glow and a surge of light and energy erupts from the ocean , causing cyclones which bring their plane down . Atlanna is kidnapped by a siren , but not before giving A.C. her necklace and calling him Orin . Ten years later , A.C. is charged for releasing dolphins from a marine park . His father bails him out of trouble , but gives him a stern lecture on responsibility . Later , A.C. tells his friend Eva that he felt like the dolphins were calling to him . While he 's working , he is approached by a lighthouse keeper who identifies himself as McCaffery . The Coast Guard picks up an unidentified man , floating in the Bermuda Triangle and pleading to warn Orin . Lt. Torres is sent to investigate the area . A.C. is also at the Triangle , and his necklace triggers another surge of light , which causes Torres to crash her jet . Brigman transports the John Doe to another facility , and persuades Torres to join his team . Brigman is looking for a connection between the disappearances of thousands of individuals , and their reappearance years later without ever aging a day .
That evening , A.C. meets Nadia and she convinces him to go swimming . In the water , Nadia reveals herself to not only be a Siren , but the one that took his mother . A.C. barely escapes with a little help from McCaffery . McCaffery explains that he , Arthur and Arthur 's mother were all exiled from Atlantis , and that A.C. is the prince of Atlantis . Arthur convinces Eva to leave Tempest Key for a few days , but it comes too late as Nadia injures Eva and captures Arthur . When he wakes up , A.C. finds that Nadia has also captured McCaffery and she is bringing them both back to Atlantis to be executed . Breaking free using a flask of water to enhance his strength , A.C. destroys Nadia by putting a spear through her head . The next morning , McCaffery explains that there will be more creatures that will come looking for A.C. and that he should have started his training years prior . A.C. agrees to start his training , and McCaffery leaves him with Henry IV Part 1 and Part 2 to read . McCaffery informs Arthur who would rather just skip to the ending that " It isn 't about the ending , it 's about the journey . "
Ideas for future episodes focused on environmental threats , such as " ocean polluters " and " evil oil companies . " The first 13 episodes already planned out , with a possible story arc involving McCaffery being captured and taken back to Atlantis . Stories regarding mythology were set to play a small role in later episodes . Gough and Millar chose to go with a more classic version , from the comics , of Aquaman 's mythology . Gough stated , " Unlike Superman , there really isn 't a set core mythology for Arthur Curry . There are a couple different versions of it . We went with the most classic one . "
= = Abilities and weakness = =
Hartley explained that Arthur would be aware of his powers at the beginning of the series and would have no problem using them for personal gain . Hartley felt this played against the typical superheroes , because his character was not afraid to flaunt his abilities . Gough explained A.C. would be able to swim faster than humans , breathe underwater , as well as have super strength while underwater . He also stated that exposure to water on land would give him powers . The extent of his speed is shown in the pilot , when Arthur is able to keep up with a fighter jet flying above him . The extent of A.C. ' s ability to breathe underwater was not elaborated upon , but he is seen swimming near the bottom of the ocean near the start of the pilot . When A.C. is talking to Eva about releasing captive dolphins , he tells her that he felt as though the dolphins were somehow calling to him . In the comics , one of Aquaman 's powers is the ability to communicate with sea life . Gough likened A.C. ' s not having access to water to Clark 's growing weak around kryptonite in Smallville – if A.C. does not get water , he will dehydrate and weaken . Water gives him a power boost and enables producers to explore stories on land .
= = Release = =
The pilot was considered to have a good chance of being picked up , but ultimately the CW passed on the show . Discussing the excitement surrounding the project , Lou Diamond Phillips said , " The funny thing about the Aquaman project is that there 's so much buzz about it already . Which is amazing , I mean you don 't usually get that with a pilot , because they 're sort of sight unseen . " There were reports of two WB pilots in contention for the new CW network , one being Aquaman , which was a frontrunner . On May 18 , 2006 , when The CW announced its fall lineup Aquaman was not on the list . Dawn Ostroff , The CW 's president of entertainment , stated that it was still a midseason contender .
Gough and Miller were so passionate about the pilot that they wanted it released in some form so the fans could see it . Gough said in an interview , " The implication when a network doesn 't pick up a show is that the pilot sucks and that 's not the case . It 's not a perfect pilot by any stretch of the imagination . There are other reasons — which are a mystery to us — as to why The CW didn 't pick it up . " He mentioned a potential release as an extended episode during the sixth season of Smallville .
On July 24 , 2006 , the pilot became one of the first shows offered by Warner Brothers on the iTunes Store ( available only to US customers ) for $ 1 @.@ 99 , under the title Aquaman . Within a week , it reached the number @-@ one spot on the list of most downloaded TV shows on the digital store 's list , and it held that spot for over a week . Gough stated , " At least the pilot is now getting its day in court with the fans , and the reviews have all been very positive . " It became the first show available on iTunes which had not previously aired on a network . The pilot was released the week of March 12 , 2007 on the Xbox Live Video Marketplace . By March 24 , 2007 , the pilot reached # 6 on the Video Marketplace 's top downloads . On June 9 , 2007 , Canadian television network YTV , aired the pilot as part of their " Superhero Saturday . " Warner Home Video in association with Best Buy released the pilot as a promotional DVD on November 11 , 2007 , bundling it together with selected Smallville season sets . On February 23 , 2009 , Warner Bros. attached it as a bonus feature to the Blu @-@ ray release of Justice League : Crisis on Two Earths .
Critical response was generally positive . The pilot was found comparable in quality to Smallville , with suggestions that Aquaman was indeed worthy of a place on The CW 's schedule . The cast was well received ; in addition , Hartley was praised for his portrayal of Arthur Curry . Cinematography and underwater special effects were well received . Reviews that were not as positive did concede the show had potential . The project was commended for keeping the comic book myth fresh and exciting for a modern audience . IGN had a different opinion of the show , calling it " dead in the water " , and comparing it to " cheesy cult classics , such as Shazam ! " .
= New York State Route 59 =
New York State Route 59 ( NY 59 ) is an east – west state highway in southern Rockland County , New York , in the United States . The route extends for 14 @.@ 08 miles ( 22 @.@ 66 km ) from NY 17 in Hillburn to U.S. Route 9W ( US 9W ) in Nyack . In Suffern , it has a concurrency with US 202 for 0 @.@ 05 miles ( 0 @.@ 08 km ) . NY 59 runs parallel to the New York State Thruway its entire route . The routing of NY 59 became a state highway in 1911 and was signed as NY 59 in the late 1920s .
When NY 59 was first assigned , it began at NY 17 in Suffern . A western bypass of Suffern was designated as New York State Route 339 c . 1932 ; however , it became part of a realigned NY 17 in the mid @-@ 1930s . NY 339 was reassigned to NY 17 's former routing between Hillburn and Suffern , but it was replaced again c . 1937 by an extended NY 59 . In the 1960s , proposals surfaced for the Spring Valley Bypass , a highway that would utilize the NY 59 corridor between NY 306 in Monsey and NY 45 in Spring Valley . The proposed highway was never built .
= = Route description = =
NY 59 begins at an intersection with NY 17 in Hillburn , just south of the village of Sloatsburg in southern Rockland County . It heads to the southeast as the Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway , crossing over the Ramapo River and the Norfolk Southern Railway before following both into Suffern . The river leaves NY 59 just inside the village line ; however , the railroad continues to run alongside NY 59 into the center of Suffern , where both pass under the New York State Thruway near where Interstate 87 ( I @-@ 87 ) connects to I @-@ 287 .
Just south of the I @-@ 87 overpass , NY 59 meets US 202 at Wayne Avenue . US 202 joins NY 59 for a one block wrong way concurrency along Orange Avenue — as NY 59 eastbound is paired with US 202 westbound and vice versa — during which time both routes cross the Norfolk Southern Railway at @-@ grade . At the end of the overlap , US 202 continues south along Orange Avenue to the New Jersey state line while NY 59 forks eastward toward central Rockland County . As NY 59 leaves Suffern and enters Airmont , it passes Good Samaritan Hospital , a major hospital in Rockland County . While in Airmont , NY 59 intersects County Route 89 ( CR 89 ) and CR 85 . After leaving Airmont , NY 59 proceeds east through Monsey , where it intersects the southern terminus of NY 306 .
As NY 59 passes Spring Valley High School , it enters the village limits of Spring Valley . While in Spring Valley , NY 59 has an overlap with CR 35A for about a tenth of a mile and meets the Thruway at exit 14 . The route continues eastward into Nanuet , where NY 59 passes through a heavy commercialized area . Before its busy intersection with CR 33 , NY 59 passes The Shops at Nanuet to its south and the Rockland Plaza to its north .
Upon entering West Nyack , NY 59 intersects the Palisades Interstate Parkway ( exit 8 ) and NY 304 . The route proceeds onward , passing Palisades Center , one of the largest shopping malls in the country . Immediately after passing the Palisades Center , NY 59 briefly enters Central Nyack . Here it connects to NY 303 by way of an interchange . Before hitting the Nyack village line , NY 59 has its final interchange with the Thruway . The southbound entrance to the Tappan Zee Bridge is via Mountainview Avenue , and the northbound entrance is via Polhemus Street .
At the Nyack line , NY 59 becomes known as Main Street . As Main Street , NY 59 runs under the Thruway one final time before the Thruway heads over the bridge . The route continues toward downtown Nyack ; however , it ends at an intersection with US 9W before it reaches the central district . Main Street continues for several blocks into downtown Nyack .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
NY 59 originated as the Nyack Turnpike , which was the first major thoroughfare in Rockland County . A petition was filed in 1813 to construct the turnpike . Legislation stemming from the petition was passed on April 17 , 1816 , allowing construction to begin . The Nyack Turnpike was completed from Suffern to Nyack in the 1830s , despite many years of local opposition to the highway . Its charter was renewed multiple times throughout the 19th century , and it was designated as a toll road to help pay for its upkeep . In 1894 , the turnpike was absorbed into the Rockland County road system .
The turnpike was turned over from the county to the state of New York on July 14 , 1911 , and added to the state highway system as part of Route 39 @-@ b , an unsigned legislative route extending from Nyack ( at Broadway ) to Harriman via modern NY 59 and NY 17 . The Route 39 @-@ b designation was eliminated on March 1 , 1921 , as part of a partial renumbering of New York 's legislative route system . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of former Route 39 @-@ b between Suffern and Harriman became part of NY 17 . The remainder of the route from Nyack to Suffern was not given a number .
= = = Designation = = =
The Suffern – Nyack highway remained unnumbered until the late 1920s when was designated as NY 59 . At the time , NY 59 was routed on West Nyack Road between Nanuet and Central Nyack . The route was rendered unchanged in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . A western bypass of Suffern was designated as NY 339 c . 1932 . The north – south highway left NY 17 at the hamlet of Ramapo and followed the modern New York State Thruway and I @-@ 287 corridors south through Hillburn to the New Jersey state line . In the mid @-@ 1930s , the alignments of NY 17 and NY 339 south of Ramapo were swapped , placing NY 17 on the bypass and NY 339 on the Ramapo – Suffern route . In Suffern , NY 339 ended at a junction with US 202 just one block north of NY 59 's western terminus . NY 339 was replaced by an extended NY 59 c . 1937 .
In the early 1950s , construction began on a bypass of West Nyack Road between Nanuet and West Nyack . The highway was completed c . 1955 and became part of a realigned NY 59 . The portion of NY 59 's former routing that did not overlap NY 304 was redesignated as NY 59A . This designation was short @-@ lived as it was removed from West Nyack Road in the late 1950s . In 1960 , control of the highway was turned over to the town of Clarkstown , and parts of NY 59A 's former routing were abandoned . A local company carried out work to convert the highway into a shopping center access road ; however , Rockland County asserted that the town — and by extension the company — had no rights to perform this action . The county sued the company that helped improve the highway in 2002 .
= = = Traffic problems = = =
In 1958 , Ramapo town engineer Edwin Wallace noticed an increase in the amount of traffic passing through the village of Spring Valley , which had become the largest village in Rockland County by this time . This led Wallace to propose a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) bypass of NY 59 in Monsey and NY 45 in Hillcrest . Rockland County approved the proposed bypass two years later . In 1966 , the Tri @-@ State Transportation Commission released its long @-@ term highway report for the area . The new study replaced the Spring Valley Bypass with the NY 45 expressway , a north – south bypass of Spring Valley connecting the Garden State Parkway to the Palisades Interstate Parkway . The road would serve a steadily growing area of commercial businesses along the NY 45 corridor . No action was taken on this proposal .
With the Spring Valley Bypass plan shelved , traffic continued to pour through the Spring Valley – Nanuet area . In 1987 , a task force was introduced to come up with a plan to solve this issue . Traffic became even worse when the Nanuet Mall expanded in 1994 . NYSDOT tried to fix the worsening situation in 1995 when they reconstructed almost 3 miles ( 5 km ) of NY 59 from the eastern border of Spring Valley to exit 8 of the Palisades Interstate Parkway . The project widened the road to six lanes , helping to move traffic through the area from Grandview to Middletown Roads in Nanuet . In 1997 , the New York State Thruway Authority dropped the Spring Valley toll on the Thruway for all motorists except truckers . This helped reduce traffic on NY 59 between exits 14A and 14B .
Shortly after the traffic problems in Nanuet were reduced , the focus was shifted to West Nyack where Palisades Center was being constructed . First proposed in the late 1980s , construction finally started in 1995 . This caused major delays for motorists when a bridge was constructed from NY 59 to Palisades Center south parking lot . To keep this portion of NY 59 from being overloaded with mall goers , exit 12 of the Thruway with NY 303 was re @-@ routed through Palisades Center via Palisades Center Drive .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Rockland County .
= Wilkins Peak =
Wilkins Peak is a small mountain located in Sweetwater County , Wyoming , between the cities of Green River and Rock Springs . It is primarily used for radio and television station transmitters , but it also serves radio needs of the FAA , EMS , and local businesses such as Questar Gas . In 2003 , a tower on the peak was knocked down by a vehicle delivering propane to customers . The tower was owned by Wyoming Public Radio and was serving the local area with programming from National Public Radio . There are numerous access roads to the peak and it is not gated and open year round , weather permitting . Along with the radio uses , the mountain is also a popular location for mountain biking and hiking . The mountain contains geology typical of its location in southwestern Wyoming .
= = Geology = =
Along with other mountains in southwestern Wyoming , Wilkins Peak is part of the Green River Formation , a formation of the intermontane Lake Gosiute environment during the Eocene epoch . Similar to its neighboring Aspen Mountain , Wilkins Peak is part of the Rock Springs Uplift , and some of the largest oil shale and trona beds in the region are located near the mountain . Wilkins Peak also has its own distinct segment of the Green River Formation , which is known as the Wilkins Peak Formation . The peak itself is 7 @,@ 650 feet ( 2 @,@ 332 m ) in elevation and is located 8 @.@ 18 miles ( 13 km ) from Rock Springs , Wyoming and 6 @.@ 3 miles ( 10 km ) from Green River , Wyoming .
= = Radio and television uses = =
Wilkins Peak holds radio towers for several FM radio and television stations . Stations include KYCS ( 95 @.@ 1 FM ) and its sister stations KFRZ ( 92 @.@ 1 FM ) and KZWB ( 97 @.@ 9 FM ) . Also on the mountain is the tower for the station KTME 89 @.@ 5 , which signed on the air in September 2010 . KTME is an affiliate of Pilgrim Radio . Several television translators transmit their signals from two small towers located in the center of Wilkins Peak . Additionally , the religious television network TBN has a translator known locally as K35CN , broadcasting from the mountain . Prior to 2009 , K22BK , the local PBS television translator , carried its signal from Wilkins Peak . K22BK was moved across the interstate to White Mountain to the same tower as its digital counterpart . In late 2009 , a new television station signed on the air from the peak . It is known as K33IX @-@ D on channel 33 ( UHF ) and carries programming from EICB TV , a Christian religious broadcast and production company , based in Cedar Hill , Texas . K35CN and K22BK have been off the air since the digital television transition in the year 2009 .
= = = FM translators = = =
Among high powered FM radio stations , Wilkins Peak is also currently host to three lower powered FM translators . K205FE carries a Gospel format on 88 @.@ 9 FM . K285FG retransmits programming from AM station KUGR on 104 @.@ 9 FM . Finally , K290BJ carries programming from KZWB 97 @.@ 9 FM .
= = = Other radio related uses = = =
Wilkins Peak also has repeater towers for local police , fire , and EMS services . The emergency radio repeaters on the mountain are used in conjunction with other repeaters located on nearby Aspen Mountain and Mansface Hill .
In September 2003 , a commercial truck delivering propane to customers on the peak knocked down the then @-@ existent KUWZ tower after the vehicle 's brakes failed . The collapse of the tower knocked out power to the mountain for several hours , and while KUWZ borrowed space from neighboring towers for several months thereafter , the station ultimately relocated its transmitter to nearby Aspen Mountain .
= = Accessing the peak = =
Wilkins Peak is not gated , and it can be reached via an unpaved road known as Wilkins Peak Road that starts on U.S. Route 191 southwest of Rock Springs , Wyoming . The mountain can also be accessed via another unpaved road that begins in the Scott 's Bottom Nature Area in Green River , Wyoming . The peak is accessible year @-@ round , weather permitting . The Green River access road is in worse shape than the Rock Springs side , and it has several road hazards such as steep grades , poor grading , and off @-@ road vehicle traffic . Along with serving radio needs , the peak also is a popular hiking and mountain biking location in the area . There are many smaller roads and trails that spring from the peak that offer varied degrees of challenge .
= A Golden Crown =
" A Golden Crown " is the sixth episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones , first aired on May 22 , 2011 . The teleplay was written by Jane Espenson , David Benioff and D.B. Weiss from a story by Benioff and Weiss , and directed by Daniel Minahan .
The episode 's plot depicts the deterioration of the political balance of the seven kingdoms , with Eddard Stark having to deal with the Lannister aggressions while King Robert is away on a hunt . At the Eyrie , Tyrion is put on trial , and across the Narrow Sea , Viserys Targaryen is determined to force Khal Drogo to make him king .
The episode was well received by critics , who praised aspects of the King 's Landing storyline and the culmination of Viserys ' storyline .
= = Plot = =
Like previous episodes , " A Golden Crown " interweaves action happening in multiple separate locations within and around the Kingdom of Westeros .
= = = In the North = = =
Bran Stark ( Isaac Hempstead @-@ Wright ) is awakened from one of his recurring dreams of a three @-@ eyed crow with the pleasant surprise that the specially designed saddle that will allow him to ride has been finished . He goes to test it in the forest under the supervision of his brother Robb ( Richard Madden ) and Theon Greyjoy ( Alfie Allen ) .
While Theon is trying to convince Robb to avenge his father for the Lannisters ' attack , a small group of wildlings ( humans who live north of the wall , outside of " civilized " lands ) , who have ventured south , capture Bran . Robb and Theon manage to kill all the men and capture the woman Osha ( Natalia Tena ) . Despite Theon 's help , Robb chastises him for endangering Bran 's life when Theon shot an arrow at the wildling who was holding Bran .
= = = In the Eyrie = = =
Tyrion ( Peter Dinklage ) is able to trick Lysa Arryn ( Kate Dickie ) into summoning a court to listen to his confession , at which he confesses various misdemeanours committed during his life , but nothing about the attempt on Bran 's life or Lysa 's husband 's death . After , Tyrion publicly demands a trial by combat , and the mercenary Bronn ( Jerome Flynn ) volunteers to fight for him . Lysa Arryn has no choice but to allow it . Bronn defeats Lysa 's champion Ser Vardis Egen ( Brendan McCormack ) by tiring the heavily armored knight and kicking him out the Moon Door , and Tyrion is allowed to walk free with Bronn as his escort , much to the dismay of the Tully sisters .
= = = In King 's Landing = = =
Eddard Stark ( Sean Bean ) awakens in his chambers with Robert ( Mark Addy ) and Cersei ( Lena Headey ) watching him . Cersei accuses Eddard of kidnapping her brother , Tyrion , and claims Eddard was drunk and attacked Jaime first , but she is silenced by a slap from Robert . After she leaves , Robert tells Eddard that he cannot rule the kingdoms if the Lannisters and Starks are at war and insists that Eddard remain the Hand of the King , or else Robert will give the position to Jaime . Robert also informs Eddard that he will be regent while Robert is away on a hunting trip .
Meanwhile , Arya ( Maisie Williams ) deals with her father 's injury and her loss of Jory during her sword @-@ dance lessons ; Syrio ( Miltos Yerolemou ) tells her it 's a perfect opportunity for her to learn to avoid distraction while fighting . In the Starks ' common room , Sansa ( Sophie Turner ) and Septa Mordane are interrupted by Prince Joffrey ( Jack Gleeson ) , who apologizes to Sansa for his earlier behavior and gives her a necklace , vowing that she will become his queen in an elaborate wedding ceremony . Sansa happily accepts the apology , unaware Joffrey has been forced into it by his mother .
While acting as regent , Eddard learns that Ser Gregor " The Mountain " Clegane was spotted leading brigands and attacking villages in the Riverlands . Realizing this is revenge for Tyrion 's arrest , Eddard orders Ser Beric Dondarrion ( David Michael Scott ) to secure Gregor 's arrest , strips him of his lands and titles , and summons his Lord Tywin Lannister to answer for Gregor 's actions . Fearing war with the Lannisters and for his daughters ' lives , he orders Arya and Sansa to return to Winterfell for their safety . Sansa protests and mentions Joffrey 's blond hair ; Eddard realizes something and re @-@ reads the book of lineages of the Baratheon family . Doing so , he puts the pieces together : Joffrey does not have black hair like his father , his father 's ancestors , and Robert 's bastards whom he and Jon Arryn had been researching . Eddard concludes Joffrey is not Robert 's real son .
= = = In Vaes Dothrak = = =
Daenerys ( Emilia Clarke ) takes one of the dragon eggs and places it on a glowing @-@ hot brazier . She reaches in and picks up the blisteringly hot egg . Her handmaiden rushes in to take the hot egg from her hands , burning herself in the process , but Daenerys ' hands are completely unscathed .
Daenerys begins the ritual with the Dosh Khaleen by eating the raw heart of a stallion . After some struggle , she completes the task and stands up to proclaim her unborn son as the Khal who will unite the entire world as one khalasar , and she names him Rhaego . Viserys ( Harry Lloyd ) grows angry at his sister 's increasing popularity among the Dothraki , but Jorah Mormont ( Iain Glen ) urges patience . Viserys ignores him and sneaks away to Daenerys ' tent to steal the dragon eggs to fund a new army . However , Jorah confronts him , forcing Viserys to leave the eggs behind . Viserys storms off after a tense exchange of words between the two men .
Later , at a feast for Daenerys and Khal Drogo , a drunken Viserys draws his sword on his sister , threatening that if the Khal does not give him an army to take back the Seven Kingdoms , he will take back Daenerys and cut out her child . Khal Drogo agrees to give him the " golden crown " that he wants , and Viserys lets his guard down , allowing Drogo 's bloodriders to restrain him . Drogo melts his belt in a stewpot , and Viserys realises to his horror that the " golden crown " is actually molten gold , which Drogo pours on his head . Daenerys watches her brother 's painful death calmly , and coldly observes : " He was no dragon . Fire cannot kill a dragon . "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The teleplay for " A Golden Crown " was written by Jane Espenson , David Benioff and D. B. Weiss from a story by Benioff and Weiss , based on A Game of Thrones by George R. R. Martin . The episode includes the book 's chapters 38 @-@ 41 , 44 @-@ 45 and 47 ( Bran V , Tyrion V , Eddard X , Catelyn VII , Eddard XI , Sansa III , and Daenerys V ) . Chapter 42 ( Jon V ) , dealing with Jon convincing Maester Aemon to allow Samwell to join the Watch as a steward , was removed from the series , and chapter 43 ( Tyrion VI ) was moved to episode 8 .
= = = Casting = = =
The episode introduces the recurring character of the wildling Osha . The writer of the original books , George R. R. Martin , admitted that this casting was different from his vision of the character . As he explains , he was surprised to see that actress Natalia Tena was being considered for the role since Osha had been conceived as a hard @-@ bitten older woman and the actress was " too young and too hot . " However , when he saw the audition tapes he was convinced with the new approach : " she was sensational , and I said , ' It 's gotta be her . ' "
= = = Staging and props = = =
The scene in which Daenerys has to eat a horse 's heart was filmed in The Paint Hall studio in Belfast . There , the production built the Dothraki temple in which the scene is set – a large semicircular structure of wood and woven reeds , inspired by Marsh Arab constructions . The heart actress Emilia Clarke ate was , according to Weiss , " basically a giant
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or stewed blackcurrants .
The Cabernet grape variety has thriven in a variety of vineyard soil types , making the consideration of soil less of concern particularly for New World winemakers . In Bordeaux , the soil aspect of terroir was historically an important consideration in determining which of the major Bordeaux grape varieties were planted . While Merlot seemed to thrive in clay- and limestone @-@ based soils ( such as those of the Right Bank regions of the Gironde estuary ) , Cabernet Sauvignon seemed to perform better in the gravel @-@ based soil of the Médoc region on the Left Bank . The gravel soils offered the benefit of being well drained while absorbing and radiating heat to the vines , aiding ripening . Clay- and limestone @-@ based soils are often cooler , allowing less heat to reach the vines , delaying ripening . In regions where the climate is warmer , there is more emphasis on soil that is less fertile , which promotes less vigor in the vine which can keep yields low . In the Napa Valley wine regions of Oakville and Rutherford , the soil is more alluvial and dusty . Rutherford Cabernet Sauvignon has been often quoted as giving a sense of terroir with a taste of " Rutherford dust " . In the South Australian wine region of Coonawarra , Cabernet Sauvignon has produced vastly different results from grape vines planted in the region 's terra rosa soil – so much so that the red soil is considered the " boundary " of the wine region , with some controversy from wine growers with Cabernet Sauvignon planted on red soil .
In addition to ripeness levels , the harvest yields can also have a strong influence in the resulting quality and flavors of Cabernet Sauvignon wine . The vine itself is prone to vigorous yields , particularly when planted on the vigorous SO4 rootstock . Excessive yields can result in less concentrated and flavorful wine with flavors more on the green or herbaceous side . In the 1970s , a particular clone of Cabernet Sauvignon that was engineered to be virus free was noted for its very high yields @-@ causing many quality conscious producers to replant their vineyards in the late 20th century with different clonal varieties . To reduce yields , producers can plant the vines on less vigorous rootstock and also practice green harvesting with aggressive pruning of grape clusters soon after veraison .
In general , Cabernet Sauvignon has good resistance to most grape diseases , powdery mildew being the most noted exception . It is , however , susceptible to the vine diseases Eutypella scoparia and excoriose .
= = = The " green bell pepper " flavor = = =
There are a couple of noted Cabernet Sauvignon flavors that are intimately tied to viticultural and climate influences . The most widely recognized is the herbaceous or green bell pepper flavor caused by pyrazines , which are more prevalent in underripened grapes . Pyrazine compounds are present in all Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and are gradually destroyed by sunlight as the grape continues to ripen . To the human palate this compound is detectable in wines with pyrazine levels as low as 2 nanograms ( ng ) per liter . At the time of veraison , when the grapes first start to fully ripen , there is the equivalent pyrazine level of 30 ng / l . In cooler climates , it is difficult to get Cabernet Sauvignon grapes to ripen fully to the point where pyrazine is not detected . The green bell pepper flavor is not considered a wine fault but it may not be desirable to all consumers ' tastes . The California wine region of Monterey was noted in the late 20th century for its very vegetal Cabernet Sauvignon with pronounced green pepper flavor , earning the nickname of " Monterey veggies " . In addition to its cool climate , Monterey is also prone to being very windy , which can have the effect of shutting down the grape vines and further inhibiting ripeness .
Two other well known Cabernet Sauvignon flavors are mint and eucalyptus . Mint flavors are often associated with wine regions that are warm enough to have low pyrazine levels but are still generally cool , such as Australia 's Coonawarra region and some areas of Washington State . There is some belief that soil could also be a contributor to the minty notes , since the flavor also appears in some wines from the Pauillac region but not from similar climate of Margaux . Resinous Eucalyptus flavors tend to appear in regions that are habitats for the eucalyptus tree , such as California 's Napa and Sonoma valleys and parts of Australia , but there has been no evidence to conclusively prove a direct link between proximity of eucalyptus trees and the presence of that flavor in the wine .
= = Winemaking = =
In many aspects , Cabernet Sauvignon can reflect the desires and personality of the winemaker while still presenting familiar flavors that express the typical character of the variety . The most pronounced effects are from the use of oak during production . Typically the first winemaking decision is whether or not to produce a varietal or blended wine . The " Bordeaux blend " of Cabernet Sauvignon , Merlot and Cabernet franc , with potentially some Malbec , Petit Verdot or Carménère , is the classic example of blended Cabernet Sauvignon , emulated in the United States with wines produced under the " Meritage " designation . But Cabernet Sauvignon can be blended with a variety of grapes such as Shiraz , Tempranillo and Sangiovese . The decision to blend is then followed by the decision of when to do the blending — before , during or after fermentation . Due to the different fermentation styles of the grapes , many producers will ferment and age each grape variety separately and blend the wine shortly before bottling .
The Cabernet Sauvignon grape itself is very small , with a thick skin , creating a high 1 : 12 ratio of seed ( pip ) to fruit ( pulp ) . From these elements the high proportions of phenols and tannins can have a stark influence on the structure and flavor of the wine — especially if the must is subjected to long periods of maceration ( skin contact ) before fermentation . In Bordeaux , the maceration period was traditionally three weeks , which gave the winemaking staff enough time to close down the estate after harvest to take a hunting holiday . The results of these long maceration periods are very tannic and flavorful wines that require years of aging . Wine producers that wish to make a wine more approachable within a couple of years will drastically reduce the maceration time to as a little as a few days . Following maceration , the Cabernet must can be fermented at high temperatures up to 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . The temperature of fermentation will play a role in the result , with deeper colors and more flavor components being extracted at higher temperatures while more fruit flavors are maintained at lower temperature . In Australia there has been experimentation with carbonic maceration to make softer , fruity Cabernet Sauvignon wines .
The tannic nature of Cabernet Sauvignon is an important winemaking consideration . As the must is exposed to prolonged periods of maceration , more tannins are extracted from the skin and will be present in the resulting wine . If winemakers choose not to shorten the period of maceration , in favor of maximizing color and flavor concentrations , there are some methods that they can use to soften tannin levels . A common method is oak aging , which exposes the wine to gradual levels of oxidation that can mellow the harsh grape tannins as well as introduce softer " wood tannins " . The choice of fining agents can also reduce tannins with gelatin and egg whites being positively @-@ charged proteins that are naturally attracted to the negatively charged tannin molecules . These fining agents will bond with some of the tannins and be removed from the wine during filtration . One additional method is micro @-@ oxygenation which mimics some of the gradual aeration that occurs with barrel aging , with the limited exposure to oxygen aiding in the polymerization of the tannins into larger molecules , which are perceived on the palate as being softer .
= = = Affinity for oak = = =
One of the most noted traits of Cabernet Sauvignon is its affinity for oak , either during fermentation or in barrel aging . In addition to having a softening effect on the grape 's naturally high tannins , the unique wood flavors of vanilla and spice complement the natural grape flavors of blackcurrant and tobacco . The particular success of Cabernet @-@ based Bordeaux blends in the 225 liter ( 59 gallon ) barrique were a significant influence in making that barrel size one of the most popular worldwide . In winemaking , the decision for the degree of oak influence ( as well as which type of oak ) will have a strong impact on the resulting wine . American oak , particularly from new barrels , imparts stronger oak flavors that are less subtle than those imparted by French oak . Even within the American oak family , the location of the oak source also plays a role with oak from the state of Oregon having more pronounced influence on Cabernet Sauvignon than oak from Missouri , Pennsylvania and Virginia . Winemakers often use a variety of oak barrels from different locations and of different ages and blend the wine as if they are blending different grape varieties .
Winemakers can also control the influence of oak by using alternatives to the standard barrique barrels . Larger barrels have a smaller wood @-@ to @-@ wine ratio and therefore less pronounced oak flavors . Winemakers in Italy and Portugal sometimes use barrels made from other wood types such as chestnut and redwood . Another method that winemakers consider is tea bagging with oak chips or adding oak planks to the wines while fermenting or aging it in stainless steel tanks . While these methods are less costly than oak barrels , they create more pronounced oak flavors , which tend not to mellow or integrate with the rest of the wine 's components ; nor do they provide the gradual oxidation benefit of barrel aging .
= = Wine regions = =
= = = Bordeaux = = =
The Bordeaux wine region is intimately connected with Cabernet Sauvignon , even though wine is rarely made without the blended component of other grape varieties . It is the likely " birthplace " of the vine , and producers across the globe have invested heavily in trying to reproduce the structure and complexity of Bordeaux wines . While the " Bordeaux blend " of Cabernet Sauvignon , Cabernet franc and Merlot created the earliest examples of acclaimed Cabernet Sauvignon wine , Cabernet Sauvignon was first blended in Bordeaux with Syrah , a pairing that is widely seen in Australia and some vin de pays wines from the Languedoc .
The decision to first start blending Cabernet Sauvignon was partly derived from financial necessity . The sometime temperamental and unpredictable climate of Bordeaux during the " Little Ice Age " did not guarantee a successful harvest every year ; producers had to insure themselves against the risk of losing an entire vintage by planting a variety of grapes . Over time it was discovered that the unique characteristics of each grape variety can complement each other and enhance the overall quality of wine . As a base , or backbone of the wine , Cabernet Sauvignon added structure , acidity , tannins and aging potential . By itself , particularly when harvested at less than ideal ripeness , it can lack a sense of fruit or " fleshiness " on the palate which can be compensated by adding the rounder flavors of Merlot . Cabernet franc can add additional aromas to the bouquet as well as more fruitiness . In the lighter soils of the Margaux region , Cabernet @-@ based wines can lack color , which can be achieved by blending in Petit Verdot . Malbec , used today mostly in Fronsac , can add additional fruit and floral aromas .
DNA evidence has shown Cabernet Sauvignon is the result of the crossing of two other Bordeaux grape varieties — Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc — which has led grapevine historians , or ampelographers , to believe that the grape originated in Bordeaux . Early records indicate that the grape was a popular planting in the Médoc region during the 18th century . The loose berry clusters and thick skins of the grape provided a good resistance to rot in the sometimes wet maritime climate of Bordeaux . The grape continued to grow in popularity until the Powdery mildew epidemic of 1852 exposed Cabernet Sauvignon 's sensitivity to that grape disease . With vineyards severely ravaged or lost , many Bordeaux wine growers turned to Merlot , increasing its plantings to where it soon became the most widely planted grape in Bordeaux . As the region 's winemakers started to better understand the area 's terroir and how the different grape varieties performed in different region , Cabernet Sauvignon increased in plantings all along the Left Bank region of the Gironde river in the Médoc as well as Graves region , where it became the dominant variety in the wine blends . In the Right bank regions of Saint @-@ Émilion and Pomerol , Cabernet is a distant third in plantings behind Merlot & Cabernet franc .
In the wine regions of the Left Bank , the Cabernet influence of the wine has shown unique characteristics in the different regions . In Saint @-@ Estèphe and Pessac @-@ Léognan , the grape develops more mineral flavors . Aromas of violets are a characteristic of Margaux . Pauillac is noted by a strong lead pencil scent and Saint @-@ Julien by cedar and cigar boxes . The Cabernet wines of the Moulis are characterized by their soft tannins and rich fruit flavors while the southern Graves region is characterized by strong blackcurrant flavors , though in less intense wines over all . The percentage of Cabernet Sauvignon used in the blend will depend on terroir and the winemakers styles as well as the vintage . The First Growth estates of Château Mouton Rothschild and Château Latour are noted for regularly producing wines with some of the highest percentage of Cabernet — often around 75 % .
A common factor affecting the flavors of Bordeaux wines is the harvest yields of Cabernet Sauvignon . Throughout Bordeaux there is a legal maximum permitted yield of 50 hectoliters ( hl ) per hectare ( ha ) . With the aid of global warming and vigorous rootstocks , many Bordeaux vineyards can easily surpass 60 hl / ha , with some estates taking advantage of the legal loophole of plafond limite de classement ( " ceiling limit classification " ) that permits higher yields during " exceptional " years . This has had an adverse effect on the quality of production from some producers who regularly use grapes harvested at excessive yields . In recent years there has been more of an emphasis on keeping yields low , particularly for an estate 's Grand vin .
= = = = Other French regions = = = =
The Bordeaux wine region accounts for more than 60 % of the Cabernet Sauvignon grown in France . Outside of Bordeaux , Cabernet Sauvignon is found in varying quantities throughout Le Midi and in the Loire Valley . In general , Cabernet Sauvignon wines are lighter and less structured , drinkable much earlier than Bordeaux wine . In the southwest French appellation d 'origine contrôlée ( AOCs ) of Bergerac and Buzet it is used to make rosé wine . In some regions it is used to add flavor and structure to Carignan while it is blended with Négrette in Gaillac and Fronton as well as Tannat in Madiran . In Provence , the grape had some presence in the region in the mid 19th century , when viticulturist Jules Guyot recommended it as a blending partner with Syrah . In recent years , several Midi wine estates , such as Mas de Daumas Gassac have received international acclaim for their Cabernet Sauvignon blended in Hérault , with Rhône grapes like Syrah . It is often made as a single varietal in the vin de pays of the Languedoc . The influence of Australian flying winemakers has been considerable in how Cabernet Sauvignon is treated by some Languedoc wine estates , with some producers making wines that can seem like they are from the New World . Overall , the grape has not exerted it dominance of the region , generally considered less ideally situated to the dry climate than Syrah . The Languedoc producers who give serious consideration to Cabernet Sauvignon , generally rely on irrigation to compensate for the climate .
= = = Italy = = =
Cabernet Sauvignon has a long history in Italian wines , being first introduced to the Piedmont region in 1820 . In the mid @-@ 1970s , the grape earned notoriety and controversy as a component in the so @-@ called " Super Tuscan " wines of Tuscany . Today the grape is permitted in several Denominazioni di origine controllata ( DOCs ) and is used in many Indicazione Geografica Tipica ( IGT ) wines that are made outside DOC perimeters in certain regions . For most of its history the grape has been viewed with suspicion as a " foreign influence " that distracts from the native grape varieties . After decades of experimentation , the general view of Cabernet Sauvignon has improved as more winemakers find ways to complement their native grape varieties with Cabernet as a blending component .
In Piedmont , the grape was sometimes used as an " illegal " blending partner with Nebbiolo for DOC classified Barolo with the intention of adding color and more fruit flavors . In the DOCs of Langhe and Monferrato , Cabernet is a permitted blending grape with Nebbiolo as well as Barbera . Wines that are composed of all three grape varieties are often subjected to considerable oak treatment to add a sense of sweet spiciness to compensate for the high tannins of Cabernet Sauvignon and Nebbiolo as well as the high acidity of Barbera . There are varietal styles of Cabernet Sauvignon produce in Piedmont with qualities varying depending on the location . In other regions of northern Italy , such as Lombardy , Emilia @-@ Romagna and Friuli @-@ Venezia Giulia , the grape is often blended with Merlot to produce Bordeaux style blends . In the Veneto region , Cabernet Sauvignon is sometimes blended with the main grapes of Valpolicella @-@ Corvina , Molinara and Rondinella . In southern Italy , the grape is mostly used as a blending component with local varieties @-@ such as Carignan in Sardinia , Nero d 'Avola in Sicily , Aglianico in Campania and Gaglioppo in Calabria .
Cabernet Sauvignon has had a controversial history in Tuscan wine , particularly for its role in the arrivals of " Super Tuscan " in the mid @-@ 1970s . The origin of Super Tuscans is rooted in the restrictive DOC practices of the Chianti zone prior to the 1990s . During this time Chianti could be composed of no more than 70 % Sangiovese and had to include at least 10 % of one of the local white wine grapes . Many Tuscan wine producers thought they could produce a better quality wine if they were not hindered by the DOC regulations , particularly if they had the freedom to use Cabernet Sauvignon in the blend and not required to use white grape varieties . The marchese Piero Antinori was one of the first to create a " Chianti @-@ style " wine that ignored the DOC regulations , releasing a 1971 Sangiovese @-@ Cabernet Sauvignon blend known as Tignanello in 1978 . Other producers followed suit and soon the prices for these Super Tuscans were consistently beating the prices of some of the most well known Chianti . Other Tuscan wine regions followed suit , blending Cabernet Sauvignon with Sangiovese and even making varietal versions of the grape . Gradually the DOC system caught on and began allowing more regions to use the grape in their DOC designated wines . Cabernet Sauvignon in Tuscany is characterized by ripe black cherry flavors that can give a perception of sweetness as well as strong notes of blackcurrant . The wines typically reach an alcohol level around 14 % but can still maintain notable levels of acidity . When blended with Sangiovese in significant quantities , Cabernet Sauvignon can dominate the blend with most Tuscan producers aiming to find a particular balance that suits their desired style .
= = = Other Old World producers = = =
The introduction of Cabernet Sauvignon in Spanish wine occurred in the Rioja region when the Marqués de Riscal planted cuttings from Bordeaux . By 2004 , it was the sixth most widely planted red wine grape in Spain . Today it is found in some quantities in every Spanish wine region , though it is not permitted in every Denominación de Origen ( DO ) designated region . In those areas , wines with Cabernet Sauvignon are relegated to less distinguished designations such as Vino de la Tierra or Vino de Mesa . The grape is most prominent in the Catalan wine region of Penedès , where its use was revived by the estates of Bodegas Torres and Jean León . There the grape is often blended with Tempranillo . It is also primarily a blending grape in the Ribera del Duero , but producers in Navarra have found some international acclaim for their varietal wines .
In the United Kingdom , English wine producers have experimented with growing the variety in plastic tunnels which can create a greenhouse effect and protect the grapes from the less than ideal climate of the wine region . While the grape is permitted to be planted in some German wine regions ( such as the Mosel ) , the vineyard sites best suited for ripening Cabernet are generally already occupied with Riesling ; many producers are ill @-@ inclined to uproot the popular German variety in favor of Cabernet Sauvignon . In the 1980s , inexpensive Bulgarian Cabernet Sauvignon was highly touted for its value and helped to establish that country 's wine industry and garner it more international presence in the wine market . The grape is performing a similar function for many countries in Eastern Europe , including Turkey , Bulgaria , Czech Republic , Georgia , Hungary , Moldova , Romania , Slovenia , and Ukraine . It can be in the eastern Mediterranean wine regions of Cyprus , Greece , Israel and Lebanon .
= = = California = = =
In California , Cabernet Sauvignon has developed its characteristic style and reputation , recognizable in the world 's market . Production and plantings of the grape in California are similar in quantity to those of Bordeaux . The 1976 Judgment of Paris wine tasting event helped to catapult Californian Cabernet Sauvignons onto the international stage when Stag 's Leap Wine Cellars ' 1973 Stags Leap District Cabernet Sauvignon beat out classified Bordeaux estates like Château Mouton Rothschild , Château Montrose , Château Haut @-@ Brion and Château Léoville @-@ Las Cases in a blind tasting conducted by French wine experts . In the 1980s , a new epidemic of phylloxera hit California , devastating many vineyards , which needed replanting . There was some speculation that ravaged Cabernet vineyards would be replanted with other varietals ( such as those emerging from the Rhone Rangers movement ) but in fact California plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon doubled between 1988 and 1998 ; many wine regions — such as Napa Valley north of Yountville and Sonoma 's Alexander Valley — were almost completely dominated by the grape variety . It also started to gain a foothold in Dry Creek Valley , Sonoma Mountain and Mendocino County . Cabernet from Sonoma County has shown a tendency to feature anise and black olive notes while Napa County Cabernets are characterized by their strong black fruit flavors .
In California , the main stylistic difference in Cabernet Sauvignon is between hillside / mountain vineyards and those on flatter terrain like valley floors or some areas of the Central Valley . In Napa , the hillside vineyards of Diamond Mountain District , Howell Mountain , Mt . Veeder , Spring Mountain District have thinner , less fertile soils which produces smaller berries with more intense flavors , reminiscent of Bordeaux wines that require years of aging to mature . The yields are also much lower , typically in the range of 1 – 2 tons per acre in contrast to the 4 – 8 tons that can be produced in the more fertile valley floors . Wines produced from mountainside vineyards tend to be characterized by deep inky colors and strong berry aromas . Throughout California there are many wine regions that have the potential to grow Cabernet Sauvignon to full ripeness and produce fruity , full @-@ bodied wines with alcohol levels regularly above the Bordeaux average of 12 – 13 % — often in excess of 14 % .
The use of oak in California Cabernet has a long history , with many producers favoring the use of new oak barrels heavily composed of American oak . After the early 1980s ' unsuccessful trend to create more " food friendly " wines , with less ripeness and less oak influence , winemakers ' focus shifted back to oak influence , but producers were more inclined to limit and lighten the use of oak barrels , with many turning to French oak or a combination of new and older oak barrels .
= = = = Other American wine regions = = = =
Cabernet Sauvignon is the most widely planted red grape variety in Washington state according to the Washington State Wine Commission . It is generally found in the warmer sites of the Columbia Valley . The vines are choice plantings for growers due to their hardy vine stalks and resistance to the cold winter frost that is commonplace in Eastern Washington . Washington Cabernet Sauvignon is characterized by its fruitiness and easy drinking styles that are not overly tannic . Recent Washington American Viticultural Areas ( AVAs ) that have seen some success with their Cabernet Sauvignons include Red Mountain , Walla Walla Valley and parts of the Yakima Valley AVA near the Tri @-@ Cities region .
In Oregon there are small quantities of Cabernet Sauvignon planted in the warmer southern regions of the Umpqua and Rogue Valleys . It has also started to develop a presence in the Arizona , New York , Texas and Virginia wine industries @-@ particularly in the Texas Hill Country and North Fork of Long Island AVAs . Throughout the United States , Cabernet Sauvignon is made in both varietal and blended styles . Under the American system , varietal Cabernet Sauvignon can include up to 25 % other grapes .
= = = South America = = =
Cabernet Sauvignon is grown in nearly every South American country including Chile , Argentina , Bolivia , Brazil , Peru and Uruguay . In Chile , the wines were historically limited by the excessively high yields that were commonplace throughout the country . As producers begun to concentrate on limiting yields , regional differences began to emerge that distinguished Chilean Cabernets . For vineyard plantings along flat river valleys , the climate of the region is the most important consideration ; as plantings move to higher elevations and along hillsides , soil type is a greater concern . The wines of the Aconcagua region are noted for their ripe fruit but closed , tight structure that needs some time in the bottle to develop . In the Maipo Valley , Cabernet Sauvignon wines are characterized by their pervasive blackcurrant fruit and an earthy , dusty note . In warmer regions , such as the Colchagua Province and around Curicó , the grapes ripen more fully ; they produce wines with rich fruit flavors that can be perceived as sweet due to the ripeness of the fruit . The acidity levels of these wines will be lower and the tannins will also be softer , making the wines more approachable at a younger age .
In Argentina , Cabernet Sauvignon lags behind Malbec as the country 's main red grape but its numbers are growing . The varietal versions often have lighter fruit flavors and are meant to be consumed young . Premium examples are often blended with Malbec and produce full , tannic wines with leather and tobacco notes . In recent years , there have been increased plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon in the Uco Valley of the Mendoza Province ; the wines coming from vineyards planted at higher altitudes garner some international attention .
= = = Australia = = =
In the 1970s , the Coonawarra region first brought international attention to Australian Cabernet Sauvignons with intense fruit flavors and subtle minty notes . The Margaret River region soon followed with wines that were tightly structured with pronounced black fruit notes . In the 1980s , Australia followed California 's contemporary trend in producing lighter , more " food friendly " wines with alcohol levels around 11 @-@ 12 % percent ; by the early 1990s , the styles changed again to focus on balance and riper fruit flavors . Today Cabernet Sauvignon is the second most widely planted red wine grape in Australia , following Shiraz with which it is often blended . It can be found in several wine regions with many large producers using grapes from several states . Notable regional differences characterize Australian Cabernet Sauvignon : in addition to the wine styles of Coonawarra and Margaret River , the Barossa Valley produces big , full bodied wines while the nearby , cooler Clare Valley produces wines with more concentrated fruit , and wines of the Victorian wine region of the Yarra Valley are noted for their balance in acidity , tannins and fruit flavors .
= = = Other New World producers = = =
Since the end of apartheid , the South African wine industry has been working to reestablish itself in the world 's wine markets with many regions actively promoting their Cabernet Sauvignon . Today it is the most widely planted red wine grape in South Africa . It is produced in both varietal and blended styles ; some producers favor a Bordeaux blend , while others follow the Australian example of blending with Syrah . Early examples of South African Cabernet Sauvignon were produced by grapes planted in vineyard locations that were cooler than ideal , creating very herbaceous wines with the distinctive " green bell pepper " notes . In the mid @-@ 1990s , there was more emphasis on harvesting at fuller ripeness , and new clones were introduced that produced riper , sweeter fruit . As the vines age , and better vineyards locations are identified , regional styles are starting to emerge among South African Cabernet Sauvignons : the Stellenbosch region is noted for heavy , full bodied wines while Constantia 's wines are characterized by their herbal and minty flavors .
In New Zealand , climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon . Most of the industry focus has centered on the North Island . The Hawkes Bay region was the first to make a significant effort in producing Cabernet Sauvignon but the cool climate of the region , coupled with the high yields and fertile alluvial soils , produced wines that were still marked with aggressive green and vegetal flavors . Added focus on canopy management , which gives the grapes more sunlight to ripen by removing excess foliage , and low vigor rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results . The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and terroir . Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon : The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawkes Bay , with their warm gravel soils , have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland . Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand 's red wine grape plantings .
= = Popularity and criticism = =
In the past century , Cabernet Sauvignon has enjoyed a swell of popularity as one of the noble grapes in the world of wine . Built partially on its historical success in Bordeaux as well as New World wine regions like California and Australia , planting the grape is considered a solid choice in any wine region that is warm enough to cultivate it . Among consumers Cabernet has become a familiar wine which has aided in its accessibility and appeal even from obscure wine regions and producers . In the 1980s , the Bulgarian wine industry was largely driven and introduced to the international wine market by the success of its Cabernet Sauvignon wines . The widespread popularity of Bordeaux has contributed to criticism of the grape variety for its role as a " colonizer " grape , being planted in new and emerging wine regions at the expense of focus on the unique local grape varieties . Some regions , such as Portugal with its abundance of native grape varieties , have largely ignored Cabernet Sauvignon as it seeks to rejuvenate its wine industry beyond Port production .
= = Wine styles = =
The style of Cabernet Sauvignon is strongly influenced by the ripeness of the grapes at harvest . When more on the unripe side , the grapes are high in pyrazines and will exhibit pronounced green bell peppers and vegetal flavors . When harvested overripe the wines can taste jammy and may have aromas of stewed blackcurrants . Some winemakers choose to harvest their grapes at different ripeness levels in order to incorporate these different elements and potentially add some layer of complexity to the wine . When Cabernet Sauvignon is young , the wines typically exhibit strong fruit flavors of black cherries and plum . The aroma of blackcurrants is one of the most distinctive and characteristic element of Cabernet Sauvignon that is present in virtually every style of the wine across the globe . Styles from various regions and producers may also have aromas of eucalyptus , mint and tobacco . As the wines age they can sometimes develop aromas associated with cedar , cigar boxes and pencil shavings . In general New World examples have more pronounced fruity notes while Old World wines can be more austere with heightened earthy notes .
= = = Ability to age = = =
In the 19th and 20th centuries , a large part of Cabernet Sauvignon 's reputation was built on its ability to age and develop in the bottle . In addition to softening some of their austere tannins , as Cabernet wines age new flavors and aromas can emerge and add to the wines ' complexity . Historically this was a trait characterized by Bordeaux with some premium examples in favorable vintages having the potential to last for over a century , but producers across the globe have developed styles that could age and develop for several decades . Even with the ability to age , some Cabernet Sauvignon wines can still be approachable a few years after vintage . In Bordeaux , the tannins of the wines tend to soften after ten years and can typically last for at least another decade @-@ sometimes longer depending on the producer and vintage . Some Spanish and Italian Cabernet Sauvignons will need similar time as Bordeaux to develop but most examples are typically made to be drunk earlier .
While New World Cabernets are characterized as being drinkable earlier than Bordeaux , premium producers such as the Californian cult wines will produce wines that need time to age and could potentially develop for two to three decades . Overall , the majority of Californian Cabernets are meant to be approachable after only a couple of years in the bottle but can still have the potential to improve further over time . Similarly many premium Australian Cabernet will also need at least ten years to develop though many are approachable after two to five years . New Zealand wines are typically meant to be consumed young and will often maintain their green herbal flavors even with extended bottle aging . South American Cabernets have very pronounced fruit flavors when they are young and the best made examples will maintain some of those flavors as they age . South African wines tend to favor more Old World styles and typically require six to eight years ' aging before they start to develop further flavors .
= = Pairing with food = =
Cabernet Sauvignon is a very bold and assertive wine that has potential to overwhelm light and delicate dishes . The wine 's high tannin content as well as the oak influences and high alcohol levels associated with many regional styles play important roles in influencing how well the wine matches with different foods . When Cabernet Sauvignon is young , all those elements are at their peak , but as the wine ages it mellows ; possibilities for different food pairings open up . In most circumstances , matching the weight ( alcohol level and body ) of the wine to the heaviness of the food is an important consideration . Cabernet Sauvignons with high alcohol levels do not pair well with spicy foods due to hotness levels of the capsaicins present in spices like chili peppers being enhanced by the alcohol with the heat accentuating the bitterness of the tannins . Milder spices , such as black pepper , pair better due to their ability to minimize the perception of tannins — such as in the classic pairings of Cabernet Sauvignon with steak au poivre and pepper @-@ crusted ahi tuna .
Fats and proteins reduce the perception of tannins on the palate . When Cabernet Sauvignon is paired with steak or dishes with a heavy butter cream sauce , the tannins are neutralized , allowing the fruits of the wine to be more noticeable . In contrast , starches such as pastas and rice will have little effect on tannins . The bitterness of the tannins can also be counterbalanced by the use of bitter foods , such as radicchio and endive , or with cooking methods that involve charring like grilling . As the wine ages and the tannins lessen , more subtle and less bitter dishes will pair better with Cabernet Sauvignon . The oak influences of the wine can be matched with cooking methods that have similar influences on the food @-@ such as grilling , smoking and plank roasting . Dishes that include oak @-@ influenced flavors and aromas normally found in Cabernet Sauvignon — such as dill weed , brown sugar , nutmeg and vanilla — can also pair well .
The different styles of Cabernet Sauvignon from different regions can also influence how well the wine matches up with certain foods . Old World wines , such as Bordeaux , have earthier influences and will pair better with mushrooms . Wines from cooler climates that have noticeable vegetal notes can be balanced with vegetables and greens . New World wines , with bolder fruit flavors that may even be perceived as sweet , will pair well with bolder dishes that have lots of different flavor influences . While Cabernet Sauvignon has the potential to pair well with bitter dark chocolate , it will not pair well with sweeter styles such as milk chocolate . The wine can typically pair well with a variety of cheeses , such as Cheddar , mozzarella and Brie , but full flavored or blue cheeses will typically compete too much with the flavors of Cabernet Sauvignon to be a complementary pairing .
= = Health benefits = =
In late 2006 , the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology published the result of studies conducted at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai that showed the beneficial relationship of resveratrol , a compound found in all red wine , in reducing the risk factors associated with Alzheimer 's disease . The study showed that resveratrol found in Cabernet Sauvignon can reduce levels of amyloid beta peptides , which attack brain cells and are part of the etiology of Alzheimer 's . Resveratrol has also been shown to promote the clearance of amyloid @-@ beta peptides . It has also been shown that non @-@ alcoholic extracts of Cabernet Sauvignon protect hypertensive rats during ischaemia and reperfusion .
= Ian Dougald McLachlan =
Air Vice Marshal Ian Dougald McLachlan , CB , CBE , DFC ( 23 July 1911 – 14 July 1991 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born in Melbourne , he was a cadet at the Royal Military College , Duntroon , before joining the Air Force in December 1930 . After serving in instructional and general flying roles , he took command of No. 3 Squadron in December 1939 , leading it into action in the Middle East less than a year later . Awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross , he returned to Australia in 1942 to command air bases in Canberra and Melbourne . The following year he was posted to the South West Pacific , where he led successively Nos. 71 and 73 Wings . Having been promoted to group captain , he took charge of Southern Area Command in 1944 , and No. 81 Wing in the Dutch East Indies the following year .
Raised to acting air commodore in 1946 , McLachlan served as senior air staff officer for the British Commonwealth Air Group in Japan until 1948 . After leading North @-@ Eastern Area Command in 1951 – 53 , he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire and posted to Britain , where he attended the Imperial Defence College . Promoted air vice marshal , he returned to Australia in 1957 as Air Officer Commanding Training Command ; in this role he carried out two major reviews focussing on the RAAF 's educational and command systems . He was Deputy Chief of the Air Staff from 1959 to 1961 , and then Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff in Washington , DC , until 1963 . Appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1966 , McLachlan 's final post before retiring in 1968 was as Air Member for Supply and Equipment . He was a consultant to Northrop after leaving the RAAF , and lived in Darling Point , Sydney , until his death in 1991 .
= = Early career = =
The son of Dugald and Bertha McLachlan , Ian McLachlan was born in the Melbourne suburb of South Yarra , Victoria , on 23 July 1911 . Following education at Melbourne High School , he entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1928 . He was one of four cadets sponsored that year by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , which did not at that stage have its own officer training college . Budgetary constraints imposed by the Great Depression necessitated the transfer of these cadets out of Duntroon midway through their four @-@ year course . Although offered positions in the Australian Public Service or nominations for short @-@ term commissions with the Royal Air Force , all were determined to serve with the RAAF , apparently " delighted " at the prospect of entering their chosen service early .
Enlisting in the Air Force on 10 December 1930 , McLachlan completed his flight training the following year . He was commissioned as a pilot in 1932 , and undertook various flight @-@ instruction and general duties roles over the next five years . In 1937 , he was a member of the RAAF contingent posted to Britain to celebrate the coronation of King George VI . Ranked flight lieutenant , he was given command of No. 3 ( Army Cooperation ) Squadron , operating Hawker Demon fighters out of RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , on 4 December 1939 . He was promoted to squadron leader on 1 February 1940 , and led his unit to the Middle East on 15 July .
= = Combat service = =
= = = Middle East = = =
Sailing via Bombay , India , No. 3 Squadron arrived at Suez , Egypt , in late August 1940 . In its original army cooperation role supporting the Australian 6th Division in the North African Campaign , the squadron was equipped with obsolescent Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters and Westland Lysander observation aircraft . As part of his unit 's work @-@ up for operations , McLachlan organised training exercises with the 6th Division , as well as written exams to test his men 's knowledge of army jargon and air @-@ to @-@ ground communications .
Described by historian Alan Stephens as " acerbic but capable " , McLachlan led No. 3 Squadron through the Battle of Sidi Barrani in December 1940 , followed by the Battle of Bardia and the capture of Tobruk in January 1941 . Prior to converting to Hawker Hurricanes that month , the unit was credited with destroying twelve Italian aircraft for the loss of five Gladiators and two pilots ; McLachlan shot down a Fiat CR.42 on 10 December 1940 , the same action in which fellow squadron member and future ace Gordon Steege claimed his first " kill " . Air Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief RAF Middle East , Air Marshal Sir Arthur Longmore , praised McLachlan and his squadron for their " high morale and adaptability to desert conditions " .
McLachlan was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) for his " fine qualities as a fighter pilot " and " determined leadership " in the face of often " overwhelming numbers of enemy aircraft " ; the citation was promulgated in the London Gazette on 11 February 1941 under the name " Ian Duncan MacLachlan " . He was the first RAAF fighter pilot to be decorated in World War II . Promoted to wing commander , he took charge of the newly established RAF Benina , Benghazi , on 13 February , handing over No. 3 Squadron to Squadron Leader Peter Jeffrey . By May 1941 , McLachlan was acting as RAAF Liaison Officer for the new Air Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief , RAF Middle East , Air Marshal Arthur Tedder . The Air Board in Melbourne , headed by the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , was not consulted over this change of role and took exception to the RAF 's " unilateral action " in appointing McLachlan , but eventually acquiesced and permitted him to remain at the post to coordinate facilities for RAAF personnel in the region until July , when he was recalled to Australia .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
In 1942 McLachlan took command of RAAF Station Canberra , and , later in the year , RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria . Posted for action in New Guinea , he became the inaugural commander of No. 71 Wing at Milne Bay in February 1943 . The wing consisted of No. 6 Squadron ( flying Lockheed Hudsons ) , No. 75 Squadron ( P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks ) , No. 77 Squadron ( Kittyhawks ) , and No. 100 Squadron ( Bristol Beauforts ) . It came under the control of No. 9 Operational Group , the RAAF 's " premier fighting unit " in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , whose purpose was to act as a mobile strike force in support of advancing Allied troops . In March the Beauforts took part in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , " the decisive aerial engagement " in the SWPA according to General Douglas MacArthur , though they were unable to score any hits against Japanese ships .
By June 1943 , McLachlan had been promoted group captain and given command of No. 73 Wing . He established his headquarters at Goodenough Island , where he was responsible for organising the wing into a fighter formation consisting of No. 76 Squadron ( Kittyhawks ) , No. 77 Squadron ( Kittyhawks ) and No. 79 Squadron ( Spitfires ) . As well as providing local air defence , and fighter escort for Australian bombers , the Kittyhawks were armed with incendiary and general @-@ purpose bombs so that they could engage in ground attack missions , a practice that had already been employed by Commonwealth forces in the Middle Eastern theatre . In August , the wing transferred to Kiriwina , while No. 9 Group 's other combat formation , No. 71 Wing , took over responsibility for Goodenough . Appointed senior air staff officer ( SASO ) at No. 9 Group , McLachlan handed over command of No. 73 Wing to Wing Commander Gordon Steege in October 1943 . Towards the end of his posting to No. 9 Group , McLachlan told its former commander , Air Commodore Joe Hewitt , that the USAAF was " leaping ahead " of the RAAF , which was being left to " clean up the remnants " of Japanese resistance . He feared that Australian fighter pilots especially would be " increasingly restless if the Americans took all the fighting plums " . Barely a year later , morale among senior RAAF fighter pilots had dropped to such an extent that eight of them tried to resign their commissions in the so @-@ called " Morotai Mutiny " .
In March 1944 , McLachlan took took charge of Southern Area Command , Melbourne , with responsibility for maritime patrol , convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine warfare in southern Australian waters ; he handed over to Group Captain Charles Eaton the following January . Mentioned in despatches on 9 March 1945 for his " gallant and distinguished service " , McLachlan returned to action in the South @-@ West Pacific as commander of No. 81 Wing , which comprised Nos. 76 , 77 and 82 Squadrons , operating Kittyhawks . As part of the Australian First Tactical Air Force in the Dutch East Indies , the wing was slated to take part in Operation Oboe One , the Battle of Tarakan , in May but was unable to relocate from Noemfoor to its new base on Morotai in time . It fought in Operation Oboe Six , the invasion of Labuan , from June and was based on the island when the Pacific War ended in August 1945 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Following the end of hostilities , McLachlan volunteered to serve with the Allied occupation forces in Japan . He married Margaret Helen Chrystal on 5 January 1946 ; they had a son and a daughter . Promoted to acting air commodore on 1 March , he was appointed SASO of the British Commonwealth Air Group ( BCAIR ) , headquartered in Kure and responsible for No. 81 Wing RAAF , as well as squadrons from the Royal Air Force , Royal New Zealand Air Force , and Indian Air Force . Returning to Australia in 1948 , he served as Air Commodore Operations at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne , at which time the English Electric Canberra was ordered as Australia 's first jet bomber , partly for its ability to deliver nuclear weapons . He completed his term in September 1951 and took over North @-@ Eastern Area Command , based at Townsville , Queensland . Following his appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1954 New Year 's Honours , McLachlan was posted to Britain for three years , first attending the Imperial Defence College , London , and then serving as RAF Director of Flying Training at the Air Ministry during 1955 – 56 . Raised to air vice @-@ marshal , he returned to Australia in 1957 to become Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Training Command in Melbourne .
As AOC Training Command , McLachlan undertook two reviews that would have , according to the official history of the post @-@ war RAAF , " a significant effect on the Air Force of the 1960s " . In 1957 , at the instigation of the Air Member for Personnel , Air Vice Marshal Frederick Scherger , McLachlan formed a committee to review the effectiveness of the syllabus at RAAF College for meeting the future needs of the Air Force in an age of guided missiles and nuclear weaponry . This led to a policy of cadets undertaking academic degrees , in line with similar institutions in the other armed services ; the college was subsequently renamed RAAF Academy . The official history of the RAAF considered the result to be only partially successful ; while it turned out highly educated officers , they were educated solely in a rigid scientific discipline suited to an Air Force that never came into existence , one relying on missiles rather than manned aircraft . In 1959 , McLachlan chaired a committee to review the change in the RAAF 's command structure that had taken place in 1953 – 54 , from a geographically based " area " system to a functional system consisting of Home , Maintenance Command , and Training Commands . Concluding that this had reduced duplication and improved efficiency , he proposed further rationalisation by amalgamating Training and Maintenance Commands to form a new organisation , Support Command . His plan was duly implemented , as was his recommendation that Home Command , responsible for air operations , be renamed Operational Command .
McLachlan was appointed Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1959 , before being posted to Washington , DC , as attaché heading up the Australian Joint Services Staff in 1961 . During his term in the US , Australia ordered the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber as a replacement for the Canberra . Despite what was touted as a firm timetable and cost schedule for the order , McLachlan confided to a colleague that he had serious concerns about when and if the RAAF would actually get the F @-@ 111 , and what the final cost would be . According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens , " even for such a shrewd and sardonic man as McLachlan , that was to prove a painfully prescient observation " , as the new bomber was delivered six years late and massively over budget . Following his return from Washington , McLachlan became Air Member for Supply and Equipment ( AMSE ) in February 1964 . As AMSE he sat on the Air Board , the service 's controlling body that consisted of its most senior officers , chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . In this position he worked to increase the proportion of tertiary educated supply officers , following similar achievements among engineering officers in the RAAF 's Technical Branch . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1966 New Year 's Honours , the citation noting particularly his chairmanship of the two " historic " committees that reorganised RAAF College and the Air Force 's command structure in the late 1950s . The use of electronic data processing became more widespread during McLachlan 's tenure as AMSE , and by 1968 the RAAF 's supply system had been computerised .
= = Later life = =
McLachlan completed his term as Air Member for Supply and Equipment on 23 July 1968 and retired from the RAAF ; he was divorced from his wife the same year . Upon leaving the military , he became an aeronautical consultant to the Northrop Corporation , and chairman of Information Electronics Pty Ltd from 1983 , serving in both positions until 1987 . He was also chairman of Pokolbin Winemakers from 1970 through 1975 . In retirement he continued to exercise his interest in Australia 's defence , joining in 1975 a group of pundits , including former Chief of the Air Staff Sir Alister Murdoch , who promoted the addition of nuclear weapons to the country 's arsenal . A resident of Sydney 's Darling Point , Ian McLachlan died on 14 July 1991 .
= 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team =
The 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team represented the University of Michigan in the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season . They played their home games at Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor , Michigan and competed in the Big Ten Conference . The team attempted to rebound from its worst season ( loss wise ) in its 130 @-@ year football history and succeeded at first , starting the season 4 – 0 and earning a No. 20 ranking in the polls . Over the final eight games the Wolverines went 1 – 7 however , ending the season with a 5 – 7 record and failing to qualify for a bowl game for the second straight year . 2008 and 2009 were Michigan 's first back @-@ to @-@ back sub-.500 seasons since 1962 and 1963 ; they also failed to win a road game for the first time since 1962 .
However , several individuals excelled . Brandon Graham received numerous post @-@ season accolades including Chicago Tribune Silver Football as conference Co @-@ MVP , several first and second team 2009 College Football All @-@ America Team selections , and the 2010 Senior Bowl MVP . Graham was the national statistical champion in tackles for a loss ( TFL ) and the repeat Big Ten Champion . Zoltan Mesko also received several second team All @-@ American recognitions and was a first team Academic All @-@ American . Mesko was the Big Ten punting average statistical champion . After the season , co @-@ captains Graham , Mesko and leading tackler Stevie Brown were drafted in the 2010 NFL Draft and immediately after the draft Donovan Warren signed as an undrafted free agent .
= = Preseason preview = =
In 2008 the Michigan Wolverines had possibly the worst season in the history of the program . The team finished with a 3 – 9 regular season record , failing to qualify for a postseason bowl game for the first time in 33 years . The Wolverines struggled to implement first @-@ year head coach Rich Rodriguez 's spread option offense ; Michigan was last in the Big Ten in passing offense , scoring offense , total offense and turnover margin .
Going into 2009 , there was optimism that Michigan , led by newly recruited mobile quarterback Tate Forcier , would be able to turn things around and have a winning season , or at the very least win their opening game for the first time since 2006 . The team had 10 returning offensive starters and 5 returning defensive starters . Although to some Forcier was a foregone conclusion as the starting quarterback , the battle between him , incumbent Nick Sheridan , and Denard Robinson was anticipated to be the most competitive position battle in the Big Ten Conference according to College Football News . Although the 2008 defense had been a disappointment , Obi Ezeh and Brandon Graham were considered to be a solid nucleus to build around . The team also employed a new defensive coordinator , Greg Robinson , to help guide this defensive turnaround . The key losses for the team were S Brandon Harrison , DE Tim Jamison , DT Will Johnson , RB Sam McGuffie , DT Terrance Taylor , LB John Thompson , QB Steven Threet , CB Morgan Trent .
= = Recruiting = =
The Wolverines received several commitments from 4 @-@ star blue chip players . Among the recruits are Anthony LaLota of the Hun School in Princeton , New Jersey who is ranked as the fourth offensive tackle in the nation by Scout.com and sixth strong side defensive end by Rivals.com. LaLota appeared in the U.S. Army All @-@ American game on January 3 , 2009 in San Antonio , Texas . Other top recruits included a top @-@ ten @-@ rated dual @-@ threat quarterback ( Tate Forcier – Rivals # 6 ) to run Rich Rodriguez 's spread offense , and Justin Turner who was rated as the No. 3 safety .
Michigan 's 2009 recruiting class was ranked 7th nationally by Rivals.com , and 10th by ESPN . Eight players initially committed to attend Michigan in 2009 but later decommitted and signed with a different college : Anthony Fera – K ( PSU ) , Bryce McNeal – WR ( Clemson ) , Kevin Newsome – QB ( PSU ) , Dewayne Peace – WR ( Arizona ) , Jordan Barnes – LB ( Oklahoma State ) , Pearlie Graves – DT ( Texas Tech ) , DeQuinta Jones – DT , and Shavodrick Beaver – QB ( Tulsa )
Several recruits participated in the January 3 U.S. Army All @-@ American game during which William Campbell announced his re @-@ commitment to the program . Joining Campbell and LaLota in the All @-@ America game were cornerback / safety Justin Turner , kicker Brendan Gibbons , and receivers Jeremy Gallon and Je 'Ron Stokes . Several recruits began early enrollment at Michigan for the Spring 2009 semester , including quarterback Tate Forcier , five @-@ star defensive tackle Will Campbell , running back Vincent Smith , defensive end Anthony LaLota , linebacker Brandin Hawthorne , defensive back Mike Jones and safety Vlad Emilien .
= = = Position key = = =
= = = Recruits = = =
= = Practice time limit investigation = =
In an August 30 , 2009 Detroit Free Press article , several current and former players on the 2008 and 2009 teams speaking anonymously said Michigan frequently violated the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) off @-@ season 8 @-@ hour @-@ per @-@ week and in @-@ season 20 @-@ hour @-@ per @-@ week practice limit . Rodriguez denied all of the allegations at a press conference the next day ; The New York Times quoted him as saying " We know the rules , and we follow the rules . " The University of Michigan Athletic Department 's compliance office notified both the NCAA and the Big Ten Conference of its intentions to investigate itself . Unlike the University of Michigan basketball scandal where all of the participants had left the school by the time the investigation completed and punishment was handed down , many of the athletes involved in this scandal are still students at the University of Michigan ; failure to cooperate with the investigation might result in the NCAA revoking the athletes eligibility to participate in athletic competitions . In November , the university revealed its finding that the team failed to file the proper paperwork to document the team 's training schedule .
The NCAA had the right to either accept Michigan 's findings once the athletic department 's inquiry was completed or to conduct its own investigation . On October 23 , 2009 the NCAA notified the school that it had decided to begin a formal investigation into the matter ; they expected it to be completed by December 31 , 2009 . On February 22 , 2010 , the NCAA accused Michigan of failing to comply with practice time rules and " failed to promote an atmosphere of compliance within the football program " under coach Rich Rodriguez . The university had 90 days to respond and appeared at an NCAA hearing on infractions in August . Michigan issued self @-@ sanctions on May 25 , 2010 , which included cutting practice time and placing itself on two years worth of probation . Michigan did , however , dispute the claim that Coach Rodriguez " failed to promote an atmosphere of compliance . " The NCAA handed down their final verdict in the case on November 4 , 2010 , which accepted almost all of the self @-@ sanctions that Michigan provided . Michigan was docked 130 practice hours , which was twice the number of excess hours that the university had exceeded , and placed on three years probation , which was one more than originally proposed ; but the university and Rodriguez did , however , escape the most serious charge of " failing to promote an atmosphere of compliance , " as the NCAA agreed with Michigan 's statement that the cases were not deliberate and isolated . This ruling ended the NCAA 's investigation of Michigan 's football program .
= = Preseason award watch lists = =
Several players excelled individually . The season began with numerous Wolverines on national award preseason watchlists . Brandon Graham led the way with five such recognitions for the Bednarik Award , Hendricks Award , Lombardi Award , Lott Trophy and Bronko Nagurski Trophy . David Molk was on both the Lombardi and Rimington Trophy preseason lists , while Brandon Minor was on both the Maxwell Award and Doak Walker Award lists . Obi Ezeh , Zoltan Mesko , and Stephen Schilling were preseason Butkus Award , Ray Guy Award and Lombardi candidates , respectively . As the season started , Michigan burst out with a 4 – 0 start and saw several players recognized as Big Ten Conference player of the week early in the season : Tate Forcier , Carlos Brown and Mesko . Also , several players earned midseason or finalist watchlist recognitions : Ezeh ( Butkus ) , Mesko ( Guy ) and Graham ( Hendrick ) .
During week 2 , Tate Forcier ( Offense ) and Darryl Stonum ( Special teams ) were honored by the Big Ten Conference as players of the week ( POW ) . At the same time , Forcier was also named AT & T All @-@ America Player of the Week , as well as the Davey O 'Brien National Quarterback of the Week Award and Rivals.com National Freshmen of the Week and the Rivals.com Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week honor . The following week , Carlos Brown earned co @-@ offensive POW honors along with Northwestern 's Mike Kafka . Zoltan Mesko was named the special teams player of the week on October 11 . The only statistical leader for the team was Mesko who in eight conference games averaged 45 @.@ 2 yards / punt , which was the first time a Michigan punter led the Big Ten in Conference game punting average since Paul Staroba in 1970 . Brandon Graham and Mesko were first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten selections by both the coaches and the media . Donovan Warren was first @-@ team by the media and second @-@ team by the coaches and Stephen Schilling was an honorable mention on both lists .
Ezeh was one of sixteen players and three from the Big Ten for the Butkus midseason watch list . Mesko was named one of 10 semifinalists for the Ray Guy Award and one of 12 finalists for the Wuerffel Trophy . Graham was one of seven finalists for the Hendricks Award .
= = Rankings = =
Source : ESPN.com : 2009 NCAA Football Rankings
= = Schedule = =
= = Radio = =
Radio coverage for all games was on The Michigan Wolverines Football Network , and on Sirius XM Satellite Radio , as well as online at The Michigan Sports Network Online Stream . The radio announcers were ( WJR talk show host ) Frank Beckmann with play @-@ by @-@ play , Jim Brandstatter with color commentary , and Doug Karsch with sideline reports .
= = Game notes = =
= = = vs. Western Michigan = = =
In the season opener , the Wolverines played the Western Michigan Broncos at Michigan Stadium . The Wolverines scored first , midway through the first quarter , with a 27 @-@ yard touchdown ( TD ) pass from Tate Forcier to Junior Hemingway . They added to their lead five minutes later when Denard Robinson ran in a TD from 43 yards out . In the second quarter , Michigan added 17 more points : two TDs and a field goal . First was a 7 @-@ yard TD pass from Tate Forcier to Kevin Koger . 6 minutes later , Jason Olesnavage kicked a 44 @-@ yard field goal . Junior Hemingway scored Michigan 's final points when he caught a 44 @-@ yard TD pass from Tate Forcier , putting the Wolverines up 31 – 0 at halftime . Western Michigan missed a field goal just before the end of the half .
The second half was largely uneventful . Michigan was content to hold their lead ; they essentially stopped passing in the fourth quarter , with Forcier being replaced by backup David Cone midway through the period . Western Michigan finally got on the board with a fourth @-@ quarter 73 @-@ yard TD pass from Tim Hiller to Juan Nunez .
The win stopped a streak of two consecutive season opening losses . The 2007 Michigan Wolverines football team , then ranked No. 5 in the nation , lost their season opener in shocking fashion to two @-@ time defending Division I @-@ FCS champion Appalachian State . The 2008 Michigan Wolverines football team lost their opener to Utah , who would go on to finish as the only undefeated team in Division I @-@ FBS , winning the Mountain West Conference and the 2009 Sugar Bowl over Alabama .
= = = vs. Notre Dame = = =
In week 2 , Michigan renewed their long @-@ time rivalry with the visiting Notre Dame Fighting Irish . On the opening drive , Notre Dame drove the field for an unsuccessful field goal attempt . Michigan scored first late in the first quarter when Brandon Minor ran in a 2 @-@ yard TD . Notre Dame responded with a field goal by Nick Taush . Less than twenty seconds later , however , Michigan answered another touchdown on a 94 @-@ yard kickoff return by Darryl Stonum . Notre Dame came back to take the lead in the second quarter with back @-@ to @-@ back touchdown passes , 4 yards to Golden Tate and 11 yards to Michael Floyd . After another three @-@ and @-@ out by Michigan , the Irish made their way down the field but were stopped by the Wolverine defense , forcing them to kick a 42 @-@ yard field goal . Michigan got the ball back with less than 4 minutes in the half and marched down the field , but with little time left on the clock they had to settle to end the first half with a 39 @-@ yard field goal .
Michigan dominated the third quarter , constantly stopping the Irish and controlling the ball most of the period . The Wolverines scored the only points of the quarter on a 3 @-@ yard TD pass to Kevin Koger . Early in the fourth quarter , after another three @-@ and @-@ out by Notre Dame , Forcier ran in a TD himself from 31 yards out on 4th and 3 . Notre Dame came back later in the quarter , starting with a 21 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Tate . Following the touchdown the Irish attempted and failed to score a two @-@ point conversion , leaving themselves down five . After Michigan had an unsuccessful drive , Notre Dame took the lead with a 2 @-@ yard TD run by Armando Allen , who then scored on their second 2 @-@ point conversion attempt , putting the Irish ahead with less than 5 minutes remaining . Michigan responded by marching the length of the field , consuming most of the remaining time . They eventually found themselves 5 yards away from the goal line with 22 seconds left . Two plays later the Wolverines would score the game @-@ winning touchdown on a 5 @-@ yard pass from Forcier to Greg Mathews .
The victory gave the Wolverines their first 2 – 0 start since 2006 . Michigan 's all @-@ time record versus Notre Dame improved to 21 – 15 – 1 as a result of the victory . This was the highest scoring game in the history of the rivalry , with a total of 72 points between the teams .
= = = vs. Eastern Michigan = = =
In week 3 , the Wolverines hosted the Eastern Michigan Eagles from nearby Ypsilanti . Michigan opened the scoring in the first quarter with a 37 @-@ yard field goal by Jason Olesnavage . The Eagles tied the score with 43 @-@ yard field goal by Joe Carithers . Michigan regained the lead when Carlos Brown ran in a 9 @-@ yard TD near the end of the quarter . Eastern Michigan re @-@ tied the score in the second quarter with an 11 @-@ yard TD run by Andy Schmitt . Michigan responded with 2 TDs : first a 5 @-@ yard TD run by Michael Shaw , then a 90 @-@ yard TD run by Carlos Brown , the third longest TD run from scrimmage in Michigan football history . The Eagles scored their final points of the game just before halftime with a 5 @-@ yard TD run by Dwayne Priest . Michigan dominated the second half , beginning with a 13 @-@ yard TD run by Martavious Odoms . A little over a minute later QB Denard Robinson ran in a 13 @-@ yard TD . In the 4th quarter Odoms ran in another TD from 36 yards out .
With the win Michigan started 3 – 0 for the first time since 2006 . The win also made Michigan 's all @-@ time record against Eastern Michigan 9 – 0 ; and 26 – 1 all time against MAC schools . Eastern Michigan would finish the 2009 season with a winless record .
= = = vs. Indiana = = =
On their homecoming weekend , the Wolverines hosted the Indiana Hoosiers . Indiana opened the scoring with a 25 @-@ yard TD run by Tandon Doss . Michigan responded with 2 TDs by Carlos Brown , first a 61 @-@ yard TD catch , then a 41 @-@ yard TD run . Indiana tied it back up with an 11 @-@ yard TD rush by Darius Willis . In the second quarter , Indiana kicked field goals on consecutive possessions , from 24 and 20 yards . Michigan responded with a 12 @-@ yard TD run by Brandon Minor . Indiana retook the lead with its 3rd field goal of the quarter , this one from 30 yards , making the halftime score 23 – 21 Indiana .
The only points of the third quarter came from a 32 @-@ yard Indiana field goal . Michigan regained the lead in the fourth with a 7 @-@ yard rush by Forcier who leaped over a defender into the endzone . He also completed a quarterback sneak for a 2 @-@ point conversion the next play , giving Michigan a 29 – 26 lead . Indiana took the lead back on the next offensive play with an 85 @-@ yard run for a TD by Darius Willis . Michigan regained the final lead with a 26 @-@ yard Martavius Odoms TD catch , and sealed their win soon after with a controversial interception by Donovan Warren .
This was the 16th consecutive time Michigan has beaten Indiana , and the 24th consecutive conference opening win for the Wolverines at home . Michigan started the season 4 – 0 for the first time since 2006 .
= = = at Michigan State = = =
In week 5 , Michigan took their first road trip of the season to East Lansing , Michigan to play their in @-@ state rivals the Michigan State Spartans for the Paul Bunyan Trophy . After an interception , Michigan scored first with a 36 @-@ yard field goal early in the first quarter . The Spartans countered with a 1 @-@ yard TD run by Larry Caper . Each team had a field goal in the 2nd quarter : Michigan had a 42 @-@ yarder , then State had a 26 yarder , putting the Spartans up 13 – 6 at halftime .
Michigan State added to their lead at the start of the 2nd half with a 15 @-@ yard TD run by Glenn Winston . Michigan responded in the 4th quarter with a 60 @-@ yard touchdown by Darryl Stonum , and tied it up just before time expired with a 92 @-@ yard drive capped by a 9 @-@ yard TD pass by Forcier to Roy Roundtree , taking the game to overtime . On its opening drive of overtime Forcier led Michigan down to the 8 @-@ yard line but then threw a tipped interception in the end zone , ending their threat . MSU 's Larry Caper ended the game with a 23 @-@ yard TD run on 3rd down and 12 , breaking three Michigan tackles that would have forced the Spartans to kick a field goal for the win .
The Spartans outgained the Wolverines 417 to 251 in total yards and won the rushing battle 197 to 28 . It is the 37th time in the last 40 meetings that the team who has won the rushing battle won the game . Michigan State won by six points : the last six meetings between the two teams in East Lansing have been decided by seven points or less , or a difference of 25 points in all six games combined .
= = = at Iowa = = =
Week 6 brought the Wolverines to Iowa City , Iowa for a primetime duel against the Iowa Hawkeyes . Michigan went up early in the 1st with an interception that was returned 40 yards by Donovan Warren for a touchdown . Iowa responded a few minutes later with a 34 @-@ yard TD pass to Tony Moeaki from Ricky Stanzi and took the lead with a 28 @-@ yard Daniel Murray field goal soon after . Michigan responded late in the quarter when Brandon Minor ran for a touchdown from 3 yards . Iowa added 10 more points in the 2nd quarter : first a 41 @-@ yard field goal , then a 1 @-@ yard TD run by Brandon Wegher , making the halftime score 20 – 14 Iowa .
The Hawkeyes opened the third quarter by booting a 40 @-@ yard field goal . Michigan responded with a 1 @-@ yard TD run late in the 3rd by Minor . Stanzi and Moeaki connected again for a 42 @-@ yard Iowa TD in the 4th . Michigan scored on a 3 @-@ yard TD run by QB Denard Robinson with about 4 minutes left and held Iowa to a 3 @-@ play drive , getting the ball back just down by 2 points ( 28 – 30 ) . In the final minute of the game , Michigan drove down the field about 30 yards on an attempted drive to kick a game @-@ winning field goal or TD , but Robinson threw a deep interception , sealing the Hawkeyes ' victory .
Michigan turned the ball over five times and fell to 1 – 5 in Big Ten road games under Rich Rodriguez . Michigan QB Tate Forcier left the game with 7 minutes remaining in the fourth quarter ; it was later discovered that he sustained a concussion during the game . Backup quarterback Denard Robinson served as an able replacement , leading the Wolverines on the TD drive to bring them to within 2 until he threw the game @-@ losing interception on the final drive .
= = = vs. Delaware State = = =
In week 7 , Michigan hosted the Delaware State Hornets from Division @-@ I FCS , in the first ever meeting between the two teams . Michigan dominated throughout the game . They scored 7 unanswered touchdowns in the first half , four in the first quarter alone : a Michael Shaw 2 @-@ yard run , a 6 @-@ yard run by Vincent Smith , a blocked punt that was picked up by Brandon Graham for a score , and a 38 @-@ yard catch by Kelvin Grady . In the second quarter , the Wolverines added three more touchdowns , on a 4 @-@ yard run by QB Denard Robinson , a 28 @-@ yard catch by Martell Webb , and a 7 @-@ yard run by Kevin Grady . Delaware State finally got on the board just before halftime with a 26 @-@ yard field goal by Riley Flickinger .
The second half was more sedate . Neither team scored in the third quarter . In the fourth Delaware State kicked a second field goal , this time from 24 yards . Michigan 's Michael Cox responded with two more touchdowns , from 57 and later 3 yards .
Several Michigan school records were broken or tied in the blowout win . The Wolverines ' 727 yards of total offense set a new team record ; the 442 total offensive yards in the first half alone also set a team record . Their 57 @-@ point win tied the second @-@ biggest margin of victory for them since 1950 , and tied for the eighth @-@ largest margin of victory in school history . The 49 first half points was the team 's second highest ever . The 28 point first quarter also tied a school record . Because of the effectiveness of the offense , the team did not punt the ball once , the first time this has happened since 1978 .
= = = vs. Penn State = = =
In week 8 , Michigan hosted the Penn State Nittany Lions at rain soaked Michigan Stadium . Michigan got an early lead after the first drive of the game when Brandon Minor ran in a TD from one yard out . Penn State tied the score with a 10 @-@ yard TD catch by Graham Zug from Daryll Clark , and took the lead for good on a 34 @-@ yard field goal by Collin Wagner . In the second quarter Michigan surrendered a safety after a bad snap in the end zone . On the ensuing possession , the Nittany Lions scored on a 60 @-@ yard TD pass to Andrew Quarless . Michigan responded with a 23 @-@ yard field goal , making the halftime score 19 – 10 .
Penn State dominated the second half , shutting out the Wolverines . The Nittany Lions added 13 points to their lead off of two Graham Zug TD catches in the third quarter , from 11 and 17 @-@ yard respectively . Penn State capped off their victory with a 29 @-@ yard field goal in the 4th .
Michigan suffered their first home loss of the season . This was the first time the Wolverines had lost to Penn State at home since 1996 , ending a five @-@ game losing streak for the Nittany Lions in Ann Arbor . Penn State defeated Michigan for the second straight season , its first win streak versus the Wolverines since a three @-@ game streak from 1994 – 96 .
= = = at Illinois = = =
In week 9 , the Wolverines traveled to Champaign , Illinois for a Halloween afternoon contest with the Illinois Fighting Illini . Illinois scored first midway through the first quarter with a 3 @-@ yard TD run by Arrelious Benn . Michigan tied it up with a 2 @-@ yard TD run by Carlos Brown . The Wolverines kicked two field goals in the second quarter , from 29 and 42 yards out respectively , making the score at halftime 13 – 7 in their favor .
For the second straight game , Michigan was held scoreless in the second half . Illinois held the Wolverines on a goal line stand ; on the following possession , Illini RB Mikel LeShoure ran in a 70 @-@ yard TD . A few minutes later , London Davis caught a 2 @-@ yard TD pass . QB Isiah Williams ran in a TD himself from 3 yards out for Illinois ' third score of the quarter . In the fourth quarter , Illinois kicked a 23 @-@ yard field goal and capped off their scoring with a 79 @-@ yard TD run by Jason Ford . It was Michigan 's first loss at Illinois since 1983 .
= = = vs. Purdue = = =
In week 10 , Michigan hosted the Purdue Boilermakers . In the first quarter , Purdue scored first with a 35 @-@ yard TD catch by Ralph Bolden . Michigan tied the score with a 29 @-@ yard TD run by Brandon Minor . Purdue retook the lead with a 41 @-@ yard field goal by Carson Wiggs . Michigan tied the score soon after with a 51 @-@ yard field goal . In the second quarter , Michigan scored 2 touchdowns : a 55 @-@ yard rush by Brandon Minor , and a 43 @-@ yard catch by Ray Roundtree , giving the Wolverines a 14 @-@ point advantage at halftime .
Once again , Michigan collapsed in the second half . In the third quarter , Purdue 's Ralph Bolden scored his second TD of the game with a 19 @-@ yard run . Michigan QB Forcier responded with a 6 @-@ yard TD run , but the point after touchdown attempt failed . Ralph Bolden scored his third touchdown of the day soon after with a 10 @-@ yard rush . Next , Purdue 's Cortez Smith caught a 54 @-@ yard TD pass . In the fourth quarter , Purdue QB Joey Elliot ran in an 8 @-@ yard TD . Michigan 's Minor then ran in a TD from 1 @-@ yard out . The Wolverines attempted to tie the game but Forcier failed to reach the end zone on a 2 @-@ point conversion , sealing the victory for the Boilermakers . It was Michigan 's first home loss to Purdue since 1966 .
= = = at Wisconsin = = =
For their final road game of the season , the Wolverines traveled to Madison , Wisconsin to play the Wisconsin Badgers . Wisconsin scored first with a 22 @-@ yard TD pass by Scott Tolzien to Garrett Graham . Michigan tied the score with a 21 @-@ yard Tate Forcier TD pass to Vincent Smith . In the second quarter , the teams traded the lead . First , Michigan took the lead with a 37 @-@ yard Jason Olesnavage field goal . Wisconsin then went ahead with an 8 @-@ yard TD pass to Nick Toon . Michigan went back ahead when Ryan Van Bergen picked up Scott Tolzien 's fumble ( forced by Brandon Graham ) and ran it back 14 yards for a touchdown . Wisconsin responded with a 1 @-@ yard TD run by John Clay , making the halftime score 21 – 17 Wisconsin .
In the third quarter , Toon scored another TD off a 15 @-@ yard catch . Michigan responded with a 10 @-@ yard catch by Ray Roundtree . Wisconsin then scored 17 unanswered points , starting with a 7 @-@ yard TD catch by Lance Kendricks . In the fourth quarter the Badgers sealed their victory with a 1 @-@ yard TD run by Tolzien and a 28 @-@ yard field goal by Philip Welch .
The game was Michigan 's third straight loss at Wisconsin . It was also Michigan 's 6th straight conference loss , the first time this has happened since the 1958 – 59 seasons . The Wolverines ' record fell to 5 – 6 ; they needed to win next week to become bowl eligibile .
= = = vs. Ohio State = = =
In the last game of the season , Michigan hosted their arch rivals the No. 9 nationally ranked Ohio State Buckeyes , in the 106th meeting between the two teams . Ohio State scored first when Michigan QB Forcier fumbled while scrambling in the end zone ; the ball was recovered by Ohio State 's Cameron Heyward for a TD . Michigan 's only score of the first half was a 46 @-@ yard field goal . Ohio State 's Brandon Saine ran in a 29 @-@ yard TD late in the second quarter to make it 14 – 3 at halftime .
In the third quarter Michigan closed to within four off of Vincent Smith 's 18 @-@ yard TD catch . Ohio State re @-@ extended their lead to eleven a few minutes later with a 12 @-@ yard TD catch by Daniel Herron . Michigan attempted to come back in the fourth quarter , but all of their drives except the last were ended by interceptions . The Wolverines came closest with eight minutes left , when Forcier was intercepted in the end zone by Buckeye CB Devon Torrence . On their last play of the game , the Wolverines were penalized for being in an illegal formation with five players in the backfield ; this penalty was declined , giving the ball back to Ohio State on downs and ending the game after the Buckeyes ran out the clock .
It was Ohio State 's sixth straight win over Michigan , their longest winning streak of the series . QB Tate Forcier had perhaps his worst game this season , throwing four interceptions and turning over a fumble for a TD ; prior to this game he had only thrown six interceptions all year . He became just the second Michigan quarterback to throw four interceptions against Ohio State in the last 60 years . Michigan 's six @-@ game losing streak to Ohio State is the third @-@ longest streak to a single opponent in school history . The loss left Michigan 's final record at 5 – 7 , short of the six wins needed for bowl eligibility . During the game , Brandon Graham posted 5 solo tackles for a loss , to clinch the national statisitical championship .
= = Statistics = =
The offense rebounded from their 2008 performance to finish third in the Big Ten in scoring . However , Michigan ranked last in the Big Ten and 115th out of 120 Football Bowl Subdivision schools in turnover margin .
Graham was the national statistical champion in tackles for a loss ( TFL ) per game . Mesko led the Big Ten in punting average and Graham led the conference in total tackles for a loss . Graham posted 26 TFLs in 12 games , which led the nation with 2 @.@ 17 average tackles for a loss per game ( ahead of conference rival O 'Brien Schofield who was second with 1 @.@ 884 ) . Graham also defended his Big Ten total TFLs championship over Schofield by a 26 – 24 @.@ 5 margin . Mesko led the Big Ten in punting average and was eighth in the nation with a 44 @.@ 46 average .
The per game team rankings below include 120 Football Bowl Subdivision teams and 11 Big Ten Conference teams :
The per game rankings below include players who have played in 75 % of team 's games and are ranked in the top 100 national leaders and top 25 conference leaders :
= = Postseason recognition = =
At the conclusion of the season , Graham earned the Chicago Tribune Silver Football Big Ten co @-@ MVP award . Graham and Mesko earned numerous 2009 College Football All @-@ America Team recognitions . Several Michigan players earned 2009 All @-@ Big Ten Conference recognition : Graham and Mesko were first @-@ team ( coaches and media ) . Donovan Warren ( first @-@ team media and second @-@ team coaches ) and Schilling ( honorable mention coaches and media ) were also recognized . Mesko was a first @-@ team Academic All @-@ American . Graham also earned the MVP award at the January 30 , 2010 Senior Bowl .
Graham was co @-@ winner of the Chicago Tribune Silver Football as the Big Ten co @-@ MVPs with Penn State 's Daryll Clark , marking the first time the award has been shared . Three Michigan players , Warren ( Junior cornerback ) , Brandon Graham ( Senior defensive end ) , and Mesko ( Senior punter ) were named to the All Big Ten First Team , and Stephen Schilling ( Senior left guard ) received honorable mention . Offensive lineman David Moosman also received the Big Ten Sportsmanship Award . Mesko was one of fifteen FBS athletes selected as a first @-@ team Academic All @-@ American . Michigan had 10 athletes recognized as fall term of the 2009 – 10 Academic All @-@ Conference selections for being letterwinners who are in at least their second academic year at their institution and carry a cumulative grade point average : Matt Cavanaugh , Jon Conover , John Ferrara , J.B. Fitzgerald , Will Heininger , Zac Johnson , Zoltan Mesko , Tim North , Jason Olesnavage , and Mike Therman . Seniors Zoltan Mesko ( 2nd team WCFF , Scout , Rivals , AP ; honorable mention SI , CFN , PFW ) and Brandon Graham ( 1st team Scout , Rivals ; 2nd team WCFF , AP , SI , CFN ; honorable mention PFW ) were named All @-@ Americans by the Walter Camp Football Foundation , Associated Press , Sports Illustrated , Pro Football Weekly , Rivals.com & Scout.com. Graham was also a first team selection by ESPN and a second team selection by the Sporting News . Brandon Graham earned MVP honors at the January 30 , 2010 Senior Bowl with five tackles , two sacks , one forced fumble .
In December 2009 , Warren declared himself eligible for the 2010 NFL Draft . Other athletes to participate at the NFL Scouting Combine were Graham , Mesko and Minor . Graham , Mesko and Stevie Brown were drafted 13th , 150th and 251st overall , respectively . Warren went undrafted but signed with the New York Jets as an undrafted free agent .
= = 2010 NFL Draft = =
Co @-@ captains Graham , Mesko and Brown were drafted in the 2010 NFL Draft , and immediately following the draft Donovan Warren was signed by the New York Jets . Other draft weekend free agent signees included Mathews and Brandon Minor with the Chicago Bears , Mark Ortmann with the Carolina Panthers , Moosman with the Arizona Cardinals and Carlos Brown with the New Orleans Saints .
= = Roster = =
On December 12 , 2008 RB Sam McGuffie announced he was leaving Michigan for a school closer to home
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, while Carabane with a C would suggest a Latin derivation , most probably through Portuguese or French .
= = Geography = =
= = = Location = = =
With a total area of 57 square kilometres ( 22 sq mi ) , Carabane is the last major island in the mouth of the Casamance River in south @-@ west Senegal . It is situated 12 ° 32 ' N latitude and 16 ° 43 ' W longitude and is , by way of Elinkine , nearly 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) away from Ziguinchor , the capital of the region of the same name , and a little over 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) from Dakar , the country 's capital .
" Il faut s 'armer de patience pour rejoindre l 'île de Carabane " is a common French phrase which means " One must have patience to reach the island of Carabane " . While this adage continues to hold true , it was even more appropriate in the 19th century when , according to one traveller , a 26 @-@ hour boat trip from Rufisque ( near Dakar ) to Carabane was deemed fairly short , and was credited to a favourable wind .
Despite the seemingly close proximity to its neighbouring communities , a motorized pirogue trip to Carabane from Elinkine , the nearest village , takes about thirty minutes ; the trip once took an hour and a half by canoe . Carabane may also be accessed by a two- or three @-@ hour boat trip from Ziguinchor . Travelling from Cap Skirring via Cachouane is also possible , but as a detailed map of the region would make clear , the channels of salt water are not easily navigated .
= = = Geology = = =
A recent geological formation , Carabane consists of a shoal and alluvium . The alluvium has developed because of the saltwater streams that cut across the shoal . As pointed out by early French observers , soils in the region are generally composed of sand and clay , differing in mixture and layer according to natural and human factors . However , Carabane seems to be composed entirely of sand . The lack of clay is the reason that architecture on the island employs straw wrapped around wooden frames more often than banco mud bricks . This type of architecture is also common in the villages of Mlomp and Seleki .
In this flat and marshy area , the branches and roots of mangrove trees form dams where deposits of oyster shells naturally accumulate along with mud and plant detritus . These tangles help retain soil , a process which expands the island where the power of tidal race would normally have the opposite effect .
Rising just over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , the southern portion of the island is partially flooded during the rainy season and totally submerged every few years . At low tide , mudflats are exposed so that boats with keels are forced to dock a considerable distance from the island . When arriving at Carabane , the Joola had to stop about 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) north of the village in 8 to 10 m ( 26 to 33 ft ) of water .
The coastal erosion and salinization affecting the west of Senegal are also a source of concern on the island ; signs of erosion have been observed in Carabane since 1849 . The house of the government representative on the island has burned down twice ; each time it was rebuilt , the site of the building had to be moved further and further inland . The island 's erosion is evident when one considers that the original location of the house eventually became flooded , even at low tide . During the dry season the river has a tide @-@ dominated delta , with tidewater reaching 200 km upstream , while it is being concentrated 50 % by evaporation .
Using wells , freshwater is available at a reasonable depth for irrigation and domestic purposes . Until the installation of a pump in 2006 , however , drinking water had to be sent by boat from Elinkine .
= = = Climate = = =
The tropical climate of Basse Casamance cycles between a dry season and a wet season , which usually starts in June and ends in October . Because of the proximity to the ocean , the humidity of the air remains above 40 % and contributes to the abundance of vegetation . With the trade winds from the Azores High , the island enjoys a pleasant climate year @-@ round . In the north to north @-@ east , these winds are cool and always wet . Their presence is appreciated by kitesurfers . Agricultural activities , including rice cultivation , depend entirely on rainfall . " Wah uŋejutumu , emit elaatut " is a Jola proverb which means " If a project will not be completed , it will be because the rain did not fall . " The invocation of fetishes when there is no rain is part of traditional animist rituals . In recent decades , there has been a general decline in rainfall , which threatens rice production , increases soil salinity , and contributes to the degradation of the mangroves . In May and June , air temperature is around 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) . In January and February , the coldest months , it is around 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) . Temperatures of below 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) are quite rare . In September , the temperature of surface seawater is 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) .
= = = Flora = = =
At one time , the island was considered an arid location , where coconuts were the only useful plants likely to flourish and vegetables were difficult to produce . In what has become a tropical climate , vegetation is more abundant than in the north of the country , especially during the wet season . Anxious to attract the attention of the French colonial administration which he judged insufficiently involved in the development of Casamance , administrator Emmanuel Bertrand @-@ Bocandé submitted a report which documented in great detail the plant species then present on the island . Although this report was written in 1849 , the information it contains has remained valuable even into the 21st century .
Most of Carabane is covered in mangroves , forming an impassable jungle that can only be crossed in constructed passages . Mangroves are among the few species capable of adapting to the highly saline environment , where the quantity of oxygen in the soil is low . In recent decades there has been concern that the mangroves are less prevalent . There are various reasons for the degradation , including crustaceans and the unregulated exploitation of wood . Efforts have been made to safeguard the mangroves and to educate children about their importance .
Tourists are not as attracted to the island for its mangroves as for the coconut trees which line its beaches , as featured on many of Carabane 's postcards . These palm trees are a valued resource on the island .
While not as plentiful as in other parts of Basse Casamance such as Mlomp , kapok trees are nonetheless present . Their grey wood is very light and easy to work , for which reasons it is used to construct many items , ranging from doors to dugouts . Jola canoes , which range from 6 to 8 metres ( 20 to 26 ft ) in length , are carved by adzes entirely out of one tree each , unlike the traditional Senegalese pirogue .
As for fruit trees , mangos and oranges are the most populous . Prickly pears , flamboyants , and colourful bougainvilleas brighten the scenery of hotels and camps on the island . Various organizations have contributed to the deforestation of the island .
= = = Fauna = = =
The wide variety of birds in Basse Casamance was noted by early explorers . While Basse Casamance National Park and Kalissaye Avifaunal Reserve have not been open for years due to the Casamance Conflict , Carabane has been found to be very conducive to ornithological observation . A study in 1998 discovered the following species on the island : African darter ( Anhinga rufa ) , Goliath heron ( Ardea goliath ) , palm @-@ nut vulture ( Gypohierax angolensis ) , black @-@ tailed godwit ( Limosa limosa ) , whimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus ) , Eurasian curlew ( Numenius arquata ) , Caspian tern ( Sterna caspia ) , blue @-@ spotted wood @-@ dove ( Turtur afer ) , red @-@ eyed dove ( Streptopelia semitorquata ) , white @-@ rumped swift ( Apus caffer ) , woodland kingfisher ( Halcyon senegalensis ) , grey @-@ backed camaroptera ( Camaroptera brachyura ) , red @-@ bellied paradise @-@ flycatcher ( Terpsiphone rufiventer ) , pied crow ( Corvus albus ) , black @-@ rumped waxbill ( Estrilda troglodytres ) and yellow @-@ fronted canary ( Serinus mozambicus ) .
Fish are plentiful in the waters surrounding the island , where one may encounter trevallies ( Carangidae ) , Giant African threadfins ( Polydactylus quadrifilis ) , great barracudas ( Sphyraena barracuda ) , or African red snappers ( Lutjanus agennes ) . The mangroves are home to many crustaceans such as southern pink shrimp ( Farfantepenaeus notialis ) , sand fiddler crabs ( Uca pugilator ) , and molluscs . The shellfish population consists mostly of mangrove oysters ( Crassostrea gasar ) , which cling to uncovered mangrove roots at low tide . The red @-@ headed agama and monitor lizard make up the reptilian population of the island .
The sandbar of Carabane has very few mammals other than pets , although the French first noted the presence of monkeys in 1835 . In 1870 , other settlers noted with disgust that the natives often ate monkeys and dogs . In the early 21st century , bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) are commonly sighted off the island . The lack of tourism because of the civil unrest has benefited biodiversity . In this way , the nearby Basse Casamance National Park , which has been closed for years , has seen a remarkable return of Nile crocodiles ( Crocodylus niloticus ) , Senegalese manatees ( Trichechus senegalensis ) , and breeding birds .
On an island called Ilha dos Mosquitos ( Portuguese for " Mosquito Island " ) , the natives and their visitors continue to protect themselves with mosquito nets and Shea butter . They must also protect themselves from other , smaller insects which are no less troublesome : black flies ( Simulium ) .
= = History = =
= = = First inhabitants = = =
The traditions of the local peoples are unanimous in affirming that the oldest inhabitants of Casamance are the Bainuk people and that the left bank of the mouth of the river was first populated by the Jola . Portuguese sailors reached the west African coast in the 15th century , and in the 16th century , Portuguese traders became active in the Casamance region , mostly in search of wax , ivory , and slaves . They did not linger on " Mosquito Island " , instead founding their first trading post at Ziguinchor in 1645 .
In the late 1820s , a mulatto trader from Gorée , Pierre Baudin , moved to Itou and began planting rice and producing lime by crushing the shells of mangrove oysters and cooking them in lime kilns . The French administration treated Baudin as their representative on the island and did not send others because few of the French wanted to live on the island . Being wet and marshy , Carabane had a reputation for its poor sanitation . The local economy was based mainly on weedy rice , which was sold in Ziguinchor or to the British in The Gambia . The Baudin family used slaves to produce the rice and , despite the declaration of its official abolition in the French colonial empire in 1848 , slavery continued on the island until the early 20th century .
The colonial administration wanted to expand its influence around the river , particularly because the inhabitants of Gorée were threatened with losing part of their resources with the imminent demise of the slave trade , and also because of their competition with Saint @-@ Louis . On January 9 , 1836 , Lieutenant Malavois , who was in charge of Gorée , left for Casamance in search of a site for a trading post . The tip of Diogue , on the north shore , was first considered , but at the refusal of the Jola , it was the opposite bank which was eventually accepted .
= = = French colonization = = =
On January 22 , 1836 , the island was ceded to France by the village leader of Kagnout at an annual cost of 196 francs . Still , another treaty made Sédhiou the primary trading post of Casamance , and the exploitation of Carabane was left for some time in the hands of the Baudin family , first Pierre then his brother Jean . Each successively took on the title of Resident . With this official but ambiguous title , they were permitted to continue their trading operation so long as they regularly reported to France .
When Jean Baudin fell into disgrace due to a serious incident involving an English ship , he was replaced as Resident in October 1849 by Emmanuel Bertrand @-@ Bocandé . This multilingual , enterprising businessman and entomologist from Nantes transformed " his " island , sparking a resurgence of commercial and political activity . In 1852 , the population surpassed 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants . A cadastral map assigned tracts of 30 square metres ( 320 sq ft ) to traders and contractors . Other tracts of 15 square metres ( 160 sq ft ) were allotted for housing . Provisional concessions were granted to residents of Saint @-@ Louis and Gorée . Other than settlers , the island was mainly inhabited by animist Jola famers , whose practices were disconcerting to the settlers . Coexistence was not always easy . Christianity was practiced by the Europeans and some of the residents of Gorée , although the island did not yet have a church . Missionaries tried but were not permitted to settle on the island .
The construction of a wharf 116 metres ( 381 ft ) long allowed the berthing of larger vessels coming in from Casamance . A railed pier was built along the river in order to facilitate the transfer of goods . Carabane exported rice , but also cotton , considered to be of poor quality , which was ginned in a factory built by Bertrand @-@ Bocandé in 1840 , owned first by Maurel & Prom and then by the Casamance Company . The factory also produced almonds and crabwood ( Carapa procera ) .
Bertrand @-@ Bocandé became involved in local African politics during his time as Resident . When an intertribal conflict led to an armed raid of Carabane , he mediated the conflict . In 1850 , the island 's economic growth was disturbed because of an extensive livestock raid which precipitated further incidents the following year . In response to this conflict with the former owners of Carabane , the residents of Kagnout , Bertrand @-@ Bocandé convinced the governor of Senegal to send a warship to Carabane to frighten off the raiders . This single ship failed to faze the island 's opponents , therefore Bertrand @-@ Bocandé requested a detachment of soldiers and several other ships from the governor . When these reinforcements arrived from Gorée , the conflict was successfully ended . A treaty was signed on March 25 , establishing the sovereignty of France not only in Casamance , but also in Kagnout and Samatit . For his involvement in the conflict , Bertrand @-@ Bocandé was accepted into the Légion d 'honneur and was given a land concession . Bertrand @-@ Bocandé left the island in 1857 for a leave of absence , but he abandoned his post as Resident in 1860 . His tireless activity had a lasting effect on the island .
Meanwhile , the inhabitants of the new French territory did not recognize the authority of the treaties imposed upon them . For this reason , rice farmers in Carabane experienced lootings and abductions by the Karoninka people . Troops led by Émile Pinet @-@ Laprade attacked the Karoninka villages in March 1860 , forcing them to submission . A period of calm ensued . While the Mandinka Muslims continued , illegally , to practice slavery and trade , non @-@ Muslim villages tended to come together , accepting the Resident of Carabane as the arbitrator of their disagreements .
In 1869 , Carabane became autonomous , but it merged with Sédhiou in 1886 . Its garrison of a dozen men was regularly stricken with tropical diseases such as malaria . In 1877 , 527 people were counted on the island , mostly Jola , but also some Wolofs , Muslims , and a few Manjacks from Portuguese Guinea .
The first Catholic mission in Sédhiou was founded in 1875 and the first baptisms were celebrated that same year in Carabane . There were 17 people baptised in total , most of whom were residents of the island . The Holy Ghost Fathers ' mission in Carabane was founded in 1880 by Father Kieffer . On February 22 , he settled on the island , but he served for only two years . The staff of the colonial administration was small : the manager of a customs post with four employees , a gunner , a corporal , and six European tirailleurs . There were approximately 250 Christians in Carabane , mostly mulattos . The priest built his house out of Palmyra palm trunks . He visited nearby villages and sometimes went to Sédhiou . The founding of the mission in Carabane was followed by others in Ziguinchor ( 1888 ) , Elinkine ( 1891 ) , and several nearby locations in the 20th century . In 1900 , a Spiritan missionary , Father Wintz , wrote the first catechism in the Jola language .
Temporarily transferred to Ziguinchor , the Carabane mission closed in 1888 . Missionaries returned in 1890 and , although they immediately expanded the church building , it was still not large enough to accommodate all those who wished to attend . Thanks to subsidies by the bishop , Magloire @-@ Désiré Barthet , and to donations by the parishioners , a new church was built and inaugurated on the Catholic feast day of Saint Anne in 1897 . The mission also obtained two adjacent properties , lot # 73 on the cadastral map . By the following year , the Christian community had performed 1 @,@ 100 baptisms , as well as many catechumen .
Competition between the French and the Portuguese began to show itself in the region during this period . Because the Portuguese @-@ operated trading posts in Cacheu and Farim asked for higher prices than the French @-@ operated trading posts in Carabane and Sédhiou , the Portuguese lost many traders to the French . This trend led to the ceding of Ziguinchor to France , which was negotiated in Carabane in April 1888 between Commissioner Oliveira and Captain Brosselard @-@ Faidherbe .
In 1901 , the administrative capital of Casamance was transferred from Carabane to Ziguinchor , a status which was transferred in turn to Oussouye two years later . By 1904 , Carabane had lost several of its amenities , including its customs services , which were centralized . The island 's trading houses were abandoned and the number of Christians dwindled from 1 @,@ 000 to 300 by 1907 .
Despite the anti @-@ clerical movement 's growth in France at the time , education in Carabane continued to be administered by the Holy Ghost Fathers for the boys and by the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny for the girls . A chapel also continued to be run on the island .
In 1913 , just before the outbreak of World War I , Carabane suffered a fire which caused its business to decline . People gradually left the island in search of work in Ziguinchor and even Dakar . On December 1915 , Marcel de Coppet , administrator of Ziguinchor , visited the island in order to recruit tirailleurs . Six inhabitants of the island accepted the position : a Christian , a pagan , and four Muslims .
In the aftermath of the Great War , the Roman Catholic Church encountered great difficulties in the region . There was insufficient staffing , the cost of living was rising , and the harsh climate began to wear on the buildings . In 1920 , the diocese had , in addition to Carabane , thirteen churches and approximately thirty @-@ five chapels . The thirteen churches were located in Dakar , Saint @-@ Louis , Gorée , Rufisque , Thiès , Ngazobil , Joal , Fadiouth , Foundiougne , Kaolack , Ziguinchor , Bignona and Banjul . In 1922 , the Governor decreed which buildings were authorized to practise Catholicism . While the Carabane church was one of the buildings selected , some members blamed the colonial administration for having facilitated the expansion of Islam in the country .
In taking leadership of the diocese , Archbishop Le Hunsec noted that the island of Carabane , heavily populated when trading was concentrated there , had lost its influence and now had fewer than 500 inhabitants . He considered transferring the mission to Oussouye , which became a reality in 1927 . Starting in 1937 , the mission in Oussouye also performed baptisms and funerals in Carabane .
In the same year , a reform school was created on the island , operating until 1953 , when it was replaced by another in Nianing . A report submitted in 1938 by an educational advisor to Marcel de Coppet , Governor General of French West Africa , detailed the daily life of the prisoners in the school which housed up to 22 boys , mostly convicted for theft but also occasionally for murder .
= = = Recent history = = =
Carabane 's population continued to decline gradually after World War II . In 1950 , the construction of a seminary was planned in Carabane , but it was transferred to a new building in Nyassia in 1959 . The Carabane mission closed its doors during the wet season of 1953 , 83 years after its inception . The nuns and their interns moved to Ziguinchor .
Senegal 's independence was declared on August 20 , 1960 , and after the dissolution of the short @-@ lived Mali Federation , Casamance saw the arrival of officials coming from the north . Although many of them were Wolofs and Muslims , they did not know the Jola country and its traditions . The periods of drought that ravaged the Sahel in the 1970s forced peanut farmers to move to regions where rice was all that grew .
Discontent began to spread among the people , which sometimes escalated to violence . Casamance has since experienced years of conflict which put local initiatives in jeopardy , such as nature reserves and the first network of villages . In 1998 , in the middle of the conflict , the French commune of Bon @-@ Encontre committed to providing Carabane with humanitarian aid , both economically and culturally . Carabane has remained one of the calmest areas of Casamance throughout the conflict . Nonetheless , a few small incidents were reported around April 2000 . The rebels may have wanted to take advantage of Carabane 's reputation to attract media attention .
The ceasefire of 2004 brought relative peace , but in the meantime , the sinking of the Joola in 2002 claimed the lives of many inhabitants of Carabane and curtailed much of its ability to engage in trade and accept tourists for several years . Considering the problems brought on by the conflict along with the threat of coastal erosion on the island , some fear the worst . Thus , after years of development and community outreach , Carabane is experiencing difficulties in a number of ways .
= = Society = =
= = = Administration = = =
Formerly an administrative district in its own right , even a regional capital , Carabane is now just one of 23 villages in the rural community of Diembéring , of which Kabrousse , Cap Skirring , and Boucott @-@ Diembéring are the largest centres . This rural community is located in the Kabrousse Arrondissement . It is part of Oussouye Department , the smallest and least central of the three departments in Ziguinchor Region . In a country which includes some 13 @,@ 000 villages , the village is considered , by a 1972 decree , the elementary entity in the administrative body of the nation . Each is administered by a leader , assisted by a council . After consultation , the nomination of a leader is established by the prefect and approved by the Minister of the Interior . Under Senegalese law , the leader of the village has certain prerogatives , including law enforcement , tax collection , and keeping of vital records in the village .
While this administrative structure was decreed by a government anxious to deal with interlocutors , such a restructuring has not taken place in Casamance . Jola society is devoid of any formal hierarchy . It has no leader with genuine permanent authority . Instead , there are village elders who meet when important decisions need to be made . According to Italian anthropologist Paolo Palmeri , the leader of the village has very little power in reality , as he is merely responsible for relations with the national administration . He simply allows the village to continue practicing its traditions . In a society where politics are inextricably linked to religion , the real holders of power are the fetish priests . The very notion of a village is almost inappropriate in this context : it might be more appropriately considered a clan or an aggregation of kinship . Other specialists , such as Christian Sina Diatta , compare Jola communities to those of mound @-@ building termites , in which each member performs a specific function and where the queen is easily replaceable .
= = = Population = = =
In 2003 , the village of Carabane 's official population count stood at 396 people and 55 households , but it fluctuates with the seasons and sometimes reaches some 1 @,@ 750 people , according to local sources . Most of the population is Jola . The Jola are very distinct from other major ethnic groups in Senegal by their language , egalitarian society , freedom from political hierarchy , and lack of slavery . Their traditions have persevered because of their independent spirit as well as their geographical isolation . This ethnic group accounts for 80 to 90 % of the residents of Basse Casamance , but only 6 to 8 % of the total population of Senegal . They are the largest ethnic group in Carabane , followed by Wolofs , Lebous , and Serers ( including Niominka fishermen ) . Manjacks also live on the island , some of whom came from Saint @-@ Louis and Gorée at the time of the first colonization . Two communities from neighbouring countries , one from Guinea ( the Susu people ) and the other from Guinea @-@ Bissau , have settled on the other side of the island at a distance from the village . There are also seasonal workers who come to fish : Ghanaians , Guineans , and Gambians .
The indigenous population was originally animist , but while the fetishes and sacred groves dedicated to initiation rites such as boukout survive as cultural icons of Casamance , the monotheistic belief systems of Catholicism and Islam have become the most widely held in Carabane . The 1988 census reported that Muslims account for 94 % of the population of Senegal , but only 26 @.@ 5 % of the population of Oussouye Department , where Carabane is located . Still , this department is largely rural , while Carabane has historically supported great ethnic diversity . Islam has not been practiced by Wolof and Serer fishermen since the 19th century , but the colonial administration brought with it many translators , guides , and secretaries from Dakar , many of whom were Muslim .
= = = Education and health = = =
Founded in 1892 , the Carabane school was one of the first in the region . It began as an all @-@ boys school , but in 1898 , three nuns belonging to the indigenous congregation of the Daughters of the Holy Heart of Mary began teaching classes for girls . Soon , there were 60 students . A school infrastructure description in the region in 1900 reveals that the boys ' school in Carabane was open from December to August each year , and that holidays ran from September to November , when parents needed their children in the fields to help cultivate rice . In 1903 , when Carabane lost its status as capital , the school was instructing 63 boys and 102 girls . In 1914 , it had only 56 boys and 26 girls , a situation similar to that in Bignona .
Carabane has a new primary school , École François Mendy , inaugurated on January 21 , 2006 , hosting six classes . The literacy rate is approximately 90 % . Students may continue their studies at the middle school in Elinkine , the Aline Sitoe Diatta High School in Oussouye , and then a university in either Dakar or Ziguinchor . Carabane 's kindergarten is located in a community house , called " House of Women and Children , " founded in 1988 under the auspices of Caritas Ziguinchor .
In 1895 , the government established a medical post in Carabane , but it closed the following year . In 1898 , the Daughters of the Holy Heart of Mary opened a clinic at the same time as the girls ' school .
As of 2010 , the village has a health facility which is connected to that of Oussouye and Ziguinchor . It provides vaccinations , family planning consultations , and prenatal information . A maternity hospital was founded in 1991 which is decorated with a fresco by Malang Badji , one of the most famous artists in the region .
The Ph.D. thesis published in 2003 , La part de l 'autre : une aventure humaine en terre Diola , meaning " Part of the Other : A Human Adventure in Jola Territory , " describes the health challenge present on the island in a more general context .
In particular , the location of the island does not allow easy access to serious or urgent medical assistance . There is a pirogue @-@ ambulance for the transportation of people off the island in the case of medical emergencies .
= = Economy = =
The testimonies of explorers and colonial administrators demonstrate that Carabane has participated in rice cultivation , fishery , trade , and palm wine production for centuries . The island experienced a decline in the 20th century , when Ziguinchor emerged as the regional capital , and more recently because of the negative economic consequences resulting from the Casamance Conflict and the Joola tragedy .
= = = Transportation and energy = = =
From the colonizers ' perspective , Carabane 's position at the mouth of the river was an undeniable asset . In the 20th and 21st centuries , in terms of trade and tourism issues , this location is more of a disadvantage because it effectively separates the island from the rest of the country .
While a direct route by sea has not been available since the sinking of the Joola , the traveller from Dakar may use various other means of transportation in order to arrive in Basse Casamance . Some national roads connect to Ziguinchor , down the N1 to Kaolack . The N4 and N5 roads cross the Gambia ( both the country and the river ) , the former running through Nioro du Rip to Farafenni , and the latter crossing the river to Banjul . The two roads merge in Bignona before descending to Ziguinchor . However , traffic is forbidden on both roads between 7 p.m. and 10 a.m. , and the routes are subject to frequent accidents and constant demining operations . Alternatively , it is possible to travel by plane to the airport in Ziguinchor or Cap Skirring , or to travel by boat to one of these locations . Reaching Carabane from either town is relatively straightforward .
By boat , the distance between Dakar and Carabane is 265 kilometres ( 143 nmi ) , although Ziguinchor is only 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) away . Before the launch of the Joola , other boats , mostly well @-@ worn ones , made the connection : first Cap Skirring , then the Casamance Express , and then Island Karabane . In January 1991 , a brand new ferry went into operation . Like its predecessors , it connected Dakar to Ziguinchor , stopping near Carabane where canoes could reach the island . On September 26 , 2002 , 180 extra passengers boarded the already overloaded ship at this stop , and a few hours later , the Joola sank . For security reasons , the Joola 's successor , the Wilis , stopped calling at Carabane , to the great displeasure of the inhabitants . Tourists became rare after that , and from time to time , inhabitants of the island found it necessary to move to Dakar or Ziguinchor . Significant modifications to the MV Aline Sitoe Diatta , which replaced the Wilis in March 2008 , were considered to allow it to stop safely at the island , and the construction of a berth was announced . Souleymane Ndéné Ndiaye , who later became Prime Minister of Senegal , laid the first stone of the berth in July 2008 , and the entire construction project was financed by the Senegalese government at an estimated cost of 12 billion West African CFA francs . On April 26 , 2014 , the MV Aline Sitoe Diatta stopped at the Carabane berth for the first time , improving transportation for locals and tourists . As of 2015 , the ferry stops at Carabane four times each week in the middle of its trips between Dakar and Ziguinchor .
= = = Agriculture and aquaculture = = =
= = = = Rice cultivation = = = =
In Basse Casamance , the rice cycle structures the lives of the population and plays a central economic and religious role . The Jola , who constitute 80 to 90 % of the population of Basse Casamance , practice a unique form of rice cultivation . Descriptions of the techniques used in the late 15th century , recorded by the first Portuguese explorers , show them to be similar to those still in use , particularly with respect to flooding and transplanting . Only the varieties of rice have changed .
The basic tool used is the kayendo , a kind of wooden spade or shovel ranging from 40 to 70 centimetres ( 16 to 28 in ) , surrounded by a sharp wrought iron blade and attached to a very long , straight , cylindrical neck . The two parts are connected by strips of torn Palmyra palm leaves . The main part is manufactured from a very hard wood measuring 2 to 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 6 ft 7 in to 8 ft 2 in ) in length . The kayendo is mainly used to plough rice fields , but is also used for other purposes , such as excavation and construction . Men perform the clearing and ploughing while the women take care of the sowing , replanting , and weeding as well as the harvesting between October and January .
An even checkerboard plot model dominates the green landscape during the rainy season , which becomes more austere after harvest . The rice fields differ only in terms of soil type and location . Where mangroves are populous , such as in Carabane , the rice paddy fields between them must be protected from the channels of saltwater which overflow during high tide . Rice farmers must therefore build levees , dig ditches , and create ponds . The fish and shrimp which subsequently become trapped are harvested at the end of the rainy season , when the basins are emptied . The plots of land which were safeguarded from flooding are then cleared and ploughed . Several years of drainage are required to desalinate the soil .
Although practised in Basse Casamance for centuries , rice cultivation has been threatened since the late 1960s . Productivity has declined because many workers have opted for life in the city , even though they continue to support their community . The drought of the 1970s and 1980s further aggravated the situation .
= = = = Palm oil and palm wine = = = =
Among the agricultural activities practised during the dry season , which halts work in the rice fields , the most traditional are those related to the exploitation of African oil palm ( Elaeis guineensis ) , which provides two products which are very popular in the region : palm oil and palm wine . Palm oil is an essential ingredient in local cuisine . As a carefully preserved condiment , it is combined with plain rice on holidays . The oil comes from the fruit clusters which are picked by men and then deseeded , allowed to dry , crushed in a mortar , and boiled by women .
Palm wine ( called bunuk or bounouk in the Jola language ) is an alcoholic drink derived from the natural fermentation of palm sap , so is not strictly a wine , which is produced by the fermentation of grapes . The recent partial Islamization of the region has not challenged its consumption . Fruit clusters are collected exclusively by the men . Supported by a strap , the harvester climbs the tree , cuts the bud , and holds out a funnel which allows the resulting fluid to flow drip by drip into an elongated calabash or , more recently , a bottle . The alcohol content of palm wine develops throughout the day . The locals consume large quantities on a daily basis , and even more at banquets and ceremonies dedicated to fetishes . Palm wine is often traded for rice or sold in the city . Many Jola proverbs attest the popularity of the drink , such as Bunuk abajut birto , which means " With palm wine , one never stands up , " or Ulako , kumusaet jígabulaju , which means " Sit down , don 't spill the palm wine . "
= = = = Aquaculture = = = =
The island 's proximity to the river and the ocean suggests that the area is suited to fishing and related activities , yet the indigenous people , mostly land @-@ dwellers , have long been content to practise artisan fishing , just to supply their own daily needs . Pirogues cut from the trunks of kapok trees are most often used , along with traps , nets , baskets , and fences . In the early 20th century , experienced fishermen from other parts of Senegal , along with others from Mali , Guinea , and Ghana , developed deep @-@ sea fishing on the island and introduced new equipment .
The collection of shellfish , especially oysters , is another traditional activity which still takes place in Casamance , which is one of three oyster @-@ producing regions in Senegal , along with Petite Côte and Sine @-@ Saloum . Oysters collect on the roots of mangrove trees which are uncovered at low tide . They are harvested during the dry season , mainly by women , who control , from harvest to distribution , an activity that requires little investment and provides them with some financial independence . Oysters are an important component of the family diet . Rich in dietary minerals and vitamin C , they are the second largest source of animal protein among the Jola people after fish , followed by chicken , and pork . Oysters are readily associated with rice , the staple food , and in times of shortage , even replace it . Locally , oysters are boiled or grilled on a wood fire and consumed with a spicy sauce . Those destined for sale or preservation , however , are sun @-@ dried or smoked . In some villages , including Carabane , they are kept alive for several weeks before being transported to market . Oysters are also a source of income , and Carabane is located in the center of the collection zone , which is one of the reasons why boats formerly called at the island . Oysters were once easily transported from Carabane to Dakar , where they were either sold by the pickers themselves or by hawkers .
Crustaceans , such as sand fiddler crabs and shrimp , among the mangroves also occupy a significant place in the local economy . While a large number of shrimp species inhabit the Senegambian area , a single family exists in Casamance : Penaeidae . Southern pink shrimp ( Farfantepenaeus notialis ) are the most commonly collected . They were traditionally caught as part of local artisan fishing by men , women , and children . Shrimp collection in the area experienced significant development in the 1960s , following the establishment of European industrial units . The local fishermen switched to this method , and there was an increased presence of fishermen from other areas . A study in 2005 revealed the extent to which the shrimp population in the region has been depleted , citing multiple causes , including diminishing rainfall , over @-@ salinization of the estuary , and poorly controlled harvesting . Along with the mangrove degradation , the civil unrest , and the inadequate fishery regulation , Casamance has had to deal with the closure in 2003 of a major industrial complex in Ziguinchor which treated and exported shrimp and other crustaceans and employed more than 2 @,@ 000 people .
Grouped into cooperatives , women play a leading role in the island 's economy . Notably through microcredit , they engage in fishing @-@ related activities , such as smoking fish and processing shrimp , oysters , and shellfish in general . As there is no industrial activity on the island ( the closest such activity is in Ziguinchor ) , the island is experiencing a rural exodus of young people . They return to help their parents in the rice fields and participate in religious ceremonies during the dry season , but they tend to settle off the island permanently .
= = = Tourism = = =
The Republic of Senegal placed an emphasis on tourism early in its history . The results were promising , and developing the industry further became a priority in the country 's 4th Economic and Social Plan ( 1973 – 1977 ) . Casamance subsequently became the main tourist destination in the country . Already having been described in the 19th century by Captain Brosselard @-@ Faidherbe as a kind of Brazil in Africa , Carabane seemed well @-@ placed to attract visitors in search of exoticism as well as vacationers seeking sandy beaches and kite surfing .
At the same time , national and even international controversy threatened the industry from the beginning . Those who opposed tourism in Senegal described it as a new form of colonialism while supporters saw it as a panacea that would cure the country of underdevelopment . The idea of alternative tourism was discussed . Several towns in Basse Casamance , including Carabane , were selected to test an integrated agritourism managed by the villagers themselves . In the early 1970s , the agritourism promoter Christian Saglio , a young French sociologist who later became the director of the Leopold Sedar Senghor French Institute in Dakar , believed in Carabane 's potential . He stated that he wanted to make the island the " Gorée of Casamance " , using it as a hub for other camps . Saglio suggested the restoration of old buildings and canopy beds .
Despite his fervour , Saglio 's negotiations with the local people were unsuccessful . Niomoune and Carabane were the first two villages to attempt to apply this innovative approach , but both failed . The inhabitants were reluctant to participate , and the young inexperienced promoter had to abandon some of his ethnographic theories in favour of being careful to understand the daily realities of villages . The project was eventually abandoned , and the Catholic missions house was transformed by the nuns themselves into a modern , functional building . Despite the failure of Saglio 's initiative in Carabane , agritourist camps were set up over the following decade in a dozen other nearby towns .
While Carabane 's tourism sector has suffered because it has not taken part in the network of villages , tourists have avoided travelling to Casamance in general because of the civil unrest . The signing of a ceasefire in 2004 allowed tourism to resume , but not to the extent it had reached before the conflict .
Tour operators continue to advertise the island as a lost paradise surrounded by mangroves where travellers ' exotic dreams come to life , but this type of discovery tourism is not as popular as traditional beach @-@ related tourism . Thus , visitors from France , Spain , and Italy often combine tours of the cases á impluvium in Enampore or Mlomp with a few days of relaxation in Carabane . The area is also very conducive to the interests of fishing enthusiasts . Along the beach , small stalls offer traditional crafts and clothes at prices lower than those in Cap Skirring or Saly . Badji Malang , a local painter , potter , sculptor , and poet , has created a camp in the area .
Although remaining separate from the local tourism network , Carabane has demonstrated its support for social solidarity and holism by joining GENSEN ( Global Ecovillage Network Senegal ) , a network of Senegalese ecovillages .
= = = Historic sites = = =
Carabane has many historic sites , such as the Catholic mission house built in 1880 which has since been turned into a hotel , a Brittany @-@ style church building which is no longer in use , and a former slave @-@ trade building . There is also a French cemetery where a Troupes de marine @-@ Captain with the name Aristide Protet was shot with a poisoned arrow and buried standing up in front of the sea , according to his last wishes . Some tour guides falsely claim that this was Auguste Léopold Protet , the founder of the city of Dakar , but the name Aristide Protet is clearly shown on the tomb 's plaque .
Near the beach are ruins of buildings , pontoons , and wells , with a large tree in the center . A huge piece of metal in its midst bears the inscription CEO Forrester & Co . Vauxhall Foundry . 18 Liverpool S3 .
Carabane was added to the list of historic sites and monuments of Senegal in 2003 . An application for Carabane to become a World Heritage Site was filed with UNESCO on November 18 , 2005 .
Inspired by Gorée 's example , Carabane is attempting to pay homage to victims of slavery by starting a small museum like the House of Slaves . Like Gorée and Saint @-@ Louis , Carabane places great importance on its cultural heritage . The architectural reminders of this heritage require significant restoration as they have experienced considerable degradation . In 1964 , French anthropologist Louis @-@ Vincent Thomas posed the question of whether Carabane should be preserved , and this question continues to be relevant . The local people suggest that the entire Diogue – Nikine – Carabane area needs saving .
= Andha Naal =
Andha Naal ( English : That Day ) is a 1954 Indian Tamil @-@ language mystery @-@ thriller film produced by A. V. Meiyappan and directed by Sundaram Balachander . It is the first film noir in Tamil cinema , and the first Tamil film to be made without songs , dance and stunt scenes . The story , which is set in the milieu of World War II , is about the murder of a radio engineer Rajan ( Sivaji Ganesan ) . The suspects are Rajan 's wife Usha ( Pandari Bai ) , the neighbour Chinnaiah Pillai ( P. D. Sambandam ) , Rajan 's brother Pattabi ( T. K. Balachandran ) , Rajan 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Hema ( Menaka ) , and Rajan 's mistress Ambujam ( Suryakala ) . Each one 's account of the incident points to a new suspect .
Before the casting of Ganesan , S. V. Sahasranamam and N. Viswanathan were chosen for the lead role but were later dismissed because they were unconvincing to the filmmakers . The story and dialogue were written by Javar Seetharaman , who also played a prominent role as an investigation officer in the film . Cinematography was handled by S. Maruti Rao and the background score was composed by AVM Productions ' own music troupe , " Saraswathy Stores Orchestra " . The film 's length of 12 @,@ 500 feet ( 3 @,@ 800 m ) was shorter than most contemporaneous Tamil films .
Andha Naal was released on 13 April 1954 , a Puthandu ( Tamil New Year ) release . It was critically acclaimed and was awarded the " Best Film Award " by the Madras Filmfans ' Association and a Certificate of Merit for Second Best Feature Film in Tamil at the 2nd National Film Awards in 1955 . Despite being a commercial failure during its release , the film has acquired a cult status over the years and is regarded as a milestone in Tamil cinema . In 2013 , Andha Naal was included in CNN @-@ News18 's list of the " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " .
= = Plot = =
On the night of 11 October 1943 , the Japanese bomb the Indian city of Madras ( now Chennai ) . The next morning in Triplicane , Rajan , a radio engineer and communications researcher , is found murdered with his own hand gun . His neighbour Chinnaiah Pillai hears the gunshot and makes a complaint to the police . Purushothaman Naidu , a local police inspector , arrives at Rajan 's house and starts investigating the murder . In the meantime , Crime Investigation Department ( C.I.D. ) officer Sivanandam joins Naidu to help the investigation . Naidu suggests that the killer could be a thief who must have killed Rajan for the money found at the crime scene . However , Sivanandam is unconvinced with Naidu 's idea because the sum of money present matches the withdrawal entry in the bank passbook found in the same room . Rajan was about leave Madras in anticipation of the bombings .
The two policemen question five people in and around Rajan 's house , most of whom are family members or friends of Rajan . The first person to be questioned is Rajan 's wife Usha , who is unable to speak due to grief . Sivanandam and Naidu feel embarrassed and are reluctant to question her further . They begin interrogating Pillai , who reported the murder . Pillai proposes that the killer is probably Pattabi , Rajan 's younger brother , and recalls a confrontation between Pattabi and Rajan . Pattabi asked for his share of the family property to be apportioned and given to him . Rajan refused to give Pattabi his share , feeling that he and his wife would squander it . Pillai concludes that this may have prompted Pattabi to kill Rajan .
Sivanandam and Naidu decide to interrogate Pattabi , who feels remorse for Rajan 's death and states that he did not treat his brother well and failed to understand his good intentions . He recounts an incident in which his wife Hema had fought with Rajan for not apportioning the property . Pattabi states that Hema could have killed Rajan for the money as she loses sanity when overpowered by anger . Sivanandam briefly leaves Naidu to interrogate Hema . She is initially impudent and refuses to give a statement about the crime , but she later yields when threatened that her husband will be arrested . She reveals Rajan 's extramarital affair with a dancer named Ambujam , who is pregnant with Rajan 's child . As Rajan treated the news with a reckless attitude , Hema proposes that Ambujam could have killed Rajan . When questioned , Ambujam accuses Pillai of the murder , saying that he was her foster father who wanted her to stay away from Rajan , after the three met during a picnic . As their relationship continued , Pillai became infuriated and wanted to end the affair .
Sivanandam inquires Usha , who tells him how she and Rajan fell in love . Sivanandam tricks Usha using a leaky fountain pen to collect her fingerprints . That evening , Sivanandam meets all the suspects along with Naidu at Rajan 's house and carries out an exercise in which the suspects — including Usha — must shoot Sivanandam as though he is Rajan using revolvers loaded with fake bullets . All the suspects shoot , but Usha bursts into tears and fails to shoot . Sivanandam then orders an apparent arrest of Pattabi and Hema . Unable to bear the torture , Usha reveals the truth : Rajan was a radio engineer who wanted to sell radios to the poor at an affordable price . Unable to get any support from the government , he went to Japan where his work was appreciated . He became a spy working for Japan , selling India 's military secrets to the Japanese . Usha learnt about this and tried to reform him . But , Rajan does not mind betraying India . Usha could not stop Rajan and tries to shoot him . She changes her decision but pulls the trigger accidentally , killing Rajan . After revealing the truth , Usha commits suicide .
= = Cast = =
Sivaji Ganesan as Rajan , a radio engineer
Pandari Bai as Usha , Rajan 's wife
Javar Seetharaman as C.I.D. Officer Sivanandam
P. D. Sambandam as Chinniah Pillai
T. K. Balachandran as Pattabi , Rajan 's younger brother
Menaka as Hema , Rajan 's sister @-@ in @-@ law
Suryakala as Ambujam , Rajan 's mistress
= = Production = =
Sundaram Balachander , a " multi @-@ faceted " film personality entered films as an actor in 1934 and apprenticed under director Krishna Gopal for the film Idhu Nijama ( 1948 ) , a supernatural thriller . Following the success of Idhu Nijama , Balachander directed En Kanavar ( 1948 ) and Kaithi ( 1951 ) , both made on similar themes . After acting in a few more films , he decided to make a film based on his own story . Balachander wrote a play in in the narrative style of Akira Kurosawa 's Japanese film Rashomon ( 1950 ) , and showed it to Koothapiran of All India Radio , who rejected it . Balachander then approached AVM Productions founder A. V. Meiyappan and told him the story ; the latter agreed to adapt the story into a film . When Balachander told Meiyappan that he wanted no scenes featuring songs or stunts , the latter was opposed ; he wanted to include at least one song . However , Balachander responded by saying that even a solitary song in the film would " ruin the tempo " . Meiyappan eventually agreed to finance the film because he liked the story , and had trust in Balachander 's talent . Andha Naal thus became the first Tamil film that did not have any songs or dance sequences , and remained AVM Productions ' only film directed by Balachander .
The lead role of the radio engineer Rajan was initially offered to S. V. Sahasranamam , who was removed after some days of shooting because Balachander and Meiyappan were not satisfied with his performance and felt he looked " too old " to play the role . The filmmakers then engaged newcomer N. Viswanathan , a Tamil professor from Calcutta . After some footage featuring him was shot , the makers were again unconvinced with Viswanathan 's work ; they dismissed him and replaced him with Sivaji Ganesan . Meiyappan had introduced Ganesan in Parasakthi ( 1952 ) , and was very keen to have him play the lead role . Balachander was initially hesitant to approach Ganesan because he was unsure whether the latter would accept a negative role . In his autobiography , Ganesan stated that the film was almost completed before he was approached . He agreed to be a part of the film because he found the story interesting and thought portraying a variety of characters would interest the audience . Ganesan initially charged ₹ 40 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to ₹ 2 @.@ 8 million or US $ 42 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) which Meiyappan could not afford to pay . He offered Ganesan ₹ 25 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to ₹ 1 @.@ 8 million or US $ 26 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , but Ganesan refused . Balachander , however , told Ganesan that Meiyappan would pay him ₹ 1 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to ₹ 71 @,@ 000 or US $ 1 @,@ 100 in 2016 ) for every day they shot the film , and Ganesan obliged , believing the film would take long to complete To his dismay , Balachander completed the shoot in 17 days . Andha Naal was one of the earliest films in which Ganesan portrays an antihero . The screenplay and dialogue were written by Javar Seetharaman , who also appeared in the film as a C.I.D. officer , and gave a voiceover in the beginning of the film in the scene before Rajan is shot dead . Pandari Bai was selected to play Rajan 's wife . Malayalam actor T. K. Balachandran , actresses Suryakala and Menaka , and P. D. Sambandam formed the rest of the cast .
Muktha Srinivasan , who would later become one of Tamil cinema 's established directors , assisted Balachander with this film . Cinematography was handled by S. Maruti Rao , and the editor was S. Surya . The background score was performed by Saraswathy Stores Orchestra , AVM Productions ' music troupe . No credit to the story is given in the introduction credits . The photography of the film was markedly different from most earlier films in Tamil cinema . Rao used the " painting with light " technique , which captures the shadow of the actors to reflect their " mood and character " . Meiyappan was initially dissatisfied with Ganesan 's performance and wanted the scenes to be reshot . When Balachander refused , Meiyappan demanded that the footage canned be burnt , but Balachander again refused , and instead reshot Ganesan 's scenes . The film 's final cut was less than 12 @,@ 500 feet ( 3 @,@ 800 m ) — shorter than most contemporaneous Tamil films .
= = Themes and influences = =
Regarded as the first film noir in Tamil cinema , Andha Naal is set in the milieu of South @-@ East Asian theatre of World War II where the Japanese bombed the Indian city of Madras in 1943 . Residents of the city moved to nearby hill stations to protect themselves from further bombings and invasions . Though various sources , including Ganesan , have stated that the film was inspired by Rashomon , film historian Randor Guy notes that this notion is erroneous , that Andha Naal was actually adapted from the 1950 British film The Woman in Question directed by Anthony Asquith , and that there was only a " thematic resemblance " between Andha Naal and Rashomon . According to Jason P. Vest , in his book Spike Lee : Finding the Story and Forcing the Issue , the three films follow a nonlinear narrative by presenting diverging accounts of the same incident . In his 2015 book Madras Studios , film historian Swarnavel Eswaran Pillai notes that Andha Naal has nothing to do with Rashomon except for its whodunit plot , where the murder is explored in various angles . He also notes that Andha Naal ends with the mystery being solved , unlike Rashomon . According to B. Vijayakumar of The Hindu , Andha Naal is " probably " the first spy film in South India .
The main theme of Andha Naal is patriotism . It tells how unemployment and desolation of youngsters will lead to them becoming traitors . If a country does not appreciate talented young men for their efforts , they could turn against the nation . Ganesan 's character Rajan turns into a traitor by selling military secrets to Japan because his idea was rejected by the Indian government . This role was influenced from T. S. Balaiah 's character in the 1946 Tamil film Chitra . Pillai compared Pandari Bai 's character Usha in Andha Naal to her character in Parasakthi ( 1952 ) because in both films she is ideologically driven , but in the former , " it is the idea of the Indian nation that she pledges her allegiance to . " The Times of India compared Andha Naal to Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) for its similar lighting and camera angles .
The film uses a Tamil saying " Kolaiyum Seival patthini " ( a virtuous wife may even kill her own husband ) as a clue to the identity of the culprit . The story of the blind men and an elephant is referenced in the narrative , when Sivanandam notes how each suspects ' account of Rajan 's death contradicts that of the others . Usha is depicted as a virtuous wife and a patriot who loves her country . When she discovers that her husband has betrayed India , she does not hesitate to kill him . The Directorate of Film Festivals describes Naidu as a conscientious officer , and Sivanandam as a " brilliant , eccentric but not so serious " man .
= = Release and reception = =
Andha Naal was released on 13 April 1954 , a Puthandu ( Tamil New Year ) release , to critical acclaim , but did not succeed commercially because the audience were not impressed with a film without songs . The film was considered " revolutionary " for taking this move . In theatres , the viewers were disappointed after the first scene in which Ganesan is shot dead , and many even walked out . The theatre owners had to persuade them to watch the entire film . Its commercial failure led Meiyappan to avoid making any more films without song sequences . The film was later re @-@ released after the announcement of the 2nd National Film Awards and became a box @-@ office success . Moser Baer and AP International have released the film on home video .
Andha Naal won critical praise , in spite of its poor performance at the box @-@ office . At the 2nd National Film Awards , the film won a Certificate of Merit for the Second Best Feature Film in Tamil , and a " Best Film " Award from the Madras Filmfans ' Association in 1955 . Contemporary critics lauded Meiyappan and Balachander for the experimental film . Ganesan 's role as an antihero won critical acclaim ; many critics said that Pandari Bai 's role as his patriotic wife " overshadowed " Ganesan 's performance . Many contemporary critics expected the film to be a " trendsetter " but it failed to inspire many thematically similar films in Tamil . Several years later , Balachander 's wife Shanta recalled that he was not affected by the film 's failure as he was " delighted that he pulled it off " , with the performances of Ganesan , Pandari Bai and the other actors being praised .
In a review dated 1 May 1954 , the magazine Kumudam praised Meiyappan 's courage in trusting the potential of " young talents like S. Balachandar and Javert Seetharaman who are redefining Tamil cinema " . It noted that if AVM had publicised the film as a thriller , " the warning that there are no songs or dances in the film would not have been so terrifying " . The magazine gave the verdict , " Success of art ; failure of narrative " . In the same month , a meeting was organised by the " Film Fans Association " in Madras to congratulate Meiyappan , Balachander , the actors and other crew members of the film . V. C. Gopalaratnam , the president of the association , said that Meiyappan " had displayed his pioneering spirit and zeal in producing a novel type of Tamil picture , without either songs or dances , relying for its success purely on the story and the portrayal of characters " . The magazine Gundoosi encouraged fans to see Andha Naal if they " really want Tamil cinema to progress " . In June 2008 , The Times of India gave the film a rating of four out of five , stating that it had a " timeless feel both in terms of story telling and presentation . " The reviewer praised the performances of Ganesan and Pandari Bai , and concluded , " Javar Seetharaman 's brilliant screenplay coupled with S Balachander 's subtle direction make this one of Tamil cinema 's finest offering so far . " Writing for Deccan Chronicle , Logesh Balachandran said , " [ Pandari Bai 's ] role as a patriotic woman in Andha Naal ... will always be memorable . "
= = Legacy = =
Andha Naal has been described by French film historian Yves Thoraval as a revolution in Tamil cinema for the absence of songs and dances . Though largely ignored during its release , it has since attained cult status in Tamil cinema , and in addition to becoming a trendsetter for Tamil films without songs , it set the benchmark in Tamil cinema for its noir @-@ style lighting in some of its dramatic sequences . In 2001 , journalist S. Muthiah called Andha Naal the " best film " produced by Meiyappan . He noted that it " proved that a song @-@ and @-@ danceless film could also be a hit . " In July 2007 , S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight Tamil film directors to list their all @-@ time favourite Tamil films ; three of them — K. Balachander , Mani Ratnam and Ameer — named Andha Naal . Malaysian author Devika Bai , writing for New Straits Times , described Andha Naal as Balachander 's magnum opus , and Balachander as " Tamil cinema ’ s Father of Film Noir " .
The film is regarded by many critics as Balachander 's best work . Encouraged by the film 's critical success , Balachander went on to direct and act in several more films of the same genre — Avana Ivan ( 1962 ) , Bommai ( 1964 ) and Nadu Iravil ( 1965 ) . Andha Naal inspired several later whodunit films — including Puthiya Paravai ( 1964 ) , Kalangarai Vilakkam ( 1965 ) , Sigappu Rojakkal ( 1978 ) , Moodu Pani ( 1980 ) and Pulan Visaranai ( 1990 ) , and several songless Tamil films such as Unnaipol Oruvan ( 1965 ) , Kudisai ( 1979 ) , Veedu ( 1988 ) and Uchi Veyil ( 1990 ) . Researcher and ethnographer Preeti Mudliar compared Ratha Kanneer ( 1954 ) to Andha Naal because in both films , " the sin of foreignness is [ neutralised ] by a chaste Tamil woman , the virtuous wife " . Director Chimbu Deven acknowledged Andha Naal as an influence on his 2014 film Oru Kanniyum Moonu Kalavaanikalum in its end credits .
The film was screened in the " Tamil Retrospective Section " of the 14th International Film Festival of India in 1991 . In 2008 , Randor Guy praised Andha Naal for " being the first Tamil film which had no dance , song or stunt sequence and for Balachandar ’ s impressive direction and fine performances by Sivaji Ganesan and Pandari Bai " . In March 2012 , film historian Mohan V. Raman told The Times of India that Andha Naal , being the first film noir in Tamil cinema , was " among the significant black and white films of yore " , along with Mayabazar ( 1957 ) and Uthama Puthiran ( 1940 ) . In a 2013 interview with the Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan , Malayalam filmmaker Adoor Gopalakrishnan listed Andha Naal as one of his earliest favourites in Tamil cinema . In April 2013 , Andha Naal was included in CNN @-@ News18 's list of " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " . In mid @-@ April 2014 , the film was screened at the Russian Cultural Centre , Chennai , to mark its diamond jubilee anniversary .
Film Heritage Foundation announced in March 2015 that they would be restoring Andha Naal along with a few other Indian films from 1931 to 1965 as a part of their restoration projects carried out in India and abroad in accordance to international parameters . The foundation , however , stated that they would not colourise any of the films as they " believe in the original repair as the way the master or the creator had seen it . " Filmmaker Shivendra Singh Dungarpur also believes that the film requires restoration on a " priority basis " . A 30 @-@ minute play adaptation of the film was staged in April 2016 and was directed by Balachander 's son Raman . In the same month , Balachander 's daughter @-@ in @-@ law Dharma Raman wrote for The Hindu , " The few films he produced , directed , acted , sang and composed music for , stand the test of time and are worth celebrating . "
= Mycena fonticola =
Mycena fonticola is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family . First reported in 2007 , it is known only from central Honshu , in Japan , where it grows on dead leaves and twigs in low @-@ elevation forests dominated by oak trees . The fruit body of the fungus has a smooth , violet @-@ brown cap up to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , and a slender stem up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long . Distinguishing microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the relatively large , distinctly amyloid spores ( turning blue to black when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , the smooth , spindle @-@ shaped cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) , the absence of pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) , the diverticulate hyphae of the cap cuticle , and the absence of clamp connections .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and classification = =
The fungus was first collected by Japanese mycologist Haruki Takahashi in 1999 , and described as a new species along with seven other Japanese Mycenas in a 2007 publication . The mushroom 's Japanese name is Izumino @-@ ashinagatake ( イズミノアシナガタケ ) . The specific epithet fonticola is derived from Latin , and means " dweller in fountain " .
According to Takahashi , various macro- and microscopic features suggest that this species is best classified in the section Fragilipedes ( Fr . ) Quél . , as defined by the Dutch Mycena specialist Maas Geesteranus .
= = Description = =
The cap is 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , and ranges in shape from conical to convex to bell @-@ shaped . The surface has radially arranged shallow grooves extending almost to the center of the cap . The cap surface is somewhat hygrophanous ( changing color as it loses or absorbs water ) , dry , and smooth . It is colored violet @-@ brown when young , then becomes somewhat paler from the margin . The white flesh is up to 1 mm thick , and lacks any distinctive odor or taste . The stem is long and slender compared to the size of the cap , typically 7 to 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 to 0 @.@ 10 in ) thick , cylindrical , slightly enlarged at the base , and hollow . It is grayish @-@ brown to violet @-@ brown at the top , gradually becoming violet @-@ brown on the lower portion . The stem surface is initially pruinose ( appearing to be covered with a fine whitish powder ) , but becomes smooth in age . The stem base bears large , bristle @-@ like coarse white hairs . The gills are adnexed ( narrowly attached to the stem ) , with between 23 – 27 reaching the stem . The gills are up to 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) broad , thin , and have a whitish or with a grayish hue ; the gills edges are the same color as the gill faces .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are ellipsoid , smooth , colorless , distinctly amyloid ( absorbing iodine stain from Melzer 's reagent ) , thin @-@ walled , and measure 11 @.@ 5 – 14 by 6 – 8 µm . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 17 – 28 by 6 – 8 µm , club @-@ shaped , and four @-@ spored . The basidioles ( immature or aborted basidia ) are club @-@ shaped . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the gills edges ) are 32 – 39 by 5 – 12 µm , abundant , spindle @-@ shaped to roughly club @-@ shaped , often apically broadly rounded , smooth , colorless , and thin @-@ walled . They form a sterile gill edge . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill faces ) are absent in this species . The hymenophoral tissue ( tissue of the hymenium @-@ bearing structure ) is made of thin @-@ walled hyphae that are 7 – 15 µm wide , cylindrical , smooth , colorless , and dextrinoid ( staining reddish to reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent ) . The cap cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 2 – 5 µm wide , cylindrical , and densely covered with warty or finger @-@ like thin @-@ walled diverticulae that are colorless or contain cytoplasmic brownish pigment . The layer of hyphae underlying the cap cuticle are parallel , colorless or with cytoplasmic brownish pigment , dextrinoid , and have short and inflated cells measuring up to 30 µm wide . The stem cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 3 – 5 µm wide , and cylindrical . These hyphae are covered with scattered , thin @-@ walled warty or finger @-@ like diverticulae that can be either colorless , or contain brownish pigment in the cytoplasm . The flesh of the stem is made of longitudinally running , cylindrical hyphae that are 5 – 17 µm wide , smooth , colorless , and dextrinoid . Clamp connections are absent in all tissues of this species .
= = = Similar species = = =
Mycena mustea is another similar Mycena that was discovered and reported concurrently with M. fonticola ; it differs in forming a pale grayish purple cap with a low and broad umbo . Microscopically , it has club @-@ shaped cheilocystidia with several apical short finger @-@ like outgrowths , and nondiverticulate hyphae in the stem cuticle .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mycena fonticola is known only from Kanagawa , Japan . Fruit bodies are found solitary or scattered , on dead leaves and twigs in low @-@ elevation forests dominated by the oak species Quercus myrsinaefolia and Q. serrata .
= Kanae Yamamoto ( artist ) =
Kanae Yamamoto ( 山本 鼎 , Japanese : [ ka.na.e ] , 24 October 1882 – 8 October 1946 ) was a Japanese artist , known primarily for his prints and yōga Western @-@ style paintings . He is credited with originating the sōsaku @-@ hanga ( " creative prints " ) movement , which aimed at self @-@ expressive printmaking , in contrast to the commercial studio systems of ukiyo @-@ e and shin @-@ hanga . He initiated movements in folk arts and children 's art education that continue to be influential in Japan .
Kanae trained as a wood engraver in the Western style before studying Western @-@ style painting . While at art school he executed a two @-@ colour print of a fisherman he had sketched on a trip to Chiba . Its publication ignited an interest in the expressive potential of prints that developed into the sōsaku @-@ hanga movement . Kanae spent 1912 to 1916 in Europe and brought ideas back to Japan gleaned from exhibitions of peasant crafts and children 's art in Russia . In the late 1910s he founded movements the promotion of creative peasant crafts and in children 's art education ; the latter quickly gained adherents but was suppressed under Japan 's growing militarism . These ideas experienced a revival after World War II .
Though always a supporter , Kanae left behind printmaking in the 1920s and devoted his artistic output to painting until he suffered a stroke in 1942 . He spent his remaining years in mountainous Nagano in the city of Ueda , where the Kanae Yamamoto Memorial Museum was erected in 1962 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and training ( 1882 – 1907 ) = = =
Kanae Yamamoto descended from the Irie clan of hatamoto — samurai in the direct service of the Tokugawa shogunate of feudal Japan in Edo ( modern Tokyo ) . His grandfather died 1868 in the Battle of Ueno , during the Boshin War which led to the fall of the Shogunate and the Meiji Restoration which returned power to the Emperor . This orphaned Kanae 's father Ichirō , and thereafter he grew up in Okazaki in Aichi Prefecture ; how he got there is a matter of speculation . The specialist in Chinese medicine
Ryōsai Yamamoto , from line of specialists in traditional Chinese medicine took in Ichirō with the intention of raising him to marry his daughter Take , the eldest of the family 's nine children .
Kanae was born 24 October 1882 in the Tenma @-@ dōri 1 @-@ chōme neighbourhood of Okazaki . Ryōsai intended Ichirō to continue the family profession , but when the Meiji government announced it would grant medical licenses only to those who practised Western medicine , Ichirō moved to Tokyo to study it shortly after Kanae 's birth . He lodged in the household of Mori Ōgai 's father , where he performed household duties to earn his keep . To advance his studies he took part the clandestine digging up of fresh graves to find bodies for dissection .
When he was five Kanae and his mother joined Ichirō in Tokyo and settled in a tenement house in the San 'ya area . His mother did sewing work to help support the family , and with her sister Tama provided maid service to the Mori household , and thus Kanae often met his younger cousin , Kaita Murayama , who like Kanae was to make a career in art . The painter Harada Naojirō , whom Ōgai had befriended when the two were studying in Germany , asked Kanae 's mother , whom he had seen at the Mori household , to model for the painting Kannon Bodhisattva Riding the Dragon of 1890 . Such occurrences may have contributed to attracting Kanae to art .
Ichirō raised his son under the influence of the liberal educational principles of Nakae Chōmin . Ichirō was responsible for the welfare of five of his wife 's siblings , and so at age 11 , after four years of primary school , the family finances did not permit Kanae 's schooling to continue . He became an apprentice wood engraver and mastered Western techniques of tonal gradation in the workshop of Sakurai Torakichi in Shiba . His training focused on book and newspaper illustration , and included letterpress printing and photoengraving . His skill developed quickly and soon won praise from those he worked with . During this time printing technology underwent rapid change , brought to the forefront by the First Sino @-@ Japanese War , which was reported in a variety of media , from paintings and woodblock prints to photographs . Kanae completed his apprenticeship at 18 , followed by an obligatory year of service with Sakurai . By 1896 Ichirō had earned his medical license and set up a practice in Kangawa ( now part of Ueda ) , a village in Nagano Prefecture .
The rapid change in printing technology led Kanae to doubt his future prospects in wood engraving . He aspired to become a painter but knew his yet @-@ indebted father was not in a position to pay for art school . He secretly enrolled at the Tokyo School of Fine Arts in 1902 , where he studied yōga Western @-@ style painting . His instructors there included Masaki Naohiko , Tōru Iwamura , and Kuroda Seiki .
To pay for school Kanae worked odd printing jobs for employers such as the Hochi Shimbun newspaper , and from February 1903 lodged at the home of his friend Hakutei Ishii , the eldest son of the artist Ishii Teiko . Kanae and the other aspiring artists lodged there talked into the night about art and hired a model for life drawing once a month .
= = = Prints and sōsaku hanga ( 1904 – 1911 ) = = =
Kanae joined a group of friends in July 1904 on a trip to Chōshi in Chiba Prefecture where they stayed near the mouth of the Tone River . There he made a sketch of a fisherman dressed in ceremonial clothing overlooking a harbour . When he returned , he used the sketch as the basis of a wood engraving . He engraved on both sides of a single piece of wood : the one side he printed in ochre , which filled in all the spaces except the towel on the fisherman 's head ; the other he printed in black , which provided outlines and details . At the time , the art establishment saw woodblock printing as a commercial venture beneath the station of an aspiring fine artist .
Hakutei noticed the print and had it published in the July issue of the literary magazine Myōjō . In a column in the issue Ishii promoted the print as revolutionary , as it had been done as a means of painterly spontaneous self @-@ expression , and used methods Ishii associated with ukiyo @-@ e traditions . Soon the style Ishii dubbed tōga became a popular topic within Myōjō circles . This was to grow into the sōsaku @-@ hanga ( " creative prints " ) movement .
Early works by Kanae Yamamoto
In summer 1905 Kanae visited his parents in Nagano , where he produced the oil painting Mosquito Net , the earliest of his oil paintings to be made public . That September Kanae , Hakutei and Tsuzurō Ishii , and some other friends founded the short @-@ lived magazine Heitan in which they published a number of their prints . It was in Heitan that the word hanga first appeared . The word was used interchangeably with tōga until the magazine came to an end in April 1906 ; thereafter tōga fell out of use and hanga went on to become the modern Japanese word for prints in general .
Kanae learned in 1906 of the finincial strain his parents still faced with their continuing responsibility for his mother 's siblings . He moved out of the Ishiis ' home on 8 March 1906 and rented a residence in Morikawa @-@ chō in Hongō Ward of Tokyo determined to pursue financial independence . He graduated on 2 April 1906 from the Tokyo School of Fine Arts , and in his graduation yearbook declared the French painter Pierre Puvis de Chavannes his favourite artist . He took work at Rakuten Kitazawa 's Tokyo Puck , a cartoon humour magazine patterned after the American Puck .
Kanae felt disappointed at hand @-@ printing 's gradual loss of prestige in Japan ; to revive interest he wrote a four @-@ part series of articles in 1907 for the art magazine Mizu @-@ e examing a wide variety of printing media and techniques . Kanae , Hakutei , and a former art @-@ school classmate of Kanae 's , Morita Tsunetomo , founded the monthly magazine Hōsun. whose first issue appeared 15 May 1907 . It was patterned on such European magazines as Cocorico , Jugend , Simplicissimus . The contents were primarily literature , criticism , and art cartoons , and its publishers paid fine attention to details of graphic design . They printed the magazine on fine paper at an unusually large size and mixed colour reproduction with black @-@ and @-@ white . Kanae 's contributions included his own prints , haiku poetry , and the carving of printing blocks for the designs of others . Kanae 's former engraving teacher Sakurai Torakichi furnished the photographic printing plates . The first issue was eight pages and included a supplementary print of Shiba Park by Kanae . The young artists distributed the issue themselves to bookstores . It sold well , and the circle of contributors grew , as did the page count , which expanded to sixteen .
Tokyo during the Meiji period ( 1868 – 1912 ) had a great openness to foreign — especially European — influence , and Western trends in art were quickly replacing traditional Japanese ones until word spread of the impact exported ukiyo @-@ e had had on art in the West . Artists who had all but abandoned the culture of the Edo period began to reconsider it and mix elements of it with Western approaches . Kanae took part in meetings of the Pan no Kai group of writers and artists whose goal was to replicate the atmosphere of Parisian cafés such as Café Guerbois of the Impressionists . At one of these rowdy bohemian meetings , a drunken Kanae fell through a window and landed in the garden below , wrapped in a shōji paper screen ; he returned to the gathering as if nothing had happened . The police kept watch over these meetings whose members they suspected of having socialist sympathies and held grudges over caricatures some of the members had published . Pan no Kai waned and came to and end in 1911 .
Kanae wanted to revive the spirit of Edo @-@ period ukiyo @-@ e in his prints , and to this end in 1911 he founded the Tokyo Print Club to produce and distribute such prints . He advertised for members in Hōsun , but after the magazine 's demise most of the associated artists left Tokyo and the only member he could recruit was Hanjirō Sakamoto . The pair began a series titled Sōga @-@ butai sugata ( " Stage Figure Sketches " ) of portraits of kabuki actors in the vein of the yakusha @-@ e genre of ukiyo @-@ e . The subjects were sketched from performances at the just @-@ built Imperial Theatre and were captioned in French on the front and on the back in Japanese . Though Kanae had announced that prints were to come from thirty @-@ four theatre pieces only three sets of four prints — two by each artist in each set — appeared in June , July , and September that year . The work represents a major turning point in his career as he turned away from the Western techniques that had defined his work toward a more Japanese approach such as the use of flat areas of colour . The prints failed to sell at first but began to find buyers only after he had left for France the following year . As Kanae was away the printer was not able to issue a second printing to meet the demand .
Kanae had come to neglect Hōsun as he devoted himself to Sōga @-@ butai sugata . Hakutei and Tsunetomo had left Tokyo , and that July the magazine came to an end after thirty @-@ five issues .
= = = Europe ( 1912 – 1916 ) = = =
Kanae had wanted to marry Mitsu Ishii , but her family forbade it — especially her mother and brother Hakutei . This rejection embittered him and he broke his friendship with Hakutei , though he remained friends with Tsuruzō . Kanae wished to study painting in Paris , so his father organized the distribution and sale of his son 's work to raise funds for it while he was away . He set off on the Tango Maru from Kobe on 6 July 1912 , and fifty @-@ three days later landed in Marseilles . While on board he made what was likely the first of the prints he father was to sell for him by subscription : titled Wild Chickens , it depicted three Chinese prostitutes with bound feet inspired by prostitutes he saw when he passed through Shanghai . He printed it in Paris , where in his first few months he studied etching at the École des Beaux @-@ Arts .
Upon arrival Kanae contacted the painter Sanzo Wada , who had been in Paris since 1907 . Wada introduced him to Kunishirō Mitsutani , and Kanae soon moved into a studio next to Mitsutani 's . He found French difficult to master and associated mostly with expatriate Japanese artists such as Ryuzaburo Umehara and Sōtarō Yasui . His closest friend there was Misei Kosugi , a contributor to Hōsun who arrived in March 1913 to spend a year travelling Europe .
In 1913 the writer Tōson Shimazaki visited Kanae , whom he had known from Ueda . The two shared the recent experience of having been denied a marriage . Tōson wrote of the print On the Deck that Kanae was finding difficult to finish : a print of a long @-@ haired woman on the deck of the Tango Maru as it was in Singapore . It was made with six cherry woodblocks on mulberry washi paper , materials Kanae had brought from Japan . The print was sent to Japan that May . The pair went to seaside Brittany for six weeks from that July , and soon were joined by a number of other artists , all of whom were drawn there by the tales of the beauty of the region Kuroda Seiki had written in the 19th century . Kanae was particularly productive of prints while in Brittany .
Kanae felt isolated from the culture and found little art there that he appreciated . He disliked the paintings of van Gogh , Monet , and Édouard Manet . He liked the works of Renoir and Sisley , and Puvis de Chavannes , admired the paintings of Cézanne , but denied any connection between them and those of the Cubists whose works he denigrated ; he wrote that only one in three thousand paintings of Matisse were good .
Kanae imagined himself a realist and was distressed at the avant @-@ garde that was coming to dominate the European art world ; he found it difficult to comprehend and reconcile it with his understanding of a realist ideal in Western art . His disappointment and confusion impacted his productivity ; he produced few of the prints that were supposed to fund his stay , and the language barrier made it difficult to find buyers . A Tokyo agent of his committed suicide after appropriating money from Kanae and other clients . He could not bring himself to reveal his and his parents ' financial situation , so he had another agent , Rokurō Watanabe , send money to Paris just so he could send it back to his parents , who were under pressure from a loan shark . Along with his disappointment in the Western art world , Kanae witnessed first @-@ hand the impact Japanese art had had there . Though he kept such thoughts to himself he began to feel a sense of the superiority of Japanese art — of the same traditions he had denied himself during his years of training .
Kanae managed to acquire funds from connections and refused to return early to Japan despite the urgings of friends and associates . Troubles thickened in mid @-@ 1914 when World War I broke out and he learned that Mitsu Ishii had married . The war drove him from Paris to London where he stayed for four months , much of it sick with bronchitis . He returned to Paris on 11 January 1915 , but work was scarce and the museums were closed . He resolved to return to Japan the following spring , but first moved with a group of Japanese compatriots to Lyon where he found work that brought in enough money for a trip to Italy in March 1916 to see the Renaissance masterpieces . Upon returning to Lyon he learned of the death of Sakurai and finally prepared to go back to Japan .
The least expensive route for Kanae to Japan was through Russia . He set off from Paris on 30 June 1916 via England , Norway , and Sweden . In Moscow he met the Japanese consul and the social critic Noburu Katagami ; the latter introduced him to proletarian art and encouraged him to visit Yasnaya Polyana , Leo Tolstoy 's home which he had made into a farmers ' school . The experienced moved Kanae , who later was to write , " While I was staying in Moscow in the summer of 1916 , I felt that I had two important missions . One was promotion of children 's free painting and the other was establishment of farmers ' art . " Kanae visited the Moscow Kustar ' Museum , which had exhibited peasant arts and crafts since 1885 . He praised its sturdy quality and ethnic design , and lamented that industrialization had brought about a degradation in its perceived value and was threatening its survival . An exhibition of children 's art impressed Kanae with its free expressiveness .
Towards the end of 1916 Kanae made the long rail trip across Siberia . Along the way he received a telegram from the poet Hakushū Kitahara . The two had been negotiating the hand of Kitahara 's sister Ieko and had finally reached an agreement .
= = = Return to Japan and later career ( 1916 – 1935 ) = = =
Kanae returned to Japan in December 1916 and took over Sakurai 's struggling printing company , which he renamed Seiwadō . In autumn 1917 he had seventeen yōga oil paintings displayed at the Nihon Bijutsuin 's Inten exhibition . The same year he married Ieko Kitahara , had an instruction book on oil painting published , and finished a number of prints whose subscriptions had been paid for .
Kanae aimed at putting together a creative prints association . In June 1918 Kanae co @-@ founded the Nihon Sōsaku @-@ Hanga Kyōkai ( " Japan Creative Print Cooperative Society " ) with lithographer Kazuma Oda , etcher Takeo Terasaki , and woodblock artist Kogan Tobari ; this last had been a member of the Pan no Kai and had also recently returned from several years in Europe . The group held its first exhibition at the art gallery in the Mitsukoshi building in Nihonbashi on 15 – 20 January 1919 . It represented 277 works by 26 artists , including seventeen woodblock prints and two etchings by Kanae . The show drew twenty thousand visitors and was widely reported in the media , including a special sōsaku @-@ hanga issue that March of the prominent art magazine Mizu @-@ e which included an article in which Kanae outlined the principles of the artform and the goals of the Nihon Sōsaku @-@ Hanga Kyōkai . That May the show was repeated at the Mitsukoshi location in Osaka .
In 1919 Kanae founded the Japan Children 's Free Drawing Association and held its first exhibition . The public was impressed by its democratic ideals , as the idea of democratic education was gaining momentum in Japan during the Taishō period ( 1912 – 26 ) . Kanae propounded the importance of teaching students freedom , without which they cannot grow , and denigrated the tradition of teaching drawing through copying . He promoted this ideas in 1921 with the book Free Drawing Education and the monthly magazine Education of Arts and Freedom . Kanae 's methods were widely adopted , and it became common for teachers to take students outdoors to draw from nature . These ideas did not escape criticism , and the rise of militarism in Japan put an end to Kanae 's movement in 1928 ; it was not to be revived until after World War II .
Later in 1919 Kanae moved to Ueda , the mountainous Nagano village where his parents lived . He secured funding from the Ministry of Education , Ministry of Agriculture , and Mitsubishi to set up a school that December to teach to the rural population arts and crafts skills they could use to augment their incomes during the long winter months as part of a peasant art movement that combined creativity and utility , inspired by the peasant crafts he had seen in Russia .
In 1921 , brothers @-@ in @-@ law Rinzō Satake and Shōkō Sasaki consulted with Kanae to develop a pastel crayon with an oil binder ; development took three years and resulted in the world 's first oil pastel , marketed under the name Cray @-@ Pas through the Sakura Color Products Corporation .
The peasant art movement had success in intellectual and government circles . A show at Mitsukoshi of works by sixteen youths was well received . In 1923 Kanae established the Japan Peasant Art Institute which expanded throughout the country with the help of increased government funding
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eating fish you would not have said that . "
= = Research = =
There is relatively little published on or in the Nafaanra language . The first linguistic publication to mention Nafaanra is Delafosse ( 1904 ) , containing some notes on the Nafana people and a fairly extensive comparative Senufo word list , though it lacked any proper tonal marking . Rapp ( 1933 ) is an appendix to an article on the Kulango language containing a German @-@ Nafaanra ( Nafana @-@ Sprache ) word list of around 100 items , gathered during a stay of four hours at Sampa . Rapp notes in passing that special attention was paid to the marking of the tones .
After a period of silence on Nafaanra , Painter ( 1966 ) appeared , consisting of basic word lists of the Pantera and Fantera dialects . The SIL linguist Dean Jordan published an article on Nafaanra discourse in 1978 , and together with his wife Carol Jordan has produced a translation of the New Testament , which appeared in 1984 . Kropp @-@ Dakubu 's 1980 West African language data sheets vol II contains a few pages on Nafaanra put together in the late seventies by Dean and Carol Jordan , including a phonology , a list of nouns , a list of pronouns , a list of numbers , and some example sentences ; tones are not marked . A more detailed phonology of Nafaanra by Jordan , also containing a Swadesh list , appeared in 1980 . Several books of Nafana folk tales have been published by the Summer Institute of Linguistics . Mensah and Tchagbale in their 1983 linguistic atlas of Ivory Coast include a comparative Senufo word list of about 120 items ; Nafaanra is present under the name " Nafara of Bondoukou " . An orthography of Nafaanra , lacking tonal marking , is included in Hartell ( 1993 ) . The area where Nafaanra is spoken has been the subject of recent archaeological @-@ anthropological studies ( Stahl 2004 ) .
= Women 's health in India =
Women 's health in India can be examined in terms of multiple indicators , which vary by geography , socioeconomic standing and culture . To adequately improve the health of women in India multiple dimensions of wellbeing must be analysed in relation to global health averages and also in comparison to men in India . Health is an important factor that contributes to human wellbeing and economic growth .
Currently , women in India face a multitude of health problems , which ultimately affect the aggregate economy ’ s output . Addressing the gender , class or ethnic disparities that exist in healthcare and improving the health outcomes can contribute to economic gain through the creation of quality human capital and increased levels of savings and investment .
= = Gender bias in access to healthcare = =
The United Nations ranks India as a middle @-@ income country . Findings from the World Economic Forum indicate that India is one of the worst countries in the world in terms of gender inequality . The 2011 United Nations Development Programme 's Human Development Report ranked India 132 out of 187 in terms of gender inequality . The value of this multidimensional indicator , Gender Inequality Index ( GII ) is determined by numerous factors including maternal mortality rate , adolescent fertility rate , educational achievement and labour force participation rate . Gender inequality in India is exemplified by women ’ s lower likelihood of being literate , continuing their education and participating in the labour force .
Gender is one of many social determinants of health — which include social , economic , and political factors — that play a major role in the health outcomes of women in India . Therefore , the high level of gender inequality in India negatively impacts the health of women .
The role that gender plays in health care access can be determined by examining resource allocation within the household and public sphere . Gender discrimination begins before birth ; females are the most commonly aborted sex in India . If a female fetus is not aborted , the mother ’ s pregnancy can be a stressful experience , due to her family ’ s preference for a son . Once born , daughters are prone to being fed less than sons , especially when there are multiple girls already in the household . As women mature into adulthood , many of the barriers preventing them from achieving equitable levels of health stem from the low status of women and girls in Indian society , particularly in the rural and poverty @-@ affected areas .
The low status of — and subsequent discrimination against — women in India can be attributed to many cultural norms . Societal forces of patriarchy , hierarchy and multigenerational families contribute to Indian gender roles . Men use greater privileges and superior rights to create an unequal society that leaves women with little to no power . This societal structure is exemplified with women ’ s low participation within India ’ s national parliament and the labour force .
Women are also seen as less valuable to a family due to marriage obligations . Although illegal , Indian cultural norms often force payment of a dowry to the husband ’ s family . The higher future financial burden of daughters creates a power structure that favours sons in household formation . Additionally , women are often perceived as being incapable of taking care of parents in old age , which creates even greater preference for sons over daughters .
Taken together , women are oftentimes seen less valuable than men . With lower involvement in the public sphere — as exemplified by the labour and political participation rates — and the stigma of being less valuable within a family , women face a unique form of gender discrimination .
Gender inequalities , in turn , are directly related to poor health outcomes for women . Numerous studies have found that the rates of admission to hospitals vary dramatically with gender , with men visiting hospitals more frequently than women . Differential access to healthcare occurs because women typically are entitled to a lower share of household resources and thus utilise healthcare resources to a lesser degree than men .
Amartya Sen has attributed access to fewer household resources to their weaker bargaining power within the household . Furthermore , it has also been found that Indian women frequently underreport illnesses . The underreporting of illness may be contributed to these cultural norms and gender expectations within the household . Gender also dramatically influences the use of antenatal care and utilisation of immunisations .
A study by Choi in 2006 found that boys are more likely to receive immunisations than girls in rural areas . This finding has led researchers to believe that the sex of a child leads to different levels of health care being administered in rural areas . There is also a gender component associated with mobility . Indian women are more likely to have difficulty traveling in public spaces than men , resulting in greater difficulty to access services .
= = = Cooperative conflicts approach to gender biases = = =
Amartya Sen ’ s cooperative conflicts approach to gender biases frames women ’ s gender disadvantage through three different responses : breakdown wellbeing , perceived interest and perceived contribution responses . The breakdown well @-@ being response — derived from the Nash equilibrium — describes breakdown positions between individuals during cooperative decisions . When the breakdown position of one individual is less than the other person , the solution to any conflict will ultimately result in less favourable conditions for the first individual . In terms of women ’ s health in India , the overall gender disadvantage facing women — represented by cultural and societal factors that favour men over women — negatively impacts their ability to make decisions with regards to seeking out healthcare .
The perceived interest response describes the outcome of a bargained decision when one individual attaches less value to his or her well @-@ being . Any bargaining solution derived between the aforementioned individual and another individual will always result in a less favourable outcome for the person who attaches less value to their well @-@ being . The health status of women in India relates to the perceived interest response because of the societal and cultural practices that create an environment where the self @-@ worth of women is marginalised compared to men . Therefore , outcomes relating to healthcare decisions within households will favour the men , due to greater self @-@ worth .
The perceived contribution response describes the more favourable position of an individual when the individual ’ s contribution is perceived as contributing more to a group than other individuals . The more favourable perception gives the individual a better outcome in a bargaining solution . In terms of women ’ s health in India , males ’ perceived contribution to household productivity is higher than that of women , which ultimately affects the bargaining power that women have with regards to accessing healthcare .
= = Problems with India ’ s healthcare system = =
At the turn of the 21st Century India ’ s health care system is strained in terms of the number of healthcare professionals including doctors and nurses . The health care system is also highly concentrated in urban areas . This results in many individuals in rural areas seeking care from unqualified providers with varying results . It has also been found that many individuals who claim to be physicians actually lack formal training . Nearly 25 percent of physicians classified as allopathic providers actually had no medical training ; this phenomenon varies geographically .
Women are negatively affected by the geographic bias within implementation of the current healthcare system in India . Of all health workers in the country , nearly two thirds are men . This especially affects rural areas where it has been found that out of all doctors , only 6 percent are women . This translates into approximately 0 @.@ 5 female allopathic physicians per 10 @,@ 000 individuals in rural areas .
A disparity in access to maternal care between rural and urban populations is one of the ramifications of a highly concentrated urban medical system . According to Government of India National Family Health Survey ( NFHS II , 1998 @-@ 1999 ) the maternal mortality in rural areas is approximately 132 percent the number of maternal mortality in urban areas .
The Indian government has taken steps to alleviate some of the current gender inequalities . In 1992 , the government of India established the National Commission for Women . The Commission was meant to address many of the inequalities women face , specifically rape , family and guardianship . However , the slow pace of change in the judicial system and the aforementioned cultural norms have prevented the full adoption of policies meant to promote equality between men and women .
In 2005 India enacted the National Rural Health Mission ( NHRM ) . Some of its primary goals were to reduce infant mortality and also the maternal mortality ratio . Additionally , the NHRM aimed to create universal access to public health services and also balance the gender ratio . However , a 2011 research study conducted by Nair and Panda found that although India was able to improve some measures of maternal health since the enactment of the NHRM in 2005 , the country was still far behind most emerging economies .
= = Outcomes = =
= = = Health problems of tribal women = = =
The high incidence of breast lumps among Adivasi women of Adilabad in Telangana has created apprehension of more serious health impacts for this remote population . “ Leave alone breast cancer or any other type of carcinoma , even routine mammarian infections were unknown among indigenous people belonging to the Gond , Pardhan , Kolam and Thotti , ” points out Dr. Thodsam Chandu , the District Immunisation Officer , himself a Gond .
= = = Malnutrition and morbidity = = =
Nutrition plays a major role in and individual ’ s overall health ; psychological and physical health status is often dramatically impacted by the presence of malnutrition . India currently has one of the highest rates of malnourished women among developing countries . A study in 2000 found that nearly 70 percent of non @-@ pregnant women and 75 percent of pregnant women were anemic in terms of iron @-@ deficiency . One of the main drivers of malnutrition is gender specific selection of the distribution of food resources .
A 2012 study by Tarozzi have found the nutritional intake of early adolescents to be approximately equal . However , the rate of malnutrition increases for women as they enter adulthood . Furthermore , Jose et al. found that malnutrition increased for ever @-@ married women compared to non @-@ married women .
Maternal malnutrition has been associated with an increased risk of maternal mortality and also child birth defects . Addressing the problem of malnutrition would lead to beneficial outcomes for women and children .
= = = Breast cancer = = =
India is facing a growing cancer epidemic , with a large increase in the number of women with breast cancer . By the year 2020 nearly 70 percent of the world ’ s cancer cases will come from developing countries , with a fifth of those cases coming from India .
Much of the sudden increase in breast cancer cases is attributed to the rise in Westernisation of the country . This includes , but is not limited to , westernised diet , greater urban concentrations of women , and later child bearing . Additionally , problems with India ’ s health care infrastructure prevent adequate screenings and access for women , ultimately leading to lower health outcomes compared to more developed countries . As of 2012 , India has a shortage of trained oncologists and cancer centres , further straining the health care system .
= = = Reproductive health = = =
The lack of maternal health contributes to future economic disparities for mothers and their children . Poor maternal health often affects a child ’ s health in adverse ways and also decreases a woman ’ s ability to participate in economic activities . Therefore , national health programmes such as the National Rural Health Mission ( NRHM ) and the Family Welfare Programme have been created to address the maternal health care needs of women across India .
Although India has witnessed dramatic growth over the last two decades , maternal mortality remains stubbornly high in comparison to many developing nations As a nation , India contributed nearly 20 percent of all maternal deaths worldwide between 1992 and 2006 . The primary reasons for the high levels of maternal mortality are directly related to socioeconomic conditions and cultural constraints limiting access to care .
However , maternal mortality is not identical across all of India or even a particular state ; urban areas often have lower overall maternal mortality due to the availability of adequate medical resources . For example , states with higher literacy and growth rates tend to have greater maternal health and also lower infant mortality .
= = = = HIV / AIDS = = = =
As of July 2005 , women represent approximately 40 percent of the HIV / AIDS cases in India . The number of infections is rising in many locations in India ; the rise can be attributed to cultural norms , lack of education , and lack of access to contraceptives such as condoms . The government public health system does not provide adequate measures such as free HIV testing , only further worsening the problem .
Cultural aspects also increase the prevalence of HIV infection . The insistence of a woman for a man to use a condom could imply promiscuity on her part , and thus may hamper the usage of protective barriers during sex . Furthermore , one of the primary methods of contraception among women has historically been sterilisation , which does not protect against the transmission of HIV .
The current mortality rate of HIV / AIDS is higher for women than it is for men . As with other forms of women ’ s health in India the reason for the disparity is multidimensional . Due to higher rates of illiteracy and economic dependence on men , women are less likely to be taken to a hospital or receive medical care for health needs in comparison to men . This creates a greater risk for women to suffer from complications associated with HIV . There is also evidence to suggest that the presence of HIV / AIDS infection in a woman could result in lower or no marriage prospects , which creates greater stigma for women suffering from HIV / AIDS .
= = = = Reproductive rights = = = =
India legalised abortion through legislation in the early 1970s . However , access remains limited to cities . Less than 20 percent of health care centres are able to provide the necessary services for an abortion . The current lack of access is attributed to a shortage of physicians and lack of equipment to perform the procedure .
The most common foetus that is aborted in India is a female one . Numerous factors contribute to the abortion of female foetuses . For example , women who are highly educated and had a first @-@ born female child are the most likely to abort a female . The act of sex @-@ selective abortion has contributed to a skewed male to female ratio . As of the 2011 census , the sex ratio among children aged 0 – 6 continued a long trend towards more males .
The preference for sons over daughters in India is rooted in social , economic and religious reasons . Women are often believed to be of a lower value in society due to their non @-@ breadwinner status . Financial support , old age security , property inheritance , dowry and beliefs surrounding religious duties all contribute to the preference of sons over daughters . One of the main reasons behind the preference of sons is the potential burden of having to find grooms for daughters . Families of women in India often have to pay a dowry and all expenses related to marriage in order to marry off a daughter , which increases the cost associated with having a daughter .
= = = Cardiovascular health = = =
Cardiovascular disease is a major contributor to female mortality in India . Indians account for 60 % of the world 's heart disease burden , despite accounting for less than 20 % of the world 's population . Indian women have a particular high mortality from cardiac disease and NGOs such as the Indian Heart Association have been raising awareness about this issue . Women have higher mortality rates relating to cardiovascular disease than men in India because of differential access to health care between the sexes . One reason for the differing rates of access stems from social and cultural norms that prevent women from accessing appropriate care . For example , it was found that among patients with congenital heart disease , women were less likely to be operated on than men because families felt that the scarring from surgery would make the women less marriageable .
Furthermore , it was found that families failed to seek medical treatment for their daughters because of the stigma associated with negative medical histories . A study conducted by Pednekar et al. in 2011 found that out of 100 boys and girls with congenital heart disease , 70 boys would have an operation while only 22 girls will receive similar treatment .
The primary driver of this difference is due to cultural standards that give women little leverage in the selection of their partner . Elder family members must find suitable husbands for young females in the households . If women are known to have adverse previous medical histories , their ability to find a partner is significantly reduced . This difference leads to diverging health outcomes for men and women .
= = = Mental health = = =
Mental health consists of a broad scope of measurements of mental well being including depression , stress and measurements of self @-@ worth . Numerous factors affect the prevalence of mental health disorders among women in India , including older age , low educational attainment , fewer children in the home , lack of paid employment and excessive spousal alcohol use . There is also evidence to suggest that disadvantages associated with gender increase the risk for mental health disorders . Women who find it acceptable for men to use violence against female partners may view themselves as less valuable than men . In turn , this may lead women to seek out fewer avenues of healthcare inhibiting their ability to cope with various mental disorders .
One of the most common disorders that disproportionately affect women in low @-@ income countries is depression . Indian women suffer from depression at higher rates than Indian men . Indian women who are faced with greater degrees of poverty and gender disadvantage show a higher rate of depression . The difficulties associated with interpersonal relationships — most often marital relationships — and economic disparities have been cited as the main social drivers of depression .
It was found that Indian women typically describe the somatic symptoms rather than the emotional and psychological stressors that trigger the symptoms of depression . This often makes it difficult to accurately assess depression among women in India in light of no admonition of depression . Gender plays a major role in postnatal depression among Indian women . Mothers are often blamed for the birth of a female child . Furthermore , women who already have a female child often face additional pressures to have male children that add to their overall stress level .
Women in India have a lower onset of schizophrenia than men . However , women and men differ in the associated stigmas they must face . While men tend to suffer from occupational functioning , while women suffer in their marital functioning . The time of onset also plays a role in the stigmatisation of schizophrenia . Women tend to be diagnosed with schizophrenia later in life , oftentimes following the birth of their children . The children are often removed from the care of the ill mother , which may cause further distress .
= = = = Suicide = = = =
Indian women have higher rates of suicide than women in most developed countries . Women in India also have a higher rate of suicide compared to men . The most common reasons cited for women 's suicide are directly related to depression , anxiety , gender disadvantage and anguish related to domestic violence .
Many of the high rates of suicide found across India and much of south Asia have been correlated with gender disadvantage . Gender disadvantage is often expressed through domestic violence towards women . The suicide rate is particularly high among female sex workers in India , who face numerous forms of discrimination for their gender and line of work .
= = = Domestic violence = = =
Domestic violence is a major problem in India . Domestic violence — acts of physical , psychological , and sexual violence against women — is found across the world and is currently viewed as a hidden epidemic by the World Health Organisation . The effects of domestic violence go beyond the victim ; generational and economic effects influence entire societies . Economies of countries where domestic violence is prevalent tend to have lower female labour participation rate , in addition to higher medical expenses and higher rates of disability .
The prevalence of domestic violence in India is associated with the cultural norms of patriarchy , hierarchy , and multigenerational families . Patriarchal domination occurs when males use superior rights , privileges and power to create a social order that gives women and men differential gender roles . The resultant power structure leaves women as powerless targets of domestic violence . Men use domestic violence as a way of controlling behaviour .
In a response to the 2005 @-@ 2006 India National Family Health Survey III , 31 percent of all women reported having been the victims of physical violence in the 12 months preceding the survey . However , the actual number of victims may be much higher . Women who are victimised by domestic violence may underreport or fail to report instances . This may be due to a sense of shame or embarrassment stemming from cultural norms associated with women being subservient to their husbands . Furthermore , underreporting by women may occur in order to protect family honour .
A 2012 study conducted by Kimuna , using data from the 2005 @-@ 2006 India National Family Health Survey III , found that domestic violence rates vary across numerous sociological , geographical and economic measures . The study found that the poorest women faired worst among middle and high @-@ income women . Researchers believe that the reason for higher rates of domestic violence come from greater familial pressures resulting from poverty . Additionally the study found that women who were part of the labour force faced greater domestic violence . According to the researchers , working women may be upsetting the patriarchal power system within Indian households .
Men may feel threatened by the earning potential and independence of women and react violently to shift the gender power structure back in their favour . One of the largest factors associated with domestic violence against women was the prevalence of alcohol use by men within the households . A 2005 study conducted by Pradeep Panda and Bina Agarwal found that the incidence of domestic violence against women dropped dramatically with women 's ownership of immovable property , which includes land and housing .
= John Frusciante =
John Anthony Frusciante ( / fruːˈʃɑːnteɪ / ; born March 5 , 1970 ) is an American guitarist , singer , producer and composer . He is best known as the former guitarist of the rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers , from 1988 until 1992 , and again from 1998 until 2009 . He recorded five studio albums with them .
Frusciante has an active solo career , having released eleven solo albums and five EPs ; his recordings include elements ranging from experimental rock and ambient music to new wave and electronica . In 2015 , Frusciante released his debut acid house album under his alias , Trickfinger . He has also recorded with numerous other artists , including The Mars Volta , for whom he was a studio guitarist ( and occasional live performer ) from 2002 until 2008 ; Josh Klinghoffer and Joe Lally , with whom he released two albums as Ataxia ; and various collaborations with both Klinghoffer and Omar Rodríguez @-@ López .
At the age of eighteen , he joined the Red Hot Chili Peppers , first appearing on the band 's 1989 album , Mother 's Milk . The group 's follow @-@ up album , Blood Sugar Sex Magik ( 1991 ) , was a breakthrough success . Frusciante became overwhelmed by the band 's new popularity and quit in 1992 . He became a recluse and entered a long period of drug addiction , during which he released his first solo recordings : Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt ( 1994 ) and Smile from the Streets You Hold ( 1997 ) . In 1998 , he successfully completed drug rehabilitation and rejoined the Red Hot Chili Peppers . Their next album , Californication ( 1999 ) would eventually go on to sell 16 million copies . His album To Record Only Water for Ten Days was made in 2001 . A fourth album with the Chili Peppers , By the Way was released in 2002 . On a creative spree , Frusciante released six solo albums in 2004 ; each album explored different recording techniques and genres . 2006 saw the release of his fifth and final album with the Chili Peppers , Stadium Arcadium . In 2009 , Frusciante released The Empyrean , which features Flea and Josh Klinghoffer , and announced he had again parted ways with the Chili Peppers .
He has produced and / or recorded with Duran Duran , Wu @-@ Tang Clan , The Mars Volta and Omar Rodriguez Lopez , Swahili Blonde , Black Knights , The Bicycle Thief , Glenn Hughes , Ziggy Marley , Johnny Cash , George Clinton , and others .
Frusciante has received critical recognition for his guitar playing , ranking at number 18 on Rolling Stone 's list of " The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time " in 2003 ; and again in a second list published in 2011 , where he ranked at number 72 . He was ranked as number 42 in Gibson 's list of the " 50 Best Guitarists of All Time " . He was voted " The Best Guitarist of the Last 30 Years " in a 2010 BBC poll called " The Axe Factor " . Frusciante was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Red Hot Chili Peppers on April 14 , 2012 although he did not attend the ceremony .
= = Biography = =
= = = 1970 – 1987 : Childhood and early life = = =
Frusciante was born in Queens , New York on March 5 , 1970 . His father , John Sr. , is a Juilliard @-@ trained pianist , and his mother Gail was a promising vocalist who gave up her career to be a stay @-@ at @-@ home mother . Frusciante 's family moved to Tucson , Arizona , and then Florida , where his father served as a Broward County judge until October 2010 . His parents separated , and he and his mother moved to Santa Monica , California . Frusciante is of Italian descent ; his paternal great @-@ grandfather Generoso Frusciante emigrated from Benevento .
A year later , Frusciante and his mother moved to Mar Vista , Los Angeles with his new stepfather who , he says , " really supported me and made me feel good about being an artist . " Like many young people in the area , he became intimately involved in the L.A. punk rock scene . At nine he was infatuated with the Germs , wearing out several copies of their record ( GI ) . By ten , he had taught himself how to play most of ( GI ) ' s songs . He has stated that he did not really know what he was doing , and that he would play every chord with a single @-@ finger barre .
Frusciante began studying guitarists like Jeff Beck , Jimmy Page , David Gilmour and Jimi Hendrix at eleven . He discovered Frank Zappa , whose work he would study for hours . Frusciante first heard of the Red Hot Chili Peppers around 1984 when his guitar instructor was auditioning as a guitarist for that band . He dropped out of high school at sixteen with the permission of his parents and completion of a proficiency test . With their support , he moved to Los Angeles in order to develop his musical proficiency . He began taking classes at the Guitar Institute of Technology , but turned to punching in without actually attending and left shortly thereafter .
= = = 1988 – 1992 : First term with the Red Hot Chili Peppers = = =
Frusciante first attended a Red Hot Chili Peppers performance at fifteen and he rapidly became a devoted fan . He idolized guitarist Hillel Slovak — familiarizing himself with virtually all the guitar and bass parts from the Chili Peppers ' first three records . He became acquainted with Slovak ; the two spoke months before Slovak 's death and Frusciante 's subsequent joining :
... Hillel asked me , ' Would you still like the Chilis if they got so popular they played the Forum ? ' I said , ' No . It would ruin the whole thing . That 's great about the band , the audience feels no different from the band at all . ' There was this real kind of historical vibe at their shows , none of the frustration that runs through the audience when they jump around and can 't get out of their seat . I didn 't even watch the shows . I 'd get so excited that I 'd flip around the slam pit the whole time . I really felt like a part of the band , and all the sensitive people in the audience did too .
Frusciante became friends with former Dead Kennedys drummer D. H. Peligro in early 1988 . They often jammed together , and Peligro invited his friend Flea ( bassist of Red Hot Chili Peppers ) to join . Frusciante and Flea developed a musical chemistry immediately , with Flea later acknowledging that might have been the day he first played the bass riff to " Nobody Weird Like Me " . Around the same time , Frusciante intended to audition for Frank Zappa 's band , but changed his mind before the final try @-@ out as Zappa strictly prohibited illegal drug use . Frusciante said , " I realized that I wanted to be a rock star , do drugs and get girls , and that I wouldn 't be able to do that if I was in Zappa 's band . "
Slovak died of a heroin overdose in 1988 , and Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons , incapable of coping with Slovak 's death , left the group . Remaining members Flea and vocalist Anthony Kiedis regrouped , determined to persevere . The pair added Peligro on drums and DeWayne " Blackbyrd " McKnight , formerly of P @-@ Funk , on guitar . McKnight , however , failed to connect musically within the group . Flea proposed auditioning Frusciante , whose intimate knowledge of the Chili Peppers ' repertoire impressed him . Flea and Kiedis auditioned him and agreed that he would be a suitable replacement for McKnight , who was promptly fired . When Flea called Frusciante with the news of his acceptance into the Chili Peppers , Frusciante was elated ; he ran through his house screaming with joy , and jumped on a wall , leaving permanent boot marks . He was considering a contract with Thelonious Monster at the time — and had actually been playing with the act for two weeks — but his unanticipated reception into the Chili Peppers prompted him to change his plans .
However , Frusciante was not familiar with the funk genre of Red Hot Chili Peppers ' sound : " I wasn 't really a funk player before I joined the band . I learned everything I needed to know about how to sound good with Flea by studying Hillel [ Slovak 's ] playing and I just took it sideways from there . " Several weeks into the band 's new lineup , Peligro , whose performance was suffering due to extreme drug abuse , was fired . Soon after , Chad Smith was added as the group 's new drummer and the new lineup began recording their first album , 1989 's Mother 's Milk . Frusciante focused on emulating Slovak 's signature style , rather than imposing his own personal style on the group . Producer Michael Beinhorn disagreed , and wanted Frusciante to play with an uncharacteristic heavy metal tone , largely absent from the band 's three preceding records . Frusciante and Beinhorn fought frequently over guitar tone and layering , and Beinhorn 's idea ultimately prevailed as Frusciante felt pressured by the producer 's much greater knowledge of the studio . Kiedis recalls that " [ Beinhorn ] wanted John to have a big , crunching , almost metal @-@ sounding guitar tone whereas before we always had some interesting acid @-@ rock guitar tones as well as a lot of slinky , sexy , funky guitar tones . "
The Chili Peppers collaborated with producer Rick Rubin for their second record with Frusciante , Blood Sugar Sex Magik . Rubin felt that it was important to record the album in an unorthodox setting , so he suggested an old Hollywood Hills mansion , and the band agreed . Frusciante , Kiedis and Flea isolated themselves there for the duration of the recording . Frusciante and Flea seldom went outside , and spent most of their time smoking marijuana . Around this time , Frusciante started a side collaboration with Flea and Jane 's Addiction drummer Stephen Perkins called The Three Amoebas . They recorded roughly ten to fifteen hours of material , none of which has ever been released .
Blood Sugar Sex Magik was hugely successful upon its release on September 24 , 1991 . It peaked at number three on the Billboard charts , and went on to sell thirteen million copies worldwide . The unexpected success instantly turned the Red Hot Chili Peppers into rock stars . Frusciante was blindsided by his newfound fame , and struggled to cope with it . Soon after the album 's release , he began to develop a dislike for the band 's popularity . Kiedis recalled that he and Frusciante used to get into heated discussions backstage after concerts : " John would say , ' We 're too popular . I don 't need to be at this level of success . I would just be proud to be playing this music in clubs like you guys were doing two years ago . ' " Frusciante later said that the band 's rise to popularity was " too high , too far , too soon . Everything seemed to be happening at once and I just couldn 't cope with it . " He also began to feel that destiny was leading him away from the band . When the Chili Peppers began their world tour , he started to hear voices in his head telling him " you won 't make it during the tour , you have to go now . " Frusciante admitted to having once taken great pleasure in hedonism ; however , " by the age of twenty , I started doing it right and looking at it as an artistic expression instead of a way of partying and screwing a bunch of girls . To balance it out , I had to be extra @-@ humble , extra @-@ anti @-@ rock star . " He refused to take the stage during a performance at Tokyo 's Club Quattro on May 7 , 1992 , telling his bandmates that he was leaving the band . He was persuaded to perform , but left for California the next morning ; according to the guitarist , " it was just impossible for me to stay in the band any longer . It had come to the point where even though they wanted me in the band , it felt like I was forced out of the band . Not by any members in particular or management in particular , but just the direction it was going . " He was replaced by former Jane 's Addiction guitarist Dave Navarro .
In a 2015 interview , Cris Kirkwood said that following Frusciante 's departure from the Chili Peppers in 1992 he auditioned for his band the Meat Puppets . Kirkwood said " “ He showed up with his guitar out of its case and barefoot . We were on a major label then , we just got signed , and those guys had blown up to where they were at and John needed to get out . John gets to our pad and we started getting ready to play and I said , ‘ You want to use my tuner ? ’ He said , ‘ No , I ’ ll bend it in . ’ It was so far out . Then we jammed but it didn ’ t come to anything . Maybe he wasn ’ t in the right place and we were a tight little unit . It just didn ’ t quite happen but it could have worked . "
= = = 1992 – 1997 : Drug addiction = = =
Frusciante developed serious drug habits while touring with the band during the previous four years . He said that when he " found out that Flea was stoned out of his mind at every show , that inspired me to be a pothead " . Not only was Frusciante smoking large amounts of marijuana , but he began to use heroin and was on the verge of full @-@ scale addiction . Upon returning to California in the summer of 1992 , Frusciante entered a deep depression , feeling that his life was over and that he could no longer write music or play guitar . For a long time , he focused on painting , producing 4 @-@ track recordings he had made while working on Blood Sugar Sex Magik , and writing short stories and screenplays . To cope with his worsening depression , Frusciante increased his heroin use and spiraled into a life @-@ threatening dependency . His use of heroin to medicate his depression was a clear decision : " I was very sad , and I was always happy when I was on drugs ; therefore , I should be on drugs all the time . I was never guilty — I was always really proud to be an addict . " Frusciante openly admitted to being a " junkie " , believing that drugs were the only way of " making sure you stay in touch with beauty instead of letting the ugliness of the world corrupt your soul . "
In October 1993 , River Phoenix came to stay with Frusciante and the duo went on a long drug binge together , doing a lot of drugs and barely sleeping . According to Bob Forrest , the two arrived at The Viper Room together on October 31 , 1993 and continued to do drugs . Shortly after their arrival , Phoenix went into seizures and was rushed by ambulance ( accompanied by Flea ) to the hospital where he died of a drug overdose .
Frusciante released his first solo album Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt , on March 8 , 1994 . Despite the common belief that most of the tracks were recorded while he was strung out on heroin in his home in the Hollywood Hills , Frusciante has said that " That album was not recorded when I was a heroin addict . It was released when I was a heroin addict . "
The first half of Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt was recorded shortly after the completion of Blood Sugar Sex Magik ; the second half between late 1991 and early 1992 , during the album 's tour . " Running Away Into You " is the only track recorded after he left the Chili Peppers . The album is a heavily experimental avant @-@ garde composition whose initial purpose was spiritual and emotional expression : " I wrote [ the record ] because I was in a really big place in my head — it was a huge , spiritual place telling me what to do . As long as I 'm obeying those forces , it 's always going to be meaningful . I could be playing guitar and I could say ' Play something that sucks , ' and if I 'm in that place , it 's gonna be great . And it has nothing to do with me , except in ways that can 't be understood . " Frusciante further asserted that the album was meant to be experienced as a cohesive unit rather than separate entities or songs . Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt was released on Rick Rubin 's label American Recordings . Warner Bros. , the Chili Peppers ' label , owned rights to the album because of the leaving @-@ artist clause in Frusciante 's Chili Peppers contract . However , because he was reclusive , the label gladly handed the rights over to Rubin , who released the album at the urging of Frusciante 's friends .
An article in the New Times LA described Frusciante as " a skeleton covered in thin skin " who at the nadir of his addictions nearly died from a blood infection . His arms became fiercely scarred from improperly shooting heroin and cocaine , leaving permanent abscesses . He spent the next three years holed up in his Hollywood Hills home , the walls of which were badly damaged and covered in graffiti . During this time , his friends Johnny Depp and Gibby Haynes went to his house and filmed a documentary short called Stuff , depicting the squalor in which he was living . The house was eventually destroyed by a fire that claimed his vintage guitar collection along with several recorded tapes of music .
Frusciante released his second solo album , Smile from the Streets You Hold , in 1997 . The album 's first track , " Enter a Uh " , was largely characterized by cryptic lyrics and hysterical screeches . Frusciante also coughs throughout the track , showcasing his deteriorating health . By his own admission , the album was released in order to get " drug money " ; he withdrew it from the market in 1999 . The album is also notable for including a recording called " Height Down " which features River Phoenix .
= = = 1998 – 2002 : Rehabilitation and return to the Chili Peppers = = =
In late 1996 , after more than five years of addiction to heroin , Frusciante quit it cold turkey . However , months later he was still unable to break addictions to crack cocaine and alcohol . In January 1998 , urged by longtime friend Bob Forrest , Frusciante checked into Las Encinas , a drug rehabilitation clinic in Pasadena , to begin a full recovery . Upon arrival , he was diagnosed with a potentially lethal oral infection , which could only be alleviated by removing all of his rotten teeth and replacing them with dental implants . He also received skin grafts to help repair the abscesses on his ravaged arms . About a month later , Frusciante checked out of Las Encinas and re @-@ entered society .
Fully recovered and once again healthy , Frusciante began living a more spiritual , ascetic lifestyle . He changed his diet , becoming more health @-@ conscious and eating mostly unprocessed foods . Through regular practice of vipassana and yoga , he discovered the effect that self @-@ discipline has on the body . To maintain his increased spiritual awareness and reduce distraction from his music , Frusciante decided to abstain from sexual activity stating : " I 'm very well without it . " All of these changes in his life have led him to a complete change in his attitude toward drugs :
I don 't need to take drugs . I feel so much more high all the time right now because of the type of momentum that a person can get going when you really dedicate yourself to something that you really love . I don 't even consider doing them , they 're completely silly . Between my dedication to trying to constantly be a better musician and eating my health foods and doing yoga , I feel so much more high than I did for the last few years of doing drugs .
At this point I 'm the happiest person in the world . These things do not fuck with me at all , and I 'm so proud of that — you don 't know how proud I am . It 's such a beautiful thing to be able to face life , to face yourself , without hiding behind drugs ; without having to have anger towards people who love you . There are people who are scared of losing stuff , but you don 't lose anything for any other reason than if you just give up on yourself .
Despite his experience as an addict , Frusciante does not view his drug use as a " dark period " in his life . He considers it a period of rebirth , during which he found himself and cleared his mind . Frusciante has since stopped practicing yoga , due to its effects on his back , but he still tries to meditate daily .
In early 1998 , the Red Hot Chili Peppers fired guitarist Dave Navarro and were on the verge of breaking up . Flea told Kiedis , " the only way I could imagine carrying on [ with the Red Hot Chili Peppers ] is if we got John back in the band . " With Frusciante free of his addictions and ailments , Kiedis and Flea thought it was an appropriate time to invite him back . When Flea visited him at his home and asked him to rejoin the band , Frusciante began sobbing and said " nothing would make me happier in the world . " With Frusciante back on guitar , the Chili Peppers began recording their next album , Californication , released in 1999 . Frusciante 's return restored a key component of the Chili Peppers ' sound , as well as a healthy morale . He brought with him his deep devotion to music , which had an impact on the band 's recording style during the album . Frusciante has frequently stated that his work on Californication was his favorite .
During the Californication world tour , Frusciante continued to compose his own songs , many of which would be released in 2001 on his third solo album To Record Only Water for Ten Days . The album was stylistically unlike his previous records , less markedly stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness or avant @-@ garde . However , the lyrics were still very cryptic and its sound was notably stripped down . The songwriting and production of To Record Only Water for Ten Days were more efficient and straightforward than on his previous recordings . The album strayed from the alternative rock he had just written with the Chili Peppers on Californication , focusing more on electronic and new wave elements . In addition to his guitar work , Frusciante experimented with a variety of synthesizers , a distinctive feature of the record .
In 2001 , Frusciante began recording his fourth album with Red Hot Chili Peppers , By the Way ( 2002 ) ; he considered the time to be among the happiest in his life . He relished the chance the album gave him to " keep writing better songs " . While working on By the Way , he also composed most of what would become Shadows Collide with People , as well as the songs created for the movie The Brown Bunny . His goal to improve his guitar playing on the album was largely driven by a desire to emulate guitar players such as Andy Partridge , Johnny Marr and John McGeoch ; or as he put it , " people who used good chords " . The album marked Frusciante 's shift to a more group @-@ minded mentality within the Chili Peppers , viewing the band as a cohesive unit rather than as four separate entities .
= = = 2002 – 2007 : The Mars Volta , 2004 recordings and Stadium Arcadium = = =
Frusciante wrote and recorded a plethora of songs during and after the By the Way tour . In February 2004 , he started a side project with Joe Lally of Fugazi and Josh Klinghoffer , called Ataxia . The group was together for about two weeks , during which they recorded about ninety minutes of material . After two days in the recording studio , they played two shows at the Knitting Factory in Hollywood , and spent two more days in the studio before disbanding . Later that year , five songs provided by Frusciante appeared on The Brown Bunny soundtrack .
Frusciante released his fourth full @-@ length solo album Shadows Collide with People on February 24 , 2004 . This featured guest appearances from some of his friends , including Klinghoffer , and Chili Peppers bandmates Smith and Flea . In June 2004 , he announced that he would be releasing six records over six months : The Will to Death , Ataxia 's Automatic Writing , DC EP , Inside of Emptiness , A Sphere in the Heart of Silence and Curtains . With the release of Curtains Frusciante debuted his only music video of 2004 , for the track " The Past Recedes " . He wanted to produce these records quickly and inexpensively on analog tape , avoiding modern studio and computer @-@ assisted recording processes . Frusciante noted , " These six records were recorded in a period of six months after coming home from touring with the Chili Peppers for one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years . I made a list of all the songs I had and they totaled about seventy . My objective was to record as many songs as I could during the break that I had . In the midst of doing that , I was writing some of my best songs , so some of these albums have as many new songs as old songs . It was definitely the most productive time of my life . "
In early 2005 , Frusciante entered the studio to work on his fifth and final studio album with the Chili Peppers , Stadium Arcadium . His guitar playing is dominant throughout the album , and he provides backing vocals on most of the tracks . Although usually following a " less is more " style of guitar playing , he began using a full twenty @-@ four track mixer for maximum effect . In the arrangements , he incorporates a wide array of sounds and playing styles , similar to the funk @-@ influenced Blood Sugar Sex Magik or the more melodic By the Way . He also changed his approach to his playing , opting to contribute solos and allow songs to be formed from jam sessions . In an interview from Guitar World , Frusciante explained how he approached his guitar solos for their album Stadium Arcadium completely differently from those for their previous albums . On Blood Sugar Sex Magik and Californication , Frusciante had a general idea how he wanted his guitar solos to sound . For Stadium Arcadium , almost every guitar solo was completely improvised by Frusciante on the spot . Several reviews have stressed that the influence of Hendrix is evident in his solos on the album , with Frusciante himself backing this up . He also expanded the use of guitar effects throughout the album , and used various other instruments such as the synthesizer and mellotron . He worked continuously with Rubin over @-@ dubbing guitar progressions , changing harmonies and using all his technical resources .
Frusciante began a series of collaborations with friend Omar Rodríguez @-@ López and his band The Mars Volta , by contributing guitar and electronic instrumentation to song " Cicatriz ESP " off their album De @-@ Loused in the Comatorium . He also contributed guitar solos on their 2005 album Frances the Mute . In 2006 , he helped The Mars Volta complete their third album Amputechture by playing guitar on seven of its eight tracks . In return , Rodriguez @-@ Lopez has played on several of Frusciante 's solo albums , as well as making a guest appearance on Stadium Arcadium .
= = = 2007 – 2009 = = =
= = = = Red Hot Chili Peppers departure and The Empyrean = = = =
Ataxia released its second and final studio album , AW II in 2007 . Following the Stadium Arcadium tour ( early May 2006 to late August 2007 ) , the Red Hot Chili Peppers agreed to a hiatus of indefinite length . In early 2008 , Anthony Kiedis finally confirmed this , citing exhaustion from constant work since Californication as the main reason . Frusciante quit the group on July 29 , 2009 , but did not publicly announce his departure until December 2009 , two months after the band ended their hiatus in October 2009 and began work on their next album with Josh Klinghoffer as their new guitarist .
Frusciante 's tenth solo album , The Empyrean , was released on January 20 , 2009 through Record Collection . The record — a concept album — was in production between December 2006 and March 2008 . The Empyrean features an array of musicians including Frusciante 's ex @-@ Chili Peppers bandmate Flea , friends Josh Klinghoffer and former Smiths guitarist Johnny Marr , as well as guest musicians including Sonus Quartet and New Dimension Singers . Frusciante stated : " I 'm really happy with [ the record ] and I 've listened to it a lot for the psychedelic experience it provides , " suggesting the album is " to be played as loud as possible and is suited to dark living rooms late at night . "
= = = 2010 – present = = =
= = = = Collaborations with Omar Rodriguez @-@ Lopez and induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame = = = =
Frusciante continued to collaborate with his friend Omar Rodríguez @-@ López . Along with providing guitar work to The Mars Volta 's studio albums , The Bedlam In Goliath and Octahedron , and Rodríguez @-@ López 's solo albums Se Dice Bisonte , No Búfalo and Calibration ( Is Pushing Luck and Key Too Far ) , he functioned as executive producer for Rodríguez @-@ López 's directorial film debut , The Sentimental Engine Slayer . The film debuted at the Rotterdam Film Festival in February 2010 . Along with work on the film , Frusciante and Rodríguez @-@ López have released two collaborative records in May 2010 . The first is the album Omar Rodriguez @-@ Lopez & John Frusciante , an album with just the two of them , the other a quartet record , Sepulcros de Miel , consisting of Rodríguez @-@ López , Frusciante , Juan Alderete and Marcel Rodríguez @-@ López .
Frusciante also contributed music to the documentary film , Little Joe , based upon Joe Dallesandro . In 2009 , Frusciante appeared in the documentary , " The Heart is a Drum Machine . " His full @-@ length , forty @-@ five @-@ minute interview is available in the special features of the DVD release .
On December 7 , 2011 , the Red Hot Chili Peppers were named 2012 inductees for the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame . In an interview that same day , Anthony Kiedis talked about Frusciante and if he would attend the ceremony . Kiedis stated , " It would be a guess on my behalf on whether or not he ’ ll come . I can ’ t imagine that he would , but it ’ s a ' you never know ' kind of thing . I haven ’ t talked to him in quite a while . I don ’ t know where he ’ s at these days . He ’ ll obviously be more than welcome , and embraced if he does . If he doesn ’ t , that ’ s cool too . " Flea also spoke about Frusciante by saying " He left us so many great gifts . He ’ s a phenomenal musician and songwriter who gave so much to our band . All the feelings I have for him not being in the band any more ... He really took us to a higher level . " Frusciante eventually declined to be present for the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in April .
= = = = Switch to electronica = = = =
After his departure from the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Frusciante became more serious about his longtime dream to make electronic music . As he explained on his blog , " I started to learn how to program all the instruments we associate with Acid House music and some other hardware . [ ... ] Then I started recording , playing 10 or so synced machines through a small mixer into a CD burner . This was all experimental Acid House , my skills at making rock music playing no part in it whatsoever . I had lost interest in traditional songwriting and I was excited about finding new methods for creating music . " During that time Frusciante began an electronic trio with Aaron Funk and Chris McDonald under the name Speed Dealer Moms . Their first EP was released in December 2010 on Planet Mu Records .
In an interview with Blare Magazine Omar Rodriguez @-@ Lopez , when asked about possible future collaborations with John , stated : " Maybe in the future , but John ’ s in a different place right now . He ’ s in a place where he couldn ’ t care less about putting things out or about something being a product . He ’ s living by different standards right now with a different philosophy , so he doesn ’ t want to be a part of anything that he knows is going to end up being a product . A Mars Volta record definitely ends up being a product " .
Frusciante released a new EP on July 17 , 2012 , entitled Letur @-@ Lefr . As with his previous solo releases , it was released through Record Collection Music . Recorded in 2010 , Letur @-@ Lefr marked a clear departure from guitar @-@ driven sound of Frusciante 's previous albums and combined elements of abstract electronica , pop and hip hop . He followed the EP with his tenth full @-@ length studio album PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone on September 25 , 2012 . Prior to that , on the 16th of August , he also released a free download of the non @-@ album song " Walls and Doors " .
Frusciante 's new musical approach met a mixed response from fans and critics . AllMusic 's Fred Thomas in his review of PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone stated : " The ever @-@ winding path of John Frusciante 's solo career is a confusing one to say the least . [ ... ] The thing is , there 's no doubt that Frusciante is sincere in his expression with this incredibly warped music . There 's no easy explanation for these sounds , no context for a lot of the choices he makes with the rapid @-@ fire style changes and jarring production choices that come one after another after another on almost every song here . "
Frusciante released an instrumental song named " Wayne " on April 7 , 2013 through his website which was written and dedicated to the memory of his late friend , former Red Hot Chili Peppers ' tour chef Wayne Forman . Outsides , his fifth EP , was released on August 14 , 2013 in Japan , and on August 27 , 2013 worldwide . The same year , he began collaborating with Wu @-@ Tang affiliates Black Knights ( Crisis The Sharpshoota , The Rugged Monk ) . Medieval Chamber , the second album by Black Knights , was released on January 14 , 2014 . All the music featured on the record was produced by Frusciante , with a few tracks featuring his vocals as well . Frusciante also became involved in Kimono Kult , a project including his wife Nicole Turley , Omar Rodriguez @-@ Lopez , Teri Gender Bender ( Le Butcherettes , Bosnian Rainbows ) , string musician Laena Geronimo ( Raw Geronimo ) and guitarist Dante White ( Dante Vs . Zombies , Starlite Desperation ) . Their debut EP , Hiding in the Light was produced by Turley and was released on her record label Neurotic Yell in March 2014 . A track " Todo Menos El Dolor " was released on Soundcloud on January 16 . Having released " Scratch " , a single recorded during the PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone sessions , Frusciante released his eleventh studio album , Enclosure , on April 8 , 2014 . In April 2015 , Frusciante released his first album under the alias of Trickfinger . The album of the same name is Frusciante 's first experimenting with the acid house genre . He previously released an EP , Sect In Sgt under this alias in 2012 .
Acid Test Records announced on February 15 , 2016 that Frusciante would release an EP of electronic music on April 16 , 2016 entitled Foregrow . The EP will comprise four tracks and its release is set to coincide with the 2016 Record Store Day .
= = = = Releases on social music platforms = = = =
In a May 2015 interview , Frusciante said that he was finished with making music for public consumption , that he currently has no audience and in the past few years recorded music with no intention of ever releasing it . Frusciante said " For the last year and a half I made the decision to stop making music for anybody and with no intention of releasing it , which is what I was doing between 2008 and 2012 . I felt that if I took the public into consideration at all , I wasn ’ t going to grow and I wasn ’ t going to learn . Being an electronic musician meant I had to woodshed for a while , so I have a good few years worth of material from that period that ’ s never been released … At this point , I have no audience . I make tracks and I don ’ t finish them or send them to anybody , and consequently I get to live with the music . The music becomes the atmosphere that I ’ m living in . I either make really beautiful music that comes from classical , or I make music where the tempo is moving the whole time , and there ’ s no melodic or rhythmic center . ”
On November 24 , 2015 , Frusciante announced that he was releasing free unreleased songs dating from 2008 @-@ 2013 on his own official Bandcamp and Soundcloud pages . He also debunked the interview about him retiring from music industry , saying that his words were taken out of context . The announcement was made via Frusciante 's rarely updated website in an open letter titled " Hello audience , " where Frusciante provides an in @-@ depth response to the reporter who , according to him , misquoted him . He writes , " I also must clear something up . I normally don ’ t read my press , but I heard about this quote , recently taken out of context by some lame website and made into a headline , in which I said ' I have no audience ' . This has been misinterpreted , and by no fault of the excellent journalist who interviewed me for the fine publication Electronic Beats . [ ... ] Obviously I have a public audience . I am aware of them , and they know who they are . " He continues , " Reduced to a single sentence , it would have been accurate to say that , at this point , I have no particular audience in mind while I am making music . "
= = Musical style = =
Frusciante 's musical style has evolved over the course of his career . Although he received moderate recognition for his early guitar work , it was not until later in his career that music critics and guitarists alike began to fully recognize it : in October 2003 , he was ranked eighteenth in Rolling Stone 's list of the " 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time " . Frusciante attributes this recent recognition to his shift in focus , stating that he chose an approach based on rhythmic patterns inspired by the complexity of material Jimi Hendrix and Eddie Van Halen produced . On earlier records , however , much of his output was influenced by various underground punk and new wave musicians . In general , his sound is also defined by an affinity for vintage guitars . All the guitars that he owns , records , and tours with were made before 1970 . Frusciante will use the specific guitar that he finds appropriate for a certain song . All of the guitars he owned before quitting the band were destroyed when his house burned down in 1996 . The first guitar he bought after rejoining the Chili Peppers was a 1962 red Fender Jaguar . His most @-@ often used guitar , however , is a 1962 Sunburst Fender Stratocaster that was given to him as a gift from Anthony Kiedis after Frusciante rejoined the Chili Peppers in 1998 . He has played this guitar on every album since rejoining the Chili Peppers , and their ensuing tours . He also owns a 1955 Fender Stratocaster , his only Strat with a maple neck . Frusciante 's most highly appraised instrument is a 1955 Gretsch White Falcon , which he used twice per show during the By the Way tour . He has since stopped using it , saying there was " no room for it " . Virtually all of Frusciante 's acoustic work is played with a 1950s Martin 0 – 15 .
After leaving the Red Hot Chili Peppers , he switched to using a Yamaha SG as his primary guitar for his solo work . Frusciante has also noted his increased use of the Roland MC @-@ 202 for his electronic music , saying that he was at the point " where I thought as much like a 202ist as I did a guitarist ... " The MC @-@ 202 has been his primary melodic instrument in his electronic music .
With the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Frusciante provided backing vocals in a falsetto tenor , a style he started on Blood Sugar Sex Magik . He thoroughly enjoyed his role in the Chili Peppers as backing vocalist , and said that backing vocals are a " real art form " . Despite his commitment to the Chili Peppers , he felt that his work with the band should remain separate from his solo projects . When he returned to the Chili Peppers in 1998 , Kiedis wanted the band to record " Living in Hell " , a song Frusciante had written several years before . Frusciante refused , feeling that the creative freedom he needed for his solo projects would have conflicted with his role in the band .
= = = Technique = = =
Frusciante 's guitar playing employs emphasis on appropriate melody , tone , and structure rather than virtuosity . Although virtuoso influences can be heard throughout his career , he has said that he often minimizes this . He feels that in general , guitar mastery has not evolved much since the 1960s and considers the greatest players of that decade unsurpassed . When he was growing up in the 1980s , many mainstream guitarists focused on speed . Because of this , he thinks that the skills of many defiant new wave and punk guitarists were largely overlooked . Therefore , he accentuates the melodically @-@ driven technique of players such as Matthew Ashman of Bow Wow Wow and Bernard Sumner of Joy Division as much as possible because he thinks that their style has been overlooked and consequently underexplored . Despite this , he considers himself a fan of technique @-@ driven guitarists like Randy Rhoads and Steve Vai , but represses an urge to emulate their style : " People believe that by playing faster and creating new playing techniques you can progress forward , but then they realize that emotionally they don 't progress at all . They transmit nothing to the people listening and they stay at where Hendrix was three decades ago . Something like that happened to Vai in the 80s . " Believing that focusing only on " clean tones " is negative , Frusciante developed an interest in playing with what he calls a " grimy " sound . As a result , he considers it beneficial to " mistreat " his guitar and employ various forms of distortion when soloing . He also tries to break as many " stylistic boundaries " as he can to expand his musical horizons . He thinks that much of the output from today 's guitarists is unoriginal , and that many of his contemporaries " follow the rules with no risk " .
Frusciante has stated that he became serious about creating and engineering his own electronic music in 2007 . As he progressed in enhancing his skills with electronic instruments and techniques , he has stated that he felt comfortable with how R & B and Hip hop music integrated into his work . He has noted that these and other new techniques were all part the influences for his EP , Letur @-@ Lefr . PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone was recorded while Frusciante looked to find new ways to play the guitar with the new forms of music and production that he had been studying . In his blog post , " My Recent History , " he notes that " Aspects of PBX are the realization of combinations of styles of music I saw in my head many years ago , as potentials , but which I had no idea how to execute . "
Frusciante 's approach to album composition has changed . On his early recordings , he welcomed sonic imperfections , noting that " even on [ To Record Only Water for Ten Days ] there are off @-@ pitch vocals and out @-@ of @-@ tune guitars . " However , on later albums such as Shadows Collide With People , he pursued the opposite : " I just wanted everything to be perfect — I didn 't want anything off pitch , or off time , or any unintentional this or that . " Frusciante views songwriting as taking time , and does not force it : " If a song wants to come to me , I 'm always ready to receive it , but I don 't work at it . " Much of his solo material is first written on an acoustic or unamplified electric guitar . He also prefers to record his albums on analog tapes and other relatively primitive equipment . This preference stems from his belief that older equipment can actually speed up the recording process , and that modern computerized recording technology gives only an illusion of efficiency . Frusciante tries to streamline the recording process as much as possible , because he thinks " music comes alive when [ you ] are creating it fast " . He also enjoys the challenge of having to record something in very few takes , and believes that when musicians are unable to handle the pressure of having to record something quickly they often get frustrated or bogged down by perfectionism . With his focus on new styles of music , Frusciante describes having worked with the computer as an instrument , and having found the ability to merge old and new production techniques together . He has noted that there has been a change in how he works on an album . In the past he would work on one song at a time , but with the new " Progressive Synth Pop " that he has been working on , he feels much more comfortable to work within the album as a whole . He currently uses the music tracker Renoise as his main Digital audio workstation along with some drum machines , sequencers , and other hardware , along with his Doepher , Arp , and other modular synthesizers .
= = = Influences = = =
Frusciante 's first major influence was Jimi Hendrix . He then saw The Red Hot Chili Peppers ( at that point , The was part of their name ) in concert in 1985 , after which their then @-@ guitarist Hillel Slovak became his second major influence , with Frusciante coming to idolize Slovak . Although Hendrix and Slovak were arguably Frusciante 's most profound influences , he was also inspired by glam rock artists David Bowie , and T. Rex ; as well as avant @-@ garde acts such as Captain Beefheart , The Residents , The Velvet Underground , Neu ! , Van der Graaf Generator , Frank Zappa , and Kraftwerk .
He credits his inspiration for learning guitar to Greg Ginn , Pat Smear , and Joe Strummer , amongst others . As an adolescent , he began by focusing upon Hendrix , as well as bands like Public Image Ltd . , The Smiths , and XTC . Frusciante 's other major influence was John McGeoch of Magazine and Siouxsie and the Banshees .
During the recording of Blood Sugar Sex Magik , Captain Beefheart and the acoustic , one @-@ man blues of Lead Belly and Robert Johnson , were among the most noteworthy influences . Frusciante cites R & B singer Brandy as a musical inspiration and admires her voice , calling it “ multidimensional ” and “ inspiring . ” In describing her voice and signature sound , he said , “ You can 't hear [ the elaborate harmonies ] with your conscious ; you have to hear her voice with your subconscious . ” He also mentioned that Brandy was the “ main inspiration ” behind the guitar work on Red Hot Chili Peppers ' 2006 album , Stadium Arcadium .
On Californication and By the Way , Frusciante derived the technique of creating tonal texture through chord patterns from post @-@ punk guitarists Vini Reilly of The Durutti Column and John McGeoch , and bands such as The Smiths , Fugazi and The Cure . He originally intended By the Way to be made up of " these punky , rough songs " , drawing inspiration from early punk artists such as the Germs and The Damned . However , this was discouraged by producer Rick Rubin , and he instead built upon Californication 's melodically @-@ driven style . During the recording of Stadium Arcadium , he moved away from his new wave influences and concentrated on emulating flashier guitar players such as Jimi Hendrix and Eddie Van Halen .
With his recent solo work , he has cited electronic music — in which the guitar is often completely absent — as an influence . His electronic music influences include Aphex Twin , Depeche Mode , New Order , The Human League , Ekkehard Ehlers , Peter Rehberg , and Christian Fennesz . His interests are constantly changing , as he believes that without change he will no longer have any interest in playing : " I 'm always drawing inspiration from different kinds of music and playing guitar along with records , and I go into each new album project with a preconceived idea of what styles I want to combine . "
= = Personal life = =
In 2011 , Frusciante married Nicole Turley , drummer and lead vocalist of the experimental band Swahili Blonde . On May 8 , 2015 it was announced that Turley had filed for divorce . On October 3 , 2015 , Turley announced that she was seeking $ 75 @,@ 000 a month as part of their divorce settlement . According to court documents , Turley , who was already being paid $ 20 @,@ 000 a month , needs a higher payment to maintain her quality of living . She claims her finances are down to only $ 30 @,@ 000 . Turley said that Frusciante was worth $ 14 million and she was entitled to more money saying that together the couple owned three homes , a team of personal assistants , and a private music studio . A week later Frusciante responded to Turley 's demands saying that he refuses to pay her any more money and that she is also seeking $ 2 @,@ 600 a month for gifts and expenses for her adult brother . He also said he was done footing the bill for her musical career saying “ I don ’ t know if you can call her recording efforts a hobby or a past @-@ time … but it seems improper to characterize Nicole as a professional musician . ” On October 19 , 2015 , a judge ruled in favor of Turley saying Frusciante had to pay his former wife $ 53 @,@ 000 a month . Frusciante was also forced to pay $ 71 @,@ 000 for Turley 's legal expenses .
= = Discography = =
Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt ( 1994 )
Smile from the Streets You Hold ( 1997 )
To Record Only Water for Ten Days ( 2001 )
From the Sounds Inside ( 2001 )
Shadows Collide with People ( 2004 )
The Will to Death ( 2004 )
Inside of Emptiness ( 2004 )
A Sphere in the Heart of Silence ( 2004 )
Curtains ( 2005 )
The Empyrean ( 2009 )
PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone ( 2012 )
Enclosure ( 2014 )
Trickfinger ( 2015 )
Renoise Tracks 2009 @-@ 2011 ( 2015 )
= Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine =
Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine ( Wadzek 's Struggle with the Steam Turbine ) is a 1918 comic novel by the German author Alfred Döblin . Set in Berlin , it narrates the futile and often delusional struggle of the eponymous industrialist Wadzek against Rommel , his more powerful competitor . In its narrative technique and its refusal to psychologize its characters , as well as in its vivid evocations of Berlin as a modern metropolis , Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine has been read as a precursor to Döblin 's better @-@ known 1929 novel Berlin Alexanderplatz .
= = Plot = =
As the novel opens , Wadzek , owner of a factory that produces steam engines , is locked in a struggle with his more powerful rival Rommel , whose much larger company manufactures turbines . He can be seen as representing a new type of entrepreneur , more technologically advanced and less scrupulous than Wadzek . Losing value , the stock of Wadzek 's company is being bought up by Rommel ; in desperation , Wadzek teams up with Schneemann , an engineer working at one of Rommel 's factories , to thwart his company 's takeover by Rommel . This effort includes the misguided theft of some of Rommel 's business correspondence . Fearing legal retribution for this theft , Wadzek , accompanied by Schneemann , flees with his wife Pauline and daughter Herta to his house in Reinickendorf , where the two men fortify the house in delusional preparation for a siege that never comes . Financially and spiritually broken , Wadzek returns to Berlin and with Schneemann attempts to turn himself in at a police station , where they learn that no warrant has even been issued for their arrest . There follows a temporary reconciliation with his estranged family and the first attempts to begin a new career in education — Wadzek would instruct his students in a new , moralistic and humane approach to technology . However , after walking in on an erotically and exotically charged debauch held in his own parlor ( the aftermath of an African @-@ themed birthday party Pauline held with her two new friends from Reinickendorf ) , Wadzek suffers a further breakdown . The novel ends aboard a ship bound for America , Wadzek eloping with Gaby , an old acquaintance and erstwhile lover of Rommel 's , to begin a new life .
= = Stylistic and thematic aspects = =
The novel , originally conceived by Döblin as a novel in " Kino @-@ Stil " ( " cinematic style " ) , is characterized by rapid shifts of perspective and the increasingly sophisticated use of montage . Döblin , having emphatically rejected the psychological novel in his 1913 essay " To novel writers and their critics , " presents the reader of Wadzek with a depiction of characters from a perspective that , rather than offering psychological motivations for their actions , opts for a " psychiatric method " that records events and processes without commenting on them or attempting to explain them . Condemned by contemporary critics for its overly @-@ detailed and grotesque descriptive language , the novel 's style has since received acknowledgment for its " radical naturalism " . Describing the narrative technique used in Wadzek , the critic Judith Ryan has written ,
At times Wadzek and his co @-@ actors are seen from without , as if by a [ ... ] camera , at times his perceptions are given from within , but regardless of the observational standpoint , we have no access to Wadzek 's psyche . What we know of his emotions and his internal responses to events is solely what we have deduced from his external actions .
Döblin 's refusal to make Wadzek a tragic figure , as well as the novel 's thematization and satire of tragedy , earned the praise of a young Bertolt Brecht , who declared , " Ich liebe das Buch . " Other themes of the novel include monopoly capitalism , modern technology , the bourgeois family , and the modern metropolis . Certain aspects of the plot , such as Schneemann 's dislike of Stettin ( Szczecin ) and Wadzek 's elopement for America , recapitulate elements of Döblin 's own biography .
= = Genesis and publication = =
By his own account , Döblin wrote Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine " in one go " from August to December 1914 , at which time he had to begin work as a military doctor near the western front in Sarreguemines . While he had originally conceived of the work as a three @-@ stage narrative about the progress of modern technology ( represented by the steam engine , the steam turbine , and the oil motor ) , his planned sequel , Der Ölmotor ( The Oil Motor ) , never came to fruition . He conducted extensive research for the novel , spending time in the facilities of AEG and learning about the construction of machines , turbines , and motors . Döblin submitted the draft to rigorous stylistic overhaul during the war years , shortening the novel considerably and radicalizing the syntax . The novel was published in May 1918 by Fischer Verlag and was not reprinted until a critical edition , based on the text of the first edition with minor corrections drawn from the manuscript and typescript , was published by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag in 1987 . The original manuscript and subsequent typescript are preserved in the German Literary Archive in Marbach . As of 2016 , no English translation is available .
= German cruiser Prinz Eugen =
For the Austrian World War I battleship , see SMS Prinz Eugen
Prinz Eugen ( German pronunciation : [ ˈpʁɪnts ɔʏˈɡeːn ] ) was an Admiral Hipper @-@ class heavy cruiser , the third member of the class of five vessels . She served with Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . The ship was laid down in April 1936 , launched in August 1938 , and entered service after the outbreak of war , in August 1940 . She was named after Prince Eugene of Savoy , an 18th @-@ century Austrian general .
Prinz Eugen saw action during Operation Rheinübung , an attempted breakout into the Atlantic Ocean with the battleship Bismarck in May 1941 . The two ships destroyed the British battlecruiser Hood and severely damaged the battleship Prince of Wales in the Battle of Denmark Strait . Prinz Eugen was detached from Bismarck during the operation to raid Allied merchant shipping , but this was cut short due to engine troubles . After putting into occupied France and undergoing repairs , the ship participated in Operation Cerberus , a daring daylight dash through the English Channel back to Germany . In February 1942 , Prinz Eugen was deployed to Norway , although her time stationed there was curtailed when she was torpedoed by the British submarine Trident days after arriving in Norwegian waters . The torpedo severely damaged the ship 's stern , which necessitated repairs in Germany .
Upon returning to active service , the ship spent several months training officer cadets in the Baltic before serving as artillery support for the retreating German Army on the Eastern Front . After the German collapse in May 1945 , she was surrendered to the British Royal Navy before being transferred to the US Navy as a war prize . After examining the ship in the United States , the US Navy assigned the cruiser to the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll . Having survived the atomic blasts , Prinz Eugen was towed to Kwajalein Atoll , where she ultimately capsized and sank in December 1946 . The wreck remains partially visible above the water approximately two miles northwest of Bucholz Army Airfield , on the edge of Enubuj . One of her screw propellers was salvaged and is on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial in Germany .
= = Design = =
Prinz Eugen was 207 @.@ 7 meters ( 681 ft ) long overall , and had a beam of 21 @.@ 7 m ( 71 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 2 m ( 24 ft ) . After launching , her straight bow was replaced with a clipper bow , increasing the length overall to 212 @.@ 5 meters ( 697 ft ) . The new bow kept her foredeck much drier in heavy weather . The ship had a design displacement of 16 @,@ 970 t ( 16 @,@ 700 long tons ; 18 @,@ 710 short tons ) and a full @-@ load displacement of 18 @,@ 750 long tons ( 19 @,@ 050 t ) . Prinz Eugen was powered by three sets of geared steam turbines , which were supplied with steam by twelve ultra @-@ high pressure oil @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's top speed was 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , at 135 @,@ 619 shaft horsepower ( 101 @.@ 131 MW ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 340 enlisted men .
The ship 's primary armament was eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 60 guns mounted in four twin turrets , placed in superfiring pairs forward and aft . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 guns , twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and eight 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . The ship also carried a pair of triple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo launchers abreast of the rear superstructure . For aerial reconnaissance , she was equipped with three Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Prinz Eugen 's armored belt was 70 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 12 to 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick and her main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick faces and 70 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Prinz Eugen was ordered by the Kriegsmarine from the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel . Her keel was laid on 23 April 1936 , under construction number 564 and cover name Kreuzer J. She was originally to be named after Wilhelm von Tegetthoff , the Austrian victor of the Battle of Lissa , though considerations over the possible insult to Italy , defeated by Tegetthoff at Lissa , led the Kriegsmarine to adopt Prinz Eugen as the ship 's namesake . She was launched on 22 August 1938 , in a ceremony attended by the Governor ( Reichsstatthalter ) of the Ostmark , Arthur Seyss @-@ Inquart , who made the christening speech . Also present at the launch were Adolf Hitler , the Regent of Hungary , Admiral Miklós Horthy ( who had commanded the battleship SMS Prinz Eugen from 24 November 1917 to 1 March 1918 ) , and his wife Magdolna Purgly , who performed the christening . As built , the ship had a straight stem , though after her launch this was replaced with a clipper bow . A raked funnel cap was also installed .
Commissioning was delayed slightly due to light damage sustained during a Royal Air Force attack on Kiel on the night of 1 July 1940 . Prinz Eugen suffered two relatively light hits in the attack , but she was not seriously damaged and was commissioned into service the following month on 1 August . The cruiser spent the remainder of 1940 conducting sea trials in the Baltic Sea . In early 1941 , the ship 's artillery crews conducted gunnery training . A short period in dry dock for final modifications and improvements followed . In April , the ship joined the newly commissioned battleship Bismarck for maneuvers in the Baltic . The two ships had been selected for Operation Rheinübung , a breakout into the Atlantic to raid Allied commerce .
On 23 April , while passing through the Fehmarn Belt en route to Kiel , Prinz Eugen detonated a magnetic mine dropped by British aircraft . The mine damaged the fuel tank , propeller shaft couplings , and fire control equipment . The planned sortie with Bismarck was delayed while repairs were carried out . Admirals Erich Raeder and Günther Lütjens discussed the possibility of delaying the operation further , in the hopes that repairs to the battleship Scharnhorst would be completed or Bismarck 's sistership Tirpitz would complete trials in time for the ships to join Prinz Eugen and Bismarck . Raeder and Lütjens decided that it would be most beneficial to resume surface actions in the Atlantic as soon as possible , however , and that the two ships should sortie without reinforcement .
= = = Operation Rheinübung = = =
By 11 May 1941 , repairs to Prinz Eugen had been completed . Under the command of Kapitän zur See ( KzS — Captain at Sea ) Helmuth Brinkmann , the ship steamed to Gotenhafen , where the crew readied her for her Atlantic sortie . On 18 May , Prinz Eugen rendezvoused with Bismarck off Cape Arkona . The two ships were escorted by three destroyers — Hans Lody , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , and Z23 — and a flotilla of minesweepers . The Luftwaffe provided air cover during the voyage out of German waters . At around 13 : 00 on 20 May , the German flotilla encountered the Swedish cruiser HSwMS Gotland ; the cruiser shadowed the Germans for two hours in the Kattegat . Gotland transmitted a report to naval headquarters , stating : " Two large ships , three destroyers , five escort vessels , and 10 – 12 aircraft passed Marstrand , course 205 ° / 20 ' . " The Oberkommando der Marine ( OKM — Naval High Command ) was not concerned about the security risk posed by Gotland , though Lütjens believed operational security had been lost . The report eventually made its way to Captain Henry Denham , the British naval attaché to Sweden , who transmitted the information to the Admiralty .
The code @-@ breakers at Bletchley Park confirmed that an Atlantic raid was imminent , as they had decrypted reports that Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had taken on prize crews and requested additional navigational charts from headquarters . A pair of Supermarine Spitfires were ordered to search the Norwegian coast for the German flotilla . On the evening of 20 May , Prinz Eugen and the rest of the flotilla reached the Norwegian coast ; the minesweepers were detached and the two raiders and their destroyer escorts continued north . The following morning , radio @-@ intercept officers on board Prinz Eugen picked up a signal ordering British reconnaissance aircraft to search for two battleships and three destroyers northbound off the Norwegian coast . At 7 : 00 on the 21st , the Germans spotted four unidentified aircraft that quickly departed . Shortly after 12 : 00 , the flotilla reached Bergen and anchored at Grimstadfjord . While there , the ships ' crews painted over the Baltic camouflage with the standard " outboard gray " worn by German warships operating in the Atlantic .
While in Bergen , Prinz Eugen took on 764 t ( 752 long tons ; 842 short tons ) of fuel ; Bismarck inexplicably failed to similarly refuel . At 19 : 30 on 21 May , Prinz Eugen , Bismarck , and the three escorting destroyers left port . By midnight , the force was in the open sea and headed toward the Arctic Ocean . At this time , Admiral Raeder finally informed Hitler of the operation , who reluctantly allowed it to continue as planned . The three escorting destroyers were detached at 04 : 14 on 22 May , while the force steamed off Trondheim . At around 12 : 00 , Lütjens ordered his two ships to turn toward the Denmark Strait to attempt the breakout into the open waters of the Atlantic .
By 04 : 00 on 23 May , Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen and Bismarck to increase speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) to make the dash through the Denmark Strait . Upon entering the Strait , both ships activated their FuMo radar detection equipment sets . Bismarck led Prinz Eugen by about 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) ; mist reduced visibility to 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 to 13 @,@ 100 ft ) . The Germans encountered some ice at around 10 : 00 , which necessitated a reduction in speed to 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . Two hours later , the pair had reached a point north of Iceland . The ships were forced to zigzag to avoid ice floes . At 19 : 22 , hydrophone and radar operators aboard the German warships detected the cruiser HMS Suffolk at a range of approximately 12 @,@ 500 m ( 41 @,@ 000 ft ) . Prinz Eugen 's radio @-@ intercept team decrypted the radio signals being sent by Suffolk and learned that their location had indeed been reported .
Admiral Lütjens gave permission for Prinz Eugen to engage Suffolk , though the captain of the German cruiser could not clearly make out his target and so held fire . Suffolk quickly retreated to a safe distance and shadowed the German ships . At 20 : 30 , the heavy cruiser HMS Norfolk joined Suffolk , but approached the German raiders too closely . Lütjens ordered his ships to engage the British cruiser ; Bismarck fired five salvoes , three of which straddled Norfolk and rained shell splinters on her decks . The cruiser laid a smoke screen and fled into a fog bank , ending the brief engagement . The concussion from the 38 cm guns disabled Bismarck 's FuMo 23 radar set ; this prompted Lütjens to order Prinz Eugen to take station ahead so she could use her functioning radar to scout for the formation .
The British cruisers tracked Prinz Eugen and Bismarck through the night , continually relaying the location and bearing of the German ships . The harsh weather broke on the morning of 24 May , revealing a clear sky . At 05 : 07 that morning , hydrophone operators aboard Prinz Eugen detected a pair of unidentified vessels approaching the German formation at a range of 20 nmi ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) , reporting " Noise of two fast @-@ moving turbine ships at 280 ° relative bearing ! " . At 05 : 45 , lookouts on the German ships spotted smoke on the horizon ; these turned out to be from Hood and Prince of Wales , under the command of Vice Admiral Lancelot Holland . Lütjens ordered his ships ' crews to battle stations . By 05 : 52 , the range had fallen to 26 @,@ 000 m ( 85 @,@ 000 ft ) and Hood opened fire , followed by Prince of Wales a minute later . Hood engaged Prinz Eugen , which the British thought to be Bismarck , while Prince of Wales fired on Bismarck .
The British ships approached the Germans head on , which permitted them to use only their forward guns , while Bismarck and Prinz Eugen could fire full broadsides . Several minutes after opening fire , Holland ordered a 20 ° turn to port , which would allow his ships to engage with their rear gun turrets . Both German ships concentrated their fire on Hood . About a minute after opening fire , Prinz Eugen scored a hit with a high @-@ explosive 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) shell , detonating Unrotated Projectile ammunition and starting a large fire , which was quickly extinguished . Holland then ordered a second 20 ° turn to port , to bring his ships on a parallel course with Bismarck and Prinz Eugen . By this time , Bismarck had found the range to Hood , so Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to shift fire and target Prince of Wales to keep both of his opponents under fire . Within a few minutes , Prinz Eugen scored a pair of hits on the battleship and reported that a small fire had been started .
Lütjens then ordered Prinz Eugen to drop behind Bismarck , so she could continue to monitor the location of Norfolk and Suffolk , which were still some 10 to 12 nmi ( 19 to 22 km ; 12 to 14 mi ) to the east . At 06 : 00 , Hood was completing her second turn to port when Bismarck 's fifth salvo hit . Two of the shells landed short , striking the water close to the ship , but at least one of the 38 cm armour @-@ piercing shells struck Hood and penetrated her thin deck armor . The shell reached Hood 's rear ammunition magazine and detonated 112 t ( 110 long tons ; 123 short tons ) of cordite propellant . The massive explosion broke the back of the ship between the main mast and the rear funnel ; the forward section continued to move forward briefly before the in @-@ rushing water caused the bow to rise into the air at a steep angle . The stern similarly rose upward as water rushed into the ripped @-@ open compartments . After only eight minutes of firing , Hood had disappeared , taking all but three of her crew of 1 @,@ 419 men with her .
After a few more minutes , during which Prince of Wales scored three hits on Bismarck , the damaged British battleship withdrew . The Germans ceased fire as the range widened , though Captain Ernst Lindemann , Bismarck 's commander , strongly advocated chasing Prince of Wales and destroying her . Lütjens firmly rejected the request , and instead ordered Bismarck and Prinz Eugen to head for the open waters of the North Atlantic . After the end of the engagement , Lütjens reported that a " Battlecruiser , probably Hood , sunk . Another battleship , King George V or Renown , turned away damaged . Two heavy cruisers maintain contact . " At 08 : 01 , he transmitted a damage report and his intentions to OKM , which were to detach Prinz Eugen for commerce raiding and to make for St. Nazaire for repairs . Shortly after 10 : 00 , Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to fall behind Bismarck to discern the severity of the oil leakage from the bow hit . After confirming " broad streams of oil on both sides of [ Bismarck 's ] wake " , Prinz Eugen returned to the forward position .
With the weather worsening , Lütjens attempted to detach Prinz Eugen at 16 : 40 . The squall was not heavy enough to cover her withdrawal from Wake @-@ Walker 's cruisers , which continued to maintain radar contact . Prinz Eugen was therefore recalled temporarily . The cruiser was successfully detached at 18 : 14 . Bismarck turned around to face the Wake @-@ Walker 's formation , forcing Suffolk to turn away at high speed . Prince of Wales fired twelve salvos at Bismarck , which responded with nine salvos , none of which hit . The action diverted British attention and permitted Prinz Eugen to slip away .
On 26 May , Prinz Eugen rendezvoused with the supply ship Spichern to refill her nearly empty fuel tanks . She had by then only some 160 tons fuel left , enough for a day . Afterwards the ship continued further south on a mission against shipping lines . However , before any merchant ship was found , defects in her engines showed and on 27 May she was ordered to give up her mission and make for a port in occupied France . On 28 May Prinz Eugen refuelled from the tanker Esso Hamburg . The same day more engine problems showed up , including trouble with the port engine turbine , the cooling of the middle engine and problems with the starboard screw , reducing her speed to maximum 28 knots . The screw problems could only be checked and repaired in a dock and thus Brest , with its large docks and repair facilities , was chosen as destination . Despite the many British warships and several convoys in the area , at least 104 units were identified on the 29th by the ship 's radio crew , Prinz Eugen reached the Bay of Biscay undiscovered , and on 1 June the ship was joined by German destroyers and aircraft off the coast of France south of Brest ; and escorted to Brest , which she reached late on 1 June where she immediately entered dock .
= = = Operation Cerberus and Norwegian operations = = =
Brest is not far from bases in southern England and during their stay in Brest Prinz Eugen and the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were repeatedly attacked by Allied bombers . The Royal Air Force jokingly referred to the three ships as the Brest Bomb Target Flotilla , and between 1 August and 31 December 1941 it dropped some 1200 tons of bombs on the port . On the night of 1 July 1941 , Prinz Eugen was struck by an armour @-@ piercing bomb that destroyed the control center deep down under the bridge . The attack killed 60 men and wounded more than 40 others . Among those killed was First Watch Officer , Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) Otto Stooß . The loss of the control center also made the main guns useless and repairs lasted until the end of 1941 .
The continuous air attacks led the German command to decide Prinz Eugen , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau would have to move to safer bases as soon as they were repaired and ready . Meanwhile , the Bismarck operation had demonstrated the risks of operating in the Atlantic without air cover . In addition , Hitler saw the Norwegian theater as the " zone of destiny " , so he ordered the three ships ' return to Germany in early 1942 so they could be deployed there . The intention was use the ships to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union , as well as to strengthen the defenses of Norway . Hitler insisted they would make the voyage via the English Channel , despite the Raeder 's protests that it was too risky . Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax was given command of the operation . In early February , minesweepers swept a route through the Channel , though the British failed to detect the activity .
At 23 : 00 on 11 February , Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Prinz Eugen left Brest . They entered the Channel an hour later ; the three ships sped at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , hugging the French coast along the voyage . By 06 : 30 , they had passed Cherbourg , at which point they were joined by a flotilla of torpedo boats . The torpedo boats were led by Kapitän zur See Erich Bey , aboard the destroyer Z29 . General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighter Force ) Adolf Galland directed Luftwaffe fighter and bomber forces ( Operation Donnerkeil ) during Cerberus . The fighters flew at masthead @-@ height to avoid detection by the British radar network . Liaison officers were present on all three ships . German aircraft arrived later to jam British radar with chaff . By 13 : 00 , the ships had cleared the Strait of Dover but , half an hour later , a flight of six Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers , with Spitfire escort , attacked the Germans . The British failed to penetrate the Luftwaffe fighter shield , and all six Swordfish were destroyed .
Off Dover , Prinz Eugen came under fire from British coastal artillery batteries , though they scored no hits . Several Motor Torpedo Boats then attacked the ship , but Prinz Eugen 's destroyer escorts drove the vessels off before they could launch their torpedoes . At 16 : 43 , Prinz Eugen encountered five British destroyers : Campbell , Vivacious , Mackay , Whitshed , and Worcester . She fired her main battery at them and scored several hits on Worcester , but she was forced to maneuver erratically to avoid their torpedoes . Nevertheless , Prinz Eugen arrived in Brunsbüttel on the morning of 13 February , completely undamaged but suffering the only casualty in all three big ships , killed by aircraft gunfire .
On 21 February 1942 , Prinz Eugen , the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer , and the destroyers Richard Beitzen , Paul Jakobi , Z25 , Hermann Schoemann , and Friedrich Ihn steamed to Norway . After stopping briefly in Grimstadfjord , the ships proceeded on to Trondheim . Two days later , while patrolling off the Trondheimsfjord , the British submarine Trident torpedoed Prinz Eugen . The torpedo struck the ship in the stern , killing 50 men - mainly passengers , causing serious damage and rendering the ship unmaneuverable . However , on her own power she managed to reach Trondheim and from there to was towed to Lofjord , where , over the next few months , emergency repairs were effected . Her entire stern was cut away and plated over and two jury @-@ rigged rudders , operated manually via capstans , were installed .
On 16 May , Prinz Eugen made the return voyage to Germany under her own power . While en route to Kiel , the ship was attacked by a British force of 19 Bristol Blenheim bombers and 27 Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers commanded by Wing Commander Mervyn Williams , though the aircraft failed to hit the ship . Prinz Eugen was out of service for repairs until October ; she conducted sea trials beginning on 27 October . Hans @-@ Erich Voss , who later became Hitler 's Naval Liaison Officer , was given command of the ship when she returned to service . In reference to her originally planned name , the ship 's bell from the Austrian battleship Tegetthoff was presented on 22 November by the Italian Contrammiraglio ( Rear Admiral ) de Angeles . Over the course of November and December , the ship was occupied with lengthy trials in the Baltic . In early January 1943 , the Kriegsmarine ordered the ship to return to Norway to reinforce the warships stationed there . Twice in January Prinz Eugen attempted to steam to Norway with Scharnhorst , but both attempts were broken off after British surveillance aircraft spotted the two ships . After it became apparent that it would be impossible to move the ship to Norway , Prinz Eugen was assigned to the Fleet Training Squadron . For nine months , she cruised the Baltic training cadets .
= = = Service in the Baltic = = =
As the Soviet Army pushed the Wehrmacht back on the Eastern Front , it became necessary to reactivate Prinz Eugen as a gunnery support vessel ; on 1 October 1943 , the ship was reassigned to combat duty . In June 1944 , Prinz Eugen , the heavy cruiser Lützow , and the 6th Destroyer Flotilla formed the Second Task Force , later renamed Task Force Thiele after its commander , Vizeadmiral August Thiele . Prinz Eugen was at this time under the command of KzS Hans @-@ Jürgen Reinicke ; throughout June she steamed in the eastern Baltic , northwest of the island of Utö as a show of force during the German withdrawal from Finland . On 19 – 20 August , the ship steamed into the Gulf of Riga and bombarded Tukums . Four destroyers and two torpedo boats supported the action , along with Prinz Eugen 's Ar 196 floatplanes ; the cruiser fired a total of 265 shells from her main battery . Prinz Eugen 's bombardment was instrumental in the successful repulse of the Soviet attack .
In early September , Prinz Eugen supported a failed attempt to seize the fortress island of Hogland . The ship then returned to Gotenhafen , before escorting a convoy of ships evacuating German soldiers from Finland . The convoy , consisting of six freighters , sailed on 15 September from the Gulf of Bothnia , with the entire Second Task Force escorting it . Swedish aircraft and destroyers shadowed the convoy , but did not intervene . The following month , Prinz Eugen returned to gunfire support duties . On 11 and 12 October , she fired in support of German troops in Memel . Over the first two days , the ship fired some 700 rounds of ammunition from her main battery . She returned on the 14th and 15th , after having restocked her main battery ammunition , to fire another 370 rounds .
While on the return voyage to Gotenhafen on 15 October , Prinz Eugen inadvertently rammed the light cruiser Leipzig amidships north of Hela . The cause of the collision was heavy fog . The light cruiser was nearly cut in half , and the two ships remained wedged together for fourteen hours . Prinz Eugen was taken to Gotenhafen , where repairs were effected with a month . Sea trials commenced on 14 November . On 20 – 21 November , the ship supported German troops on the Sworbe Peninsula by firing around 500 rounds of main battery ammunition . Four torpedo boats — T13 , T16 , T19 , and T21 — joined the operation . Prinz Eugen then returned to Gotenhafen to resupply and have her worn @-@ out gun barrels re @-@ bored .
The cruiser was ready for action by mid @-@ January 1945 , when she was sent to bombard Soviet forces in Samland . The ship fired 871 rounds of ammunition at the Soviets advancing on the German bridgehead at Cranz held by the XXVIII Corps , which was protecting Königsberg . She was supported in this operation by the destroyer Z25 and torpedo boat T33 . At that point , Prinz Eugen had expended her main battery ammunition , and critical munition shortages forced the ship to remain in port until 10 March , when she bombarded Soviet forces around Gotenhafen , Danzig , and Hela . During these operations , she fired a total of 2 @,@ 025 shells from her 20 @.@ 3 cm guns and another 2 @,@ 446 rounds from her 10 @.@ 5 cm guns . The old battleship Schlesien also provided gunfire support , as did Lützow after 25 March . The ships were commanded by Vizeadmiral Bernhard Rogge .
The following month , on 8 April , Prinz Eugen and Lützow steamed to Swinemünde . On 13 April , 34 Lancaster bombers attacked the two ships while in port . Thick cloud cover forced the British to abort the mission and return two days later . On the second attack , they succeeded in sinking Lützow with a single Tallboy bomb hit . Prinz Eugen then departed Swinemünde for Copenhagen , arriving on 20 April . Once there , she was decommissioned on 7 May and turned over to Royal Navy control the following day . For his leadership of Prinz Eugen in the final year of the war , Reinicke was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 21 April 1945 . Prinz Eugen was mentioned twice in Wehrmachtbericht during her operational career , the first time on 13 February 1942 and the second time on 18 May 1942 .
= = = Service with the US Navy = = =
On 27 May 1945 , Prinz Eugen and the light cruiser Nürnberg — the only major German naval vessels to survive the war — were escorted by the British cruisers Dido and Devonshire to Wilhelmshaven . On 13 December , Prinz Eugen was awarded as a war prize to the United States , which sent the ship to Wesermünde . The United States did not particularly want the cruiser , but it did want to prevent the Soviet Union from acquiring it . Her US commander , Captain Arthur H. Graubart , recounted later how the British , Soviet and US representatives in the Control Commission all claimed the ship and how in the end the various large prizes were divided in three lots , Prinz Eugen being one of them . The three lots were then drawn lottery style from his hat with the British and Soviet representatives drawing the lots for other ships and Graubart being left with the lot for Prinz Eugen . The cruiser was commissioned into the US Navy as the unclassified miscellaneous vessel USS Prinz Eugen with the hull number IX @-@ 300 . A composite American @-@ German crew consisting of 574 German officers and sailors , supervised by eight American officers and eighty @-@ five enlisted men under the command of Graubart , then took the ship to Boston , departing on 13 January 1946 and arriving on 22 January .
After arriving in Boston , the ship was extensively examined by the US Navy . Her very large GHG passive sonar array was removed and installed on the submarine USS Flying Fish for testing . American interest in magnetic amplifier technology increased again after findings in investigations of the fire control system of Prinz Eugen . The guns from turret Anton were removed while in Philadelphia in February . On 1 May the German crewmen left the ship and returned to Germany . Thereafter , the American crew had significant difficulties in keeping the ship 's propulsion system operational — eleven of her twelve boilers failed after the Germans departed . The ship was then allocated to the fleet of target ships for Operation Crossroads in Bikini Atoll . Operation Crossroads was a major test of the effects of nuclear weapons on warships of various types . The trouble with Prinz Eugen 's propulsion system may have influenced the decision to dispose of her in the nuclear tests .
She was towed to the Pacific via Philadelphia and the Panama Canal , departing on 3 March . The ship survived two atomic bomb blasts : Test Able , an air burst on 1 July 1946 and Test Baker , a submerged detonation on 25 July . Prinz Eugen was moored about 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) from the epicenter of both blasts and was only lightly damaged by them ; the Able blast only bent her foremast and broke the top of her main mast . She suffered no significant structural damage from the explosions but was thoroughly contaminated with radioactive fallout . The irradiated ship was towed to the Kwajalein Atoll in the central Pacific , where a small leak went unrepaired due to the radiation danger . On 29 August 1946 , the US Navy decommissioned Prinz Eugen .
By late December 1946 , the ship was in very bad condition ; on 21 December , she began to list severely . A salvage team could not be brought to Kwajalein in time , so the US Navy attempted to beach the ship to prevent her from sinking , but on 22 December , Prinz Eugen capsized and sank . Her main battery gun turrets fell out of their barbettes when the ship rolled over . The ship 's stern , including her propeller assemblies , remain visible above the surface of the water . The US government denied salvage rights on the grounds that it did not want the irradiated steel entering the market . In August 1979 , one of the ship 's screw propellers was retrieved and placed in the Laboe Naval Memorial in Germany . The ship 's bell is currently held at the National Museum of the United States Navy , while the bell from Tegetthoff is held in Graz , Austria .
= = = Casualties = = =
During her operational career with the Kriegsmarine , Prinz Eugen lost 115 crew members ; 79 men were killed in action , 33 were killed in accidents and three died of other causes . Of these 115 crew members , four were officers , seven were cadets or ensigns , two were petty officers , 22 were junior petty officers , 78 were sailors and two were civilians .
= Millennium Force =
Millennium Force is a steel roller coaster built by Intamin at Cedar Point amusement park in Sandusky , Ohio , United States . It was the fourteenth roller coaster to be built at the park since the Blue Streak opened in 1964 . Upon completion in 2000 , Millennium broke six world records and was the world 's first Giga Coaster , a roller coaster that exceeds 300 feet ( 91 m ) in height . It was briefly the tallest and fastest in the world until Steel Dragon 2000 opened later the same year . The ride is also the third @-@ longest roller coaster in North America after The Beast at Kings Island and Fury 325 at Carowinds . It was the first roller coaster to use a cable lift system rather than a traditional chain lift . The coaster has a 310 ft ( 94 m ) , 45 @-@ degree lift hill with a 300 ft ( 91 m ) drop and features two tunnels , three overbanked turns , and four hills . It has a top speed of 93 mph ( 150 km / h ) .
Since its debut , Millennium Force has been voted the number one steel roller coaster ten times in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards . Its lowest ranking in the poll has been two , a position that it has swapped with Superman the Ride ( formerly Bizarro ) numerous times since 2001 . Although Millennium Force has been surpassed in height and speed , it remains one of the tallest and fastest in the world .
= = History = =
The planning , design and development phases of Millennium took place over five years . The first rumors that a new record @-@ breaking roller coaster would be built at Cedar Point , which included speculation about a ten inversion roller coaster from Bolliger & Mabillard and an Arrow Dynamics MegaLooper , began circulating in early 1998 . A roller coaster from D. H. Morgan Manufacturing was also rumored . On July 2 , 1999 , Cedar Fair Entertainment Company filed a trademark for the name Millennium Force , which raised more speculation about what the ride would be like . About a week later , the first track pieces were seen at the park , which confirmed that the ride would be manufactured by Intamin . Cedar Point officials also confirmed that it would not have inversions .
= = = Announcement = = =
Millennium Force was announced on July 22 , 1999 , as the tallest roller coaster in the world , taking the record from Fujiyama at Fuji @-@ Q Highland in Japan . Don Miears , General Manager of Cedar Point said , " Millennium Force introduces the world to a whole new level of roller coaster riding . " The ride cost $ 25 million to design and build . Millennium Force was built in the Frontier Trail section of the park and the Giant Wheel was relocated to make room for it . Cedar Point , Intamin , and Werner Stengel designed the layout of the ride . After the ride was announced , several disputes about whether Millennium Force or Superman : The Escape was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in the world arose between Cedar Point and Six Flags Magic Mountain . Superman : The Escape is 415 feet ( 126 m ) high and its speed is 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) ; however , it is a shuttle roller coaster , not a complete @-@ circuit roller coaster .
= = = Construction and opening = = =
Construction started in August 1999 when the site was cleared . The removal and relocation of the Giant Wheel began in October on closing day ; the first of 226 supports were installed on October 11 , starting at the brake run . Two hundred twenty @-@ six footers , each about 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep were dug ; the largest ones were 56 by 56 feet ( 17 by 17 m ) . The concrete construction was done by Mosser Construction . The lift hill was topped off in early January 2000 .
The ride 's construction took seven months , and 120 construction workers and project managers participated . Testing took two months . The park conducted a " pull @-@ through " by pulling a train along the course to ensure proper clearance . The ride was inspected and tested with water @-@ dummies on the trains . The first media event was held on May 11 , 2000 , and the ride opened to the public on May 13 . When it opened , it broke six world records . It was the first Giga Coaster and was the world 's fastest complete @-@ circuit roller coaster , but was later overtaken by other rides . About a month after Millennium 's debut , Cedar Point introduced a new queuing system called " Ticket to Ride " to reduce the waiting times , which allowed visitors to buy a ticket then return later and wait in a shorter line . In August , Cedar Point engaged John Hancock and Associates and Stalker Radar of Indianapolis to measure the height and speed of Millennium Force . The height was measured at 310 feet 11 inches ( 94 @.@ 77 m ) , and the speed was measured at 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) , slightly faster than what the park had been advertising ( 92 mph ) .
Before the start of the 2004 season , Millennium Force 's seat belts were modified because of an incident on the Bizarro roller coaster at Six Flags New England . The new seat belts were shorter and some riders had difficulties with them . The roller coaster 's layout was repainted over a three @-@ year period of time , before the 2011 , 2012 and 2013 season . In 2012 , the park added a new LED lighting system .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Queue = = =
Millennium Force 's entrance is located behind the Cedar Point & Lake Erie Railroad 's Celebration Plaza station . The queue is situated between the ride 's last overbanked turn and the station . A DJ booth is provided to entertain waiting visitors ; the park 's " Jamming DJ 's " take requests for family friendly songs from people in the queue . It was then replaced by Cedar Point 's FUNtv , which plays music videos of popular songs , the Gatekeeper / Maverick shuffle , park trivia , sports news , park advertisements , weather forecasts , and popular news headlines . About a month after Millennium 's debut , Cedar Point introduced a new queue system known as " Ticket to Ride " ( later FreeWay ) to reduce the wait time . Visitors could buy tickets then return later and wait in a shorter line . This system was discontinued in 2004 after several people complained it was unfair that others were going ahead of them in line . In 2012 , Cedar Point introduced its Fast Lane queue system on the ride ; visitors can buy a wristband which enables them to wait in a shorter line . The system was tested at Kings Island the previous year , where it received positive reviews .
= = = Layout = = =
Millennium Force covers 13 acres ( 5 @.@ 3 ha ) ; it runs parallel to the shoreline of Lake Erie then travels to an island located inside the park , that also houses the former Shoot the Rapids log flume and the Dinosaurs Alive ! attractions . There are two tunnels , three overbanked turns and four hills . One cycle of the ride takes approximately 2 minutes and 20 seconds .
While the train is being loaded with passengers , the catch car for the cable lift descends the lift hill and latches onto the middle car underneath the train . Once the train is cleared , the cable lift immediately pulls the train up the 45 degree lift hill at 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) to a height of 310 feet ( 94 m ) . The train drops 300 feet ( 91 m ) at an 80 degree angle and reaches a top speed of 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) at the bottom of the hill . It then climbs 169 feet ( 52 m ) through a right overbanked turn at 122 degrees from the horizontal axis , then travels through a tunnel as it passes over the Frontier Trail . It then travels over a 182 @-@ foot ( 55 m ) parabolic hill , which provides a moment of zero gravity as it passes over a lagoon and down onto Adventure Island . While on Adventure Island , the train passes by the Dinosaurs Alive ! attraction several times . It completes a 105 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) , 360 @-@ degree right @-@ handed helix , followed by a left overbanked turn , passing the Shoot the Rapids water ride . It then completes a small right @-@ hand turn before traveling over another hill to leave the island . The train then travels left through a second tunnel where the on @-@ ride photo
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Tuscan state , provided that nothing was ever removed from Florence .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
The " Lorrainers , " as the occupying forces were dubbed , were popularly loathed . The Viceroy , the Prince de Craon , whom the Electress disliked for his " vulgar " court , allowed the Electress to live undisturbed in her own wing of the Pitti , living in virtual seclusion , only on occasion receiving a select @-@ number of guests under a black dais in her silver @-@ clad audience room . She occupied herself financing and overseeing the construction of the Cappella dei Principi — started in 1604 by Ferdinando I de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany — to the tune of 1 @,@ 000 crowns per week , and she donated much of her fortune to charity : £ 4 @,@ 000 per annum . This is equivalent to £ 577 thousand in present @-@ day terms . On 18 February 1743 , Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici , Dowager Electress Palatine , died of an " oppression on the breast " . Sir Horace Mann , 1st Baronet , a British resident in Florence , recalled in a letter that " The common people are convinced she went off in a hurricane of wind ; a most violent one began this morning and lasted for about two hours , and now the sun shines as bright as ever ... " The royal line of the House of Medici became extinct with her death . Her will , having been completed just months before , according to Sir Horace Mann , left £ 500 @,@ 000 worth of jewellery to the Grand Duke Francis and her lands in the former Duchy of Urbino to the Marquis Rinuccini , her main executor and a minister under her father , Cosimo III . She was interred in the crypt that she helped to complete in San Lorenzo ; although not entirely finished at the time of her death , her testament stipulated that part of the revenue of her estate should " be used to continue , finish and perfect ... the said famous chapel San Lorenzo " .
Anna Maria Luisa 's single most enduring act was the Family Pact . It ensured that all the Medicean art and treasures collected over nearly three centuries of political ascendancy remained in Florence . Cynthia Miller Lawrence , an American art @-@ historian , argues that Anna Maria Luisa thus provisioned for Tuscany 's future economy through tourism . Sixteen years after her death , the Uffizi Gallery , built by Cosimo the Great , the founder of the Grand Duchy , was made open to public viewing .
In 2012 after concern caused by the 1966 Flood of the Arno River , her bones were exhumed . A scientific examination found no traces of syphilis , which she had long been thought to have died from .
= = Ancestors = =
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
11 August 1667 – 29 April 1691 : Her Highness Princess Anna Maria Luisa
29 April 1691 – 8 June 1716 : Her Serene Highness The Electress [ Palatine of the Rhine ]
8 June 1716 – 18 February 1743 : Her Serene Highness The Dowager Electress [ Palatine of the Rhine ]
= Maryland Route 285 =
Maryland Route 285 ( MD 285 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 2 @.@ 43 miles ( 3 @.@ 91 km ) from MD 213 east to the Delaware state line within Chesapeake City . MD 285 roughly parallels the north side of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal in southern Cecil County . The state highway was paved along Biddle Street from Lock Street , then part of U.S. Route 213 ( now MD 213 ) , east to the state line around 1930 . When US 213 was moved to the Chesapeake City Bridge in the late 1940s , MD 285 was extended along Lock Street to reconnect with US 213 .
= = Route description = =
MD 285 begins at an intersection with MD 213 ( Augustine Herman Highway ) just north of the Chesapeake City Bridge . The state highway , which heads east as two @-@ lane Lock Street , curves to the south at the intersection with county @-@ maintained Hemphill Street . At the intersection with MD 284 ( Hemphill Street ) , MD 285 curves to the southwest , following Lock Street into the town of Chesapeake City to its intersection with Biddle Street . MD 285 turns east onto Biddle Street while a stub of Lock Street continues south to the edge of the canal as unsigned MD 537B . The state highway passes through a residential section of the north side of the town , meeting the other end of MD 284 . MD 285 runs through an S @-@ curve before leaving the town limits . The state highway passes through a mix of farmland and scattered residences as it parallels the north side of the canal . At Knights Corner Road , MD 285 curves northeast away from the canal to its eastern terminus at the Delaware state line . The roadway continues east as Chesapeake City Road , which heads to an intersection with Delaware Route 71 ( DE 71 ) .
= = History = =
MD 285 was constructed in three sections . The portion of Lock Street between county @-@ maintained Hemphill Street and the northern junction with MD 284 was part of the original Cecilton – Elkton highway passing through Chesapeake City that was designated for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . This segment of state road was paved in 1914 . Following the expansion and straightening of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal in the 1920s , the portion of Lock Street from the northern junction with MD 284 to Biddle Street was constructed as the approach to a vertical lift bridge constructed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , connecting Lock Street on the north side with George Street on the south side of the town in 1926 . This new alignment became part of US 213 when the federal highway was marked through southern Cecil County around 1927 .
Biddle Street was paved from US 213 to the Delaware state line and designated MD 285 around 1930 . The vertical lift bridge used by US 213 to cross the canal was destroyed by the tanker Franz Klasen on July 28 , 1942 . A ferry was established to carry traffic across the canal until the completion of a new bridge . The Chesapeake City Bridge was completed in 1948 along with new approach roads ; US 213 was moved to the new bridge and approach roads and MD 285 was extended north on Lock Street to its present western terminus at US 213 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Cecil County .
= Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee =
Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee is a platform video game developed by Oddworld Inhabitants and published by GT Interactive . It was released in 1997 for the PlayStation video game console , DOS and Microsoft Windows in North America , Australia and Europe . The game was released under the title Abe a GoGo ( エイブ ・ ア ・ ゴーゴー , Eibu A Gōgō ) in Japan for the PlayStation by publisher SoftBank , with a PC version following in 2001 . The Game Boy version of Abe 's Oddysee , retitled as Oddworld Adventures , was developed by Saffire Corporation and published by GT Interactive in 1998 .
The game centers on the titular Abe , a Mudokon slave at the ' RuptureFarms ' meat processing factory . When he discovers that he and his fellow Mudokons are to be slaughtered , he decides to escape and liberate as many enslaved Mudokons as he can . The player assumes the role of Abe as he attempts a perilous quest to emancipate his downtrodden people .
Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee was widely acclaimed for having innovative gameplay , good graphics , and engaging cut @-@ scenes ; however , its steep learning curve and system of saving only at checkpoints , received criticism . It was the first game in the planned five @-@ part Oddworld series , which also includes its direct sequels , Oddworld : Abe 's Exoddus , Oddworld : Munch 's Oddysee and Oddworld : Stranger 's Wrath . A remake titled Oddworld : New ' n ' Tasty ! was developed by Just Add Water and released through digital distribution in 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Abe 's Oddysee is a two @-@ dimensional platform game in which players take control of the character Abe , to travel across separate screens : solving puzzles , navigating obstacles , and avoiding enemies . Abe will die if attacked by an enemy , touched by an obstacle , dropped from too great a height , or even holding a grenade for too long , respawning at the last checkpoint . As well as jumping to navigate areas and crouching to roll under obstacles , Abe can break into a run to jump over large gaps or escape enemies , or tiptoe to avoid disturbing enemies , adding a limited stealth element to the game . Abe can also use throwable objects such as meat , rocks or grenades to bypass enemies or destroy obstacles , though grenades have a timer and , as explained , will blow up Abe if he holds one for too long .
Abe has the ability to telepathically control Sligs ( a type of non @-@ player character ) , but can only use this in safe areas . Flying orbs in certain areas also prevent Abe 's telepathy by zapping him . Once Abe successfully possesses a Slig , Abe can use them to attack other enemies and activate mechanisms dangerous to himself , and can then destroy them . Abe 's body is immobile and vulnerable whilst possessing someone else , whereas if his host is killed , control will return to Abe 's body .
Along the way , the player will encounter other Mudokons that he can rescue . By holding down the GameSpeak button and pressing various commands , Abe can command them to follow him , stay put , and activate mechanisms , as well as praise or scold them . Sometimes Abe will have to go through certain procedures to persuade a certain Mudokon , such as responding to whistles . Mudokons can be rescued by safely leading them past traps and enemies to bird portals , which can be activated by chanting . If the player rescues at least 50 Mudokons during the course of the game , Abe survives the ending .
Throughout the game , Abe is attacked by Sligs , Scrabs , and Paramites . Sligs will shoot on sight , but cannot see through dark areas ; Scrabs will attack anyone in their territory ; whilst Paramites will attack in packs and become shy alone . Elums are bipedal creatures that Abe can ride and communicate with by GameSpeak , although they will be distracted by dripping honey . Late in the game , Abe gains the ability to transform into a demigod ' Shrykull ' , which can eviscerate all on @-@ screen enemies . Abe can use this ability once after rescuing a certain amount of Mudokons at the same time .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Abe 's Oddysee includes only four named characters , and many anonymous slaves and guards . The protagonist of the game is Abe , a Mudokon slave worker born into captivity and ignorant of his people 's rich history and culture . Abe is often described as a " klutz " ; and his mouth is sewn shut , possibly to prevent his outcry .
During his adventure , Abe is joined by the Elum ( " Mule " spelled backwards ) : a stubborn , loyal assistant . Abe and Elum were originally envisioned as beginning Abe 's Oddysee together , living off the land until thrust into an industrial factory ; but the developers determined that the story was stronger should Abe come from a factory existence to self @-@ sustenance .
A mentor enters the story in Big Face , the shaman of the Mudokon people , who wears a large wooden mask from which his name is derived . He saves Abe from death and sets him to rescue his compatriots and face the trials of the Monsaic Lines , before freeing the eventual dozens of freed slaves .
The primary antagonist of the game is Molluck the Glukkon , the ruthless chief executive officer of the meat @-@ packing factory titled RuptureFarms . Because Molluck 's business empire is failing in decline of the wildlife whose meat he sells , Molluck decides to use his Mudokon slave population in his food products .
= = = Story = = =
Abe 's Oddysee begins with the eponymous protagonist as a prisoner in RuptureFarms , from which he narrates his story . He and many other Mudokons are slaves to Molluck the Glukkon , the owner of RuptureFarms : " the biggest meat @-@ processing plant on Oddworld " . Abe is a contented floor @-@ waxer First Class and currently Employee of the Year .
At the time of the story , the ingredients of the corporation 's three major " Tasty Treats " ( Scrab Cakes , Paramite Pies , and Meech Munchies ) are quickly running out , with the Meeches already extinct . While working late , Abe overhears Molluck 's plan to use the Mudokon slaves as meat products called " Mudokon Pops ! " , which frightens Abe into escaping from the factory .
Outside RuptureFarms and the surrounding Free @-@ Fire Zone , Abe sees a moon with its face in the shape of a Mudokon handprint . Thereupon he falls down a cliff , smashing his head ; and as he lies on the ground , the shaman BigFace orders Abe to rescue his enslaved brethren and " restore the lost land " , having first accomplished the Mudokons ' spiritual trials in the forests of Paramonia and the deserts of Scrabania . In each land , Abe traverses a labyrinthine , abandoned temple ; and after each of these , BigFace marks one of Abe 's hands with a scar : one representing the Paramites and one representing the Scrabs . When Abe has both scars , he can become the Shrykull , an invincible demigod .
With this new ability , Abe returns to RuptureFarms , rescues his Mudokon brethren , and deactivates most of the factory 's power . When Molluck sees this and decides to flood the entire factory with poisonous gas , Abe races to the boardroom and once there uses the Shrykull 's power to destroy the Glukkon executives ( who were summoned there under an emergency board meeting to be safe from the gas ) and terminates the gas ; but is himself captured . What happens next depends on how many Mudokons were rescued throughout the game ; if the player has rescued at least 50 Mudokon slaves in the game , the free Mudokons electrocute Molluck and BigFace rescues Abe , but if the player fails to rescue 50 Mudokons throughout the game , Molluck kills Abe instead . Subsequent games and media treat the Good Ending as canonical .
In the initial PlayStation version of the game , upon " perfect " completion of the game — completion with all 99 Mudokon slaves rescued — an extra full motion video ( FMV ) " Guardian Angel " can be viewed , which depicts a captured Abe harassed by " The Shrink " : a mechanical creature with a sophisticated artificial intelligence . The FMV is notable due to its absence from the PC version and later PlayStation releases of the game , and its introduction of a new character to the Oddworld mythos . The character was reputedly part of an early advertising campaign , which included television commercials , but was eventually abandoned .
= = Development = =
Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee began production in January 1995 under the working title of Soul Storm . After GT Interactive acquired publishing rights on September 12 , 1996 , the title was changed , first to Epic and eventually to Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee . The game had a private showing at E3 ' 96 , but it was not until E3 ' 97 that journalists took note of the game and it was generally well received . The version of the game shown at E3 ' 97 was remarkably similar to the release version , and Abe 's Oddysee had a reportedly smooth development cycle with few late changes .
The first footage creator Lorne Lanning saw of Abe 's Oddysee involved a pack of meeches chasing Abe . He said he was happy with the animation at the time but when development was nearing completion , the studio discovered that there was not enough disk space to include all of the species featured in the game . The meeches were removed from the final game and identified in the story as extinct . Another sequence under time and budget constraints concerned the moon that Abe witnesses after his escape from the Stockyards . Lanning explained that the CG sequence that occurs between Abe escaping RuptureFarms and entering the Stockyards was originally accompanied by footage of a meteor shower creating the shape of Abe 's handprint , in order to imply " greater forces that are really behind it , that are trying to send him symbols " . The budget for the game was $ 4 million .
Abe 's Oddysee was the first major GT title that the UK development team , that had been taken in by GT following the acquisition of Warner Interactive , became involved with . The testing process of the game was unusual for GT Interactive as the British team did game play testing whilst normally American games were only tested in Europe for language and other compatibility issues . The soundtrack features mostly ambient music composed by Ellen Meijers . Because of the lack of testing , the final version of the game left behind a ledge clipping through the floor glitch , a glitch which allows Abe to jump backwards behind screens ( which is also known as a ' Stop Turn ' ) , and an invincibility glitch . All of these glitches can result in skipping of Paramonia and Scrabania , which was first discovered in June 2014 on the Microsoft Windows version of the game . Similar glitches are also found in Oddworld : Abe 's Exoddus , but the invincibility death delay glitch could only work using a hidden cheat in the game . There are several other glitches that can cause Abe 's Mudokons not to follow Abe and some glitches related to levers and riding platformers . Another type of invincibility glitch was found in the re @-@ make . The ledge glitch and the stop turn glitches were fixed .
When Abe 's Oddysee was in production , the developers found that a male executive at publisher GT Interactive tried to sabotage production because he didn 't like the game being made . He took footage of the game to his boss , who loved the direction the game had , and chose to provide more funding at the expense of the executive that wanted to shut it down . Lanning later explained that in 1997 during Oddysee 's production , men in the video game industry were seen as making toys , and not taken seriously . Men were " happy to make a living , but they weren ’ t necessarily going out and bragging about it " Games began to be more about shooting and violence and blood , but Oddworld Inhabitants was " the antithesis to that " and said " we can make people feel better rather than just feel like they won . "
= = Release = =
The game saw its first release on the PlayStation , DOS and Windows on September 19 , 1997 , on a day dubbed as " Odd Friday " by the developer and publisher ; over 500 @,@ 000 units were originally released worldwide . The Japanese version followed in October .
For the release in Japan , the title of Abe 's Oddysee was changed to Abe a GoGo by the publisher SoftBank . Other changes included the art for the " Mudokon Pops ! " packaging , which originally consisted of a Mudokon head speared on a stick . Due to undisclosed current events in Japan , the design was changed to a more ambiguous , " happier " image . The design for the protagonist Abe and other Mudokons was also significantly altered . Certain Japanese pressure groups were offended by the Mudokons having four fingers and most of them working in a meat @-@ packing factory , due to a historic Japanese subclass of meat packers who were looked down upon in society . Four fingers , or showing four fingers to another person , came to insinuate the other was a member of the subclass , because it suggested the meat packers who lost fingers at work . Oddworld Inhabitants had to alter the design of Mudokons to three fingers , or else face legal battles and large fines .
Oddworld Inhabitants made the altered designs a permanent feature ; subsequent versions of Abe 's Oddysee released outside Japan included both the changed packaging and changed Mudokon hand . Future games and media ( including New ' n ' Tasty ! ) also recognise these changes as canon , although Abe 's Exoddus oddly features four @-@ fingered Mudokon sprites , and scenes from Abe 's Oddysee shown in the game were not altered .
The Game Boy port was released as Oddworld Adventures ; it was developed by Saffire Corporation and published by GT Interactive in 1998 . The game is a significantly cut @-@ down version of Abe 's Oddysee , with only a few similar levels and a condensed plot ( Abe starts out as a native Mudokon , so the opening levels in RuptureFarms are absent from this version ) .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release in 1997 , Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee received mostly positive reviews . Edge described the game as " a tight 2D platformer that 's packed with great innovative touches and some great character design " . GameSpot gave the PlayStation version 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 and praised the game as " the ideal platformer , balancing its action and puzzle elements perfectly to make the game intelligent , engaging , and , best yet , fun " . Animation World Magazine applauded multiple aspects of the game , saying it " features some of the best graphics and animation we 've ever seen " and commenting on the " sophisticated gameplay " . The graphics struck many reviewers as being excellent , as while the game is two @-@ dimensional , all elements were rendered in 3D programs . PC Zone remarked that " the developers have created an outstanding visual environment for Abe to leap around in , " while GamePro described the graphics as " eye @-@ popping " . The game 's audio was often singled out for praise . GameSpot gave the music a score of nine out of ten .
Most criticism toward the game was directed at the save system . Edge said that " Oddworld demands a certain level of commitment to progress " , while Science Fiction Weekly claimed the game 's " innovative game play makes for a steep learning curve . This initial difficulty in figuring out how to play is aggravated by a save feature that often forces players to redo difficult sections . " PC Zone stated that " progress does seem to rely on trial and error , which involves much replaying of levels and gnashing of teeth . All this can be frustrating at times , especially when Abe is plonked right back at the start of a level when he dies " . The game 's follow @-@ up , Abe 's Exoddus , notably implemented a suspend save feature that did not require the reaching of checkpoints .
= = = Awards = = =
The game won many awards , including the " E3 Showstopper 1997 " from GamePro in August 1997 and the " Best Director " award at the World Animation Festival in 1997 . In the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences ' first annual Interactive Achievement Awards it was nominated in the categories " Console Adventure Game of the Year " and " Outstanding Achievement in Sound and Music " .
= = Sequels = =
Abe 's Oddysee received two direct sequels . Oddworld : Abe 's Exoddus was released for PlayStation in November 1998 , taking place directly after Oddysee . The game continues the style of gameplay from the previous game with several improvements , such as the ability to use GameSpeak with different species and possess explosive clouds of wind . Oddworld : Munch 's Oddysee was released for Xbox in 2001 , bringing the gameplay into 3D environments as well as allowing players to play as another character , Munch .
= = = Remake = = =
A remake of Abe 's Oddysee was developed by UK studio Just Add Water . The game was built using the Unity game engine and was released on July 22 , 2014 on the PS4 on the PlayStation Network in North America and a European release on July 23 , 2014 and was subsequently released for the PC , Mac , Linux , Xbox One , PS3 , PS Vita and Wii U.
= Montague Druitt =
Montague John Druitt ( 15 August 1857 – early December 1888 ) was one of the suspects in the Jack the Ripper murders that took place in London between August and November 1888 .
He came from an upper @-@ middle class English background , and studied at Winchester College and the University of Oxford . After graduating , he was employed as an assistant schoolmaster at a boarding school and pursued a parallel career in the law , qualifying as a barrister in 1885 . His main interest outside work was cricket , which he played with many leading players of the time , including Lord Harris and Francis Lacey .
In November 1888 , he lost his post at the school for reasons that remain unclear . One month later his body was discovered drowned in the River Thames . His death , which was found to be a suicide , roughly coincided with the end of the murders attributed to Jack the Ripper . Private suggestions in the 1890s that he could have committed the crimes became public knowledge in the 1960s , and led to the publication of books that proposed him as the murderer . The evidence against him was entirely circumstantial , however , and many writers from the 1970s onwards have rejected him as a likely suspect .
= = Early life = =
Druitt was born in Wimborne Minster , Dorset , England . He was the second son and third child of prominent local surgeon William Druitt , and his wife Ann ( née Harvey ) . William Druitt was a justice of the peace , a governor of the local grammar school , and a regular worshipper at the local Anglican church , the Minster . Six weeks after his birth , Montague Druitt was christened at the Minster by his maternal great @-@ uncle , Reverend William Mayo . The Druitts lived at Westfield House , which was the largest house in the town , and set in its own grounds with stables and servants ' cottages . Druitt had six brothers and sisters , including an elder brother William who entered the law , and a younger brother Edward who joined the Royal Engineers .
Druitt was educated at Winchester College , where he won a scholarship at the age of 13 , and excelled at sports , especially cricket and fives . He was active in the school 's debating society , an interest that might have spawned his desire to become a barrister . In debates , he spoke in favour of French republicanism , compulsory military service , and the resignation of Benjamin Disraeli , and against the Ottoman Empire , the influence of Otto von Bismarck , and the conduct of the government in the Tichborne case . He defended William Wordsworth as " a bulwark of Protestantism " , and condemned the execution of King Charles I as " a most dastardly murder that will always attach to England 's fair name as a blot " . In a light @-@ hearted debate , he spoke against the proposition that bondage to fashion is a social evil .
In his final year at Winchester , 1875 – 76 , he was Prefect of Chapel , treasurer of the debating society , school fives champion , and opening bowler for the cricket team . In June 1876 , he played cricket for the school team against Eton College , which won the match with a team including cricketing luminaries Ivo Bligh and Kynaston Studd , as well as a future Principal Private Secretary at the Home Office Evelyn Ruggles @-@ Brise . Druitt bowled out Studd for four . With a glowing academic record , he was awarded a Winchester Scholarship to New College , Oxford .
At New College , he was popular with his peers , and was elected Steward of the Junior Common Room by them . He played cricket and rugby for the college team , and was the winner of both double and single fives at the university in 1877 . In a seniors ' cricket match in 1880 , he bowled out William Patterson , who later captained Kent County Cricket Club .
Druitt gained a second class in Classical Moderations in 1878 and graduated with a third class Bachelor of Arts degree in Literae Humaniores ( Classics ) in 1880 . His youngest brother , Arthur , entered New College in 1882 , just as Druitt was following in his eldest brother William 's footsteps by embarking on a career in law .
= = Career = =
On 17 May 1882 , two years after graduation , Druitt was admitted to the Inner Temple , one of the qualifying bodies for English barristers . His father had promised him a legacy of £ 500 ( equivalent to £ 45 @,@ 000 today ) , and Druitt paid his membership fees with a loan from his father secured against the inheritance . He was called to the bar on 29 April 1885 , and set up a practice as a barrister and special pleader .
Druitt 's father died suddenly from a heart attack in September 1885 , leaving an estate valued at £ 16 @,@ 579 ( equivalent to £ 1 @,@ 615 @,@ 000 today ) . In a codicil , Druitt senior instructed his executors to deduct the money he had advanced to his son from the legacy of £ 500 . Montague received very little money , if any , from his father 's will , although he did receive some of his father 's personal possessions . Most of Dr Druitt 's estate went to his wife Ann , three unmarried daughters ( Georgiana , Edith and Ethel ) , and eldest son William .
Druitt rented legal chambers at 9 King 's Bench Walk in the Inner Temple . In the late Victorian era only the wealthy could afford legal action , and only one in eight qualified barristers was able to make a living from the law . While some of Druitt 's biographers claim his practice did not flourish , others suppose that it provided him with a relatively substantial income on the basis of his costly lease of chambers and the value of his estate at death . He is listed in the Law List of 1886 as active in the Western Circuit and Winchester Sessions , and for 1887 in the Western Circuit and Hampshire , Portsmouth and Southampton Assizes .
To supplement his income and help pay for his legal training , Druitt worked as an assistant schoolmaster at George Valentine 's boarding school , 9 Eliot Place , Blackheath , London , from 1880 . The school had a long and distinguished history ; Benjamin Disraeli had been a pupil there in the 1810s , and boys from the school had been playmates of a younger son of Queen Victoria , Prince Arthur , Duke of Connaught , who as a boy in the 1860s had lived nearby at Greenwich Park . Druitt 's post came with accommodation in Eliot Place , and the long school holidays gave him time to study the law and to pursue his interest in cricket .
= = Cricket = =
In Dorset , Druitt played for the Kingston Park Cricket Club , and the Dorset County Cricket Club . He was particularly noted for his skill as a bowler . In 1882 and 1883 , he toured the West Country with a gentleman 's touring team called the Incogniti . One of Druitt 's fellow local players was Francis Lacey , the first man knighted for services to cricket . Druitt played for another wandering team , the Butterflies , on 14 June 1883 , when they drew against his alma mater Winchester College . The team included first @-@ class cricketers A. J. Webbe , J. G. Crowdy , John Frederick and Charles Seymour .
While working at Blackheath , Druitt joined the local cricket club , Blackheath Morden , and became the club 's treasurer . It was a well @-@ connected club : the President was politician Sir Charles Mills and one of its players was Stanley Christopherson , who later became President of the Marylebone Cricket Club . After the merger of the club with other local sports associations to form the Blackheath Cricket , Football and Lawn Tennis Company , Druitt took on the additional roles of company secretary and director .
The inaugural game of the new club was played against George Gibbons Hearne 's Eleven , which included many members of the famous cricketing Hearne family . Hearne 's team won by 21 runs . On 5 June 1886 , in a match between Blackheath and a gentleman 's touring team called the Band of Brothers , led by Lord Harris , Druitt bowled Harris for 14 and took three other wickets . Blackheath won by 178 runs . Two weeks later , he dismissed England batsman John Shuter , who was playing for Bexley Cricket Club , for a duck , and Blackheath won the game by 114 runs . The following year , Shuter returned to Blackheath with a Surrey County side that included Walter Read , William Lockwood , and Bobby Abel , whom Druitt bowled out for 56 . Surrey won by 147 runs .
On 26 May 1884 , Druitt was elected to the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) on the recommendation of his fellow Butterflies player Charles Seymour , who proposed him , and noted fielder Vernon Royle , who seconded his nomination . One of the minor matches he played for MCC was with England bowler William Attewell against Harrow School on 10 June 1886 . The MCC won by 57 runs . Druitt also played against MCC for Blackheath : on 23 July 1887 , he bowled out Dick Pougher for 28 runs , but he only made 5 runs before bowled out by Arnold Fothergill with a ball caught by Pougher . The MCC won by 52 runs .
In June 1888 , Lord Harris played twice for Blackheath with Druitt and Stanley Christopherson ; Blackheath won both matches easily , but Druitt was out of form and contributed neither runs nor wickets in either match . In August 1888 , Druitt played for the Gentlemen of Bournemouth against the Parsees cricket team during their tour of England , and took five wickets in the visitors ' first innings . Nevertheless , the Parsees won . On 8 September 1888 , the Blackheath Club played against the Christopherson brothers . Druitt was bowled out by Stanley Christopherson , who was playing with his brothers instead of for Blackheath , and in reply Druitt bowled out Christopherson . Blackheath won by 22 runs .
In addition to cricket , Druitt also played field hockey .
= = Death = =
On Friday 30 November 1888 , Druitt was dismissed from his post at the Blackheath boys ' school . The reason for his dismissal is unclear . One newspaper , quoting his brother William 's inquest testimony , reported that he was dismissed because he " had got into serious trouble " , but did not specify any further . In early December 1888 , he disappeared , and on 21 December 1888 the Blackheath Cricket Club 's minute book records that he was removed as treasurer and secretary in the belief that he had " gone abroad " .
On 31 December 1888 , his body was found floating in the River Thames , off Thornycroft 's torpedo works , Chiswick , by a waterman named Henry Winslade . Stones in Druitt 's pockets had kept his body submerged for about a month . He was in possession of a return train ticket to Hammersmith dated 1 December , a silver watch , a cheque for £ 50 and £ 16 in gold ( equivalent to £ 5 @,@ 000 and £ 1 @,@ 600 today ) . It is not known why he should have carried such a large amount of money , but it could have been a final payment from the school .
Some modern authors suggest that Druitt was dismissed because he was a homosexual or pederast and that may have driven him to suicide . One speculation is that the money found on his body was going to be used for payment to a blackmailer . Others , however , think that there is no evidence of homosexuality and that his suicide was instead precipitated by an hereditary psychiatric illness . His mother suffered from depression and was institutionalised from July 1888 . She died in an asylum in Chiswick in 1890 . His maternal grandmother committed suicide while insane , his aunt attempted suicide . , and his eldest sister committed suicide in old age . A note written by Druitt and addressed to his brother William , who was a solicitor in Bournemouth , was found in Druitt 's room in Blackheath . It read , " Since Friday I felt that I was going to be like mother , and the best thing for me was to die . "
As was usual in the district , the inquest was held at the Lamb Tap public house , Chiswick , by the coroner Dr Thomas Bramah Diplock , on 2 January 1889 . The coroner 's jury concluded that Druitt had committed suicide by drowning while in an unsound state of mind . He was buried in Wimborne cemetery the next day . At probate , his estate was valued at £ 2 @,@ 600 ( equivalent to £ 261 @,@ 200 today ) .
It is not known why Druitt committed suicide in Chiswick . One suggested link is that one of his University friends , Thomas Seymour Tuke of the Tuke family , lived there . Tuke was a psychiatric doctor with whom Druitt played cricket , and Druitt 's mother was committed to Tuke 's asylum in 1890 . Another suggestion is that Druitt knew Harry Wilson , whose house , " The Osiers " , lay between Hammersmith station and Thornycroft 's wharf , where Druitt 's body was found .
= = Jack the Ripper suspect = =
On 31 August 1888 , Mary Ann Nichols was found murdered in the impoverished Whitechapel district in the East End of London , with her throat slashed . During September , three more women ( Annie Chapman on the 8th , and Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes on the 30th ) were found dead with their throats cut . On 9 November 1888 , the body of Mary Jane Kelly was discovered . Her throat had been severed down to the spine . In four of the cases the bodies were mutilated after death . The similarities between the crimes led to the supposition that they were committed by the same assailant , who was given the nickname " Jack the Ripper " . Despite an extensive police investigation into the five murders , the Ripper was never identified and the crimes remained unsolved .
Shortly after Kelly 's murder , stories that the Ripper had drowned in the Thames began to circulate . In February 1891 , the MP for West Dorset , Henry Richard Farquharson , announced that Jack the Ripper was " the son of a surgeon " who had committed suicide on the night of the last murder . Although Farquharson did not name his suspect , the description resembles Druitt . Farquharson lived 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the Druitt family and was part of the same social class . The Victorian journalist George R. Sims noted in his memoirs , The Mysteries of Modern London ( 1906 ) : " [ the Ripper 's ] body was found in the Thames after it had been in the river for about a month " . Similar comments were made by Sir John Moylan , Assistant Under @-@ Secretary of the Home Office : " [ the Ripper ] escaped justice by committing suicide at the end of 1888 " and Sir Basil Thomson , made Assistant Commissioner of the CID in 1913 : " [ the Ripper was ] an insane Russian doctor [ who ] escaped arrest by committing suicide in the Thames at the end of 1888 " . Neither Moylan nor Thomson was involved in the Ripper investigation .
Assistant Chief Constable Sir Melville Macnaghten named Druitt as a suspect in the case in a private handwritten memorandum of 23 February 1894 . Macnaghten highlighted the coincidence between Druitt 's disappearance and death shortly after the last of the five murders on 9 November 1888 , and claimed to have unspecified " private information " that left " little doubt " Druitt 's own family believed him to have been the murderer . Macnaghten 's memo was eventually discovered in his personal papers by his daughter , Lady Aberconway , who showed them to British broadcaster Dan Farson . A slightly different abridged copy of the memo found in the Metropolitan Police archive was released to the public in 1966 . Farson first revealed Druitt 's initials " MJD " in a television programme in November 1959 .
In 1961 , Farson investigated a claim by an Australian that Montague 's cousin , Lionel Druitt , had published a pamphlet in Australia entitled " The East End Murderer — I knew him " , but the claim has never been substantiated . Journalist Tom Cullen revealed Druitt 's full name in his 1965 book Autumn of Terror , which was followed by Farson 's 1972 book Jack the Ripper . Before the discovery of Macnaghten 's memo , books on the Ripper case , such as those written by Leonard Matters and Donald McCormick , poured scorn on stories that the Ripper had drowned in the Thames because they could not find a suicide that matched the description of the culprit . Cullen and Farson , however , supposed that Druitt was the Ripper on the basis of the Macnaghten memorandum , the near coincidence between Druitt 's death and the end of the murders , the closeness of Whitechapel to Druitt 's rooms in the Inner Temple , the insanity that was acknowledged by the inquest verdict of " unsound mind " , and the possibility that Druitt had absorbed the rudimentary anatomical skill supposedly shown by the Ripper through observing his father at work .
Since the publication of Cullen 's and Farson 's books , other Ripper authors have argued that their theories are based solely on flawed circumstantial evidence , and have attempted to provide Druitt with alibis for the times of the murders . On 1 September , the day after the murder of Nichols , Druitt was in Dorset playing cricket . On the day of Chapman 's murder , he played cricket in Blackheath , and the day after the murders of Stride and Eddowes , he was in the West Country defending a client in a court case . While writers Andrew Spallek and Tom Cullen argue that Druitt had the time and opportunity to travel by train between London and his cricket and legal engagements , or use his city chambers as a base from which to commit the murders , others dismiss that as " improbable " . Many experts believe that the killer was local to Whitechapel , whereas Druitt lived miles away on the other side of the River Thames . His chambers were within walking distance of Whitechapel , and his regular rail journey would almost certainly have brought him to Cannon Street station , a few minutes ' walk from the East End . It seems unlikely , however , that he could have travelled the distance in blood @-@ stained clothes unnoticed , and a clue discovered during the investigation into the murder of Catherine Eddowes ( a piece of her blood @-@ stained clothing ) indicates that the murderer travelled north @-@ east from where she was murdered , whereas Druitt 's chambers , and the railway station , were to the south @-@ west .
Macnaghten incorrectly described Druitt as a 41 @-@ year @-@ old doctor , and cited allegations that he " was sexually insane " without specifying the source or details of the allegations . Macnaghten did not join the force until 1889 , after the murder of Kelly and the death of Druitt , and was not involved in the investigation directly . Macnaghten 's memorandum named two other suspects ( " Kosminski " and Michael Ostrog ) and was written to refute allegations against a fourth , Thomas Cutbush . The three Macnaghten suspects — Druitt , Kosminski and Ostrog — also match the descriptions of three unnamed suspects in Major Arthur Griffiths ' Mysteries of Police and Crime ( 1898 ) ; Griffiths was Inspector of Prisons at the time of the Ripper murders .
Inspector Frederick Abberline , who was the leading investigative officer in the case , appeared to dismiss Druitt as a suspect on the basis that the only evidence against him was the coincidental timing of his suicide shortly after the fifth murder . Other officials involved in the Ripper case , Metropolitan Police Commissioner James Monro and pathologist Thomas Bond , believed that the murder of Alice McKenzie on 17 July 1889 , seven months after Druitt 's death , was committed by the same culprit as the earlier murders . The inclusion of McKenzie among the Ripper 's victims was contested by Abberline and Macnaghten among others , but if she was one of his victims , then Druitt clearly could not be the Ripper . Another murder occasionally included among the Ripper cases is that of Martha Tabram , who was viciously stabbed to death on 7 August 1888 . Her death coincided with the middle of Bournemouth Cricket Week , 4 – 11 August , in which Druitt was heavily involved , and was during the school holidays which Druitt spent in Dorset . In the words of one of his biographers , " It scarcely left time for a 200 @-@ mile round dash to fit in a murder . "
= = Legacy = =
Druitt was a favoured suspect in the Jack the Ripper crimes throughout the 1960s , until the advent of theories in the 1970s that the murders were not the work of a single serial killer but the result of a conspiracy involving the British royal family and Freemasonry . These theories , widely condemned as ridiculous , implicate Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , his tutor James Stephen , and their doctor Sir William Gull to varying degrees . One version of the conspiracy promoted by Stephen Knight in his 1976 book Jack the Ripper : The Final Solution supposed that Druitt was a scapegoat , chosen by officialdom to take the blame for the murders . Martin Howells and Keith Skinner followed the same line in their 1987 book The Ripper Legacy , which was panned by one critic as being based on " no evidence whatever " .
The theories attempted to link Druitt with Clarence , Gull and Stephen through a network of mutual acquaintances and possible connections . Reginald Acland , the brother of Gull 's son @-@ in @-@ law , had legal chambers in King 's Bench Walk near Druitt 's , as did Harry Stephen , who was James Stephen 's brother . Harry Stephen was good friends with Harry Wilson , who had a house in Chiswick , " The Osiers " , near to where Druitt 's body was found . Wilson and James Stephen were close friends of Clarence , and were both members of an exclusive society called the Cambridge Apostles . As a schoolboy , Druitt had played cricket against two of Wilson 's friends , Kynaston Studd and Henry Goodhart , who was also one of the Apostles . Another potential connection between Druitt and Wilson is through John Henry Lonsdale . Lonsdale 's name and Blackheath address are written in a diary belonging to Wilson now in the possession of Trinity College , Cambridge . Lonsdale 's address is a few yards from the school at which Druitt worked and lived , and Lonsdale had been a barrister and had also rented legal chambers in King 's Bench Walk . In 1887 , Lonsdale entered the church and was assigned as curate to Wimborne Minster , where the Druitt family worshiped . Lonsdale and Macnaghten were classmates at Eton , and so theorists argue that Lonsdale might have been in a position to provide " private information " to Macnaghten regarding Druitt . The connections between the Apostles and Druitt led to the suggestion that he was part of the same social set . Druitt , his mother , and his sister Georgiana , were invited to a ball in honour of Clarence at the home of Lord Wimborne on 17 December 1888 , although they did not attend because by that time Montague was dead , his mother was in an asylum , and his sister was expecting her second child . Clarence , Stephen , Wilson , Studd , and Goodhart are suggested to have been homosexual , although this is contested by historians . John Wilding 's 1993 book Jack the Ripper Revealed used the connections between Druitt and Stephen to propose that they committed the crimes together , but reviewers considered it an " imaginative tale ... most questionable " , an " exercise in ingenuity rather than ... fact " , and " lack [ ing ] evidential support " .
In his 2005 and 2006 biographies of Druitt , D. J. Leighton concluded that Druitt was innocent , but repeated some of Knight 's and Wilding 's discredited claims . Leighton suggested that Druitt could have been murdered , either out of greed by his elder brother William or , as previously suggested by Howells and Skinner , out of fear of exposure by Harry Wilson 's homosexual cronies . The propensity of theorists to associate Ripper suspects with homosexuality has led scholars to assume that such notions are based on homophobia rather than evidence .
The accusations against Clarence , Stephen , Gull and Druitt also draw on cultural perceptions of a decadent ruling class , and depict a high @-@ born murderer or murderers preying on lower @-@ class victims . Because Druitt and the other upper @-@ middle @-@ class and aristocratic Ripper suspects were wealthy , there is more biographical material on them than on the residents of the Whitechapel slums . Consequently , it is easier for writers to construct solutions based on a wealthy culprit rather than one involving a Whitechapel resident . There is no direct evidence against Druitt , and since the 1970s , the number of Jack the Ripper suspects has continued to grow , with the result that there are now over 100 different theories about the Ripper 's identity .
In fiction , Druitt is depicted as the murderer in the musical Jack the Ripper by Ron Pember and Denis de Marne . In John Gardner 's Sherlock Holmes story The Revenge of Moriarty , Professor Moriarty 's criminal exploits are hampered by increased police activity as a result of the Jack the Ripper murders . He discovers that Druitt is the murderer and so fakes his suicide in the hope that the police will lose interest once the murders cease .
= French battleship Brennus =
Brennus was the first pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy built in the late 19th century . She was laid down in January 1889 , launched in October 1891 , and completed in 1896 . Her design was unique and departed from earlier ironclad battleship designs by introducing a number of innovations . These included a main battery of heavy guns mounted on the centerline and the first use of Belleville boilers . She formed the basis for several subsequent designs , beginning with Charles Martel .
Brennus spent the majority of her career in the Mediterranean Squadron , and she served as its flagship early in her career . In 1900 , she accidentally rammed and sank the destroyer Framée . As newer battleships were commissioned into the fleet , Brennus was relegated to the Reserve Squadron in the early 1900s . By the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , her old age and poor condition prevented her from seeing action . She was ultimately stricken from the naval register in 1919 and sold for scrap three years later .
= = Design = =
An earlier vessel , also named Brennus , was laid down in 1884 and cancelled under the tenure of Admiral Théophile Aube . The vessel , along with a sister ship named Charles Martel , was a modified version of the Marceau @-@ class ironclad battleships . After Aube 's retirement , the plans for the ships were reworked entirely for the ships actually completed , though they are sometimes conflated with the earlier , cancelled vessels . This confusion may be a result of the same shipyard working on both of the ships named Brennus , along with use of material assembled for the first vessel to build the second . The two pairs of ships were , nevertheless , distinct vessels . The second Brennus was ordered in 1888 .
Brennus was the first pre @-@ dreadnought style battleship built in the French Navy ; the previous Magenta @-@ class ships were barbette ships , a type of ironclad battleship . Brennus formed the basis for the subsequent group of five broadly similar battleships built to the same design specifications , begun with Charles Martel , though they reverted to the armament layout of the earlier Magentas which saw the main guns distributed in single turrets in a lozenge pattern .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Brennus was 110 @.@ 29 meters ( 361 ft 10 in ) long between perpendiculars , and had a beam of 20 @.@ 4 m ( 66 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 28 m ( 27 ft 2 in ) . She had a displacement of 11 @,@ 190 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 013 long tons ) . As built , the ship was significantly overweight , and her draft was .38 m ( 1 ft 3 in ) greater than intended , without a full load of ammunition . Most of her armored belt was submerged . Her superstructure had to be cut down and her mainmast , intended to be a fighting mast , had to be replaced with a lighter pole mast . Unlike most battleships of the period , she was built without a ram bow . Brennus had a crew of 673 officers and enlisted men .
Brennus had two vertical triple expansion engines each driving a single screw , with steam supplied by thirty @-@ two Belleville water @-@ tube boilers . The decision to fit Brennus with water @-@ tube boilers was made in 1887 , and she was the first large ship to be equipped with them . Her propulsion system was rated at 13 @,@ 900 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 400 kW ) , which allowed the ship to steam at a speed of 17 @.@ 5 to 18 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 to 33 @.@ 3 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 7 mph ) . As built , she could carry 600 t ( 590 long tons ; 660 short tons ) of coal , though additional space allowed for up to 980 t ( 960 long tons ; 1 @,@ 080 short tons ) in total .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Brennus 's main armament consisted of three Canon de 340 mm / 42 Modèle 1887 guns , two in a twin turret forward , and the third in a single turret aft . Her secondary armament consisted of ten Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1893 guns , four of which were mounted in single turrets amidships ; the other six were located directly underneath them in casemates . The ship also carried four 9 @-@ pounder quick @-@ firing guns , fourteen 3 @-@ pounders , and eight 1 @-@ pounder guns , and six 1 @-@ pounder revolver cannons . Her armament suite was rounded out by four above @-@ water 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all of which were later removed .
The ship 's armor was constructed with both steel and compound armor . The main belt was 460 mm ( 18 in ) thick amidships , and tapered down to 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) at the lower edge . On either end of the central citadel , the belt was reduced to 305 mm at the waterline and 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) on the lower edge ; the belt extended for the entire length of the hull . Above the belt was 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick side armor . The main battery guns were protected with a maximum thickness of 460 mm of armor , and the secondary turrets had 100 mm thick sides . The main armored deck was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The conning tower had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides .
= = Service career = =
Brennus was laid down at the Lorient dockyard in January 1889 and launched on 17 October 1891 . Fitting @-@ out work was completed in 1896 and she was commissioned into the French Navy . In 1897 , the French Navy issued a new doctrine for gunnery control . During gunnery training exercises to test the new system , Brennus and the ironclad battleships Neptune and Marceau got 26 % hits at a range of 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 to 4 @,@ 400 yd ) . Their success prompted the Navy to make the method the standard for the fleet in February 1898 .
In July and August 1900 , the French fleet conducted maneuvers in the English Channel . At the time , Brennus was the flagship of the Mediterranean Squadron , under Vice Admiral Fournier . On 10 August off Cape St. Vincent , while returning from the maneuvers , she collided with the destroyer Framée . The destroyer quickly sank , and only fourteen men from her crew of 50 were rescued . By 1903 , Brennus was transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with three other battleships and three armored cruisers . There , she flew the flag of Rear Admiral Besson during the annual summer maneuvers in July – August 1903 .
Brennus continued on in the Reserve Squadron through 1907 , during which time she was again the flagship of Vice Admiral Fournier . Fournier was the commander in chief of the annual summer maneuvers , which began in late June and concluded on 4 August 1907 . The following year , the Mediterranean Fleet was reorganized into three squadrons ; Brennus again repeated her role as flagship , of the Third Squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Germinet . Due to her age and condition by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Brennus was not mobilized and did not see action . Brennus was ultimately stricken from the naval register in 1919 and sold for scrapping in 1922 .
= Will Middlebrooks =
William " Will " Scott Middlebrooks ( born September 9 , 1988 ) is an American professional baseball third baseman for the Milwaukee Brewers of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He made his MLB debut with the Boston Red Sox on May 2 , 2012 and played with them through 2014 . He also played for the San Diego Padres .
A fifth round draft pick in the 2007 MLB draft out of Liberty @-@ Eylau High School in Texarkana , Texas , Middlebrooks signed with the Red Sox for $ 925 @,@ 000 , bypassing his commitment to Texas A & M University . Middlebrooks was originally a shortstop , but the Red Sox converted him into a third baseman in the minor leagues . He represented the United States in the 2011 All @-@ Star Futures Game . Following Middlebrooks ' emergence as the Red Sox ' starting third baseman in 2012 , the organization traded former All @-@ Star Kevin Youkilis . After struggles in the 2013 and 2014 seasons , the Red Sox traded Middlebrooks to the San Diego Padres .
= = Amateur career = =
Middlebrooks attended Liberty @-@ Eylau High School in Texarkana , Texas . Middlebrooks played shortstop and pitched for the high school baseball team . As a pitcher , he could reach 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) with his fastball . Liberty @-@ Eylau won the Class 3A state championship in 2006 , Middlebrooks ' junior season . In his senior season , Middlebrooks had a .555 batting average with 22 stolen bases and 48 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 38 games , and a 13 @-@ 0 win – loss record as a pitcher . He was named to the Class 3A All @-@ State First Team and Class 3A Player of the Year by the Texas Sports Writers Association .
In addition to baseball , Middlebrooks played American football and basketball in high school . A quarterback , placekicker and punter , he played on the school 's football team , which also featured LaMichael James . He was named an All @-@ State punter . Middlebrooks admits that he preferred football , until he realized during his junior year that he had the opportunity to be selected in the Major League Baseball Draft . In November 2006 , he committed to attend Texas A & M University on a full scholarship to play baseball and football for the Texas A & M Aggies .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
= = = = Minor Leagues = = = =
Middlebrooks had been projected as a first round talent in the 2007 Major League Baseball draft . However , the belief that he would follow through with his scholarship to Texas A & M led Middlebrooks to fall in the draft . The Boston Red Sox drafted Middlebrooks in the fifth round of the draft , selecting him as a shortstop , rather than as a pitcher . He received a $ 925 @,@ 000 signing bonus to bypass his commitment to Texas A & M.
Middlebrooks made his professional debut in 2008 with the Lowell Spinners of the Class A @-@ Short Season New York – Penn League , where he batted .254 with one home run . He described himself as developmentally behind other players at his level because of the time he had devoted to football . Initially a shortstop , Middlebrooks made the transition to third base as he added muscle , increasing from 190 pounds ( 86 kg ) at the time he was drafted to 210 pounds ( 95 kg ) .
In 2009 , Middlebrooks played for the Greenville Drive of the Class A South Atlantic League , where he batted .265 with seven home runs and 57 RBIs . He was promoted to the Salem Red Sox of the Class A @-@ Advanced Carolina League in 2010 and responded by batting .276 with 12 home runs and 70 RBIs . Middlebrooks began the 2011 season playing for the Portland Sea Dogs of the Class AA Eastern League . He played in the Eastern League All @-@ Star Game , hitting a double in the game . Middlebrooks also participated in the 2011 All @-@ Star Futures Game , starting at third base and going 1 @-@ for @-@ 2 .
Through August 2011 , Middlebrooks batted .306 with 18 home runs and 80 RBIs for Portland , at which point he was promoted to the Pawtucket Red Sox of the Class AAA International League . Joe McDonald of ESPN.com called Middlebrooks " Boston 's likely [ third baseman ] of the future " upon his promotion from Portland to Pawtucket . He hit .161 in 16 games with Pawtucket to close out the 2011 season .
After the 2011 season , the Red Sox assigned Middlebrooks to the Arizona Fall League , where he hit four home runs in 13 games and was named to the Rising Stars Game . In November 2011 , Middlebrooks , Che @-@ Hsuan Lin and Drake Britton were added to the Red Sox 40 @-@ man roster to prevent them from being selected in the Rule 5 draft .
Heading into the 2012 season , Baseball America rated Middlebrooks as the Red Sox ' best prospect and 51st best prospect overall . Starting the 2012 season with Pawtucket , Middlebrooks hit .333 with nine home runs and 27 RBIs in 24 games and 93 at @-@ bats . Meanwhile , Red Sox starting third baseman Kevin Youkilis struggled , opening the 2012 season batting .219 . As Youkilis struggled , Middlebrooks appeared to be ready for a promotion .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
The Red Sox promoted Middlebrooks to the major leagues on May 2 , 2012 , when Youkilis was placed on the disabled list . He made his MLB debut that day , drawing a walk in his first plate appearance and recording two hits . On May 6 , he hit a game @-@ tying grand slam for his first major league home run in what was eventually a 17 @-@ inning loss to the Baltimore Orioles . In his first 41 games with the Red Sox , Middlebrooks batted .326 with nine home runs and 34 RBIs , the most RBIs to start a career for a member of the Red Sox since Walt Dropo recorded 37 RBIs in his first 41 career games dating back to 1949 – 50 .
Bobby Valentine , the manager of the Red Sox , initially alternated between Middlebrooks and Youkilis at third base . However , Middlebrooks ' emergence led the Red Sox to trade Youkilis on June 23 . Middlebrooks was named American League Player of the Week for the week ending June 24 . Middlebrooks broke a bone in his right hand when he was hit by a pitch in a game against the Cleveland Indians on August 10 , ending his rookie season with a .288 batting average , 15 home runs and 54 RBIs in 75 games played .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
On April 7 , 2013 , Middlebrooks hit three home runs in a 13 – 0 Red Sox victory over the Toronto Blue Jays in Toronto . Two of his home runs were hit off of pitcher R.A. Dickey . However , he lost playing time to José Iglesias after he strained his back in May . After he batted .192 on the season , the Red Sox optioned Middlebrooks to Pawtucket on June 25 , 2013 . The Red Sox opted not to promote Middlebrooks when they traded Iglesias on July 30 , using Brandon Snyder and Brock Holt instead . After Middlebrooks made adjustments , the Red Sox recalled him from Pawtucket on August 10 . In Game 3 of the 2013 World Series , Middlebrooks was ruled to have obstructed future teammate Allen Craig after diving for an errant throw at third base . The play awarded Craig the game winning run for the Cardinals . The Red Sox won the series over the Cardinals .
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
In 2014 , Middlebrooks missed 19 games in April due to a strained calf . In May , he broke a finger , and again went on the disabled list . He had been struggling at the plate to begin the season hitting just .197 with two home runs in 21 games . As he rehabilitated his injury in the minor leagues , Middlebrooks began playing in the outfield , due to the Red Sox ' signing of Stephen Drew . After the Red Sox traded Drew , they hoped that Middlebrooks would improve his performance with more regular playing time . Middlebrooks continued to miss time later in the season due to lingering effects of the hand injury . He finished the 2014 season with a .191 average in 215 at @-@ bats .
= = = San Diego Padres = = =
During the 2014 – 15 offseason , the Red Sox signed free agent Pablo Sandoval , a third baseman . On December 19 , 2014 , the Red Sox traded Middlebrooks to the San Diego Padres for Ryan Hanigan , whom the Padres had acquired earlier the same day . Middlebrooks competed with Yangervis Solarte to be the Padres ' starting third baseman in spring training . By July , the Padres began to use Middlebrooks at shortstop as Solarte received more playing time at third base . With Middlebrooks batting .212 on the season , the Padres optioned Middlebrooks to the El Paso Chihuahuas of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) on July 22 . On December 2 , 2015 , the Padres non @-@ tendered Middlebrooks , making him a free agent .
= = = Milwaukee Brewers = = =
On December 15 , 2015 , Middlebrooks agreed to a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training with the Milwaukee Brewers . The Brewers assigned him to the Colorado Springs Sky Sox of the PCL to start the 2016 season . Middlebrooks batted .282 with 10 home runs and 47 RBIs for Colorado Springs , before he was promoted to the major leagues on July 4 .
= = Player profile = =
Middlebrooks is an athletic defensive player . He hits for power and is also credited for his contact skills , though he is not considered the most patient hitter . His throwing arm is well regarded , and his baserunning is rated as average .
= = Personal life = =
Middlebrooks grew up in Texarkana , Texas . His father , Tom , serves as the head baseball coach and assistant football coach at Liberty @-@ Eylau , and his younger sister , Lacey , played softball for the University of Tulsa . She is now an assistant softball coach at the University at Buffalo . Middlebrooks ' mother , Julie , and youngest sister , Mary , are artists ; Julie is an art teacher . He has been friends with Ryan Mallett of the Baltimore Ravens since they met in a football camp after Mallett moved to the Texarkana area in the seventh grade .
Middlebrooks was engaged to Ann Lux , a former Dallas Cowboys cheerleader , however they broke up in August 2012 . They are from the same hometown and have known each other since age 12 . Later in 2012 , Middlebrooks began dating Jenny Dell , a reporter who covered the Red Sox for the New England Sports Network . They became engaged in July 2014 , and were married in February 2016 .
= USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) =
USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) ( " Mighty Mo " or " Big Mo " ) is a United States Navy Iowa @-@ class battleship and was the third ship of the U.S. Navy to be named in honor of the U.S. state of Missouri . Missouri was the last battleship commissioned by the United States and was best remembered as the site of the surrender of the Empire of Japan which ended World War II .
Missouri was ordered in 1940 and commissioned in June 1944 . In the Pacific Theater of World War II she fought in the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa and shelled the Japanese home islands , and she fought in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953 . She was decommissioned in 1955 into the United States Navy reserve fleets ( the " Mothball Fleet " ) , but reactivated and modernized in 1984 as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy plan , and provided fire support during Operation Desert Storm in January / February 1991 .
Missouri received a total of 11 battle stars for service in World War II , Korea , and the Persian Gulf , and was finally decommissioned on 31 March 1992 , but remained on the Naval Vessel Register until her name was struck in January 1995 . In 1998 , she was donated to the USS Missouri Memorial Association and became a museum ship at Pearl Harbor .
= = Construction = =
Missouri was one of the Iowa @-@ class " fast battleship " designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair . She was laid down at the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 6 January 1941 , launched on 29 January 1944 and commissioned on 11 June with Captain William Callaghan in command . The ship was the third of the Iowa class , but the fourth and final Iowa @-@ class ship commissioned by the U.S. Navy . The ship was christened at her launching by Mary Margaret Truman , daughter of Harry S. Truman , then a United States Senator from Missouri .
Missouri 's main battery consisted of nine 16 in ( 406 mm ) / 50 cal Mark 7 guns , which could fire 2 @,@ 700 lb ( 1 @,@ 200 kg ) armor @-@ piercing shells some 20 mi ( 32 @.@ 2 km ) . Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5 in ( 127 mm ) / 38 cal guns in twin turrets , with a range of about 10 mi ( 16 km ) . With the advent of air power and the need to gain and maintain air superiority came a need to protect the growing fleet of allied aircraft carriers ; to this end , Missouri was fitted with an array of Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns to defend allied carriers from enemy airstrikes . When reactivated in 1984 Missouri had her 20 mm and 40 mm AA guns removed , and was outfitted with Phalanx CIWS mounts for protection against enemy missiles and aircraft , and Armored Box Launchers and Quad Cell Launchers designed to fire Tomahawk missiles and Harpoon missiles , respectively .
Missouri was the last U.S. battleship to be completed . Wisconsin , the highest @-@ numbered U.S. battleship built , was completed before Missouri ; BB @-@ 65 to BB @-@ 71 were ordered but cancelled .
= = World War II ( 1944 – 1945 ) = =
= = = Shakedown and service with Task Force 58 , Admiral Mitscher = = =
After trials off New York and shakedown and battle practice in the Chesapeake Bay , Missouri departed Norfolk , Virginia on 11 November 1944 , transited the Panama Canal on 18 November and steamed to San Francisco for final fitting out as fleet flagship . She stood out of San Francisco Bay on 14 December and arrived at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii on 24 December 1944 . She departed Hawaii on 2 January 1945 and arrived in Ulithi , West Caroline Islands on 13 January . There she was temporary headquarters ship for Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher . The battleship put to sea on 27 January to serve in the screen of the Lexington carrier task group of Mitscher 's TF 58 , and on 16 February the task force 's aircraft carriers launched the first naval air strikes against Japan since the famed Doolittle raid , which had been launched from the carrier Hornet in April 1942 .
Missouri then steamed with the carriers to Iwo Jima where her main guns provided direct and continuous support to the invasion landings begun on 19 February . After TF 58 returned to Ulithi on 5 March , Missouri was assigned to the Yorktown carrier task group . On 14 March , Missouri departed Ulithi in the screen of the fast carriers and steamed to the Japanese mainland . During strikes against targets along the coast of the Inland Sea of Japan beginning on 18 March , Missouri shot down four Japanese aircraft .
Raids against airfields and naval bases near the Inland Sea and southwestern Honshū continued . When the carrier Franklin incurred battle damage , the Missouri 's carrier task group provided cover for the Franklin 's retirement toward Ulithi until 22 March , then set course for pre @-@ invasion strikes and bombardment of Okinawa .
Missouri joined the fast battleships of TF 58 in bombarding the southeast coast of Okinawa on 24 March , an action intended to draw enemy strength from the west coast beaches that would be the actual site of invasion landings . Missouri rejoined the screen of the carriers as Marine and Army units stormed the shores of Okinawa on the morning of 1 April . An attack by Japanese forces was repulsed successfully .
On 11 April , a low @-@ flying kamikaze , although fired upon , crashed on Missouri 's starboard side , just below her main deck level . The starboard wing of the plane was thrown far forward , starting a gasoline fire at 5 in ( 127 mm ) Gun Mount No. 3 . The battleship suffered only superficial damage , and the fire was brought quickly under control . The remains of the pilot were recovered on board the ship just aft of one of the 40 mm gun tubs . Captain Callaghan decided that the young Japanese pilot had done his job to the best of his ability , and with honor , so he should be given a military funeral . The following day he was buried at sea with military honors .
About 23 : 05 on 17 April , Missouri detected an enemy submarine 12 mi ( 19 km ) from her formation . Her report set off a hunter @-@ killer operation by the light carrier Bataan and four destroyers , which sank the Japanese submarine I @-@ 56 .
Missouri was detached from the carrier task force off Okinawa on 5 May and sailed for Ulithi . During the Okinawa campaign she had shot down five enemy planes , assisted in the destruction of six others , and scored one probable kill . She helped repel 12 daylight attacks of enemy raiders and fought off four night attacks on her carrier task group . Her shore bombardment destroyed several gun emplacements and many other military , governmental , and industrial structures .
= = = Service with the Third Fleet , Admiral Halsey = = =
Missouri arrived at Ulithi on 9 May and then proceeded to Apra Harbor , Guam , arriving on 18 May . USS Louisville delivered Bull Halsey ’ s 50 officers and 100 staff to USS Missouri BB 63 at Guam from Man of War . That afternoon Admiral William F. Halsey , Jr . , Commander Third Fleet , brought his command into the Missouri . She passed out of the harbor on 21 May , and by 27 May was again conducting shore bombardment against Japanese positions on Okinawa . Missouri led the 3rd Fleet in strikes on airfields and installations on Kyūshū on 2 – 3 June . She rode out a fierce storm on 5 and 6 June that wrenched the bow off the cruiser Pittsburgh . Some topside fittings were smashed , but Missouri suffered no major damage . Her fleet again struck Kyūshū on 8 June , then hit hard in a coordinated air @-@ surface bombardment before retiring towards Leyte . She arrived at San Pedro Bay , Leyte on 13 June , after almost three months of continuous operations in support of the Okinawa campaign .
Here she rejoined the powerful 3rd Fleet in strikes at the heart of Japan from within its home waters . The fleet set a northerly course on 8 July to approach the Japanese main island , Honshū . Raids took Tokyo by surprise on 10 July , followed by more devastation at the juncture of Honshū and Hokkaidō , the second @-@ largest Japanese island , on 13 – 14 July . For the first time , naval gunfire destroyed a major installation within the home islands when Missouri joined in a shore bombardment on 15 July that severely damaged the Nihon Steel Co. and the Wanishi Ironworks at Muroran , Hokkaido .
During the nights of 17 and 18 July , Missouri bombarded industrial targets in Honshū . Inland Sea aerial strikes continued through 25 July , and Missouri guarded the carriers as they attacked the Japanese home islands .
= = = Signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender = = =
Strikes on Hokkaidō and northern Honshū resumed on 9 August , the day the second atomic bomb was dropped .
After the Japanese agreed to surrender , Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser of the Royal Navy , the Commander of the British Pacific Fleet , boarded Missouri on 16 August and conferred the honour of Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire upon Admiral Halsey . Missouri transferred a landing party of 200 officers and men to the battleship Iowa for temporary duty with the initial occupation force for Tokyo on 21 August . Missouri herself entered Tokyo Bay early on 29 August to prepare for the signing by Japan of the official instrument of surrender .
High @-@ ranking military officials of all the Allied Powers were received on board on 2 September , including Chinese General Hsu Yung @-@ Ch 'ang , British Admiral @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Fleet Sir Bruce Fraser , Soviet Lieutenant @-@ General Kuzma Nikolaevich Derevyanko , Australian General Sir Thomas Blamey , Canadian Colonel Lawrence Moore Cosgrave , French Général d 'Armée Philippe Leclerc de Hautecloque , Dutch Vice Admiral Conrad Emil Lambert Helfrich , and New Zealand Air Vice Marshal Leonard M. Isitt .
Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz boarded shortly after 0800 , and General of the Army Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander for the Allies , came on board at 0843 . The Japanese representatives , headed by Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigemitsu , arrived at 0856 . At 0902 , General MacArthur stepped before a battery of microphones and opened the 23 @-@ minute surrender ceremony to the waiting world by stating , " It is my earnest hope — indeed the hope of all mankind — that from this solemn occasion a better world shall emerge out of the blood and carnage of the past , a world founded upon faith and understanding , a world dedicated to the dignity of man and the fulfillment of his most cherished wish for freedom , tolerance , and justice . "
During the surrender ceremony , the deck of Missouri was decorated with a 31 @-@ star American flag that had been taken ashore by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 after his squadron of " Black Ships " sailed into Tokyo Bay to force the opening of Japan 's ports to foreign trade . This flag was actually displayed with the reverse side showing , i.e. , stars in the upper right corner : the historic flag was so fragile that the conservator at the Naval Academy Museum had sewn a protective linen backing to one side to help secure the fabric from deteriorating , leaving its " wrong side " visible . The flag was displayed in a wood @-@ framed case secured to the bulkhead overlooking the surrender ceremony . Another U.S. flag was raised and flown during the occasion , a flag that some sources have indicated was in fact that flag which had flown over the U.S. Capitol on 7 December 1941 . This is not true ; it was a flag taken from the ship 's stock , according to Missouri 's Commanding Officer , Captain Stuart " Sunshine " Murray , and it was " ... just a plain ordinary GI @-@ issue flag " .
By 09 : 30 the Japanese emissaries had departed . In the afternoon of 5 September , Admiral Halsey transferred his flag to the battleship South Dakota , and early the next day Missouri departed Tokyo Bay . As part of the ongoing Operation Magic Carpet she received homeward bound passengers at Guam , then sailed unescorted for Hawaii . She arrived at Pearl Harbor on 20 September and flew Admiral Nimitz 's flag on the afternoon of 28 September for a reception .
= = Post @-@ war ( 1946 – 1950 ) = =
The next day , Missouri departed Pearl Harbor bound for the eastern seaboard of the United States . She reached New York City on 23 October and hoisted the flag of Atlantic Fleet commander Admiral Jonas Ingram . Four days later , Missouri boomed out a 21 @-@ gun salute as President Truman boarded for Navy Day ceremonies .
After an overhaul in the New York Naval Shipyard and a training cruise to Cuba , Missouri returned to New York . During the afternoon of 21 March 1946 , she received the remains of the Turkish Ambassador to the United States , Münir Ertegün . She departed on 22 March for Gibraltar , and on 5 April anchored in the Bosphorus off Istanbul . She rendered full honors , including the firing of 19 @-@ gun salutes during the transfer of the remains of the late ambassador and again during the funeral ashore .
Missouri departed Istanbul on 9 April and entered Phaleron Bay , Piraeus , Greece , the following day for an overwhelming welcome by Greek government officials and anti @-@ communist citizens . Greece had become the scene of a civil war between the communist World War II resistance movement and the returning Greek government @-@ in @-@ exile . The United States saw this as an important test case for its new doctrine of containment of the Soviet Union . The Soviets were also pushing for concessions in the Dodecanese to be included in the peace treaty with Italy and for access through the Dardanelles strait between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean . The voyage of Missouri to the eastern Mediterranean symbolized America 's strategic commitment to the region . News media proclaimed her a symbol of U.S. interest in preserving both nations ' independence .
Missouri departed Piraeus on 26 April , touching at Algiers and Tangiers before arriving at Norfolk on 9 May . She departed for Culebra Island on 12 May to join Admiral Mitscher 's 8th Fleet in the Navy 's first large @-@ scale postwar Atlantic training maneuvers . The battleship returned to New York City on 27 May , and spent the next year steaming Atlantic coastal waters north to the Davis Strait and south to the Caribbean on various Atlantic command training exercises . On 13 December , during a target practice exercise in the North Atlantic , a star shell accidentally struck the battleship , but without causing injuries .
Missouri arrived at Rio de Janeiro on 30 August 1947 for the Inter @-@ American Conference for the Maintenance of Hemisphere Peace and Security . President Truman boarded on 2 September to celebrate the signing of the Rio Treaty , which broadened the Monroe Doctrine by stipulating that an attack on any one of the signatory American countries would be considered an attack on all .
The Truman family boarded Missouri on 7 September 1947 to return to the United States and disembarked at Norfolk on 19 September . Her overhaul in New York — which lasted from 23 September to 10 March 1948 — was followed by refresher training at Guantanamo Bay . The summer of 1948 was devoted to midshipman and reserve training cruises . Also in 1948 , the Big Mo became the first battleship to host a helicopter detachment , operating two Sikorsky HO3S @-@ 1 machines for utility and rescue work . The battleship departed Norfolk on 1 November 1948 for a second three @-@ week Arctic cold @-@ weather training cruise to the Davis Strait . During the next two years , Missouri participated in Atlantic command exercises from the New England coast to the Caribbean , alternated with two midshipman summer training cruises . She was overhauled at Norfolk Naval Shipyard from 23 September 1949 to 17 January 1950 .
Throughout the latter half of the 1940s , the various service branches of the United States had been reducing their inventories from their World War II levels . For the Navy , this resulted in several vessels of various types being decommissioned and either sold for scrap or placed in one of the various United States Navy reserve fleets scattered along the East and West Coast of the United States . As part of this contraction , three of the Iowa @-@ class battleships had been de @-@ activated and decommissioned ; however , President Truman refused to allow Missouri to be decommissioned . Against the advice of Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson , Secretary of the Navy John L. Sullivan , and Chief of Naval Operations Louis E. Denfeld , Truman ordered Missouri to be maintained with the active fleet partly because of his fondness for the battleship and partly because the battleship had been christened by his daughter Margaret Truman .
Then the only U.S. battleship in commission , Missouri was proceeding seaward on a training mission from Hampton Roads early on 17 January 1950 when she ran aground 1 @.@ 6 mi ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) from Thimble Shoal Light , near Old Point Comfort . She hit shoal water a distance of three ship @-@ lengths from the main channel . Lifted some 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above waterline , she stuck hard and fast . With the aid of tugboats , pontoons , and a rising tide , she was refloated on 1 February 1950 and repaired .
= = The Korean War ( 1950 – 1953 ) = =
In 1950 , the Korean War broke out , prompting the United States to intervene in the name of the United Nations . President Truman was caught off guard when the invasion struck , but quickly ordered U.S. forces stationed in Japan into South Korea . Truman also sent U.S.-based troops , tanks , fighter and bomber aircraft , and a strong naval force to Korea to support the Republic of Korea . As part of the naval mobilization Missouri was called up from the Atlantic Fleet and dispatched from Norfolk on 19 August to support UN forces on the Korean peninsula .
Missouri arrived just west of Kyūshū on 14 September , where she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Allan Edward Smith . The first American battleship to reach Korean waters , she bombarded Samchok on 15 September 1950 in an attempt to divert troops and attention from the Incheon landings . This was the first time since World War II that Missouri had fired her guns in anger , and in company with the cruiser Helena and two destroyers , she helped prepare the way for the U.S. Eighth Army offensive .
Missouri arrived at Incheon on 19 September , and on 10 October became flagship of Rear Admiral J. M. Higgins , commander , Cruiser Division 5 ( CruDiv 5 ) . She arrived at Sasebo on 14 October , where she became flagship of Vice Admiral A. D. Struble , Commander , 7th Fleet . After screening the aircraft carrier Valley Forge along the east coast of Korea , she conducted bombardment missions from 12 to 26 October in the Chongjin and Tanchon areas , and at Wonsan where she again screened carriers eastward of Wonsan .
MacArthur 's amphibious landings at Incheon had severed the North Korean Army ’ s supply lines ; as a result , North Korea ’ s army had begun a lengthy retreat from South Korea into North Korea . This retreat was closely monitored by the Peoples Republic of China ( PRC ) , out of fear that the UN offensive against Korea would create a US @-@ backed enemy on China ’ s border , and out of concern that the UN offensive in Korea could evolve into a UN war against China . The latter of these two threats had already manifested itself during the Korea War : U.S. F @-@ 86 Sabres on patrol in " MiG Alley " frequently crossed into China while pursuing Communist MiGs operating out of Chinese airbases .
Moreover , there was talk among the U.N. commanders — notably General Douglas MacArthur — about a potential campaign against the People 's Republic of China . In an effort to dissuade UN forces from completely overrunning North Korea , the People 's Republic of China issued diplomatic warnings that they would use force to protect North Korea , but these warnings were not taken seriously for a number of reasons , among them the fact that China lacked air cover to conduct such an attack . This changed abruptly on 19 October 1950 , when the first of an eventual total of 380 @,@ 000 People 's Liberation Army soldiers under the command of General Peng Dehuai crossed into North Korea , launching a full @-@ scale assault against advancing U.N. troops . The PRC offensive caught the UN completely by surprise ; UN forces realized they would have to fall back , and quickly executed an emergency retreat . UN assets were shuffled in order to cover this retreat , and as part of the force tasked with covering the UN retreat Missouri was moved into Hungnam on 23 December to provide gunfire support about the Hungnam defense perimeter until the last UN troops , the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division , were evacuated by way of the sea on 24 December 1950 .
Missouri conducted additional operations with carriers and shore bombardments off the east coast of Korea until 19 March 1951 . She arrived at Yokosuka on 24 March , and 4 days later was relieved of duty in the Far East . She departed Yokosuka on 28 March , and upon arrival at Norfolk on 27 April became the flagship of Rear Admiral James L. Holloway , Jr . , commander , Cruiser Force , Atlantic Fleet . During the summer of 1951 , she engaged in two midshipman training cruises to northern Europe . Under the command of Captain John Sylvester , Missouri entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard 18 October 1951 for an overhaul , which lasted until 30 January 1952 .
Following winter and spring training out of Guantanamo Bay , Missouri visited New York , then set course from Norfolk on 9 June 1952 for another midshipman cruise . She returned to Norfolk on 4 August and entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard to prepare for a second tour in the Korean combat zone .
Missouri stood out of Hampton Roads on 11 September 1952 and arrived at Yokosuka on 17 October . Vice Admiral Joseph J. Clark , commander of the 7th Fleet , brought his command onboard on 19 October . Her primary mission was to provide seagoing artillery support by bombarding enemy targets in the Chaho @-@ Tanchon area , at Chongjin , in the Tanchon @-@ Sonjin area , and at Chaho , Wonsan , Hamhung , and Hungnam during the period 25 October through 2 January 1953 .
Missouri put in to Incheon on 5 January 1953 and sailed thence to Sasebo , Japan . General Mark W. Clark , Commander in Chief , U.N. Command , and Admiral Sir Guy Russell , the Royal Navy commander of the British Far East Station , visited the battleship on 23 January . In the following weeks , Missouri resumed " Cobra " patrol along the east coast of Korea to support troops ashore . Repeated bombardment of Wonsan , Tanehon , Hungnam , and Kojo destroyed main supply routes along the eastern seaboard of Korea .
The last bombardment mission by Missouri was against the Kojo area on 25 March . On 26 March , her commanding officer – Captain Warner R. Edsall – suffered a fatal heart attack while conning her through the submarine net at Sasebo . She was relieved as the 7th Fleet flagship on 6 April by her older sister New Jersey .
Missouri departed Yokosuka on 7 April and arrived at Norfolk on 4 May to become flagship for Rear Admiral E. T. Woolridge , commander , Battleships @-@ Cruisers , Atlantic Fleet , on 14 May . She departed on 8 June on a midshipman training cruise , returned to Norfolk on 4 August , and was overhauled in Norfolk Naval Shipyard from 20 November 1953 to 2 April 1954 . As the flagship of Rear Admiral R. E. Kirby , who had relieved Admiral Woolridge , Missouri departed Norfolk on 7 June as flagship of the midshipman training cruise to Lisbon and Cherbourg . During this voyage Missouri was joined by the other three battleships of her class , New Jersey , Wisconsin , and Iowa , the only time the four ships sailed together . She returned to Norfolk on 3 August and departed on 23 August for inactivation on the West Coast . After calls at Long Beach and San Francisco , Missouri arrived in Seattle on 15 September . Three days later she entered Puget Sound Naval Shipyard where she was decommissioned on 26 February 1955 , entering the Bremerton group , Pacific Reserve Fleet .
Upon arrival in Bremerton , Missouri was moored at the last pier of the reserve fleet berthing . This placed her very close to the mainland , and she served as a popular tourist attraction , logging about 180 @,@ 000 visitors per year , who came to view the " surrender deck " where a bronze plaque memorialized the spot ( 35 ° 21 ' 17 " N , 139 ° 45 ' 36 " E ) where Japan surrendered to the Allies , and the accompanying historical display that included copies of the surrender documents and photos . A small cottage industry grew in the civilian community just outside the gates , selling souvenirs and other memorabilia . Nearly thirty years passed before Missouri returned to active duty .
= = Reactivation ( 1984 to 1990 ) = =
Under the Reagan Administration ’ s program to build a 600 @-@ ship Navy , led by Secretary of the Navy John F. Lehman , Missouri was reactivated and towed by the salvage ship Beaufort to the Long Beach Naval Yard in the summer of 1984 to undergo modernization in advance of her scheduled recommissioning . In preparation for the move , a skeleton crew of 20 spent three weeks working 12- to 16 @-@ hour days preparing the battleship for her tow . During the modernization Missouri had her obsolete armament removed : 20 mm and 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns , and four of her ten 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) gun mounts .
Over the next several months , the ship was upgraded with the most advanced weaponry available ; among the new weapons systems installed were four MK 141 quad cell launchers for 16 AGM @-@ 84 Harpoon anti @-@ ship missiles , eight Armored Box Launcher ( ABL ) mounts for 32 BGM @-@ 109 Tomahawk missiles , and a quartet of Phalanx Close In Weapon System ( CIWS ) Gatling guns for defense against enemy anti @-@ ship missiles and enemy aircraft . Also included in her modernization were upgrades to radar and fire control systems for her guns and missiles , and improved electronic warfare capabilities . During the modernization Missouri 's 800 lb ( 360 kg ) bell , which had been removed from the battleship and sent to Jefferson City , Missouri for sesquicentennial celebrations in the state , was formally returned to the battleship in advance of her recommissioning . Missouri was formally recommissioned in San Francisco on 10 May 1986 . " This is a day to celebrate the rebirth of American sea power " , Secretary of Defense Caspar W. Weinberger told an audience of 10 @,@ 000 at the recommissioning ceremony , instructing the crew to " listen for the footsteps of those who have gone before you . They speak to you of honor and the importance of duty . They remind you of your own traditions . " Also present at the recommissioning ceremony was Missouri governor John Ashcroft , U.S. Senator Pete Wilson , Secretary of the Navy John Lehman , San Francisco mayor Dianne Feinstein , and Margaret Truman .
Four months later Missouri departed from her new home port of Long Beach for an around @-@ the @-@ world cruise , visiting Pearl Harbor Hawaii ; Sydney , Hobart , and Perth , Australia ; Diego Garcia ; the Suez Canal ; Istanbul , Turkey ; Naples , Italy ; Rota , Spain ; Lisbon , Portugal ; and the Panama Canal . Missouri became the first American battleship to circumnavigate the globe since Theodore Roosevelt 's " Great White Fleet " 80 years before – a fleet which included the first battleship named USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 11 ) .
In 1987 , Missouri was outfitted with 40 mm grenade launchers and 25 mm chain guns and sent to take part in Operation Earnest Will , the escorting of reflagged Kuwaiti oil tankers in the Persian Gulf . These smaller @-@ caliber weapons were installed due to the threat of Iranian @-@ manned , Swedish @-@ made Boghammar cigarette boats operating in the Persian Gulf at the time . On 25 July , the ship departed on a six @-@ month deployment to the Indian Ocean and North Arabian Sea . She spent more than 100 continuous days at sea in a hot , tense environment – a striking contrast to her world cruise months earlier . As the centerpiece for Battlegroup Echo , Missouri escorted tanker convoys into the Strait of Hormuz , keeping her fire control system trained on land @-@ based Iranian Silkworm missile launchers .
Missouri returned to the United States via Diego Garcia , Australia and Hawaii in early 1988 . Several months later , Missouri 's crew again headed for Hawaiian waters for the Rim of the Pacific ( RimPac ) exercises , which involved more than 50 @,@ 000 troops and ships from the navies of Australia , Canada , Japan and the United States . Port visits in 1988 included Vancouver and Victoria in Canada , San Diego , Seattle , and Bremerton .
In the early months of 1989 , Missouri was in the Long Beach Naval Shipyard for routine maintenance . On 1 July 1989 , while berthed at Pier D , the music video for Cher 's If I Could Turn Back Time was filmed aboard Missouri and featured the ship 's crew . A few months later she departed for Pacific Exercise ( PacEx ) ' 89 , where she and New Jersey performed a simultaneous gunfire demonstration for the aircraft carriers Enterprise and Nimitz . The highlight of PacEx was a port visit in Pusan , Republic of Korea . In 1990 , Missouri again took part in the RimPac Exercise with ships from Australia , Canada , Japan , Korea , and the U.S.
= = Gulf War ( January – February 1991 ) = =
On 2 August 1990 Iraq , led by President Saddam Hussein , invaded Kuwait . In the middle of the month U.S. President George H. W. Bush , in keeping with the Carter Doctrine , sent the first of several hundred thousand troops , along with a strong force of naval support , to Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf area to support a multinational force in a standoff with Iraq .
Missouri 's scheduled four @-@ month Western Pacific port @-@ to @-@ port cruise set to begin in September was canceled just a few days before the ship was to leave . She had been placed on hold in anticipation of being mobilized as forces continued to mass in the Middle East . Missouri departed on 13 November 1990 for the troubled waters of the Persian Gulf . She departed from Pier 6 at Long Beach , with extensive press coverage , and headed for Hawaii and the Philippines for more work @-@ ups en route to the Persian Gulf . Along the way she made stops at Subic Bay and Pattaya Beach , Thailand , before transiting the Strait of Hormuz on 3 January 1991 . During subsequent operations leading up to Operation Desert Storm , Missouri prepared to launch Tomahawk Land Attack Missiles ( TLAMs ) and provide naval gunfire support as required .
Missouri fired her first Tomahawk missile at Iraqi targets at 01 : 40 am on 17 January 1991 , followed by 27 additional missiles over the next five days .
On 29 January , the Oliver Hazard Perry @-@ class frigate Curts led Missouri northward , using advanced mine @-@ avoidance sonar . In her first naval gunfire support action of Desert Storm she shelled an Iraqi command and control bunker near the Saudi border , the first time her 16 in ( 410 mm ) guns had been fired in combat since March 1953 off Korea . The battleship bombarded Iraqi beach defenses in occupied Kuwait on the night of 3 February , firing 112 16 in ( 410 mm ) rounds over the next three days until relieved by Wisconsin . Missouri then fired another 60 rounds off Khafji on 11 – 12 February before steaming north to Faylaka Island . After minesweepers cleared a lane through Iraqi defenses , Missouri fired 133 rounds during four shore bombardment missions as part of the amphibious landing feint against the Kuwaiti shore line the morning of 23 February . The heavy pounding attracted Iraqi attention ; in response to the battleship ’ s artillery strike , the Iraqis fired two HY @-@ 2 Silkworm missiles at the battleship , one of which missed , . The other missile was intercepted by a GWS @-@ 30 Sea Dart missile launched from the British air defence destroyer HMS Gloucester within 90 seconds and crashed into the sea roughly 700 yd ( 640 m ) in front of Missouri .
During the campaign , Missouri was involved in a friendly fire incident with the Oliver Hazard Perry @-@ class frigate Jarrett . According to the official report , on 25 February , Jarrett 's Phalanx CIWS engaged the chaff fired by Missouri as a countermeasure against enemy missiles , and stray rounds from the firing struck Missouri , one penetrating through a bulkhead and becoming embedded in an interior passageway of the ship . Another round struck the ship on the forward funnel , passing completely through it . One sailor aboard Missouri was struck in the neck by flying shrapnel and suffered minor injuries . Those familiar with the incident are skeptical of this account , however , as Jarrett was reportedly over 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away at the time and the characteristics of chaff are such that a Phalanx would not normally regard it as a threat and engage it . There is no dispute that the rounds that struck Missouri did come from Jarrett , and that it was an accident . The suspicion is that a Phalanx operator on Jarrett may have accidentally fired off a few rounds manually , although there is no evidence to support this .
During the operation , Missouri also assisted coalition forces engaged in clearing Iraqi naval mines in the Persian Gulf . By the time the war ended , Missouri had destroyed at least 15 naval mines .
With combat operations out of range of the battleship ’ s weapons on 26 February , Missouri had fired a total 783 rounds of 16 in ( 410 mm ) shells and launched 28 Tomahawk cruise missiles during the campaign , and commenced to conduct patrol and armistice enforcement operations in the northern Persian Gulf until sailing for home on 21 March . Following stops at Fremantle and Hobart , Australia , the warship visited Pearl Harbor before arriving home in April . She spent the remainder of the year conducting type training and other local operations , the latter including 7 December " voyage of remembrance " to mark the 50th anniversary of the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941 . During that ceremony , Missouri hosted President George H. W. Bush , the first such presidential visit for the warship since Harry S. Truman boarded the battleship in September 1947 .
= = Museum ship ( 1998 to present ) = =
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the absence of a perceived threat to the United States came drastic cuts in the defense budget , and the high cost of maintaining and operating battleships as part of the United States Navy 's active fleet became uneconomical ; as a result , Missouri was decommissioned on 31 March 1992 at Long Beach , California after 16 total years of active service . Her last commanding officer , Captain Albert L. Kaiss , wrote in the ship 's final Plan of the Day :
Our final day has arrived . Today the final chapter in battleship Missouri ’ s history will be written . It 's often said that the crew makes the command . There is no truer statement ... for it 's the crew of this great ship that made this a great command . You are a special breed of sailors and Marines and I am proud to have served with each and every one of you . To you who have made the painful journey of putting this great lady to sleep , I thank you . For you have had the toughest job . To put away a ship that has become as much a part of you as you are to her is a sad ending to a great tour . But take solace in this — you have lived up to the history of the ship and those who sailed her before us . We took her to war , performed magnificently and added another chapter in her history , standing side by side our forerunners in true naval tradition . God bless you all .
Missouri returned to be part of the reserve fleet at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard , Bremerton , Washington , until 12 January 1995 , when she was struck from the Naval Vessel Register . She remained in Bremerton , but was not open to tourists as she had been from 1957 to 1984 . In spite of attempts by citizens ' groups to keep her in Bremerton and be re @-@ opened as a tourist site , the U.S. Navy wanted to pair a symbol of the end of World War II with one representing its beginning . On 4 May 1998 , Secretary of the Navy John H. Dalton signed the donation contract that transferred her to the nonprofit USS Missouri Memorial Association ( MMA ) of Honolulu , Hawaii . She was towed from Bremerton on 23 May to Astoria , Oregon , where she sat in fresh water at the mouth of the Columbia River to kill and drop the saltwater barnacles and sea grasses that had grown on her hull in Bremerton , then towed across the eastern Pacific , and docked at Ford Island , Pearl Harbor on 22 June , just 500 yd ( 460 m ) from the Arizona Memorial . Less than a year later , on 29 January 1999 , Missouri was opened as a museum operated by the MMA .
Originally , the decision to move Missouri to Pearl Harbor was met with some resistance . The National Park Service expressed concern that the battleship , whose name has become synonymous with the end of World War II , would overshadow the battleship Arizona , whose dramatic explosion and subsequent sinking on 7 December 1941 has since become synonymous with the attack on Pearl Harbor . To help guard against this impression Missouri was placed well back from and facing the Arizona Memorial , so that those participating in military ceremonies on Missouri 's aft decks would not have sight of the Arizona Memorial . The decision to have Missouri 's bow face the Arizona Memorial was intended to convey that Missouri watches over the remains of Arizona so that those interred within Arizona 's hull may rest in peace .
Missouri was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 14 May 1971 for hosting the signing of the instrument of Japanese surrender that ended World War II . She is not eligible for designation as a National Historic Landmark because she was extensively modernized in the years following the surrender .
On 14 October 2009 , Missouri was moved from her berthing station on Battleship Row to a drydock at the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard to undergo a three @-@ month overhaul . The work , priced at $ 18 million , included installing a new anti @-@ corrosion system , repainting the hull , and upgrading the internal mechanisms . Drydock workers reported that the ship was leaking at some points on the starboard side . The repairs were completed the first week of January 2010 and the ship was returned to her berthing station on Battleship Row on 7 January 2010 . The ship 's grand reopening occurred on 30 January .
= = Appearances in popular culture = =
Missouri was central to the plot of the film Under Siege , and the ship was prominently featured in another movie , Battleship . As Missouri has not moved under her own power since 1992 , shots of the ship at sea were obtained with the help of three tugboats .
= = Awards = =
Missouri received eight battle stars for her service in World War II , five for her service during the Korean War , and three for her service during the Gulf War . Missouri also received numerous awards for her service in World War II , Korea , and the Persian Gulf .
= M @-@ 70 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 70 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . In the 1920s , the highway originally connected Sterling in southwest Arenac County with Prescott in southeast Ogemaw County . The route was later adjusted to run from M @-@ 76 near Sterling along a convoluted route through Maple Ridge and Prescott to end at M @-@ 55 in Nester 's Corners . The highway was still a gravel road when the designation was removed by 1960 .
= = Route description = =
The final route used by M @-@ 70 followed Melita Road starting at M @-@ 76 northwest of Sterling . The highway ran north and crossed the Rifle River at a point between sections of the Ogemaw State Forest . The highway turned east on Main Street Road in Melita . From there , M @-@ 70 ran east on Main Street Road to the junction with Reed Road where it turned northward to Maple Ridge Road . The highway followed Maple Ridge Road east into Maple Ridge and turned north on Briggs Road . Crossing the Ogemaw – Arenac county line , the road name changed to Sage Lake Road into the village of Prescott . From there , it turned westerly on Greenwood Road through downtown Prescott , and north on Clark Road to end at M @-@ 55 one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Nester Corners , which is the intersection of South Sage Lake Road and M @-@ 55 .
= = History = =
M @-@ 70 was first shown on a state map on July 1 , 1919 , with the debut of the Michigan state trunkline highway system . The original routing was shown between M @-@ 76 at Sterling and M @-@ 55 at Prescott . In 1929 , M @-@ 55 was shifted to run due east from Selkirk to US Highway 23 north of Whittemore . The segment east of Prescott to Whittemore was turned over to the county , but the section north of Prescott was added to M @-@ 70 . This extended M @-@ 70 north to its terminus in Nester 's Corners . The designation was decommissioned by July 1 , 1960 . At the time , the highway was still a gravel road .
= = Major intersections = =
= Hancock ( film ) =
Hancock is a 2008 American superhero comedy @-@ drama film directed by Peter Berg and starring Will Smith , Charlize Theron , Jason Bateman and Eddie Marsan . It tells the story of a vigilante superhero , John Hancock ( Smith ) from Los Angeles whose reckless actions routinely cost the city millions of dollars . Eventually one person he saves , Ray Embrey ( Bateman ) , makes it his mission to change Hancock 's public image for the better .
The story was originally written by Vincent Ngo in 1996 . It languished in " development hell " for years and had various directors attached , including Tony Scott , Michael Mann , Jonathan Mostow , and Gabriele Muccino before going into production in 2007 . Hancock was filmed in Los Angeles with a production budget of $ 150 million .
In the United States , the film was rated PG @-@ 13 by the Motion Picture Association of America after changes were made at the organization 's request in order to avoid an R rating , which it had received twice before . The film was presented and widely released on July 2 , 2008 in the United States and the United Kingdom by Columbia Pictures . Hancock received mixed reviews from film critics and grossed more than $ 620 million in theaters worldwide .
= = Plot = =
John Hancock ( Will Smith ) is an alcoholic man with superhero powers , including flight , invulnerability , and super @-@ strength . Though he uses his powers to stop criminals in his current residence of Los Angeles , his activity inadvertently causes millions of dollars in property damage due to his constant intoxication . As a result , he is routinely jeered at the crime scenes . Hancock also ignores court subpoenas from the city of Los Angeles to address the property damage he has caused .
When public relations spokesperson Ray Embrey ( Jason Bateman ) departs from an unsuccessful meeting pitching his All @-@ Heart logo for corporations who are extraordinarily charitable , he becomes trapped on railroad tracks with an incoming freight train . Hancock saves Ray 's life , but he causes the train to derail and nearly injures another driver . Hancock is jeered by other drivers for causing more damage , but Ray steps in and publicly thanks Hancock for saving his life . Ray offers to improve Hancock 's public image , and Hancock grudgingly accepts . The spokesperson convinces the alcoholic superhero to permit himself to be jailed for outstanding subpoenas so they can show Los Angeles how much the city really needs Hancock . When the crime rate rises after Hancock 's incarceration , the superhero is contacted by the Chief of Police . With a new costume from Ray , Hancock intervenes with a bank robbery , rescuing a cop and stopping the leader of the robbers , Red Parker ( Eddie Marsan ) .
After the rescue , Hancock is applauded for handling the bank robbery . The superhero becomes popular once more , as Ray had predicted . He goes out to dinner with Ray and his wife Mary ( Charlize Theron ) , with whom he reveals his apparent immortality and his amnesia from 80 years ago . After Hancock tucks a drunken Ray in bed , he discovers that Mary also has superpowers . He threatens to expose her until she explains their origins , and she tells him that they have lived for 3 @,@ 000 years with their powers , having been called gods and angels in their time . She explains that they are the last of their kind and that their kind are paired . Mary does not tell Hancock the entire truth , and Hancock departs to tell Ray about the conversation . The exchange results in a battle between Hancock and Mary that takes them to downtown Los Angeles , causing significant damage to the area . Ray , downtown in a business meeting , sees and recognizes Mary using superhero powers like Hancock .
Hancock is later shot twice in the chest and wounded when he stops a liquor store robbery . After being hospitalized , Mary enters and explains that as the pair of immortals gets close , they begin to lose their powers . She also explains that Hancock was attacked in an alley 80 years prior , where he obtained amnesia . Mary deserted him then in order for him to recover from his injuries . When he is hospitalized , the hospital is raided by Red Parker , the bank robber , and two men that Hancock had humiliated during his incarceration . Mary , visiting Hancock , is shot in the process . Hancock is able to stop two men but is further wounded by them . When Red attempts to finish Hancock off , Ray comes to the rescue and kills the bank robber with a fire axe . With Mary nearly dying , Hancock flees from the hospital so their parting would allow her to heal with her powers . He later winds up in New York City , working as a superhero . Ray is seen walking with Mary discussing historical events such as the reign of Attila the Hun in a jovial manner . As gratitude to Ray , Hancock paints Ray 's All @-@ Heart logo on the moon and calls the spokesperson to look up to the worldwide advertisement .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Hancock , now living in New York City , confronts a fleeing criminal with the police . Cornered , the man takes a hostage and jeeringly demands Hancock escort him to safety . Hancock turns back and smiles as the credits resume .
= = Cast = =
Will Smith as John Hancock , an alcoholic superhero . Hancock is invulnerable , immortal , possesses superhuman strength , reflexes and stamina , highly developed regeneration , and can fly at supersonic speeds . He is also an amnesiac ; his first memories are of waking up alone in a hospital in 1931 . During his release , the duty nurse asked him for his " John Hancock " , which he adopted as his current alias . Smith described the character , " Hancock is not your average superhero . Every day he wakes up mad at the world . He doesn 't remember what happened to him and there 's no one to help him find the answers . " To give a realistic appearance of superhero flight , Smith was often suspended by wires 60 feet ( 18 m ) above the ground and propelled at 40 – 50 miles per hour ( 64 – 80 km / h ) . , Hancock 's character is a parody version of DC 's Superman .
Jason Bateman as Ray Embrey , a corporate public relations consultant whose life Hancock saves . Bateman said , " My character sees life through rose @-@ colored glasses so he doesn 't understand how people can 't see the positive side of Hancock . I like being the everyman . I like being the tour guide , the one who tethers whatever absurdity might be in a film and helps make that tangible to the audience . "
Charlize Theron as Mary Embrey , Ray 's wife and Hancock 's ex @-@ wife who also has powers and abilities like him , but they are both becoming weak as they are close to each other . Theron described Mary , " She makes this conscious decision to live in suburbia and be this soccer mom to her stepson and be the perfect wife — she lives in this bubble . But when people do that it usually means they are hiding some characteristic inside themselves that scares them . That is Mary 's case . She knows who she is and what she is capable of . "
Eddie Marsan as Kenneth " Red " Parker , Jr . , a bank robber who later becomes Hancock 's arch @-@ nemesis . Having previously filmed the low @-@ budget Happy @-@ Go @-@ Lucky , Marsan found the transition to the big @-@ budget Hancock to be a shock . Marsan said , " I went from being in a car with Sally Hawkins in Happy @-@ Go @-@ Lucky to blowing up a bank in downtown LA . "
Film producers Akiva Goldsman and Michael Mann appear as executives listening to Ray 's lecture . Television host Nancy Grace also has a cameo appearance .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Vincent Ngo wrote the spec script Tonight , He Comes in 1996 . The draft , about a troubled 12 @-@ year @-@ old , and a fallen superhero , was initially picked up by director Tony Scott as a potential project . Producer Akiva Goldsman came across the script , which he had considered a favorite , and encouraged Richard Saperstein , then president of development and production at Artisan Entertainment , to acquire it in 2002 . Michael Mann was initially attached to direct Tonight , He Comes , but he instead opted to direct Miami Vice . Eventually , Artisan placed the project in turnaround , and it was acquired by Goldsman .
Vince Gilligan and John August rewrote Ngo 's script , and Jonathan Mostow was attached to direct the film . Under Mostow 's supervision , a ten @-@ page treatment was written to be pitched to Will Smith to portray the lead role in the film . Neither Mostow nor Smith was yet committed to make the project an active priority at the time . Several studios pursued the opportunity to finance the film , and Columbia Pictures succeeded in acquiring the prospect in February 2005 . A second draft was scripted by Gilligan following the finalization of the deal with Columbia . The film was initially slated for a holiday 2006 release .
In November 2005 , Mostow and Smith committed to Tonight , He Comes , with production slated to begin in Los Angeles in summer 2006 . Smith 's salary in his pay or play contract for the film was $ 20 million and 20 percent of the film 's gross . The actor had also set up a pay or play contract to film I Am Legend under Warner Bros. after completion of Tonight , He Comes . Mostow eventually departed from the project due to creative differences . Italian director Gabriele Muccino filled Mostow 's vacancy in May 2006 . Since Muccino was busy editing The Pursuit of Happyness starring Smith , which Muccino had directed , Smith switched projects to film I Am Legend first for its December 2007 release , and then film Tonight , He Comes afterward . Later in the month , Muccino left the project because of an incompatibility with filming the story . Since Muccino was preparing The Pursuit of Happyness , the studio had delayed the production start for Tonight , He Comes to summer 2007 , enabling Warner Bros. to begin production of I Am Legend with Smith .
= = = Filming = = =
In October 2006 , Peter Berg was attached to direct Tonight , He Comes with production slated to begin in May 2007 in Los Angeles , the story 's setting . Berg had been midway through filming The Kingdom when he heard about the film and called Michael Mann , who had become one of its producers . The new director compared the original script 's tone to Leaving Las Vegas ( 1995 ) , calling it " a scathing character study of this suicidal alcoholic superhero " . The director explained the rewrite , " We thought the idea was cool , but we did want to lighten it up . We all did . " Before filming began , Tonight , He Comes was retitled John Hancock , and it was eventually shortened to Hancock .
Filming began on Hancock on July 3 , 2007 in Los Angeles , having a production budget of $ 150 million . Locations such as Hollywood Boulevard were designed to look damaged , having rubble , overturned vehicles , and fires . Smith 's character is also an alcoholic , so for scenes in liquor stores , the art department designed fake labels such as Pap Smear Vodka for the bottles because " brown @-@ bag brands " like Thunderbird and Night Train refused to lend their names . Reshoots were filmed in Times Square in May 2008 , the late date resulting in the cancellation of the film 's original world premiere in Australia on June 10 , 2008 .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Hancock was Peter Berg 's first film with visual effects as critical cinematic elements . He considered the computer @-@ generated fight his least favorite part of the film , citing limited control in making the scene successful . According to the director , " Once the fight starts , you 're very limited and you 're at the mercy of your effects guys ... unless they 're really technically oriented ... it 's definitely the time we have the least amount of control as directors . " He and other filmmakers worked to cut down on the fight scene , believing that the film 's success would come from the character study of Smith 's character , John Hancock , similar to Robert Downey , Jr . ' s acclaimed portrayal of Tony Stark in the previous May 's superhero release , Iron Man .
Visual effects supervisor Carey Villegas described Peter Berg 's photography as " very high energy " , to which the visual effects crew had difficulty adapting . Though the crew had estimated developing 300 visual effects shot at its initial bid , the final tally was approximately 525 shots . An unexpected shot was a scene in which Hancock shoves a prisoner 's head up another 's anus , and filmmakers initially attempted to film it conventionally , using sleight of hand techniques with cameras . Finding that doing so did not capture " the vulgarity of the gag " , the crew was enlisted to use computer @-@ generated effects . Visual effects were also applied in conjunction with the film 's choreography , incorporating palm trees , twisters , and debris in the computer @-@ generated fight scene and combining visual effects with a crane shot to portray Hancock 's derailment of a freight train .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
The New York Times noted that Hancock 's original story and controversial subject matter present a stark contrast to " a summerful of sequels and animated sure shots " and represent a gamble for " an increasingly corporate entertainment industry " . Hancock had been reviewed by the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) twice , and both times received an R rating instead of the makers ' preferred PG @-@ 13 rating to target broader audiences .
The MPAA questioned elements including Smith 's character drinking in front of a 7 @-@ year @-@ old and the character flying under the influence of alcohol . Scenes that were removed to receive a PG @-@ 13 rating from the MPAA included a scene of statutory rape , two of three uses of the word " fuck " ( the MPAA only permitted one use for the PG @-@ 13 rating ) , and intense shots of needles going into arms . The MPAA allowed scenes of Hancock shoving a prisoner 's head up another 's behind and of Hancock having explosive ejaculation during sexual intercourse , though Berg chose to save the latter scene for the DVD , explaining , " It just wasn 't that funny . Never was . You 'd put it in front of an audience and there 'd be two , maybe three people laughing . There was no way to do that and then regain even a modicum of emotional integrity . " The director kept the scene with the prisoners since a Las Vegas test screening was overwhelmingly successful : " At the end of the day , I couldn 't ignore an audience when they 're laughing that hard . " With such elements , studio executives only became comfortable with Hancock when the marketing approach focused on action and humor . Berg noted , " The ad campaign for this movie is much friendlier than the film . " The MPAA ultimately gave the film a PG @-@ 13 rating , citing " some intense sequences of sci @-@ fi action and violence and language " .
Hancock was originally titled Tonight , He Comes and later changed to John Hancock before settling on its final title . Prior to the film 's release , marketing consultants attempted to persuade Sony Pictures to again change the title Hancock because it was too vague for audiences , suggesting alternatives like Heroes Never Die , Unlikely Hero , and Less Than Hero . Despite the advice , Sony stayed with Hancock and anticipated marketing on the popularity of the film 's star , Will Smith .
= = = Theatrical run = = =
Hancock had its world premiere as the opener at the 30th Moscow International Film Festival on June 19 , 2008 . To avoid copyright infringement , organizers took " unprecedented " steps to prevent illegal reproduction of the film .
For the film , Sony created a digital camera package ( DCP ) having 4K resolution , containing four times more information than the typical DCP that possessed 2K resolution . Projectors for the higher @-@ resolution package have been installed in 200 theaters in the United States with two dozen in evaluation .
Prior to the film 's opening five @-@ day weekend in the United States and Canada , predictions for its weekend performance ranged from as low as $ 70 million to as high as $ 125 million . According to CinemaScore , Hancock was given a B + grade by audiences . The film was shown in advance screenings on July 1 , 2008 in 3 @,@ 680 theaters in the United States and Canada , grossing $ 6 @.@ 8 million . The film was widely released on July 2 , 2008 , expanding to 3 @,@ 965 theaters . At the conclusion of the five @-@ day weekend , Hancock took top placement at the box office in the United States and Canada , grossing an estimated $ 103 @.@ 8 million . The film had the third @-@ biggest opening 4th of July weekend after Transformers and Spider @-@ Man 2 . Hancock was Will Smith 's fifth film to open on a 4 July weekend and was his most successful opening to date . The film was also Smith 's eighth film in a row to take top placement in the American and Canadian box office and the twelfth film in Smith 's career to lead the box office . Hancock was also Peter Berg 's strongest opening of his directing career to date . Chad Hartigan , analyst for Exhibitor Relations , said about Smith 's successful opening , " Audiences don 't care what critics say ; they 're going to turn out for anything he does . "
Outside the United States and Canada , Hancock grossed $ 78 @.@ 3 million in its opening weekend , drawing from 5 @,@ 444 screenings across 50 markets , ranking it the third highest international opening of 2008 after Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull and Iron Man . Hancock averaged $ 14 @,@ 382 per screen . It placed on top in 47 of the 50 markets in which it opened ; its strongest openings were the United Kingdom with $ 19 @.@ 3 million , Germany with $ 12 @.@ 4 million , South Korea with $ 8 @.@ 5 million , Australia with $ 7 @.@ 3 million , and China with $ 5 @.@ 5 million . The Chinese opening was the fourth @-@ biggest opening to date for the country . Other international performances included $ 3 @.@ 4 million in Brazil and $ 3 @.@ 1 million in Taiwan . In Hong Kong , the film opened in first place with $ 1 @.@ 3 million , averaging $ 37 @,@ 300 across the 35 venues . The film 's overall gross for its opening five @-@ day weekend worldwide is $ 185 @.@ 6 million .
In the following weekend of July 11 , 2008 , Hancock fell to second place in the United States and Canada behind Hellboy II : The Golden Army , grossing an estimated $ 33 million , a " modest " 47 % drop in revenue ( see second weekend in box office performance ) . The film 's recorded American and Canadian attendance was higher than the Smith feature Men in Black II in both films ' second weekend , but it was significantly less than attendance records for Smith 's other films , Independence Day and Men in Black through the same point . Internationally Hancock expanded to 8 @,@ 125 screens across 67 markets , ranking first at the box office again in 30 markets . The film 's top opening grosses for the weekend included $ 11 @.@ 4 million in Russia ( 589 screens ) , $ 9 @.@ 9 million in France ( 739 screens ) , $ 4 @.@ 6 million in Mexico ( 783 screens ) , $ 2 @.@ 2 million in India ( 429 screens ) , $ 1 @.@ 7 million in the Netherlands ( 90 screens ) , $ 1 @.@ 3 million in Belgium ( 69 screens ) , and $ 1 million in Ukraine ( 81 screens ) . In territories playing Hancock for a second weekend , the United Kingdom dropped 45 % to total $ 33 @.@ 4 million to date , Germany 37 % to total $ 24 @.@ 2 million to date , South Korea 38 % to total $ 14 @.@ 7 million to date , and Australia 47 % to total $ 14 @.@ 4 million to date . For the second weekend , with the 67 markets , Hancock accumulated an estimated $ 71 @.@ 4 million in the international box office , only a $ 7 @.@ 2 million drop from the previous weekend in territories outside the United States and Canada .
In Hancock 's third weekend of July 18 , the film took top placement in the international box office a third time , grossing an estimated $ 44 @.@ 8 million from 8 @,@ 286 screens across 71 territories . The film had beaten The Dark Knight , which premiered that weekend in 20 international markets . Hancock had tracked 32 % internationally ahead of its performance in the United States and Canada . It had opened in four new markets for the weekend , ranking first in Spain with $ 8 @.@ 6 million from 562 sites and first in Norway with $ 1 million from 60 sites . Hancock also kept top placement in France , estimating $ 4 @.@ 4 million from 741 screens for a total of $ 16 @.@ 8 million to date .
The film experienced a late resurgence in the international box office on the weekend of September 12 , grossing $ 10 @.@ 6 million from 1 @,@ 425 screens in 31 markets . Making up most of the amount was $ 8 million from the film 's premiere in Italy on 678 screens . Hancock has grossed $ 227 @,@ 946 @,@ 274 in the United States and Canada and $ 396 @,@ 440 @,@ 472 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 624 @,@ 386 @,@ 746 .
= = = Home media = = =
Hancock was part of Sony 's experiment in providing content to consumers who own a BRAVIA television equipped with an Internet connection . The film 's release over the Internet took place after its theatrical run and before its release on DVD . According to Sony executives , distributing Hancock was an opportunity to showcase BRAVIA , though the method has been perceived as an " obvious threat " to cable companies ' video on demand . The film was available to BRAVIA owners from October 28 , 2008 to November 10 , 2008 .
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on November 25 , 2008 . The single @-@ disc DVD provides a theatrical cut ( 92 minutes ) and an unrated cut ( 102 minutes ) as well as five featurettes and two documentaries . The double @-@ disc DVD includes these features , a digital copy of the film , and two additional making @-@ of extras . The Blu @-@ ray Disc includes these , an on @-@ set visual diary , and a picture @-@ in @-@ picture track . George Lang of The Oklahoman described the unrated cut as " a rare instance when deleted scenes enhance the final product " . Christopher Monfette of IGN thought that the Blu @-@ ray Disc was a " beautiful " transfer , the audio was well @-@ balanced , and the featurettes were well @-@ supplied .
In the week ending November 30 , Hancock placed first on three video charts : the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert sales chart , Home Media Magazine 's video rental chart , and Nielsen 's Blu @-@ ray Disc chart . With the year 's Black Friday shopping day on November 28 , Hancock was the top seller in the Blu @-@ ray Disc format . Over 5 @.@ 38 million DVDs were sold for a revenue of $ 91 @,@ 066 @,@ 638 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Hancock received mixed reviews from film critics . Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 41 % , based on 217 reviews , with an average score of 5 @.@ 4 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Though it begins with promise , Hancock suffers from a flimsy narrative and poor execution " . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average rating , the film has received an average score of 49 out of 100 , based on 37 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Todd McCarthy of Variety felt that the film 's premise was undermined by the execution . McCarthy believed the concept ensured the film was " amusing and plausible " for its first half , but that the second half was full of illogical story developments and missed opportunities . Stephen Farber of The Hollywood Reporter said that the opening established the premise well , but that the film came undone when it began to alternate between comedy and tragedy , and introduced a backstory for Hancock that did not make sense . He said it rewrote its own internal logic in order to pander to its audience . Stephen Hunter in The Washington Post said it had begun with promise , but that the change in tone partway through was so abrupt that the film did not recover . Jim Schembri of The Age called the change in direction " an absolute killer story twist " , and David Denby of The New Yorker said it lifted the film to a new level by supplementing the jokes with sexual tension and emotional power .
Jim Schembri wrote that Berg 's direction helped to sell Hancock 's " well @-@ drawn " backstory , Todd McCarthy said the gritty visual approach adopted by Berg did not mesh well with the " vulgar goofiness " of certain scenes , and Stephen Farber said that Berg 's frantic direction compounded the storytelling errors . Stephen Hunter said that Berg had not understood that the shifting tone and plot twists were meant to be humorous , and that he had played straight what was supposed to be a dark comedy and subversive satire . David Denby said Berg 's style — especially his use of close @-@ ups — was intended to showcase " genuine actors at work " , while Manohla Dargis of The New York Times insisted Berg had taken Hancock to heart and brought gravity to the film .
David Denby described Smith 's performance as contrasting with his performances in his other films . He said , " For the first time in his life , Will Smith doesn ’ t flirt with the audience ... he stays in character as a self @-@ hating lonely guy . " Stephen Hunter argued that Smith and his co @-@ stars had misunderstood the material in the same manner as Berg . He added that the examination of Smith 's character came across at first as an examination of " phenomenally gifted " black sporting superstars who were " marginalized " , " dehumanized " and exploited as a product by society . Manohla Dargis was struck by Theron 's performance , saying that she enabled Smith to deepen the film 's emotional complexity . Todd McCarthy said that Smith 's " attitude @-@ laden quips " helped to carry the film 's superior first half , and that all three leads performed capably , but he said no opportunity was offered for the supporting characters to register . Roger Ebert writing in the Chicago Sun Times praised the three leads , saying that Smith avoided playing Hancock " as a goofball " and instead portrayed him as a more subtle and serious character . Stephen Farber said that Hancock was a good showcase for the leads , affirming that Smith shone in a film that was only sporadically worthy of his performance , while Colm Andrew of the Manx Independent said that despite the mix of themes " the laughs are frequent and genuine ( no forced slapstick ) , the fight scenes exciting and the emotional stuff quite moving " .
Jim Schembri concluded that the film was " refreshing , savvy , fun and fast " . He said it managed to mix comedy and action successfully , and that the drama came across as surprisingly genuine . Stephen Farber believed that the extended development of the film had reduced its quality , but that the visual effects were "
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missions were built near the beginning of development , which revealed some of the team 's planning mistakes . For example , the early tests of the conversation system and user interface were flawed , but the team had time to revise them before the game 's release . The team also found augmentations and skills to be less interesting than they had seemed in the design document . Colleagues from other companies — such as Doug Church , Rob Fermier , Marc LeBlanc , and Gabe Newell — noticed and pointed out these deficiencies in game " tension " when they played the prototype . In response , Harvey Smith substantially revised the augmentations and skills . Production milestones served as wake @-@ up calls for the game 's direction . A May 1998 milestone that called for a functional demo revealed that the size of the game 's maps caused frame rate issues , which was one of the first signs that maps needed to be cut . A year later , the team reached a milestone for finished game systems that Spector nicknamed the " Wow , these missions suck " milestone , which led to better estimates for their future mission work and to the reduction of the 500 @-@ page design document to 270 pages . Spector recalled Smith 's mantra on this point : " less is more " .
One of the team 's biggest blind spots was the AI programming for NPCs . Spector wrote that they considered it in preproduction , but that they did not figure out how to handle it until " relatively late in development " . This led to wasted time when the team had to discard their early AI code . The team built atop their game engine 's shooter @-@ based AI instead of writing new code that would allow characters to exhibit convincing emotions . As a result , NPC behavior was variable until the very end of development . Spector felt that the team 's " sin " was their inconsistent display of a trustable " human AI " .
= = = Technology = = =
The game was developed on systems including dual @-@ processor Pentium Pro 200s and Athlon 800s with eight and nine gigabyte hard drives , some using SCSI . The team used " more than 100 video cards " throughout development . Deus Ex was built using Visual Studio , Lightwave , and Lotus Notes . They also built a custom dialogue editor , ConEdit . The team used UnrealEd atop the Unreal game engine for map design , which Spector wrote was " superior to anything else available " . Their trust in UnrealScript led them to code " special @-@ cases " for their immediate mission needs instead of more generalized multi @-@ case code . Even as concerned team members expressed misgivings , the team only addressed this later in the project . To Spector , this was a lesson to always prefer " general solutions " over " special casing " , such that the tool set works predictably .
They waited to license a game engine until after preproduction , expecting the benefits of licensing to be more time for the content and gameplay , which Spector reported to be the case . They chose the Unreal engine as it did 80 % of what they needed from an engine and was more economical than building from scratch . Their small programming team allowed for a larger design group . The programmers also found the engine accommodating , though it took about nine months to acclimate to the software . Spector felt that they would have understood the code better had they built it themselves , instead of " treating the engine as a black box " and coding conservatively . He acknowledged that this precipitated into the Direct3D issues in their final release , which slipped through their quality assurance testing . Spector also noted that the artificial intelligence , pathfinding , and sound propagation were designed for shooters and should have been rewritten from scratch instead of relying on the engine . He thought the licensed engine worked well enough that he expected to use the same for the game 's sequel and Thief 3 . He added that developers should not attempt to force their technology to perform in ways it was not intended , and should find a balance between perfection and pragmatism .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack of Deus Ex , composed by Alexander Brandon ( primary contributor , including main theme ) , Dan Gardopée ( " Naval Base " and " Vandenberg " ) , Michiel van den Bos ( " UNATCO " , " Lebedev 's Airfield " , " Airfield Action " , " DuClare Chateau " plus minor contribution to some of Brandon 's tracks ) , and Reeves Gabrels ( " NYC Bar " ) , was praised by critics for complementing the gritty atmosphere predominant throughout the game with melodious and ambient music incorporated from a number of genres , including techno , jazz , and classical . The music sports a basic dynamic element , similar to the iMUSE system used in early 1990s LucasArts games ; during play , the music will change to a different iteration of the currently playing song based on the player 's actions , such as when the player starts a conversation , engages in combat , or transitions to the next level . All the music in the game is tracked - Gabrels ' contribution , " NYC Bar " , was converted to a module by Brandon .
A compact disc of the Deus Ex soundtrack was included in the Game of the Year edition and is not available for separate purchase . Notably , the soundtrack is not a direct audio rip from the game itself , however ; it is a " remastering " of the soundtrack with added instruments and audio production . Originally only thirty tracks were included with the re @-@ release , with tracks thirty @-@ one through forty @-@ one considered as extras . The PlayStation 2 port featured live , orchestral renditions of some tracks .
= = Release = =
Deus Ex has been re @-@ released in several iterations since its original publication , and has also been the basis of a number of mods developed by its fan community .
The Deus Ex : Game of the Year Edition , which was released on May 8 , 2001 , contains the latest game updates and a software development kit , a separate soundtrack CD , and a page from a fictional newspaper featured prominently in Deus Ex titled The Midnight Sun , which recounts recent events in the game 's world . However , later releases of said version do not include the soundtrack CD , and contain a PDF version of the newspaper on the game 's disc .
The Macintosh version of the game , released shortly after the PC version , was shipped with the same capabilities and can also be patched to enable multiplayer support . However , publisher Aspyr Media did not release any subsequent editions of the game or any additional patches . As such , the game is only supported in Mac OS 9 and the " Classic " environment in Mac OS X , neither of which are compatible with Intel @-@ based Macs . The PC version will run on Intel @-@ based Macs using Crossover , Boot Camp , or other software to enable a compatible version of Microsoft Windows to run on a Mac .
A PlayStation 2 port of the game , retitled Deus Ex : The Conspiracy outside of Europe , was released on March 26 , 2002 . Along with pre @-@ rendered introductory and ending cinematics that replaced the original versions , it features a simplified interface with optional auto aim and motion captured character models . There are many minor changes in level design , some for the purpose of balancing gameplay , but most to accommodate loading transition areas , due to the memory limitations of the PlayStation 2 . The PlayStation 2 version was rereleased in Europe on the PlayStation 3 as a PlayStation 2 Classic on May 16 , 2012 .
Loki Games worked on a Linux version of the game , but the company went out of business before releasing it . The OpenGL layer they wrote for the port however was sent out to Windows gamers through an online patch , which also makes the game far more compatible with Wine on Linux than it would have been with only Direct3D .
Though their quality assurance did not see major Direct3D issues , players noted " dramatic slowdowns " immediately following launch , and the team did not understand the " black box " of the Unreal engine well enough to make it do exactly what they needed . Spector characterized Deus Ex reviews into two categories based on how they begin with either how " Warren Spector makes games all by himself " or that " Deus Ex couldn 't possibly have been made by Ion Storm " . He has said that the game won over 30 " best of " awards in 2001 , and concluded that their final game was not perfect , but that they were much closer for having tried to " do things right or not at all " .
= = = Mods = = =
Deus Ex is built on Unreal Engine , previous games of which saw active community involvement in modding . On September 20 , 2000 , Eidos Interactive and Ion Storm announced in a press release that they would be releasing the software development kit ( SDK ) . According to the announcement , the SDK includes all the tools used to create the original game . Several team members as well as project director Warren Spector said that they were " really looking forward to seeing what [ the community ] does with our tools " . The kit was released on September 22 , 2000 , and soon gathered community interest , followed by release of tutorials , small mods , up to announcements of large mods and conversions . While ION Storm did not hugely alter the engine 's rendering and core functionality , they introduced role @-@ playing elements .
In 2009 , a fan @-@ made mod called The Nameless Mod ( TNM ) was released by Off Topic Productions . The game 's protagonist is a user of an Internet forum , with digital places represented as physical locations . The mod offers roughly the same amount of gameplay as Deus Ex and adds several new features to the game , with a more open world structure than Deus Ex and new weapons such as the player character 's fists . The mod was developed over 7 years and has thousands of lines of recorded dialogue and two different parallel story arcs . Upon its release , TNM earned a 9 / 10 overall from PCPowerPlay magazine . In ModDB 's 2009 Mod of the Year awards , The Nameless Mod won the Editor 's Choice award for Best Singleplayer Mod .
In 2013 , a fan @-@ made mod called GMDX was released . It fixes many balance mistakes ( like the " Regeneration ' augmentation ) , adds important detail to maps , passive argumentations and improves AI . It gained ModDB 2014 mod of the year award . In 2015 eight promotional videos were released . [ 1 ]
In 2015 , during the 15th anniversary of the game 's release , Square Enix ( who had acquired Eidos earlier ) endorsed a free fan @-@ created mod , Deus Ex : Revision which was released through Steam . The mod , created by Caustic Creative , is a graphical overhaul of the original game , adding in support for newer versions of DirectX , improving the textures and the soundtrack from the original game , and adding in more world @-@ building aesthetics .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Deus Ex received critical acclaim , attaining a score of 90 out of 100 from 28 critics on Metacritic . Thierry Nguyen from Computer Gaming World said that the game " delivers moments of brilliance , idiocy , ingenuity , and frustration . " Computer Games Magazine praised the title for its deep gameplay and its use of multiple solutions to situations in the game .
Former GameSpot reviewer Greg Kasavin , though awarding the game a score of 8 @.@ 2 of 10 , was disappointed by the security and lockpicking mechanics . " Such instances are essentially noninteractive " , he wrote . " You simply stand there and spend a particular quantity of electronic picks or modules until the door opens or the security goes down . " Kasavin made similar complaints about the hacking interface , noting that , " Even with basic hacking skills , you 'll still be able to bypass the encryption and password protection ... by pressing the ' hack ' button and waiting a few seconds . "
The game 's graphics and sounds were also met with muted enthusiasm . Kasavin complained of Deus Ex 's relatively sub @-@ par graphics , blaming them on the game 's " incessantly dark industrial environments . " GamePro reviewer Chris Patterson took time to note that despite being " solid acoustically , " Deus Ex had moments of weakness . He poked fun at JC 's " Joe Friday , ' just the facts , deadpan , " and the " truly cheesy accents " of minor characters in Hong Kong and New York City . IGN called the graphics " blocky " , adding that " the animation is stiff , and the dithering is just plain awful in some spots , " referring to the limited capabilities of the Unreal Engine used to design the game. the website later on stated that " overall Deus Ex certainly looks better than your average game . "
Reviewers and players also complained about the size of Deus Ex 's save files . An Adrenaline Vault reviewer noted that , " Playing through the entire adventure , [ he ] accumulated over 250MB of save game data , with the average file coming in at over 15MB . "
The game developed a strong cult following , leading to a core modding and playing community that is still active over 15 years after its release . In an interview with IGN in July 2015 , game director Warren Spector said he never expected Deus Ex to sell many copies , but he did expect it to become a cult classic among a smaller strong community , and he continues to receive fan mail from players to date regarding their experiences and thoughts about Deus Ex .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Deus Ex received over 30 " best of " awards in 2001 , from outlets such as IGN , GameSpy , PC Gamer , Computer Gaming World , and The Adrenaline Vault . It won " Excellence in Game Design " and " Game Innovation Spotlight " at the 2001 Game Developers Choice Awards , and it was nominated for " Game of the Year " . At the Interactive Achievement Awards , it won in the " Computer Innovation " and " Computer Action / Adventure " categories and received nominations for " Sound Design " , " PC Role @-@ Playing " , and " Game of the Year " in both the PC and overall categories . The British Academy of Film and Television Arts named it " PC Game of the Year " . The game also collected several " Best Story " accolades , including first prize in Gamasutra 's 2006 " Quantum Leap " awards for storytelling in a video game .
Since its release , Deus Ex has appeared in a number of " Greatest Games of All Time " lists and Hall of Fame features . It was included in IGN 's " 100 Greatest Games of All Time " ( # 40 , # 21 and # 34 in 2003 , 2005 and 2007 , respectively ) , " Top 25 Modern PC Games " ( 4th place in 2010 ) and " Top 25 PC Games of All Time " ( # 20 and # 21 in 2007 and 2009 respectively ) lists . GameSpy featured the game in its " Top 50 Games of All Time " ( 18th place in 2001 ) and " 25 Most Memorable Games of the Past 5 Years " ( 15th place in 2004 ) lists , and in the site 's " Hall of Fame " . PC Gamer placed Deus Ex on its " Top 100 PC Games of All Time " ( # 2 , # 2 , # 1 by staff and # 4 by readers in 2007 , 2008 , 2010 and 2010 respectively ) and " 50 Best Games of All Time " ( # 10 and # 27 in 2001 and 2005 ) lists , and it was awarded 1st place in PC Zone 's " 101 Best PC Games Ever " feature . It was also included in Yahoo ! UK Video Games ' " 100 Greatest Computer Games of All Time " ( 28th place ) list , and in Edge 's " The 100 Best Videogames " [ sic ] ( 29th place in 2007 ) and " 100 Best Games to Play Today " ( 57th place in 2009 ) lists . Deus Ex was named the second @-@ best game of the 2000s by Gamasutra . In 2012 , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time , and G4tv ranked it as the 53rd best game of all time for its " complex and well @-@ crafted story that was really the start of players making choices that genuinely affect the outcome . " 1UP.com listed it as one of the most important games of all time , calling its influence " too massive to properly gauge . "
= = Legacy = =
A film adaptation based on the game was originally announced in May 2002 by Columbia Pictures . The film was being produced by Laura Ziskin , along with Greg Pruss attached with writing the screenplay . Peter Schlessel , president of production for Columbia Pictures , and Paul Baldwin , president of marketing for Eidos Interactive , stated that they were confident in that the adaptation would be a successful development for both the studios and the franchise . In March 2003 , during an interview with Greg Pruss , he informed IGN that the character of JC Denton will be " a little bit filthier than he was in the game . " He further stated that the script was shaping up to be darker in tone than the original game . Although a release date was scheduled for 2006 , the film never got past the scripting stage .
In 2012 , CBS films revived the project , buying the rights and commissioning a film inspired by the Deux Ex series ; its direct inspiration will be the 2011 game Human Revolution . C. Robert Cargill and Scott Derrickson are writing the screenplay , and Derrickson will direct the film .
A sequel to the game , entitled Deus Ex : Invisible War , was released in the United States on December 2 , 2003 , and then in Europe in early 2004 for both the PC and the Xbox game console . A second sequel , entitled Deus Ex : Clan Wars , was originally conceived as a multiplayer @-@ focused third game for the series . After the commercial performance and public reception of Deus Ex : Invisible War failed to meet expectations , the decision was made to set the game in its own universe , and Deus Ex : Clan Wars was eventually published under the title Project : Snowblind .
On March 29 , 2007 , Valve Corporation announced Deus Ex and its sequel would be available for purchase from their Steam service . Among the games announced are several other Eidos franchise titles , including Thief : Deadly Shadows and Tomb Raider .
Eidos Montreal produced a prequel to Deus Ex called Deus Ex : Human Revolution . This was confirmed on November 26 , 2007 when Eidos Montreal posted a teaser trailer for the title on their website . The game was released on August 23 , 2011 for the PC , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 platforms and received critical acclaim .
On April 7 , 2015 , Eidos announced a sequel to Deus Ex : Human Revolution and second prequel to Deus Ex entitled Deus Ex : Mankind Divided .
= Michigan Avenue Bridge =
The Michigan Avenue Bridge ( officially DuSable Bridge ) is a bascule bridge that carries Michigan Avenue across the main stem of the Chicago River in downtown Chicago , Illinois , United States . The bridge was proposed in the early 20th century as part of a plan to link Chicago 's south side and north side parks with a grand boulevard . Construction of the bridge started in 1918 , it opened to traffic in 1920 , and decorative work was completed in 1928 . The bridge provides passage for vehicles and pedestrians on two levels ; it is an example of a fixed trunnion bascule bridge , which is also known as a " Chicago style bascule bridge " . The bridge is included in the Michigan – Wacker Historic District and has been designated as a Chicago Landmark .
The location is significant in the early history of Chicago . Events from the city 's past are commemorated with sculptures and plaques on the bridge , and exhibits in the McCormick Bridgehouse & Chicago River Museum — housed in one of the bridge tender houses — detail the history of the Chicago River .
= = Location = =
The Michigan Avenue Bridge has a north – south orientation , spanning the main stem of the Chicago River between the Near North Side and Loop community areas of Chicago . Its northern portal lies at the foot of the Magnificent Mile , between the Wrigley Building and Tribune Tower . Its southern portal is at the intersection of Michigan Avenue and Wacker Drive , overlooked by the London Guarantee Building and 333 North Michigan . The neighboring bridges are Columbus Drive Bridge to the east and Wabash Avenue Bridge to the west .
The bridge is situated in a historically significant area . The northern end of the bridge covers part of the Jean Baptiste Point Du Sable Homesite , which is commemorated by a National Historic plaque in Pioneer Court . The southern half of the bridge passes over the site of Fort Dearborn , which was constructed in 1803 . The Fort is commemorated by a large relief above the entrance of the London Guarantee Building , and brass markers positioned in the sidewalks on the south side of the bridge delineate the posited outline of the original blockhouse .
= = Name = =
The historical significance of the location has been used as the basis for a number of proposals to rename the bridge . In 1921 the Chicago Historical Society suggested that the bridge should be named Marquette – Joliet Bridge , and in 1939 it was proposed to rename the bridge as Fort Dearborn Bridge . These proposals were not adopted .
In October 2010 , the bridge was renamed DuSable Bridge in honor of Jean Baptiste Point du Sable , Chicago 's first permanent resident . A fur trader of African descent who married into the Potawatomi tribe , he established a permanent homestead and trading post near the mouth of the Chicago River in the 1780s .
= = History = =
A boulevard to link the parks on Chicago 's north and south sides was proposed as early as 1891 . An early plan called for a tunnel to link Michigan Avenue south of the river with Pine Street ( now Michigan Avenue ) north of the river . In 1903 an editorial in the Chicago Tribune proposed a new bascule bridge across the river at Michigan Avenue . Other plans suggested that the bridge should be a replica of the Pont Alexandre III that spans the Seine in Paris , or that , rather than constructing an entirely new bridge , the existing Rush Street bridge should be double @-@ decked .
Plans for the boulevard and the construction of a Michigan Avenue Bridge were further elaborated upon in Daniel Burnham 's 1909 Plan of Chicago . In 1911 a plan was selected that included the widening of Michigan Avenue from Randolph Street to the river , replacing the Rush Street bridge with a new bridge at Michigan Avenue and the construction of a double @-@ decked boulevard along Pine Street as far as Ohio Street . An ordinance to fund construction was passed in 1913 , but was declared void by the Supreme Court of Illinois . A second ordinance was passed in 1914 , but legal battles continued until the end of 1916 . Construction finally started on April 15 , 1918 , and the bridge was officially opened in a ceremony on May 14 , 1920 .
The bridge is one of the contributing properties of the Michigan – Wacker Historic District , which was listed as on the National Register of Historic Places on November 15 , 1978 . It was also designated as a Chicago Landmark on October 2 , 1991 . In 2009 the sidewalks and railings on the bridge were replaced , and the bridge was repainted ; the design of the new ornamental railings was based on the original 1920 design for the bridge 's railings , replacing more utilitarian ones that had been substituted at a later date .
= = Design and operation = =
Michigan Avenue Bridge is a double @-@ leaf , double @-@ deck , fixed counterweight , trunnion bascule bridge . It was engineered by the Chicago Department of Public Works , Bureau of Engineering ; Edward H. Bennett was the consulting architect and William A. Mulcahy the chief engineer of construction . At the time of construction it was believed to be the first double @-@ deck bridge ever built to have roadway on both levels ; faster non @-@ commercial traffic using the upper deck and slower commercial traffic that served the various industries and docks in the vicinity of the river using the lower deck .
Each of the bridge 's leaves are divided into two along the axis of the bridge such that it functions as two parallel bridges that can be operated independently of one another ; at the time of construction bridges over the Chicago River were frequently struck by vessels , and this duplex arrangement allows for leaves damaged in such a collision to be opened for repair without needing to completely close the bridge to traffic . The counterweights are below the level of the lower deck and when the bridge is opened they swing down into 40 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 12 m ) reinforced concrete tailpits that descend 34 @.@ 5 feet ( 10 @.@ 5 m ) below the surface of the river . Each of the two tailpits is supported on nine cylindrical foundation piers . One of these piers was sunk to bedrock , 108 feet ( 33 m ) below the river surface , the other 17 piers are sunk to the hardpan , which is 80 to 90 feet ( 24 to 27 m ) below the water level . On the south side of the river one of the freight tunnels of the Chicago Tunnel Company had to be re @-@ routed to make room for the tailpit . The counterweights are composed partly of concrete and partly of a concrete composite with rivet punchings ; each of the four counterweights weighs 1 @,@ 595 short tons ( 1 @,@ 447 t ) . The Michigan Avenue Bridge is made of steel .
The bridge abutments and the facing of the bridge tender houses are made of Bedford stone . There are four bridge tender houses : the northwest and southeast bridgehouses house the controls for operating the bridge ; the northeast and southwest bridgehouses are purely decorative . Two 108 horsepower ( 81 kW ) motors open and close each of the 3 @,@ 750 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 3 @,@ 400 t ) bridge leaves . Originally the bridge was staffed 24 hours a day , and opened up to 3000 times a year to allow ships through , but since the 1970s bridge lifting has been scheduled in the spring and fall , when the bridge is raised twice weekly to allow sailboats to pass between Lake Michigan and inland boat yards where they are stored for the winter .
= = Decoration = =
In 1928 sculptures depicting scenes from Chicago 's history were added to the outward @-@ facing walls of the four bridgehouses . The sculptures on the northern bridgehouses were commissioned by William Wrigley , Jr . , and are by James Earle Fraser : The Discoverers depicts Louis Joliet , Jacques Marquette , René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti ; The Pioneers depicts John Kinzie leading a group through the wilderness . The sculptures on the southern bridgehouses were commissioned by the B. F. Ferguson Monument Fund , and are by Henry Hering : Defense depicts Ensign George Ronan in a scene from the 1812 Battle of Fort Dearborn ; Regeneration depicts workers rebuilding Chicago after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 .
The bridge is also bedecked with 28 flagpoles , usually flying the flags of the United States , Illinois and Chicago . On special occasions other banners may be displayed .
= = McCormick Bridgehouse & Chicago River Museum = =
The southwest bridgehouse has been converted into a museum . The McCormick Bridgehouse & Chicago River Museum is a 5 @-@ floor , 1 @,@ 613 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 149 @.@ 9 m2 ) museum that opened on June 10 , 2006 ; it is named for Robert R. McCormick , formerly owner of the Chicago Tribune and president of the Chicago Sanitary District . The Robert R. McCormick Foundation was the major donor that helped to provide the $ 950 @,@ 000 cost of the formation of the museum . It is run by the Friends of the Chicago River , and includes exhibits on the history of the Chicago River and the bridge . Visitors are also allowed to access the bridge 's gear room ; during the spring and fall bridge lifting visitors can see the bridge gears in operation as the leaves are raised and lowered . Due to its small size and tight access stairway only 79 people are allowed inside the museum at any one time .
= Negative resistance =
In electronics , negative resistance ( NR ) is a property of some electrical circuits and devices in which an increase in voltage across the device 's terminals results in a decrease in electric current through it .
This is in contrast to an ordinary resistor in which an increase of applied voltage causes a proportional increase in current due to Ohm 's law , resulting in a positive resistance . While a positive resistance consumes power from current passing through it , a negative resistance produces power . Under certain conditions it can increase the power of an electrical signal , amplifying it .
Negative resistance is an uncommon property which occurs in a few nonlinear electronic components . In a nonlinear device , two types of resistance can be defined : ' static ' or ' absolute resistance ' , the ratio of voltage to current <formula> , and differential resistance , the ratio of a change in voltage to the resulting change in current <formula> . The term negative resistance refers to negative differential resistance ( NDR ) , <formula> . In general , a negative differential resistance is a two @-@ terminal component which can amplify , converting DC power applied to its terminals to AC output power to amplify an AC signal applied to the same terminals . They are used in electronic oscillators and amplifiers , particularly at microwave frequencies . Most microwave energy is produced with negative differential resistance devices . They can also have hysteresis and be bistable , and so are used in switching and memory circuits . Examples of devices with negative differential resistance are tunnel diodes , Gunn diodes , and gas discharge tubes such as neon lamps . In addition , circuits containing amplifying devices such as transistors and op amps with positive feedback can have negative differential resistance . These are used in oscillators and active filters .
Because they are nonlinear , negative resistance devices have a more complicated behavior than the positive " ohmic " resistances usually encountered in electric circuits . Unlike most positive resistances , negative resistance varies depending on the voltage or current applied to the device , and negative resistance devices can have negative resistance over only a limited portion of their voltage or current range . Therefore , there is no real " negative resistor " analogous to a positive resistor , which has a constant negative resistance over an arbitrarily wide range of current .
= = Negative resistance devices = =
Electronic components with negative differential resistance include these devices :
tunnel diode , resonant tunneling diode and other semiconductor diodes using the tunneling mechanism
Gunn diode and other diodes using the transferred electron mechanism
IMPATT diode , TRAPATT diode and other diodes using the impact ionization mechanism
unijunction transistor ( UJT )
thyristors
triode and tetrode vacuum tubes operating in the dynatron mode
Some magnetron tubes and other microwave vacuum tubes
maser
parametric amplifier
Electric discharges through gases also exhibit negative differential resistance , including these devices
electric arc
thyratron tubes
neon lamp
fluorescent lamp
other gas discharge tubes
In addition , active circuits with negative differential resistance can also be built with amplifying devices like transistors and op amps , using feedback . A number of new experimental negative differential resistance materials and devices have been discovered in recent years . The physical processes which cause negative resistance are diverse , and each type of device has its own negative resistance characteristics , specified by its current – voltage curve .
= = Definitions = =
The resistance between two terminals of an electrical device or circuit is determined by its current – voltage ( I – V ) curve ( characteristic curve ) , giving the current <formula> through it for any given voltage <formula> across it . Most materials , including the ordinary ( positive ) resistances encountered in electrical circuits , obey Ohm 's law ; the current through them is proportional to the voltage over a wide range . So the I – V curve of an ohmic resistance is a straight line through the origin with positive slope . The resistance is the ratio of voltage to current , the inverse slope of the line ( in I – V graphs where the voltage <formula> is the independent variable ) and is constant .
Negative resistance occurs in a few nonlinear ( nonohmic ) devices . In a nonlinear component the I – V curve is not a straight line , so it does not obey Ohm 's law . Resistance can still be defined , but the resistance is not constant ; it varies with the voltage or current through the device . The resistance of such a nonlinear device can be defined in two ways , which are equal for ohmic resistances :
Static resistance ( also called chordal resistance , absolute resistance or just resistance ) – This is the common definition of resistance ; the voltage divided by the current :
<formula> .
It is the inverse slope of the line ( chord ) from the origin through the point on the I – V curve . In a power source , like a battery or electric generator , positive current flows out of the positive voltage terminal , opposite to the direction of current in a resistor , so from the passive sign convention <formula> and <formula> have opposite signs , representing points lying in the 2nd or 4th quadrant of the I – V plane ( diagram right ) . Thus power sources formally have negative static resistance ( <formula> However this term is never used in practice , because the term " resistance " is only applied to passive components . Static resistance determines the power dissipation in a component . Passive devices , which consume electric power , have positive static resistance ; while active devices , which produce electric power , do not .
Differential resistance ( also called dynamic , or incremental resistance ) – This is the derivative of the voltage with respect to the current ; the ratio of a small change in voltage to the corresponding change in current , the inverse slope of the I – V curve at a point :
<formula> .
Differential resistance is only relevant to time @-@ varying currents . Points on the curve where the slope is negative ( declining to the right ) , meaning an increase in voltage causes a decrease in current , have negative differential resistance ( <formula> ) . Devices of this type can amplify signals , and are what is usually meant by the term " negative resistance " .
Negative resistance , like positive resistance , is measured in ohms .
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance . It is measured in siemens ( formerly mho ) which is the conductance of a resistor with a resistance of one ohm . Each type of resistance defined above has a corresponding conductance
Static conductance
<formula>
Differential conductance
<formula>
It can be seen that the conductance has the same sign as its corresponding resistance : a negative resistance will have a negative conductance while a positive resistance will have a positive conductance .
= = Operation = =
One way in which the different types of resistance can be distinguished is in the directions of current and electric power between a circuit and an electronic component . The illustrations below , with a rectangle representing the component attached to a circuit , summarize how the different types work :
= = Types and terminology = =
In an electronic device , the differential resistance <formula> , the static resistance <formula> , or both , can be negative , so there are three categories of devices ( fig . 1 – 3 above , and table ) which could be called " negative resistances " .
The term " negative resistance " almost always means negative differential resistance <formula> . Negative differential resistance devices have unique capabilities : they can act as one @-@ port amplifiers , increasing the power of a time @-@ varying signal applied to their port ( terminals ) , or excite oscillations in a tuned circuit to make an oscillator . They can also have hysteresis . It is not possible for a device to have negative differential resistance without a power source , and these devices can be divided into two categories depending on whether they get their power from an internal source or from their port :
Passive negative differential resistance devices ( fig . 1 above ) : These are the most well @-@ known type of " negative resistances " ; passive two @-@ terminal components whose intrinsic I – V curve has a downward " kink " , causing the current to decrease with increasing voltage over a limited range . The I – V curve , including the negative resistance region , lies in the 1st and 3rd quadrant of the plane so the device has positive static resistance . Examples are gas @-@ discharge tubes , tunnel diodes , and Gunn diodes . These devices have no power source and in general work by converting external DC power from their port to time varying ( AC ) power , so they require a DC bias current applied to the port in addition to the signal . To add to the confusion , some authors call these " active " devices , since they can amplify . This category also includes a few three @-@ terminal devices , such as the unijunction transistor . They are covered in the Negative differential resistance section below .
Active negative differential resistance devices ( fig . 3 ) : Circuits can be designed in which a positive voltage applied to the terminals will cause a proportional " negative " current ; a current out of the positive terminal , the opposite of an ordinary resistor , over a limited range , Unlike in the above devices , the downward @-@ sloping region of the I – V curve passes through the origin , so it lies in the 2nd and 4th quadrants of the plane , meaning the device sources power . Amplifying devices like transistors and op @-@ amps with positive feedback can have this type of negative resistance , and are used in feedback oscillators and active filters . Since these circuits produce net power from their port , they must have an internal DC power source , or else a separate connection to an external power supply . In circuit theory this is called an " active resistor " . Although this type is sometimes referred to as " linear " , " absolute " , " ideal " , or " pure " negative resistance to distinguish it from " passive " negative differential resistances , in electronics it is more often simply called positive feedback or regeneration . These are covered in the Active resistors section below .
Occasionally ordinary power sources are referred to as " negative resistances " ( fig . 2 ) . Although the " static " or " absolute " resistance <formula> of active devices ( power sources ) can be considered negative ( see Negative static resistance section below ) most ordinary power sources ( AC or DC ) , such as batteries , generators , and ( non positive feedback ) amplifiers , have positive differential resistance ( their source resistance ) . Therefore , these devices cannot function as one @-@ port amplifiers or have the other capabilities of negative differential resistances .
= = Negative static or " absolute " resistance = =
A point of some confusion is whether ordinary resistance ( " static " or " absolute " resistance , <formula> ) can be negative . In electronics , the term " resistance " is customarily applied only to passive materials and components – such as wires , resistors and diodes . These cannot have <formula> as shown by Joule 's law <formula> . A passive device consumes electric power , so from the passive sign convention <formula> . Therefore , from Joule 's law <formula> . In other words , no material can conduct electric current better than a " perfect " conductor with zero resistance . For a passive device to have <formula> would violate either conservation of energy or the second law of thermodynamics , ( diagram ) . Therefore , some authors state that static resistance can never be negative .
However it is easily shown that the ratio of voltage to current v / i at the terminals of any power source ( AC or DC ) is negative . For electric power ( potential energy ) to flow out of a device into the circuit , charge must flow through the device in the direction of increasing potential energy , conventional current ( positive charge ) must move from the negative to the positive terminal . So the direction of the instantaneous current is out of the positive terminal . This is opposite to the direction of current in a passive device defined by the passive sign convention so the current and voltage have opposite signs , and their ratio is negative
<formula>
This can also be proved from Joule 's law
<formula>
This shows that power can flow out of a device into the circuit ( <formula> ) if and only if <formula> . Whether or not this quantity is referred to as " resistance " when negative is a matter of convention . The absolute resistance of power sources is negative , but this is not to be regarded as " resistance " in the same sense as positive resistances . The negative static resistance of a power source is a rather abstract and not very useful quantity , because it varies with the load . Due to conservation of energy it is always simply equal to the negative of the static resistance of the attached circuit ( right ) .
Work must be done on the charges by some source of energy in the device , to make them move toward the positive terminal against the electric field , so conservation of energy requires that negative static resistances have a source of power . The power may come from an internal source which converts some other form of energy to electric power as in a battery or generator , or from a separate connection to an external power supply circuit as in an amplifying device like a transistor , vacuum tube , or op amp .
= = = Eventual passivity = = =
A circuit cannot have negative static resistance ( be active ) over an infinite voltage or current range , because it would have to be able to produce infinite power . Any active circuit or device with a finite power source is " eventually passive " . This property means if a large enough external voltage or current of either polarity is applied to it , its static resistance becomes positive
<formula>
where <formula> is the maximum power the device can produce .
Therefore , the ends of the I – V curve will eventually turn and enter the 1st and 3rd quadrants . Thus the range of the curve having negative static resistance is limited , confined to a region around the origin . For example , applying a voltage to a generator or battery ( graph , above ) greater than its open @-@ circuit voltage will reverse the direction of current flow , making its static resistance positive so it consumes power . Similarly , applying a voltage to the negative impedance converter below greater than its power supply voltage Vs will cause the amplifier to saturate , also making its resistance positive .
= = Negative differential resistance = =
In a device or circuit with negative differential resistance ( NDR ) , in some part of the I – V curve the current decreases as the voltage increases :
<formula>
The I – V curve is nonmonotonic ( having peaks and troughs ) with regions of negative slope representing negative differential resistance .
Passive negative differential resistances have positive static resistance ; they consume net power . Therefore , the I – V curve is confined to the 1st and 3rd quadrants of the graph , and passes through the origin . This requirement means ( excluding some asymptotic cases ) that the region ( s ) of negative resistance must be limited , and surrounded by regions of positive resistance , and cannot include the origin .
= = = Types = = =
Negative differential resistances can be classified into two types :
Voltage controlled negative resistance ( VCNR , short @-@ circuit stable , or " N " type ) : In this type the current is a single valued , continuous function of the voltage , but the voltage is a multivalued function of the current . In the most common type there is only one negative resistance region , and the graph is a curve shaped generally like the letter " N " . As the voltage is increased , the current increases ( positive resistance ) until it reaches a maximum ( i1 ) , then decreases in the region of negative resistance to a minimum ( i2 ) , then increases again . Devices with this type of negative resistance include the tunnel diode , resonant tunneling diode , lambda diode , Gunn diode , and dynatron oscillators .
Current controlled negative resistance ( CCNR , open @-@ circuit stable , or " S " type ) : In this type , the dual of the VCNR , the voltage is a single valued function of the current , but the current is a multivalued function of the voltage . In the most common type , with one negative resistance region , the graph is a curve shaped like the letter " S " . Devices with this type of negative resistance include the IMPATT diode , UJT , SCRs and other thyristors , electric arc , and gas discharge tubes like thyratron tubes , fluorescent lamps and neon lights .
Most devices have a single negative resistance region . However devices with multiple separate negative resistance regions can also be fabricated . These can have more than two stable states , and are of interest for use in digital circuits to implement multivalued logic .
An intrinsic parameter used to compare different devices is the peak @-@ to @-@ valley current ratio ( PVR ) , the ratio of the current at the top of the negative resistance region to the current at the bottom ( see graphs , above ) :
<formula>
The larger this is , the larger the potential AC output for a given DC bias current , and therefore the greater the efficiency
= = = Amplification = = =
A negative differential resistance device can amplify an AC signal applied to it if the signal is biased with a DC voltage or current to lie within the negative resistance region of its I – V curve .
The tunnel diode circuit is an example . The tunnel diode TD has voltage controlled negative differential resistance . The battery <formula> adds a constant voltage ( bias ) across the diode so it operates in its negative resistance range , and provides power to amplify the signal . Suppose the negative resistance at the bias point is <formula> . For stability <formula> must be less than <formula> . Using the formula for a voltage divider , the AC output voltage is
<formula> so the voltage gain is <formula>
In a normal voltage divider , the resistance of each branch is less than the resistance of the whole , so the output voltage is less than the input . Here , due to the negative resistance , the total AC resistance <formula> is less than the resistance of the diode alone <formula> so the AC output voltage <formula> is greater than the input <formula> . The voltage gain <formula> is greater than one , and increases without limit as <formula> approaches <formula> .
= = = Explanation of power gain = = =
The diagrams illustrate how a biased negative differential resistance device can increase the power of a signal applied to it , amplifying it , although it only has two terminals . Due to the superposition principle the voltage and current at the device 's terminals can be divided into a DC bias component ( <formula> ) and an AC component ( <formula> ) .
<formula>
<formula>
Since a positive change in voltage <formula> causes a negative change in current <formula> , the AC current and voltage in the device are 180 ° out of phase . This means in the AC equivalent circuit ( right ) , the instantaneous AC current Δi flows through the device in the direction of increasing AC potential Δv , as it would in a generator . Therefore , the AC power dissipation is negative ; AC power is produced by the device and flows into the external circuit .
<formula>
With the proper external circuit , the device can increase the AC signal power delivered to a load , serving as an amplifier , or excite oscillations in a resonant circuit to make an oscillator . Unlike in a two port amplifying device such as a transistor or op amp , the amplified signal leaves the device through the same two terminals ( port ) as the input signal enters .
In a passive device , the AC power produced comes from the input DC bias current , the device absorbs DC power , some of which is converted to AC power by the nonlinearity of the device , amplifying the applied signal . Therefore , the output power is limited by the bias power
<formula>
The negative differential resistance region cannot include the origin , because it would then be able to amplify a signal with no applied DC bias current , producing AC power with no power input . The device also dissipates some power as heat , equal to the difference between the DC power in and the AC power out .
The device may also have reactance and therefore the phase difference between current and voltage may differ from 180 ° and may vary with frequency . As long as the real component of the impedance is negative ( phase angle between 90 ° and 270 ° ) , the device will have negative resistance and can amplify .
The maximum AC output power is limited by size of the negative resistance region ( <formula> in graphs above )
<formula>
= = = Reflection coefficient = = =
The reason that the output signal can leave a negative resistance through the same port that the input signal enters is that from transmission line theory , the AC voltage or current at the terminals of a component can be divided into two oppositely moving waves , the incident wave <formula> , which travels toward the device , and the reflected wave <formula> , which travels away from the device . A negative differential resistance in a circuit can amplify if the magnitude of its reflection coefficient <formula> , the ratio of the reflected wave to the incident wave , is greater than one .
<formula> where <formula>
The " reflected " ( output ) signal has larger amplitude than the incident ; the device has " reflection gain " . The reflection coefficient is determined by the AC impedance of the negative resistance device , <formula> , and the impedance of the circuit attached to it , <formula> . If <formula> and <formula> then <formula> and the device will amplify . On the Smith chart , a graphical aide widely used in the design of high frequency circuits , negative differential resistance corresponds to points outside the unit circle <formula> , the boundary of the conventional chart , so special " expanded " charts must be used .
= = = Stability conditions = = =
Because it is nonlinear , a circuit with negative differential resistance can have multiple equilibrium points ( possible DC operating points ) , which lie on the I – V curve . An equilibrium point will be stable , so the circuit converges to it within some neighborhood of the point , if its poles are in the left half of the s plane ( LHP ) , while a point is unstable , causing the circuit to oscillate or " latch up " ( converge to another point ) , if its poles are on the jω axis or right half plane ( RHP ) , respectively . The equilibrium points are determined by the DC bias circuit , and their stability is determined by the AC impedance <formula> of the external circuit . However , because of the different shapes of the curves , the condition for stability is different for VCNR and CCNR types of negative resistance :
In a CCNR ( S @-@ type ) negative resistance , the resistance function <formula> is single @-@ valued . Therefore , stability is determined by the poles of the circuit 's impedance equation : <formula> .
For nonreactive circuits ( <formula> ) a sufficient condition for stability is that the total resistance is positive <formula>
so the CCNR is stable for
Since CCNRs are stable with no load at all , they are called " open circuit stable " .
In a VCNR ( N @-@ type ) negative resistance , the conductance function <formula> is single @-@ valued . Therefore , stability is determined by the poles of the admittance equation <formula> . For this reason the VCNR is sometimes referred to as a negative conductance .
As above , for nonreactive circuits a sufficient condition for stability is that the total conductance in the circuit is positive <formula>
<formula>
so the VCNR is stable for
Since VCNRs are even stable with a short @-@ circuited output , they are called " short circuit stable " .
For general negative resistance circuits with reactance , the stability must be determined by standard tests like the Nyquist stability criterion . Alternatively , in high frequency circuit design , the values of <formula> for which the circuit is stable are determined by a graphical technique using " stability circles " on a Smith chart .
= = = Operating regions and applications = = =
For simple nonreactive negative resistance devices with <formula> and <formula> the different operating regions of the device can be illustrated by load lines on the I – V curve ( see graphs ) .
The DC load line ( DCL ) is a straight line determined by the DC bias circuit , with equation
<formula>
where <formula> is the DC bias supply voltage and R is the resistance of the supply . The possible DC operating point ( s ) ( Q points ) occur where the DC load line intersects the I – V curve . For stability
VCNRs require a low impedance bias ( <formula> ) , such as a voltage source .
CCNRs require a high impedance bias ( <formula> ) such as a current source , or voltage source in series with a high resistance .
The AC load line ( L1 − L3 ) is a straight line through the Q point whose slope is the differential ( AC ) resistance <formula> facing the device . Increasing <formula> rotates the load line counterclockwise . The circuit operates in one of three possible regions ( see diagrams ) , depending on <formula> .
Stable region ( green ) ( illustrated by line L1 ) : When the load line lies in this region , it intersects the I – V curve at one point Q1 . For nonreactive circuits it is a stable equilibrium ( poles in the LHP ) so the circuit is stable . Negative resistance amplifiers operate in this region . However , due to hysteresis , with an energy storage device like a capacitor or inductor the circuit can become unstable to make a nonlinear relaxation oscillator ( astable multivibrator ) or a monostable multivibrator.VCNRs are stable when <formula> .
CCNRs are stable when <formula> .
Unstable point ( Line L2 ) : When <formula> the load line is tangent to the I – V curve . The total differential ( AC ) resistance of the circuit is zero ( poles on the jω axis ) , so it is unstable and with a tuned circuit can oscillate . Linear oscillators operate at this point . Practical oscillators actually start in the unstable region below , with poles in the RHP , but as the amplitude increases the oscillations become nonlinear , and due to eventual passivity the negative resistance r decreases with increasing amplitude , so the oscillations stabilize at an amplitude where <formula> .
Bistable region ( red ) ( illustrated by line L3 ) : In this region the load line can intersect the I – V curve at three points . The center point ( Q1 ) is a point of unstable equilibrium ( poles in the RHP ) , while the two outer points , Q2 and Q3 are stable equilibria . So with correct biasing the circuit can be bistable , it will converge to one of the two points Q2 or Q3 and can be switched between them with an input pulse . Switching circuits like flip @-@ flops ( bistable multivibrators ) and Schmidt triggers operate in this region .
VCNRs can be bistable when <formula>
CCNRs can be bistable when <formula>
= = Active resistors – negative resistance from feedback = =
In addition to the passive devices with intrinsic negative differential resistance above , circuits with amplifying devices like transistors or op amps can have negative resistance at their ports . The input or output impedance of an amplifier with enough positive feedback applied to it can be negative . If <formula> is the input resistance of the amplifier without feedback , <formula> is the amplifier gain , and <formula> is the transfer function of the feedback path , the input resistance with positive shunt feedback is
<formula>
So if the loop gain <formula> is greater than one , <formula> will be negative . The circuit acts like a " negative linear resistor " over a limited range , with I – V curve having a straight line segment through the origin with negative slope ( see graphs ) . It has both negative differential resistance and is active
<formula>
and thus obeys Ohm 's law as if it had a negative value of resistance − R , over its linear range ( such amplifiers can also have more complicated negative resistance I – V curves that do not pass through the origin ) .
These are often called " active resistors " . Applying a voltage across the terminals causes a proportional current out of the positive terminal , the opposite of an ordinary resistor . For example , connecting a battery to the terminals would cause the battery to charge rather than discharge .
Considered as one @-@ port devices , these circuits function similarly to the passive negative differential resistance components above , and like them can be used to make one @-@ port amplifiers and oscillators with the advantages that :
because they are active devices they do not require an external DC bias to provide power , and can be DC coupled ,
the amount of negative resistance can be varied by adjusting the loop gain ,
they can be linear circuit elements ; the voltage is proportional to the current , so they do not cause harmonic distortion .
The I – V curve can have voltage @-@ controlled ( " N " type ) or current @-@ controlled ( " S " type ) negative resistance , depending on whether the feedback loop is connected in " shunt " or " series " .
Negative reactances ( below ) can also be created , so feedback circuits can be used to create " active " linear circuit elements , resistors , capacitors , and inductors , with negative values . They are widely used in active filters because they can create transfer functions that cannot be realized with positive circuit elements . Examples of circuits with this type of negative resistance are the negative impedance converter ( NIC ) , gyrator , Deboo integrator , frequency dependent negative resistance ( FDNR ) , and generalized immittance converter ( GIC ) .
= = = Feedback oscillators = = =
If an LC circuit is connected across the input of a positive feedback amplifier like that above , the negative differential input resistance <formula> can cancel the positive loss resistance <formula> inherent in the tuned circuit . If <formula> this will create in effect a tuned circuit with zero AC resistance ( poles on the jω axis ) . Spontaneous oscillation will be excited in the tuned circuit at its resonant frequency , sustained by the power from the amplifier . This is how feedback oscillators such as Hartley or Colpitts oscillators work . This negative resistance model is an alternate way of analyzing feedback oscillator operation . All linear oscillator circuits have negative resistance although in most feedback oscillators the tuned circuit is an integral part of the feedback network , so the circuit does not have negative resistance at all frequencies but only near the oscillation frequency .
= = = Q enhancement = = =
A tuned circuit connected to a negative resistance which cancels some but not all of its parasitic loss resistance ( so <formula> ) will not oscillate , but the negative resistance will decrease the damping in the circuit ( moving its poles toward the jω axis ) , increasing its Q factor so it has a narrower bandwidth and more selectivity . Q enhancement , also called regeneration , was first used in the regenerative radio receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1912 and later in " Q multipliers " . It is widely used in active filters . For example , RF integrated circuits use integrated inductors to save space , consisting of a spiral conductor fabricated on chip . These have high losses and low Q , so to create high Q tuned circuits their Q is increased by applying negative resistance .
= = = Chaotic circuits = = =
Circuits which exhibit chaotic behavior can be considered quasi @-@ periodic or nonperiodic oscillators , and like all oscillators require a negative resistance in the circuit to provide power . Chua 's circuit , a simple nonlinear circuit widely used as the standard example of a chaotic system , requires a nonlinear active resistor component , sometimes called Chua 's diode . This is usually synthesized using a negative impedance converter circuit .
= = = Negative impedance converter = = =
A common example of an " active resistance " circuit is the negative impedance converter ( NIC ) shown in the diagram . The two resistors <formula> and the op amp constitute a negative feedback non @-@ inverting amplifier with gain of 2 . The output voltage of the op @-@ amp is
<formula>
So if a voltage <formula> is applied to the input , the same voltage is applied " backwards " across <formula> , causing current to flow through it out of the input . The current is
<formula>
So the input impedance to the circuit is
<formula>
The circuit converts the impedance <formula> to its negative . If <formula> is a resistor of value <formula> , within the linear range of the op amp <formula> the input impedance acts like a linear " negative resistor " of value <formula> . The input port of the circuit is connected into another circuit as if it was a component . An NIC can cancel undesired positive resistance in another circuit , for example they were originally developed to cancel resistance in telephone cables , serving as repeaters .
= = = Negative capacitance and inductance = = =
By replacing <formula> in the above circuit with a capacitor ( <formula> ) or inductor ( <formula> ) , negative capacitances and inductances can also be synthesized . A negative capacitance will have an I – V relation and an impedance <formula> of
<formula>
where <formula> . Applying a positive current to a negative capacitance will cause it to discharge ; its voltage will decrease . Similarly , a negative inductance will have an I – V characteristic and impedance <formula> of
<formula>
A circuit having negative capacitance or inductance can be used to cancel unwanted positive capacitance or inductance in another circuit . NIC circuits were used to cancel reactance on telephone cables .
There is also another way of looking at them . In a negative capacitance the current will be 180 ° opposite in phase to the current in a positive capacitance . Instead of leading the voltage by 90 ° it will lag the voltage by 90 ° , as in an inductor . Therefore , a negative capacitance acts like an inductance in which the impedance has a reverse dependence on frequency ω ; decreasing instead of increasing like a real inductance Similarly a negative inductance acts like a capacitance that has an impedance which increases with frequency . Negative capacitances and inductances are " non @-@ Foster " circuits which violate Foster 's reactance theorem . One application being researched is to create an active matching network which could match an antenna to a transmission line over a broad range of frequencies , rather than just a single frequency as with current networks . This would allow the creation of small compact antennas that would have broad bandwidth , exceeding the Chu – Harrington limit .
= = Oscillators = =
Negative differential resistance devices are widely used to make electronic oscillators . In a negative resistance oscillator , a negative differential resistance device such as an IMPATT diode , Gunn diode , or microwave vacuum tube is connected across an electrical resonator such as an LC circuit , a quartz crystal , dielectric resonator or cavity resonator with a DC source to bias the device into its negative resistance region and provide power . A resonator such as an LC circuit is " almost " an oscillator ; it can store oscillating electrical energy , but because all resonators have internal resistance or other losses , the oscillations are damped and decay to zero . The negative resistance cancels the positive resistance of the resonator , creating in effect a lossless resonator , in which spontaneous continuous oscillations occur at the resonator 's resonant frequency .
= = = Uses = = =
Negative resistance oscillators are mainly used at high frequencies in the microwave range or above , since feedback oscillators function poorly at these frequencies . Microwave diodes are used in low- to medium @-@ power oscillators for applications such as radar speed guns , and local oscillators for satellite receivers . They are a widely used source of microwave energy , and virtually the only solid @-@ state source of millimeter wave and terahertz energy Negative resistance microwave vacuum tubes such as magnetrons produce higher power outputs , in such applications as radar transmitters and microwave ovens . Lower frequency relaxation oscillators can be made with UJTs and gas @-@ discharge lamps such as neon lamps .
The negative resistance oscillator model is not limited to one @-@ port devices like diodes but can also be applied to feedback oscillator circuits with two port devices such as transistors and tubes . In addition , in modern high frequency oscillators , transistors are increasingly used as one @-@ port negative resistance devices like diodes . At microwave frequencies , transistors with certain loads applied to one port can become unstable due to internal feedback and show negative resistance at the other port . So high frequency transistor oscillators are designed by applying a reactive load to one port to give the transistor negative resistance , and connecting the other port across a resonator to make a negative resistance oscillator as described below .
= = = Gunn diode oscillator = = =
The common Gunn diode oscillator ( circuit diagrams ) illustrates how negative resistance oscillators work . The diode D has voltage controlled ( " N " type ) negative resistance and the voltage source <formula> biases it into its negative resistance region where its differential resistance is <formula> . The choke RFC prevents AC current from flowing through the bias source . <formula> is the equivalent resistance due to damping and losses in the series tuned circuit <formula> , plus any load resistance . Analyzing the AC circuit with Kirchhoff 's Voltage Law gives a differential equation for <formula> , the AC current
<formula>
Solving this equation gives a solution of the form
<formula> where <formula>
This shows that the current through the circuit , <formula> , varies with time about the DC Q point , <formula> . When started from a nonzero initial current <formula> the current oscillates sinusoidally at the resonant frequency ω of the tuned circuit , with amplitude either constant , increasing , or decreasing exponentially , depending on the value of α . Whether the circuit can sustain steady oscillations depends on the balance between <formula> and <formula> , the positive and negative resistance in the circuit :
<formula> : ( poles in left half plane ) If the diode 's negative resistance is less than the positive resistance of the tuned circuit , the damping is positive . Any oscillations in the circuit will lose energy as heat in the resistance <formula> and die away exponentially to zero , as in an ordinary tuned circuit . So the circuit does not oscillate .
<formula> : ( poles on jω axis ) If the positive and negative resistances are equal , the net resistance is zero , so the damping is zero . The diode adds just enough energy to compensate for energy lost in the tuned circuit and load , so oscillations in the circuit , once started , will continue at a constant amplitude . This is the condition during steady @-@ state operation of the oscillator .
<formula> : ( poles in right half plane ) If the negative resistance is greater than the positive resistance , damping is negative , so oscillations will grow exponentially in energy and amplitude . This is the condition during startup .
Practical oscillators are designed in region ( 3 ) above , with net negative resistance , to get oscillations started . A widely used rule of thumb is to make <formula> . When the power is turned on , electrical noise in the circuit provides a signal <formula> to start spontaneous oscillations , which grow exponentially . However , the oscillations cannot grow forever ; the nonlinearity of the diode eventually limits the amplitude .
At large amplitudes the circuit is nonlinear , so the linear analysis above does not strictly apply and differential resistance is undefined ; but the circuit can be understood by considering <formula> to be the " average " resistance over the cycle . As the amplitude of the sine wave exceeds the width of the negative resistance region and the voltage swing extends into regions of the curve with positive differential resistance , the average negative differential resistance <formula> becomes smaller , and thus the total resistance <formula> and the damping <formula> becomes less negative and eventually turns positive . Therefore , the oscillations will stabilize at the amplitude at which the damping becomes zero , which is when <formula> .
Gunn diodes have negative resistance in the range − 5 to − 25 ohms . In oscillators where <formula> is close to <formula> ; just small enough to allow the oscillator to start , the voltage swing will be mostly limited to the linear portion of the I – V curve , the output waveform will be nearly sinusoidal and the frequency will be most stable . In circuits in which <formula> is far below <formula> , the swing extends further into the nonlinear part of the curve , the clipping distortion of the output sine wave is more severe , and the frequency will be increasingly dependent on the supply voltage .
= = = Types of circuit = = =
Negative resistance oscillator circuits can be divided into two types , which are used with the two types of negative differential resistance – voltage controlled ( VCNR ) , and current controlled ( CCNR )
Negative resistance ( voltage controlled ) oscillator : Since VCNR ( " N " type ) devices require a low impedance bias and are stable for load impedances less than r , the ideal oscillator circuit for this device has the form shown at top right , with a voltage source Vbias to bias the device into its negative resistance region , and parallel resonant circuit load LC . The resonant circuit has high impedance only at its resonant frequency , so the circuit will be unstable and oscillate only at that frequency .
Negative conductance ( current controlled ) oscillator : CCNR ( " S " type ) devices , in contrast , require a high impedance bias and are stable for load impedances greater than r . The ideal oscillator circuit is like that at bottom right , with a current source bias Ibias ( which may consist of a voltage source in series with a large resistor ) and series resonant circuit LC . The series LC circuit has low impedance only at its resonant frequency and so will only oscillate there .
= = = Conditions for oscillation = = =
Most oscillators are more complicated than the Gunn diode example , since both the active device and the load may have reactance ( X ) as well as resistance ( R ) . Modern negative resistance oscillators are designed by a frequency domain technique due to K. Kurokawa . The circuit diagram is imagined to be divided by a " reference plane " ( red ) which separates the negative resistance part , the active device , from the positive resistance part , the resonant circuit and output load ( right ) . The complex impedance of the negative resistance part <formula> depends on frequency ω but is also nonlinear , in general declining with the amplitude of the AC oscillation current I ; while the resonator part <formula> is linear , depending only on frequency . The circuit equation is <formula> so it will only oscillate ( have nonzero I ) at the frequency ω and amplitude I for which the total impedance <formula> is zero . This means the magnitude of the negative and positive resistances must be equal , and the reactances must be conjugate
<formula> and <formula>
For steady @-@ state oscillation the equal sign applies . During startup the inequality applies , because the circuit must have excess negative resistance for oscillations to start .
Alternately , the condition for oscillation can be expressed using the reflection coefficient . The voltage waveform at the reference plane can be divided into a component V1 travelling toward the negative resistance device and a component V2 travelling in the opposite direction , toward the resonator part . The reflection coefficient of the active device <formula> is greater than one , while that of the resonator part <formula> is less than one . During operation the waves are reflected back and forth in a round trip so the circuit will oscillate only if
<formula>
As above , the equality gives the condition for steady oscillation , while the inequality is required during startup to provide excess negative resistance . The above conditions are analogous to the Barkhausen criterion for feedback oscillators ; they are necessary but not sufficient , so there are some circuits that satisfy the equations but do not oscillate . Kurokawa also derived more complicated sufficient conditions , which are often used instead .
= = Amplifiers = =
Negative differential resistance devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes are also used to make amplifiers , particularly at microwave frequencies , but not as commonly as oscillators . Because negative resistance devices have only one port ( two terminals ) , unlike two @-@ port devices such as transistors , the outgoing amplified signal has to leave the device by the same terminals as the incoming signal enters it . Without some way of separating the two signals , a negative resistance amplifier is bilateral ; it amplifies in both directions , so it suffers from sensitivity to load impedance and feedback problems . To separate the input and output signals , many negative resistance amplifiers use nonreciprocal devices such as isolators and directional couplers .
= = = Reflection amplifier = = =
One widely used circuit is the reflection amplifier in which the separation is accomplished by a circulator . A circulator is a nonreciprocal solid @-@ state component with three ports ( connectors ) which transfers a signal applied to one port to the next in only one direction , port 1 to port 2 , 2 to 3 , and 3 to 1 . In the reflection amplifier diagram the input signal is applied to port 1 , a biased VCNR negative resistance diode N is attached through a filter F to port 2 , and the output circuit is attached to port 3 . The input signal is passed from port 1 to the diode at port 2 , but the outgoing " reflected " amplified signal from the diode is routed to port 3 , so there is little coupling from output to input . The characteristic impedance <formula> of the input and output transmission lines , usually 50Ω , is matched to the port impedance of the circulator . The purpose of the filter F is to present the correct impedance to the diode to set the gain . At radio frequencies NR diodes are not pure resistive loads and have reactance , so a second purpose of the filter is to cancel the diode reactance with a conjugate reactance to prevent standing waves .
The filter has only reactive components and so does not absorb any power itself , so power is passed between the diode and the ports without loss . The input signal power to the diode is
<formula>
The output power from the diode is
<formula>
So the power gain <formula> of the amplifier is the square of the reflection coefficient
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula> is the negative resistance of the diode − r . Assuming the filter is matched to the diode so <formula> then the gain is
<formula>
The VCNR reflection amplifier above is stable for <formula> . while a CCNR amplifier is stable for <formula> . It can be seen that the reflection amplifier can have unlimited gain , approaching infinity as <formula> approaches the point of oscillation at <formula> . This is a characteristic of all NR amplifiers , contrasting with the behavior of two @-@ port amplifiers , which generally have limited gain but are often unconditionally stable . In practice the gain is limited by the backward " leakage " coupling between circulator ports .
Masers and parametric amplifiers are extremely low noise NR amplifiers that are also implemented as reflection amplifiers ; they are used in applications like radio telescopes .
= = Switching circuits = =
Negative differential resistance devices are also used in switching circuits in which the device operates nonlinearly , changing abruptly from one state to another , with hysteresis . The advantage of using a negative resistance device is that a relaxation oscillator , flip @-@ flop or memory cell can be built with a single active device , whereas the standard logic circuit for these functions , the Eccles @-@ Jordan multivibrator , requires two active devices ( transistors ) . Three switching circuits built with negative resistances are
Astable multivibrator – a circuit with two unstable states , in which the output periodically switches back and forth between the states . The time it remains in each state is determined by the time constant of an RC circuit . Therefore , it is a relaxation oscillator , and can produce square waves or triangle waves .
Monostable multivibrator – is a circuit with one unstable state and one stable state . When in its stable state a pulse is applied to the input , the output switches to its other state and remains in it for a period of time dependent on the time constant of the RC circuit , then switches back to the stable state . Thus the monostable can be used as a timer or delay element .
Bistable multivibrator or flip flop – is a circuit with two stable states . A pulse at the input switches the circuit to its other state . Therefore , bistables can be used as memory circuits , and digital counters .
= = Other applications = =
= = = Neuronal models = = =
Some instances of neurons display regions of negative slope conductances ( RNSC ) in voltage @-@ clamp experiments . The negative resistance here is implied were one to consider the neuron a typical Hodgkin – Huxley style circuit model .
= = History = =
Negative resistance was first recognized during investigations of electric arcs , which were used for lighting during the 19th century . In 1881 Alfred Niaudet had observed that the voltage across arc electrodes decreased temporarily as the arc current increased , but many researchers thought this was a secondary effect due to temperature . The term " negative resistance " was applied by some to this effect , but the term was controversial because it was known that the resistance of a passive device could not be negative . Beginning in 1895 Hertha Ayrton , extending her husband William 's research with a series of meticulous experiments measuring the I – V curve of arcs , established that arcs had negative resistance , igniting controversy . Frith and Rodgers in 1896 with the support of the Ayrtons introduced the concept of differential resistance , dv / di , and it was slowly accepted that arcs had negative differential resistance . In recognition of her research , Hertha Ayrton became the first woman voted for induction into the Institute of Electrical Engineers .
= = = Arc transmitters = = =
George Francis Fitzgerald first realized in 1892 that if the damping resistance in a resonant circuit could be made zero or negative , it would produce continuous oscillations . In the same year Elihu Thomson built a negative resistance oscillator by connecting an LC circuit to the electrodes of an arc , perhaps the first example of an electronic oscillator . William Duddell , a student of Ayrton at London Central Technical College , brought Thomson 's arc oscillator to public attention . Due to its negative resistance , the current through an arc was unstable , and arc lights would often produce hissing , humming , or even howling noises . In 1899 , investigating this effect , Duddell connected an LC circuit across an arc and the negative resistance excited oscillations in the tuned circuit , producing a musical tone from the arc . To demonstrate his invention Duddell wired several tuned circuits to an arc and played a tune on it . Duddell 's " singing arc " oscillator was limited to audio frequencies . However , in 1903 Danish engineers Valdemar Poulsen and P. O. Pederson increased the frequency into the radio range by operating the arc in a hydrogen atmosphere in a magnetic field , inventing the Poulsen arc radio transmitter , which was widely used until the 1920s .
= = = Vacuum tubes = = =
By the early 20th century , although the physical causes of negative resistance were not understood , engineers knew it could generate oscillations and had begun to apply it . Heinrich Barkhausen in 1907 showed that oscillators must have negative resistance . Ernst Ruhmer and Adolf Pieper discovered that mercury vapor lamps could produce oscillations , and by 1912 AT & T had used them to build amplifying repeaters for telephone lines .
In 1918 Albert Hull at GE discovered that vacuum tubes could have negative resistance in parts of their operating ranges , due to a phenomenon called secondary emission . In a vacuum tube when electrons strike the plate electrode they can knock additional electrons out of the surface into the tube . This represents a current away from the plate , reducing the plate current . Under certain conditions increasing the plate voltage causes a decrease in plate current . By connecting an LC circuit to the tube Hull created an oscillator , the dynatron oscillator . Other negative resistance tube oscillators followed , such as the magnetron invented by Hull in 1920 .
The negative impedance converter originated from work by Marius Latour around 1920 . He was also one of the first to report negative capacitance and inductance . A decade later , vacuum tube NICs were developed as telephone line repeaters at Bell Labs by George Crisson and others , which made transcontinental telephone service possible . Transistor NICs , pioneered by Linvill in 1953 , initiated a great increase in interest in NICs and many new circuits and applications developed .
= = = Solid state devices = = =
Negative differential resistance in semiconductors was observed around 1909 in the first point @-@ contact junction diodes , called cat 's whisker detectors , by researchers such as William Henry Eccles and G. W. Pickard . They noticed that when junctions were biased with a DC voltage to improve their sensitivity as radio detectors , they would sometimes break into spontaneous oscillations . However the effect was not pursued .
The first person to exploit negative resistance diodes practically was Russian radio researcher Oleg Losev , who in 1922 discovered negative differential resistance in biased zincite ( zinc oxide ) point contact junctions . He used these to build solid @-@ state amplifiers , oscillators , and amplifying and regenerative radio receivers , 25 years before the invention of the transistor . Later he even built a superheterodyne receiver . However his achievements were overlooked because of the success of vacuum tube technology . After ten years he abandoned research into this technology ( dubbed " Crystodyne " by Hugo Gernsback ) , and it was forgotten .
The first widely used solid @-@ state negative resistance device was the tunnel diode , invented in 1957 by Japanese physicist Leo Esaki . Because they have lower parasitic capacitance than vacuum tubes due to their small junction size , diodes can function at higher frequencies , and tunnel diode oscillators proved able to produce power at microwave frequencies , above the range of ordinary vacuum tube oscillators . Its invention set off a search for other negative resistance semiconductor devices for use as microwave oscillators , resulting in the discovery of the IMPATT diode , Gunn diode , TRAPATT diode , and others . In 1969 Kurokawa derived conditions for stability in negative resistance circuits . Currently negative differential resistance diode oscillators are the most widely used sources of microwave energy , and many new negative resistance devices have been discovered in recent decades .
= David A. Johnston =
David Alexander Johnston ( December 18 , 1949 – May 18 , 1980 ) was an American USGS volcanologist who died during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington . A principal scientist on the monitoring team , Johnston perished while manning an observation post 6 miles ( 10 km ) away on the morning of May 18 , 1980 . He was the first to report the eruption , transmitting " Vancouver ! Vancouver ! This is it ! " before he was swept away by a lateral blast . Johnston 's remains were never found , but state highway workers discovered remnants of his USGS trailer in 1993 .
Johnston 's career took him across the United States , where he studied Augustine Volcano in Alaska , the San Juan volcanic field in Colorado , and long @-@ extinct volcanoes in Michigan . Johnston was a meticulous and talented scientist , known for his analyses of volcanic gases and their relationship to eruptions . This , along with his enthusiasm and positive attitude , made him liked and respected by many co @-@ workers . After his death , other scientists lauded his character , both verbally and in dedications and letters . Johnston felt scientists must do what is necessary , including taking risks , to help protect the public from natural disasters . His work , and that of fellow USGS scientists convinced authorities to close Mount St. Helens to the public before the 1980 eruption . They maintained the closure despite heavy pressure to re @-@ open the area ; their work saved thousands of lives . His story became intertwined within the popular image of volcanic eruptions and their threat to society , and a part of volcanology 's history . To date , Johnston , along with Harry Glicken , is one of two American volcanologists known to have died in a volcanic eruption .
Following his death , Johnston was commemorated in several ways , including a memorial fund established in his name at the University of Washington to fund graduate @-@ level research . Two volcano observatories were established and named after him : one in Vancouver , Washington , and another on the ridge where he died . Johnston 's life and death are featured in several documentaries , films , docudramas and books . Along with others who died during the eruption , Johnston 's name is inscribed on memorials dedicated to their memory .
= = Life and career = =
Johnston was born at the University of Chicago Hospital on December 18 , 1949 , to Thomas and Alice Johnston . They originally lived in Hometown , Illinois , but moved to Oak Lawn shortly after Johnston 's birth . Johnston grew up with one sister . His father worked as an engineer at a local company and his mother as a newspaper editor . Johnston often took photographs for his mother 's newspaper and contributed articles to his school 's newspaper . He never married .
After graduating from high school , Johnston attended the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign . He planned to study journalism , but became discouraged after a poor grade in a large lecture class . He was intrigued by an introductory geology class , and changed his major . His first geologic project was a study of the Precambrian rock that forms Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . There he investigated the remains of an ancient volcano : a suite of metamorphosed basalts , a gabbroic sill , and volcanic roots in the form of a dioritic and gabbroic intrusion . The experience planted the seed of Johnston 's passion for volcanoes . After working hard to learn the subject , he graduated with " Highest Honors and Distinction " in 1971 .
Johnston spent the summer after college in the San Juan volcanic field of Colorado working with volcanologist Pete Lipman in his study of two extinct calderas . This work became the inspiration for the first phase of his graduate work at the University of Washington in Seattle , in which he focused on the Oligocene Cimarron andesitic volcanic complex in the western San Juans . Johnston 's reconstruction of the eruptive history of the extinct volcanoes prepared him to study active volcanoes . Johnston 's first experience with active volcanoes was a geophysical survey of Mount Augustine in Alaska in 1975 . When Mount Augustine erupted in 1976 , Johnston raced back to Alaska , shunting his former work on the Cimmaron Volcano into a master 's thesis , and making Mount Augustine the focus of his Ph.D. work . He graduated in 1978 with his Ph.D. , having shown that ( 1 ) the emplacement mechanism of the pyroclastic flows had changed over time , as they became less pumaceous , ( 2 ) the magmas contained high quantities of volatile water , chlorine , and sulfur , and ( 3 ) underground mixing of the felsic ( silicic ) magmas with less @-@ viscous mafic ( basaltic ) magmas could have triggered eruptions . Mount Augustine was also the site of an early near @-@ disaster for Johnston , when he became trapped on the mountain during an eruption after high winds grounded the first two evacuation aircraft .
During the summers of 1978 and 1979 , Johnston led studies of the ash @-@ flow sheet emplaced in the 1912 eruption of Mount Katmai in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes . The gas phase is extremely important in propelling volcanic eruptions . Because of this , Johnston mastered the many techniques required to analyze glass @-@ vapor inclusions in phenocrysts embedded in lavas , which provide information about gases present during past eruptions . His work at Mount Katmai and other volcanoes in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes paved the way for his career , and his " agility , nerve , patience , and determination around the jet @-@ like summit fumaroles in the crater of Mt . Mageik " impressed his colleagues .
Later in 1978 , Johnston joined the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , where he monitored volcanic emission levels in the Cascades and Aleutian Arc . There he helped to strengthen the theory that eruptions can be predicted , to some degree , by changes in the makeup of volcanic gases . Fellow volcanologist Wes Hildreth said of Johnston , " I think Dave 's dearest hope was that systematic monitoring of fumarolic emissions might permit detection of changes characteristically precursory to eruptions ... Dave wanted to formulate a general model for the behavior of magmatic volatiles prior to explosive outbursts and to develop a corollary rationale for the evaluation of hazards . " During this time , Johnston continued to visit Mount Augustine every summer and also assessed the geothermal energy potential of the Azores and Portugal . In the last year of his life , Johnston developed an interest in the health , agricultural , and environmental effects of both volcanic and anthropogenic emissions to the atmosphere .
Johnston was based at the branch of the USGS in Menlo Park , California , but his work on volcanoes took him all over the Pacific Northwest region . When the first earthquakes shook Mount St. Helens on March 16 , 1980 , Johnston was nearby at the University of Washington , where he had pursued his doctorate . Intrigued by the possible advent of an eruption , Johnston contacted Stephen Malone , a professor of geology at the university . Malone had been his mentor when Johnston had worked at the San Juan complex in Colorado , and Johnston admired his work . Malone stated that he " put him to work " almost instantly , allowing Johnston to escort interested reporters to a place near the volcano . Johnston was the first geologist on the volcano , and soon became a leader within the USGS team , taking charge of monitoring of volcanic gas emissions .
= = Eruption = =
= = = Precursor activity = = =
Since its last eruptive activity in the mid @-@ 19th century , Mount St. Helens had been largely dormant . Seismographs were not installed until 1972 . This period of more than 100 years of inactivity ended in early 1980 . On March 15 , a cluster of tiny earthquakes rocked the area around the mountain . For six days , more than 100 earthquakes clustered around Mount St. Helens , an indication that magma was moving . There was initially some doubt as to whether the earthquakes were precursors to an eruption . By March 20 , a magnitude 4 @.@ 2 earthquake shook the wilderness around the volcano . The next day , seismologists installed three seismic recorder stations . By March 24 , volcanologists at the USGS — including Johnston — became more confident that the seismic activity was a sign of an impending eruption . After March 25 , seismic activity drastically increased . By March 26 , more than seven earthquakes over magnitude 4 @.@ 0 had been recorded , and the next day , hazard warnings were publicly issued . On March 27 , a phreatic eruption took place , ejecting a plume of ash nearly 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 134 m ) into the air .
Similar activity continued at the volcano over the following weeks , excavating the crater , forming an adjacent caldera , and erupting small amounts of steam , ash , and tephra . With each new eruption , the plumes of steam and ash from the volcano rose , eventually climbing to 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 000 m ) . By late March , the volcano was erupting up to 100 times per day . Spectators congregated in the vicinity of the mountain , hoping for a chance to see its eruptions . They were joined by reporters on helicopters , as well as mountain climbers .
On April 17 , a bulge was discovered on the mountain 's north flank , suggesting that Mount St. Helens could produce a lateral blast . Johnston was one of few people who believed this , along with a professor of geology at a Tacoma community college , Jack Hyde . Observing that Mount St. Helens did not possess visible vents , Hyde suggested that pressure would increase until the mountain exploded . Because Hyde was not a part of the USGS or in a position of responsibility , his opinion was generally dismissed . However , both were to be proven correct . Rising magma
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capable of mating every year . Mating occurs from November to January , and the young are born the following year after a gestation period of 9 – 12 months . The litter size ranges from 3 to 32 , increasing with the size of the female .
The electric organs first appear when the embryo is 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 75 – 0 @.@ 91 in ) long , at which time it has distinct eyes , pectoral and pelvic fins , and external gills . At an embryonic length of 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 – 0 @.@ 106 in ) , the gill clefts close dorsally , leaving the gill slits beneath the disc as in all rays . At the same time , the four blocks of primordial cells that make up each electric organ rapidly coalesce together . The embryo 's pectoral fins enlarge and fuse with the snout at a length of 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 5 in ) , giving it the typical circular electric ray shape . When the embryo is 3 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) long , the external gills are resorbed and pigmentation develops . The embryo can produce electric discharges by a length of 6 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 3 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 9 in ) . The strength of the discharge increases by a magnitude of 105 over the course of gestation , reaching 47 – 55 volts by an embryonic length of 8 @.@ 6 – 13 cm ( 3 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) , close to that of an adult .
Newborns measure approximately 10 – 14 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long , and are immediately capable of performing characteristic predatory and defensive behaviors . Males mature sexually at approximately 21 – 29 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 – 11 @.@ 4 in ) long and five years of age , while females mature significantly larger and older at 31 – 39 cm ( 12 – 15 in ) long and twelve years of age . The maximum lifespan is 12 – 13 years for males and around 20 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
The shock delivered by the marbled electric ray can be painful but is seldom life @-@ threatening , although there is a danger of a shocked diver becoming disoriented underwater . Its electrogenic properties have been known since classical antiquity , leading it and other electric fishes to be used in medicine . The ancient Greeks and Romans applied live rays to those afflicted with conditions such as chronic headaches and gout , and recommended that its meat be eaten by epileptics .
The marbled electric ray is caught incidentally in bottom trawls , trammel nets , and bottom longlines ; it has little economic value and is mostly discarded at sea when captured . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) presently lacks enough population and fishery data to assess its conservation status beyond Data Deficient . At least in the northern Mediterranean , surveys have found that it remains the most common electric ray , and is perhaps becoming more abundant in Italian waters . This and other electric ray species are used as model organisms in biomedical research because their electric organs are rich in acetylcholine receptors , which play an important role in the human nervous system .
= Saskatchewan Highway 2 =
Highway 2 is a provincial highway in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan . It is the longest Saskatchewan Highway , at 809 km ( 503 mi ) . The highway is partially divided and undivided . However , only about 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) near Moose Jaw , 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) near Chamberlain , and 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) near Prince Albert are divided highway . Highway 2 is a major north @-@ south route , beginning at the Canadian @-@ American border at the Port of West Poplar River , and Opheim , Montana customs checkpoints . Montana Highway 24 continues south . The town of La Ronge delimits the northern terminus with Highway 102 continuing north . It passes through the major cities of Moose Jaw in the south and Prince Albert in the north . Highway 2 overlaps Highway 11 between the towns of Chamberlain and Findlater . This 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) section of road is a wrong @-@ way concurrency . The highway ends at La Ronge , where it becomes Highway 102 .
The highway started as a graded road in the 1920s which followed the grid lines of the early survey system and was maintained by early homesteaders of each rural municipality . Paving projects of the 1950s created all weather roads . Technological advances have paved the way for cost @-@ effective methods of improvements to highway surfaces to meet the wear and tear of increased tourist and commercial highway traffic . The stretch of Highway 2 from Moose Jaw to Prince Albert was designated in 2005 as Veterans Memorial Highway . The designation coincided with Veterans Week 2005 . The CanAm Highway comprises Saskatchewan Highways 35 , 39 , 6 , 3 , and 2 .
= = Route description = =
Saskatchewan Highway 2 departs the Canada – United States border in a northerly direction . Montana Highway 24 continues in a southerly direction in the United States . The United States border crossing is in Opheim , Montana and the Canadian is at West Poplar River .
Nearby there are campgrounds available , and a point of information regarding the crossing of Poplar River . The area is rich in history , this is the Big Muddy Badlands area which featured the hideouts of outlaws and rum runners of the nineteenth and early twentieth century . This area remained above the Quaternary age ice sheets , being pushed and folded by the glacier movement resulting in glaciotectonic hills . The highway winds up , down and around these hills along the way . The Big Muddy Badlands are within the Missouri Coteau . At km 12 @.@ 2 the highway reaches Kildeer , and the intersection with Highway 18 . Access to Wood Mountain Post Provincial Historical Park is obtained by following Highway 18 north for 17 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 8 mi ) . This section of Highway 2 begins as a Class 4 highway and is under the jurisdiction of the Saskatchewan Highways and Transportation ( SHT ) South West Transportation Planning Council . The highway is a secondary weight highway with a thin membrane surface type as it only has an average of 390 vehicles per day ( vpd ) according to the 2007 Average Annual Daily Traffic ( AADT ) count which was taken north of Rockglen . Highway 2 begins a concurrency with Highway 18 in a northeasterly direction . Alfalfa and alfalfa mixtures , hay and fodder crops and spring wheat are the main crops in Old Post rural municipality ( RM ) . There is a point of information at km 42 @.@ 3 . This area is known as the Wood Mountain Uplands where there are mining endeavours undertaken such as coal , bentonite , kaolinitic and ceramic clays . Paleontological digs have uncovered a 63 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old sea turtle which has been excavated in the Killdeer region . Rockglen is located at km 49 @.@ 7 , and Highway 2 now extends in a northerly direction again . Rockglen ( Population 450 in 2001 and 360 in 2006 ) and Assiniboia ( 2 @,@ 483 in 2001 and 2 @,@ 305 in 2006 ) are the two largest centers between the border and the city of Moose Jaw . This geographical region of Highway 2 from Rockglen to Assiniboia has been upgraded to a Class 3 highway as it carries approximately 800 vehicles per day counted to the south of Assiniboia . Therefore , the surface type before Assiniboia is a granular road surface which is a structural pavement with a hot mix surface coating . The highway type , surface , maintenance and construction projects are looked after by the SHS South Central Traffic Planning Committee . Fife Lake is located to the north east of the highway . The St. Victor Petroglyph Historic Park is located just to the west of Highway 2 by 10 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) . These unique petroglyph features carved into the sandstone are slowly disappearing .
At 104 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 65 @.@ 1 mi ) is the town of Assiniboia where 1 @,@ 260 vpd results in the highway designated as an asphalt concrete ( AS ) Class 2 primary weight highway all the way to Moose Jaw . Junction with Highway 13 , the Redcoat Trail occurs at km 106 @.@ 4 , providing access to Lafleche . Vantage is located to the west of the highway along this stretch , with access provided at km 129 @.@ 2 . Mossbank is located at the intersection with Highway 718 . Here is the southeast portion of Old Wives Lake , which is a part of the Chaplin , Old Wives Lake , Reed Lakes ( Hemispheric ) - Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network ( WHSRN ) Site , a designated Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve Network , protecting three saline lakes , saline and freshwater marshes . Ardill is located near the northern extremity of Lake of the Rivers . Highway 36 is located at km 176 @.@ 4 , which provides access to Crestwynd , and the Jean Louis Legare Regional Park . At km 184 @.@ 5 , is the junction with Highway 716 west providing access to Briercrest .
= = = Veteran 's Memorial Highway = = =
The home of the Snowbirds , the Canadian Forces 431 Air Demonstration Squadron is at CFB Moose Jaw , Bushell Park at the km 204 @.@ 4 junction with Highway 363 . Before entering the city of Moose Jaw is an 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) divided or twinned highway section . The city of Moose Jaw does not have a cloverleaf , and highway 2 goes through the centre of the city . Moose Jaw , a city of 32 @,@ 132 features large roadside attractions such as Capone 's Car , Moose Family and Mac the moose . Temple Gardens Mineral Spa Resort , Tunnels of Moose Jaw , and History of Transportation Western Development Museum. are major sites of interest of this city . The Saskatchewan Highway 1 intersection with Highway 2 is north of Moose Jaw . At km 230 @.@ 9 , access to Buffalo Pound Provincial Park is provided to the east of Highway 2 by traveling another 11 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) . Access to the small town of Tuxford is provided at km 232 @.@ 8 , at the Highway 42 junction . The SHS Central Area Transportation Planning Committee monitors this primary weight highway between Moose Jaw and Meacham . Between the two national highway systems of the Trans Canada Saskatchewan Highway 1 and Saskatchewan Highway 11 , Highway 2 is also designated as a Class 1 AC national connector highway . There is a point of information on the south side of the Qu 'Appelle Valley , km 246 @.@ 3 . A second point of information is on the northern bank of the Qu 'Appelle Valley at km 250 @.@ 0 . Buffalo Pound Lake , a eutrophic prairie lake was formed by glaciation 10 @,@ 000 years ago . At the junction of highway 11 , is the town of Chamberlain where the highway which travels north begins a southeast 11 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) wrong @-@ way concurrency at Chamberlain . Where these two national highways overlap , a divided highway segment handles the AADT which is about 4500 vpd . There is a rest area at km 281 @.@ 1 south of Chamberlain with an historical marker . To the west of the highway are afforded views of the Arm River valley . At km 276 @.@ 1 , the highway takes a sharp turn to continue north as it leaves the Highway 11 concurrency . After the concurrency , Highway 2 is a class 3 AC primary weight highway until Watrous . The junction of Highway 733 in 11 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) provides access to Last Mountain Lake ( Long Lake ) traveling east . Holdfast is accessed at the Highway 732 junction . Penzance is east of the highway at km 305 @.@ 0 , where Highway 732 turns north , forming the beginning of a 18 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 11 @.@ 3 mi ) concurrency . Liberty is a small community at km 320 @.@ 5 . Located near Stalwart is the Stalwart National Wildlife Area , a wetlands region . Watertown ( 1903 – 1910 ) provides easy access to Etter 's Beach on Long Lake . The settlers of Watertown established a post office named Harkness Post Office , Assiniboia , North West Territories . With the arrival of the rail , the village became known as Imperial . The town of Imperial is the largest center west of Last Mountain Lake with a population around 300 and an AADT of close to 650 vpd . The village of Simpson is also along the highway which runs parallel to Last Mountain Lake . There are several roadside turnouts to access Last Mountain Lake from Highway 2 . The Last Mountain Lake Sanctuary was the first federal bird sanctuary . Highway 15 provides access to Nokomis to the east , and Kenaston to the west .
The small hamlet of Amazon is located before Watrous . Watrous is a tourist destination due to its proximity to Manitou Beach and the ehdorheic Little Manitou Lake . Watrous , in the Land of Living Waters , is a tourist destination due to its proximity to Manitou Beach , home of the world @-@ famous Mineral Spa and Danceland dance hall ( known as the " Home of the World Famous Dance Floor Built on Horsehair " ) . The AADT near this tourist town of 1 @,@ 800 people raises to about 1 @,@ 250 vpd which ranks it as a class 2 highway . Highway 2 continues in a northwest direction to circumnavigate around Little Manitou until it gets to the Young and the junction of Highway 670 . Young and Zelma were two communities that were part of the alphabet railway of the Canadian National Railway ( CNR ) . The Yellowhead Highway is at km 426 @.@ 3 . Colonsay is located to the west , and Plunkett to the east . Colonsay is the location of one of several potash mines in Saskatchewan , a major employer of the region . Potash evaporites were laid down during the geological formation of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin . The SHS North Central Transportation Planning Committee tends to highway maintenance and construction decisions north of the Yellowhead highway . Highway 2 from the Yellowhead through to Prince Albert is a class 2 primary weight AC highway . Over 1 @,@ 000 vehicles travel Highway 2 between Watrous and Meacham , and of these less than 100 of them are trucks . The majority of commercial trucks near the Highway 2 and 5 intersection travel Highway 5 . The AADT after the intersection is under 350 vpd .
Highway 5 provides access to the city of Saskatoon , the largest city in the province . There is a 5 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) concurrency between Highway 5 and 2 upon which there are close to 2 @,@ 000 vpd . Highway 5 east provides access to the city of Humboldt . Meacham at km 442 @.@ 0 is located in the Aspen Parkland ecoregion . Throughout the Aspen Parkland ecoregion are trembling aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) bluffs ( small islands or shelter belts ) within the prairie region . Deer and other large ungulates are a hazard to traffic resulting in potential animal or human deaths , especially in the autumn mating months or when deer are searching for feeding grounds in the spring . The defense mechanism of deer in the face of a threat is to freeze . There are over 3 @,@ 500 deer - auto collisions per year in Saskatchewan . A number of measures have been implemented to increase awareness such as fencing , feeding programs , automobile whistles . Deer mirrors along the edges of highways were installed for reducing deer @-@ vehicle collisions . The Wildlife Warning System is triggered by highway vehicles , setting off lights , sounds and or odours ahead of the approaching vehicle to frighten away animals . Some systems that detect vehicles , where others detect large animals and sets off a warning system to drivers of vehicles alerting them that an animal is on or near the highway ahead of time . The junction with Highway 27 occurs at km 468 @.@ 0 providing access west to the village of Prud 'homme and off to the east is Muskiki Lake . Cudworth is located at the Highway 777 intersection , bearing east on highway 777 provides access to Middle Lake . The intersection of Highway 41 is located at Wakaw , which features a golf course , campground and recreation site at Wakaw Lake . The community considered a proposal to construct a canal between the lake and the town to be developed into a marina - resort - tourism area . Traffic around this tourist town of 864 increases between 650 and 1050 vpd .
At the junction of Highway 25 is the town of St. Louis where there is a historical paranormal phenomenon called the St. Louis Light or the St. Louis Ghost Train . Domremy , located at the junction of Highway 320 and Highway 225 , constructed a park to commemorate the province 's centennial celebrations . Highway 225 provides access to the Batoche National Historical Site , which was the site of the last stand of Metis rights activist Louis Riel prior to his subsequent trial and death in 1885 . The village of Hoey is located at km 529 @.@ 6 . St. Louis was recently the site of the discovery of a large archaeological site of aboriginal artifacts .
The South Saskatchewan River is crossed at this point via the St. Louis Bridge . Traffic around St. Louis averaged about 1 @,@ 500 and escalates to 6 @,@ 000 after the junction with the Highway 11 , the Louis Riel Trail occurs just south of Prince Albert at km 562 @.@ 9 .
= = = CanAm Highway = = =
Highway 3 joins with Highway 2 at km 568 @.@ 4 , becoming a concurrency for 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) After crossing the North Saskatchewan River the concurrency of Highway 2 and 3 end at the interchange with Highway 55 . There is a 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) divided or twinned highway segment north of Prince Albert . Highway 2 continues northward as an AC primary weight CanAm international highway from this point northward taking over from the highway 3 segment . Prince Albert , a city of over 34 @,@ 000 , is a part of the boreal transition ecoregion , agricultural fields and forested areas border the highway rural areas . At km 593 @.@ 9 , Highway 2 meets with the intersection of Highway 325 . To the northwest of this intersection is Little Red River Indian Reserve 106C and Montreal Lake 106B Indian Reserves . Christopher Lake is at the km 610 @.@ 0 junction of Highway 791 east and Highway 263 west . Highway 263 provides access to the Prince Albert National Park .
This ecoregion is a part of the mid @-@ boreal upland . At km 646 @.@ 9 , Highway 2 meets with Highway 264 which provides access to Waskesiu Lake in the Prince Albert National Park . At km 660 @.@ 5 there is an intersection with Highway 969 , another access to the Park westerly , and eastern access to Montreal Lake 106 Indian Reserve . There are fewer roads in the southern boreal forest . Highway 2 makes the next highway connection at km 693 @.@ 1 with Highway 916 .
There are over 10 @,@ 000 lakes across Saskatchewan , with the main lake region being north of the tree line in the Canadian Shield . Montreal Lake is located west of Highway 2 , its northern shores near Weyakwin at km 716 @.@ 2 , then at km 758 @.@ 5 Highway 2 meets with Highway 165 which travels north to Morin Lake 217 Indian Reserve . Lac la Ronge 156 Indian Reserve is at km 805 @.@ 9 before the ending terminus in the northern boreal forest at La Ronge and the junction with Highway 102 .
= = History = =
From 1876 , the South Saskatchewan river crossing at St. Louis was via ferry . In 1912 , the railway built a rail bridge across the river , and in 1928 , the vehicle lanes were added . After 1907 , the highway was constructed south of Chamberlain and reached Buffalo Pound . At this time two horse scrapers and walking plows were the implements of road construction technology . This highway received an improvement in 1926 which then used an elevating grader , 16 horses and a dump wagon .
The Saskatchewan Highway Act was established in 1922 , in compliance with the 1919 Canadian highway act . At the initial stages of the Saskatchewan Highway Act , 10 miles ( 16 km ) of highway were gravel and the rest were earth roads . The road allowances were laid out as a part of the Dominion Land survey system for homesteading . In 1929 , the R.M. of Wood Creek # 281 conducted roadwork with three graders , 53 slush scrapers , 15 wheel scrapers and five ploughs . Development of highways began in the 1920s and was virtually halted in the depression years of the 1930s . Early homesteaders , such as John Abrey , would do road maintenance work themselves in this era . In the 1930s seeing a car was rare , Alexander Black remembers taking 150 bushels on a grain tank with a four horse hitch . When they reached highway 2 , the horses bolted through town until they snagged on the railway switch by the elevators . Travel along the Provincial Highway 5 before the 1940s would have been traveling on the square following the township road allowances , barbed wire fencing and rail lines . As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel , the first highway was designed on 90 @-@ degree , right @-@ angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads .
The two industrial revolutions first and second combined with advancements made during the war years resulted in the largest impetus in highway construction of all weather roads following World War II . The creation of the highway south of Chamberlain to Moose Jaw was completed in 1953 . Paving projects followed within a short time period . In 1955 parts of Highway 2 were already paved ; Between Vantage and Tuxford , either side of Moose Jaw ; north of Watrous along the Little Manitou Lake shoreline ; and north of the junction with Highway 27 to Montreal Lake , either side of Prince Albert . In 1956 a North @-@ South International Highway proposal regarding a highway between El Paso , Texas , and LaRonge via Wakaw was discussed . The CanAm Highway northern segment into La Ronge finished construction in 1977 ; however , the CanAm didn 't go through Wakaw , rather it comprised several different routes making the CanAm . Highway 2 , which does go through Wakaw , does link to the CanAm highway at Prince Albert when Highway 2 becomes the last portion of the CanAm highway . In 1952 , Highway 2 was re @-@ routed ; rather than winding its way through the town of Wakaw , the highway 's new route went straight along the western limit of town .
Agriculture is Saskatchewan 's main industry and taking grain to elevators was first accomplished by horse and cart , to be replaced around World War I by truck travel . Long haul trucking flourished between 1950 and 1970 . Since the 1970s , 17 times the number of grain trucks and 95 percent of goods transported now are hauled by truck across the Saskatchewan .
In 1999 , the granular pavement section of Highway 2 south of Watrous was tested with a cold in @-@ place recycling or “ CIR ” method to rehabilitate highways . This CIR process is a cost @-@ effective method which recycles the top surface of a road . This pulverized material is mixed with asphalt emulsion and spread and compacted back onto the highway surface . This surface is then recovered with a new seal dependent on traffic volume .
In 2001 , 6 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 1 mi ) were resurfaced near the Cudworth access road , as well 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) km north of the Highway 27 junction . " Highway 2 near Cudworth has seen an increase in truck traffic that is leading to deterioration on this highway ... It 's important to keep our highways in good driving condition to ensure the safety of the travelling public . " -Highways and Transportation Minister Maynard Sonntag . As recently as 2002 , this section of Highway 2 was improved 10 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) south of the Yellowhead . At km 398 @.@ 1 is access to Zelma . ' Highway 2 has seen an increase in truck traffic , leading to wear and tear on this highway ... We are paving a section of this highway as it has deteriorated over the past number of years . Saskatchewan Highways and Transportation is working hard to fix roads across the province to improve driver safety . - " Highways and Transportation Minister Mark Wartman
= = = Veterans Memorial Highway = = =
Veterans Memorial Highway is the official name of Highway 2 between Moose Jaw and Prince Albert .
As a tribute to Saskatchewan veterans , Premier Lorne Calvert , Highways and Transportation Minister Eldon Lautermilch and Past Provincial President of the Royal Canadian Legion , Saskatchewan Command , John Henderson together unveiled the new highway sign on November 10 , 2005 . The ceremony was held during veteran 's week , November 5 – 11th , and also commemorates The Year of the Veteran , 2005 . The highway designation coincides with Veterans Week ( November 5 – 11 ) and was one of several significant honours bestowed to veterans in 2005 , The Year of the Veteran . The Year of the Veteran commemorates the 60th Anniversary of the end of the World War II . The Royal Canadian Legion , Saskatchewan Command and Saskatchewan Remembers Committee came together to select this particular highway of Saskatchewan because of the history of a military presence along the route . Royal Canadian Legion branches are located at Moose Jaw , Penance - Holdfast , Young - Zelma , Watrous , Simpson , and Prince Albert . A military history museum is located at the Watrous , as well military memorabilia is held at Prince Albert Royal Canadian Legion branch . Moose Jaw Royal Canadian Air Force RCAF and 15 Wing military base is located 5 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Moose Jaw .
= = = CanAm Highway = = =
The northern 176 @.@ 3 miles ( 283 @.@ 7 km ) of Saskatchewan Highway 2 contribute to the CanAm Highway . The Highway 2 segment designated as the CanAm Highway is located between Prince Albert and La Ronge .
The entire length of the CanAm Highway route is 4 @,@ 122 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 561 mi ) and extends from El Paso , TX at Mexican Border ( MX 45 ) to La Ronge at the Saskatchewan Highway 2 - SK 102 intersection . The North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) super corridors connect Mexico , United States , and Canada . The CanAm highway was a concept that began in the 1920s . A stretch of highway between Amazon and Watrous is slated for maintenance between 208 and 2009 , as well as the Highway 5 - Highway 2 concurrency which carries about 2 @,@ 000 vpd on average through the year . Also the 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) segment between Highways 264 and 969 is a 2008 @-@ 09 maintenance project .
= = Intersections from south to north = =
= Banner of Poland =
Throughout most of the history of Poland , the banner of Poland was one of the main symbols of the Polish State , normally reserved for use by the head of state . Although its design changed with time , it was generally a heraldic banner , i.e. , one based directly on the national coat of arms : a crowned White Eagle on a red field ( Gules an eagle Argent crowned Or ) . The banner should not be confused with the flag of Poland , a white and red horizontal bicolor , officially adopted in 1919 .
Derived from early Slavic flag @-@ like objects , a royal banner of arms dates as far back as the 11th century CE . A symbol of royal authority , it was used at coronations and in battles . In the interwar period , it was replaced with the Banner of the Republic of Poland , which was part of the presidential insignia . A national banner is not mentioned in the current ( 2007 ) regulations on Polish national symbols , although today 's presidential jack is based directly on the pre @-@ war design for the Banner of the Republic .
= = History = =
= = = From stanica to chorągiew = = =
The banner of Poland traces its origins to the early Slavic vexilloids known as stanice ( pronounced [ staˈɲit ͡ sɛ ] ; singular : stanica ) , probably used at least as early as the 10th century CE . Although no specimens or images are preserved , a stanica was probably a cloth draped vertically from a horizontal crosspiece attached to a wooden pole or spear , resembling the Roman vexillum . It was both a religious and military symbol ; the stanice were kept either inside or outside pagan temples in peacetime and were taken to war as military insignia .
With Poland 's conversion to Christianity in the late 10th century , the pagan stanice were probably Christianized by replacing pagan symbols with Christian ones such as images of patron saints , or a Chi @-@ Rho or dove symbolizing the Holy Spirit . In 1000 CE , during his pilgrimage to the tomb of Saint Adalbert in Gniezno , the capital of Poland until about 1040 , Emperor Otto III officially recognized Duke Boleslaus the Brave as King of Poland ( see Congress of Gniezno ) , crowning him and presenting him with a replica of the Holy Lance , also known as Saint Maurice 's Spear . This relic , together with the vexillum attached to it , was probably the first insignia of the nascent Kingdom of Poland , a symbol of King Boleslaus 's rule , and of his allegiance to the Emperor . It remains unknown what images , if any , were painted or embroidered on the vexillum .
A royal banner was used as early as the reign of Boleslaus the Generous ( r . 1076 @-@ 1079 ) . The earliest mention of a banner ( Polish : chorągiew , pronounced [ xɔˈrɔŋɡʲɛf ] ) bearing the sign of an eagle is found in Wincenty Kadłubek 's Chronicle which says that Duke Casimir the Just fought the Ruthenians in 1182 " under the sign of the victorious eagle " . A seal of Duke Premislaus II from 1290 shows the ruler holding a banner emblazoned with a crowned eagle . Five years later , Premislaus was crowned King of Poland , and he made the crowned White Eagle a national coat of arms . During the reign of King Ladislaus the Elbow @-@ High ( r . 1320 – 1333 ) , the red cloth with the White Eagle was finally established as the Banner of the Kingdom of Poland ( Polish : chorągiew Królestwa Polskiego ) . The orientation of the eagle on the banner varied ; its head could point either upwards or towards the hoist . The actual rendering of the eagle changed with time according to new artistic styles .
The national banner was identical with that of Lesser Poland , the territory where Kraków , the capital of Poland until 1596 , is located . It was therefore carried by the Standard @-@ bearer of Kraków until that office was replaced by the Grand Standard @-@ Bearer of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland ( Polish : chorąży wielki koronny , Latin : vexillifer regni ) .
= = = Polish @-@ Lithuanian union = = =
One of the most famous standard @-@ bearers of Kraków was Marcin of Wrocimowice ( d . 1442 ) who carried the national banner in the Battle of Grunwald ( Tannenberg ) in 1410 . The military unit ( chorągiew ) that went to the battle under that banner comprised the elite of Polish knights , including such chivalrous celebrities as Zawisza the Black , which is a clear sign that the banner , described by the chronicler Jan Długosz as " the great banner of Kraków Territory " , was also the insignia of the entire kingdom . During the course of the battle , according to Długosz , the national banner slipped out of Marcin 's hand and fell to the ground , but it was quickly picked up and saved from destruction by the Polish army 's most valiant knights , which further motivated the Poles to strive for victory over the Teutonic Knights .
With the establishment of a dynastic union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1386 , it became customary to use two banners — Polish and Lithuanian — as equally important insignia of royal authority . In the mid @-@ 16th century , before the creation of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ( real union ) in 1569 , a single banner for the entire entity also came into use . The Commonwealth banner was initially plain white emblazoned with the arms of the Commonwealth which combined the heraldic charges of Poland ( White Eagle ) and Lithuania ( Pursuer ) . During the 17th century , the banner was often divided into three or four horizontal stripes of white and red , ending with swallowtails . Elective kings ' dynastic arms were often placed in an inescutcheon . Variants with the White Eagle and the Pursuer placed side by side without an escutcheon directly in the field or with the Eagle on the obverse and the Pursuit on the reverse side of the banner were also used .
During royal coronations , however , separate banners for each of the two constituent nations of the Commonwealth were still used . Crown ( i.e. , Polish ) and Lithuanian standard @-@ bearers carried the furled banners in a procession to the royal cathedral where , shortly after the anointment and just before the crowning of the king @-@ elect , they handed the banners to the primate who unfurled them and handed them to the kneeling king . The king would then stand up and give the unfurled banners back to the standard @-@ bearers .
= = = Time of partitions = = =
Partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century brought an end to the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1815 , the Congress of Vienna established a semi @-@ independent Kingdom of Poland ( known as Congress Kingdom ) under control of and in personal union with the Russian Empire . The King ( Tsar ) of Poland at that time used a white royal banner emblazoned with the arms of the Congress Kingdom — a black double @-@ headed Russian eagle with the Polish White Eagle in an inescutcheon .
= = = Interbellum = = =
In August 1919 , the Sejm ( lower house of parliament ) of the renascent Republic of Poland adopted a law defining the Banner of the Republic of Poland ( chorągiew Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) . The banner was part of the insignia of the head of state — the State Leader ( Naczelnik Państwa ) and , later , President of the Republic . It was plain red emblazoned with the crowned White Eagle and bordered with a wężyk generalski , a wavy line used in the Polish military as a symbol of general 's rank . It was modified on December 27 , 1927 to reflect the adoption of a new official rendering of the national coat of arms .
As a symbol of presidential authority , the banner was carried or flown to mark the presence of the head of state and , at the same time , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief . It was flown on the president 's official residence , and used as a car flag and instead of number plates on the president 's vehicle . The banner was also used on special national occasions including the welcome ceremony for Ignacy Paderewski in Poznań in 1918 and Poland 's wedding to the Baltic Sea in Puck in 1920 . It also draped the coffins of Henryk Sienkiewicz in 1924 , the Unknown Soldier in 1925 , and Marshal Józef Piłsudski in 1935 .
= = = Second World War and People 's Poland = = =
Following the German @-@ Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939 , President Ignacy Mościcki fled to Romania , taking the presidential insignia , including two specimens of the Banner of the Republic , with him . The banners were kept by the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile in London until after the fall of Communism in Poland in 1989 .
Meanwhile , the new Communist authorities at home used a modified version of the banner with a crownless White Eagle and a wider border . It was first used during the celebrations of the anniversary of the battle of Grunwald in 1945 . Officially abandoned in 1955 , the banner continued to be used in practice by the prime minister and , during the 1960s , by the Council of State , a collective head of state of the time .
= = = Third Republic = = =
On December 22 , 1990 , the last Polish president @-@ in @-@ exile , Ryszard Kaczorowski , handed the presidential insignia , including one of the banners rescued by Mościcki in 1939 , to Lech Wałęsa , the first democratically elected president of post @-@ war Poland . The ceremony , held at the Royal Castle in Warsaw was seen as a symbol of the Third Republic 's continuity with the pre @-@ war Second Republic . However , since legal regulations on national symbols did not recognize a national banner at that time , the banner brought by Kaczorowski did not become the presidential insignia again but was instead donated to the Royal Castle museum where it is now on display . The other of the two banners remains in the Sikorski Institute in London . Today , a kilim embroidered with the design of the pre @-@ war Banner of the Republic is hanging in the Senate chamber , above the chair reserved for the President of Poland .
In 1996 , the Minister of National Defense established a jack of the President of the Republic of Poland with the purpose of flying it on Polish Navy ships while the commander @-@ in @-@ chief is on board . The jack is identical in its design to the former Banner of the Republic of Poland . In 2005 , the use of the presidential jack was extended to all branches of the Polish Armed Forces . It was first flown on land during a Constitution Day ceremony at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Warsaw on May 3 , 2005 .
= = Gallery = =
= River Welland =
The River Welland is a lowland river in the east of England , some 65 miles ( 105 km ) long . It drains part of the Midlands eastwards to The Wash . The river rises in the Hothorpe Hills , at Sibbertoft in Northamptonshire , then flows generally northeast to Market Harborough , Stamford and Spalding , to reach The Wash near Fosdyke . It is a major waterway across the part of the Fens called South Holland , and is one of the Fenland rivers which were laid out with washlands . There are two channels between widely spaced embankments with the intention that flood waters would have space in which to spread while the tide in the estuary prevented free egress . However , after the floods of 1947 , new works such as the Coronation Channel were constructed to control flooding in Spalding and the washes are no longer used solely as pasture , but may be used for arable farming .
Significant improvements were made to the river in the 1660s , when a new cut with 10 locks was constructed between Stamford and Market Deeping , and two locks were built on the river section below Market Deeping . The canal section was known as the Stamford Canal , and was the longest canal with locks in Britain when it was built . The river provided the final outlet to the sea for land drainage schemes implemented in the seventeenth century , although they were not completely successful until a steam @-@ powered pumping station was built at Pode Hole in 1827 . Navigation on the upper river , including the Stamford Canal , had ceased by 1863 , but Spalding remained an active port until the end of the Second World War .
The Environment Agency is the navigation authority for the river , which is navigable as far upstream as Crowland , and with very shallow draught to West Deeping Bridge , where further progress is hindered by the derelict lock around the weir . The traditional head of navigation was Wharf Road in Stamford . The management of the lower river has been intimately tied up with the drainage of Deeping Fen , and the river remains important to the Welland and Deepings Internal Drainage Board , for whom it provides the final conduit to the sea for pumped water .
Wildlife in the river varies along its length , the faster headwaters being a habitat for trout and the slower lower reaches for perch . The estuary conditions and flat landscapes beyond Fosdyke favour wading birds and migratory species .
= = Geography = =
The River Welland , with its tributaries , form a river system with a catchment area of 609 square miles ( 1 @,@ 580 km2 ) . Within this area , 257 miles ( 414 km ) of waterway are designated as " main river " , and are therefore managed for flood control by the Environment Agency under the River Welland Catchment Flood Management Plan ( CFMP ) . Of this total , the 14 miles ( 23 km ) below Spalding are tidal , and have sea walls to protect the adjacent land from flooding , while 56 miles ( 90 km ) are fresh water , but run through low @-@ lying land , and are therefore embanked . Within the catchment area , 179 square miles ( 460 km2 ) are below sea level , and would be flooded without such defences .
The basin runs in a broadly south @-@ west to north @-@ east direction , with an extension to the north around the West Glen and East Glen rivers . The underlying geology consists of Lias clays at the western end of the catchment , with Lincolnshire limestone in the centre , including the valleys of the Glen . The eastern third is mostly alluvial soils , and it is this part that relies on artificial pumping to prevent flooding . Rainfall over the area varies between 26 and 30 inches ( 660 and 760 mm ) per year , which is quite light , and because the land is efficiently drained during the winter months , there are few reserves , making the area prone to drought in the summer months .
For much of its length the Welland forms the county boundary between Northamptonshire and Leicestershire or Rutland , and lower down between Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire .
= = Course = =
The Welland rises in the Hothorpe Hills , close to the 540 @-@ foot ( 160 m ) contour , near Welland Rise , Sibbertoft in Northamptonshire . Within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , the small stream forms the border between Northamptonshire and Leicestershire . It flows westwards , before looping round , passing through the grounds of Hothorpe Hall in Theddingworth , now a conference centre , to flow generally eastwards through Lubenham to Market Harborough . One of the driveways to Thorpe Lubenham Hall is carried over the river by an early nineteenth century ashlar bridge which is a Grade II listed structure . To the east of Lubenham , the river passes Old Lubenham Hall , part of an H @-@ plan house built in the late sixteenth century and modified in the early eighteenth century . King Charles I is believed to have stayed there before the Battle of Naseby . Three arms of a square moat surround the house , and the site is a scheduled ancient monument .
= = = Market Harborough to Stamford = = =
The county border leaves the river on the west side of Market Harborough , as the town is wholly in Leicestershire , and picks it up again on the east side . The River Jordan joins the Welland in the centre of Market Harborough , flowing northwards to the railway station . Langton Brook and Stonton Brook join from the west near Welham . The county border meanders from side to side across relatively straight sections of the river , suggesting that the channel has been engineered . A three @-@ arched bridge , built in 1881 of fine ashlar masonry , with a causeway to the south , carries the Welham to Weston by Welland road over the river , while a four @-@ arched bridge dating from the early nineteenth century carries the Ashley to Medbourne road . Macmillan Way , a long distance footpath , crosses on its way from Abbotsbury in Dorset to Boston , Lincolnshire . Medbourne Brook joins from the north , after which the river approaches a dismantled railway and is joined by the Stoke Albany Brook , approaching from the south . The river remains on the south side of the railway , while the county border follows a meandering course to the north of it , but rejoins the river near the Bringhurst to Cottingham road . The bridge over the river is plain , but to the north of it is an eighteenth @-@ century causeway , some 110 yards ( 100 m ) long , which is made of stone and pierced by seven large arches and numerous smaller arches for drainage pipes . The causeway has two large semi @-@ circular passing places on its western side .
The Welland passes to the north of Corby near Rockingham , and then to the south of Caldecott , where it becomes the county border between Northamptonshire and Rutland , and the Eye Brook , which has been dammed to form the Eyebrook Reservoir , joins from the north . As it flows past Harringworth , the river forms two channels , with the county border following the smaller , northern channel . It is crossed by the 1 @,@ 275 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 166 m ) Welland Viaduct , with its 82 brick arches , which was completed in 1879 , and carries the Oakham to Kettering Line over the valley . Apart from viaducts carrying suburban lines into London , it is the longest railway viaduct to be built in Britain . Uppingham Brook flows eastwards from Uppingham to join on the north bank , and the Jurassic Way long distance footpath crosses the river at Turtle Bridge . This probably dates from the fourteenth century , although it was widened in 1793 , and a parapet has been added subsequently . On the road from Barrowden to Wakerley , there is a medieval bridge with five pointed arches , which was widened in the eighteenth century . Gretton Brook flows from the south to join the river near Duddington , where there is a well @-@ known mill building of earliest known date 1664 . A limestone ashlar bridge with four arches crosses the river , dating from the fifteenth century but widened in 1919 . After the river passes under a railway bridge at Ketton , its flow is swelled by the River Chater . The county border again leaves the river to the west of Stamford while below the town the river forms the border between Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire .
= = = Stamford to Spalding = = =
Just before Stamford , the Great North Road , now labelled the A1 , crosses the river , and a pumping station on the north bank at Stamford Meadows has pumped large quantities of water to the Rutland Water reservoir since its construction in 1975 . Stamford was the lowest point at which the river could be forded so the Roman Ermine Street crossed the Welland there . The A16 road crosses the river by a three @-@ arched stone bridge designed by Edward Browning in 1845 . Below it , Albert Bridge is made of iron with stone piers , and was erected by Stamford Town Council in July 1881 , to replace an earlier bridge which was washed away in a flood . Beyond Stamford , the river passes the site and ruins of the Benedictine St Leonard 's Priory . Hudd 's Mill marks the point at which the Stamford Canal left the river . The present mill building dates from 1751 and 1771 . The River Gwash , which the canal crossed on the level , joins from the north , and the remains of the canal follow the river on its north bank . Below Uffington , the county border follows the old course of the river , first to the south to Tallington and then to the north , while the main course now flows along the Maxey Cut to Peakirk . The old course consists of two streams , fed by sluices from the Maxey Cut , which meander to The Deepings . The eastern stream supplied power to Lolham and Maxey mills , while the western stream did the same for Tallington Mill , which dates from around 1700 , West Deeping mill , and Molecey 's mill , which still retains its seventeenth @-@ century undershot waterwheel , modified in the 19th century to Poncelet 's improved design , and the only surviving waterwheel of its type in Lincolnshire . At the western edge of Market Deeping the two streams join , and they are also joined by the Greatford Cut , which has carried the diverted waters of the West Glen river since the early 1950s .
This section is crossed by King Street , which follows the course of a Roman road . Where it crosses the Maxey Cut , to the south of the original channels , there are a series of 14 arches which comprise Lolham Bridges . They are grouped into five structures to cross the channels in the area , and were funded by the County of Northamptonshire in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . The longest span is 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) , and the cutwaters carry inscribed stones recording the County 's involvement . To the north , an early nineteenth century stone rubble arched bridge carries the road over a drainage ditch near Lolham Mill , while an eighteenth @-@ century bridge , probably rebuilt in the following century , crosses the mill stream . Another pair of early nineteenth @-@ century bridges , built of coursed limestone with ashlar dressings , carry the road over the northernmost channel .
The bridge at Deeping Gate carries the date 1651 , and is a Grade II * listed stone structure with three round arches . After the remains of Deeping High lock and Deeping Low lock , there is a junction where the old course , the Maxey Cut , the South Drain and the Folly River , also a drain , meet . The river is officially navigable below this point . Through Crowland and Cowbit to the edge of Spalding , the river is laid out with washlands , which were historically used as pasture , because the river was allowed to flood the land when tidal levels prevented the water discharging into the sea . The river is bounded on the north and west by a bank , while the New River , a drainage channel to the south and east of it , is bounded by another bank . The land between the channels forms Crowland High Wash , Crowland Fodder Lots and Cowbit Wash . The southern bank is variously named Corporation Bank , Wash Bank and Barrier Bank . These wash lands were designed to be flooded in extremis , although the building of the Coronation flood relief channel has made this purpose obsolete .
= = = Spalding to the Wash = = =
Passing through Spalding , where most of the flow is diverted through the Coronation channel , the town is protected by Marsh Road sluice and a sea lock to the east . Below the town , it is approached by Vernatt 's Drain , which runs parallel to the river carrying water pumped from Deeping Fen , and is crossed by the A16 road bridge . Nearby is Pinchbeck Marsh Pumping Station , which houses the last beam engine and scoop wheel to be used in the Fens for land drainage . It was built in 1833 , and ran until 1952 , when it was replaced by electric pumps . It now forms part of a museum of land drainage run by the Welland and Deepings Internal Drainage Board , in partnership with South Holland District Council . Vernatt 's Drain passes through a sluice to join the river , while the sluice that protects the entrance to the River Glen is navigable , to allow boats to reach Tongue End , some 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) upstream from its mouth . There are pumping stations for Sea Dike and Lords Drain , and the outfalls of the Risegate Eau and Five Towns drainage channels before the final bridge at Fosdyke is reached . After it is joined by the Holbeach River , it is bordered by salt marshes , and finally flows into The Wash at The Cots in Fosdyke Wash .
Beyond the river banks , much of the fertile arable land is composed of marine silt , which suits the bulb @-@ growing for which Spalding is famous . The commercial growing of bulbs was pioneered in the 1880s , with the first large @-@ scale tulip fields introduced by Sam Culpin in 1907 . At its peak in 1939 , there were 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) of bulb fields , and 3000 tons of flowers were exported through Spalding railway station . Tulips were grown on around 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) in 1965 , but this had reduced to less than 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) by 1999 .
= = = Points on course = = =
= = History = =
The origin of the name for the river is unknown but appears to be Pre @-@ English . In Old English the form was Weolud and may have changed to the Middle English form due to folk @-@ etymology or Scandinavian influence . The Welland ( Weolud ) is first mentioned in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle for 921 AD .
Richard de Rulos , who was Lord of Deeping Fen during the reign of William the Conqueror erected a strong embankment to prevent flooding of the meadows adjoining the river , which then became fertile fields and a pleasure garden . During the reign of Henry III ( 1207 – 1272 ) , complaints were made that of the two channels below Crowland , the one to Spalding was more favourable to the passage of barges , but the Abbot of Crowland had obstructed and narrowed its course by planting willow trees . In the fourteenth century , Spalding was charged with failing to scour and repair the river , causing damage to the king 's liege people , but argued that because it was tidal at this point , it was an arm of the sea , and so they were not responsible .
The river was one of the earlier rivers to be granted an act of parliament for improvements , to allow navigation to Stamford . The act was granted in the reign of Elizabeth I in 1571 , and detailed how Stamford had prospered as a result of the river , but also stated that mills built between Stamford and Deeping had resulted in it no longer being navigable , as they had diverted the water . Powers were granted to restore the river using either the old channel or the new one , although it is not clear exactly what was meant by this . There is no evidence that any work was carried out under the terms of the act .
The powers were revived in 1620 , when Stamford Corporation was given permission by the Commission of Sewers to build a new 9 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) artificial cut , which would run from the eastern edge of Stamford near Hudd 's Mill , to Market Deeping , where it would rejoin the river . The decision was ratified in 1623 by a grant of James I , and the corporation expected to have the work completed by 1627 . However , they were unable to find a suitable contractor to carry out the work , and failed to reach agreement on terms with David Cecil in 1636 , and two other potential contractors after that . Finally in 1664 , an alderman from Stamford called Daniel Wigmore took the job . He built the cut and 12 locks , which included the High Lock and the Low Lock on the river at Deeping St James , at a cost of £ 5 @,@ 000 . In return for his expenditure , he was given the lease of the tolls for the next 80 years , for which he paid a rent of one shilling ( five pence ) . The cut , known as the Stamford Canal , is one of the earliest post @-@ Roman canals in England . It opened in 1670 , around 100 years before the start of the Industrial Revolution which brought about the " golden age for canals " in Britain . When built , it was the longest canal with locks in Britain , and was very busy with barges carrying flour , malt , coal , timber and limestone .
The people of Market Deeping , Deeping Gate and Deeping St James , together with other villages along the river presented a petition to Elizabeth I , requesting that the fens should be drained , as the banks of the river and of the neighbouring Glen were in a poor state of repair . They suggested that Thomas Lovell should undertake the work , which he did , at a cost of £ 12 @,@ 000 , for which he received 15 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 100 ha ) of the land which was reclaimed as a result of the work . Unrest in the early 1600s resulted in most of the works being destroyed , but in 1632 a group of adventurers led by the Earl of Bedford were granted permission to drain Deeping Fen , South Fen and Crowland . The work included making the Welland deeper and wider from Deeping St James to its outfall beyond Spalding , and the construction of side drains . These included a drain running from Pode Hole to below Spalding , which is still known as Vernatt 's Drain , after one of the adventurers called Sir Philibert Vernatti . Although declared completed in 1637 , efficient drainage would have to wait until the construction of Pode Hole pumping station in 1827 .
At Crowland the river used to split into two channels , one broadly following the present course of the river , and the other joining the old South Ea to reach the River Nene near Wisbech . Dugdale , writing in 1662 , described the Spalding channel as " a most slow course " . The river no longer flows through Crowland , but the unique triangular Trinity Bridge , which spanned the junction , remains in the centre of the town .
Spalding had been a port from before any of the river improvements were made . The townspeople had refused to repair the river during the reign of Henry III , as they claimed it was part of the sea here . Its importance as a port increased with the river improvements and the Stamford Canal , and although it did not have a customs house , by 1695 it had various officials who acted as customs officers for goods arriving at the quays and warehouses . Exports included oats , coleseed , rape oil , hides and wool , with a much greater variety of imports , including stone , timber , coal , groceries , glass and beeswax . More exotic imports included French and Spanish wines , and some of the first imports of tea , coffee and chocolate .
= = = Deeping Fen = = =
The drainage of Deeping Fen was again addressed in 1664 , when the Deeping Fen Act awarded the Earl of Manchester and others 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) of land in return for the drainage works . They were also obliged to maintain the banks of the river , to ensure that both the Welland and the Glen were kept clean and free @-@ flowing , and to ensure that no tolls were charged for navigation on any part of the river below East Deeping . The inadequacy of the outfall and a spate of bad weather stopped them from completing their task . They tried renting out the land they had been granted , but many tenants were unable to pay the rent , due to the poor state of the drainage which reduced crop yields . In April 1729 , the Deeping Fen Adventurers received a letter from Captain John Perry , expressing the opinion that the only way to improve the drainage was to improve the river outfalls , and proposing the construction of scouring sluices on the river at Spalding , on Vernatt 's drain at its outfall , and on the River Glen at Surfleet . Perry was an engineer of some repute , who had set the standard for engineering reports in 1727 , when he published his recommendations for the North Level of the Fens . His plans were approved , and the Adventurers offered to give him land covering nearly 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 ha ) in payment for the work . He sold one @-@ third of the land to finance the project , and began work in 1730 . Cowbit sluice on the Welland had six 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide gates which were operated by chains connected to a treadwheel . At high tide , water was penned in Cowbit Wash , between banks which were set well back from the main channel . The bed of the river below the sluice was loosened by dragging wooden rollers with iron spikes over it . At low tide , the sluice gates were opened , and the flow scoured out the silt for some 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) downstream . A navigation lock was constructed beside the sluice , so that vessels could still gain access to the river above . Perry died in February 1733 , and was buried in Spalding churchyard . The lock lasted until it was removed by the Welland commissioners in 1813 .
Perry was succeeded by John Grundy , Sr. , who published a paper in 1734 on flow in open drains . He calculated theoretic flow rates , and then used observation in the field to modify the results . He oversaw a programme of repairs to the Deeping Bank , which ran for 12 miles ( 19 km ) along the north and west side of the river , while John Scribo was employed to do the same for the Country Bank , which ran for 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) on the south and east . Grundy made the river deeper above Spalding , and also constructed a sluice and reservoir at the mouth of the Glen . The reservoir covered 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) and provided water to scour the channel below the sluice . His son , John Grundy , Jr . , took over after the death of his father in 1748 , and spent nearly £ 10 @,@ 000 on bank repairs between then and 1764 . He rebuilt Perry 's sluice soon after 1750 , with taller doors and a set of tide gates to prevent the tide moving upstream , and rebuilt the navigation lock in 1754 . After 1764 , Thomas Hogard became the surveyor of works , but Grundy continued to act as a consultant engineer .
Hogard devised a scheme to cut a new channel from the junction of the Welland and the Glen to Wyberton , on the estuary of the River Witham below Boston . At the end of the 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) cut , there would be a huge sluice and a navigation lock . The Adventurers asked Thomas Tofield for a second opinion , who suggested a shorter 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) cut from Spalding to Fosdyke . They requested help from Grundy , who proposed a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) cut to Fosdyke , and that the outfall of Vernatt 's drain should be moved 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) downstream . Improvements to the drain were carried out under an act of parliament obtained in 1774 , and an act was obtained in 1794 to sanction the Wyberton cut , although the work was not carried out , and Grundy 's cut was built under a new act of 1801 .
Several prominent civil engineer considered the problems of Deeping Fen and the river outfall at the end of the 1700s . Two reports were produced , one by George Maxwell , and the second by Edward Hare , who had been assisted by William Jessop and John Rennie . They formed the basis for the Deeping Fen Act of 1801 . The channel above Spalding was made deeper , the north bank was made stronger , and the North and South Drove Drains were enlarged through the fen . One of Rennie 's recommendations had been to replace the windmills which drove the drainage pumps with a steam pumping station at Pode Hole , but this was not implemented . After reports by Rennie and Thomas Pear in 1815 , and by Rennie alone in 1818 and 1820 , the provision of steam engines was authorised by an act in 1823 . The trustees appointed by the 1801 act continued to manage Deeping Fen until they were replaced in 1939 by the Deeping Fen , Spalding and Pinchbeck Internal Drainage Board , subsequently renamed the Welland & Deepings Internal Drainage Board .
= = = The Outfall = = =
Plans to re @-@ route the outfall along a new channel which would meet the River Witham at The Scalp , near Boston , were authorised in 1794 , but the money could not be raised at the time , due to the financial crisis caused by the French Wars . Grundy 's shorter channel had been finished by 1810 , improving both drainage and navigation . James Walker reported in 1835 on further improvements , making the recommendation that the river below Spalding should be constrained between high banks , so that the scouring action of the water would dredge its own channel . Rather than excavating , which he estimated would cost £ 70 @,@ 000 , he suggested using fascines made of thorn branches , around which silt would be deposited . Such a scheme would only cost £ 13 @,@ 000 , and the work went on for many years . The effects of the embankments had resulted in the bed of the river below Fosdyke being around 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) lower by 1845 . In 1867 , the River Welland Outfall Act enabled the trustees to raise money to repair the walls where the tide had washed away some of the fill behind the fascines . A dredger was employed between 1889 and 1890 , which had been invented by a Mr Harrison , the superintendent of works .
With the passing of the Land Drainage Act 1930 , the Welland Catchment Board was created . They had spent £ 91 @,@ 537 on the outfall by 1937 . Towards the end of the Second World War , E. G. Taverner , the chief engineer for the drainage board , devised a plan to relieve flooding in Spalding by creating a bypass channel , and building the Greatford Cut to divert the waters of the West Glen river into the Welland upstream of Market Deeping . The scheme cost £ 723 @,@ 000 , with much of the work being carried out by W. & C. French , and the Coronation Channel around Spalding was opened in September 1953 . Fulney lock was constructed at the same time to exclude the tide from the upper river , as was the Maxey Cut , an embanked channel that bypasses the villages of Market Deeping , Deeping Gate and Deeping St James . During the 1960s and 1970s , several sections of the river above Stamford were made straighter and deeper , to reduce the risk of flooding of agricultural land . To address the habitat and environmental issues causes by such engineering work , the Welland Rivers Trust , a limited company and charitable trust , was set up in 2010 . They are seeking to direct regeneration of the river by co @-@ ordinating various organisations , which are known collectively as the Welland Valley Partnership . They published a major document outlining their proposals in February 2013 .
= = Navigation = =
The river as far as Stamford was used by the Romans for navigation , as it formed part of a system including the Car Dyke , which ran along the western edge of the Fens and crossed the river near the modern Folly River . Navigation to Stamford was improved by the canal . Boats used on the canal were small lighters , around 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) wide , capable of carrying from seven to fourteen tons , and normally worked in trains of four vessels . With the arrival of the railways , river trade declined . The Midland Railway reached Peterborough in 1846 , and opened their line to Melton Mowbray , passing through Stamford , in 1848 . Carriage of coal on the upper river stopped , and the locks deteriorated . By April 1863 , all traffic had ceased , and Stamford Corporation tried to sell the line at auction , but failed because their ownership of it was disputed .
Trade on the lower river was carried in barges and keels . During the early 1800s as trade was increasing , so the river was simultaneously silting up . Around 1800 , vessels carrying 60 tons could reach the port facilities at Spalding ; however , by the 1820s , ships could only be loaded with 40 tons each as the river silting had worsened . Trade records indicate that in 1829 , vessels carried just under 20 @,@ 000 tons to and from Spalding , and by 1835 this had increased to over 34 @,@ 000 tons . There was pressure from merchants to cater for larger vessels , and with later improvements , carried out under an act of parliament obtained in 1837 , barges and sloops of up to 120 tons could use the port . Because the river was maintained for drainage , some commercial traffic continued despite the railways , and tolls of £ 478 were collected on 11 @,@ 690 tons in 1888 . Coal for Spalding gasworks arrived by boat until the early 1900s , and the last regular trade was the carriage of corn , hay and straw from Spalding to Fosdyke , where the cargo was transferred to larger ships . All commercial carrying had ceased by the end of the Second World War .
In July 2005 a water taxi service was launched in Spalding . Its route is from just off Spalding 's High Street upstream along the river , turning onto the Coronation Channel , and going to Springfields Outlet Shopping & Festival Gardens , and back .
Vessels of 110 by 30 feet ( 33 @.@ 5 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) and drawing 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) can still proceed along the estuary at high water , and can travel inland as far as Fulney lock . They cannot pass through the lock as it is only 62 @.@ 3 by 27 @.@ 8 feet ( 19 @.@ 0 by 8 @.@ 5 m ) and at normal summer water levels , can accommodate boats drawing 2 @.@ 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 79 m ) . The river is officially navigable to the point at which the Folly River joins it , but the length of boats allowed on this section is restricted to 35 feet ( 11 m ) long , considerably less than the lock dimensions would suggest . Navigation on this stretch was severely restricted by Four Mile Bar footbridge , which provided just 5 @.@ 25 feet ( 1 @.@ 60 m ) of headroom , but this was increased when a new single @-@ span arched bridge was installed in early 2007 by the Lincolnshire Waterways Partnership . Smaller boats such as canoes , which can be carried around obstructions , can continue up to Stamford , but they must use the old course of the river through the Deepings , rather than the Maxey cut .
Below Spalding , there were no restrictions on headroom , which allowed small coasters to reach the town . The bridge at Fosdyke was a swing bridge , to comply with the provisions of the Fosdyke Bridge Act of 1870 . The demise of such traffic allowed it to be replaced by a fixed bridge with headroom of 16 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) , but the powers of the original act had to be rescinded , and the Port of Fosdyke Act was obtained in 1987 to allow this to happen . The redundant wharfs at Fosdyke have been developed to provide moorings for yachts and other pleasure craft . The lock at Fulney has three sets of gates , two pointing towards the sea , and a third between them which points upriver . The lock can thus only be used when the level below it is higher than the level above it , and as the tide falls , the intermediate gate closes to prevent its use .
The principle of there being no tolls for use of the river was established by the 1664 act of parliament . This was reversed by the 1794 act , which imposed high tolls , until they were reduced by the provisions of an act of Parliament obtained in 1824 . The river is now managed by the Environment Agency between Stamford and just below Fosdyke bridge , and a licence is required to use it . From there to the Wash , it was managed by the Port of Fosdyke Authority , but since they went into administration , the Environment Agency have also managed the section from Fosdyke Bridge to below the Holbeach River .
= = Wildlife = =
The river , in its upper reaches , supports a wild brown trout population . Chub and perch dominate the middle reaches around Stamford , with pike , perch and zander inhabiting the lower lengths around Spalding .
A collaboration between the Welland Rivers Trust , the Wild Trout Trust and the Environment Agency has resulted in the construction of a rock ramp , to allow migrating sea trout to pass up the river beyond the weir on the Maxey Cut , which was acting as a barrier . Some 300 tons of rock , with 50 tons of finer material forming a top layer , were used to create the ramp . The finer material ensures that water mainly flows over the ramp , rather than through it . The ramp also enables young eels or elvers to move up the river , and provides habitat for stone loach and bullheads .
Large numbers of swans and geese use the river around Crowland , and out to sea . Smaller populations of each can be seen around the Stamford Meadows , and further upstream .
In 2015 a common grey seal found its way from the Wash up the river and spent a few weeks sleeping in gardens next to the river in Deeping St James . The seal was spotted further downstream in Spalding as it eventually made its way back to the sea .
On the south bank of the river below Fosdyke bridge , the Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust have established Moulton Marsh nature reserve , on a strip of land where soil was excavated to raise the banks in 1981 . Habitat is provided by some broad @-@ leafed woodland , covering 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) , several salt @-@ water lagoons and tidal scrapes , covering 35 acres ( 14 ha ) , and 40 acres ( 16 ha ) of saltmarsh . A variety of birds can be seen , including little grebe and water rail , which spend the winter on the lagoons , while the scrapes , which consist of shallow pools and muddy shorelines , are visited by common redshank and little egret .
Between the river mouth and the River Witham , a large expanse of saltmarsh provides breeding grounds for common redshank , Eurasian oystercatcher and reed bunting in the summer , and Eurasian wigeon , mallard , common shelduck and common teal in the winter . Birds of prey such as hen harrier and merlin feed on the flocks of linnet and twite , while the mudflats support dunlin , whimbrel , and bar @-@ tailed godwit . The Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust have a reserve there , which is next to RSPB Frampton Marsh , a reserve managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds .
= Guitar Hero : Metallica =
Guitar Hero : Metallica is a music rhythm game developed by Neversoft , published by Activision and distributed by RedOctane . The game was released in North America on the PlayStation 3 , Wii , and Xbox 360 on March 29 , 2009 and on PlayStation 2 on April 14 , 2009 , with an Australian and European release in May 2009 . Guitar Hero : Metallica is the second game of the Guitar Hero series to focus on the career and songs of one band following Guitar Hero : Aerosmith .
The game is based on Guitar Hero World Tour , with support for lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals . The game has many of the same features from World Tour , including single @-@ player and band Career modes , online competitive modes , and the ability to create and share songs through " GHTunes " . In addition to the normal difficulty levels presented in Guitar Hero World Tour , Guitar Hero : Metallica provides an " Expert + " difficulty for drums that allows the use of a second bass drum pedal to match the drumming style of Metallica 's Lars Ulrich . The game features 28 master recordings spanning Metallica 's career and an additional 21 songs selected by members of Metallica . The band performed extensive motion capture for the game for their in @-@ game avatars and performances . The game includes several extras including behind @-@ the @-@ scenes videos of the motion capture sessions , tour and concert videos of the band , and Pop @-@ Up Video @-@ like facts for many of the songs on the game disc .
Guitar Hero : Metallica received positive reviews , with critics stating it to be a strong tribute to the band and Neversoft 's best work on the Guitar Hero series to date . The difficulty throughout the game was praised , found to be more enjoyable to players of all skill levels than the more @-@ difficult Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock . Reviewers noted the lack of additional downloadable content , save for the pre @-@ existing Death Magnetic songs , the cartoonish storyline for the Career mode , and the overall value of the game as some of the negatives to the experience .
= = Gameplay = =
Guitar Hero : Metallica , like other games in the Guitar Hero series , allows players to simulate the playing of rock music using special instrument controllers . The game is based on the band approach presented in Guitar Hero World Tour , and features parts of lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals . To successfully complete songs and score , players must use the instruments to play notes that scroll on @-@ screen in time with the music . For lead and bass guitar players , this is done by holding down colored fret buttons on the guitar neck while striking a strum bar ; for the drum players , this requires the player to strike the appropriate drum pad or kick with the bass drum pedal ; for vocals , the player must attempt to match the pitch of the notes through a microphone . Players earn scoring multipliers for playing several consecutive notes or phrases correctly , and by correctly completing marked phrases , players can earn Star Power which can be released for a higher scoring multiplier . If players miss too many notes , they will eventually fail the song and will have to retry it .
Lead developer Alan Flores has stated that the difficulty of the game is much harder than previous games and is designed to challenge the hard @-@ core player . To meet the " ferocity " of Metallica 's songs , the game features , in addition to the same five difficulty levels in World Tour , an " Expert + " mode for drummers that allows them to add a second bass drum pedal , though results of this mode is not tracked through online modes . Additional drum pedals and a splitter , to allow two pedals to be used , were made available upon the game 's release and as part of pre @-@ ordering bonuses . While the game allows two guitar players to play lead and bass guitar , it does not give the players the option to play lead and rhythm guitar , which does not allow for notable " Hetfield / Hammett riff @-@ trading " on certain songs . Lead designer Alan Flores explained that the decision not to track the lead and rhythm ( in addition to the single player guitar , bass , drums , and vocals ) " was simply a workload issue . "
Similar to Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , Metallica presents songs from Metallica 's history roughly in chronological order , but it focuses more on the group today than the band 's history . The songs in the game are presented in a linear series of sets as with older Guitar Hero games such as Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , instead of the gig progression used in World Tour . However , instead of being required to finish a certain number of songs in each set , the player has to earn a total number of stars ( earned from their performance on the individual songs ) in a given set to progress to next one . The game 's story is based on a band that wants to follow in Metallica 's footsteps , and the group accepting them as leading acts for them on a tour ; as such , they are better able to order the songs in difficulty comparable to other Guitar Hero games , as Metallica 's earlier works frustrate the player enough to " throw the controller against the wall and stop playing " . Flores described the difficulty for most of the game to be comparable to Guitar Hero : Aerosmith and World Tour after the complaints of the difficulty level in Guitar Hero III , but further noted that the most difficult songs in the games will be very challenging . Real @-@ life venues are used for the game , including The Stone nightclub in San Francisco , the Hammersmith Odeon in London , Tushino Airfield in Moscow , and The Forum in Los Angeles , and one final venue representing the pinnacle of Metallica 's success . The game was completed before Metallica 's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , and thus does not include reference to this event . The game 's interface remain similar to World Tour with some Metallica @-@ based artwork added to it . Two changes have been made from World Tour ; individual performance and Star Power meters are now located next to each track on screen instead of grouped together to make it easier to keep track of one 's own performance , and when the band 's performance is failing , the edges of the screen glow red to indicate this .
The music creation mode from World Tour is available , giving the player the option of using tones from Hetfields ' ESP Truckster guitar and Slayer 's Tom Araya 's ESP Bass in addition to Metallica drum sounds . The " GHTunes " services , which allows players to share songs created in the music creation mode , is cross @-@ compatible with both World Tour and Metallica . In the new " Drum Over " mode for this game , players can select any song , and play drums without any fixed drum track or without any failure , allowing them to create their own drum line using the song 's existing drum kit sounds .
The Battle mode of the game , based on that from Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , has been slightly altered to add Metallica influences ; for example , a power @-@ up named " Fade to Black " completely blackens the note tracks for the opposing player , " Trapped Under Ice " , which freezes the whammy bar , and an electrical attack called " Ride the Lightning " ( based on the " Amp Overload " attack from Guitar Hero III ) is added .
= = Development = =
Guitar Hero : Metallica was revealed to be in production when an analyst for Wedbush Morgan Securities discovered mention of the game in Activision 's 2008 SEC filings , slated to be released in " fiscal 2009 " . The band was approached in April 2008 , who quickly agreed to the game as a " no brainer " . Development for the game began in the second quarter of 2008 , according to lead designer Alan Flores . Two posts made to Metallica 's website in June 2008 also referred to the " not so top secret GH thing " , and that Guitar Hero players could expect " a pile of ' Tallica songs . " Lars Ulrich , when asked about the game during an interview with MTV , stated that " the people at ‘ Guitar Hero ’ and Activision are rapidly becoming our best new friends in the world . You can put the rest of it together yourself . " Ulrich stated that the idea for the Metallica @-@ themed Guitar Hero game came from the influence the original Guitar Hero games had on Ulrich and James Hetfield 's children , learning about music and older bands such as Deep Purple and Black Sabbath .
The game was officially announced at the 2008 E3 conference during Microsoft 's presentation , along with the announcement that Metallica 's newest album , Death Magnetic , would be made as content for download for both Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock and Guitar Hero World Tour . A trailer for the game is included as an extra feature in Guitar Hero World Tour with " Master of Puppets " playing in the background and " Ride the Lightning " as the tagline .
As with Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , members of Metallica , including Kirk Hammett , Lars Ulrich , James Hetfield and Robert Trujillo performed six songs and band and audience chatter for motion capture for their in @-@ game avatars ; the detailed motion capture included the band 's lip syncing to the lyrics and the motion of Trujillo 's hair braids . Ulrich and Hetfield performed additional motion capturing sessions to help the developers . Metallica members appear as their modern day incarnations , but unlockable skins are available to reflect the band 's history . Former band members Jason Newsted and the late Cliff Burton are not represented in the game as the band felt their inclusion would slight Trujillo . However , the game still includes trivia about both former members . The game includes DVD @-@ style content such as photos , videos , and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , as well as " Metallifacts " , Pop @-@ up Video @-@ style trivia displayed on screen during the various Metallica tracks . Some Metallica songs in the game have an accompanying video of the band performing the song , with the quality ranging from fan @-@ made videos at small clubs to large @-@ scale video productions . Both Motörhead vocalist / bassist Lemmy and Mercyful Fate singer King Diamond have contributed to the game in both providing motion capture for unlockable player characters and providing re @-@ recorded tracks of their songs " Ace of Spades " and " Evil " , respectively due to the original master tapes not being located for use in the game 's production . King Diamond 's notable face makeup and jewellery was altered with direct input from King Diamond to avoid offending the religion of any of the business partners involved with the game .
During the game 's development , the team encountered problems trying to create the drum tracks . Flores noted they normally try to map a note for every drum beat but could not easily replicate it for the double bass often used in Metallica 's songs . As a result , they decided to create a splitter for the bass drum pedal and offer a second pedal with the game to allow the double bass kicks to be retained . The game 's career mode , in which the players are part of an opening band for Metallica , is based on a real @-@ life group that followed Metallica during a European tour , eventually becoming enamored by the band and performing in an opening act with them .
No plans have been announced for special bundled versions of Guitar Hero : Metallica with the instrument controllers within North America , though Activision does plan to release Metallica @-@ branded faceplates for existing instrument controllers as well as a double @-@ bass pedal attachment for the drum controller . Guitar Hero : Metallica will also support the wireless microphones from Lips through a future title patch . A European @-@ exclusive bundle includes the game , wireless guitar controller , and Metallica faceplate .
= = = Promotion = = =
Players that pre @-@ ordered Guitar Hero : Metallica through GameStop stores received a second kickpedal with pre @-@ orders . Other stores offered Guitar Hero : Metallica @-@ branded drumsticks with pre
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A demo version of the game was released on Xbox Live on March 20 , 2009 , with four playable songs : Metallica 's " Sad but True " and " Seek & Destroy " , Alice in Chains ' " No Excuses " and Queen 's " Stone Cold Crazy " . All four instruments are playable . There is no Expert + for the drums in the demo . Metallica made an appearance at the 2009 SXSW Music Festival held a week before the game 's release for a " not @-@ so @-@ secret " performance , with demonstration stations set up to allow attendees to play the game . The game was the primary sponsor for Aric Almirola 's Number 8 car in the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Goody 's Fast Relief 500 run during the weekend of the game 's release . Two television commercials , in the same style as those for Guitar Hero World Tour that parody the scene from Risky Business where Tom Cruise dances in his underwear during Bob Seger 's song " Old Time Rock and Roll " , were prepared for the game and were directed by Brett Ratner . The ads , which first aired during the 2009 NCAA Basketball Tournament , features NCAA coaches Bob Knight , Mike Krzyzewski , Roy Williams , and Rick Pitino along with the current members of Metallica .
= = Soundtrack = =
Guitar Hero : Metallica features 49 songs based on master recordings , 28 by Metallica , and the other 21 songs by bands that are " their personal favorites and influences from over the years " , including those that appeared on their Garage Inc. album . All of the Metallica songs in the game are from original masters , though locating some masters proved troublesome . Though Metallica were prepared to re @-@ record songs as Aerosmith had done for Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , they were able to find the masters for their debut album Kill ' Em All in the basement of their former manager Johny Zazula . While other downloadable content from Guitar Hero III or Guitar Hero World Tour is not usable in Guitar Hero : Metallica , the game will detect and incorporate the songs from the Death Magnetic downloadable content into the game 's setlist ( however , the song " All Nightmare Long " is available in the game as part of its main setlist ) . The PlayStation 2 and Wii versions of the game do not support downloadable content , but include " Broken , Beat & Scarred " , " Cyanide " and " My Apocalypse " from Death Magnetic in addition to the game 's existing tracks . The 1998 medley of covers of the band Mercyful Fate 's songs " Mercyful Fate " is the longest track included in the game , running at around 11 minutes .
Metallica selected songs from their catalog that " pretty evenly represent all the different phases " of the band . Lars Ulrich noted that the band stood up for the inclusion of the band Slayer against Microsoft 's concerns on the explicit lyrical content of the group 's songs . Alan Flores , lead designer for the game , noted that they had originally cleared Slayer 's " Angel of Death " but had to pull it at a late date due to pressure on the song 's background , instead , at the urging of Ulrich , successfully cleared " War Ensemble " and rushed to include it in the game . Ulrich also sought Mercyful Fate 's " Evil " and " Curse of the Pharaohs " directly by King Diamond , but the latter was unable to find the masters ; instead , King Diamond was able to bring the band together , though with Bjarne T. Holm replacing Kim Ruzz on drums , to record new masters for both songs . " Evil " was ultimately used over " Curse of the Pharaohs " due to gameplay @-@ friendliness . Kirk Hammett stated that the band wanted to have songs from UFO and The Misfits , but could not get these groups due to legal reasons , and instead settled on songs from Michael Schenker Group and Samhain , bands that were started by former members of those respective bands .
Thirty @-@ nine songs from the on @-@ disc soundtrack of Guitar Hero : Metallica will be importable as playable tracks for Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock .
= = Reception = =
Guitar Hero : Metallica has received favorable reviews from game critics , and has been described as the best Guitar Hero game in the series since Neversoft took over development of the franchise . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica noted that with numerous other Guitar Hero titles , Guitar Hero : Metallica could have been " just another way to cash @-@ in on the hype cheaply " , but the overall quality of the game shows that " the design team adores Metallica " . Simon Parkin of Eurogamer stated that Guitar Hero : Metallica " sets the benchmark " for future band @-@ specific games from either Guitar Hero or Rock Band .
Reviews have primarily praised the game for a " stellar " set list that " [ reads ] like the quintessential ' Best Of ' track list for the band " , and consider " the best hit to miss ratio of any music game to date " . The difficulty of the songs was also warmly received , with reviews noting that Metallica 's songs can " [ translate ] really well to a plastic guitar " , and that " the songs here are a treat on any skill level " . However , the game still provides a difficult challenge for experienced players , and the introduction of the Expert + difficulty for drums and the Drum Over mode were seen as good additions . Reviews commented favorable on the new career progression , noting that one can complete the career mode without having to play " Metallica ’ s earliest , shreddiest , most brutal stuff " , and allows the player to " skip right past the early stuff and quickly get to the big tracks " .
The overall presentation of the game was highly praised , noting that " a lot of care was put into making sure this was a die @-@ hard fan 's game " and praising the devotion to the motion capture work done by the band . The added features such as Metallifacts and additional behind @-@ the @-@ scenes videos were attributed to " ensuring that this isn 't just a slapped @-@ together take on World Tour with Metallica songs " .
The game was criticized for the lack of downloadable content beyond the existing Death Magnetic album , and its price was also called into question , costing the same as World Tour but with fewer songs . The career mode 's " cartoon storyline " describing the player 's Metallica 's @-@ wannabe band was seen as being out of place in the game and was considered as the game 's " biggest weakness " . Chris Roper of IGN noted that the PlayStation 2 version of the game suffers from several graphical problems , including poor video compression , the inability to read or zoom in on handwritten tour and lyric sheets , and some stuttering on the display on the note highway , and considers it the weakest release across all the game 's platforms . Roper also cites video compression and problems with viewing the extras in the Wii version .
As of March 2010 , the game has sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , with approximately 1 million copies from North American sales .
Pushead has designed the faceplate that comes with the solo guitar edition of the game .
= Mega Man ( video game ) =
Mega Man , known as Rockman ( ロックマン , Rokkuman ) in Japan , is an action @-@ platform video game developed and published by Capcom for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . The first game of the Mega Man franchise and original video game series , it was released on December 17 , 1987 in Japan , and localized for North America in December 1987 and Europe in May 1990 , respectively . Mega Man was produced by a small team specifically for the home console market , a first for Capcom , who previously focused on arcade titles .
The game begins the struggle of the humanoid robot and player @-@ character Mega Man against the mad scientist Dr. Wily and the six Robot Masters under his control . Mega Man 's nonlinear gameplay lets the player choose the order in which to complete its initial six stages . Each culminates in a " Robot Master " boss battle that awards the player @-@ character a unique weapon .
Critics praised Mega Man for its overall design , though the game was not a commercial success . Mega Man established many of the gameplay , story , and graphical conventions that define the ensuing sequels , subseries , and spin @-@ offs . It is also known for its high difficulty . The game has since been included in game compilations and rereleased on mobile phones , console emulation services , and PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) .
= = Plot = =
In the year 200X , robots developed to assist mankind are commonplace thanks to the efforts of renowned robot designer Dr. Light . However , one day these robots go out of control and start attacking the populace , among them six advanced humanoid robots made by Dr. Light for industrial purposes : Cut Man , Guts Man , Ice Man , Bomb Man , Fire Man , and Elec Man . He realizes the culprit is his old rival Dr. Wily ( who plots to take over the world ) , but is unsure of what to do . His helper robot Rock , having a strong sense of justice , offers to be converted into a fighting robot to stop Dr. Wily 's plan , becoming Mega Man . In time , he defeats the six robots and recovers their central cores , then confronts Dr. Wily within his Pacific @-@ based robot factory ( which happens to be mass @-@ producing Light 's robots ) . After a final showdown , Wily is defeated and Mega Man returns to his family .
The initial Western release of the game , while keeping the basic plot the same , significantly changed some details from the original Japanese manual . In this version , Dr. Light and Dr. Wily ( here Light 's assistant turned disloyal ) co @-@ create the humanoid robot Mega Man alongside the six advanced robots , each of whom were designed for the benefit of Monsteropolis 's citizens ( no such place existed in the original plot ) . Dr. Wily grows disloyal of his partner and reprograms these six robots to aid himself in taking control of the world . Dr. Light sends Mega Man to defeat his fellow creations and stop Dr. Wily .
= = Gameplay = =
Mega Man consists of six side @-@ scrolling platformer levels freely chosen by the player . In each level , the player @-@ character , Mega Man , fights through various enemies and obstacles before facing a " Robot Master " boss at the level 's end . Upon defeating the boss , the player assimilates the Robot Master 's signature attack , or " Special Weapon " , into Mega Man 's arsenal for the rest of the game . Unlike the standard Mega Buster , the Robot Master powers have limited ammunition replenished by collecting ammunition cells dropped by defeated enemies at random . Enemies also drop energy cells that replenish Mega Man 's health gauge . While the player is free to proceed through the game in any order , each Robot Master is especially vulnerable to a specific weapon , which encourages the player to complete certain stages before others . The player can also revisit cleared levels .
Besides the weapons taken from the Robot Masters , the player is able to pick up a platform generator item known as the " Magnet Beam " in Elec Man 's stage . Mega Man also features a scoring system where players score points for defeating enemies , and earn extra points for collecting power @-@ ups from fallen enemies and for clearing each stage . When all six Robot Master stages are completed , the seventh and last stage appears in the middle of the stage select menu . This stage , in which the player traverses Dr. Wily 's robot factory , is a chain of four regular stages linked together , each containing at least one new boss . During these final stages , the six Robot Masters must also be fought again in a predetermined order before the final confrontation against Dr. Wily .
= = Development = =
Before Mega Man , Capcom primarily made arcade games , and their console releases were mostly ports of these titles . In the mid @-@ 1980s , Capcom made plans to develop Mega Man specifically for the Japanese home console market . They decided to bring in fresh , young talent for the small team , including artist Keiji Inafune , a recent college graduate who started on the Street Fighter team . Inafune recalled that the Mega Man development team worked extremely hard to complete the final product , with a project supervisor and lead designer who sought perfection in every possible aspect of the game .
The development team for Mega Man consisted of only six people . Inafune ( credited as " Inafuking " ) designed and illustrated nearly all of the game 's characters and enemies , as well as the Japanese Rockman logo , box art , and instruction manual . He was also responsible for rendering these designs into graphical sprite form . " We didn ’ t have [ a lot of ] people , so after drawing character designs , I was actually doing the dotting ( pixelation ) for the Nintendo , " Inafune stated . " Back then , people weren ’ t specialized and we had to do a lot of different things because there was so few people , so I really ended up doing all the characters . " Inafune was influenced by the eponymous protagonist of Osamu Tezuka 's manga Astro Boy in his Mega Man designs . Mega Man is colored blue due to the NES console 's technical limitations : the color has the most shades in the console 's limited 56 @-@ color palette , and the expanded selection was used to enhance Mega Man 's detail . Although he is often credited for designing the character , Inafune insists that he " only did half of the job in creating him " , as his mentor developed the basic character concept before Inafune 's arrival . The basic sprites for Roll and Dr. Light were created before Inafune joined the project , and the designs for Cut Man , Ice Man , Fire Man , and Guts Man were in process . Aside from normal enemies , Inafune 's first character was Elec Man , inspired by American comic book characters . The artist has commented that Elec Man has always been his favorite design . The designs for Dr. Light and Dr. Wily were based on Santa Claus and Albert Einstein , respectively ; the latter character was meant to represent an archetypal " mad scientist " .
The team decided to incorporate anime elements for the game 's animation . Inafune explained , " [ Mega Man 's ] hand transforms into a gun and you can actually see it come out of his arm . We wanted to make sure that the animation and the motion was realistic and actually made sense . So with Mega Man , we had this perfect blending of game character with animation ideas . " The gameplay for Mega Man was inspired by the game rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors . The project supervisor wanted a simple system that offered " deep gameplay " . Each weapon deals a large amount of damage to one specific Robot Master , others have little to no effect against them , and there is no single weapon that dominates all the others . Mega Man was originally able to crouch , but the team decided against it since it made players ' ability to determine the height of onscreen projectiles more difficult . Naoya Tomita ( credited as " Tom Pon " ) began work on the Mega Man 's scenic backgrounds immediately after his Capcom training . Tomita proved himself amongst his peers by overcoming the challenges of the console 's limited power through maximizing the use of background elements .
Mega Man was scored by Manami Matsumae ( credited as " Chanchacorin Manami " ) , who composed the music , created the sound effects , and programmed the data in three months , using a sound driver programmed by Yoshihiro Sakaguchi ( credited as " Yuukichan 's Papa " ) . The musical notes were translated one by one into the computer language . Matsumae was challenged by the creative limits of three notes available at any one time , and when she was unable to write songs , she created the sound effects . The production team chose a music motif when naming characters in Mega Man due to the worldwide recognition of music . They began with the main characters : the protagonist 's original name is Rock and his sister 's name is Roll , a play on the term " rock and roll " . This type of naming would later extended to many characters throughout the series . Before finalizing the name , Capcom had considered names such as " Mighty Kid " , " Knuckle Kid " , and " Rainbow Man " . When the game was localized for distribution in America , Capcom changed the title of the game from Rockman to Mega Man . This moniker was created by Capcom 's then @-@ Senior Vice President Joseph Marici , who claimed it was changed merely because he did not like the original name . " That title was horrible , " Marici said . " So I came up with Mega Man , and they liked it enough to keep using it for the U.S. games . " 1UP.com 's Nadia Oxford attributed this change to Capcom 's belief that American children would be more interested in a game with the latter title .
= = Reception = =
Critics received Mega Man well , though the game sold poorly . AllGame described the NES version of the game as a " near @-@ perfect blend of action , challenge and audio @-@ visual excellence " and awarded it five stars , their highest rating . Lucas M. Thomas of IGN described the game as an " undeniable classic " for the NES , noting its graphics , innovative weapon @-@ based platform gameplay , and music . IGN editor Matt Casamassina proclaimed , " Mega Man is one of the best examples of great graphics , amazing music and near @-@ perfect gameplay rolled into one cartridge " . GameSpot writers Christian Nutt and Justin Speer identified the game as a " winner in gameplay " granted its " low @-@ key presentation " . Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com likewise outlined it as a " charming ( if slightly rough ) start for the series " . Whether positive or negative , Mega Man has been commonly received as very difficult . IGN 's Casamassina found the game the hardest in the franchise , and among the hardest titles on the NES . IGN 's Thomas observed that its combination of high difficulty and short length hurt its replayability . According to 1UP.com , the " Nintendo @-@ hard " Mega Man bosses set the game apart from its two immediate and more popular sequels . Total ! retrospectively characterized the game as " an overhard and unenjoyably frustrating platform nightmare " .
Mega Man has additionally received various honors from video game journals and websites . IGN listed the game at number 30 on its " Top 100 NES Games of All Time " . Nintendo Power ranked Mega Man at number 20 on its " 100 Best Nintendo Games of All Time " in its September 1997 100th issue , then at number 61 in its " Top 200 Games " in its February 2006 200th issue . 1UP.com included it in their " Top 5 Overlooked Videogame Prequels " and as number 17 on its " Top 25 NES Games " list . British magazine The Games Machine awarded it the " Star Player " accolade after its launch in PAL regions .
= = Legacy = =
While Mega Man 's release sales were low overall , they were higher than Capcom 's expectations . Inafune blamed the game 's poor performance in North American markets on its region @-@ specific cover art , which visualized elements not found in the game : Mega Man himself resembles a middle @-@ aged man rather than a boy , his costume is colored yellow and blue instead of being entirely blue , and he is holding a handgun instead of having his arm cannon . Over the years , the cover art became infamous in the gaming community . It has been considered one of the worst game covers of all time by publications including GameSpy , Wired , and OC Weekly . The cancelled Mega Man Universe featured a " Bad Box Art " Mega Man playable character alongside the classic 8 @-@ bit Mega Man . The " Bad Box Art " Mega Man design has since become a playable character in Street Fighter X Tekken .
With little press coverage save for a full @-@ page advertisement in Nintendo Fun Club News , the game became a sleeper hit overseas spread by word of mouth . While Mega Man was not a large commercial accomplishment for Capcom , the company decided to allow the development team to create a sequel , Mega Man 2 , for a 1988 Japanese release . Many of the design elements cut from the original Mega Man were included in the follow @-@ up game . Mega Man 2 proved to be such a success that it solidified Mega Man as one of Capcom 's longest @-@ running franchises . Due to " overwhelming demand " , Capcom reissued the original Mega Man in North America in September 1991 . Capcom carried the same 8 @-@ bit graphics and sprites present in the original Mega Man into the next five games in the main series . Even though the sequels feature more complex storylines , additional gameplay mechanics , and better graphics , the core elements initiated by Mega Man remain the same throughout the series . Mega Man 9 and Mega Man 10 would later revert to the familiar graphical style set forth by this title . The scoring system in Mega Man has not been present in any of its sequels .
According to GamesRadar , Mega Man was the first game to feature a nonlinear " level select " option , as a stark contrast to linear games like Super Mario Bros. and open world games like The Legend of Zelda and Metroid . GamesRadar credits the " level select " feature of Mega Man as the basis for the nonlinear mission structure found in most multi @-@ mission , open world , sidequest @-@ heavy games , such as Grand Theft Auto , Red Dead Redemption , and Spider @-@ Man : Shattered Dimensions .
= = Remakes and re @-@ releases = =
Mega Man has been re @-@ released several times since its 1987 debut . A version with enhanced graphics and arranged music was included alongside Mega Man 2 and Mega Man 3 in the Sega Mega Drive compilation Mega Man : The Wily Wars . Another adaptation of the game was released in Japan on the PlayStation as part of the Rockman Complete Works series in 1999 . This version also features arranged music in addition to a special " Navi Mode " that directs the player in certain portions of the levels . Mega Man was compiled with nine other games in the series in the North American Mega Man Anniversary Collection released for the PlayStation 2 and GameCube in 2004 and the Xbox in 2005 . A mobile phone rendition of Mega Man developed by Lavastorm was released for download in North America in 2004 . A separate , 2007 Japanese mobile phone release received a 2008 update adding the option to play as Roll . Mega Man for the NES was reissued on the Virtual Console service for three different systems : the Wii in Europe in 2007 and in North America and Japan in 2008 , the 3DS in 2012 , and for the Wii U in 2013 . The Complete Works version of the game was made available on the PlayStation Store in both Japan and North America .
An enhanced remake titled Mega Man Powered Up — known as Rockman Rockman ( ロックマン ロックマン ) in Japan — was released worldwide for the PSP in 2006 . The game features a graphical overhaul with 3D chibi @-@ style character models with large heads and small bodies . Inafune had originally planned to make Mega Man look this way , but could not due to the hardware constraints of the NES . Producer Tetsuya Kitabayashi stated that redesigning the character models was a result of the PSP 's 16 : 9 widescreen ratio . The larger heads on the characters allowed the development team to create visible facial expressions . " The concept for these designs was ' toys ' . We wanted cute designs geared towards little kids ... the kinds of characters that you 'd see hanging off of keychains and such , " character designer Tatsuya Yoshikawa explained . " Not only that , I made sure to tell the designers not to skimp on any of the original Mega Man details . We wanted their proportions and movements to be accurately reflected in these designs as well . " As the size of the remake 's stages are not proportional to those of the original , the widescreen ratio also presented the developers with more space to fill .
Mega Man Powered Up features two styles of gameplay : " Old Style " is comparable to the NES version aside from the updated presentation , and " New Style " uses the PSP 's entire widescreen and contains storyline cutscenes with voice acting , altered stage layouts , remixed music , and three difficulty modes for each stage . This mode also adds two new Robot Masters ( Oil Man and Time Man ) . The NES version was originally intended to have a total of eight Robot Masters , but was cut down to six due to a tight schedule . Additionally , the remake lets players unlock and play through the game as the eight Robot Masters , Roll , and Protoman . The New Style stages differ in structure from that of Old Style , with some pathways only accessible to specific Robot Masters . Mega Man Powered Up also features a Challenge Mode with 100 challenges to complete , a level editor for creating custom stages , and an option to distribute fan @-@ made levels to the PlayStation Network online service . Mega Man Powered Up received generally positive reviews , with aggregate scores of 83 % on GameRankings and 82 out of 100 on Metacritic as of May 2010 . The remake sold poorly at retail , and was later released as a paid download on the Japanese PlayStation Network digital store and as a bundled with Mega Man Maverick Hunter X in Japan and North America . Capcom additionally translated Mega Man Powered Up into Chinese for release in Asia in 2008 .
= = Other media = =
= = = Archie Comics = = =
The first story arc of the Mega Man comic series adapts the original Mega Man game , though with certain artistic liberties , such as Dr. Wily 's robot factory reusing the design of Mega Man 2 's Wily Castle , Mega Man becoming obsessed with stopping the reprogrammed Robot Masters to the point of having an identity crisis , and Dr. Light mistaking a Sniper Joe controlled by Dr. Wily for Proto Man .
= Cyclone Nadia =
Cyclone Nadia was a powerful tropical cyclone that struck both Madagascar and Mozambique in March 1994 . It formed on March 16 and moved westward for the first ten days of its duration . Warm waters and low wind shear allowed for the storm to gradually strengthen . After developing a well @-@ defined eye , Nadia intensified to reach winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 minute sustained ) early on March 22 , according to Météo @-@ France ( MF ) . In contrast , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated winds of about 220 km / h ( 140 mph 1 minute sustained ) . On March 23 , the cyclone struck northern Madagascar , causing flooding and localized damage where it moved ashore . There were 12 deaths in the country . Nadia emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a weakened storm , although it reintensified slightly before making landfall in northeastern Mozambique on March 24 . The storm turned southward through the country , emerging over water on March 26 . It turned to the northeast and meandered over waters before dissipating on April 1 .
Damage was heaviest in Mozambique , estimated at about $ 20 million ( 1994 USD ) . Cyclone Nadia severely affected four provinces in the country , primarily Nampula Province where it moved ashore . There , 85 % of the houses were destroyed , and across its path , the cyclone left 1 @.@ 5 million people homeless . High winds caused widespread power outages , left areas without water , and significantly damaged crops , notably the cashew crop . The storm struck before the harvest , and lack of food resulted in 300 deaths in the months after the storm . Across Mozambique , Nadia directly caused 240 deaths and injured thousands . Effects spread as far inland as Malawi .
= = Meteorological history = =
A disturbance in the Indian Ocean intertropical convergence zone became evident southeast of the Chagos Archipelago on March 16 after two cyclones moved away from the region . Based on analysis from MF , the system slowly organized while moving westward , its movement influenced by a subtropical ridge to the south . On March 17 , the JTWC also began tracking the system . Due to cool , dry air , the system initially did not intensify , although its passage over warmer sea surface temperatures on March 19 allowed for strengthening . On March 19 , MF classified the disturbance as Tropical Storm Nadia after rainbands developed . A day later , the JTWC designated Nadia as Tropical Cyclone 23S .
After becoming a tropical storm , Nadia quickly intensified , developing a central dense overcast and later an eye . With minimal wind shear , the storm strengthened into a tropical cyclone early on March 21 . That day , the JTWC estimated winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) , or the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , and late on March 21 , MF upgraded Nadia into an intense tropical cyclone . While the cyclone was approaching northern Madagascar on March 22 , MF estimated Nadia attained maximum sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 minute sustained ) early on March 22 . At around the same time , the JTWC estimated winds of about 220 km / h ( 140 mph ( 1 @-@ minute sustained ) ) . While at peak intensity , Nadia had well @-@ defined outflow and an eye no larger than 30 km ( 19 mi ) . At about 0100 UTC on March 23 , Nadia made landfall on northern Madagascar near Vohemar , having weakened slightly from its peak .
While located over Madagascar , Nadia weakened into a tropical storm due to the mountainous terrain . With warm temperatures , the storm re @-@ intensified slightly after entering the Mozambique Channel , and it passed about 100 km ( 62 mi ) south of Mayotte at 1900 UTC on March 23 . At 1700 UTC the next day , Nadia made its second landfall on Mozambique , about halfway between Nacala and Moçambique . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC discontinued advisories . Despite moving further inland , Nadia retained a well @-@ organized circulation and convection . The storm turned to the south and re @-@ emerged into the Mozambique Channel late on March 26 near the mouth of the Zambezi River . Nadia gradually re @-@ intensified while curving to the southeast , and it re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on March 28 , the same day the JTWC resumed issuing advisories . The storm strengthened to reach a secondary peak intensity of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ( 10 minute sustained ) ) , according to MF . After reaching a position about halfway between Mozambique and Madagascar , Nadia turned to the southwest on April 1 and lost its remaining convection . The JTWC and MF discontinued advisories that day , and the circulation dissipated a day later .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
While crossing northern Madagascar , Nadia produced widespread flooding . In Vohemar where it moved ashore , the storm destroyed most public buildings , although local churches provided assistance in the aftermath . Across the region , the storm downed power lines and destroyed more than 540 tonnes ( 600 tons ) of rice . The cyclone killed 12 people and caused about $ 200 @,@ 000 damage ( 1994 USD ) .
Upon striking Mozambique , Nadia produced heavy rains and strong wind gusts , causing widespread tree damage and flooding . The city of Nampula recorded 126 mm ( 4 @.@ 96 in ) of rainfall in a 24 ‑ hour period . Damage was heaviest in Nampula , Zambezia , Manica , and Sofala provinces . In Nampula Province , Nadia destroyed 85 % of the houses and 75 % of the crops , mostly cashew trees . The city of Nacala was heavily damaged , with about 170 @,@ 000 people losing their houses . Many residents evacuated Nacala , and temporary shelters were provided for those who stayed . At the port in Nacala , the local harbor was wrecked and two ships sank ; one of the damaged ships spilled oil into the Bay of Nacala . The city lost power and water , and its primary hospital was destroyed . About 130 km ( 81 mi ) of power lines were cut between Nampula and Nacala , and widespread road and bridge damage disrupted transportation . In the area along Nadia 's path , over 120 schools were damaged destroyed , affecting over 46 @,@ 864 students . Across the country , roughly 1 @.@ 5 million people were left homeless . A World Food Programme building in the city was destroyed , wrecking 642 tonnes ( 708 tons ) of stored food . Overall , Nadia killed 240 people in Mozambique and injured thousands . Damage was estimated at $ 20 million ( 1994 USD ) .
Damage from Nadia extended as far inland as Malawi .
After the storm , about 300 @,@ 000 people in Nampula Province in Mozambique required food and other goods . Officials sent relief to the affected areas , including iron sheeting and medical teams . Due to damage to sanitation facilities , there were outbreaks of diarrhea and cholera in the weeks after the storm . By April 20 , most primary roads were cleared , bridge reconstruction had commenced , and power was being restored . Heavy crop damage depleted food supplies , The cyclone struck shortly before the annual harvest , causing heavy crop damage that depleted food supplies . Some residents who evacuated during the country 's civil war returned late to assist in harvesting the remaining crops . In the six months after the storm , about 300 people died due to starvation . Many secondary roads remained blocked in the weeks after the storm , forcing relief supplies to be transported by boat . The country appealed to the international community for assistance , and by Mary 6 , various international agencies and governments donated about $ 1 @.@ 4 million in cash ( 1994 USD ) . The French government sent $ 48 @,@ 000 worth of medicine , blankets , and food , the United Kingdom sent $ 373 @,@ 134 for generators , water tanks , and roofing materials , and the Spanish government sent about $ 117 @,@ 000 worth of food and tents . The charity organization Concern Worldwide sent 54 @,@ 000 sets of clothing to the country . The government of Japan sent 6 @,@ 000 blankets and 1 @,@ 800 bars of soap , while the Italian government sent five generators , eight water tanks , and 1 @,@ 150 agricultural tools . Donated generators assisted in restoring water in Nacala . In June 1994 , the World Bank provided $ 20 million in assistance to the country due to the storm . Cyclone Nadia contributed to fishing exports decreasing by $ 11 million during the year .
= Mussie =
Mussie , also known as Hapyxelor or Hapaxelor , is a cryptid , an animal whose existence is the subject of folklore but has not been proven , that is rumored to live in Muskrat Lake in the Canadian province of Ontario . The creature 's age , gender , and physical appearance are not agreed upon ; it is variously described , for example , as a walrus or as a three @-@ eyed Loch Ness Monster @-@ like creature . It is also not agreed upon whether Mussie is a single creature or a species .
The legend of Mussie likely began around 1916 , though folk tales claim that Canadian pioneer Samuel de Champlain wrote about it in the early seventeenth century . Despite the futility of numerous attempts to locate or capture Mussie , it has become a part of the local culture and a fixture in the local tourism industry .
= = Characteristics = =
Mussie 's name is a diminutive form of the name of its reported location : Muskrat Lake , a large , deep lake near the village of Cobden , Ontario , and about 75 miles northwest of Ottawa . Muskrat Lake is home to another paranormal phenomenon : local legends state that an Atomic Energy of Canada bus driver saw an extraterrestrial spacecraft landing on a spot atop a hill and leaving . There is indeed a dark @-@ colored , circular outline on this hill where grass does not grow , with no widely accepted cause .
There is no single accepted portrayal of Mussie 's age , its gender , or even whether it is a single , long @-@ lived creature or a species . Some residents claim that a single , very old Mussie — or a member of its species — first arrived in the area , then covered by the ocean , about 10 @,@ 000 years ago . In this tale , glaciers and , later , solid landmasses built up around it , forming the lake , and Mussie was trapped . Mussie 's diet , according to self @-@ proclaimed observer Donnie Humphries , consists at least partially of cattails found near the edge of the lake .
Descriptions of Mussie 's physical appearance are inconsistent . In local folklore , it has variously been portrayed as akin to a walrus ; a sturgeon or other fish ; or a Loch Ness Monster with three eyes and sharper teeth . Another oft @-@ cited description from local historian James F. Robison is as follows :
= = History = =
The presence of a large , unusual creature in Muskrat Lake has been the subject of anecdotes since 1916 . The creature 's name was originally cited as Hapyxelor , alternately spelled Hapaxelor , but changed simply to Mussie , short for The Monster of Muskrat Lake , sometime later . Humphries , a man from Cobden , was a well @-@ known proponent of Mussie 's existence . Around the area , many people 's knowledge of the creature come from his vehement , albeit inconsistent , tales of observing it once .
Some residents claim that , independent of the truth of the Mussie legend , the legend 's origins are older : supposedly , early settler Samuel de Champlain wrote of the creature 's existence in the early seventeenth century . However , no concrete evidence of such writings has been uncovered , even though Champlain did write of loud screams from sea monsters living in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland .
Author Michael Bradley and friend Deanna Theilmann @-@ Beann searched for Mussie in the Nepenthe , a boat with sonar technology . With their sonar , they found two creatures they hypothesized could be two marine mammals , three metres long . Bradley concluded that at least one creature compatible with Mussie 's description lived in the lake , though he did not investigate the creatures further . Scientists have also surveyed the area and found nothing , though the definitive nonexistence of a Mussie @-@ like creature is difficult to establish because some of the trenches in Muskrat Lake extend to over 60 metres .
= = In culture = =
Mussie has become a cultural mascot of the area , appearing on signs welcoming visitors to Cobden and in front of the Home Hardware store in the village . It is not usually portrayed as fearsome ; it is given seasonal accessories to mark holidays , like a Santa Claus hat for Christmas . The creature 's economic value through the tourism industry has caused it to be described as " recession @-@ fighting " in local folk songs .
Every year , visitors in the Muskrat Lake area search for Mussie in the lake ; none have yet captured evidence of its existence . In the 1990s , a tourism marketing campaign for the area offered CAN $ 1 million to anyone who could capture a live specimen , but no one did . Mussie is referenced in travel pamphlets for the Whitewater Region area ; one suggests that it can be caught by a fishing rod .
= A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again =
" A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again " is the 19th episode of the 23rd season of the American animated television sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 29 , 2012 . In the episode , the Simpson family goes on cruise after being convinced by a bored Bart. He enjoys himself on the vacation until Rowan Priddis , the director of the cruise , performs a song called " Enjoy It While You Can " that makes him realize the cruise is soon to be over and he has to return to his boring life . Bart decides to trick the crew and the passengers on the ship that the world is coming to an end back on land because of a pandemic and that the ship therefore has to stay out at sea . He manages to do this with the help of a large television screen , on which he displays a scene from the film The Pandora Strain that features a general officer named William Sullivan warning humanity about a deadly virus .
Treat Williams guest starred in the episode as film character William Sullivan , while Steve Coogan made a guest appearance as the cruise director Rowan Priddis . " Enjoy It While You Can " was produced for the episode by Broadway composer Robert Lopez , who also co @-@ wrote the song with the writers of The Simpsons . Other songs played in the episode include " Boy from School " by Hot Chip and " Winter 's Love " by Animal Collective . Since airing , " A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again " has received generally positive reviews from television critics , being praised for showing an emotional side of Bart. Around five million viewers tuned in to watch the episode during its original US broadcast .
= = Plot = =
After another boring week in his life , Bart sees a commercial on television for a fun cruise and begs Homer and Marge for a family vacation . They tell him that the family is low on cash , so Bart chooses to sell everything he owns to fund the vacation himself . He comes up well short of the needed amount , so Marge and Lisa help by selling one valuable item apiece . Together the three have enough money to book the family into an economy cabin ; once the cruise starts , though , a series of free upgrades places them in a deluxe cabin . They enjoy the wide range of activities onboard , but Bart 's spirits sink when he hears the cruise director , Rowan Priddis , sing a song to the passengers telling them to enjoy the rest of the cruise while they can before they go back to their normal lives . Bart fears that the remainder of his life will be painfully boring and decides to make the vacation last forever .
Later , a huge onboard television screen displays an emergency message from a military officer , warning the crew and passengers about a deadly virus that has started to spread on the mainland . He says that all ships must remain at sea to ensure that humanity survives . The message is actually taken from a movie in the Simpson cabin 's DVD library , set up by Bart to broadcast all over the ship . He also disables communications with the mainland by pouring hot fudge on a control panel . As the ship stays at sea , conditions deteriorate and the food supply starts to run out . Eventually , the cruise turns into a post @-@ apocalyptic civilization , with gladiator arenas , marauders , capital punishment , and Priddis claiming kingship over the passengers .
Marge and Lisa discover Bart 's deception and inform the passengers that the virus is a hoax . As punishment , the furious passengers maroon the Simpsons in Antarctica and head home . While hiking toward a research station for help , they notice a group of penguins ; Lisa is fascinated by the chance to see them up close , but Bart thinks that their lives are boring and says that the ice slide they are riding down is just one isolated moment of fun . Lisa tells him that capturing and enjoying the best moments in life can make it fun , and Bart realizes she is right after Homer pushes him down the ice slide , with the whole family joining in . The final scene is a flash @-@ forward to an elderly Bart in a retirement home , commenting on how much fun his life has been .
= = Production = =
" A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again " was written by Matt Warburton and directed by Chris Clements as part of the 23rd season of The Simpsons ( 2011 – 12 ) . The title and parts of the plot are a reference to the 1997 essay " A Supposedly Fun Thing I 'll Never Do Again " by American writer David Foster Wallace that describes his experiences on a cruise . In one scene , a character appears in the background that supposedly resembles Foster Wallace . American actor Treat Williams guest starred in the episode as himself playing William Sullivan , the character in the film The Pandora Strain that Bart uses to trick everyone into believing a deadly virus has actually spread .
A guest appearance by English actor and comedian Steve Coogan as Rowan Priddis , the director of the cruise , is also featured . In the episode , when the Simpsons are having dinner at the restaurant on the ship , the character makes a stage performance of a song called " Enjoy It While You Can " that prompts Bart to make sure the cruise lasts forever . This song was a contribution by Tony Award @-@ winning Broadway composer and lyricist Robert Lopez , who produced it in New York City in 2011 for the episode . Coogan recorded the song in New York as well . The writers of the show provided Lopez their suggestion for the song 's lyrics , which " he then tweaked " , according to William Keck of TV Guide . Lopez told Keck that he and the Simpsons staff decided to create something " cheesy that actually could be performed on a cruise ship . We went in a Carnival Cruise , ' Feelin ' Hot Hot Hot ' direction . " According to The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma , Lopez produced " Enjoy It While You Can " with a " synthesizer band " and The Simpsons composer Alf Clausen " added a Vegas @-@ style house orchestra arrangement for the final version . "
The episode features two songs in addition to " Enjoy It While You Can " . " Boy from School " by English electronic music band Hot Chip is played at the start of the episode during a montage that shows a boring week in the life of Bart , including his time at school . When the Simpsons go down the penguins ' ice slide at the end of the episode , " Winter 's Love " by American neo @-@ psychedelia band Animal Collective is heard . " A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again " also includes two classical music pieces . Warburton decided to use French composer François @-@ Adrien Boieldieu 's " Concerto for Harp and Strings " for the first shot of the cruise ship in the episode . As described by Ledesma on his blog , this piece reappeared in a " more dire and dark treatment " later in the episode during a shot of the rundown ship . Russian composer Mikhail Glinka 's overture from his Ruslan and Lyudmila opera is played over a montage that shows Bart taking part in the fun activities on the cruise .
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 29 , 2012 . It was watched by approximately five million people during this broadcast , and in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 2 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating and a seven percent share . The episode became the second highest @-@ rated broadcast in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of both total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing higher than new episodes of The Cleveland Show and Bob 's Burgers but lower than a new Family Guy episode ( which acquired a 2 @.@ 8 rating and was seen by 5 @.@ 63 million people ) . For the week of April 23 – 29 , 2012 , " A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again " placed 17th in the ratings among all prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic , and sixth among all Fox prime @-@ time broadcasts .
Reception of the episode by television critics has been generally positive . Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club praised the episode , gave a A- and commented that it is " good to see The Simpsons try an ambitious episode , and great to see those ambitions largely fulfilled . " He added that episodes that " give Bart extra depth ( ' Bart Sells His Soul ' especially ) are among my favorite Simpsons half @-@ hours , " and noted that this episode features " a side of Bart that we rarely see : someone living outside the moment . Imagining himself on his deathbed and thinking of how his whole life outside of the cruise was wasted is the sort of device typically reserved for the Simpson women , particularly Lisa . " Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote that in the episode there " are elements that will be familiar – it 's another episode where a Simpson family vacation verges on disaster – but the main emotional storyline involving Bart is one The Simpsons hasn 't touched on before , as a fantastic luxury cruise makes him uneasy about the state of the rest of his life . " Sepinwall concluded that he is " always a fan of single @-@ story Simpsons episodes , as well as ones built around an emotional issue facing a member of the family , and this has both – in addition to being funny and sweet and clever in its depiction of the Best Cruise Ever . "
= Lindsay Merritt Inglis =
Major General Lindsay Merritt Inglis CB , CBE , DSO & Bar , MC , ED ( 16 May 1894 – 17 March 1966 ) was a New Zealand military leader , lawyer and magistrate .
Born in Mosgiel , Inglis volunteered for service in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force during the First World War . He served on the Western Front and won the Military Cross for his actions during the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette . He ended the war as a company commander and returned to New Zealand in 1919 . In civilian life , he was a solicitor and barrister in Timaru but also served in the Territorial Force . He volunteered for service during the Second World War and commanded the 4th Infantry Brigade in the campaigns in Crete and North Africa . He had two periods in command of the 2nd New Zealand Division . After the war , he was appointed to a military court of the Allied Control Commission , which administered occupied Germany . He later served as chief judge of the Allied Control Commission 's Supreme Court from 1947 to 1950 .
= = Early life = =
Inglis was born in Mosgiel , Otago , New Zealand on 16 May 1894 to a banker and his wife . After completing his education at Waitaki Boys ' High School in Oamaru , he commenced legal studies at the University of Otago in 1913 .
= = Military career = =
In late April 1915 , Inglis volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) . He had some military experience , having served as an officer in the Territorial Force with the 2nd ( South Canterbury ) Regiment . Posted to the New Zealand Rifle Brigade , he served in Egypt and on the Western Front . As a company commander in his battalion , he participated in the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette during the Somme Offensive in September 1916 . He was awarded the Military Cross for his part in the battle , after which he was the only surviving officer from his section of the front line .
Inglis later transferred to the New Zealand Machine Gun Corps , in which he commanded a company for the remainder of the war . Present at the capture of Le Quesnoy in late 1918 , he was discharged from the NZEF in April 1919 and returned to New Zealand .
= = Interwar period = =
Inglis resumed his legal studies , completing them in 1920 . He also became married to his fiancée , Agnes , and the couple had two children . Now a solicitor , he moved his young family to Timaru and established a legal practice there . He remained involved with the Territorial Force , and in 1926 was commander of 1st Battalion , Canterbury Regiment , with the rank of lieutenant colonel . Promoted to colonel in 1931 , he commanded 3rd New Zealand Infantry Brigade before retiring from the Territorial Force in 1936 . As a long serving member of the territorials , he was awarded the Efficiency Decoration . In 1935 , he was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal .
= = Second World War = =
Inglis enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) following the outbreak of the Second World War . He needed to have treatment on his thyroid before he could go on active service . He commanded the 27th Machine @-@ Gun Battalion , part of the first echelon of the 2NZEF which had been shipped to Egypt , from December 1939 to August 1940 . In early 1941 , Inglis was promoted to brigadier and given command of the 9th Infantry Brigade , composed largely of training battalions .
= = = Crete = = =
Having missed the Battle of Greece , Inglis was appointed commander of the 4th Infantry Brigade of 2nd New Zealand Division in May 1941 . During the Battle of Crete , his brigade served as the reserve for the Allied forces , codenamed Creforce and commanded by Major General Bernard Freyberg , on Crete . The battle ended in the evacuation of Creforce to Egypt . Freyberg selected Inglis to travel to the War Office in London and provide a report on the battle . When he met with Winston Churchill the month after the evacuation from Crete , Inglis was critical of Freyberg 's conduct of the battle and made a number of inaccurate and misleading statements . However , Inglis ' own conduct in the battle had not been exemplary . At one stage , he disobeyed an order to take over a newly created reserve and remained at divisional headquarters , possibly with hopes of taking over command of the division .
= = = North Africa = = =
Despite this show of disloyalty to his commander , Inglis remained in command of 4th Brigade through much of the North African Campaign . He led his brigade in the capture of Belhamed , a hill adjacent to Sidi Rezegh , which resulted in the opening of a corridor to Tobruk during Operation Crusader , for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) .
After being reformed during the early part of 1942 , 4th Brigade spent time in Syria with most of the 2nd New Zealand Division . In June , the New Zealanders were rushed back to Egypt after the Panzer Army Afrika attacked Gazala , near Tobruk , to begin an advance into Egypt in pursuit of the retreating Eighth Army . The division made a stand at Minqar Qaim and was surrounded by German forces on 27 June . As the Germans probed the perimeter of the New Zealand positions , Freyberg was wounded . Inglis assumed temporary command of the division and successfully led it in an outbreak from Minqar Qaim that night . He would remain as divisional commander for the next two months as Freyberg recovered , and was later awarded a bar to his DSO which acknowledged his leadership of the division during this period .
However , during this time Inglis ' relationship with his brigade commanders , particularly Brigadier Howard Kippenberger deteriorated . Kippenberger had become highly rated as a field commander during the war and Inglis may have become resentful . This was uncomfortable for Kippenberger , who had served under Inglis in the Territorial Force and considered him a mentor in the art of warfare . This was further exacerbated on 30 June when Inglis went to Cairo without informing his staff who , in his absence , subsequently asked Kippenberger to take temporary command of the division . Inglis returned on 1 July having become lost when returning from Cairo .
Prior to the First Battle of Ruweisat Ridge , which commenced on 14 – 15 July , Inglis failed to adjust his artillery support following concerns raised by Kippenberger and Jim Burrows , the commanders of the brigades involved in the planned advance on the defended ridge . Instead , he chose to rely on assurances from his corps commander , Lieutenant General William Gott , that British armour would provide any necessary assistance . This proved to be a mistake ; although the brigades manage to seize the ridge , they were unable to hold it in the face of stronger than expected counterattacks , and the expected armour support never fully eventuated . Afterwards , while Inglis was critical of the conduct of the brigades and laid primary blame for the failure on them and the lack of armour , he overlooked the influence of his own role as divisional commander on the outcome of the battle . An attack mounted a few days later by 6th Brigade was a further failure and highlighted Inglis ' failings as a divisional commander by not ensuring adequate support from his corps commander .
In September 1942 , Inglis reverted to command of 4th Brigade , and it was decided that the brigade would be converted to an armoured formation . As an infantry brigade , it had suffered heavy losses at Ruweisat Ridge . Inglis oversaw 4th Brigade 's transition to armour , a process which took a nearly a year . He was again acting divisional commander from June to July 1943 when Freyberg was occupied elsewhere . Afflicted with dysentery , Inglis was repatriated to New Zealand in November 1943 for treatment .
= = = Italy = = =
Inglis returned to 4th Brigade , now in Italy , in March 1944 . For much of the Italian Campaign the brigade did not participate in large @-@ scale operations ; instead , his armoured regiments were deployed piecemeal in support of infantry operations . In the absence of Inglis while he recovered from his illness the previous three months , Kippenberger had become the preferred acting divisional commander . Kippenberger , commanding the division while Freyberg commanded the New Zealand Corps , was wounded shortly after Inglis arrived in Italy . Command of the division passed to another brigade commander , despite Inglis ' seniority . Again overlooked as temporary divisional commander in September , Inglis requested to be relieved of his command and he was promptly sent home to New Zealand . For his wartime services , he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire .
= = Later life = =
After the end of the war in Europe , Inglis was one of New Zealand 's delegates for the Allied Control Commission for Germany , which administered the now occupied country . He was appointed president of a military court in the British @-@ controlled area of Germany dealing with crimes committed by the occupying forces . After six months in this role , in February 1947 he was promoted to major general and made chief judge of the Allied Control Commission 's Supreme Court . The following year he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath .
In 1950 , Inglis ended his appointment as chief judge and returned to New Zealand . He became a magistrate in Hamilton in 1953 , and retired in 1965 . He died in Hamilton the following year . His collection of military history books was donated to the Kippenberger Research Library in the QEII Army Memorial Museum at Waiouru .
= Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children =
Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children ( Japanese : ファイナルファンタジーVII アドベントチルドレン , Hepburn : Fainaru Fantajī Sebun Adobento Chirudoren ) is a 2005 Japanese computer @-@ animated science fantasy film directed by Tetsuya Nomura , written by Kazushige Nojima , and produced by Yoshinori Kitase and Shinji Hashimoto . Developed by Visual Works and Square Enix , Advent Children is part of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII series of media , which is based in the world and continuity of the highly successful 1997 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII . Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children was released on DVD and Universal Media Discs with Japanese voice acting in Japan on September 14 , 2005 , and on April 25 , 2006 , with English voice acting in North America and Europe .
Advent Children takes place two years after the events of Final Fantasy VII and focuses on the appearance of a trio that kidnaps children infected with an unknown disease . Former Final Fantasy VII hero Cloud Strife , suffering from the same disease , goes to rescue the children . He discovers that the trio plan to resurrect the villain Sephiroth using the remains of the extraterrestrial villain Jenova , and he and his compatriots from the game fight to stop them . The film 's voice acting cast includes Takahiro Sakurai , Ayumi Ito , and Toshiyuki Morikawa in Japanese , and Steve Burton , Rachael Leigh Cook , and George Newbern in English .
The film has been released in multiple versions ; Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children Complete , released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in 2009 , is the last version and adds 25 minutes of new and expanded scenes to the 100 @-@ minute original . The film has received mixed reviews . Critics have praised its animation and CGI work , but the plot has been criticized as both incomprehensible to viewers who did not play Final Fantasy VII and as a thin connection between action scenes . It received the " Maria Award " at the Sitges Film Festival in 2005 and the " Best Anime Feature " at the 2007 American Anime Awards . The original release was one of the best @-@ selling animated movies in its release year in both Japan and the United States , and the Complete release was noted as driving a large increase in sales of the PlayStation 3 console in its release week . By May 2009 , the DVD and Universal Media Disc releases had sold over 4 @.@ 1 million copies worldwide .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Advent Children takes place two years following the events of the 1997 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII , during which the antagonist Sephiroth attempted to absorb the Lifestream ( the lifeblood and soul of the planet ) and be reborn as a god . He was defeated by Cloud Strife and his companions but Sephiroth 's final spell , Meteor , destroyed the city of Midgar .
Since the end of the game , the survivors of Midgar founded the new city of Edge where Cloud and his childhood friend Tifa Lockhart now run a courier service and are the caretakers of orphans Denzel and Marlene . Cloud is still haunted by his role in the death of Aerith Gainsborough , who was killed by Sephiroth . In addition , both he and Denzel are infected with a mysterious new ailment known as " Geostigma " , which has no known cure . When the film opens , Cloud has recently moved out and isolated himself from his friends .
= = = Story = = =
Cloud is contacted through Tifa and summoned to a meeting with the Shinra Company 's former president Rufus Shinra , who was presumed killed in Final Fantasy VII . Rufus asks for Cloud 's help to stop Kadaj , Loz , and Yazoo . The trio are physical manifestations of Sephiroth 's surviving spirit , and are seeking to resurrect him using the remains of the extraterrestrial villain Jenova . Cloud refuses to help and leaves .
Meanwhile , Kadaj and his colleagues are recruiting children infected with Geostigma . Denzel falls in with the group , attracted by their promises of a cure for the disease . Loz follows Tifa and Marlene to Aerith 's church , where they had gone looking for Cloud , and attacks them . Tifa is knocked unconscious in the fight and Loz kidnapped Marlene . All the kidnapped children are taken to the ruins of the mystical Forgotten City , where Kadaj embraces them as brethren and announces his intention for them all to be reunited with Jenova . When Cloud arrives to rescue them , he is overpowered by Kadaj 's gang , but is rescued by his old comrade Vincent Valentine . Demoralized by his failure , Cloud asks if sin can ever be truly forgiven , to which Vincent nonchalantly replies that he has never tried to forgive . Cloud decides to keep fighting and returns to the city , where Kadaj has summoned Bahamut SIN and other monsters to terrorize the population . With the help of his companions from Final Fantasy VII , Cloud engages and defeats the monsters .
Kadaj confronts Rufus Shinra , who reveals he possesses the box containing Jenova 's remains . He attempts to destroy it , but Kadaj manages to save it and flees the city with his companions . Yazoo and Loz are apparently destroyed along the way by an explosive planted by Shinra 's agents . Cloud chases Kadaj down and engages him in battle , ultimately subduing him . Outmatched , Kadaj opens Jenova 's box and fuses with its contents , transforming into Sephiroth . He then tells Cloud that he will be able to use the life essences of Geostigma sufferers to achieve complete domination over the planet . He and Cloud then fight , and throughout the whole encounter Sephiroth appears to have the upper hand , flinging Cloud repeatedly into walls and finally impaling him through the shoulder . He asks Cloud to tell him what he most cherishes , so that he can have the pleasure of taking it away . To this , Cloud replies that he cherishes everything , then pulls out Sephiroth 's sword and deals him a hail of devastating blows . Sephiroth 's spirit departs , leaving behind the mortally wounded Kadaj . As he lies dying in Cloud 's arms , a healing rain starts falling across the land , curing the people of their Geostigma . Yazoo and Loz appear and confront Cloud ; he charges at them , and they set off a massive explosion engulfing the three .
Cloud has a vision of his deceased friends Aerith and Zack Fair , who say that his time to join them has not yet come . He then awakens in the church , healed of his injuries and surrounded by his friends . Behind them , he sees Aerith and Zack leaving the church and hears Aerith 's voice say , " You see , everything 's all right . " He agrees : " I know . I 'm not alone ... not anymore . "
= = Cast = =
Advent Children was released with a Japanese voice track in Japan , and an English voice track elsewhere .
Takahiro Sakurai / Steve Burton as Cloud Strife . Sakurai and Burton had already performed the role in the video game Kingdom Hearts .
Ayumi Ito / Rachael Leigh Cook as Tifa Lockhart . Nomura felt that Ito 's " husky " voice would offer a good contrast with Maaya Sakamoto .
Maaya Sakamoto / Mena Suvari as Aerith Gainsborough .
Shōgo Suzuki / Steve Blum as Vincent Valentine . Nomura wanted Cloud and Vincent to have noticeably different voices because the characters were otherwise quite similar . Since Vincent was older and more mature than Cloud , his role was given to Suzuki , who has a very low voice .
Shotaro Morikubo / Steve Staley as Kadaj . Morikubo had difficulties voicing him because of the character 's unstable personality and needed time to adjust to the role .
Kenji Nomura / Fred Tatasciore as Loz . Nomura was told by the staff to voice Loz as an " idiot " character .
Yūji Kishi / Dave Wittenberg as Yazoo .
Toshiyuki Morikawa / George Newbern as Sephiroth . Morikawa was instructed to pronounce Sephiroth 's lines in such a way that his words would convey his feelings of superiority . In tandem with this , the voice director and Morikawa agreed to make Sephiroth 's voice sound always calm , as if he never fears the slightest possibility of defeat .
Yumi Kakazu / Christy Carlson Romano as Yuffie Kisaragi .
Masahiro Kobayashi / Beau Billingslea as Barret Wallace .
Keiji Fujiwara / Quinton Flynn as Reno .
Taiten Kusunoki / Crispin Freeman as Rude .
Tōru Ōkawa / Wally Wingert as Rufus Shinra .
Kenichi Suzumura / Rick Gomez as Zack Fair .
Hideo Ishikawa / Greg Ellis as Cait Sith
Masachika Ichimura / Liam O 'Brien as Red XIII / Nanaki
Kazuhiro Yamaji / Chris Edgerly as Cid Highwind
= = Production = =
Advent Children began as a short film by Visual Works , a company used by Square to develop CGI scenes for their video games , based on Final Fantasy VII . Kazushige Nojima , who had written the script for the game , was brought on to write a 20 @-@ minute script , and he decided to write " a story about Cloud and Tifa and the kids " . The film was developed as a part of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , a set of different media content intended to expand upon the world of Final Fantasy VII . Square 's research and development department worked with Visual Works on the piece , and VII 's director Tetsuya Nomura joined the crew after VII 's producer Yoshinori Kitase called him . Early in pre @-@ production , the team thought about making Advent Children into a game , but Nomura decided against it , partially because Visual Works had no experience with making a full game . The creators had no prior experience working on films , so they fell back on their knowledge of in @-@ game movies .
The film was planned to focus on the characters of Cloud and Tifa in a similar way to how other titles from Compilation of Final Fantasy VII centered on certain characters ; for example , Before Crisis focuses on the Turks , Crisis Core on Zack Fair , and Dirge of Cerberus on Vincent . Nomura says the film was , in its first manifestation , only going to be 20 minutes long . The original story featured someone requesting a message to be sent to Cloud ; the message is then relayed to Cloud through several children , and , when the message finally reaches Cloud , it is revealed who the messenger is . Nomura very much liked the original script , and it became the foundation of the final version . He decided to make the project longer and more grand in scope when early word of the film generated great interest amongst Final Fantasy VII fans , the majority of whom wanted something feature length . The film 's length was expanded to 100 minutes .
Takeshi Nozue and Nomura , who had first worked together on the video game Kingdom Hearts , split the role of directing , as Nomura felt this would add depth to the film . In designing the battle scenes they first discussed the setting and layout , and then went to the staff with their ideas , deciding which were the best and developing them further . The battle between Cloud 's group and Bahamut was the most difficult to design due to the size of the area and the number of objects the staff had to add to the scene to keep it realistic . The alternating positions of the characters , including Bahamut itself , took the staff a long time to complete in order to give the scene a sense of flow . Nomura stated that the team decided not to worry about making the fight sequences realistic , as they felt this would restrict their ability to give the film a " cool look " . Therefore , they worked by creating their " own rules " . Motion capture was used for many of the film 's battle scenes ; maneuvers that were not physically possible for live actors to perform were constructed digitally .
While designing the characters , the staff discovered that it was impossible to directly translate the Final Fantasy VII designs into the film , and thus some identifying characteristics had to be discarded . Cloud 's redesign was a combination of eight different designs , from his super deformed appearance in the game to his more realistic appearance in the film . The difficulties in making Sephiroth led the staff to reduce his appearances in the film , as it took them two years to develop and refine his look . Nozue also had difficulty developing a framework for Tifa 's body that was " balanced , yet showed off her feminine qualities " . In April 2003 , it was decided that Kadaj , Loz , and Yazoo would be manifestations of Sephiroth 's spirit — his cruelty , strength , and allure respectively . In contrast to Sephiroth , the trio was meant to be younger than Cloud , so as to focus on the " next generation " theme . By October 2003 , Nomura said that the film was 10 % complete , stating that while the script was written , not all the characters were designed .
Nomura felt that Advent Children differed from Hollywood films where the meaning of most scenes tends to be explained . With Advent Children , however , the staff wanted viewers to be able to interpret scenes themselves , allowing them to come to different conclusions . Nojima described the theme of the film as " survival " . Other themes with which Nomura and Nojima were concerned include Cloud 's feelings of guilt and regret for not being able to save his friends Zack and Aerith . These feelings are symbolized by a grey wolf that appears whenever Cloud thinks about them . The wolf disappears at the end of the film as Cloud comes to terms with his feelings . The word " children " was used in the title to refer to the film 's children , as they represent the " next generation " .
= = = Music = = =
The music of Final Fantasy VII Advent Children was composed by Nobuo Uematsu , Keiji Kawamori , Kenichiro Fukui , and Tsuyoshi Sekito , and arranged by Fukui , Sekito , Kawamori , Shirō Hamaguchi , and Kazuhiko Toyama . Upon hearing each track , Nomura would make some changes , and have the composers re @-@ record the piece . The end theme , " Calling " , was written and performed by former Boøwy vocalist Kyosuke Himuro . The soundtrack includes both pieces original to the film and arrangements of works from Final Fantasy VII , originally composed by Uematsu . Some of the arrangements , including " Advent : One @-@ Winged Angel " , are performed by The Black Mages , a rock band formed by Uematsu , Fukui , and Sekito . Both the pieces original to the film and the film arrangements cover a variety of musical styles , including orchestral , choral , classical piano , and rock music ; Variety noted that the styles vary between " sparse piano noodlings , pop metal thrashings and cloying power ballads " . The 2005 soundtrack album Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Original Soundtrack collects 26 tracks of music from the film on two discs . It was published by Square Enix on September 28 , 2005 . In addition to the regular release , a limited edition was produced containing alternative cover art and a booklet of credits and lyrics . The soundtrack album reached position # 15 on the Japanese Oricon music charts , and stayed on the charts for 10 weeks .
A mini @-@ album entitled Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete Mini Album was released on April 10 , 2009 , to coincide with the release of the Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete version of the film . This version of the film included a new ending theme , " Safe and Sound " , by Kyosuke Himuro and My Chemical Romance singer Gerard Way . " Water " was replaced with a new song , " Anxious Heart " . Tracks on the album included new versions of " The Chase of Highway " , " Those Who Fight Further " , " Sign " , " Advent : One @-@ Winged Angel " , and " On the Way to a Smile " . A larger album , Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete : Reunion Tracks , was released with 21 tracks on September 16 , 2009 . This album contains the tracks from the mini @-@ album , as well as several pieces that were lengthened for the Complete film version but not rearranged . Reunion Tracks appeared on the Oricon charts for a single week at position # 108 .
= = Promotion and release = =
Advent Children and the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII series were first announced at the 2003 Tokyo Game Show in September 2003 . The movie was announced as a direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film . The first trailer for the movie was featured in the international version of the video game Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , released in February 2004 . The trailer used a motion capture that was altered in the final film . Advent Children was initially scheduled for a September 13 , 2005 release in North America and a September 14 , 2005 release in Japan , but the North American release date was pushed back several times . It was first moved to November 2005 , then to January 2006 , and finally scheduled for April 25 , 2006 for release on DVD and Universal Media Discs for the PlayStation Portable .
Prior to the film 's release in Japan , Panasonic produced a cell phone identical to the one Cloud uses in the film ; the phone contained several features related to Advent Children such as wallpapers and ringtones . Alongside the film 's release , Shueisha published a 118 @-@ page book about the film 's story titled Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Prologue Book . In 2006 , SoftBank Creative published a guidebook entitled Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Reunion Files , which contains interviews with the film 's staff and information regarding development of the film .
A limited edition of the film titled Final Fantasy VII Advent Pieces was released in Japan at the same time as Advent Children ; only 77 @,@ 777 sets were produced . The edition contains various pieces of merchandising , a copy of the script , the original Final Fantasy VII game , a strategy guidebook for the game , and a disc containing the original video animation ( OVA ) Last Order : Final Fantasy VII . Nomura stated that meaning of the name Advent Pieces was that " advent " means " the recognition and commemoration of something " , while " pieces " was added in order to bring special meaning to the release . A special one @-@ time @-@ only theatrical screening of the English version of the film took place on April 3 , 2006 , at the Arclight Theatre in Los Angeles . The event was promoted via email to those who subscribed to the Square Enix mailing list . The screening included trailers of the video games Kingdom Hearts II and Dirge of Cerberus , and featured appearances from the English language cast and the Japanese developers .
The DVD release of the film is a 2 @-@ disc set that contains several bonus features , including Last Order . Sony later announced Final Fantasy VII Advent Children ( Limited Edition Collector 's Set ) for release in North America on February 20 , 2007 . The set included more bonus material than the previous DVD releases , including a copy of the script , several postcards with imagery from the film , and the first three stories from the On the Way to a Smile short story series .
= = = Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children Complete = = =
At the 2006 Tokyo Game Show , Square Enix showed a trailer of a director 's cut of the film , entitled Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete , for release on the Blu @-@ ray format sometime in 2007 . No more specific release date was announced until the 2008 Square Enix DKΣ3713 Party , where a release date for Advent Children Complete in Japan was given as March 2009 . The new edition of the film was released in Japan on April 16 , 2009 . A separate version was sold that included a demo of Final Fantasy XIII . Both editions included the first HD trailers of Final Fantasy Versus XIII and Final Fantasy Agito XIII , though a third edition without the extra videos or demos was also released . On April 11 and 12 , 2009 , days before Advent Children Complete 's release , Square Enix held four special screenings of Advent Children Complete at the Ginza Sony Building in Tokyo . There were 800 seats , available to those who reserved the Blu @-@ ray or the PlayStation 3 bundle at the Square Enix e @-@ store , and were members of Square Enix 's online website .
Advent Children Complete has a higher visual quality than the original release , is 25 minutes longer than the original cut of the film , and also contains roughly one thousand revised scenes . Themes expanded in Advent Children Complete include Cloud 's development , Denzel 's background , and a more in @-@ depth view of the Turks and Rufus Shinra . The film 's staff wanted to add links to the other titles in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII that had been released since the original film . There is more violence in this version , specifically more blood during the fights , as the staff wanted to bring a " dirtier " look to the film , with characters ' faces and clothes getting darker and dirtier throughout the battles . Additionally , the fight between Cloud and Sephiroth was expanded by several minutes , and includes a scene in which Sephiroth impales Cloud on his sword and holds him in the air , mirroring the scene in the game where he performs the same action .
Advent Children Complete was released in North America on June 2 , 2009 , and in Europe on July 27 , 2009 . The North American and European versions come with a new trailer for Final Fantasy XIII rather than a demo . The releases in all regions also feature an animated piece entitled " On the Way to a Smile - Episode : Denzel " , as well as the story digests " Reminiscence of Final Fantasy VII " and " Reminiscence of Final Fantasy VII Compilation " . The Japanese and English voice actors had to return to record additional dialogue for the new and expanded scenes . Nomura stated there were no major problems with this process , noting that Sakurai and Morikawa were already used to their characters from voicing them in other media . However , some of the child characters , most notably Denzel and Marlene , had to be recast and have all their lines re @-@ recorded , as the original performers ' voices now sounded too old in both languages . Nomura has stated that while Advent Children Complete did not represent the end of Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , as the staff still had more ideas , it marked " the end of the Advent Children saga " as there would be no more re @-@ releases or extended versions .
= = Tie @-@ ins = =
= = = Last Order : Final Fantasy VII = = =
Last Order : Final Fantasy VII is an original video animation directed by Morio Asaka , written by Kazuhiko Inukai , and animated by Madhouse . It depicts an alternate rendition of two flashbacks found within Final Fantasy VII . It was originally released in Japan on the Advent Pieces DVD , on September 14 , 2005 . It was released in North America in the Limited Edition Collector 's Set on February 20 , 2007 . Thus far , it has not been released on any DVD editions of the film outside Japan or North America . There is currently no English dub for the film , and the North America version is subtitled .
= = = On the Way to a Smile = = =
On the Way to a Smile is a series of short stories that take place between the time of Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VII Advent Children . Written by Kazushige Nojima , the first story , " Case of Denzel " , was released in episodic form on the official Japanese Advent Children website . " Case of Denzel " is told indirectly from the perspective of Denzel , who has requested an interview with Reeve Tuesti in the hopes that he may become part of Reeve 's newly formed World Regenesis Organization , an army devoted to rebuilding the planet . Denzel tells his life story , including how he became an orphan , the events leading up to his becoming afflicted with Geostigma , and how he came under the care of Tifa and Cloud . " Case of Denzel " was adapted into On the Way to a Smile - Episode : Denzel , a short OVA that was released with Advent Children Complete .
The second short story , " Case of Tifa " , is Tifa 's account of the events following Meteor 's destruction and her life with Cloud , overlapping in part with Denzel 's story . A third On the Way to a Smile story , " Case of Barrett " , involves Barret and his struggles to try to find a new energy source for the people of the world . To coincide with the release of Advent Children Complete in 2009 , four more stories were written : " Case of Yuffie " , " Case of Red XIII " , " Case of Shinra " , and " Case of Lifestream - Black & White " . All the stories were released together as a book titled On the Way to a Smile at the same time that Advent Children Complete was released .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
The DVD releases of Advent Children sold over 410 @,@ 000 copies in Japan during their first week on sale , with roughly half of the sales coming from the limited edition . The DVD and UMD releases combined sold over 700 @,@ 000 units in Japan in the first three weeks , and over one million copies by January 2006 . In a 2005 Oricon Japanese sales report , the regular edition of the DVD ranked twelfth on the best seller list in Japan for the entire year after one week of sales , and the limited edition ranked fifteenth . The two editions ranked third and fourth on the animated feature sublist . The English language DVD sold over 960 @,@ 000 units , which translated to almost $ 15 million in revenue , by the fifth week of release . The DVD ranked a " surprise " # 2 during its first week on the American Nielsen VideoScan sales charts after being released in North America . Nielsen 's " Top Selling Anime Releases of 2006 " report had Advent Children ranked first , and the 2006 report by the Japan External Trade Organization also ranked the film as the best @-@ selling Japanese anime DVD in the United States . In the 2007 list , the DVD was at the tenth spot . In June 2006 , Square Enix and Sony announced that the DVD and UMD releases combined had sold over 2 @.@ 4 million units worldwide , with 1 million units sold in Japan , 1 @.@ 3 million in North America , and 100 @,@ 000 in Europe . By May 2009 , just prior to the release of Advent Children Complete , the film had sold over 4 @.@ 1 million copies across all versions .
On its first day of release , over 100 @,@ 000 Blu @-@ ray copies of Advent Children Complete were sold in Japan across all three versions . During its initial week , the Blu @-@ ray was # 2 on the American Nielsen VideoScan Blu @-@ ray bestseller list , with 274 @,@ 774 units sold . During 2009 , the regular version of Advent Children Complete sold 49 @,@ 000 units in Japan according to Oricon , ranking second in their category " Animation / Special Effects Blu @-@ ray Discs " . It ranked eighth in the category " Overall Blu @-@ ray Discs , by Yen " with 310 million yen ( US $ 3 @.@ 4 million ) sold in 2009 . Gaming sites Gamasutra and Kotaku cited Advent Children Complete as one of the main reasons why sales of the PlayStation 3 video game console radically increased during the film 's first week of release .
= = = Critical response = = =
Advent Children has received mixed reviews . The computer @-@ animated graphics were generally praised ; 1UP.com 's James Mielke , who awarded the film an " A- " , said the quality and clarity of the CG visuals was " genuinely amazing " . Anime News Network writer Carlo Santos praised the animation while awarding the film a " B " , calling it " outstanding " , and About.com 's Roger Altizer , while giving the film overall 2 and a half stars out of 5 , cited the visuals as one of its few positive points . The film 's plot was generally criticized as confusing ; Leslie Felperin of Variety , in a sharply negative review , described the plot as " soulless " and " utterly impenetrable " to anyone who had not played the game , and Anime News Network 's Santos agreed that people who had not played Final Fantasy VII would not understand the story . Mania Entertainment 's John Eriani also found the plot confusing to non @-@ players , though they liked how the characters were further explored in the film . Todd Douglass Jr. from DVD Talk , while " highly recommending " the film , praised Cloud 's character development in particular . About.com 's Altizer summarized the plot and dialogue as " weak " , and IGN 's Chris Carle , in their 9 out of 10 review , felt that the plot was just as excuse to get to the next action sequence . The story digest " Reminiscence of Final Fantasy VII " , included with the DVD to explain the plot of Final Fantasy VII , was described by Anime News Network 's Santos as " just as confusing as the movie " , and of no help in explaining the plot to anyone who had not already played the game , though Carle of IGN felt it was helpful to those who had not played the game in a while .
The action scenes were generally praised . RPGamer 's Michael Beckett , while giving the film a 4 out of 5 , lauded the film 's fighting scenes , calling them " mesmerizing " and the primary focus of the movie . Anime News Network 's Santos also heavily praised the action sequences , and Felperin of Variety felt they were the only point to the movie , which they felt focused entirely on the technical aspects of the action . The music received mixed reviews ; Eriani of Mania Entertainment heavily praised it , as did Santos of Anime News Network , but 1UP.com 's Mielke called it " a bit sappy " . Douglass Jr. from DVD Talk concluded that Advent Children " is pretty much the film that fans all over the world have been waiting for " , RPGamer 's Beckett said that " the film feels very much like a love letter to the fans of Final Fantasy VII " , and IGN 's Carle summed up the film as " glorious , beautiful , well @-@ executed fan service . "
The director 's cut , Advent Children Complete , was generally praised over the original version . Joystiq 's Andrew Yoon found Advent Children Complete a better film , feeling it was more accessible to people who had not played Final Fantasy VII . Blu @-@ ray.com 's Dustin Somner called it " a nice improvement on an entertaining film " , and DVD Talk 's Todd Douglass Jr. said it was " the best version of the film " due to its audio quality , the new scenes , and the expansion of Cloud 's battle against Sephiroth . Douglass also found the addition of On the Way to a Smile - Episode : Denzel to be a welcome edition , though he felt that the bonus features as a whole were underwhelming , belying the " Complete " title . Yoon of Joystiq felt that the new scenes helped give more depth to Cloud 's development , to the point of " humanizing " him , though he felt the change in pacing for some scenes made the plot hard to follow . Kotaku writer AJ Glasser , however , summed up the director 's cut as " 26 extra minutes and it still doesn 't make any sense " , saying that the new scenes did little to improve the plot of the film itself .
= = = Legacy = = =
Advent Children received the Honorary Maria Award at the Sitges Film Festival on October 15 , 2005 . The film was also awarded " best anime feature " at the 2007 American Anime Awards . IGN placed it second in their " Top 10 Straight @-@ to @-@ DVD Animated Movies " list . In 2007 , the music video for the song " 유혹의 소나타 " ( " Sonata of Temptation " ) by Korean singer Ivy recreated the fight between Tifa and Loz . The director of the video stated that it was just a parody of the film but was unable to get in contact with Square Enix to get official permission . The video was subsequently banned from airing on Korean television after a copyright lawsuit by Square Enix . OverClocked ReMix 's four disc Final Fantasy VII unofficial tribute album , Voices of the Lifestream , contains one disc remixing music from the film . Final Fantasy XIII director Motomu Toriyama has stated that he felt the film showed " battles that have not been achievable in FF so far " , and so tried to design the battle system for Final Fantasy XIII to create cinematic battles like the film 's . In addition , Cloud 's outfit from the movie was added to Super Smash Bros for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U in December 2015 .
= Ontario Highway 73 =
King 's Highway 73 , commonly referred to as Highway 73 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The route began in Port Bruce and progressed north through Aylmer , encountering Highway 401 immediately before terminating east of Dorchester . The route was established in mid @-@ 1937 , remaining unchanged for nearly six decades before being transferred to Elgin County and Middlesex County in 1997 and 1998 . Today the route is known as Elgin County Road 73 and Middlesex County Road 73 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 73 began near the Lake Erie shoreline in Port Bruce , at Colin Street . From there it crossed Catfish Creek and veered east to Copenhagen , where it turned northward . The route progressed north through Elgin County , serving the communities of Candyville and Dunboyne en route to the town of Aylmer , where it intersected Highway 3 . From there it continued north through Little Aylmer and Lyons before crossing into Middlesex County .
Within Middlesex County , the highway served the communities of Harrietsville and Mossley , crossing a Canadian Pacific rail line immediately south of the latter . It encountered an interchange with Highway 401 ( Exit 203 ) southwest of Dorchester , ending soon thereafter at an intersection with Middlesex County Road 29 .
= = History = =
The Port Bruce to Dorchester Road was assumed by the Department of Highways on August 25 , 1937 . Initially only the portion of the route within Aylmer was paved . However , by 1942 the highway had been paved north to the Springfield cutoff ( now Ron McNeil Line ) . Between 1949 and 1952 , the section south of Aylmer to Port Bruce was paved . The remainder was paved by 1953 .
The routing of the highway remained unchanged for nearly sixty years . However , it was decommissioned entirely during the 1997 and 1998 highway transfers . On April 1 , 1997 , the highway south of Aylmer was transferred to the jurisdiction of Elgin County , and the highway north of the Highway 401 interchange was transferred to Middlesex County . Eight months later , on January 1 , 1998 , the remainder of the highway was transferred to the two counties .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 73 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Expedition to the Barrier Peaks =
Expedition to the Barrier Peaks is a 1980 adventure module for the Dungeons & Dragons roleplaying game written by Gary Gygax . While Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) is typically a fantasy game , the adventure includes elements of science fiction , and thus belongs to the science fantasy genre . It takes place on a downed spaceship ; the ship 's crew has died of an unspecified disease , but functioning robots and strange creatures still inhabit the ship . The player characters fight monsters and robots , and gather the futuristic weapons and colored access cards that are necessary for advancing the story .
Expedition to the Barrier Peaks was first played at the Origins II convention in 1976 , where it was used to introduce Dungeons & Dragons players to the science fiction game Metamorphosis Alpha . In 1980 , TSR published the adventure , updated for first edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules . The adventure was not updated for later rules systems , but a Wizards.com article did provide a conversion to Future Tech . It included a separate booklet of illustrations , in both color and black and white . The adventure is an old @-@ time favorite of many Dungeons & Dragons fans , including Stephen Colbert . It was ranked the fifth @-@ best Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 , and received positive reviews from White Dwarf and The Space Gamer magazines . The other adventures in the S series include S1 Tomb of Horrors , S2 White Plume Mountain , and S4 Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth .
= = Plot summary = =
Expedition to the Barrier Peaks takes place on a spaceship in the Barrier Peaks mountain range of the World of Greyhawk campaign setting . In the adventure 's introduction , it is explained that the Grand Duchy of Geoff is under constant attack by a succession of monsters that have been emerging from a cave in the mountains . The Grand Duke of Geoff has hired the characters to discover the origin of the creatures , and stop their incursions .
The cave is actually an entrance to a downed spacecraft whose inhabitants have succumbed to a virus , leaving them dead . Many of the ship 's robots are still functioning , however , and the players must either avoid or defeat them ; some may also be ignored . As later seen in video games , " plot coupons " need to be collected . The adventure requires the players to gather colored access cards ( the " coupons " ) to advance to the next story arc : entering restricted areas , commanding robots , and other actions are all dependent on the cards . Expedition to the Barrier Peaks comes with a booklet of 63 numbered illustrations , depicting the various monsters , high tech devices , and situations encountered in the adventure . Much of the artwork for the adventure , including the cover , was produced by Erol Otus . Several of his contributions were printed in full color . Jeff Dee , Greg K. Fleming , David S. LaForce , Jim Roslof and David C. Sutherland III provided additional illustrations for the adventure .
Expedition to the Barrier Peaks 's 32 @-@ page adventure guide is divided into six sections . These describe the crew 's quarters , the lounge area , the gardens and menagerie , and the activity deck . Along the way , the characters find colored access cards and futuristic devices such as blaster rifles and suits of powered armor that they can use to aid their journey . The first two sections involve various monsters , vegepygmys — short humanoid plant creatures — who have commandeered the crew 's quarters , and a repair robot that follows instructions before its batteries run out . There is also a medical robot trying in vain to find a cure for the virus that killed the ship 's crew . In the lounge area , a " Dining Servo Robot " still works , although the " food " it serves is now moldy poison .
The gardens and menagerie area includes an encounter with a " cute little bunnyoid on the stump " . It looks like a horned rabbit on a tree stump , but when approached , the stump develops fangs and its roots become tentacles , which it then uses to attack the characters . The next encounter involves a froghemoth , a large alien frog @-@ like creature with tentacles and three eyes on an eyestalk . In the sixth and final section , the activity deck , the players ' characters must contend with various sports robots , including a " boxing and wrestling trainer " and a " karate master " . If the characters can communicate with the karate master and tell it that boxing is superior to karate , it will attack the boxing robot until both are destroyed , else they will both attack the characters . The last area of the activity deck is the loading area , where the characters can leave the spaceship . The adventure then ends , with no postscript .
= = Publication history = =
While D & D is a fantasy roleplaying game , Expedition to the Barrier Peaks introduces science fiction elements into the game . Work on the adventure began in 1976 , when TSR was considering publishing a science fantasy role playing game . James M. Ward had shown them his rough notes on Metamorphosis Alpha . Gary Gygax thought it would be a good idea to introduce science fiction / science fantasy concepts to D & D players through the use of a tournament scenario at the 1976 Origins II gaming convention in Baltimore , Maryland . Gygax started with his old Greyhawk Castle campaign material and added a spaceship , which Rob Kuntz helped him populate with monsters . Kuntz is further credited for " inspiration " for the module ; his " Machine Level " having been incorporated into Greyhawk Castle and Tim Kask having played in a D & D game with science fantasy content run by Kuntz at GenCon VII in 1974 .
According to Gygax , both the scenario that became Expedition to the Barrier Peaks and Metamorphosis Alpha were successful at the convention . Although Metamorphosis Alpha became available to the general public in mid @-@ 1976 , only a few copies of the Expedition to the Barrier Peaks tournament adventure survived after the convention .
When Metamorphosis Alpha was updated and expanded into Gamma World , it seemed the right time for Gygax to reintroduce Expedition to the Barrier Peaks to the public . Said Gygax , " What could be more logical than to make available a scenario which blends the two role playing approaches into a single form ? " Gygax updated the scenario to Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) rules , hoping it could serve as a primer on how to integrate science into one 's fantasy role playing game . In 1980 , the updated version was published as Expedition to the Barrier Peaks . At the time of Expedition to the Barrier Peaks 's release , each Dungeons & Dragons module was marked with an alphanumeric code indicating the series to which it belonged . The 32 @-@ page adventure bears the code S3 ( " S " for " special " ) . The module included a 36 @-@ page book and a 32 @-@ page book , with two outer folders ; it was one of the first deluxe scenario modules , and included a book of illustrations intended to be shown to the players during the game , including four color paintings . This module was included as part of the Realms of Horror abridged compilation produced in 1987 . Although an article on the Wizards.com web site did provide a conversion to Future Tech , the adventure never received an official sequel and was not updated for the D & D version 3 @.@ 5 rules ( Wizards of the Coast periodically alters the rules of Dungeons & Dragons and releases a new version ) . It was made into a novel of the same name by Roland J. Green for the Greyhawk Classics series . The adventure has also been referenced in the Nodwick comic series . Unlike the other S series adventures , Expedition to the Barrier Peaks was not included in the Dungeon Survival Guide by author Bill Slavicsek because to him it was a " wonderful adventure " , but not " a D & D adventure . Once you add ray guns and power armor to the game , you have a fundamentally different experience . " Other products that have introduced futuristic elements into D & D include the adventure City of the Gods ( 1987 ) and the novel Tale of the Comet ( 1997 ) .
All four modules of the S @-@ series were included as part of the Dungeons of Dread hardcover collection , released on March 19 , 2013 . Lawrence Schick wrote in the foreword : " Vegepygmies and robots . What more could you need to hear ? Let ’ s go ! S3 Expedition to the Barrier Peaks was Gary in full @-@ on funhouse mode , having a high old time mixing elements of Jim Ward 's Gamma World with fantasy to create a rollicking and memorable AD & D adventure . "
= = Reception = =
Expedition to the Barrier Peaks received favorable reviews and was ranked the 5th greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 , on the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game . Judge Bill Slavicsek felt the adventure was a " classic clash of genres " . It was not something he felt should be done often , but it made a " memorable diversion " . Judge Mike Mearls described how he felt the first time he read Expedition to the Barrier Peaks . " I had this terrible , terrible conflict within myself to immediately tell my friends about it at war with a maniacal , desperate drive to keep it hidden at all costs . " Judge Keith Baker was most impressed with the adventure 's art . He liked that it came with a separate book of art ; in particular the before and after illustrations of the carnivorous plant with a " built @-@ in bunny lure " . This was later featured in a Wizards.com " Ask Wizards " segment . According to the Dungeon editors , the adventure 's defining moment was its froghemoth creature , and its full page color illustration .
Two gaming magazines reviewed Expedition to the Barrier Peaks in 1981 . Reviewer Marcus L. Rowland said in White Dwarf # 26 that he found the adventure " very enjoyable , with ideas and creatures eminently suitable for wider use " . He gave it 9 / 10 overall , but complained that some of the maps were printed on both sides of the same sheet , making them useless as a Dungeon Master 's shield ( a visual barrier that allows dice rolls and other activities to be conducted without the players knowing the outcome ) . He recommended at least a week 's study by the Dungeon Master before attempting to play it . He also notes that the cover " reveals the secret of the creatures " . Kirby Griffis reviewed the adventure in The Space Gamer # 36 . Griffis noted that it is full of " surprises and new monsters " , and felt that its one drawback was that Gygax presented standard D & D monsters as natives of other planets . In summary , he found it interesting and " full of spice and flavor " ; recommending it to anyone interested in " something new " or wanting to include science fiction in their D & D game .
According to Creighton Broadhurst , author of Exemplars of Evil : Deadly Foes to Vex Your Heroes , the adventure is one of the most popular " old time " Greyhawk adventures . Game designer Daniel Kaufman remembers " the famous backward @-@ firing guns " as one of the adventure 's highlights , and Stephen Colbert , who played Dungeons & Dragons as a child , chose this adventure as his personal favorite .
= Backlash ( 2004 ) =
Backlash ( 2004 ) was the sixth annual Backlash professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by Square Enix 's Drakengard . It took place on April 18 , 2004 at the Rexall Place in Edmonton , Alberta and was a Raw brand @-@ exclusive event . This was the first Backlash event held outside the United States .
The main event was a Triple Threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship involving reigning champion Chris Benoit , Triple H , and Shawn Michaels , which Benoit won after forcing Michaels to submit to the sharpshooter . One of the predominant matches on the card was Randy Orton versus Cactus Jack in a Hardcore match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship . Orton won the match and retained the title after pinning Cactus following an RKO . Another primary match on the undercard was Edge versus Kane , which Edge won by pinfall after executing a spear .
= = Background = =
The main feud heading into Backlash was between Chris Benoit , Triple H , and Shawn Michaels over the World Heavyweight Championship . Chris Benoit won the title one month prior at WrestleMania XX when he defeated Michaels and then @-@ champion Triple H in a Triple Threat match . Benoit won the match by forcing Triple H to submit to the Crippler Crossface . The following night on Raw , Benoit and Michaels defeated Evolution ( Randy Orton , Ric Flair , and Batista ) in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 2 Handicap tag team match . Benoit and Michaels won the match after Benoit forced Batista to submit to the Sharpshooter . On March 22 , Triple H was drafted over to the SmackDown ! brand , and Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff announced that Michaels would receive a World title match against Benoit at Backlash . Four days later on the March 25 episode of SmackDown ! , SmackDown ! General Manager Kurt Angle announced that Triple H had been traded back to Raw in exchange for The Dudley Boyz and Booker T. The next week on Raw , Bischoff made the one @-@ on @-@ one World Heavyweight Championship match between champion Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels , a Triple Threat match also involving Triple H.
The other main match on the card was a Hardcore match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship between Randy Orton and Cactus Jack . Three months prior at the Royal Rumble , after Mick Foley eliminated Orton from the Royal Rumble match , Orton hit Foley with a steel chair , and the two brawled up the ramp and into the back . In March at WrestleMania XX , Evolution ( Orton , Batista , and Ric Flair ) faced off against The Rock ' n ' Sock Connection ( Foley and The Rock ) in a Handicap match . Evolution won the match when Orton pinned Foley after an RKO . Two weeks later , Foley challenged Orton to a Hardcore match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship at Backlash , which Orton accepted that same night .
Another feud heading into the event was between Chris Jericho and Christian and Trish Stratus . At WrestleMania XX , Christian defeated Jericho . After the match , Stratus , Jericho 's on @-@ screen girlfriend at the time , turned on Jericho and joined Christian . On April 5 , Christian announced that he would be teaming up with Stratus to take on Jericho in a Handicap match at Backlash .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Val Venis defeated Matt Hardy in a match taped for Sunday Night Heat . The first match that aired was between Shelton Benjamin and Ric Flair . After back and forth action between the two , Flair attempted to use brass knuckles on Benjamin , though Benjamin splashed Flair from behind . Benjamin then performed a clothesline on Flair off the top rope to get the pin on Flair . Next was a match between Jonathan Coachman and Tajiri . During the match , Garrison Cade interfered on Coachman 's behalf , allowing Coachman to roll @-@ up on Tajiri for the win .
The third match of the event was Chris Jericho versus Christian and Trish Stratus in a Handicap match . Jericho won the match by pinning Christian after throwing him onto Stratus followed by executing an enziguiri kick . The match that followed was for the WWE Women 's Championship between Victoria and Lita . The match was evenly controlled by both Victoria and Lita . The match ended when Victoria pinned Lita with an Inside Cradle . After the match , Molly Holly and Gail Kim attacked both Lita and Victoria .
Next was a Hardcore match between Randy Orton and Cactus Jack for the WWE Intercontinental Championship . One spot in the match saw Cactus lie a barbed wire baseball bat between Orton 's legs and perform a leg drop . Cactus continued to use the bat , as he poured gasoline on it and tried to light it on fire . Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff , however , interrupted and informed Cactus that he would be disqualified and the event would end if he lit the bat on fire . Towards the end of the match , Orton managed to execute an RKO on Cactus onto the barbed wire baseball bat . Orton pinned Cactus afterwards to win the match and retain the WWE Intercontinental Championship .
The sixth match was a tag team match in which The Hurricane and Rosey defeated La Résistance ( Robért Conway and Sylvain Grenier ) . After a back and forth match , Hurricane pinned Conway after an Eye of the Hurricane . The match that followed was between Edge and Kane . The match was controlled by Kane , as he focused on Edge 's injured left hand . Edge , however , reversed attacks from Kane , whom he then attempted to spear . Kane was able to dodge the spear , which in turn caused Edge to spear the referee . Edge used his cast to knock Kane out and followed by performing a spear . Edge pinned Kane afterwards for the win .
The main event was a Triple Threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship between Chris Benoit , Shawn Michaels and Triple H. One spot in the match saw Michaels miss a flying bodypress and saw him crash into the Spanish Announcing team 's table . Another included , Triple H assaulting Michaels with a sledgehammer . The last moments in the match saw Michaels submit to the sharpshooter which was applied by Benoit . As a result of the win , Benoit retained the World title .
= = Aftermath = =
On April 19 on Raw , General Manager Eric Bischoff scheduled a World Heavyweight Championship match between Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels for the May 3 episode of Raw . On the same night , an impromptu team of Benoit and Edge defeated Evolution ( Ric Flair and Batista ) for the World Tag Team Championship , making Benoit a double champion . Two weeks later on Raw , Benoit retained the World Heavyweight title in a scheduled match against Shawn Michaels , after interference by Triple H. On May 10 , a match between Shelton Benjamin and Triple H , resulted in Michaels attacking Triple H. Michaels actions resulted in a suspension from Eric Bischoff . Prior to Raw that night , Bischoff informed Triple H that he would face Benoit for the World title the following week on Raw . The following week , Benoit defeated Triple H to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . Also that night , a Battle Royal took place , in which the winner would go on to face Benoit at Bad Blood for the World title . During the match , Triple H , one of the participants in the match , was eliminated by Michaels , who was not a participant in the match .
On the May 24 episode of Raw , Bischoff lifted Michaels suspension , after Triple H pleaded that Michaels be reinstated . On the same night , Michaels confronted Bischoff wanting to know if he was scheduled in a match with Triple H at Bad Blood . Bischoff assured Michaels , but Triple H attacked Michaels from behind , after Michaels attacked Triple H outside the arena 's parking lot . Bischoff gave orders to Raw superstars to attack Triple H and Michaels , if seen fighting . The roster tried breaking the fight up , but were unsuccessful in doing so . The result of the fight gave Bischoff the authority to schedule a Hell in a Cell match between Triple H and Michaels at Bad Blood . At Bad Blood , Triple H defeated Michaels by pinfall after executing two Pedigrees .
Following Backlash , Lita and Kane were put in angle , which involved Matt Hardy . It saw Hardy attack Kane to an attempt to prevent Kane from harming Lita . In the following weeks on Raw , Kane began repeatedly assaulting Hardy and attempting to seduce Lita . One incident saw Kane kayfabe kidnap Lita and hold her tied up backstage , where he supposedly asked her a " question . " Later that night , Kane won a number one contenders Battle Royal match , in which he received a title shot at Bad Blood . At Bad Blood , Benoit was successful in defending the World Heavyweight title , after he pinned Kane with a roll @-@ up .
During a match between Christian and Chris Jericho , Christian defeated Jericho after interference by Tyson Tomko ; Tomko was revealed to be the " problem solver " for Christian and Trish Stratus . The following weeks on Raw , Tomko assaulted Jericho , until May 10 , when Jericho defeated Christian in a Steel Cage match when he made Christian submit to the Walls of Jericho . As a result of the Steel Cage match , Christian suffered a legitimate back injury . After defeating Randy Orton and Batista in a tag team match , Tomko attacked Jericho , in which he powerbombed Jericho through the announcers table . On the June 7 episode of Raw , Bischoff booked a match at Bad Blood between Tomko and Jericho . At Bad Blood , Jericho pinned Tomko , after an Enzuigiri .
= = Results = =
= Spinosaurus =
Spinosaurus ( meaning " spine lizard " ) is a genus of theropod dinosaur that lived in what now is North Africa , during the lower Albian to lower Cenomanian stages of the Cretaceous period , about 112 to 97 million years ago . This genus was known first from Egyptian remains discovered in 1912 and described by German paleontologist Ernst Stromer in 1915 . The original remains were destroyed in World War II , but additional material has come to light in recent years . It is unclear whether one or two species are represented in the fossils reported in the scientific literature . The best known species is S. aegyptiacus from Egypt , although a potential second species , S. maroccanus , has been recovered from Morocco .
Spinosaurus was among the largest of all known carnivorous dinosaurs , possibly larger than Tyrannosaurus and Giganotosaurus . Estimates published in 2005 , 2007 , and 2008 suggested that it was between 12 @.@ 6 – 18 metres ( 41 – 59 ft ) in length and 7 to 20 @.@ 9 tonnes ( 7 @.@ 7 to 23 @.@ 0 short tons ) in weight . A new estimate published in 2014 and based on a more complete specimen , supported the earlier research , finding that Spinosaurus could reach lengths greater than 15 m ( 49 ft ) . The skull of Spinosaurus was long and narrow , similar to that of a modern crocodilian . Spinosaurus is known to have eaten fish , and most scientists believe that it hunted both terrestrial and aquatic prey ; evidence suggests that it lived both on land and in water as a modern crocodilian does . The distinctive spines of Spinosaurus , which were long extensions of the vertebrae , grew to at least 1 @.@ 65 meters ( 5 @.@ 4 ft ) long and were likely to have had skin connecting them , forming a sail @-@ like structure , although some authors have suggested that the spines were covered in fat and formed a hump . Multiple functions have been put forward for this structure , including thermoregulation and display .
= = Description = =
Since its discovery , Spinosaurus has been a contender for the longest and largest theropod dinosaur . Both Friedrich von Huene in 1926 and Donald F. Glut in 1982 listed it as among the most massive theropods in their surveys , at 15 meters ( 49 ft ) in length and upwards of 6 t ( 5 @.@ 9 long tons ; 6 @.@ 6 short tons ) in weight . In 1988 , Gregory Paul also listed it as the longest theropod at 15 meters ( 49 ft ) , but gave a lower mass estimate of 4 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 9 long tons ; 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) .
Dal Sasso et al . ( 2005 ) assumed that Spinosaurus and Suchomimus had the same body proportions in relation to their skull lengths , and thereby calculated that Spinosaurus was 16 to 18 meters ( 52 to 59 ft ) in length and 7 to 9 tonnes ( 6 @.@ 9 to 8 @.@ 9 long tons ; 7 @.@ 7 to 9 @.@ 9 short tons ) in weight . The Dal Sasso et al. estimates were criticized because the skull length estimate was uncertain , and ( assuming that body mass increases as the cube of body length ) scaling Suchomimus which was 11 meters ( 36 ft ) long and 3 @.@ 8 tonnes ( 4 @.@ 2 short tons ) in mass to the range of estimated lengths of Spinosaurus would produce an estimated body mass of 11 @.@ 7 to 16 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 12 @.@ 9 to 18 @.@ 4 short tons ) .
François Therrien and Donald Henderson , in a 2007 paper using scaling based on skull length , challenged previous estimates of the size of Spinosaurus , finding the length too great and the weight too small . Based on estimated skull lengths of 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 75 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 7 ft ) , their estimates include a body length of 12 @.@ 6 to 14 @.@ 3 meters ( 41 to 47 ft ) and a body mass of 12 to 20 @.@ 9 tonnes ( 11 @.@ 8 to 20 @.@ 6 long tons ; 13 @.@ 2 to 23 @.@ 0 short tons ) . The lower estimates for Spinosaurus would imply that the animal was shorter and lighter than Carcharodontosaurus and Giganotosaurus . The Therrien and Henderson study has been criticized for the choice of theropods used for comparison ( e.g. , most of the theropods used to set the initial equations were tyrannosaurids and carnosaurs , which have a different build than spinosaurids ) , and for the assumption that the Spinosaurus skull could be as little as 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in length . Improvement of the precision of size estimates for Spinosaurus requires the discovery of more complete remains as available for some other dinosaurs , especially the limb bones of Spinosaurus which are " hitherto unknown " .
= = = Neural spines = = =
Very tall neural spines growing on the back vertebrae of Spinosaurus formed the basis of what is usually called the animal 's " sail " . The lengths of the neural spines reached over 10 times the diameters of the vertebral bodies from which they extended . The neural spines were slightly longer front to back at the base than higher up , and were unlike the thin rods seen in the pelycosaur finbacks Edaphosaurus and Dimetrodon , contrasting also with the thicker spines in the iguanodontian Ouranosaurus .
Spinosaurus sails were unusual , although other dinosaurs , namely the ornithopod Ouranosaurus , which lived a few million years earlier in the same general region as Spinosaurus , and the South American sauropod Amargasaurus , might have developed similar structural adaptations of their vertebrae . The sail may be an analog of the sail of the Permian synapsid Dimetrodon , which lived before the dinosaurs even appeared , produced by convergent evolution .
The structure may also have been more hump @-@ like than sail @-@ like , as noted by Stromer in 1915 ( " one might rather think of the existence of a large hump of fat [ German : Fettbuckel ] , to which the [ neural spines ] gave internal support " ) and by Jack Bowman Bailey in 1997 . In support of his " buffalo @-@ back " hypothesis , Bailey argued that in Spinosaurus , Ouranosaurus , and other dinosaurs with long neural spines , the spines were relatively shorter and thicker than the spines of pelycosaurs ( which were known to have sails ) ; instead , the dinosaurs ' neural spines were similar to the neural spines of extinct hump @-@ backed mammals such as Megacerops and Bison latifrons .
= = = Skull = = =
The skull had a narrow snout filled with straight conical teeth that lacked serrations . There were six or seven teeth on each side of the very front of the upper jaw , in the premaxillae , and another twelve in both maxillae behind them . The second and third teeth on each side were noticeably larger than the rest of the teeth in the premaxilla , creating a space between them and the large teeth in the anterior maxilla ; large teeth in the lower jaw faced this space . The very tip of the snout holding those few large anterior teeth was expanded , and a small crest was present in front of the eyes . Using the dimensions of three specimens known as MSNM V4047 , UCPC @-@ 2 , and BSP 1912 VIII 19 , and assuming that the postorbital part of the skull of MSNM V4047 had a shape similar to the postorbital part of the skull of Irritator , Dal Sasso et al . ( 2005 ) estimated that the skull of Spinosaurus was 1 @.@ 75 meters ( 5 @.@ 7 ft ) long . The Dal Sasso et al. skull length estimate was questioned because skull shapes can vary across spinosaurid species .
A 2013 made study performed by scientists Andrew R. Cuff and Emily Rayfield showed that Spinosaurids like Spinosaurus had relatively poor resistance in their skulls for torsion compared to other members of this group ( Baryonyx ) and modern alligators , thus showing Spinosaurus preyed more regularly on fish than it did on land animals , although considered predators of the former too .
= = Classification = =
Spinosaurus gives its name to the Spinosauridae family of dinosaurs , which includes two subfamilies : Baryonychinae and Spinosaurinae . The Baryonychinae include Baryonyx from southern England and Suchomimus from Niger in central Africa . The Spinosaurinae include Spinosaurus , Irritator from Brazil , and Angaturama ( which is probably synonymous with Irritator ) from Brazil . The Spinosaurinae share unserrated straight teeth that are widely spaced ( e.g. , 12 on one side of the maxilla ) , as opposed to the Baryonychinae which have serrated curved teeth that are numerous ( e.g. , 30 on one side of the maxilla ) .
The following cladogram shows an analysis of Tetanurae simplified to show only Spinosauridae from Allain et al . ( 2012 ) :
= = Discovery and naming = =
= = = Naming of species = = =
Two species of Spinosaurus have been named : Spinosaurus aegyptiacus ( meaning " Egyptian spine lizard " ) and Spinosaurus maroccanus ( meaning " Moroccan spine lizard " ) .
The first described remains of Spinosaurus were found and described in the early 20th century . In 1912 , Richard Markgraf discovered a partial skeleton of a dinosaur in the Bahariya Formation of western Egypt . In 1915 , German paleontologist Ernst Stromer published an article assigning the specimen to a new genus and species Spinosaurus aegyptiacus .
Fragmentary additional remains from Bahariya , including vertebrae and hindlimb bones , were designated by Stromer as " Spinosaurus B " in 1934 . Stromer considered them different enough to belong to another species , and this has been borne out . With the advantage of more expeditions and material , it appears that they pertain either to Carcharodontosaurus or to Sigilmassasaurus .
S. maroccanus was originally described by Dale Russell in 1996 as a new species based on the length of its neck vertebrae . Specifically , Russell claimed that the ratio of the length of the centrum ( body of vertebra ) to the height of the posterior articular facet was 1 @.@ 1 in S. aegyptiacus and 1 @.@ 5 in S. maroccanus . Later authors have been split on this topic . Some authors note that the length of the vertebrae can vary from individual to individual , that the holotype specimen was destroyed and thus cannot be compared directly with the S. maroccanus specimen , and that it is unknown which cervical vertebrae the S. maroccanus specimens represent . Therefore , though some have retained the species as valid without much comment , most researchers regard S. maroccanus as a nomen dubium or as a junior synonym of S. aegyptiacus .
= = = Specimens = = =
Six main partial specimens of Spinosaurus have been described .
BSP 1912 VIII 19 , described by Stromer in 1915 from the Bahariya Formation , was the holotype . The material consisted of the following items , most of which were incomplete : right and left dentaries and splenials from the lower jaw measuring 75 centimeters ( 30 in ) long ; a straight piece of the left maxilla that was described but not drawn ; 20 teeth ; 2 cervical vertebrae ; 7 dorsal ( trunk ) vertebrae ; 3 sacral vertebrae ; 1 caudal vertebra ; 4 thoracic ribs ; and gastralia . Of the nine neural spines whose heights are given , the longest ( " i , " associated with a dorsal vertebra ) was 1 @.@ 65 meters ( 5 @.@ 4 ft ) in length . Stromer claimed that the specimen was from the early Cenomanian , approximately 97 million years ago .
This specimen was destroyed in World War II , specifically " during the night of 24 / 25 April 1944 in a British bombing raid of Munich " that severely damaged the building housing the Paläontologisches Museum München ( Bavarian State Collection of Paleontology ) . However , detailed drawings and descriptions of the specimen remain . Stromer 's son donated Stromer 's archives to the Paläontologische Staatssammlung München in 1995 , and Smith et al. analyzed two photographs of the Spinosaurus holotype specimen BSP 1912 VIII 19 discovered in the archives in 2000 . On the basis of a photograph of the lower jaw and a photograph of the entire specimen as mounted , Smith concluded that Stromer 's original 1915 drawings were slightly inaccurate . In 2003 , Oliver Rauhut suggested that Stromer 's Spinosaurus holotype was a chimera , composed of vertebrae and neural spines from a carcharodontosaurid similar to Acrocanthosaurus and a dentary from Baryonyx or Suchomimus . This analysis was rejected in at least one subsequent paper .
NMC 50791 , held by the Canadian Museum of Nature , is a mid @-@ cervical vertebra which is 19 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) long from the Kem Kem Beds of Morocco . It is the holotype of Spinosaurus maroccanus as described by Russell in 1996 . Other specimens referred to S. maroccanus in the same paper were two other mid @-@ cervical vertebrae ( NMC 41768 and NMC 50790 ) , an anterior dentary fragment ( NMC 50832 ) , a mid @-@ dentary fragment ( NMC 50833 ) , and an anterior dorsal neural arch ( NMC 50813 ) . Russell stated that " only general locality information could be provided " for the specimen , and therefore it could be dated only " possibly " to the Albian .
MNHN SAM 124 , housed at the Muséum National d 'Histoire Naturelle , is a snout ( consisting of partial premaxillae , partial maxillae , vomers , and a dentary fragment ) . Described by Taquet and Russell in 1998 , the specimen is 13 @.@ 4 to 13 @.@ 6 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 4 in ) in width ; no length was stated . The specimen was located in Algeria , and " is of Albian age . " Taquet and Russell believed that this specimen along with a premaxilla fragment ( SAM 125 ) , two cervical vertebrae ( SAM 126 @-@ 127 ) , and a dorsal neural arch ( SAM 128 ) , belonged to S. maroccanus .
BM231 ( in the collection of the Office National des Mines , Tunis ) was described by Buffetaut and Ouaja in 2002 . It consists of a partial anterior dentary 11 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 53 in ) in length from an early Albian stratum of the Chenini Formation of Tunisia . The dentary fragment , which included four alveoli and two partial teeth , was " extremely similar " to existing material of S. aegyptiacus .
UCPC @-@ 2 in the University of Chicago Paleontological Collection consists mainly of two narrow connected nasals with a " fluted crest " from the region between the eyes . The specimen , which is 18 @.@ 0 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 09 in ) long , was located in an early Cenomanian part of the Moroccan Kem Kem Beds in 1996 and described in the scientific literature in 2005 by Cristiano Dal Sasso of the Civic Natural History Museum in Milan and colleagues .
MSNM V4047 ( in the Museo di Storia Naturale di Milano ) , described by Dal Sasso et al. in 2005 , consists of a snout ( premaxillae , partial maxillae , and partial nasals ) 98 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 38 @.@ 9 in ) long from the Kem Kem Beds . Like UCPC @-@ 2 , it is thought to have come from the early Cenomanian .
FSAC @-@ KK 11888 is a partial subadult skeleton recovered from the Kem Kem beds of North Africa . Described by Ibrahim et al . ( 2014 ) and designated as the neotype specimen ( although Evers et al . 2015 reject the neotype designation for FSAC @-@ KK @-@ 11888 ) . It includes cervical vertebrae , dorsal vertebrae , neural spines , a complete sacrum , femora , tibiae , pedal phalanges , caudal vertebra , several dorsal ribs , and fragments of the skull . The body proportions of this specimen have been debated as the hind limbs are disproportionately shorter in the specimen than in previous reconstructions . However , it has been demonstrated by multiple paleontologists that the specimen is not a chimaera , and is indeed a specimen of Spinosaurus that suggests that the animal had much smaller hind limbs than previously thought Other known specimens consist mainly of very fragmentary remains and scattered teeth . These include :
A 1986 paper described prismatic structures in tooth enamel from two Spinosaurus teeth from Tunisia .
Buffetaut ( 1989 , 1992 ) referred three specimens from the Institut und Museum für Geologie und Paläontologie of the University of Göttingen in Germany to Spinosaurus : a right maxilla fragment IMGP 969 @-@ 1 , a jaw fragment IMGP 969 @-@ 2 , and a tooth IMGP 969 @-@ 3 . These had been found in a Lower Cenomanian or Upper Albian deposit in southeastern Morocco in 1971 .
Kellner and Mader ( 1997 ) described two unserrated spinosaurid teeth from Morocco ( LINHM 001 and 002 ) that were " highly similar " to the teeth of the S. aegyptiacus holotype .
Teeth from the Chenini Formation in Tunisia which are " narrow , somewhat rounded in cross @-@ section , and lack the anterior and posterior serrated edges characteristic of theropods and basal archosaurs " were assigned to Spinosaurus in 2000 .
Teeth from the Echkar Formation of Niger were " tentatively " referred to Spinosaurus in 2007 .
A partial tooth 8 cm long purchased at a fossil trade show , reportedly from the Kem Kem Bed of Morocco and attributed to Spinosaurus maroccanus , showed 1 – 5 mm wide longitudinal striations and micro @-@ structures ( irregular ridges ) among the striations in a 2010 paper .
= = = = Possible specimens = = = =
Possible material belonging to Spinosaurus has been reported from the Turkana Grits of Kenya .
Some scientists have considered the genus Sigilmassasaurus a junior synonym of Spinosaurus . In Ibrahim et al . ( 2014 ) , the specimens of Sigilmassasaurus was referred to Spinosaurus aegyptiacus together with " Spinosaurus B " as the neotype and Spinosaurus maroccanus was considered as a nomen dubium following the conclusions of the other papers . A 2015 re @-@ description of Sigilmassasaurus disputed these conclusions , and considered the genus valid .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Function of neural spines = = =
The function of the dinosaur 's sail or hump is uncertain ; scientists have proposed several hypotheses including heat regulation and display . In addition , such a prominent feature on its back could make it appear even larger than it was , intimidating other animals .
The structure may have been used for thermoregulation . If the structure contained abundant blood vessels , the animal could have used the sail 's large surface area to absorb heat . This would imply that the animal was only partly warm @-@ blooded at best and lived in climates where nighttime temperatures were cool or low and the sky usually not cloudy . It is also possible that the structure was used to radiate excess heat from the body , rather than to collect it . Large animals , due to the relatively small ratio of surface area of their body compared to the overall volume ( Haldane 's principle ) , face far greater problems of dissipating excess heat at higher temperatures than gaining it at lower . Sails of large dinosaurs added considerably to the skin area of their bodies , with minimum increase of volume . Furthermore , if the sail was turned away from the sun , or positioned at a 90 degree angle towards a cooling wind , the animal would quite effectively cool itself in the warm climate of Cretaceous Africa . However , Bailey ( 1997 ) was of the opinion that a sail could have absorbed more heat than it radiated . Bailey proposed instead that Spinosaurus and other dinosaurs with long neural spines had fatty humps on their backs for energy storage , insulation , and shielding from heat .
Elaborate body structures of many modern @-@ day animals usually serve to attract members of the opposite sex during mating . It is quite possible that the sails or humps of these dinosaurs were used for courtship , in a way similar to a peacock 's tail . Stromer speculated that males and females may have differed in the size of the neural spine .
Gimsa et al . ( 2015 ) suggest that the dorsal sail of Spinosaurus was homologous to the dorsal fins of sailfish and served a hydrodynamic purpose . Gimsa and others point out that more basal , long @-@ legged spinosaurids have otherwise round or crescent @-@ shaped dorsal sails , whereas in Spinosaurus , the dorsal neural spines form a shape that is roughly rectangular and similar in shape to the dorsal fins of sailfish . They therefore argue that Spinosaurus used its dorsal neural sail in the same manner as Sailfish , and that it also employed its long narrow tail to stun prey like a modern Thresher shark Sailfish employ their dorsal fins for herding schools of fish into a " bait hall " where they cooperate to trap the fish into a certain area where the sailfish can snatch the fish with their bills . The sail could have possibly reduced yaw rotation by counteracting the lateral force in the direction opposite to the slash as suggested by Gimsa et al . ( 2015 ) . Gimsa and colleagues specifically wrote :
Spinosaurus anatomy exhibits another feature that may have a modern homology : its long tail resembled that of the thresher shark , employed to slap the water to herd and stun shoals of fish before devouring them ( Oliver et al.2013 ) . The strategies that sailfish and thresher sharks employ against shoaling fish are more effective when the shoal is first concentrated into a ‘ bait ball ’ ( Helfman , Collette & Facey , 1997 ; Oliver et al.2013 ; Domenici et al.2014 ) . Since this is difficult for individual predators to achieve , they cooperate in this effort . When herding a shoal of fish or squid , sailfish also raise their sails to make themselves appear larger . When they slash or wipe their bills through shoaling fish by turning their heads , their dorsal sail and fins are outstretched to stabilize their bodies hydrodynamically ( Lauder & Drucker , 2004 ) . Domenici et al . ( 2014 ) postulate that these fin extensions enhance the accuracy of tapping and slashing . The sail can reduce yaw rotation by counteracting the lateral force in the direction opposite to the slash . This means that prey is less likely to recognize the massive trunk as being part of an approaching predator ( Marras et al.2015 ; Webb & Weihs 2015 ) . Film footage available online impressively demonstrates the hunting strategies of sailfish and thresher sharks . Interestingly , Spinosaurus exhibited the anatomical features required to combine all three hunting strategies : a sail for herding prey more efficiently , as well as flexible tail and neck to slap the water for stunning , injuring or killing prey . The submerged dorsal sail would have provided a strong centreboard @-@ like counterforce for powerful sidewards movements of the strong neck and long tail , as performed by sailfish ( Domenici et al.2014 ) or th
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resher sharks ( Oliver et al.2013 ) . While smaller dorsal sails or fins make the dorsal water volume better accessible for slashing , it can be speculated that their smaller stabilization effect makes lateral slashing less efficient ( e.g. for thresher sharks ) . Forming a hydrodynamic fulcrum and hydrodynamically stabilizing the trunk along the dorsoventral axis , Spinosaurus ’ sail would also have compensated for the inertia of the lateral neck by tail movements and vice versa not only for predation but also for accelerated swimming . This behaviour might also have been one reason for Spinosaurus ’ muscular chest and neck reported by Ibrahim et al . ( 2014 ) . " Finally , it is quite possible that the sail or hump combined these functions , acting normally as a heat regulator , becoming a courting aid during the mating season , being used to cool itself and , on occasions , turning into an intimidating device when an animal was feeling threatened .
= = = Diet = = =
It is unclear whether Spinosaurus was primarily a terrestrial predator or a piscivore , as indicated by its elongated jaws , conical teeth and raised nostrils . The hypothesis of spinosaurs as specialized fish eaters has been suggested before by A. J. Charig and A. C. Milner for Baryonyx . They base this on the anatomical similarity with crocodilians and the presence of digestive acid @-@ etched fish scales in the rib cage of the type specimen . Large fish are known from the faunas containing other spinosaurids , including the Mawsonia , in the mid @-@ Cretaceous of northern Africa and Brazil . Direct evidence for spinosaur diet comes from related European and South American taxa . Baryonyx was found with fish scales and bones from juvenile Iguanodon in its stomach , while a tooth embedded in a South American pterosaur bone suggests that spinosaurs occasionally preyed on pterosaurs , but Spinosaurus was likely to have been a generalized and opportunistic predator , possibly a Cretaceous equivalent of large grizzly bears , being biased toward fishing , though it undoubtedly scavenged and took many kinds of small or medium @-@ sized prey . A study by Cuff and Rayfield ( 2013 ) concluded that bio @-@ mechanical data suggests that Spinosaurus was not an obligate piscivore and that its diet was more closely associated with each individual 's size . The characteristic rostral morphology of Spinosaurus allowed its jaws to resist bending in the vertical direction , however its jaws were poorly adapted with respect to resisting lateral bending .
In 2009 , Dal Sasso et al .. reported the results of X @-@ ray computed tomography of the MSNM V4047 snout . As the foramina on the outside all communicated with a space on the inside of the snout , the authors speculated that Spinosaurus had pressure receptors inside the space that allowed it to hold its snout at the surface of the water to detect swimming prey species without seeing them .
A 2010 isotope analysis by Romain Amiot and colleagues found that oxygen isotope ratios of spinosaurid teeth , including teeth of Spinosaurus , indicate semiaquatic lifestyles . Isotope ratios from tooth enamel and from other parts of Spinosaurus ( found in Morocco and Tunisia ) and of other predators from the same area such as Carcharodontosaurus were compared with isotopic compositions from contemporaneous theropods , turtles , and crocodilians . The study found that Spinosaurus teeth from five of six sampled localities had oxygen isotope ratios closer to those of turtles and crocodilians when compared with other theropod teeth from the same localities . The authors postulated that Spinosaurus switched between terrestrial and aquatic habitats to compete for food with large crocodilians and other large theropods respectively .
= = = Posture = = =
Although traditionally depicted as a biped , it has been suggested since the mid @-@ 1970s that Spinosaurus was at least an occasional quadruped . This has been bolstered by the discovery of Baryonyx , a relative with robust arms . Because of the mass of the hypothesized fatty dorsal humps of Spinosaurus , Bailey ( 1997 ) was open to the possibility of a quadrupedal posture , leading to new restorations of it as such . The hypothesis that Spinosaurus had a typical quadrupedal gait has fallen out of favor , though spinosaurids may have crouched in a quadrupedal posture .
Theropods , including spinosaurids , could not pronate their hands ( rotate the forearm so the palm faced the ground ) , but a resting position on the side of the hand was possible , as shown by fossil prints from an Early Jurassic theropod . A 2014 paper describing new material of Spinosaurus , proposed that its legs were too short for it to move effectively on land . The reconstruction used in the study was an extrapolation based on different sized individuals , scaled to what was assumed to be the correct proportions . Palaeontologist John Hutchinson of the Royal Veterinary College of the University of London has expressed scepticism to the new reconstruction , and cautioned that using different specimens can result in inaccurate chimaeras . Scott Hartman also expressed criticism because he believes the legs and the pelvis were inaccurately scaled ( 27 % too short ) and don 't match the published lengths . However , responses from Ibrahim et al. to Mark Witton have been positively received as reliable . The 2015 re @-@ description of Sigilmassasaurus Evers et al . 2015 doubted whether the material assigned to Spinosaurus by Ibrahim et. al. belonged to it .
= = Locomotion = =
Previous theories on how Spinosaurus moved through the water showed it paddling like a duck or crocodile through the water . However , a new hypothesis suggests Spinosaurus could not swim at all , but instead hopped on the bottom of rivers . It states that , since Spinosaurus has dense bones , it would most likely hang low in the water column , and that it moved around by running on the bottom of rivers such as hippos , tapir , and indian rhinos . Spinosaurus shows many other traits in common with hippos such as partial webbed toes , flat unguals , and a barrel shaped body which are traits that are usually attributed animals that use this kind of locomotion . The animal may have had thick skin to achieve this as well . The environment that Spinosaurus lived in is similar to the environment of thick skinned aquatic mammals and it is possible that Spinosaurus may have had this thick skin to achieve the kind of locomotion .
= = Paleoecology = =
The environment inhabited by Spinosaurus is only partially understood , and covers a great deal of what is now northern Africa . The region of Africa Spinosaurus is preserved in dates from 112 to 97 million years ago . A 1996 study concluded from Moroccan fossils that Spinosaurus , Carcharodontosaurus , and Deltadromeus " ranged across north Africa during the late Cretaceous ( Cenomanian ) . " Those Spinosaurus that lived in the Bahariya Formation of what is now Egypt may have contended with shoreline conditions on tidal flats and channels , living in mangrove forests alongside similarly large dinosaurian predators Bahariasaurus and Carcharodontosaurus , the titanosaur sauropods Paralititan and Aegyptosaurus , crocodylomorphs , bony and cartilaginous fish , turtles , lizards , and plesiosaurs . In the dry season it might have resorted to preying on pterosaurs . This situation resembles that in the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation of North America , which boasts up to five theropod genera over one tonne in weight , as well as several smaller genera ( Henderson , 1998 ; Holtz et al . , 2004 ) . Differences in head shape and body size among the large North African theropods may have been enough to allow niche partitioning as seen among the many different predator species found today in the African savanna ( Farlow & Pianka , 2002 ) .
= = In popular culture = =
Spinosaurus appeared in the 2001 film Jurassic Park III , replacing Tyrannosaurus as the main antagonist . The film 's consulting paleontologist John R. Horner was quoted as saying : " If we base the ferocious factor on the length of the animal , there was nothing that ever lived on this planet that could match this creature [ Spinosaurus ] . Also my hypothesis is that T @-@ rex was actually a scavenger rather than a killer . Spinosaurus was really the predatory animal . " ( He has since retracted the statement about T. Rex being a scavenger . ) In the film , Spinosaurus was portrayed as larger and more powerful than Tyrannosaurus : in a scene depicting a battle between the two resurrected predators , Spinosaurus emerges victorious by snapping the tyrannosaur 's neck . In the fourth film Jurassic World , there is a nod to this fight where the T @-@ Rex smashes through the skeleton of a Spinosaurus in the climatic fight near the end of the film .
Spinosaurus has long been depicted in popular books about dinosaurs , although only recently has there been enough information about spinosaurids for an accurate depiction . After an influential 1955 skeletal reconstruction by Lapparent and Lavocat based on a 1936 diagram by Stromer , it has been treated as a generalized upright theropod , with a skull similar to that of other large theropods and a sail on its back , even having four @-@ fingered hands .
In addition to films , action figures , video games , and books , Spinosaurus has been depicted on postage stamps such as ones from Angola , The Gambia , and Tanzania .
= Cherry Pop =
" Cherry Pop " is a song recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her sophomore studio album , Unlocked ( 2014 ) . It was made available for digital download on 28 May 2015 through Roton as the second single from Unlocked . " Cherry Pop " was written by Stan herself , Lukas Hällgren and Erik Lidbom , while production was handled by both Hällgren and Lidbom . The track was recorded in Bucharest , Romania at the Fonogram Studios and was additionally engineered at Lidbom 's Hotfire Production .
" Cherry Pop " was described as a J @-@ Pop song during one of Stan 's interviews prior to the track 's release . An accompanying music video for " Cherry Pop " premiered on 28 May 2015 on Stan 's YouTube channel ; Khaled Mokhtar was both the clip 's director and director of photography . It was shot in Buftea , Romania and portrays Stan and her background dancers performing choreography created by performer Emil Rengle . The song reached number 64 on the Japan Hot 100 and became the most sought ringtone on the largest Japanese profile site , Recochoku .
= = Background and composition = =
" Cherry Pop " was written by Stan herself , Lukas Hällgren and Erik Lidbom , while production was handled by both Hällgren and Lidbom . It was recorded at the Fonogram Studios in Bucharest , Romania and was additionally mixed and engineered at Lidbom 's Hitfire Production in Uppsala , Sweden . Further 's work on the track was done during FonoCamp2013 , the first Romanian international songwriting camp held in Azuga . Fellow Romanian and international singers were also present at the two @-@ weeks event , such as Delia Matache , Mohombi , Smiley and Deepcentral . The track was described as a J @-@ pop song during one of Stan 's interviews prior to the release of " Cherry Pop " ; she also noticed influences to Eurodance . An administrator of IasiFun commended the recording as being influenced by house , while also describing the song 's instrumentation as " electric " and " vibrant " . Anthony Easton , a writer for The Singles Jukebox , described the song as a " popluxe " , while Ian Mew compared it to " Bubble Pop ! " by South Korean singer Hyuna . According to Popdust , " Cherry Pop " uses dubstep for its breakdown . The main idea for the song was based on Stan 's first kiss which , according to her , " tasted like candy " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Cherry Pop " received generally mixed reviews from music critics upon release . The Singles Jukebox gave the song an overall rating of 5 / 10 . A writer of The Singles Jukebox , Andy Hutchins , confessed that " a better title for the song might have been ' Dr. Pepper ' " . Website Popdust described the song as " outdated " , but at the same time catchy and funny . Hitfire praised the song 's refrain as being " earwhormy " and " trashy " . They went on saying that " Cherry Pop " " doesn 't reach the standards like of her previously launched songs , ' Mr. Saxobeat ' , ' Get Back ( ASAP ) ' and ' Lemonade ' " . Music website Pop Shock described the single as a " grower track " , while Robin Catling of Everything Express criticized " Cherry Pop " for being " irritating " . He went on saying that " the verse let down by an horrific chorus and a truly nasty backing track " . Website Adictivoz praised overall her album Unlocked , mentioning also that the song is " ironic " .
= = Commercial performance = =
According to the biggest Japanese profile site , Recochoku , " Cherry Pop " became the most sought ringtone on their website within two hours . The news that " Cherry Pop " achieved so much success in Japan came to Stan when she was on tour in Turkey . There , the organizers of her show displayed the sentence " Congratulations , Alexandra Stan , you 're number 1 ! " on the main screen of the club . The song entered the Japan Hot 100 at number 64 on 5 July 2014 . It subsequently leaved the chart after just one week . " Cherry Pop " debuted at number 82 on the Romanian Radio Airplay Chart ; it lasted for six weeks on that chart , with it reaching its peak position at number 44 . The track peaked at number two on the Turkish Number One Top 20 compiled on 6 September 2014 .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for " Cherry Pop " was uploaded onto Stan 's YouTube channel on 28 May 2014 , where it has since amassed a total of 5 million views . The clip was shot by Khaled Mokhtar in Buftea , Romania in a set built specially for this project . The accompanying choreography was choreographed by Romanian performer Emil Rengle and the eight " shiny and glam " different outfits used for the video were designed by Andra Moga . Particularly , Stan described the video as incorporating " both a futuristic and a retro point of view " .
The video opens with Stan and some of her male back @-@ up dancers being presented in a dark white room . Subsequently , the room becomes enlightened and Stan is seen wearing transparent sunglasses , a white sweatband and a silver jacket . Following this , she retrieves a tennis racket from one of her background dancers and holds it in front of her face before returning the racket to a nearby dancer . Next , Stan performs the pre @-@ refrain of the song , while two female performers clutch a hair dryer in their hands . For the refrain , she and ten other female background dancers are performing synchronized dances , with them having wigs on , and dressing white clothing and red accessories . Following this , Stan is presented standing on a yellow plate which is kept in the air by two threads . She wears a silver leotard and a multicolored wig . Next , Stan is shown walking into a tennis field , whereon she plays a tennis match against herself . For the breakdown of " Cherry Pop " , the video gets introduced into a dark @-@ lighted room . There , her previously shown male background dancers are presented ; the video continues with Stan dancing accompanied by her dancers . The clip finally ends with a pink tennis ball dropping out of the ceiling , while the screen becomes black .
= = Live performances = =
On 12 December 2014 , Stan performed both " Cherry Pop " and " Vanilla Chocolat " on an episode of Vocea României . Shortly after her performance , juror Tudor Chirilă expressed how he was very disappointed by Stan 's act , as she didn 't provide live vocals . In an interview with Cancan , Stan confessed that " [ her ] conditions of appearance at Vocea României were previously discussed with the producers of the show , so no one should have been surprised about [ her ] performing playback " . " Cherry Pop " was included on the tracklist of her Unlocked Tour ( 2014 ) and her Cherry Pop Summer Tour ( 2014 ) .
= = Track listings = =
= 1878 FA Cup Final =
The 1878 FA Cup Final was a football match between Wanderers and Royal Engineers on 23 March 1878 at Kennington Oval in London . It was the seventh final of the world 's oldest football competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup ( known in the modern era as the FA Cup ) . Wanderers had won the Cup in the previous two seasons and on four previous occasions in total , including the first FA Cup Final , in 1872 , in which they defeated the Engineers . The Engineers had also won the Cup , having defeated Old Etonians in the 1875 final .
Wanderers , who were considered firm favourites to win the Cup for the third consecutive season , took the lead after only five minutes through Jarvis Kenrick , but the Engineers quickly equalised . The cup @-@ holders regained their lead before half @-@ time and added a third goal after the interval to secure a 3 – 1 victory . Under the original rules of the competition , the Cup was retired and presented to the club on a permanent basis to mark their third straight win , but the Wanderers returned the Cup to The Football Association on the condition that it never again be won outright by any club .
= = Route to the final = =
Wanderers were the reigning cup holders and had also won the tournament in 1872 , 1873 and 1876 . In the first of these victories they had defeated the Royal Engineers . The Engineers had won the competition in 1875 . Both teams entered the competition at the first round stage . Wanderers were allocated a home tie against Panthers and easily defeated their opponents 9 – 1 , proceeding to the second round where they were paired with High Wycombe and again recorded a high @-@ scoring victory , winning 9 – 0 . Their opponents in the third round , Barnes , proved stronger opposition , particularly as key players such as Hon. Arthur Kinnaird were unavailable for the cup @-@ holders . The match ended in a 1 – 1 draw [ 1 ] necessitating a replay , which Wanderers ( back to full strength ) won 4 – 1 . In the quarter @-@ finals Wanderers defeated Sheffield 3 – 0 and then , with an uneven number of teams remaining in the competition , the team received a bye into the final .
The Engineers ' scheduled first round opponents were Highbury Union , but they withdrew from the competition , giving the Engineers a walkover victory . The " Sappers " , as the Royal Engineers regiment is traditionally nicknamed , went on to defeat Pilgrims 6 – 0 and Druids 8 – 0 , with hat @-@ tricks in both matches from Lieut . Robert Hedley , to reach the quarter @-@ finals where their opponents were 1874 cup @-@ winners Oxford University . The initial match finished in a 3 – 3 draw , and the replay also finished without a victor , ending 2 – 2 . Finally , the Engineers emerged victorious in a second replay , winning 4 – 2 . This set up a semi @-@ final match against Old Harrovians , the team for former pupils of Harrow School . The match was played at Kennington Oval and the Engineers reached the final by defeating the Harrovians 2 – 1 .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Wanderers , who were considered the firm favourites by the book @-@ makers , won the coin toss and chose to defend the Harleyford Road end of The Oval . The match drew a crowd estimated at 4 @,@ 500 spectators , the highest yet recorded for an FA Cup Final . Both teams played with two full @-@ backs , two half @-@ backs and six forwards ; the team captains were the Hon. Arthur Kinnaird and Lieut . Robert Hedley . The cup @-@ holders immediately dominated the game and Kinnaird quickly had an unsuccessful shot on goal . After only five minutes Henry Wace crossed the ball from a wide position and Jarvis Kenrick kicked the ball past the Engineers ' goalkeeper Lieut . Lovick Friend to give the Wanderers the lead . Approximately ten minutes later , Wanderers goalkeeper James Kirkpatrick suffered a broken arm during a tussle on the goal @-@ line , but managed to keep the ball out of the goal , and went on to play the remainder of the match despite his injury . In the 20th minute of the game , the Engineers scored an equalising goal . Some modern sources state that Lieut . William Morris scored the goal , however contemporary newspaper reports in The Field , The Sporting Life and Bell 's Life in London all state that Morris took a throw @-@ in which led to a " scrimmage " or " bully " in front of the Wanderers ' goal , out of which the ball was forced over the goal @-@ line .
Towards the end of the first half , the Wanderers were awarded a free kick . Kinnaird took the kick , which led to a second goal for the cup @-@ holders . Modern sources list Kinnaird as the goalscorer , but some contemporary reports suggest that , following his free kick , another " scrimmage " ensued in front of the Engineers ' goal before the ball was forced over the line . Shortly after the half @-@ time break , the Engineers ' captain Robert Hedley appeared to have scored a goal , but it was disallowed due to an infringement of the offside rule . After around twenty minutes of the second half , Kenrick scored his second goal following some skilful play by Hubert Heron , giving Wanderers a 3 – 1 lead which they retained until the end of the game .
= = = Details = = =
Match rules :
90 minutes normal time .
30 minutes extra @-@ time if scores are level , at captains ' discretion .
Replay if scores still level .
No substitutes .
= = Post @-@ match = =
As was the norm until 1882 , the winning team did not receive the trophy at the stadium on the day of the match , but later in the year at their annual dinner . Under the original rules of the competition , if a team won the Cup three times in succession , it would be retired and become their " absolute property " . Wanderers secretary C. W. Alcock , however , returned the Cup to The Football Association on the condition that the rule be removed and no other team permitted to win the Cup outright . The only other team to win the Cup in three successive seasons to date is Blackburn Rovers , who won it three times in a row in the 1880s . On this occasion the club was presented with a commemorative shield .
Three weeks after the Cup final , Wanderers played Scottish Cup winners Vale of Leven at Kennington Oval in a match for the unofficial " championship of Britain " . In front of a crowd of around 2 @,@ 000 spectators , Wanderers turned in what was regarded by the press as a sub @-@ standard performance and were defeated 3 – 1 .
= Italian cruiser Ettore Fieramosca =
Ettore Fieramosca was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) built in the 1880s . She was the fourth and final member of the Etna class , which included three sister ships of slightly smaller dimensions . Named for the condottiero of the same name , she was the only member of her class not named for a volcano . The ship was laid down in December 1885 , launched in August 1888 , and was commissioned in November 1889 . She was armed with a main battery of two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) and six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns , and could steam at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Ettore Fieramosca had a relatively uneventful career ; her first decade in service was confined to the normal peacetime routine of training with the Italian fleet . She thereafter spent most of her career abroad , including a deployment to China to help suppress the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 and tours in African and North American waters in the mid @-@ 1900s . She was stricken from the naval register in July 1909 and sold for scrap .
= = Design = =
Compared to her half @-@ sisters , Ettore Fieramosca was almost 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) longer at 290 feet ( 88 @.@ 4 m ) between perpendiculars , and 10 inches ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) wider with a beam of 43 feet 4 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) . She had a mean draft of 18 feet 9 inches ( 5 @.@ 7 m ) and displaced 3 @,@ 538 long tons ( 3 @,@ 595 t ) . Her crew numbered 17 officers and 298 men . Designed to be a half @-@ knot faster than her sisters , the ship had two horizontal compound steam engines , each driving a single propeller , with steam provided by four double @-@ ended cylindrical boilers . Ettore Fieramosca was the fastest ship in her class and reached a maximum speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) from 7 @,@ 000 ihp ( 5 @,@ 200 kW ) during her sea trials . She had a cruising radius of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the ships consisted of two Armstrong 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) , 30 @-@ caliber breech @-@ loading guns mounted in barbettes fore and aft . She was also equipped with six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) , 32 @-@ caliber , breech @-@ loading guns that were carried in sponsons along the sides of the ship . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defense , Ettore Fieramosca was fitted with six 57 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and eight 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . Ettore Fieramosca was also armed with three 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . She was protected with an armored deck below the waterline with a maximum thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . The conning tower had .5 in ( 13 mm ) worth of armor plating .
= = Service history = =
Ettore Fieramosca was built by the Regia Marina shipyard in Livorno . Her keel was laid down on 31 December 1885 and her completed hull was launched on 30 August 1888 . After fitting @-@ out work was finished , she was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 16 November 1889 . Ettore Fieramosca and her sisters Vesuvio and Stromboli participated in the 1893 naval maneuvers as part of the Squadron of Maneuvers . Stomboli and Ettore Fieramosca next participated in the 1896 naval maneuvers as part of the Maneuver Fleet . In 1897 , Enrico Toti served aboard the ship . Ettore Fieramosca and Vesuvio were sent to China in 1900 to assist the Eight @-@ Nation Alliance in putting down the Boxer Rebellion there .
Ettore Fieramosca returned to Italy and made a cruise off East Africa in 1905 . She then sailed across the Atlantic and made a number of port visits in South America . The ship was then assigned to the American Squadron and refitted in Boston in November 1906 . In 1908 she visited Bridgeport in the United States for celebrations on Columbus Day . There , bluejackets from Ettore Fieramosca and the US battleship USS New Hampshire marched in a parade . Upon her return to Italy in 1909 Ettore Fieramosca was struck off the naval register on 15 July 1909 and sold for scrap .
= Mike Jackson ( right @-@ handed pitcher ) =
Michael Ray " Mike " Jackson ( born December 22 , 1964 ) is a former professional baseball player whose career spanned 19 seasons , 16 of which were spent in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Jackson , a relief pitcher for the majority of his career , compiled a career earned run average ( ERA ) of 3 @.@ 42 , allowing 451 earned runs off of 983 hits , 127 home runs , and 464 walks while recording 1 @,@ 006 strikeouts over 1 @,@ 005 games pitched .
Standing 6 feet 1 inch ( 185 cm ) and weighing 185 pounds ( 84 kg ) , he made his professional debut in 1984 for the minor @-@ league Spartanburg Suns , an affiliate of the Philadelphia Phillies . After battling arm injuries in the early 1990s , Jackson reestablished himself as a top relief pitcher for the Reds in 1995 and went on to pitch in the 1997 World Series for the Indians . After one @-@ year stints with the Astros , Twins , and White Sox , Jackson retired from baseball in 2005 .
= = Early life = =
Jackson was born on December 22 , 1964 , in Houston , Texas . He attended high school at Forest Brook , and later attended college at Hill College in Texas .
= = Career = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies ( 1984 – 1987 ) = = =
Jackson entered the Major League Baseball Draft in 1983 , where he was selected by the Philadelphia Phillies in the 29th round . He did not sign with the Phillies , and reentered the draft in 1984 where was again drafted by the Phillies in the second round of the January Secondary amateur draft . Jackson signed a $ 60 @,@ 000 contract with the club on April 27 , 1984 .
Jackson began playing minor league baseball for the single @-@ A Spartanburg Suns , a minor league affiliate of the Phillies , in 1984 . Over 80 @.@ 2 innings pitched , Jackson recorded an earned run average ( ERA ) of 2 @.@ 68 , third best on his team . While batting , he recorded the best batting average and slugging percentage on the team , hitting .368 and slugging .526 .
Jackson continued his minor league career in 1985 , playing for the Peninsula Pilots of the Carolina League . Unlike the previous year where he started all 14 games he pitched , Jackson roughly split the 1985 season between starting games and serving as a reliever , starting 18 games but pitching in 31 . For the season , Jackson led the Pilots in losses , with nine , while allowing the most hits , runs , and earned runs among team members .
In 1986 , he played in three different leagues : Double @-@ A , Triple @-@ A , and in the Major Leagues . In Double @-@ A , Jackson played for the Reading Phillies , recording a 1 @.@ 66 ERA over 43 @.@ 1 innings pitched . He played Triple @-@ A ball for the Portland Beavers before making his major league debut for the Philadelphia Phillies on August 11 , 1986 . For his debut , Jackson pitched a perfect inning in relief of Dan Schatzeder in a game against the New York Mets . Jackson finished the 1986 Major League season with a 3 @.@ 38 ERA , allowing five runs off of 12 hits and becoming the seventh youngest player in the National League that year .
Jackson played almost the entire 1987 season for the Philadelphia Phillies , also making two starts for the Maine Guides . During the season , he compiled a 4 @.@ 20 ERA with three wins and 10 losses . After the season , on December 9 , 1987 , Jackson was traded , along with Glenn Wilson and Dave Brundage , to the Seattle Mariners . In exchange , the Phillies received pitcher Tim Fortugno , who never made a professional appearance for the Phillies , and an outfielder , Phil Bradley . Author Rich Westcott would later call Jackson " a good one who got away " in reference to the Phillies trade .
= = = Seattle Mariners ( 1988 – 1991 ) = = =
From 1988 to 1991 , Jackson played for the Seattle Mariners . In 1988 and 1989 , Jackson finished in the top ten in the American League for most games pitched , with 62 and 65 , respectively , while recording a 2 @.@ 90 ERA over 198 @.@ 2 innings pitched for the two seasons . In 1991 , while facing the Kansas City Royals , he allowed Stu Cole 's only Major League hit while pitching in the bottom of the 13th inning .
After spending four seasons with the Mariners , Jackson was traded , along with Bill Swift and Dave Burba , to the San Francisco Giants . The Mariners , in return for Swift , Burba , and Jackson , acquired outfielder Kevin Mitchell and pitcher Mike Remlinger . This trade received criticism , being called " possibly the worst trade in [ Mariners ] history . "
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 1992 – 1994 ) = = =
Jackson , now with a salary of $ 1 @,@ 666 @,@ 667 , made his debut for the Giants on April 7 , 1992 , in a game against the Los Angeles Dodgers . Jackson allowed one walk in one inning pitched , while finishing the 1992 season with a 3 @.@ 73 ERA , 80 strikeouts , and one save . He led his team in games pitched , with 67 , the second highest total in his Giants career .
In 1993 he led the Major Leagues in games pitched , with 81 , while also leading the Majors in holds , with 33 . The 1994 MLB season was Shortened to 115 games for the Giants ; however , over 36 games pitched , Jackson led National League relievers in ERA ( 1 @.@ 49 ) , opponents average ( .164 ) , and hits per 9 @.@ 0 innings pitched ( 4 @.@ 9 ) while finishing second in strikeouts per 9 @.@ 0 innings pitched ( 10 @.@ 84 ) . The already shortened season was again shortened for Jackson due to tendinitis in his right elbow . This led to two stints on the disabled list : one from June 17 until July 2 , and another from July 6 until the end of the season . On October 17 , 1994 , Jackson was granted free agency .
= = = Cincinnati Reds ( 1995 ) = = =
Jackson signed with the Cincinnati Reds on April 8 , 1995 . Again he struggled with injury , and was placed on the disabled list once for tendinitis in his right shoulder and once for a strained rib cage muscle . In his only year with the club , Jackson posted a team @-@ best 2 @.@ 39 ERA , while recording 41 strikeouts over 40 games . Jackson and the Reds made the playoffs , winning the National League Divisional Series but losing the National League Championship Series to the Atlanta Braves in four games . Jackson was granted free agency on November 3 , 1995 .
= = = Seattle Mariners ( 1996 ) = = =
In 1996 , Jackson signed a $ 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 contract , which included a $ 400 @,@ 000 earned bonus , with the Seattle Mariners . Jackson averaged nearly nine strikeouts per 9 @.@ 0 innings pitched ( 70 strikeouts / 72 @.@ 0 innings pitched ) . After the season , Baseball Digest called Jackson " a competent and underappreciated setup man " . The Mariners did not resign Jackson , on the grounds that Jackson 's new contract would be too expensive .
= = = Cleveland Indians ( 1997 – 1999 ) = = =
In 1997 , Jackson signed a three year , six million dollar contract with the Cleveland Indians . Jackson served as the primary setup man to closer José Mesa for the first half of the season , but took over the closer position while Mesa answered to charges of rape . Finishing the year with an 86 – 75 record , the Indians finished first in the American League Central and made the playoffs . After winning against the New York Yankees in the American League Divisional Series ( ALDS ) and the Baltimore Orioles in the American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) , the Indians played in the World Series against the Florida Marlins . In the World Series , Jackson recorded an ERA of 1 @.@ 93 over four games pitched , although the Indians lost the World Series , four games to three .
After the Indians traded Mesa to the Giants in July 1998 , Jackson became the Indians primary closer , recording 40 saves over 64 @.@ 0 innings pitched and leading the team in games finished , saves , and games pitched . The Indians again made the postseason , but were eliminated by the New York Yankees in the ALCS .
Jackson finished the 1999 season with Cleveland , ranking fourth in the American League in saves , with 39 . Jackson recorded his 100th career save against the Minnesota Twins on April 11 , and made his 800th career appearance on July 3 against the Kansas City Royals before he was granted free agency on October 28 of that year .
= = = 2000 onward = = =
Jackson signed with the Phillies in 2000 but did not pitch due to discomfort in his right shoulder the first time Jackson warmed up to pitch in a game for Philadelphia . On May 26 , Jackson had season @-@ ending arthroscopic surgery to repair a SLAP tear in his right shoulder .
Jackson signed with the Houston Astros the next year . The Astros , National League Central champions , earned a spot in the playoffs , but were eliminated by the Atlanta Braves in the Divisional series . After his season with the Astros , in 2002 , Jackson signed as a non @-@ roster invitee with the Minnesota Twins , helping them to finish 94 – 67 and leading them to a playoff appearance , where he recorded a 27 @.@ 00 ERA over three games pitched in the American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) . The Twins lost the ALCS in five games . Jackson was granted free agency later that year .
On January 29 , 2003 , Jackson signed for the Arizona Diamondbacks , but did not play a major league or minor league game for the franchise . The Diamondbacks released Jackson on March 29 , 2003 , before the season began . Jackson later stated :
I know it 's a numbers game and nothing I could control , but I was disappointed that I had to sit at home [ for the 2003 season ] . If teams want to base their decision about me on spring training as opposed to what I ’ ve accomplished over the years , then I don ’ t know what to say .
In his last professional season , Jackson signed as a non @-@ roster invitee with the Chicago White Sox . For the season , Jackson recorded an ERA of 5 @.@ 01 , allowing 31 runs over 46 @.@ 2 innings pitched . The White Sox released Jackson on September 2 , 2004 .
= = Personal life = =
Jackson is married to Tammy Jackson and has four children : Lindsey , Ryan , Amber and Michael .
= M @-@ 212 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 212 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The highway was designated in order to provide access from M @-@ 33 to both the small community of Aloha on the eastern shore of Mullett Lake , as well as to Aloha State Park , where the highway ends . M @-@ 212 is the shortest signed state highway in Michigan , beating out the second shortest , M @-@ 239 , which registers at 1 @.@ 136 miles ( 1 @.@ 828 km ) . M @-@ 212 even beats out Michigan 's shortest signed business route , BUS M @-@ 32 in Hillman , which comes in at 0 @.@ 738 miles ( 1 @.@ 188 km ) , only about six @-@ thousandths of a mile longer , or about 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) .
M @-@ 212 was assigned on December 29 , 1937 , from the intersection with Second Street to an intersection with US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) . In 1940 , the state of Michigan rerouted US 23 and replaced it with M @-@ 33 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 212 begins at an intersection with Second Street and the Tromble Trail north of the entrance to Aloha State Park in the community of Aloha . The community was originally a stop on the Detroit and Mackinac Railway that was named after a trip to Hawaii by the local sawmill owner . Progressing eastward , M @-@ 212 intersects with Third Street and Fourth Street , both of which are just separated by woodlands and residences . To the north of the highway , there is all woodlands and residences . To the south , there are just a few residences . After a while , there is a large clearing , which gives way to a farm to the north and more residences to the south . After the farm there is a large field and M @-@ 212 terminates at an intersection with M @-@ 33 in Aloha Township .
= = History = =
The Michigan State Highway Department assigned M @-@ 212 to its current alignment in Aloha Township from what was then US 23 on December 29 , 1937 . The route has remained mainly intact since its assignment . Originally , US 23 ran along the highway at the eastern terminus of M @-@ 212 , but the highway department realigned the highway onto an alignment along the shore of Lake Huron in 1940 ; that year , the highway department replaced the former US 23 alignment with the designation of M @-@ 33 , which has remained there since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Aloha Township , Cheboygan County .
= Brunette Coleman =
Brunette Coleman was a pseudonym used by the poet and writer Philip Larkin . In 1943 , towards the end of his time as an undergraduate at St John 's College , Oxford , he wrote several works of fiction , verse and critical commentary under that name . The style he adopted parodies that of popular writers of contemporary girls ' school fiction , but the extent of the stories ' homoerotic content suggests they were written primarily for adult male titillation .
The Coleman oeuvre consists of a completed novella , Trouble at Willow Gables , set in a girls ' boarding school ; an incomplete sequel , Michaelmas Term at St Brides , set in a women 's college at Oxford ; seven short poems with a girls ' school ambience ; a fragment of pseudo @-@ autobiography ; and a critical essay purporting to be Coleman 's literary apologia . The manuscripts were stored in the Brynmor Jones Library at the University of Hull , where Larkin was chief librarian between 1955 and 1985 . Their existence was revealed to the public when Larkin 's Selected Letters and Andrew Motion 's biography were published in 1992 and 1993 respectively . The Coleman works themselves were finally published , with other Larkin drafts and oddments , in 2002 .
At Oxford Larkin underwent a period of confused sexuality and limited literary output . The adoption of a female persona appeared to release him from his creative inhibitions , as in the three years following the Coleman phase he published under his own name two novels and his first poetry collection . Thereafter , although he gradually established his reputation as a poet , his career as a prose writer declined , and despite several attempts he completed no further fiction . Critical reaction to the publication of the Coleman material was divided between those who saw no value in these juvenilia , and those who considered that they cast useful light on the study of the mature Larkin .
= = Origins = =
In October 1940 Philip Larkin began studying English at St John 's College , Oxford . A prolific writer since childhood , his primary ambition as an undergraduate was to be a novelist rather than a poet . As well publishing articles and poems in Cherwell and Oxford Poetry , he wrote additional unpublished material that included fragments of semi @-@ autobiographical stories exploring homosexual relationships among groups of undergraduates . According to Larkin 's biographer Andrew Motion these writings , while of no literary value , give an indication of Larkin 's confused sexuality at that time , and his growing distaste for what he terms " this buggery business " .
From 1942 the character of much of Larkin 's private writing changed , as a result of his friendship with a fellow undergraduate from St John 's , Kingsley Amis , who arrived at the university that summer . Amis , a much more confident and assertive character than Larkin , disguised his serious concerns behind a facade of jokes and comic ironies . Larkin soon adopted that style as his own , joining with Amis in composing obscene rhymes and parodies of the Romantic poets they were required to study . In time they extended their efforts to soft @-@ porn fantasies in which , typically , " girls roll [ ed ] around together twanging elastic and straps " . After Amis 's departure for the army in early 1943 , Larkin made his first attempt at writing from a specifically feminine perspective in a story called " An Incident in the English Camp " , which he subtitled " A Thoroughly Unhealthy Story " . Lacking any salacious content despite its subtitle , the work is written in a pastiche of sentimental women 's magazine prose . It depicts an undergraduate girl 's parting from her soldier lover , and ends : " She walked in exaltation through the black streets , her heart glowing like a coal with deep love " .
= = Writing = =
From his general reading , Larkin had acquired a considerable knowledge of girls ' school fiction , and had formed definite views on the authors of such works : " stupid women without a grain of humour in their minds " , who lacked " erotic sensibility " and treated the lesbian perspective " too casually " . His intention to write in this genre is expressed in a letter to his friend Norman Iles , dated 5 June 1943 , just before Larkin sat his degree Finals : " I am spending my time doing an obscene Lesbian novel in the form of a school story " . The novel was Trouble at Willow Gables , a school adventure story in the manner of Dorita Fairlie Bruce or Dorothy Vicary , which Larkin completed at home while awaiting his Finals results . That was the prelude to a busy summer 's writing : " Leaving Oxford was like taking a cork out of a bottle . Writing flooded out of me " , Larkin later told his biographer .
Larkin 's letter to Iles does not mention a female pseudonym , although the idea of using one had been in his mind for months . The previous March he had begun writing the imagined autobiography of a supposed lady novelist , " Brunette Coleman " , adapting the name of a well @-@ known contemporary female jazz musician , Blanche Coleman . Larkin tentatively titled the autobiography " Ante Meridian " ; he soon abandoned it , but held on to the Coleman name . According to James Booth , who prepared the Coleman texts for publication in 2002 , the adoption of a female persona was in line with the pose of " girlish narcissism " that Larkin was affecting in the summer of 1943 : " I am dressed in red trousers , shirt and white pullover , and look very beautiful " . In his letters to Amis , Larkin maintained a straight @-@ faced pretence that Coleman was a real person . Thus in one letter he wrote " Brunette is very thrilled " with a poem written in her name , and in another , " Brunette can stand healthy criticism " .
As he waited for offers of employment through the summer and autumn of 1943 , Larkin added more works to the Coleman oeuvre . He began a sequel to Trouble at Willow Gables , set in a women 's college at Oxford and entitled Michaelmas Term at St Bride 's , but did not finish it : " All literary inspiration has deserted me " , he informed Amis on 13 August . Nevertheless , a week later he told Amis that Brunette was helping him to write a novel , provisionally entitled Jill , about " a young man who invents an imaginary sister , and falls in love with her " . With this letter Larkin sent a Coleman poem , " Bliss " , the first of seven written in the girls ' school idiom . As late as 19 October he reported to Amis that " Brunette is working on a little monograph about girls ' school stories " . This is a reference to the putative literary manifesto " What Are We Writing For " , which became the final Coleman work . Thereafter , Motion records , she disappeared , " to be mentioned only fleetingly in later accounts of his university life ... She ended up as an occasional comic reminder of lost youth " .
= = Works = =
The works which Larkin attributed to Brunette Coleman comprise a short piece of supposed autobiography , a complete short novel , an incomplete second novel , a collection of poems and a literary essay .
= = = " Ante Meridian " = = =
This fragment of spoof autobiography is distinct from the rest of the Coleman oeuvre in having no relation to girls ' school fiction . It records Brunette 's early life as the daughter of an eccentric priest , brought up in a tumbledown Cornish cliff @-@ top house . Apart from descriptions of the house and its contents ( some of which may be drawn from Larkin 's own childhood home in Coventry ) , much of the narrative is taken up with a comical description of an attempt to launch the local lifeboat . Larkin 's biographer Richard Bradford is struck by the distinctive tone in the fragment , different from anything else written under Coleman 's name . The text breaks off suddenly ; Motion surmises that Larkin abandoned it because he was eager to begin work on the first Coleman novel . Booth describes the prose as " a mix of Daphne du Maurier nostalgia and surreal farce " .
= = = Novel : Trouble at Willow Gables = = =
= = = = Synopsis = = = =
Marie Moore , a junior pupil at Willow Gables , receives a birthday present of £ 5 from an aunt . After the banknote is retained for safe keeping by the headmistress , Miss Holden , Marie slyly recovers it but is quickly found out , and is coerced by Miss Holden into giving the money to the school 's gymnasium fund . When later the banknote goes missing from the fund 's collection box , Marie is suspected , but protests her innocence despite a savage beating from Miss Holden with assistance from two burly school prefects . Only her friend Myfanwy believes her . Confined in the school 's punishment room , Marie manages to escape with the help of a domestic servant , and runs away .
Hilary Russell , a prefect and predatory lesbian , lusts after Mary Beech , the school 's cricket captain . On a night expedition in pursuit of Mary , Hilary catches Margaret Tattenham , a junior , in the act of replacing the £ 5 note in Miss Holden 's room . Margaret says she originally took the money as a prank ; Hilary agrees not to report her to Miss Holden in return for sexual favours , to which Margaret reluctantly consents . The following morning , Hilary denounces her anyway ; Margaret responds by revealing Hilary 's sexual harassment but is not believed , and is taken to the punishment room where Marie 's absence is revealed .
Hilary is sent with a search party to find the missing girl . Meanwhile , Margaret makes a daring escape via the window , and rides off on the school horse . She finds Marie , who is miserable and frightened and wants to return to the school whatever the consequences . Margaret confesses that she borrowed the £ 5 to bet on a horse , and has won £ 100 . She means to leave Willow Gables for good , and apologises to Marie for the trouble she has caused her . This conversation is overheard by Hilary 's search party , and after a scuffle the truants are captured . On the way back to school they hear cries from the river ; it is Myfanwy , who has got into difficulties while swimming . Margaret frees herself from her captors ' clutches , dives in and saves her drowning friend .
Back at the school , Miss Holden overlooks the theft in view of Margaret 's heroism , although she confiscates the £ 100 winnings and donates the money to a new swimming pool fund . Marie is exonerated , and her £ 5 is returned . Mary Beech comes forward to corroborate Margaret 's accusations against Hilary , who is summarily expelled . Marie and Myfanwy enjoy an emotional reunion in the school sickroom , as life at the school returns to normal , with friendship and forgiveness all round .
= = = = Commentary = = = =
The typescript begins with a dedication page " To Jacinth " ( Brunette Coleman 's imagined secretary ) . There follows an untitled poem which later appears , slightly altered , as " The School in August " in Sugar and Spice , the Coleman poetry collection . In the story the surnames of the headmistress and principal girls have been altered in ink throughout the typescript ; some of the original names belonged to Larkin 's real @-@ life acquaintances at Oxford . The presence of a publisher 's inkstamp on the wallet containing the typescript indicates that the story may have been submitted by Larkin for publication .
Booth argues that , whatever Larkin 's motive in writing it , the story follows the parameters of schoolgirl fiction with some fidelity . Its main characters all have models within the genre ; Marie has much in common with Dorita Fairlie Bruce 's recurrent character " Dimsie " , while Hilary is likewise based on Dorothy Vicary 's villainous " Una Vickers " in Niece of the Headmistress . The usual themes of friendships , rivalries and injustices are explored , and the ending in reconciliation and future hope is entirely true to type . Some scenes — the savage beating endured by Marie , the lingering descriptions of girls dressing and undressing , Hilary 's smouldering sexuality — may , Booth asserts , be written with " the lusts of the male heterosexual gaze " in mind but , he continues , the reader looking for explicit pornography will be disappointed . Bradford notes three prose styles combining in the narrative : " cautious indifference , archly overwritten symbolism ... and ... its writer 's involuntary feelings of sexual excitement " . Motion finds the tone of the prose frivolous on the surface , yet fundamentally cold and cruel : " Once its women have been arraigned for pleasure they are dismissed ; once they have been enjoyed they are treated with indifference " .
= = = Novel : Michaelmas Term at St Brides = = =
= = = = Synopsis = = = =
In this incomplete story Mary , Marie , Margaret and Myfanwy , friends from Willow Gables , are new undergraduates at St Bride 's College , Oxford . Mary is disconcerted to find that she is sharing her rooms with Hilary , her old adversary from the school . However , although Hilary still has a roving lesbian eye , she has lost most of her predatory instincts and the two become friends . Mary falls foul of Mary de Putron , the aggressive and authoritarian college games captain ; in the hockey trials de Putron makes Mary play out of her normal position , so that performs badly . Hilary subsequently avenges Mary 's humiliation by seducing de Putron 's boyfriend , a gauche Royal Air Force officer called Clive , whom she then dumps unceremoniously .
Of Myfanwy 's doings we learn relatively little . Margaret , still fascinated with horse @-@ racing , sets up her own bookmaking business . Marie discovers psychoanalysis and tries to cure her sister Philippa 's leather belt fetish . After various efforts prove unsuccessful , the sisters seek solace in alcohol . The later stages of the story introduce Larkin 's real @-@ life friend , Diana Gollancz , and recount her preparations for a fashionable party . In the final scenes the narrative becomes surreal , as on their alcoholic quest Marie and Philippa are confronted by the knowledge that they are characters in a story , while " real life " is going on in the next room . Marie takes a peep at real life , and decides she would rather stay in the story , which breaks off at this point with a few pencil notes indicating possible ways in which it might have continued .
= = = = Commentary = = = =
Only the first dozen pages of the manuscript are typed ; the remainder is handwritten . The surnames of the characters , which were changed in Trouble at Willow Gables , are unaltered . The script carries a dedication to " Miriam and Diana " : Miriam was an acquaintance with whom Larkin had discussed lesbian relationships , while Diana Gollancz ( " Diana G. " in the story ) , the daughter of the publisher Victor Gollancz , supplied him with many anecdotes from her schooldays . According to Motion , " St Bride 's " is recognisably based on Somerville College , Oxford .
In his analysis of the Coleman fiction , Stephen Cooper notes that , as with Willow Gables , the narrative voice switches from character to character so that different thoughts , attitudes and perspectives can be expressed . Cooper argues that as the narrative progresses , Larkin 's concerns ( in his Coleman voice ) move beyond sexual titillation ; he is no longer interested in describing lesbian encounters in voyeuristic detail . Hilary emerges as saviour rather than seducer , as a campaigner against male oppression , and as a figure who " deviates from the cultural norms [ yet ] can triumph over those who adopt conventional attitudes " . The scenes with sexual content or innuendo are largely confined to the earlier parts of the story . The later parts , which introduce the male characters " Clive " and Hilary 's other admirer , the contemptible " Creature " are , according to Motion , overlaid with male self @-@ disgust , a theme apparent in Larkin 's two published novels and in his later poetry . Motion suggests that the loss of erotic impetus , and Larkin 's apparent fading of interest , are the main reasons why the story peters out .
= = = Sugar and Spice : A Sheaf of Poems = = =
The typescript of Sugar and Spice consists of six poems , which in sequence are : " The False Friend " , " Bliss " , " Femmes Damnées " , " Ballade des Dames du Temps Jadis " , " Holidays " and " The School in August " . A seventh poem in pencil , " Fourth Form Loquitur " has been loosely inserted into the typescript . " Femmes Damnées " , which was printed by John Fuller at the Sycamore Press , Oxford , in 1978 , is the only Coleman work published in Larkin 's lifetime . This poem , and " The School in August " , were included in Larkin 's Collected Poems published in 1988 ; " The School in August " was omitted from the 2003 revised edition of the collection although , according to Amis , it is the poem that best gives the flavour of the Coleman pastiche . " Bliss " was included in Larkin 's Selected Letters ( 1992 ) , as part of a letter to Amis .
Motion describes the Coleman poems as " a world of comfortless jealousies , breathless bike @-@ rides and deathless crushes " , mixing elements from writers and poets such as Angela Brazil , Richmal Crompton , John Betjeman and W.H. Auden . Larkin 's own attitude to these poems appears equivocal . He expresses pleasure that his friend Bruce Montgomery liked them , especially " The School in August " . However , to Amis he writes : " I think all wrong @-@ thinking people ought to like them . I used to write them whenever I 'd seen any particularly ripe schoolgirl ... Writing about grown women is less perverse and therefore less satisfying " . Booth finds the poems the most impressive of all the Coleman works , in their evidence of Larkin 's early ability to create striking and moving images from conventional school story clichés . They are an early demonstration of Larkin 's talent for finding depths in ordinariness , an ability that characterised many of his later poems . Booth draws specific attention to the elegiac quality of the final lines of " The School in August " : " And even swimming groups can fade / Games mistresses turn grey " . In Booth 's view the Coleman poems are among the best Larkin wrote in the 1940s , well beyond anything in his first published selection The North Ship ( 1945 ) .
= = = " What Are We Writing For " = = =
The typescript of the essay is headed by an epigraph , attributed to The Upbringing of Daughters by Catherine Durning Whethem . It reads : " The chief justification of reading books of any sort is the enlargement of experience that should accrue therefrom " . The text which follows is , in Motion 's words , " a homily on how and how not to write for children " . It argues for the need for well @-@ drawn heroines , and for unrepentant villainesses : " To be tenacious in evil is the duty of every villain ... Let her hate the heroine wholeheartedly , and refuse , yes , even on the last page , to take her hand in forgiveness " . The story should not be about schoolgirls , but about a school with girls in it . The school must be English ; foreign settings or trips abroad are disparaged . Larkin , in Coleman 's voice , pleads for " the Classic Unities " : Unity of Place , which is the school and its inhabitants ; Unity of Time , normally the term in which the action occurs ; and Unity of Action , whereby every recorded incident contributes in some way to the telling of the story . The essay is laden with quotations from many writers of the genre , among them Joy Francis , Dorita Fairlie Bruce , Elsie J. Oxenham , Elinor Brent @-@ Dyer and Nancy Breary .
Motion argues that aside from the sometimes facetious tone , the opinions expressed by Larkin in his Coleman persona , particularly the mild xenophobia that enters the essay , foreshadow his own mature prejudices . Bradford believes that the essay reads as a serious , well @-@ researched paper on the genre of early twentieth century boarding school literature , worthy of inclusion in F. W. Bateson 's Essays and Criticism had that journal existed in 1943 .
= = Critical reception = =
Shortly before his death in 1985 Larkin instructed his companion Monica Jones to burn his diaries . His instructions did not cover other writings , therefore the Coleman material remained in the archives of the Brynmor Jones Library at the University of Hull , where Larkin had worked as chief librarian since 1955 . The existence of these papers was first made public in 1992 , when Larkin 's Selected Letters was published . In the following year extensive extracts from the Coleman works appeared in Motion 's biography of Larkin , and became the subject of literary analysis by M. W. Rowe , in his 1999 essay " Unreal Girls : Lesbian Fantasy in Early Larkin " . Rowe saw Larkin 's adoption of a female persona as an outlet , compensating for his sexual awkwardness and lack of success with Oxford women . The punishment scenes , in which women punish women , were a means of subduing Larkin 's feelings of anger and frustration with his personal sexual failures . More significantly , according to Rowe , Larkin 's invention of Coleman was the catalyst which broke the writing block that had afflicted him for most of his Oxford years . The few months of her creative life in 1943 were , Larkin later acknowledged , the prelude to " the intensest time of my life " ; in the three subsequent years his poetry collection The North Ship and his novels Jill and A Girl in Winter were published .
The complete Coleman material , in a collection edited by James Booth , was finally published in 2002 . Booth thought that the material would probably cause " a huge amount of confusion and smoke because the politically correct brigade will jump on it " . Anticipating the publication , Emma Hartley and Vanessa Thorpe in The Observer doubted the literary value of the works , citing Motion 's view that the stories were " little more than mild pornography " which the mature poet would never have wished to see published . On publication , Booth 's collection provoked a particularly hostile reaction from The Guardian 's critic Jenny Diski , whose review dismissed the Coleman writings as " drivel " and " sad ramblings " , unworthy of publication or critical attention , and not even valid pornography : " Not a breast , not a clitoris is seen or mentioned . " Unlike serious pornographers , " Larkin sketches a mere outline and then walks away with a snigger " . Diski mocks Booth 's reverential descriptions of the typescripts " as though they were slivers of the True Cross " , and concludes : " Let this be a lesson , at least , to anyone who hasn 't got around to chucking out the crap they wrote in their teens and early twenties . "
Other critics were more positive . The New Statesman 's Robert Potts found the stories " entertaining and intriguing for readers familiar with their background and with the genre " , and for the most part charmingly innocent , " especially when compared with the reality of boarding @-@ school life " . The evocation of adolescent homoeroticism was deliberate and playful rather than pornographic . In a similar vein , Richard Canning in The Independent found the Willow Gables fiction vibrant , well @-@ constructed and entertaining , and praised Larkin 's " sly Sapphic spin " . In a more recent analysis Terry Castle , writing in the journal Daedalus , disagrees profoundly with the notion expressed by Adam Kirsch in The Times Literary Supplement , that the publication of the Coleman works was damaging to Larkin 's reputation . On the contrary , argues Castle , " the Brunette phase speaks volumes about the paradoxical process by which Philip Larkin became ' Larkinesque ' — modern English poetry 's reigning bard of erotic frustration and depressive ( if verse @-@ enabling ) self @-@ deprecation " .
= = Influences = =
The effects of Larkin 's Coleman phase are clearly evident in his first novel , Jill , in which he makes copious use of Willow Gables material . The novelist 's protagonist , a shy Oxford undergraduate called John Kemp , invents a schoolgirl sister called Jill , initially to impress his arrogant and dismissive room @-@ mate , Christopher Warner . Although Warner displays little interest , the non @-@ existent " Jill " comes to obsess Kemp . He imagines her at Willow Gables School , and writes long letters to her there . In the form of a short story he details her life at the school — now located in Derbyshire rather than Wiltshire as it had been in the Coleman works . The girls ' names are different , but their speech and attitudes closely reflect those of the earlier stories . A lesbian element is introduced through Jill 's fascination with the cool , detached senior girl Minerva Strachey . Kemp 's fantasy is disturbed when he meets a real @-@ life Jill , or Gillian ; his attempts to match his flight of fancy to reality end in embarrassment and humiliation .
Reviewing the published Coleman material , The Independent 's Richard Canning suggests that the influence of these early works is often discernible in Larkin 's poetry . Likewise Stephen Cooper , in his 2004 book Philip Larkin : Subversive Writer , argues that the stylistic and thematic influences of Trouble at Willow Gables and Michaelmas Term at St Brides anticipate the poetry 's recurrent concern with rebellion and conformity . Among examples , Cooper cites Marie 's refusal in Willow Gables to compromise with an unjust authority as reflecting the sentiments expressed in Larkin 's poem " Places , Loved Ones " ( 1954 ) . The reader , says Cooper , " is invited to identify with Marie 's plight in a manner that foreshadows the empathy felt for the rape victim in ' Deception ' " ( 1950 ) . When Marie , having escaped from the school , discovers that her freedom is an illusion , she longs to return to the familiar paths . These sentiments are present in poems such as " Poetry of Departures " ( 1954 ) , " Here " ( 1961 ) , and " High Windows " ( 1967 ) .
The spirit though not the name of Brunette was briefly revived during 1945 – 46 , when Larkin renewed his friendship with Amis . Among the stillborn projects planned by the pair was a story about two beautiful jazz @-@ loving lesbian undergraduates . According to Booth , the " feeble plot [ was ] merely the excuse for lesbian scenes ... far indeed from the originality of Larkin 's Brunette works of 1943 " . Jill , completed in 1944 , was finally published in October 1946 by The Fortune Press , whose eccentric proprietor Reginald Caton reportedly accepted the book without reading it . Larkin was disappointed by the book 's critical reception , but by this time his second novel , A Girl in Winter , had been accepted by Faber and Faber , and was duly published in February 1947 . It received better reviews than Jill , and achieved moderately good sales ; Booth calls it Larkin 's " most original and adventurous experiment in fiction " . It is written from the viewpoint of its main female character , Katherine , but otherwise is unrelated to the Coleman phase . Over the following years Larkin began but failed to finish several more novels , in the last of which , A New World Symphony , he returned once again to the device of a female protagonist @-@ narrator . The novel was finally abandoned around 1954 .
= Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Miami =
The Archdiocese of Miami is a particular church of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States of America . Its ecclesiastic territory includes Broward , Miami @-@ Dade , and Monroe counties in the U.S. state of Florida . The archdiocese is the metropolitan see for the Ecclesiastical Province of Miami , which covers Florida . The archbishop is Thomas Wenski . As archbishop , he also serves as pastor of the Cathedral of Saint Mary , the mother church of the archdiocese . Also serving are 428 priests , 160 permanent deacons , 50 religious brothers and 300 religious sisters who are members of various religious institutes . These priests , deacons and persons religious serve a Catholic population in South Florida of 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 in 118 parishes and missions .
Because of the vast number of immigrants , Mass is offered in at least a dozen languages in parishes throughout the archdiocese . Educational institutions consist of two schools for the disabled , 60 elementary / middle schools , 13 high schools , two universities , and two seminaries . Radio , print , and television media outlets owned and operated by the archdiocese supplement teaching , communication , and ministries .
Several social service organizations are operated by the archdiocese which include two hospitals , nine health care centers , three homes for the aged , and two cemeteries . Charities include homeless shelters , legal services for the poor , an HIV / AIDS ministry , and the Missionaries of Charity and Society of Saint Vincent de Paul ministries to the poor . Catholic Charities of the Archdiocese of Miami is a separate non @-@ profit organization operated by the archdiocese . It claims to be the largest non @-@ governmental provider of social services to the needy in South Florida .
= = History = =
Before 1952 , the entire State of Florida was under the jurisdiction of one diocese , the Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint Augustine . In the 1950s and early 1960s , Saint Augustine bishop Joseph Patrick Hurley purchased land throughout South Florida in anticipation of a future population boom . Today , these once remote areas are thriving cities . Dozens of Catholic churches , schools and cemeteries built on the land purchased by Hurley dot these areas .
The Diocese of Miami was created on October 7 , 1958 , with Coleman Carroll installed as bishop . The diocese included the 16 southern counties in Florida , with a Catholic population of 200 @,@ 000 . It encompassed one half of the area of the state . Less than a year after the creation of the diocese , Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba . This set off a mass exodus of Cuban exiles to South Florida , increasing church membership in the region . The Catholic Welfare Bureau , created by Carroll , played a significant part in helping these waves of Cuban immigrants . Between 1960 and 1962 , 14 @,@ 000 Cuban children were sent to the United States . Operation Pedro Pan , created by Monsignor Bryan O. Walsh , placed them with friends , relatives or the Catholic Welfare Bureau . In 1996 , the Catholic Welfare Bureau changed its name to Catholic Charities . Today it claims to be the largest non @-@ governmental provider of social services in South Florida . It served over 17 @,@ 000 families in the tri @-@ county area of Broward , Dade and Monroe counties in 2006 .
Due to an increased population , the diocese was divided in 1968 . Eight counties became part of the Diocese of St. Petersburg and the new Diocese of Orlando
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Tammany faction of the Democratic party was currently at odds with the Tilden machine there . After the party rift caused the defeat of the Democratic governor in New York 's 1879 election , many Tilden adherents began to think their candidate could not win his home state , and drifted to Bayard , among others . Tilden 's supporters attempted to weaken Bayard in February 1880 by publishing the speech he gave in Dover in 1861 , in which he said that the United States should acquiesce in Southern secession . At the same time , Bayard 's uncompromising stance on the money question pushed some Democrats to support Major General Winfield Scott Hancock , who had not been identified with either extreme in the gold @-@ silver debate and had a military record that appealed to Northerners .
Leading up to the convention in Cincinnati , Tilden remained ambiguous about his intentions . George Gray , Delaware 's attorney general , placed Bayard 's name in nomination , calling the senator " a veteran , covered in scars of many a hard @-@ fought battle , where the principles of constitutional liberty have been at stake ... Bayard is a statesman who will need no introduction to the American people . " When the convention took its first ballot on June 23 , Bayard placed second with 153 ½ votes , trailing only Hancock , who had 171 . On the second ballot , the delegates broke for Hancock , and he was nominated . The Southern delegates , whom Bayard thought would be most loyal to him , were among the first to desert him . The convention nominated William Hayden English of Indiana , a Bayard supporter and hard @-@ money man , for vice president , and then closed . Bayard 's supporters were disappointed , but he supported the ticket as usual , in the interest of party unity . Hancock and English fought to a near @-@ draw in the popular vote , but lost the electoral vote to James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur by 214 to 155 .
= = = Budget surplus and civil service reform = = =
The Delaware legislature re @-@ elected Bayard to the Senate for a third term in 1881 without serious opposition . The Senate in the 47th Congress was evenly divided between Republicans and Democrats , with the new vice president , Arthur , holding the tie @-@ breaking vote . After spending the special session of March 1881 in an intra @-@ Republican Party fight over the confirmation of Garfield 's cabinet nominees , the Senate went into recess until October . By that time , Garfield had been assassinated and Arthur was president . When the Senate reconvened , the Democrats held the majority briefly , and Bayard was elected president pro tempore on October 10 ; Republicans regained the majority three days later as Republican latecomers arrived and were sworn in , and David Davis took over the office .
Among the issues confronting the Senate was the surplus of government funds . With high revenue held over from wartime taxes , the federal government had collected more than it spent since 1866 ; by 1882 the surplus reached $ 145 million . Opinions varied on how to balance the budget ; the Democrats wished to lower tariffs , in order to reduce revenues and the cost of imported goods , while Republicans believed that high tariffs ensured high wages in manufacturing and mining . They preferred the government spend more on internal improvements and pensions for Civil War soldiers while reducing excise taxes . Bayard did not oppose some veterans ' pensions , but worried that pensions would require continued high tariffs , which he opposed . He supported the movement for a commission to examine the tariff and suggest improvements , but opposed the resulting Tariff of 1883 , which reduced tariffs by an average of 1 @.@ 47 % . Congressional Republicans also sought to deplete the surplus through a Rivers and Harbors Act that increased spending on internal improvements ; Bayard opposed the bill and was gratified when Arthur vetoed it against his own party 's wishes .
Bayard and Arthur also agreed on the need for civil service reform . Garfield 's assassination by a deranged office seeker amplified the public demand for civil service reform . Leaders of both parties , including Bayard , realized that they could attract the votes of reformers by turning against the spoils system and , by 1882 , a bipartisan effort began in favor of reform . In 1880 , Democratic Senator George H. Pendleton of Ohio introduced legislation that required selection of civil servants based on merit as determined by an examination , but the bill did not pass . After the 1882 congressional elections , in which Democrats campaigned successfully on the reform issue , the Pendleton bill was proposed again , and again Bayard supported it , saying that " the offices of this Government are created ... for the public service and not for the private use of incumbents . " The Senate approved the bill 38 – 5 and the House soon concurred by a vote of 155 – 47 . Arthur signed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act into law on January 16 , 1883 .
= = = Election of 1884 = = =
Despite his rebukes at the Democratic national conventions in 1876 and 1880 , Bayard was again considered among the leading candidates for the nomination in 1884 . Tilden again was ambiguous about his willingness to run , but by 1883 New York 's new governor , Grover Cleveland , began to surpass Tilden as a likely candidate . After Tilden definitively bowed out in June 1884 , many of his former supporters began to flock to Bayard . Many Democrats were concerned with Cleveland 's ability to carry his home state after he , like Tilden before him , became embroiled in a feud with the Tammany Hall wing of the party . At the same time , the Tammany Democrats became more friendly to Bayard .
By the time the Democrats had assembled in Chicago on July 8 , 1884 to begin their convention , the Republicans had already picked their nominee : James G. Blaine of Maine . Blaine 's nomination turned many reform @-@ minded Republicans ( known as Mugwumps ) away from their party . Bayard and Cleveland , seen as honest politicians , were the Democrats most favored by the renegade Republican faction . Bayard was optimistic at the start of the convention , but the results of the first ballot ran heavily against him : 170 votes to Cleveland 's 392 . The reason was the same as in 1880 : as Congressman Robert S. Stevens of New York said , " I believe if he were President his Administration would be one in which every American citizen would take pride . I believe he is a patriot , but it would be a suicidal attempt to nominate him . His [ 1861 ] Dover speech would be sent into every household in the North . " The voting the next day demonstrated the point , as Cleveland was nominated on the second ballot .
The resulting campaign between Cleveland and Blaine focused more on scandal and mudslinging than the issues of the day . In the end , Cleveland eked out a narrow victory . Carrying New York was crucial for the Democrat ; a shift of just 550 votes in that state would have given the election to Blaine . Instead , Cleveland carried his home state and a Democrat was elected president for the first time since 1856 . Cleveland recognized Bayard 's status in the party hierarchy by offering him the top spot in his cabinet : Secretary of State . Bayard did not think himself an expert in foreign affairs and enjoyed the sixteen years he had spent in the Senate ; even so , he accepted the post and joined the administration .
= = Secretary of State = =
= = = Samoa and Hawaii = = =
Among the first foreign policy challenges Bayard and Cleveland faced was that concerning American influence in the Samoan Islands . The United States , Great Britain , and Germany all had treaties with the Samoan government that guaranteed their right to trade and establish naval bases there . In the 1880s , German chancellor Otto von Bismarck began to increase German influence in Samoa , and attempted to replace the Samoan king , Malietoa Laupepa , with Tamasese Titimaea , a claimant to the throne who favored German suzerainty . Bayard and Cleveland opposed any change that would undermine Samoan independence , as did the British government . Bayard filed a note of protest with the German government , and the three powers agreed to meet for a conference in Washington in June 1887 , but they failed to achieve any agreement .
Shortly thereafter , Tamasese 's unpopularity led another claimant , Mata 'afa Iosefo , to start a rebellion that led to the Samoan Civil War . When Tamasese 's German guards were killed , Bismarck considered it an attack on Germany , and sent warships to Samoa . Cleveland dispatched three American warships , Nipsic , Trenton , and Vandalia , in response , and a British warship joined them . As the threat of war grew , Bismarck backed down and agreed to another conference in 1889 ; two weeks later , a hurricane struck the harbor and all of the German and American warships were damaged or sunk . As tempers cooled , the parties met in conference in Berlin . By that time , Cleveland had been defeated for re @-@ election and James G. Blaine took Bayard 's place as Secretary of State . The three powers agreed to a tripartite protectorate of Samoa with Malietoa Laupepa restored as king ; that situation prevailed until 1899 , when renewed civil war led to a second convention partitioning the islands between Germany and the United States .
In the Kingdom of Hawaii , Bayard and Cleveland pursued a similar goal of maintaining the Hawaiian kingdom 's independence while expanding access for American trade . As a Senator , Bayard had voted for free trade with Hawaii , but the treaty was allowed to lapse in 1884 . As Secretary of State the following year , Bayard hoped to again have free trade with Hawaii , and also endorsed the idea of establishing an American naval base there , although he preferred Midway Atoll to the eventual location , Pearl Harbor . A treaty to that effect passed the Senate in 1887 by a 43 – 11 vote . As in Samoa , the administration sought to curb foreign influence , encouraging the Hawaiian government to reject a loan from Britain that would have required pledging future government revenues toward its repayment .
= = = Relations with Britain = = =
Despite their agreement on Samoa , much of Bayard 's term of office was taken up in settling disputes with Great Britain . The largest of these concerned the Canadian fisheries off the Atlantic coasts of Canada and Newfoundland . The rights of American fisherman in Canadian waters had been disputed since American independence , but the most recent disagreement stemmed from Congress 's decision in 1885 to abrogate part of the 1871 treaty that governed the situation . Under that treaty , American fishermen had the right to fish in Canadian waters ; in return , fishermen from Canada and Newfoundland had the right to export fish to the United States duty @-@ free . Protectionists in Congress thought the arrangement hurt American fisherman , and convinced their colleagues to repeal it . In response , Canadian authorities fell back on an interpretation of the earlier Treaty of 1818 , and began to seize American vessels . In 1887 , the lame duck 49th Congress then passed the Fisheries Retaliation Act , which empowered the president to bar Canadian ships from American ports if he thought Canadians were treating American fishermen " unjustly ; " Cleveland signed the bill , but did not enforce it and hoped he and Bayard would be able to find a diplomatic solution to the escalating trade war .
= = = Bayard @-@ Chamberlain Treaty = = =
Britain agreed to negotiate , and a six @-@ member commission convened in Washington in June 1887 . Bayard led the American delegation , joined by James Burrill Angell , president of the University of Michigan , and William LeBaron Putnam , a Maine lawyer and international law scholar . Joseph Chamberlain , a leading statesman in the British Parliament , led their delegation , which also included Lionel Sackville @-@ West , the British ambassador to the United States , and Charles Tupper , a prominent politician from Nova Scotia . By February 1888 , the commission agreed on a new treaty , which would create a mixed commission to determine which bays were open to American fishermen . Americans could purchase provisions and bait in Canada if they purchased a license , but if Canadian fisherman were allowed to sell their catch in the United States duty @-@ free , then the Americans ' licenses to fish in Canada would be free . Bayard believed that the treaty , " if observed honorably and honestly , will prevent future friction ... between the two nations . " The Senate , controlled by Republicans , disagreed , and rejected the treaty by a 27 – 30 vote . Aware of the risk that the treaty might be rejected , Bayard and Chamberlain agreed on a two @-@ year working agreement , allowing Americans to continue their fishing in Canadian waters by paying a fee . This arrangement was renewed every two years until 1912 , when a permanent solution was found .
= = = Seal hunting = = =
A similar dispute with Britain arose in the Pacific , over the rights of Canadians to hunt seals in waters off the Pribilof Islands , a part of Alaska . While only Americans had the right to take seals on the islands , the right to hunt in the waters around them was less well @-@ defined , and Americans believed foreign sealers were depleting the herd too quickly by hunting off @-@ shore . Bayard and Cleveland believed the waters around the islands to be exclusively American , but when Cleveland ordered the seizure of Canadian ships there , Bayard tried to convince him to search for a diplomatic solution instead . The situation remained unresolved when the administration left office in 1889 , and remained so until the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 .
= = = 1888 presidential election = = =
Relations with Britain were also impaired when Sackville @-@ West intervened in the 1888 election . A Republican , posing as a British immigrant to the United States , asked Sackville @-@ West whether voting for Cleveland or his Republican opponent , Benjamin Harrison , would best serve British interests . Sackville @-@ West wrote that Cleveland was better for Britain ; Republicans published the letter in October 1888 , hoping to diminish Cleveland 's popularity among Irish @-@ Americans . Cleveland 's cabinet discussed the matter and instructed Bayard to inform the ambassador his services would no longer be required in Washington . Bayard attempted to limit the electoral damage , and gave a speech in Baltimore condemning Republicans for scheming to portray Cleveland as a British tool . Cleveland was defeated for re @-@ election the following month in a close election .
= = Return to private life = =
Bayard 's term as Secretary of State ended in March 1889 after Cleveland 's defeat , and he returned to Wilmington to resume his law practice . He lived in " very comfortable circumstances " there , with a fortune estimated at $ 300 @,@ 000 , although his income from the law practice was modest . His wife having died in 1886 , Bayard remarried in 1889 to Mary Willing Clymer , the granddaughter and namesake of the Philadelphia socialite Mary Willing Clymer . Bayard remained involved with Democratic politics and stayed informed on foreign affairs . When Cleveland was re @-@ elected in 1892 , many assumed Bayard would resume his position in the cabinet . Instead , Cleveland selected Judge Walter Q. Gresham of Indiana for the State Department and appointed Bayard Ambassador to Great Britain , the first American envoy to Britain to hold that rank ( his predecessors had been envoys ) . Bayard accepted the appointment , which the Senate quickly confirmed .
= = Ambassador to Great Britain = =
On June 12 , 1893 , Lord Rosebury , the British Foreign Minister , received Bayard in London . Bayard began his tenure as ambassador with an " instinctive feeling of friendship for England , " and a desire for peace and cooperation between the two nations . That desire was quickly impaired when Cleveland took the side of Venezuela when that nation insisted on taking a boundary dispute between it and British Guiana to international arbitration . The exact boundary had been in dispute for decades , but Britain had consistently denied any arbitration except over a small portion of the line ; Venezuela wished the entire boundary included in any arbitration .
Bayard spent the summer of 1894 in the United States conferring with Gresham . The tension in the Venezuelan boundary dispute continued to escalate , while British disagreements with Nicaragua also threatened to involve the United States . Britain had once ruled the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua ( the Mosquito Coast ) but had abandoned it in 1860 . Nicaragua had annexed the area while guaranteeing the inhabitants ( the Miskito people ) a degree of autonomy . When Nicaragua expanded their control of the area in 1894 , the Miskito chief , Robert Henry Clarence , protested with the support of the British ambassador . Bayard agreed with Cleveland and Gresham that the British were not attempting to reestablish their colony , but Nicaraguans ( and many Anglophobic Americans ) saw a more sinister motive , including a possible British @-@ controlled canal through Nicaragua . Returning to England , Bayard met with the new Foreign Minister , Lord Kimberley , to emphaisize Nicaragua 's right to govern the area .
The tension over Nicaragua soon abated , but the May 1895 death of Secretary Gresham , who like Bayard had favored cooperation with the British , led to increased disagreement over the Venezuela issue . Cleveland appointed Richard Olney to take over the State Department , and Olney soon proved more confrontational than his predecessor . Olney 's opinion , soon adopted by Cleveland , was that the Monroe Doctrine not only prohibited new European colonies , but also declared an American national interest in any matter of substance within the hemisphere . Olney drafted a long dispatch on the history of the problem , declaring that " to @-@ day the United States is practically sovereign on this continent , and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it confines its interposition ... " Bayard delivered the note to the British Prime Minister ( Lord Salisbury , who was also serving as Foreign Minister ) on August 7 , 1895 .
Olney 's note was met with vehement disagreement and delay , but when tempers cooled , the British agreed to arbitration later that year . Bayard disagreed with the bellicose tone of the message , which he attributed to an effort to satisfy Anglophobia among " Radical Republicans and the foolish Irishmen . " Olney , for his part , thought Bayard soft @-@ pedaled the note and asked Cleveland to remove Bayard from office , which Cleveland declined . The House of Representatives agreed with Olney , and passed a resolution of censure against Bayard in December 1895 . Britain and Venezuela formally agreed to arbitration in February 1897 , one month before the Cleveland administration came to an end . The panel 's final judgement , delivered in 1899 , awarded Britain almost all of the disputed territory .
= = Death and legacy = =
Bayard remained in London until the arrival of his successor , John Hay , in April 1897 . He returned to Wilmington that May and visited ex @-@ President Cleveland at his home in Princeton the following month , remaining friendly with him despite their differences on the Venezuela question . Bayard 's health had begun to decline in England , and he was often ill after his return to the United States . He died on September 28 , 1898 , while visiting his daughter Mabel Bayard Warren in Dedham , Massachusetts . Bayard was buried in the Old Swedes Episcopal Church Cemetery at Wilmington . He was survived by his second wife and seven of his twelve children , including Thomas F. Bayard , Jr . , who would serve in the United States Senate from 1922 to 1929 .
Thirteen years after his death , the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica said of Bayard that " his tall dignified person , unfailing courtesy , and polished , if somewhat deliberate , eloquence made him a man of mark in all the best circles . He was considered indeed by many Americans to have become too partial to English ways ; and , for the expression of some criticisms regarded as unfavorable to his own countrymen , the House of Representatives went so far as to pass ... a vote of censure on him . The value of Bayard 's diplomacy was , however , fully recognized in the United Kingdom where he worthily upheld the traditions of a famous line of American ministers . " In 1929 , the Dictionary of American Biography described Bayard , as a Senator , as being " remembered rather for his opposition to Republican policies ... than for constructive legislation of the successful solution of great problems " , and said that he had " the convictions of an earlier day ... and was never inclined , either politically or socially , to seek popularity with the country at large . " Charles C. Tansill , a conservative historian , found much to praise in Bayard ; he published a volume on Bayard 's diplomatic career in 1940 and another about his congressional career in 1946 , the only full @-@ length biographies to appear since Bayard 's death . Later historians took a dimmer view of Bayard 's diplomatic career ; in a 1989 book , Henry E. Mattox numbered Bayard among the Gilded Age foreign service officers who were " demonstrably incompetent . "
= How the Ghosts Stole Christmas =
" How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " is the sixth episode of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 13 , 1998 . It was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter , and featured guest appearances by Edward Asner and Lily Tomlin . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 6 , being watched by 17 @.@ 3 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics , although some reviews criticized the episode for over @-@ simplyfing the characters .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this Christmas @-@ themed episode , Mulder and Scully stake out a reputed haunted house . The duo soon discover a pair of lovelorn spectres living inside the house who are determined to prove how lonely the holidays can be .
Carter based the episode around an idea he and fellow writer Frank Spotnitz had been working on , featuring a haunted house . Featuring the smallest cast of an X @-@ Files episode — with only four actors — and a single set , " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " was the cheapest sixth season episode . The drastic reduction in the budget , however , put more strain on the main actors .
= = Plot = =
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) calls Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) on Christmas Eve to investigate a haunted house in Maryland . He explains that during Christmas of 1917 , a young couple living in the house agreed to a lover 's pact , one killing the other and the remaining one committing suicide . He explains that they could not stand the thought of being alone after the other died and during the afterlife ; they wanted to experience it all together . Now , Mulder claims , they want to make couples who venture into their mansion have the same fate .
Scully , who is busy wrapping presents , ultimately relents to Mulder 's request . Inside the house , the agents experience strange phenomena : the door to the mansion slams shut , creaks are heard in the ceiling from the upper floor , and the shadow in the form of an old woman in a nightgown is seen , among other occurrences . Mulder and Scully reluctantly decide to investigate the floor above them . There , they find a massive library storing two corpses that have the same clothes and hairstyles as the agents , along with two gunshot wounds . They decide to go search other rooms , only to find that every door they walk through is the same library room they first entered . They then decide to split up , hoping to find a way out of the room .
While separated , they meet the inhabitants of the mansion — Maurice ( Ed Asner ) and Lyda ( Lily Tomlin ) . The ghosts soon turn the agents against each other . Scully is told that Mulder will kill her . Scully meets back up with Mulder , only for him to pull out a gun and shoot her . Scully , completely confused , loses consciousness , and the perspective shifts . It is revealed that Lyda is actually the one carrying out these actions and , through her ghostly ability to create apparitions , causes Scully to see Mulder instead . Meanwhile , Mulder comes upon a bleeding Scully lying on the floor . When he leans over her to try to help her , she shoots Mulder in the stomach . Again , the audience sees that it is Lyda pretending to be Scully , manipulating Mulder .
Both Mulder and Scully stumble down the stairs in hope of just getting outside to die . They meet up by the door , both crawling on the floor , covered in massive amounts of blood . Scully claims he shot her , while Mulder claims she shot him . Mulder realizes that that could not have happened and stands up . The illusion is broken , and the two leave the house . Maurice and Lyda sit by the fire , holding hands , saying that they almost had the two agents . Meanwhile , at Mulder 's apartment , Mulder and Scully exchange gifts , even though they told each other they would not .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Writer , director , and series creator Chris Carter based the episode around an idea he and fellow writer Frank Spotnitz had been working on , featuring a haunted house . The only scene that the two had completely planned out was the climax , which features Mulder and Scully pulling themselves across the floor , bleeding profusely . Carter wanted to keep all the action on one set , with the episode featuring only one location . To do this , production designer Corey Kaplan proposed that the episode be filmed in Scully 's apartment , a set that the crew had not used for season six . Carter , however , wanting to keep the haunted house motif , asked Kaplan if she could design a mansion set . Kaplan was tasked with designing a set that was " bleak , but not too bleak [ ... ] decrepit , but not too decrepit , " and " deserted , but not too deserted . "
= = = Casting and filming = = =
" How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " features the smallest cast in X @-@ Files history , with only David Duchovny , Gillian Anderson , and the two guest stars present in the episode . Lily Tomlin , who played the part of Lyda , had originally approached the casting agents for The X @-@ Files several seasons prior to season six . Her agent expressed her interest in a part . Carter agreed to meet her and the two discussed possible ideas for futures episodes . After several years of thinking , Carter decided to write " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " as a vehicle for her . Originally , Carter wanted Bob Newhart to play the part of Maurice . However , Newhart was not interested . The crew , instead , approached veteran actor Ed Asner , who readily agreed to take part in the episode .
The episode was filmed without multiple sets , out @-@ of @-@ studio locations , or a large amount of extras . In addition , the budget for the episode was kept to a minimum . Because of this , " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " was the cheapest episode filmed for the sixth season . Carter readily admits that making the episode was a challenge . The drastic reduction in the budget put more strain on the main actors and several key individuals involved in the production . The outside scenes were filmed in front of the Piru Mansion in Piru , California , where the sixth season episode " The Rain King " was filmed . The day before filming was slated to begin , a brush fire ignited on the hill behind the mansion . Location manager Ilt Jones rushed to the scene in the middle of the inferno , but after an hour , the local firemen were able to bring the blaze under control by digging a fire break . The fire stopped a mere 300 feet from the house .
= = = Effects and music = = =
The gunshot wounds that Scully , and later Mulder , discover on Maurice and Lyda were created on a computer . Special effects editor Bill Millar was tasked with designing the " bloodless bullet holes " that were on Asner 's head and Tomlin 's stomach . To create this effect , Millar attached orange fluorescent cloth to the places that would become the bullet wounds . An ultraviolet light was then added to the set lighting so that the invisible reflected light would function as tracking data . The orange cloth was then excised during post @-@ production and the computerized bullet wounds were inserted in their place . Millar admits that the technique was borrowed from the 1992 movie Death Becomes Her , although he sarcastically admitted that , " we did it better and with less money . " Gillian Anderson was later critical of the fake blood used for the episode because the sheer quantity soon coagulated and formed a " gummy mess . "
Mark Snow , the composer for the episode , admitted to " ripping off " Joseph Haydn 's " Toy " Symphony to create the eerie Baroque @-@ inspired harpsichord score . Snow also admits that another major influence for the episode was Johnny Mandel 's " brilliant " score for the 1982 movie Deathtrap .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " first aired in the United States on December 13 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 17 @.@ 30 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 11 , 1999 and received 0 @.@ 70 million viewers and was the fourth most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " This holiday season ... share the gift of terror . " Corey Kaplan later won an award of excellence from the Society of Motion Picture and Television Art Directors for his work on " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas . "
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics , with some detractors . Sight on Sound called the episode " one of the best Christmas episodes of any series . " The review called “ How the Ghosts Stole Christmas , ” " an extremely creative , arguably bitter Holiday treat , perfect for [ Christmas ] with its blend of horror , comedy and hints of romance . " Static Mass writer Patrick Samuel awarded the episode five stars and said , " As [ Mulder and Scully ] gleefully unwrap their presents at the end , this episode is something that really makes my own Christmases feel that little bit more complete . " Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson , in a review of " Monday , " said , " Season six included some more excellent episodes [ and ] classic comedy episodes including , " How The Ghosts Stole Christmas . " DVD.net called " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " a " classic " standalone episode . SFX named the episode the sixth best " SF [ Sci @-@ Fi ] & Fantasy Christmas Episodes " and noted that it was full of " classic lines , some neat tricks " .
Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it a grade of an A. He noted that the episode was written in a similar manner to the earlier , Carter @-@ penned " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " . Handlen wrote that both entries " have a gleeful , everybody @-@ gets @-@ out @-@ okay @-@ in @-@ the @-@ end vibe " . He , however , concluded that the " episode lives and dies on the strength of its two guest stars " before writing that " Asner and Tomlin are more than up to the task . " Earl Cressey from DVD Talk called " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " one of the " highlights of season six . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files gave the episode more of a mixed to positive review , noting the lack of darkness in the episode . He wrote , " OK , I liked a lot of this episode . [ … ] But while I 've enjoyed the sheer entertainment value of the past three shows , I really am longing for something a bit sinister and darker . "
Not all reviews were so positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris was unhappy with the way Maurice and Lyda were characterized , noting that their method of trying to get Mulder and Scully to kill each other resulted in " endless psychobabble dialogue " . Michigan Daily writer Melissa Runstrom , in a review of the sixth season , described " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " as " hokey " and " over @-@ the @-@ top . " She identified it as the weakest episode of the sixth season .
= Wavering Radiant =
Wavering Radiant is the fifth and final full @-@ length album by American post @-@ metal group ISIS , released by Ipecac Recordings in 2009 and produced by Joe Barresi . It stands as Isis ' last full @-@ length album , as the band split just over a year after its release . The album continues Isis ' history of lengthy songwriting , yet presents a slight departure from the soft @-@ loud dynamics and post @-@ metal aesthetic which characterized previous releases .
Reviewers noted a continued increase in melody from previous releases , and many were quick to note an increased prominence of keyboardist Bryant Clifford Meyer 's work , using a Hammond B3 organ . In keeping with Isis ' retinue of concept albums , a thematic strand runs throughout , dealing with dreams and Jungian psychology . Critical appraisal was largely positive , with some critics deeming it Isis ' finest album ; it also appeared on a handful of best @-@ of lists at the close of the year . Commercially , it was Isis ' most successful release ever , breaching the Billboard 200 for the first time and gaining international chart presence . It was ranked in the year @-@ end lists by a number of reputed publications . To promote the album , Isis embarked on a world tour and shot a music video for the sixth track " 20 Minutes / 40 Years . "
= = Writing and recording = =
From conception to final release in 2009 , drummer Aaron Harris estimates that the creation and execution of Wavering Radiant took about two and a half years . During the writing of the record , all of Isis ' members were residing permanently within Los Angeles ; a situation in contrast to their previous full @-@ length , 2006 's In the Absence of Truth ; band members were divided between New York and Los Angeles throughout that album 's inception and creation . The entire band felt a degree of dissatisfaction with In the Absence of Truth , and Harris felt that the logistical change was beneficial to the writing process , allowing for more time : " rather than feeling like we had limited time to capture something , I felt like we could take our time with the songs , and come back the next day to work on things rather than in a few weeks " . The resulting sound was described by guitarist Michael Gallagher as " more live [ ... ] a little bit dirtier – almost , for lack of a better word , sloppy . But in a good way . We spent a lot of time getting all of our takes as close to perfect as we could on previous records . On this one , we went more with the vibe of the particular take in question . "
During the composition phase , Harris multitrack recorded the rehearsals , allowing the band to listen to the material and re @-@ examine it , allowing them greater room to jam while writing " without the worry of forgetting something or not fully understanding what [ they were ] doing " . This , coupled with the lack of a deadline , meant that the process was more open @-@ ended for the band , allowing more freedom to abandon failed avenues and giving ideas time to evolve . This attitude was extended to the manner in which the vocals were tracked – until Wavering Radiant , the vocals had normally been recorded last . Instead , more time was spent recording them ; this allowed Turner , who had steadily grown in confidence as a vocalist , to relax and enjoy the process .
The recording process for the album began in November 2008 and lasted around three months , helmed by Joe Barresi . Isis ' previous full @-@ lengths since Celestial had been produced by Matt Bayles , but for this record , it was decided that a change was needed . Although the professional parting of ways was peaceable , working with Bayles had become , in the words of Harris , " routine " and " old hat " . Barresi was selected thanks to his work with bands such as Tool , Queens of the Stone Age and Melvins , and upon the album 's completion , Harris felt that Barresi " brought out some aspects of the band that even we didn 't fully understand . " Harris ' drums and keyboardist Bryant Clifford Meyer 's Hammond B3 lines were tracked over three and a half days at Sound City in Van Nuys ; the same studio in which the seminal Nirvana record Nevermind was tracked . This marked the first time a specialist drum tech was utilised by the band ; Jerry Johnson , a veteran of projects with Def Leppard and Linkin Park , was recruited .
The involvement of Tool 's Adam Jones as a guest musician was revealed at the same time as the album 's official announcement . Jones contributes additional guitar on " Hall of the Dead " and keyboards on " Wavering Radiant " , whereas Tool member Justin Chancellor had contributed to Isis ' 2004 album , Panopticon , and Isis supported Tool during a 2006 tour .
Two additional tracks were recorded during the Wavering Radiant sessions , but failed to make it onto the final cut of the album . " The Pliable Foe " was selected for the Metal Swim compilation released by Adult Swim , as well as Isis ' split with the Melvins , both released in 2010 . " Way Through Woven Branches " saw release as an addition to the Japanese edition as a bonus track , as well as making its way onto the split with the Melvins .
= = Theme = =
Reviewers have discussed the presence of a theme , with Milton Savage deducing that " track titles would imply an underlying conceptual framework to Wavering Radiant , with ' Hall of the Dead ' preceding ' Ghost Key ' , and ' Threshold of Transformation ' closing the album in epic circumstances – Turner , it seems , has left our world behind for exploration of another beyond the lives led by mortal men . " Isis releases have always had a thematic basis ; as Andrew Rennie dissects , " Isis 's four previous full @-@ lengths have clear story arcs , but Wavering Radiant 's themes are open to interpretation , giving it added appeal . " Over time , Turner has become reluctant to divulge the thematic particulars of any given album and on Wavering Radiant he has been equivocal . The act of explaining the thematic basis of an album erodes Turner 's " connection " with the music , and he has spoken of how that relationship is something he " wishes to preserve " . He also asserts that retaining this synergy with the music allows him to commit more to the album 's live performances . Similarly , he has also spoken of how " [ p ] eople have a tendency to focus on one narrow aspect of the overall concept or misinterpret it . "
Although reluctant to give any specifics , he has expressed snippets of conceptual background at times ; this , however , doesn 't extend to the reasoning behind the album 's title , which he declined to elaborate upon . When asked to describe the album in three words , he stated that it was a " path of exploration " . Bassist Jeff Caxide has revealed that Turner noted Carl Jung as a major influence on the concept and lyrics . Jung 's 1961 work , Memories , Dreams , Reflections , served as a specific source of inspiration for Turner , as he noted on his blog in a post preceding the album 's release . Beyond Jung , he has spoken of how the album is closely related to dreams , and that he had been keeping a dream journal during the album 's compositional phase . He gave up smoking marijuana in 2008 , which he says enabled him to remember his dreams more clearly and , according to J. Bennett , " tap into an internal consciousness " . All of the album 's official lyrics , deemed almost entirely indecipherable , were revealed in celebration of the album 's first anniversary .
= = Music = =
Wavering Radiant , at 54 minutes , is Isis ' shortest release since their 2000 studio début Celestial . The standard release contains seven tracks , ranging from less than two minutes to more than ten . It continues Isis ' use of non @-@ standard time signatures , opening in 5 / 4 time with " Hall of the Dead " .
Milton Savage tussled with the challenge of defining Isis ' sound : " If it 's not heavy – ' dense ' is better description – and the band 's purer metal roots have grown into a towering trunk from which sprout the most tangled of branches , both sturdy and incredibly delicate , then how does one take in the full picture and condense twelve years of unfaltering advancement to a single adjective ? " Roque Strew , of Pitchfork Media , struggles in the same vein : " pin a single label , style , adjective on Isis and it slips right off . "
While reviewers were troubled with categorizing the band , much time was spent deliberating upon the album 's sound when held in comparison with other Isis material . Robin Jahdi , writing for FACT Magazine , holds that the album presents a shift in dynamic . " It takes a while to realise , but [ Wavering Radiant ] is pretty different to what 's come before from Aaron Turner and co . The last time this happened was 2002 , when they transformed from brutal sludge metal to something altogether more delicate . " Here , he references the transition brokered when Isis released Oceanic , a critically acclaimed departure from the sound of 2000 's Celestial . Other differences from some of Isis ' previous material have been noted ; on a broad scale , the album was deemed " less punishing than Panopticon , from 2004 , and less ponderous than In the Absence of Truth , from 2006 " , but closer examination also led Slant 's Matthew Cole to suggest differences . " On past releases , Isis employed loud / soft dynamics to stunning effect , and while that element remains central to their sound , the best parts of Wavering Radiant suggest a more sophisticated integration . Rather than playing on the line between pretty and heavy , tracks like ' Stone to Wake a Serpent ' and ' 20 Minutes / 40 Years ' dissolve it . " Not all reviews held the album to be such a departure – for instance , Andrew Hartwig feels that " Wavering Radiant continues in the direction that Isis have been travelling since their inception , with an increasing prominence of melody and a greater focus on placid sections to balance out their signature crushing heaviness " .
Although Turner 's lyrics are found to be " far from wholly discernable " , his vocals have " mellowed " . Robin Jahdi writes that " Turner 's vocals are growing as well , sounding eerily like Steve Brodsky , from Isis ' peers Cave In . These journeys into melody are so successful ( vocal harmonies , no less ) that you wonder why Turner still bothers with the pseudo @-@ death metal vocals at all . They add little to the music and must serve to turn off more potential fans than they attract . " Nate Chinen , however , sees this variety as a vital component of the album 's success , attesting that " Aaron Turner expertly alternates between a death @-@ metal roar and a more human wail , using whichever better suits the needs of a song " .
According to William Ruhlmann , " a big difference is provided by keyboardist Clifford Meyer , who provides texture , filling up the overall sound and also adding ethereal touches that sometimes make Isis reminiscent of Pink Floyd . " This view is shared by Roque Strew , who argues that " equally vital to the record 's dense , hypnotic shape is Clifford Meyer 's command of the keyboard [ ... ] His blissful , knotty phrases , played on a dusty Hammond B3 or Rhodes , often recreate moments from the psychedelic and prog @-@ rock past . " However , Chris Norton of Tiny Mix Tapes contends that " the prominent keyboard tones sound pretty hokey on this album . " Praise was spared for drummer Aaron Harris also ; on this release , " everyone is playing off Harris and following his lead dynamically . His sense of moment is perfect ; knowing exactly when and where to jump in or cut back , and just how much . "
The influence of several contemporary bands was deemed apparent upon the sound of the album . Robin Jahdi writes that " the Isis sound , debuted proper on the 2002 album , is still present and correct , but there 's more subtle shifts in mood here , most interestingly when they take influence from outside ( Tool 's Adam Jones plays on two songs ) . The basslines bounce and jolt with that familiar elasticity , but the seismic six @-@ string shifts on songs like ' Hand of the Host ' and ' 20 Minutes / 40 Years ' are the sort not heard from this band in years . It is no coincidence that these are highlights . " The rhythms of " 20 Minutes / 40 Years " are described as " Pelican @-@ like " by NME reviewer Ben Patashnik , and No Ripcord 's Sean Caldwell compares the album to Mastodon 's Blood Mountain , citing its potential for " crossover " appeal .
= = Promotion and release = =
In late December 2008 , Isis began to introduce a previously unheard track into their live setlists , prompting speculation from fans and critics as video versions circulated on the Internet . Turner went on to announce the track 's title as " 20 Minutes / 40 Years " on 30 December . The album was officially announced on 22 January 2009 , and its title a week later . The album artwork and tracklist were published shortly afterwards , in early February . On 24 March , Isis added the song " 20 Minutes / 40 Years " to their MySpace page , and a week before the album 's release , made the entire record available for streaming . To promote the album in the build @-@ up to its release , Isis released a series of teaser videos , consisting of footage of the band recording , but no musical content . A limited edition run of signed CD booklets were made available to those pre @-@ ordering the album , as well as album @-@ related merchandise .
The album was released by Ipecac Recordings on limited vinyl on 21 April 2009 , and in CD format on 5 May . European distribution was undertaken by Conspiracy Records , while a special Japanese edition was handled by Daymare Recordings .
Following the album 's release , Isis embarked on a tour of North America , supported by Pelican and Tombs . They then went on to tour the UK and Europe through late 2009 , supported variously by bands including Keelhaul , Dälek and Circle . They toured Australia , New Zealand and Japan with Baroness before returning to the United States to tour with Melvins , Jakob and Cave In from May to June . This American leg of the tour included an appearance at 2010 's Bonnaroo festival in Manchester , Tennessee , while the Pacific portion took in the Soundwave Festival in Australia .
Having shot videos for tracks from their previous two albums , Isis went on to record another for " 20 Minutes / 40 Years " . Described as a " seven and a half minute epic " , the video , directed by Matt Santoro and released in November 2009 , opens with ferromagnetic fluid moving through an ambiguous , dark setting . A masked figure , trapped inside a translucent box , watches its interplay . The fluid enters the box , where it is subsumed by the figure . As the song reaches its crescendo , the box rises through the earth and breaks out of the surface into the sunlight , and its captive is freed . It received airplay on MTV2 's Headbanger 's Ball .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical response to the album was , overall , fairly laudatory . Its score of 79 out of 100 – or ' generally favorable ' – on Metacritic attests to decent reception . Regarding its place in Isis ' catalog , it has been described as their " most accomplished and complete album to date " by Ali Maloney of The Skinny , as their " smartest and richest record " and as " the toughest and catchiest Isis record " since their debut full @-@ length , Celestial . " Beyond the band 's own repertoire , it was described as " metal played at its arresting best " , and Andrew Rennie of NOW went as far as declaring it " close to perfect " . Not all reviews were so glowing , as the NME characterized it as " 45 minutes of awesomeness stretched out to a slightly bloated hour [ ... ] the unsettling Toolisms of ' Ghost Key ' meander just too long and ' Hand of the Host ' spends half of its 11 minutes repeating itself without really juddering into the granite riff golem it threatens to be . " Similarly , Chris Norton of Tiny Mix Tapes feels that the album " isn 't the band 's best by a really long shot , even if it ain 't bad . " Accessibility was a similarly divisive issue , with the album being characterized as " perhaps their most rewarding yet , but simultaneously their hardest to immediately access given its prioritising of subtle nuances over senses @-@ numbing assaults " and " a slow @-@ burning success " . Conversely , it has also been declared to be " easily the band 's most accessible effort " . Allmusic 's William Ruhlmann felt that with regards to structure , " Wavering Radiant works as a single piece of music rather than a series of songs " , as Milton Savage of Drowned in Sound concurred that Isis have " construct [ ed ] their latest so that it 's best experienced as a whole " .
The success of the album was deemed contingent upon balance . The Guardian 's Jamie Thomson posits that " the Isis of old gave the impression they were enjoying their meandering jams just a little too much , leaving the listener a tad lost . Here , they rein them in perfectly , and reward you with a colossal chorus for staying the distance " , while Nate Chinen , of The New York Times , feels that the release " upholds a deliberative truce between brute physicality and moody rumination " .
Critical selection of album highlights has provided multiple standout tracks : Milton Savage unequivocally declares that " ' Stone to Wake a Serpent ' is an obvious selection : its ominous , horror @-@ movie keyboard tones duel with Turner 's most ferocious performance in some years " , a pick Andrew Rennie of NOW shared . Other selections include " 20 Minutes / 40 Years " and " Hall of the Dead " , which Roque Strew argues " may be the lushest , most astutely crafted opener in the Isis discography " .
Turner himself had this to say of the album , fully cognizant that it would be the band 's last : " I don 't know if looking back many years from now if Wavering Radiant will be my favorite Isis record or not , but I certainly feel like it 's the best record we were capable of making at the time , and I also feel like we didn 't compromise in any really significant way the spirit or ideology behind the band in making it . And sonically speaking , I think it sounds really good , so that makes me happy , too . "
= = = Commercial reception = = =
On 13 May the album entered the Billboard 200 at number 98 and the Top Independent Albums chart in tenth spot , representing the band 's highest placing to date . In the United States , the album sold 5 @,@ 800 copies in the first week of its release . It entered the BBC Radio 1 Top 40 Rock Albums chart at number 17 , the Norwegian National Chart at number 37 , and the German charts at number 96 , providing Isis with their first chart exposure outside the United States and United Kingdom .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Isis .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = Release history = =
= Loyal Order of Moose =
The Loyal Order of Moose is a fraternal and service organization founded in 1888 , with nearly 1 million men in roughly 2 @,@ 400 Lodges , in all 50 U.S. states and four Canadian provinces as well as Bermuda ; along with its female auxiliary , Women of the Moose with more than 400 @,@ 000 members in roughly 1 @,@ 600 Chapters in the same areas and the Loyal Order of Moose in Britain these organizations make up the Moose International . It is headquartered in Mooseheart , Illinois .
Moose International supports the operation of Mooseheart Child City & School , a 1 @,@ 023 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 14 km2 ) community for children and teens in need , located 40 miles ( 64 km ) west of Chicago ; and Moosehaven , a 63 @-@ acre ( 250 @,@ 000 m2 ) retirement community for its members near Jacksonville , Florida . Also , Moose Lodges and Chapters conduct approximately $ 75 million worth of community service ( counting monetary donations and volunteer hours worked ) annually .
Additionally , the Moose organization conducts numerous sports and recreational programs , in local Lodge / Chapter facilities called either Moose Family Centers or Activity Centers , in the majority of 44 State and Provincial Associations , and on a fraternity @-@ wide basis .
= = History = =
The Loyal Order of Moose was founded in Louisville , Kentucky , in the spring of 1888 by Dr. John Henry Wilson . Originally intended purely as a men 's social club , lodges were soon founded in Cincinnati , Ohio , St. Louis , Missouri and Crawfordsville and Frankfort , Indiana . The early order was not prosperous . Dr. Wilson himself was dissatisfied and left the order of the Moose before the turn of the century . When Albert C. Stevens was compiling his Cyclopedia of Fraternities in the late 1890s he was unable to ascertain whether it was still in existence .
In the fall of 1906 the Order only had the two Indiana lodges remaining . On October 27 of that year James J. Davis became the 247th member of the Order . Davis was a Welsh immigrant who had come to the US as a youth and worked as an iron puddler in the steel mills of Pennsylvania , and an active labor organizer ( he later became Secretary of Labor in the Harding administration ) . He saw the Order as a way to provide a social safety net for a working class membership , using a low annual membership fee of $ 10 – $ 15 . After giving a rousing address to the seven delegates of the 1906 Moose national convention , he was appointed " Supreme Organizer " of the Order . Davis and a group of organizers set out to recruit members and establish lodges throughout the US and Canada . He was quite successful and the Order grew to nearly half a million members in 1 @,@ 000 lodges by 1912 .
= = = Mooseheart & Moosehaven = = =
At the 1911 convention in Detroit , Davis , who now “ Director General ” of the Order , recommended that the LOOM acquire property for an " Institute " , " School " or " College " that would be a home , schooling , and vocational training for the orphans of LOOM members . For months offers came in and a number of meetings were held regarding the project . It was eventually agreed that the center should be located somewhere near the center of population , adjacent to both rail and river transportation and within a day 's travel to a major city . On December 14 , 1912 the leaders of the organization decided to purchase the 750 @-@ acre Brookline Farm . Brookline was a dairy farm near Batavia , Illinois . It was close to the Fox River , two railway lines and the ( then dirt ) Lincoln Highway . The leadership also wished to buy additional real estate to the west and north owned by two other families , for a total of 1 @,@ 023 acres . Negotiations for the purchases were held in January and February 1913 , and legal possession of the property was taken on March 1 . The name " Mooseheart " had been adopted for the school at the suggestion of Ohio Congressmen and Supreme Council member John Lentz by a unanimous joint meeting of the Supreme Council and Institute Trustees on Feb. 1 . Mooseheart was dedicated on July 27 , 1913 . Vice President Thomas R. Marshall gave a speech for the occasion .
While Mooseheart began as a school , it soon grew to become a small incorporated village and hub of the organization , housing the headquarters of the LOOM , as well as the Women of the Moose . The population of Mooseheart would grow to 1 @,@ 000 by 1920 , reach a peak of 1 @,@ 300 during the Great Depression and go down to approximately 500 , the campus ' current maximum capacity , in 1979 .
In addition to Mooseheart , the LOOM also runs a retirement center , Moosehaven , located in Orange Park Florida . This project was inaugurated in the Autumn of 1922 with 26 acres of property and 22 retired Moose residents . It has grown to a 63 @-@ acre community with over 400 residents .
= = Organization = =
Local units are called " Lodges " , state groups are " State Associations " and the national authority is the " Supreme Lodge of the World " , which meets annually . In 1923 there were 1 @,@ 669 lodges " promulgated in every civilized country controlled by the Caucasian race " . In 1966 3 @,@ 500 lodges were reported in every US state , Guam , Canada , Bermuda and England . In 1979 the Order had 36 State Associations and over 4 @,@ 000 Lodges . Today it has 1 @,@ 800 Lodges , in all 50 states and four Canadian provinces , as well as Bermuda and the United Kingdom .
The entire membership is sometimes referred to as the " Moose Domain " .
= = Membership = =
In the early 1920s membership was restricted to white men of " sound mind and body , in good standing in the community , engaged in lawful business who are able to speak and write the English language " . In June 1972 the Supreme Court handed down a decision in the Order 's favor , saying that a Moose Lodge in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania , could not be denied a state liquor license because they refused to serve a black guest .
In the early 1920s the LOM reportedly had over half a million members with 32 @,@ 570 in the Mooseheart Legion and 5 @,@ 178 in the Junior Order of Moose . In 1928 this had grown to 650 @,@ 000 members with 59 @,@ 000 in the ladies ' auxiliary . There were slightly more than a million in 1966 . In 1979 the LOM had 1 @,@ 323 @,@ 240 members . In 2013 there were 800 @,@ 000 .
= = Rituals = =
An important ritual for the Moose is the " 9 o 'clock Ceremony " . At nine o 'clock , all Moose are directed to face toward Mooseheart with bowed heads and folded arms and repeat a silent prayer " Suffer little children to come unto me and forbid them not for such is the Kingdom of Heaven . God bless Mooseheart . " At that same time the children of Mooseheart kneel at their bedside in prayers as well . There are also the ten " thou shalts . " These begin with " Thou shalt believe in God and worship Him as thy conscience dictates . Thou shalt be tolerant to let others worship each in his own way " . Other " thou shalts " pertain to patriotism , service to fellowmen , protection of the weak , avoidance of slander to a brother Moose , love of the LOM , faithfulness and humility
James Davis drew up the initiation ritual for the order . It is relatively short , usually taking 45 minutes . The governor of the lodge asks the Sergeant @-@ at @-@ Arms to administer the Moose obligation . After candidates are asked if they believe in a Supreme Being , and if they are willing to assume the obligation they take the oath with their left hand on their heart and their right hand raised . Among other things , this obligation pledges the candidate not to " communicate or disclose or give any information - concerning anything - I may hereafter hear , see or experience in this lodge or in any other Lodge " . At this point the lodge performs the 9'O 'Clock Ceremony , and then the lodge chaplain or prelate explains the ten " thou shalts " . Next the governor grasps the hands of the candidates while the members sing Blest Be the Tie that Binds . Finally , the governor administers the second part of the obligation , the candidates promise to support Mooseheart , Moosehaven , help fellow Moose , settle disputes within the order and not to join any unauthorized Moose organizations . The prelate offers another prayer at the altar , and all then join in singing Friendship We Now Extend .
There are also death and graveside services , granted on request of the family of deceased Moose , as well as a Memorial Day ceremony every first Sunday in May . The lodge altar is draped in black and white cloth , a Bible , a flower and drapes are placed on the lodge charter and the lodge prelate leads the members in prayers and the singing of Nearer , My God , to Thee .
= = = Gustin @-@ Kenny incident = = =
The Moose rituals took a tragic turn on July 24 , 1913 , when two candidates for membership , Donald A. Kenny and Christopher Gustin , died during an incident at their initiation ceremony in Birmingham , Alabama . Kenny was the president of the local Chauffeurs Union and Gustin was an iron moulder . Both men were made to look upon a red hot emblem of the Order , then blindfolded , disrobed and had a chilled rubber version of the emblem applied to their chests , while a magneto was attached to their legs and an electric current was applied to them by a wire to their shoulders . The aim was evidently to make them believe that they were being branded . Both men fainted , but , as it was thought that they were feigning , the lodge officers did not stop the initiation until it was evident that the two were dying and the lodge physician was unable to revive them .
= = Benefits and philanthropy = =
The LOOM has historically supported numerous charitable and civic activities . It has sponsored medical research for muscular dystrophy , cerebral palsy , cancer and cardiology , as well as the March of Dimes . It has also supported Boy Scout and Girl Scout programs .
= = Independent , Benevolent and Protective Order of Moose = =
In 1925 the LOOM brought a suit against the Independent , Benevolent and Protective Order of Moose , an African American order . They attempted to obtain a legal injunction to keep them from using the Moose name , ritual , emblem and titles of its officers . The New York Court of Appeals restrained the African American order from using the name " Moose " , but allowed them to continue using the same fraternal titles and colors . The I , BPOM was apparently an all woman order .
= = Religious objections = =
By 1966 the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Synod forbade membership in the Loyal Order of Moose . The Catholic Church , however , has never explicitly objected to the Moose , despite having condemned similar organizations , such as the Freemasons for their oaths and other rituals .
= = Notable Moose members = =
= = = Presidents = = =
Warren G. Harding - U.S. President — Marion , Ohio : Lodge 889
Franklin D. Roosevelt - U.S. President — New York City : Lodge 15
Theodore Roosevelt - U.S. President
Harry S. Truman - U.S. President
= = = Other politicians = = =
Evan Bayh - Former U.S. Senator / Governor of Indiana — Elkhart , Indiana Lodge : 599
Robert C. Byrd - U.S. Senator — Beckley , West Virginia : Lodge 1606
Tom Corbett - Governor of Pennsylvania — Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania : Lodge 2699
Richard J. Daley - Mayor of Chicago 1955 @-@ 1976 — Greater Chicago , Illinois : Lodge 3
Joe Manchin III - US Senator , State of West Virginia — Charleston , West Virginia : Lodge 1444
C.L. " Butch " Otter - Governor , State of Idaho 2007 — Boise , Idaho : Lodge 337
Tommy Thompson - Former U.S. Secretary of Health & Human Services — Juneau County , Wisconsin : Lodge 1913
Earl Warren - Chief Justice U.S. Supreme Court ( Holder of the Pilgrim Degree of Merit ) -- Oakland , California : Lodge 324
= = = Entertainers = = =
Bud Abbott & Lou Costello Radio , TV Movie Entertainers — Atlantic City , New Jersey : Lodge 216
Ernest Borgnine - Oscar @-@ Winning Actor — Junction City , Oregon : Lodge 2238
Charles Chaplin - Motion Picture Actor / Director / Producer — Los Angeles , California : Lodge 134
Harry Cording - Motion Picture Actor @-@ Van Nuys , California : Lodge 306
Erik Estrada - Television Actor ; National Spokesman , Safe Surfin ' USA — Bedford , Virginia : Lodge 1897
Dr. Ralph Stanley - Bluegrass Recording Artist — Dinwiddle , Virginia : Lodge 1993
Ralph Stanley II - Bluegrass Recording Artist — Dinwiddle , Virginia : Lodge 1993
James Stewart - Oscar @-@ Winning Actor — Indiana , Pennsylvania : Lodge 174
Danny Thomas - Entertainer — Indianapolis , Indiana : Lodge 17
Darryl Worley - Country Music Artist — Savannah , Tennessee : Lodge 1918
= = = Athletes = = =
Ed Beard - Middle Linebacker , San Francisco 49ers — South Norfolk , Virginia : Lodge 464
Raymond Berry - NFL Hall @-@ of @-@ famer , Baltimore Colts / Super Bowl XX Coach , New England Patriots — Montgomery County , Virginia : Lodge 1470
Larry Bird - NBA Hall @-@ of @-@ famer — Orange County , Indiana : Lodge 2530
Walter Blum - Hall of Fame Jockey with 4 @,@ 382 wins — Lauderdale Lakes , Florida : Lodge 2267
Manute Bol - NBA 's tallest @-@ ever player — Chicopee Falls , Massachusetts : Lodge 1849
Jason Couch - Hall of Fame Professional Bowler — South Lake County , Florida : Lodge 1615
Jack Ham - NFL Hall of Fame linebacker , Pittsburgh Steelers — Indiana , Pennsylvania : Lodge 174
Woody Hayes - Ohio State University Football Coach — Columbus , Ohio : Lodge 11
Ted Hendricks - NFL Hall of fame Linebacker — Hialeah , Florida : Lodge 1074
Bob Huggins - Men 's Basketball Coach , West Virginia — Charleston , West Virginia : Lodge 1444
Pete Johnson - Fullback , Ohio State & Cincinnati Bengals — Gahanna , Ohio : Lodge 2463
Jerry Lucas - Basketball Hall of Fame ; NBA Rookie of the Year 1964 ; Sports Illustrated " Sportsman of the Year " 1961 ; Only Three @-@ Time Big Ten Conference Player of the Year — Bucyrus , Ohio : Lodge 669
Rocky Marciano - Boxer
Billy Martin - All @-@ Star Infielder , Manager — Oakland , California : Lodge 324
Zach Miller - Tight End , Jacksonville Jaguars — Mooseheart , Illinois : Lodge 2655
Arnold Palmer - Golfer — Greensburg , Pennsylvania : Lodge 1151
Cal Ripken Sr. - Baseball Manager — Aberdeen , Maryland : Lodge 1450
Gale Sayers - NFL Hall of Famer — Elkhart , Indiana : Lodge 599
Billy Sims - 1978 Heisman Trophy Winner ; Running back , University of Oklahoma ( 1975 – 79 ) and Detroit Lions ( 1980 @-@ 84 ) ; Member , College Football Hall of fame — Grand Rapids @-@ Sparta , Michigan : Lodge 50
Bill " Moose " Skowron - Major League Baseball Player ( 1954 – 1967 ) -- River Park , Illinois : Lodge 2578
Bill Stewart - Head Football Coach of West Virginia University — New Martinsville , West Virginia : Lodge 931
Tony Stewart - NASCAR Driver — Columbus , Indiana : Lodge 398
Gene Tunney - Boxer — Cincinnati , Ohio : Lodge 2
Bill Veeck - Major League Baseball Executive — Greater Chicago , Illinois : Lodge 3
Honus Wagner - Baseball Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer — Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania : Lodge 46
Donnell Woolford - Pro Bowl Cornerback , Chicago Bears — Batavia , Illinois : Lodge 682
= = = Other = = =
Eugene Cernan - Astronaut ; " the last man on the moon " in December 1972 — Bellwood , Illinois : Lodge 777
Jean Davidson - Author and granddaughter of Harley @-@ Davidson co @-@ founder Walter Davidson — Mooseheart , Illinois : Chapter 3001
Henry Ford - Inventor of the mass @-@ produced automobile — Detroit , Michigan : Lodge 160
Virgil I. " Gus ” Grissom – Astronaut : Warwick , Virginia : Lodge 1711
Darell Hammond - Founder / CEO , KaBOOM ! Inc . - Builder of playgrounds worldwide ( and , member of Mooseheart High School Class of 1989 ) -- Batavia , Illinois : Lodge 682
Lt. Col. Edward A. Silk - Mooseheart Class of 1935 ; Recipient of the Medal of Honor in World War II — Johnstown , Pennsylvania : Lodge 48
= Quebec referendum , 1995 =
The 1995 Quebec referendum was the second referendum to ask voters in the Canadian province of Quebec whether Quebec should proclaim national sovereignty and become an independent country , with the condition precedent of offering a political and economic agreement to Canada .
The culmination of multiple years of debate and planning after the failure of the Meech Lake and Charlottetown constitutional accords , the referendum was launched solely by the provincial Parti Québécois government of Jacques Parizeau . Despite initial predictions of a heavy sovereignist defeat , an eventful and complex campaign followed , with the " Yes " side flourishing after being taken over by charismatic Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard .
The fast rise of the " Yes " campaign and apparent inability of the personalities of the " No " campaign to counter their message created an atmosphere of great uncertainty , both in the federal government and across Canada .
Voting took place on October 30 , 1995 , and featured the largest voter turnout in Quebec 's history ( 93 @.@ 52 % ) . The " No " option carried by 54 @,@ 288 votes ( 50 @.@ 58 % ) . Parizeau , who retired the following day , would later state that he would have quickly proceeded with a unilateral declaration of independence had the result been affirmative and negotiations failed or been refused , the latter of which was later revealed as the federal position in the event of a " Yes " victory .
Controversies over both the provincial vote counting and direct federal financial involvement in the final days of the campaign reverberated in Canadian politics for over a decade after the referendum took place . In the aftermath of the close result , the federal government , after unilaterally recognizing Quebec as a distinct society and amending the federal constitutional veto procedure , referred the issue to the Supreme Court of Canada , which stated that the unilateral secession contemplated in the referendum was illegal .
= = Background = =
Quebec , a province in Canada since its foundation in 1867 , has always been the sole majority French @-@ speaking province . Long ruled by forces ( such as the Union Nationale ) that focused on affirmation of the province 's French and Catholic identity within Canada , the Quiet Revolution of the early 1960s prompted a surge in civic and economic nationalism , as well as voices calling for the independence of the province and the establishment of a nation state . Among these was René Lévesque , who would eventually found the Parti Québécois with like @-@ minded groups seeking independence from Canada . After arriving in power in 1976 , the PQ government held a referendum in 1980 seeking a mandate to negotiate " sovereignty @-@ association " with Canada that was decisively defeated .
In response to the referendum result , Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau declared that he would seek to " patriate " the Canadian Constitution and bring about what would eventually become the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . During tense negotiations in November 1981 , an agreement was reached between Trudeau and nine of the ten premiers by Trudeau , but not Lévesque . The Constitution Act of 1982 was enacted without the Quebec National Assembly 's symbolic approval .
Trudeau 's successor as Prime Minister , Brian Mulroney , and Quebec Liberal premier Robert Bourassa sought a series of Constitutional amendments designed to address Quebec 's concerns . In what became known as the Meech Lake Accord , the Federal government and all provincial premiers agreed to a series of amendments that decentralized some powers and recognized Quebec as forming a distinct society . The Accord , after fierce debate in English Canada , fell apart in dramatic fashion in the summer of 1990 , prompting outrage in Quebec and a surge in support for sovereignty . While the Accord was collapsing , Lucien Bouchard , a cabinet minister in Mulroney 's government , led a coalition of Progressive Conservative and Liberal members of parliament from Quebec to form a new federal party devoted to Quebec sovereignty , the Bloc Québécois .
Following these events , Bourassa proclaimed that a referendum would occur in 1992 , with either sovereignty or a new Constitutional agreement as the subject . This prompted a national referendum on the Charlottetown Accord of 1992 , a series of amendments that included the proposals of Meech Lake as well as concerns of the broader Canadian federation . The Accord failed in Quebec and English Canada .
In the 1993 federal election , as the Liberals returned to power with a majority government under Jean Chrétien , who had been Minister of Justice during the 1980 @-@ 81 constitutional discussions . The Bloc Québécois won 54 seats with 49 @.@ 3 % of Quebec 's vote . The result made the Bloc the second largest party in the House of Commons , giving it the role of Official Opposition and allowing Bouchard to be able to confront Chrétien in Question Period on a daily basis .
In Quebec , the 1994 provincial election brought the sovereigntist Parti Québécois back to power , led by Jacques Parizeau . The party 's platform promised to hold a referendum on sovereignty during his term in office as premier . The PQ won a majority government with 44 @.@ 75 % of the popular vote .
= = Prelude = =
In preparation for the referendum , every household in Quebec was sent a draft of the Act Respecting the Future of Quebec ( also referred to as the Sovereignty Bill ) , with the announcement of the National Commission on the Future of Quebec to commence in February 1995 . The Commission was boycotted by the Liberal Party of Quebec , the Liberal Party of Canada , and the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada .
The primary issue of debate within the sovereignty movement became on what terms sovereignty would be put before the electorate . Parizeau , long identified with the independantiste wing of the party , was opposed to the PQ 's general historical preference for an economic relationship with the rest of Canada to be offered alongside sovereignty , as he thought this would encourage the Federal government to simply refuse to negotiate and cast the project as doomed , as had happened in 1980 . As a practical matter , Parizeau believed that given the emotional circumstances of separation a special partnership was unlikely , and that given free trade agreements and other multilateral institutions it was unnecessary .
Parizeau 's stance created opposition in the sovereignty movement , which coalesced around Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard . A popular and charismatic figure , Bouchard had come close to death from necrotizing fasciitis and lost his left leg . His recovery , and subsequent public appearances on crutches , provided a rallying point for sovereigntists and the public at large . Bouchard thought a proposal lacking a partnership would doom the project among soft nationalists ( such as himself ) who worried about the economic consequences of separation .
As polls showed Parizeau 's approach as highly unlikely to even exceed 40 % support in a referendum , leaders of the movement engaged in a heated public debate . After Parizeau moved the planned referendum date to the fall , Deputy Premier Bernard Landry aroused ire by stating he would not want to be involved in a " charge of the light brigade . " During the Bloc 's April conference , after a speech demanding a change in direction , Bouchard expressed ambivalence to a radio show about participating if a partnership proposal was not included . Mario Dumont , leader of the new Action démocratique du Québec , also stated that he would only consider participation in the referendum if a partnership was made part of the question .
The final findings of the National Commission , issued April 19 , included a statement that the public generally desired an economic partnership with Canada . Fearing Bouchard and Dumont would further dilute their position as the referendum wore on , Parizeau agreed to negotiate a broader approach , and would agree to a statement that included partnership with Dumont and Bouchard on June 12 , 1995 . The Agreement contained details of the partnership negotiation process , and a general plan of seeking " sovereignty " while requiring an economic and social partnership offer be negotiated and presented to the rest of Canada . Most importantly for Parizeau , the agreement also allowed the government to declare immediate independence if negotiations were not successful or heard after a successful referendum .
= = = Bertrand v. Quebec = = =
The looming referendum prompted a number of actions in the Quebec Superior Court , which were consolidated under the application of prominent lawyer Guy Bertrand . Bertrand asked for interim and permanent injunctions against the holding of the referendum . The Federal Attorney General declined to intervene , and after failing in a motion to strike the application , the Quebec Attorney General unilaterally withdrew from the hearing . The government moved the September sitting of the National Assembly two days forward to be sure that parliamentary immunity would prevent MNAs from being summoned to testify .
Justice Lesage of the Court found that secession could only legally be performed by constitutional amendment pursuant to Section V of the Constitution Act , 1982 , and that a unilateral declaration of independence would be " manifestly illegal . " Lesage refused to issue an injunction to stop the referendum , as he believed that to do so could paralyze the workings of government and cause more disorder than the referendum being held . The Court opted for declaratory relief , declaring that the Sovereignty Bill and the referendum constituted a serious threat to Bertrand 's Charter rights
Parizeau denounced the decision as undemocratic , stated that the Constitution Act , 1982 did not apply to Quebec , and refused to move the referendum timetable . Quebec Attorney General Paul Bégin stated that he believed an extra @-@ constitutional referendum was legal pursuant to international law . Daniel Johnson announced the following day that the ruling would not change the strategy of the " No " campaign . Some Federal officials questioned if their level of government could be involved after the declaration , but ultimately the Federal government decided to participate .
= = = Referendum question = = =
In a dramatic reading at the Grand Théâtre de Québec on September 6 , the final version of the Sovereignty Bill was unveiled . The bill would be tabled in the National Assembly awaiting the result of the referendum .
The question in the 1980 referendum , in an attempt to build a broad coalition , had sought only the authority to negotiate sovereignty with the Canadian government , and promised a second referendum to ratify the results of any negotiation . Parizeau believed a second referendum was unnecessary and would only encourage the remainder of Canada to use delaying tactics . The draft initial Act featured a question only asking for the authority to declare Quebec sovereign .
Pursuant to the partnership agreement with Bouchard and Dumont , the referendum question was changed to incorporate the partnership agreement . It was presented on September 7 , 1995 to be voted on October 30 , 1995 . In English , the question on the ballot asked :
Do you agree that Quebec should become sovereign after having made a formal offer to Canada for a new economic and political partnership within the scope of the bill respecting the future of Quebec and of the agreement signed on June 12 , 1995 ?
The question came under immediate fire from federalists , who had no input in the drafting . Quebec Liberal leader Daniel Johnson stated it was confusing and at the very least should have contained the word " country . " Prominent federalists argued that the referendum question should not have mentioned " partnership " proposals , because no Canadian political leaders outside Quebec had shown any interest in negotiating a possible partnership agreement with an independent Quebec , and arguably no entity capable of undertaking such negotiations actually existed .
Other federalists argued that the question erroneously implied an agreement had been reached between Canada and Quebec regarding a partnership on June 12 , 1995 . Parizeau would later express regret that the agreement had to be cited in the question , but noted that the June 12 , 1995 agreement had been sent to every registered voter in the province .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Participants = = =
Pursuant to Quebec 's Referendum Act ( enacted by the National Assembly prior to the referendum of 1980 ) , the campaign would be conducted as a provincially governed election campaign , and all campaign spending had to be authorized and accounted for under " Yes " ( Le Comité national du OUI ) or " No " ( Comité des Québécoises et des Québécois pour le NON ) umbrella committees . Each committee had an authorized budget of $ 5 million . Campaign spending by any person or group other than the official committees would be illegal after the official beginning of the referendum campaign .
After the agreement of June 12 , the " Yes " campaign would be headed by Jacques Parizeau . The official " No " campaign would be chaired by Liberal leader Daniel Johnson Jr .
Making matters more complex , especially for the " No " camp , was the federal nature of Canada . The governing Liberal Party of Canada and its leader , Prime Minister Jean Chrétien were not strongly represented in the province outside of Montreal . Chrétien 's involvement in the 1982 negotiations and his stance against the Meech Lake Accord made him unpopular with moderate francophone federalists and sovereignists , who would be the swing voters in the referendum . Lucienne Robillard , a nationalist former Bourassa @-@ era cabinet minister , would serve as the federal Liberal representative on the " No " committee . Jean Charest , leader of the Federal Progressive Conservative Party , would be prominently featured , as he and the PCs had closely and productively cooperated with the Quebec Liberals in the Meech Lake negotiations .
Fearing missteps by politicians not used to Quebec that had occurred during the Meech Lake and Charlottetown debates , Johnson and the campaign heavily controlled appearances by Federal politicians , including Chrétien . Johnson bluntly banned any appearance by the Reform Party or its leader , Preston Manning . This would go unchallenged by Ottawa for the majority of the campaign , but created much frustration within the governing Liberals in Ottawa . Prominent Chrétien adviser Eddie Goldenberg believed that the " No " campaign at some points was more focused on the future election position of the Quebec Liberals rather than the referendum itself .
= = = Early days = = =
The campaign officially began on October 2 , 1995 , with a televised address by both leaders . Parizeau emphasized that he believed this might be the last opportunity for sovereignty for the foreseeable future , while Johnson chose to forecast the uncertainty that a " Yes " vote could provoke .
Johnson 's campaign focused on the practical problems created by the sovereignty process , emphasizing that an independent Quebec would be in an uncertain position regarding the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) and not be able to control the Canadian dollar . Prominent business figures such as Power Corporation president Paul Desmarais and Bombardier Inc. head Laurent Beaudoin spoke that they believed a " Yes " victory could spell doom for their Quebec business interests .
The initial campaign for the " Yes " was led by Parizeau , with Dumont campaigning separately . In addition to the traditional themes of the movement 's appeal to Quebec nationalism , his campaign attempted to highlight the slim possibility of any future reform to Canada 's federal system . Parizeau bitterly attacked business leaders for intervening in the referendum , calling it a betrayal of their Quebec customers and workers . While Parizeau 's responses were highly popular with " Yes " stalwarts , it was generally seen that speeches against business leaders were only highlighting the economic uncertainty that worried swing voters .
Polls in the first week were highly disappointing for the " Yes " camp , as they showed them behind by 5 @-@ 7 percentage points among decided voters , with an even larger gap if " undecided " voters were weighed toward the " No " side as would generally be expected . Parizeau , a general fixture in Quebec politics for decades whose strong views of sovereignty were well known among the populace , was under pressure to create a spark .
= = = Appointment of Bouchard = = =
In an unannounced ceremony on October 7 at the Université de Montréal , Parizeau made a surprise announcement : He appointed Bouchard as " Chief Negotiator " for the partnership talks following a " Yes " vote . The move came as a dramatic surprise to the campaign , promoting the popular Bouchard to the fore and simultaneously emphasizing the " partnership " aspect of the question .
Bouchard , already popular , became a sensation : in addition to his medical struggles and charisma , his more moderate approach and prominent involvement in the Meech Lake Accord while in Ottawa reminded undecided nationalist voters of Federal missteps from years past . Politicians on both sides described his appeal as messianic and almost impossible to personally attack , in contrast to the well worn figures on both sides of the referendum . " No " advisor John Parisella noted that at focus groups , when presented with statements Bouchard had made that they did not like , participants would refuse to believe he meant them . New polls eventually showed a majority of Quebecers intending to vote " Yes "
" No " forces , including Johnson , were shocked by the development , which required wholesale changes in strategy three weeks before the vote . Unwilling to believe Parizeau had given up his leadership role voluntarily , most in the " No " camp and Ottawa had assumed a coup had taken place , though the maneuver had been pre @-@ planned and voluntary . The dramatic events prompted many Federal politicians to lobby for similarly dramatic intervention from Ottawa and the Federal government , which were refused by the " No " committee , who believed that with Bouchard 's introduction the margin for error was dramatically reduced . The " No " campaign continued to focus on the economic benefits of Federation .
Bouchard 's speeches asked Quebecers to vote " Yes " to give a clear mandate for change , and that only the clarity a " Yes " vote would provide a final solution to Canada 's long standing constitutional issues and a new partnership with English Canada for the betterment of both . Bouchard 's popularity was such that his remarks that the Québécois were the " white race " with the lowest rate of reproduction , which threatened to cast the project as focused on ethnic nationalism , were traversed with ease . Bloc Québécois MP Suzanne Tremblay was less successful in this regard , and apologized after answering journalist Joyce Napier 's question of how minority francophones outside of Quebec would be helped by independence by stating that Napier 's last name and lack of a Québécois accent made her ignorant of the subject .
= = = Midcampaign = = =
Pursuant to the Referendum Act , both committees were required to contribute to a brochure sent to every voter describing their positions . The official " No " brochure , written by the Quebec Liberals , stated that Quebec was a distinct society , and that Quebec should enjoy full autonomy in areas of provincial jurisdiction . Parizeau , while speaking in Hull , challenged Chrétien to tell voters that , if " No " won , Ottawa would withdraw from all provincial jurisdictions , prompting a vague response from the " No " campaign .
On October 21 in Longueuil , Johnson , hoping to defuse the issue , ad libbed a challenge to Chrétien to declare his position on distinct society recognition . When presented with the request Chrétien , in New York for a United Nations meeting , responded , " No . We 're not talking about the Constitution , we 're talking about the separation of Quebec from the rest of Canada . " The remarks in direct contradiction to Johnson were portrayed in the press as a blunt refusal .
Chrétien 's position was far more difficult than Johnson 's : Part of the 1993 Liberal election platform had been moving the country away from large scale constitutional debates . Provincial governments were also far more hostile to the constitutional process than they had been in the decade prior , with even the federal government 's typical ally , Ontario , being firmly against any pursuit of constitutional accommodation .
French President Jacques Chirac , while answering a call from a viewer in Montreal on CNN 's Larry King Live , declared that , if the " Yes " side were successful , the fact that the referendum had succeeded would be recognized by France .
At a federalist rally of about 12 @,@ 500 people was held at the Verdun Auditorium on October 24 , Chrétien introduced a focus on Quebec 's emotional attachment to Canada , promised reforms to give Quebec more power , and in a more startling announcement , declared that he would support enshrinement of Quebec as a distinct society and that he would support reforms to the Canadian constitution . The sudden reversal of Chrétien 's long @-@ standing position on the issue , along with Chrétien 's wan complexion and atypically nervous appearance , sparked considerable comment . Charest further emphasized his commitment to constitutional reform if a " No " victory was achieved .
= = = Aboriginal activism = = =
In response to the referendum , aboriginal peoples in Quebec strongly affirmed their own right to self @-@ determination . First Nations chiefs said that forcing their peoples to join an independent Quebec without their consent would violate international law , violating their rights to self @-@ determination . Aboriginal groups also demanded to be full participants in any new constitutional negotiations resulting from the referendum .
The Grand Council of the Crees in Northern Quebec was particularly vocal and prominent in its resistance to the idea of being included in an independent Quebec . Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come issued a legal paper , titled Sovereign Injustice , which sought to affirm the Cree right to self @-@ determination in keeping their territories in Canada . On October 24 , 1995 , the Cree organized their own referendum , asking the question : " Do you consent , as a people , that the Government of Quebec separate the James Bay Crees and Cree traditional territory from Canada in the event of a Yes vote in the Quebec referendum ? " 96 @.@ 3 % of the 77 % of Crees who cast ballots voted to stay in Canada . The Inuit of Nunavik held a similar local vote , asking , " Do you agree that Quebec should become sovereign ? " , with 96 % voting No . First Nations communities contributed significantly to the tense debate on a hypothetical partition of Quebec .
= = = October 25 , 1995 : Three addresses = = =
Five days before the vote , United States President Bill Clinton , while recognizing the referendum as an internal issue of Canada , gave a minute @-@ long statement extolling the virtues of a united Canada , ending with " Canada has been a great model for the rest of the world , and has been a great partner of the United States , and I hope that can continue . " While the statement provided relief in sovereignist circles for not being a stronger endorsement of the " No " position , the implication of Clinton , who was popular in Quebec and the leader of the province 's most important trading partner , endorsing Canadian unity had strong reverberations in the electorate .
The same night , Prime Minister Jean Chrétien gave a televised address to the nation in English and French . Broadly similar in both languages , Chrétien promoted the virtues of Canadian federalism to Quebec , touched on the shared values of the country , warned that Parizeau would use the referendum result as a mandate to declare independence from Canada ( while explicitly not stating the result would be accepted ) , and announced that Quebec would be recognized as a distinct society and that any future constitutional reform that impacted Quebec would be made with the province 's consent .
The " Yes " side was provided airtime for a rebuttal in English and French . Lucien Bouchard was given the task in both languages , with the " Yes " campaign stating that a federal politician should give the response . Bouchard 's French address recounted the previous animosities of the constitutional debate , specifically targeting Chrétien 's career and actions , including showing a newspaper headline from the aftermath of the 1982 Constitution that featured Trudeau and Chrétien laughing . Bouchard then focused on the details of the partnership aspect of the proposal . He used his English address to ask Canadians to understand the " Yes " side and to announce an intention to negotiate in good faith .
= = = Unity Rally = = =
Fisheries Minister Brian Tobin , expressing anxiety to his staff about the referendum the week before , was told about a small rally planned in Place du Canada in Montreal for businesspersons on October 27 . Asked by Federal advisor John Rae , Pierre Claude Nolin agreed to allow Tobin to invite Canadians outside Quebec to the rally , provided Quebec 's referendum laws were adhered to . Tobin then encouraged fellow caucus members to send as many people as possible .
After gaining permission from the Prime Minister ( over the objections of Quebec members of Cabinet ) , Tobin then appeared on the national English @-@ language Canada AM , and while disavowing any connection with the " No " organization , announced that the " No " side would be holding a rally in Montréal on October 27 , and implored Canadians from around the country to attend the rally to support the " crusade for Canada . " Tobin noted that committees were being formed in Ottawa and Toronto , charter aircraft were being ordered , and that Canadian Airlines had a 90 % off " unity " sale . Tobin proceeded to call the chairman of Air Canada in his capacity as a private citizen and suggest planes be made available at the same rate , a request that was granted .
Tobin 's Canada AM appearance resulted in calls flooding MP 's offices in English Canada , and bus companies volunteered hundreds of vehicles to take Canadians from outside of Quebec to Montreal . The rally at Place du Canada was estimated to have between 50 @,@ 000 and 125 @,@ 000 attendees , with estimates varying wildly as the crowd grew and shrank throughout the day . Jean Chrétien , Jean Charest and Daniel Johnson spoke to the crowd for the occasion , which would become known as the " Unity Rally " . Images of the large crowd with an oversized Canadian flag became iconic . Charest felt the rally helped to keep momentum for the " No " campaign moving .
The federal government 's intervention in the rally attracted strident protests from the " Yes " side , who felt the discounts and coordination were an illegal intervention in the referendum . Bouchard publicly contrasted the rally with what he believed was the inattention of English Canada to the collapse of the Meech Lake Accord . Nolin regretted granting permission for the " No " committee once the scale became known , and Johnson felt the rally only exacerbated tensions with regard to English Canada . Opinions on whether the rally had an impact were divided and unable to be gauged , as the rally happened while the final polls for the Monday referendum were being produced .
= = = Opinion polling = = =
During the campaign , polls were reported by all pollsters and press outlets with a general guideline of having undecided voters split unevenly in favour of the " No " side : This ranged from 2 / 3 to 3 / 4 of the undecided vote .
= = Result = =
93 @.@ 52 % of the 5 @,@ 087 @,@ 009 registered Quebecers voted in the referendum , a higher turnout than any provincial or federal election in Canada 's history . The proposal of June 12 , 1995 was rejected by voters , with 50 @.@ 58 % voting " No " and 49 @.@ 42 % voting " Yes " . The margin was significantly smaller than the 1980 referendum . The " Yes " side was the choice of French speakers by an estimated majority of about 60 % . Anglophones and allophones ( those who do not have English or French as a first language ) voted " No " by a margin of 95 % .
There was a majority " Yes " vote in 80 out of 125 National Assembly ridings . The " Yes " side was strongest in Saguenay – Lac @-@ Saint @-@ Jean , the Gaspé , the Centre @-@ du @-@ Québec , and generally the suburbs of Quebec City and Montreal . While there was disappointment in the results of Montreal and the Beauce , Quebec City 's soft support for " Yes " was the greatest surprise for the " Yes " side . This prompted speculation that provincial government officials did not want the uncertainty a " Yes " would bring , especially after Parizeau had promised to integrate displaced Federal civil servants in a sovereign Quebec .
The heavily populated West Island ridings of Montreal , home to a large anglophone population , voted " No " by margins eclipsing 80 % ; some polling stations even showed literally no " Yes " votes at all . The far North , the Outaouais , the Beauce , and the Eastern Townships also generally voted " No " .
The riding with the highest " Yes " result was Saguenay along the northern shore with 73 @.@ 3 % voting yes ; The riding with the highest " No " result was D 'Arcy @-@ McGee in the West Island with 96 @.@ 38 % voting " No " ; The riding with the closest result was Vimont in Laval , which the " Yes " won by 6 votes .
= = Immediate responses = =
" No " supporters gathered at Métropolis in Montreal , Johnson expressed hope for reconciliation in Quebec and stated he expected the Federal government to pursue Constitutional changes . Prime Minister Chrétien echoed similar sentiments to Johnson , and stated that he " extended his hand " to Quebec 's premier and government .
" Yes " supporters met at the Palais des congrès de Montréal on referendum night . After the result became known , Dumont and Bouchard made speeches accepting the result as part of the movement 's democratic convictions and expressing hope that a subsequent referendum would bring a " Yes " victory .
Jacques Parizeau , who had not prepared a concession speech , rejected one prepared by Jean @-@ François Lisée and spoke without notes . Noting that 60 % of French @-@ speakers had voted yes , he stated that he would address French @-@ speaking Québécois as nous ( " we " ) , and that they had spoken clearly in favour of the " Yes . " He then stated that the only thing that had stopped the " Yes " side was " money and ethnic votes " and that the next referendum would be successful with only a few percentage more of French speakers onside . The remarks , widely lambasted in the Canadian and international press as ethnocentric , sparked surprise and anger in the " Yes " camp , as the movement had gone to great lengths to disown ethnic nationalism .
Bernard Landry confronted Parizeau at a Cabinet meeting the next morning about the remarks , stating that the movement " had to hide its head in shame . " Parizeau , after canvassing opinions , then told his Cabinet that he would resign as premier and leader of the Parti Québécois . It was later revealed that he had declared he would retire anyway if the " Yes " side lost , in an embargoed interview with TVA taped days before the referendum .
Five days after the referendum , André Dallaire , a schizophrenic " Yes " supporter upset at the result , broke into Chrétien 's Ottawa residence armed with a knife . Dallaire attempted to find Chrétien and kill the prime minister in his bed before being discovered by Aline Chrétien , who barricaded the bedroom door . Chrétien was unharmed , and Dallaire would eventually be found not criminally responsible by reason of mental defect .
= = Contingency preparation for a " Yes " victory = =
= = = Sovereignists = = =
Sovereignists believed that a " Yes " vote of 50 % plus one vote was a binding result pursuant to the Referendum Act and the Sovereignty Bill , as well as the general international law principle of self @-@ determination . In the event of a " Yes " victory , Parizeau had said he intended to return to the National Assembly of Quebec within two days of the result and seek support for a motion recognizing the result of the referendum . In a speech he had prepared in the event of a " Yes " victory , he said a sovereign Quebec 's first move would be to " extend a hand to its Canadian neighbour " in partnership pursuant to the wording of the referendum .
Parizeau 's immediate plans after the referendum relied upon what he felt would be general pressure from economic markets and the business community in English Canada to stabilize the situation as quickly as possible , which he believed would mitigate any catastrophic initial events ( such as blockades ) and prepare for negotiations .
Despite the prominent placement of Bouchard in the referendum campaign , Parizeau planned to retain all authority with regard to negotiations , and to appoint most members of the negotiation team if they were to occur . Parizeau also believed federalist Quebecers such as Chrétien and Charest would be quickly disregarded and replaced at negotiations by representatives from the other nine provinces . If the Federal government refused to negotiate , or if negotiations were to exceed October 30 , 1996 , Parizeau stated that he would proceed with a unilateral declaration of independence ( UDI ) for an independent Quebec pursuant to Section 26 of the Sovereignty Bill .
Parizeau 's hopes for international recognition , a practical requirement of statehood , rested with France and the Francophonie . He believed that if Quebec declared independence in these circumstances , President of the French National Assembly Philippe Séguin , a powerful Gaullist power broker who was sympathetic to the sovereignty movement , would pressure President Chirac to recognize the declaration . He counted on a French recognition to spread quickly to the Francophonie and bring the issue to a head . Benoit Bouchard , Canada 's ambassador at the time , believed that the plan was irrational as he doubted Séguin , who was supposed to be a neutral figure in his role , could bring sufficient pressure in the country 's semi @-@ presidential system .
In interviews conducted in 2014 , Bouchard and Dumont both believed that negotiations would have resulted had the " Yes " side won and that Quebec would have remained in Canada with a more autonomous status . Bouchard , while approving of Parizeau 's intention to unilaterally declare independence should negotiations be refused , implied that he and Dumont would have been able to control negotiations and offer a subsequent referendum on a new agreement . Dumont noted that international recognition would have been difficult had two of the three leaders of the " Yes " campaign been against a UDI , and that he and Bouchard were willing to slow the process down if necessary . For his part , Bernard Landry believed that nothing short of a seat at the United Nations would have been accomplished had the " Yes " won .
= = = Federalists = = =
= = = = Recognition = = = =
As the referendum was only of force and effect pursuant to a provincial law , neither the provincially sanctioned " No " committee or the Federal government had any input on the question of the referendum . Federalists strongly differed on how or if a " Yes " referendum result would be recognized . " No " campaign head Daniel Johnson disputed the " Yes " side 's position that a simple majority was sufficient to declare independence , as he believed the question was too vague and gave negotiators too broad a mandate given the enormity of the issue and the uncertainty of negotiations .
Jean Chrétien refused to publicly comment or consider contingencies regarding a possible " Yes " victory , and at no point stated the referendum bound the Federal government to negotiations or permitted a unilateral declaration of independence . His wording of speeches during the referendum noted that Parizeau would interpret a " Yes " vote as a mandate to separate Quebec from Canada , but never offered recognition that this was legal or recognizable . A speech drafted for Chrétien in the event of a " Yes " vote stated that the question was too ambiguous to be binding and that only dissatisfaction with the status quo had been stated .
Reform party leader Preston Manning , a prominent proponent of direct democracy , would have recognized any result , with critics suspecting he preferred a " Yes " vote for electoral gain . Jean Charest recognized the referendum 's legitimacy , although a draft post @-@ referendum speech had him interpreting a " Yes " vote as a call for drastic reform of Canadian federation instead of separation . The New Democratic Party 's official position was that the result had to be recognized .
= = = = Negotiations = = = =
Little planning was made for the possibility of a " Yes " vote by the Canadian federal government , with the general consensus being that the referendum would be easily won and that planning would spark panic or give the referendum undeserved legitimacy . Some members of the federal cabinet met to discuss several possible scenarios , including referring the issue of Quebec 's independence to the Supreme Court . Senior civil servants met to consider the impact of a vote for secession on issues such as territorial boundaries and the federal debt . A dispute arose as to whether Jean Chrétien and many prominent members of Cabinet who had been elected in a Quebec ridings could represent Canada at a hypothetical partnership negotiation .
Manning intended to immediately call for Chrétien 's resignation and for a general election if the referendum was successful , even though the Liberals , independent of their Quebec seats , had a sizable majority in the House of Commons . There was also some doubt that Chrétien would be able to assure the Governor General that he retained enough support within his party to remain the Prime Minister of Canada . Chrétien 's intention was , whatever the result , to stay in office . New Brunswick Premier Frank McKenna later confirmed that he had been invited into a hypothetical " National Unity " cabinet if the " Yes " side was victorious , with a general understanding that former Ontario Premier Bob Rae was to be included as well .
= = Controversies post @-@ referendum = =
= = = Rejected ballots = = =
When the counting was completed , approximately 86 @,@ 000 ballots were rejected by Deputy Returning Officers , alleging that they had not been marked properly by the voter . Each polling station featured a Deputy Returning Officer ( appointed by the " Yes " ) who counted the ballots while a Poll Clerk ( appointed by the " No " ) recorded the result of the count .
Controversy arose over whether the Deputy Returning Officers of the Chomedey , Marguerite @-@ Bourgeois and Laurier @-@ Dorion ridings had improperly rejected ballots . In these ridings the " No " vote was dominant , and the proportion of rejected ballots was 12 % , 5 @.@ 5 % and 3 @.@ 6 % . Thomas Mulcair , member of the Quebec National Assembly for Chomedey , told reporters that there was " an orchestrated attempt to steal the vote " in his riding . A study released months after the referendum by McGill University concluded that ridings with a greater amount of " No " votes had a higher percentage of rejected ballots . Directeur général des élections du Québec ( DGEQ ) , Pierre F. Cote , launched an inquiry into the alleged irregularities , supervised by the Chief Justice of the Quebec Superior Court , Alan B. Gold . All ballots of the three ridings plus a sample of ballots from other ridings were examined . The inquiry concluded that some ballots had been rejected without valid reasons , but the incidents were isolated . The majority of the rejected ballots were " No " votes , in proportion to the majority of the valid votes in those districts .
Two Deputy Returning Officers were charged by the DGEQ with violating elections laws , but in 1996 were found not guilty ( a decision upheld by the Quebec Court of Appeal ) , after it was found that the ballots were not rejected in a fraudulent or irregular manner , and that there was no proof of conspiracy . A Quebec Court judge acquitted a Deputy Returning Officer charged with illegally rejecting 53 % of the ballots cast at his Chomedey polling district .
In 2000 , the Quebec Superior Court denied an application by Alliance Quebec that attempted to force the DGEQ to give access to all 5 million ballots , ruling that the only authority that could do so expired in 1996 . The referendum ballots were incinerated in 2008 after appeals were exhausted . In May 2005 , former PQ cabinet minister Richard Le Hir said that the PQ coordinated the ballot rejections , which PQ officials denied .
= = = Citizenship and Immigration Canada = = =
Citizenship Court judges from across Canada were sent into the province to ensure as many qualified immigrants living in Quebec as possible had Canadian citizenship before the referendum , and thus were able to vote . The goal was to have 10 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 outstanding citizenship applications processed for residents of Quebec by mid @-@ October . 43 @,@ 855 new Quebecers obtained their Canadian citizenship during 1995 , with about one quarter of these ( 11 @,@ 429 ) were granted their citizenship during the month of October . When confronted about the issue by a Bloc Québécois MP who suggested shortcuts were being taken to hurry citizenship applications for immigrants who would most likely vote " No " , Minister of Citizenship and Immigration Sergio Marchi responded that this was common before provincial election campaigns in other provinces .
= = = Spending limits and Option Canada = = =
The Canadian Unity Council incorporated a Montreal @-@ based lobbying group called Option Canada with the mandate to promote federalism in Quebec . Option Canada received $ 1 @.@ 6 million in funding from the Canadian Heritage Department in 1994 , $ 3 @.@ 35 million in 1995 and $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 1996 . The Montreal Gazette reported in March 1997 that the group also had other funds from undeclared sources . A Committee to Register Voters Outside Quebec was created to help citizens who had left Quebec before the 1995 vote register on the electoral list . The Committee handed out pamphlets during the referendum , including a form to be added to the list of voters . The pamphlet gave out a toll @-@ free number as contact information , which was the same number as the one used by the Canadian Unity Council .
After the referendum , the DSEQ filed 20 criminal charges of illegal expenditures by Option Canada and others on behalf of the " No " side , which were dropped after the Supreme Court of Canada in Libman vs. Quebec @-@ Attorney General ruled sections of the Referendum Act restricting third @-@ party expenditures were unconstitutionally restrictive under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms .
Aurèle Gervais , communications director for the Liberal Party of Canada , as well as the students ' association at Ottawa 's Algonquin College , were charged with infractions of Quebec 's Election Act after the referendum for illegally hiring buses to bring supporters to Montreal for the rally . Environment Minister Sergio Marchi told reporters that Gervais should wear [ the charges against him ] like a badge of honour . " Two years later , the Quebec Superior Court dismissed the charges , stating that the actions took place outside of Quebec and so the Quebec Election Act did not apply .
The DSEQ asked retired Quebec court judge Bernard Grenier in 2006 to investigate Option Canada after the publishing of Normand Lester and Robin Philpot 's " The Secrets of Option Canada " , which alleged over $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 had been spent helping the " No " campaign . Grenier determined that C $ 539 @,@ 000 was illegally spent by the " No " side during the referendum , although he drew no conclusions over the " Unity Rally . " Grenier said there was no evidence of wrongdoing by Jean Charest or that the rally was part of a plan to sabotage the sovereigntist movement . Grenier urged Quebecers in his report to move on . The Bloc Québécois called for a federal inquiry , which did not occur .
= = = Responses = = =
After the referendum , the ballot for Quebec elections was redesigned to reduce the size of the space where voters could indicate their choice and the rules on allowable markings were relaxed , so that Deputy Returning Officers would have fewer grounds for rejecting ballots . The Quebec government also changed the Electoral Act so that voters would need to show a Canadian passport , Quebec drivers ' license or Quebec provincial health care card at the polling station for identification purposes in future elections .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Quebec = = =
Parizeau 's resignation led to Bouchard becoming the leader of the PQ and Premier unopposed . While Bouchard maintained a third referendum was forthcoming provided " winning conditions " occurred , his government 's chief priority became reform of the Quebec economy . Daniel Johnson would resign as leader of the Liberal Party of Quebec , and after significant pressure in English Canada , Charest resigned as national PC leader and was acclaimed as leader of the Liberals . Bouchard would defeat Charest in the 1998 election , and subsequently continue his government 's focus on austerity .
Bouchard retired in 2001 , and was replaced by Bernard Landry , who promises a more robust stance on the sovereignty issue . Charest would become Premier in the 2003 Quebec election .
= = = Distinct society and veto = = =
After the referendum , Chrétien attempted to pursue constitutional recognition of distinct society , but was stopped by the blunt refusal of Ontario Premier Mike Harris to discuss any constitutional matters . Not wanting to engage the same negotiations with provincial governments that had dominated the Trudeau and Mulroney governments , Chrétien opted to pursue unilateral Federal changes to fulfill his government 's commitments . This included the Act respecting constitutional amendments , which required permission from the provinces of Quebec , Ontario , British Columbia for Federal approval to be granted to any Constitutional amendment , granting Quebec a de facto veto . The federal parliament also officially recognized Quebec as a distinct society . Both changes , not being constitutional amendments , are theoretically reversible by future parliaments .
= = = " Plan B " = = =
Chrétien also pursued what he called " Plan B , " hoping to convince Quebec voters that economic and legal obstacles would follow if Quebec were to declare itself sovereign , whose public face would become professor Stéphane Dion . This included a reference to the Supreme Court of Canada , which followed Federal intervention post @-@ referendum into the Bertrand case : The 1998 Reference Re Secession of Quebec stated that unilateral secession was illegal , would require a constitutional amendment , and that only a clear majority on a clear question could bring about any sort of obligation on the federal and provincial governments to negotiate secession .
After the decision , the Liberal government passed the Clarity Act , which stated that any future referendum would have to be on a " clear question " and that it would have to represent a " clear majority " for the federal Parliament to recognize its validity . Section 1 ( 4 ) of the Act stated that questions that provided for only a mandate for negotiation or envisioned other partnerships with Canada would be considered unclear , and thus not recognized . The National of Assembly of Quebec passed Bill 99 , proclaiming the right of self @-@ determination pursuant to the Referendum Act . Bill 99 's constitutionality is currently being litigated .
= = = Sponsorship scandal = = =
Following the narrow victory , the Chrétien government established a pro @-@ Canada advertising campaign . The aim was to sponsor hunting , fishing and other recreational events , and in doing so promote Canada within Quebec . While many of the events sponsored were legitimate , a large sum of money was mismanaged . Auditor General Sheila Fraser released a report in November 2003 , outlining the problems . This eventually led to the Gomery Commission 's investigation of the Sponsorship Scandal . Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe argued that Canada was trying to " buy " federalism and using it as an excuse to channel dirty money into Liberal @-@ friendly pockets . This scandal 's extensive coverage in Quebec contributed support to the sovereignty movement .
= = Consulted Works / Further Reading = =
Argyle , Ray . Turning Points : The Campaigns That Changed Canada - 2011 and Before ( 2011 ) excerpt and text search ch 15
Cardinal , Mario ( 2005 ) . Breaking Point : Quebec , Canada , The 1995 Referendum . Montreal : Bayard Canada Books . ISBN 2 @-@ 89579 @-@ 068 @-@ X.
Chrétien , Jean ( 2007 ) . My Years as Prime Minister . Toronto : Vintage Canada . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 676 @-@ 97901 @-@ 5 .
CBC documentary Breaking Point ( 2005 )
Robin Philpot ( 2005 ) . Le Référendum volé . Montreal : Les éditions des intouchables . ISBN 2 @-@ 89549 @-@ 189 @-@ 5 .
Haljan , David ( 2014 ) . Constitutionalising Secession . Portland : Bloomsbury Publishing . ISBN 9781782253303 .
Hébert , Chantal ( With Jean Lapierre ) ( 2014 ) . The Morning After : The 1995 Referendum and the Day that Almost Was . Toronto : Alfred A Knopf Canada . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 80762 @-@ 5 .
Paul Jay documentary Neverendum Referendum
Fox , John ; Andersen , Robert ; Dubonnet , Joseph ( 1999 ) . " The Polls and the 1995 Quebec Referendum " . Canadian Journal of Sociology 24 ( 3 ) : 411 – 424 . JSTOR 3341396 .
= Zack Greinke =
Donald Zackary " Zack " Greinke ( / ˈɡrɪŋki / GRAIN @-@ kee ; born October 21 , 1983 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Arizona Diamondbacks of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He previously played for the Kansas City Royals , Milwaukee Brewers , Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , and Los Angeles Dodgers .
The Royals selected Greinke in 2002 MLB draft after he won the Gatorade National Player of the Year Award as a high school senior . After playing in the minor leagues , he made his MLB debut in 2004 . His career was almost derailed by his battles with depression and anxiety in 2005 – 2006 , and he missed most of the 2006 season . He returned in 2007 as a relief pitcher before rejoining the starting rotation in 2008 and developing into one of the top pitchers in the game . In 2009 , he appeared in the MLB All @-@ Star Game , led the major leagues in earned run average , and won the American League Cy Young Award .
= = Early life and high school = =
Donald Zackary Greinke was born in Orlando , Florida , the son of teachers Donald and Marsha Greinke . He was active in Little League and also excelled in tennis and golf tournaments as a youth . As a teenager , Greinke helped lead his team to the Senior League World Series title in 1999 . He played shortstop for the team and his coach estimated that he hit close to .700 in the tournament .
Greinke was primarily a shortstop when he started playing baseball at Apopka High School . He hit over .400 with 31 home runs in his high school career . He worked as a relief pitcher as a sophomore and junior , before becoming a starting pitcher as a senior . During his senior season , in 2002 , Greinke compiled a 9 – 2 win @-@ loss record , a 0 @.@ 55 earned run average ( ERA ) , and 118 strikeouts in 63 innings . He also held opposing batters to a .107 average . He led his team to a 32 – 2 record and their third straight district title , and he was selected as Gatorade National Player of the Year . After the high school season ended , he played in the Florida Athletic Coaches Association All @-@ Star Classic and impressed pro scouts with his performance against some of the best hitters in the country .
Greinke was selected in the first round of the 2002 Major League Baseball draft by the Kansas City Royals , who felt he was a polished player who could move quickly through their system . Greinke turned down a scholarship offer from Clemson University to sign with the Royals for a $ 2 @.@ 5 million signing bonus .
= = Minor leagues = =
Greinke pitched in six minor league games for the Royals farm teams in 2002 : three games for the Gulf Coast Royals , two for the Low @-@ A Spokane Indians , and two innings for the High @-@ A Wilmington Blue Rocks of the Carolina League . He had a 3 @.@ 97 ERA in 111 ⁄ 3 innings .
In 2003 , Greinke opened the season with Wilmington , where he was 11 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 14 ERA in 14 starts . Those numbers earned spots on the Carolina League mid @-@ season and post @-@ season all @-@ star teams as well as Carolina League Pitcher of the Year award . The Blue Rocks ' manager , Billy Gardner , Jr . , remarked that Greinke was " the best pitcher I 've ever seen at this level of the minor leagues . " He was promoted in July to the AA Wichita Wranglers of the Texas League , where in nine starts he was 4 – 3 with a 3 @.@ 23 ERA . He had a couple of games where he struggled at Wichita and gave up a lot of runs . However , he bounced back and helped them make the playoffs with a victory in the final game of the season .
Greinke was named the organization 's Minor League Pitcher of the Year for 2003 . He was promoted by the Royals in 2004 to the Omaha Royals of the Pacific Coast League , where he was 1 – 1 with a 2 @.@ 51 ERA in six starts .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Kansas City Royals = = =
Greinke was called up to the major leagues on May 22 , 2004 , and made his major league debut against the Oakland Athletics , allowing two runs in five innings . At 20 years old he was the youngest player in the majors and came close to picking up the win , but the team 's closer , Jeremy Affeldt , gave up the lead with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning .
Greinke recorded his first career win on June 8 , when he pitched seven scoreless innings against the Montreal Expos . His first major league hit was a home run off Arizona Diamondbacks pitcher Russ Ortiz in a 12 – 11 loss on June 10 , 2005 ; however he also allowed 15 hits in that game , which tied a club record .
Greinke was quiet and sometimes awkward in the clubhouse . To alleviate some of his anxiety and solitude , the Royals arranged for him to live with Royals Hall of Fame third baseman George Brett . Still , Greinke 's uneasiness grew . By the 2005 – 2006 offseason , he almost quit baseball . Greinke later remarked that , at the time , he did not expect to return to baseball . He left spring training for personal reasons in late February 2006 . It was later revealed that he was suffering from social anxiety disorder and depression . He reported back to the Royals ' spring training facility in Surprise , Arizona , on April 17 , where he underwent ongoing pitching sessions . He was placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list due to psychological issues and took time away from baseball entirely . He began seeing a sports psychologist and taking anti @-@ depressant medication .
In 2007 , Greinke returned to the Royals rotation at the start of the season , but was sent to the bullpen in early May . Greinke returned to the rotation in 2008 and performed well that season . His 3 @.@ 47 ERA was the best by a full @-@ time Royals starter in 11 years . On January 26 , 2009 , he agreed to a four @-@ year contract with the Royals worth $ 38 million .
After ending the 2008 season with 15 scoreless innings , Greinke started off 2009 by not allowing a run in his first 24 innings , which meant that for 39 innings in a row , he had not given up a run . Greinke was named American League ( AL ) Pitcher of the Month for April , his five wins , 0 @.@ 50 ERA and 44 strikeouts all tops in the Majors . On August 25 , Greinke struck out 15 batters , breaking Mark Gubicza 's team record for strikeouts in a single game . On August 30 , Greinke had a one @-@ hit complete game against the Seattle Mariners .
Greinke 's record for the 2009 season was 16 – 8 , and he posted an ERA of 2 @.@ 16 , the lowest in MLB . On October 21 , he was named American League Pitcher of the Year by Sporting News . On October 28 , Greinke was awarded the MLBPA Players Choice AL Pitcher of the Year . On November 17 , 2009 , he won the AL Cy Young Award . Greinke credited some of his performance to his use of " modern pitching metrics " — statistics on team defense and defense independent pitching statistics — to calibrate his own approach to pitching . Greinke specifically mentioned FIP ( fielding independent pitching ) , an indicator developed by sabermetrician Tom Tango , as his favorite statistic . " That 's pretty much how I pitch , to try to keep my FIP as low as possible .
= = = Milwaukee Brewers = = =
On December 17 , 2010 , Greinke reportedly asked the Royals to trade him , claiming that he was not motivated to play for a rebuilding team . The Royals were unlikely to afford signing Greinke to a long @-@ term deal once he became a free agent , so they agreed to trade him for some quality prospects . On December 19 , he was traded to the Milwaukee Brewers with Yuniesky Betancourt and $ 2 million for Alcides Escobar , Lorenzo Cain , Jeremy Jeffress , and Jake Odorizzi . He was given the number 13 , instead of his preferred number 23 , due to number 23 already being issued to Rickie Weeks . Greinke would later admit that he handled the trade request poorly , that he was " pretty rude " on the way out , but the deal worked out well for both teams .
In February 2011 , before reporting to his first spring training with the Brewers , Greinke suffered a fractured rib while playing basketball . He started the 2011 season on the disabled list .
Greinke made his Brewers debut in the second game of a doubleheader on May 4 , 2011 . Despite missing the first month of the season because of his injury , Greinke finished second on the team in wins with a 16 – 6 record . He also had a 3 @.@ 83 ERA , and 201 strikeouts ( 7th in the National League ( NL ) ) in 171 innings pitched while surrendering 45 walks . Greinke became only the fifth Brewer pitcher to strike out 200 + batters in a season . He was fourth in the NL in won @-@ lost percentage ( .727 ) and sixth in wins . He went a perfect 11 – 0 in his starts at Miller Park , the Brewers ' home stadium .
On April 7 , 2012 , the Brewers defeated the Cardinals 6 – 0 in Greinke 's first start of the season after he pitched seven scoreless innings while giving up four hits and striking out 7 .
In an oddity , Greinke became the first pitcher to start three straight games in the Majors in 95 years . On July 7 , he was ejected from the game after just 4 pitches for angrily throwing the ball into the ground following a close play at first base . The following day , Greinke started again , but lasted only until the third inning . The All @-@ Star break followed , and Greinke was the Brewers ' starter on July 13 , the team 's next game . Greinke 's third start ended after 5 innings . Before this , the most recent pitcher to start three consecutive games was Red Faber in the 1917 , who started both games of a September 3 doubleheader , throwing just six innings in total , followed by a complete game win the following day .
Greinke never recorded a loss in any of his starts at Miller Park .
= = = Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim = = =
Despite his success with the Brewers , the team was struggling and not likely to make a playoff run . When talks on a contract extension broke down , the team traded Greinke to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim on July 27 in exchange for top infield prospect Jean Segura and pitchers Ariel Peña and Johnny Hellweg . Brewers General Manager Doug Melvin remarked that it was one of the tougher decisions he had to make because he was very fond of Greinke .
Greinke made his first start for the Angels on July 29 . After a stretch of four unproductive starts from August 3 – 19 ( 1 –
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1 , 7 @.@ 20 ERA in 25 innings ) , Greinke followed up with four consecutive starts of at least seven innings and two or fewer runs — all of them wins . In those starts , he produced a 1 @.@ 88 ERA in 281 ⁄ 3 innings .
Greinke became the first pitcher since 1920 to record 13 strikeouts in five innings or less in a game against the Seattle Mariners on September 25 . He then combined with four other Angels pitchers to tie an American League record by striking out 20 batters in a nine @-@ inning game . He finished his time with the Angels with a 6 – 2 record and a 3 @.@ 53 ERA in 13 starts .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers = = =
Greinke agreed to a six @-@ year free agent contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers worth $ 147 million , on December 8 , 2012 . The deal , which was finalized on December 10 , was the largest ever for a right @-@ handed pitcher at the time it was signed . It was surpassed a year later by Félix Hernández 's seven @-@ year $ 175 million contract extension with the Seattle Mariners . Greinke later claimed that he chose the Dodgers over the Texas Rangers , who also were pursuing him , primarily because they offered more money .
On April 11 , 2013 , Greinke fractured his left collarbone in a brawl with Carlos Quentin of the San Diego Padres after Quentin was hit by an inside pitch and charged the mound . He was placed on the disabled list and it was revealed that he would require surgery , which was performed on April 13 . It was estimated that he would miss eight weeks of the season . However , he returned to action on May 10 when he pitched in a rehab game for the Class @-@ A Rancho Cucamonga Quakes . He returned to the Dodgers on May 15 .
On June 11 , 2013 , Greinke was hit in the head and neck area by Arizona Diamondbacks pitcher Ian Kennedy , leading to a bench @-@ clearing brawl . Because Greinke did not participate in the fight , he was not ejected .
Greinke picked up his 100th career win on August 5 , 2013 , against the St. Louis Cardinals . He was 5 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 23 ERA during the month of August and was selected as National League Pitcher of the Month . Greinke finished his first season with the Dodgers with a 15 – 4 record and 2 @.@ 63 ERA in 28 starts . He also batted .328 , the highest batting average for a Dodgers pitcher since Orel Hershiser in the 1993 season . He was awarded with the Silver Slugger Award as the best hitting pitcher in the National League .
Greinke began the 2014 season by setting an MLB record with 22 straight starts ( dating back to July 2013 ) where he allowed two or fewer earned runs . He was selected to the National League squad at the 2014 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game and finished the season with a 17 – 8 record and a 2 @.@ 71 ERA in 32 starts , the highest win total in his career . He won the Gold Glove Award as the best fielding pitcher in the National League .
When Justin Upton of the San Diego Padres homered against Greinke in the eighth inning on June 13 , 2015 , it was the last run he surrendered until the All @-@ Star break . Greinke was then selected to the All @-@ Star Game , his second straight appearance , and subsequently chosen to be the starting pitcher for the National League squad . At that point in the season , Greinke carried a major league @-@ leading 1 @.@ 48 ERA with a 7 – 2 record and 35 2 ⁄ 3 consecutive scoreless innings . After Greinke retired 28 consecutive batters over a span of two starts , Nationals outfielder Michael Taylor ended the streak in the third inning on July 19 . His scoreless inning streak lasted until a July 26 start against the New York Mets at Citi Field . He shared the NL player of the week honors with his teammate Clayton Kershaw for July 13 – 19 . Greinke finished the 2015 season with a 19 – 3 record , 200 strikeouts and a major league best 1 @.@ 66 ERA . His ERA was the second lowest in Dodgers history behind Rube Marquard in 1916 , and his ERA + ( 225 ) and WHIP ( 0 @.@ 844 ) were the best in franchise history .
Greinke pitched in two games in the 2015 National League Division Series against the New York Mets . He allowed five runs in 13 2 ⁄ 3 innings and took the loss in the deciding fifth game in the series . At the conclusion of the series , it was announced that he would opt out of the last three years of his contract with the Dodgers and become a free agent . He officially opted out on November 3 .
After the season , Greinke was selected as the Outstanding National League Pitcher at the Players Choice Awards , and won his second Gold Glove Award . Greinke finished second in the NL Cy Young Award voting to Jake Arrieta .
= = = Arizona Diamondbacks = = =
On December 8 , 2015 , Greinke signed a six @-@ year , $ 206 @.@ 5 million contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks . Greinke started on Opening Day 2016 at Chase Field against the Colorado Rockies ; he gave up seven runs in four innings , including two home runs to rookie shortstop Trevor Story , who was making his MLB debut . The Diamondbacks lost the game 10 – 5 . In his second start , on April 9 , Greinke matched up against Kyle Hendricks and the Chicago Cubs . He allowed three runs in the first inning , and struggled through the rest of his outing . The Diamondbacks lost the game 4 – 2 . Greinke got his first win as a Diamondback on April 19 , 2016 against the San Francisco Giants , allowing just one run in over six innings of work . On July 3 , 2016 , Greinke was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to a left oblique strain .
= = Pitching style = =
Greinke throws six different pitches :
Four @-@ seam fastball — 91 to 96 miles per hour ( 146 – 154 km / h )
Two @-@ seam fastball — 91 to 95 miles per hour ( 146 – 153 km / h )
Cutter — 88 to 91 miles per hour ( 142 – 146 km / h )
Slider — 83 to 87 miles per hour ( 134 – 140 km / h )
Curveball — 68 to 77 miles per hour ( 109 – 124 km / h )
Changeup — 87 to 90 miles per hour ( 140 – 145 km / h )
His curveball , like his divisional rival Madison Bumgarner , has two speeds with different types of movement , though he throws his slow curveball much more frequently than does Bumgarner , and will sometimes throw a curve that is more in the middle range combining the types of movement . His two @-@ seamer is his most @-@ used pitch against right @-@ handed hitters and is used more frequently than against lefties , as is his slider . His changeup is only thrown to left @-@ handed hitters . Greinke 's curveball is typically used early in the count , while his slider is his most common 2 @-@ strike pitch .
Greinke 's slider has been one of his more effective pitches . Hitters have only a .154 batting average and .230 slugging percentage against the pitch . It has produced 51 % of his strikeouts . Its whiff rate is 42 % , and more than half the pitches put in play are ground balls . However , he limits the use of the slider in order to not put excessive strain on his arm .
Greinke has produced good strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratios throughout his career , finishing in his league 's top 10 five times and ranking fifth among active pitchers in the category , at 3 @.@ 5 : 1 as of the start of the 2014 season .
Greinke has been described as a " scientist as a pitcher " and is known for preparing for each start more extensively than most .
= = Personal life = =
Greinke is married to Emily Kuchar , whom he met while attending Apopka High School . Kuchar is a former Dallas Cowboys Cheerleader and was Miss Daytona Beach USA 2008 . On April 17 , 2015 , Kuchar announced via Twitter that they were expecting their first child . Their son , Bode , was born on July 23 , 2015 .
His younger brother , Luke , was also a pitcher . Luke played college baseball at Auburn University and was drafted by the New York Yankees in the 12th round of the 2008 MLB draft , but was out of baseball a year later because of injuries .
= Heavy Crown ( song ) =
" Heavy Crown " is a song recorded by Australian rapper Iggy Azalea featuring English singer Ellie Goulding , recorded for Reclassified ( 2014 ) , the reissue of Azalea 's debut studio album The New Classic ( 2014 ) . Azalea and Goulding co @-@ wrote the song with its producers , Salt Wives and The Invisible Men , with additional writing from Jon Turner . " Heavy Crown " received generally positive reviews from critics , who commended Azalea 's delivery on the track , finding it to be superior to that of her earlier songs .
" Heavy Crown " was used as the backing track for the trailer to the 2014 film Kingsman : The Secret Service . In the week of the album 's release , " Heavy Crown " charted at number 9 on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and entered two digital urban subsidiary charts , the Hot Digital R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , where it peaked at 37 , and the Hot Digital Rap Songs , where it peaked at 23 . The track also peaked on the lower ends of the Czech Republic and Slovakian digital singles charts .
= = Background = =
Azalea first announced the song in September 2014 , in one of many tweets she made where she discussed Reclassified , one in @-@ particular reading " Me and Ellie Goulding have a nice little numberrrr together on there . FYI " . During the promotional campaign leading up to the release of Reclassified , Azalea revealed that she would be collaborating with Ellie Goulding on a track titled " Heavy Crown " featured in the film Kingsman : The Secret Service . In October 2014 , while giving an interview with Radio.com , Azalea mentioned her longtime desire to work with Goulding , and after meeting her several times , was approached about a song that would eventually become " Heavy Crown " . She recalled one meeting , " she played it for me and I was in love with it and just felt it was so kind of appropriate for this to be our collaboration " , because it " brings out something different in both artists that you don 't usually see . " On 14 November , a preview of " Heavy Crown " was uploaded to Azalea 's VEVO channel . In December 2014 , " Trouble " was announced to be the next single from Reclassified , as opposed to " Heavy Crown " . Fans reacted badly , leading to Azalea releasing a statement explaining that test audiences had preferred " Trouble " over " Heavy Crown " , and that the duet with Goulding was not " formatted for pop or rhythmic radio " .
= = Composition = =
" Heavy Crown " is a hip @-@ hop , pop , electronica track that runs for a total duration of three minutes and fifty @-@ two seconds . Bianca Gracie from Idolator observed that " the hard @-@ hitting , thumping tune finds Azalea switching up her usually laid @-@ back flow with a snarled , teeth @-@ baring rap — which is juxtaposed by Goulding 's chilling vocals . " , while Jonathan Viray from HypeTrak described the song as an " aggressive , warmongering track dedicated to her haters . " Jim Farber from the New York Daily News commented that " ' Heavy Crown ' has a tribal rock beat and a cocky cameo vocal from Ellie Goulding " , and went on to analyse the lyrics , referring to Azalea 's dispute with Snoop Dogg , " one new verse from Iggy addresses a recent , and light @-@ hearted , beef . ' Get rid of the makeup / let ’ s be just who you is , ' Azalea raps at one point , alluding to a series of tit @-@ for @-@ tat spats in October with Snoop Dogg . " . Latin Post writer Esther Jang described Goulding 's delivery of the chorus as her using her " signature echo @-@ y voice " , going on to describe the tracks production as " ' 70s bass guitar @-@ heavy rock " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Heavy Crown " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Kevipod from Direct Lyrics described the song as " the most @-@ anticipated track " from Reclassified , writing " love the contrast between the menacing , raucous Iggy Azalea verses to the vulnerable Ellie choruses " . When the track premiered ahead of the release of Reclassified , one writer from Capital wrote that " it doesn 't disappoint ! " . Carl Smith from SugarScape described the track as " SASS CENTRAL " , ending his review with " it 's generally just our new office jam " . The track was also well received by Jim Farber of the New York Daily News , who commended the tracks instrumental and Goulding 's " cocky " cameo . In a positive review , Nolan Feeney from TIME commented that " ' Heavy Crown ' won ’ t change the minds of anyone who ’ s already written off the rapper , but Iggy 's double @-@ time rap over the militaristic march seems more at ease than the occasionally clunky verses on early singles . " He went on to describe Azalea 's first verse in the song as " unforgettable " , and described Goulding 's vocals as " smooth " . A writer for Fuse commented that " Iggy and Ellie know they 're on top and aren 't planning on moving from their spot anytime soon . "
Upon Reclassified 's release , many critics deemed " Heavy Crown " to be a standout cut from the album . Idolator 's Mike Wass said that of the new material on the re @-@ release , it " stands out as another future hit " . Allan Raible of ABC News picked the track as one of three ' focus tracks ' from Reclassified , writing " ' Heavy Crown ' is interesting because during the verses , the beat is really hard @-@ hitting and during the chorus , the music recedes to give Goulding a lush minimalist backdrop . It creates an interesting bit of contrast . " A writer for The Cavalier Daily also thought of " Heavy Crown " as a standout track from Reclassified , and described it as a harsher alternative to Azalea 's 2014 single " Black Widow " , specifically the song 's " much harder beat drop " .
In a mixed review of the song , Daryl Nelson from The Boombox thought that Azalea seemed " pissed " on the track , and questioned the over @-@ usage of the term " hater " . Jake Rickun , a writer for the Badger Herald , panned Reclassified . In his review , he described " Heavy Crown " as an ironic statement , " but it ’ s on ' Heavy Crown , ' in a candid moment of irony , where Azalea is most telling . ' Get rid of the makeup let us just see who you is , ' she raps . For an Australian @-@ born rapper who denies her roots and sits comfortably in American culture , Azalea seems to forget how much proverbial makeup she cakes on herself " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Digital Spy named " Heavy Crown " as one of their weekly ' 10 Tracks You Need To Hear ' , placing the song at number three on their list , writing " together they deliver a hardline and bolshy hip @-@ hop number that is sure to help secure that chart throne for a little longer yet " . Fuse placed the track at number eleven on their list of the ' 12 Best Female Collaborations Of 2014 ' , describing the track as a " ( tragically ) under @-@ appreciated jam " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Reclassified liner notes .
Locations
Recorded at Sarm West Coast and Grove Studios . ( London , UK )
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= Eilat Airport =
Eilat Airport ( Hebrew : שְׂדֵה הַתְּעוּפָה אֵילַת , Namal HaTe 'ufa Eilat ; Arabic : مطار إيلات ) , also known as J. Hozman Airport ( IATA : ETH , ICAO : LLET ) , is an Israeli airport located in the city of Eilat , and named for Arkia Airlines founder Yakov Hozman ( Jacob Housman ) . Eilat Airport is located in the central area of the city , next to Route 90 ( The Arava Road ) . It mostly handles domestic flights to Tel Aviv and Haifa with international flights operating instead to Ovda International Airport , but a few international flights on aircraft that can handle the relatively short runway use Eilat as well .
The airport is expected to cease civilian operations by 2017 when Eilat 's new international airport , Ramon Airport , should become operational .
= = History = =
Eilat Airport was established in 1949 by the Israel Air Force , following the 1948 Israeli War of Independence . During its early years , the airport aimed to establish a comprehensive set of connections to towns across the country , most notably with Tel Aviv and Haifa . Consequently , a regular route from Eilat to Lod Airport ( now Ben Gurion International Airport ) was started . Soon after , a route to Haifa Airport became operational . In December 1950 , following their establishment , Arkia Israel Airlines became the largest domestic operator at Eilat Airport , taking the position of the former companies Eilata and Aviron . To this day , they retain this position . Later , in 1964 the runway was expanded to 1500 m , and a passenger terminal was built . Five years later , the runway was further expanded increasing the length to 1900 m . In 1975 , Eilat Airport started to attract Scandinavian airlines . The first international flight arrival to Eilat , of the Danish airline , Sterling Airlines landed in this year . Since then , many international routes have been established directly linking Eilat with Europe , however , the airport is still unable to handle landings of large aircraft which have to fly to Ovda International Airport .
In the 1994 Peace Agreement between Israel and Jordan it was decided that operations were supposed to be transferred from Eilat Airport to Aqaba Airport . The original plan was to rename Aqaba Airport as Aqaba @-@ Eilat Peace International Airport . The agreement was never followed , however , and an agreement between the two countries in March 1997 , stipulated that domestic flights would continue to use Eilat Airport , whilst no further action to move international flights took place .
In August 2005 , a Katyusha rocket fired from Jordan landed near a taxi traveling just 15 yards ( 14 m ) from the airport perimeter fence . On August 8 , 2013 , the Israeli Military instructed the airport to cancel all landings and departures after a security assessment . Militants in Egypt 's Sinai Peninsula had fired rockets towards the city in recent years , but it was not immediately clear if that was the reason for the closure .
= = The airport today = =
Today , Eilat Airport sustains peak loads concentrated into Thursdays , Saturdays , and Sundays . On Thursdays and Sundays , flights are handled in a period of a few hours in the mornings and on Saturdays only the evening hours are used . Often there are days when 10 @,@ 000 passengers on 120 flights are channelled through the 2 @,@ 800 m2 terminal , counting as one of the highest peak loads worldwide in this category .
International passenger traffic decreased from magnitude of 20 @,@ 000 in a year in late 2000s to 5 @,@ 000 in a year in 2010s .
Although the airport is capable of handling Boeing 767 aircraft , for large numbers of these aircraft , significant investment would be needed . Consequently , the largest aircraft regularly flying to the airport are Boeing 757 . The main problem at the airport is the lack of ramp space , with just two parking positions for large aircraft . As a result , El Al operates regular shuttle flights to Ben Gurion International Airport carrying passengers from around the world on 757s and 737s .
The small size of the airport is perhaps best illustrated with the fact that a Boeing 757 cannot taxi past another aircraft to parking positions . As a result , controllers are responsible not only for ensuring that valuable space is utilised , but also ensuring that other aircraft are kept circling until larger aircraft are parked . Despite these limitations , the airport successfully handles ten to twenty times more traffic than airports of a comparable size . It is for this reason that plans to relocate the airport are so important in the short @-@ term scale . In 2006 , a NIS 5 @.@ 5 million renovation programme of Eilat Airport 's terminal and runway was undertaken , designed to sustain the airport until it is replaced in the near future .
= = The future = =
Since the beginning of the 1990s the authorities in Eilat have considered relocating the airport , approximately 20 km north of Eilat , to the Ora Well area near Be 'er Ora . There were numerous reasons behind this idea . Primarily , the fact that safety would be improved as in its current location , there is the chance of aircraft crashing into buildings in the city . Other reasons were the pure value of the land which the airport occupies , and the fact that the airport is dividing the city of Eilat into two parts with the hotels and tourist areas on one side , and the residential buildings on the other .
On 24 July 2011 the Israeli cabinet approved the construction of a new airport to be built in Timna , 18 km ( 11 mi ) north of Eilat , next to Be 'er Ora . It will have a 3 @,@ 600 m ( 11 @,@ 800 ft ) runway , longer than the runway in Eilat , which will allow large aircraft to land . The airport is due to open in 2017 and will be named after the first Israeli astronaut Ilan Ramon and his son Assaf Ramon , who died six years later when his F @-@ 16 fighter jet crashed over the West Bank .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = Statistics = =
= Sarah Trimmer =
Sarah Trimmer ( née Kirby ; 6 January 1741 – 15 December 1810 ) was a writer and critic of 18th @-@ century British children 's literature , as well as an educational reformer . Her periodical , The Guardian of Education , helped to define the emerging genre by seriously reviewing children 's literature for the first time ; it also provided the first history of children 's literature , establishing a canon of the early landmarks of the genre that scholars still use today . Trimmer 's most popular children 's book , Fabulous Histories , inspired numerous children 's animal stories and remained in print for over a century .
Trimmer was also an active philanthropist . She founded several Sunday schools and charity schools in her parish . To further these educational projects , she wrote textbooks and manuals for women interested in starting their own schools . Trimmer 's efforts inspired other women , such as Hannah More , to establish Sunday school programs and to write for children and the poor .
Trimmer 's works are dedicated to maintaining many aspects of the social and political status quo . As a high church Anglican , she was intent on promoting the established Church of England and on teaching young children and the poor the doctrines of Christianity . Her writings outlined the benefits of social hierarchy , arguing that each class should remain in its God @-@ given position . Yet , while supporting many of the traditional political and social ideologies of her time , Trimmer questioned others , such as those surrounding gender and the family .
= = Early life = =
Sarah Trimmer was born on 6 January 1741 in Ipswich , England to Joshua Kirby and Sarah ( née Bell ) ; her father was a noted artist and served as President of the Society of Artists of Great Britain . Trimmer had one younger brother , William ; she was apparently the better writer , for she would sometimes compose his school essays for him . As a young girl , Trimmer attended Mrs. Justiner ’ s boarding school in Ipswich , an experience she always remembered fondly . In 1755 , the family moved to London when her father , who had written several important works on perspective , became the tutor of perspective to the Prince of Wales . Because of her father 's connections within the artistic community , Trimmer was able to meet the painters William Hogarth and Thomas Gainsborough as well as the by @-@ then legendary writer and critic Samuel Johnson . She made a favourable impression on Johnson when she immediately produced her pocket copy of John Milton 's Paradise Lost ( 1667 ) to help settle a dispute between her father and Johnson over a particular passage . Johnson , delighted that she admired Milton enough to carry his works with her at all times , " subsequently invited her to his house and presented her with a volume of his famous periodical The Rambler " . In 1759 , at the urging of his former pupil the Prince of Wales ( soon to be George III ) , her father was made Clerk of the Works to the Royal Household at Kew Palace and the family moved to Kew . There she met James Trimmer , whom she married on 21 September 1762 ; after their marriage , the couple moved to Old Brentford .
= = Motherhood and philanthropy = =
Trimmer was close to her parents ; after her marriage , she walked to visit her father every day , later accompanied by her eldest children . She and her husband had 12 children in all — six boys and six girls . Trimmer was responsible for her children 's education and it was the combination of her duties as a mother and a teacher that initially sparked her interest in education .
Inspired by Robert Raikes , Trimmer also became active in the Sunday school movement , founding the first Sunday school for poor children in Old Brentford in 1786 . She and two of the ministers in her parish , Charles Sturgess and Charles Coates , organized a fund drive and established several schools for the poor children of the neighborhood . Initially , five hundred boys and girls wanted to attend Trimmer 's Sunday school ; unable to accommodate such numbers , she decided to exclude those under five years of age and restricted each family to one pupil . The parish set up three schools , each with about thirty students — one for older boys , one for younger boys and one for girls . While some other educational reformers of the period such as Mary Wollstonecraft argued for co @-@ educational instruction , Trimmer was opposed to such pedagogical changes ; she believed in educating the sexes separately . The students were taught to read , with the aim of teaching them to read the Bible . The students were also encouraged to keep clean — " a present of a brush and comb was given to all who desired them " . Trimmer 's schools became so well known and admired that Raikes , Trimmer 's initial inspiration , recommended those who needed assistance organizing a Sunday school to turn to Trimmer ; even Queen Charlotte asked Trimmer 's advice on founding a Sunday school at Windsor .
After her visit to the queen , Trimmer was inspired to write The Œconomy of Charity , which describes how readers , specifically women , can establish Sunday schools in their own communities . However , her book accomplished much more than this . While proponents of Sunday schools such as Raikes and Trimmer claimed that the schools would help control the growing social unrest of the poor , critics claimed that these schools would only encourage the social upheaval they were trying to quell . The Hon. John Byng , for example , issued the dire warning that " not only would education ' teach them to read seditious pamphlets , books and publications against Christianity ' … but it would render them unfit for ' the laborious employment to which their rank in society had destined them ' " . Trimmer agreed that the poor were " destined " by God to be poor but would argue that her schools reinforced that divine social hierarchy . The Sunday school debate was waged in churches , in Parliament and in print ; in publishing The Œconomy of Charity , Trimmer was entering this vigorous debate .
As scholar Deborah Wills has argued : " [ The Œconomy of Charity ] is actually informed by a highly politicized subtext which anticipates , subverts , and counters anti @-@ Sunday School arguments . [ Trimmer ] outlines a programme through which the Sunday School , when properly administered , can serve as a means of instituting social control and intensifying hierarchy . … Trimmer ’ s carefully modest and unassuming text is thus revealed as a middle @-@ class manifesto for the appropriation of social , political , and religious power in the name of moral instruction . "
For example , Trimmer contends that Sunday schools teach their pupils not merely to read the Bible but how to draw the proper theological and political conclusions from it . Furthermore , Trimmer argues that the responsibility for educating the poor rests on the shoulders of the middle class alone . By eliminating the aristocracy from an active role in her philanthropic programs , " Trimmer ensures that those who actually regulate the Sunday School curriculum are those who will both embody and perpetuate bourgeois culture " . As Wills points out , this distinguishes her from other philanthropists of the time such as Hannah More .
Trimmer also founded and oversaw charity schools in her neighborhood . She directed promising students from her Sunday schools , which met only once a week , to these charity schools , which met several times a week . As she wrote in her journal , these schools seemed to her to " afford a happy prospect of rescuing many poor children from vice and profligacy " . While the Sunday schools were funded by subscription , that is , donations from people within the parish , the charity schools were largely funded by the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge ( SPCK ) , which had funded the first charity schools around a century earlier . Trimmer criticized the rote learning that went on in traditional charity schools and tried to institute a more dynamic catechetical method in her own schools that would stimulate students to ask questions . She wrote in her journal , " my earnest desire is to compose a course of teaching for Charity Schools , by which the children may learn in reality , and not by rote , the principles of the Christian Religion , as taught in the Scriptures " . Trimmer also established schools of industry to which she directed her less promising pupils . These schools would teach girls , for example , how to knit and spin . Initially , Trimmer believed that the schools would turn a profit since the girls would spin and knit all day long ; however , the girls were unskilled and turned out poor products that could not be sold . Trimmer viewed this project as a failure .
Wilfried Keutsch , a modern scholar of the 18th century , has criticized Trimmer 's projects as naive and moralistic :
[ There is ] no indication that Sarah Trimmer based her many efforts to instruct and improve the children of the poor on detailed social analysis , but it is apparent that she was deeply disturbed not only by their needs but also about the increasing pauperization of the country . Whether she understood that society was changing from a more feudal to a more modern bourgeois structure , in which many of the stabilizing old personal ties were removed and replaced by the cash @-@ nexus , is not clear . … on the whole she displays no interest in the social and economic causes of poverty . Instead she offers a model of improvement which rests on a rigorous division of the working people and the poor into black and white : the deserving and the undeserving poor , the godly and the ungodly , the respectable and dutiful and the rebellious and undutiful , the idle and the industrious , that is , on an alternating identification of poverty with virtue and vice .
Although Sunday schools such as the ones established by Trimmer have often been characterized by modern scholars as a repressive device used by the middle class to impose their morality on the lower classes , Thomas Laqueur has argued that the poor embraced this opportunity to obtain literacy and disregarded many of the moral lessons forced upon them .
= = Literary career = =
In a literary career that spanned more than a quarter of a century , Trimmer authored somewhere between 33 and 44 texts . She wrote in a wide range of genres : textbooks , teaching manuals , children 's literature , political pamphlets and critical periodicals . While many of her texts were for children , some of her works , such as The Œconomy of Charity , were also for specific adult audiences . Still others were written for both children and adults , such as The Servant ’ s Friend ( 1786 – 7 ) , which was meant to instruct servants of all ages .
Throughout her career , Trimmer worked with four different publishers — John Marshall , T.N. Longman , G. Robinson , and Joseph Johnson — and , by 1800 , she had the most works of any author in the Newbery catalogue , the catalogue that sold the most children 's literature . Eventually , Trimmer stopped publishing with Joseph Johnson , because she disagreed with his politics — he was a supporter of the French Revolution and was publishing works that she considered subversive .
= = = An Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature = = =
Trimmer 's first book was An easy introduction to the knowledge of nature , and reading the holy scriptures , adapted to the capacities of children ( 1780 ) , which built on the revolution in children 's literature begun by Anna Laetitia Barbauld . In the " Preface " , Trimmer writes that Isaac Watts 's Treatise on Education was the inspiration for the work and that " a book containing a kind of general survey of the works of Nature would be very useful , as a means to open the mind by gradual steps to the knowledge of the SUPREME BEING , preparatory to their reading the holy scriptures " . In the text , the reader follows a mother and her two children , Charlotte and Henry ( perhaps named after two of Trimmer 's own children ) , on a series of nature walks during which the mother describes the wonders of God 's creation . In 1793 , a version of this book was added to the catalogue of the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge ; after 77 years , it had sold over 750 @,@ 000 copies .
Aileen Fyfe , a historian interested in the relationship between science and religion , has argued that Trimmer 's text , although inspired by Barbauld 's books , differs dramatically from Barbauld 's in its religious orientation . Barbauld was a Dissenter and more inclined , according to Fyfe , to " encourage curiosity , observation , and reasoning " . In contrast , Trimmer , as a high church Anglican , depicted nature as " awe @-@ inspiring " and as a reflection not only of God 's divinity but also of his goodness . These beliefs are reflected even in the structure of the text ; Trimmer 's aim was to convey a sense of the awe , therefore her text does not progress in an orderly fashion through a study of the natural world . Barbauld 's texts , however , emphasize the slow accumulation of knowledge as well as logical thinking . Thus Evenings at Home , which she co @-@ wrote with her brother , John Aikin , has a " systematic structure " . Another difference between the two writers lies in the role of authority : whereas Barbauld 's texts and those she wrote with her brother , emphasize dialogues between teacher and pupil , Trimmer 's textual conversations , Fyfe notes , were " controlled by the parent " .
However , Donelle Ruwe , a scholar of 18th @-@ century children 's literature , has pointed out that An Easy Introduction is not entirely a conservative text — it challenges 18th @-@ century notions of the proper roles for women laid out in conduct manuals such as those written by John Gregory and James Fordyce . The mother in Trimmer 's text acts as a " spiritual leader " and demonstrates that a woman is capable of " theological reasoning " . Such depictions challenge Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's claims that women are capable only of memorizing religious dogma and not of sophisticated reasoning . Furthermore , Trimmer 's mother tries to educate her children in a straightforward manner instead of employing the " manipulative " tricks of the tutor in Rousseau 's Emile .
A few years later , inspired by Madame de Genlis 's Adèle et Théodore ( 1782 ) , Trimmer commissioned sets of illustrations of the Bible for which she provided the commentary ; she also published print / commentary sets of ancient history and British history . These various sets were very popular and could be purchased together ( commentary and prints ) or individually . The prints were usually hung on walls or bound into books .
= = = Relations with John Marshall = = =
The children ’ s publisher John Marshall & Co. produced The footstep to Mrs. Trimmer 's Sacred history : for the instruction and amusement of little children in 1785 . Trimmer had always advocated the use of pictorial material in books for children , and the publisher , who was experienced in producing cheap popular prints , was in a good position to publish them for her . In May 1786 Marshall published A series of prints of scripture history , " designed as ornaments for those apartments in which children receive the first rudiments of their education . " The prints were sold " pasted on boards , for hanging up in nurseries " at 1s 6d , in sheets for 8d , sewed in marbled paper ‘ for the pocket , ’ for 10d. or else neatly bound in read leather at 1s 2d . They were also published with an accompanying small book entitled , A description of a set of prints of scripture history , which was also available in different bindings . The venture proved to be successful and these two works were quickly followed by the publication of five similar ‘ Series of Prints ’ together with accompanying ‘ Descriptions ’ , compiled by Mrs Trimmer , on the subjects of Ancient history ( 1786 ) , Roman history ( 1789 ) , English history ( 1789 ) , the New Testament ( 1790 ) and the Old Testament ( 1797 ) . These were hugely popular and were reprinted by the Marshalls and their successors at regular intervals over the next thirty years .
In January ( 1788 ) Mrs Trimmer and John Marshall announced a new joint venture , The family magazine ; or a repository of religious instruction and rational amusement . It was a monthly periodical " designed to counteract the pernicious tendency of immoral books & c. which have circulated of late years among the inferior classes of people , " and usually included one engraved plate . The content consisted of ‘ religious tales for Sunday evenings ’ and ‘ moral tales for weekdays ’ ; advice on the management of infants and on childrearing was given together with a comparative view of other nations to demonstrate that ‘ the poor in England possess privileges , and enjoy many comforts , which persons of their rank … in other countries cannot enjoy . ’ Descriptions of animals were also included , ' in order to check the practice of cruelty to brute creation . ' The final section of the magazine contained ' a selection of Ballads , Songs & c . , both ancient and modern , of a Moral Tendency . ' Thus , in both its objects and content , this publication introduced many of the ideas which would later bear fruit in Hannah More ’ s more ambitious and well @-@ known scheme for Cheap Repository Tracts of 1795 . The family magazine survived for eighteen months with Trimmer as both the editor and the principal contributor , but eventually she had to give it up seemingly through exhaustion
= = = Books for charity schools = = =
Because , in Trimmer 's opinion , there was a dearth of good educational material to use in charity schools , she decided to write her own . The series of books she produced between 1786 and 1798 were used in Britain and its colonies well into the 19th century . Trimmer was an able promoter of her materials ; she knew that her books would not reach large numbers of poor children in charity schools unless they were funded and publicized by the SPCK . She wrote in her journal " my scheme without its aid , will fall to the ground " . Thus , she joined the society in 1787 . In 1793 , she sent 12 copies of her treatise Reflections upon the Education in Charity Schools with the Outlines of a Plan Appropriate Instruction for the Children of the Poor to the subcommittee that chose the books funded by the organization . In the treatise , she argued that the current charity school curriculum was outdated ( it was over 100 years old ) and needed to be replaced . She suggested a list of seven books that she herself would write :
A Spelling Book in two Parts
Scripture Lessons from the Old Testament
Scripture Lessons from the New Testament
Moral Instructions from the Scriptures
Lessons on the Liturgy from the Book of Common Prayer
Exemplary Tales
The Teacher 's Assistant
The committee largely accepted her proposal . The Charity School Spelling Book was printed first and was the most widely used . It was one of the first children 's books for the poor that was small but still had large type and large margins ( features often considered appropriate only for books for more privileged readers ) . The stories themselves were also innovative : they emphasized the ordinary lives of ordinary children — " these children climbed trees , played with fire , threw cricket bats at sheep and begged in the streets " . The book was adopted by Andrew Bell around 1800 for his Madras system of education and by various educational societies throughout Britain and its colonies ; it was even used to educate adult slaves in Antigua and Jamaica .
The proposed " Scripture Lessons " became Trimmer 's An Abridgement of Scripture History , consisting of Lessons selected from the Old Testament , for the Use of Schools and Families which was an anthology of selections from the Bible . Like the Charity School Spelling Book , it was adopted throughout the British educational system and was part of school life well into the mid @-@ 19th century . In 1798 SPCK published Scripture Catechisms , Part I and II ; these works were intended to aid the teacher while the Abridgements ( a shorthand name for the Scripture Histories of both the Old and New Testament that Trimmer eventually published ) were intended to aid the pupil . The " Exemplary Tales " seem not to have been written exactly as planned but Trimmer 's Servant 's Friend and Two Farmers fulfilled the purpose she outlined in her plan of publishing pleasurable moral tales . These two books served as Sunday school prizes as well . The Teacher 's Assistant was an instruction aid and was also widely adopted throughout British schools . The only texts not published by the SPCK were Trimmer 's adaptations and commentaries on the Book of Common Prayer , which she had printed elsewhere .
= = = Fabulous Histories = = =
Fabulous Histories ( later known as The Story of the Robins ) , Trimmer 's most popular work , was first published in 1786 , and remained in print until the beginning of the 20th century . It tells the story of two families , a robin family and a human family , who learn to live together congenially . Most importantly , the human children and the baby robins must learn to adopt virtue and to shun vice . For Trimmer , practising kindness to animals as a child would hopefully lead one to " universal benevolence " as an adult . According to Samuel Pickering , Jr . , a scholar of 18th @-@ century children 's literature , " in its depiction of 18th @-@ century attitudes toward animals , Mrs. Trimmer ’ s Fabulous Histories was the most representative children ’ s book of the period " . The text expresses most of the themes that would come to dominate Trimmer 's later works , such as her emphasis on retaining social hierarchies ; as Tess Cosslett , a scholar of children 's literature explains , " the notion of hierarchy that underpins Fabulous Histories is relatively stable and fixed . Parents are above children in terms of authority , and humans above animals , in terms both of dominion and compassion : poor people should be fed before hungry animals … [ but ] the hierarchical relation of men and women is not so clearly enforced . " Moira Ferguson , a scholar of the 18th and 19th centuries , places these themes in a larger historical context , arguing that " the fears of the author and her class about an industrial revolution in ascendance and its repercussions are evident . Hence , [ the ] text attacks cruelty to birds and animals while affirming British aggression abroad . … The text subtly opts for conservative solutions : maintenance of order and established values , resignation and compliance from the poor at home , expatriation for foreigners who do not assimilate easily . " A second overarching theme in the text is rationality ; Trimmer expresses the common fear of the power of fiction in her preface , explaining to her childish readers that her fable is not real and that animals cannot really speak . Like many social critics during the 18th century , Trimmer was concerned about fiction 's potentially damaging impact on young readers . With the rise of the novel and its concomitant private reading , there was a great fear that young people and especially women would read racy and adventurous stories without the knowledge of their parents and , perhaps even more worrisome , interpret the books as they pleased . Trimmer therefore always referred to her text as Fabulous Histories and never as The Story of the Robins in order to emphasize its reality ; moreover , she did not allow the book to be illustrated within her lifetime — pictures of talking birds would only have reinforced the paradox of the book ( it was fiction parading as a history ) . Yarde has also speculated that most of the characters in the text are drawn from Trimmer 's own acquaintances and family .
= = = The Guardian of Education = = =
Later in her life , Trimmer published the influential Guardian of Education ( June 1802 – September 1806 ) , which included ideas for instructing children and reviews of contemporary children 's books . Although one previous attempt had been made to regularly review children 's books in Britain , according to Matthew Grenby , " it was a far less substantial and sustained enterprise than Trimmer ’ s " . The Guardian included not only reviews of children 's books but also extracts from texts Trimmer thought would edify her adult readers . She aimed " to assess the current state of educational policy and praxis in Britain and to shape its future direction " . To do so , she evaluated the educational theories of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , John Locke , Mary Wollstonecraft , Hannah More , Madame de Genlis , Joseph Lancaster , and Andrew Bell , among others . In her " Essay on Christian Education , " also published separately later , she proposed her own comprehensive educational program .
Trimmer took her reviewing very seriously and her over 400 reviews constitute a set of distinct values . As Grenby puts it , " her initial questions of any children ’ s books that came before her were always first , was it damaging to religion and second , was it damaging to political loyalty and the established social hierarchy " . Religion was always Trimmer 's first priority and her emphasis on Biblical inerrancy illustrates her fundamentalism . She criticized books that included scenes of death , characters who were insane , and representations of sexuality , as well as books that might frighten children . She typically praised books that encouraged intellectual instruction , such as Anna Barbauld 's Lessons for Children ( 1778 – 79 ) .
Trimmer 's fundamentalism , Grenby argues , does not necessarily mark her as the rigid thinker that many critics have presumed her to be . Grenby points out that Trimmer , like Rousseau , believed children were naturally good ; in this , she was arguing against centuries of tradition , particularly Puritanical attitudes towards raising children . She also agreed with " Rousseau ’ s key idea [ while ironically attacking Rousseau 's works themselves ] , later taken up by the Romantics , that children should not be forced to become adults too early " .
The Guardian of Education established children 's literature as a genre with her reviews . Moreover , in one of her early essays , " Observations on the Changes which have taken place in Books for Children and Young Persons " , Trimmer wrote the first history of children 's literature , setting out the first canon of children 's literature . Its landmark books are still cited today by scholars as important in the development of the genre .
= = = = Fairy tales = = = =
Trimmer is perhaps most famous now for her condemnation of fairy tales , such as the various translations of Charles Perrault 's Histoires ou contes du temps passé ( originally published in 1697 ) , because they endorsed an irrational view of the world and suggested that children could become successful too easily ( in other words , they did not have to work ) . Chapbooks were the literature of the poor and Trimmer was attempting to separate children 's literature from texts she associated with the lower classes ; she also feared that children might gain access to this cheap literature without their parents ' knowledge . Trimmer criticized the values associated with fairy tales , accusing them of perpetuating superstition and unfavourable images of stepparents . Rather than seeing Trimmer as a censor of fairy tales , therefore , Nicholas Tucker has argued , " by considering fairy tales as fair game for criticism rather than unthinking worship , Mrs Trimmer is at one with scholars today who have also written critically about the ideologies found in some individual stories " .
One of the reasons Trimmer believed fairy tales were dangerous was because they led child readers into a fantasy world where adults could not follow and control their exposure to harmful experiences . She was just as horrified by the graphic illustrations included with some fairy tale collections , complaining that " little children , whose minds are susceptible of every impression ; and who from the liveliness of their imaginations are apt to convert into realities whatever forcibly strikes their fancy " should not be allowed to see such scenes as Blue Beard hacking his wife 's head off .
= = = = French revolution and religion = = = =
In the pages of The Guardian of Education , Trimmer denounced the French revolution and the philosophers whose works she believed underpinned it , particularly Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau . She argued that there was a vast conspiracy , organized by the atheistic and democratic revolutionaries of France , to overthrow the legitimate governments of Europe . These conspirators were attempting to overturn traditional society by " endeavouring to infect the minds of the rising generation , through the medium of Books of Education and Children 's Books " ( emphasis Trimmer 's ) . Her views were shaped by Abbé Barruel 's Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism ( 1797 – 8 ) ( she extracted large sections from this text into the Guardian itself ) but also by her fears of the ongoing wars between France and Britain during the 1790s . Trimmer emphasized Christianity above all in her writings and maintained that one should turn to God in times of trial . As M. Nancy Cutt argues in her book on children 's literature , Trimmer and writers like her " claimed emphatically that the degree of human happiness was in direct proportion to the degree of submission to the divine Will . Thus they repudiated the moralists ’ view that learning should exalt reason and work to the temporal happiness of the individual , which was governed by the best interests of society " . Trimmer and her allies contended that French pedagogical theories led to an immoral nation , specifically , " deism , infidelity and revolution " .
= = = Bell vs. Lancasterian school system debate = = =
In 1789 , Andrew Bell invented the Madras system of education to order to instruct British colonial subjects in India ; it was a disciplinary system which employed a hierarchy of student monitors and very few teachers ( economical for the colonies , Bell argued ) . He published a book , Experiment in Education ( 1797 ) , in order to explain his system , one that he thought could be adapted for the poor in England ( in it he endorsed many of Trimmer 's own books ) . A year after reading the Experiment , an English Quaker , Joseph Lancaster , adopted many of its principles for his school in London and then published his own book , Improvements in Education ( 1803 ) , which repeated many of Bell 's ideas . Because of his Quaker sympathies , Lancaster did not encourage the teaching of the doctrines of the Established Church . Trimmer , appalled by the suggestion that British children did not need to be brought up within the Established Church , wrote and published her Comparative View of the two systems in 1805 , creating a schism between two very similar systems . According to F. J. Harvey Darton , an early scholar of children 's literature , " her effect upon English education … was very considerable , even extraordinary . The two rival systems , Bell ’ s and Lancaster ’ s , were hotly debated all over the country , and the war between Bell and the Dragon , as a cartoonist labelled it , raged in all the magazines , even in the Edinburgh Review . " Out of the debate " arose the two great societies – the National Society for Promoting the Education of the Children of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church , and the British and Foreign School Society – upon whose work , fundamentally , the whole of [ Britain 's ] later elementary school system was based " .
= = Death = =
Trimmer 's husband died in 1792 ; this affected her quite deeply , as is evidenced in her journal . In 1800 , she and some of her daughters were forced to move to another house in Brentford . This was painful for Trimmer , who wrote in her diary :
Alas , a widow , unacquainted with the ways of the world , ignorant of legal matters , can do but little on occasions like these which now occur . After more than thirty years ’ residence in a house , in which I have known many comforts , and in a neighbourhood where I have endeavoured to make myself respected , I am likely to be obliged to seek for a new habitation ; and there is not one within so short a distance as to enable me to fulfil the wishes of my heart by attending to the schools . Should I find it necessary to change my abode , the schools will , I fear , unavoidably decline . I shall also be removed to a distance , from some of my children , whose society would comfort my declining years .
She died in Brentford on 15 December 1810 , and was buried at St Mary 's , Ealing . There is a plaque memorializing her at St. George 's , Brentford :
To the memory of SARAH relict of James Trimmer , resident in this parish nearly 50 years , during which she adorned the doctrine of God our Saviour in all things , by her practice a constant attendant in God ’ s House of Prayer . In her own house an example to Christian Matrons , in her neighbourhood ministering to the necessities of all ; the destitute , the afflicted and the ignorant , seeking their moral improvement by imparting Christian instruction both in private and also in the Church School raised by her exertions and fostered by her care . By her writings , edifying the members of that branch of Christ ’ s Holy Church in which she was born and which she loved with an ardent but well tempered zeal . She obtained rest from her labours on 15 December 1810 in the seventieth year of her age .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Trimmer 's most popular book , Fabulous Histories , was reprinted for at least 133 years and had a profound impact on generations of readers and writers . In 1877 , when the firm of Griffith and Farran published it as part of their " Original Juvenile Library , " they advertised it as " the delicious story of Dicksy , Flapsy , and Pecksy , who can have forgotten it ? It is as fresh today as it was half a century ago . " Tess Cosslett has also suggested that the names of Trimmer 's birds — Dicksy , Pecksy , Flapsy and Robin — bear a striking resemblance to the rabbits — Flopsy , Mopsy , Cottontail and Peter — in Beatrix Potter 's children 's books .
Trimmer also influenced the children 's writers of her own age ; William Godwin 's Fables , Ancient and Modern ( 1805 ) , for example , imitates Trimmer 's Ladder to Learning . Among her contemporary admirers was Frances Burney , who remarked in a letter to her sister Esther about the education of the latter 's 10 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , " Mrs. Trimmer I should suppose admirable for a girl " ( as an introduction to the Scriptures ) .
While Trimmer was highly respected for her charity work during her lifetime and for her books long after her death , her reputation began to wane at the end of the 19th century and plummeted during the 20th century . One reason for this is that her textbooks , so widely used during the first half of the century , were replaced by secular books in the second half of the century . The tone of her books was no longer seen as consonant with British society . An early scholar of children 's literature , Geoffrey Summerfield , describes her this way : " Of all the morally shrill women active in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , she was probably the shrillest . Unbalanced , frenetic , paranoid , she may have been , but no one could deny her energy and perseverance in defending the souls of the children of England from the assaults of the devil . " Recently , however , children 's literature scholars have attempted to view 18th @-@ century children 's literature within its historical context rather than judge it against modern tastes ; scholars such as Grenby , Ruwe , Ferguson , Fyfe and Cosslett have reassessed Trimmer 's work . Because Trimmer does not fit the mold of 20th @-@ century feminism — that is , since she did not rebel against the social mores of her society as did Mary Wollstonecraft — she did not attract the attention of early feminist scholars . However , as Ruwe points out , " by the confluence of political , historical , and pedagogical events at the turn of the century , a woman such as Trimmer was able to gain a greater visibility in the realm of public letters than was perhaps typical before or after " ; Trimmer was a " role model for other women authors " , and these later authors often acknowledged their debt explicitly , as did the author of The Footsteps to Mrs. Trimmer ’ s Sacred History .
= = Trimmer 's children = =
Trimmer and her husband had twelve children .
= = List of works = =
This list of works has been taken from Deborah Wills ' entry on Trimmer in the Dictionary of Literary Biography . Other entries have been added if they appear in other academic articles or database collections under Trimmer 's name .
An Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature , and Reading the Holy Scriptures , adapted to the Capacities of Children ( 1780 )
Sacred History ( 1782 – 5 ) ( 6 volumes )
The Œconomy of Charity ( 1786 )
Fabulous Histories ; Designed for the Instruction of Children , Respecting their Treatment of Animals ( 1786 )
A Description of a Set of Prints of Scripture History : Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons ( 1786 )
A Description of a Set of Prints of Ancient History : Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons . In Two Parts ( 1786 )
The Servant ’ s Friend ( 1786 )
The Two Farmers ( 1787 )
The Œconomy of Charity ( 1787 )
The Sunday @-@ School Catechist , Consisting of Familiar Lectures , with Questions ( 1788 )
The Sunday @-@ scholar 's Manual ( 1788 )
The Family Magazine ( 1788 – 9 ) ( periodical )
A Comment on Dr. Watts ’ s Divine Songs for Children with Questions ( 1789 )
A Description of a Set of Prints of Roman History , Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons ( 1789 )
The Ladder of Learning , Step the First ( 1789 )
A Description of a Set of Prints Taken from the New Testament , Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons ( 1790 )
Easy Lessons for Young Children ( c.1790 ) [ not on Wills ' list ]
Sunday School Dialogues ( 1790 ) ( edited by Trimmer )
A Companion to the Book of Common Prayer ( 1791 )
An Explanation of the Office for the Public Baptism of Infants ( 1791 )
An Attempt to Familiarize the Catechism of the Church of England ( 1791 )
The Little Spelling Book for Young Children ( 4th ed . , 1791 ) [ not on Wills ' list ]
Reflections upon the Education of Children in Charity Schools ( 1792 )
A Friendly Remonstrance , concerning the Christian Covenant and the Sabbath Day ; Intended for the Good of the Poor ( 1792 )
The Ladder of Learning , Step the Second ( 1792 )
A Description of a Set of Prints of English History , Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons ( 1792 )
An Abridgement of Scripture History ; Consisting of Lessons Selected from the Old Testament ( 1792 )
A Scriptures Catechism ( 1797 ) ( 2 parts ) [ not on Wills ' list ]
A Description of a Set of Prints Taken from the Old Testament ( c.1797 ) [ not on Willis ' list ]
The Silver Thimble ( 1799 )
An Address to Heads of Schools and Families ( 1799 ? )
The Charity School Spelling Book ( c.1799 ) ( 2 parts )
The Teacher 's Assistant : Consisting of Lectures in the Catechised Form ( 1800 )
A Geographical Companion to Mrs. Trimmer 's Scripture , Antient , and English Abridged Histories , with Prints ( 1802 )
A Help to the Unlearned in the Study of the Holy Scriptures ( 1805 )
An Abridgement of the New Testament ( 1805 ? )
A Comparative View of the New Plan of Education Promulgated by Mr. Joseph Lancaster ( 1805 )
The Guardian of Education ( 1802 – 6 ) ( periodical )
A New Series of Prints , Accompanied by Easy Lessons ; Being an Improved Edition of the First Set of Scripture Prints from the Old Testament ( 1808 )
A Concise History of England ( 1808 )
Instructive Tales : Collected from the Family Magazine ( 1810 )
An Essay on Christian Education ( 1812 ) ( posthumous )
Sermons , for Family Reading ( 1814 ) ( posthumous )
Some Account of the Life and Writings of Mrs. Trimmer ( 1814 ) ( posthumous )
A Description of a Set of Prints of the History of France , Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons ( 1815 ) ( posthumous )
A Selection from Mrs. Trimmer 's Instructive Tales ; The Good Nurse ... ( 1815 ) ( posthumous )
Miscellaneous Pieces , Selected from the Family Magazine ( 1818 ) ( posthumous )
Prayers and Meditations Extracted from the Journal of the Late Mrs. Trimmer ( 1818 ) ( posthumous )
A Selection from Mrs. Trimmer 's Instructive Tales ; The Rural Economists ... ( 1819 ) ( posthumous )
= Regina Maria Pia @-@ class ironclad =
The Regina Maria Pia class was a group of four ironclad warships built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1860s . The class comprised four ships , Regina Maria Pia , San Martino , Castelfidardo , and Ancona . They were built by French shipyards , since Italian yards were unable to meet the demand of the rapidly expanding Italian fleet . The ships were broadside ironclads and mounted a battery of twenty @-@ six muzzle loading guns .
All four ships saw action at the Battle of Lissa during the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866 . Regina Maria Pia was badly burned in the battle , but the other three vessels were not seriously damaged . The ships served in a variety of roles for the remainder of their long careers ; they were modernized in the late 1880s and thereafter used as a training ships . Regina Maria Pia , San Martino , and Ancona were discarded in 1903 – 04 , and Castelfidardo joined them in the breaker 's yard in 1910 .
= = Design = =
Following the unification of Italy in 1861 , the new Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) began a construction program to prepare a fleet of ironclad warships capable of defeating the Austrian Navy . Italy considered the Austrian Empire to be its main rival , since it controlled predominantly Italian areas , including Venice . The nascent Italian shipyards were incapable of building the number of ships the new fleet would require , so most of this first generation of ironclads were built by foreign ship builders . In 1862 , the four ships of the Regina Maria Pia class were ordered from French shipyards , under the direction of Vice Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , then the Italian Navy Minister . These ships were designed by the French builders .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Regina Maria Pia class varied in their dimensions . Regina Maria Pia and San Martino , built by the same shipyard , were identical in size , while Castelfidardo and Ancona , though each built by different shipyards , also were identical . The first two ships were 75 @.@ 48 meters ( 247 @.@ 6 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 81 @.@ 2 m ( 266 ft ) long overall , and they had a beam of 15 @.@ 24 m ( 50 @.@ 0 ft ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 35 m ( 20 @.@ 8 ft ) . Castelfidardo and Ancona were 76 m ( 249 ft ) between perpendiculars and 81 @.@ 8 m ( 268 ft ) overall , with a beam of 15 @.@ 16 m ( 49 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 35 m . The first two ships displaced 4 @,@ 201 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 135 long tons ; 4 @,@ 631 short tons ) normally and up to 4 @,@ 527 t ( 4 @,@ 456 long tons ; 4 @,@ 990 short tons ) at full load , while Castelfidardo displaced 4 @,@ 191 t ( 4 @,@ 125 long tons ; 4 @,@ 620 short tons ) normally and 4 @,@ 527 t ( 4 @,@ 456 long tons ; 4 @,@ 990 short tons ) at full load . Curiously , Ancona was the lightest ship normally , at 4 @,@ 157 t ( 4 @,@ 091 long tons ; 4 @,@ 582 short tons ) , but the heaviest at full load , at 4 @,@ 619 t ( 4 @,@ 546 long tons ; 5 @,@ 092 short tons ) .
The ships were constructed with iron hulls . They were protected by iron belt armor that was 4 @.@ 75 inches ( 121 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull at the waterline . The battery deck was protected by 4 @.@ 3 in ( 109 mm ) of iron plate . Each vessel had a crew of 480 – 485 officers and men . The ships were initially schooner @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine , though their masts were later reduced to a barque rig . Ultimately , they lost their sailing rig completely , having it replaced with a pair of military masts with fighting tops .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion , two @-@ cylinder steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , rectangular boilers . The boilers were trunked into a single funnel placed amidships . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 96 knots ( 24 @.@ 00 km / h ; 14 @.@ 91 mph ) from 2 @,@ 924 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 180 kW ) . Each ship had a capacity of 485 t ( 477 long tons ; 535 short tons ) of coal , which allowed them to steam for 2 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ; 3 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Regina Maria Pia class were broadside ironclads , and they were initially armed with a main battery of four 72 @-@ pounder smooth @-@ bore 8 in ( 203 mm ) muzzle @-@ loading guns and twenty @-@ two 32 @-@ pounder rifled 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) muzzle loaders , though their armament changed throughout her career . Most of these guns were placed on the broadside , but two of the 164 mm guns were mounted in an armored bunker forward and a third was placed in a similar mount at the stern , as chase guns . The ships were also fitted with a ram bow that was 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long .
In 1871 , all four ships were re @-@ armed with two 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) muzzle @-@ loading guns and eight 8 in muzzle @-@ loading guns , with a ninth 8 in gun added in 1880 . Regina Maria Pia and San Martino were later re @-@ equipped with eight 6 in ( 150 mm ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , five 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) QF guns , four 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) QF guns , and eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolver cannon . In 1884 , Castelfidardo received the same battery of light guns , though she had a sixth 4 @.@ 7 in gun . When Ancona was similarly re @-@ armed , she only had two of the 37 mm revolver cannon . All four ships were also equipped with three torpedo tubes , with the exception of Castelfidardo , which received two tubes .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
All four ships of the class entered service in time to see action during the Third Italian War of Independence against the Austrian Navy in 1866 . Persano , now the commander of the Italian fleet , adopted a cautious strategy and conducted only one major offensive operation , which was directed at the island of Lissa . There , the Austrian fleet under Wilhelm von Tegetthoff attacked the Italians . The four Regina Maria Pias all took part in the ensuing Battle of Lissa . Regina Maria Pia had been set on fire and badly burned in the battle , and minor fires were started by Austrian shells aboard San Martino and Castelfidardo , but neither were seriously damaged . Ancona emerged relatively unscathed , with only minor damage to her iron plates .
After the war , the Italian naval budget was slashed ; the cuts were so severe that the fleet had great difficulty in mobilizing its ironclad squadron to attack the port of Civitavecchia in September 1870 , as part of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , the ships were laid up and the sailors conscripted to man them were sent home . As the Italian fleet began to rebuild in the 1870s , the Regina Maria Pias returned to active service in a variety of roles , both in the main fleet and in Italy 's overseas empire . All four ships were modernized in the late 1880s , and were thereafter used as training ships . Regina Maria Pia , Ancona , and San Martino were stricken from the naval register in 1903 – 04 , while Castelfidardo lingered on as a torpedo training ship until 1910 , when she too was sold for scrapping .
= Ulla Salzgeber =
Ulla Salzgeber ( born 5 August 1958 in Oberhausen ) is a German equestrian and Olympic champion who competes in the sport of dressage . Competing in the 2000 and 2004 Summer Olympics , she won two team gold medals , one individual silver and one individual bronze . She also won numerous medals at the World Equestrian Games , Dressage World Cup and European Dressage Championships . After the retirement of her Olympic horse , Rusty , after the 2004 Games , and unexpected death of her second international @-@ level mount in 2005 , Salzgeber struggled to find a new Grand Prix @-@ level horse .
In 2005 , she took time from competition to act as the dressage training adviser to the Australian national equestrian team , but resigned from that position in late 2006 . In 2008 , she began riding Herzruf 's Erbe at major events , but the horse has been plagued by injuries that have required him to miss many competitions . Salzgeber announced a change in her training base in early 2010 , moving to new stables in Blonhofen , Bavaria , which she said would allow her to accept more students . In 2013 , after returning Herzruf 's Erbe to competition , Salzgeber was again named to the German equestrian squad 's A @-@ team .
= = Personal life = =
Born 5 August 1958 in Oberhausen as Ulla Helbing , Salzgeber began riding at age 10 , competing in the sport of vaulting . In 1977 , at age 19 , she was the Young Riders European Championships . She attended college , graduating from law school before building a training stable in Bad Worishofen , Germany , that focuses on dressage . Salzgeber is married to Sebastian Salzgeber , and has one daughter , Kim .
= = Career = =
Salzgeber rode the same horse to all of her Olympic , World Equestrian Games and European Championship medals . Rusty 47 , nicknamed Rusty , was a Latvian warmblood gelding who was named Rotors when he was purchased by Salzgeber from a German show jumping barn . The pair came to international attention at the 1997 European Championships , with a sixth place individual finish and a team gold . They repeated team gold at the 1998 World Equestrian Games , while also taking a bronze medal in individual competition . The German team , with Salzgeber , rode to another team gold at the 1999 European Championships , and Salzgeber and Rusty also took individual silver . After Gigolo , a horse ridden by Isabell Werth , was retired in 2000 , Salzgeber and Rusty became the top dressage pair in Germany . At the 2000 Summer Olympics , she won the bronze medal in the individual dressage competition . She also rode as part of the gold @-@ medal winning German team , but as the lowest @-@ scoring member , her score was not used to determine the team 's standing . During the finals , in her musical kur performance , Salzgeber 's selected music stopped playing , but she continued riding and finished the event . The music to which the pair performed , Carmina Burana , was used by Salzgeber and Rusty in all their competitions and became " tightly linked to the horse with its signature pirouettes and to date still best one @-@ tempi changes ever . "
The 2001 and 2003 European Championships brought four gold medals in team and individual competition , while the 2001 and 2002 Dressage World Cup competitions brought two additional golds . The 2002 World Equestrian Games brought a repeat of 1998 , with team gold and individual bronze medals . In 2003 , however , Salzgeber became mired in doping charges after Rusty tested positive for testosterone propionate at the 2003 World Cup finals , losing what would have been a third successive gold . Rusty 's veterinarian claimed the drug was given to him to treat a hormonal imbalance , but the pair was banned from competition for two months by the German Equestrian Federation . An exception was made for the 2004 German Dressage Championships , which allowed them to qualify for the 2004 Olympic Games . She was not allowed to compete in qualifying events for the 2004 World Cup , and she did not ride in the event . At the 2004 Summer Olympics , she improved her individual performance to win a silver medal , and rode with the German team to a second successive gold in the team competition . Rusty was retired soon after the 2004 Olympics , and was euthanized in 2013 at the age of 25 . Months before his death , it was announced that Rusty had been cloned , resulting in two young stallions , nicknamed " Rusty Clone 1 " and " Rusty Clone 2 " .
In mid @-@ 2005 , Salzgeber 's then @-@ current Grand Prix mount , Wall Street , was euthanized following an episode of colic . This , combined with the recent retirement of Rusty , left her with no Grand Prix @-@ level horses . Wall Street , while a relatively successful dressage horse , had suffered health problems and had never been able to compete with Rusty as Salzgeber 's top horse . In 2008 , Salzgeber again began competing at the Grand Prix level on Herzruf 's Erbe , who would develop into one of her top international horses . In that year , the pair won the Otto Lorke Prize , given each year to the best German Grand Prix horse under 10 years old . During 2008 , Salzgeber and Herzruf 's Erbe had won 10 Grand Prix competitions . In 2009 , the pair were expected to compete at the European Dressage Championships , but were not chosen for the German team after Herzruf 's Erbe sustained an injury at a competition in July . The immediate diagnosis was a severely pulled tendon , although a later diagnosis was that the horse had strained a suspensory muscle , expected to heal in about three months . By early 2010 , the horse was again able to be ridden , but was still not in top condition .
In June 2011 , Salzgeber announced that she would be selling one of her top @-@ level horses , Wakana , to a student , leaving Herzruf 's Erbe as her only horse prepared to compete at the international level . Later that month , Salzgeber removed herself from consideration for competition at the 2011 CHIO Aachen and European Dressage Championships . She announced that she had decided to take a break from competition and focus more on training and her personal life . In 2012 , she announced that she would not be seeking a spot on the German team for the 2012 Summer Olympics , saying that her training duties had not given her time to properly prepare Herzruf 's Erbe . She had ridden the horse at competitions during the 2011 @-@ 2012 winter , and stated that she planned to compete at additional competitions during the winter of 2012 @-@ 2013 . However , in late 2012 , the horse was put into a one @-@ year rest period to help him recover from the injuries that had troubled him throughout his career . In October 2013 , Salzgeber brought Herzruf 's Erbe back into competition , winning a national show in Germany . The pair was successful at subsequent competitions , and in December 2013 , it was announced that they had been returned to the German equestrian squad 's A @-@ team .
= = = Coaching and training = = =
In 2005 , Salzgeber was named as the new dressage training adviser to the Australian national equestrian team . In the role , Salzgeber held training camps , approved team members ' training programs and helped choose team members for international competitions . In late 2006 , she resigned , citing a mix of training duties at home in Europe and disagreements with the Equestrian Federation of Australia . Under her tenure , however , the Australian team made their best @-@ ever placing at the 2006 World Equestrian Games , finishing 9th .
In early 2010 , Salzgeber announced that she would be moving her base of training from the stables in Bad Worishofen where she had been located since she graduated from college . The new facilities , nearby in Blonhofen , Bavaria , offered more room and extensive natural therapy facilities , including aquatherapy , acupuncture , osteopathy , and homeopathics . Salzgeber said the new , larger , base would allow her to give more training clinics and accept more students .
= Shiver ( Coldplay song ) =
" Shiver " is a song written and recorded by British alternative rock band Coldplay . British record producer Ken Nelson and Coldplay produced the track for their debut album Parachutes . Vocalist Chris Martin admitted that " Shiver " was written for a specific woman , from whom the media has generated several speculations . The song contains influences attributed to American singer @-@ songwriter Jeff Buckley , whom Coldplay 's early influences were drawn from .
The song was released as the album 's lead single in the United Kingdom , and second in the United States following the hit single " Yellow " . The single reached number 35 on the UK Singles Chart , and its critical reception has been generally positive .
= = Production and composition = =
" Shiver " was written two years before its release . Accordingly , Martin wrote the song while thinking of Australian singer @-@ songwriter Natalie Imbruglia , the woman he was linked to , but later denied it . Some accounts have claimed , however , that Imbruglia was indeed not Martin 's inspiration in writing the song . Instead , he appeared to have been inspired with girlfriends in his teenage days and early 20s . Martin actually wrote the song in a " glum " day , when he felt he would never find the right woman for him . He described it as something of a " stalking song " , admitting he wrote it for a specific woman . In addition , Martin wrote the song while listening to music of Buckley , and had claimed it is their " most blatant rip @-@ off song " .
" Shiver " was recorded in Rockfield Studios in Wales , United Kingdom , where the band was booked by A & R representative Dan Keeling to begin working on the band 's debut album , Parachutes . Keeling was disappointed with the early demos presented to him , saying it " didn 't have any of their passion , their energy " , a result of the band 's freshly resolved internal pressure in the time . Keeling deemed the demos as " limp " and asked the band to redo it . Smaller parts of the song were recorded at Parr Street Studios in Liverpool , England , where the band relocated after Christmas in 1999 .
The song was produced by Coldplay and British record producer Ken Nelson . As with most songs in the album , Nelson used an analogue desk in recording " Shiver " . The guitar was re @-@ dubbed in search of perfection , while Martin de @-@ tuned his guitar to easily generate complex chord sequences . Martin 's vocals were recorded in more than one take , but the band chose the one with a single take .
" Shiver " is in the alternative rock genre . A review claims that Coldplay 's indie rock inclinations are obvious in the song . " Shiver " has been perceived to have influences of Buckley , whom Coldplay 's early song influences were drawn from . Martin later said of the song that it was " a blatant Jeff Buckley attempt , not quite as good , that 's what I think " .
= = Release and reception = =
" Shiver " is one of the older songs in Coldplay 's catalogue , and had been performed at their early concerts in 1999 . Later , it was initially released as an EP in the spring of 2000 . It was released as the album 's lead single in the United Kingdom on 6 March 2000 , months before the release of the album . The single had been picked up for B @-@ play lists on some European prominent radio stations . In the United States , it was released as the second single , following the hit single " Yellow " . Website IGN posted a video at the 2008 Games Convention in Leipzig , Germany , revealing " Shiver " to be part of the song list in the video game Guitar Hero World Tour .
The single 's reception was generally positive . It reached number 35 on the UK Singles Chart . It also reached number 26 at the US Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks . The song remains , to this day , an audience favorite in live performances . It has earned the band praise from critics . Adrian Denning , in his review of the album , wrote , " ' Shiver ' has a vocal that could be Jeff Buckley influenced , the soaring vocals are a joy over a reasonably guitar rock based instrumental track . " A review by David DeVoe in Hybridmagazine.com reads , " ' Shiver ' is a delightfully laid back tune , full of that great guitar sound that I have come to appreciate this band for . " Spencer Owen of Pitchfork noted , " It 's the only truly decent song on Parachutes , but simultaneously , it 's the only one that blatantly shows its influences . In fact , the influence can even be pinned to a single song : Jeff Buckley 's ' Grace . ' "
The music video for " Shiver " was directed by English film director and cinematographer Grant Gee . It features Coldplay performing in a small studio . The yellow globe featured on the Parachutes cover can be seen on top of an amplifier in the video . The music video received " strong exposure " on MTV .
In 2003 , " Shiver " was featured on Coldplay 's live album Live 2003 .
= = Track listing = =
CD
" Shiver " – 5 : 02
" For You " – 5 : 45
" Careful Where You Stand " – 4 : 47
= = Chart performance = =
= Blacklock ( horse ) =
Blacklock ( 1814 – 24 February 1831 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse who won seventeen of his twenty @-@ three races . As a two @-@ year @-@ old in 1816 he was undefeated in three starts . In his first race as a three @-@ year @-@ old he finished second in the St. Leger , a neck behind Ebor . He then won four races in two weeks , including the Gascoigne Stakes and Dundas Stakes . In 1818 he recorded several wins including two of the Great Subscription Purses at York . He won a third Great Subscription Purse in 1819 , along with the York Gold Cup . After retiring from racing , Blacklock became a successful stallion and was champion sire of Great Britain in 1829 , the year his son Voltaire won the Doncaster Cup . He was owned by Thomas Kirby as a two @-@ year @-@ old , before being purchased by Richard Watt , who owned him for the remainder of his racing career . Blacklock was trained by Tommy Sykes .
= = Background = =
Blacklock was a bay colt bred by Francis Moss and foaled in 1814 . He was sired by Whitelock , who won a number of races in the north of England . Whitelock was a son of St. Leger and dual Doncaster Cup winner Hambletonian , who was only defeated once in his career . Blacklock 's dam was a daughter of Coriander . He was the seventh of her nine foals , the youngest of which being 1822 St. Leger winner Theodore . Francis Moss had bought Blacklock 's dam for £ 3 in 1803 .
Blacklock was not thought to be a good @-@ looking horse . He was described as having " a head like a half @-@ moon " and being calf @-@ kneed . Thomas Kirby purchased him from Moss for £ 40 .
= = Racing career = =
= = = 1816 : Two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Blacklock , who was then unnamed and raced under the name " Mr. Kirby 's b. c. by Whitelock , dam by Coriander " , made his racecourse debut on 23 August 1816 at York in a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each for two @-@ year @-@ olds . After starting at the price of about 3 / 1 he won the race , with the judge being unable to place any of his five rivals . On 11 September at Pontefract , he faced three opponents for a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each over one mile ( 1609 metres ) . He started as the 13 / 8 favourite and won the race . Shylock finished in second place , with Angelica in third . Blacklock was then purchased by Richard Watt . Racing in Watt 's colours ( Harlequin ) and ridden by jockey J. Jackson , Blacklock made his final start as a two @-@ year @-@ old at Doncaster on the 24 September when he competed in another sweepstakes of 20 guineas each . He started as the 4 / 7 favourite and won the race from the Young Woodpecker colt , who was followed by Eglinton . Blacklock apparently won the race easily .
= = = 1817 : Three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Blacklock , still unnamed , had his first race as a three @-@ year @-@ old in the St. Leger Stakes at Doncaster on Monday 22 September . He did not arrive at Doncaster until the Saturday before , and after reports that he was amiss his odds had lengthened to as much as 10 / 1 in the betting . After arriving , he had a gallop in the afternoon and soon shortened in the betting . After another of the pre @-@ race favourites , Stainborough , was withdrawn due to illness Blacklock was sent off as the short @-@ priced favourite at about evens . Blacklock appeared like he was going to win easily and Jackson eased him up in the final furlong ( 200 metres ) of the race . However , Ebor and Restless began to quickly close down his lead . By the time Jackson realised , Blacklock could not accelerate quick enough and Ebor came out on top , beating Blacklock by a neck . Restless finished in third place and was the only other runner that could be placed by the judge . Blacklock had a crack in one of his hind heels , which was thought to have affected him in the race .
Two days after the St. Leger , Blacklock faced St. Helena over the same course and distance in the Gascoigne Stakes , which he won easily . Twenty @-@ four hours later , Blacklock lost to The Duchess in the Doncaster Club Stakes over two miles . On 8 October at Richmond he won a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each , beating four rivals , with Boroughman finishing second . Later in the day Blacklock won the Dundas Stakes , beating Rasping , D.I.O and Shepard into second , third and fourth respectively .
= = = 1818 : Four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Blacklock , racing under his name for the first time , started the 1818 season much earlier than he had done the previous two seasons , with his first race coming on 18 May at the York Spring Meeting in a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each over two miles . He started as the 1 / 2 favourite , but could only finish third behind St. Helena . Two days later he started as the 4 / 6 favourite for the Constitution Stakes over a mile @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter . He biggest rival was expected to be the Duke of Leeds 's Rasping , who was priced at 2 / 1 . Blacklock won the race from Rasping , with Hornby in third and Whiff last of the four runners .
Blacklock did not race again until August at York , where he ran in the four @-@ mile Great Subscription Purse for four @-@ year @-@ olds . He started as the evens favourite and faced three rivals ; Agatha , St. Helena and a filly by Orville . Blacklock won the race by over 100 yards ( 91 metres ) without being asked for an effort , causing some people to proclaim " nothing has been seen at all equal to Mr. Watt 's Blacklock since the days of Eclipse . " This referring to the ease with which Eclipse won his races . Agatha finished the race in second place and St. Helena in third . The race was won in a time of 7 minutes 23 seconds . The next day he beat Silenus to win the four @-@ mile Great Subscription Purse for four and five @-@ year @-@ olds . Later in the same day he started as the 1 / 2 favourite in a two @-@ mile sweepstakes of 25 guineas each , where he faced four opponents . Despite it being his third race in two days he won , beating Rasping into second place .
Blacklock then went to Doncaster , where on 23 September , he started 1 / 2 favourite and beat The Duchess to win the Doncaster Stakes over four miles . The same day he also walked over for a sweepstakes of 50 guineas each over the St. Leger course . Twenty @-@ four hours later he beat Rasping to win a sweepstakes of 25 guineas each over four miles . , and then went on to beat The Duchess to win the Doncaster Club Stakes . This was his fourth race in the space of two days . At Richmond in October he won his second Dundas Stakes , this time beating King Corney . Later in the day Blacklock finished last of four runners behind winner Doctor Syntax in the Richmond Cup over four miles . Doctor Syntax had started in the lead , but was overtaken by Blacklock after only 200 yards . Blacklock held the lead until about half a mile from the finish , when Doctor Syntax joined him again . Blacklock then swerved out of line , allowing Doctor Syntax to win easily . By the time The Richmond Cup was run Blacklock was apparently unwell and was coughing repeatedly during the race .
= = = 1819 : Five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
On 17 May 1819 at York , Blacklock finished second of seven in a two @-@ mile sweepstakes of 20 guineas each . The race was won by The Marshall . On 18 May he started as the evens favourite for the two @-@ mile Gold Cup . He won the race , with Paulowitz finishing second , Torch @-@ bearer third and Otho fourth . At the York August Meeting , Blacklock faced three rivals in the four @-@ mile Great Subscription Purse for five @-@ year @-@ olds and older . The Duchess started as the 5 / 2 favourite , with Blacklock and St. Helena both at 3 / 1 and Magistrate at 4 / 1 . Blacklock won the race from Magistrate , with The Duchess finishing in third place . Blacklock 's final race came two days later , when he finished second to St. Helena in a sweepstakes of 25 guineas each over two miles . During his racing career Blacklock had twenty @-@ three races , winning seventeen of those , placing second four times and third once .
= = Race record = =
a Only the winner could be placed by the judge .
= = Stud career = =
Blacklock was retired to stud , where he became a successful stallion . He first stood at Bishop Burton in Yorkshire , with his fee initially set at 15 guineas and half a guinea for the groom ( Thomas Barrow ) . He was then leased to Thomas Kirkby in York for four seasons where he stood for a much lower fee . In 1827 he was at Bildeston in Suffolk and was commanding a stud fee of twelve guineas . His fee reached up to 25 guineas .
Blacklock was champion sire of Great Britain in 1829 . His progeny included :
Brutandorf ( 1821 ) – won the Tradesmen 's Cup and Stand Cup at Chester in 1826 . As a sire he produced the Grand National winner Gaylad and Hetman Platoff , who won several cups . He was also grandsire of Derby winner Cossack .
Brownlock ( 1822 ) – won 25 races .
Belzoni ( 1823 ) – won the York St. Leger and later became a successful sire of hunters . He produced Vanguard , who won the Grand National in 1843 .
Laurel ( 1824 ) – won the Doncaster Cup in 1828 . Through one of his unnamed daughters he was the damsire of Oaks winners Rhedycina and Governess .
Robin Hood ( 1825 ) – won ten races including two Newcastle Gold Cups .
Belinda ( 1825 ) – finished second in the St. Leger at Doncaster . As a broodmare she foaled Gimcrack Stakes winner Tuscan , as well as Lollypop , who became the dam of Doncaster Cup winner Sweetmeat .
Miss Pratt ( 1825 ) – foaled Echidna , who was the dam of The Baron . The Baron won the St. Leger and sired the influential stallion Stockwell .
Velocipede ( 1825 ) – won the York St. Leger , York Gold Cup and Liverpool Cup . He sired Derby winner Amato , Oaks and St. Leger winner Queen of Trumps and 2000 Guineas winner Meteor .
Tranby ( 1826 ) – won the Oatlands Stakes in 1832 and ran four four @-@ mile legs in George Osbaldeston 's successful attempt to ride 200 miles in 10 hours .
Voltaire ( 1826 ) – won the Doncaster Gold Cup and finished second in the St. Leger in 1829 . He sired Derby and St. Leger winner Voltigeur . Voltigeur 's son Vedette was the grandsire of the undefeated St. Simon , who became Champion sire nine times . It is mainly through St. Simon that Blacklock 's sire line survives today .
Moss Rose ( 1827 ) – won the Dee Stakes at Chester .
Belshazzar ( 1830 ) – finished third in an Ascot Gold Cup . He sired 1000 Guineas winner Cara and was later sent to America .
Blacklock mare – foaled Progress , who was the dam of Derby winner Attila .
Blacklock died on 24 February 1831 at Bishop Burton after rupturing a blood vessel when covering a mare . His death was described as " instantaneous " . In total Blacklock sired the winners of 442 races and over £ 50 @,@ 000 .
= = Pedigree = =
Note : b .
= Bay , br . =
Brown , ch .
= Chestnut , gr . =
Grey
* Blacklock was inbred 3 × 4 to Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os . This means that the stallion appears once in the third generation and once in the fourth generation of his pedigree . He was also inbred 3 × 4 to Highflyer , 4 × 4 × 4 to Herod and 4 × 4 to Eclipse .
= Chester Rows =
Chester Rows consist of covered walkways at the first floor behind which are entrances to shops and other premises . At street level is another set of shops and other premises , many of which are entered by going down a few steps . The Rows , found in each of the four main streets of the city of Chester , Cheshire , England , are unique ; nothing precisely similar exists anywhere else in the world .
Dating from the medieval era , the Rows may have been built on top of rubble remaining from the ruins of Roman buildings , but their origin is still subject to speculation . In some places the continuity of the Rows has been blocked by enclosure or by new buildings , but in others modern buildings have retained the Rows in their designs . Undercrofts or " crypts " were constructed beneath the buildings in the Rows . The undercrofts were in stone while most of the buildings in the Rows were in timber .
Today about 20 of the stone undercrofts still exist , but at the level of the Rows very little medieval fabric remains . Many of the buildings containing portions of the Rows are listed and some are recorded in the English Heritage Archive . The premises on the street and Row levels are used for a variety of purposes ; most are shops , but there are also offices , restaurants , cafés , and meeting rooms . Chester Rows are one of the city 's main tourist attractions .
= = Description = =
At street level the shops and other premises are similar to those found in other towns and cities , although many of the premises are entered by going down a few steps . On the first floor level are more shops and other premises , set back from the street , in front of which is a continuous walkway . The storey above this overlaps the walkway , which makes it a covered walkway , and this constitutes what is known as the " Row " . On the street side of the walkways are railings and an area which was used as shelves or stalls for the display of goods . The floors above the level of the Rows are used for commercial or domestic purposes , or for storage . The Rows are present , to a greater or lesser degree , in all the streets radiating from Chester Cross , namely Watergate Street , Northgate Street , Eastgate Street and Upper Bridge Street . They are continuous on both sides of Upper Bridge Street , along most of Watergate and Eastgate Street , but only for a short stretch along the east side of Northgate Street . Originally there were also Rows in Lower Bridge Street but these were blocked during the 17th and 18th centuries .
As the ground floor buildings are usually lower than the street level , they are sometime known as " crypts " . However , as the architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner points out , this is not a strictly accurate description because the level of the floors of the buildings is a half @-@ storey rather than a full @-@ storey level below the street .
= = Origins = =
Rows were built in the four main streets leading from Chester Cross , each of which originated during the settlement 's early development . In the Roman period the main street , now Watergate Street and Eastgate Street , lay on an east @-@ west axis . It was joined at what is now Chester Cross by the main road from the south , present @-@ day Bridge Street . During the Saxon period a road to the north was added , now called Northgate Street . Dendrochronological evidence shows that the Rows go back as far as the 13th century , but it is unlikely that they originated before 1200 . The first record of the Rows appears in 1293 , although it is uncertain whether it refers to a Row as it would be recognised today . The " earliest unambiguous instance " of the use of the term for an elevated walkway is in 1356 .
Because the Chester Rows are unique and their precise origins are unknown , they have been the subject of speculation . Chester has suffered from a series of fires . In 1278 the fire was so severe that almost the entire town within the walls was destroyed . It has been suggested that following this fire , the owners were ordered to make their ground floors fireproof , leading to the stone @-@ lined undercrofts . From this , the suggestion has been made that there was " a general undertaking by the citizens of Chester ... to improve the commercial potential of their property by providing two @-@ level access for customers " .
Another theory links the Rows with the debris left from the Roman occupation of Chester . The rubble from the Roman buildings which had fallen into ruin was piled up alongside the streets . It is suggested that in the medieval period buildings were constructed along the top of this debris . The buildings were set back from the street , a footpath passed in front of them , and wheeled vehicles passed along the street below . In time , the properties were improved and , possibly during the 13th century , cellars or undercrofts were excavated in the debris beneath them . When the buildings were further improved , upper stories were built which overlapped the lower storey , providing a covered walkway . Stalls or shelves were added on the street side of the walkway for the display of goods , and so the system of Rows was developed . In a few places , for example at the corner of Eastgate Street and Northgate Street , another building was constructed between the walkway and the street . It is thought that , apart from a relatively small number of later buildings , the system of the Rows had reached its full extent by about 1350 .
= = Medieval period = =
During the medieval period the Rows gave access to living accommodation . The doorway led into a hall , which was usually at right angles to the street . In some cases the front portion of the hall was used as a separate shop , and in other cases the whole hall was the shop . In the storey above the hall was the solar , a room providing private accommodation for the residents . In some cases , where the hall was larger , there were several shops on its frontage . Below the Rows , at street level , were crypts or undercrofts . Many of these were stone @-@ lined with ribbed vaults , and they were used for storage or for selling more valuable goods . Behind the hall , on the level of the Rows , was more domestic accommodation . Normally the kitchen was a separate building in the yard behind the house . The back yard was also used for cesspits and for the disposal of rubbish .
= = Subsequent development = =
Although many of the Rows are still continuous , in some areas they have been blocked . In Lower Bridge Street there was originally a continuous Row ; the first building to break the sequence was at the north end of the street , the public house now known as The Falcon . In the 17th century this was the town house of the Grosvenor family . It was rebuilt in 1626 , maintaining its section of the Row . However in 1643 , during the Civil War siege of Chester , Sir Richard Grosvenor moved his family there from his country estate at Eaton Hall . In order to increase the size of the house he gained permission to enclose the Row . This set the fashion for other houses in Lower Bridge Street to enclose their sections of the Row . Later , completely new houses were constructed which did not incorporate the Row . One of these was Bridge House , built by Lady Calveley in 1676 ; it was the first house in Chester to be designed in neoclassical style . In 1699 John Mather , a lawyer , gained permission to build a new house at 51 Lower Bridge Street , which also resulted in the loss of part of the Row . In 1728 Roger Ormes , rather than building a new house , enclosed the Row at his home , Tudor House , making it into an additional room .
During the Georgian era more sections of the Rows were blocked , especially by commercial development on the north side of Watergate Street . In 1808 Thomas Harrison designed the Commercial Coffee Room in Northgate Street in neoclassical style , with an arcade at the ground @-@ floor level , rather than continuing the Row on the first floor . In 1859 – 60 Chester Bank was built in Eastgate Street , again obliterating its part of the Row . However other architects continued the tradition of maintaining the Rows in their designs ; examples include the Georgian Booth Mansion of 1700 in Watergate Street , T. M. Penson 's Gothic Revival Crypt Chambers of 1858 in Eastgate Street , and buildings in modern style constructed in Watergate Street in the 1960s .
= = Today = =
About 20 stone undercrofts still exist , some of them vaulted , dating from the 13th or early 14th century . One of the finest is Cowper House at No. 12 Bridge Street , with an undercroft of six bays built in sandstone rubble . It has plain rib @-@ vaulting on plain corbels ; the ribs are single @-@ chamfered . On the other side of Bridge Street , at No. 15 , is another undercroft , this one having two double @-@ chamfered arches . The Falcon , in Lower Bridge Street , has an undercroft which formerly had three bays but which has now been divided into two chambers . At No. 11 Watergate Street is a two @-@ naved undercroft with four bays . Also in Watergate Street are undercrofts at Nos. 23 and 37 , the latter having 5 ½ bays . Crypt Chambers , at No. 28 Eastgate Street , has a four @-@ bay undercroft .
At the Row level , the medieval building was usually built in timber , and few examples remain . One which does remain is the building known as Three Old Arches . Consisting of three arches , the frontage of this shop is stone and is probably the earliest identified shopfront in England . The building also retains its undercroft and hall , the latter also built in stone .
According to the records in the English Heritage Archive , 14 buildings incorporate sections of Chester Rows . The records in the National Heritage List for England show that at least 95 of the buildings containing sections of the Rows are listed ; 9 of these are listed as Grade I , 20 as Grade II * , and 66 as Grade II . The National Heritage List for England records the uses made by the premises at street level and in the Rows . Most of these are shops , but other uses include offices , restaurants and cafés , and private dwellings . The building at No. 1 Bridge Street has shops at both street and Row levels . A department store occupies the street and Row levels ( and the storey above ) of Crypt Chambers . Bishop Lloyd 's House in Watergate Street has a shop at the street level and above this there are meeting rooms , and the office of Chester Civic Trust . As of 2010 , Booth Mansion , also in Watergate Street , contains a solicitors ' office . The former St Michael 's Church , which is now a heritage centre , includes part of Bridge Street Row in the lowest stage of its tower . A remaining example of a section of a Row with a building between the walkway and the street is No. 22 Eastgate Street .
Since 1995 access to the Rows has been improved by a pedestrianisation scheme , which affects all the streets containing Rows . Most vehicles are prohibited from using the area between 08 : 00 and 18 : 00 , although unloading is allowed until 10 : 30 and from 16 : 30 . Chester Rows are a major tourist attraction in the city because of their unique nature , their attractive appearance , and the covered shopping experience they provide .
On 7 July 2010 it was announced that Chester Rows were being considered as an applicant for the new United Kingdom Tentative List for World Heritage status by the Department of Culture Media and Sport .
= Sally ( Flight of the Conchords ) =
" Sally " is the pilot episode of the American television sitcom Flight of the Conchords . It first aired on HBO on June 17 , 2007 . In this episode , New Zealanders Jemaine Clement and Bret McKenzie of the band Flight of the Conchords have moved to New York City to try to make it in the United States . At a party , Jemaine falls for , and subsequently begins dating , Sally — Bret 's former girlfriend . As Jemaine 's attentions focus on Sally , a lonely Bret is forced to deal with the advances of Mel ( Kristen Schaal ) ,
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observed normally . Eventually , stored acetylcholine is made available , and the amplitudes increase again . In LEMS this remains insufficient to reach a level sufficient for transmission of an impulse from nerve to muscle ; all can be attributed to insufficient calcium in the nerve terminal . A similar pattern is witnessed in myasthenia gravis . In LEMS , in response to exercising the muscle , the CMAP amplitude increases greatly ( over 200 % , often much more ) . This also occurs on the administration of a rapid burst of electrical stimuli ( 20 impulses per second for ten seconds ) . This is attributed to the influx of calcium in response to these stimuli . On single @-@ fiber examination , features may include increased jitter ( seen in other diseases of neuromuscular transmission ) and blocking .
Blood tests may be performed to exclude other causes of muscle disease ( elevated creatine kinase may indicate a myositis , and abnormal thyroid function tests may indicate thyrotoxic myopathy ) . Antibodies against voltage @-@ gated calcium channels can be identified in 85 % of people with EMG confirmed LEMS . Once LEMS is diagnosed , investigations such as a CT scan of the chest are usually performed to identify any possible underlying lung tumors . 50 – 60 % of these are discovered immediately after the diagnosis of LEMS . The remainder is diagnosed later , but usually within two years and typically within four years . As a result , scans are typically repeated every six months for the first two years after diagnosis . While CT of the lungs is usually adequate , a positron emission tomography ( PET ) scan of the body may also be performed to search for an occult tumour , particularly of the lung .
= = Treatment = =
If LEMS is caused by an underlying cancer , treatment of the malignancy usually leads to resolution of the symptoms . Treatment usually consists of chemotherapy , with radiation therapy in those with limited disease .
Three treatment modalities aimed at improving LEMS symptoms directly , namely pyridostigmine , 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine ( amifampridine ) and guanidine , work to improve neuromuscular transmission . Pyridostigmine decreases the degradation of acetylcholine after release into the synaptic cleft , and thereby improves muscle contraction . In LEMS , the potassium channel blocker 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine base or the water @-@ soluble formulation , 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine phosphate , ( marketed under the name Firdapse ) are also used . Both 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine formulations delay the repolarization of nerve terminals after a discharge , thereby allowing more calcium to accumulate in the nerve terminal . In the United States , 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine phosphate ( Firdapse ) a more stable formulation of 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine that does not require refrigeration and 3 @.@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine free base are undergoing clinical trials to treat LEMS . Pending completion of these trials and submission to the FDA , both formulations are available to people with LEMS in the U.S. : the free base is available under a compassionate distribution program by Jacobus Pharmaceutical Company , and the phosphate salt is available to people with LEMS under an expanded access program by Catalyst Pharmaceuticals . Compounding pharmacies may also be a source of 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine salts in the U.S. In Europe , 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine phosphate is sold by BioMarin under the name Firdapse , and the free base is compounded , usually by hospital pharmacies . An older agent , guanidine , causes many side @-@ effects and is not recommended . 4 @-@ Aminopyridine ( dalfampridine ) , an agent related to 3 @,@ 4 @-@ aminopyridine , causes more side @-@ effects than 3 @,@ 4 @-@ DAP and is also not recommended .
Immune suppression tends to be less effective than in other autoimmune diseases . Prednisolone ( a glucocorticoid or steroid ) suppresses the immune response , and the steroid @-@ sparing agent azathioprine may replace it once therapeutic effect has been achieved . Intravenous immunoglobulin ( IVIG ) may be used with a degree of effectiveness . Plasma exchange ( or plasmapheresis ) , the removal of plasma proteins such as antibodies and replacement with normal plasma , may provide improvement in acute severe weakness . Again , plasma exchange is less effective than in other related conditions such as myasthenia gravis , and additional immunosuppressive medication is often needed . According to a systematic review by the Cochrane Collaboration , the best evidence in the treatment of LEMS exists for 3 @,@ 4 @-@ aminopyridine and IVIG .
= = History = =
Anderson and colleagues from St Thomas ' Hospital , London , were the first to mention a case with possible clinical findings of LEMS in 1953 , but Lambert , Eaton and Rooke at the Mayo Clinic were the first physicians to substantially describe the clinical and electrophysiological findings of the disease in 1956 . In 1972 , the clustering of LEMS with other autoimmune diseases led to the hypothesis that it was caused by autoimmunity . Studies in the 1980s confirmed the autoimmune nature , and research in the 1990s demonstrated the link with antibodies against P / Q @-@ type voltage @-@ gated calcium channels .
= Mitt Romney =
Willard Mitt Romney ( " Mitt " ) ( born March 12 , 1947 ) is an American businessman and politician , who was the 70th Governor of Massachusetts from 2003 to 2007 and the Republican Party 's nominee for President of the United States in the 2012 election .
Raised in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan , by his parents , George and Lenore Romney , he spent 2 @.@ 5 years in France as a Mormon missionary , starting in 1966 . He married Ann Davies in 1969 , and they have five sons . By 1971 , he had participated in the political campaigns of both parents . In 1971 , he earned a Bachelor of Arts at Brigham Young University ( BYU ) , Provo , Utah , and in 1975 , he earned a joint Juris Doctor and Master of Business Administration at Harvard University , Cambridge , Massachusetts .
Romney entered the management consulting industry , and in 1977 secured a position at Bain & Company . Later serving as Bain 's Chief Executive Officer ( CEO ) , he helped lead the company out of a financial crisis . In 1984 , he cofounded and led the spin @-@ off company , Bain Capital , a highly profitable private equity investment firm that became one of the largest of its kind in the nation . Active in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) , he served during his business career as the bishop of his ward ( head of his local congregation ) and then stake president in his home area near Boston .
After stepping down from Bain Capital and his local leadership role in the LDS Church , Romney ran as the Republican candidate in the 1994 Massachusetts election for U.S. Senate . Upon losing to longtime incumbent Ted Kennedy , he resumed his position at Bain Capital . Years later , a successful stint as President and CEO of the Salt Lake Organizing Committee for the 2002 Winter Olympics led to a relaunch of his political career .
Elected Governor of Massachusetts in 2002 , Romney helped develop and enact into law the Massachusetts health care reform legislation , the first of its kind in the nation , which provided near @-@ universal health insurance access through state @-@ level subsidies and individual mandates to purchase insurance . He also presided over the elimination of a projected $ 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 5 billion deficit through a combination of spending cuts , increased fees , and the closure of corporate tax loopholes . He did not seek re @-@ election in 2006 , instead focusing on his campaign for the Republican nomination in the 2008 U.S. presidential election . He won several primaries and caucuses ; however , he lost to the eventual nominee , Senator John McCain . His considerable net worth , estimated in 2012 at $ 190 – 250 million , helped finance his political campaigns prior to 2012 .
Following his term as Governor of Massachusetts in 2007 , Romney was the Republican Party 's nominee for President of the United States in the 2012 election . He won the 2012 Republican presidential nomination , becoming the first Mormon to be a major party presidential nominee . He was defeated by incumbent Democratic President Barack Obama in the November 2012 general election , losing by 332 – 206 electoral college votes . The popular vote margin was 51 – 47 percent in Obama 's favor . Following the election , he initially kept a low profile , and later became more visible politically .
In 2012 , Time magazine included Romney in their List of The 100 Most Influential People in the World .
= = Early life and education = =
= = = Heritage and youth = = =
Willard Mitt Romney was born on March 12 , 1947 , at Harper University Hospital in Detroit , Michigan , one of four children born to automobile executive George W. Romney ( 1907 – 1995 ) and homemaker Lenore Romney ( née LaFount ; 1908 – 1998 ) . His mother was a native of Logan , Utah , and his father was born to American parents in a Mormon colony in Chihuahua , Mexico . Of primarily English descent , he also has Scottish and German ancestry . A fifth @-@ generation member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) , he is a great grandson of Miles Park Romney and a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Miles Romney , who converted to the faith in its first decade . Another great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , Parley P. Pratt , helped lead the early Church .
Romney has three elder siblings ; Margo , Jane , and Scott ( Mitt followed them after a gap of nearly six years ) . His parents named him after a family friend , businessman J. Willard Marriott , and his father 's cousin , Milton " Mitt " Romney , a former quarterback for the Chicago Bears . Romney was referred to as " Billy " until kindergarten , when he indicated a preference for " Mitt " . In 1953 , the family moved from Detroit to the affluent suburb of Bloomfield Hills . His father became the chairman and CEO of American Motors the following year , soon helping the company avoid bankruptcy and return to profitability . By 1959 , his father had become a nationally known figure in print and on television , and the youngster idolized him .
Romney attended public elementary schools until the seventh grade , when he enrolled as one of only a few Mormon students at Cranbrook School in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan , a traditional private boys ' preparatory school . Many students there came from backgrounds even more privileged than his . Not particularly athletic , he also did not distinguish himself academically . He participated in his father 's successful 1962 Michigan gubernatorial campaign , and later worked for him as an intern in the Governor 's office . Romney took up residence at Cranbrook when his newly elected father began spending most of his time at the state capitol .
At Cranbrook , Romney helped manage the ice hockey team , and he joined the pep squad . During his senior year , he joined the cross country running team . He belonged to eleven school organizations and school clubs overall , including the Blue Key Club , a booster group he had started . During his final year there , he improved academically but fell short of excellence . Romney became involved in several pranks while attending Cranbrook . He has since apologized , stating that some of the pranks may have gone too far . In March of his senior year , he began dating Ann Davies ; she attended the private Kingswood School , the sister school to Cranbrook . The two became informally engaged around the time of his June 1965 graduation .
= = = University , France mission , marriage , and children : 1965 – 75 = = =
Romney attended Stanford University during the academic year of 1965 – 66 . He was not part of the counterculture of the 1960s then taking form in the San Francisco Bay Area . As opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War grew , a group staged a May 1966 sit @-@ in at the university administration building to demonstrate against draft status tests ; Romney joined a counter @-@ protest against that group . He continued to enjoy occasional pranks .
In July 1966 , he left the U.S. for a thirty @-@ month stay in France as a Mormon missionary , a traditional rite of passage in his family . He arrived in Le Havre , where he shared cramped quarters under meager conditions . Rules against drinking , smoking , and dating were strictly enforced . Most individual Mormon missionaries do not gain many converts and Romney was no exception : he later estimated ten to twenty for his entire mission . He initially became demoralized and later recalled it as the only time when " most of what I was trying to do was rejected . " He soon gained recognition within the mission for the many homes he called on and the repeat visits he was granted . He was promoted to zone leader in Bordeaux in early 1968 , and soon thereafter became assistant to the mission president in Paris . Residing at the Mission Home for several months , he enjoyed a mansion far more comfortable than the lodgings he had elsewhere in the country . When the French expressed opposition to the U.S. role in the Vietnam War , Romney debated them in return , and his views were reinforced by those who yelled and slammed their doors .
In June 1968 , an automobile he was driving in southern France was hit by another vehicle , seriously injuring him and killing one of his passengers , the wife of the mission president . Romney was not at fault in the accident . He became co @-@ president of a mission that had become demoralized and disorganized after the May 1968 general strike and student uprisings and the car accident . With Romney rallying the others , the mission met a goal of 200 baptisms for the year , the most for them in a decade . By the end of his stint in December 1968 , he was overseeing the work of 175 others . As a result of his stay , Romney developed a lifelong affection for France and its people , and has remained fluent in French .
At their first meeting following his return , Romney and Ann Davies reconnected and decided to get married . Romney began attending Brigham Young University ( BYU ) , where she had been studying . The couple married on March 21 , 1969 , in a civil ceremony in Bloomfield Hills . The following day , they flew to Utah for a Mormon wedding ceremony at the Salt Lake Temple ( Ann had converted to the faith while he was away ) .
Mitt had missed much of the tumultuous American anti @-@ Vietnam War movement while away in France . Upon his return , it surprised him to learn that his father had joined the movement during his unsuccessful 1968 presidential campaign . George was now serving in President Richard Nixon 's cabinet as United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development . In a June 1970 newspaper profile of children of cabinet members , Mitt said that U.S. involvement in the war had been misguided – " If it wasn 't a political blunder to move into Vietnam , I don 't know what is " – but supported Nixon 's ongoing Cambodian Incursion as a sincere attempt to bring the war to a conclusion . During the U.S. military draft for the Vietnam War , Romney sought and received two 2 @-@ S student deferments , then a 4 @-@ D ministerial deferment while living in France as a Mormon missionary . He later sought and received two additional student deferments . When those ran out , the result of the December 1969 draft lottery ensured he would not be selected .
At culturally conservative BYU , Romney remained isolated from much of the upheaval of that era . He became president of the Cougar Club booster organization and showed a new @-@ found discipline in his studies . During his senior year , he took a leave to work as driver and advance man for his mother Lenore Romney 's eventually unsuccessful 1970 campaign for U.S. Senator from Michigan ; together , they visited all 83 Michigan counties . He earned a Bachelor of Arts in English with highest honors in 1971 , giving commencement addresses to both the College of Humanities and to the whole of BYU .
The Romneys ' first son , Taggart , was born in 1970 while they were undergraduates at BYU and living in a basement apartment . Ann subsequently gave birth to Matthew ( 1971 ) and Joshua ( 1975 ) . Benjamin ( 1978 ) and Craig ( 1981 ) would arrive later , after Romney began his career .
Mitt Romney wanted to pursue a business career , but his father advised him that a law degree would be valuable to his career even if he did not become a lawyer . Thus , he enrolled in the recently created joint Juris Doctor / Master of Business Administration four @-@ year program coordinated between Harvard Law School and Harvard Business School . He readily adapted to the business school 's pragmatic , data @-@ driven case study method of teaching . Living in a Belmont , Massachusetts house with Ann and their two children , his social experience differed from most of his classmates ' . He was nonideological and did not involve himself in the political issues of the day . He graduated in 1975 cum laude from the law school , in the top third of that class , and was named a Baker Scholar for graduating in the top five percent of his business school class .
= = Business career = =
= = = Management consulting = = =
Recruited by several firms , Romney joined the Boston Consulting Group ( BCG ) , reasoning that working as a management consultant for a variety of companies would better prepare him for a future position as a chief executive . Part of a 1970s wave of top graduates who chose to go into consulting rather than join a large company directly , he found his legal and business education useful in his job . He applied BCG principles such as the growth @-@ share matrix , and executives viewed him as having a bright future there . At the Boston Consulting Group , he was a colleague of Benjamin Netanyahu , with whom he formed a thirty @-@ year friendship .
In 1977 , he was hired by Bain & Company , a management consulting firm in Boston formed a few years earlier by Bill Bain and other ex @-@ BCG employees . Bain would later say of the thirty @-@ year @-@ old Romney , " He had the appearance [ sic ] of confidence of a guy who was maybe ten years older . " Unlike other consulting firms , which issued recommendations and then departed , Bain & Company immersed itself in a client 's business and worked with them until changes were implemented . Romney became a vice @-@ president of the firm in 1978 , and worked with clients such as the Monsanto Company , Outboard Marine Corporation , Burlington Industries , and Corning Incorporated . Within a few years , the firm considered him one of their best consultants and clients sometimes sought to use him over more senior partners .
= = = Minor political issues = = =
Two family incidents during this time later came to light during Romney 's political campaigns . A state park ranger in 1981 told Romney his motorboat had an insufficiently visible license number and he would face a $ 50 fine if he took the boat onto the lake . Disagreeing about the license and wanting to continue a family outing , Romney took it out anyway , saying he would pay the fine . The ranger arrested him for disorderly conduct . The charges were dropped several days later . In 1983 , on a twelve @-@ hour family road trip , he placed the family 's dog in a windshield @-@ equipped carrier on the roof of their car , and then washed the car and carrier after the dog suffered a bout of diarrhea . The dog incident in particular later became fodder for Romney 's critics and political opponents .
= = = Private equity = = =
In 1984 , Romney left Bain & Company to cofound the spin @-@ off private equity investment firm , Bain Capital . He had initially refrained from accepting Bill Bain 's offer to head the new venture , until Bain rearranged the terms in a complicated partnership structure so that there was no financial or professional risk to Romney . Bain and Romney raised the $ 37 million in funds needed to start the new operation , which had seven employees . Romney held the titles of president and managing general partner . The sole shareholder of the firm , publications also referred to him as managing director or CEO .
Initially , Bain Capital focused on venture capital investments . Romney set up a system in which any partner could veto one of these potential opportunities , and he personally saw so many weaknesses that few venture capital investments were approved in the initial two years . The firm 's first significant success was a 1986 investment to help start Staples Inc . , after founder Thomas G. Stemberg convinced Romney of the market size for office supplies and Romney convinced others ; Bain Capital eventually reaped a nearly sevenfold return on its investment , and Romney sat on the Staples board of directors for over a decade .
Romney soon switched Bain Capital 's focus from startups to the relatively new business of leveraged buyouts : buying existing companies with money mostly borrowed from banking institutions using the newly bought companies ' assets as collateral , then taking steps to improve the companies ' value , and finally selling those companies once their value peaked , usually within a few years . Bain Capital lost money in many of its early leveraged buyouts , but then found deals that made large returns . The firm invested in or acquired Accuride Corporation , Brookstone , Domino 's Pizza , Sealy Corporation , Sports Authority , and Artisan Entertainment , as well as some lesser @-@ known companies in the industrial and medical sectors . Much of the firm 's profit was earned from a relatively small number of deals ; Bain Capital 's overall success @-@ to @-@ failure ratio was about even .
Romney discovered few investment opportunities himself ( and those that he did , often failed to make money for the firm ) . Instead , he focused on analyzing the merits of possible deals that others brought forward and on recruiting investors to participate in them once approved . Within Bain Capital , Romney spread profits from deals widely within the firm to keep people motivated , often keeping less than ten percent for himself . Data @-@ driven , Romney often played the role of a devil 's advocate during exhaustive analysis of whether to go forward with a deal . He wanted to drop a Bain Capital hedge fund that initially lost money , but other partners disagreed with him and it eventually gained billions . He opted out of the Artisan Entertainment deal , not wanting to profit from a studio that produced R @-@ rated films . Romney served on the board of directors of Damon Corporation , a medical testing company later found guilty of defrauding the government ; Bain Capital tripled its investment before selling off the company , and the fraud was discovered by the new owners ( Romney was never implicated ) . In some cases , Romney had little involvement with a company once acquired .
Bain Capital 's leveraged buyouts sometimes led to layoffs , either soon after acquisition or later after the firm had concluded its role . Exactly how many jobs Bain Capital added compared to those lost because of these investments and buyouts is unknown , owing to a lack of records and Bain Capital 's penchant for privacy on behalf of itself and its investors . Maximizing the value of acquired companies and the return to Bain 's investors , not job creation , was the firm 's fundamental goal . Bain Capital 's acquisition of Ampad exemplified a deal where it profited handsomely from early payments and management fees , even though the subject company itself ended up going into bankruptcy . Dade Behring was another case where Bain Capital received an eightfold return on its investment , but the company itself was saddled with debt and laid off over a thousand employees before Bain Capital exited ( the company subsequently went into bankruptcy , with more layoffs , before recovering and prospering ) . Referring to the layoffs that happened , Romney said in 2007 : " Sometimes the medicine is a little bitter but it is necessary to save the life of the patient . My job was to try and make the enterprise successful , and in my view the best security a family can have is that the business they work for is strong . "
In 1990 , facing financial collapse , Bain & Company asked Romney to return . Announced as its new CEO in January 1991 , he drew a symbolic salary of one dollar ( remaining managing general partner of Bain Capital during this time ) . He oversaw an effort to restructure Bain & Company 's employee stock @-@ ownership plan and real @-@ estate deals , while rallying the firm 's one thousand employees , imposing a new governing structure that excluded Bain and the other founding partners from control , and increasing fiscal transparency . He got Bain and other initial owners who had removed excessive amounts of money from the firm to return a substantial amount , and persuaded creditors , including the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation , to accept less than full payment . Within about a year , he had led Bain & Company through a turnaround and returned the firm to profitability . He turned Bain & Company over to new leadership and returned to Bain Capital in December 1992 .
Romney took a leave of absence from Bain Capital from November 1993 to November 1994 to run for the U.S. Senate . During that time , Ampad workers went on strike , and asked Romney to intervene . Against the advice of Bain Capital lawyers , Romney met the strikers , but told them he had no position of active authority in the matter .
By 1999 , Bain Capital was on its way towards becoming one of the foremost private equity firms in the nation , having increased its number of partners from 5 to 18 , with 115 employees overall , and $ 4 billion under its management . The firm 's average annual internal rate of return on realized investments was 113 percent and its average yearly return to investors was around 50 – 80 percent .
Romney took a paid leave of absence from Bain Capital in February 1999 to serve as the president and CEO of the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympic Games Organizing Committee . Billed in some public statements as keeping a part @-@ time role , Romney remained the firm 's sole shareholder , managing director , CEO , and president , signing corporate and legal documents , attending to his interests within the firm , and conducting prolonged negotiations for the terms of his departure . He did not involve himself in day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the firm or investment decisions for Bain Capital 's new private equity funds . He retained his position on several boards of directors during this time and regularly returned to Massachusetts to attend meetings .
In August 2001 , Romney announced that he would not return to Bain Capital . His separation from the firm concluded in early 2002 ; he transferred his ownership to other partners and negotiated an agreement that allowed him to receive a passive profit share as a retired partner in some Bain Capital entities , including buyout and investment funds . The private equity business continued to thrive , earning him millions of dollars in annual income .
= = = Personal wealth = = =
As a result of his business career , Romney and his wife have a net worth of between $ 190 and $ 250 million , including their retirement account , worth between $ 20 and $ 100 million . Most of that wealth has been held in blind trusts since 2003 , some of it offshore . An additional blind trust , valued at $ 100 million in 2012 , exists in the name of their children . In 2010 , Romney and his wife received about $ 22 million in income , almost all of it from investments such as dividends , capital gains , and carried interest ; and they paid about $ 3 million in federal income taxes , for an effective tax rate of 14 percent . For the years 1990 – 2010 , their effective federal tax rates were above 13 percent with an average rate of about 20 percent .
Romney has tithed to the LDS Church regularly , and donated to LDS Church @-@ owned BYU . In 2010 , for example , he and his wife gave $ 1 @.@ 5 million to the church . The Romney family 's Tyler Charitable Foundation gave out about $ 650 @,@ 000 in that year , some of which went to organizations that fight diseases . For the years 1990 – 2010 , the Romneys ' total charitable donations as portions of their income averaged 14 percent .
= = Local LDS Church leadership = =
During his business career , Romney held several positions in the local lay clergy . In 1977 , he became a counselor to the president of the Boston Stake . He served as bishop of the ward ( ecclesiastical and administrative head of his congregation ) at Belmont , Massachusetts , from 1981 to 1986 . As such , in addition to home teaching , he also formulated Sunday services and classes using LDS scriptures to guide the congregation . After the destruction of the Belmont meetinghouse by a fire of suspicious origins in 1984 , he forged links with other religious institutions , allowing the congregation to rotate its meetings to other houses of worship during the reconstruction of their building .
From 1986 to 1994 , Romney presided over the Boston Stake , which included more than a dozen wards in eastern Massachusetts with almost 4 @,@ 000 church members altogether . He organized a team to handle financial and management issues , sought to counter anti @-@ Mormon sentiments , and tried to solve social problems among poor Southeast Asian converts . An unpaid position , his local church leadership often took 30 or more hours a week of his time , and he became known for his considerable energy in the role . He earned a reputation for avoiding any overnight travel that might interfere with his church responsibilities .
Romney took a hands @-@ on role in general matters , helping in domestic maintenance efforts , visiting the sick , and counseling burdened church members . A number of local church members later credited him with turning their lives around or helping them through difficult times . Others , rankled by his leadership style , desired a more consensus @-@ based approach . Romney tried to balance the conservative directives from church leadership in Utah with the desire of some Massachusetts members to have a more flexible application of religious doctrine . He agreed with some requests from the liberal women 's group that published Exponent II for changes in the way the church dealt with women , but clashed with women whom he felt were departing too much from doctrine . In particular , he counseled women to not have abortions except in the rare cases allowed by LDS doctrine , and encouraged single women facing unplanned pregnancies to give up their baby for adoption . Romney later said that the years spent as an LDS minister gave him direct exposure to people struggling financially and empathy for those with family problems .
= = 1994 U.S. Senatorial campaign = =
For much of his business career , Romney did not take public , political stances . He had kept abreast of national politics since college , though , and the circumstances of his father 's presidential campaign loss had irked him for decades . He registered as an Independent and voted in the 1992 presidential primaries for the Democratic former senator from Massachusetts , Paul Tsongas .
By 1993 , Romney had begun thinking about entering politics , partly based upon Ann 's urging and partly to follow in his father 's footsteps . He decided to challenge incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy , who was seeking re @-@ election for the sixth time . Political pundits viewed Kennedy as vulnerable that year – in part because of the unpopularity of the Democratic Congress as a whole , and in part because this was Kennedy 's first election since the William Kennedy Smith trial in Florida , in which the senator had suffered some negative public relations regarding his character . Romney changed his affiliation to Republican in October 1993 and formally announced his candidacy in February 1994 . In addition to his leave from Bain Capital , he stepped down from his church leadership role in 1994 .
Radio personality Janet Jeghelian took an early lead in polls among candidates for the Republican nomination for the Senate seat , but Romney proved the most effective fundraiser . He won 68 percent of the vote at the May 1994 Massachusetts Republican Party convention ; businessman John Lakian finished a distant second , eliminating Jeghelian . Romney defeated Lakian in the September 1994 primary with more than 80 percent of the vote .
In the general election , Kennedy faced the first serious re @-@ election challenger of his career . The younger , telegenic , and well @-@ funded Romney ran as a businessman who stated he had created ten thousand jobs and as a Washington outsider with a solid family image and moderate stances on social issues . When Kennedy tried to tie Romney 's policies to those of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush , Romney responded , " Look , I was an independent during the time of Reagan @-@ Bush . I 'm not trying to take us back to Reagan @-@ Bush . " Romney stated , " Ultimately , this is a campaign about change . "
Romney 's campaign was effective in portraying Kennedy as soft on crime , but had trouble establishing its own consistent positions . By mid @-@ September 1994 , polls showed the race to be approximately even . Kennedy responded with a series of ads that focused on Romney 's seemingly shifting political views on issues such as abortion ; Romney would respond on the latter by stating , " I believe that abortion should be safe and legal in this country . " Other Kennedy ads centered on layoffs of workers at the Ampad plant owned by Romney 's Bain Capital . The latter was effective in blunting Romney 's momentum . Kennedy and Romney held a widely watched late @-@ October debate that had no clear winner , but by then , Kennedy had pulled ahead in polls and stayed ahead afterward . Romney spent $ 3 million of his own money in the race and more than $ 7 million overall . In the November general election , despite a disastrous showing for Democrats nationwide , Kennedy won the election with 58 percent of the vote to Romney 's 41 percent , the smallest margin in any of Kennedy 's re @-@ election campaigns for the Senate .
The day after the election , Romney returned to Bain Capital , but the loss had a lasting effect ; he told his brother , " I never want to run for something again unless I can win . " When his father died in 1995 , Mitt donated his inheritance to BYU 's George W. Romney Institute of Public Management . He also joined the board , as vice @-@ chair , of the Points of Light Foundation , which had incorporated his father 's National Volunteer Center . Romney felt restless as the decade neared a close ; the goal of simply making more money was becoming inadequate for him . Although no longer in a local leadership position in his church , he still taught Sunday School . During the long and controversial approval and construction process for the $ 30 million Mormon temple in Belmont , he feared that , as a political figure who had opposed Kennedy , he would become a focal point for opposition to the structure . He thus kept to a limited , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role in attempts to ease tensions between the church and local residents .
= = 2002 Winter Olympics = =
In 1998 , Ann Romney learned that she had multiple sclerosis ; Mitt described watching her fail a series of neurological tests as the worst day of his life . After experiencing two years of severe difficulties with the disease , she found – while living in Park City , Utah , where the couple had built a vacation home – a combination of mainstream , alternative , and equestrian therapies that enabled her to lead a lifestyle mostly without limitations . When her husband received a job offer to take over the troubled organization responsible for the 2002 Winter Olympics and Paralympics , to be held in Salt Lake City in Utah , she urged him to accept it ; eager for a new challenge , as well as another chance to prove himself in public life , he did . On February 11 , 1999 , the Salt Lake Organizing Committee for the Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games of 2002 hired Romney as their president and CEO .
Before Romney took the position , the event was running $ 379 million short of its revenue goals . Officials had made plans to scale back the Games to compensate for the fiscal crisis , and there were fears it might be moved away entirely . Additionally , the image of the Games had been damaged by allegations of bribery against top officials including prior committee president and CEO Frank Joklik . The Salt Lake Organizing Committee forced Joklik and committee vice president Dave Johnson to resign . Utah power brokers , including Governor Mike Leavitt , searched for someone with a scandal @-@ free reputation to take charge of the Olympics , and chose Romney based on his business and legal expertise as well as his connections to both the LDS Church and the state . The appointment faced some initial criticism from non @-@ Mormons , and fears from Mormons , that it represented cronyism or made the Games seem too Mormon @-@ dominated . Romney donated to charity the $ 1 @.@ 4 million in salary and severance payments he received for his three years as president and CEO , and also contributed $ 1 million to the Olympics .
Romney restructured the organization 's leadership and policies . He reduced budgets and boosted fundraising , alleviating the concerns of corporate sponsors while recruiting new ones . Romney worked to ensure the safety of the Games following the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks by coordinating a $ 300 million security budget . He oversaw a $ 1 @.@ 32 billion total budget , 700 employees , and 26 @,@ 000 volunteers . The federal government provided approximately $ 400 million to $ 600 million of that budget , much of it a result of Romney 's having aggressively lobbied Congress and federal agencies . It was a record level of federal funding for the staging of a U.S. Olympics . An additional $ 1 @.@ 1 billion of indirect federal funding came to the state in the form of highway and transit projects .
Romney emerged as the local public face of the Olympic effort , appearing in photographs , in news stories , on collectible Olympics pins depicting Romney wrapped by an American flag , and on buttons carrying phrases like " Hey , Mitt , we love you ! " Robert H. Garff , the chair of the organizing committee , later said " It was obvious that he had an agenda larger than just the Olympics , " and that Romney wanted to use the Olympics to propel himself into the national spotlight and a political career . Garff believed the initial budget situation was not as bad as Romney portrayed , given there were still three years to reorganize . Utah Senator Bob Bennett said that much of the needed federal money was already in place . An analysis by The Boston Globe later stated that the committee had nearly $ 1 billion in committed revenues at that time . Olympics critic Steve Pace , who led Utahns for Responsible Public Spending , thought Romney exaggerated the initial fiscal state to lay the groundwork for a well @-@ publicized rescue . Kenneth Bullock , another board member of the organizing committee and also head of the Utah League of Cities and Towns , often clashed with Romney at the time , and later said that Romney deserved some credit for the turnaround but not as much as he claimed . Bullock said : " He tried very hard to build an image of himself as a savior , the great white hope . He was very good at characterizing and castigating people and putting himself on a pedestal . "
Despite the initial fiscal shortfall , the Games ended up with a surplus of $ 100 million . President George W. Bush praised Romney 's efforts and 87 percent of Utahns approved of his performance as Olympics head . It solidified his reputation as a " turnaround artist " , and Harvard Business School taught a case study based around his actions . U.S. Olympic Committee head William Hybl credited Romney with an extraordinary effort in overcoming a difficult time for the Olympics , culminating in " the greatest Winter Games I have ever seen " . Romney wrote a book about his experience titled Turnaround : Crisis , Leadership , and the Olympic Games , published in 2004 . The role gave Romney experience in dealing with federal , state , and local entities , a public persona he had previously lacked , and the chance to relaunch his political aspirations .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
= = = 2002 gubernatorial campaign = = =
In 2002 , plagued by political missteps and personal scandals , the administration of Republican Acting Governor of Massachusetts Jane Swift appeared vulnerable , and many Republicans viewed her as unable to win a general election . Prominent party figures – as well as the White House – wanted Romney to run for governor and the opportunity appealed to him for reasons including its national visibility . A poll by the Boston Herald showed Republicans favoring Romney over Swift by more than 50 percentage points . On March 19 , 2002 , Swift announced she would not seek her party 's nomination , and hours later Romney declared his candidacy , for which he would face no opposition in the primary . In June 2002 , the Massachusetts Democratic Party challenged Romney 's eligibility to run for governor , noting that state law required seven years ' consecutive residence and that Romney had filed his state tax returns as a Utah resident in 1999 and 2000 . In response , the bipartisan Massachusetts State Ballot Law Commission unanimously ruled that he had maintained sufficient financial and personal ties to Massachusetts and was , therefore , an eligible candidate .
Romney again ran as a political outsider . He played down his party affiliation , saying he was " not a partisan Republican " but rather a " moderate " with " progressive " views . He stated that he would observe a moratorium on changes to the state 's laws on abortion , but reiterated that he would " preserve and protect a woman 's right to choose " and that his position was " unequivocal " . He touted his private sector experience as qualifying him for addressing the state 's fiscal problems and stressed his ability to obtain federal funds for the state , offering his Olympics record as evidence . He proposed to reorganize the state government while eliminating waste , fraud , and mismanagement . The campaign innovatively utilized microtargeting techniques , identifying like @-@ minded groups of voters and reaching them with narrowly tailored messaging .
In an attempt to overcome the image that had damaged him in the 1994 Senate race – that of a wealthy corporate buyout specialist out of touch with the needs of regular people – the campaign staged a series of " work days " , in which Romney performed blue @-@ collar jobs such as herding cows and baling hay , unloading a fishing boat , and hauling garbage . Television ads highlighting the effort , as well as one portraying his family in gushing terms and showing him shirtless , received a poor public response and were a factor in his Democratic opponent , Massachusetts State Treasurer Shannon O 'Brien , leading in the polls as late as mid @-@ October . He responded with ads that accused O 'Brien of being a failed watchdog for state pension fund losses in the stock market and that associated her husband , a former lobbyist , with the Enron scandal . These were effective in capturing independent voters . O 'Brien said that Romney 's budget plans were unrealistic ; the two also differed on capital punishment and bilingual education , with Romney supporting the former and opposing the latter .
During the election , Romney contributed more than $ 6 million – a state record at the time – to the nearly $ 10 million raised for his campaign overall . On November 5 , 2002 , he won the governorship , earning 50 percent of the vote to O 'Brien 's 45 percent .
= = = Tenure , 2003 – 07 = = =
The swearing in of Romney as the 70th governor of Massachusetts took place on January 2 , 2003 . He faced a Massachusetts state legislature with large Democratic majorities in both houses , and had picked his cabinet and advisors based more on managerial abilities than partisan affiliation . He declined a governor 's salary of $ 135 @,@ 000 during his term . Upon entering office in the middle of a fiscal year , he faced an immediate $ 650 million shortfall and a projected $ 3 billion deficit for the next year . Unexpected revenue of $ 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 billion from a previously enacted capital gains tax increase and $ 500 million in new federal grants decreased the deficit to $ 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 5 billion . Through a combination of spending cuts , increased fees , and removal of corporate tax loopholes , the state achieved surpluses of around $ 600 – 700 million during Romney 's last two full fiscal years in office , although it began running deficits again after that .
Romney supported raising various fees , including those for drivers ' licenses and gun licenses , to raise more than $ 300 million . He increased a special gasoline retailer fee by two cents per gallon , generating about $ 60 million per year in additional revenue . Opponents said the reliance on fees sometimes imposed a hardship on those who could least afford them . Romney also closed tax loopholes that brought in another $ 181 million from businesses over the next two years and over $ 300 million for his term . He did so in the face of conservative and corporate critics who viewed these actions as tax increases .
The state legislature , with the governor 's support , cut spending by $ 1 @.@ 6 billion , including $ 700 million in reductions in state aid to cities and towns . The cuts also included a $ 140 million reduction in state funding for higher education , which led state @-@ run colleges and universities to increase fees by 63 percent over four years . Romney sought additional cuts in his last year as governor by vetoing nearly 250 items in the state budget ; a heavily Democratic legislature overrode all the vetoes .
The cuts in state spending put added pressure on localities to reduce services or raise property taxes , and the share of town and city revenues coming from property taxes rose from 49 to 53 percent . The combined state and local tax burden in Massachusetts increased during Romney 's governorship . He did propose a reduction in the state income tax rate that the legislature rejected .
Romney sought to bring near @-@ universal health insurance coverage to the state . This came after Staples founder Stemberg told him at the start of his term that doing so would be the best way he could help people . Another factor was that the federal government , owing to the rules of Medicaid funding , threatened to cut $ 385 million in those payments to Massachusetts if the state did not reduce the number of uninsured recipients of health care services . Although the idea of universal health insurance had not come to the fore during the campaign , Romney decided that because people without insurance still received expensive health care , the money spent by the state for such care could be better used to subsidize insurance for the poor .
Determined that a new Massachusetts health insurance measure not raise taxes or resemble the previous decade 's failed " Hillarycare " proposal at the federal level , Romney formed a team of consultants from diverse political backgrounds to apply those principles . Beginning in late 2004 , they devised a set of proposals that were more ambitious than an incremental one from the Massachusetts Senate and more acceptable to him than one from the Massachusetts House of Representatives that incorporated a new payroll tax . In particular , Romney pushed for incorporating an individual mandate at the state level . Past rival Ted Kennedy , who had made universal health coverage his life 's work and who , over time , had developed a warm relationship with Romney , gave the plan a positive reception , which encouraged Democratic legislators to cooperate . The effort eventually gained the support of all major stakeholders within the state , and Romney helped break a logjam between rival Democratic leaders in the legislature .
On April 12 , 2006 , the governor signed the resulting Massachusetts health reform law , commonly called " Romneycare " , which requires nearly all Massachusetts residents to buy health insurance coverage or face escalating tax penalties , such as the loss of their personal income tax exemption . The bill also established means @-@ tested state subsidies for people who lacked adequate employer insurance and whose income was below a threshold , using funds that had covered the health costs of the uninsured . He vetoed eight sections of the health care legislation , including a controversial $ 295 @-@ per @-@ employee assessment on businesses that do not offer health insurance and provisions guaranteeing dental benefits to Medicaid recipients . The legislature overrode all eight vetoes , but the governor 's office said the differences were not essential . The law was the first of its kind in the nation and became the signature achievement of Romney 's term in office .
At the beginning of his governorship , Romney opposed same @-@ sex marriage and civil unions , but advocated tolerance and supported some domestic partnership benefits . A November 2003 Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court decision required the state to recognize same @-@ sex marriages ( Goodridge v. Department of Public Health ) . Romney reluctantly backed a state constitutional amendment in February 2004 that would have banned those marriages but still allowed civil unions , viewing it as the only feasible way to accomplish the former . In May 2004 , in compliance with the court decision , the governor instructed town clerks to begin issuing marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples . However , citing a 1913 law that barred out @-@ of @-@ state residents from getting married in Massachusetts if their union would be illegal in their home state , he said no marriage licenses were to be issued to those people not planning to move to Massachusetts . In June 2005 , Romney abandoned his support for the compromise amendment , stating that it confused voters who opposed both same @-@ sex marriage and civil unions . Instead , he endorsed a ballot initiative led by the Coalition for Marriage and Family ( an alliance of socially conservative organizations ) that would have banned same @-@ sex marriage and made no provisions for civil unions . In 2004 and 2006 , he urged the U.S. Senate to vote in favor of the Federal Marriage Amendment .
In 2005 , Romney revealed a change of view regarding abortion , moving from the pro @-@ choice positions expressed during his 1994 and 2002 campaigns to a pro @-@ life one in opposition to Roe v. Wade . Romney attributed his conversion to an interaction with Harvard University biologist Douglas Melton , an expert on embryonic stem cell biology , although Melton vehemently disputed Romney 's recollection of their conversation . Romney subsequently vetoed a bill on pro @-@ life grounds that expanded access to emergency contraception in hospitals and pharmacies ( the legislature overrode the veto ) . He also amended his position on embryonic stem cell research itself .
Romney used a bully pulpit approach towards promoting his agenda , staging well @-@ organized media events to appeal directly to the public rather than pushing his proposals in behind @-@ doors sessions with the state legislature . He dealt with a public crisis of confidence in Boston 's Big Dig project – that followed a fatal ceiling collapse in 2006 – by wresting control of the project from the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority . After two years of negotiating the state 's participation in the landmark Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative that instituted a cap @-@ and @-@ trade arrangement for power plant emissions in the Northeast , Romney pulled Massachusetts out of the initiative shortly before its signing in December 2005 , citing a lack of cost limits for industry .
During 2004 , Romney spent considerable effort trying to bolster the state Republican Party , but it failed to gain any seats in the state legislative elections that year . Given a prime @-@ time appearance at the 2004 Republican National Convention , political figures began discussing him as a potential 2008 presidential candidate . Midway through his term , Romney decided that he wanted to stage a full @-@ time run for president , and on December 14 , 2005 , announced that he would not seek re @-@ election for a second term . As chair of the Republican Governors Association , Romney traveled around the country , meeting prominent Republicans and building a national political network ; he spent all , or parts of , more than 200 days out of state during 2006 , preparing for his run .
The Governor had a 61 percent job approval rating in public polls after his initial fiscal actions in 2003 , although his approval rating subsequently declined , driven in part by his frequent out @-@ of @-@ state travel . Romney 's approval rating stood at 34 percent in November 2006 , ranking 48th of the 50 U.S. governors . Dissatisfaction with Romney 's administration and the weak condition of the Republican state party were among several factors contributing to Democrat Deval Patrick 's 20 @-@ point win over Republican Kerry Healey , Romney 's lieutenant governor , in the 2006 Massachusetts gubernatorial election .
Romney filed to register a presidential campaign committee with the Federal Election Commission on his penultimate day in office as governor . His term ended January 4 , 2007 .
= = 2008 presidential campaign = =
Romney formally announced his candidacy for the 2008 Republican nomination for president on February 13 , 2007 , in Dearborn , Michigan . Again casting himself as a political outsider , his speech frequently invoked his father and his family , and stressed experiences in the private , public , and voluntary sectors that had brought him to this point .
The campaign emphasized Romney 's highly profitable career in the business world and his stewardship of the Olympics . He also had political experience as a governor , together with a political pedigree courtesy of his father ( as well as many biographical parallels with him ) . Ann Romney , who had become an advocate for those with multiple sclerosis , was in remission and would be an active participant in his campaign , helping to soften his political personality . Media stories referred to the 6 @-@ foot @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) Romney as handsome . Moreover , a number of commentators noted that with his square jaw and ample hair graying at the temples , he physically matched one of the common images of what a president should look like .
Romney 's liabilities included having run for senator and serving as governor in one of the nation 's most liberal states and having taken positions in opposition to the party 's conservative base during that time . Late during his term as governor , he had shifted positions and emphases to better align with traditional conservatives on social issues . Skeptics , including some Republicans , charged Romney with opportunism and a lack of core principles . As a Mormon , he faced suspicion and skepticism by some in the Evangelical portion of the party .
For his campaign , Romney assembled a veteran group of Republican staffers , consultants , and pollsters . He was little @-@ known nationally , though , and stayed around the 10 percent support range in Republican preference polls for the first half of 2007 . He proved the most effective fundraiser of any of the Republican candidates and also partly financed his campaign with his own personal fortune . These resources , combined with the mid @-@ year near @-@ collapse of nominal front @-@ runner John McCain 's campaign , made Romney a threat to win the nomination and the focus of the other candidates ' attacks . Romney 's staff suffered from internal strife ; the candidate himself was at times indecisive , often asking for more data before making a decision .
During all of his political campaigns , Romney has avoided speaking publicly about Mormon doctrines , referring to the U.S. Constitution 's prohibition of religious tests for public office . But persistent questions about the role of religion in Romney 's life , as well as Southern Baptist minister and former Governor of Arkansas Mike Huckabee 's rise in the polls based upon an explicitly Christian @-@ themed campaign , led to the December 6 , 2007 , " Faith in America " speech . In the speech Romney declared , " I believe in my Mormon faith and endeavor to live by it . My faith is the faith of my fathers . I will be true to them and to my beliefs . " Romney added that he should neither be elected nor rejected based upon his religion , and echoed Senator John F. Kennedy 's famous speech during his 1960 presidential campaign in saying , " I will put no doctrine of any church above the plain duties of the office and the sovereign authority of the law . " Instead of discussing the specific tenets of his faith , he said he would be informed by it , stating : " Freedom requires religion just as religion requires freedom . Freedom and religion endure together , or perish alone . " Academics would later study the role religion had played in the campaign .
The campaign 's strategy called for winning the initial two contests – the January 3 , 2008 , Iowa Republican caucuses and the adjacent @-@ to @-@ his @-@ home @-@ state January 8 New Hampshire primary – and propelling Romney nationally . However , he took second place in both , losing Iowa to a vastly outspent Huckabee who received more than twice the evangelical Christian votes , and losing New Hampshire to the resurgent McCain . Huckabee and McCain criticized Romney 's image as a flip flopper and this label would stick to Romney through the campaign ( one that Romney rejected as unfair and inaccurate , except for his acknowledged change of mind on abortion ) . Romney seemed to approach the campaign as a management consulting exercise , and showed a lack of personal warmth and political feel ; journalist Evan Thomas wrote that Romney " came off as a phony , even when he was perfectly sincere . " The fervor with which Romney adopted his new stances and attitudes contributed to the perception of inauthenticity that hampered the campaign . Romney 's staff would conclude that competing as a candidate of social conservatism and ideological purity rather than of pragmatic competence had been a mistake .
A win by McCain over Huckabee in South Carolina , and by Romney over McCain in childhood @-@ home Michigan , set up a pivotal battle in the Florida primary . Romney campaigned intensively on economic issues and the burgeoning subprime mortgage crisis , while McCain attacked Romney regarding Iraq policy and benefited from endorsements from Florida officeholders . McCain won a 5 percentage point victory on January 29 . Although many Republican officials were now lining up behind McCain , Romney persisted through the nationwide Super Tuesday contests on February 5 . There he won primaries or caucuses in several states , but McCain won in more and in larger @-@ population ones . Trailing McCain in delegates by a more than two @-@ to @-@ one margin , Romney announced the end of his campaign on February 7 .
Altogether , Romney had won 11 primaries and caucuses , receiving about 4 @.@ 7 million votes and garnering about 280 delegates . He spent $ 110 million during the campaign , including $ 45 million of his own money .
Romney endorsed McCain for president a week later , and McCain had Romney on a short list for vice presidential running mate , where his business experience would have balanced one of McCain 's weaknesses . McCain , behind in the polls , opted instead for a high @-@ risk , high @-@ reward " game changer " , selecting Alaska Governor Sarah Palin . McCain lost the election to Democratic Senator Barack Obama .
= = Activity between presidential campaigns = =
Romney supported the Bush administration 's Troubled Asset Relief Program in response to the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis , later saying that it prevented the U.S. financial system from collapsing . During the U.S. automotive industry crisis of 2008 – 10 , he opposed a bailout of the industry in the form of direct government intervention , and argued that a managed bankruptcy of struggling automobile companies should instead be accompanied by federal guarantees for post @-@ bankruptcy financing from the private sector .
Following the 2008 election , Romney laid the groundwork for a likely 2012 presidential campaign by using his Free and Strong America political action committee ( PAC ) to raise money for other Republican candidates and pay his existing political staff 's salaries and consulting fees . A network of former staff and supporters around the nation were eager for him to run again . He continued to give speeches and raise funds for Republicans , but fearing overexposure , turned down many potential media appearances . He also spoke before business , educational , and motivational groups . From 2009 to 2011 , he served on the board of directors of Marriott International , founded by his namesake J. Willard Marriott . He had previously served on it from 1993 to 2002 .
In 2009 , the Romneys sold their primary residence in Belmont and their ski chalet in Utah , leaving them an estate along Lake Winnipesaukee in Wolfeboro , New Hampshire , and an oceanfront home in the La Jolla district of San Diego , California , which they had purchased the year before . The La Jolla home proved beneficial in location and climate for Ann Romney 's multiple sclerosis therapies and for recovering from her late 2008 diagnosis of mammary ductal carcinoma in situ and subsequent lumpectomy . Both it and the New Hampshire location were near some of their grandchildren . Romney maintained his voting registration in Massachusetts , however , and bought a smaller condominium in Belmont during 2010 . In February 2010 , Romney had a minor altercation with LMFAO member Skyler Gordy , known as Sky Blu , on an airplane flight .
Romney released his book , No Apology : The Case for American Greatness , in March 2010 , and undertook an 18 @-@ state book tour to promote the work . In the book , Romney writes of his belief in American exceptionalism , and presents his economic and geopolitical views rather than anecdotes about his personal or political life . It debuted atop The New York Times Best Seller list . Romney donated his earnings from the book to charity .
Immediately following the March 2010 passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , Romney attacked the landmark legislation as " an unconscionable abuse of power " and said the act should be repealed . The antipathy Republicans felt for it created a potential problem for the former governor , since the new federal law was in many ways similar to the Massachusetts health care reform passed during Romney 's term ; as one Associated Press article stated , " Obamacare ... looks a lot like Romneycare . " While acknowledging that his plan was an imperfect work in progress , Romney did not back away from it . He defended the state @-@ level health insurance mandate that underpinned it , calling the bill the right answer to Massachusetts ' problems at the time .
In nationwide opinion polling for the 2012 Republican Presidential primaries , Romney led or placed in the top three with Palin and Huckabee . A January 2010 National Journal survey of political insiders found that a majority of Republican insiders and a plurality of Democratic insiders predicted Romney would be the party 's 2012 nominee . Romney campaigned heavily for Republican candidates in the 2010 midterm elections , raising more money than the other prospective 2012 Republican presidential candidates . Beginning in early 2011 , Romney presented a more relaxed visual image , including more casual attire .
= = 2012 presidential campaign = =
On April 11 , 2011 , Romney announced , via a video taped outdoors at the University of New Hampshire , that he had formed an exploratory committee for a run for the Republican presidential nomination . Quinnipiac University political science professor Scott McLean stated , " We all knew that he was going to run . He 's really been running for president ever since the day after the 2008 election . "
Romney stood to benefit from the Republican electorate 's tendency to nominate candidates who had previously run for president , and thus appeared to be next in line to be chosen . The early stages of the race found him as the apparent front @-@ runner in a weak field , especially in terms of fundraising prowess and organization . Perhaps his greatest hurdle in gaining the Republican nomination was party opposition to the Massachusetts health care reform law that he had shepherded five years earlier . As many potential Republican candidates with star power and fundraising ability decided not to run ( including Mike Pence , John Thune , Haley Barbour , Mike Huckabee , and Mitch Daniels ) , Republican party figures searched for plausible alternatives to Romney .
On June 2 , 2011 , Romney formally announced the start of his campaign . Speaking on a farm in Stratham , New Hampshire , he focused on the economy and criticized President Obama 's handling of it . He said , " In the campaign to come , the American ideals of economic freedom and opportunity need a clear and unapologetic defense , and I intend to make it – because I have lived it . "
Romney raised $ 56 million during 2011 , more than double the amount raised by any of his Republican opponents , and refrained from spending his own money on the campaign . He initially pursued a low @-@ key , low @-@ profile strategy . Michele Bachmann staged a brief surge in polls , which preceded a poll surge in September 2011 by Rick Perry who had entered the race the month before . Perry and Romney exchanged sharp criticisms of each other during a series of debates among the Republican candidates . The October 2011 decisions of Chris Christie and Sarah Palin not to run effectively settled the field of candidates . Perry faded after poor performances in those debates , while Herman Cain 's ' long @-@ shot ' bid gained popularity until allegations of sexual misconduct derailed it .
Romney continued to seek support from a wary Republican electorate ; at this point in the race , his poll numbers were relatively flat and at a historically low level for a Republican frontrunner . After the charges of flip @-@ flopping that marked his 2008 campaign began to accumulate again , Romney declared in November 2011 : " I 've been as consistent as human beings can be . " In the final month before voting began , Newt Gingrich experienced a significant surge – taking a solid lead in national polls and most of the early caucus and primary states – before settling back into parity or worse with Romney following a barrage of negative ads from Restore Our Future , a pro @-@ Romney Super PAC .
In the initial contest , the 2012 Iowa caucuses of January 3 , election officials announced Romney as ahead with 25 percent of the vote , edging out a late @-@ gaining Rick Santorum by eight votes ( an also @-@ strong Ron Paul finished third ) . Sixteen days later , however , they certified Santorum as the winner by a 34 @-@ vote margin . A week after the Iowa caucuses , Romney earned a decisive win in the New Hampshire primary with a total of 39 percent of the vote ; Paul finished second and Jon Huntsman , Jr. third .
In the run @-@ up to the South Carolina Republican primary , Gingrich launched ads criticizing Romney for causing job losses while at Bain Capital , Perry referred to Romney 's role there as " vulture capitalism " , and Sarah Palin pressed Romney to prove his claim that he created 100 @,@ 000 jobs during that time . Many conservatives rallied in defense of Romney , rejecting what they inferred as criticism of free @-@ market capitalism . During two debates in the state , Romney fumbled questions about releasing his income tax returns , while Gingrich gained support with audience @-@ rousing attacks on the debate moderators . Romney 's double @-@ digit lead in state polls evaporated ; he lost to Gingrich by 13 points in the January 21 primary . Combined with the delayed loss in Iowa , Romney 's admitted poor week represented a lost chance to end the race early , and he quickly decided to release two years of his tax returns . The race turned to the Florida Republican primary , where in debates , appearances , and advertisements , Romney launched a sustained barrage against Gingrich 's past record and associations and current electability . Romney enjoyed a large spending advantage from both his campaign and his aligned Super PAC , and after a record @-@ breaking rate of negative ads from both sides , Romney won Florida on January 31 , gaining 46 percent of the vote to Gingrich 's 32 percent .
Several caucuses and primaries took place during February , and Santorum won three in a single night early in the month , propelling him into the lead in national and some state polls and positioning him as Romney 's chief rival . Days later , Romney told the Conservative Political Action Conference that he had been a " severely conservative governor " ( while during his term in 2005 he had maintained that his positions were moderate and characterized reports that he was shifting to the right to attract conservative votes a media distortion ) . Romney won the other five February contests , including a closely fought one in his home state of Michigan at the end of the month . In the Super Tuesday primaries and caucuses of March 6 , Romney won six of ten contests , including a narrow victory in Ohio over a vastly outspent Santorum . Although his victories were not enough to end the race , they were enough to establish a two @-@ to @-@ one delegate lead over Santorum . Romney maintained his delegate margin through subsequent contests , and Santorum suspended his campaign on April 10 . Following a sweep of five more contests on April 24 , the Republican National Committee put its resources to work for Romney as the party 's presumptive nominee . Romney clinched a majority of the delegates with a win in the Texas primary on May 29 .
Polls consistently indicated a tight race for the November general election . Negative ads from both sides dominated the campaign , with Obama 's proclaiming that Romney shipped jobs overseas while at Bain Capital and kept money in offshore tax havens and Swiss bank accounts . A related issue dealt with Romney 's purported responsibility for actions at Bain Capital after taking the Olympics post . Romney faced demands from Democrats to release additional years of his tax returns , an action a number of Republicans also felt would be wise ; after being adamant that he would not do that , he released summaries of them in late September . During May and June , the Obama campaign spent heavily and was able to paint a negative image of Romney in voters ' minds before the Romney campaign could construct a positive one .
In July 2012 , Romney visited the United Kingdom , Israel , and Poland , meeting leaders in an effort to raise his credibility as a world statesman . Comments Romney made about the readiness of the 2012 Summer Olympics were perceived as undiplomatic by the British press . Israeli Prime Minister ( and former BCG colleague ) Benjamin Netanyahu , embraced Romney , though some Palestinians criticized him for suggesting that Israel 's culture led to their greater economic success .
On August 11 , 2012 , the Romney campaign announced the selection of Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin as his vice @-@ presidential running mate .
On August 28 , 2012 , the 2012 Republican National Convention in Tampa , Florida , officially nominated Romney as their candidate for the presidency . Romney became the first Mormon to be a major @-@ party presidential nominee .
In mid @-@ September , a video surfaced of Romney speaking before a group of supporters in which he stated that 47 percent of the nation pays no income tax , are dependent on the federal government , see themselves as victims , and will support President Obama unconditionally . Romney went on to say : " And so my job is not to worry about those people . I 'll never convince them that they should take personal responsibility and care for their lives . " After facing criticism about the tone and accuracy of these comments , he at first characterized them as " inelegantly stated " , then a couple of weeks later commented : " I said something that 's just completely wrong . " Exit polls published following the election showed that voters never saw Romney as someone who cared about people like them .
The first of three 2012 presidential election debates took place on October 3 , in Denver . Media figures and political analysts widely viewed Romney as having delivered a stronger and more focused presentation than did President Obama . That initial debate overshadowed Obama 's improved presentation in the last two debates later in October , and Romney maintained a small advantage in the debates when seen as a whole .
The election took place on November 6 , and Obama was projected the winner at about 11 : 14 pm Eastern Standard Time . Romney garnered 206 electoral college votes to Obama 's 332 , losing all but one of nine battleground states , and 47 percent of the nationwide popular vote to Obama 's 51 percent . Media accounts described Romney as " shellshocked " by the result . He and his senior campaign staff had disbelieved public polls showing Obama narrowly ahead , and had thought they were going to win until the vote tallies began to be reported on the evening of the election . But Romney 's get out the vote operation had been inferior to Obama 's , both in person @-@ to @-@ person organization and in voter modeling and outreach technology ( the latter exemplified by the failure of the Project Orca application ) . In his concession speech to his supporters , he said , " Like so many of you , Paul and I have left everything on the field . We have given our all to this campaign . I so wish that I had been able to fulfill your hopes to lead this country in a different direction , but the nation chose another leader . " Reflecting on his defeat during a conference call to hundreds of fundraisers and donors a week after the election , Romney attributed the outcome to Obama 's having secured the votes of specific interest groups , including African Americans , Hispanic Americans , young people , and women , by offering them what Romney called " extraordinary financial gifts . " The remark drew heavy criticism from prominent members of the Republican party .
= = = Political positions = = =
In addition to calling for cuts in federal government spending to help reduce the national debt , Romney proposed measures intended to limit the growth of entitlement programs , such as introducing means testing and gradually raising the eligibility ages for receipt of Social Security and Medicare . He supported substantial increases in military spending and promised to invest more heavily in military weapons programs while increasing the number of active @-@ duty military personnel . He was very supportive of the directions taken by the budget proposals of Paul Ryan , although he later proposed his own budget plan .
Romney pledged to lead an effort to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( " Obamacare " ) and replace it with a system that gives states more control over Medicaid and makes health insurance premiums tax @-@ advantaged for individuals in the same way they are for businesses . He favored repeal of the Dodd – Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and the Sarbanes – Oxley Act and intended to replace them with what he called a " streamlined , modern regulatory framework " .
He also promised to seek income tax law changes that he said would help to lower federal deficits and would stimulate economic growth . These included : reducing individual income tax rates across the board by 20 percent , maintaining the Bush administration @-@ era tax rate of 15 percent on investment income from dividends and capital gains ( and eliminating this tax entirely for those with annual incomes less than $ 200 @,@ 000 ) , cutting the top tax rate on corporations from 35 to 25 percent , and eliminating the estate tax and the Alternative Minimum Tax . He promised that the loss of government revenue from these tax cuts would be offset by closing loopholes and placing limits on tax deductions and credits available to taxpayers with the highest incomes , but said that that aspect of the plan could not yet be evaluated because details would have to be worked out with Congress .
Romney opposed the use of mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions to deal with global warming . He stated that he believed climate change is occurring , but that he did not know how much of it could be linked to human activity . He was a proponent of increased domestic oil drilling , hydraulic fracturing ( " fracking " ) , building more nuclear power plants , and reducing the regulatory authority of the Environmental Protection Agency . He believed North American energy independence could be achieved by 2020 .
Romney labeled Russia as America 's " number one geopolitical foe " , and asserted that preventing Iran from obtaining a nuclear capability should be America 's " highest national security priority " . Romney stated his strong support for Israel . He planned to formally label China a currency manipulator and take associated counteractions unless that country changed its trade practices . Romney supported the Patriot Act , the continued operation of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp , and use of enhanced interrogation techniques against suspected terrorists . Romney opposed same @-@ sex marriage and civil unions , although he favored domestic partnership legislation that gives certain legal rights to same @-@ sex couples , such as hospital visitation . In 2011 , he signed a pledge promising to seek passage of an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to define marriage as the union of one man and one woman .
Since 2005 , Romney described himself as " pro @-@ life " . In that year , he wrote : " I believe that abortion is the wrong choice except in cases of incest , rape , and to save the life of the mother . " During his 1994 campaign for the senate , Romney had said , " I believe that abortion should be safe and legal in this country , " a stance he reiterated during his 2002 campaign for governor . While Romney would prefer to see passage of a constitutional amendment that would outlaw abortion , he did not believe the public would support such an amendment ; as an alternative , he promised to nominate Supreme Court justices who would help overturn Roe v. Wade , allowing each state to decide on the legality of abortion .
Romney said that he would appoint federal judges in the mold of U.S. Supreme Court justices John Roberts , Clarence Thomas , Antonin Scalia , and Samuel Alito . He advocated judicial restraint and strict constructionism as judicial philosophies .
= = Subsequent activities = =
During the first year following the election defeat , Romney generally kept a low profile , with his ordinary daily activities around San Diego being captured via social media glimpses . In December 2012 , he joined the board of Marriott International for a third stint as a director . In March 2013 , Romney gave a reflective interview on Fox News Sunday , stating , " It kills me not to be there , not to be in the White House doing what needs to be done " . He again expressed regret at the " 47 percent " remark , saying " There 's no question that hurt and did real damage to my campaign . " ( He was still echoing both of these sentiments a year later . ) Romney began working as executive partner group chairman for Solamere Capital , a private capital firm in Boston owned by his son Tagg . He was also involved in supporting several charitable causes .
The Romneys bought a home again in the Deer Valley area of Park City , Utah , followed by a property in Holladay , Utah , where they plan to tear down an existing house and build a new one . They also gained long @-@ sought permission to replace their La Jolla home with a much bigger one , including a car elevator that had brought some derision during the 2012 campaign . In addition , Romney and his siblings continue to own a cottage in the gated community called Beach O ' Pines located south of Grand Bend , Ontario , which has been in the family for more than sixty years . With the new acquisitions the couple briefly had five homes , located near each of their five sons and respective families , and the couple continued to spend considerable time with their grandchildren , who by 2013 numbered 22 . They then sold the condominium in Belmont and decided to make their main residence in Utah , including switching voter registration . The 2014 documentary film Mitt showed a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes , family @-@ based perspective on both of Romney 's presidential campaigns and received positive notices for humanizing the candidate and illustrating the toll that campaigning takes .
Romney himself thought he might be branded a " loser for life " and fade into an obscurity like Michael Dukakis ( a similar figure with no obvious base of political support who had lost what his party considered a winnable presidential election ) but , to the surprise of many political observers , that did not happen . Romney re @-@ emerged onto the political scene in the run @-@ up to the 2014 U.S. midterm elections , endorsing , campaigning , and fundraising for a number of Republican candidates , especially those running for the U.S. Senate .
By early 2014 , the lack of a clear mainstream Republican candidate for the 2016 presidential election led some supporters , donors , and pollsters to suggest Romney stage a third run . Regarding such a possibility , Romney at first responded , " Oh , no , no , no . No , no , no , no , no . No , no , no . " Nevertheless , speculation continued : the continuing unpopularity of Obama led to buyer 's remorse among some voters ; the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine made Romney 's " No. 1 geopolitical foe " remark look prescient ; and an August 2014 poll of Iowan Republicans showed Romney with a large lead there over other potential 2016 candidates . By early 2015 , Romney was actively considering the idea and contacting his network of supporters . In doing so he was positioning himself in the invisible primary – the preliminary jockeying for the backing of party leaders , donors , and political operatives – against former Florida governor Jeb Bush , who had already set a likely campaign in motion and would be a rival to Romney for establishment Republican support . Despite support in some quarters for a third bid for the presidency , there was a backlash against him from conservatives who wanted a fresher face without a history of presidential losses , and many of Romney 's past donors were not willing to commit to him again . Romney announced on January 30 , 2015 that he would not run for president in 2016 , saying that while he thought he could win the nomination , " one of our next generation of Republican leaders " would be better positioned to win the general election .
As the Republican presidential nomination race went into the primaries season , Romney had not endorsed anyone but was one of the Republican establishment figures who were becoming increasingly concerned about the front @-@ runner status of Donald Trump . Romney publicly criticized Trump for not releasing his taxes , saying there might be a " bombshell " in them . Trump responded by calling Romney " one of the dumbest and worst candidates in the history of Republican politics . " Then Romney gave a speech on March 3 , 2016 , at the Hinckley Institute of Politics , that represented a scathing attack on Trump 's personal behavior , business performance , and domestic and foreign policy stances . He said Trump was " a phony , a fraud ... He 's playing members of the American public for suckers " and that " If we Republicans choose Donald Trump as our nominee , the prospects for a safe and prosperous future are greatly diminished . " In response Trump dismissed Romney as a " choke artist " . Romney 's speech represented an unprecedented attack by a major U.S. party 's most recent presidential nominee against the party 's current front @-@ runner for the nomination . Romney encouraged Republicans to engage in tactical voting , by supporting whichever of the remaining rivals had the best chance to beat Trump in any given state , and as such Romney announced he was voting for , although not endorsing , Ted Cruz for president prior to the March 22 Utah caucus . As the race went on there was some evidence of tactical voting occurring , and some partial arrangements were formed among candidates , but by May 3 Trump had defeated all his opponents and became the party 's presumptive nominee . Romney then announced that he would not support Trump in the general election , saying , " I am dismayed at where we are now , I wish we had better choices " .
= = Awards and honors = =
Romney has received a number of honorary doctorates , including in business from the University of Utah in 1999 , in law from Bentley College in 2002 , in public administration from Suffolk University Law School in 2004 , in public service from Hillsdale College in 2007 , and in humanities from Liberty University in 2012 . He also received one from Southern Virginia University in 2013 and ones in 2015 from Jacksonville University , Utah Valley University , and Saint Anselm College .
People magazine included Romney in its 50 Most Beautiful People list for 2002 , and in 2004 , a foundation that promotes the Olympic truce , gave him its inaugural Truce Ideal Award . The Cranbrook School gave him their Distinguished Alumni Award in 2005 . In 2008 , he shared with his wife Ann , the Canterbury Medal from The Becket Fund for Religious Liberty , for " refus [ ing ] to compromise their principles and faith " during the presidential campaign .
= = Published works = =
= George Campbell ( American football ) =
George Campbell IV ( born October 27 , 1996 ) is an American football wide receiver for the Florida State Seminoles . He is rated as the tenth best player ( and # 1 rated athlete ) by ESPN and as a top @-@ 10 wide receiver by Scout.com and Rivals.com in the national high school class of 2015 . He completed his junior season at East Lake High School during the 2013 – 14 school year . He committed to Michigan prior to his high school junior season , but decommitted following the season and is currently committed to FSU . He has also accepted an invitation to participate in the 2015 Under Armour All @-@ America Game .
= = High school = =
Son of Joyce Nix and George Campbell III , George , at the age of 5 and after his father 's imprisonment , developed a close bond with his uncle Ahmad Jackson . Nix is a certified nurse .
= = = Freshman = = =
Before his freshman season , he nearly attended Clearwater Central Catholic High School , as well as IMG Academy , but decided to attend his zoned school , East Lake High School in Tarpon Springs , Florida . As a freshman he played varsity football for East Lake , but mostly on defense . He had 1 reception for a 26 @-@ yard touchdown , 2 interceptions and 81 tackles , including 2 forced fumbles . That season East Lake compiled a 9 – 4 record before losing in the 2011 Florida High School Athletic Association ( FHSAA ) Class 8A region final in overtime to Plant High School on December 2 , 2011 . Plant had won state championships in 2006 , 2008 and 2009 . Plant went on to become state champion that year , marking four consecutive years it had reached a championship game . Campbell accumulated statistics in 12 of the 13 games ( not the November 4 game at Palm Harbor University High School ) . He was named a MaxPreps 2011 U.S. Air Force Freshman All @-@ American first team selection at linebacker , although his true position was safety . He was not selected to the Tampa Bay Times 2011 All @-@ Suncoast Region Football team for Hernando , Pasco , Hillsborough and Pinellas counties or even the Times 2011 All @-@ Pinellas County football team .
= = = Sophomore = = =
In 2012 , East Lake improved to 11 – 2 , but again lost in the FHSAA Class 8A region final , this time to Dr. Phillips High School on November 30 by a 31 – 21 margin . In the first game of the season , when starter Artavis Scott injured his ankle , Campbell stepped in at wide receiver . Later in the season , when the team struggled to get pressure on the quarterback , Campbell moved from safety to defensive end . As a sophomore , his tackle total declined to 56 , but his 764 receiving yards earned him 27 major Division I scholarship offers . His offers included Arkansas , Auburn , Boston College , Clemson , Florida , Florida State , Georgia , Georgia Tech , Illinois , Louisville , Miami ( FL ) , Mississippi , Mississippi State , North Carolina State , Notre Dame , Ohio State , South Florida , Tennessee , Texas A & M , UCF , UCLA , Vanderbilt , West Virginia . East Lake junior offensive lineman Mason Cole committed to Michigan 's class of 2014 on February 25 , which was one day before Cole was invited to participate in the 2014 U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl . That year Campbell played basketball and ran track for East Lake before having surgery on his left wrist on April 19 . The following summer , he ran a 4 @.@ 36 second 40 yard dash . His 4 @.@ 36 time was on artificial turf , while he was timed a 4 @.@ 37 on grass on the same day . He was also measured at 37 inches ( 94 @.@ 0 cm ) in his vertical leap . He was a second team All @-@ Suncoast region and first team All @-@ Pinellas County team selection .
= = = Junior = = =
Prior to his junior season , he verbally committed to the University of Michigan where he would play for Michigan Wolverines football as a freshman for the 2015 team via Twitter . At the time , he still attended East Lake High School , where he was about to play his junior year for the 2013 football team . At the time of his July 27 , 2013 verbal commitment , he was ranked as the number one athlete and number three player in the class of 2015 by ESPN . When Scout.com released its first list of 5 @-@ star rated football players on August 12 , 2013 , Campbell was included among the 20 players listed and the only wide receiver included . At the end of that summer prior to his junior year football season , he was one of two juniors selected to the 2013 USA Today preseason All @-@ USA team . He accepted an invitation to participate in the 2015 Under Armour All @-@ America Game in St. Petersburg before the end of October 2013 . The November 15 FHSAA Class 7A region quarterfinal that East Lake won 13 – 12 ended with an alleged punch by a Palmetto High School coach that left Campbell with a cut inside his mouth . Other players were involved in the altercation , which is being investigated by the FHSAA . On November 19 , 2013 , ESPN moved Campbell up to the number two overall position in the class of 2015 . This moved him ahead of Kevin Toliver II , but he remained behind Jashon Cornell . In Campbell 's third time in the FHSAA , East Lake finally got past the regional finals ( defeating Port Charlotte High School ) , only to lose the following week on December 6 , 2013 , in the state semifinals in overtime to Dwyer High School 31 – 24 , despite a 65 @-@ yard touchdown reception by Campbell . Following the season , Campbell decommitted from Michigan on December 13 .
= = = Senior = = =
He subsequently named the 10 schools he was considering , while excluding Michigan on July 28 , 2014 . The 10 schools were LSU , Alabama , Florida , FSU , Georgia , Clemson , UCLA , Ole Miss , Auburn , and Maryland . On September 5 , he selected Florida State .
= Paracetamol toxicity =
Paracetamol toxicity is caused by excessive use or overdose of the medication paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) . Most people with paracetamol toxicity have no symptoms in the first 24 hours following overdose . Others may initially have nonspecific complaints such as vague abdominal pain and nausea . With time , signs of liver injury may develop ; these include low blood sugar , low blood pH , easy bleeding , and hepatic encephalopathy . Some will spontaneously resolve , although untreated cases may result in death . In the United States and the United Kingdom it is the most common cause of acute liver failure . Paracetamol toxicity is one of the most common causes of poisoning worldwide .
Damage to the liver , or hepatotoxicity , results not from paracetamol itself , but from one of its metabolites , N @-@ acetyl @-@ p @-@ benzoquinoneimine ( NAPQI ) . NAPQI decreases the liver 's natural antioxidant glutathione and directly damages cells in the liver , leading to liver failure . Risk factors for toxicity include excessive long term alcohol intake , fasting , anorexia nervosa , and the use of certain drugs such as isoniazid .
Treatment is aimed at removing the paracetamol from the body and replacing glutathione . Activated charcoal can be used to decrease absorption of paracetamol if the patient presents for treatment soon after the overdose ; the antidote acetylcysteine acts as a precursor for glutathione , helping the body regenerate enough to prevent damage to the liver . N @-@ acetylcysteine can neutralize NAPQI by itself as well . A liver transplant is often required if damage to the liver becomes severe . Patients treated early have a good prognosis , whereas patients that develop major liver abnormalities typically have a poor outcome . Efforts to prevent paracetamol overdose include limiting individual sales of the drug and combining paracetamol with methionine , which is converted into glutathione in the liver .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The signs and symptoms of paracetamol toxicity occur in three phases . The first phase begins within hours of overdose , and consists of nausea , vomiting , pallor , and sweating . However , patients often have no specific symptoms or only mild symptoms in the first 24 hours of poisoning . Rarely , after massive overdoses , patients may develop symptoms of metabolic acidosis and coma early in the course of poisoning .
The second phase occurs between 24 and 72 hours following overdose and consists of signs of increasing liver damage . In general , damage occurs in hepatocytes as they metabolize the paracetamol . The individual may experience right upper quadrant pain . The increasing liver damage also alters biochemical markers of liver function ; International normalized ratio ( INR ) and the hepatic transaminases ALT and AST rise to abnormal levels . Acute kidney failure may also occur during this phase , typically caused by either hepatorenal syndrome or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome . In some cases , acute kidney failure may be the primary clinical manifestation of toxicity . In these cases , it has been suggested that the toxic metabolite is produced more in the kidneys than in the liver .
The third phase follows at 3 to 5 days , and is marked by complications of massive hepatic necrosis leading to fulminant hepatic failure with complications of coagulation defects , hypoglycemia , kidney failure , hepatic encephalopathy , cerebral edema , sepsis , multiple organ failure , and death . If the third phase is survived , the hepatic necrosis runs its course , and liver and kidney function typically return to normal in a few weeks . The severity of paracetamol toxicity varies depending on the dose and whether appropriate treatment is received .
= = Cause = =
The toxic dose of paracetamol is highly variable . In general the recommended maximum daily dose for healthy adults is 3 grams . Higher doses lead to increasing risk of toxicity . In adults , single doses above 10 grams or 200 mg / kg of bodyweight , whichever is lower , have a reasonable likelihood of causing toxicity . Toxicity can also occur when multiple smaller doses within 24 hours exceed these levels . Following a normal dose of 1 gram of paracetamol four times a day for two weeks , patients can expect an increase in alanine transaminase in their liver to typically about three times the normal value . It is unlikely that this dose would lead to liver failure . Studies have shown significant hepatotoxicity is uncommon in patients who have taken greater than normal doses over 3 to 4 days . In adults , a dose of 6 grams a day over the preceding 48 hours could potentially lead to toxicity , while in children acute doses above 200 mg / kg could potentially cause toxicity . Acute paracetamol overdose in children rarely causes illness or death , and it is very uncommon for children to have levels that require treatment , with chronic larger @-@ than @-@ normal doses being the major cause of toxicity in children . Intravenous doses should be smaller than those taken orally , all other things being equal .
In rare individuals , paracetamol toxicity can result from normal use . This may be due to individual ( " idiosyncratic " ) differences in the expression and activity of certain enzymes in one of the metabolic pathways that handle paracetamol ( see paracetamol 's metabolism ) .
= = = Risk factors = = =
A number of factors can potentially increase the risk of developing paracetamol toxicity . Chronic excessive alcohol consumption can induce CYP2E1 , thus increasing the potential toxicity of paracetamol . In one study of patients with liver injury , 64 % reported alcohol intakes of greater than 80 grams a day , while 35 % took 60 grams a day or less . Whether chronic alcoholism should be considered a risk factor has been debated by some clinical toxicologists . For chronic alcohol users , acute alcohol ingestion at the time of a paracetamol overdose may have a protective effect . For non @-@ chronic alcohol users , acute alcohol consumption had no protective effect .
Fasting is a risk factor , possibly because of depletion of hepatic glutathione reserves . The concomitant use of the CYP2E1 inhibitor isoniazid increases the risk of hepatotoxicity , though whether 2E1 induction is related to the hepatotoxicity in this case is unclear . Concomitant use of other drugs that induce CYP enzymes , such as antiepileptics including carbamazepine , phenytoin , and barbiturates , have also been reported as risk factors .
= = Pathophysiology = =
When taken in normal therapeutic doses , paracetamol has been shown to be safe . Following a therapeutic dose , it is mostly converted to nontoxic metabolites via Phase II metabolism by conjugation with sulfate and glucuronide , with a small portion being oxidized via the cytochrome P450 enzyme system . Cytochromes P450 2E1 and 3A4 convert approximately 5 % of paracetamol to a highly reactive intermediary metabolite , N @-@ acetyl @-@ p @-@ benzoquinoneimine ( NAPQI ) . Under normal conditions , NAPQI is detoxified by conjugation with glutathione to form cysteine and mercapturic acid conjugates .
In cases of paracetamol overdose , the sulfate and glucuronide pathways become saturated , and more paracetamol is shunted to the cytochrome P450 system to produce NAPQI . As a result , hepatocellular supplies of glutathione become depleted , as the demand for glutathione is higher than its regeneration . NAPQI therefore remains in its toxic form in the liver and reacts with cellular membrane molecules , resulting in widespread hepatocyte damage and death , leading to acute hepatic necrosis . In animal studies , hepatic glutathione must be depleted to less than 70 % of normal levels before hepatotoxicity occurs .
= = Diagnosis = =
A person 's history of taking paracetamol is somewhat accurate for the diagnosis . The most effective way to diagnose poisoning is by obtaining a blood paracetamol level . A drug nomogram developed in 1975 , called the Rumack @-@ Matthew nomogram , estimates the risk of toxicity based on the serum concentration of paracetamol at a given number of hours after ingestion . To determine the risk of potential hepatotoxicity , the paracetamol level is traced along the nomogram . Use of a timed serum paracetamol level plotted on the nomogram appears to be the best marker indicating the potential for liver injury . A paracetamol level drawn in the first four hours after ingestion may underestimate the amount in the system because paracetamol may still be in the process of being absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract . Therefore , a serum level taken before 4 hours is not recommended .
Clinical or biochemical evidence of liver toxicity may develop in one to four days , although , in severe cases , it may be evident in 12 hours . Right @-@ upper @-@ quadrant tenderness may be present and can aid in diagnosis . Laboratory studies may show evidence of hepatic necrosis with elevated AST , ALT , bilirubin , and prolonged coagulation times , particularly an elevated prothrombin time . After paracetamol overdose , when AST and ALT exceed 1000 IU / L , paracetamol @-@ induced hepatotoxicity can be diagnosed . In some cases , the AST and ALT levels can exceed 10 @,@ 000 IU / L.
= = = Detection in body fluids = = =
Paracetamol may be quantified in blood , plasma , or urine as a diagnostic tool in clinical poisoning situations or to aid in the medicolegal investigation of suspicious deaths . The concentration in serum after a typical dose of paracetamol usually peaks below 30 mg / l , which equals 200 µmol / L. Levels of 30 – 300 mg / L ( 200 @-@ 2000 µmol / L ) are often observed in overdose patients . Postmortem blood levels have ranged from 50 – 400 mg / L in persons dying due to acute overdosage . Automated colorimetric techniques , gas chromatography and liquid chromatography are currently in use for the laboratory analysis of the drug in physiological specimens .
= = Prevention = =
= = = Combination with other agents = = =
One strategy for reducing harm done by acetaminophen overdoses is selling paracetamol pre @-@ combined in tablets either with an emetic or an antidote .
Paradote was a tablet sold in the UK which combined 500 mg paracetamol with 100 mg methionine , an amino acid formerly used in the treatment of paracetamol overdose .
There have been no studies so far on the effectiveness of paracetamol when given in combination with its
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most commonly used antidote , acetylcysteine .
Calcitriol , the active metabolite of vitamin D3 , appears to be a catalyst for glutathione production . Calcitriol was found to increase glutathione levels in rat astrocyte primary cultures on average by 42 % , increasing glutathione protein concentrations from 29 nmol / mg to 41 nmol / mg , 24 and 48 hours after administration ; it continued to have an influence on glutathione levels 96 hours after administration . It has been proposed that co @-@ administration of calcitriol , via injection , may improve treatment outcomes .
= = = Limitation of availability = = =
Limiting the availability of paracetamol tablets has been attempted in some countries . In the UK , sales of over @-@ the @-@ counter paracetamol are restricted to packs of 32 x 500 mg tablets in pharmacies , and 16 x 500 mg tablets in non @-@ pharmacy outlets . Pharmacists may provide up to 100 tablets for those with chronic conditions at the pharmacist 's discretion . In Ireland , the limits are 24 and 12 tablets , respectively . Subsequent study suggests that these interventions have had a significant effect in reducing poisoning deaths from paracetamol overdose .
One suggested method of prevention is to make paracetamol a prescription @-@ only medicine , or to remove it entirely from the market . However , overdose is a relatively minor problem ; for example , only 0 @.@ 08 % of the UK population present with paracetamol overdose each year . In contrast , paracetamol is a safe and effective medication that is taken without complications by millions of people . In addition , alternative pain relief medications such as aspirin are more toxic in overdose , whereas non @-@ steroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs are associated with more adverse effects following normal use .
= = = Acetaminophen replacements = = =
Paracetamol ester prodrug with L @-@ pyroglutamic acid ( PCA ) , a biosynthetic precursor of glutathione , has been synthesized to reduce paracetamol hepatotoxicity and improve bioavailability . The toxicological studies of different paracetamol esters show that L @-@ 5 @-@ oxo @-@ pyrrolidine @-@ 2 @-@ paracetamol carboxylate reduces toxicity after administration of an overdose of paracetamol to mice . The glutathione hepatic values in mice induced by intraperitoneal injection of the ester are superimposable with the GSH levels recorded in no @-@ treated mice control group . The mice group treated with an equivalent dose of paracetamol showed a significative decrease of gluthathione of 35 % ( p < 0 @.@ 01 vs untreated control group ) . The oral LD50 was found to be greater than 2000 mg kg @-@ 1 , whereas the intraperitoneal LD50 was 1900 mg kg @-@ 1 . These results taken together with the good hydrolysis and bioavailability data show that this ester is a potential candidate as a prodrug of paracetamol .
= = = Other = = =
Reducing publicity about paracetamol and the inclusion of warnings on packs of paracetamol have also been suggested as strategies to reduce overdose .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Gastric decontamination = = =
In adults , the initial treatment for paracetamol overdose is gastrointestinal decontamination . Paracetamol absorption from the gastrointestinal tract is complete within two hours under normal circumstances , so decontamination is most helpful if performed within this timeframe . Gastric lavage , better known as stomach pumping , may be considered if the amount ingested is potentially life @-@ threatening and the procedure can be performed within 60 minutes of ingestion . Activated charcoal is the most common gastrointestinal decontamination procedure as it adsorbs paracetamol , reducing its gastrointestinal absorption . Administering activated charcoal also poses less risk of aspiration than gastric lavage .
It appears that the most benefit from activated charcoal is gained if it is given within 30 minutes to two hours of ingestion . Administering activated charcoal later than 2 hours can be considered in patients that may have delayed gastric emptying due to co @-@ ingested drugs or following ingestion of sustained- or delayed @-@ release paracetamol preparations . Activated charcoal should also be administered if co @-@ ingested drugs warrant decontamination . There was reluctance to give activated charcoal in paracetamol overdose , because of the concern that it may also absorb the oral antidote acetylcysteine . Studies have shown that 39 % less acetylcysteine is absorbed into the body when they are administered together . There are conflicting recommendations regarding whether to change the dosing of oral acetylcysteine after the administration of activated charcoal , and even whether the dosing of acetylcysteine needs to be altered at all . Intravenous acetylcystine has no interaction with activated charcoal .
Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac has no role in paracetamol overdose because the vomiting it induces delays the effective administration of activated charcoal and oral acetylcysteine . Liver injury is extremely rare after acute accidental ingestion in children under 6 years of age . Children with accidental exposures do not require gastrointestinal decontamination with either gastric lavage , activated charcoal , or syrup of ipecac .
= = = Acetylcysteine = = =
Acetylcysteine , also called N @-@ acetylcysteine or NAC , works to reduce paracetamol toxicity by replenishing body stores of the antioxidant glutathione . Glutathione react with the toxic NAPQI metabolite so that it does not damage cells and can be safely excreted . NAC was usually given following a treatment nomogram ( one for patients with risk factors , and one for those without ) but the use of the nomogram is no longer recommended as evidence base to support the use of risk factors was poor and inconsistent and many of the risk factors are imprecise and difficult to determine with sufficient certainty in clinical practice . Cysteamine and methionine have also been used to prevent hepatotoxicity , although studies show that both are associated with more adverse effects than acetylcysteine . Additionally , acetylcysteine has been shown to be a more effective antidote , particularly in patients presenting greater than 8 hours post @-@ ingestion .
If the patient presents less than eight hours after paracetamol overdose , then acetylcysteine significantly reduces the risk of serious hepatotoxicity and guarantees survival . If acetylcysteine is started more than 8 hours after ingestion , there is a sharp decline in its effectiveness because the cascade of toxic events in the liver has already begun , and the risk of acute hepatic necrosis and death increases dramatically . Although acetylcysteine is most effective if given early , it still has beneficial effects if given as late as 48 hours after ingestion . In clinical practice , if the patient presents more than eight hours after the paracetamol overdose , then activated charcoal is not useful , and acetylcysteine is started immediately . In earlier presentations , charcoal can be given when the patient arrives and acetylcysteine is initiated while waiting for the paracetamol level results to return from the laboratory .
In United States practice , intravenous ( IV ) and oral administration are considered to be equally effective and safe if given within 8 hours of ingestion . However , IV is the only recommended route in Australasian and British practice . Oral acetylcysteine is given as a 140 mg / kg loading dose followed by 70 mg / kg every four hours for 17 more doses , and if the patient vomits within 1 hour of dose , the dose must be repeated . Oral acetylcysteine may be poorly tolerated due to its unpleasant taste , odor , and its tendency to cause nausea and vomiting . If repeated doses of charcoal are indicated because of another ingested drug , then subsequent doses of charcoal and acetylcysteine should be staggered .
Intravenous acetylcysteine is given as a continuous infusion over 20 hours for a total dose 300 mg / kg . Recommended administration involves infusion of a 150 mg / kg loading dose over 15 to 60 minutes , followed by a 50 mg / kg infusion over four hours ; the last 100 mg / kg are infused over the remaining 16 hours of the protocol . Intravenous acetylcysteine has the advantage of shortening hospital stay , increasing both doctor and patient convenience , and allowing administration of activated charcoal to reduce absorption of both the paracetamol and any co @-@ ingested drugs without concerns about interference with oral acetylcysteine . Intravenous dosing varies with weight , specifically in children . For patients less than 20 kg , the loading dose is 150 mg / kg in 3 mL / kg diluent , administered over 60 minutes ; the second dose is 50 mg / kg in 7 mL / kg diluent over 4 hours ; and the third and final dose is 100 mg / kg in 14 mL / kg diluent over 16 hours .
The most common adverse effect to acetylcysteine treatment is an anaphylactoid reaction , usually manifested by rash , wheeze , or mild hypotension . Adverse reactions are more common in people treated with IV acetylcysteine , occurring in 4 to 23 % of patients . Rarely , severe life @-@ threatening reactions may occur in predisposed individuals , such as patients with asthma . If an anaphylactoid reaction occurs the acetylcysteine is temporarily halted or slowed and antihistamines and other supportive care is administered .
= = = Liver transplant = = =
In patients who develop fulminant hepatic failure or who are otherwise expected to die from liver failure , the mainstay of management is liver transplantation . Liver transplants are performed in specialist centers . The most commonly used criteria for liver transplant was developed by physicians at King 's College Hospital in London . Patients are recommended for transplant if they have an arterial blood pH less than 7 @.@ 3 after fluid resuscitation or if a patient has Grade III or IV encephalopathy , a prothrombin time greater than 100 seconds , and a serum creatinine greater than 300 mmol / L In a 24 @-@ hour period . Other forms of liver support have been used including partial liver transplants . These techniques have the advantage of supporting the patient while their own liver regenerates . Once liver function returns immunosuppressive drugs are commenced and they have to take immunosuppressive medication for the rest of their lives .
= = Prognosis = =
The mortality rate from paracetamol overdose increases two days after the ingestion , reaches a maximum on day four , and then gradually decreases . Acidemia is the most important single indicator of probable mortality and the need for transplantation . A mortality rate of 95 % without transplant was reported in patients who had a documented pH less than 7 @.@ 30 . Other indicators of poor prognosis include renal insufficiency , grade 3 or worse hepatic encephalopathy , a markedly elevated prothrombin time , or an elevated blood lactic acid level . One study has shown that a factor V level less than 10 % of normal indicated a poor prognosis ( 91 % mortality ) , whereas a ratio of factor VIII to factor V of less than 30 indicated a good prognosis ( 100 % survival ) . Patients with a poor prognosis are usually identified for likely liver transplantation . Patients that do not die are expected to fully recover and have a normal life expectancy and quality of life .
= = Epidemiology = =
Paracetamol is contained in many preparations , available as both over @-@ the @-@ counter and as prescription @-@ only medications . Because of its wide availability paired with comparably high toxicity , ( compared to ibuprofen and aspirin ) there is a much higher potential for overdose . Paracetamol toxicity is one of the most common causes of poisoning worldwide . In the United States , the United Kingdom , Australia , and New Zealand , paracetamol is the most common cause of drug overdoses . Additionally , in both the United States and the United Kingdom it is the most common cause of acute liver failure .
In England and Wales an estimated 41 @,@ 200 cases of paracetamol poisoning occurred in 1989 to 1990 , with a mortality of 0 @.@ 40 % . It is estimated that 150 to 200 deaths and 15 to 20 liver transplants occur as a result of poisoning each year in England and Wales . Paracetamol overdose results in more calls to poison control centers in the US than overdose of any other pharmacological substance , accounting for more than 100 @,@ 000 calls , as well as 56 @,@ 000 emergency room visits , 2 @,@ 600 hospitalizations , and 458 deaths due to acute liver failure per year . A study of cases of acute liver failure between November 2000 and October 2004 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the USA found that paracetamol was the cause of 41 % of all cases in adults , and 25 % of cases in children .
= Tropical Storm Odette ( 2003 ) =
Tropical Storm Odette was a rare off @-@ season tropical storm that affected the Caribbean Sea in December 2003 . The 15th tropical storm of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season , Odette formed near the coast of Panama a few days after the official end of the Atlantic hurricane season , and ultimately made landfall on the Dominican Republic as a moderate tropical storm .
The storm caused heavy damage throughout the Dominican Republic from unusually heavy rainfall in December . Preparation preceding Odette 's landfall resulted in only eight deaths and 14 injuries . Total damage is unknown , though crop damage in the Dominican Republic totaled to over $ 8 million ( 2003 USD , $ 10 @.@ 3 million 2015 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
By November 30 , the last day of the Atlantic hurricane season , a stationary front extended across eastern Cuba into the southwestern Caribbean Sea . On December 1 , a low pressure area developed within the frontal zone just north of Panama , and an anticyclone aloft produced good outflow over the low @-@ level center . The low remained nearly stationary for the next several days , and it gradually became separated from the stationary front . Convection increased across the area due to moisture from the eastern Pacific Ocean and moderate divergence . Increased wind shear deteriorated the system on December 2 , though convection redeveloped as the system started a northeast drift . On December 3 a mid @-@ level circulation developed about 140 miles ( 225 km ) north of the surface center . Convection increased and became better organized as a weak tropical wave reached the area , and it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Twenty at around 1200 UTC on December 4 while located about 345 miles ( 560 km ) south of Kingston , Jamaica ; initially , the depression was forecast to track north @-@ northeastward and pass over western Haiti .
Upon being classified as a tropical cyclone , the depression was embedded within the southwesterly flow between a ridge over the eastern Caribbean Sea and a mid @-@ latitude trough , which caused a steady east @-@ northeast motion . The convection organized into a central dense overcast with a well @-@ defined cloud band wrapping partially around the center , and based on satellite imagery estimates the depression was upgraded to tropical storm status ; late on December 4 , the National Hurricane Center named the storm Odette . After being named , the storm intensified despite moderate southwesterly wind shear , and an eye feature became evident on microwave satellite imagery . Additionally , about three – fourths of a mid @-@ level eyewall developed . The storm was assessed with winds of 40 – 50 mph ( 65 – 85 km / h ) , though the National Hurricane Center remarked the winds could have been stronger due to lack of structural data . The eye feature diminished as the convective structure deteriorated slightly , and Hurricane Hunters first flew into the storm at around 1200 UTC on December 5 . Odette tracked over an area of warm sea surface temperatures , and the overall cloud pattern gradually improved ; the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory predicted the storm to attain hurricane status . Early on December 6 , a TRMM overpass showed an 80 % closed eyewall , and at 0600 UTC Odette attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) while located about 245 miles ( 395 km / h ) southwest of Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic .
Upon reaching peak intensity , Odette had begun accelerating northeastward , which decreased wind shear and slightly increased its southwesterly outflow . The low @-@ level center decelerated as it approached Hispaniola , though the convection continued quickly northeastward . Failing to maintain vertical organization , Odette weakened slightly and made landfall on Jaragua National Park , in the Pedernales Province of the Dominican Republic , around 2300 UTC on December 6 with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The circulation became disrupted as it crossed the country , and on December 7 it emerged into the Atlantic Ocean with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . It accelerated to the northeast ahead of an approaching cold front , and late on December 7 Odette transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as its center became embedded within the front . The remnants continued quickly northeastward before losing its identity within the frontal zone on December 9 ; the frontal zone that absorbed Odette also absorbed Tropical Storm Peter a few days later .
= = Preparations = =
Prior to Odette 's predicted arrival , the Dominican Republic government issued for the evacuation of more than 10 @,@ 000 people , mostly from those living near rivers . At least 2 @,@ 000 shelters were set up , capable of housing up to 800 @,@ 000 people . In addition , the government mobilized the army to force those unwilling to leave from their homes . Such precautions were taken due to already saturated grounds from heavy rainfall three weeks prior .
A tropical storm watch was issued between Santo Domingo and the Dominican Republic / Haiti border on December 4 , 56 hours prior to landfall . This was raised to a tropical storm warning on December 5 while 32 hours before landfall . In addition , tropical storm warnings were issued for all of the Haitian coastline and Jamaica .
= = Impact = =
While over the southwestern Caribbean Sea , Odette dropped heavy rainfall , including prior to its formation . For several days , the storm caused rains in Panama , Costa Rica , and the east coast of Nicaragua . In Colombia , the storm caused rainfall totals of up to 8 inches ( 200 mm ) in Puerto Colombia . In Jamaica , the storm dropped moderate rainfall , flooding several roads in Saint Ann and Saint Mary Parishes . Odette caused moderate damage and 8 deaths in the Dominican Republic .
= = = Dominican Republic = = =
Winds from Tropical Storm Odette were relatively light across the Dominican Republic , with a peak gust of 60 mph occurring in Santo Domingo . The storm dropped heavy rainfall for several hours , amounting to a maximum of 9 @.@ 07 inches ( 230 mm ) in Isla Saona . Several other locations reported over 4 inches as well . The rainfall caused mudslides and flash flooding , forcing several rivers to overflow in combination with previous rains . In addition , a tornado was reported near Santo Domingo , destroying one house and uproofing several others .
The flooding and mudslides damaged up to 60 @,@ 000 homes and destroyed 34 . Gusty winds caused power outages . River flooding caused two bridges to collapse , isolating several communities . Landslides buried several roads , though authorities quickly repaired them . The rainfall also flooded fields , resulting in severe crop damage . As much as 85 % of the banana crop was lost , while the coffee crop suffered losses shortly before harvest season . Crop damage totaled to around $ 8 million ( 2003 USD ) . In addition , excess flooding contaminated water supplies , leaving several areas without clean water or sanitation .
In all , Tropical Storm Odette caused 8 deaths and 14 injuries , mostly due to flash flooding and mudslides . In addition , two indirect deaths are associated with the storm due to heart attacks . Neighboring Haiti experienced little from the storm .
= = = Puerto Rico and United States Virgin Islands = = =
Though Odette passed 280 miles to the west of Mayagüez , Puerto Rico , the storm caused moderate rainfall across Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands . Rainfall in Puerto Rico was heaviest in the southeast , where a peak of 8 @.@ 73 in ( 221 @.@ 74 mm ) was recorded in Jajome Alto . The storm also caused up to 2 @.@ 2 in ( 55 @.@ 9 mm ) of rainfall in Christiansted on Saint Croix .
Odette 's rainfall caused flooding throughout the island 's rivers . The river flooding destroyed three bridges , resulting in $ 20 @,@ 000 in damages ( 2003 USD ) . The flooding also caused a mudslide near a cemetery in Humacao . The rainfall also covered numerous roads , though overall damage was minimal throughout Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands .
= = Aftermath and records = =
In all , 65 @,@ 000 people were affected by Tropical Storm Odette . The Dominican Republic Red Cross and Red Crescent deployed 105 volunteers to the impacted areas , primarily in the area of Monte Cristi . The organization provided food and hygiene kits to thousands of people , as well as mosquito nets . The Red Cross also gave a 5 @,@ 000 liter water tank for the citizens in Monte Cristi , an area without clean water or sanitation .
When Odette formed on December 4 , it became the first tropical storm since the beginning of the modern tropical cyclone record to form in the Caribbean Sea in the month of December ; a documented December Caribbean hurricane occurred in 1822 . However , Tropical Storm Karen , which formed in November 1989 , persisted until December while located in the northwestern Caribbean Sea . In addition , Odette was the first Atlantic storm to form in the month of December since Hurricane Lili in 1984 .
The 2003 season was the first season since 1953 to have a pre @-@ season storm and a post @-@ season storm , with Ana in April and Odette .
= Svalbard Airport , Longyear =
Svalbard Airport , Longyear ( IATA : LYR , ICAO : ENSB ; Norwegian : Svalbard lufthavn , Longyear ) is the main airport serving Svalbard in Norway . It is located 1 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 3 km ) northwest of Longyearbyen , and it is the northernmost airport in the world with public scheduled flights . The first airport near Longyearbyen was constructed during World War II . In 1959 , it was first taken into use for occasional flights , but could only be used a few months a year . Construction of the new airport at Hotellneset started in 1973 , and the airport was opened on 2 September 1975 . It is owned and operated by state @-@ owned Avinor .
In 2014 , the airport had 154 @,@ 261 passengers . Scandinavian Airlines operates daily flights to Tromsø and Oslo in mainland Norway . Lufttransport provides services to the two other airports on Svalbard : Ny @-@ Ålesund and Svea , using Dornier Do 228 turboprop aircraft . There are also regular charter flights .
= = History = =
= = = Adventdalen = = =
The first air strip on Svalbard was constructed in Adventdalen , near Longyearbyen , by the Luftwaffe during World War II . This was not used after the war ; during the summer the archipelago was served by ships , but was completely isolated from November to May . In the early 1950s , the Norwegian Air Force started postal flights using a Catalina aircraft that departed from Tromsø and dropped postal parcels at Bear Island and at Longyearbyen . However , these aircraft never landed until 9 February 1959 , when a resident had become seriously ill , and needed to be flown to mainland Norway for treatment . The mining company Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani cleared the runway at Adventsdalen and the 14 @-@ hour flight and landing was successful . A second landing , this time for delivery of post , was made on 11 March .
While the Catalina was suitable for postal flights , it was not suitable for a permanent solution for transporting passengers and freight , mainly due to its small size . Store Norske contacted the domestic airline Braathens SAFE for a regular service . The first trial flight was made on 2 April 1959 with a Douglas DC @-@ 4 with 54 passengers from Bardufoss Airport . Store Norske cleared a 1 @,@ 800 by 40 metres ( 5 @,@ 910 by 130 ft ) runway for the aircraft . The next flight was done in 1962 , followed by one in 1963 and two in 1964 . Due to lack of runway lights , flights could only be done during daylight , thus hindering flights during parts of December and January , when the sun never rises . By April , the runway could melt , and no flights could be done during summer . Navigation was conducted using radio signals from Bear Island and Isfjord .
The first night landing was made on 8 December 1965 . The DC @-@ 4 took off from the new Tromsø Airport and dropped mail at Bear Island before continuing to Longyearbyen . The runway was lit up using paraffin lamps and lights from cars parked along the runway . A radio transmitter was also installed at Hotellneset . During the 1965 – 66 season , Braathens SAFE made 16 flights to Svalbard . The following two seasons , the contract was awarded to Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) , but after that they reverted to Braathens SAFE . Fred . Olsen Airtransport made its first flight to Svalbard in 1966 . By 1969 , a total of 50 flights had been made to Svalbard , and by 1972 , the 100th was made . By then , Braathens SAFE had started using Douglas DC @-@ 6B aircraft . During these years , Store Norske also installed permanent lights . The first jet plane , to land in Adventdalen was a Fred Olsen Flyselskap Dassault Falcon 20 , LN @-@ FOI . The landing was in 1971 , and the aircraft brought in 1700 lbs of mail and passengers , picking up a geological survey party . A Fokker F @-@ 28 , landed on 29 April 1972 . From 1974 , Boeing 737 @-@ 200C aircraft were taken into use . It had a side cargo door , allowing easy loading of cargo into the main cabin . Braathens SAFE built a small depot with spare parts and up to 90 @,@ 000 litres ( 20 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 24 @,@ 000 US gal ) fuel . Aeroflot started flights to Adventdalen in 1973 to serve the neighboring Russian community of Barentsburg .
= = = Hotellneset = = =
The Svalbard Treaty specifies that no military installations are permitted on the archipelago . The Soviet authorities were concerned that a permanent civilian airport could also be used by Norwegian and NATO forces . But the Soviets also needed an airport to serve their settlements at Barentsburg and Pyramiden , and by the early 1970s , an understanding was reached between the two countries .
Construction started in 1973 . The airport needed to be built on permafrost . The runway is insulated against the ground , so it will not melt during the summer . The hangar is frozen into the ground , with the pillars being melted into place and then being frozen stuck . The runway was plagued with frost heave due to an incorrect construction method , forcing the airport to regularly re @-@ asphalt the runway . In 1989 , parts of the runway were re @-@ insulated , giving these areas that previously had been the worst an acceptable solution . In 2006 , this measure was conducted on the remaining parts of the runway . An upgrade to the terminal building to allow larger capacity was completed in 2007 .
= = = Services = = =
Both Braathens SAFE and SAS applied for the concession to fly from the mainland to Norway . This was granted to SAS , who would have one weekly service . From the airport was taken into use until the official opening , Braathens SAFE continued to fly charter flights for Store Norske . The first landing at the new airport was made on 14 September 1974 with a Fokker F @-@ 28 , and Braathens SAFE continued to fly until 1 September 1975 . Russian authorities granted a concession for a semi @-@ weekly service by Aeroflot from Murmansk Airport . The first attempt to officially open the airport was made with a SAS Douglas DC @-@ 9 on 14 August 1975 . Among the guests on board was King Olav V , but thick fog at Longyearbyen forced the airplane to return . On 1 September , a Fokker F @-@ 27 from Braathens SAFE was used to calibrate the runways ; on board were pilots from SAS and Aeroflot to learn about the landing conditions . The following day , the second attempt to open the airport was successful . In addition to the scheduled services , Store Norske chartered cargo flights from Fred Olsen Air Transport .
Lufttransport has been at the airport since 1976 . In 1984 , two Bell 212 helicopters were stationed at the airport on contract with the Governor of Svalbard . The company signed an agreement with the Norwegian Coast Guard to have a Partenavia Spartacus planes stationed at Longyearbyen for fishery surveillance . Since 1994 , the company has had a Dornier Do 228 stationed at the airport , and two since 2001 .
On 14 August 1987 , Braathens SAFE re @-@ entered the market , flying in parallel with SAS to Tromsø and Oslo . For the first time , the scheduled flights to Oslo were offered as day flights instead of the night flights offered by SAS . In 2002 , after SAS bought Braathens , the subsidiary took over all flights to Longyearbyen for the group . From May 2004 , they merged to SAS Braathens , that again became SAS from 1 June 2007 . From 1 April to 1 November 2004 , Norwegian Air Shuttle introduced three weekly services to Longyearbyen to Tromsø and Oslo , using Boeing 737 @-@ 300 aircraft , but the service was terminated due to low loads . A new service was started on 27 March 2008 , with two direct services to Oslo , using larger Boeing 737 @-@ 800 aircraft. but again the route was terminated later the same year . As of 2014 , Norwegian is again flying to Svalbard from Oslo . Finnair announced to begin flights from Helsinki in summer 2016 , but Norwegian authorities did not allow this route as it was not in bilateral agreement on air traffic between Finland and Norway .
= = Facilities = =
The airport is located 1 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 0 km ; 1 @.@ 8 mi ) northwest of Longyearbyen , the largest settlement on Svalbard . The airport also serves the nearby Russian settlement of Barentsburg . The mainland Norway is part of the Schengen Area , but Svalbard is excluded , so from 2011 there is passport control at the airport . A passport , a national ID card indicating nationality , or a Norwegian ID card is needed .
There are 200 free outdoor parking spaces at the airport . There are taxis , rental cars and airport coaches available at the airport ( a shuttle bus operates to hotels and guesthouses in Longyearbyen and Nybyen ) . Scandinavian Airlines provides handling services through SAS Ground Services .
The runway is 2 @,@ 483 metres ( 8 @,@ 146 ft ) long and aligned 10 / 28 ( roughly east – west ) , equipped with instrument landing system , but there are no taxiways . The 45 metres ( 148 ft ) wide runway has two culverts that allow water from the mountain Platåberget to drain under it . About one third of the runway is dug into the terrain , while about two @-@ thirds is built on an embankment . A layer of frost @-@ stable fill , varying from 1 to 4 metres ( 3 ft 3 in to 13 ft 1 in ) is under the runway to hinder the soil from unfreezing during summer .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = = Passenger = = =
= = = Cargo = = =
Lufttransport has a base at Svalbard Airport with two 19 @-@ seat Dornier Do 228 @-@ 202K aircraft and 15 employees . The airline flies daily trips to Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport , Hamnerabben on behalf of Kings Bay with research personnel and about thirty trips per week to Svea Airport on behalf of Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani with mining personnel . These routes involve transport of 21 @,@ 000 passengers and 500 tonnes of cargo per year . On behalf of the Norwegian Coast Guard , Lufttransport flies about 400 hours annual of aerial surveillance . Scandinavian Airlines flies six times a week to Tromsø Airport and onwards to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . The Barentsburg mine has a Mi @-@ 8 helicopter used for travel to and from the Longyearbyen airport and more . The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is located a few miles south of the airport .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 10 October 1986 , a Cessna 185 from Antarctax crashed immediately after leaving Svalbard Airport en route to Ny @-@ Ålesund , killing all six on board .
On 29 August 1996 , Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 from Vnukovo Airport , Moscow , crashed into a mountain about 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) from the airport . All 141 people on board the Tupolev Tu @-@ 154M died . It is the worst air crash in Norwegian history .
= Seattle =
Seattle ( / siˈætəl / ) is a West Coast seaport city and the seat of King County , Washington . With an estimated 684 @,@ 451 residents as of 2015 , Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America . In July 2013 , it was the fastest @-@ growing major city in the United States and remained in the Top 5 in May 2015 with an annual growth rate of 2 @.@ 1 % . The Seattle metropolitan area is the 15th largest metropolitan area in the United States with over 3 @.@ 7 million inhabitants . The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound ( an inlet of the Pacific Ocean ) and Lake Washington , about 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of the Canada – United States border . A major gateway for trade with Asia , Seattle is the third largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015 .
The Seattle area was previously inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4 @,@ 000 years before the first permanent European settlers . Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers , subsequently known as the Denny Party , arrived from Illinois via Portland , Oregon , on the schooner Exact at Alki Point on November 13 , 1851 . The settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named it " Seattle " in 1852 , after Chief Si 'ahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes .
Logging was Seattle 's first major industry , but by the late @-@ 19th century , the city had become a commercial and shipbuilding center as a gateway to Alaska during the Klondike Gold Rush . By 1910 , Seattle was one of the 25 largest cities in the country . However , the Great Depression severely damaged the city 's economy . Growth returned during and after World War II partially due to the local Boeing company , which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing . The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s , with companies like Microsoft becoming established in the region . In 1994 , Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle . The stream of new software , biotechnology , and Internet companies led to an economic revival , which increased the city 's population by almost 50 @,@ 000 between 1990 and 2000 .
Seattle has a noteworthy musical history . From 1918 to 1951 , nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street , from the current Chinatown / International District , to the Central District . The jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles , Quincy Jones , Ernestine Anderson , and others . Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
Archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4 @,@ 000 years . By the time the first European settlers arrived , the people ( subsequently called the Duwamish tribe ) occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay .
The first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver , in May 1792 during his 1791 – 95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest . In 1851 , a large party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River ; they formally claimed it on September 14 , 1851 . Thirteen days later , members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party . Members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28 , 1851 . The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland , Oregon and landed on Alki point during a rainstorm on November 13 , 1851 .
= = = Duwamps 1852 – 1853 = = =
After a difficult winter , most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present @-@ day Pioneer Square , naming this new settlement Duwamps . Charles Terry and John Low remained at the original landing location and reestablished their old land claim and called it " New York " , but renamed " New York Alki " in April 1853 , from a Chinook word meaning , roughly , " by and by " or " someday " . For the next few years , New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance , but in time Alki was abandoned and its residents moved across the bay to join the rest of the settlers .
David Swinson " Doc " Maynard , one of the founders of Duwamps , was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth ( " Seattle " ) of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes .
= = = Incorporations = = =
The name " Seattle " appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23 , 1853 , when the first plats for the village were filed . In 1855 , nominal land settlements were established . On January 14 , 1865 , the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of trustees managing the city . The town of Seattle was disincorporated January 18 , 1867 and remained a mere precinct of King County until late 1869 , when a new petition was filed and the city was re @-@ incorporated December 2 , 1869 with a Mayor @-@ council government . The corporate seal of the City of Seattle carries the date " 1869 " and a likeness of Chief Sealth in left profile .
= = = Timber town = = =
Seattle has a history of boom @-@ and @-@ bust cycles , like many other cities near areas of extensive natural and mineral resources . Seattle has risen several times economically , then gone into precipitous decline , but it has typically used those periods to rebuild solid infrastructure .
The first such boom , covering the early years of the city , rode on the lumber industry . ( During this period the road now known as Yesler Way won the nickname " Skid Road " , supposedly after the timber skidding down the hill to Henry Yesler 's sawmill . The later dereliction of the area may be a possible origin for the term which later entered the wider American lexicon as Skid Row . ) Like much of the American West , Seattle saw numerous conflicts between labor and management , as well as ethnic tensions that culminated in the anti @-@ Chinese riots of 1885 – 1886 . This violence originated with unemployed whites who were determined to drive the Chinese from Seattle ( anti @-@ Chinese riots also occurred in Tacoma ) . In 1900 , Asians were 4 @.@ 2 % of the population . Authorities declared martial law and federal troops arrived to put down the disorder .
Seattle achieved sufficient economic success that when the Great Seattle Fire of 1889 destroyed the central business district , a far grander city @-@ center rapidly emerged in its place . Finance company Washington Mutual , for example , was founded in the immediate wake of the fire . However , the Panic of 1893 hit Seattle hard .
= = = Gold Rush , World War I , and the Great Depression = = =
The second and most dramatic boom and bust resulted from the Klondike Gold Rush , which ended the depression that had begun with the Panic of 1893 ; in a short time , Seattle became a major transportation center . On July 14 , 1897 , the S.S. Portland docked with its famed " ton of gold " , and Seattle became the main transport and supply point for the miners in Alaska and the Yukon . Few of those working men found lasting wealth , however ; it was Seattle 's business of clothing the miners and feeding them salmon that panned out in the long run . Along with Seattle , other cities like Everett , Tacoma , Port Townsend , Bremerton , and Olympia , all in the Puget Sound region , became competitors for exchange , rather than mother lodes for extraction , of precious metals . The boom lasted well into the early part of the 20th century and funded many new Seattle companies and products . In 1907 , 19 @-@ year @-@ old James E. Casey borrowed $ 100 from a friend and founded the American Messenger Company ( later UPS ) . Other Seattle companies founded during this period include Nordstrom and Eddie Bauer . Seattle brought in the Olmsted Brothers landscape architecture firm to design a system of parks and boulevards .
The Gold Rush era culminated in the Alaska @-@ Yukon @-@ Pacific Exposition of 1909 , which is largely responsible for the layout of today 's University of Washington campus .
A shipbuilding boom in the early part of the 20th century became massive during World War I , making Seattle somewhat of a company town ; the subsequent retrenchment led to the Seattle General Strike of 1919 , the first general strike in the country . A 1912 city development plan by Virgil Bogue went largely unused . Seattle was mildly prosperous in the 1920s but was particularly hard hit in the Great Depression , experiencing some of the country 's harshest labor strife in that era . Violence during the Maritime Strike of 1934 cost Seattle much of its maritime traffic , which was rerouted to the Port of Los Angeles .
Seattle was also the home base of impresario Alexander Pantages who , starting in 1902 , opened a number of theaters in the city exhibiting vaudeville acts and silent movies . His activities soon expanded , and the thrifty Greek went on and became one of America 's greatest theater and movie tycoons . Between Pantages and his rival John Considine , Seattle was for a while the western United States ' vaudeville mecca . B. Marcus Priteca , the Scottish @-@ born and Seattle @-@ based architect , built several theaters for Pantages , including some in Seattle . The theaters he built for Pantages in Seattle have been either demolished or converted to other uses , but many other theaters survive in other cities of the U.S. , often retaining the Pantages name ; Seattle 's surviving Paramount Theatre , on which he collaborated , was not a Pantages theater .
= = = Post @-@ war years : aircraft and software = = =
War work again brought local prosperity during World War II , this time centered on Boeing aircraft . The war dispersed the city 's numerous Japanese @-@ American businessmen due to the Japanese American internment . After the war , the local economy dipped . It rose again with Boeing 's growing dominance in the commercial airliner market . Seattle celebrated its restored prosperity and made a bid for world recognition with the Century 21 Exposition , the 1962 World 's Fair . Another major local economic downturn was in the late 1960s and early 1970s , at a time when Boeing was heavily affected by the oil crises , loss of Government contracts , and costs and delays associated with the Boeing 747 . Many people left the area to look for work elsewhere , and two local real estate agents put up a billboard reading " Will the last person leaving Seattle – Turn out the lights . "
Seattle remained the corporate headquarters of Boeing until 2001 , when the company separated its headquarters from its major production facilities ; the headquarters were moved to Chicago . The Seattle area is still home to Boeing 's Renton narrow @-@ body plant ( where the 707 , 720 , 727 , and 757 were assembled , and the 737 is assembled today ) and Everett wide @-@ body plant ( assembly plant for the 747 , 767 , 777 , and 787 ) . The company 's credit union for employees , BECU , remains based in the Seattle area , though it is now open to all residents of Washington .
As prosperity began to return in the 1980s , the city was stunned by the Wah Mee massacre in 1983 , when 13 people were killed in an illegal gambling club in the International District , Seattle 's Chinatown . Beginning with Microsoft 's 1979 move from Albuquerque , New Mexico to nearby Bellevue , Washington , Seattle and its suburbs became home to a number of technology companies including Amazon.com , RealNetworks , Nintendo of America , McCaw Cellular ( now part of AT & T Mobility ) , VoiceStream ( now T @-@ Mobile ) , and biomedical corporations such as HeartStream ( later purchased by Philips ) , Heart Technologies ( later purchased by Boston Scientific ) , Physio @-@ Control ( later purchased by Medtronic ) , ZymoGenetics , ICOS ( later purchased by Eli Lilly and Company ) and Immunex ( later purchased by Amgen ) . This success brought an influx of new residents with a population increase within city limits of almost 50 @,@ 000 between 1990 and 2000 , and saw Seattle 's real estate become some of the most expensive in the country . In 1993 , the movie Sleepless in Seattle brought the city further national attention . Many of the Seattle area 's tech companies remained relatively strong , but the frenzied dot @-@ com boom years ended in early 2001 .
Seattle in this period attracted widespread attention as home to these many companies , but also by hosting the 1990 Goodwill Games and the APEC leaders conference in 1993 , as well as through the worldwide popularity of grunge , a sound that had developed in Seattle 's independent music scene . Another bid for worldwide attention — hosting the World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 — garnered visibility , but not in the way its sponsors desired , as related protest activity and police reactions to those protests overshadowed the conference itself . The city was further shaken by the Mardi Gras Riots in 2001 , and then literally shaken the following day by the Nisqually earthquake .
Yet another boom began as the city emerged from the Great Recession . Amazon.com moved its headquarters from North Beacon Hill to South Lake Union and began a rapid expansion . For the five years beginning in 2010 , Seattle gained an average of 14 @,@ 511 residents per year , with the growth strongly skewed toward the center of the city , as unemployment dropped from roughly 9 percent to 3 @.@ 6 percent . The city has found itself " bursting at the seams " , with over 45 @,@ 000 households spending more than half their income on housing and at least 2 @,@ 800 people homeless , and with the country 's sixth @-@ worst rush hour traffic .
= = Geography = =
With a land area of 83 @.@ 9 square miles ( 217 @.@ 3 km ² ) , Seattle is the northernmost city with at least 500 @,@ 000 people in the United States , farther north than Canadian cities such as Toronto , Ottawa , and Montreal , at about the same latitude as Salzburg , Austria .
The topography of Seattle is hilly . The city lies on several hills , including Capitol Hill , First Hill , West Seattle , Beacon Hill , Magnolia , Denny Hill , and Queen Anne . The Kitsap and the Olympic peninsulas along with the Olympic mountains lie to the west of Puget Sound , while the Cascade Range and Lake Sammamish lie to the east of Lake Washington . The city has over 5 @,@ 540 acres ( 2 @,@ 242 ha ) of parkland .
= = = Cityscape = = =
= = = Topography = = =
Seattle is located between the saltwater Puget Sound ( an arm of the Pacific Ocean ) to the west and Lake Washington to the east . The city 's chief harbor , Elliott Bay , is part of Puget Sound , which makes the city an oceanic port . To the west , beyond Puget Sound , are the Kitsap Peninsula and Olympic Mountains on the Olympic Peninsula ; to the east , beyond Lake Washington and the eastside suburbs , are Lake Sammamish and the Cascade Range . Lake Washington 's waters flow to Puget Sound through the Lake Washington Ship Canal ( consisting of two man @-@ made canals , Lake Union , and the Hiram M. Chittenden Locks at Salmon Bay , ending in Shilshole Bay on Puget Sound ) .
The sea , rivers , forests , lakes , and fields surrounding Seattle were once rich enough to support one of the world 's few sedentary hunter @-@ gatherer societies . The surrounding area lends itself well to sailing , skiing , bicycling , camping , and hiking year @-@ round .
The city itself is hilly , though not uniformly so . Like Rome , the city is said to lie on seven hills ; the lists vary but typically include Capitol Hill , First Hill , West Seattle , Beacon Hill , Queen Anne , Magnolia , and the former Denny Hill . The Wallingford , Mount Baker , and Crown Hill neighborhoods are technically located on hills as well . Many of the hilliest areas are near the city center , with Capitol Hill , First Hill , and Beacon Hill collectively constituting something of a ridge along an isthmus between Elliott Bay and Lake Washington . The break in the ridge between First Hill and Beacon Hill is man @-@ made , the result of two of the many regrading projects that reshaped the topography of the city center . The topography of the city center was also changed by the construction of a seawall and the artificial Harbor Island ( completed 1909 ) at the mouth of the city 's industrial Duwamish Waterway , the terminus of the Green River . The highest point within city limits is at High Point in West Seattle , which is roughly located near 35th Ave SW and SW Myrtle St. Other notable hills include Crown Hill , View Ridge / Wedgwood / Bryant , Maple Leaf , Phinney Ridge , Mt . Baker Ridge , and Highlands / Carkeek / Bitterlake .
North of the city center , Lake Washington Ship Canal connects Puget Sound to Lake Washington . It incorporates four natural bodies of water : Lake Union , Salmon Bay , Portage Bay , and Union Bay .
Due to its location in the Pacific Ring of Fire , Seattle is in a major earthquake zone . On February 28 , 2001 , the magnitude 6 @.@ 8 Nisqually earthquake did significant architectural damage , especially in the Pioneer Square area ( built on reclaimed land , as are the Industrial District and part of the city center ) , but caused only one fatality . Other strong quakes occurred on January 26 , 1700 ( estimated at 9 magnitude ) , December 14 , 1872 ( 7 @.@ 3 or 7 @.@ 4 ) , April 13 , 1949 ( 7 @.@ 1 ) , and April 29 , 1965 ( 6 @.@ 5 ) . The 1965 quake caused three deaths in Seattle directly and one more by heart failure . Although the Seattle Fault passes just south of the city center , neither it nor the Cascadia subduction zone has caused an earthquake since the city 's founding . The Cascadia subduction zone poses the threat of an earthquake of magnitude 9 @.@ 0 or greater , capable of seriously damaging the city and collapsing many buildings , especially in zones built on fill .
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 142 @.@ 5 square miles ( 369 km2 ) , 83 @.@ 9 square miles ( 217 km2 ) of which is land and 58 @.@ 7 square miles ( 152 km2 ) , water ( 41 @.@ 16 % of the total area ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Seattle 's climate is classified as oceanic or temperate marine , with cool , wet winters and warm , relatively dry summers . Like much of the Pacific Northwest , according to the Köppen climate classification it has a warm @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) . Other climate classification systems , such as Trewartha , place it in the Oceanic zone ( Do ) , like much of Western Europe . The city and environs are part of USDA hardiness zone 8b , with isolated coastal pockets falling under 9a .
Hot temperature extremes are enhanced by dry , compressed wind from the west slopes of the Cascades , while cold temperatures are generated mainly from the Fraser Valley in British Columbia .
Temperature extremes are moderated by the adjacent Puget Sound , greater Pacific Ocean , and Lake Washington . The region is largely shielded from Pacific storms by the Olympic Mountains and from Arctic air by the Cascade Range . Despite being on the margin of the rain shadow of the Olympic Mountains , the city has a reputation for frequent rain . This reputation stems from the frequency of light precipitation in the fall , winter , and spring . In an average year , at least 0 @.@ 01 inches ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) of precipitation falls on 150 days , more than nearly all U.S. cities east of the Rocky Mountains . It is cloudy 201 days out of the year and partly cloudy 93 days . Official weather and climatic data is collected at Seattle – Tacoma International Airport , located about 19 km ( 12 mi ) south of downtown in the city of SeaTac , which is at a higher elevation , and records more cloudy days and fewer partly cloudy days per year .
From 1981 to 2010 , the average annual precipitation measured at Seattle – Tacoma International Airport was 37 @.@ 49 inches ( 952 mm ) . Annual precipitation has ranged from 23 @.@ 78 in ( 604 mm ) in 1952 to 55 @.@ 14 in ( 1 @,@ 401 mm ) in 1950 ; for water year ( October 1 – September 30 ) precipitation , the range is 23 @.@ 16 in ( 588 mm ) in 1976 – 77 to 51 @.@ 82 in ( 1 @,@ 316 mm ) in 1996 – 97 . Due to local variations in microclimate , Seattle also receives significantly lower precipitation than some other locations west of the Cascades . Around 80 mi ( 129 km ) to the west , the Hoh Rain Forest in Olympic National Park on the western flank of the Olympic Mountains receives an annual average precipitation of 142 in ( 3 @.@ 61 m ) . Sixty miles ( 95 km ) to the south of Seattle , the state capital Olympia , which is out of the Olympic Mountains ' rain shadow , receives an annual average precipitation of 50 in ( 1 @,@ 270 mm ) . The city of Bremerton , about 15 mi ( 24 km ) west of downtown Seattle , receives 56 @.@ 4 in ( 1 @,@ 430 mm ) of precipitation annually .
In November , Seattle averages more rainfall than any other U.S. city of more than 250 @,@ 000 people ; it also ranks highly in winter precipitation . Conversely , the city receives some of the lowest precipitation amounts of any large city from June to September . Seattle is one of the five rainiest major U.S. cities as measured by the number of days with precipitation , and it receives some of the lowest amounts of annual sunshine among major cities in the lower 48 states , along with some cities in the Northeast , Ohio and Michigan . Thunderstorms are rare , as the city reports thunder on just seven days per year . By comparison , Fort Myers , Florida reports thunder on 93 days per year , Kansas City on 52 , and New York City on 25 .
Seattle experiences its heaviest rainfall during the months of November , December and January , receiving roughly half of its annual rainfall ( by volume ) during this period . In late fall and early winter , atmospheric rivers ( also known as " Pineapple Express " systems ) , strong frontal systems , and Pacific low pressure systems are common . Light rain & drizzle are the predominant forms of precipitation during the remainder of the year ; for instance , on average , less than 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) of rain falls in July and August combined when rain is rare . On occasion , Seattle experiences somewhat more significant weather events . One such event occurred on December 2 – 4 , 2007 , when sustained hurricane @-@ force winds and widespread heavy rainfall associated with a strong Pineapple Express event occurred in the greater Puget Sound area and the western parts of Washington and Oregon . Precipitation totals exceeded 13 @.@ 8 in ( 350 mm ) in some areas with winds topping out at 209 km / h ( 130 mph ) along coastal Oregon . It became the second wettest event in Seattle history when a little over 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) of rain fell on Seattle in a 24 @-@ hour period . Lack of adaptation to the heavy rain contributed to five deaths and widespread flooding and damage .
Autumn , winter , and early spring are frequently characterized by rain . Winters are cool and wet with December , the coolest month , averaging 40 @.@ 6 ° F ( 4 @.@ 8 ° C ) , with 28 annual days with lows that reach the freezing mark , and 2 @.@ 0 days where the temperature stays at or below freezing all day ; the temperature rarely lowers to 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) . Summers are sunny , dry and warm , with August , the warmest month , averaging 66 @.@ 1 ° F ( 18 @.@ 9 ° C ) , and with temperatures reaching 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on 3 @.@ 1 days per year , although 2011 is the most recent year to not reach 90 ° F. The hottest officially recorded temperature was 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) on July 29 , 2009 ; the coldest recorded temperature was 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) on January 31 , 1950 ; the record cold daily maximum is 16 ° F ( − 9 ° C ) on January 14 , 1950 , while , conversely , the record warm daily minimum is 71 ° F ( 22 ° C ) the day the official record high was set . The average window for freezing temperatures is November 16 through March 10 , allowing a growing season of 250 days .
Seattle typically receives some snowfall on an annual basis but heavy snow is rare . Average annual snowfall , as measured at Sea @-@ Tac Airport , is 6 @.@ 8 inches ( 17 @.@ 3 cm ) . Single calendar @-@ day snowfall of six inches ( 15 cm ) or greater has occurred on only 15 days since 1948 , and only once since February 17 , 1990 , when 6 @.@ 8 in ( 17 @.@ 3 cm ) of snow officially fell at Sea @-@ Tac airport on January 18 , 2012 . This moderate snow event was officially the 12th snowiest calendar day at the airport since 1948 and snowiest since November 1985 . Much of the city of Seattle proper received somewhat lesser snowfall accumulations . Locations to the south of Seattle received more , with Olympia and Chehalis receiving 14 to 18 in ( 36 to 46 cm ) . Another moderate snow event occurred from December 12 – 25 , 2008 , when over one foot ( 30 cm ) of snow fell and stuck on much of the roads over those two weeks , when temperatures remained below 32 ° F ( 0 ° C ) , causing widespread difficulties in a city not equipped for clearing snow . The largest documented snowstorm occurred from January 5 – 9 , 1880 , with snow drifting to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in places at the end of the snow event . From January 31 to February 2 , 1916 , another heavy snow event occurred with 29 in ( 74 cm ) of snow on the ground by the time the event was over . With official records dating to 1948 , the largest single @-@ day snowfall is 20 @.@ 0 in ( 51 cm ) on January 13 , 1950 . Seasonal snowfall has ranged from zero in 1991 – 92 to 67 @.@ 5 in ( 171 cm ) in 1968 – 69 , with trace amounts having occurred as recently as 2009 – 10 . The month of January 1950 was particularly severe , bringing 57 @.@ 2 in ( 145 cm ) of snow , the most of any month along with the aforementioned record cold .
The Puget Sound Convergence Zone is an important feature of Seattle 's weather . In the convergence zone , air arriving from the north meets air flowing in from the south . Both streams of air originate over the Pacific Ocean ; airflow is split by the Olympic Mountains to Seattle 's west , then reunited to the east . When the air currents meet , they are forced upward , resulting in convection . Thunderstorms caused by this activity are usually weak and can occur north and south of town , but Seattle itself rarely receives more than occasional thunder and small hail showers . The Hanukkah Eve Wind Storm in December 2006 is an exception that brought heavy rain and winds gusting up to 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) , an event that was not caused by the Puget Sound Convergence Zone and was widespread across the Pacific Northwest .
One of many exceptions to Seattle 's reputation as a damp location occurs in El Niño years , when marine weather systems track as far south as California and little precipitation falls in the Puget Sound area . Since the region 's water comes from mountain snow packs during the dry summer months , El Niño winters can not only produce substandard skiing but can result in water rationing and a shortage of hydroelectric power the following summer .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2010 United States Census , Seattle had a population of 608 @,@ 660 with a racial and ethnic composition as follows :
White : 69 @.@ 5 % ( Non @-@ Hispanic Whites : 66 @.@ 3 % )
Asian : 13 @.@ 8 % ( 4 @.@ 1 % Chinese , 2 @.@ 6 % Filipino , 2 @.@ 2 % Vietnamese , 1 @.@ 3 % Japanese , 1 @.@ 1 % Korean , 0 @.@ 8 % Indian , 0 @.@ 3 % Cambodian , 0 @.@ 3 % Laotian , 0 @.@ 2 % Pakistanis , 0 @.@ 2 % Indonesian , 0 @.@ 2 % Thai )
Black or African American : 7 @.@ 9 %
Hispanic or Latino ( of any race ) : 6 @.@ 6 % ( 4 @.@ 1 % Mexican , 0 @.@ 3 % Puerto Rican , 0 @.@ 2 % Guatemalan , 0 @.@ 2 % Salvadoran , 0 @.@ 2 % Cuban )
American Indian and Alaska Native : 0 @.@ 8 %
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander : 0 @.@ 4 %
Other race : 2 @.@ 4 %
Two or more races : 5 @.@ 1 %
Seattle 's population historically has been predominantly white . The 2010 census showed that Seattle was one of the whitest big cities in the country , although its proportion of white residents has been gradually declining . In 1960 , whites comprised 91 @.@ 6 % of the city 's population , while in 2010 they comprised 69 @.@ 5 % . According to the 2006 – 2008 American Community Survey , approximately 78 @.@ 9 % of residents over the age of five spoke only English at home . Those who spoke Asian languages other than Indo @-@ European languages made up 10 @.@ 2 % of the population , Spanish was spoken by 4 @.@ 5 % of the population , speakers of other Indo @-@ European languages made up 3 @.@ 9 % , and speakers of other languages made up 2 @.@ 5 % .
Seattle 's foreign @-@ born population grew 40 % between the 1990 and 2000 censuses . The Chinese population in the Seattle area has origins in mainland China , Hong Kong , Southeast Asia , and Taiwan . The earliest Chinese @-@ Americans that came in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were almost entirely from Guangdong Province . The Seattle area is also home to a large Vietnamese population of more than 55 @,@ 000 residents , as well as over 30 @,@ 000 Somali immigrants . The Seattle @-@ Tacoma area is also home to one of the largest Cambodian communities in the United States , numbering about 19 @,@ 000 Cambodian Americans , and one of the largest Samoan communities in the mainland U.S. , with over 15 @,@ 000 people having Samoan ancestry . Additionally , the Seattle area had the highest percentage of self @-@ identified mixed @-@ race people of any large metropolitan area in the United States , according to the 2000 United States Census Bureau . According to a 2012 HistoryLink study , Seattle 's 98118 ZIP code ( in the Columbia City neighborhood ) was one of the most diverse ZIP Code Tabulation Areas in the United States .
In 1999 , the median income of a city household was $ 45 @,@ 736 , and the median income for a family was $ 62 @,@ 195 . Males had a median income of $ 40 @,@ 929 versus $ 35 @,@ 134 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 30 @,@ 306 . 11 @.@ 8 % of the population and 6 @.@ 9 % of families are below the poverty line . Of people living in poverty , 13 @.@ 8 % are under the age of 18 and 10 @.@ 2 % are 65 or older .
It is estimated that King County has 8 @,@ 000 homeless people on any given night , and many of those live in Seattle . In September 2005 , King County adopted a " Ten @-@ Year Plan to End Homelessness " , one of the near @-@ term results of which is a shift of funding from homeless shelter beds to permanent housing .
In recent years , the city has experienced steady population growth , and has been faced with the issue of accommodating more residents . In 2006 , after growing by 4 @,@ 000 citizens per year for the previous 16 years , regional planners expected the population of Seattle to grow by 200 @,@ 000 people by 2040 . However , former mayor Greg Nickels supported plans that would increase the population by 60 % , or 350 @,@ 000 people , by 2040 and worked on ways to accommodate this growth while keeping Seattle 's single @-@ family housing zoning laws . The Seattle City Council later voted to relax height limits on buildings in the greater part of Downtown , partly with the aim to increase residential density in the city centre . As a sign of increasing inner @-@ city growth , the downtown population crested to over 60 @,@ 000 in 2009 , up 77 % since 1990 .
Seattle also has large lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender populations . According to a 2006 study by UCLA , 12 @.@ 9 % of city residents polled identified as gay , lesbian , or bisexual . This was the second @-@ highest proportion of any major U.S. city , behind San Francisco Greater Seattle also ranked second among major U.S. metropolitan areas , with 6 @.@ 5 % of the population identifying as gay , lesbian , or bisexual . According to 2012 estimates from the United States Census Bureau , Seattle has the highest percentage of same @-@ sex households in the United States , at 2 @.@ 6 per cent , surpassing San Francisco .
In addition , Seattle has a relatively high number of people living alone . According to the 2000 U.S. Census interim measurements of 2004 , Seattle has the fifth highest proportion of single @-@ person households nationwide among cities of 100 @,@ 000 or more residents , at 40 @.@ 8 % .
= = Economy = =
Seattle 's economy is driven by a mix of older industrial companies , and " new economy " Internet and technology companies , service , design and clean technology companies . The city 's gross metropolitan product was $ 231 billion in 2010 , making it the 11th largest metropolitan economy in the United States . The Port of Seattle , which also operates Seattle – Tacoma International Airport , is a major gateway for trade with Asia and cruises to Alaska , and is the 8th largest port in the United States in terms of container capacity . Though it was affected by the Great Recession , Seattle has retained a comparatively strong economy , and remains a hotbed for start @-@ up businesses , especially in green building and clean technologies : it was ranked as America 's No. 1 " smarter city " based on its government policies and green economy . In February 2010 , the city government committed Seattle to becoming North America 's first " climate neutral " city , with a goal of reaching zero net per capita greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 .
Still , very large companies dominate the business landscape . Four companies on the 2013 Fortune 500 list of the United States ' largest companies , based on total revenue , are headquartered in Seattle : Internet retailer Amazon.com ( # 49 ) , coffee chain Starbucks ( # 208 ) , department store Nordstrom ( # 227 ) , and freight forwarder Expeditors International of Washington ( # 428 ) . Other Fortune 500 companies popularly associated with Seattle are based in nearby Puget Sound cities . Warehouse club chain Costco ( # 22 ) , the largest retail company in Washington , is based in Issaquah . Microsoft ( # 35 ) is located in Redmond . Weyerhaeuser , the forest products company ( # 363 ) , is based in Federal Way . Finally , Bellevue is home to truck manufacturer Paccar ( # 168 ) . Other major companies in the area include Nintendo of America in Redmond , T @-@ Mobile US in Bellevue , Expedia Inc. in Bellevue and Providence Health & Services — the state 's largest health care system and fifth largest employer — in Renton . The city has a reputation for heavy coffee consumption ; coffee companies founded or based in Seattle include Starbucks , Seattle 's Best Coffee , and Tully 's . There are also many successful independent artisanal espresso roasters and cafés .
Prior to moving its headquarters to Chicago , aerospace manufacturer Boeing ( # 30 ) was the largest company based in Seattle . Its largest division is still headquartered in nearby Renton , and the company has large aircraft manufacturing plants in Everett and Renton , so it remains the largest private employer in the Seattle metropolitan area . Former Seattle Mayor Greg Nickels announced a desire to spark a new economic boom driven by the biotechnology industry in 2006 . Major redevelopment of the South Lake Union neighborhood is underway , in an effort to attract new and established biotech companies to the city , joining biotech companies Corixa ( acquired by GlaxoSmithKline ) , Immunex ( now part of Amgen ) , Trubion , and ZymoGenetics . Vulcan Inc . , the holding company of billionaire Paul Allen , is behind most of the development projects in the region . While some see the new development as an economic boon , others have criticized Nickels and the Seattle City Council for pandering to Allen 's interests at taxpayers ' expense . Also in 2006 , Expansion Magazine ranked Seattle among the top 10 metropolitan areas in the nation for climates favorable to business expansion . In 2005 , Forbes ranked Seattle as the most expensive American city for buying a house based on the local income levels . In 2013 , however , the magazine ranked Seattle No. 9 on its list of the Best Places for Business and Careers .
Alaska Airlines , operating a hub at Seattle – Tacoma International Airport , maintains its headquarters in the city of SeaTac , next to the airport .
Seattle is a hub for global health with the headquarters of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , PATH , Infectious Disease Research Institute , Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation . In 2015 , the Washington Global Health Alliance counted 168 global health organizations in Washington state , many are headquartered in Seattle .
= = Culture = =
= = = Nicknames = = =
From 1869 until 1982 , Seattle was known as the " Queen City " . Seattle 's current official nickname is the " Emerald City " , the result of a contest held in 1981 ; the reference is to the lush evergreen forests of the area . Seattle is also referred to informally as the " Gateway to Alaska " for being the nearest major city in the contiguous US to Alaska , " Rain City " for its frequent cloudy and rainy weather , and " Jet City " from the local influence of Boeing . The city has two official slogans or mottos : " The City of Flowers " , meant to encourage the planting of flowers to beautify the city , and " The City of Goodwill " , adopted prior to the 1990 Goodwill Games . Seattle residents are known as Seattleites .
= = = Performing arts = = =
Seattle has been a regional center for the performing arts for many years . The century @-@ old Seattle Symphony Orchestra is among the world 's most recorded and performs primarily at Benaroya Hall . The Seattle Opera and Pacific Northwest Ballet , which perform at McCaw Hall ( opened 2003 on the site of the former Seattle Opera House at Seattle Center ) , are comparably distinguished , with the Opera being particularly known for its performances of the works of Richard Wagner and the PNB School ( founded in 1974 ) ranking as one of the top three ballet training institutions in the United States . The Seattle Youth Symphony Orchestras ( SYSO ) is the largest symphonic youth organization in the United States . The city also boasts lauded summer and winter chamber music festivals organized by the Seattle Chamber Music Society .
The 5th Avenue Theatre , built in 1926 , stages Broadway @-@ style musical shows featuring both local talent and international stars . Seattle has " around 100 " theatrical production companies and over two dozen live theatre venues , many of them associated with fringe theatre ; Seattle is probably second only to New York for number of equity theaters ( 28 Seattle theater companies have some sort of Actors ' Equity contract ) . In addition , the 900 @-@ seat Romanesque Revival Town Hall on First Hill hosts numerous cultural events , especially lectures and recitals .
Between 1918 and 1951 , there were nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs along Jackson Street , running from the current Chinatown / International District to the Central District . The jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles , Quincy Jones , Bumps Blackwell , Ernestine Anderson , and others .
Early popular musical acts from the Seattle / Puget Sound area include the collegiate folk group The Brothers Four , vocal group The Fleetwoods , 1960s garage rockers The Wailers and The Sonics , and instrumental surf group The Ventures , some of whom are still active .
Seattle is considered the home of grunge music , having produced artists such as Nirvana , Soundgarden , Alice in Chains , Pearl Jam , and Mudhoney , all of whom reached international audiences in the early 1990s . The city is also home to such varied artists as avant @-@ garde jazz musicians Bill Frisell and Wayne Horvitz , hot jazz musician Glenn Crytzer , hip hop artists Sir Mix @-@ a @-@ Lot , Macklemore , Blue Scholars , and Shabazz Palaces , smooth jazz saxophonist Kenny G , classic rock staples Heart and Queensrÿche , and alternative rock bands such as Foo Fighters , Harvey Danger , The Presidents of the United States of America , The Posies , Modest Mouse , Band of Horses , Death Cab for Cutie , and Fleet Foxes . Rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix , Duff McKagan , and Nikki Sixx spent their formative years in Seattle .
The Seattle @-@ based Sub Pop record company continues to be one of the world 's best @-@ known independent / alternative music labels .
Over the years , a number of songs have been written about Seattle .
Seattle annually sends a team of spoken word slammers to the National Poetry Slam and considers itself home to such performance poets as Buddy Wakefield , two @-@ time Individual World Poetry Slam Champ ; Anis Mojgani , two @-@ time National Poetry Slam Champ ; and Danny Sherrard , 2007 National Poetry Slam Champ and 2008 Individual World Poetry Slam Champ . Seattle also hosted the 2001 national Poetry Slam Tournament . The Seattle Poetry Festival is a biennial poetry festival that ( launched first as the Poetry Circus in 1997 ) has featured local , regional , national , and international names in poetry .
The city also has movie houses showing both Hollywood productions and works by independent filmmakers . Among these , the Seattle Cinerama stands out as one of only three movie theaters in the world still capable of showing three @-@ panel Cinerama films .
= = = Tourism = = =
Among Seattle 's prominent annual fairs and festivals are the 24 @-@ day Seattle International Film Festival , Northwest Folklife over the Memorial Day weekend , numerous Seafair events throughout July and August ( ranging from a Bon Odori celebration to the Seafair Cup hydroplane races ) , the Bite of Seattle , one of the largest Gay Pride festivals in the United States , and the art and music festival Bumbershoot , which programs music as well as other art and entertainment over the Labor Day weekend . All are typically attended by 100 @,@ 000 people annually , as are the Seattle Hempfest and two separate Independence Day celebrations .
Other significant events include numerous Native American pow @-@ wows , a Greek Festival hosted by St. Demetrios Greek Orthodox Church in Montlake , and numerous ethnic festivals ( many associated with Festál at Seattle Center ) .
There are other annual events , ranging from the Seattle Antiquarian Book Fair & Book Arts Show ; an anime convention , Sakura @-@ Con ; Penny Arcade Expo , a gaming convention ; a two @-@ day , 9 @,@ 000 @-@ rider Seattle to Portland Bicycle Classic ; and specialized film festivals , such as the Maelstrom International Fantastic Film Festival , the Seattle Asian American Film Festival ( formerly known as the Northwest Asian American Film Festival ) , Children 's Film Festival Seattle , Translation : the Seattle Transgender Film Festival , the Seattle Gay and Lesbian Film Festival , and the Seattle Polish Film Festival .
The Henry Art Gallery opened in 1927 , the first public art museum in Washington . The Seattle Art Museum ( SAM ) opened in 1933 ; SAM opened a museum downtown in 1991 ( expanded and reopened 2007 ) ; since 1991 , the 1933 building has been SAM 's Seattle Asian Art Museum ( SAAM ) . SAM also operates the Olympic Sculpture Park ( opened 2007 ) on the waterfront north of the downtown piers . The Frye Art Museum is a free museum on First Hill .
Regional history collections are at the Loghouse Museum in Alki , Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park , the Museum of History and Industry , and the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture . Industry collections are at the Center for Wooden Boats and the adjacent Northwest Seaport , the Seattle Metropolitan Police Museum , and the Museum of Flight . Regional ethnic collections include the Nordic Heritage Museum , the Wing Luke Asian Museum , and the Northwest African American Museum . Seattle has artist @-@ run galleries , including ten @-@ year veteran Soil Art Gallery , and the newer Crawl Space Gallery .
The Seattle Great Wheel , one of the largest Ferris wheels in the US , opened in June 2012 as a new , permanent attraction on the city 's waterfront , at Pier 57 , next to Downtown Seattle . The city also has many community centers for recreation , including Rainier Beach , Van Asselt , Rainier , and Jefferson south of the Ship Canal and Green Lake , Laurelhurst , Loyal Heights north of the Canal , and Meadowbrook .
Woodland Park Zoo opened as a private menagerie in 1889 but was sold to the city in 1899 . The Seattle Aquarium has been open on the downtown waterfront since 1977 ( undergoing a renovation 2006 ) . The Seattle Underground Tour is an exhibit of places that existed before the Great Fire .
Since the middle 1990s , Seattle has experienced significant growth in the cruise industry , especially as a departure point for Alaska cruises . In 2008 , a record total of 886 @,@ 039 cruise passengers passed through the city , surpassing the number for Vancouver , BC , the other major departure point for Alaska cruises .
= = Professional sports = =
Seattle has three major men 's professional sports teams : the National Football League ( NFL ) ' s Seattle Seahawks , Major League Baseball ( MLB ) ' s Seattle Mariners , and Major League Soccer ( MLS ) ' s Seattle Sounders FC . Other professional sports teams include the Women 's National Basketball Association ( WNBA ) ' s Seattle Storm , who won the WNBA championship in 2004 and 2010 , and the Seattle Reign of the National Women 's Soccer League .
The Seahawks ' CenturyLink Field has hosted NFL playoff games in 2006 , 2008 , 2011 , 2014 and 2015 . The Seahawks have advanced to the Super Bowl three times : 2005 , 2013 and 2014 . They defeated the Denver Broncos 43 @-@ 8 to win their first Super Bowl championship in Super Bowl XLVIII , but lost 24 @-@ 28 against the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XLIX . Seattle Sounders FC has played in Major League Soccer since 2009 , sharing CenturyLink Field with the Seahawks , as a continuation of earlier teams in the lower divisions of American soccer . The Sounders have not won the MLS Cup but have , however , won the MLS Supporters ' Shield in 2014 and the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup on four occasions : 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , and 2014 .
Seattle 's professional sports history began at the start of the 20th century with the PCHA 's Seattle Metropolitans , which in 1917 became the first American hockey team to win the Stanley Cup . Seattle was also home to a previous Major League Baseball franchise in 1969 : the Seattle Pilots . The Pilots relocated to Milwaukee , Wisconsin and became the Milwaukee Brewers for the 1970 season . From 1967 to 2008 Seattle was also home to an National Basketball Association ( NBA ) franchise : the Seattle SuperSonics , who were the 1978 – 79 NBA champions . The SuperSonics relocated to Oklahoma City and became the Oklahoma City Thunder for the 2008 – 09 season .
The Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game was held in Seattle twice , first at the Kingdome in 1979 and again at Safeco Field in 2001 . That same year , the Seattle Mariners tied the all @-@ time single regular season wins record with 116 wins . The NBA All @-@ Star Game was also held in Seattle twice : the first in 1974 at the Seattle Center Coliseum and the second in 1987 at the Kingdome .
The Seattle Thunderbirds hockey team plays in the Canadian major @-@ junior Western Hockey League and are based in the Seattle suburb of Kent . Seattle also boasts a strong history in collegiate sports . The University of Washington and Seattle University are NCAA Division I schools . The University of Washington 's athletic program , nicknamed the Huskies , competes in the Pac @-@ 12 Conference , and Seattle University 's athletic program , nicknamed the Redhawks , competes in the Western Athletic Conference .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Seattle 's mild , temperate , marine climate allows year @-@ round outdoor recreation , including walking , cycling , hiking , skiing , snowboarding , kayaking , rock climbing , motor boating , sailing , team sports , and swimming .
In town , many people walk around Green Lake , through the forests and along the bluffs and beaches of 535 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 2 km2 ) Discovery Park ( the largest park in the city ) in Magnolia , along the shores of Myrtle Edwards Park on the Downtown waterfront , along the shoreline of Lake Washington at Seward Park , along Alki Beach in West Seattle , or along the Burke @-@ Gilman Trail .
Gas Works Park features the majestic preserved superstructure of a coal gasification plant closed in 1956 . Located across Lake Union from downtown , the park provides panoramic views of the Seattle skyline .
Also popular are hikes and skiing in the nearby Cascade or Olympic Mountains and kayaking and sailing in the waters of Puget Sound , the Strait of Juan de Fuca , and the Strait of Georgia . In 2005 , Men 's Fitness magazine named Seattle the fittest city in the United States .
In its 2013 ParkScore ranking , the Trust for Public Land reported that Seattle had the tenth best park system among the 50 most populous US cities . ParkScore ranks city park systems by a formula that analyzes acreage , access , and service and investment .
= = Government and politics = =
Seattle is a charter city , with a Mayor – Council form of government . From 1911 to 2013 , Seattle 's nine city councillors were elected at large , rather than by geographic subdivisions . For the 2015 election , this changed to a hybrid system of seven district members and two at large members as a result of a ballot measure passed on November 5 , 2013 . The only other elected offices are the city attorney and Municipal Court judges . All city offices are technically non @-@ partisan .
Like most parts of the United States , government and laws are also run by a series of ballot initiatives ( allowing citizens to pass or reject laws ) , referenda ( allowing citizens to approve or reject legislation already passed ) , and propositions ( allowing specific government agencies to propose new laws / tax increases directly to the people ) . Federally , Seattle is part of Washington 's 7th congressional district , represented by Democrat Jim McDermott , elected in 1988 and one of Congress 's liberal members . Ed Murray is currently serving as mayor .
Seattle 's political culture is very liberal and progressive for the United States , with over 80 % of the population voting for the Democratic Party . All precincts in Seattle voted for Democratic Party candidate Barack Obama in the 2012 presidential election . In partisan elections for the Washington State Legislature and United States Congress , nearly all elections are won by Democrats . Seattle is considered the first major American city to elect a female mayor , Bertha Knight Landes . It has also elected an openly gay mayor , Ed Murray , and a socialist councillor , Kshama Sawant . For the first time in United States history , an openly gay black woman was elected to public office when Sherry Harris was elected as a Seattle city councillor in 1991 . The majority of the current city council is female , while white men comprise a minority .
Seattle is widely considered one of the most liberal cities in the United States , even surpassing its neighbor , Portland , Oregon . Support for issues such as same @-@ sex marriage and reproductive rights are largely taken for granted in local politics . In the 2012 U.S. general election , an overwhelming majority of Seattleites voted to approve Referendum 74 and legalize gay marriage in Washington state . In the same election , an overwhelming majority of Seattleites also voted to approve the legalization of the recreational use of cannabis in the state . Like much of the Pacific Northwest ( which has the lowest rate of church attendance in the United States and consistently reports the highest percentage of atheism ) , church attendance , religious belief , and political influence of religious leaders are much lower than in other parts of America .
Seattle also has a thriving alternative press , with the Web @-@ based daily Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , several other online dailies ( including Publicola and Crosscut ) , The Stranger ( an alternative , left @-@ leaning weekly ) , Seattle Weekly , and a number of issue @-@ focused publications , including the nation 's two largest online environmental magazines , Worldchanging and Grist.org.
In July 2012 , Seattle banned plastic shopping bags . In June 2014 the city passed a local ordinance to increase the minimum wage to $ 15 an hour on a staged basis from 2015 to 2021 . When fully implemented the $ 15 hourly rate will be the highest minimum wage in the nation .
On October 6 , 2014 , Seattle officially replaced Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples ' Day , honoring Seattle 's Native American community and controversies surrounding the legacy of Christopher Columbus .
= = Education = =
Of the city 's population over the age of 25 , 53 @.@ 8 % ( vs. a national average of 27 @.@ 4 % ) hold a bachelor 's degree or higher , and 91 @.@ 9 % ( vs. 84 @.@ 5 % nationally ) have a high school diploma or equivalent . A 2008 United States Census Bureau survey showed that Seattle had the highest percentage of college and university graduates of any major U.S. city . The city was listed as the most literate of the country 's 69 largest cities in 2005 and 2006 , the second most literate in 2007 and the most literate in 2008 in studies conducted by Central Connecticut State University .
Seattle Public Schools desegregated without a court order but continue to struggle to achieve racial balance in a somewhat ethnically divided city ( the south part of town having more ethnic minorities than the north ) . In 2007 , Seattle 's racial tie @-@ breaking system was struck down by the United States Supreme Court , but the ruling left the door open for desegregation formulae based on other indicators ( e.g. , income or socioeconomic class ) .
The public school system is supplemented by a moderate number of private schools : five of the private high schools are Catholic , one is Lutheran , and six are secular .
Seattle is home to the University of Washington , as well as the institution 's professional and continuing education unit , the University of Washington Educational Outreach . A study by Newsweek International in 2006 cited the University of Washington as the twenty @-@ second best university in the world . Seattle also has a number of smaller private universities including Seattle University and Seattle Pacific University , the former a Jesuit Catholic institution , the latter Free Methodist ; universities aimed at the working adult , like City University and Antioch University ; colleges within the Seattle Colleges District system , comprising North , Central , and South ; seminaries , including Western Seminary and a number of arts colleges , such as Cornish College of the Arts , Pratt Fine Arts Center , and The Art Institute of Seattle . In 2001 , Time magazine selected Seattle Central Community College as community college of the year , stating the school " pushes diverse students to work together in small teams " .
= = Media = =
As of 2010 , Seattle has one major daily newspaper , The Seattle Times . The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , known as the P @-@ I , published a daily newspaper from 1863 to March 17 , 2009 , before switching to a strictly on @-@ line publication . There is also the Seattle Daily Journal of Commerce , and the University of Washington publishes The Daily , a student @-@ run publication , when school is in session . The most prominent weeklies are the Seattle Weekly and The Stranger ; both consider themselves " alternative " papers . The weekly LGBT newspaper is the Seattle Gay News . Real Change is a weekly street newspaper that is sold mainly by homeless persons as an alternative to panhandling . There are also several ethnic newspapers , including the The Facts , Northwest Asian Weekly and the International Examiner , and numerous neighborhood newspapers .
Seattle is also well served by television and radio , with all major U.S. networks represented , along with at least five other English @-@ language stations and two Spanish @-@ language stations . Seattle cable viewers also receive CBUT 2 ( CBC ) from Vancouver , British Columbia .
Non @-@ commercial radio stations include NPR affiliates KUOW @-@ FM 94 @.@ 9 and KPLU @-@ FM 88 @.@ 5 ( Tacoma ) , as well as classical music station KING @-@ FM 98 @.@ 1 . Other stations include KEXP @-@ FM 90 @.@ 3 ( affiliated with the UW ) , community radio KBCS @-@ FM 91 @.@ 3 ( affiliated with Bellevue College ) , and high school radio KNHC @-@ FM 89 @.@ 5 , which broadcasts an electronic dance music radio format and is owned by the public school system and operated by students of Nathan Hale High School . Many Seattle radio stations are also available through Internet radio , with KEXP in particular being a pioneer of Internet radio . Seattle also has numerous commercial radio stations . In a March 2012 report by the consumer research firm Arbitron , the top FM stations were KRWM ( adult contemporary format ) , KIRO @-@ FM ( news / talk ) , and KISW ( active rock ) while the top AM stations were KOMO ( AM ) ( all news ) , KJR ( AM ) ( all sports ) , KIRO ( AM ) ( all sports ) .
Seattle @-@ based online magazines Worldchanging and Grist.org were two of the " Top Green Websites " in 2007 according to TIME .
Seattle also has many online news media websites . The two largest are The Seattle Times and the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Health systems = = =
The University of Washington is consistently ranked among the country 's top leading institutions in medical research , earning special merits for programs in neurology and neurosurgery . Seattle has seen local developments of modern paramedic services with the establishment of Medic One in 1970 . In 1974 , a 60 Minutes story on the success of the then four @-@ year @-@ old Medic One paramedic system called Seattle " the best place in the world to have a heart attack " .
Three of Seattle 's largest medical centers are located on First Hill . Harborview Medical Center , the public county hospital , is the only Level I trauma hospital in a region that includes Washington , Alaska , Montana , and Idaho . Virginia Mason Medical Center and Swedish Medical Center 's two largest campuses are also located in this part of Seattle , including the Virginia Mason Hospital . This concentration of hospitals resulted in the neighborhood 's nickname " Pill Hill " .
Located in the Laurelhurst neighborhood , Seattle Children 's , formerly Children 's Hospital and Regional Medical Center , is the pediatric referral center for Washington , Alaska , Montana , and Idaho . The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center has a campus in the Eastlake neighborhood . The University District is home to the University of Washington Medical Center which , along with Harborview , is operated by the University of Washington . Seattle is also served by a Veterans Affairs hospital on Beacon Hill , a third campus of Swedish in Ballard , and Northwest Hospital and Medical Center near Northgate Mall .
= = = Transportation = = =
The first streetcars appeared in 1889 and were instrumental in the creation of a relatively well @-@ defined downtown and strong neighborhoods at the end of their lines . The advent of the automobile sounded the death knell for rail in Seattle . Tacoma – Seattle railway service ended in 1929 and the Everett – Seattle service came to an end in 1939 , replaced by inexpensive automobiles running on the recently developed highway system . Rails on city streets were paved over or removed , and the opening of the Seattle trolleybus system brought the end of streetcars in Seattle in 1941 . This left an extensive network of privately owned buses ( later public ) as the only mass transit within the city and throughout the region .
King County Metro provides frequent stop bus service within the city and surrounding county , as well as a South Lake Union Streetcar line between the South Lake Union neighborhood and Westlake Center in downtown . Seattle is one of the few cities in North America whose bus fleet includes electric trolleybuses . Sound Transit currently provides an express bus service within the metropolitan area , two Sounder commuter rail lines between the suburbs and downtown , and its Central Link light rail line between the University of Washington and Sea @-@ Tac Airport . Washington State Ferries , which manages the largest network of ferries in the United States and third largest in the world , connects Seattle to Bainbridge and Vashon Islands in Puget Sound and to Bremerton and Southworth on the Kitsap Peninsula .
According to the 2007 American Community Survey , 18 @.@ 6 % of Seattle residents used one of the three public transit systems that serve the city , giving it the highest transit ridership of all major cities without heavy or light rail prior to the completion of Sound Transit 's Central Link line . The city has also been described by Bert Sperling as the fourth most walkable U.S. city and by Walk Score as the sixth most walkable of the fifty largest U.S. cities .
Seattle – Tacoma International Airport , locally known as Sea @-@ Tac Airport and located just south in the neighboring city of SeaTac , is operated by the Port of Seattle and provides commercial air service to destinations throughout the world . Closer to downtown , Boeing Field is used for general aviation , cargo flights , and testing / delivery of Boeing airliners .
The main mode of transportation , however , relies on Seattle 's streets , which are laid out in a cardinal directions grid pattern , except in the central business district where early city leaders Arthur Denny and Carson Boren insisted on orienting their plats relative to the shoreline rather than to true North . Only two roads , Interstate 5 and State Route 99 ( both limited @-@ access highways ) , run uninterrupted through the city from north to south . State Route 99 runs through downtown Seattle on the Alaskan Way Viaduct , which was built in 1953 . However , due to damage sustained during the 2001 Nisqually earthquake the viaduct will be replaced by a tunnel . The 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) Alaskan Way Viaduct replacement tunnel was originally scheduled to be completed in December 2015 at a cost of US $ 4 @.@ 25 billion . Unfortunately , due to issues with the worlds largest tunnel boring machine ( TBM ) , which is nicknamed " Bertha " and is 57 feet ( 17 m ) in diameter , the projected date of completion has been pushed back to 2017 . Seattle has the 8th worst traffic congestion of all American cities , and is 10th among all North American cities .
The city has started moving away from the automobile and towards mass transit . From 2004 to 2009 , the annual number of unlinked public transportation trips increased by approximately 21 % . In 2006 , voters in King County passed proposition 2 ( Transit Now ) which increased bus service hours on high ridership routes and paid for five bus rapid transit lines called RapidRide . After rejecting a roads and transit measure in 2007 , Seattle @-@ area voters passed a transit only measure in 2008 to increase ST Express bus service , extend the Link Light Rail system , and expand and improve Sounder commuter rail service . A light rail line from downtown heading south to Sea @-@ Tac Airport began service on December 19 , 2009 , giving the city its first rapid transit line with intermediate stations within the city limits . An extension north to the University of Washington opened on March 19 , 2016 ; and further extensions are planned to reach Lynnwood to the north , Des Moines to the south , and Bellevue and Redmond to the east by 2023 . Former mayor Michael McGinn has supported building light rail from downtown to Ballard and West Seattle .
= = = Utilities = = =
Water and electric power are municipal services , provided by Seattle Public Utilities and Seattle City Light respectively . Other utility companies serving Seattle include Puget Sound Energy ( natural gas , electricity ) ; Seattle Steam Company ( steam ) ; Waste Management , Inc and CleanScapes , Inc . ( curbside recycling and solid waste removal ) ; and CenturyLink , Frontier Communications and Comcast ( telecommunications and television ) .
About 90 % of Seattle 's electricity is produced using hydropower . Less than 2 % of electricity is produced using fossil fuels .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Seattle is partnered with :
= Minnesota State Highway 610 =
Minnesota State Highway 610 ( MN 610 ) is an east – west freeway in the Twin Cities region of Minnesota . The freeway connects County Road 81 ( CR 81 ) and CR 130 in northern Hennepin County to U.S. Highway 10 ( US 10 ) in southern Anoka County . MN 610 crosses the Mississippi River on the Richard P. Braun Bridge between suburban Brooklyn Park and Coon Rapids . The highway is 9 @.@ 8 miles ( 15 @.@ 8 km ) long .
The freeway was authorized in 1975 , and most of the sections that are open were completed by 2000 ( 7 @.@ 2 mi or 11 @.@ 6 km ) ; the 2 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) section westward to CR 81 in Maple Grove was completed and opened in 2011 . There is a segment that is planned to extend farther to end at Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . The Minnesota Department of Transportation ( Mn / DOT ) scheduled the project to start in late 2014 .
= = Route description = =
MN 610 starts at its interchange with CR 81 in Maple Grove . From this starting point , the freeway runs eastbound through the northern suburbs of the Twin Cities . MN 610 is four lanes in width and has several interchanges with local streets and county roads before expanding to six lanes and meeting the northern terminus of MN 252 on the west bank of the Mississippi River . After MN 252 interchange , the MN 610 freeway turns to the northeast and crosses the Mississippi River on the dual @-@ span , eight @-@ lane Richard P. Braun Bridge .
Across the river , the freeway runs along the south side of the Coon Rapids Dam Regional Park before curving around to the east . It continues through suburban Coon Rapids as a six @-@ lane freeway to a partial interchange with northbound MN 47 . This interchange is used by eastbound traffic transitioning to westbound US 10 . The final section east to US 10 in Blaine is four lanes . The second interchange along this section of the freeway with University Avenue is used to connect with MN 47 southbound . The last interconnected interchange is at the eastern terminus as traffic defaults onto US 10 eastbound .
Legally , MN 610 is defined as Route 333 in the Minnesota Statutes § 161 @.@ 115 ( 264 ) . The highway is not marked with this legislative route number along the actual highway . The entire route of MN 610 has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
MN 610 was proposed in the middle of the 1960s as a " North Crosstown " freeway . Studies
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had spoken to his wife about the affair . She had told Helen that Corbett had received the information from Bradman . Mant believed that while Corbett may have played a joke on Fingleton in naming the culprit , he would not have done so with his wife .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Many commentators and cricketers deplored the use of Bodyline bowling . Some felt frustration that Woodfull had not publicly condemned the tactics , believing that his silence was interpreted as approval . Once his opinions were revealed by the leak , opponents of Bodyline felt publicly legitimised and expressed their opinions more freely . It also revealed deep and unaccustomed divisions between the teams which had been kept from view . The leak and subsequent events in the same match brought varied opinions from journalists and former players on Bodyline into the newspapers , both for and against Bodyline tactics .
During the play on Monday , a short ball from Larwood fractured Bert Oldfield 's skull , although Bodyline tactics were not being used at the time . The Australian Board of Control contacted the MCC managers Warner and Palairet asking them to arrange for the team to cease the use of Bodyline , but they replied the captain was solely in charge of the playing side of the tour . On the Wednesday of the game , the Australian Board sent a cable to the MCC which stated " Bodyline bowling has assumed such proportions as to menace the best interests of the game , making protection of the body by the batsman the main consideration . This is causing intensely bitter feeling between the players , as well as injury . In our opinion it is unsportsmanlike . Unless stopped at once it is likely to upset the friendly relations existing between Australia and England . " After England 's victory in the match , Jardine went to the Australian dressing room but had the door closed in his face . Speaking to his team , Jardine offered to end the use of the tactics if the players opposed them , but they unanimously voted to continue . The report in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack stated it was probably the most unpleasant match ever played .
Jardine threatened to withdraw his team from the Fourth and Fifth Tests unless the Australian Board retracted the accusation of unsporting behaviour . The MCC responded angrily to the accusations of unsporting conduct , played down the Australian claims about the danger of Bodyline and threatened to call off the tour . The series had become a major diplomatic incident by this stage , and many people saw Bodyline as damaging to an international relationship that needed to remain strong . The public in both England and Australia reacted with outrage towards the other nation . Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven , the Governor of South Australia , who was in England at the time , expressed his concern to J. H. Thomas , the British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs that this would cause a significant impact on trade between the nations . The standoff was settled only when Australian Prime Minister Joseph Lyons met members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade . Given this understanding , the Board withdrew the allegation of unsportsmanlike behaviour two days before the fourth Test , thus saving the tour . However , correspondence continued for almost a year . Fingleton was dropped after scoring a pair in the third Test , and England won the final two matches to win the series 4 – 1 .
= Greco @-@ Persian Wars =
The Greco @-@ Persian Wars ( also often called the Persian Wars ) were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia ( modern @-@ day Iran ) and Greek city @-@ states that started in 499 BC and lasted until 449 BC . The collision between the fractious political world of the Greeks and the enormous empire of the Persians began when Cyrus the Great conquered the Greek @-@ inhabited region of Ionia in 547 BC . Struggling to rule the independent @-@ minded cities of Ionia , the Persians appointed tyrants to rule each of them . This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike .
In 499 BC , the tyrant of Miletus , Aristagoras , embarked on an expedition to conquer the island of Naxos , with Persian support ; however , the expedition was a debacle and , pre @-@ empting his dismissal , Aristagoras incited all of Hellenic Asia Minor into rebellion against the Persians . This was the beginning of the Ionian Revolt , which would last until 493 BC , progressively drawing more regions of Asia Minor into the conflict . Aristagoras secured military support from Athens and Eretria , and in 498 BC these forces helped to capture and burn the Persian regional capital of Sardis . The Persian king Darius the Great vowed to have revenge on Athens and Eretria for this act . The revolt continued , with the two sides effectively stalemated throughout 497 – 495 BC . In 494 BC , the Persians regrouped , and attacked the epicentre of the revolt in Miletus . At the Battle of Lade , the Ionians suffered a decisive defeat , and the rebellion collapsed , with the final members being stamped out the following year .
Seeking to secure his empire from further revolts and from the interference of the mainland Greeks , Darius embarked on a scheme to conquer Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria for the burning of Sardis . The first Persian invasion of Greece began in 492 BC , with the Persian general Mardonius successfully re @-@ subjugating Thrace and conquering Macedon before several mishaps forced an early end to the rest of the campaign . In 490 BC a second force was sent to Greece , this time across the Aegean Sea , under the command of Datis and Artaphernes . This expedition subjugated the Cyclades , before besieging , capturing and razing Eretria . However , while en route to attack Athens , the Persian force was decisively defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon , ending Persian efforts for the time being .
Darius then began to plan to completely conquer Greece , but died in 486 BC and responsibility for the conquest passed to his son Xerxes . In 480 BC , Xerxes personally led the second Persian invasion of Greece with one of the largest ancient armies ever assembled . Victory over the Allied Greek states at the famous Battle of Thermopylae allowed the Persians to torch an evacuated Athens and overrun most of Greece . However , while seeking to destroy the combined Greek fleet , the Persians suffered a severe defeat at the Battle of Salamis . The following year , the confederated Greeks went on the offensive , defeating the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea , and ending the invasion of Greece .
The allied Greeks followed up their success by destroying the rest of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mycale , before expelling Persian garrisons from Sestos ( 479 BC ) and Byzantium ( 478 BC ) . The actions of the general Pausanias at the siege of Byzantium alienated many of the Greek states from the Spartans , and the anti @-@ Persian alliance was therefore reconstituted around Athenian leadership , called the Delian League . The Delian League continued to campaign against Persia for the next three decades , beginning with the expulsion of the remaining Persian garrisons from Europe . At the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 BC , the League won a double victory that finally secured freedom for the cities of Ionia . However , the League 's involvement in an Egyptian revolt ( from 460 – 454 BC ) resulted in a disastrous defeat , and further campaigning was suspended . A fleet was sent to Cyprus in 451 BC , but achieved little , and when it withdrew the Greco @-@ Persian Wars drew to a quiet end . Some historical sources suggest the end of hostilities was marked by a peace treaty between Athens and Persia , the so @-@ called Peace of Callias .
= = Origins of the conflict = =
The Greeks of the classical period believed that , in the dark age that followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization , significant numbers of Greeks fled and had emigrated to Asia Minor and settled there . Modern historians generally accept this migration as historic ( but separate from the later colonization of the Mediterranean by the Greeks ) . There are , however , those who believe the Ionian migration cannot be explained as simply as the classical Greeks claimed . These settlers were from three tribal groups : the Aeolians , Dorians and Ionians . The Ionians had settled about the coasts of Lydia and Caria , founding the twelve cities that made up Ionia . These cities were Miletus , Myus and Priene in Caria ; Ephesus , Colophon , Lebedos , Teos , Clazomenae , Phocaea and Erythrae in Lydia ; and the islands of Samos and Chios . Although the Ionian cities were independent of one another , they recognized their shared heritage and supposedly had a common temple and meeting place , the Panionion . They thus formed a ' cultural league ' , to which they would admit no other cities , or even other tribal Ionians .
The cities of Ionia remained independent until they were conquered by the Lydians of western Asia Minor . The Lydian king Alyattes II attacked Miletus , a conflict that ended with a treaty of alliance between Miletus and Lydia , that meant that Miletus would have internal autonomy but follow Lydia in foreign affairs . At this time , the Lydians were also in conflict with the Median Empire , and the Milesians sent an army to aid the Lydians in this conflict . Eventually a peaceable settlement was established between the Medes and the Lydians , with the Halys River set up as the border between the kingdoms . The famous Lydian king Croesus succeeded his father Alyattes in around 560 BC and set about conquering the other Greek city states of Asia Minor .
The Persian prince Cyrus led a rebellion against the last Median king Astyages in 553 BC . Cyrus was a grandson of Astyages and was supported by part of the Median aristocracy . By 550 BC , the rebellion was over , and Cyrus had emerged victorious , founding the Achaemenid Empire in place of the Median kingdom in the process . Croesus saw the disruption in the Median Empire and Persia as an opportunity to extend his realm and asked the oracle of Delphi whether he should attack them . The Oracle supposedly replied the famously ambiguous answer that " if Croesus was to cross the Halys he would destroy a great empire " . Blind to the ambiguity of this prophecy , Croesus attacked the Persians , but was eventually defeated and Lydia fell to Cyrus . By crossing the Halys , Croesus had indeed destroyed a great empire - his own .
While fighting the Lydians , Cyrus had sent messages to the Ionians asking them to revolt against Lydian rule , which the Ionians had refused to do . After Cyrus finished the conquest of Lydia , the Ionian cities now offered to be his subjects under the same terms as they had been subjects of Croesus . Cyrus refused , citing the Ionians ' unwillingness to help him previously . The Ionians thus prepared to defend themselves , and Cyrus sent the Median general Harpagus to conquer them . He first attacked Phocaea ; the Phocaeans decided to abandon their city entirely and sail into exile in Sicily , rather than become Persian subjects ( although many later returned ) . Some Teians also chose to emigrate when Harpagus attacked Teos , but the rest of the Ionians remained , and were each in turn conquered .
In the years following their conquest , the Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule . Elsewhere in the empire , Cyrus identified elite native groups such as the priesthood of Judea – to help him rule his new subjects . No such group existed in Greek cities at this time ; while there was usually an aristocracy , this was inevitably divided into feuding factions . The Persians thus settled for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city , even though this drew them into the Ionians ' internal conflicts . Furthermore , certain tyrants might develop an independent streak and have to be replaced . The tyrants themselves faced a difficult task ; they had to deflect the worst of their fellow citizens ' hatred , while staying in the favour of the Persians . In the past , Greek states had often been ruled by tyrants , but that form of government was on the decline . Past tyrants had also tended and needed to be strong and able leaders , whereas the rulers appointed by the Persians were simply place @-@ men . Backed by the Persian military might , these tyrants did not need the support of the population , and could thus rule absolutely . On the eve of the Greco @-@ Persian wars , it is probable that the Ionian population had become discontent and was ready for rebellion .
= = = Warfare in the ancient Mediterranean = = =
In the Greco @-@ Persian wars both sides made use of spear @-@ armed infantry and light missile troops . Greek armies placed the emphasis on heavier infantry , while Persian armies favoured lighter troop types .
= = = = Persia = = = =
The Persian military consisted of a diverse group of men drawn across the various nations of the empire . However , according to Herodotus , there was at least a general conformity in armour and style of fighting . The troops were usually armed with a bow , a ' short spear ' and a sword or axe , carried a wicker shield . They wore a leather jerkin , although individuals of high stature wore high quality metal armor . The Persians most likely used their bows to wear down the enemy , then closed in to deliver the final blow with spears and swords . The first rank of Persian infantry formations , the so @-@ called ' sparabara ' , had no bows , carried larger wicker shields and were sometimes armed with longer spears . Their role was to protect the back ranks of the formation . The cavalry probably fought as lightly armed missile cavalry .
= = = = Greece = = = =
The style of warfare between the Greek city @-@ states , which dates back until at least 650 BC ( as dated by the ' Chigi vase ' ) , was based around the hoplite phalanx supported by missile troops . The ' hoplites ' were foot soldiers usually drawn from the members of the middle @-@ classes ( in Athens called the zeugites ) , who could afford the equipment necessary to fight in this manner . The heavy armour usually included a breastplate or a linothorax , greaves , a helmet , and a large round , concave shield ( the aspis or hoplon ) . Hoplites were armed with long spears ( the dory ) , which were significantly longer than Persian spears , and a sword ( the xiphos ) . The heavy armour and longer spears made them superior in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and gave them significant protection against ranged attacks . Lightly armed skirmishers , the psiloi also comprised a part of Greek armies growing in importance during the conflict ; at the Battle of Plataea , for instance , they may have formed over half the Greek army . Use of cavalry in Greek armies is not reported in the battles of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
= = = = Naval warfare = = = =
At the beginning of the conflict , all naval forces in the eastern Mediterranean had switched to the trireme , a warship powered by three banks of oars . The most common naval tactics during the period were ramming ( Greek triremes were equipped with a cast @-@ bronze ram at the bows ) , or boarding by ship @-@ borne marines . More experienced naval powers had by this time also begun to use a manoeuver known as diekplous . It is not clear what this was , but it probably involved sailing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side .
The Persian naval forces were primarily provided by the seafaring people of the empire : Phoenicians , Egyptians , Cilicians and Cypriots . Other coastal regions of the Persian Empire would contribute ships throughout the course of the wars .
= = Ionian Revolt ( 499 – 493 BC ) = =
The Ionian Revolt and associated revolts in Aeolis , Doris , Cyprus , and Caria were military rebellions by several regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule , lasting from 499 to 493 BC . At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them , along with opposition to the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants , Histiaeus and Aristagoras . In 499 BC the then tyrant of Miletus , Aristagoras , launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap Artaphernes to conquer Naxos , in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus ( both financially and in terms of prestige ) . The mission was a debacle , and sensing his imminent removal as tyrant , Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king Darius the Great .
Struggling to rule the independent @-@ minded cities of Ionia , the Persians appointed local tyrants to rule each of them . This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike . In 498 BC , supported by troops from Athens and Eretria , the Ionians marched on , captured , and burnt Sardis . However , on their return journey to Ionia , they were followed by Persian troops , and decisively beaten at the Battle of Ephesus . This campaign was the only offensive action taken by the Ionians , who subsequently went on the defensive . The Persians responded in 497 BC with a three @-@ pronged attack aimed at recapturing the outlying areas of the rebellious territory , but the spread of the revolt to Caria meant the largest army , under Darius , moved there instead . While at first campaigning successfully in Caria , this army was wiped out in an ambush at the Battle of Pedasus . This resulted in a stalemate for the rest of 496 and 495 BC .
By 494 BC the Persian army and navy had regrouped , and they made straight for the epicentre of the rebellion at Miletus . The Ionian fleet sought to defend Miletus by sea , but was defeated decisively at the Battle of Lade , after the Samians had defected . Miletus was then besieged , captured , and its population was enslaved . This double defeat effectively ended the revolt , and the Carians surrendered to the Persians as a result . The Persians spent 493 BC reducing the cities along the west coast that still held out against them , before finally imposing a peace settlement on Ionia that was considered to be both just and fair .
The Ionian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Achaemenid Empire and represents the first phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold , but Darius had vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support for the revolt . Moreover , seeing that the political situation in Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his Empire , he decided to embark on the conquest of all Greece .
= = First invasion of Greece ( 492 – 490 BC ) = =
After having reconquered Ionia , the Persians began to plan their next moves of extinguishing the threat to their empire from Greece ; and punishing Athens and Eretria . The resultant first Persian invasion of Greece consisted of two main campaigns .
= = = 492 BC : Mardonius 's campaign = = =
The first campaign , in 492 BC , was led by Darius 's son @-@ in @-@ law Mardonius , who re @-@ subjugated Thrace , which had nominally been part of the Persian empire since 513 BC . Mardonius was also able to force Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom of Persia ; it had previously been a vassal , but retained a broad degree of autonomy . However , further progress in this campaign was prevented when Mardonius 's fleet was wrecked in a storm off the coast of Mount Athos . Mardonius himself was then injured in a raid on his camp by a Thracian tribe , and after this he returned with the rest of the expedition to Asia .
The following year , having given clear warning of his plans , Darius sent ambassadors to all the cities of Greece , demanding their submission . He received it from almost all of them , except Athens and Sparta , both of whom instead executed the ambassadors . With Athens still defiant , and Sparta now also effectively at war with him , Darius ordered a further military campaign for the following year .
= = = 490 BC : Datis and Artaphernes ' campaign = = =
In 490 BC , Datis and Artaphernes ( son of the satrap Artaphernes ) were given command of an amphibious invasion force , and set sail from Cilicia . The Persian force sailed from Cilicia first to the island of Rhodes , where a Lindian Temple Chronicle records that Datis besieged the city of Lindos , but was unsuccessful . The fleet sailed next to Naxos , to punish the Naxians for their resistance to the failed expedition the Persians had mounted there a decade earlier . Many of the inhabitants fled to the mountains ; those that the Persians caught were enslaved . The Persians then burnt the city and temples of the Naxians . The fleet then proceeded to island @-@ hop across the rest of the Aegean on its way to Eretria , taking hostages and troops from each island .
The task force sailed on to Euboea , and to the first major target , Eretria . The Eretrians made no attempt to stop the Persians from landing or advancing and thus allowed themselves to be besieged . For six days , the Persians attacked the walls , with losses on both sides ; however , on the seventh day two reputable Eretrians opened the gates and betrayed the city to the Persians . The city was razed , and temples and shrines were looted and burned . Furthermore , according to Darius 's commands , the Persians enslaved all the remaining townspeople .
= = = = Battle of Marathon = = = =
The Persian fleet next headed south down the coast of Attica , landing at the bay of Marathon , roughly 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Athens Under the guidance of Miltiades , the general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians , the Athenian army marched to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon . Stalemate ensued for five days , before the Persians decided to continue onward to Athens , and began to load their troops back onto the ships . After the Persians had loaded their cavalry ( their strongest soldiers ) on the ships , the 10 @,@ 000 Athenian soldiers descended from the hills around the plain . The Greeks crushed the weaker Persian foot soldiers by routing the wings before turning towards the centre of the Persian line . The remnants of the Persian army fled to their ships and left the battle . Herodotus records that 6 @,@ 400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield ; the Athenians lost only 192 men .
As soon as the Persian survivors had put to sea , the Athenians marched as quickly as possible to Athens . They arrived in time to prevent Artaphernes from securing a landing in Athens . Seeing his opportunity lost , Artaphernes ended the year 's campaign and returned to Asia .
The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco @-@ Persian wars , showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten . It also highlighted the superiority of the more heavily armoured Greek hoplites , and showed their potential when used wisely .
= = Interbellum ( 490 – 480 BC ) = =
= = = Achaemenid Empire = = =
After the failure of the first invasion , Darius began raising a huge new army with which he intended to subjugate Greece completely . However , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , and the revolt forced an indefinite postponement of any Greek expedition . Darius died while preparing to march on Egypt , and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt , and very quickly resumed the preparations for the invasion of Greece . Since this was to be a full @-@ scale invasion , it needed longterm planning , stockpiling and conscription . Xerxes decided that the Hellespont would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe , and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos ( a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC while rounding this coastline ) . These were both feats of exceptional ambition that would have been beyond the capabilities of any other contemporary state . However , the campaign was delayed by one year because of another revolt in Egypt and Babylonia .
The Persians had the sympathy of several Greek city @-@ states , including Argos , which had pledged to defect when the Persians reached their borders . The Aleuadae family , who ruled Larissa in Thessaly , saw the invasion as an opportunity to extend their power . Thebes , though not explicitly ' Medising ' , was suspected of being willing to aid the Persians once the invasion force arrived .
In 481 BC , after roughly four years of preparation , Xerxes began to muster the troops to invade Europe . Herodotus gives the names of 46 nations from which troops were drafted . The Persian army was gathered in Asia Minor in the summer and autumn of 481 BC . The armies from the Eastern satrapies were gathered in Kritala , Cappadocia and were led by Xerxes to Sardis where they passed the winter . Early in spring , it moved to Abydos where it was joined with the armies of the western satrapies . Then the army that Xerxes had mustered marched towards Europe , crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges .
= = = = Size of the Persian forces = = = =
The numbers of troops that Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece have been the subject of endless dispute . Most modern scholars reject as unrealistic the figures of 2 @.@ 5 million given by Herodotus and other ancient sources because the victors likely miscalculated or exaggerated . The topic has been hotly debated , but the consensus revolves around the figure of 200 @,@ 000 .
The size of the Persian fleet is also disputed , although perhaps less so . Other ancient authors agree with Herodotus ' number of 1 @,@ 207 . These numbers are by ancient standards consistent , and this could be interpreted that a number around 1 @,@ 200 is correct . Among modern scholars , some have accepted this number , although suggesting the number must have been lower by the Battle of Salamis . Other recent works on the Persian Wars reject this number , viewing 1 @,@ 207 as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad . These works generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean .
= = = Greek city states = = =
= = = = Athens = = = =
A year after Marathon , Miltiades , the hero of Marathon , was injured in a military campaign to Paros . Taking advantage of his incapacitation , the powerful Alcmaeonid family arranged for him to be prosecuted for the failure of the campaign . A huge fine was imposed on Miltiades for the crime of ' deceiving the Athenian people ' , but he died weeks later from his wound .
The politician Themistocles , with a power base firmly established amongst the poor , filled the vacuum left by Miltiades 's death , and in the following decade became the most influential politician in Athens . During this period , Themistocles continued to support the expansion of Athens ' naval power . The Athenians were aware throughout this period that the Persian interest in Greece had not ended , and Themistocles 's naval policies may be seen in the light of the potential threat from Persia . Aristides , Themistocles 's great rival , and champion of the zeugites ( the ' upper hoplite @-@ class ' ) vigorously opposed such a policy .
In 483 BC , a vast new seam of silver was found in the Athenian mines at Laurium . Themistocles proposed that the silver should be used to build a new fleet of triremes , ostensibly to assist in a long running war with Aegina . Plutarch suggests that Themistocles deliberately avoided mentioning Persia , believing that it was too distant a threat for the Athenians to act on , but that countering Persia was the fleet 's aim . Fine suggests that many Athenians must have admitted that such a fleet would be needed to resist the Persians , whose preparations for the coming campaign were known . Themistocles 's motion was passed easily , despite strong opposition from Aristides . Its passage was probably due to the desire of many of the poorer Athenians for paid employment as rowers in the fleet . It is unclear from the ancient sources whether 100 or 200 ships were initially authorised ; both Fine and Holland suggest that at first 100 ships were authorised and that a second vote increased this number to the levels seen during the second invasion . Aristides continued to oppose Themistocles 's policy , and tension between the two camps built over the winter , so the ostracism of 482 BC became a direct contest between Themistocles and Aristides . In what Holland characterises as , in essence , the world 's first referendum , Aristides was ostracised , and Themistocles 's policies were endorsed . Indeed , becoming aware of the Persian preparations for the coming invasion , the Athenians voted to build more ships than those for which Themistocles had asked . Thus , during the preparations for the Persian invasion , Themistocles had become the leading politician in Athens .
= = = = Sparta = = = =
The Spartan king Demaratus had been stripped of his kingship in 491 BC , and replaced with his cousin Leotychides . Sometime after 490 BC , the humiliated Demaratus had chosen to go into exile , and had made his way to Darius 's court in Susa . Demaratus would from then on act as an advisor to Darius , and later Xerxes , on Greek affairs , and accompanied Xerxes during the second Persian invasion . At the end of Herodotus 's book 7 , there is an anecdote relating that prior to the second invasion , Demaratus sent an apparently blank wax tablet to Sparta . When the wax was removed , a message was found scratched on the wooden backing , warning the Spartans of Xerxes 's plans . However , many historians believe that this chapter was inserted into the text by a later author , possibly to fill a gap between the end of book 7 and the start of book 8 . The veracity of this anecdote is therefore unclear .
= = = = Hellenic alliance = = = =
In 481 BC , Xerxes sent ambassadors to city states throughout Greece , asking for food , land , and water as tokens of their submission to Persia . However , Xerxes ' ambassadors deliberately avoided Athens and Sparta , hoping thereby that those states would not learn of the Persians ' plans . States that were opposed to Persia thus began to coalesce around these two city states . A congress of states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC , and a confederate alliance of Greek city @-@ states was formed . This confederation had powers both to send envoys to ask for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation . Herodotus does not formulate an abstract name for the union but simply calls them " οἱ Ἕλληνες " ( the Greeks ) and " the Greeks who had sworn alliance " ( Godley translation ) or " the Greeks who had banded themselves together " ( Rawlinson translation ) . From now on , they will be referred to as the ' Allies ' . Sparta and Athens had a leading role in the congress but the interests of all the states influenced defensive strategy . Little is known about the internal workings of the congress or the discussions during its meetings . Only 70 of the nearly 700 Greek city @-@ states sent representatives . Nevertheless , this was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world , especially since many of the city @-@ states present were still technically at war with one another .
= = Second invasion of Greece ( 480 – 479 BC ) = =
= = = Early 480 BC : Thrace , Macedonia , and Thessaly = = =
Having crossed into Europe in April 480 BC , the Persian army began its march to Greece , taking 3 months to travel unopposed from the Hellespont to Therme . It paused at Doriskos where it was joined by the fleet . Xerxes reorganized the troops into tactical units replacing the national formations used earlier for the march .
The Allied ' congress ' met again in the spring of 480 BC and agreed to defend the narrow Vale of Tempe on the borders of Thessaly and block Xerxes 's advance . However , once there , they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelmingly large , thus the Greeks retreated . Shortly afterwards , they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont . At this point , a second strategy was suggested by Themistocles to the allies . The route to southern Greece ( Boeotia , Attica and the Peloponnesus ) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the narrow pass of Thermopylae . This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites , despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians . Furthermore , to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea , the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium . This dual strategy was adopted by the congress . However , the Peloponnesian cities made fall @-@ back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should it come to it , while the women and children of Athens were evacuated to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen .
= = = August 480 BC : Battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium = = =
Xerxes 's estimated time of arrival at Thermopylae coincided with both the Olympic Games and the festival of Carneia . For the Spartans , warfare during these periods was considered sacrilegious . Despite the uncomfortable timing , the Spartans considered the threat so grave that they dispatched their king Leonidas I with his personal bodyguard ( the Hippeis ) of 300 men . The customary elite young men in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had children . Leonidas was supported by contingents from the Allied Peloponnesian cities , and other forces that the Allies picked up on the way to Thermopylae . The Allies proceeded to occupy the pass , rebuilt the wall the Phocians had built at the narrowest point of the pass , and waited for Xerxes 's arrival .
When the Persians arrived at Thermopylae in mid @-@ August , they initially waited for three days for the Allies to disperse . When Xerxes was eventually persuaded that the Allies intended to contest the pass , he sent his troops to attack . However , the Allied position was ideally suited to hoplite warfare , the Persian contingents being forced to attack the Greek phalanx head on . The Allies withstood two full days of Persian attacks , including those by the elite Persian Immortals . However , towards the end of the second day , they were betrayed by a local resident named Ephialtes who revealed to Xerxes a mountain path that led behind the Allied lines . Made aware by scouts that they were being outflanked , Leonidas dismissed most of the Allied army , remaining to guard the rear with perhaps 2 @,@ 000 men . On the final day of the battle , the remaining Allies sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians in the wider part of the pass to slaughter as many Persians as they could , but eventually they were all killed or captured .
Simultaneous with the battle at Thermopylae , an Allied naval force of 271 triremes defended the Straits of Artemisium against the Persians , thus protecting the flank of the forces at Thermopylae . Here the Allied fleet held off the Persians for three days ; however , on the third evening the Allies received news of the fate of Leonidas and the Allied troops at Thermopylae . Since the Allied fleet was badly damaged , and since it no longer needed to defend the flank of Thermopylae , the Allies retreated from Artemisium to the island of Salamis .
= = = September 480 BC : Battle of Salamis = = =
Victory at Thermopylae meant that all Boeotia fell to Xerxes ; Attica was then open to invasion . The remaining population of Athens was evacuated , with the aid of the Allied fleet , to Salamis . The Peloponnesian Allies began to prepare a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth , building a wall , and demolishing the road from Megara , abandoning Athens to the Persians . Athens thus fell to the Persians ; the small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis were eventually defeated , and Xerxes then ordered Athens to be razed .
The Persians had now captured most of Greece , but Xerxes had perhaps not expected such defiance ; his priority was now to complete the war as quickly as possible . If Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy , he would be in a strong position to force an Allied surrender ; conversely by avoiding destruction , or as Themistocles hoped , by destroying the Persian fleet , the Allies could prevent conquest from being completed . The Allied fleet thus remained off the coast of Salamis into September , despite the imminent arrival of the Persians . Even after Athens fell , the Allied fleet remained off the coast of Salamis , trying to lure the Persian fleet to battle . Partly because of deception by Themistocles , the navies met in the cramped Straits of Salamis . There , the Persian numbers became a hindrance , as ships struggled to maneuver and became disorganised . Seizing the opportunity , the Allied fleet attacked , and scored a decisive victory , sinking or capturing at least 200 Persian ships , therefore ensuring the safety of the Peloponnessus .
According to Herodotus , after the loss of the battle Xerxes attempted to build a causeway across the channel to attack the Athenian evacuees on Salamis , but this project was soon abandoned . With the Persians ' naval superiority removed , Xerxes feared that the Allies might sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges . His general Mardonius volunteered to remain in Greece and complete the conquest with a hand @-@ picked group of troops , while Xerxes retreated to Asia with the bulk of the army . Mardonius over @-@ wintered in Boeotia and Thessaly ; the Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt @-@ out city for the winter .
= = = June 479 BC : Battles of Plataea and Mycale = = =
Over the winter , there was some tension among the Allies . In particular , the Athenians , who were not protected by the Isthmus , but whose fleet was the key to the security of the Peloponnesus , felt that they had been treated unfairly , and so they refused to join the Allied navy in the spring . Mardonius remained in Thessaly , knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless , while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponessus . Mardonius moved to break the stalemate , by offering peace to the Athenians , using Alexander I of Macedon as an intermediate . The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was on hand to hear the Athenians reject the Persians ' offer . Athens was thus evacuated again , and the Persians marched south and re @-@ took possession of it . Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis . Athens , with Megara and Plataea , sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance , and threatening to accept the Persian terms if they were not aided . In response , the Spartans summoned a large army from the Peloponnese cities and marched to meet the Persians .
When Mardonius heard the Allied army was on the march , he retreated into Boeotia , near Plataea , trying to draw the Allies into open terrain where he could use his cavalry . The Allied army , under the command of the regent Pausanias , stayed on high ground above Plataea to protect themselves against such tactics . After several days of maneuver and stalemate , Pausanias ordered a night @-@ time retreat towards the Allies ' original positions . This maneuver went awry , leaving the Athenians , and Spartans and Tegeans isolated on separate hills , with the other contingents scattered further away near Plataea . Seeing that the Persians might never have a better opportunity to attack , Mardonius ordered his whole army forward . However , the Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armoured Greek hoplites , and the Spartans broke through to Mardonius 's bodyguard and killed him . After this the Persian force dissolved in rout ; 40 @,@ 000 troops managed to escape via the road to Thessaly , but the rest fled to the Persian camp where they were trapped and slaughtered by the Greeks , finalising the Greek victory .
Herodotus recounts that , on the afternoon of the Battle of Plataea , a rumour of their victory at that battle reached the Allies ' navy , at that time off the coast of Mount Mycale in Ionia . Their morale boosted , the Allied marines fought and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Mycale that same day , destroying the remnants of the Persian fleet , crippling Xerxes 's sea power , and marking the ascendancy of the Greek fleet . Whilst many modern historians doubt that Mycale took place on the same day as Plataea , the battle may well only have occurred once the Allies received news of the events unfolding in Greece .
= = Greek counterattack ( 479 – 478 BC ) = =
= = = Mycale and Ionia = = =
Mycale was , in many ways , the beginning of a new phase in the conflict , in which the Greeks would go on the offensive against the Persians . The immediate result of the victory at Mycale was a second revolt amongst the Greek cities of Asia Minor . The Samians and Milesians had actively fought against the Persians at Mycale , thus openly declaring their rebellion , and the other cities followed in their example .
= = = Sestos = = =
Shortly after Mycale , the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges , but found that this had already been done . The Peloponnesians sailed home , but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos , still held by the Persians . The Persians and their allies made for Sestos , the strongest town in the region . Amongst them was one Oeobazus of Cardia , who had with him the cables and other equipment from the pontoon bridges . The Persian governor , Artayctes had not prepared for a siege , not believing that the Allies would attack . The Athenians therefore were able to lay a siege around Sestos . The siege dragged on for several months , causing some discontent amongst the Athenian troops , but eventually , when the food ran out in the City , the Persians fled at night from the least guarded area of the city . The Athenians were thus able to take possession of the city the next day .
Most of the Athenian troops were sent straight away to pursue the Persians . The party of Oeobazus was captured by a Thracian tribe , and Oeobazus was sacrificed to the god Plistorus . The Athenians eventually caught Artayctes , killing some of the Persians with him but taking most of them , including Artayctes , captive . Artayctes was crucified at the request of the people of Elaeus , a town which Artayctes had plundered while governor of the Chersonesos . The Athenians , having pacified the region , then sailed back to Athens , taking the cables from the pontoon bridges with them as trophies .
= = = Cyprus = = =
In 478 BC , still operating under the terms of the Hellenic alliance , the Allies sent out a fleet composed of 20 Peloponnesian and 30 Athenian ships supported by an unspecified number of allies , under the overall command of Pausanias . According to Thucydides , this fleet sailed to Cyprus and " subdued most of the island " . Exactly what Thucydides means by this is unclear . Sealey suggests that this was essentially a raid to gather as much treasure as possible from the Persian garrisons on Cyprus . There is no indication that the Allies attempted to take possession of the island , and , shortly after , they sailed to Byzantium . Certainly , the fact that the Delian League repeatedly campaigned in Cyprus suggests either that the island was not garrisoned by the Allies in 478 BC , or that the garrisons were quickly expelled .
= = = Byzantium = = =
The Greek fleet then sailed to Byzantium , which they besieged and eventually captured . Control of both Sestos and Byzantium gave the allies command of the straits between Europe and Asia ( over which the Persians had crossed ) , and allowed them access to the merchant trade of the Black Sea .
The aftermath of the siege was to prove troublesome for Pausanias . Exactly what happened is unclear ; Thucydides gives few details , although later writers added plenty of lurid insinuations . Through his arrogance and arbitrary actions ( Thucydides says " violence " ) , Pausanias managed to alienate many of the Allied contingents , particularly those that had just been freed from Persian overlordship . The Ionians and others asked the Athenians to take leadership of the campaign , to which they agreed . The Spartans , hearing of his behaviour , recalled Pausanias and tried him on charges of collaborating with the enemy . Although he was acquitted , his reputation was tarnished and he was not restored to his command .
Pausanias returned to Byzantium as a private citizen in 477 BC , and took command of the city until he was expelled by the Athenians . He then crossed the Bosporus and settled in Kolonai in the Troad , until he was again accused of collaborating with the Persians and was recalled by the Spartans for a trial after which he starved himself to death . The timescale is unclear , but Pausanias may have remained in possession of Byzantium until 470 BC .
In the meantime , the Spartans had sent Dorkis to Byzantium with a small force , to take command of the Allied force . However , he found that the rest of the Allies were no longer prepared to accept Spartan leadership , and therefore returned home .
= = Wars of the Delian League ( 477 – 449 BC ) = =
= = = Delian League = = =
After Byzantium , the Spartans were allegedly eager to end their involvement in the war . The Spartans were supposedly of the view that , with the liberation of mainland Greece and the Greek cities of Asia Minor , the war 's purpose had already been reached . There was also perhaps a feeling that securing long @-@ term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible . In the aftermath of Mycale , the Spartan king Leotychides had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion . Xanthippus , the Athenian commander at Mycale , had furiously rejected this ; the Ionian cities were originally Athenian colonies , and the Athenians , if no @-@ one else , would protect the Ionians . This marks the point at which the leadership of the Greek Alliance effectively passed to the Athenians . With the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantium , the leadership of the Athenians became explicit .
The loose alliance of city @-@ states that had fought against Xerxes 's invasion had been dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league . With the withdrawal of these states , a congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians . This alliance , now including many of the Aegean islands , was formally constituted as the ' First Athenian Alliance ' , commonly known as the Delian League . According to Thucydides , the official aim of the League was to " avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king " . In reality , this goal was divided into three main efforts — to prepare for future invasion , to seek revenge against Persia , and to organize a means of dividing spoils of war . The members were given a choice of either supplying armed forces or paying a tax to the joint treasury ; most states chose the tax .
= = = Campaigns against Persia = = =
Throughout the 470s BC , the Delian League campaigned in Thrace and the Aegean to remove the remaining Persian garrisons from the region , primarily under the command of the Athenian politician Cimon . In the early part of the next decade , Cimon began campaigning in Asia Minor , seeking to strengthen the Greek position there . At the Battle of the Eurymedon in Pamphylia , the Athenians and allied fleet achieved a stunning double victory , destroying a Persian fleet and then landing the ships ' marines to attack and rout the Persian army . After this battle , the Persians took an essentially passive role in the conflict , anxious not to risk battle if possible .
Towards the end of the 460s BC , the Athenians took the ambitious decision to support a revolt in the Egyptian satrapy of the Persian empire . Although the Greek task force achieved initial successes , they were unable to capture the Persian garrison in Memphis , despite a 3 @-@ year long siege . The Persians then counterattacked , and the Athenian force was itself besieged for 18 months , before being wiped out . This disaster , coupled with ongoing warfare in Greece , dissuaded the Athenians from resuming conflict with Persia . In 451 BC however , a truce was agreed in Greece , and Cimon was then able to lead an expedition to Cyprus . However , while besieging Kition , Cimon died , and the Athenian force decided to withdraw , winning another double victory at the Battle of Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus in order to extricate themselves . This campaign marked the end of hostilities between the Delian League and Persia , and therefore the end of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
= = Peace with Persia = =
After the Battle of Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus , Thucydides makes no further mention of conflict with the Persians , saying that the Greeks simply returned home . Diodorus , on the other hand , claims that in the aftermath of Salamis , a full @-@ blown peace treaty ( the " Peace of Callias " ) was agreed with the Persians . Diodorus was probably following the history of Ephorus at this point , who in turn was presumably influenced by his teacher Isocrates — from whom there is the earliest reference to the supposed peace , in 380 BC . Even during the 4th century BC , the idea of the treaty was controversial , and two authors from that period , Callisthenes and Theopompus , appear to reject its existence .
It is possible that the Athenians had attempted to negotiate with the Persians previously . Plutarch suggests that in the aftermath of the victory at the Eurymedon , Artaxerxes had agreed a peace treaty with the Greeks , even naming Callias as the Athenian ambassador involved . However , as Plutarch admits , Callisthenes denied that such a peace was made at this point ( c . 466 BC ) . Herodotus also mentions , in passing , an Athenian embassy headed by Callias , which was sent to Susa to negotiate with Artaxerxes . This embassy included some Argive representatives and can probably be therefore dated to c . 461 BC ( after an alliance was agreed between Athens and Argos ) . This embassy may have been an attempt to reach some kind of peace agreement , and it has even been suggested that the failure of these hypothetical negotiations led to the Athenian decision to support the Egyptian revolt . The ancient sources therefore disagree as to whether there was an official peace or not , and , if there was , when it was agreed .
Opinion amongst modern historians is also split ; for instance , Fine accepts the concept of the Peace of Callias , whereas Sealey effectively rejects it . Holland accepts that some kind of accommodation was made between Athens and Persia , but no actual treaty . Fine argues that Callisthenes 's denial that a treaty was made after the Eurymedon does not preclude a peace being made at another point . Further , he suggests that Theopompus was actually referring to a treaty that had allegedly been negotiated with Persia in 423 BC . If these views are correct , it would remove one major obstacle to the acceptance of the treaty 's existence . A further argument for the existence of the treaty is the sudden withdrawal of the Athenians from Cyprus in 449 BC , which Fine suggests makes most sense in the light of some kind of peace agreement . On the other hand , if there was indeed some kind of accommodation , Thucydides 's failure to mention it is odd . In his digression on the pentekontaetia , his aim is to explain the growth of Athenian power , and such a treaty , and the fact that the Delian allies were not released from their obligations after it , would have marked a major step in the Athenian ascendancy . Conversely , it has been suggested that certain passages elsewhere in Thucydides 's history are best interpreted as referring to a peace agreement . There is thus no clear consensus amongst modern historians as to the treaty 's existence .
The ancient sources that give details of the treaty are reasonably consistent in their description of the terms :
All Greek cities of Asia were to ' live by their own laws ' or ' be autonomous ' ( depending on translation ) .
Persian satraps ( and presumably their armies ) were not to travel west of the Halys River ( Isocrates ) or closer than a day 's journey on horseback to the Aegean Sea ( Callisthenes ) or closer than three days ' journey on foot to the Aegean Sea ( Ephorus and Diodorus ) .
No Persian warship was to sail west of Phaselis ( on the southern coast of Asia Minor ) , nor west of the Cyanaean rocks ( probably at the eastern end of the Bosporus , on the north coast ) .
If the terms were observed by the king and his generals , then the Athenians were not to send troops to lands ruled by Persia .
From the Persian perspective , such terms would not be so humiliating as they might at first seem . The Persians already allowed the Greek cities of Asia to be governed under their own laws ( under the reorganization conducted by Artaphernes , following the Ionian Revolt ) . By these terms , the Ionians were still Persian subjects , as they had been . Furthermore , Athens had already demonstrated their superiority at sea at the Eurymedon and Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus , so any legal limitations for the Persian fleet were nothing more than " de jure " recognition of military realities . In exchange for limiting the movement of Persian troops in one region of the realm , Artaxerxes secured a promise from the Athenians to stay out of his entire realm .
= = Aftermath and later conflicts = =
Towards the end of the conflict with Persia , the process by which the Delian League became the Athenian Empire reached its conclusion . The allies of Athens were not released from their obligations to provide either money or ships , despite the cessation of hostilities . In Greece , the First Peloponnesian War between the power @-@ blocs of Athens and Sparta , which had continued on / off since 460 BC , finally ended in 445 BC , with the agreement of a thirty @-@ year truce . However , the growing enmity between Sparta and Athens would lead , just 14 years later , into the outbreak of the Second Peloponnesian War . This disastrous conflict , which dragged on for 27 years , would eventually result in the utter destruction of Athenian power , the dismemberment of the Athenian empire , and the establishment of a Spartan hegemony over Greece . However , not just Athens suffered — the conflict would significantly weaken the whole of Greece .
Repeatedly defeated in battle by the Greeks , and plagued by internal rebellions that hindered their ability to fight the Greeks , after 449 BC Artaxerxes I and his successors instead adopted a policy of divide @-@ and @-@ rule . Avoiding fighting the Greeks themselves , the Persians instead attempted to set Athens against Sparta , regularly bribing politicians to achieve their aims . In this way , they ensured that the Greeks remained distracted by internal conflicts , and were unable to turn their attentions to Persia . There was no open conflict between the Greeks and Persia until 396 BC , when the Spartan king Agesilaus briefly invaded Asia Minor ; as Plutarch points out , the Greeks were far too busy overseeing the destruction of their own power to fight against the " barbarians " .
If the wars of the Delian League shifted the balance of power between Greece and Persia in favour of the Greeks , then the subsequent half @-@ century of internecine conflict in Greece did much to restore the balance of power to Persia . The Persians entered the Peloponnesian War in 411 BC forming a mutual @-@ defence pact with Sparta and combining their naval resources against Athens in exchange for sole Persian control of Ionia . In 404 BC when Cyrus the Younger attempted to seize the Persian throne , he recruited 13 @,@ 000 Greek mercenaries from all over the Greek world , of which Sparta sent 700 – 800 , believing they were following the terms of the defence pact and unaware of the army 's true purpose . After the failure of Cyrus , Persia tried to regain control of the Ionian city @-@ states , which had rebelled during the conflict . The Ionians refused to capitulate and called upon Sparta for assistance , which she provided , in 396 – 395 BC . Athens , however , sided with the Persians , which led in turn to another large @-@ scale conflict in Greece , the Corinthian War . Towards the end of that conflict , in 387 BC , Sparta sought the aid of Persia to shore up her position . Under the so @-@ called " King 's Peace " that brought the war to an end , Artaxerxes II demanded and received the return of the cities of Asia Minor from the Spartans , in return for which the Persians threatened to make war on any Greek state that did not make peace . This humiliating treaty , which undid all the Greek gains of the previous century , sacrificed the Greeks of Asia Minor so that the Spartans could maintain their hegemony over Greece . It is in the aftermath of this treaty that Greek orators began to refer to the Peace of Callias ( whether fictional or not ) , as a counterpoint to the shame of the King 's Peace , and a glorious example of the " good old days " when the Greeks of the Aegean had been freed from Persian rule by the Delian League .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Herodotus , The Histories ( Godley translation , 1920 )
Commentary : W.W. How ; J. Wells ( 1990 ) . A commentary on Herodotus . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 872139 @-@ 0 .
Thucydides , History of the Peloponnesian War
Xenophon , Anabasis , Hellenica
Plutarch , Parallel Lives ; Themistocles , Aristides , Pericles , Cimon
Diodorus Siculus , Bibliotheca historica
Cornelius Nepos , Lives of the Eminent Commanders ; Miltiades , Themistocles
= = = Modern sources = = =
Boardman J ; Bury JB ; Cook SA ; Adcock FA ; Hammond NGL ; Charlesworth MP ; Lewis DM ; Baynes NH ; Ostwald M ; Seltman CT ( 1988 ) . The Cambridge Ancient History , vol . 5 . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 22804 @-@ 2 .
Burn , A.R. ( 1985 ) . " Persia and the Greeks " . In Ilya Gershevitch , ed . The Cambridge History of Iran , Volume 2 : The Median and Achaemenid Periods The Cambridge Ancient History , vol . 5 . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 22804 @-@ 2 .
Dandamaev , M. A. ( 1989 ) . A political history of the Achaemenid empire ( translated by Willem Vogelsang ) . BRILL . ISBN 90 @-@ 04 @-@ 09172 @-@ 6 .
de Souza , Philip ( 2003 ) . The Greek and Persian Wars , 499 – 386 BC . Osprey Publishing , ( ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 358 @-@ 6 )
Farrokh , Keveh ( 2007 ) . Shadows in the Desert : Ancient Persia at War . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 84603 @-@ 108 @-@ 7 .
Fine , John Van Antwerp ( 1983 ) . The ancient Greeks : a critical history . Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 03314 @-@ 0 .
Finley , Moses ( 1972 ) . " Introduction " . Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War ( translated by Rex Warner ) . Penguin . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044039 @-@ 9 .
Green , Peter ( 2006 ) . Diodorus Siculus – Greek history 480 – 431 BC : the alternative version ( translated by Peter Green ) . University of Texas Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 292 @-@ 71277 @-@ 4 .
Green , Peter ( 1996 ) . The Greco @-@ Persian Wars . University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20573 @-@ 1 .
Hall , Jonathon ( 2002 ) . Hellenicity : between ethnicity and culture . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 31329 @-@ 8 .
Higbie , Carolyn ( 2003 ) . The Lindian Chronicle and the Greek Creation of their Past . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 924191 @-@ 0 .
Holland , Tom ( 2006 ) . Persian Fire : The First World Empire and the Battle for the West . Abacus . ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 51311 @-@ 9 .
Kagan , Donald ( 1989 ) . The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War . Cornell University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8014 @-@ 9556 @-@ 3 .
Köster , A.J. ( 1934 ) . " Studien zur Geschichte des Antikes Seewesens " . Klio Belheft 32 .
Lazenby , JF ( 1993 ) . The Defence of Greece 490 – 479 BC . Aris & Phillips Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 85668 @-@ 591 @-@ 7 .
Osborne , Robin ( 1996 ) . Greece in the making , 1200 – 479 BC . Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 03583 @-@ X.
Roebuck , R ( 1987 ) . Cornelius Nepos – Three Lives . Bolchazy @-@ Carducci Publishers . ISBN 0 @-@ 86516 @-@ 207 @-@ 7 .
Roisman , Joseph ; Worthington , Ian ( 2011 ) . A Companion to Ancient Macedonia . John Wiley and Sons . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 44 @-@ 435163 @-@ 7 . Retrieved 2016 @-@ 03 @-@ 14 .
Rung , Eduard ( 2008 ) . " Diplomacy in Graeco – Persian relations " . In de Souza , P ; France , J. War and peace in ancient and medieval history . University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 81703 @-@ X.
Sealey , Raphael ( 1976 ) . A history of the Greek city states , ca . 700 @-@ 338 B.C. University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 03177 @-@ 6 .
Snodgrass , Anthony ( 1971 ) . The dark age of Greece : an archaeological survey of the eleventh to the eighth centuries BC . Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 93635 @-@ 7 .
Carol G. Thomas ; Craig Conant ( 2003 ) . Citadel to City @-@ State : The Transformation of Greece , 1200 – 700 B.C.E. Indiana University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 253 @-@ 21602 @-@ 8 .
Traver , Andrew ( 2002 ) . From polis to empire , the ancient world , c . 800 B.C. – A.D. 500 : a biographical dictionary . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 30942 @-@ 6 .
= 3 Words ( song ) =
" 3 Words " is a song recorded by English singer Cheryl Cole for her 2009 debut studio album of the same name . It was released in the UK and Ireland on 20 December 2009 by Fascination Records and later in 2010 by Universal Music , sometimes serving as the lead single for 3 Words . The uptempo dance @-@ pop song was written by Cole and George Pajon . It was also written and produced by will.i.am who has guest vocals on the song . 3 Words was cited by Cole as her favourite song from the album for being different from what people expected .
" 3 Words " was praised by contemporary critics who said it was " a sophisticated love song " and the " standout track " from the album . Its unconventional production abandons the use of ' verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse ' structure instead , opting for a throbbing build up to a climax . The accompanying video , directed by Saam , features the singer in various fashion ensambles often contrasting colour with will.i.am and , paying homage to Madonna . It also makes use of split screen cinematography and camera effects for the transition of scenes .
The song was promoted on Cheryl Cole 's Night In . The single was less commercially successful compared to its predecessor " Fight for This Love " but despite not peaking at number one , it went on to become Cole 's second consecutive UK top @-@ five and Irish @-@ top ten hit . It was also a top five hit in Australia and has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association and silver by the British Phonographic Industry .
= = Composition = =
" 3 Words " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song which features guest vocals from will.i.am who produced the song as well as , writing the lyrics with Cole and George Pajon . Serving as the opening and title song of Cole 's debut album , the song is written in the key of C ♯ minor with a time signature in common time and a tempo of 129 beats per minute . Noticeably missing is the standard use of a " verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse song structure " . The song 's backing track consists of a sparse yet complex chord progression of C ♯ m , G ♯ m , C ♯ and A major / C ♯ . The production features loops of acoustic guitar with a piano melody to form an " atmospheric love song " in the vocal range of G ♯ 3 to B4 .
Critics stated that the " sophisticated love song " is difficult to class by genre because it was " unconventional " , something which Cole agreed when she said , " [ its ] totally different from anything I 've done [ with Girls Aloud ] or liked before " . Some industry critics also noted that " 3 Words " was " unlike many things currently [ at that time ] on radio or being released " . Cole said that the song took its inspiration froms her newly acquired love for dance music on the charts , especially David Guetta & Kelly Rowland 's " When Love Takes Over " .
= = Critical reception = =
Cole described it as her favourite song on the album and music critics generally agreed . Tom Ewing of The Guardian called the song Cheryl 's " showcase [ ... ] built on dark loops of treated acoustic guitar and building into a claustrophobic dance track . It 's as brave and novel a song as anything Cole 's group have released . " Daniel Wilcox even went as far as to say the song was " far more interesting and innovative than anything her girl group has done in their entire careers . " " 3 Words " has been described as " mesmerizing in its listlessness " as well as being " unlike anything Cheryl or Will.I.Am have released " and " to what 's currently being played on the radio . " It was labeled a standout track by many reviewers , with Killian Fox of The Observer referring to the song as " a slick , sophisticated love song that hints at what this album could have been . " ( positive ) David Balls of Digital Spy wrote , " Snubbing traditional verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse song structure , and beginning with spare acoustic guitar strums , ' 3 Words ' builds slowly towards a throbbing and infectious , if slightly brief , arms @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air climax [ ... ] it 's hard to deny that Chez pulls off this less @-@ than @-@ obvious offering with aplomb . "
Louise McCudden of Inthenews.co.uk , however , argued that although " her voice sounds pleasant [ ... ] the song itself is too long and becomes tedious fairly fast . " Vicki Lutas had a mostly negative review for the song saying " at the end of the day it does sound like something you could have made up when you were at school " , though she did praise the backing track for being " dark , eerie and cold in a chilling way ; in an infectious way " . However she pointed out that " the vocal arrangement and the actual vocals themselves do nothing more for the song " , and respected that " it 's a brave song choice , but it 's hap @-@ hazard vocal line seems to scream ... C @-@ R @-@ I @-@ N @-@ G @-@ E. " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , " 3 Words " made its official debut on the UK Singles Chart at number twenty @-@ six , following strong digital sales from the release of the album , two weeks prior . Then a day before its digital release and two days before its CD release the single climbed to number fourteen . Later during the first week of 2010 it would go on to peak at number four , giving Cole her third consecutive top @-@ five UK hit if her feature on will.i.am 's " Heartbreaker " is included . On 14 May 2010 the single was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipping 200 @,@ 000 copies .
The single also achieved top ten success in the Republic of Ireland , where it reached number seven becoming her third consecutive top @-@ ten single . Coincidentally , it is the second song featuring Cole 's vocals to peak at number seven in Ireland , the first being will.i.am 's " Heartbreaker " . Internationally the single peaked top five in Hungary , and Australia . In the latter it performed better than any song Cole released with Girls Aloud beating the previous best entry " Jump " by eighteen places . " 3 Words " is the only song from Cole 's debut album to peak within the top fifty of the Australian Singles Chart and was subsequently certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipping 70 @,@ 000 units . Additionally it peaked at top @-@ ten in Italy . The song debuted at 14 on the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand . It later rose to number 12 , staying in the charts for 12 weeks .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
Cole filmed two music videos for " 3 Words " . The first music video was a viral version directed by Vincent Haycock , in the week beginning 19 October 2009 " on the only rainy night in Los Angeles in six months . " The second version was the official " split screener " , directed by Saam , that premiered on 27 November 2009 . The video was described as being distinctly different from that of previous single " Fight for This Love " , drawing comparisons to Madonna and Lady Gaga . The overall goal of the video was described as " tell [ ing ] the story of a couple who socialise separately and are both approached by members of the opposite sex . Despite the other person showing a romantic interest in them " . The singers go on to declare each other is ' the love of my life ' and ' through the ups and the downs ... never let go ' . " The " edgy and arty " video features " a split screen , unconventional camera angles and modern dance . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Cole sitting alongside will.i.am , wearing a " Lady Gaga @-@ inspired platinum blonde wig " and a " lace veil " . In the early scenes she " swaps her bronzed tan for alabaster skin , smokey eyes and pale lipstick " . In the next scene she can be " seen looking wistfully into the distance in a slinky floor @-@ length black dress with brown hair extensions cascading over her shoulders " , whilst in a third scene she is depicted as an " Egyptian goddess " . Each scene incorporates " dance shots interspersed with sequences in which the focus falls on the two stars alone , seemingly searching each other , as it were ... experimenting more with her looks and even taking a chance with Lady Gaga @-@ esque outfits for her dancers , including veils that cover their faces and black leotards . " It ’ s shot with a split screen , meaning Cheryl and will.i.am do not come into physical contact .
= = = Reception = = =
The video received mixed to positive reviews from critics who praised Cole 's sense of fashion but cited that the video was unoriginal . Elena Gorgan of Softpedia said " even with all this , she hardly manages to create a strong impression .. , the video fails to break any visual ground , albeit standing on its own as a stylish video . " The Daily Mail agreed saying " [ The story ] which will no doubt be interpreted by fans as an insight into Cheryl 's marriage to footballer Ashley Cole . Cheryl has ditched her street dance gear for a gown fit for a diva along with suitably styled big hair ... But as she teams up with Black Eyed Peas rapper will.i.am is sporting a more feminine look . The net result is , sorry to say it , very regal but a bit on the dull side . " Lisa McGarry of ' Unreality TV ' said the platinum wig was " strange " She also said " if it doesn ’ t look great , at least it looks shocking . " Meanwhile David Balls of ' Digital Spy ' said " [ in ] this glitzy split @-@ screen affair , Cheryl looks effortlessly classy and glam as she transforms into an Egyptian goddess and - with more success than a certain Mrs. B ( Mel B ) back in 2001 [ with " Feels so Good " ] - shows how to wear a blonde wig without looking like you 're on a dirty weekend in the Toon . Perfectly complimenting the song itself , this super @-@ glossy clip also suggests that Cole has a firm eye on global stardom over the next year . " Fame magazine called the video " a little edgier than anything Girls Aloud have done " .
= = Live performances = =
The song received its worldwide radio premiere on 13 October 2009 on BBC Radio 1 's The Chris Moyles Show . Cole performed " 3 Words " for the first time with will.i.am during her one @-@ off special for ITV , Cheryl Cole 's Night In . A reporter of The Daily Mail said Cheryl " [ performed in ] a glamorous flowing Kate Bush @-@ esque black gown a duet of her latest single ' 3 Words ' . In January 2010 Cole flew to Germany to perform " 3 Words " at German Award Ceremony , DLD Starnight at the Haus der Kunst in Munich . She also performed the song as part of a four @-@ song set at ' BBC Radio 1 Big Weekend as well as performing at the ' De Grisogono jewellery dinner party ' at the Eden Rock Hotel in Cap d 'Antibes during the Cannes Film Festival .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
" 3 Words " was recorded at Record Plant Studios , Los Angeles ( CA ) .
Producer - will.i.am
Guitar - George Pajon
Drums , synthesizer , bass - will.i.am
Engineer - Padriac " Padlock " Kerin , will.i.am
Recorded - Padriac " Padlock " Kerin
Mixing - Dylan Dresdow , will.i.am
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Twenty @-@ cent piece ( United States coin ) =
The American twenty @-@ cent piece is a coin struck from 1875 to 1878 , but only for collectors in the final two years . Proposed by Nevada Senator John P. Jones , it proved a failure due to confusion with the quarter , to which it was close in both size and value .
In 1874 , the newly elected Jones began pressing for a twenty @-@ cent piece , which he stated would alleviate the shortage of small change in the far West . The bill passed Congress , and mint director Henry Linderman ordered pattern coins struck . Linderman eventually decided on an obverse and reverse similar to that of other silver coins .
Although the coins have a smooth edge , rather than reeded as with other silver coins , the new piece was close to the size of , and immediately confused with , the quarter . Adding to the bewilderment , the obverse , or " heads " , sides of both coins were almost identical . After the first year , in which over a million were minted , there was little demand , and the denomination was abolished in 1878 . At least a third of the total mintage was later melted by the government . Numismatist Mark Benvenuto called the twenty @-@ cent piece " a chapter of U.S. coinage history that closed almost before it began " .
= = Inception and authorization = =
A twenty @-@ cent piece had been proposed as early as 1791 , and again in 1806 , but had been rejected . The 1806 bill , introduced by Connecticut Senator Uriah Tracy , sought both a two @-@ cent piece and a " double dime " . It was opposed by mint director Robert Patterson , though his opposition was more to the two @-@ cent piece , which Tracy proposed be struck in billon , low @-@ grade silver that would be difficult to recover when melting the coins . The bill passed the Senate twice , in 1806 and 1807 , but did not pass the House of Representatives . No twenty @-@ cent piece was issued prior to the 1870s , but Americans were familiar with the denomination as the two reales piece struck in Spain , known as a " pistareen " in the United States , passed for twenty cents ( its Spanish colonial equivalent passed for a quarter ) .
Several factors converged to make possible a twenty @-@ cent piece in the 1870s . The first was a shortage of small change in the far West , where base @-@ metal coins did not circulate . Government payments in silver and gold had been suspended during the economic chaos caused by the civil war — coins containing precious metal were hoarded except on the Pacific Coast , and did not pass at face value in trade . Although the base @-@ metal nickel was not widely accepted in the far West , the silver half dime had been struck in increasing numbers at the San Francisco Mint until the silver coin , which did not circulate in the East , was abolished by Congress in 1873 . A shortage of small change resulted , especially as half dimes were used in the jewelry trade ; customers complained they could not get full change for an item costing ten cents for which they paid with a quarter . Prices in the West were sometimes in bits ( 121 ⁄ 2 cents , based on the old Spanish colonial real , although those pieces no longer circulated ) , adding to the change problem . Numismatist David Lange states that a shipment of nickels out West could have solved everything , but that they might not have been accepted due to the prejudice against money which did not contain precious metal .
A second factor was the anxiety of Congress to see more silver made into coin . This was due to pressure from mining and other interests . The Coinage Act of 1873 ended the practice of allowing silver producers to have their bullion struck into silver dollars and returned to them . Although producers had not deposited much silver in the years before 1873 due to high market prices , former mint director Henry Linderman foresaw that those prices would fall as mines became accessible due to the completion of the transcontinental railroad across the United States , and that the resultant coinage would inflate the currency . He quietly urged Congress to end the practice , which it did . Within a year , silver prices had dropped , and producers tried vainly to deposit bullion at the mints for conversion into legal tender . Mining interests sought other means of selling silver to the government .
The third was American interest in aligning its currency with the Latin Monetary Union and to bring its weights for coinage into the metric system . Several times in the 1860s and 1870s , the United States Mint struck pattern coins that were to be used if America joined , in some cases with the equivalent in foreign money struck as part of the design . The twenty @-@ cent piece was to be equivalent to one French franc in that system , and if in proportion to the smaller silver coins being struck , would weigh five grams , a fact which appealed to advocates of the metric system in Congress . Another purpose for a large issue of silver coins , regardless of denomination , was to retire the fractional currency — low @-@ value paper money or " shinplasters " . Congress passed legislation in 1875 and 1876 for large quantities of silver coins for this purpose .
The father of the twenty @-@ cent piece was Nevada Senator John P. Jones . Part @-@ owner of the Crown Point Mine , he had been elected to the Senate in 1873 ; on February 10 , 1874 , he introduced a bill to authorize a twenty @-@ cent piece , one of his first legislative endeavors . In advocating for the proposal , he cited the lack of small change in the West . It was endorsed by mint director Linderman ; according to numismatic historian Walter Breen , " other legislators went along with it , largely as a favor to Sen. Jones " . The bill was signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 3 , 1875 . Like other denominations of silver coin , the twenty @-@ cent piece was made legal tender up to five dollars .
= = Preparation and design = =
In anticipation of the approval of the legislation , Linderman had pattern coins prepared . In August 1874 , Philadelphia Mint superintendent James Pollock sent him patterns with an obverse showing a seated Liberty by Philadelphia sculptor Joseph A. Bailly with a reverse by chief engraver William Barber . Pollock did not approve Bailly 's proposal , deeming it too similar to the Seated Liberty design which was then on all domestic silver coinage , and so the new coin would too closely resemble the quarter . On March 31 , 1875 , after the enactment of Jones 's bill , Pollock sent Linderman additional patterns , all by Barber , and even more on April 12 . Pollock deprecated a reverse design with a shield , but Linderman liked it and stated that it would have been adopted but for the law requiring an eagle to appear on silver pieces larger than the dime . Linderman selected an obverse design near @-@ identical to the other silver coinage ( until 1916 , the silver coins were given similar appearances ) . That design , by the late chief engraver , Christian Gobrecht , following a concept by Thomas Sully and Titian Peale , was first used in 1836 and by 1840 was on all denominations of silver coins then being struck . The right @-@ facing eagle is near @-@ identical to the one which Barber had rendered for the trade dollar , which had debuted in 1873 . Linderman had realized that the difference in size between the new coin and quarter was small , and thought a scaled @-@ down version of the trade dollar suitable for the twenty @-@ cent piece ; he got his way on the reverse . The eagle carries the arrows of war in its right , or dominant claw , and the olive branch of peace in the left , in heraldry preferring war over peace .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule described the twenty @-@ cent piece 's obverse as " a pleasing synthesis of traditional elements " . He was less complimentary about the eagle on the reverse , calling it awkward and a fatter version of the eagle on 18th @-@ century American coinage . Vermeule admired the pattern designs made by Barber , especially the " Liberty by the Seashore " motif , which the historian believes owes a debt to the British copper coins of that period depicting Britannia — Barber was an Englishman by birth . He deemed it appropriate that the ship that is visible is powered by steam .
Numismatist Yancey Rayburn , in his 1970 article , wrote that the twenty @-@ cent piece is bare of much of the lettering common on US coins : neither " In God We Trust " nor " E Pluribus Unum " appears on it . At the time , " E Pluribus Unum " was required on American coins under the 1873 act ; " In God We Trust " was included on different coins at the discretion of the secretary of the treasury . The mottos were excluded as the coin was considered too small to contain them . The act creating the twenty @-@ cent piece did not dictate its design , but provided that the new coin was to be subject to the terms of the 1873 act . Rayburn also admired that the full denomination , " twenty cents " , was spelled out ; at that time the quarter and fifty @-@ cent piece had the word " dollar " abbreviated as " dol . "
= = Production , aftermath , and collecting = =
The design for the twenty @-@ cent piece was approved on April 12 , 1875 . It was , however , immediately revised to better define the olive leaves at the right end of the branch ( over the N and the T in " cents " ) ; on the original design , the leaves overlapped with each other . An amended approval was given on April 15 . Production began at Philadelphia on May 19 , on June 1 at the Carson City Mint in Jones 's home state of Nevada , and between June 1 and 17 at the San Francisco Mint . Only about 40 @,@ 000 were struck at Philadelphia ; the bulk was at the two Western mints with 133 @,@ 290 minted at Carson City , and 1 @,@ 155 @,@ 000 at San Francisco . The price of silver had not dropped to the point where Congress was willing to authorize redemption of paper money with silver coin , and would not until April 1876 , lowering the need to strike the pieces at Philadelphia . Additionally , the coin was principally intended for circulation in the West , another reason for a low mintage at Philadelphia . Mint officials had overestimated the need for the piece at San Francisco , where it saw some public acceptance and the large mintage satisfied the modest public demand until treasury officials ordered stocks melted in 1877 .
Although the mint had given the twenty @-@ cent piece a smooth rim , rather than the reeded one on the quarter , the two pieces were immediately confused . At 22 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) , the twenty @-@ cent piece was only slightly smaller than the quarter at 24 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 96 in ) , and the two pieces had near @-@ identical obverses . Mistakes in change @-@ making were widespread , and the twenty @-@ cent piece quickly became extremely unpopular . In April 1876 , when Congress began to allow the redemption of fractional currency with coin , the twenty @-@ cent piece was listed as among the denominations that could be exchanged for the low @-@ denomination paper . Nevertheless , in July , legislation was introduced to abolish the twenty @-@ cent piece . Although the bill did not pass immediately , according to numismatist Vernon Brown in his article on the piece , the pendency of the bill convinced the mint that there was no point in striking further twenty @-@ cent pieces . The mintage for 1876 was low ( coining took place at Philadelphia and Carson City ) , and only proof specimens were coined in 1877 and 1878 , at Philadelphia . Most of the 1876 Philadelphia mintage were sold as souvenirs at the Centennial Exposition .
In March 1877 , Linderman authorized the melting of 12 @,@ 359 twenty @-@ cent pieces at Carson City . This included almost the entire mintage from 1876 ( about 10 @,@ 000 ) and created one of the great American numismatic rarities , the 1876 @-@ CC twenty @-@ cent piece . Fewer than two dozen are known ; one sold at auction for $ 564 @,@ 000 in 2013 , making it the record @-@ holder for the denomination . In her 2003 article , numismatist Michele Orzano suggests that the few survivors were souvenirs obtained by visitors to the mint .
Congress abolished the twenty @-@ cent piece on May 2 , 1878 . The previous day , Linderman had ordered the mints to melt down twenty @-@ cent pieces on hand , for recoinage into other denominations . By then , forces for silver coinage had been victorious in passing the Bland – Allison Act , requiring the government to purchase large quantities of silver bullion , and strike it into dollars . The piece continued to circulate in the West for a few years , but by 1890 was rarely seen . Of the 1 @,@ 351 @,@ 540 twenty @-@ cent pieces minted for circulation , over a third were melted by the government between 1895 and 1954 , most heavily in 1933 . The least expensive twenty @-@ cent piece , according to the 2014 edition of R. S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins ( the Red Book ) , is the 1875 @-@ S , listed at $ 110 in good @-@ 4 condition . According to commentary in the Red Book , the twenty @-@ cent piece failed because " the public was confused over the coin 's similarity to the quarter dollar , which was better established as a foundation of American commerce " , that fractional currency satisfied the need for small change in the East , and because " the twenty @-@ cent piece was essentially just a substitute for two dimes " .
= = Mintages = =
The mint mark appears on the reverse beneath the eagle .
None ( Philadelphia Mint in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania )
CC ( Carson City Mint in Carson City , Nevada )
S ( San Francisco Mint in San Francisco , California )
= Hurricane Bonnie ( 1998 ) =
Hurricane Bonnie was a major hurricane that made landfall in North Carolina , United States , inflicting severe crop damage . The second named storm , first hurricane , and first major hurricane of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season , Bonnie developed from a tropical wave that emerged off the coast of Africa on August 14 . The wave gradually developed , and the system was designated a tropical depression on August 19 . The depression began tracking towards the west @-@ northwest , and became a tropical storm the next day . On August 22 , Bonnie was upgraded to a hurricane , with a well @-@ defined eye . The storm peaked as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and around the same time , the storm slowed and turned more towards the north @-@ northwest . A large and powerful cyclone , Bonnie moved ashore in North Carolina early on August 27 , slowing as it turned northeast . After briefly losing hurricane status , the storm moved offshore and regained Category 1 @-@ force winds , although it weakened again on entering cooler waters .
Fearing a major hurricane strike , coastal locations from Florida to Virginia performed extensive preparations in advance of the storm . In addition to tropical cyclone watches and warnings , about 950 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from the Carolinas , and the military evacuated and relocated hundreds of aircraft and vessels from the storm 's projected path . Soldiers and guardsmen were deployed throughout those regions .
Hurricane Bonnie made landfall as a borderline Category 2 – Category 3 storm , with intense wind gusts of up to 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) and rainfall peaking at about 11 in ( 280 mm ) . Reports of downed trees and powerlines , as well as structural damage such as blown @-@ out windows and torn @-@ off roofs , were reported . In coastal North Carolina , the storm washed ashore tens of thousands of tires that had been part of an artificial reef . Crop damage was extensive , but the storm was overall less severe than initially feared . Total damage was estimated at $ 1 billion ( 1998 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 14 , 1998 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa just north of Dakar and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean . Initially located within cool waters , a strong high pressure area steered the disturbance on a west – southwest track over warmer waters , and convection started to develop . Several small centers of rotation existed within a broad circulation , and at 1200 UTC on August 19 , the centers consolidated and the disturbance became sufficiently organized to be declared a tropical depression . Despite being poorly organized , winds slightly to the north of the system 's center approached tropical storm strength shortly thereafter . Ship reports revealed a closed circulation , though the center was elongated in a northwest – southeast oriented manner . Upper @-@ level winds were favorable , which suggested that intensification was likely . The cyclone began moving on a northwestward track , and just hours later the center of circulation appeared to reform close to the convection , an indication of a strengthening storm , as good outflow existed over the western side of the storm . Deep convection slowly developed closer to the center , and at 1200 UTC on August 20 , the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Bonnie as it continued its west – northwest track around the periphery of a high pressure system over the Leeward Islands .
Late on August 20 , the first reconnaissance plane entered the storm and found a minimum central barometric pressure of 1001 mb . The storm brushed the Leeward Islands , although the main thunderstorm activity remained to the north of the storm over the open ocean . Bonnie began to organize its broad circulation early on August 21 , and within the next day the storm began to intensify . The storm began to look strong on satellite images with banding features over the north and west quadrants . The Hurricane Hunters aircraft found a minimum pressure of 987 mb and a nearly complete eyewall early on August 22 , and as a result , the tropical storm was upgraded to hurricane status . Bonnie slowed in forward speed , coinciding with previous forecasts . Later that day , storm was upgraded to a Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , which occurred with a substantial 15 mb drop in 8 hours . At the same time , steering currents weakened with the dissipation of the high pressure system ; this , combined with the effect of a nearby trough , caused the storm to turn in a more north @-@ northwestward direction around the western periphery of an anticyclone to the east . Bonnie became a Category 3 storm , a major hurricane , at 1200 UTC the next day , reaching its peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) at the same time .
A mid- to upper @-@ level trough slowed the storm almost to a halt early on August 23 , before a drift to the north @-@ northwest began . The next National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) advisory then reported that the eye was becoming more distinct and well @-@ defined . This strengthening trend abated because the storm had churned up the waters over which it was passing , bringing cooler water to the surface as a result of the slow track . Another inhibiting factor may have been related to the same trough that caused the northward turn , though due to a large anticyclone situated over the hurricane , the weakening effects were not substantial . Despite wind shear , the large and powerful circulation resisted weakening for a time . Early on August 25 , the shear and the entrainment of drier air into the hurricane took its toll on Bonnie , giving it a ragged appearance on satellite imagery , and the eye briefly became cloud @-@ filled .
The storm accelerated somewhat by August 26 , and early that day , it was moving at about 14 mph ( 23 km / h ) . An approaching mid @-@ level trough steered Bonnie north @-@ northeast , and at 2100 UTC on August 26 , the eye passed east of Cape Fear , North Carolina . The hurricane once again slowed , and early the next day , it made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina as a strong Category 2 or weak Category 3 hurricane . Doppler weather radar displays estimated that maximum sustained winds had quickly weakened to below hurricane intensity , and the storm was briefly downgraded to a tropical storm . However , as the storm turned towards the east in response to the approaching trough , the center neared open waters and the winds began to re @-@ intensify . As a result , the cyclone re @-@ attained hurricane status at 0000 on August 28 . Offshore , the center began drifting roughly eastward . Entering colder waters , hurricane status was lost at 1800 UTC that day , followed by an acceleration to the northeast . The storm began to lose deep thunderstorm activity , and was forecast to lose tropical characteristics and become an extratropical cyclone within days . By early on August 29 , little connection remained over the western semicircle , and only a band of such activity persisted to the southeast of the center . Bonnie became extratropical around 1800 UTC on August 30 , to the southeast of Newfoundland .
= = Preparations = =
On August 20 , a tropical storm watch was posted for the islands of Antigua , Barbuda , Anguilla , St. Maarten , Saba and St. Eustatius , though it was discontinued the next day . Shortly thereafter , a tropical storm warning was issued for the U.S. and British Virgin Islands . Tropical storm warnings and hurricane watches were put into effect for the Turks and Caicos Islands and the southeastern Bahamas . By August 24 , those tropical cyclone advisories were discontinued , and at the same time they were issued for parts of the Southeast United States . A hurricane warning was eventually posted for Murrells Inlet , South Carolina to the North Carolina – Virginia border . On August 27 , tropical cyclone watches and warnings extended as far north as Plymouth , Massachusetts ; all were discontinued early on August 29 .
= = = Florida and South Carolina = = =
Initially the storm posed a threat to Florida , where military officials kept abreast of the situation . Heavy surf advisories were posted from central portions of the state northward to Georgia , and the National Hurricane Center advised that swimming and boating should be avoided . The Mayport Naval Station ordered 25 ships out to sea in advance of the approaching storm . The Salvation Army was on standby in Jacksonville , prepared to act when needed . Hardware stores in the state reported up to a 75 % increase in the sales of emergency supplies .
Some computer forecast models initially predicted that the storm would move towards South Carolina or Georgia . Before the storm 's arrival in South Carolina , researchers at Clemson University used Bonnie to test a new method of estimating the damage a storm is likely to cause . In the state , the South Carolina National Guard put about 1 @,@ 512 men on active duty , 1 @,@ 474 being of the Army National Guard . On August 25 , the South Carolina Emergency Preparedness Division activated Level 1 operations , the highest of five levels . That same day , the State Governor declared a State of Emergency , calling for mandatory evacuations of residents east of U.S. Route 17 in Horry and Georgetown counties . Schools were closed throughout the state . Over 200 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from those counties , of which 120 @,@ 000 were tourists . About 6 @,@ 000 sought shelter at schools in Horry County . In a survey , 12 % of respondents in the state took traffic as a significant consideration in deciding if they should evacuate . On the Grand Strand , Bonnie was the first storm where buses were provided to help people evacuate .
= = = North Carolina and Virginia = = =
About 815 guardsmen were called to North Carolina , where they assisted local authorities with the extensive preparations , including evacuating 750 @,@ 000 state citizens . Mandatory and voluntary evacuations were ordered for part of the state . The Outer Banks experienced extensive evacuations ; at least 300 @,@ 000 left , bringing traffic on highways from there to the mainland to a standstill . Active duty armed forces were set to support hurricane recovery missions , and four Defense Coordinating officers were notified . Defense Department emergency centers were opened starting August 21 . Additionally , the U.S. Atlantic Command activated their 24 @-@ hour response cell . Soldiers , sailors , airmen , and Marines evacuated equipment , including hundreds of vessels and aircraft . The North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources closed several state parks , all three state aquariums , and the Division of Marine Fisheries office , with plans to reopen primarily once storm @-@ related damage at any of the locations was properly addressed .
A study was performed on the storm in eight counties in North Carolina to determine the cost of evacuation for hurricanes , and included 1 @,@ 029 households . Another study was performed regarding the actions taken during Hurricane Bonnie evacuations in the state . Tourists were interviewed , and it was found that 90 % of vacationers who were threatened by the hurricane evacuated , of which 56 % went home , 3 % stayed in public shelters , 22 % stayed with friends or relatives , 3 % stayed in hotels and motels , and 16 % stayed elsewhere . In total , 58 % stayed within North Carolina , 12 % went to Virginia , 6 % relocated to South Carolina , and 24 % stayed in other regions . Most of the evacuees left on August 25 ; 80 % left with their own vehicles , and 18 % used rental transportation . Officials in the state opened an estimated 100 shelters to accommodate the evacuating tourists and residents .
In Virginia , where 15 jurisdictions declared local emergencies , local governments took action to inform and protect citizens . Residents in mobile home parks , as well as campgrounds , were advised to evacuate , and 13 jurisdictions opened shelters by August 26 . State Governor Jim Gilmore declared a State of Emergency , and as a result , the State Emergency Operations Center was activated . Beaches and piers were shut down in Virginia Beach , Hampton , and Gloucester counties , where communities canceled some local events due to the threat of Bonnie . Voluntary evacuations throughout the state were issued , and some hotels reached maximum capacity as a result . Roughly 60 Navy ships were ordered to leave port at Norfolk , and ride out the storm far out to sea . The State of Virginia banned swimming along the coast . As Bonnie progressed northward , a tornado watch was posted for much of eastern Virginia .
= = Impact = =
While located north of the Caribbean Sea , Bonnie dropped light rainfall in Puerto Rico . The storm also produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds in The Bahamas , though no significant damage was reported . Along the U.S. East Coast , two swimmers drowned in rip currents ; numerous others were rescued . In the United States , Bonnie caused an estimated $ 1 billion in damage .
= = = South Carolina = = =
As the hurricane passed to the east of the state , rainfall ranged from 2 to 4 in ( 51 to 102 mm ) , and storm surge was around 2 to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) . The highest recorded wind gust in the state was 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) at the Cherry Grove pier , and sustained winds peaked at 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) at the Myrtle Beach Pavilion . Damage was widespread in Horry County , where downed trees and power lines and structural damage was reported . The high winds blew down several trees in Charleston County , and tore the roof off a strip mall in North Myrtle Beach . A 50 @-@ year @-@ old man died near Myrtle Beach ; he was electrocuted while checking his generator after a power outage . Along the coast , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old man died in rip currents at Surfside Beach . Total damage in South Carolina was estimated to be around $ 25 million ( 1998 USD ) .
= = = North Carolina = = =
Hurricane Bonnie came ashore just at or below major hurricane intensity , bringing with it intense wind gusts of up to 98 mph ( 158 km / h ) in North Carolina , though offshore at the Frying Pan Shoals Light Tower , winds reached 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . The strongest winds were found in the precursor rainbands , where localized downbursts caused severe damage . Sustained winds officially peaked at 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) at Elizabeth City , where gusts reached 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) . Rainfall was heavy as a result of the storm 's slow movement , peaking at 11 in ( 280 mm ) at Jacksonville , while several totals of over 10 in ( 250 mm ) were reported . However , because the area had been experiencing drought conditions , the flooding was not as severe as it could have potentially been . The most significant flooding occurred near the Cape Fear River , where high waters were reported . The highest storm surge occurred along the beaches of Brunswick County , mostly reaching 5 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) above average . Elsewhere , flooding was mostly limited to locations with poor drainage and low @-@ lying areas . Coastal flooding was not widespread , though surge in the Pungo River flooded several local homes . Other coastal flooding was reported in various harbors and coastal cities . Part of North Carolina Highway 12 was flooded and closed on Hatteras Island due to tidal flooding . At North Topsail Beach , many of the protective dunes constructed after Hurricane Fran in 1996 were destroyed , and along the Bogue Banks , tens of thousands of tires , part of an artificial reef , were washed ashore .
One direct death occurred in North Carolina ; a young girl was killed when a tree fell on her Currituck County home . Throughout eastern portions of the state , trees and powerlines were downed , and there were reports of structural damage . Numerous docks , piers and bulkheads were either damaged or destroyed , including the Iron Steamer and Indian Beach piers , which both lost large sections to the strong wind and surf . Due to the winds , the Brunswick Community Hospital lost about 3 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 280 m2 ) . of roof and an air conditioner . The storm left about 500 @,@ 000 people in the state without electric power . In some areas , vegetative and structural debris accumulated in piles several feet deep ; it is reported that thick underbrush prevented the debris from traveling further inland . Wilmington " turned into a disaster zone " , with flooded highways , and downed trees lying across roadways . Crop , particularly tobacco , damage was extensive . According to then @-@ governor Jim Hunt , " You fly along and don 't see much damage to the beach houses , and it 's easy to think we didn 't have much damage . But then you look at the tobacco in fields and you know the damage has been extensive . " The crop losses accounted for much of the overall damage . Forty @-@ seven of those who failed to evacuate in time sought shelter in the Bald Head Island lighthouse as the worst of the storm bore down . Despite the effects , Bonnie 's impact was actually less than originally predicted . Overall , property damage in the state is estimated at $ 240 million ( 1998 USD ) , with significantly higher crop damages .
Several locations received significant physical impacts . On Wrightsville Beach , North Carolina , Bonnie 's erosion caused an inlet to migrate further south . On the northern end of the inlet , a large sand bar developed , partially due to the storm moving offshore sand . Dune sediments were lost during the storm , exposing boardwalk piling . Similarly , on Topsail Beach , North Carolina , the storm breached 27 sand dunes , destroying 60 % of the dune line . Sediment from storm washover measured 50 cm ( 20 in ) thick behind the beach . Sections of many eroded dunes were re @-@ built using truck loads of sand . Strong waves ran through the foundation of two stilted homes , both of which were later reinforced to compensate for the lost sand .
= = = Virginia = = =
Bonnie passed just offshore of southeast Virginia , lashing the region with heavy rain and high winds . Sustained winds reached 81 mph ( 130 km / h ) at Cape Henry , and gusts peaked at 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . There were other reports of winds over 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) along the coast . Numerous homes suffered damage in the Hampton Roads area , and near Virginia Beach , winds blew windows out in hotels . Storm surge was generally around 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) with some higher reports , causing some coastal flooding . Rainfall was moderate to heavy , ranging from 1 to 7 in ( 25 to 178 mm ) , with the higher @-@ end totals occurring in the Norfolk area .
Between 320 @,@ 000 and 650 @,@ 000 customers lost power in the state . The power outages led to decreased production in some water and sewer plants , prompting local officials to advise residents to conserve water . In the Ocean View section of Norfolk , the winds tore the roofs off two apartment complexes , and damaged siding on other structures . Along the coast , boats were ripped from their moorings .
Throughout the Tidewater region , there were estimates of thousands of downed trees , and hundreds of homes and businesses were damaged . Of these , about 40 structures were declared uninhabitable . Debris was blown several blocks inland from the coast . Among the hardest hit locations was Sandbridge , where about 12 homes were severely damaged . It is reported that the state was unprepared for the damage , expecting a strike from a weakened tropical storm . About $ 15 @.@ 3 million ( 1998 USD ) in damage was inflicted in the Virginia Beach and Norfolk areas . Throughout the state , insured losses totaled $ 95 million ( 1998 USD ) .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic , New England and Atlantic Canada = = =
As the storm moved offshore , outer rain bands affected the Maryland coast with gusts of up to 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) at Ocean City , and waves of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . No damage was reported . Light rainfall was also reported northward into Delaware and New Jersey . In addition , up to 0 @.@ 2 in ( 5 @.@ 1 mm ) of precipitation extended into New York . A person was caught in rip currents and drowned near Rehoboth Beach , Delaware . Along the coast of New Jersey , Bonnie produced strong waves and rip currents , resulting in hundreds of water rescues and eight injuries . The storm was at its closest position to the state on August 28 , as it passed 140 mi ( 230 km ) to the east of Atlantic City , although the rough surf began several days prior , on August 23 . Numerous beaches were closed , and swimming was banned in several communities , as well . The state also reported moderate wind gusts , generally peaking at 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) . Only minor beach erosion occurred . At Point Pleasant Beach , New Jersey , there were reports of a drowning in the rough seas caused by the storm ; however , the man was later spotted onshore with his fiance , and the two were charged with filing a false police report .
Bonnie moved well to the south of Cape Cod , although a significant outer rain band affected southern Plymouth County , Massachusetts . Torrential downpours produced 4 in ( 100 mm ) of precipitation at Whitehorse Beach , and other locations reported over 1 in ( 25 mm ) . Winds reached 25 to 35 mph ( 40 to 56 km / h ) , although offshore the Georges Bank Buoy reported a 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) gust . A man was killed when his rowboat capsized in rough surf of 1 to 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 61 m ) ; his companion safely swam to shore .
On the afternoon of August 29 , Bonnie entered the Canadian Hurricane Centre 's area of responsibility as a tropical storm , and passed south of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland . Precipitation along the coast of Nova Scotia ranged from 15 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 to 0 @.@ 98 in ) and winds gusted to around 102 km / h ( 63 mph ) . Slightly higher gusts were reported off the coast . On Sable Island , the storm dropped 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) of rainfall . An offshore buoy recorded a wave height of 17 @.@ 9 m ( 59 ft ) .
= = Aftermath and observation = =
Following the hurricane in North Carolina , 10 counties were declared federal disaster areas , while 30 counties became eligible for public and individual assistance . Shelters were opened in 11 counties , and the Raleigh @-@ Durham International Airport briefly canceled all flights . To remove the tens of thousands of tires that washed ashore , hundreds of inmates from state prisons were sent to the Bouge Banks . Some of the tires were buried in sand , and could only be removed during low tide . About 700 more state prisoners were sent around the state to clear debris , and 39 inmate crews were deployed to help farmers salvage the severely damaged tobacco fields . In South Carolina , Horry County was declared a federal disaster area due to the damage . In Virginia , the cities of Chesapeake , Norfolk , Portsmouth , Suffolk , and Virginia Beach became eligible for individual and public assistance programs . After the storm 's departure , a thunderstorm temporarily halted power restoration by Virginia Power company crews . Virginia Governor Jim Gilmore allowed for over $ 11 million ( 1998 USD ) in state and federal funds to help five cities recover . The storm also contributed to a 13 @.@ 6 % decline in home sales across the southern United States during the month of August by " discouraging potential home buyers " in coastal areas .
Both during and after Hurricane Bonnie 's onslaught , analysis of the storm was extensive ; it was deemed " the most observed hurricane in history . " When examined with Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission ( TRMM ) satellite imagery , it was discovered that peak cloud tops surrounding the eyewall rose 59 @,@ 000 ft ( 18 @,@ 000 m ) into the atmosphere , twice as tall as Mount Everest . This was the first time that TRMM had observed such a tropical cyclone structure , according to co @-@ developer of the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , Bob Simpson . The storm was also used for collection of tropical cyclone research data . For the first time in the Atlantic , a fleet of aircraft investigated the storm 's upper @-@ levels , while other aircraft flew into the low- and middle @-@ levels . A record of over 500 parachute sensors were dropped into the storm while it was active . Each costing $ 600 ( 1998 USD ) , they sent storm data to research centers via Global Positioning System .
During the storm , the Weather Channel web site experienced substantially increased traffic . Up from an average of three million views per day , 10 million page views on August 26 led to slow download times on the website . On seven major weather providers , page views increased by 123 % from August 24 – August 26 , compared to an equal period of time during the previous week .
= Adrian S. Fisher =
Adrian Sanford Fisher ( January 21 , 1914 – March 18 , 1983 ) was an American lawyer and federal public servant , who served from the late 1930s through the early 1980s . He was associated with the Department of War and Department of State throughout his professional career . He participated in the U.S. government 's decision to carry out Japanese @-@ American internment and the international ( 1945 – 46 ) Nuremberg trial , and in State Department Cold War activities during the Harry S. Truman administration . He was the State Department Legal Adviser under Secretary of State Dean Acheson . During the John F. Kennedy , Lyndon B. Johnson and Jimmy Carter administrations , Fisher was directly involved in the negotiations of international nuclear testing and non @-@ proliferation agreements .
= = Early life and early government career = =
Fisher was born in Memphis , Tennessee , to Hubert Fisher and Louise Sanford Fisher . He attended elite schools such as Saint Albans and Choate , Princeton University ( BA 1934 ) and Harvard Law School ( LLB 1937 ) . Fisher was known throughout his life by his nickname " Butch " , from his early days as a football player for Princeton , lettering in 1933 .
In the late 1930s Fisher lived in Arlington , Virginia , in an estate known by the name of Hockley Hall . This house was a semi @-@ famous " bachelor 's house , " with rooms rented by Fisher and various housemates such as William Bundy , William Sheldon , John Ferguson , John Oakes , Donald Hiss , Edward Prichard , Jr. and Philip Graham . Also , Hockley Hall was known as a social venue for the likes of Dean Acheson , Archibald MacLeish and Francis Biddle .
Fisher was admitted to the Tennessee Bar in 1938 , and had the distinction of clerking for two U.S. Supreme Court Justices , Louis Brandeis ( 1938 – 39 ) and Felix Frankfurter ( 1939 – 40 ) . Fisher began his legal career with his appointment as Law Clerk to Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis , who was then 82 years old . In early 1939 , Brandeis announced his retirement from the Supreme Court , and Fisher was invited to transfer to the chambers of the recently appointed Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter . Following his term as Frankfurter 's clerk in 1940 , Fisher joined the United States Department of State as the assistant chief of the Foreign Funds Control Division of the State Department , where he served until shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor .
= = World War II government and military service = =
In early 1942 , Fisher and John J. McCloy were assigned to assist implementation of the United States War Department 's legal activities for the Japanese American internment programs shortly after the United States entered World War II . In late 1942 , Fisher received an officer 's commission , and trained as a bomber navigator in the United States Army Air Forces from 1942 to 1943 , with missions over France , Belgium and Germany . In 1944 , he returned to Washington , D.C. as an assistant to the Assistant Secretary of War , John J. McCloy .
= = = Korematsu Supreme Court Case = = =
In 1944 , Fisher again was required to become involved in the U.S. 1942 @-@ 43 internment of Japanese Americans on the West Coast of the United States upon his return from Europe . At that time , the case of Korematsu v. United States , challenging the U.S. government ’ s power to exclude citizens of Japanese ancestry from military zones , came before the United States Supreme Court . While the Department of Justice 's Herbert Wechsler ( an Assistant Attorney General ) was in charge of defending the government 's position before the Supreme Court , significant consultation with Fisher was required , as he was again with the legal affairs section of the War Department . During this period , Fisher was involved in critical drafting of the government 's brief submitted to the Supreme Court .
= = = Nuremberg international trial = = =
In 1945 and 1946 , Captain Fisher served , along with James Rowe , as a legal advisor to former U.S. Attorney General Francis Biddle , the United States member of the International Military Tribunal ( Nuremberg Trial ) . Fisher was principal drafter of the Tribunal 's memorandum on the Nazi leadership 's " conspiracies to engage in crimes against peace . " This document , covering the period from 1920 to November 1937 , demonstrated that the pace of re @-@ armament under Adolf Hitler showed that the Germans " were developing an economic system which was only sensible only if there should be a war . "
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s songs " Devil 's Son " and " Driving Down the Darkness " were featured in the TV show Scrubs , and in 2008 they covered the Iron Maiden song " Wasted Years " for the Kerrang ! compilation Maiden Heaven : A Tribute to Iron Maiden . The song " Clouds Over California " became available as a download for the music video game Rock Band .
= = = Pray for Villains ( 2009 ) = = =
Their fourth album Pray for Villains was released on August 11 , 2009 , debuting at No. 35 on the Billboard 200 , with estimated sales of around 14 @,@ 600 , improving on their previous effort , The Last Kind Words , which debuted at No. 48 .
On February 21 , 2009 , the band performed in Australia at the Soundwave Festival with bands such as Lamb of God and In Flames . After finishing their Melbourne show , they announced that their new album would be released August 11 , 2009 . The band also toured in the Midwest states in mid @-@ May 2009 with bands such as Slipknot , 3 Inches of Blood and All That Remains before headlining the ' Thrash and Burn ' Tour with Emmure , Despised Icon , MyChildren MyBride , Oceano , Kittie , and Thy Will Be Done amongst others . They also completed a European Tour with several other bands such as Behemoth and Suicide Silence .
In January and February 2010 , DevilDriver embarked on their headlining ' Bound By The Road ' Tour with Suffocation , Goatwhore , and Thy Will Be Done .
In March 2010 , DevilDriver participated in 2010 's Getaway Rock festival , which was held in Gävle , Sweden and began on July 8 and ended on the 10th . The band will also be included in an extensive UK tour in November 2010 with 36 Crazyfists .
= = = Beast ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
DevilDriver 's fifth album Beast was recorded at Sonic Ranch studios in Tornillo , Texas with producer Mark Lewis , and released February 22 , 2011 . John Boecklin confirmed that the new album was mixed by Andy Sneap at his Backstage studio in Derbyshire , England in July . DevilDriver went on a tour in Australia with bands such as Iron Maiden , Slayer , All That Remains and Nonpoint for the Soundwave Festival in February and March 2011 . Jonathan Miller , the band 's bassist was fired on tour in the UK by unanimous vote within the band and sent home from tour . On March 30 , it was announced that Miller and DevilDriver would part ways permanently , in the interest of Miller 's continuing recovery . DevilDriver opened for Danzig along with 2Cents in 2011 supporting Danzig 's 2010 release , Deth Red Sabaoth , and are preparing for a North America tour with Chthonic and Skeletonwitch supporting Arch Enemy .
= = = Winter Kills , lineup changes and hiatus ( 2012 – 2016 ) = = =
DevilDriver headlined the 2012 Metal Alliance Festival Tour in the spring .
On February 9 , 2012 , guitarist Jeff Kendrick announced via his Twitter account that himself , John Boecklin ( drums ) and Mike Spreitzer ( guitars ) had " begun to compose and demo songs for DevilDriver 's 6th album . We are extremely excited ! ! ! " . In March 2012 , during an interview with Nick Azinas from Peek from the Pit , vocalist Dez Fafara announced that the band was looking for a new record label . This announcement officially ended the eight @-@ year relationship between Devildriver and Roadrunner Records . On July 8 it was announced that DevilDriver has signed with Napalm Records for the upcoming sixth album . On February 18 , 2013 Dez announced on his Twitter account that Chris Towning who has been filling in on bass for the past year has been made the band 's official bassist . In a March 2013 interview with Get Your Rock Out guitarist Jeff Kendrick announced that an album title was " very close " , adding that the record was currently being mixed with only a couple of pieces of vocal recording to be done before the album is mastered . On 28 May 2013 , DevilDriver released the cover artwork and release date for the new album , Winter Kills . The album was released on 27 August 2013 by Napalm Records , their first album release since leaving Roadrunner .
On October 28 , 2014 , Dez Fafara announced that drummer John Boecklin and guitarist Jeff Kendrick left the band . He also announced that the band will be on hiatus until 2016 , when the new album will be released , to focus on his reunion with Coal Chamber .
On January 7 , 2015 , it was announced that past member Chimaira drummer Austin D 'Amond had joined the band as the new drummer . On March 19 , 2015 , Neal Tiemann was announced as the replacement for Jeff Kendrick on Guitars . Tiemann started his career with Midwest Kings and has spent time playing with Caroline ’ s Spine , Burn Halo and Uncle Kracker among others .
= = = Trust No One ( 2016 @-@ present ) = = =
On May 2 , 2015 , Dez Fafara said that there were 12 new songs written for the next DevilDriver album . They were anticipating recording them in October – November 2015 and Spring @-@ Summer 2016 for a release date later in 2016 . Dez Fafara continued that DevilDriver had to get back into their normal recording cycle ; he did not want DevilDriver sitting around too long although they did need to take a break after releasing Winter Kills .
On November 19 , 2015 , DevilDriver revealed the title for the upcoming album , Trust No One , along side with the album art . The album is set to be released on May 13 , 2016 . In March , DevilDriver announced that former Static @-@ X guitarist , Diego " Ashes " Ibarra , would be filling in for the recently departed Chris Towning on bass for upcoming shows in the US , and on European and UK dates in support of the new album .
On March 18 , 2016 , DevilDriver released their first single from upcoming album , Trust No One , titled ' Daybreak ' , through their official YouTube channel .
= = Musical style = =
DevilDriver 's music has been widely described an amalgamation of groove metal and melodic death metal . All of the members have stated they are influenced by several types of music ( some not even found within the heavy metal genre ) , Miller 's influences include Metallica , Opeth , Slayer and In Flames , and states that many of the bands he tours with influences his songwriting . Fafara 's influences include Johnny Cash , and Motörhead , stating he likes people with " low voices " . Members of DevilDriver can be seen on Machine Head 's Elegies DVD citing Machine Head as an influence . Boecklin 's main inspiration into becoming a percussionist came from his enjoyment of Metallica , Primus and Ministry .
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
EPs
= = Music videos = =
" I Could Care Less "
" Nothing 's Wrong ? "
" Hold Back the Day "
" End of the Line "
" Not All Who Wander Are Lost "
" Clouds Over California "
" Pray for Villains "
" Fate Stepped In "
" Another Night in London "
" Dead to Rights "
" The Appetite "
" Daybreak "
= The Great Money Caper =
" The Great Money Caper " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' twelfth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 10 , 2000 . In the episode , Homer , along with his son Bart , con people out of their money in order to pay for Homer 's broken car . However , after having paid for the repairs , the two decide to continue grifting , which leads to some troublesome situations .
The episode was written by Carolyn Omine and directed by Michael Polcino . The episode 's title is a parody on The Great Muppet Caper . The episode features American actor Edward Norton as con artist Devon Bradley , and would feature The Doors guitarist Robby Krieger as himself , however the scene in which he appeared was removed because Mike Scully , the show runner for the episode , felt the scene was unnecessary . In its original American broadcast , the episode received a 9 @.@ 7 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research .
= = Plot = =
The family goes to a magic @-@ themed restaurant . While there , Marge gets drunk on Long Island Iced Teas and Bart becomes so fascinated with magic that he buys a magician 's kit from the gift shop . On the way home , a sturgeon falls from the sky ( implicitly from the space station Mir ) onto the family car 's hood , which is severely damaged . Homer and Bart start their magic show as a way to make money , but the act becomes a failure , and Homer leaves Bart to do the rest of the act on his own . Bart is left out on the street , and people begin giving him money so he can get home on public transportation .
As Homer drives home , he sees Bart in a taxi , and when he gets home he sees him eating a steak dinner . They decide they can make money grifting , however Marge and Lisa begin suspecting of them after they " worked " without Bart 's kit , which they both left behind at home . Homer and Bart continue to grift after they have fixed the car , and Grampa volunteers to help them grift , since he was a con @-@ artist during the Great Depression . Grampa , Homer and Bart grift the residents at the Springfield Retirement Castle . While performing the grift , they are arrested by an FBI agent . When Homer and Bart get to jail , they realize the FBI agent himself is a con man , and conned them out of their money and the car .
Homer and Bart say the car was stolen in the church parking lot . The next morning they are surprised however to learn that Groundskeeper Willie was arrested for stealing the car , as he matched the description they gave of the carjacker as a " foreign loner with a wild , bushy hair " . Not wanting to admit they were conned , Homer and Bart go along with Marge 's theory . At the trial , the Blue Haired Lawyer leads Homer to say that it was Willie who stole the car . After Willie is proven guilty , he snatches Wiggum 's gun and shoots Principal Skinner . At this point Homer finally confesses that he got conned but Marge and the townspeople themselves tell Homer and Bart that they set up the trial and the carjacking to teach them a lesson on conning people , revealing that Skinner was not really shot ( it was a fake blood pack ) , the judge was Grampa wearing a latex mask , and the con man who stole their car was an actor called Devon Bradley . As Lisa is ready to explain why the town , media and police officials had " nothing better to do " than show them the consequences of their actions , Otto runs through the courtroom doors , shouting , ' Surf 's Up ! ' . The scene then cuts to Springfield at the beach , with characters from the episode surfing , including the waiter from the restaurant , the two astronauts from the Mir space station and the sturgeon swimming in the sea . Watching July 7 .
= = Production = =
" The Great Money Caper " was written by Carolyn Omine and directed by Michael Polcino . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 10 , 2000 .
Originally , the episode would be about pool hustling , however as writing ensued , the script went through several incarnations until the Simpsons writers settled on the grifting story seen in the episode . Omine read several books about grifters for preparation for writing the episode . The other writers also prepared themselves by watching several heist films , including House of Games , Paper Moon and The Sting , the latter two of which are referenced in the episode . For example , the revelation that Devon Bradley , the FBI agent in the episode who is revealed to be a con artist , was inspired by such films .
In a scene in the episode , Homer and Bart exit the Magic Palace 's gift shop , only to end up in another gift shop . The scene was based on an experience of the episode 's show runner Mike Scully , who , in order to exit the Lance Burton Theatre after a magic show , had to pass through a gift shop . The ending scene of the episode went through several changes and was as a result completed late in the episode 's production . The writers had conceived the courtroom scene , but they were stuck trying to come up with an ending after Skinner had been shot . They eventually decided that the trial was a scam staged by the townspeople , and Simpsons writer George Meyer pitched the surfing scene that closed the episode .
= = = Casting = = =
A scene that was eventually dropped from the episode featured Robby Krieger , guitarist of the American rock band The Doors , as himself . Krieger had been promised a guest role on The Simpsons after the staff were allowed to use the Doors song " The End " for the season 11 episode " Hello Gutter , Hello Fadder " . However , during production , Scully thought that the scene stood out too much and that Krieger 's cameo felt " too obviously shoe @-@ horned in , " so the scene ended up being cut from the episode . The scene was later included in The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season DVD set . To this day , Krieger has not officially been featured in an episode of The Simpsons . The con artist Devon Bradley was portrayed by American actor and director Edward Norton . Scully hired Norton for the role after James L. Brooks , one of The Simpsons ' producers , told Scully that Norton was " a big fan of the show " and was willing to guest star in an episode . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , Scully noted that Norton was very versatile and could imitate many Simpsons characters perfectly . The announcer at the " Magic Palace " who says the line " Folks , this is not part of the act " was voiced by Scully . According to him , the line was " a last @-@ minute addition " to the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's plot is loosely based on the American comedy film Paper Moon , which was also the inspiration for Bart and Homer 's swindle of Ned Flanders in the episode . The title of the episode is a parody of the 1981 film The Great Muppet Caper . The title was pitched by Simpsons writer Matt Selman . The episode 's ending lampoons the cliche of having twist endings at the end of heist films . ” Magic Palace ” , the magic @-@ themed restaurant that the Simpsons visit in the beginning of the episode , is a parody on The Magic Castle , a nightclub in the Hollywood district of Los Angeles , California . Marge 's line " I didn 't say that for clapping " is a reference to a speech given by John Wayne while he was intoxicated . Homer wants to buy a singing rubber fish after their first con . At the end of the episode , Bart exclaims “ Cowabunga ! ” , a catch @-@ phrase of the main characters in the animated television series Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles . In the scene where Grampa joins Bart and Homer , Grampa mentions the film The Sting II .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on December 10 , 2000 , " The Great Money Caper " received a 9 @.@ 7 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , meaning it was seen by 9 @.@ 7 % of the population at the time of its broadcast . Among children , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 8 million viewers .
In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season DVD box set , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide praised the episode . He wrote that , unlike other episodes in the season , " The Great Money Caper " did not " rely on too many gimmicks " and therefore felt more realistic , even though he does not consider grifting an " everyday activity . " He concluded his review by writing that the episode " does well for itself . " Jason Bailey of DVD Talk described the episode as being one of the season 's highlights . On the other hand , Matt Haigh of Den of Geek cited " The Great Money Caper " as one of the worst episodes of the season , as well as the whole series . In his review , Haigh criticized the Simpsons writers for not making sense of the story , and denounced the episode 's ending for being " abrupt " . He described the episode as " a bad stain on an otherwise great franchise " .
= Kuiper belt =
The Kuiper belt / ˈkaɪpər / or Dutch pronunciation : [ ' køypǝr ] , sometimes called the Edgeworth – Kuiper belt , is a circumstellar disc in the Solar System beyond the planets , extending from the orbit of Neptune ( at 30 AU ) to approximately 50 AU from the Sun . It is similar to the asteroid belt , but it is far larger — 20 times as wide and 20 to 200 times as massive . Like the asteroid belt , it consists mainly of small bodies , or remnants from the Solar System 's formation . Although many asteroids are composed primarily of rock and metal , most Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles ( termed " ices " ) , such as methane , ammonia and water . The Kuiper belt is home to three officially recognized dwarf planets : Pluto , Haumea , and Makemake . Some of the Solar System 's moons , such as Neptune 's Triton and Saturn 's Phoebe , are also thought to have originated in the region .
The Kuiper belt was named after Dutch @-@ American astronomer Gerard Kuiper , though he did not actually predict its existence . In 1992 , 1992 QB1 was discovered , the first Kuiper belt object ( KBO ) since Pluto . Since its discovery , the number of known KBOs has increased to over a thousand , and more than 100 @,@ 000 KBOs over 100 km ( 62 mi ) in diameter are thought to exist . The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the main repository for periodic comets , those with orbits lasting less than 200 years . However , studies since the mid @-@ 1990s have shown that the belt is dynamically stable , and that comets ' true place of origin is the scattered disc , a dynamically active zone created by the outward motion of Neptune 4 @.@ 5 billion years ago ; scattered disc objects such as Eris have extremely eccentric orbits that take them as far as 100 AU from the Sun .
The Kuiper belt should not be confused with the theorized Oort cloud , which is a thousand times more distant and is mostly spherical . The objects within the Kuiper belt , together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential Hills cloud or Oort cloud objects , are collectively referred to as trans @-@ Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) .
Pluto is the largest and most @-@ massive member of the Kuiper belt and the largest and the second @-@ most @-@ massive known TNO , surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc . Originally considered a planet , Pluto 's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006 . It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt , and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs , known as " plutinos " , that share the same 2 : 3 resonance with Neptune .
= = History = =
After the discovery of Pluto in 1930 , many speculated that it might not be alone . The region now called the Kuiper belt was hypothesized in various forms for decades . It was only in 1992 that the first direct evidence for its existence was found . The number and variety of prior speculations on the nature of the Kuiper belt have led to continued uncertainty as to who deserves credit for first proposing it .
= = = Hypotheses = = =
The first astronomer to suggest the existence of a trans @-@ Neptunian population was Frederick C. Leonard . Soon after Pluto 's discovery by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 , Leonard pondered whether it was " not likely that in Pluto there has come to light the first of a series of ultra @-@ Neptunian bodies , the remaining members of which still await discovery but which are destined eventually to be detected " . That same year , astronomer Armin O. Leuschner suggested that Pluto " may be one of many long @-@ period planetary objects yet to be discovered . "
In 1943 , in the Journal of the British Astronomical Association , Kenneth Edgeworth hypothesized that , in the region beyond Neptune , the material within the primordial solar nebula was too widely spaced to condense into planets , and so rather condensed into a myriad of smaller bodies . From this he concluded that " the outer region of the solar system , beyond the orbits of the planets , is occupied by a very large number of comparatively small bodies " and that , from time to time , one of their number " wanders from its own sphere and appears as an occasional visitor to the inner solar system " , becoming a comet .
In 1951 , in an article for the journal Astrophysics , Gerard Kuiper speculated on a similar disc having formed early in the Solar System 's evolution ; however , he did not think that such a belt still existed today . Kuiper was operating on the assumption common in his time that Pluto was the size of Earth and had therefore scattered these bodies out toward the Oort cloud or out of the Solar System . Were Kuiper 's hypothesis correct , there would not be a Kuiper belt today .
The hypothesis took many other forms in the following decades . In 1962 , physicist Al G.W. Cameron postulated the existence of " a tremendous mass of small material on the outskirts of the solar system " . In 1964 , Fred Whipple , who popularised the famous " dirty snowball " hypothesis for cometary structure , thought that a " comet belt " might be massive enough to cause the purported discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus that had sparked the search for Planet X , or , at the very least , massive enough to affect the orbits of known comets . Observation , however , ruled out this hypothesis .
In 1977 , Charles Kowal discovered 2060 Chiron , an icy planetoid with an orbit between Saturn and Uranus . He used a blink comparator , the same device that had allowed Clyde Tombaugh to discover Pluto nearly 50 years before . In 1992 , another object , 5145 Pholus , was discovered in a similar orbit . Today , an entire population of comet @-@ like bodies , called the centaurs , is known to exist in the region between Jupiter and Neptune . The centaurs ' orbits are unstable and have dynamical lifetimes of a few million years . From the time of Chiron 's discovery in 1977 , astronomers have speculated that the centaurs therefore must be frequently replenished by some outer reservoir .
Further evidence for the existence of the Kuiper belt later emerged from the study of comets . That comets have finite lifespans has been known for some time . As they approach the Sun , its heat causes their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space , gradually dispersing them . In order for comets to continue to be visible over the age of the Solar System , they must be replenished frequently . One such area of replenishment is the Oort cloud , a spherical swarm of comets extending beyond 50 @,@ 000 AU from the Sun first hypothesised by Dutch astronomer Jan Oort in 1950 . The Oort cloud is thought to be the point of origin of long @-@ period comets , which are those , like Hale – Bopp , with orbits lasting thousands of years .
There is , however , another comet population , known as short @-@ period or periodic comets , consisting of those comets that , like Halley 's Comet , have orbital periods of less than 200 years . By the 1970s , the rate at which short @-@ period comets were being discovered was becoming increasingly inconsistent with their having emerged solely from the Oort cloud . For an Oort cloud object to become a short @-@ period comet , it would first have to be captured by the giant planets . In 1980 , in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society , Uruguayan astronomer Julio Fernández stated that for every short @-@ period comet to be sent into the inner Solar System from the Oort cloud , 600 would have to be ejected into interstellar space . He speculated that a comet belt from between 35 and 50 AU would be required to account for the observed number of comets . Following up on Fernández 's work , in 1988 the Canadian team of Martin Duncan , Tom Quinn and Scott Tremaine ran a number of computer simulations to determine if all observed comets could have arrived from the Oort cloud . They found that the Oort cloud could not account for all short @-@ period comets , particularly as short @-@ period comets are clustered near the plane of the Solar System , whereas Oort @-@ cloud comets tend to arrive from any point in the sky . With a " belt " , as Fernández described it , added to the formulations , the simulations matched observations . Reportedly because the words " Kuiper " and " comet belt " appeared in the opening sentence of Fernández 's paper , Tremaine named this hypothetical region the " Kuiper belt " .
= = = Discovery = = =
In 1987 , astronomer David Jewitt , then at MIT , became increasingly puzzled by " the apparent emptiness of the outer Solar System " . He encouraged then @-@ graduate student Jane Luu to aid him in his endeavour to locate another object beyond Pluto 's orbit , because , as he told her , " If we don 't , nobody will . " Using telescopes at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona and the Cerro Tololo Inter @-@ American Observatory in Chile , Jewitt and Luu conducted their search in much the same way as Clyde Tombaugh and Charles Kowal had , with a blink comparator . Initially , examination of each pair of plates took about eight hours , but the process was sped up with the arrival of electronic charge @-@ coupled devices or CCDs , which , though their field of view was narrower , were not only more efficient at collecting light ( they retained 90 % of the light that hit them , rather than the 10 % achieved by photographs ) but allowed the blinking process to be done virtually , on a computer screen . Today , CCDs form the basis for most astronomical detectors . In 1988 , Jewitt moved to the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Hawaii . Luu later joined him to work at the University of Hawaii 's 2 @.@ 24 m telescope at Mauna Kea . Eventually , the field of view for CCDs had increased to 1024 by 1024 pixels , which allowed searches to be conducted far more rapidly . Finally , after five years of searching , on August 30 , 1992 , Jewitt and Luu announced the " Discovery of the candidate Kuiper belt object " ( 15760 ) 1992 QB1 . Six months later , they discovered a second object in the region , ( 181708 ) 1993 FW .
Studies conducted since the trans @-@ Neptunian region was first charted have shown that the region now called the Kuiper belt is not the point of origin of short @-@ period comets , but that they instead derive from a linked population called the scattered disc . The scattered disc was created when Neptune migrated outward into the proto @-@ Kuiper belt , which at the time was much closer to the Sun , and left in its wake a population of dynamically stable objects that could never be affected by its orbit ( the Kuiper belt proper ) , and a population whose perihelia are close enough that Neptune can still disturb them as it travels around the Sun ( the scattered disc ) . Because the scattered disc is dynamically active and the Kuiper belt relatively dynamically stable , the scattered disc is now seen as the most likely point of origin for periodic comets .
= = = Name = = =
Astronomers sometimes use the alternative name Edgeworth – Kuiper belt to credit Edgeworth , and KBOs are occasionally referred to as EKOs . However , Brian G. Marsden claims that neither deserves true credit : " Neither Edgeworth nor Kuiper wrote about anything remotely like what we are now seeing , but Fred Whipple did " . David Jewitt comments : " If anything ... Fernández most nearly deserves the credit for predicting the Kuiper Belt . "
KBOs are sometimes called kuiperoids , a name suggested by Clyde Tombaugh . The term trans @-@ Neptunian object ( TNO ) is recommended for objects in the belt by several scientific groups because the term is less controversial than all others — it is not an exact synonym though , as TNOs include all objects orbiting the Sun past the orbit of Neptune , not just those in the Kuiper belt .
= = Structure = =
At its fullest extent , including its outlying regions , the Kuiper belt stretches from roughly 30 to 55 AU . However , the main body of the belt is generally accepted to extend from the 2 : 3 mean @-@ motion resonance ( see below ) at 39 @.@ 5 AU to the 1 : 2 resonance at roughly 48 AU . The Kuiper belt is quite thick , with the main concentration extending as much as ten degrees outside the ecliptic plane and a more diffuse distribution of objects extending several times farther . Overall it more resembles a torus or doughnut than a belt . Its mean position is inclined to the ecliptic by 1 @.@ 86 degrees .
The presence of Neptune has a profound effect on the Kuiper belt 's structure due to orbital resonances . Over a timescale comparable to the age of the Solar System , Neptune 's gravity destabilises the orbits of any objects that happen to lie in certain regions , and either sends them into the inner Solar System or out into the scattered disc or interstellar space . This causes the Kuiper belt to have pronounced gaps in its current layout , similar to the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt . In the region between 40 and 42 AU , for instance , no objects can retain a stable orbit over such times , and any observed in that region must have migrated there relatively recently .
= = = Classical belt = = =
Between the 2 : 3 and 1 : 2 resonances with Neptune , at approximately 42 – 48 AU , the gravitational influence of Neptune is negligible , and objects can exist with their orbits essentially unaltered . This region is known as the classical Kuiper belt , and its members comprise roughly two thirds of KBOs observed to date . Because the first modern KBO discovered , ( 15760 ) 1992 QB1 , is considered the prototype of this group , classical KBOs are often referred to as cubewanos ( " Q @-@ B @-@ 1 @-@ os " ) . The guidelines established by the IAU demand that classical KBOs be given names of mythological beings associated with creation .
The classical Kuiper belt appears to be a composite of two separate populations . The first , known as the " dynamically cold " population , has orbits much like the planets ; nearly circular , with an orbital eccentricity of less than 0 @.@ 1 , and with relatively low inclinations up to about 10 ° ( they lie close to the plane of the Solar System rather than at an angle ) . The cold population also contain a concentration of objects , referred to as the kernel , with semi @-@ major axes at 44 – 44 @.@ 5 AU . The second , the " dynamically hot " population , has orbits much more inclined to the ecliptic , by up to 30 ° . The two populations have been named this way not because of any major difference in temperature , but from analogy to particles in a gas , which increase their relative velocity as they become heated up . Not only are the two populations in different orbits , the cold population also differs in color and albedo , being redder and brighter , has a larger fraction of binary objects , has a different size distribution , and lacks very large objects . The difference in colors may be a reflection of different compositions , which suggests they formed in different regions . The hot population is proposed to have formed near Jupiter , and to have been ejected out by movements among the giant planets . The cold population , on the other hand , has been proposed to have formed more or less in its current position . Although it has been suggested that the cold population was also swept outwards by Neptune during its migration , particularly if Neptune 's eccentricity was transiently increased , the loose binaries among the cold population are unlikely to survive encounters with Neptune during this migration . Although the Nice model appears to be able to at least partially explain a compositional difference , it has also been suggested the color difference may reflect differences in surface evolution .
= = = Resonances = = =
When an object 's orbital period is an exact ratio of Neptune 's ( a situation called a mean @-@ motion resonance ) , then it can become locked in a synchronised motion with Neptune and avoid being perturbed away if their relative alignments are appropriate . If , for instance , an object orbits the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits , and if it reaches perihelion with Neptune a quarter of an orbit away from it , then whenever it returns to perihelion , Neptune will always be in about the same relative position as it began , because it will have completed 1 1 ⁄ 2 orbits in the same time . This is known as the 2 : 3 ( or 3 : 2 ) resonance , and it corresponds to a characteristic semi @-@ major axis of about 39 @.@ 4 AU . This 2 : 3 resonance is populated by about 200 known objects , including Pluto together with its moons . In recognition of this , the members of this family are known as plutinos . Many plutinos , including Pluto , have orbits that cross that of Neptune , though their resonance means they can never collide . Plutinos have high orbital eccentricities , suggesting that they are not native to their current positions but were instead thrown haphazardly into their orbits by the migrating Neptune . IAU guidelines dictate that all plutinos must , like Pluto , be named for underworld deities . The 1 : 2 resonance ( whose objects complete half an orbit for each of Neptune 's ) corresponds to semi @-@ major axes of ~ 47.7AU , and is sparsely populated . Its residents are sometimes referred to as twotinos . Other resonances also exist at 3 : 4 , 3 : 5 , 4 : 7 and 2 : 5 . Neptune has a number of trojan objects , which occupy its Lagrangian points , gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing it in its orbit . Neptune trojans are in a 1 : 1 mean @-@ motion resonance with Neptune and often have very stable orbits .
Additionally , there is a relative absence of objects with semi @-@ major axes below 39 AU that cannot apparently be explained by the present resonances . The currently accepted hypothesis for the cause of this is that as Neptune migrated outward , unstable orbital resonances moved gradually through this region , and thus any objects within it were swept up , or gravitationally ejected from it .
= = = " Kuiper cliff " = = =
The 1 : 2 resonance appears to be an edge beyond which few objects are known . It is not clear whether it is actually the outer edge of the classical belt or just the beginning of a broad gap . Objects have been detected at the 2 : 5 resonance at roughly 55 AU , well outside the classical belt ; however , predictions of a large number of bodies in classical orbits between these resonances have not been verified through observation .
Based on estimations of the primordial mass required to form Uranus and Neptune , as well as bodies as large as Pluto ( see below ) , earlier models of the Kuiper belt had suggested that the number of large objects would increase by a factor of two beyond 50 AU , so this sudden drastic falloff , known as the " Kuiper cliff " , was completely unexpected , and its cause , to date , is unknown . In 2003 , Bernstein and Trilling et al. found evidence that the rapid decline in objects of 100 km or more in radius beyond 50 AU is real , and not due to observational bias . Possible explanations include that material at that distance was too scarce or too scattered to accrete into large objects , or that subsequent processes removed or destroyed those that did . Patryk Lykawka of Kobe University has claimed that the gravitational attraction of an unseen large planetary object , perhaps the size of Earth or Mars , might be responsible .
= = Origin = =
The precise origins of the Kuiper belt and its complex structure are still unclear , and astronomers are awaiting the completion of several wide @-@ field survey telescopes such as Pan @-@ STARRS and the future LSST , which should reveal many currently unknown KBOs . These surveys will provide data that will help determine answers to these questions .
The Kuiper belt is thought to consist of planetesimals , fragments from the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into planets and instead formed into smaller bodies , the largest less than 3 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) in diameter . Studies of the crater counts on Pluto and Charon suggest that such objects formed directly as sizeable objects in the range of tens of kilometers in diameter rather than being accreted from much smaller , roughly kilometer scale bodies . Hypothetical mechanisms for the formation of these larger bodies include the gravitational collapse of clouds of pebbles concentrated between eddies in a turbulent protoplanetary disk or in streaming instabilities . These collapsing clouds may fragment , forming binaries .
Modern computer simulations show the Kuiper belt to have been strongly influenced by Jupiter and Neptune , and also suggest that neither Uranus nor Neptune could have formed in their present positions , because too little primordial matter existed at that range to produce objects of such high mass . Instead , these planets are estimated to have formed closer to Jupiter . Scattering of planetesimals early in the Solar System 's history would have led to migration of the orbits of the giant planets : Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune drifted outwards , whereas Jupiter drifted inwards . Eventually , the orbits shifted to the point where Jupiter and Saturn reached an exact 2 : 1 resonance ; Jupiter orbited the Sun twice for every one Saturn orbit . The gravitational repercussions of such a resonance ultimately destabilized the orbits of Uranus and Neptune , causing them to be scattered outward onto high @-@ eccentricity orbits that crossed the primordial planetesimal disc . While Neptune 's orbit was highly eccentric , its mean @-@ motion resonances overlapped and the orbits of the planetesimals evolved chaotically , allowing planetesimals to wander outward as far as Neptune 's 2 : 1 resonance to form a dynamically cold belt of low @-@ inclination objects . Later , after its eccentricity decreased , Neptune 's orbit expanded outward toward its current position . Many planetesimals were captured into and remain in resonances during this migration , others evolved onto higher @-@ inclination and lower @-@ eccentricity orbits and escaped from the resonances onto stable orbits . Many more planetesimals were scattered inward , with small fractions being captured as Jupiter trojans , as irregular satellites orbiting the giant planets , and as outer belt asteroids . The remainder were scattered outward again by Jupiter and in most cases ejected from the Solar System reducing the primordial Kuiper belt population by 99 % or more .
While the original version of the currently most popular model , the " Nice model " , reproduces many characteristics of the Kuiper belt such as the " cold " and " hot " populations , resonant objects , and a scattered disc , it still fails to account for some of the characteristics of their distributions . The model predicts a higher average eccentricity in classical KBO orbits than is observed ( 0 @.@ 10 – 0 @.@ 13 versus 0 @.@ 07 ) and its predicted inclination distribution contains too few high inclination objects . In addition , the frequency of binary objects in the cold belt , many of which are far apart and loosely bound , also poses a problem for the model . These are predicted to have been separated during encounters with Neptune , leading some to propose that the cold disc formed at its current location .
A recent modification of the Nice model has the Solar System begin with five giant planets , including an additional ice giant , in a chain of mean @-@ motion resonances . About 400 million years after the formation of the Solar System the resonance chain is broken . Instead of being scattered into the disc , the ice giants first migrate outward several AU . This divergent migration eventually leads to a resonance crossing , destabilizing the orbits of the planets . The extra ice giant encounters Saturn and is scattered inward onto a Jupiter @-@ crossing orbit and after a series of encounters is ejected from the Solar System . The remaining planets then continue their migration until the planetesimal disc in nearly depleted with small fractions remaining in various locations .
As in the original Nice model , objects are captured into resonances with Neptune during its outward migration . Some remain in the resonances , others evolve onto higher @-@ inclination , lower @-@ eccentricity orbits , and are released onto stable orbits forming the dynamically hot classical belt . The hot belt 's inclination distribution can be reproduced if Neptune migrated from 24 AU to 30 AU on a 30 Myr timescale . When Neptune migrates to 28 AU , it has a gravitational encounter with the extra ice giant . Objects captured from the cold belt into the 2 : 1 mean @-@ motion resonance with Neptune are left behind as a local concentration at 44 AU when this encounter causes Neptune 's semi @-@ major axis to jump outward . If Neptune 's eccentricity remains small during this encounter the chaotic evolution of orbits of the original Nice model is avoided and a primordial cold belt is preserved . In the later phases of Neptune 's migration a slow sweeping of mean @-@ motion resonances removes the higher @-@ eccentricity objects from the cold belt truncating its eccentricity distribution .
= = Composition = =
Being distant from the Sun and major planets , Kuiper belt objects are thought to be relatively unaffected by the processes that have shaped and altered other Solar System objects ; thus , determining their composition would provide substantial information on the makeup of the earliest Solar System . However , due to their small size and extreme distance from Earth , the chemical makeup of KBOs is very difficult to determine . The principal method by which astronomers determine the composition of a celestial object is spectroscopy . When an object 's light is broken into its component colors , an image akin to a rainbow is formed . This image is called a spectrum . Different substances absorb light at different wavelengths , and when the spectrum for a specific object is unravelled , dark lines ( called absorption lines ) appear where the substances within it have absorbed that particular wavelength of light . Every element or compound has its own unique spectroscopic signature , and by reading an object 's full spectral " fingerprint " , astronomers can determine what it is made of .
Analysis indicates that Kuiper belt objects are composed of a mixture of rock and a variety of ices such as water , methane , and ammonia . The temperature of the belt is only about 50 K , so many compounds that would be gaseous closer to the Sun remain solid . The densities and rock – ice fractions are known for only a small number of objects for which the diameters and the masses have been determined . The diameter can be determined by imaging with a high @-@ resolution telescope such as the Hubble Space Telescope , by the timing of an occultation when an object passes in front of a star , or , most commonly , by using the albedo of an object calculated from its infrared emissions . The masses are determined using the semi @-@ major axes and periods of satellites , which are therefore known only for a few binary objects . The densities range from less than 0 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 6 g / cm3 . The least dense objects are thought to be largely composed of ice and have significant porosity . The densest objects are likely composed of rock with a thin crust of ice . There is a trend of low densities for small objects and high densities for the largest objects . One possible explanation for this trend is that ice was lost from the surface layers when differentiated objects collided to form the largest objects .
Initially , detailed analysis of KBOs was impossible , and so astronomers were only able to determine the most basic facts about their makeup , primarily their color . These first data showed a broad range of colors among KBOs , ranging from neutral grey to deep red . This suggested that their surfaces were composed of a wide range of compounds , from dirty ices to hydrocarbons . This diversity was startling , as astronomers had expected KBOs to be uniformly dark , having lost most of the volatile ices from their surfaces to the effects of cosmic rays . Various solutions were suggested for this discrepancy , including resurfacing by impacts or outgassing . However , Jewitt and Luu 's spectral analysis of the known Kuiper belt objects in 2001 found that the variation in color was too extreme to be easily explained by random impacts . The radiation from the Sun is thought to have chemically altered methane on the surface of KBOs , producing products such as tholins . Makemake has been shown to possess a number of hydrocarbons derived from the radiation @-@ processing of methane , including ethane , ethylene and acetylene .
Although to date most KBOs still appear spectrally featureless due to their faintness , there have been a number of successes in determining their composition . In 1996 , Robert H. Brown et al. acquired spectroscopic data on the KBO 1993 SC , which revealed that its surface composition is markedly similar to that of Pluto , as well as Neptune 's moon Triton , with large amounts of methane ice . For the smaller objects only colors and in some cases the albedos have been determined . These objects largely fall into two classes : gray with low albedos , or very red with higher albedos . The difference in colors and albedos is hypothesized to be due to the retention or the loss of hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) on the surface of these objects , with the surfaces of those that formed far enough from the Sun to retain H2S being reddened due to irradiation .
The largest KBOs , such as Pluto and Quaoar , have surfaces rich in volatile compounds such as methane , nitrogen and carbon monoxide ; the presence of these molecules is likely due to their moderate vapor pressure in the 30 – 50 K temperature range of the Kuiper belt . This allows them to occasionally boil off their surfaces and then fall again as snow , whereas compounds with higher boiling points would remain solid . The relative abundances of these three compounds in the largest KBOs is directly related to their surface gravity and ambient temperature , which determines which they can retain . Water ice has been detected in several KBOs , including members of the Haumea family such as 1996 TO66 , mid @-@ sized objects such as 38628 Huya and 20000 Varuna , and also on some small objects . The presence of crystalline ice on large and mid @-@ sized objects , including 50000 Quaoar where ammonia hydrate has also been detected , may indicate past tectonic activity aided by melting point lowering due to the presence of ammonia .
= = Mass and size distribution = =
Despite its vast extent , the collective mass of the Kuiper belt is relatively low . The total mass is estimated to range between 1 / 25th and 1 / 10th the mass of the Earth . Conversely , models of the Solar System 's formation predict a collective mass for the Kuiper belt of 30 Earth masses . This missing > 99 % of the mass can hardly be dismissed , because it is required for the accretion of any KBOs larger than 100 km ( 62 mi ) in diameter . If the Kuiper belt had always had its current low density these large objects simply could not have formed by the collision and mergers of smaller planetesimals . Moreover , the eccentricity and inclination of current orbits makes the encounters quite " violent " resulting in destruction rather than accretion . It appears that either the current residents of the Kuiper belt have been created closer to the Sun or some mechanism dispersed the original mass . Neptune 's current influence is too weak to explain such a massive " vacuuming " , though the Nice model proposes that it could have been the cause of mass removal in the past . Although the question remains open , the conjectures vary from a passing star scenario to grinding of smaller objects , via collisions , into dust small enough to be affected by solar radiation . The extent of mass loss by collisional grinding , however , is limited by the presence of loosely bound binaries in the cold disk , which are likely to be disrupted in collisions .
Bright objects are rare compared with the dominant dim population , as expected from accretion models of origin , given that only some objects of a given size would have grown further . This relationship between N ( D ) ( the number of objects of diameter greater than D ) and D , referred to as brightness slope , has been confirmed by observations . The slope is inversely proportional to some power of the diameter D :
<formula> where the current measures give q = 4 ± 0 @.@ 5 .
This implies ( assuming q is not 1 ) that
<formula>
( The constant may be non @-@ zero only if the power law doesn 't apply at high values of D. )
Less formally , if q is 4 , for example , there are 8 ( = 23 ) times more objects in the 100 – 200 km range than in the 200 – 400 km range , and for every object with a diameter between 1000 and 1010 km there should be around 1000 ( = 103 ) objects with diameter of 100 to 101 km .
If q is 1 or less , the law implies an infinite number and mass of large objects in the Kuiper belt . If 1 < q ≤ 4 there will be a finite number of objects greater than a given size , but the expected value of their combined mass would be infinite . If q is 4 or more , the law would imply an infinite mass of small objects . More accurate models find that the " slope " parameter q is in effect greater at large diameters and lesser at small diameters . It seems that Pluto is somewhat unexpectedly large , having several percent of the total mass of the Kuiper belt . It is not expected that anything larger than Pluto exists in the Kuiper belt , and in fact most of the brightest ( largest ) objects at inclinations less than 5 ° have probably been found .
Of course , only the absolute magnitude is actually known , the size is inferred assuming a given albedo ( not a safe assumption for larger objects ) .
Recent research has revealed that the size distributions of the hot classical and cold classical objects have differing slopes . The slope for the hot objects is q
= 5 @.@ 3 at large diameters and q =
2 @.@ 0 at small diameters with the change in slope at 110 km . The slope for the cold objects is q
= 8 @.@ 2 at large diameters and q =
2 @.@ 9 at small diameters with a change in slope at 140 km . The size distributions of the scattering objects , the plutinos , and the Neptune trojans have slopes similar to the other dynamically hot populations , but may instead have a divot , a sharp decrease in the number of objects below a specific size . This divot is hypothesized to be due to either the collisional evolution of the population , or to be due to the population having formed with no objects below this size , with the smaller objects being fragments of the original objects .
As of December 2009 , the smallest Kuiper belt object detected is 980 m across . It is too dim ( magnitude 35 ) to be seen by Hubble directly , but it was detected by Hubble 's star tracking system when it occulted a star .
= = Scattered objects = =
The scattered disc is a sparsely populated region , overlapping with the Kuiper belt but extending to beyond 100 AU . Scattered disc objects ( SDOs ) have very elliptical orbits , often also very inclined to the ecliptic . Most models of Solar System formation show both KBOs and SDOs first forming in a primordial belt , with later gravitational interactions , particularly with Neptune , sending the objects outward , some into stable orbits ( the KBOs ) and some into unstable orbits , the scattered disc . Due to its unstable nature , the scattered disc is suspected to be the point of origin of many of the Solar System 's short @-@ period comets . Their dynamic orbits occasionally force them into the inner Solar System , first becoming centaurs , and then short @-@ period comets .
According to the Minor Planet Center , which officially catalogues all trans @-@ Neptunian objects , a KBO , strictly speaking , is any object that orbits exclusively within the defined Kuiper belt region regardless of origin or composition . Objects found outside the belt are classed as scattered objects . However , in some scientific circles the term " Kuiper belt object " has become synonymous with any icy minor planet native to the outer Solar System assumed to have been part of that initial class , even if its orbit during the bulk of Solar System history has been beyond the Kuiper belt ( e.g. in the scattered @-@ disc region ) . They often describe scattered disc objects as " scattered Kuiper belt objects " . Eris , which is known to be more massive than Pluto , is often referred to as a KBO , but is technically an SDO . A consensus among astronomers as to the precise definition of the Kuiper belt has yet to be reached , and this issue remains unresolved .
The centaurs , which are not normally considered part of the Kuiper belt , are also thought to be scattered objects , the only difference being that they were scattered inward , rather than outward . The Minor Planet Center groups the centaurs and the SDOs together as scattered objects .
= = = Triton = = =
During its period of migration , Neptune is thought to have captured a large KBO , Triton , which is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit ( it orbits opposite to Neptune 's rotation ) . This suggests that , unlike the large moons of Jupiter , Saturn , and Uranus , which are thought to have coalesced from rotating discs of material around their young parent planets , Triton was a fully formed body that was captured from surrounding space . Gravitational capture of an object is not easy : it requires some mechanism to slow down the object enough to be caught by the larger object 's gravity . A possible explanation is that Triton was part of a binary when it encountered Neptune . ( Many KBOs are members of binaries . See below . ) Ejection of the other member of the binary by Neptune could then explain Triton 's capture . Triton is only 14 % larger than Pluto , and spectral analysis of both worlds shows that their surfaces are largely composed of similar materials , such as methane and carbon monoxide . All this points to the conclusion that Triton was once a KBO that was captured by Neptune during its outward migration .
= = Largest KBOs = =
Since 2000 , a number of KBOs with diameters of between 500 and 1 @,@ 500 km ( 932 mi ) , more than half that of Pluto ( diameter 2370 km ) , have been discovered . 50000 Quaoar , a classical KBO discovered in 2002 , is over 1 @,@ 200 km across . Makemake and Haumea , both announced on July 29 , 2005 , are larger still . Other objects , such as 28978 Ixion ( discovered in 2001 ) and 20000 Varuna ( discovered in 2000 ) measure roughly 500 km ( 311 mi ) across .
= = = Pluto = = =
The discovery of these large KBOs in similar orbits to Pluto led many to conclude that , aside from its relative size , Pluto was not particularly different from other members of the Kuiper belt . Not only are these objects similar to Pluto in size , but many also have satellites , and are of similar composition ( methane and carbon monoxide have been found both on Pluto and on the largest KBOs ) . Thus , just as Ceres was considered a planet before the discovery of its fellow asteroids , some began to suggest that Pluto might also be reclassified .
The issue was brought to a head by the discovery of Eris , an object in the scattered disc far beyond the Kuiper belt , that is now known to be 27 % more massive than Pluto . ( Eris was originally thought to be larger than Pluto by volume , but the New Horizons mission found this not to be the case . ) In response , the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) , was forced to define what a planet is for the first time , and in so doing included in their definition that a planet must have " cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit " . As Pluto shared its orbit with so many KBOs , it was deemed not to have cleared its orbit , and was thus reclassified from a planet to a member of the Kuiper belt .
Although Pluto is currently the largest known KBO , there is at least one known larger object currently outside the Kuiper belt that probably originated in it : Neptune 's moon Triton ( which , as explained above , is probably a captured KBO ) .
As of 2008 , only five objects in the Solar System ( Ceres , Eris , and the KBOs Pluto , Makemake and Haumea ) are listed as dwarf planets by the IAU . However , 90482 Orcus , 28978 Ixion and many other Kuiper @-@ belt objects are large enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium ; most of them will probably qualify when more is known about them .
= = = Satellites = = =
Of the five largest TNOs , four ( Eris , Pluto , Makemake and Haumea ) are known to have satellites , and two have more than one . A higher percentage of the larger KBOs have satellites than the smaller objects in the Kuiper belt , suggesting that a different formation mechanism was responsible . There are also a high number of binaries ( two objects close enough in mass to be orbiting " each other " ) in the Kuiper belt . The most notable example is the Pluto – Charon binary , but it is estimated that around 11 % of KBOs exist in binaries .
= = Exploration = =
On 19 January 2006 , the first spacecraft to explore the Kuiper belt , New Horizons , was launched , which flew by Pluto on 14 July 2015 .
Scientists awaited data from the Pan @-@ STARRS survey project to ensure as wide a field of options as possible . The Pan @-@ STARRS project , partially operational since May 2010 , will , when fully online , survey the entire sky with four 1 @.@ 4 gigapixel digital cameras to detect any moving objects , from near @-@ Earth objects to KBOs . To speed up the detection process , the New Horizons team established Ice Hunters , a citizen science project that allowed members of the public to participate in the search for suitable KBO targets ; the project has subsequently been transferred to another site , Ice Investigators , produced by CosmoQuest .
On 15 October 2014 , it was revealed that Hubble 's search had uncovered three potential targets , provisionally designated PT1 ( " potential target 1 " ) , PT2 and PT3 by the New Horizons team . All are objects with estimated diameters in the 30 – 55 km range , too small to be seen by ground telescopes , at distances from the Sun of 43 – 44 AU , which would put the encounters in the 2018 – 2019 period . The initial estimated probabilities that these objects are reachable within New Horizons ' fuel budget are 100 % , 7 % , and 97 % , respectively . All are members of the " cold " ( low @-@ inclination , low @-@ eccentricity ) classical Kuiper belt , and thus very different from Pluto . PT1 ( given the temporary designation " 1110113Y " on the HST web site ) , the most favorably situated object , is magnitude 26 @.@ 8 , 30 – 45 km in diameter , and will be encountered around January 2019 . A course to reach it will require about 35 % of New Horizons ' available trajectory @-@ adjustment fuel supply . A mission to PT3 was in some ways preferable , in that it is brighter and therefore probably larger than PT1 , but the greater fuel requirements to reach it would have left less for maneuvering and unforeseen events . Once sufficient orbital information was provided , the Minor Planet Center gave official designations to the three target KBOs : 2014 MU69 ( PT1 ) , 2014 OS393 ( PT2 ) , and 2014 PN70 ( PT3 ) . By the fall of 2014 , a possible fourth target , 2014 MT69 , had been eliminated by follow @-@ up observations . PT2 was out of the running before the Pluto flyby .
On 26 August 2015 , the first target , 2014 MU69 , was chosen . Course adjustment took place in late October and early November 2015 , leading to a flyby in January 2019 . In order to complete the mission , funding will need to be secured following a senior review of planetary science missions in 2016 , with the results of that review to be announced in August or September 2016 .
On 2 December 2015 , New Horizons detected 1994 JR1 from 270 million kilometres ( 170 × 10 ^ 6 mi ) away , and the photographs show the shape of the object and one or two details .
= = Extrasolar Kuiper belts = =
By 2006 , astronomers had resolved dust discs thought to be Kuiper belt @-@ like structures around nine stars other than the Sun . They appear to fall into two categories : wide belts , with radii of over 50 AU , and narrow belts ( tentatively like that of the Solar System ) with radii of between 20 and 30 AU and relatively sharp boundaries . Beyond this , 15 – 20 % of solar @-@ type stars have an observed infrared excess that is suggestive of massive Kuiper @-@ belt @-@ like structures . Most known debris discs around other stars are fairly young , but the two images on the right , taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in January 2006 , are old enough ( roughly 300 million years ) to have settled into stable configurations . The left image is a " top view " of a wide belt , and the right image is an " edge view " of a narrow belt . Computer simulations of dust in the Kuiper belt suggest that when it was younger , it may have resembled the narrow rings seen around younger stars .
= 2014 – 15 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team =
The 2014 – 15 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team represented the University of Michigan during the 2014 – 15 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . The team played its home games in Ann Arbor , Michigan for the 48th consecutive year at the Crisler Center , which has a capacity of 12 @,@ 707 . This season marked the program 's 99th season and its 98th consecutive year as a member of the Big Ten Conference . The team was led by 8th year head coach John Beilein , who was voted 2014 Big Ten Coach of the Year by the Big Ten media . The 2013 – 14 team was Big Ten champion , earning the school 's first outright title since 1986 . The program entered the season coming off its winningest two @-@ year stretch , having won 59 games in the two previous seasons . The team was also coming off four consecutive NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament appearances .
The 2014 – 15 team needed to replace the losses of Nik Stauskas , Mitch McGary and Glenn Robinson III to the 2014 NBA draft and Jon Horford and Jordan Morgan to graduation . It began the season ranked in both the AP Poll ( # 24 ) and Coaches ' Poll ( # 23 ) . Guard Caris LeVert was named a preseason All @-@ American according to numerous media outlets and preseason All @-@ Big Ten according to the Big Ten media . LeVert , however , suffered a season @-@ ending foot injury in January . At the end of that month , Derrick Walton was sidelined for the season . The team struggled without two of its leaders as it went from a 6 – 3 win – loss record in conference to finish 8 – 10 . After falling in the quarterfinals of the 2015 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament the team 's season ended with a 16 – 16 record .
= = Roster changes = =
= = = Departures = = =
Jordan Morgan graduated after using all of his eligibility . Horford announced on April 10 that he would use his 5th year of redshirt eligibility by transferring to a graduate program at another school for the 2014 – 15 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . On April 26 , Horford announced he was transferring to play for the Florida Gators men 's basketball team .
On April 15 , in a joint press conference on the Big Ten Network , Glenn Robinson III and Nik Stauskas announced that they were declaring themselves eligible for the 2014 NBA draft . On April 25 , Mitch McGary declared for the draft . He was facing a season @-@ long NCAA suspension after testing positive for marijuana after the Wolverines ' NCAA tournament win over Tennessee , a game for which he dressed but was not able to play . When all three players were drafted , it marked the first time Michigan had at least three draft picks since the 1990 NBA draft .
= = = 2014 – 15 team recruits = = =
After Stauskas and Robinson declared for the NBA , Michigan signed Muhammad Ali Abdur @-@ Rahkman on April 19 . On April 28 , Michigan signed Aubrey Dawkins , son of former Duke Naismith College Player of the Year , National Basketball Association point guard and Stanford head coach Johnny Dawkins .
= = = Future recruits = = =
On August 6 , Duncan Robinson announced that he would transfer to Michigan with three years of eligibility remaining and sit out the 2014 – 15 season after Division III Williams College head coach Mike Maker announced his departure to coach at Marist . On August 8 , 2014 , 6 @-@ foot @-@ 11 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 11 m ) Jon Teske became Michigan basketball 's first class of 2016 commit .
= = Post @-@ tournament predictions = =
Immediately following the 2014 NCAA Tournament , the earliest predictions started being made by the media despite draft status uncertainty . While uncertainty about Stauskas ' , Robinson 's and McGary 's returns remained speculation , projections abounded : 9 by Yahoo ! Sports , 14 by Bleacher Report , 17 by ESPN , 18 by USA Today , 20 by NBC Sports and CBS Sports . Following the April 27 NBA draft entry deadline , revised predictions had Michigan a little lower : 19 by Bleacher Report , 24 by ESPN and NBC Sports , unranked by CBS Sports and USA Today . Despite the projected rankings the Las Vegas 2015 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament betting lines showed only 11 schools with shorter odds than Michigan who was in a 6 @-@ way tie for 12th place at 33 : 1 on April 29 .
= = Offseason = =
On May 12 , LeVert underwent surgery to repair a stress fracture in his foot . He was expected to be sidelined for 8 – 10 weeks , but be available for the team 's August trip to play in Europe . Beilein announced on June 3 that Max Bielfeldt had undergone hip surgery and was expected to miss most of the summer . On August 6 , D. J. Wilson was sidelined for 4 – 6 weeks following surgery on his pinky finger . This announcement came prior to the team 's August 15 departure for its summer trip to Italy .
The team participated in a four @-@ game exhibition tour of Italy that included stops in Rome , Verona , Vicenza , Venice and Lake Como from August 15 – 24 . On August 28 , Beilein became the 2013 – 14 recipient of the NCAA 's Bob Frederick Sportsmanship Award , which honors " an NCAA member institution coach or administrator who exhibits a lifelong commitment to sportsmanship and ethical conduct , leading by example and promoting positive fan involvement in and out of competition . "
= = Preseason = =
Michigan began the season ranked number 23 in the Coaches ' Poll and number 24 in the AP Poll . In the Sports Illustrated preseason top 25 ranking Michigan was listed # 25 . ESPN 's Jeff Goodman expected Michigan to be Wisconsin 's main competition in the conference despite all of the talent it lost . Athlon Sports and Blue Ribbon College Basketball Yearbook ranked Michigan 23 in their preseason rankings . Bleacher Report listed Michigan at number 20 .
Caris LeVert was a preseason All @-@ Big Ten selection . He was an NBCSports.com Preseason All @-@ American first team selection , a SB Nation , Sports Illustrated , Bleacher Report , Athlon Sports , Blue Ribbon College Basketball Yearbook , and CBSSports.com second team selection and a USA Today third team selection . He was also named to the Lute Olson Award and John R. Wooden Award preseason watchlists . LeVert also was named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy Watch List on November 24 and the Naismith Award Top 50 list on December 3 .
In its preseason top 100 player rankings , ESPN ranked LeVert # 13 and Walton # 87 . Prior to the season LeVert and Spike Albrecht were named co @-@ captains .
= = Roster = =
In July , the team reclassified Max Bielfeldt from a redshirt junior to a senior , which freed up Bielfeldt 's scholarship for the Class of 2015 , implying Bielfeldt would play his final year of eligibility elsewhere . In November , Beilein announced that the team would redshirt Andrew Dakich so that he could play a fifth year somewhere else . However , a pair of January backcourt injuries caused Dakich 's services to be needed and he played instead of redshirting . D. J. Wilson missed most of the season due to a knee injury and was redshirted .
= = Schedule = =
Michigan played the 2014 – 15 Arizona Wildcats on the road at McKale Center as part of their home @-@ and @-@ away that had begun at home against the 2013 – 14 Wildcats . Michigan played a home @-@ and @-@ away with the 2014 – 15 and 2015 – 16 SMU Mustangs with the 2014 game being played on December 20 , 2014 at Crisler Center , and trip in December 2015 to face the 2015 – 16 Mustangs in Dallas . On July 15 , the non @-@ conference schedule was announced . On August 21 , the team announced the conference schedule , which included three ESPN Super Tuesday broadcasts .
November
On November 10 , Michigan won an exhibition game against Wayne State . The biggest storyline was that Austin Hatch scored for the team . Hatch had survived two plane crashes at ages 8 and 16 ; the first killed his mother and both of his siblings , and the second killed his father and stepmother and left him in a coma for two months . After raising its 2014 Big Ten Championship banner on November 15 , Michigan opened its season with a 92 – 68 victory over Hillsdale College . The game was the first time the team had had three 20 @-@ point scorers ( Derrick Walton @-@ 22 , Zak Irvin @-@ 21 , and Caris LeVert @-@ 20 ) since the 2011 – 12 team defeated the Oakland Golden Grizzlies on December 10 , 2011 behind Trey Burke , Tim Hardaway , Jr. and Evan Smotrycz . On November 17 , the team opened the Progressive Legends Classic at home against Bucknell . The game was highlighted by Max Bielfeldt 's career @-@ high 18 @-@ point performance and Irvin 's second consecutive 20 plus @-@ point performance . In the second home game of the Legends Classic on November 20 , Michigan faced a Detroit Titans team that was led by Juwan Howard , Jr . — the son of former Michigan star Juwan Howard . Detroit led at the half and tied the score with 5 : 39 remaining before Michigan went on to win 71 – 62 despite 24 points and 8 rebounds from Howard . In the semifinals of the Legends Classic at the Barclays Center on November 24 , Michigan defeated Oregon . The next day , Michigan lost to ( # 12 AP Poll / # 11 Coaches Poll ) Villanova in the championship game . This was the first meeting between the two teams since the quarterfinals of the 1985 NCAAA Tournament , which Villanova also won . Villanova went on a 9 – 0 run to end the first half , and led by as many as 13 points early in the second half . Michigan cut the lead to 35 – 31 following an 11 – 2 run . Michigan led by as many as eight points with just under six minutes left in the game , before Villanova came back to retake the lead for good with 13 seconds remaining . Caris LeVert helped lead the second half comeback scoring eight of his 16 points in the second half , including Michigan 's final six points of the game . On November 29 , the team defeated Nicholls State as five players scored in double figures .
December
On December 2 , Michigan defeated Syracuse in a ACC @-@ Big Ten Challenge game that went down to the wire . After blowing a 10 @-@ point second half lead Michigan needed a three point shot from Albrecht with 31 seconds remaining for the victory . On December 6 , Michigan suffered its first home loss of the season to the New Jersey Institute of Technology by a 72 – 70 margin , despite a career @-@ high 32 points by Levert . With the loss , Michigan 's 30 @-@ game home win streak versus unranked opponents was snapped . NJIT shot 11 @-@ for @-@ 17 on its three @-@ point shots in the game . The team lost its three subsequent games to Eastern Michigan , ( # 3 ) Arizona , and SMU . The loss to Eastern Michigan , which is separated from the University of Michigan by a 6 @-@ mile stretch of Washtenaw Avenue , ended a Big Ten @-@ high 59 @-@ game streak without consecutive losses . Eastern Michigan was led in assists ( 6 ) by Michael Talley , son of Michigan Basketball point guard and alum Michael Talley , Jr . The December 9 80 – 53 loss to # 3 ranked Arizona was one point shy of being the largest defeat of the Beilein era . The December 20 SMU game marked the first career start by Ricky Doyle . On December 22 , the team snapped its 4 @-@ game losing streak with a victory over Coppin State who was coached by Michael Grant , the brother of former Wolverine and Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year Gary Grant . One of the game 's big storylines was the first regular season point by Austin Hatch . Doyle 's game @-@ high 16 points marked the first time he led the team in scoring . Michigan won its Big Ten Conference home opener against Illinois in overtime on December 30 on the day it announced Jim Harbaugh would become the new Michigan Wolverines football head coach . Aubrey Dawkins , who had a career total of 15 points entering the game , scored a game @-@ high 20 @-@ points .
January
Michigan lost to Purdue on January 3 , by making only 4 second half field goals after taking an 8 @-@ point half time lead . The team defeated Penn State on January 6 with Albrecht in the starting lineup in place of Chatman . On January 10 , the team wore throwback uniforms honoring the 1988 – 89 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team that won the 1989 NCAA Tournament . Michigan was down 49 – 40 with less than nine minutes remaining , before coming back to defeat Minnesota by a margin of 62 – 57 . Michigan lost to ( Receiving votes / # 25 ) Ohio State on January 13 . On January 17 Michigan defeated Northwestern , but lost LeVert for the season after he reinjured the foot that he had had surgery on the prior May . In the game , Muhammad @-@ Ali Abdur @-@ Rahkman made his first start ( in place of an ailing Albrecht ) and made the game winning three @-@ point shot . At the time of his injury , LeVert led Michigan in scoring ( 14 @.@ 9 ) , rebounds ( 4 @.@ 9 ) , assists ( 3 @.@ 7 ) , steals ( 1 @.@ 7 ) and minutes ( 35 @.@ 8 ) . Nonetheless , the team defeated Rutgers in its first game without LeVert and with Dawkins making his first start . With LeVert absent , Walton scored 10 of the team 's 15 points as it rallied from a 42 – 37 deficit to assume a 52 – 44 lead with just 32 @.@ 5 seconds left . On January 24 , Michigan fell to ( AP # 6 / Coaches # 5 ) Wisconsin in overtime after Walton , who had a team @-@ high 17 points , scored Michigan 's final seven points , including a game @-@ tying three point shot with 1 @.@ 3 seconds remaining in regulation . The game had been the featured College GameDay game of the week . On January 27 with Walton and Mark Donnal sidelined Michigan defeated Nebraska , as Irvin recorded his first career double @-@ double , leading the team with 14 points and a career @-@ high 12 rebounds . Eventually , Walton missed final 12 of the season due to a toe injury . Due to the backcourt injuries , Dakich burned his redshirt season . Michigan finished the first half of its conference schedule with a 6 – 3 record .
February
Michigan began February with 5 consecutive Big Ten Conference losses . On February 1 , the team lost a rivalry game in overtime to Michigan State , despite career @-@ high 18 @-@ point performances by Albrecht and Abdur @-@ Rahkman and a career best 9 @-@ rebound performance by Max Bielfeld . On February 5 and February 8 , Michigan lost to Iowa and Indiana . February 5 marked the return of Donnal to the lineup . On February 12 against Illinois , Michigan lost in overtime after surrendering a 7 @-@ point lead with a little more than 3 minutes remaining . Illinois finished the game on a 21 – 2 run that was only spoiled by Michigan free throws with 13 seconds remaining . The 17 @,@ 087 in attendance established a record for the State Farm Center . On February 17 , Michigan lost again to Michigan State . On February 22 , Michigan ended its losing streak by defeating ( # 24 / # 23 ) Ohio State . On February 28 , Michigan ended February with a loss to ( # 14 / # 14 ) Maryland in the first Big Ten Conference game between the two teams and Senior night for Maryland .
March
On March 3 , Michigan tied a school record with its fifth overtime game of the season ( the first multiple overtime game since March 20 , 2006 ) against Northwestern on Northwestern 's Senior night . Michigan gave up last second game @-@ tying three @-@ point shots by Tre Demps in both regulation and the first overtime before losing in double overtime , despite career @-@ high 28 @-@ point and 21 @-@ point performances by Irvin and Dawkins , respectively . Irvin posted his own and the team 's second double @-@ double of the season . On March 7 , Michigan won its Big Ten Conference finale against Rutgers to finish the regular season at 15 – 15 ( 8 – 10 Big Ten ) . The game marked career @-@ high scoring efforts by Dawkins ( 31 ) and Chatman ( 13 ) , career @-@ high assist efforts by Bielfeldt ( 3 ) and Albrecht ( 9 ) and a career @-@ high rebounding effort by Bielfeldt ( 13 ) . Bielfeldt made his first career start on this Senior night effort . Freshmen team managers Jon Rubenstein and Ryan Kapustka played in the game . Dawkins ' 31 points was the most by a Michigan freshman since Trey Burke had 32 in 2012 and his 8 three pointers was the second most in school history , the most by a Wolverine since Glen Rice posted 8 in the 1989 NCAA Tournament and the most by a Big Ten player during the season , earning Dawkins the final Big Ten Freshman of the Week honor . In the second round of the 2015 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament on March 12 , Michigan defeated Illinois after splitting a pair of overtime games won by the home teams during the regular season . The game marked Michigan 's ninth consecutive win in its opening round of the Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament and Michigan 's largest margin of victory over a conference opponent this season . In the quarterfinals of the Big Ten Tournament on March 13 , Michigan lost to No. 1 seeded Wisconsin , despite a double @-@ double and game @-@ high 21 points and 11 rebounds by Irvin .
= = Statistics = =
The team posted the following statistics :
= = Rankings = =
= = Awards = =
The United States Basketball Writers Association named Michigan 's Austin Hatch as its recipient for the men 's version of its Most Courageous Award for 2015 . Dawkins earned the final Big Ten Freshman of the Week honor on March 9 .
= = Postseason = =
Michigan did not participate in any postseason tournaments , ending a streak of four consecutive NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament appearances . Following the season , Spike Albrecht had offseason surgery on his right hip to correct for a genetic condition that may also necessitate left hip surgery . Albrecht and Irvin were voted team co @-@ MVPs . On April 21 , LeVert announced that he would return for his senior season .
= = = Team players drafted into the NBA = = =
Sources :
= Strapping Young Lad =
Strapping Young Lad was a Canadian extreme metal band formed by Devin Townsend in Vancouver , British Columbia in 1994 . The band started as a one @-@ man studio project ; Townsend played most of the instruments on the 1995 debut album , Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing . By 1997 , he had recruited permanent members ; this line @-@ up , which consisted of Townsend on vocals and guitar , Jed Simon on guitar , Byron Stroud on bass , and Gene Hoglan on drums , lasted until the band 's dissolution .
Containing elements of death metal , thrash metal , black metal , progressive metal and industrial metal , Strapping Young Lad 's music was characterized by the use of complex time signatures , polyrhythmic guitar riffing and drumming , blast beats and Wall of Sound production . The band 's musical direction was mainly determined by Townsend , whose battle with bipolar disorder and dark sense of humour were major influences on his songwriting . Townsend was also noted for his eccentric appearance and on @-@ stage behaviour , which greatly contributed to the band 's intense live performances .
The band gained critical success and a growing underground fan base from their 1997 album City . After a hiatus between 1999 and 2002 , the band released three more albums , reaching their commercial peak with the 2006 effort , The New Black . Townsend disbanded Strapping Young Lad in May 2007 , announcing his decision to retreat from public view while continuing to record solo albums .
= = History = =
= = = Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing and City ( 1994 – 1998 ) = = =
Strapping Young Lad began in 1994 as a solo project of Canadian musician Devin Townsend . Following his work as vocalist on Steve Vai 's 1993 album Sex & Religion and its 1994 tour , Townsend believed he had been a " musical whore " , spending " the first five years of [ his ] career working at the behest of other people " . During a brief stint as touring guitarist for The Wildhearts , Townsend received a phone call from an A & R representative for Roadrunner Records , expressing an interest in his demos and an intention to sign him . The offer was ultimately rescinded by the head of Roadrunner , who regarded Townsend 's recordings as " just noise " . He faced further rejection by Relativity Records , the label behind Vai 's Sex & Religion , who saw no commercial appeal in his music . Century Media Records subsequently contacted the musician , offering him a contract to " make us some extreme albums " . Townsend agreed to a five @-@ album deal with the record label .
Following his tour with The Wildhearts , Townsend began recording and producing his debut album , Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing , under the moniker Strapping Young Lad . According to Townsend , the recording process took " about a week " . Embracing The Wildhearts ' anarchist approach , " while focusing on dissonance and just being as over @-@ the @-@ top as [ he ] could " , Townsend sang on the record and performed the majority of its instrumental tracks ( with the assistance of a drum machine ) . A few songs , however , featured local session musicians , including guitarist Jed Simon , Townsend 's future band mate .
Released on April 4 , 1995 , Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing was not widely recognized in the metal community . The album sold 143 copies in its first six months , but received favorable reviews from the heavy metal press . Its unusual musical ideas — a synthesis of death , thrash , and industrial metal influences — prompted Andy Stout from Metal Hammer to call it " one of the most disturbing albums you 'll hear for a very long time " . Nevertheless , Townsend has repeatedly expressed his distaste for the recording . He dismissed the album in the liner notes of the record 's 2006 reissue , contending it contained only two great songs . He also deemed its production poor in interviews , referring to the album as " basically a collection of demos that were remixed
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the Center for Class Action Fairness ( CCAF ) , established in 2009 . The New York Times calls him the " leading critic of abusive class @-@ action settlements " ; the Wall Street Journal has referred to him as " a leading tort @-@ reform advocate . "
Frank graduated from Brandeis University in 1991 , and the University of Chicago Law School in 1994 with a Juris Doctor . A litigator from 1995 to 2005 , and a former clerk for Frank H. Easterbrook on the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals , Frank was a director and fellow of the Legal Center for the Public Interest at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington , D.C. Since 2011 , he has been an adjunct fellow at Manhattan Institute ’ s Center for Legal Policy , where he is also editor of the Institute 's web magazine , PointofLaw.com. He is also on the Executive Committee of the Federalist Society 's Litigation Practice Group and contributes regularly to conservative legal weblogs , and , as of 2008 , is a member of the American Law Institute .
= = Background and early career = =
Frank was born in 1968 . He is a grandson of journalist Nelson Frank , a nephew of author Johanna Hurwitz , and a cousin of the politics editor of The Atlantic Online , Garance Franke @-@ Ruta .
He graduated from the Benjamin Franklin High School in New Orleans , then earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics from Brandeis University in May 1991 . He wrote columns for his campus newspaper and political magazines and was a member of the student senate . He objected to a campaign to stop serving pork at the Jewish university , which was noted in The New York Times .
In 1994 Frank earned his Juris Doctor with high honors from the University of Chicago Law School . At Chicago he earned Order of the Coif and served on the law review . While at Chicago Law , he was a known presence on Usenet groups and researched urban legends ; he was an early contributor to the Baseball Prospectus collective through essays on the Usenet group rec.sport.baseball. He has also been described as one of the most notorious contributors along with snopes to an activity then known as " trolling for newbies " ( the term " trolling " was not negative in connotation ) .
After clerking for Judge Frank H. Easterbrook of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit , Frank entered private practice between 1995 and 2005 as a litigator on class action tort cases at law firms Kirkland & Ellis , Irell & Manella , and O ’ Melveny & Myers . Among his earliest cases were two sudden acceleration cases , where he represented the automakers . As part of his practice , Frank defended a lawsuit filed by the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) to delay the 2003 California gubernatorial recall election , defended Vioxx liability cases , and served on defense teams for antitrust and patent cases .
= = Advocacy of tort reform = =
In 2003 , Frank began contributing regularly to Overlawyered , a legal weblog edited by Walter Olson that advocates tort reform ; he continued there through 2010 .
Frank joined the American Enterprise Institute in 2005 when AEI offered him a fellowship to research the effects of the Class Action Fairness Act . As the director of the AEI Legal Center for the Public Interest he spoke and wrote about civil justice issues and liability . Frank also sits on the Executive Committee of the Federalist Society 's Litigation Practice Group .
Frank is a leading proponent for tort reform in the United States . According to Frank , he became disillusioned at class action tactics , and the willingness of judges to approve settlements he felt were poor for consumers . He has strongly criticized obesity lawsuits , calling them " rent @-@ seeking vehicles that are neither good law nor good public policy . "
In April 2008 , several members of Congress brought up the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act under Title VII , a revision of law " to state that prior acts outside the 180 day statute of limitations could be included " , affecting employment financial issues . Frank was against the revision , saying that wages and hiring would be reduced to counter the possibility of litigation from a hired employee . The law was eventually passed in January 2009 .
In February 2011 , Frank was part of a three @-@ member panel at Vanderbilt University in Tennessee which consisted of himself , James Blumstein , who is a law professor at the university , and Charlie Ross , a former State Senator in Mississippi , presenting their perspectives on how the business and people of the state would benefit from tort reform . Frank and the other panelists argued that " Tennessee ’ s current civil justice system is both inconsistent and unsustainable " and it was argued that , based on reforms in other states , a reform in this area could result in 30 @,@ 000 jobs a year or 577 jobs each week in Tennessee and significantly improve the health system .
= = = Issues and conflicts = = =
In 2006 , Frank published an op @-@ ed in The Washington Post arguing for various tort reforms and criticizing the Association of Trial Lawyers of America for " show [ ing ] much more of an interest in benefiting trial lawyers than in fairness or justice . Jon Haber , CEO of ATLA , responded in the Post , accusing Frank of proposing to destroy " the nation 's civil justice system to benefit the insurance industry , drug companies and other corporate powers " , of a " laughable " claim that too many lawsuits " may transform the nation into a ' banana republic ' " , of " find [ ing ] the fight for justice trivial " and making " nothing more than an attack on the Constitution of the United States " . The next day , Frank described Haber 's op @-@ ed as " a collection of ad hominems and insults and non sequiturs " , " purport [ ing ] to be responding to [ Frank , but ] in fact responding to a fictional straw @-@ man " . He accused Haber of " dishonest change of subject : at no point does Haber defend the lawsuits I actually criticize " , and ended by noting that Haber did not respond to " the most important part of my op @-@ ed " about " trial lawyers ... trying to undo [ the concept that a deal is a deal ] retroactively " .
In a Wall Street Journal opinion piece in 2007 , Frank said that the Department of Treasury and SEC should urge the Supreme Court to reject expanded securities litigation liability in Stoneridge v. Scientific @-@ Atlanta . Congressmen John Conyers , Jr. and Barney Frank criticized this op @-@ ed in their saying that Frank 's argument substituted policy considerations for the plain text of statute . Frank rebutted the allegation on the Overlawyered weblog . Also in 2007 , Frank posted an article regarding tort trial lawyer Arthur Alan Wolk on Overlawyered , a website he has regularly posted on since 2003 about tort reform issues , that prompted Wolk to sue Frank for defamation . The case was dismissed as barred by the one year statute of limitations . On appeal , the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press , the Society of Professional Journalists , the American Society of News Editors , the New York Times , the Washington Post , the Associated Press , and law professors and First Amendment experts Eugene Volokh and Glenn Reynolds , among others , filed amicus briefs in support of the defendants saying that there was no actionable claim of libel .
Frank , who worked on the Vioxx case early in his career , was called " perhaps the loudest critic of the Vioxx litigation , " and debated trial lawyer Mark Lanier about the issue . Frank continued his criticism in a 2011 article . " A final sordid chapter in the tort litigation over Vioxx closed , as Judge Eldon Fallon divvied up $ 315 million to be paid to the plaintiffs ' attorneys who worked on the litigation . This sum was in addition to the more than $ 1 @.@ 2 billion already paid to such attorneys . When you add in what Merck paid to plaintiffs and for its own attorneys , the Vioxx litigation cost it more than $ 7 billion . Yet Merck almost certainly did not do anything wrong . Even as an unsympathetic corporate defendant , it won the vast majority of cases that went to trial , and another dozen or more that plaintiffs ' attorneys dismissed on the eve of trial rather than risk the publicity of a certain loss . Even in the handful of cases that Merck lost at trial , such as the $ 253 million verdict in the Ernst case that generated much of the publicity that led to tens of thousands of cases being filed , Merck won reversals of most of those on appeal because the verdicts were based on conclusory junk @-@ science expert testimony that should not have been admitted into evidence . " Lanier defended the settlement as fair .
= = Sarah Palin vetting = =
According to the book Game Change : Obama and the Clintons , McCain and Palin , and the Race of a Lifetime , on the weekend before John McCain made his vice @-@ presidential pick , McCain 's advisor Arthur Culvahouse asked Ted Frank to prepare a written report on Sarah Palin , " Thrown together from scratch in less than forty hours , the document highlighted her vulnerabilities : " Democrats upset at McCain 's anti @-@ Obama ' celebrity ' advertisements will mock Palin as an inexperienced beauty queen whose main national exposure was a photo @-@ spread in Vogue in February 2008 . Even in campaigning for governor , she made a number of gaffes , and the Anchorage Daily News expressed concern that she often seemed ' unprepared or over her head ' in a campaign run by a friend . " " The book also says that Frank worked on the vetting of Senator Joe Lieberman . The report was widely criticized ; GQ has cited the report as " the most infamous document in veep @-@ vetting history . " In Mark Halperin and John Heilemann 's book Race of a Lifetime : How Obama Won the White House ( 2011 ) , they describe the vetting at length . Frank has defended the report as " exhaustive " and covering " almost everything that would eventually dog her on the campaign trail . " In the HBO film Game Change , Frank was played by Brian d 'Arcy James .
= = Center for Class Action Fairness = =
In 2009 , Frank founded the non @-@ profit Center for Class Action Fairness ( CCAF ) to represent consumers dissatisfied with their counsel in class actions and class action settlements . According to The American Lawyer , as of March 2013 , the CCAF had successfully challenged two dozen settlements .
Frank founded CCAF after his successful objection to the proposed class action settlement in the Grand Theft Auto consumer fraud case . Under the settlement , class members who had bought a Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas video game with a hidden , sexually explicit easter egg would have received less than $ 30 @,@ 000 , while the plaintiffs ' attorneys would receive $ 1 million in legal fees . The court rejected the settlement on other grounds , but the case spurred Frank to devote himself to objecting to class action settlements , and he left AEI .
CCAF has objected to settlements throughout the United States , in cases where class action lawyers receive cash payments but the plaintiff class receives only discount coupons for further products and services from the defendant company . CCAF argues in those cases that few of the coupons are ever used , so the actual payment to plaintiffs is much lower than the stated amounts . In 2010 , CCAF successfully objected to a coupon settlement in a Central District of California class action alleging consumer fraud in the sale of Honda Civic Hybrids ; the settlement would have provided $ 2 @.@ 95 million in attorneys ' fees , but only coupons to the class . Frank was reported to have said , " coupons are nearly worthless because so few of the intended beneficiaries will find it worthwhile to fill in all the necessary paperwork . " The CCAF has also been involved in the case surrounding the allegations of email spamming by Ameritrade in 2009 . The case brought Frank before Northern District of California Chief Judge Vaughn Walker , where he challenged the fairness of a TD Ameritrade settlement , which consists of coupons for antivirus software . Frank " argued that the court should not award , or should at least limit , the requested $ 1 @.@ 87 million in attorney fees . " Judge Walker rejected the Ameritrade settlement in October 2009 .
= = Gay rights activism = =
In response to the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A same @-@ sex marriage controversy , Frank created the " Chicken Offset " website to permit gay @-@ rights supporters to offset their purchases of Chick @-@ fil @-@ A with donations to charities that supported gays . Frank also co @-@ hosted a benefit to protect same @-@ sex marriage in Maryland .
= The Slave Community =
The Slave Community : Plantation Life in the Antebellum South is a book written by American historian John W. Blassingame . Published in 1972 , it is one of the first historical studies of slavery in the United States to be presented from the perspective of the enslaved . The Slave Community contradicted those historians who had interpreted history to suggest that African American slaves were docile and submissive " Sambos " who enjoyed the benefits of a paternalistic master @-@ slave relationship on southern plantations . Using psychology , Blassingame analyzes fugitive slave narratives published in the 19th century to conclude that an independent culture developed among the enslaved and that there were a variety of personality types exhibited by slaves .
Although the importance of The Slave Community was recognized by scholars of American slavery , Blassingame 's conclusions , methodology , and sources were heavily criticized . Historians criticized the use of slave narratives that were seen as unreliable and biased . They questioned Blassingame 's decision to exclude the more than 2 @,@ 000 interviews with former slaves conducted by the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) in the 1930s . Historians argued that Blassingame 's use of psychological theory proved unhelpful in his interpretation . Blassingame defended his conclusions at a 1976 meeting of the Association for the Study of Afro @-@ American Life and History and in 1979 published a revised and enlarged edition of The Slave Community . Despite criticisms , The Slave Community is a foundational text in the study of the life and culture of slaves in the antebellum South .
= = Historiographic background = =
Ulrich Bonnell Phillips wrote the first major historical study of the 20th century dealing with slavery . In American Negro Slavery ( 1918 ) , Phillips refers to slaves as " negroes , who for the most part were by racial quality submissive rather than defiant , light @-@ hearted instead of gloomy , amiable and ingratiating instead of sullen , and whose very defects invited paternalism rather than repression . " American Negro Slavery is infused with racial rhetoric and upholds perceptions about the inferiority of black people common in the southern United States at the time . Although African American academics such as W. E. B. Du Bois criticized Phillips 's depiction of slaves , the book was considered the authoritative text on slavery in America until the 1950s .
Phillips 's interpretation of slavery was challenged by Kenneth M. Stampp in The Peculiar Institution : Slavery in the Ante @-@ Bellum South ( 1956 ) and Stanley M. Elkins in Slavery : A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life ( 1958 ) . Stampp 's study lacks the racist interpretation found in American Negro Slavery and approaches the issue from the position that there is no innate difference between blacks and whites . He questions the reality of plantation paternalism described by Phillips : " the reality of ante @-@ bellum paternalism ... needs to be separated from its fanciful surroundings and critically analyzed . " Elkins also dismisses Phillips 's claim that African American slaves were innately submissive " Sambos " . He argues that slaves had instead been infantilized , or " made " into Sambos , by the brutal treatment received at the hands of slaveowners and overseers . Elkins compares the process to the infantilization of Jews in Nazi concentration camps .
Like Phillips , Stampp and Elkins relied on plantation records and the writings of slaveowners as their main primary sources . Stampp admits that " few ask what the slaves themselves thought of bondage . " Historians dismissed the written works of slaves such as the 19th century fugitive slave narratives as unreliable and biased because of their editing by abolitionists . Scholars also ignored the 2 @,@ 300 interviews conducted with former slaves in the late 1930s by the WPA Federal Writers ' Project . As historian George P. Rawick points out , more weight was often given to white sources : the " masters not only ruled the past in fact " but also " rule its written history . "
The 1970s , however , witnessed the publication of revisionist studies that departed from the traditional historiography of slavery . Focusing on the perspective of the slave , new studies incorporated the slave narratives and WPA interviews : George Rawick 's From Sunup to Sundown : The Making of the Black Community ( 1972 ) , Eugene D. Genovese 's Roll , Jordan , Roll : The World the Slaves Made ( 1974 ) , Peter H. Wood , Black Majority : Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 Through the Stono Rebellion ( 1974 ) , Leslie Howard Owens 's This Species of Property : Slave Life and Culture in the Old South ( 1976 ) , Herbert G. Gutman 's The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom , 1750 – 1925 ( 1976 ) , and Lawrence W. Levine 's Black Culture and Black Consciousness : Afro @-@ American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom ( 1977 ) . One of the more controversial of these studies was John W. Blassingame 's The Slave Community .
= = Blassingame 's argument = =
In The Slave Community , Blassingame argues that " historians have never systematically explored the life experiences of American slaves . " He asserts that by concentrating on the slaveowner , historians have presented a distorted view of plantation life that " strips the slave of any meaningful and distinctive culture , family life , religion , or manhood . " Blassingame outlines that the reliance on planter sources led historians like Elkins to mimic planter stereotypes of slaves such as the " submissive half @-@ man , half child " Sambo . Noting the agency slaves possessed over their lives , he contends , " Rather than identifying with and submitting totally to his master , the slave held onto many remnants of his African culture , gained a sense of worth in the quarters , spent most of his time free from surveillance by whites , controlled important aspects of his life , and did some personally meaningful things on his own volition . "
= = = African cultural retention and slave culture = = =
According to Blassingame , African culture was not entirely removed from slave culture through the process of enslavement and " was much more resistant to the bludgeons that was slavery than historians have hitherto suspected . " " African survivals " persisted in the form of folk tales , religion and spirituality , music and dance , and language . He asserts that the retention of African culture acted as a form of resistance to enslavement : " All things considered , the few Africans enslaved in seventeenth- and eighteenth @-@ century America appear to have survived their traumatic experiences without becoming abjectly docile , infantile , or submissive " and " since an overwhelming percentage of nineteenth @-@ century Southern slaves were native Americans , they never underwent this kind of shock [ the Middle Passage ] and were in a position to construct psychological defenses against total dependency on their masters . "
Blassingame asserts that historians have discussed " what could be generally described as slave ' culture , ' but give little solid information on life in the quarters . " He argues that culture developed within the slave community independent of the slaveowners ' influence . Blassingame notes , " Antebellum black slaves created several unique cultural forms which lightened their burden of oppression , promoted group solidarity , provided ways for verbalizing aggression , sustaining hope , building self @-@ esteem , and often represented areas of life largely free from the control of whites . "
Blassingame notes that many of the folk tales told by slaves have been traced by African scholars to Ghana , Senegal , and Mauritania to peoples such as the Ewe , Wolof , Hausa , Temne , Ashanti , and Igbo . He remarks , " While many of these tales were brought over to the South , the African element appears most clearly in the animal tales . " One prominent example discussed by Blassingame is the Ewe story of " Why the Hare Runs Away " , which is a trickster and tar @-@ baby tale told by southern slaves and later recorded by writer Joel Chandler Harris in his Uncle Remus stories . Southern slaves often included African animals like elephants , lions , and monkeys as characters in their folk tales .
As Christian missionaries and slaveowners attempted to erase African religious and spiritual beliefs , Blassingame argues that " in the United States , many African religious rites were fused into one — voodoo . " Voodoo priests and conjurers promised slaves that they could make masters kind , harm enemies , ensure love , and heal sickness . Other religious survivals noted by Blassingame include funeral rites , grave decorating , and ritualistic dancing and singing .
Slaveowners and state governments tried to prevent slaves from making or playing musical instruments because of the use of drums to signal the Stono Rebellion in 1739 . Blassingame , however , points out that in spite of restrictions , slaves were able to build a strong musical tradition drawing on their African heritage . Music , songs , and dances were similar to those performed or played in Africa . Instruments reproduced by slaves include drums , three @-@ stringed banjos , gourd rattles , and mandolins .
Still , Blassingame concludes that cross @-@ cultural exchanges occurred on southern plantations , arguing that " acculturation in the United States involved the mutual interaction between two cultures , with Europeans and Africans borrowing from each other . " Blassingame asserts that the most significant instance revolved around Protestant Christianity ( primarily Baptist and Methodist churches ) : " The number of blacks who received religious instruction in antebellum white churches is significant because the church was the only institution other than the plantation which played a major role in acculturating the slave . " Christianity and enslaved black ministers slowly replaced African religious survivals and represented another aspect of slave culture which the slaves used to create their own communities . While ministers preached obedience in the presence of the slaveowners and other whites , slaves often met in secret , " invisible " services unsupervised by whites . In these " invisible churches " , slaves could discuss freedom , liberty , and the judgment of God against slaveowners .
= = = Slave families = = =
Slave marriages were illegal in southern states , and slave couples were frequently separated by slaveowners through sale . Blassingame grants that slaveowners did have control over slave marriages . They encouraged monogamous relationships to " make it easier to discipline their slaves . ... A black man , they reasoned , who loved his wife and his children was less likely to be rebellious or to run away than would a ' single ' slave . " Blassingame notes that when a slave couple resided on the same plantation , the husband witnessed the whipping and raping of his wife and the sale of his children . He remarks , " Nothing demonstrated his powerlessness as much as the slave 's inability to prevent the forcible sale of his wife and children . "
Nevertheless , Blassingame argues that " however frequently the family was broken it was primarily responsible for the slave 's ability to survive on the plantation without becoming totally dependent on and submissive to his master . " He contends :
While the form of family life in the quarters differed radically from that among free Negroes and whites , this does not mean it failed to perform many of the traditional functions of the family — the rearing of children being one of the most important of these functions . Since slave parents were primarily responsible for training their children , they could cushion the shock of bondage for them , help them to understand their situation , teach them values different from those their masters tried to instill in them , and give them a referent for self @-@ esteem other than the master .
Blassingame asserts that slave parents attempted to shield infants and young children from the brutality of the plantation . When children understood that they were enslaved ( usually after their first whipping ) , parents dissuaded angry urges to run away or seek revenge .
Children observed fathers demonstrating two behavioral types . In the quarters , he " acted like a man " , castigating whites for the mistreatment of himself and his family ; in the field working for the master , he appeared obedient and submissive . According to Blassingame , " Sometimes children internalized both the true personality traits and the contradictory behavioral patterns of their parents . " He believes that children recognized submissiveness as a convenient method to avoid punishment and the behavior in the quarters as the true behavioral model . Blassingame concludes , " In [ the slave father 's ] family , the slave not only learned how to avoid the blows of the master , but also drew on the love and sympathy of its members to raise his spirits . The family was , in short , an important survival mechanism . "
= = = Personality types = = =
Blassingame identifies three stereotypes in the literature of the antebellum south :
Sambo was a combination of the Uncle Remus , Jim Crow , and Uncle Tom figures who represented the faithful , submissive , and superstitious slave .
Jack worked faithfully until he was mistreated , then he became uncooperative and occasionally rebellious . Rationally analyzing the white man 's overwhelming physical power , Jack either avoided contact with him or was deferential in his presence .
Nat was the perpetual runaway and rebellious slave feared by slaveowners . Named after Nat Turner , the Nat character retaliated against slaveowners and was subdued and punished only when overcome by greater numbers .
Directly challenging Elkins 's infantilization thesis , Blassingame argues that historians have focused too much on the Sambo personality type and the role of paternalism . " The Sambo stereotype was so pervasive in antebellum Southern literature that many historians , without further research , argue that it was an accurate description of the dominant slave personality . "
According to Blassingame , the Sambo figure evolved from white Americans ' attitudes toward Africans and African Americans as innately barbaric , passive , superstitious , and childlike . Southern writers felt a need to defend slavery from allegations of abuse and brutality leveled by northern abolitionists , so Sambo became a common portrayal to justify and explain the need for plantation paternalism . Finally , slaveowners used the Sambo stereotype to alleviate their own fears and anxieties about the potential rebelliousness of their slaves . Blassingame remarks , " In this regard , Nat , the actual and potential rebel , stands at the core of white perceptions of the slave . With Nat perennially in the wings , the creation of Sambo was almost mandatory for the Southerner 's emotional security . Like a man whistling in the dark to bolster his courage , the white man had to portray the slave as Sambo . "
Despite slaveowner paternalism and charges of submissiveness , Blassingame contends , " There is overwhelming evidence , in the primary sources , of the Negro 's resistance to his bondage and of his undying love for freedom . " Blassingame outlines efforts of slaves to run away and rebel , particularly the Stono Rebellion of 1739 , Charles Deslondes 's revolt in 1811 , Nat Turner 's revolt of 1831 , and the participation of fugitive slaves in Florida fighting with Seminoles during the Seminole Wars . Blassingame concludes that the Sambo and Nat stereotypes " were real . " He explains , " The more fear whites had of Nat , the more firmly tried to believe in Sambo in order to escape paranoia . "
Blassingame concludes that there were a variety of personality types exhibited by slaves positioned on a scale between the two extremes of Sambo and Nat . He argues that variations present in plantations , overseers , and masters gave the slave " much more freedom from restraint and more independence and autonomy than his institutionally defined role allowed . Consequently , the slave did not have to be infantile or abjectly docile in order to remain alive . " Blassingame compares slavery on southern plantations to the treatment of prisoners in Nazi concentration camps in an effort to demonstrate that " the most important factor in causing infantilism , total dependency , and docility in the camps was the real threat of death which left few , if any , alternatives for the inmates . " He remarks , " Placed on a continuum of total institutions , the concentration camp is far removed from the Southern plantation . " According to Blassingame , the goal of the irrationally organized and understaffed plantation was not the systematic torture and extermination of its laborers , who were " worth more than a bullet " .
= = Methodology and sources = =
In The Slave Community , Blassingame uses psychologist Harry Stack Sullivan 's interpersonal theory to interpret the behavior of slaves on antebellum plantations . Sullivan claims that " significant others " , persons with the most power to reward and punish individual behavior , were primarily responsible for determining behavior . Interpersonal theorists argue that " behavioral patterns are determined by the characteristics of the situation , how the person perceives them , and his behavioral dispositions at the time . " The most important component of personality is self @-@ esteem . Blassingame explains , " Our sense of self @-@ esteem is heightened or lowered by our perception of the images others have of us . " Interpersonal behavior revolves around the dominant @-@ submissive axes : " One form of behavior tends to elicit its complement : dominance leads to submission and vice versa . The extent of submissiveness often depends on the structure of the group to which the person belongs . "
Another psychological theory used by Blassingame is role theory . According to this theory , " a person 's behavior is generally determined by the socially defined roles or the behavioral patterns expected of him in certain situations . " Blassingame asserts that through applying interpersonal and role theory to the fugitive slave narratives , historians can determine " the extent to which slaves acted the way their masters expected them to behave " and how the Sambo , Jack , and Nat personality types can be misleading .
Blassingame contends that historians have " deliberately ignored " autobiographies of ex @-@ slaves , particularly the fugitive slave narratives . " Consequently " , argues Blassingame , " a great deal of emphasis has been placed on non @-@ traditional sources in this study in an effort to delineate more clearly the slave 's view of bondage and to discover some new insights into the workings of the system . " He relies heavily on narratives by Henry Bibb , Henry Clay Bruce , Elizabeth Keckley , Samuel Hall , Solomon Northup , Charles Ball , Jermain Wesley Loguen , William Wells Brown , John Brown , Robert Anderson , William Grimes , Austin Steward , and Frederick Douglass . Blassingame 's discussion of the African slave trade , Middle Passage , and African culture is based on Olaudah Equiano 's The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano , or Gustavus Vassa , the African ( 1794 ) .
Rather than accepting the fugitive slave narratives without question , Blassingame admits to scrutinizing his reading of the texts . He notes that arguments against the use of these autobiographies used by historians revolve around reliability : " Many historians refuse to use these accounts because they have felt the fugitive , as the primary sufferer in the institution , was unable to give an objective account of bondage . " Still , Blassingame defends his reliance on autobiographies , noting , " The portrait of the institution of slavery which emerges from the narratives is not the simple picture of hell on earth that most historians have led us to believe they contain . Instead , the fugitives ' plantations are peopled with the same range of heroes and villains , black and white , which one generally finds in the human race . " Therefore , Blassingame concludes :
Like most personal documents , the autobiography provides a window to the larger world . In this sense , the slave writers present a participant observers ' comments on the larger slave society . As an eyewitness , the autobiographer brings the historian into contact with almost all kinds of slaves . When the autobiographies are accepted both as records of the unique experiences of each individual author and as eyewitness accounts of several slave communities , they are clearly " representative " .
Besides fugitive slave narratives , Blassingame uses abolitionist periodicals such as The Liberator , National Anti @-@ Slavery Standard , Pennsylvania Freeman , Anti @-@ Slavery Bugle , and Genius of Universal Emancipation . According to Blassingame , these periodicals printed slave interviews , letters , and autobiographies , but " gave even more coverage to white Southerners than to slaves and frequently reprinted articles , letters , and proceedings from a large number of Southern newspapers " .
A primary source that Blassingame did not consult in his study was the WPA slave interviews . While he admits that " slave interviews rival autobiographies in their revelations about the internal dynamics of bondage , ... the heavy editing of the WPA interviews makes them far more difficult to utilize than black autobiographies . " He elaborates on his criticism of the interviews in a 1975 article in the Journal of Southern History . He describes how white interviewers often deleted material contrary to the paternalistic image of the antebellum South which they wanted to present . Blassingame concludes , " Uncritical use of the interviews will lead almost inevitably to a simplistic and distorted view of the plantation as a paternalistic institution where the chief feature of life was mutual love and respect between masters and slaves . "
Blassingame builds on the historiography of Phillips , Stampp , and Elkins , but he acknowledges the influence of Charles S. Sydnor 's Slavery in Mississippi ( 1933 ) , Orville W. Taylor 's Negro Slavery in Arkansas ( 1958 ) , Eugene D. Genovese 's The Political Economy of Slavery ( 1961 ) , and Ann J. Lane 's anthology of essays The Debate Over Slavery : Stanley Elkins and His Critics ( 1971 ) .
= = Reception and influence = =
The importance of The Slave Community as one of the first studies of slavery from the perspective of the slave was recognized by historians . The book nonetheless received heavy criticism by academics who disagreed with Blassingame 's conclusions , methodology , and sources . Historian George P. Rawick noted in 1976 , however , that the criticism " should not obscure the fact that [ Blassingame 's ] book was of such merit as to warrant spending our time criticizing it four years after its publication . Yet , like many good books , it should have been better . "
= = = Criticism = = =
In The History Teacher , Keith Polakoff comments that " only with the publication of Blassingame 's work do we obtain for the first time a detailed examination of the daily lives of the slaves on large plantations , with some intelligent speculation about the forces to which they were subjected . David Goldfield writes in Agricultural History that the book was the most impressive and balanced attempt to understand the slave 's responses to plantation life to date . Carl N. Degler writes in the Washington Post that Blassingame 's study comes " closer than any previous study to answering the question ' what was it like to be a slave ? ' "
Still , Blassingame 's conclusions , methodology , and sources received substantial criticism from historians . Marian DeB . Kilson 's review in the American Historical Review described Blassingame 's aims as " imperfectly realized " because he " lacks a clear analytical perspective " . She found his discussion of slave personality types " fascinating " and " his methodological aims ... important " but " not systematically pursued " . Kilson believes that Blassingame ultimately failed in his analysis because " his intellectual integration of social and psychological orientations has yet to be fully achieved . " Orville W. Taylor contends in the Journal of Negro History that Blassingame had a tendency to overgeneralize and make " unsubstantiatable claims to originality and uniqueness " .
In the Journal of Political Economy , economic historian Stanley L. Engerman complains that the book is not " written by or for economists " and makes " limited use of economic analysis " . He continues , " Given the concern with the ' personal autonomy ' and culture of the slave , much of the book is devoted to the African heritage ; to slave music , religion , and folklore ; and to the discussion of the slave family and other personal relationships . " Engerman concedes that The Slave Community " is a book written at a time of transition in the interpretation of slavery and black culture " , but " the author at times seems unsure of the direction in which he is pointing . " He concludes that Blassingame 's " analysis is incomplete in its presentation of a different and more complex scene " even though he " effectively shows the difficulties of the concentration @-@ camp image and the Sambo myth " .
Historians criticized Blassingame for dismissing the WPA slave interviews and relying solely on fugitive slave narratives . In the Journal of American History , Willie Lee Rose writes that Blassingame 's use of the fugitive slave narratives is marred by his neglect of the WPA interviews . Kenneth Wiggins Porter regards Blassingame 's dependence on printed sources as a " major weakness " and believes he does not use enough white sources like plantation records and travel narratives , particularly Frederick Law Olmsted 's account of life in the antebellum South . According to George Rawick , " We desperately need work that depicts and analyzes the lives of black women under slavery . We have had very largely a male @-@ dominated literature about slavery . " He notes , " Blassingame , unfortunately , does not help us at all in this task . " Rawick surmises that if Blassingame had consulted the WPA slave interviews , he would have developed a picture of the " heroic struggles of black women on behalf of themselves and of the whole black community " .
Historians exhibited varying responses to Blassingame 's use of psychological theory . In a review in the William and Mary Quarterly , George Mullin is especially critical of Blassingame 's use of psychology , stating that Blassingame " reduc [ es ] slave behavior and culture to a question of roles and psychological characteristics " . He concludes that an " E. P. Thompson for the American Black community during slavery is still off @-@ stage " , and that the topic needs exploration by a social or economic historian . Rawick states that Blassingame 's " first major error lies in adopting the very questionable deterministic social psychological role theories associated with ... Irving Goffman and Henry Stack Sullivan . " He complains that it " parodies the basic complexity of the ' psychology ' of the oppressed who simultaneously view themselves in socially negative terms while struggling against the view of themselves and their behavior " . Rawick is convinced that Blassingame would have reached the same conclusions from the sources without the use of psychology " because the historical evidence as seen through an unadulterated commitment to the struggles of the slaves and an equally uncompromising hostility to the masters would have led him there . " On the other hand , Eugene D. Genovese and Earl E. Thorpe praised Blassingame for his use of psychological theory , but admit they prefer Freudian and Marxist interpretations over Sullivanian theory .
= = = Influence = = =
In 1976 , the Association for the Study of Afro @-@ American Life and History met in Chicago and held a session on The Slave Community . Panelists included Mary Frances Berry , Herbert Gutman , Leslie Howard Owens , George Rawick , Earl Thorpe , and Eugene Genovese . Blassingame responded to questions and critiques from the panel . The discussion led to the publication of an anthology edited by Al @-@ Tony Gilmore called Revisiting Blassingame 's The Slave Community : The Scholars Respond ( 1978 ) . The book includes essays by the panelists as well as James D. Anderson , Ralph D. Carter , John Henrik Clarke , and Stanley Engerman . Blassingame 's essay , " Redefining The Slave Community : A Response to Critics " appears in the volume .
Since its publication in 1972 and revision in 1979 , The Slave Community has influenced subsequent historiographical works on slavery in the United States . In a 1976 edition of Roll , Jordan , Roll , Eugene Genovese explains that Blassingame 's book " demonstrates that the published accounts of runaway slaves can be illuminating " . The authors of Reckoning with Slavery ( 1976 ) use Blassingame 's findings to challenge the assertions of Robert William Fogel and Stanley Engerman in Time on the Cross : The Economics of American Negro Slavery ( 1974 ) . In Slave Religion : The " Invisible Institution " in the Antebellum South ( 1978 ) , Albert J. Raboteau comments , " We should speak of the ' invisibility ' of slave religion with irony : it is the neglect of slave sources by historians which has been the main cause of this invisibility . " Raboteau credits Blassingame and others for demonstrating the value of slave sources . Historian Charles Joyner 's influential study Down by the Riverside : A South Carolina Slave Community ( 1984 ) is reinforced by the findings of The Slave Community and relies on similar evidence .
Historian Deborah Gray White builds on Blassingame 's research of the family life of the slaves in Ar 'n't I a Woman ? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South ( 1985 ) . Her argument is similar to Blassingame 's : " This present study takes a look at slave women in America and argues that they were not submissive , subordinate , or prudish and that they were not expected to be so . " White discusses the Mammy and Jezebel stereotypes often applied to African American women by white Americans . She calls The Slave Community " a classic " but remarks that " Blassingame stressed the fact that many masters recognized the male as the head of the family . He observed that during courtship men flattered women and exaggerated their prowess . There was , however , little discussion of the reciprocal activities of slave women . " She concludes that Blassingame " described how slave men gained status in the family , but he did not do the same for women . "
Elizabeth Fox @-@ Genovese makes similar observations in Within the Plantation Household : Black and White Women of the Old South ( 1988 ) . She notes that The Slave Community , like other historiography produced in the 1960s and 70s , " did not directly address women 's history , even though many of the historians were sensitive to women 's experience . Most of the male authors had done a large part of their work before the development of women 's history as a discipline , and even the most sensitive were hampered by a paucity of sources and by unfamiliarity with the questions feminists would soon raise . "
= = Revised edition = =
After the 1976 Association for the Study of Afro @-@ American Life and History meeting and the publication of Revisiting Blassingame 's The Slave Community in 1978 , Blassingame produced a revised and enlarged edition of The Slave Community in 1979 . In the new preface , Blassingame asserted that the book had to be revised because of George Bentley , an enslaved , pro @-@ slavery Primitive Baptist minister from Tennessee who pastored a white church in the 1850s . Blassingame wanted to " solve the myriad dilemmas posed by George Bentley " , but he also wanted to answer the questions , challenges , and critiques raised by scholars since the publication of The Slave Community .
Blassingame explains that he incorporated the suggestions published in Revisiting Blassingame 's The Slave Community " without long protestation or argument " . The most significant changes made to the text involve further discussion of African cultural survivals , slave family life , slave culture , and acculturation . Blassingame added a chapter titled " The Americanization of the Slave and the Africanization of the South " where he draws parallels between the acculturation of African American slaves in the American South , African slaves in Latin America , and European slaves in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire . He compares the conversion of slaves in the southern states to Protestant Christianity , European slaves in North Africa to Islam , and African slaves in Latin America to Catholicism .
Blassingame addresses the historiography of slavery published between 1972 and 1978 in the revised edition . For instance , he challenges Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman 's economic and statistical study of slavery in Time on the Cross . Blassingame writes :
Contemporaries often have a greater appreciation of the strengths and weaknesses of statistics than do the scholars who utilize them decades after they are compiled . ' Numbers ' and ' accuracy ' are not two interchangeable words : Statistical truths are no more self @-@ evident than literary ones . In fact , statistical analyses rely so heavily on inferences that one must carefully examine the data bases to evaluate the conclusions based on them . Whether compiled by planters , doctors , clergymen , army officers , or census takers , statistics on slavery mean little until combined with literary material . The dry bones of historical analysis , statistics acquire life when filtered through the accounts left by eyewitnesses .
Reviewing the revised edition in the Journal of Southern History , Gary B. Mills suggests , " All controversy and revision aside , The Slave Community remains a significant book , and the author 's position that the bulk of both slaves and slaveowners lay between the stereotyped extremes proves durable . Their exact location on a scale of one to ten will always remain a matter of opinion . "
= Hurricane Helene ( 1958 ) =
Hurricane Helene was the most intense tropical cyclone of the 1958 Atlantic hurricane season , as measured by minimum barometric pressure . The eighth tropical storm and fourth hurricane of the year , Helene was formed from a tropical wave east of the Lesser Antilles on September 21 , 1958 . Moving steadily westward , the storm slowly intensified , attaining hurricane strength on September 24 . As conditions became increasingly favorable for tropical cyclone development , Helene began to rapidly intensify . Nearing the United States East Coast , the hurricane quickly attained Category 4 intensity on September 26 , before it subsequently reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 934 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 84 inHg ) . The intense hurricane came within 10 mi ( 15 km ) of Cape Fear , North Carolina before recurving out to sea . Accelerating northward , Helene gradually weakened , and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it passed over Newfoundland on September 29 . Helene 's extratropical remnants traversed eastwards across the Atlantic Ocean before dissipating near Great Britain on October 4 .
Despite not making landfall on North Carolina , its close proximity to land caused extensive damage across the US East Coast . Strong winds resulted in widespread power outages , cutting telecommunications along the coast . A weather station in Wilmington , North Carolina reported a wind gust of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , setting a new record for fastest wind gust reported there . Though mostly concentrated in North Carolina , rainfall was widespread , reaching as far north as Maine . In the United States , damages reached $ 11 @.@ 2 million and there was one indirect death . After impacting the US , Helene produced strong winds and heavy rain across much of Atlantic Canada . In Cape Breton Island on Nova Scotia , the storm was considered the worst in at least 21 years . Power outages cut most communications from the island to the mainland , and property damage in Sydney , Nova Scotia totaled to C $ 100 @,@ 000 . At Helene 's landfall in Newfoundland , strong gusts peaking at 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) in Naval Station Argentia were reported , and loss of power severed communications . Damage across there totaled to at least C $ 100 @,@ 000 . Total damages associated with Helene in the United States and Canada amounted to $ 11 @.@ 4 million , making Helene the costliest storm of the season .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Helene can be traced back to an easterly wave that formed near Cape Verde on September 16 . Moving towards the west due to trade winds associated with the Hadley cell , the disturbance gradually intensified . On September 20 , ships in the system 's vicinity reported widespread shower activity and generally low barometric pressures . Early the following day , a reconnaissance flight reported evidence of a weak circulation , with gusts of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) in heavy squalls surrounding the circulation center . At 0200 UTC later that day , the United States Weather Bureau office in San Juan , Puerto Rico began issuing bulletins on the system for public interests . In HURDAT , the tropical wave was first classified as a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on September 21 , well east of the Leeward Antilles . At the time , the depression had maximum sustained winds of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) .
Moving on a west @-@ northwest track at roughly 20 mph ( 30 km / h ) early on September 22 , the storm initially changed little in intensity . However , a large upper tropospheric anticyclone developed over the southern Atlantic coast , producing the favorable wind shear needed for tropical cyclone development . A second reconnaissance flight reported an intensifed tropical cyclone , indicating that the storm system had reached tropical storm strength . At 0000 UTC on September 23 , the depression attained tropical storm strength , with maximum winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a central minimum pressure of 1013 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 92 inHg ) . The US Weather Bureau issued their first advisory on the newly developed tropical storm at 1600 UTC later that day , giving the storm the name Helene . Despite the storm 's poor organization , Helene gradually intensified in favorable conditions generated by the large anticyclone . Throughout the day , a second anticyclone moved eastward until it was situated off of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , while a mean trough in the lower levels of the atmosphere became situated over the United States East Coast . This would set up a path for Helene to pass very close to the United States . The tropical storm attained hurricane intensity by 2200 UTC on 2200 UTC on September 24 , while located 425 mi ( 685 km ) east of Fort Pierce , Florida . However , in post @-@ season analysis , it was found that Helene reached hurricane intensity earlier that day , by 1200 UTC . At the time , gale @-@ force winds extended up to 220 mi ( 355 km ) out from the storm 's center of circulation .
The hurricane steadily strengthened as it moved towards the northwest around the western periphery of the Azores High on September 25 . Encountering the anticyclone situated off of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , Helene began to curve slightly towards the west . The lack of strong steering currents in the storm 's vicinity caused the hurricane to move very slowly throughout the day , giving the hurricane time to significantly intensify . By 0000 UTC on September 26 , Helene strengthened to the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane , with a minimum pressure of 980 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 94 inHg ) . Moving slowly towards The Carolinas , the hurricane rapidly intensified . A recon flight reported a minimum pressure of 948 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 00 inHg ) , a drop of 40 mbar ( hPa ; 1 @.@ 18 inHg ) from the previous day . As the hurricane neared the coast , its eye became apparent on coastal long @-@ range WSR @-@ 57 weather radar images . By 1800 UTC on September 26 , Helene strengthened to a Category 3 hurricane and then to a Category 4 hurricane the following day . The major hurricane continued to strengthen before reaching its peak intensity on September 27 with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . However , Helene 's lowest barometric pressure of 934 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 84 inHg ) was recorded earlier during the day . Still moving northwestward due to the influence of the Azores High , the hurricane came within 10 mi ( 15 km ) of the US East Coast before recurving towards the northeast out to sea .
As Helene recurved and accelerated towards more northerly latitudes , it steadily weakened . By 1200 UTC on September 28 , Helene was no longer a major hurricane . The hurricane 's wind field also expanded from the storm 's center as it weakened . By midday on September 29 , Helene had weakened to minimal hurricane strength , and later transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by 1800 UTC that day , though it still maintained hurricane @-@ force winds . At roughly the same time , Helene passed over Newfoundland , with gale force winds having expanded 500 mi ( 800 km ) from the system 's center , coinciding with the US Weather Bureau 's final advisory on the system . Helene 's extratropical remnants continued eastward across the Atlantic , becoming a dominant synoptic feature , before entirely dissipating by 0600 UTC on October 4 just west of Great Britain .
= = Preparations = =
Upon the storm 's formation , the Weather Bureau cautioned ships in Helene 's path of the impending conditions , and did so throughout the storm 's duration . As the storm moved west on September 23 , advisories specified for small craft in northern islands of The Bahamas to remain in " protected places . " After Helene was forecast to remain north of the archipelago , notifications were lifted except for small craft along the coast of the South Atlantic States . Nearing the US East Coast , the Weather Bureau began to issue special bulletins for press radio and television stations early on September 24 . At the same time , small craft were warned of the storm from The Carolinas southward . The following day , the weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Charleston , South Carolina began to issue local statements regarding the hurricane , while small craft alerts were shifted northward to coastal regions between Cape Hatteras , North Carolina and Daytona Beach , Florida . The first hurricane watch was issued on 1000 UTC on September 26 for the entirety of the Georgian coast to Charleston , South Carolina . A gale warning was posted at the same time for coastal areas from Daytona Beach , Florida to Wilmington , North Carolina . Small craft alerts continued to shift northwards along with Helene .
As the storm began to quickly intensify on September 26 , areas of the watch from Savannah , Georgia to Cape Fear , North Carolina were upgraded to a hurricane emergency area at 1600 UTC . Affected communities were advised to begin precautionary measures immediately and evacuate . Shipping and small craft were told to exercise " extreme caution . " Gale warnings were changed to warn areas between Fernandina , Florida to Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The heightened warnings caused WFOs to issue local bulletins regarding the impending hurricane . At the time , the Weather Bureau projected Helene to make landfall in South Carolina . These landfall forecasts shifted further north along the coast over time , before they were stopped after Helene recurved away from the coast entirely . At 0400 UTC on September 27 , hurricane warnings were extended to include areas between Cape Fear and Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . Gale warning issuance reflected the changes and were too shifted northwards to the Virginia Capes area , while hurricane watches covered both warning areas . At 1600 UTC later that day , hurricane emergency and gale warnings were extended north to Manteo , North Carolina , while hurricane watches were continued for coastal regions from Savannah , Georgia to Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . After Helene began recurving away from the coast , all warnings south of Wilmington , North Carolina were discontinued at 2200 UTC on September 27 . As Helene passed certain areas , warnings were discontinued upon the storm 's passage . At 1000 UTC the next day , all onshore hurricane warnings were either downgraded to gale warnings or discontinued . However , offshore gale warnings were still issued for oceanic regions from the Virginia Capes to Cape Cod , Massachusetts . Shortly after , all warnings , with the exception of the offshore gale warnings , were discontinued . Remaining warnings lasted until 2200 UTC on September 28 . Despite not issuing any warnings , the Weather Bureau cautioned interests in Newfoundland , and forecasted hurricane @-@ force winds to effect the island .
Due to the potential impacts from Helene , the Weather Bureau began to advise prompt emergency evacuation in their advisories . Areas between Beaufort , South Carolina and Cape Fear , North Carolina were urged to begin evacuation procedures immediately . The Southeastern American Red Cross sent ten field staff warnings to locations in Georgia and South Carolina in order to assist in setting up emergency shelters . The Red Cross held 27 hurricane preparation conferences to plan preparation procedures . Other civil defense organizations also mobilized hurricane preparation staff and equipment . The Weather Bureau sent a mobile weather station to Charleston , South Carolina in order to monitor weather conditions and alert surrounding populations with short @-@ range radio equipment . Beaches on North Carolina 's coast , including Wrightsville Beach and Carolina Beach , were completely evacuated during the night of September 27 . In Wilmington , North Carolina , 100 members of the United States National Guard were dispatched to monitor waterfront property , while 60 others were kept on standby . Civilian vehicles attempting to enter Myrtle Beach , South Carolina were sent back by highway patrol 15 mi ( 25 km ) outside the city borders , following an order issued by Governor of South Carolina George Bell Timmerman , Jr . The order was issued to minimize casualties and prevent looting . Approximately 100 members of the National Guard and local police were kept to patrol the beach . Despite repeated orders for mandatory evacuation , a few people remained in Myrtle Beach . Civil Defense authorities forcibly evacuated stragglers , but others were permitted to remain .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = United States East Coast = = =
Despite not making landfall , Helene 's close proximity to the United States resulted in impacts along the East Coast . Impacts were most severe in North Carolina , where the hurricane made its closest approach . Wind impacts were felt primarily from South Carolina to Virginia , though a frontal zone aided in bringing precipitation as far north as Maine . In the United States , Helene caused $ 11 @.@ 2 million in damages and one indirect fatality .
= = = = North Carolina = = = =
Roughly paralleling the North Carolina coast beginning on September 26 , Helene 's slow movement and strong intensity resulted in moderate to heavy impacts in coastal areas of the state . Despite the hurricane 's Category 4 hurricane intensity , due to its closest approach to land remaining offshore , its storm surge remained less than initially forecast . The hurricane 's track also placed its strongest storm surge in the eastern hemisphere of the storm , away from any landmasses . Surge heights peaked at 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) near Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point . In Wilmington , Helene produced ocean swells at the coast 2 @.@ 5 – 3 times per minute , indicative of a strong hurricane . There , the cumulative sea level was roughly 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) above normal . However , as a result of the storm striking at low tide , damage caused by storm surge was mostly mitigated . Despite this , sand dunes in southern areas of Fort Fisher , were mostly destroyed by waves . On Cedar Island , strong winds produced by the hurricane pushed waves inland , inundating homes . Elsewhere , minor beach erosion occurred .
Further inland , several weather stations reported hurricane @-@ force winds . The Weather Bureau office in Wilmington , North Carolina , reported maximum sustained winds of 88 mph ( 142 km / h ) and a peak gust of 135 mph ( 220 km / h ) , exceeding the previous record for fastest measured wind speed of 98 mph ( 158 km / h ) set during Hurricane Hazel in 1954 . Beach resorts there were heavily damaged . In Wrightsville Beach , located 10 mi ( 15 km ) of Wilmington , 12 houses were flattened by the hurricane . Damage to homes there were estimated by police to cost $ 300 @,@ 000 , and extensive damage to the water system was reported . In Long Beach , damage was less severe , with only minor property damage . Waves pushing past sand dunes caused cracks in seaside roads . Though surveys made no damage estimates , damage in Holden Beach was reported to have been worse than in Long Beach . A 300 ft ( 90 m ) pier and a pavilion in Ocean Isle Beach were destroyed . In Topsail Beach and Kure Beach , several homes and businesses were either unroofed or destroyed . Yaupon Beach and Shallotte also had similar reports of unroofed homes . Two homes on Topsail Island were demolished , and extensive property damage was reported in Atlantic Beach . At Cape Fear , winds were estimated at 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) , with gusts as high as 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , well into Category 3 intensity . The powerful winds forced power to be cut off in Wilmington as a precautionary measure . As a result , 7 @,@ 000 telephones were knocked out of service . Damage to the Southern Bell Telephone Company 's offices cost $ 150 @,@ 000 . Total damages in the city was estimated to cost nearly $ 2 million . In Morehead City , a roof was blown from a yacht shed and multiple structures . Long @-@ distance telephone services were also cut off . Off the coast on Ocracoke Island , power and communications failed during the storm after the island was battered by winds of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Power outages were commonplace in other areas as well . In Southport , metal debris was scattered across city streets , and the damage there was described as worse than Hurricane Hazel . Half of its pier was swept away by the rough seas , and other buildings collapsed or sustained heavy damage . Numerous trees , including live oak , were uprooted by the winds . The United States Army provided the port with a temporary electrical generator , which provided power for water pumps and light . In Cape Hatteras , Helene caused an estimated $ 1 million in damages . Although damage to infrastructure tapered off 10 mi ( 15 km ) from the coast , crop damage was observed 40 mi ( 65 km ) inland . Corn was the crop most affected by Helene .
Rainfall associated with Helene was primarily concentrated in coastal regions North Carolina , peaking at 8 @.@ 29 in ( 211 mm ) in Wilmington International Airport . In Hatteras , 4 @.@ 85 in ( 123 @.@ 2 mm ) of rain was measured . Rainfall totals of at least 3 in ( 76 mm ) were commonplace elsewhere along the North Carolina coast . An indirect death occurred when a car skidded off a flooded highway , killing the driver . In the state , damages from Helene amounted to $ 11 million .
= = = = South Carolina = = = =
Effects from Helene in South Carolina were less severe than in North Carolina . Helene made its closest approach to the state on September 27 , 85 mi ( 135 km ) . In Charleston , sustained winds reached 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) and there was minor damage reported Trees and street signs were blown down , and beach houses suffered shingle damage . Sporadic and small power outages occurred throughout the city . Damage became progressively worse from Georgetown to Little River , with automobile accidents , torn roofs , and damaged piers . On Harbor Island , 50 percent of structure were reported to have roof damage , causing and estimated $ 125 @,@ 000 in damages . Elsewhere along the South Carolina coast , beach erosion occurred due to the strong waves , and sections of pier were swept into sea . In Windy Hill and Cherry Grove Beach , three fishing piers were damaged . Damage was minor in Myrtle Beach , and was limited to roof and window damage . Further inland , in Columbia , damage was minimal , with no rainfall reported . Light damage to crops was reported inland , particularly in Marion County . Across the state , damages were estimated at $ 200 @,@ 000 from the hurricane , though this did not include beach erosion or damage to sand dunes .
= = = = Elsewhere in the United States = = = =
As a result of Helene recurving away from the United States East Coast , damage in the United States outside of the Carolinas was less severe . In Virginia , damage was relatively minor . A peak gust of 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) was reported in Norfolk . In Hampton Roads , damage was minor , and was confined to downed utility wires and marginal infrastructural damage . Although rainfall was primarily concentrated in the Carolinas , 1 @,@ 434 official rain gauges measured precipitation in coastal areas from South Carolina to Maine . Precipitation was further increased by a frontal zone to the hurricane 's north . In the Mid @-@ Atlantic States , rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 29 in ( 134 @.@ 4 mm ) in Myerstown , Pennsylvania . Outside of Pennsylvania or the Carolinas , no weather station reported rainfall exceeding 5 in ( 125 mm ) . In the New England region , rainfall peaked at 4 @.@ 11 in ( 104 @.@ 4 mm ) in Hyannis , Massachusetts . Elsewhere in Massachusetts , rainfall totals ranging from 1 – 4 in ( 25 – 100 mm ) caused minor flooding and road washouts . The minor floods led to several automotive accidents . Other states in New England reported rainfall peaks of at least 1 in ( 25 mm ) , with the lowest peak occurring at a weather station in Machias , Maine , which reported 1 @.@ 16 in ( 29 @.@ 5 mm ) of rainfall .
= = = Atlantic Canada = = =
As Helene approached Atlantic Canada in the process of transitioning into an extratropical storm , it produced heavy rainfall and strong winds along the islands . Passing just east of Nova Scotia on September 29 , Helene dropped at least 1 in ( 25 mm ) across the entire province , peaking at 3 @.@ 48 in ( 88 @.@ 5 mm ) in Cape Breton Island . Gusts peaked at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) across Cabot Strait , 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) at CFB Shearwater and 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) at Summerside , Prince Edward Island . The storm damaged power lines on the island but they were quickly repaired . The strong winds uprooted trees in the Halifax and Dartmouth , Nova Scotia area . In Nova Scotia , Helene 's worst effects were felt in Cape Breton Island , where the storm was considered the worst in at least 21 years . Only one communication line from the island to the mainland was effective after the storm passed . Numerous downed power lines resulted in minor fires , and schools were closed throughout the island . In Sydney , Nova Scotia , there was considerable property damage , and as many as 700 people lost power . The lack of sufficient electricity forced the suspension of publications of the Cape Breton Post and disrupted normal restaurant cooking procedures . Damages in the community amounted to C $ 100 @,@ 000 . Offshore , the Royal Canadian Mounted Police cutter Fort Walsh , measuring 115 ft ( 35 m ) in length , was washed ashore on the coast of Scatarie Island . The fishing wharf in Caribou , Nova Scotia was destroyed by rough seas generated by Helene , and at least 1 @,@ 000 lobster traps were carried into the Northumberland Strait as a result . In New Brunswick , the hurricane 's impacts were relatively minor , and rainfall peaked at 1 @.@ 56 in ( 39 @.@ 5 mm ) .
Quickly accelerating northwards , Helene made landfall on Newfoundland late on September 29 . Rainfall peaked at 3 @.@ 05 in ( 77 @.@ 5 mm ) in northern parts of the island , while rainfall amounts were generally minimal across the Avalon Peninsula . A weather station in Naval Station Argentia reported maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a gust of 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) . The winds severed communications in southwestern Newfoundland and cut communications in St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador from the mainland . Bell Island was cut off from the rest of Newfoundland due to rough seas generated by Helene , which resulted in the destruction of piers and lack of boat service . Damage caused by the hurricane on the island were estimated to be in excess of C $ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , Governor of North Carolina Luther H. Hodges and United States Senator from North Carolina B. Everett Jordan requested a disaster declaration for the state . President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower designated portions of North Carolina impacted by the storm as a disaster area . According to the American Red Cross , at least 5 @,@ 000 people were kept in shelters after Helene . Following the large @-@ scale evacuation procedures and resulting low loss of life after the storm , the Weather Bureau recommended that certain organizations be awarded the Outstanding Service to the Public certificate due to their cooperation with the Weather Bureau during the hurricane 's duration . The recommended recipients were the radio stations WPTF and WRAL , and the North Carolina State Highway Patrol .
= Sonnet 18 =
Sonnet 18 , often alternatively titled Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day ? , is one of the best @-@ known of 154 sonnets written by the English playwright and poet William Shakespeare . Part of the Fair Youth sequence ( which comprises sonnets 1 – 126 in the accepted numbering stemming from the first edition in 1609 ) , it is the first of the cycle after the opening sequence now described as the procreation sonnets .
In the sonnet , the speaker compares his beloved to the summer season , and argues that his beloved is better . He also states that his beloved will live on forever through the words of the poem . Scholars have found parallels within the poem to Ovid 's Tristia and Amores , both of which have love themes . Sonnet 18 is written in the typical Shakespearean sonnet form , having 14 lines of iambic pentameter ending in a rhymed couplet . Detailed exegeses have revealed several double meanings within the poem , giving it a greater depth of interpretation .
= = Paraphrase = =
The poem starts with a flattering question to the beloved — " Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day ? " The beloved is both " more lovely and more temperate " than a summer 's day . The speaker lists some negative things about summer : it is short — " summer 's lease hath all too short a date " — and sometimes the sun is too hot — " Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines . " However , the beloved has beauty that will last forever , unlike the fleeting beauty of a summer 's day . By putting his love 's beauty into the form of poetry , the poet is preserving it forever . " So long as men can breathe , or eyes can see , So long lives this , and this gives life to thee . " The lover 's beauty will live on , through the poem which will last as long as it can be read .
= = Structure = =
Sonnet 18 is a typical English or Shakespearean sonnet . It consists of three quatrains followed by a couplet , and has the characteristic rhyme scheme : abab cdcd efef gg . The poem reflects the rhetorical tradition of an Italian or Petrarchan Sonnet . Petrarchan sonnets typically discussed the love and beauty of a beloved , often an unattainable love , but not always . It also contains a volta , or shift in the poem 's subject matter , beginning with the third quatrain .
The couplet 's first line exemplifies a regular iambic pentameter rhythm :
× / × / × / × / × /
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see , ( 18 @.@ 13 )
/
= ictus , a metrically strong syllabic position . × =
nonictus .
= = Context = =
The poem is part of the Fair Youth sequence ( which comprises sonnets 1 – 126 in the accepted numbering stemming from the first edition in 1609 ) . It is also the first of the cycle after the opening sequence now described as the procreation sonnets . Some scholars , however , contend that it is part of the procreation sonnets , as it addresses the idea of reaching eternal life through the written word , a theme they find in sonnets 15 – 17 . In this view , it can be seen as part of a transition to sonnet 20 's time theme .
There are many , varying theories about the identity of the 1609 Quarto 's enigmatic dedicatee , Mr. W.H. Some scholars have suggested that this poem may be expressing a hope that they interpret the procreation sonnets as having despaired of : the hope of metaphorical procreation in a homosexual relationship . Professor Michael Schoenfeldt of the University of Michigan , characterizes the Fair Youth sequence sonnets as " the articulation of a fervent same @-@ sex love , " and some scholars , noting the romantic language used in the sequence , refer to it as a " daring representation of homoerotic ... passions , " of " passionate , erotic love , " suggesting that the relationship between the speaker and the Fair Youth is sexual . The true character of this love remains unclear , however , and others interpret the relationship as one of purely platonic love , while yet others see it as describing a woman . Scholars have pointed out that the order in which the sonnets are placed may have been the decision of the publishers , and not of Shakespeare , which would further support the interpretation that Sonnet 18 was addressed to a woman .
= = Exegesis = =
Line one is paradoxical , because the implied answer to the poet 's question , " Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day " , is in the negative , even though the point is illustrated by comparisons .
The third line “ Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May , ” is enigmatic and deeper than it seems at a cursory glance . Apparently containing the Anglo @-@ Saxon original adjective ‘ darling ’ as a term of endearment , it also refers to the verb ‘ to darl ’ , a condition in which a green flower bud begins to show its eventual colour . The gerund , ‘ darling ’ describes this process of change . It was subsequently used to describe a nubile , pubescent girl ; a darling girl is one entering womanhood , with all the internal and external changes which that brings . A darling girl is showing the promise of her eventual appearance .
" Complexion " in line six , can have two meanings : 1 ) The outward appearance of the face as compared with the sun ( " the eye of heaven " ) in the previous line , or 2 ) the older sense of the word in relation to The four humours . In Shakespeare 's time , " complexion " carried both outward and inward meanings , as did the word " temperate " ( externally , a weather condition ; internally , a balance of humours ) . The second meaning of " complexion " would communicate that the beloved 's inner , cheerful , and temperate disposition is sometimes blotted out like the sun on a cloudy day . The first meaning is more obvious , meaning of a negative change in his outward appearance .
The word , " untrimmed " in line eight , can be taken two ways : First , in the sense of loss of decoration and frills , and second , in the sense of untrimmed sails on a ship . In the first interpretation , the poem reads that beautiful things naturally lose their fanciness over time . In the second , it reads that nature is a ship with sails not adjusted to wind changes in order to correct course . This , in combination with the words " nature 's changing course " , creates an oxymoron : the unchanging change of nature , or the fact that the only thing that does not change is change . This line in the poem creates a shift from the mutability of the first eight lines , into the eternity of the last six . Both change and eternity are then acknowledged and challenged by the final line .
" Ow 'st " in line ten can also carry two meanings equally common at the time : " ownest " and " owest " . Many readers interpret it as " ownest " , as do many Shakespearean glosses ( " owe " in Shakespeare 's day , was sometimes used as a synonym for " own " ) . However , " owest " delivers an interesting view on the text . It conveys the idea that beauty is something borrowed from nature — that it must be paid back as time progresses . In this interpretation , " fair " can be a pun on " fare " , or the fare required by nature for life 's journey . Other scholars have pointed out that this borrowing and lending theme within the poem is true of both nature and humanity . Summer , for example , is said to have a " lease " with " all too short a date . " This monetary theme is common in many of Shakespeare 's sonnets , as it was an everyday theme in his budding capitalistic society .
= = In music = =
Cleo Laine and John Dankworth recorded a jazz version of Shakespeare 's Sonnet 18 on their album Shakespeare & All That Jazz ( 1964 ) .
Roxy Music 's Bryan Ferry recorded Sonnet 18 for the his 1997 CD Diana , Princess of Wales : Tribute ( disc 1 - 2 : 53 ) .
In 2001 Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour recorded Sonnet 18 as a song for his wife , with the music written by and played on piano by Michael Kamen . A video of him recording the piece was released as an extra on his 2002 DVD , " David Gilmour in Concert " , but the recording was never released on an album ; it is , however , currently available on YouTube . The song 's credits are given as " Shakespeare / Gilmour " .
Poeterra recorded a pop ballad version of this poem on their album " When in Disgrace " ( 2014 ) .
It was also set to music by the Swedish composer Nils Lindberg as a choral piece .
Moreover , the singer and songwriter Dan Smith , head of the band " Bastille " , admitted to have been inspired by this sonnet when writing the song " Poet " .
= The Staff of Karnath =
The Staff of Karnath is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Ultimate Play The Game for the Commodore 64 originally in 1984 and in the United States in 1985 . The game is the first instalment of the Pendragon series and is the first to feature the aristocrat adventurer Sir Arthur Pendragon . In the game , Sir Pendragon is tasked with searching a castle for the ancient Staff of Karnath , which he must destroy prior to midnight , before it wipes out the human race .
The game was created and designed by brothers Dave and Bob Thomas and was the first game to be released by Ultimate without founders Tim and Chris Stamper 's direct involvement . The Staff of Karnath 's setting and visuals were heavily inspired from the 1962 film Jack the Giant Killer . The game was met with mixed reviews upon release . Critics were divided over its graphics and presentation , and criticised the sound . It was followed by a sequel , Entombed , which was released in 1985 .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is presented in an oblique , isometric format and is set inside a haunted castle . As Sir Arthur Pendragon , the player 's main objective is to collect sixteen pieces of a key before midnight , which when all connected will form the shape of a pentacle . The pieces of the pentacle are guarded by various magical creatures , some of which can be defeated by casting spells , others requiring accurately timed attacks and nimble dodging . Once a piece is obtained , the player must take it to a specific chamber within the castle . Once all pentacles have been placed in their chambers , the player can establish the whereabouts of the Staff of Karnath , which must be destroyed before midnight .
Pendragon 's only form of defence in the game is his ability to utilise various magical spells , in which the correct spell is required in order to defeat certain enemies . If the player is hit by an attack of any enemy in the castle , Pendragon will lose energy , or in some cases , time will be deducted from the countdown timer . If the player completely runs out of energy or fails to destroy the Staff of Karnath before midnight , the game will end .
= = Plot = =
Millions of years ago , creatures known as Sarnathians ruled the Earth , centring their values on torture of other creatures that were opposed to their rule . Their aim was to rule the universe using a mysterious orb that granted them great power . Thousands of years later , the orb became too powerful and eventually caused a tear in the inter @-@ dimensional fabric of the Realm of Reality and the Realm of Unreality , thus rendering the Sarnathians extinct .
The orb itself was buried deep in the ground for millions of years , until it was discovered by Karnath , an evil sorcerer . Upon finding the orb , Karnath fused it into his own magical staff , and on doing so learned the history of the Sarnathians . He became obsessed with the orb and the task of releasing these beings from the Realm of Unreality . After years of isolation in his castle , as his own death was drawing near , Karnath was finally able to cast a powerful spell over his staff . This spell was designed such that upon contact with the orb , it would unleash its most powerful state and tear the fabric of reality once more .
The staff was then hidden deep below the castle and inscribed with powerful magical symbols to protect it . Before he died , Karnath broke the key into sixteen pieces and hid them throughout his castle . Centuries later , an aristocrat adventurer , Sir Arthur Pendragon , ventures inside the castle in order to defuse the orb before midnight . Should he fail , its power would be unleashed , and the resulting inter @-@ dimensional rip would wipe out the human race .
= = Development and release = =
Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play The Game , they began producing multiple video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . The company was known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " : one team would work on graphics while the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or programming .
The Pendragon series and The Staff of Karnath were materialised by brothers Dave and Robert " Bob " Thomas , rather than Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper . Dave Thomas began his career in 1983 when he began producing games for the Atari 400 , including moderate @-@ sellers such as Warlok , which later won him GB £ 5 @,@ 000 in a competition from Calisto Software . Although he later began working for the company in producing video games , he quit due to the strain of his daily 68 miles ( 109 km ) commute . Shortly after quitting Calisto Software , Dave Thomas started work on The Staff of Karnath . Bob Thomas was a trained technical illustrator for the Ministry of Defence and had experience with designing interiors for the Royal Navy , which later aided to the military @-@ themed visuals of the Pendragon series .
The game was programmed by Dave Thomas , whereas the graphics were designed by Bob Thomas . According to Dave Thomas , the visuals and setting of the castle in The Staff of Karnath were inspired by the 1962 film Jack the Giant Killer . The plot of the game was also loosely based on the storyline from one of H.P. Lovecraft 's short novels . Dave Thomas admitted in a retrospective interview that the name of the series protagonist , " Sir Arthur Pendragon " , was copied from the character of the Black Prince Pendragon from the Jack the Giant Killer stories .
The Thomas brothers decided to show their progress on the game to Tim and Chris Stamper for evaluation , despite feeling embarrassed due to their workspace being inside their parents ' attic . Impressed by the game , the Stamper brothers commissioned an entire series to be released for the Commodore 64 . Dave Thomas recalled that every game they produced was met with little interference from Ultimate : once a game was complete , it would be sent to quality assessment and subsequently published for release . The Staff of Karnath sold 40 @,@ 000 units upon initial release , and work on the sequel , Entombed , began " almost immediately " according to Dave Thomas .
= = Reception = =
The game received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release . Computer and Video Games was divided over the graphics , stating that they were " expecting more " from an Ultimate game . Chris Anderson of Personal Computer Games felt " disappointment " to the overall game , stating that what he saw on the screen was an " anti @-@ climax " , given how Anderson had been " waiting so long " for an Ultimate release on the Commodore 64 . Commodore User praised the graphics , heralding the detail as " impressive " , however they criticised the moving characters of the game , calling them " not quite as impressive " as the detail of the background , and did not live up to the instruction manual 's promise of " cartoon quality " animation .
Anderson of Personal Computer Games praised the overall presentation , asserting that the rooms were of " extremely realistic " quality . In the same review , Richard Patey similarly praised the graphics , stating that they were " beautiful " throughout and " [ lived ] up to " every expectation . Commodore User criticised the sound effects , finding them " disappointing " . Patey was also sceptical regarding the sound effects , regarding them as " average " . Anderson summarised that the game " isn 't not going to hook everyone " . The Staff of Karnath was declared as the seventh best Commodore 64 game in the first issue of Zzap ! 64 in May 1985 .
= Woodes Rogers =
Woodes Rogers ( ca . 1679 – 15 July 1732 ) was an English sea captain and privateer and , later , the first Royal Governor of the Bahamas . He is known as the captain of the vessel that rescued marooned Alexander Selkirk , whose plight is generally believed to have inspired Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe .
Rogers came from an affluent seafaring family , grew up in Poole and Bristol , and served a marine apprenticeship to a Bristol sea captain . His father held shares in many ships , but he died when Rogers was in his mid @-@ twenties , leaving Rogers in control of the family shipping business . In 1707 , Rogers was approached by Captain William Dampier , who sought support for a privateering voyage against the Spanish , with whom the British were at war . Rogers led the expedition , which consisted of two well @-@ armed ships , Duke and Duchess , and was the captain of Duke . In three years , Rogers and his men went around the world , capturing several ships in the Pacific Ocean . En route , the expedition rescued Selkirk , finding him on Juan Fernandez Island on 1 February 1709 . When the expedition returned to England in October 1711 , Rogers had circumnavigated the globe , while retaining his original ships and most of his men , and the investors in the expedition doubled their money .
The expedition made Rogers a national hero , but his brother was killed and Rogers was badly wounded in fights in the Pacific . On his return , he was successfully sued by his crew on the grounds that they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits , and Rogers was forced into bankruptcy . He wrote of his maritime experiences in the book A Cruising Voyage Round the World , which sold well , in part due to public fascination at Selkirk 's rescue .
Rogers was twice appointed Governor of the Bahamas , where he succeeded in warding off threats from the Spanish , and in ridding the colony of pirates . However , his first term as governor was financially ruinous , and on his return to England , he was imprisoned for debt . During his second term as governor , Rogers died in Nassau at the age of about 53 .
= = Early life = =
Woodes Rogers was the eldest son and heir of Woods Rogers , a successful merchant captain . Woodes Rogers spent part of his childhood in Poole , England , where he likely attended the local school ; his father , who owned shares in many ships , was often away nine months of the year with the Newfoundland fishing fleet . Sometime between 1690 and 1696 , Captain Rogers moved his family to Bristol . In November 1697 , Woodes Rogers was apprenticed to Bristol mariner John Yeamans , to learn the profession of a sailor . At 18 , Rogers was somewhat old to be starting a seven @-@ year apprenticeship .
His biographer , Brian Little , suggests that this might have been a way for the newcomers to become part of Bristol maritime society , as well as making it possible for Woodes Rogers to become a freeman , or voting citizen , of the city . Little also suggests that it is likely that Rogers gained his maritime experience with Yeamans ' ship on the Newfoundland fleet . Rogers completed his apprenticeship in November 1704 .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
The following January Rogers married Sarah Whetstone , daughter of Rear Admiral Sir William Whetstone , who was a neighbour and close family friend . Rogers became a freeman of Bristol because of his marriage into the prominent Whetstone family . In 1706 , Captain Rogers died at sea , leaving his ships and business to his son Woodes . Between 1706 and the end of 1708 , Woodes and Sarah Rogers had a son and two daughters .
= = Privateering expedition = =
= = = Preparation and the early voyage = = =
The War of the Spanish Succession started in 1702 , during which England 's main maritime foes were France and Spain , and a number of Bristol ships were given letters of marque , allowing them to strike against enemy shipping . At least four vessels in which Rogers had an ownership interest were granted the letters . One , Whetstone Galley , named for Rogers ' father in law , received the letters before being sent to Africa to begin a voyage in the slave trade . It did not reach Africa , but was captured by the French . Rogers suffered other losses against the French , although he does not record their extent in his book . He turned to privateering as a means of recouping these losses .
In late 1707 , Rogers was approached by William Dampier , a navigator and friend of Rogers ' father , who proposed a privateering expedition against the Spanish . This was a desperate move on the part of Captain Dampier to save his career . Dampier had recently returned from leading a two @-@ ship privateering expedition into the Pacific , which culminated in a series of mutinies before both ships finally sank due to Dampier 's error in not having the hulls properly protected against worms before leaving port . Unaware of this , Rogers agreed . Financing was provided by many in the Bristol community , including Thomas Goldney II of the Quaker Goldney family and Thomas Dover , who would become president of the voyage council and Rogers ' father in law . Commanding two frigates , Duke and Duchess , and captaining the first , Rogers spent three years circumnavigating the globe . The ships departed Bristol on 1 August 1708 . Dampier was aboard as Rogers ' sailing master .
Rogers encountered various problems along the way . Forty of the Bristol crew deserted or were dismissed , and he spent a month in Ireland recruiting replacements and having the vessels prepared for sea . Many crew members were Dutch , Danish , or other foreigners . Some of the crew mutinied after Rogers refused to let them plunder a neutral Swedish vessel . When the mutiny was put down , he had the leader flogged , put in irons , and sent to England aboard another ship . The less culpable mutineers were given lighter punishments , such as reduced rations . The ships intended to force the chilly Drake Passage off the tip of South America , but expedition leaders soon realised that they were short of warm clothing and alcohol , which was then believed to warm those exposed to cold . Considering the latter the more important problem , the expedition made a stop at Tenerife to stock up on the local wine , and later sewed the ships ' blankets into cold weather gear . The ships experienced a difficult inter @-@ oceanic passage ; they were forced to almost 62 ° South latitude , which , according to Rogers , " for ought we know is the furthest that any one has yet been to the southward " . At their furthest south , they were closer to as @-@ yet @-@ undiscovered Antarctica than to South America .
= = = Rescue of Selkirk and raids on the Spanish = = =
Rogers stocked his ships with limes to fend off scurvy , a practice not universally accepted at that time . After reaching the Pacific Ocean , the ships ' provisions of limes were exhausted and seven men died of the vitamin deficiency disease . Dampier was able to guide the ships to little @-@ known Juan Fernandez Island to replenish supplies of fresh produce . On 1 February 1709 , as they neared the island , the sailors spotted a fire ashore and feared that it might be a shore party from a Spanish vessel . The next morning Rogers sent a party ashore and discovered that the fire was from Scottish sailor Alexander Selkirk , who had been stranded there four years previously . Selkirk was to become an inspiration for the classic novel Robinson Crusoe , written by Rogers ' friend , Daniel Defoe . Rogers found Selkirk to be " wild @-@ looking " and " wearing goatskins " , noting in his journal , " He had with him his clothes and bedding , with a firelock , some powder , bullets and tobacco , a hatchet , a knife , a kettle , a Bible and books . " Selkirk , who had been part of the ship 's crew that abandoned Dampier after losing confidence
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as he was then substituted by Ljungberg in the 65th minute .
United then went back downfield and Ronaldo took on Lauren , who dared not dive in for a tackle and risk a second yellow card . Ronaldo got past the Cameroonian full @-@ back and then chipped a cross into the penalty area , but Van Nistelrooy was unable to make enough contact with the ball to force his header on target . A minute later , Silvestre found Rooney with another diagonal pass ; Rooney attempted to drive in a low cross , but it ended up heading towards goal and came back off the foot of the post . Fletcher was first to the ball but he fired a shot across the face of the goal and out for a goal kick . With their very next attack , United sent Ronaldo away down the left wing again ; he sent over another cross , but it was again too far in front of Van Nistelrooy .
Reyes received his first yellow card in the 76th minute , when he was late in tackling Silvestre after the French defender had played a backpass to Carroll . The break in play allowed Manchester United to make their first substitution , bringing on Fortune for O 'Shea , who appeared to be struggling with a calf injury . With six minutes left in normal time , United won a corner on the left hand side , which Ronaldo played short to Scholes . Scholes returned the ball to Ronaldo , who crossed it into the penalty area , where Keane was unmarked at the back post . The ball eventually broke to the United captain , who shot , only to see four Arsenal players between him and the goal , ready to block his effort behind for another corner . Lehmann came to meet the second corner kick , but missed the ball , allowing it to go all the way through to Van Nistelrooy ; the Dutchman headed the ball goalwards , but Ljungberg was on the line and headed it up onto the crossbar and away .
Arsenal then made their second substitution , bringing on Van Persie in place of Cesc Fàbregas . As the match entered injury time at the end of the second half , Ronaldo made yet another run down the left wing , outpacing Lauren to Rooney 's through @-@ ball . The ball broke back to Rooney 30 yards from goal , but his shot went over the bar . The second half finished with a Wes Brown cross from the right wing that made its way across the penalty area to Ronaldo , but the Portuguese could only head the ball straight at Lehmann .
= = = = Extra time = = = =
Manchester United brought Giggs on at the start of extra time , the Welshman taking Fletcher 's place in the midfield . They immediately tried to play him in down the left wing , but the pass was over @-@ hit and went beyond Giggs . Arsenal finally got their first shot on target in the seventh minute of extra time , when a Van Persie free kick – awarded for a foul by Silvestre – forced a diving save from Carroll . Four minutes later , Manchester United appealed for a penalty kick when a cross from Giggs struck Cole , but replays showed that the ball hit the Arsenal full @-@ back in the midriff . United sustained their attack , and the ball came to Scholes in the penalty area , but his shot on the turn was well saved by Lehmann . The resultant corner was taken short by Scholes , before it was played back to him ; his cross found Van Nistelrooy unmarked in the area , but the Dutchman headed over the bar from the edge of the goal area . United then had another penalty shout when Giggs volleyed a long ball from Scholes into Touré 's body and up onto the Ivorian 's hand , but referee Rob Styles turned their claims down . Arsenal then brought on Edu to replace Pirès for the remaining 15 minutes .
The second half of extra time began with yet another chance for Manchester United , this time constructed from a Giggs break down the left wing , but Van Nistelrooy failed in his attempt to back @-@ heel Giggs ' cross into the goal and the opportunity was wasted . Five minutes into the second half , Reyes committed another late tackle on Silvestre , for which he received a final warning from referee Styles . Reyes himself was then the victim of a late tackle by Scholes , who was shown a yellow card . The match threatened to descend into a mass brawl soon after , when Fortune caught Ljungberg in the face with a flailing arm and then committed a high tackle on Edu , provoking a reaction from the Arsenal players . A shoulder @-@ charge by Rooney on Cole resulted in an Arsenal free kick on the left wing ; Van Persie swung the ball over and it was only cleared as far as Ljungberg , but the Swede struck a shot with his shin and the ball spun wide . With a couple of minutes left in the extra period , Manchester United won a free kick on the left corner of the Arsenal penalty area when Vieira lazily tripped Ronaldo and received a booking , but Giggs ' cross from the free kick was headed away . Meanwhile , Manchester United 's substitute goalkeeper , Howard , was seen warming up behind the goal , suggesting that he was preparing to come on for Carroll in the event of a penalty shootout ; however , no substitution was made .
The referee added two minutes of injury time at the end of extra time , during which time Manchester United won another free kick , but Scholes ' shot was straight at the Arsenal defensive wall . Then , with just seconds left in regulation time , Ronaldo made a break towards the Arsenal half , only to be cynically body @-@ checked by Reyes . Referee Styles made no hesitation and showed Reyes a second yellow card , making the Spaniard the second player to be sent off in an FA Cup Final , after Manchester United 's Kevin Moran in 1985 . The full @-@ time whistle went immediately after Reyes ' dismissal , and the match finished at 0 – 0 , making it the first FA Cup Final to result in a penalty shootout .
= = = = Penalty shootout = = = =
Van Nistelrooy took the first penalty for Manchester United , in front of the United fans , and sent Lehmann the wrong way to give United the early advantage . Lauren then converted the next penalty for Arsenal , before Scholes stepped up to take United 's second , only to see it saved by Lehmann , diving low to his right . The next six penalties were all scored – Ljungberg , Van Persie and Cole for Arsenal , Ronaldo , Rooney and Keane for Manchester United – leaving Vieira with the opportunity to win the FA Cup for his team . Although Carroll guessed the correct way to dive , Vieira 's kick was just out of his reach , giving Arsenal their 10th FA Cup .
= = = Match details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
As the Arsenal players ran towards Vieira and Lehmann to celebrate , Ferguson and Keane were seen consoling various players and staff members . Mark Lawrenson , the BBC 's co @-@ commentator for the final , summarised to his counterpart John Motson : " Well , we must congratulate Arsenal on the way they took the penalties – they were excellent [ ... ] But I have to say over the course of the 120 minutes , Manchester United have been mugged . "
Wenger conceded his opponents were the better side , but praised his team 's resolve , telling reporters : " It was important to score the first goal and with neither team scoring it remained tight for a long , long period . There were some times in the second half when we were a bit lucky but we defended very well and to keep a clean sheet is good . " He admitted his players had practiced taking penalties , but was quick to point out " you don 't score because of the practising – keeping your nerve is more important . " Lehmann , who had been side @-@ lined by Wenger during the course of the season , credited his teammates for scoring all five penalties , and described it as a " big mental achievement . " Cole called Arsenal 's win a " … great team performance , we didn 't have too many chances but we defended really well and battled really hard . " Henry , who sat out the final due to injury expressed sympathy for Manchester United , and recollected a similar experience from his early Arsenal career : " I know how they feel because we lost against Liverpool and did not deserve to lose . If your name is on the cup you win it . "
Ferguson was proud of his team 's performance , but admitted their failure throughout the season to convert chances into goals , had cost them once more . Of the game , he continued : " In cup football , you need a break and we didn 't get one . We 've had luck in the past , so you understand it can happen . It 's not a nice experience but it 's one you have to accept . " Ferguson criticised the referee for failing to send Vieira off during extra @-@ time as he fouled Rooney , and labelled Arsenal as " boring " for deploying negative tactics . Keane , like his manager , rued the missed opportunities and said it was a small consolation : " We dominated but I 'm sure the Arsenal players won 't be too bothered about that – they 've got the winners ' medals and the cup and we haven 't . "
Writing for The Daily Telegraph , pundit Alan Hansen felt the ease in which Manchester United dominated the final and Arsenal 's inability to vary tactics highlighted why Wenger needed to make changes in the close season . Hansen agreed with Ferguson that United 's lack of goal threat cost them on the day , but felt their future was rosier than Arsenal 's . Nonetheless , he was of the opinion that Chelsea manager José Mourinho had little to be concerned about , concluding his piece with the sentence : " A London club did come away from Cardiff as big winners but it was not Arsenal , it was Chelsea . " In the same newspaper , Paul Hayward praised the performances of Rooney and Ronaldo – " surely the best one @-@ club pairing of under @-@ 21s in world football , " while ex @-@ Arsenal player Alan Smith noted his former club 's win demonstrated how Wenger " for the first time , practically , in his nine @-@ year Highbury tenure , had set up his side with the opposition in mind . " Capturing United 's sombre mood , The Times football correspondent Matt Dickinson wrote : " The black shirts turned out not to be in protest at Glazer but a reflection of their mood after the first FA Cup Final to be decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out . "
The match was broadcast live in the United Kingdom by both the BBC and Sky Sports , with BBC One providing the free @-@ to @-@ air coverage and Sky Sports 1 being the pay @-@ TV alternative . BBC One held the majority of the viewership , with a peak audience of 12 @.@ 8 million ( 67 @.@ 1 % viewing share ) , which made it the most @-@ watched final in nine years . The match itself was watched by 10 million viewers ( 61 % ) , and coverage of the final averaged at 7 @.@ 3 million ( 50 @.@ 5 % ) . Viewing figures compiled by The Guardian showed the BBC 's coverage was second only to ITV 's broadcast of the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final between Liverpool and A.C. Milan , which amassed 13 @.@ 9 million viewers . Global audience figures for the 2005 FA Cup Final totalled 484 million .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
The 2005 final was Vieira 's last match as an Arsenal player ; he joined Juventus in the close season for a combined total fee of € 20 million . Wenger 's decision to sell his captain was made so the team could benefit from Fàbregas , who broke into the first eleven during the season . In later years , Wenger deviated from his usual counter @-@ attacking style , and imposed a fluent system , with less emphasis on physicality . The immediate seasons after Arsenal relocated to the Emirates Stadium in 2006 saw Wenger sell several experienced players , and integrate more young talent , as a means of fostering an identity with the club . Financing for the stadium however meant Arsenal prioritised its expenditure instead of the squad and trophies . Though Wenger managed to solidify the club ’ s position in the Premier League 's top four and secure the necessary funds to pay back its debtors , the 2005 Cup win represented Arsenal 's last silverware for nine years . In 2014 , he led Arsenal to a record @-@ equalling 11th FA Cup , and became the successful manager in the competition 's history a year later , as his side beat Aston Villa .
Like Arsenal , Manchester United endured a period of transition after the final . The Glazer 's takeover of the club resulted in disaffected fans setting up F.C. United of Manchester , which , as of 2016 , has become the largest supporter @-@ owned football club in the United Kingdom . On the pitch , Manchester United began the 2005 – 06 season poorly ; they were eliminated in the group stages of the Champions League and the manager was booed at home after United lost to Blackburn Rovers . Journalist Henry Winter in December 2005 opined that Ferguson needed to resign , writing in his column : " Under Ferguson , United became football 's answer to the Magic Circle . But the magic now drains away and so , next summer , must Ferguson . " He stayed , however , and having already called time on Keane 's career at United , he began reinvigorating his squad , by signing defenders Nemanja Vidić and Patrice Evra . United returned to the Millennium Stadium eight months after the FA Cup loss , and beat Wigan Athletic to win the 2006 Football League Cup Final . Ferguson guided his team to their first League title in four years the following season , after stern competition from Chelsea , and won a further nine competitive honours until his retirement in 2013 .
Kevin McCarra regards the final as a turning point in the rivalry between the two clubs : " ... Arsenal and United , who could barely be prised apart in 2005 , have since gone their separate ways . The signs of divergence were already apparent that afternoon . " The match is considered an example of Wenger setting his team up pragmatically and going against his ideals . Having later asserted he would never use the 4 – 5 – 1 system again , Wenger adopted the formation for Champions League matches and his approach resulted in Arsenal reaching the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final .
= Suriname at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Suriname sent a delegation of four people to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China : two athletes ( Jurgen Themen and Kirsten Nieuwendam and two swimmers ( Gordon Touw Ngie Tjouw and Chinyere Pigot ) who participated in four distinct events . The appearance of Suriname at Beijing marked its tenth Olympic appearance , which included every Olympic games since the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City and excluded the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow . Its four athletes did not advance past the first round in each of their events . The Surinamese flag bearer in Beijing was not an athlete , but Anthony Nesty , the only medalist in Surinamese history ( as of the Beijing Olympics ) and the nation 's Olympic swimming coach .
= = Background = =
Up to and including its participation in the Beijing Games , Surinamese athletes participated in ten Olympic games , all of which were summer Games . The first case of a Surinamese athlete 's participation was at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City , when it sent a single male athlete . Since then , Suriname 's athletes have participated in every Olympic games except the 1980 Summer Olympics in the Soviet Union . As of Beijing , the country had not sent more than seven athletes to any one Games . Prior to and including 2008 , one Surinamese athlete had won the two medals ever claimed by Surinamese athletes – Anthony Nesty , who won a gold medal in 1988 , and a bronze medal in 1992 , both in swimming events . No medals were won in Beijing .
Although Nesty did not participate in any event at the Beijing Olympics , he was Suriname 's flag bearer at the ceremonies . He also served as the head coach for the Surinamese Olympic swim team , having served previously as associate head coach for the University of Florida swim team and , during the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , the assistant coach for the Surinamese team .
= = Athletics = =
Then 22 @-@ year old Jurgen Themen appeared at the Olympics for the first time when he participated in the 100 meters dash in Beijing . He was the sole male Surinamese participant in track and field during the 2008 Olympics . Themen participated in the first heat during the August 14 qualification round , completing the event in 10 @.@ 61 seconds and ranking seventh of eight athletes . The leaders of Themen 's heat included Usain Bolt of Jamaica ( 10 @.@ 20 seconds ) and Daniel Bailey of Antigua and Barbuda ( 10 @.@ 24 seconds ) . Themen himself scored directly ahead of Vanuatu 's Moses Kamut ( 10 @.@ 81 seconds ) and directly behind Italy 's Fabio Cerutti ( 10 @.@ 49 seconds ) . All heats combined , Themen ranked 54 out of the 80 athletes who participated in the qualification round . He did not progress to quarterfinals .
Then 16 @-@ year @-@ old student of Florida 's St. Thomas Aquinas High School Kirsten Nieuwendam participated in the Beijing Olympics on behalf of Suriname as its only female track and field athlete that year . Nieuwendam had not previously participated in any Olympic games . Nieuwendam participated in the first heat of the qualification round , which took place on August 18 . She completed her event in 24 @.@ 46 seconds , placing seventh out of the eight athletes in her heat , finishing behind Liberia 's Kia Davis ( 24 @.@ 31 seconds ) . Vida Anim of Ghana , the eighth competitor in the heat , never started her event . The leaders of Nieuwendam 's heat were Allyson Felix of the United States ( 23 @.@ 02 seconds ) and Susanthika Jayasinghe of Sri Lanka ( 23 @.@ 04 seconds ) . Out of the 48 athletes who competed in the qualification round , Nieuwendam ranked 44th . She did not progress to further rounds .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Swimming = =
Then 23 @-@ year @-@ old Gordon Touw Ngie Tjouw participated on Suriname 's behalf in the men 's 100 meters butterfly . His participation in Beijing marked his second Olympic appearance , as he had participated previously in men 's 100 meters butterfly at the Athenian 2004 Summer Olympics . He was the only male Surinamese swimmer participating in the Beijing games . During the August 14 preliminary round , Tjouw participated in the second heat . He completed his event in 54 @.@ 54 seconds , ranking third out of the seven athletes in the heat . Tjouw ranked directly behind Malaysia 's Daniel Bego ( 54 @.@ 38 seconds ) and directly ahead of Kazakhstan 's Rustam Khudiyev ( 54 @.@ 62 seconds ) . The leaders of the heat were Shaune Fraser of the Cayman Islands ( 54 @.@ 08 seconds ) and Bego . Overall , Tjouw ranked 55 out of the 66 athletes who participated in the event . He did not advance to later rounds .
Paramaribo @-@ born swimmer Chinyere Pigot was the youngest athlete to participate in the Surinamese delegation at Beijing ; she was fifteen years old at the time of her performance , and the only female Surinamese swimmer in the delegation . Pigot has not previously appeared at any Olympic games . The preliminary round for the women 's 50 meters freestyle , the event in which she participated , took place on August 15 . Pigot was placed in the fifth heat . She completed her event in 27 @.@ 66 seconds , taking second in the heat ; Pigot fell behind Honduran athlete Sharon Paola Fajardo Sierra ( 27 @.@ 19 seconds ) but scored ahead of Nicaraguan Dalia Tórrez Zamora ( 27 @.@ 81 seconds ) . Out of the 92 athletes who participated in the preliminary round , Pigot ranked 54th . She did not advance to later rounds .
Men
Women
= Boulogne agreement =
The Boulogne agreement was a document signed by a group of English magnates in 1308 , concerning the government of Edward II . After the death of Edward I in 1307 , discontent soon developed against the new king . This was partly due to lingering problems from the previous reign , but also related to issues with Edward II himself . Particularly his abandonment of the Scottish Wars and his patronage of the unpopular Piers Gaveston caused discontent . Drawn up in Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer during the king 's nuptials , the document vaguely asserted the signatories ' duty to guard the rights of the Crown . Three months later , the agreement was the basis for another document , justifying opposition to the king . This latter document , the so @-@ called Declaration of 1308 , is notable for its use of the " doctrine of capacities " : the distinction between the person of the King and the institution of the Crown .
The document today exists only in a 17th @-@ century transcript by the antiquarian William Dugdale . The Boulogne agreement was largely unknown to modern historians up until the 1960s , but it is now considered significant because it is the first documented expression of the conflict between king and nobility , which was to dominate so much of the reign of Edward II . Though historians agree on the document 's importance , there is still disagreement over its interpretation , particularly whether the signatories should be seen as oppositional or loyal to the king .
= = Background = =
Edward II succeeded as king of England on 7 July 1307 , on the death of his father Edward I. The expectations of the new king were high , and he initially enjoyed a good relationship with the leading magnates of the realm . There were , however , some issues of contention remaining from the reign of his father . Edward I 's incessant wars had put a great fiscal burden on the country , and his confrontational style had led to conflict with some of the leading lay and ecclesiastical lords . This had culminated in the drafting of the so @-@ called Remonstrances in 1297 , a set of complaints about royal government . By Edward I 's death in 1307 , most of these issued had been resolved . It was nevertheless in the interest of the leading men of the country to make sure that the new king did not act the way his father had , and ignored the opinions of his councillors .
There were also certain personal issues regarding the new king that caused concern . Shortly before his death , Edward I had exiled Prince Edward 's favourite and possible lover Piers Gaveston , whom the king believed had too much influence over the prince . At his deathbed he had supposedly exhorted some of his closest followers – Henry de Lacy , Earl of Lincoln , Guy de Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick , Aymer de Valence , Earl of Pembroke and Robert Clifford – to keep watch over his son , and particularly to make sure that Gaveston did not return . One of Edward II 's first actions as king was nevertheless to recall Gaveston from exile . He also gave him the title of Earl of Cornwall – a title normally reserved for members of the royal family – thereby furthering the aggravation against the favourite . Another source of discontent was Edward II abandoning the Scottish Wars pursued by his father . This left the way open for Robert the Bruce to regain land the English had conquered , to the detriment of many English magnates .
On 22 January 1308 , Edward II left England for France , leaving Gaveston behind as Regent . By the Treaty of Montreuil in 1299 , it had been agreed that Edward should marry Isabella , the daughter of Philippe IV of France . Accompanying the king were several great nobles , including Lincoln , Pembroke , Clifford , John de Warenne , Earl of Surrey and Humphrey de Bohun , Earl of Hereford . On 25 January Edward and Isabella were married at Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , and on 31 January Edward performed homage for the Duchy of Aquitaine , which the English king held of the French king . On that same day , the nobles mentioned above , with others , gathered to sign the document that has become known to history as the Boulogne agreement .
= = Document and interpretation = =
The document was signed and dated at Boulogne on the 31 January 1308 . At the top of the list of signatories was Antony Bek , Bishop of Durham and Patriarch of Jerusalem . He was followed by the four earls Lincoln , Pembroke , Surrey and Hereford , and five men of baronial families : Clifford , Payn Tybetot , Henry de Gray , John de Botetourt and John de Berwick . The document today exists in the Bodleian Library in Oxford , as a transcript made by the 17th @-@ century antiquarian William Dugdale . Dugdale 's transcript is believed to be based on an older document , which was probably lost in the Cotton library fire of 1731 .
The text of the document is rather vague and noncommittal . The signatories were concerned with guarding the king 's honour and the rights of the Crown ( garder son honeur et les dreits de sa Corounne ) . There was also a promise to address and correct both the things that had been done against that honour and those rights , as well as the past and present oppression of the people ( les choses que sont feites avant ces houres countre soen honour et le droit de sa Coronne , et les oppressiouns que ount estre feit et uncore se fount de jour en jour a soen people ) . Nothing is said about what specifically these things were , but it must be assumed that the target was Gaveston . Bek was given the authority to excommunicate whoever broke the terms of the agreement .
Because of the vague language of the document , there has been much scholarly debate over how it should be interpreted . John Maddicott saw the wording as a hostile warning to the new king to avoid the mistakes of his father , or face the consequences . J. R. S. Phillips , on the other hand , took the signatories to be positively inclined towards Edward II . There were others who were more intrinsic in their opposition to the king and Gaveston , primarily the Earl of Warwick . The purpose of the document , in Phillips view , was to present the king with a warning , and hopefully protect him against the more antagonistic members of the nobility .
= = Aftermath and transmission = =
The Boulogne agreement had little immediate impact , and is notable mostly for its influence on a later document presented in parliament in April that year . In the meanwhile , on 25 February , the king had been crowned . Before the coronation , the king had been forced to include an additional clause in his coronation oath . The king obliged himself to abide by the law , but this exact meaning of this promise was ambiguous . The clause referred to laws the people " shall have chosen " ( aura eslu ) , which left it unclear whether it also included future enactments . At the coronation ceremony that followed , Gaveston acted with such presumption and arrogance as to further alienate the leading magnates .
The document from the April parliament , today referred to as the Declaration of 1308 , contained three articles and was presented by the Earl of Lincoln . The first article invoked the so @-@ called " doctrine of capacities " : that the subjects of the realm owed allegiance to the institution of the Crown , not to the person of the King . If the King abused his position , it was his subject 's duty to correct this , thereby upholding the pledge of the Boulogne agreement to protect the rights of the Crown . The second article was an attack on Gaveston – though he was not mentioned by name – implicitly demanding his renewed exile . The third article referred to the additional clause from the coronation oath . It was here taken to mean that the king had obliged himself to abide by any decisions made by his subjects ; past , present or future . The king initially held out against the opposition , but the earls also received support from Philippe IV , who was offended by Edward 's apparent preference of Gaveston over Isabella . On 18 May Edward agreed to once again send Gaveston into exile .
Dugdale both transcribed the Boulogne agreement and made a reference to it , in a footnote in his 1675 Baronage of England . After this the document was absent from history writing for almost three centuries . Dugdale 's footnote was mentioned by certain historians , but it was not until 1965 that the document itself was again used as a source , when Noël Denholm @-@ Young quoted a few lines from it in his History and Heraldry : 1254 – 1310 . In 1972 , J. R. S. Phillips printed a complete transcription of the Boulogne agreement in his book Aymer de Valence , Earl of Pembroke 1307 – 1324 .
= H @-@ 58 ( Michigan county highway ) =
H @-@ 58 is a county @-@ designated highway in the US state of Michigan that runs east – west for approximately 69 miles ( 111 km ) between the communities of Munising and Deer Park in the Upper Peninsula . The western section is routed through Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore , a national park on the southern shore of Lake Superior , and the adjacent Lake Superior State Forest in Alger County while connecting Munising to the communities of Van Meer and Melstrand . At Grand Marais , H @-@ 58 exits the national park and runs through town . The segment running east of Grand Marais to Deer Park in Luce County is a gravel road that connects to H @-@ 37 in Muskallonge Lake State Park .
A roadway was present along parts of today 's H @-@ 58 by the late 1920s ; initially , this county road was gravel or earth between Munising and Kingston Corners and connected with other roads to Grand Marais . In the 1930s , another segment was built to connect to Deer Park and to fill in the gap between Kingston Corners and Grand Marais . The southwestern segment between Munising and Van Meer formed part of M @-@ 94 from 1929 until it was transferred back to county control in the early 1960s .
The H @-@ 58 designation was created after the county @-@ designated highway system itself was formed in 1970 . Initially , only the section from Grand Marais to Deer Park was given the number ; the remainder was added in 1972 . The last sections to be paved in the 20th century were completed in 1974 . The National Park Service was required to build their own access road for the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore in the initial legislation that created the park . This requirement was rescinded by the United States Congress in 1998 , and the park service was authorized to fund improvements to H @-@ 58 instead . Paving projects were completed between 2006 and 2010 so that the entire length of H @-@ 58 in Alger County is now paved ; the section in Luce County is still a gravel road .
= = Route description = =
H @-@ 58 starts in Munising at an intersection with M @-@ 28 . The highway follows the eastern end of Munising Street through the eastern side of the city by the Neenah Paper Mill , then turns northeasterly . The roadway runs outside of , and parallel to , the southern boundary of the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore . The park visitors center , which is open year round , is located off H @-@ 58 on Sand Point Road at the west end of the park . The highway turns due east and runs through an intersection with H @-@ 13 ( Connors Road ) . Leaving town , H @-@ 58 becomes Munising – Van Meer – Shingleton Road and enters the national park . East of the intersection with Carmody Road , the county road passes to the south of the Pictured Rocks Golf and Country Club before meeting the intersection with H @-@ 11 ( Miners Castle Road ) . This latter road provides access to Miner 's Castle , a natural rock formation located on the shores of Lake Superior , and the Miners Falls . Further east , H @-@ 58 meets H @-@ 15 in Van Meer , site of the Bear Trap Inn and Bar . Munising – Van Meer – Shingleton Road turns south along H @-@ 15 , and H @-@ 58 turns northeast along Melstrand Road to the community of Melstrand .
Melstrand is located outside of the national park boundaries in the Lake Superior State Forest . H @-@ 58 continues through " burned and cut areas , meadows , maturing second growth , and the haunting sounds of silence " in the state forest . H @-@ 58 reenters the national park and approaches more Pictured Rocks facilities like the Hurricane River Campground . The road then travels northward towards Buck Hill , which is near the intersection with the Adams Truck Trail ; at that intersection , there is a parking lot for snowmobiles . Past this point , the road is closed to vehicles during the winter months each year ; snow plows do not clear the snow from the roadway , allowing it to be used as a snowmobile trail . The area on each end of the park averages around 140 – 144 inches ( 360 – 370 cm ) of snowfall annually , while the National Park service says that this central section is higher .
The road meanders through forest lands and fields as it continues northwesterly toward the Log Slide . This location gives motorists a chance to hike down to the lakeshore to see the Au Sable Point Lighthouse peeking above the trees to the east and the Grand Sable Dunes to the west . The American Motorcyclist Association said of this segment of the roadway that it is " so close to the beach and lake that [ one ] can smell it when [ he ] rides . " The lighthouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and can be accessed from the Hurricane River Campground . The roadway crosses the Hurricane River and turns southerly away from Lake Superior . H @-@ 58 turns back eastward near Grand Sable Lake , running between the north shore of the lake and the Grand Sable Dunes on the south shore of Lake Superior . At the intersection with William Hill and Newburg roads , H @-@ 58 makes a 90 ° curve and travels northward for about three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) . The road turns back eastward next to the Sable Falls parking lot . This lot also marks the eastern end of the segment of H @-@ 58 that road crews do not plow . The roadway exits the national park and runs to the community of Grand Marais . On the edge of town is the Woodland Township Park where hikers can walk along the beach to the base of the Grand Sable Dunes that form the east end of the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore . These dunes reach heights of up to 275 feet ( 84 m ) at a 35 ° incline . Hikers are advised to use the access points along H @-@ 58 to get to the dunes instead of attempting the climb up the face .
H @-@ 58 meets M @-@ 77 in Grand Marais . This town is the location of a small harbor that was once the home of a lumber shipping port . H @-@ 58 turns south to run concurrently along M @-@ 77 for about two blocks before turning back eastward . The county road runs along the southern edge of the harbor past the township 's school and out of town . The pavement ends when the road leaves Alger County for Luce County .
H @-@ 58 follows a gravel roadway through the forested northwestern corner of Luce County . The roadway turns northeasterly and runs closer to Lake Superior as it approaches Deer Park . The road also carries the County Road 407 ( CR 407 ) designation and the name Grand Marais Truck Trail . Near the Blind Sucker Flooding , a man @-@ made reservoir , the truck trail turns south to intersect Deer Park Road . H @-@ 58 turns east on Deer Park Road and runs between Rainy and Reedy lakes to the south and Lake Superior to the north . The east end of H @-@ 58 is at an intersection with H @-@ 37 near Muskallonge Lake State Park in Deer Park , north of Newberry . Deer Park is the location of a trio of resorts and remnants of a community that once included a sawmill , hotel and store . The state park is located on the shore of Muskallonge Lake and is visited by about 71 @,@ 000 people each year .
= = History = =
= = = Road origins = = =
A county road along part of the route of H @-@ 58 was present at by at least 1927 ; the road ran east and northeasterly from Munising to Kingston Corners where it followed what is now Adams Trail east to M @-@ 77 . A second county road ran westward from Grand Marais . By 1929 , M @-@ 94 was rerouted through Alger County to follow Munising – Van Meer – Shingleton Road east from Munising to Van Meer and then south to Shingleton ; that routing followed what is now H @-@ 58 and H @-@ 15 . The section of county road between Van Meer and Melstrand was surfaced in gravel by 1936 with the remainder only an earthen road . By the end of the year , an earthen road was constructed east of Grand Marais to Deer Park . After the end of World War II , the gravel segment was extended north of Melstrand to the Buck Hill area , and the earthen road was extended between the Adams Trail and Grand Marais by way of Au Sable Point . East of Grand Marais , the roadway was improved with gravel to the county line . In late 1946 or early 1947 , the first two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Grand Marais were paved ; additional sections in Luce County were improved to gravel . All of the earthen road segments of what is now H @-@ 58 were improved to gravel road by the middle of 1958 ; the section between Van Meer and Melstrand as well as a section east of Grand Marais were paved .
In the early 1960s , M @-@ 94 was moved to follow M @-@ 28 between Munising and Shingleton . The section of Munising – Van Meer – Shingleton Road east of the junction with Connors Road was returned to county control by the middle of 1960 , and the remainder westward into Munising was turned over on November 7 , 1963 . In late 1961 , about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) was paved to the west of Grand Marais . The county @-@ designated highway system was created around October 5 , 1970 , and the section of H @-@ 58 was shown on state maps for the first time in 1971 . Initially , only the section between Grand Marais and Deer Park was marked as part of H @-@ 58 . Within two years , the remainder was marked as H @-@ 58 from Munising northeasterly to Grand Marais ; between Connors and Miners Castle roads was also a section of H @-@ 13 as the two designations were run concurrently together . In 1974 , the road was paved from Melstrand north to the Buck Hill area . The H @-@ 13 concurrency was removed in 2004 when the northern segment of H @-@ 13 along Miners Castle Road was redesignated H @-@ 11 .
= = = Park service gets involved = = =
The Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore was authorized on October 15 , 1966 , when President Lyndon Johnson signed into law the enabling legislation . The park was inaugurated on October 6 , 1972 , in ceremonies in Munising . In the original legislation that created the park was a mandate to build an access road along Lake Superior . When the National Park Service conducted environmental studies on such a road in the mid @-@ 1990s , they decided on a 13 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 21 km ) road called the Beaver Basin Rim Road between Twelvemile Beach and Legion Lake . Area residents opposed the plan , preferring that the federal government instead improve the existing H @-@ 58 . Representative Bart Stupak lobbied his colleagues in Congress in 1996 saying that building the new road would cost twice as much as improving the existing H @-@ 58 ; Stupak also introduced legislation to remove the construction mandate from the park .
Because H @-@ 58 was under the jurisdiction of the county , and not the park , it was ineligible for park service funding . Appropriations legislation passed by Congress in 1998 allowed the park service to fund road improvements in the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore for county @-@ maintained roads . Additional legislation reintroduced and sponsored by Stupak was also passed that removed the original road construction mandate from the park . On November 12 , 1998 , President Bill Clinton signed the legislation which cleared the last hurdles ; the service was prohibited from building that road and instead authorized to help the Alger County Road Commission ( ACRC ) improve H @-@ 58 . In 2005 , the Safe , Accountable , Flexible , Efficient Transportation Equity Act : A Legacy for Users budgeted $ 13 @.@ 3 million ( equivalent to $ 16 @.@ 8 million in 2015 ) for the paving and reconstruction project .
The ACRC implemented a five @-@ stage plan to pave the remaining sections of the road between the Melstrand area and Grand Marais utilizing National Park Service funding . Plans were put into place by July 2006 to straighten some tight curves and realign the roadway in places . The commission designed the updated road for travel speeds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) " to maintain the nature of the road and the park setting . " One phase was divided into subsections to accommodate the bridge across the Hurricane River .
Funding on the paving project between Buck Hill and the boundary of the national park was held up pending passage of a technical corrections bill by the US Senate . The original funding authorization specified that sections were being repaved ; instead they were being paved for the first time or realigned . A technical corrections bill solved the legal hurdles involved . The road commission used state matching grants from the Michigan Department of Transportation to complete the financing needed to pave the roadway . Local officials received the checks to pay for the projects at a ceremony in August 2008 . While the county completed a segment on their own in 2006 , the 2008 projects paved segments of the roadway outside of the national park boundaries from Buck Hill northwards . Construction in 2009 and 2010 completed the roadway inside the park boundaries , including a new bridge over the Hurricane River .
The final section was dedicated at a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony on October 15 , 2010 , which marked the official opening to traffic . Final work was continued through the end of that month to complete the Hurricane River Bridge . Since the road was completed , traffic has increased . After paving , the new road has reduced travel times between Munising and Grand Marais from 90 to 45 minutes . Not all residents have been happy with the updated H @-@ 58 ; thousands of nails have been scattered along the road , and have led to flat tires on many vehicles . Police said at the time they believed it was intentional , but had no motive for the vandalism . Since the thoroughfare has re @-@ opened , motorcyclists now frequent the highway , and a local group has named H @-@ 58 " one of the top five motorcycling roads in Upper Michigan " , and it has been promoted by the American Motorcyclist Association in their guidebooks .
= = Major intersections = =
= Race Against Time : Searching for Hope in AIDS @-@ Ravaged Africa =
Race Against Time : Searching for Hope in AIDS @-@ Ravaged Africa is a non @-@ fiction book written by Stephen Lewis for the Massey Lectures . Lewis wrote it in early to mid @-@ 2005 and House of Anansi Press released it as the lecture series began in October 2005 . Each of the book 's chapters was delivered as one lecture in a different Canadian city , beginning in Vancouver on October 18 and ending in Toronto on October 28 . The speeches were aired on CBC Radio One between November 7 and 11 . The author and orator , Stephen Lewis , was at that time the United Nations Special Envoy for HIV / AIDS in Africa and former Canadian ambassador to the United Nations . Although he wrote the book and lectures in his role as a concerned Canadian citizen , his criticism of the United Nations ( UN ) , international organizations , and other diplomats , including naming specific people , was called undiplomatic and led several reviewers to speculate whether he would be removed from his UN position .
In the book and the lectures , Lewis argues that significant changes are required to meet the Millennium Development Goals in Africa by their 2015 deadline . Lewis explains the historical context of Africa since the 1980s , citing a succession of disastrous economic policies by international financial institutions that contributed to , rather than reduced , poverty . He connects the structural adjustment loans , with conditions of limited public spending on health and education infrastructure , to the uncontrolled spread of AIDS and subsequent food shortages as the disease infected much of the working @-@ age population . Lewis also addresses such issues as discrimination against women and primary education for children . To help alleviate problems , he ends with potential solutions which mainly require increased funding by G8 countries to levels beyond what they promise .
Book reviewers found the criticisms constructive and the writing sincere . His style focuses less on numbers and statistics , and more on connecting decisions by UN officials and western diplomats to consequences on the ground in Africa . His eyewitness accounts are said to be candid and emotional . The book spent seven weeks at # 1 on The Globe and Mail 's Nonfiction Bestseller List . A second edition was released in June 2006 . The Canadian Booksellers Association awarded its Libris Award for non @-@ fiction book of the year to Race Against Time and its Author of the Year Award to Lewis in 2006 .
= = Background = =
At the time of publication , the author , Stephen Lewis , aged 67 and living in Toronto , worked as the United Nations Special Envoy for HIV / AIDS in Africa , a position he held since 2001 . Previously he worked as the Deputy Director of United Nations Children 's Fund ( 1994 – 99 ) , as the Canadian ambassador to the UN ( 1984 – 88 ) , and as leader of the Ontario New Democratic Party ( 1970 – 79 ) . After Lewis optimistically accepted the Special Envoy position he became increasingly distraught by the devastation he witnessed . Already a skilled orator , he became more vocal on the topic . He founded the Stephen Lewis Foundation , hosted Oprah Winfrey as she toured Africa , and was the subject of two award @-@ winning documentaries by The Nature of Things , entitled Race Against Time and The Value of Life . Meanwhile he was appointed as a Companion of the Order of Canada , awarded the Pearson Medal of Peace , and named Canadian of the Year ( 2003 ) by MacLean 's magazine . In 2005 , he was invited to deliver the annual series of Massey Lectures from which the book , Race Against Time , was adapted . He wrote the text in early to mid- 2005 and delivered the lecture series in October when the book was released . Lewis wrote the book , not as an employee of the UN , but as a citizen concerned with the world 's response to the AIDS challenge in Africa .
= = Content = =
The book consists of five chapters , from which the five lectures were derived : Context , Pandemic , Education , Women , and Solutions . Before these chapters are sections titled Preface and Acknowledgments , and afterwards a Glossary section . The book 's second edition contains an Afterword section written in May 2006 . In the Preface , written by Lewis in August 2005 , he states that his preferred genre is the spoken word and that the nature of the topic would not allow him to comprehensively cover every aspect . He justifies his writing by proclaiming himself a devotee to the United Nations and outlines the roles he has held with the organization since 1984 . In the first chapter , Lewis tells anecdotes of visits to Africa and other UN @-@ related events like , in 1986 , brokering the resolutions from the General Assembly 's 13th Special Session . He acknowledges colonialism and Cold War ideologues as historical influences on the African situation , but focuses on the effects of international finance institutions ' conditional loans since the late 1980s .
In the second chapter Lewis discusses his history in Africa , beginning in the 1960s as an English teacher in Ghana . He contrasts Africa of the 1960s shedding colonial rule , optimistic in future prospects , with Africa of the 2000s struggling with AIDS and increasingly widespread hunger . He acknowledges the brain drain trend , noting " there are more Malawian doctors in Manchester [ England ] than in Malawi " . In the third chapter Lewis examines how the UN , World Bank , and the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) failed to fulfill promises of free access to primary education . In the instances where school entry fees were eliminated , additional fees ( e.g. fees for uniforms , books , exams , and registration ) had the same effect of limiting access . The fourth chapter elaborates on how women 's issues are ignored or dismissed at international conferences and by African governments . Lewis identifies the gender discrimination that occurs even within the UN organization , whose management staff was dominated by males . He links the World Bank and IMF conditions of low social spending on education and healthcare by governments of recipient countries to the rampant spread of AIDS in those same countries . The disease decimated Africa 's working age and farming population , leading to famine . He calls on the international financial institutions to pay " reparations " in the form of debt relief .
Lewis concludes that dramatic changes are required to meet the Millennium Development Goals by 2015 . In the final chapter , he considers some potential measures that could help in Africa . He laments the shortfalls in funding by G8 countries , despite the continued renewed promises for full funding of Millennium Development Goal implementation . His proposed measures include :
the expansion of the Jubilee Coalition to include cancellation of agricultural subsidies ;
the amalgamation of UN Development Fund for Women , the UN Division for the Advancement of Women , and relevant portions of United Nations Population Fund into one UN agency funded to a similar level as UNICEF ;
maintenance of the momentum on the World Health Organization 's ' three by five ' ( 3 million people treated by 2005 ) program ;
addressing revenue shortfall in The Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis and Malaria through donations from private @-@ sector organizations that profit from Africa ( e.g. pharmaceutical companies ) ;
creating an agency that can provide emergency food aid in a much shorter timeframe than current programs ;
supporting Jeffrey Sachs ' Millennium Village Project ;
investing in vaccine and microbicide research ;
eliminating school fees for primary education ;
using microcredit money pots for women to care for orphans ;
planning for capacity replacement on a country @-@ by @-@ country , sector @-@ by @-@ sector basis .
= = Style = =
The writing style reflects the author 's intent to use the text for a lecture series . The narration addresses the audience while guiding it through explanations of the issues and anecdotal illustrations . Lewis ' charismatic , eloquent , and energetic oration style is reflected in the writing . The tone has been described as loud and persuasive . One reviewer called it " vintage Lewis – incisive criticism leavened with high @-@ blown rhetoric " . The book focuses more upon real @-@ world human experiences , rather than numbers and statistics , in discussing the effect of AIDS in sub @-@ Saharan Africa and the world 's response . Lewis ' eyewitness accounts are candid and vivid . For example , he recounts tours of hospitals and schools as he explains the dire straits of national health and education sectors , and he describes meetings with diplomats and staff from the UN , World Bank , and IMF as he explains their effect on foreign aid policies . The book is written from an idealistic perspective and , despite the anger and underlying sense of guilt , Lewis remains optimistic . While he was a professional diplomat , his memoir @-@ style reflections on specific people , such as Michel Camdessus , Carol Bellamy , and Thabo Mbeki were called undiplomatic . Despite the book 's undiplomatic style , Lewis retained his post as a UN Special Envoy until the term completed in December 2006 .
= = Publication = =
The book was released on October 18 as Lewis began the Massey lecture series in Vancouver . The second lecture took place in Winnipeg on the 20th , followed by Montreal on the 22nd , Halifax on the 26th , and the final one in Toronto two days later . The series was recorded then aired on CBC Radio One 's Ideas between November 7 and 11 . At each event Lewis fielded questions from the audience and participated in book signings . The publisher , House of Anansi Press , was on the last year of its contract with CBC to publish the Massey Lecture series ; facing a competitive bid from Penguin Books , Anansi aggressively promoted Race Against Time , with Lewis giving interviews to local media and attending receptions . CBC promoted the events nationally . Following an initial printing of 25 @,@ 000 copies of the book by Anansi , along with the audio CDs produced by CBC Audio , there was a second printing in June 2006 with a new Afterword section .
= = Reception = =
In the Canadian market , Race Against Time debuted at # 5 on The Globe and Mail 's Nonfiction Bestseller List on October 29 . It spent seven weeks at # 1 , and forty weeks in the top ten . Excerpts from the book were published in The Globe and Mail , The Montreal Gazette , and Alternatives Journal . At the Canadian Booksellers Association Libris Awards in June 2006 , the book won non @-@ fiction book of the year and Lewis won the Author of the Year Award . The book was short @-@ listed for the Pearson Writers ' Trust Prize and the Trillium Book Award .
The book was positively received by reviewers . The prose has been called magnificent , lucid , eloquent , and passionate . Lewis ' emotional appeal has been called remarkably candid , sincere , powerful , and moving . Connecting the diplomatic and policy @-@ level work of the UN and World Bank with specific effects on the ground in Africa , and describing the problem of orphans , were among the strengths of the book . Lewis ' criticisms are constructive and , since they come from such an ardent multilateralist employed by the United Nations , authoritative . One reviewer questioned several of Lewis ' potential solutions as contributing to the same system that consistently fails to address its flaws . The same reviewer identified as the book 's weakness its political slant , which ignores corrupt or inefficient African governments and the realities of asking corporations and western governments to take steps against their self @-@ interest , like canceling agricultural subsidies in the case of governments and donating profits in the case of businesses . Several reviewers noted that the book could be used as an effective tool to educate about the HIV / AIDS crisis and the plight of the people of sub @-@ Saharan Africa .
An article in The New York Times , in October 2005 , reported on the book 's criticism of South Africa 's government , singling out President Thabo Mbeki and Health Minister Manto Tshabalala @-@ Msimang . Lewis claimed that the South African programs were half @-@ hearted and confusing ; a spokesperson for the Health Ministry characterized Lewis as a biased and uninformed judge of South Africa 's situation , and countered that they are rapidly expanding treatment programs . In August 2006 , as a keynote speaker at the International AIDS Conference in Toronto , Lewis sustained his criticism , calling South Africa 's government " still obtuse , dilatory and negligent about rolling out treatment " .
= 2016 Milan – San Remo =
The 107th edition of the Milan – San Remo cycling classic took place on Saturday , 19 March 2016 . It was the fourth of 28 races of the 2016 UCI World Tour ; the first one @-@ day race . It was also the first cycling monument of the season .
It was won by Arnaud Démare in a sprint finish , ahead of Ben Swift ( Team Sky ) and Jürgen Roelandts ( Lotto – Soudal ) . The finish was disrupted by a crash involving Fernando Gaviria ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , causing several riders to take avoiding action , ruling them out of contention . A landslide on the road caused the race to be diverted for a length of 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) .
= = Route = =
As one of the sports monuments , Milan – San Remo is among the highest @-@ rated races in professional cycling . The 2016 route was set to be 291 km ( 181 mi ) long . Generally considered a sprinters ' classic , the race ran from the Via della Chiesa Rossa in Milan to the traditional finish on San Remo 's Via Roma . The final part of the race included the climbs of the Cipressa and the Poggio , which usually proved decisive for the race outcome . Across the road , the riders also had to tackle the 35 km ( 22 mi ) climb of the Passo dello Turchino , although it was not considered to be a key point in the race . After the Turchino , the route followed the Aurelia road along the coast from Genoa all the way to the finish in San Remo . With a little over 50 km ( 31 mi ) left to go , the first of the coastal climbs started with the Capo Mele , the Capo Cervo and the Capo Berta , before meeting the final two climbs leading to the finish .
A landslide on the morning of the race at a point 130 km ( 81 mi ) into the race caused the route to be slightly changed , with the riders taking a 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) detour along the A10 highway , entering in Genova Voltri and exiting in Arenzano , rejoining the original course at that point . As a consequence , the race ran over a distance of 295 km ( 183 mi ) .
= = Participating teams = =
25 teams were announced to take part in the race : all 18 World Tour teams were automatically invited ; seven continental teams were given wildcards – totalling 200 riders . As Moreno Hofland ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) was unable to start due to illness , 199 riders took part in the race .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The outgoing champion , John Degenkolb , missed Milan – San Remo after injuries sustained in an early @-@ season training camp in Spain . In his absence , 2014 winner Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) was tipped as the main favourite for the victory . Fabian Cancellara ( Trek – Segafredo ) was also rated highly in what would be his final appearance in the race , as he was a former winner and had shown strong form , winning Strade Bianche earlier in the season . World Champion Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff ) was also named as a race favourite , as he had shown good form , albeit still lacking a win in 2016 . He rode with bib number one in the absence of Degenkolb .
Two riders came into Milan – San Remo with particular successes in hand , namely Michael Matthews ( Orica – BikeExchange ) , who had won two stages at Paris – Nice just a week earlier , while Greg van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) had won the overall classification at Tirreno – Adriatico . Other favourites included Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) , Niccolo Bonifazio ( Trek – Segafredo ) , Ben Swift , Geraint Thomas and Michał Kwiatkowski ( all Team Sky ) , Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) , Zdeněk Štybar ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , Sacha Modolo ( Lampre – Merida ) , Tony Gallopin ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) , Edvald Boasson Hagen ( Team Dimension Data ) and Simon Clarke ( Cannondale – Drapac ) . 2009 winner Mark Cavendish ( Team Dimension Data ) was also named as a favourite . Meanwhile , Astana named Vincenzo Nibali as their captain for the race , riding the race for the tenth time in his career . Another rider deemed a possible contender , Tom Dumoulin ( Giant – Alpecin ) , was ruled out of the race due to a flu . German sprinter André Greipel ( Lotto – Soudal ) missed the race as well after breaking three ribs at the Volta ao Algarve .
= = Race report = =
After the race started in Milan , a breakaway got clear after 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) of racing , including Gediminas Bagdonas ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Serghei Țvetcov ( Androni Giocattoli – Sidermec ) , Mirco Maestri ( Bardiani – CSF ) , Jan Barta ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Adrian Kurek ( CCC – Sprandi – Polkowice ) , Roger Kluge ( IAM Cycling ) , Matteo Bono ( Lampre – Merida ) , Samuele Conti ( Wilier Triestina – Southeast ) , Maarten Tjallingii ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , Andrea Peron ( Team Novo Nordisk ) and Marco Coledan ( Trek – Segafredo ) . The group had a maximum lead over the peloton of 10 : 35 minutes at the 50 km ( 31 mi ) mark . After that , Tinkoff and Orica – BikeExchange began to set a higher tempo in the pack and the lead was reduced to five minutes at the peak of the Turchino .
As the leading group arrived at the first seaside climb of the Capo Mele , the gap had come down to 2 : 18 minutes . Meanwhile , the first crashes occurred in the field , with Julien Vermote ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Federico Zurlo ( Lampre – Merida ) being the first victims . At the Capo Berta , the lead of the front group was around a minute , while Marco Haller ( Team Katusha ) crashed on the following descent , dropping out of the main field . Another accident occurred a little later . Michael Matthews and Peter Kennaugh ( Team Sky ) were the most prominent riders to go down , but both managed to get back into the field even with a growing pace set at the front .
The breakaway group was caught with 25 km ( 16 mi ) to go . At the climb of the Cipressa , Giovanni Visconti ( Movistar Team ) and Ian Stannard ( Team Sky ) attacked and were joined by Daniel Oss ( BMC Racing Team ) , Matteo Montaguti ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , and Fabio Sabatini ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) on the descent . Arnaud Démare crashed on the climb , but was able to reach the field again as it got back to the attacking group at the bottom of the Poggio . Team Katusha set the pace up the final climb , but Michał Kwiatkowski broke clear 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from the finish . Vincenzo Nibali chased after him on the descent and the group of favourites came back together at the run @-@ in to the finish , after Fabian Cancellara had put in an attack , marked by Matteo Trentin ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) . At the 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) mark , Edvald Boasson Hagen started one last attack , but to no avail as the group approached the finish together . Shortly before the line , a touch of wheels led to a crash by Fernando Gaviria ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , which caused several riders to lose momentum , including Peter Sagan . In the following mass sprint , Arnaud Démare came out on top and won his first ever cycling monument , ahead of Ben Swift and Jürgen Roelandts ( Lotto – Soudal ) . Démare was the first Frenchman to win Milan – San Remo since Laurent Jalabert in 1995 , and the first Frenchman to win a monument race since Jalabert 's victory in the 1997 Giro di Lombardia .
= = Post @-@ race = =
Following the race , Démare expressed delight at his victory , saying : " There are days like this one in which everything works despite the occasional hiccup , like crashing at the bottom of the Cipressa . I made it across at the bottom of the Poggio and the entire way I felt fantastic . [ ... ] This is a big one and has been running for over a century . It 's extraordinary . I 'm extremely happy . " Second placed Swift on the other hand , was disappointed by missing out on a possible win : " Obviously , it 's quite disappointing to get second – so close to the win – but you have got to be happy to be back on the podium in a Monument . " Fernando Gaviria shed tears after his late fall , which he felt cost him a possible victory : " I am very sad about what happened . It was my fault , I was in a perfect position but then I lost my focus for two seconds , because I began thinking on how to sprint . I touched the wheel of the guy in front of me . That was enough to throw away all the hard work of the team . " Nacer Bouhanni in turn was furious after the finish . Some hundred metres before the finish line , he had been in a good position before his chain slipped off , taking away his chances . After crossing the line , he threw away his bike in anger .
Two riders very disappointed with their results were Michael Matthews and Fabian Cancellara . Matthews crashed at high speed shortly before the Cipressa and arrived at the finish with a bandaged right elbow . He said : " Obviously I 'm devastated . [ ... ] This was everything , this was my world championships for the start of the season . [ ... ] I was really looking forward to making a good finale , it 's really unfortunate that a crash stopped me from doing that . " Cancellara , who was riding the event for the last time before retirement at the end of the 2016 season , was held up in Gaviria 's crash after having stayed in the leading group . He described his final kilometres as difficult , as he had been isolated from his teammates , saying that the other riders mainly attacked him and did not work with him . Another rider who was almost involved when Gaviria fell was Peter Sagan , who confirmed that the peloton had covered Cancellara in particular . He went on to describe the moment of Gaviria 's crash : " Then I got away with Boasson Hagen , Gaviria and someone else . Then with about 500 metres to go , Gaviria looked around because the group was coming up . He went down and I only just managed to avoid him . I stayed up but I lost a lot speed and never managed to get going again in the final metres . "
One day after the race , both Matteo Tosatto ( Tinkoff ) and Eros Capecchi ( Astana ) accused Démare of having used the tow of his teamcar to rejoin the pack after his crash before the Cipressa climb . Démare rebuffed these allegations , saying that the race commissioners were right behind him and would have disqualified him , had he done something illegal . On 8 May 2016 , it became public that the Italian Cycling Federation was making inquiries into the accusations about Démare , with Tosatto saying that he had given written testimony to officials about the incident .
= = Results = =
^ 1 — Top ten riders out of 180 finishers shown
= Yorkshire captaincy affair of 1927 =
The Yorkshire captaincy affair of 1927 arose from a disagreement among members of Yorkshire County Cricket Club over the selection of a new captain to succeed the retired Major Arthur Lupton . The main issue was whether a professional cricketer should be appointed to the post . It was a tradition throughout English county cricket that captains should always be amateurs . At Yorkshire , a succession of amateur captains held office in the 1920s , on the grounds of their supposed leadership qualities , although they were not worth their place in the team as cricketers . None lasted long ; after Lupton 's departure some members felt it was time to appoint a more accomplished cricketer on a long @-@ term basis .
The Yorkshire committee , prompted by the influential county president , Lord Hawke , approached Herbert Sutcliffe , one of the side 's leading professionals . After Sutcliffe 's provisional acceptance of the captaincy , controversy arose . Some members objected to the appointment on the traditional grounds that Sutcliffe was not an amateur ; others felt that if a professional was to be appointed , the post should be offered to the county 's senior professional , Wilfred Rhodes , who had been playing much longer than Sutcliffe . Rhodes himself was offended that he had not been approached . When Sutcliffe became aware of the controversy , he withdrew his acceptance . No offer was made to Rhodes , and the county subsequently appointed amateur William Worsley as captain . He was respected by the team but had little personal success , lasted for just two seasons , and was followed by two further short @-@ term leaders . In 1933 Brian Sellers , a more competent amateur , was appointed and became the long @-@ serving captain that Yorkshire had sought .
= = Background = =
In the 1920s , every English county cricket team had an amateur captain . Yorkshire had been led by amateurs since Lord Hawke took over the position in 1883 . Amateurs were usually from privileged backgrounds , while professionals were mainly from the working classes . Class distinctions pervaded the game , which was organised and administered by former and current amateurs . They wished to preserve leadership roles for members of the Establishment , in defiance of broader social changes that had reduced their influence in other sports . Administrators argued that amateurs were better captains as they were free from worries over employment . The Wisden editor believed that " the professional may have difficulty in enforcing discipline . He would naturally hesitate to suggest to his committee that this player or that should be dropped , and so be instrumental in depriving the man in question of some part of his livelihood . Further , feeling that an error of judgment would prejudice his standing with the committee , he might well hesitate to take risks . " In 1925 , Lord Hawke , then the Yorkshire president , expressing his hope that an amateur would always be available to captain the national side , had made the impromptu comment , " Pray God , no professional shall ever captain England . " His remarks were widely reported in the press and heavily criticised . This was to leave Hawke in an awkward situation in 1927 .
By the end of the 1927 English cricket season , Yorkshire had had a succession of short @-@ term captains . Generally , these men were neither sufficiently good players nor leaders to merit a position in the team , but Yorkshire 's side was strong enough to include them in the interest of maintaining amateur leadership . Tactically , Yorkshire 's success came not from the captain but from the influence of leading professionals Wilfred Rhodes and Emmott Robinson . The captain 's primary role was the enforcement of discipline : maintaining an amicable attitude within the team during games and ensuring that umpires and opponents were respected . In the early 1920s , Yorkshire had been undisciplined on the field ; cricket correspondent Jim Kilburn wrote that they were in danger of becoming " social outcasts " , and E. W. Swanton commented that Yorkshire 's hostile attitude when fielding looked likely to jeopardise their relations with other teams . Matters came to a head in a match against Middlesex in 1924 at Sheffield . The crowd became very antagonistic and a Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) enquiry found that a Yorkshire player had incited the unrest . Further incidents against Surrey that season led the captain Geoffrey Wilson to resign , though he led the team to the County Championship in each of his three years in charge . His resignation was possibly prompted by the Yorkshire president , Lord Hawke , but Wilson did not like the belligerent nature of the team and found it difficult to handle Rhodes .
Yorkshire appointed Major Arthur Lupton as captain , hoping that his experience in the army would allow him to exercise greater control than his predecessors had managed . Aged 46 , he was old for a cricketer . He had played once for Yorkshire in 1908 , but was no longer an effective batsman . He was very popular with the players , and managed to improve discipline but had little influence on team tactics . He left such matters to Rhodes and Robinson , to the point where several apocryphal stories emerged about his lack of control . In one story , Yorkshire had scored around 400 . Lupton , hoping to score some easy runs , came out of the amateur dressing room with his bat when a young professional touched his arm and said , " It 's all right , sir . Mr Rhodes has declared [ the innings over ] . " After three years in charge , Lupton resigned the captaincy at the end of 1927 . In their search for a successor , Yorkshire hoped to appoint a player with a better cricketing reputation who would serve for a longer term .
= = Appointment of Sutcliffe = =
= = = Initial approach = = =
At the beginning of the 1927 season , Yorkshire secretary Frederick Toone approached Wilfred Rhodes to suggest that he should resign from his position as senior professional . Rhodes declined , prompted by his wife 's suspicion of a plot against him . This may have been an attempt by Yorkshire to clear the way for a new captain . Lord Hawke was in favour of appointing Herbert Sutcliffe , a professional who had opened the batting for Yorkshire since 1919 . In addition to Rhodes , other professionals on the side had debuted for Yorkshire earlier than Sutcliffe . However , Sutcliffe was unusual among professionals : he had received a commission in the British Army in the First World War , his appearance was always immaculate and when speaking he altered his accent to fit what he considered a better class of society . Such characteristics were more common among amateur cricketers , and Sutcliffe in many ways behaved like one . While not particularly popular with his team @-@ mates , he was respected .
Hawke asked Sir Home Gordon , a cricket writer who had assisted Hawke with his autobiography , to sound out other counties to see if they would find Sutcliffe an acceptable captain if he played as an amateur — some players switched from amateur to professional , or vice versa , around this time . Sutcliffe was en route to South Africa with the MCC touring team , but was aware that Yorkshire were considering him as a replacement for Lupton .
Sutcliffe 's election was confirmed at a meeting of the club 's governing committee on 2 November 1927 , which voted on two proposals sponsored by Hawke . The first , to give Sutcliffe amateur status , was defeated by 19 votes to 5 ; the second , to appoint him captain , was carried 13 – 11 . On 4 November , a Press Association correspondent informed Sutcliffe on board his ship that he had been appointed . Sutcliffe replied , " It is the biggest honour of my career ... I shall do my utmost to uphold the best traditions of Yorkshire and England cricket . " However , six days later , having arrived in Cape Town , he sent a telegram stating , " I have not yet received by mail an official offer from the Yorkshire authorities of the captaincy of the Yorkshire team next season . "
= = = Reaction = = =
Reports at the time said that Lord Hawke and Toone had denied all knowledge of the approach to Sutcliffe ; Hawke said he supported the committee but Home Gordon later recalled that Hawke seemed indecisive about the best course of action . In the opinion of cricket writer Alan Gibson , his predicament came from his earlier criticism of professional captaincy . Wisden said that " Yorkshire cricket circles were greatly perturbed by the announcement " . Most opposition to the appointment was based on objections to the idea of a professional captain . In the Yorkshire Post , several members of the county club wrote to express their opinions . Some claimed it was too great a burden for a professional to captain the team while also earning a living through the game and therefore being concerned with his personal performances . Others said that Yorkshire 's amateur leaders were not given enough opportunities to prove themselves before they were replaced . It was also argued that if a suitable amateur candidate was unavailable and a professional appointment unavoidable , Wilfred Rhodes was the senior professional and longest serving player . Rhodes , drawn into the argument , said that the team would have preferred an amateur captain ; he also stated that he had not been approached , which made him feel unappreciated . Other members wrote to support Sutcliffe 's selection , glad a professional was openly appointed ; they thought the team would be strengthened by the decision . At the beginning of December , one Yorkshire member , S. E. Grimshaw , conducted a poll : 2 @,@ 264 Yorkshire members were in favour of an amateur captain , while 444 wanted a professional . If an amateur could not be found , 2 @,@ 007 preferred Rhodes be captain , compared to 876 who supported Sutcliffe .
= = = Withdrawal of offer = = =
Following the members ' poll , Yorkshire sent a telegram to Sutcliffe in South Africa , asking him to withdraw his acceptance of the captaincy . Sutcliffe replied that he had now considered the offer and was appreciative but had to decline it . When news reached the Yorkshire committee on 18 December , they appointed William Worsley , who had refused the leadership in 1924 due to farming commitments . In the words of Wisden , " Happily the trouble was eventually settled to the satisfaction of all concerned . Sutcliffe declined the honour and , an invitation being extended to Captain Worsley , that gentleman stepped into the breach . " Lord Hawke sent a message which thanked Sutcliffe for " your loyalty to the club " . The Yorkshire Post also paid tribute to Sutcliffe and the way he handled himself , noting that while a conflict of opinion had been inevitable , it was " carried to unreasonable lengths " . Commenting on the affair , The Times expressed regret that Sutcliffe had felt obliged to turn down the leadership ; it noted that amateur captains were preferable in reminding people that cricket was only a game , but that there was nothing in principle to prevent a professional from performing the role . Of Sutcliffe , it said , " One would have liked to see him lead the side , and his general popularity , combined with his skill as a batsman , makes it probable that he would have been a success . However , half the value of a captain is gone if , before he takes up his duties , people begin to question whether he is the right man for the position , and Sutcliffe has been well @-@ advised to recognise this fact . " The newspaper also pointed out that it might have been difficult to choose a skipper from a group of professionals who considered themselves eligible for the role ; it added that Rhodes might have found it hard to captain the side as bowlers had historically struggled to be good leaders .
= = Aftermath = =
Worsley captained for just two seasons . He struggled with the demands of fielding , while his batting was disappointing . However , he was widely respected by the team . He was slightly more effective in his second season as leader , after which he retired . The next skipper , Alan Barber , although regarded as successful , captained for just one season . He was a more accomplished batsman and a great disciplinarian . However , he chose a career in teaching , limiting his availability , and resigned . The captain after that , Frank Greenwood , also did not hold the post long , resigning due to business commitments . Lord Hawke , writing in 1932 , noted there had been eight captains since he retired in 1910 . While six of them won the County Championship in their first season in charge , he stated that " it is not good for a side to be always changing its captain " . Only when Brian Sellers was appointed in 1933 did Yorkshire gain the leader they wanted . After skippering most games in 1932 during Greenwood 's frequent absences , he remained in the role until 1947 and was considered the best county captain of his time .
When Leicestershire appointed Ewart Astill as their captain for the 1935 season , he became the first professional to lead any county on a regular basis since the 19th century . Yorkshire did not have a professional skipper in the 20th century until Vic Wilson in 1960 . Alan Gibson believed that Yorkshire erred in rejecting Sutcliffe . He further argued that , if appointed , Sutcliffe would have been made England Test captain in 1931 instead of Douglas Jardine and that he would have done a good job for several years . Sutcliffe later regretted withdrawing his acceptance . In later years , he told Bill Bowes that Jack Hobbs , Sutcliffe 's opening partner on the national side , should have been made England captain . According to Bowes , he said , " ' Lord Hawke lifted professional cricket from there to there ' ... raising his hand from knee to shoulder level . ' Professional cricketers lifted it to there , ' he continued , raising his hand above his head , ' — and even Lord Hawke wanted it back again . Jack Hobbs , for the sake of the professional cricketer , should have accepted . ' " Sutcliffe 's son Billy subsequently captained Yorkshire from 1956 to 1958 .
= Uherský Brod shooting =
On 24 February 2015 , a mass shooting occurred at the Družba restaurant in the town of Uherský Brod , Czech Republic . Nine people were killed , including the gunman , 63 @-@ year @-@ old Zdeněk Kovář , who committed suicide after a standoff with police that lasted nearly two hours . In addition , one other person was injured . Uherský Brod is 260 kilometers ( 160 miles ) east @-@ southeast of the Czech capital Prague .
The shooting was one of the two deadliest mass murders in the country 's peacetime history , alongside a 1973 vehicular rampage committed by Olga Hepnarová . The circumstances of the shooting led to an examination on the gun politics in the Czech Republic and police rules of engagement against active shooters . Czech media speculated that the rampage may have been triggered by an apparent attempt of the authorities to review Kovář 's mental state .
= = Background = =
Due to similarities between the perpetrators , the murders were compared by Czech media and experts to a mass murder that took place two years before in Frenštát pod Radhoštěm , another Moravian town lying 90 km northwards . In the attack , a 57 @-@ year @-@ old man , Antonín Blažek , attempted to blow up a block of flats after having been ordered to vacate his flat that had been foreclosed by creditors . He first blocked both exits from the building , and then removed and opened the main gas supply into the building 's corridor . Interrupted , Blažek set the gas on fire before the gas could spread throughout the whole building . The explosion and subsequent fire , however , were large enough to demolish part of the building , killing Blažek and five other people immediately and wounding eleven others , one of whom died on 17 February 2015 .
Before the murders , Kovář 's family became worried about his mental state to the point that they contacted authorities in connection with his possession of gun license . Just four days before the murders , Kovář had received a police request to present a new health clearance under the threat of revoking his license . Before entering the Družba restaurant , Kovář visited at least two other venues . Those , however , had fewer customers , and Kovář left them immediately after entering .
= = Murders = =
Kovář entered the Družba building at about 12 : 30 pm , the restaurant 's busiest daylight time . Around 20 people were in the small restaurant at the time . Before he entered the restaurant itself , which was situated on the first floor , Petr Gabriel , who was rushing to the bathroom , got ahead of Kovář on stairs leading to an upper floor .
Armed with a CZ 75B semi @-@ automatic pistol , which is manufactured in the town , and an Alfa 820 revolver , Kovář opened fire without any warning immediately after entering the restaurant , shooting his victims directly in the head . Eight died immediately or soon afterwards . One female victim , who was shot twice in the chest , managed to leave the restaurant , while Gabriel remained hidden in the restaurant 's bathroom . Eight other people escaped the building through the back door . Another customer , Jiří Nesázel , who took cover under a table , used a moment in which Kovář was reloading , and threw a chair at him , hitting him on the neck . This gave him an opportunity to run out through the front door with two other people .
Authorities received the first distress call from a person who escaped from the restaurant at 12 : 38 pm , and the first police car reached the building at 12 : 47 pm . The policemen were armed with the standard equipment for Czech police officers : holstered pistols ( mostly with variants of CZ75 that was also used by Kovář ) , body armor , and a select @-@ fire rifle stored in car . The first two officers to arrive immediately entered the building with body armor on and guns drawn . Kovář , taking cover behind a bar opposite to the door , opened fire on the officers as soon as they entered . The police noted people lying on the ground and sitting on chairs between them and the shooter . Not knowing the status of the civilians , the police decided not to return fire , covered the exits , and waited for the arrival of a tactical unit . By this time , other police units as well as the first ambulance car had arrived , taking away the wounded female victim who had escaped .
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harbour them .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Earwigs are regularly preyed upon by birds , and like many other insect species they are prey for insectivorous mammals , amphibians , lizards , centipedes , assassin bugs , and spiders . European naturalists have observed bats preying upon earwigs . Their primary insect predators are parasitic species of Tachinidae , or tachinid flies , whose larvae are endoparasites . One species of tachinid fly , Triarthria setipennis , has been demonstrated to be successful as a biological control of earwigs for almost a century . Another tachinid fly and parasite of earwigs , Ocytata pallipes , has shown promise as a biological control agent as well . The common predatory wasp , the yellow jacket ( Vespula maculifrons ) , preys upon earwigs when abundant . A small species of roundworm , Mermis nigrescens , is known to occasionally parasitize earwigs that have consumed roundworm eggs with plant matter . At least 26 species of parasitic fungus from the order Laboulbeniales have been found on earwigs . The eggs and nymphs are also cannibalized by other earwigs . A species of tyroglyphoid mite , Histiostoma polypori ( Histiostomatidae , Astigmata ) , are observed on common earwigs , sometimes in great densities ; however , this mite feeds on earwig cadavers and not its live earwig transportation . Hippolyte Lucas observed scarlet acarine mites on European earwigs .
= = Evolution = =
The fossil record of the Dermaptera starts in the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic period about 208 million years ago in England and Australia , and comprises about 70 specimens in the extinct suborder Archidermaptera . Some of the traits believed by neontologists to belong to modern earwigs are not found in the earliest fossils , but adults had five @-@ segmented tarsi ( the final segment of the leg ) , well developed ovipositors , veined tegmina ( forewings ) and long segmented cerci ; in fact the pincers would not have been curled or used as they are now . The theorized stem group of the Dermaptera are the Protelytroptera . These insects , which resemble modern Blattodea , or cockroaches owing to shell @-@ like forewings and the large , unequal anal fan , are known from the Permian of North America , Europe and Australia . There are no fossils from the Triassic when the morphological changes from Protelytroptera to Dermaptera took place . The most likely , and most closely resembling , related order of insects is Grylloblattaria , theorized by Giles in 1963 . However , other arguments have been made by other authors linking them to Phasmida , Embioptera , Plecoptera , and Dictyoptera .
Archidermaptera is believed to be sister to the remaining earwig groups , the extinct Eodermaptera and the living suborder Neodermaptera ( = former suborders Forficulina , Hemimerina , and Arixeniina ) . The extinct suborders have tarsi with five segments ( unlike the three found in Neodermaptera ) as well as unsegmented cerci . No fossil Hemimeridae and Arixeniidae are known . Species in Hemimeridae were at one time in their own order , Diploglassata , Dermodermaptera , or Hemimerina . Like most other epizoic species , there is no fossil record , but they are probably no older than late Tertiary .
Some evidence of early evolutionary history is the structure of the antennal heart , a separate circulatory organ consisting of two ampullae , or vesicles , that are attached to the frontal cuticle to the bases of the antennae . These features have not been found in other insects . An independent organ exists for each antenna , consisting of an ampulla , attached to the frontal cuticle medial to the antenna base and forming a thin @-@ walled sac with a valved ostium on its ventral side . They pump blood by elastic connective tissue , rather than muscle .
Molecular studies suggest that this order is the sister to Plecoptera or to Ephemeroptera .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Distinguishing characteristics = = =
The characteristics which distinguish the order Dermaptera from other insect orders are :
General body shape : Elongate ; dorso @-@ ventrally flattened .
Head : Prognathous . Antennae are segmented . Biting @-@ type mouthparts . Ocelli absent . Compound eyes in most species , reduced or absent in some taxa .
Appendages : Two pairs of wings normally present . The forewings are modified into short smooth , veinless tegmina . Hindwings are membranous and semicircular with veins radiating outwards .
Abdomen : Cerci are unsegmented and resemble forceps . The ovipositor in females is reduced or absent .
The overwhelming majority of earwig species are in Forficulina , grouped into nine families of 180 genera , including Forficula auricularia , the common European Earwig . Species within Forficulina are free @-@ living , have functional wings and are not parasites . The cerci are unsegmented and modified into large , forceps @-@ like structures .
The first epizoic species of earwig was discovered by a London taxidermist on the body of a Malaysian hairless bulldog bat in 1909 , then described by Karl Jordan . By the 1950s , the two suborders Arixeniina and Hemimerina had been added to Dermaptera .
Arixeniina represents two genera , Arixenia and Xeniaria , with a total of five species in them . As with Hemimerina , they are blind and wingless , with filiform segmented cerci . Hemimerina are viviparous ectoparasites , preferring the fur of African rodents in either Cricetomys or Beamys genera . Hemimerina also has two genera , Hemimerus and Araeomerus , with a total of 11 species .
= = = Phylogeny = = =
Dermaptera ( = Euplecoptera , Euplexoptera , or Forficulida ) is relatively small compared to the other orders of Insecta , with only about 2 @,@ 000 species , 3 suborders and 15 families , including the extinct suborders Archidermaptera and Eodermaptera with their extinct families Protodiplatyidae , Dermapteridae , Semenoviolidae , and Turanodermatidae . The phylogeny of the Dermaptera is still debated . The extant Dermaptera appear to be monophyletic and there is support for the monophyly of the families Forficulidae , Chelisochidae , Labiduridae and Anisolabididae , however evidence has supported the conclusion that the former suborder Forficulina was paraphyletic through the exclusion of Hemimerina and Arixeniina which should instead be nested within the Forficulina . Thus , these former suborders were eliminated in the most recent higher classification . The following is from Engel & Haas ( 2007 ) :
Suborder Archidermaptera †
Protodiplatyidae †
Dermapteridae †
Suborder Eodermaptera †
Semenoviolidae †
Turanodermatidae †
Suborder Neodermaptera
Anisolabididae
Apachyidae
Chelisochidae
Diplatyidae
Spongiphoridae
Forficulidae
Karschiellidae
Labiduridae
Labiidae
Pygidicranidae
Hemimeridae
= = Relationship with humans = =
Earwigs are fairly abundant and are found in many areas around the world . There is no evidence that they transmit diseases to humans or other animals . Their pincers are commonly believed to be dangerous , but in reality , even the curved pincers of males cause little or no harm to humans . It is a common myth that earwigs crawl into the human ear and lay eggs in the brain .
There is a debate whether earwigs are harmful or beneficial to crops , as they eat both the insects eating the foliage ( such as aphids ) and the foliage itself , though it would take a large population to do considerable damage . The common earwig eats a wide variety of plants , and also a wide variety of foliage including the leaves and petals . They have been known to cause economic losses in fruit and vegetable crops . Some examples are the flowers , hops , red raspberries , and corn crops in Germany , and in the south of France , earwigs have been observed feeding on peaches and apricots . The earwigs attacked mature plants and made cup @-@ shaped bite marks 3 – 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 – 0 @.@ 43 in ) in diameter .
= = In literature and folklore = =
Robert Herrick in Hesperides describes a feast attended by queen Titania through writing : " Beards of mice , a newt 's stew 'd thigh , A bloated Earwig and a fly : "
Thomas Hood discusses the belief of Earwig 's finding shelter in the human in the poem Love Lane by saying the following : " ' Tis vain to talk of hopes and fears And hope the least reply to wing , From any maid that stops her ears In dread of ear @-@ wigs creeping in ! "
In rural England the Earwig is called " battle @-@ twig , " which is present in Baron Tennyson 's poem The Spinster 's Sweet @-@ Arts : " ' Twur as bad as battle @-@ twig ' ere i ' my oan blue chamber to me . "
= California Chrome =
California Chrome ( foaled February 18 , 2011 ) is an American Thoroughbred racehorse . Winner of the 2014 Kentucky Derby and the Preakness Stakes , he was named the 2014 American Horse of the Year . After a difficult 2015 season , he returned to form in 2016 and won the Dubai World Cup . He is currently the all time leading North American horse in earnings won .
Bred in California , the chestnut @-@ colored horse was named for his flashy white markings , called " chrome " by horse aficionados . He was bred and originally owned by Perry Martin from Yuba City , California , and Steve Coburn of Topaz Lake , Nevada , who named their partnership DAP Racing , standing for " Dumb Ass Partners " — a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek response to a passerby who questioned their wisdom in purchasing California Chrome 's dam , Love the Chase . In 2015 , Coburn sold his minority share to Taylor Made Farm , and a new ownership group , California Chrome , LLC , was formed . The horse is trained by the father – son team of Art and Alan Sherman . Dedicated fans — called " Chromies " — actively supported California Chrome , who has been called " the people 's horse " .
As a two @-@ year @-@ old , the horse ran inconsistently until being paired with the jockey Victor Espinoza . The rapport that developed between Espinoza and California Chrome led to a six @-@ win streak in 2013 – 2014 . After winning the San Felipe Stakes and Santa Anita Derby , California Chrome was the morning line favorite for the Kentucky Derby . Critics downplayed his chances of winning , but were proven wrong when California Chrome won by 1 3 ⁄ 4 lengths even though Espinoza eased him for the final 70 yards ( 64 m ) . In the Preakness , he fended off two strong challengers in the homestretch and won by 1 1 ⁄ 2 lengths . He then shipped to Belmont Park with hopes of winning the Triple Crown in the 2014 Belmont Stakes . In that race , California Chrome was stepped on by the horse next to him at the start , tearing some tissue from his right front heel . With no one aware of his injury until the race was over , he finished fourth in a dead heat with Wicked Strong . After healing and pasture rest , he returned to racing in September then ran in the 2014 Breeders ' Cup Classic , finishing a respectable third , only a neck behind the winner , Bayern . California Chrome returned to his winning form in his first start on a turf course in the Hollywood Derby in late November , becoming the only horse in the United States with Grade I wins in 2014 on both dirt and turf tracks . He won many accolades and awards for the season : The California State Legislature unanimously passed a resolution recognizing his outstanding performance , and the city of Fresno proclaimed October 11 , 2014 , as " California Chrome Day " . He won the 2014 Secretariat Vox Populi Award , his Kentucky Derby win was awarded the NTRA " Moment of the Year " , and he won Eclipse Awards for American Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old Male Horse and American Horse of the Year .
California Chrome 's 2015 season was tumultuous . He began the year with second @-@ place finishes in the San Antonio Stakes and Dubai World Cup . He then shipped from Dubai to the United Kingdom to train for the Prince of Wales 's Stakes at Royal Ascot , but was scratched a few days prior to the race due to a hoof bruise . Upon returning to the US in July 2015 , he was diagnosed with bruising on his cannon bones , which ended his 2015 season . Shortly thereafter , Coburn sold his ownership interest , and in the same week , Art Sherman announced that the horse would return to racing in 2016 . After a rest of several months at Taylor Made , he returned to training with Sherman at Los Alamitos Race Course and began his 2016 season by winning the Grade II San Pasqual Stakes at Santa Anita Park . He then was shipped to Dubai , where he won a second prep race and the 2016 Dubai World Cup . On July 23 , he won the San Diego Handicap in preparation for the Pacific Classic in August .
= = Background = =
California Chrome was foaled on February 18 , 2011 , near Coalinga , California , at Harris Farms , the horse breeding division of the Harris Ranch . He is a chestnut with four white stockings and a blaze . At four years old , he stood 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) tall .
As a foal , he was nicknamed " Junior " because of his resemblance to his sire , Lucky Pulpit . Lucky Pulpit had won three races , placed in several graded stakes races , and hit the board in 13 of his 22 starts . However , a viral respiratory infection damaged his breathing and limited him to racing over short distances . California Chrome 's dam is Love the Chase , and he was her first foal . She was purchased for $ 30 @,@ 000 as a two @-@ year @-@ old by an agent for a horse ownership group called the Blinkers On Racing Stable . As a two- and three @-@ year @-@ old filly , she was often so anxious in the saddling paddock , that she was , in effect , losing races before she ever got to the starting gate . She ran six times and won on her fourth try in a February 2009 maiden claiming race at Golden Gate Fields . After her win , Steve Coburn and Perry Martin became her owners , ran her two more times , then retired her later that year . They hoped she would become a good broodmare , as she had a promising pedigree . When she retired , it was discovered that she had raced with a breathing problem — an entrapped epiglottis that restricted her air intake , but which could be corrected with surgery . As of 2015 , she had given birth to four foals , the two fillies and a colt , all full siblings to California Chrome . After California Chrome became a Kentucky Derby contender , Martin and Coburn turned down an offer of $ 2 @.@ 1 million for Love the Chase .
= = = Ownership = = =
California Chrome was bred by Perry Martin of Yuba City , California , and Steve Coburn of Topaz Lake , Nevada . Their wives , Denise Martin and Carolyn Coburn , were closely involved with the partnership , though not listed as owners on official records kept by Equibase . Perry Martin held a 70 % share in the horse and was the managing owner . Coburn owned a 30 % interest in the horse and sold his share to Taylor Made Farm in July 2015 .
Originally , the two couples each owned a five percent share in Love the Chase through membership in the Blinkers On Racing Stable . When Blinkers On Racing Stable dissolved the Love the Chase syndicate , both shareholders wanted to buy the filly , so they formed a partnership and paid $ 8 @,@ 000 for her . A casual observer , knowing Love the Chase 's modest race record , remarked that only a " dumb ass " would buy her , so Coburn and Martin named their racing operation DAP Racing , for " Dumb Ass Partners " . They created a caricature of a buck @-@ toothed donkey to adorn the back of their racing silks , and put the initials " DAP " on California Chrome 's blinker hood and the left front of the jockey 's silks .
The Martins and the Coburns had in common a fondness for California Chrome , but otherwise very different personalities and backgrounds . The Martins seldom talked to the press . Melissa Hoppert of The New York Times described them as the " quiet thinkers , " noting that Perry Martin planned the mating of Lucky Pulpit to Love the Chase , mapped out a " Road to the Derby " racing plan for California Chrome , and promoted use of a nasal strip for the horse 's races . Originally from Chicago , they moved to California in 1987 , where Perry Martin was employed as a metallurgist by the Air Force and Denise briefly job shadowed a racehorse trainer in the Sacramento area . Today they own and operate Martin Testing Laboratories ( MTL ) , which tests high @-@ reliability items such as automobile airbags and medical equipment .
By contrast , Hoppert characterized the more outgoing Coburns as the " public relations arm " of the partnership . Steve Coburn , characterized by the media as " loquacious " , described himself and his wife Carolyn as " just everyday people " . He is a press operator for a company that makes magnetic strips , and Carolyn Coburn retired from a career working in payroll in the health care industry . Carolyn introduced Steve to horse racing , and when he was looking for a tax write @-@ off she encouraged him to buy into a racing syndicate instead of purchasing a small airplane .
Taylor Made Farm , who purchased Coburn 's share in California Chrome is headed by Duncan Taylor , the president and CEO of the family @-@ owned farm . Ben Taylor is the vice president of the company 's Taylor Made Stallions division . The brothers of the Taylor family have been the sole the owners of the corporation since 1986 . They were raised in the horse business , learning from their father and grandfather . They formed Taylor Made Sales Agency in 1976 , when Duncan was 19 , offering boarding for mares shipped into Kentucky . They expanded to sales consignments and then built their own facility on 120 acres owned by their father in Nicholasville , Kentucky . The farm now is 1 @,@ 600 acres today . By early 2016 , his ownership was officially listed as " California Chrome , LLC " . Perry and Denise Martin were described as the " majority owners " by the Daily Racing Form , and Frank Taylor of Taylor Made said that both the Martins and Taylor Made had each sold " a few " shares in the stallion to " select breeders who would support the horse "
= = = Early years = = =
Harris Farms , where California Chrome was bred , foaled , and lived until the age of two , had previously nurtured champions such as two @-@ time Breeders ' Cup Classic winner Tiznow . In 2010 Love the Chase was bred to the Harris Farms stallion Lucky Pulpit . CNN reported that the stud fee for the breeding was $ 2 @,@ 000 . Steve Coburn said he had a dream three weeks before California Chrome 's birth that the foal would be a colt with four white feet and a blaze . California Chrome was relatively large for a newborn horse , weighing 137 pounds ( 62 kg ) , and active , " running circles around Momma " within two hours of birth . Love the Chase suffered a uterine laceration while foaling , and was placed on an IV due to internal bleeding . The mare and foal were stall @-@ bound together for over a month . She was kept on a catheter that administered anti @-@ bleeding medication , and the farm staff checked her two to three times a day . Because people gave the colt extra attention and affection when they cared for his dam , he imprinted on humans as well as his mother . As a result , California Chrome became very people @-@ focused , a trait that has served him well in race training .
The Martins and Coburns chose California Chrome 's official name in 2013 at Brewsters Bar & Grill in Galt , California , a town halfway between their two homes . Each of the four wrote a potential name on pieces of paper and asked a waitress to draw them out of Coburn 's cowboy hat . They submitted the names to The Jockey Club ranked in the order drawn . California Chrome , Coburn 's choice , was first drawn , and the registry accepted the name . The word " chrome " comes from slang for a horse with flashy white markings . The colt was started under saddle by Harris Farms ' trainer Per Antonsen , who described him as a " smart horse " who was " really nice to work with " .
= = = Sherman Training Stables = = =
Perry Martin considered California Chrome a Derby contender even before the colt raced . When the colt was ready to enter race training at age two , Martin asked Steve Sherman , who had trained horses for Martin at Golden Gate Fields , to recommend a trainer based in the highly competitive southern California area . Steve suggested his father , Art , who had an " old school " reputation for patience with young Thoroughbreds and a small racing stable of about 15 horses , which allowed each animal to be given individualized attention . Art Sherman liked the enthusiasm of Martin and Coburn , but when Martin emailed a " Road to the Kentucky Derby " plan outlining which races California Chrome should run , Sherman was dubious . Later , Sherman 's son Alan stated , " [ Martin ] mapped out a trail for this horse ; it 's actually worked to a ' T ' , so it 's kinda amazing . " Art Sherman downplays his role in training California Chrome , saying " This horse is my California rock star . I 'm just his manager . "
Sherman 's first exposure to a Kentucky Derby horse was in 1955 , when at the age of 18 he worked for Rex Ellsworth and was the exercise rider of that year 's Kentucky Derby winner Swaps . He was a professional jockey from 1957 until 1979 , when he turned to training racehorses . California Chrome was the first Kentucky Derby prospect that Sherman had trained . Art Sherman 's assistant is his son , Alan , who is also a licensed trainer . Rather than run a separate stable like his brother Steve , Alan has worked with his father since 1991 . He does most of the hands @-@ on day @-@ to @-@ day work with California Chrome and stayed with him throughout most of his travels when Art returned to California to oversee the rest of the stable .
Unlike many high @-@ end California Thoroughbred trainers , who usually are headquartered at Santa Anita Park , the Shermans kept horses at Hollywood Park , but when it closed in December 2013 , Los Alamitos Race Course picked up some of the Thoroughbred races and racing trainers who had stabled horses there , including Sherman Training Stables . The success of California Chrome , who was conditioned there over the track that had been recently expanded to accommodate longer races , created good publicity for Los Alamitos .
= = = Behavior = = =
Observers commented that California Chrome appears to be a very intelligent horse , as he expresses curiosity about everything around him . He has certain idiosyncrasies , including a fondness for one specific brand of horse cookies . He has a tendency to perform a flehmen response for no obvious reason , particularly when he is being bathed , prompting the press to claim that he is " smiling " . He will deliberately stop and put his ears forward to " pose " for cameras when he hears them clicking . As Alan Sherman explained , " He 's a ham , he loves the cameras " ; and exercise rider Willie Delgado gave him an additional nickname , " Vogue " . Besides his frequent flehmen response , he was also noted for having publicly " studdish " behavior in conjunction with winning races , notably in the paddock before the Kentucky Derby and Preakness , and the day after the Hollywood Derby . As Sherman stated , " He 's ... a stallion , and he 'll let you know it every once in a while . " Another unusual behavior is that he would not walk forward out of horse vans designed for a forward exit ; he would only back out .
On the track , California Chrome has the ability to use tactical speed at nearly any point in a race . Early in California Chrome 's career he tended to be slow out of the starting gate ; if he had to wait too long for the start he sometimes expressed anxiety by rocking from side to side , preventing him from being oriented straight forward when the gate opened . He overcame this problem by the end of the 2014 season , and learned to break quickly . He generally did not run well on the inside or in close quarters ; two of his worst finishes were in races where he had the number one post position , and his fourth @-@ place performance in the Belmont Stakes was attributed to both his injury at the start and the number two draw . However , he won a 2016 prep race at Meydan Racecourse from the number one post . When outside and in the clear , he usually wins .
= = Racing history = =
= = = 2013 : Two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
California Chrome 's first start was in a maiden race at Hollywood Park in April 2013 , where he placed second by a length . Three weeks later , he won a maiden race by 2 3 ⁄ 4 lengths . In both races , he was ridden by Alberto Delgado . About a month later , California Chrome was entered in the Willard L. Proctor Memorial Stakes . He was one of four horses assigned to carry 120 pounds ( 54 kg ) , the highest impost given by the handicapper . Alberto Delgado was out with a broken ankle , so Corey Nakatani was his rider . The colt was second for the first three furlongs but finished fifth in a field of nine . His next two races were at Del Mar racetrack . Delgado returned as his jockey , and California Chrome scored his second career win in the Graduation Stakes , a race limited to California @-@ bred horses , prevailing by 2 3 ⁄ 4 lengths . He carried the same weight over the same distance as his previous race , but this time he wore blinkers and ran on Lasix for the first time in his career . Next was his first graded stakes race , the seven @-@ furlong , Grade I Del Mar Futurity . He ran strongly , but finished sixth after he got caught in traffic in a field of 11 horses and was accidentally hit in the face by another jockey 's whip . Two months later , California Chrome ran in the Golden State Juvenile Stakes held November 1 at Santa Anita Park , and at 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , was the longest race he had run . He was assigned the number 1 post position and had to wait for all the other horses to load . He became anxious , reared in the gate , was last out , struggled throughout the race , and again finished sixth .
Sherman 's public assessment of California Chrome 's poor performances was that he was still growing and learning how to be a racehorse . But several things began to change . In the fall of 2013 , Alberto 's younger brother , Willie Delgado , an experienced rider and trainer whose career in Maryland was in the doldrums , moved to California and within a couple of months became the horse 's morning exercise rider . At roughly the same time , Alberto was taken off the horse as jockey . In December , California Chrome began wearing a new type of horseshoe . He had developed low heels , and his farrier , Judd Fisher , found that a particular style of glued @-@ on horseshoe with a durable , hardrim pad that raised a horse 's heels was suitable for fixing the problem . Instead of gluing it on , Fisher custom @-@ drilled holes into the shoe so it could be nailed to the horse 's feet in the manner of a traditional metal shoe . According to Fisher , nailing on the shoes raised the soles of the horse 's feet a little bit farther off the ground . It may have been a contributing factor to California Chrome 's subsequent series of wins . Aside from that issue , Sherman described the horse 's hooves as generally healthy .
Hollywood Park hosted California Chrome 's final race of 2013 , the King Glorious Stakes on December 22 . He had a lighter impost of 119 pounds ( 54 kg ) , a shorter distance of seven furlongs , and a new jockey , Victor Espinoza . California Chrome won the race by 6 1 ⁄ 4 lengths , becoming the final stakes winner at Hollywood Park Racetrack , which held its last races that day . Sherman was pleased with Espinoza 's riding , and Espinoza was impressed in turn with California Chrome . Alan Sherman later said that it was after this race that he began to think that California Chrome could be a Kentucky Derby contender .
= = = 2014 : Three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
California Chrome began 2014 with the California Cup Derby on January 25 . Espinoza returned as his jockey . California Chrome was slow coming out of the gate but quickly moved up to third , took the lead coming into the homestretch , and won by 5 1 ⁄ 2 lengths . Sherman noted that it was the second consecutive race where the horse pulled clear and won by a decisive margin , stating , " It 's like the light bulb has gone on . "
California Chrome 's first graded stakes win was the March 8 Grade II San Felipe Stakes . Espinoza tried a different riding tactic and let the horse go to the lead right out of the gate . California Chrome led most of the way , and after Espinoza gave him one tap on the shoulder with the whip , the horse pulled away from the field at the top of the homestretch and won by 7 1 ⁄ 2 lengths . Alan Sherman said , " My jaw dropped " , while Art Sherman joked , " I 'm glad I 'm training at Los Alamitos , because he looked like a 350 [ yard ] horse coming out of the gate " ; a reference to Quarter Horse racing sprint distances . Espinoza remarked , " I wanted to let him enjoy his race , " later adding , " I wanted to see if he [ could ] go wire to wire ... that was the day I found out how much he loves to run . " The San Felipe was California Chrome 's first win in a race open to all three @-@ year @-@ olds , not just California @-@ breds , and earned him 50 points in the Road to the Kentucky Derby system .
California Chrome 's first Grade I win was the Santa Anita Derby on April 8 . California Chrome was at the front of the field by the quarter pole and went on to win the $ 1 million race by 5 1 ⁄ 4 lengths . Prior to the race , his owners had turned down a $ 6 million offer for a 51 % controlling interest in the colt that would have mandated putting the horse with a different trainer . Coburn later explained , " This isn 't about the money , this is about the dream . "
California Chrome 's time of 1 : 47 @.@ 52 earned him a Beyer Speed Figure of 107 , the fastest for any horse in the Road to the Kentucky Derby 's final prep races of 2014 . It was also the second fastest time in the history of the Santa Anita Derby ; the only horses to run faster were Lucky Debonair , Sham , and Indian Charlie , who hold a three @-@ way tie for the record at 1 : 47 : 00 . The decisive win made him an early favorite to win the 2014 Kentucky Derby and raised speculation that he had the talent to win the Triple Crown . California Chrome 's four consecutive wins had a combined victory margin of 24 1 ⁄ 4 lengths . After the Santa Anita Derby , Sherman began to describe the colt as " my Swaps " . Of his growing popularity , Denise Martin commented , " He 's not just our horse anymore ; he 's ... the people 's horse . "
= = = = Kentucky Derby = = = =
Prior to 2014 , only three California @-@ bred horses had won the Kentucky Derby : Morvich in 1922 , Swaps in 1955 , and Decidedly in 1962 . Besides Swaps , other horses to win both the Santa Anita Derby and the Kentucky Derby were I 'll Have Another ( 2012 ) , Sunday Silence ( 1989 ) , Winning Colors ( 1988 ) , Affirmed ( 1978 ) , Majestic Prince ( 1969 ) , Lucky Debonair ( 1965 ) , Determine ( 1954 ) , and Hill Gail ( 1952 ) . ( 1952 ) Steve Coburn predicted a win : " I 'm not being cocky , just positive " , he said .
Prior to the May 3 race , rival trainer Bob Baffert compared California Chrome favorably to War Emblem . Trainer D. Wayne Lukas , who had no entries in the 2014 Derby , told a reporter that he intended to bet on the horse and commented , " He 's looked like the real deal ... I like everything about him . " On the other hand , Dallas Stewart , trainer of rival Commanding Curve , dismissed California Chrome 's chances due to his pedigree and the supposed lack of competition in his prior races . Others doubted his ability because the colt had never raced outside California . In contrast to the critics , reports surfaced that the owners had turned down a new offer of $ 10 million .
The colt arrived at Churchill Downs in Louisville , Kentucky , on April 28 , 2014 , and was one of the last Derby contenders to arrive . He was flown in from California , his first time on a plane , and traveled quietly . Once the plane landed , however , his travel idiosyncrasy was discovered by the waiting press when he refused to be unloaded until he was turned around and backed down the ramp ; Alan Sherman explained later that this was also his typical manner of egress from ground @-@ based transportation . Upon arrival at Churchill Downs , the horses entered in the Kentucky Derby each were given a special saddle cloth to wear while exercising on the track , identifying them as Derby contenders and including their name . The one given to California Chrome contained a typographical error , with California misspelled as " Califorina " . He wore it the first day and then the track management obtained one with the correct spelling . Critics commented that bringing the horse in late and not giving him a full workout on the track was a mistake , but Sherman 's strategy was backed by Lukas . In the days leading up to the race , California Chrome galloped on the track , was walked in the saddling paddock , and schooled at the starting gate . Willie Delgado later remarked that the horse did not particularly like that particular track , saying " he never actually felt comfortable on it . "
California Chrome 's connections drew post position five for the Derby . He was the morning line favorite at odds of 5 – 2 . The press suggested that the number five spot , relatively close to the inside rail , could be a problem owing to the " speed horses " that would go to the front early in the race , surrounding him on both sides , especially if the colt was slow out of the gate . Espinoza countered by pointing out that he won the 2002 Kentucky Derby on War Emblem from the same post position .
In the race , California Chrome had a clean start and could have taken the lead , but Espinoza kept him behind two speed horses and only moved him to the front at the final turn when other horses began to tire . In the homestretch , he opened up a lead of five lengths before Espinoza eased him the last 70 yards of the race , narrowing his winning margin to 1 3 ⁄ 4 lengths . Sherman later explained that Espinoza slowing the colt down at the finish was " saving something for the next one " , a reference to the Preakness Stakes to come two weeks later . The winning time of 2 : 03 @.@ 66 was relatively slow for a Kentucky Derby , but Sherman described Espinoza 's ride as " picture perfect " . This win was Espinoza 's second Derby victory , and 77 @-@ year @-@ old Sherman became the oldest trainer to ever win the race .
In a post @-@ race press interview , Sherman said he had visited Swaps ' grave at the Kentucky Derby Museum prior to the Derby and prayed for success . Trainer Dale Romans , who had asserted that California Chrome had no chance to win , said , " I was very , very wrong ... We might have just seen a super horse and a super trainer . You don 't fake your way to the winner 's circle at the Kentucky Derby . "
= = = = Preakness Stakes = = = =
California Chrome shipped on May 12 to Baltimore to run in the 2014 Preakness Stakes on May 17 . On the plane were the other two Derby competitors to enter the Preakness : Ride On Curlin and General a Rod . Once on the ground , their van had a police escort from the airport to Pimlico Race Course . When California Chrome arrived at Pimlico , the management at that track welcomed him with two saddlecloths for his workouts , one with the " Califorina " misspelling and the other with the correct spelling ; Just as at Churchill Downs , the colt exercised on the Pimlico track but had no timed workouts . Delgado compared the long and narrow Pimlico oval favorably to their home track at Los Alamitos . Sherman did not like having the horse race again with only a two @-@ week break , but was confident because California Chrome had gained back weight he had lost running the Derby , plus another 35 pounds ( 16 kg ) .
News stories continued to question the colt 's ability , noting the relatively slow pace of the Derby and the low Beyer Speed Figure of 97 earned in his win . One trainer said , " California Chrome has to prove again he 's the best 3 @-@ year @-@ old . " The horse was assigned the number three post position in a field of ten horses , and was the morning line odds @-@ on favorite at 3 – 5 . Followers noted that Secretariat had also run the 1973 Preakness Stakes from the number three post . The Thursday before the race , California Chrome was observed coughing after his morning gallop , prompting speculation about his health . He had a small blister in his throat , which he also had prior to the Kentucky Derby , both times treated with a glycerine throat wash . The intense press attention paid to the relatively minor issue was dismissively dubbed " throat @-@ gate " by sportswriter Bill Dwyre of the Los Angeles Times .
On race day , California Chrome made a clean start from the gate , was close to the front through the backstretch , made his bid for the lead at the far turn , and was first by the top of the stretch . The second @-@ place finisher was Ride on Curlin , who made a strong move late in the race to finish 1 1 ⁄ 2 lengths behind California Chrome . Both held off a challenge from Social Inclusion , who tired and finished third . General a Rod was fourth . The winning time was 1 : 54 : 84 , earning a Beyer Speed Figure of 105 . Social Inclusion 's owner , Ron Sanchez , said , " He 's the real deal ... My horse came to challenge him , but he found another engine . He was gone . " Espinoza 's ride was described as " flawless " , and the press noted the special affinity between the horse and jockey .
California Chrome became the only California @-@ bred horse ever to win both the Kentucky Derby and the Preakness . The press considered the Preakness to be the horse 's strongest victory to date . Baffert , who had won the first two legs of the Triple Crown with Silver Charm ( 1997 ) , Real Quiet ( 1998 ) , and War Emblem ( 2002 ) , sent three different horses against California Chrome , and after Bayern had finished second to last in the Preakness , said , " I 'm done chasing him , " adding , " he 's super the real deal . " In post @-@ race interviews , Coburn stated that California Chrome had become " America 's Horse " .
= = = = Belmont Stakes = = = =
The day after the Preakness , a new round of minor press excitement , dubbed " nasalgate " , erupted when Sherman commented that Martin might not let California Chrome run in the Belmont Stakes if the New York Racing Association ( NYRA ) did not allow the horse to wear a nasal strip as he had in his previous six races . Nasal strips are not considered performance @-@ enhancing , but may reduce airway resistance , lower the risk of exercise @-@ induced pulmonary hemorrhage ( EIPH ) , and aid post @-@ race recovery . Sherman submitted a formal request for permission to use them , and the following day , the NYRA approved the use of nasal strips for all horses on New York tracks , thus resolving the matter .
California Chrome shipped to New York on May 20 in a semi @-@ trailer horse van together with Ride On Curlin . They had a police escort through New York City from the Throgs Neck Bridge to Belmont Park . The press reported that Art Sherman believed the misspelled saddle cloths at the Derby and Preakness were a good luck charm , and that he specifically asked Belmont Park for another misspelled cloth along with a properly spelled version . The first week California Chrome spent at the Belmont track was generally uneventful , other than galloping past an opossum that wandered onto the track the morning of May 23 . The horse paid little attention to it , but the press pounced on the story ; the animal was labeled " Dumb @-@ Ass Possum " , and someone created a Twitter account for the creature . Delgado commented , " I can tell you he loves this track , and I don 't see him ( having ) any problem getting a mile and a half . " On May 31 , Espinoza arrived to give the colt a short workout known as a " breeze " . Horse and jockey were greeted by a large contingent of fans and press at about 6 : 30 a.m. , and ran a " sharp " half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) officially clocked at 47 @.@ 69 seconds . A clocker for the Daily Racing Form stated , " He 's going to be tough to beat . I think we 're going to have a Triple Crown winner . "
Eleven horses entered the Belmont Stakes on June 7 , and California Chrome drew post position 2 , the same post position as Secretariat in the 1973 Belmont . Ride On Curlin and General a Rod also entered ; they were the only other horses besides California Chrome to contest all three legs of the Triple Crown . Four entries had run in Kentucky Derby but skipped the Preakness , and there were four " New Shooters " who had not run in either of the previous Triple Crown races , including Tonalist and Matterhorn , who each wound up playing a major role in the race . Anticipating the possibility of a Triple Crown champion , several people connected to the last three Triple Crown winners came to the Belmont , including 92 @-@ year @-@ old Penny Chenery , owner of Secretariat ; Patrice Wolfson , who co @-@ owned Affirmed ; and some of Seattle Slew 's connections — trainer Billy Turner and co @-@ owner Jim Hill . The jockeys of the three past Triple Crown winners , Steve Cauthen , Jean Cruguet , and Ron Turcotte , also attended . Cauthen , jockey of Affirmed , stated , " This horse has got a great chance of pulling it off , " but added , " you never know , that 's why they have to run the race . "
On race day California Chrome did not break boldly . Espinoza later explained something felt " off " and he held the horse back a bit instead of going to the lead . When asked to move to the front , the horse did not unleash his usual burst of speed . Immediately following the race , Espinoza said " He was just a little bit empty today " . Tonalist won the race , and California Chrome finished fourth in a dead heat with Wicked Strong . Initial post @-@ race analysts criticized Espinoza for not taking the horse to the front early on , but noticed that California Chrome had had some blood on his right front heel . After the race , review of photos taken at the start showed that the horse next to him , Matterhorn , moved too far to the left and stepped on California Chrome 's heel as both horses broke from the gate . As a result , California Chrome had run the race with a " chunk " of tissue taken out of his right front heel and a small cut on his tendon . The tendon injury was superficial , but the heel injury may have been a factor in his loss . Sherman explained that he knew that something was not right when he saw the horse throw his head up in the homestretch , and speculated later that the sand and dirt of the racetrack caused pain in the open wound . The following day , Sherman assured the press that both injuries would heal .
Coburn generated controversy after the race , when he said the current Triple Crown system allowed " the coward 's way out " because fresh horses who had not run in the Kentucky Derby or Preakness Stakes could challenge horses who contested all three legs . Sherman downplayed the outburst , saying , " [ Coburn ] was at the heat of the moment ... Sometimes the emotions get in front of you . " Two days later , Coburn apologized , saying he wanted to congratulate the owners of Tonalist and adding , " I wanted so much for [ California Chrome ] to win the Triple Crown for the people of America . " Steve Haskin of Blood @-@ Horse magazine summarized the race stating , " when I think back ... the one image that will last forever will be of an exhausted colt walking back through the tunnel with a bloodstained foot , his head down and breathing hard , and every vein protruding from his sweat @-@ soaked body . He had given every ounce of himself , and with it all , still was beaten only 1 3 ⁄ 4 lengths . "
California Chrome returned to Los Alamitos , where Sherman 's crew treated the wound for about 10 days . After that , they sent California Chrome to Harris Farms where he was turned out on pasture . By early July , his foot was fully healed , he had gained weight , and Sherman was pleased enough with his recovery that he brought the colt back to Los Alamitos to resume training on July 17 , two weeks earlier than anticipated .
= = = = Remainder of 2014 season = = = =
California Chrome was the top @-@ ranked three @-@ year @-@ old in the nation by the NTRA in its post @-@ race poll of June 9 , 2014 , in spite of his Belmont loss , and was fifth @-@ ranked among American horses of all ages . In the June 12 World 's Best Racehorse Rankings , published by the International Federation of Horseracing Authorities , he was ranked fifth in the world , one point behind the only American @-@ based horse rated higher , Santa Anita Handicap winner Game On Dude , who was tied for third .
California Chrome raced next in the September 20 Pennsylvania Derby at Parx Racing . He was the favorite , but drew the inside number 1 post position . Kentucky Derby rivals Candy Boy and Tapiture also entered . Bayern , who had a poor performance in the Preakness Stakes but later won the Haskell Invitational , was the second favorite . Parx provided significant financial incentives to any horse entering who previously won a triple crown race or other selected Grade I races , so California Chrome 's connections earned $ 200 @,@ 000 simply for having him start . Trapped on the rail , first by a speed horse in the initial stages of the race , and again on the far turn by a challenger who faded in the stretch , California Chrome was unable to gain momentum and finished sixth . Bayern had a clean trip , leading wire to wire , and won by 5 3 ⁄ 4 lengths . Espinoza explained , " I never really had a chance to let him run the way he had been running . "
The next race was the Breeders ' Cup Classic on November 1 . Because many leading older horses retired in 2014 , most of the main contenders for the 2014 Classic were the three year olds : in addition to California Chrome , former foes Bayern , Candy Boy and Tonalist entered . His chief rival was considered to be the then @-@ undefeated American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Colt , Shared Belief , a gelding who missed the Triple Crown series due to hoof problems ; the two had never faced each other . California Chrome was 4 @-@ 1 on the morning line , second favorite to Shared Belief . In the race , Bayern bumped into Shared Belief at the start , then took the lead for the duration of the race . California Chrome was clear of traffic , maintained third place for most of the race , was closing at the end , and finished a very close third , only a neck behind winner Bayern , who won by a nose over second @-@ place finisher Toast of New York . Shared Belief was fourth . Post race analysis noted that California Chrome stayed on the outside throughout the race , and actually ran 44 feet farther than the winner . Sherman spoke in positive terms of the horse 's finish , stating " My horse ran his eyeballs out . He was right there , right down to the money . I thought it was a great effort . He came back strong . " Espinoza was less enthusiastic : " On the backstretch I thought I had a chance to win ... The last sixteenth [ California Chrome ] was digging as hard as he could , but getting just a little tired . I wish he had one more race . It was a little too much for him today . " Coburn visited the colt the following day and stated , " He was full of himself . I think he thought he won . And if the race had been just a little bit longer , I believe he would have . "
Later in the month California Chrome shipped to Del Mar , and following workouts on the turf course Sherman entered him in the Hollywood Derby on November 29 . It was his first start on a grass race track . Sherman believed that California Chrome would do well running on grass , and it also would open up a variety of potential races to enter in 2015 . He was the morning line favorite , with his toughest competitor viewed as Lexie Lou , a filly who defeated colts to win Canada 's equivalent of the Kentucky Derby , the Queen 's Plate . California Chrome won handily by two lengths and the Canadian filly was second . With the win , California Chrome earned four Grade I wins for the year , and was the only horse in the United States to have Grade I wins in 2014 on both dirt and turf tracks . Espinoza summed up the race by saying , " he 's back . "
= = = 2015 : Four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
California Chrome had a tumultuous four @-@ year @-@ old season . Martin originally intended for California Chrome to be retired to stud at the end of the year . The horse began 2015 at Santa Anita in the San Antonio Stakes on February 7 , a return matchup with Shared Belief , whose traffic problems in the Classic prevented a true match against California Chrome . Art Sherman and Shared Belief 's trainer , Jerry Hollendorfer , were longtime friends and rivals from the Northern California racing circuit and each anticipated the rivalry between their two horses . Said Sherman , " I just want both of us to be at the head of the stretch with no excuses and then it 's who gets to the wire first . " Shared Belief went off as the favorite and although California Chrome took the lead by the 3 ⁄ 4 pole , Shared Belief edged him in the final sixteenth and won , with California Chrome second by a length and a half . California Chrome next shipped to Meydan Racecourse for the Dubai World Cup on March 28 , where he needed to run at night , under artificial lighting , and without Lasix . He went off as the favorite , but finished second to the Irish @-@ bred longshot Prince Bishop , owned by Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Maktoum of Godolphin Racing . Sherman noted that his horse ran wide on the turns , but said , " He tried every inch of the way . There 's nothing wrong with finishing second in this type of a race . "
After the Dubai World Cup , California Chrome was shipped to Rae Guest 's Newmarket stables in England to prepare for Royal Ascot week in June . The decision to go to England was made by Perry Martin , against the wishes of both Coburn and Sherman . Martin explained , " I was trying to think in terms of what 's best for the horse . It was my decision to send him to Newmarket . It 's a beautiful place , with trees and pastures for gallops ... It 's good for his mind . I know Art didn 't take the decision well . But he 'll be okay . " The horse 's exercise rider in England , Robbie Mills , who was acquainted with the Shermans and advised them to stable the horse with Guest , stated that California Chrome was making a good transition from the flat dirt tracks of the United States to the undulating turf gallops of England . The horse was pointed to the Prince of Wales 's Stakes at Royal Ascot , with European jockey William Buick , who rode Prince Bishop in Dubai , tapped to ride . The day before the race , the horse was scratched because of a bruised hoof that was draining pus . Guest stated , " he 's been X @-@ rayed and there 's no damage . " Martin wanted to run him in Chicago 's Arlington Million in August , and the requirements of quarantine upon his return to the United States combined with the setback to his training foreclosed any other UK start . Upon California Chrome 's return to the US in early July , a veterinary radiograph revealed he had bruising on his cannon bones that would require at least three months to heal , effectively ending his four @-@ year @-@ old season . The veterinarians at Rood and Riddle Veterinary Hospital in Kentucky explained , " California Chrome 's x @-@ rays showed all of his joints to be remarkably clean . He has the early signs of bruising to the bottom of the cannon bones ... The return rate for horses with this problem is very high ... we found that recovery rate was 95 % after giving time in the paddock to heal . "
On July 15 , the racing press reported that Steve Coburn sold his 30 % interest in the horse to Taylor Made Farm of Nicholasville , Kentucky , but that the abrupt end to the 2015 season opened the door to racing the horse for an additional year . Duncan Taylor of Taylor Made Farms said , " You won 't find many horses of his quality that made 18 starts in 23 months . He 's just now getting his first break from training . " On July 19 , Art Sherman announced that after California Chrome had paddock rest at Taylor Made Farm , the horse would ship back to Sherman 's and prepare to race in 2016 . On October 13 , California Chrome returned to Sherman 's barn . He finished the year being named Champion California @-@ bred Older Male .
= = = 2016 : Five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Martin 's plans for the horse in 2016 included a return to the Dubai World Cup , and ultimately another try at the Breeders ' Cup Classic . Sherman 's barn had a new exercise rider for the horse , Dihigi Gladney , a former bull rider and ex @-@ jockey who grew up in Watts , who also runs a pony ride concession at Santa Anita . Beginning at the San Pasqual Stakes , the purple and green DAP silks were replaced with a new silver @-@ gray design representing the California Chrome , LLC partnership that now owned the horse . Martin stated that his goal for the horse was to become the leading money @-@ winning horse of all time .
California Chrome 's 2016 season began with the San Pasqual Stakes on January 9 . He faced a seven @-@ horse field that included a former rival from the Derby trail , Hoppertunity , and older foes Imperative and Hard Aces . Stalking the front runner until the final turn , he took the lead in the homestretch and won by 1 1 ⁄ 2 lengths . Sherman said of his modest margin of victory , " He could 've opened up turning for home , but Victor put the full nelson on him . It was just what we needed . " Espinoza , back on California Chrome after winning the Triple Crown with American Pharoah , said , " He 's one of the best horses I 've ever been on . I am so proud of him . American Pharoah and California Chrome are too hard to compare , so I won 't . " The win boosted his lifetime earnings to $ 6 @,@ 442 @,@ 650 , breaking the previous record held by Tiznow as the highest @-@ earning California @-@ bred racehorse in history . He shipped to Dubai shortly after the San Pasqual to acclimate to the area , the same training tactics used by the trainers of Curlin . He was entered into a 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) handicap race on February 25 , where he drew the number one post position and was assigned a career @-@ high weight of 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) , an impost 7 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 17 lb ) more than any other horse in the eight @-@ horse field . Alan Sherman , who accompanied the horse to Dubai and conditioned him there , was unconcerned , noting that Gladney weighed 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) . He handily won by two lengths .
Entering the 2016 Dubai World Cup , California Chrome had the number 11 post position in an international field of 12 . He faced both old American rivals in Hoppertunity and Candy Boy , as well as three younger horses who had challenged American Pharoah the previous year , Keen Ice , Frosted and Mubtaahij . The horse stayed wide and had a clear trip the entire race , took the lead 300 metres ( 980 ft ) out and won by 3 3 ⁄ 4 lengths . The race took a dramatic turn when Espinoza ’ s saddle began to slip backwards in the homestretch , and after the race he said , “ I just kept looking forward and thinking ' where 's the wire ? It was not coming fast enough . " The purse money for the victory made him the all @-@ time leading North American horse in earnings won . Martin commented that the horse had to pass three horses from Japan to become the all @-@ time world ’ s money leader , but declared , " I believe we 'll do that before the end of the year . "
Upon his return to the United States , California Chrome was turned out for a month at Taylor Made Farm , then resumed training with Sherman . On July 23 , the horse was entered in the San Diego Handicap where he faced Dortmund , who had finished third in the 2015 Kentucky Derby to American Pharoah . California Chrome tracked behind Dortmund until the far turn , then moved to the front . Dortmund fought back and the two dueled down the stretch , with California Chrome prevailing by half a length . Noting that his horse had carried five pounds more than Dortmund , Espinoza said , " I have a lot of respect for Dortmund and he made me run hard ... When we came down the stretch , I was concerned . This horse was carrying a lot of weight . That was the challenge , but he was a runner all the way today . "
= = Awards and honors = =
California Chrome won many honors in 2014 . A concurrent resolution was introduced in the California State Assembly recognizing the " outstanding performance of California Chrome " and all of his connections including not only his owners and trainers , but also Willie Delgado and groom Raul Rodriguez . The resolution passed both chambers of the legislature unanimously on August 14 . It was the first time that the California Legislature had honored a racehorse . The city of Fresno proclaimed October 11 , 2014 , as " California Chrome Day " . In March 2015 , the Los Angeles Sports Council ranked California Chrome 's Kentucky Derby and Preakness wins third at the LA Sports Awards ' Sports Moment of 2014 , behind only the Los Angeles Kings Stanley Cup win and Clayton Kershaw 's Cy Young and National League MVP Awards .
California Chrome won the Secretariat Vox Populi Award given each year to recognize " the horse whose popularity and racing excellence best resounded with the American public and gained recognition for Thoroughbred racing . " His Kentucky Derby win was named the NTRA " Moment of the Year " . At the Eclipse Awards , he was named American Horse of the Year and American Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old Male Horse . He was the second California @-@ bred to win Horse of the Year , the first since Tiznow , the first three @-@ year @-@ old to be Horse of the Year since Rachel Alexandra , and the first Kentucky Derby winner since Charismatic . The California Thoroughbred Breeders ' Association gave California Chrome and his connections multiple honors , naming him the 2014 California @-@ bred Horse of the Year , Champion Cal @-@ bred Three @-@ Year @-@ Old and Turf Champion . Lucky Pulpit was named Champion Sire , Love the Chase was Champion Broodmare , Martin and Coburn were named Champion Breeders , and Sherman was named Trainer of the year .
2016 saw the inauguration of the California Chrome Stakes , a 1 1 ⁄ 16 mile race with an introductory purse of $ 150 @,@ 000 for three @-@ year @-@ olds at Los Alamitos . The track created the race in recognition of the horse being stabled there as a home base since the beginning of 2014 .
= = Fans and publicity = =
= = = " Chromies " = = =
An enthusiastic fan base supporting California Chrome became visible at the Santa Anita Derby , when someone invited the horse 's supporters to join the owners in the winner 's circle and over 100 people crammed into the area , including one woman dressed entirely in metallic foil . Coburn told CNN of a supporter who had a jackass tattooed on his shoulder . An unofficial Twitter account for the horse , @ CalChrome , was started by a 37 @-@ year @-@ old fan from Florida , Shawn LaFata , had over 12 @,@ 000 followers by Belmont week . The New York Times noted the enthusiasm of the fans , who used the hashtag # Chromies on Twitter . LaFata believes the word " Chromies " first appeared on @ CalChrome eight nights before the Kentucky Derby . The humble origins of the horse and the people around him played a role in his popularity , as did the horse 's people @-@ focused attitude . Supporters appeared to be further motivated by the continuing doubts raised by industry experts about California Chrome 's ability .
The horse had nationwide appeal , but California Chrome 's core fan base was centered in the Central Valley of California ; the Sacramento television market ranked sixth in the nation for television viewership on Preakness day , and third in the nation on Belmont day . Prior to the Belmont , singer – songwriter team Templeton Thompson and Sam Gay wrote and recorded a song titled " Bring it on Home , Chrome " and a rap video featuring an elementary school children was released on YouTube . Even after his Belmont loss , Harris Farms fielded many calls daily from fans wanting to visit the horse while he had a break from racing in June and July 2014 . In contrast to his admirers , California Chrome 's image was somewhat diminished by the criticism that followed Coburn 's post @-@ Belmont comments . Additional negative press occurred when Martin turned down an offer to bring California Chrome to parade in the paddock at Del Mar on the day of the Pacific Classic . NPR 's Frank Deford had little patience with the horse 's story exemplifying the American dream ; DeFord felt that the horse 's victories would have little impact on the popularity of horse racing , which he viewed as " a sport that is struggling against time and culture " due to the prevalence of other types of gambling and the reduced impact of horses in the daily lives of most people .
Overall , the press the horse received was viewed as giving a needed boost to the sport . Jockey and sports analyst Gary Stevens noted prior to the Belmont , " I haven 't heard Thoroughbred horse racing mentioned on CNN for a long time , and it was right at the top of the hour ... He 's brought us mainstream again for the first time in a lot of years . " Post @-@ Belmont press analysis contended that California Chrome was the most popular Thoroughbred in America since Zenyatta . In December , when the horse was selected as the winner of the Secretariat Vox Populi Award , Coburn said , " We have always said Chrome is the ' People 's Horse ' and we are thrilled that the public feels the same way we do about him . " In announcing the Moment of the Year , Keith Chamblin of NTRA stated , " the fans reminded us that nothing trumps an awesome performance by a legendary horse . "
= = = Marketing = = =
Prior to the 2014 Belmont Stakes , California Chrome 's owners filed a patent application to trademark his name for use on athletic apparel , and hired two talent agencies to help with marketing and sponsorships . Following the " nasalgate " story , fans began to appear wearing human nasal strips or purple band @-@ aids across their noses . Working with the intellectual property attorney who had brokered deals for Smarty Jones , California Chrome 's owners gained an endorsement deal with GlaxoSmithKline , manufacturer of the human Breathe Right nasal strips . On Belmont day , GlaxoSmithKline gave away 50 @,@ 000 of the strips at Belmont Park . Santa Anita , which simulcast the race , ran its own promotion , giving fans at that track purple nasal strips with the word " Chrome " on the front . On June 2 , the Skechers shoe company announced a sponsorship deal where the company 's logo appeared on assorted items worn by the horse and his handlers , the company used California Chrome 's image in its marketing , and ran a half page ad featuring the horse in the Wall Street Journal at the end of June 2014 .
= = Statistics = =
* Odds not available
= = Pedigree = =
California Chrome has been described as a throwback to horses with toughness and soundness . His sire , Lucky Pulpit , and his dam , Love the Chase , each had relatively undistinguished racing careers , but their ancestors were successful on the track , and some were well known for stamina over distance . Lucky Pulpit was sired by Pulpit , who is credited with 63 stakes winners and particularly known for his son Tapit . 1992 Belmont Stakes and Breeders ' Cup Classic winner A. P. Indy is the sire of Pulpit , and in 2015 , California Chrome became the all @-@ time leading earner from the A. P. Indy sire line . The sire line of these stallions traces to Bold Ruler , considered one of the greatest North American sires of the 20th century , and ultimately to the Darley Arabian through Eclipse . A. P. Indy was by 1977 Triple Crown winner Seattle Slew , and is a grandson of Secretariat on his dam 's side , bringing a second cross to Bold Ruler into the pedigree . Pulpit is a grandson of Mr. Prospector on his dam 's side , a line believed to cross well with Seattle Slew 's breeding . Pulpit 's maternal granddam , Narrate , carries lines to Bold Ruler and to 1964 Kentucky Derby winner Northern Dancer . Lucky Pulpit 's dam , Lucky Soph , is a half @-@ sister to the dam of Unbridled 's Song and also a granddaughter of Caro , who sired 1988 Kentucky Derby winner Winning Colors . Princequillo , who was noted for his stamina , appears several times in Lucky Pulpit 's pedigree .
Love the Chase comes from old and respected stock , and California Chrome was the fifth Kentucky Derby winner produced from this mare line . Her sire , Not for Love , was by Mr. Prospector and out of a daughter of Northern Dancer . Northern Dancer appears again on the distaff side of Love the Chase 's pedigree . Her granddam , Chase the Dream , was sired by the 1968 Epsom Derby winner Sir Ivor . Vaguely Noble , winner of the 1968 Prix de l 'Arc de Triomphe , is one of Chase the Dream 's grandsires . She traces to Princequillo and to the UK @-@ bred Ribot , viewed by some as the greatest racehorse of his generation . Love the Chase has two crosses to the mare Numbered Account , who produced several Grade I stakes winners and was the American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly in 1971 . Numbered Account was a daughter of Buckpasser , who earned five Eclipse Awards between 1965 and 1967 , and was inducted to the Horse Racing Hall of Fame in 1970 . The Buckpasser line has been considered another good bloodline to crossbreed with descendants of Seattle Slew . Numbered Account was also a granddaughter of Swaps , and traces to La Troienne and War Admiral on both sides of her pedigree . Love the Chase 's tail @-@ female line is one of the oldest in North America . Through a mare named Selima , foaled in 1745 , who was by the Godolphin Arabian and imported to the Province of Maryland between 1750 and 1752 . The line probably traces to Thoroughbred family 21 , which began with the Moonah Barb Mare , who was imported from Barbary to England in utero about 1700 .
California Chrome has relatively little inbreeding ; he is 4 × 3 to Mr Prospector , meaning that this ancestor appears once in the third and once in the fourth generations of his pedigree . He is also 4 × 4 to Numbered Account and 4 × 5 to Northern Dancer .
indicates inbreeding
= Dragon Quest III =
Dragon Quest III : The Seeds of Salvation , known in Japan as Dragon Quest III : Soshite Densetsu e ... ( ドラゴンクエストIII そして伝説へ … , Doragon Kuesuto Surī - Soshite Densetsu e ... , Dragon Quest III : And thus into Legend ... ) and previously released as Dragon Warrior III in North America , is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Chunsoft and published by Enix ( now Square Enix ) . It is the third installment in the Dragon Quest series ( known as Dragon Warrior in North America at the time of its original release ) and the first released for the Family Computer ( Famicom ) in Japan and later for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) in North America . The game saw an enhanced remake for the Super Famicom ( the Japanese version of the Super NES ) in 1996 and the Game Boy Color in 2001 , and a port to mobile phones and the Wii in 2009 and 2011 . A version of the game for Android and iOS was released in Japan on September 25 , 2014 , and worldwide on December 4 , 2014 as Dragon Quest III : The Seeds of Salvation . It was the first time the game was given an official English subtitle .
The first three Dragon Quest games are part of the same story , and Dragon Warrior III is the first game chronologically , as well as the third game that features the hero Erdrick ( Loto in the Japanese releases and recent localizations ) . The story follows " the Hero " who is tasked with saving the world from the archfiend Baramos . Gathering a group of companions into a party , the Hero must travel the world , stopping at various towns and locations , and find his way to the Demon Lord Baramos 's lair .
= = Gameplay = =
Dragon Quest III is noted for greatly expanding upon the gameplay of the original Dragon Quest and Dragon Quest II . The game uses basic role @-@ playing video game conventions such as leveling up by gaining experience points and equipping items . Battle is turn @-@ based like the other games in the series , though the remakes incorporate various interface changes from later titles . These include simpler door opening , a bag to store items instead of keeping them at a bank , quick item sorting with " Tidy Item " and " Tidy Bag " command , and a " Full HP " command to automate the process of casting healing and status restoring spells . And while earlier Dragon Quest games were non @-@ linear in structure , Dragon Quest III featured an even more open @-@ world experience . It also allowed the player to freely swap characters in and out of their party , and introduced the day / night cycle in which certain items , characters , and quests are only accessible at specific times of day .
= = = Classes = = =
Dragon Quest III features a class system , in which each character has a certain class . At the start of the game , the player begins as a single male or female hero , but is able to recruit members at the local tavern . While the Hero always keeps the Hero class , the other characters can choose to be any of the following of either gender : Soldier ( Warrior in the GBC version ) , Fighter , Pilgrim ( Cleric ) , Wizard ( Mage ) , Merchant ( Dealer ) , Goof @-@ Off ( Jester ) , Sage , and Thief which was available only in the later versions . The choice of class greatly affects the character 's stats and spells he or she can learn . Furthermore , upon reaching experience Level 20 , a character has the option of changing classes at the temple of Dhama , found halfway through the game . A character who changes classes has their stats halved and restarts at experience Level 1 , retaining their spells and , in the remakes , their personality . This allows a player to create a character that knows Wizard spells , but has the defense of a Soldier . Unlike most Dragon Quest parties , aside from the Hero , the party is not made up of characters involved in the story . Although only four characters can be in the party at a time , extra members of the party can be kept at the tavern , allowing room for new recruits . Another innovation is an arena where the player can place bets on the outcome of monster battles in order to win more gold .
In the remakes , after selecting a character , the player can change the character 's starting abilities with five magical seeds , given at the tavern . Also , each character has a personality trait which affects the growth rate of their abilities . The Hero 's personality is determined by the player 's choices and actions during a dream sequence at the start of the game , while other characters ' personalities are determined by their status at the end of the character generation process . Most personalities are available to both male and female characters , while a few are exclusive to male or female characters . A character 's personality can be temporarily changed by equipping certain accessories , or permanently changed by using certain consumable books .
= = Story = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game starts in the castle town of Aliahan . Like the rest of the Dragon Quest worlds , this castle is set in a medieval time period , complete with knights and magicians . The party explores several caves , ruins , and castles during the adventure . The geography of Dragon Quest III largely corresponds to the actual geography of Earth , and many towns correspond to their real @-@ world cultures , including " Romaly " for Rome , " Portoga " for Portugal , " Assaram " near present @-@ day Iraq ( derived from " as @-@ salamu alaykum " ) , " Jipang " for Japan and even a " New Town " in eastern North America that experiences a revolution against an overbearing ruler .
= = = Plot = = =
Dragon Quest III is set many years before the original Dragon Warrior in a world separate from the first two games . A wicked fiend named Baramos threatens to destroy the world . The story revolves around the Hero , son or daughter ( the player can choose to be either male or female , with few gameplay changes ) of the legendary warrior Ortega . On his or her sixteenth birthday , the Hero ( from here on referred to as " he " for the sake of convenience ) is summoned to the castle and is given by the King of Aliahan the challenge to rid the world of the evil archfiend Baramos , which Ortega attempted in the past but seemingly perished in a volcano . The Hero then is able to recruit up to three traveling companions to help fight Baramos .
The Hero leaves his home country of Aliahan to travel the world and complete his father 's quest to defeat Baramos . A major portion of the adventure is the quest to acquire the last two of the three keys needed to open doors throughout the game . After saving two people of the town of Baharata from the rogue Kandar and stealing back the King of Romaly 's crown , the Hero receives Black Pepper , which he then trades for a sailing ship at Portoga . With the ship , the Hero acquires the Final Key and the six mystical orbs which are used to revive the legendary bird Ramia . Ramia allows the Hero and his party to travel to Baramos ' castle , which is surrounded by mountains .
After defeating Baramos in a ferocious battle and returning to Aliahan , the Hero 's celebration is cut off as Zoma , Baramos 's master and the game 's true villain , reveals his existence . He attacks and opens a pit to the Dark World , which the Hero jumps into . The Dark World is in fact Alefgard ( of the previous installments of the series ) , where the Hero must acquire several of the artifacts that were collected in the original Dragon Quest , including the Sun Stone and the Rain Staff . Rubiss , a legendary sage , has been turned to stone and is rescued by the Hero , and the Hero receives the Sacred Amulet in return . These items , as in the original game , create the Rainbow Bridge which leads the Hero to Zoma 's castle for the final confrontation . Along the way , the Hero briefly reunites with Ortega as he is slain by Zoma 's monsters , then continues on to defeat the revived Baramos , now turned into the powerful Baramos Bomus and later into the skeletal Baramos Gonus . With the Ball of Light given by the Dragon Queen , the Hero defeats Zoma and frees Alefgard , but Zoma boasts that evil will eventually return to the land and the Hero will not live long enough to stop it . For his or her bravery , the Hero receives the title of Loto ( Erdrick ) . The Hero later vanishes from Alefgard , leaving his sword and armor to be passed down throughout the ages so that his descendants can continue to protect the world from evil .
= = Development = =
As with the other main games in the Dragon Quest series , Dragon Quest III 's scenario was designed by Yuji Horii , whereas the artwork was done by Akira Toriyama , of Dragon Ball fame . Koichi Sugiyama composed all the music for Dragon Quest III . Chunsoft president Koichi Nakamura , co @-@ creator of Dragon Quest , stated he contributed about " 10 % " of the games programming . The game was released a year after the original , a longer period of development than its predecessor , and reflected the ever lengthening game development process of the series . Yuji Horii , in a 1989 interview , said that developers had perfected the series ' game structure in Dragon Quest III , and this was reflected by the transition from one character 's quest to a party of heroes . The password system used on the first two Dragon Quest titles was dropped in favor of a save slot due in part to Horii 's dislike of the long codes that players needed to memorize or record . Horii had a policy of removing any features from his games that had been used elsewhere , which turned out to be unworkable during Dragon Quest IIIs development when the games world map concept was used first by another game maker in Mirai Shinwa Jarvas , but Horii 's team was too far into development to change anything . Horii also preferred a silent protagonist to make the player feel like they have become the main character , but at one point in the story , Horii was forced to make the hero shout , " Leave him to us ! Run ! Quick ! "
= = = Remakes = = =
The Super Famicom version , released in late 1996 , during the last days of the Super NES in North America , was never brought to North America , due to Enix America Corporation 's closure in 1995 . By the time Enix of America returned , the SNES had been discontinued in North America . In 2009 , it was unofficially translated into English . However , the next remake , for the Game Boy Color , was released in both Japan and the US .
The Game Boy Color version is based on the Super Famicom version . For the North American release of the Dragon Quest III Game Boy Color remake , Enix decided to give the packaging an anime feel , due to fan demand on Enix 's message boards . Both remake versions of Dragon Quest III offer many new features and changes . The game received a new translation , incorporating many adult elements that were cut from its original American release , and becoming the first Game Boy Color RPG with a " Teen " rating . It was also the largest Game Boy Color game released in North America , with 32 Mb ROM and 256Kb of save @-@ state SRAM on one cartridge . A new class , the Thief , was added to the roster in each of the remakes . Many of the names of the classes were changed in the English localization of the Game Boy Color version , such as Soldier to Warrior . Also , in the new versions was the ability to change into the Jester class at Dhama , which was not allowed in the original . New mini @-@ games were added to the remakes , including Pachisi ( called Suguroku in Japan / Treasures and Trapdoors as of the Dragon Quest V Remake ) , which is a giant board game style adventure from which the player can win items . This game is based on Horii 's series Itadaki Street . The Mini Medal system , which lets players collect hidden medals to gain new items , seen in later Dragon Quest games ( it originated in Dragon Quest IV ) , was added . Another medal system , Monster Medals , lets players collect medals from fallen enemies , was added in Game Boy Color remake , and two players could trade Monster Medals via a Game Link Cable . Two bonus dungeons become available after the main quest is over . The remakes feature updated graphics . An overhauled introduction for the game was made , similar to the one in the original Dragon Quest III , which included Ortega 's battle with the Dragon Queen . Monster and attack animation in battles were added , a feature first introduced in Dragon Quest VI . A personality system was added to the remakes of Dragon Quest III . A pre @-@ game sequence in which the player answers moral dilemmas similar to that in Ultima IV determines the Hero 's personality . The personality of the other members of the party is determined by the stat @-@ raising seeds that the player gives them during the character generation process . Personalities determine which stats increase when a character levels up . The personalities may be changed by use of special items and books .
It was announced in May 2011 that Square Enix will be releasing Dragon Quest III in Japan , as both the Famicom and Super Famicom ports as part of the September released of Dragon Quest 25th Anniversary Commemoration Famicom & Super Famicom Dragon Quest I & II & III for the Wii . A quick save feature was added to this version of the game , allowing for pauses at any time , but the save file is deleted upon resuming .
= = = Music = = =
Koichi Sugiyama composed and directed the music for the game . Dragon Quest III 's music is featured on Dragon Quest Game Music Super Collection Vol . 1 , Dragon Quest Game Music Super Collection Vol . 2 , and Dragon Quest Game Music Super Collection Vol . 3 , each album a compilation of music from the first six Dragon Quest games . This game 's music has also been featured on other Dragon Quest compilation albums , such as Dragon Quest on Piano Vol . II , which was released in 1990 , and Dragon Quest Best Songs Selection ~ Loula ~ , released in 1993 . A compilation album of Dragon Quest III 's music was put on Dragon Quest III ~ And into the Legend … ~ Remix Symphonic Suite and was published by Sony Records in 1996 . In 2011 Sugiyama played a concert focused on Dragon Quest III in his " Family Classic Concert " series he has done for many years , playing fifteen of the games songs .
All songs written and composed by Koichi Sugiyama .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
Dragon Quest III sold over one million copies on the first day with almost 300 arrests for truancy among students absent from school to purchase the game , and 3 @.@ 8 million copies total in Japan . In Japan , the Super Famicom remake sold 1 @.@ 4 million units , with nearly 720 @,@ 000 units sold in 1996 alone . The Game Boy Color version sold a lower 604 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of 2001 . However , together , with the sales of the remakes , Dragon Quest III is the most successful title in the series and one of the best selling role @-@ playing games in Japan . As of November 2010 , Japan mobile phone version was downloaded more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 times . Wii Dragon Quest Collection sold 403 @,@ 953 copies in 2011 .
= = = Reviews = = =
A survey conducted by the magazine Famitsu in early 2006 among its readers placed Dragon Quest III as the third most favorite game of all time , being preceded by only Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy VII , It is often mistakenly thought that in 1988 the game 's success caused the Japanese government to outlaw further releases of Dragon Quest games on school days . In truth , Enix themselves decided to hold off the release of future Dragon Quest games until weekends . The North American release of Dragon Quest III did not meet nearly as much success . Considered an improvement over the first two games , Dragon Quest III " kept the same ugly graphical style and clumsy interface " , explained Kurt Kalata of Gamasutra . The North American release 's poor sales are partly due to the fact that the game was released after the release of 16 @-@ bit gaming systems , making it seem archaic to gamers . Critics found the new day / night system and the addition of an in @-@ game bank praiseworthy . Its reputation has risen in America since its release , primarily due to its gameplay innovations , leading Nintendo Power to list it as number 176 on their Top 200 Games list . IGN later listed it as the 96th best Nintendo Entertainment System game . GamesRadar ranked it the 17th best NES game ever made . The staff chose it over the other Dragon Warrior titles due to its job system which they felt had depth and was influential to video games .
The Game Boy Color remake received very good reviews from critics . GameSpot gave the Game Boy Color version a " good " 7 @.@ 6 / 10 , saying that " DWIII is a worthy port of its old NES ancestor , but its firm grounding in the RPG old @-@ school means that only the hard @-@ core need apply . " Nintendo Power gave the remake a 4 / 5 , while IGN gave the game a perfect 10 / 10 .
= = Manga = =
The manga series , Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō ( ドラゴンクエスト列伝 ロトの紋章 ? , Dragon Quest Saga : Roto 's Emblem ) , was written by Chiaki Kawamata and Junji Koyanagi with artwork by Kamui Fujiwara and was published inMonthly Shōnen Gangan from 1991 through 1997 . The series was later compiled into for 21 volumes published by Enix ; in 1994 it was released on CD and was released on December 11 , 2009 on the PlayStation Portable as part of manga distribution library . In 1996 an anime movie based on the manga was released on video cassette .
A sequel series , Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō ~ Monshō o Tsugumono @-@ tachi e ~ ( ドラゴンクエスト列伝 ロトの紋章 ～ 紋章を継ぐ者達へ ～ ? , Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō - To the Children Who Inherit the Emblem ) , published by Square Enix started in 2005 and is still ongoing ; as of December 2012 , fifteen volumes have been released . The first four volumes were written by Jun Eishima and all the rest volumes written by Takashi Umemura . All of them have been supervised by Yuji Horii with artwork done by Kamui Fujiwara . Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō is meant to take place between Dragon Quest III and Dragon Quest .
After monsters possessed the Carmen 's king for seven years , the kingdom fell to the hordes of evil . The only survivors were Prince Arus and an army General 's daughter , Lunafrea . Meanwhile , in the Kingdom of Loran , a child by the name of is born with the name Jagan per the orders of Demon Lord Imagine . As Loto 's descendant , Arus , along with Lunafrea , set out to defeat the monsters and restore peace to the world .
Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō ~ Monshō o Tsugumono @-@ tachi e ~ takes place 25 years after the events in Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō . The world is once again in chaos and a young boy , Arosu ( アロス ) , sets out gathering companions to once again save the world from evil . Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō was popular in Japan , it has sold 18 million in Japan . Its sequel Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō - To the Children Who Inherit the Emblem has also sold well in Japan . For the week of August 26 through September 1 , 2008 , volume 7 was ranked 9th in Japan having sold 59 @,@ 540 copies . For the week of February 24 through March 2 , 2009 , volume 8 was ranked 19th in Japan having sold 76 @,@ 801 copies . For the week of October 26 through November 1 , 2009 , volume 9 was ranked 16th in Japan having sold 40 @,@ 492 copies for a total of 60 @,@ 467 .
= The Boat Race 1913 =
The 70th Boat Race took place on 13 March 1913 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race . The two crews contained a total of five medallists from the 1912 Summer Olympics . Umpired by former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman , Oxford won this year 's race by three @-@ quarters of a length in a time of 20 minutes 53 seconds . The victory took the overall record in the event to 39 – 30 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1912 race by six lengths , and led overall with 38 victories to Cambridge 's 30 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were H. R. Barker ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1908 and 1909 races ) , G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races , Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) , and Alister Kirby ( who rowed for Cambridge four times between 1906 and 1909 ) . Cambridge were coached by John Houghton Gibbon who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1899 and 1900 races . For the tenth year the umpire was old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
To avoid Holy Week , the race was scheduled earlier than normal , on 13 March 1913 . Two old Etonians , G. E. Tower and C. E. V. Buxton joined the Cambridge crew , along with W. M. Askwith . The Light Blues ' practice was disrupted , first losing Askwith suffering from a boil , and then , late in the build @-@ up the race , losing both E. L. Showell Rogers and L. A. Pattinson to injury and " indigestion " respectively nine days before the race . Askwith was fit enough to return and according to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , " the crew were well together when they came to the post " . Of the Oxford crew , Drinkwater noted that " the crew went easily and comfortably from the first day " yet " lacked essential balance " .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 6 @.@ 375 lb ( 78 @.@ 9 kg ) , 1 @.@ 875 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge 's crew included two rowers with Boat Race experience in Sidney Swann and Ralph Shove , the former making his third appearance in the event . The Oxford crew saw five participants return , including Leslie Wormald and cox Henry Wells who were both taking part in their third race . Edgar Burgess , Swann , Wormald and Ewart Horsfall had all won gold medals in the men 's eight at the 1912 Summer Olympics , rowing for Leander Club . They defeated New College in the final for whom Dark Blue Arthur Wiggins rowed .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Umpire Pitman started the race at 4 : 38 p.m. in conditions described by former author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater as " almost perfect " but with a " modest " tide . Despite Oxford out @-@ rating their opponents from the start , Cambridge took an early lead and were half a length ahead after the first minute . Although the bend in the river was against them , the Light Blues continued to slowly gain and were just clear by the Mile Post . A spurt from Oxford closed the gap and by Harrods Furniture Depository the lead was down to half a length . Taking advantage of the bend in the river , the Light Blues pulled away again and were nearly clear by the time the crews passed below Hammersmith Bridge . They extended the lead to be a quarter @-@ length clear by The Doves pub , and then a half @-@ length clear by Craven Steps .
Rowing into increasing wind , Cambridge began to tire and Oxford closed the gap . The Cambridge stroke G. E. Tower spurted again just before Barnes Bridge and led by a length and a quarter at the bridge . The crews began to steer closer to one another , eventually causing each cox to give way to avoid the foul . By the time the boats passed Mortlake Brewery they were level , and despite a final push from Cambridge , Oxford drove on , passing the finishing post rating 37 strokes per minute . They won by three @-@ quarters of a length in a time of 20 minutes 53 seconds . It was the narrowest winning margin since the 1896 race , and Oxford 's fifth consecutive victory , taking the overall record in the event to 39 – 30 in their favour .
= Dragon Ball =
Dragon Ball ( Japanese : ドラゴンボール , Hepburn : Doragon Bōru ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Akira Toriyama . It was originally serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump from 1984 to 1995 , with the 519 individual chapters published into 42 tankōbon volumes by Shueisha . Dragon Ball was initially inspired by the classical Chinese novel Journey to the West . The series follows the adventures of the protagonist , Goku , from his childhood through adulthood as he trains in martial arts and explores the world in search of the seven orbs known as the Dragon Balls , which summon a wish @-@ granting dragon when gathered . Along his journey , Goku makes several friends and battles a wide variety of villains , many of whom also seek the Dragon Balls .
The 42 tankōbon have been adapted into two anime series produced by Toei Animation : Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z , which together were broadcast in Japan from 1986 to 1996 . Additionally , the studio has developed nineteen animated feature films and three television specials , as well as a third anime series titled Dragon Ball GT . From 2009 to 2015 , a revised , faster @-@ paced version of Dragon Ball Z aired in Japan under the title Dragon Ball Kai , in which most of the original version 's footage not featured in the manga is removed . A fifth anime series titled Dragon Ball Super began airing in Japan on July 5 , 2015 . Several companies have developed various types of merchandising based on the series leading to a large media franchise that includes films , both animated and live @-@ action , collectible trading card games , numerous action figures , along with several collections of soundtracks and a large number of video games .
The manga series was licensed for an English @-@ language release in North America by Viz Media , in the United Kingdom by Gollancz Manga , and Australia and New Zealand by Madman Entertainment . The entire anime series was licensed by Funimation for an English @-@ language release in the United States , although the series has not always been dubbed by the same studio . There have been many films of the franchise including the first live @-@ action film adaptation being produced in 1989 in Taiwan . In 2002 , 20th Century Fox acquired the rights to produce an American @-@ made live @-@ action film titled Dragonball Evolution that was received negatively by critics and fans ; the movie was released on April 10 , 2009 in the United States .
Since its release , Dragon Ball has become one of the most successful manga and anime series of all time . The manga 's 42 volumes have sold over 156 million copies in Japan and more than 230 million copies worldwide , making it the third best @-@ selling manga series in history . Reviewers have praised the art , characterization , and humor of the story . It is widely regarded as one of the greatest manga series ever made , with many manga artists such as Eiichiro Oda ( One Piece ) , Masashi Kishimoto ( Naruto ) , Tite Kubo ( Bleach ) , Hiro Mashima ( Rave Master , Fairy Tail ) and Kentaro Yabuki ( Black Cat ) citing Dragon Ball as a source of inspiration for their own now popular works . The anime , particularly Dragon Ball Z , is also highly popular in various countries and was arguably one of the most influential in boosting the popularity of Japanese animation in Western culture .
= = Plot summary = =
The series begins with a monkey @-@ tailed boy named Goku befriending a teenage girl named Bulma , whom he accompanies to find the seven Dragon Balls ( ドラゴンボール , Doragon Bōru ) , which summon the dragon Shenlong to grant the user one wish . The journey leads them to the desert bandit Yamcha , who later becomes an ally ; Chi @-@ Chi , whom Goku unknowingly agrees to marry ; and Pilaf , an impish man who seeks the Dragon Balls to fulfill his desire to rule the world . Goku then undergoes rigorous training regimes under the martial arts master Kame @-@ Sen 'nin in order to fight in the Tenkaichi Budōkai ( 天下一武道会 , " Strongest Under the Heavens Martial Arts Tournament " ) . A monk named Kuririn becomes his training partner and rival , but they soon become best friends . After the tournament , Goku searches for the Dragon Ball his grandfather left him and almost single @-@ handedly defeats the Red Ribbon Army and their hired assassin Taopaipai . Thereafter Goku reunites with his friends to defeat the fortuneteller Baba Uranai 's fighters and have her locate the last Dragon Ball to revive a friend killed by Taopaipai .
At the Tenkaichi Budōkai three years later Goku and his allies oppose Kame @-@ Sen 'nin 's rival and Taopaipai 's brother , Tsuru @-@ Sen 'nin , and his students Tenshinhan and Chaozu . Kuririn is killed after the tournament and Goku tracks down and is defeated by his killer , Piccolo Daimao . The samurai Yajirobe takes Goku to the hermit Karin , where he receives healing and a power boost . Meanwhile , Piccolo fights Kame @-@ Sen 'nin and Chaozu , leading to both their deaths , and uses the Dragon Balls to regain his youth before destroying Shenlong . Goku then kills Piccolo Daimao , who , just before dying , spawns his son / reincarnation Piccolo . Karin then directs Goku to Kami @-@ sama , the original creator of the Dragon Balls , to restore Shenlong and revive his slain friends . Goku trains under Kami for the next three years , once again reuniting with his friends at the Tenkaichi Budōkai , where he narrowly wins against Piccolo before leaving with Chi @-@ Chi to keep his promise to marry her .
Five years later , Goku is a young adult and father to his son Gohan , when Raditz arrives on Earth , identifies Goku as his younger brother ' Kakarrot ' and reveals to him that they are members of a nearly extinct extraterrestrial race called the Saiyans ( サイヤ人 , Saiya @-@ jin ) , who sent Goku to conquer Earth for them , until he suffered a severe head injury and lost all memory of his mission . Goku refuses to continue the mission , sides with Piccolo , and sacrifices his life to defeat Raditz . In the afterlife Goku trains under the North Kaiō until he is revived by the Dragon Balls to save the Earth from the invading Nappa and Vegeta . In the battle Yamcha , Chaozu , Tenshinhan , and Piccolo are killed , and the Dragon Balls cease to exist . Kuririn and the galactic tyrant Freeza learn of another set of Dragon Balls on planet Namek ( ナメック星 , Namekku @-@ sei ) , whereupon Bulma , Gohan , and Kuririn search for them to revive their friends and subsequently the Earth 's Dragon Balls , leading to several battles with Freeza 's minions and Vegeta , the latter standing alongside the heroes to fight the Ginyu Force , a team of mercenaries . The long battle with Freeza himself comes to a close when Goku transforms into a Super Saiyan ( 超サイヤ人 , Sūpā Saiya @-@ jin ) of legends and defeats him .
A group of Androids ( 人造人間 , Jinzōningen , " Artificial Humans " ) created by a member of the former Red Ribbon Army , Doctor Gero , appear three years later , seeking revenge against Goku . During this time , an evil life form called Cell also emerges and , after absorbing two of the Androids to achieve his " perfect form , " holds his own fighting tournament to challenge the protagonists . After Goku sacrifices his own life to no avail , Gohan avenges his father by defeating Cell . Seven years later , Goku , briefly revived for one day , and his allies are drawn into a fight against Majin Boo . After numerous battles , including destruction and re @-@ creation of the Earth , Goku destroys Boo with a Genki @-@ Dama ( a sphere of pure energy drawn from all intelligent beings on Earth ) and wishes for him to be reincarnated as a " good person . " Ten years later , at another Tenkaichi Budōkai , Goku meets Boo 's human reincarnation , Oob . Leaving their match unfinished , Goku departs with Oob to train him to be Earth 's new guardian .
= = Production = =
Akira Toriyama loosely modeled Dragon Ball on the classic Chinese novel Journey to the West ; but also redeveloped it from his 1983 one @-@ shot manga Dragon Boy . He has said that the fighting was influenced from movies by famous martial arts actor Jackie Chan , as he wanted to create a story with the basic theme of Journey to the West , but with " a little kung fu . " Since it was serialized in a shōnen magazine , he added the idea of the Dragon Balls to give it a game @-@ like activity of gathering something , without thinking of what the characters would wish for . With Goku being Sun Wukong , Bulma as Xuanzang , Oolong as Zhu Bajie and Yamcha being Sha Wujing , he originally thought it would last about a year or end once the Dragon Balls were collected . Toriyama stated that although the stories are purposefully easy to understand , he specifically aimed Dragon Ball at readers older than those of his previous serial Dr. Slump . He also wanted to break from the Western influences common in Dr. Slump , deliberately going for Chinese scenery , referencing Chinese buildings and photographs of China his wife had bought . The island where the Tenkaichi Budōkai is held is modeled after Bali , which he , his wife and assistant visited in mid @-@ 1985 , and for the area around Bobbidi 's spaceship he consulted photos of Africa .
It was when the Tenkaichi Budōkai martial arts tournament began that Dragon Ball truly became popular , having recalled the races and tournaments in Dr. Slump . Anticipating that readers would expect Goku to win the tournaments , Toriyama had him lose the first two while planning an eventual victory . He said that Muscle Tower in the Red Ribbon Army storyline was inspired by the video game Spartan X , in which enemies tended to appear very fast . He then created Piccolo Daimao as a truly evil villain , and as a result called that arc the most interesting to draw . Once Goku and company had become the strongest on Earth , they turned to extraterrestrial opponents including the Saiyans . Freeza , who forcibly took over planets to resell them , was created around the time of the Japanese economic bubble and was inspired by real estate speculators , whom Toriyama called the " worst kind of people . " Finding the escalating enemies difficult , he created the Ginyu Force to add more balance to the series . He added time travel next , but said he had a hard time with it , only thinking of what to do that week and having to discuss it with his second editor Yu Kondo . After Cell 's death , Toriyama intended for Gohan to replace Goku as the series ' protagonist , but felt the character was not suited for the role and changed his mind .
Going against the normal convention that the strongest characters should be the largest in terms of physical size , he designed many of Dragon Ball 's most powerful characters with small statures , including the protagonist , Goku . When creating a character , his process is to first come up with their face and body type , and then the clothes while thinking of the world they inhabit and if the fighters can move around in them . Toriyama said that he did not plan the details of the story , resulting in strange occurrences and discrepancies later in the series , including changing the colors of the characters mid @-@ story and few characters having screen tone because he found it difficult to use .
Toriyama later explained the he had Goku grow up as a means to make drawing fight scenes easier , even though his first editor Kazuhiko Torishima was initially against it because it was rare to have the main character of a manga series change drastically . When including fights in the manga , Toriyama had the characters go to uninhabited locations to avoid difficulties in drawing residents and destroyed buildings . While he personally dislikes the idea of naming fighting techniques , Torishima at the time felt it would be better , so Toriyama proceeded to create names for all of the techniques , except for the series ' signature Kamehameha ( かめはめ波 , lit . " Kamehame Wave " ) which his wife came up with when he was indecisive about what it should be called . In order to advance the story quickly by having characters travel without inconvenience , he created the flying cloud Kinto @-@ un ( 筋斗雲 , lit . " Somersault Cloud " ) , then gave most fighters the flying technique Bukū @-@ jutsu ( 舞空術 , lit . " Air Dance Technique " ) , and finally granted Goku the teleportation ability Shunkan Idō ( 瞬間移動 , lit . " Instant Teleport " ) . Once he came up with the idea of the Super Saiyan , he felt the only way to show Goku 's massive power up was to have him transform . Initially he was concerned that the facial expression looked like that of a villain , but felt since the transformation was brought about by anger it was acceptable . While talking to his long @-@ time friend and fellow manga artist Masakazu Katsura about how there was nothing stronger than a Super Saiyan , Katsura suggested having two characters " fuse " together , leading to the creation of the Fusion ( フュージョン , Fyūjon ) technique . Since the completion of Dragon Ball , Toriyama has continued to add to its story , mostly background information on its universe , through guidebooks published by Shueisha .
During the second half of the series , Toriyama has said that he had become more interested in coming up with the story than actually drawing it , and that the battles became more intense with him simplifying the lines . He also said he would get letters from readers complaining that the art had become " too square " , so he intentionally made it more so . In 2013 , he stated that because Dragon Ball is an action manga the most important aspect is the sense of speed , so he did not draw very elaborate , going so far as to suggest one could say that he was not interested in the art . He also once said that his goal for the series was to tell an " unconventional and contradictory " story . In 2013 , commenting on Dragon Ball 's global success , Toriyama said , " Frankly , I don 't quite understand why it happened . While the manga was being serialized , the only thing I wanted as I kept drawing was to make Japanese boys happy . " , " The role of my manga is to be a work of entertainment through and through . I dare say I don 't care even if [ my works ] have left nothing behind , as long as they have entertained their readers . "
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Written and illustrated by Akira Toriyama , Dragon Ball was serialized in the manga anthology Weekly Shōnen Jump from November 20 , 1984 to May 23 , 1995 , when Toriyama grew exhausted and felt he needed a break from drawing . The 519 individual chapters were published into 42 tankōbon volumes by Shueisha from September 10 , 1985 through August 4 , 1995 . In 2002 , the chapters were re @-@ released in a collection of 34 kanzenban volumes , which included a slightly rewritten ending , new covers , and color artwork from its Weekly Shōnen Jump run . The February 2013 issue of V Jump , which was released in December 2012 , announced that parts of the manga will be fully colored and re @-@ released in 2013 . Twenty volumes , beginning from chapter 195 and grouped by story arcs , were released between February 4 , 2013 and July 4 , 2014 .
The Dragon Ball manga is licensed for release in English in North America by Viz Media . Viz originally released volumes 17 through 42 ( chapters 195 through 519 ) under the title " Dragon Ball Z " to mimic the name of the anime series adapted from those volumes , feeling it would reduce the potential for confusion by its readers . They initially released both series chapter by chapter in a monthly comic book format starting in 1998 , and later began collecting them in graphic novels in 2000 . In 2000 , while releasing Dragon Ball in the monthly format , Viz began to censor the series in response to complaints by parents . They argued that when there are parental complaints , major chain stores stop selling the series , so to keep wide distribution , they made some " concessions " . They assured that all changes were done with approval by Toriyama and Shueisha , with Toriyama making suggestions himself : such as to obscure Goku 's genitals with objects , rather than " neuter him " . A fan petition that garnered over 10 @,@ 000 signatures was created , and a year later , Viz announced they would stop censoring the series and instead increased its " rating " to 13 and up , and reprinted the first 3 graphic novels .
" Dragon Ball Z " , from Trunk 's appearance to chapter 226 , was published in Viz 's monthly magazine Shonen Jump from its debut issue in January 2003 to April 2005 . Later , the first ten collected volumes of both series were re @-@ released from March to May 2003 under their " Shonen Jump " imprint , with Dragon Ball being completed on August 3 , 2004 and Dragon Ball Z finishing on June 6 , 2006 . However , when releasing the last few volumes of Dragon Ball Z , the company began to censor the series again ; translating the sound effects of gunshots to " zap " and changing the few sexual references . In June 2008 , Viz began re @-@ releasing the two series in a wideban format called " Viz Big Edition , " which collects three individual volumes into a single large volume . These editions are on higher quality paper and include some of the original Weekly Shōnen Jump color pages , however , they include new censorship not in the 2003 releases . On November 3 , 2008 , the first volumes of both series were released in hardcover " Collector 's Editions . " Viz began releasing new 3 @-@ in @-@ 1 volumes of Dragon Ball , similar to their " Viz Big Edition " , with volume one released on June 4 , 2013 . This version uses the Japanese kanzenban covers and marks the first time in English that the entire series is being released under the Dragon Ball name . They serialized chapter 195 to 245 of the fully colored version of the manga in their digital anthology Weekly Shonen Jump from February 2013 to February 2014 . They began publishing Dragon Ball Full Color Edition into large printed volumes on February 4 , 2014 .
The manga has also been licensed in other English @-@ speaking countries , distributed in the same Viz format of separating it into Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z. The United Kingdom 's release of the manga has been through different distributors . From August 2005 to November 2007 , Gollancz Manga an imprint of the Orion Publishing Group released the 16 volumes of Dragon Ball and the first 4 of Dragon Ball Z. Viz would release the books after Gollancz and expand to digital sales on the Nook in August 2013 . In Australia and New Zealand , Madman Entertainment has released all 16 volumes of the Dragon Ball manga and the 9 " Viz Big " volumes of Dragon Ball Z.
= = = = Spin @-@ offs and crossovers = = = =
Toriyama also created a short series , Neko Majin , that became a self @-@ parody of Dragon Ball . First appearing in August 1999 , the eight chapter series was released sporadically in Weekly Shōnen Jump and Monthly Shōnen Jump until it was completed in 2005 . These chapters were compiled into one kanzenban volume for release on April 4 , 2005 . In 2006 , in celebration of the 30th anniversary of Kochira Katsushika @-@ ku Kameari Kōen @-@ mae Hashutsujo ( or Kochikame ) , a special manga titled Super Kochikame ( 超こち亀 , Chō Kochikame ) was released on September 15 . It included characters from the series appearing in special crossover chapters of other well @-@ known manga . The chapter " This is the Police Station in front of Dragon Park on Planet Namek " ( こちらナメック星ドラゴン公園前派出所 , Kochira Namekku @-@ sei Dragon Kōen @-@ mae Hashutsujo ) was a Dragon Ball crossover by Toriyama and Kochikame author Osamu Akimoto . That same year , Toriyama teamed up with Eiichiro Oda to create a single crossover chapter of Dragon Ball and One Piece . Entitled Cross Epoch , the chapter was published in the December 25 , 2006 issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump and the April 2011 issue of English Shonen Jump . The final chapter of Toriyama 's 2013 manga series Jaco the Galactic Patrolman revealed that it is set before Dragon Ball , with several characters making appearances . Jaco 's collected volumes contain a bonus Dragon Ball chapter depicting Goku 's mother . Jaco and the bonus chapter were both published in Viz 's digital English Weekly Shonen Jump .
A colored spin @-@ off manga titled Dragon Ball SD and written by Naho Ōishi has been published in Shueisha 's Saikyō Jump magazine since its debut issue released in December 2010 . The manga is a condensed retelling of Goku 's various adventures as a child , with many details changed , in a super deformed art style , hence the title . It has been collected into four volumes , with the first being released on April 4 , 2013 , the second on April 4 , 2014 , the third on December 4 , 2014 , and the fourth on February 4 , 2016 .
Dragon Ball : Episode of Bardock is a three @-@ chapter manga , once again penned by Naho Ōishi , that was published in the monthly magazine V Jump from August and October 2011 . This manga is a sequel to the 1990 TV special Bardock – The Father of Goku with some key details changed . As the title indicates the manga 's story revolves around Bardock , Goku 's father , who in this special is featured in a scenario in which he did not die at the hands of Freeza and gets to fight his enemy as a Super Saiyan .
= = = Anime series = = =
= = = = Dragon Ball = = = =
Toei Animation produced an anime television series based on the first 194 manga chapters , also titled Dragon Ball . The series premiered in Japan on Fuji Television on February 26 , 1986 and ran until April 12 , 1989 , lasting 153 episodes .
= = = = Dragon Ball Z = = = =
Instead of continuing the anime as Dragon Ball , Toei Animation decided to carry on with their adaptation under a new name and asked Akira Toriyama to come up with the title . Dragon Ball Z ( ドラゴンボールZ ( ゼット ) , Doragon Bōru Zetto , commonly abbreviated as DBZ ) picks up five years after the first series left off and adapts the final 325 chapters of the manga . It premiered in Japan on Fuji Television on April 26 , 1989 , taking over its predecessor 's time slot , and ran for 291 episodes until its conclusion on January 31 , 1996 .
= = = = Dragon Ball GT = = = =
Dragon Ball GT ( ドラゴンボールGT ( ジーティー ) , Doragon Bōru Jī Tī , G ( rand ) T ( ouring ) ) premiered on Fuji TV on February 2 , 1996 and ran until November 19 , 1997 for 64 episodes . Unlike the first two anime series , it is not based on Akira Toriyama 's original Dragon Ball manga , being created by Toei Animation as a sequel to the series or as Toriyama called it , a " grand side story of the original Dragon Ball " . Toriyama designed the main cast , the spaceship used in the show , the design of three planets , and came up with the title and logo . In addition to this , Toriyama also oversaw production of the series , just as he had for the Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z anime .
= = = = Dragon Ball Kai = = = =
In February 2009 , Toei Animation announced that it would begin broadcasting a revised version of Dragon Ball Z as part of the series ' 20th anniversary celebrations . The series premiered on Fuji TV in Japan on April 5 , 2009 , under the name Dragon Ball Kai ( ドラゴンボール改 , Doragon Bōru Kai , lit . " Dragon Ball Revised " ) , with the episodes remastered for HDTV , featuring updated opening and ending sequences , and a rerecording of the vocal tracks by most of the original cast . The footage was also re @-@ edited to more closely follow the manga , resulting in a faster @-@ moving story , and damaged frames removed . As such , it is a new version of Dragon Ball Z created from the original footage . Some shots were also remade from scratch in order to fix cropping and continuity issues . The majority of the international versions , including Funimation Entertainment 's English dub , are titled Dragon Ball Z Kai .
= = = = Dragon Ball Super = = = =
On April 28 , 2015 , Toei Animation announced Dragon Ball Super ( ドラゴンボール超 , Doragon Bōru Sūpā ) , the first all @-@ new Dragon Ball television series to be released in
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, scoring 17 @.@ 9 % – the best showing ever for the FN .
In the 2012 legislative election , the National Front won two seats ; Gilbert Collard and Marion Maréchal @-@ Le Pen .
In two polls about presidential favourites in April and May 2013 , Marine le Pen polled ahead of president François Hollande but behind Nicolas Sarkozy .
= = = = 2014 – 15 electoral successes = = = =
In the municipal elections held on 23 and 30 March 2014 , lists officially supported by National Front won mayoralties in 12 cities : Beaucaire , Cogolin , Fréjus , Hayange , Hénin @-@ Beaumont , Le Luc , Le Pontet , Mantes @-@ la @-@ Ville , Marseille 7th sector , Villers @-@ Cotterêts , Béziers and Camaret @-@ sur @-@ Aigues . Following the municipal elections , the National Front has , in cities of over 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants , 1 @,@ 546 and 459 councilors at two different levels of local government . The international media described the results as " historic " , and " impressive " , although the International Business Times suggested that " hopes for real political power remain a fantasy " for the National Front .
The National Front received 4 @,@ 712 @,@ 461 votes in the 2014 European Parliament election , finishing first with 24 @.@ 86 % of the vote and 24 of France 's 74 seats . " It was the first time the anti @-@ immigrant , anti @-@ EU party had won a nationwide election in its four @-@ decade history . " The party 's success came as a shock in France and the EU . The next year , the National Front went on to win another victory in the first round of the 2015 regional elections on December 6 , placing first in 6 of the 13 newly redrawn regions and emerging ahead of both major establishment parties overall . In Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais @-@ Picardie , Marine Le Pen won 40 @.@ 6 % of the vote .
= = Political profile = =
The party 's ideology has been broadly described by scholars such as Shields as authoritarian , nationalist , and populist The FN has changed considerably since its foundation , as it has pursued the principles of modernisation and pragmatism , adapting to the changing political climate . At the same time , its message has increasingly influenced mainstream political parties , although the FN too has moved somewhat closer towards the centre @-@ right . While some have denounced its policies as " fascist " , some features that are integral to historical ( and generic ) fascism are absent in the party and others are prominent .
= = = Law and order = = =
In 2002 , Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen campaigned on a law @-@ and @-@ order platform of zero tolerance , harsher sentencing , increased prison capacity , and a referendum on re @-@ introducing the death penalty . In its 2001 program , the party linked the breakdown of law and order to immigration , deeming immigration a " mortal threat to civil peace in France . "
= = = Immigration = = =
In the early years of the FN , immigration policy was only a minor issue for the party , although it did call for immigration to be reduced . Themes of exclusion of non @-@ European immigrants was largely brought into the party in 1978 , with the arrival of Jean @-@ Pierre Stirbois and his " solidarist " group . The topic subsequently became increasingly important in the early 1980s .
In more recent popular and even academic press , the party 's program has often been reduced to the single issue of immigration . The party opposes immigration , particularly Muslim immigration from North Africa , West Africa and the Middle East . Over the years , and especially since the 1999 split , the FN has cultivated a more moderate image on issues of immigration and Islam , at least compared to some of the proposals of Mégret 's MNR or Philippe de Villiers 's Movement for France . It no longer expressly supports the systematic repatriation of legal immigrants , although it supports Islamophobic activities as well as the deportation of illegal , criminal , or unemployed immigrants .
Since becoming leader of the party in 2011 , Marine Le Pen has focused mostly on the perceived threat against the secular value system of the French Republic . She has criticised Muslims , for what she perceives as their alleged intents to impose their own values on the country . Following the Arab Spring rebellions in several countries , she has been active in campaigning on halting the migration to Europe of Tunisian and Libyan immigrants .
= = = Economy = = =
At the end of the 1970s , Le Pen refurbished his party 's appeal , by breaking away from the anticapitalist heritage of Poujadism . He instead made an unambiguous commitment to popular capitalism , and started espousing an extremely market liberal and antistatist program . Issues included lower taxes , reducing state intervention , and dissolving the bureaucracy . Some scholars have even considered that the FN 's 1978 program may be regarded as " Reaganite before Reagan " .
The party 's economic policy shifted from the 1980s to the 1990s from neoliberalism to protectionism . This should be seen within the framework of a changed international environment , from a battle between the Free World and communism , to one between nationalism and globalization . During the 1980s , Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen complained about the rising number of " social parasites " , and called for deregulation , tax cuts , and the phasing @-@ out of the welfare state . As the party gained growing support from the economically vulnerable , it converted towards politics of social welfare and economic protectionism . This was part of its shift away from its former claim of being the " social , popular and national right " to its claim of being " neither right nor left – French ! " Increasingly , the party 's program became an amalgam of free market and welfarist policies , which some political commentators have claimed are left @-@ wing economic policies .
Under her leadership , Marine Le Pen has been more clear in her support for protectionism , while she has criticised globalism and capitalism for certain industries . She has been characterised as a proponent of letting the government take care of health , education , transportation , banking and energy .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
From the 1980s to the 1990s , the party 's policy shifted from favouring the European Union to turning against it . In 2002 , Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen campaigned on pulling France out of the EU and re @-@ introducing the franc as national currency . In the early 2000s the party denounced the Schengen , Maastricht , and Amsterdam treaties as foundations for " a supranational entity spelling the end of France . " In 2004 , the party criticised the EU as " the last stage on the road to world government " , likening it to a " puppet of the New World Order . " It also proposed breaking all institutional ties back to the Treaty of Rome , while it returned to supporting a common European currency to rival the United States dollar . Further , it rejected the possible accession of Turkey to the EU . The FN was also one of several parties that backed France 's 2005 rejection of the Treaty for a European Constitution . In other issues , Le Pen opposed the invasions of Iraq , led by the United States , both in the 1991 Gulf War and the 2003 Iraq War . He visited Saddam Hussein in Baghdad in 1990 , and subsequently considered him a friend .
Marine Le Pen has advocated that France should leave the euro ( along with Spain , Greece and Portugal ) . She also wants to reintroduce customs borders and has campaigned against allowing dual citizenship . During both the 2010 – 2011 Ivorian crisis and the 2011 Libyan civil war , she opposed the French military involvements . She has recast the party 's image towards Israel , after affirming Israel 's right to secure itself from terrorism , and criticising the leadership of Iran .
= = = = Russia and Ukraine = = = =
Marine Le Pen described Russian President Vladimir Putin as a " defender of the Christian heritage of European civilisation . " The National Front considers that Ukraine has been subjugated by the United States , through the Ukrainian crisis . The National Front denounces anti @-@ Russian feelings in Eastern Europe and the submission of Western Europe to NATO 's interests in the region . Marine Le Pen is very critical against the threats of sanctions directed by the international community against Russia : " European countries should seek a solution through diplomacy rather than making threats that could lead to an escalation . " She argues that the United States are leading a new Cold War against Russia . She sees no other solution for peace in Ukraine than to organize a kind of federation that would allow each region to have a large degree of autonomy . She thinks Ukraine should be sovereign and free as any other nations .
Luke Harding wrote in The Guardian that the National Front 's MEPs were a " pro @-@ Russian bloc . " In 2014 , the Nouvel Observateur said that the Russian government considered the National Front " capable of seizing power in France and changing the course of European history in Moscow 's favour . " According to the French media , party leaders had frequent contact with Russian ambassador Alexander Orlov and Marine Le Pen made multiple trips to Moscow . In May 2015 , one of her advisers , Emmanuel Leroy , attended an event in Donetsk marking the " independence " of the self @-@ proclaimed Donetsk People 's Republic .
= = = = = Russian bank loan = = = = =
In November 2014 , Marine Le Pen confirmed that the party had received a € 9 million loan from the First Czech Russian Bank ( FCRB ) in Moscow to the National Front . Senior FN officials from the party 's political bureau informed Mediapart that this was the first installment of a € 40 million loan , although Marine Le Pen has disputed this . The Independent said the loans " take Moscow 's attempt to influence the internal politics of the EU to a new level . " Reinhard Bütikofer stated , " It 's remarkable that a political party from the motherland of freedom can be funded by Putin 's sphere - the largest European enemy of freedom . " Marine Le Pen argued that it was not a donation from the Russian government but a loan from a private Russian bank because no other bank would give her a loan . This loan is meant to prepare future electoral campaigns and to be repaid progressively . Marine Le Pen has publicly disclosed all the rejection letters that French banks have sent to her concerning her loan requests . Since November 2014 , she insists that if a French bank agrees to give her a loan , she would break her contract with the FCBR , but she has not received any other counter @-@ propositions . Le Pen accused the banks of collusion with the current government In April 2015 , a Russian hacker group published texts and emails between Timur Prokopenko , a member of Putin 's administration , and Konstantin Rykov , a former Duma deputy with ties to France , discussing Russian financial support to the National Front in exchange for its support of Russia 's annexation of Crimea .
= = = = View on Nazi history and relations with Jewish groups = = = =
In 2005 , Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen wrote in the far @-@ right weekly magazine Rivarol that the German occupation of France " was not particularly inhumane , even if there were a few blunders , inevitable in a country of [ 220 @,@ 000 square miles ] " and in 1987 referred to the Nazi gas chambers as " a point of detail of the history of the Second World War . " He has repeated the latter claim several times . Also in 2004 , Bruno Gollnisch said " I do not question the existence of concentration camps but historians could discuss the number of deaths . As to the existence of gas chambers , it is up to historians to speak their minds " ( de se déterminer ) . Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen received fines for this sentence , Bruno Gollnisch was found not guilty by the courts of cassation . The current leader of the party , Marine Le Pen distanced herself for a time from the party machine in protest against her father 's comment . During the 2012 presidential elections , Marine Le Pen sought the support of Jewish people in France , as her father did in 1988 when he went to see the World Jewish Congress .
= = International relations = =
The FN has been part of several groups in the European Parliament . The first group it helped co @-@ establish was the European Right after the 1984 election , which also consisted of the Italian Social Movement ( MSI ) , its early inspiration , and the Greek National Political Union . Following the 1989 election , it teamed up with the German Republicans and the Belgian Vlaams Blok in a new European Right group , while the MSI left due to the Germans ' arrival . As the MSI evolved into the National Alliance , it chose to distance itself from the FN . From 1999 to 2001 , the FN was a member of the Technical Group of Independents . In 2007 , it was part of the short @-@ lived Identity , Tradition , Sovereignty group . Between the mentioned groups , the party sat among the non @-@ affiliated Non @-@ Inscrits . Currently , it leads the Europe of Nations and Freedom group , which also includes the Freedom Party of Austria , Polish Congress of the New Right , Italian Northern League , Vlaams Belang , the German AfD , the Dutch Freedom Party , a former member of the UK Independence Party and a former member of Romania 's Conservative Party . They 're also part of the Movement for a Europe of Nations and Freedom since 2014 .
During Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen 's presidency , the party has also been active in establishing extra @-@ parliamentary confederations . During the FN 's 1997 national congress , the FN established the loose Euronat group , which consisted of a variety of European right @-@ wing parties . Having failed to cooperate in the European Parliament , Le Pen sought in the mid @-@ 1990s to initiate contacts with other far @-@ right parties , including from non @-@ EU countries . The FN drew most support in Central and Eastern Europe , and Le Pen visited the Turkish Welfare Party . The significant Freedom Party of Austria ( FPÖ ) refused to join the efforts , as Jörg Haider sought to distance himself from Le Pen , and later attempted to build a separate group . In 2009 , the FN joined the Alliance of European National Movements , it left the alliance since . Along with some other European parties , the FN in 2010 visited Japan 's Issuikai movement and the Yasukuni Shrine .
At a conference in 2011 , the two new leaders of the FN and the FPÖ , Marine Le Pen and Heinz @-@ Christian Strache , announced deeper cooperation between their parties . Pursuing her de @-@ demonization policy , Marine Le Pen as new president of the National Front joined the European Alliance for Freedom in October 2011 . A pan @-@ European sovereigntist platform founded late 2010 and recognized by the European Parliament . The EAF has individual members linked to the Austrian Freedom Party of Heinz @-@ Christian Strache , the British UK Independence Party of Nigel Farage , and other movements such as the Sweden Democrats , Vlaams Belang ( Belgian Flanders ) and from Malta , Germany ( Bürger in Wut ) , Slovakia ( Slovak National Party ) , etc .
During her visit to the United States , Marine Le Pen met two US Republican members of the U.S House of Representatives associated with the Tea Party movement , Joe Walsh , who is known for his strong Islamophobic stance , and three @-@ time presidential candidate Ron Paul , whom Le Pen complimented for his stance on the gold standard .
Apart from the party 's cooperations in the Europe of Nations and Freedom parliamentary group and its European party MENL , the FN also cooperates with Giorgia Meloni 's Fratelli d 'Italia and Czech Republic 's SPD .
= = Leadership = =
= = = Party leaders = = =
Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen ( 1972 – 2011 )
Marine Le Pen ( 2011 – present )
= = = Vice presidents = = =
The party has had five vice presidents since 12 July 2012 ( against three previously ) .
Alain Jamet , 1st vice president ( 2011 – present )
Louis Aliot , in charge of training and demonstrations ( 2011 – present )
Marie @-@ Christine Arnautu , in charge of social affairs ( 2011 – present )
Jean @-@ François Jalkh , in charge of elections and electoral litigations ( 2012 – present )
Florian Philippot , in charge of strategy and communication ( 2012 – present )
Steeve Briois , in charge of local executives and supervision ( 2014 – present )
= = = General secretaries = = =
Jean @-@ Pierre Stirbois ( 1981 – 1988 )
Carl Lang ( 1988 – 1995 )
Bruno Gollnisch ( 1995 – 2005 )
Louis Aliot ( 2005 – 2010 )
Jean @-@ François Jalkh ( 2010 – 2011 : interim period during the internal campaign )
Steeve Briois ( 2011 – 2014 )
= = Election results = =
The National Front was a marginal party from 1973 , the first election it participated in , until its breakthrough in the 1984 European elections , where it won 11 % of the vote and ten MEPs . Following this election , the party 's support mostly ranged from around 10 to 15 % , although it saw a drop to around 5 % in some late 2000s elections . Since 2010 , the party 's support seems to have increased towards its former heights . The party managed to advance to the final round of the presidential elections in 2002 , although it failed to attract much more support after the initial first round vote .
= = = National Assembly = = =
= = = Presidential = = =
= = = Regional councils = = =
= = = European Parliament = = =
= = = In French = = =
Bertrand Joly , Nationalistes et Conservateurs en France , 1885 @-@ 1902 ( Les Indes Savantes , 2008 )
Winock , Michel ( dir . ) , Histoire de l 'extrême droite en France ( 1993 )
= Not My Life =
Not My Life is a 2011 American independent documentary film about human trafficking and contemporary slavery . The film was written , produced , and directed by Robert Bilheimer , who had been asked to make the film by Antonio Maria Costa , executive director of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . Bilheimer planned Not My Life as the second installment in a trilogy , the first being A Closer Walk and the third being the unproduced Take Me Home . The title Not My Life came from a June 2009 interview with Molly Melching , founder of Tostan , who said that many people deny the reality of contemporary slavery because it is an uncomfortable truth , saying , " No , this is not my life . "
Filming of Not My Life took four years to complete , and documented human trafficking in 13 countries : Albania , Brazil , Cambodia , Egypt , Ghana , Guatemala , India , Italy , Nepal , Romania , Senegal , Uganda , and the United States . The first and last scenes of the film take place in Ghana , and show children who are forced to fish in Lake Volta for 14 hours a day . The film also depicts sex trafficking victims , some of whom are only five or six years old .
Fifty people are interviewed in the film , including investigative journalist Paul Radu of Bucharest , Katherine Chon of the Polaris Project , and Iana Matei of Reaching Out Romania . Don Brewster of Agape International Missions says that all of the girls they have rescued from child sex tourism in Cambodia identify Americans as the clients who were the most abusive to them . The film was dedicated to Richard Young , its cinematographer and co @-@ director , after he died in December 2010 . It had its premiere the following month at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in New York City . The narration was completely rerecorded in 2011 , replacing Ashley Judd 's voice with that of Glenn Close . The version of the film that was aired by CNN International as part of the CNN Freedom Project was shorter than the version shown at the premiere . In 2014 , a re @-@ edited version of the film was released .
Not My Life addresses many forms of slavery , including the military use of children in Uganda , involuntary servitude in the United States , forced begging and garbage picking in India , sex trafficking in Europe and Southeast Asia , and other kinds of child abuse . The film also focuses on the people and organizations engaged in working against human trafficking . The film asserts that most victims of human trafficking are children . Actress Lucy Liu said that people who watch Not My Life " will be shocked to find [ human trafficking ] is happening in America . " Lucy Popescu of CineVue criticized the film for focusing on the victims , arguing that the perpetrators of trafficking should have been dealt with more prominently . Not My Life was named Best World Documentary at the Harlem International Film Festival in September 2012 .
= = Themes = =
Not My Life is a documentary film about human trafficking and contemporary slavery . It addresses many forms of slavery , including the military use of children in Uganda , involuntary servitude in the United States , unfree labor in Ghana , forced begging and garbage picking in India , sex trafficking in Europe and Southeast Asia , and other kinds of child abuse . The focus of the film is on trafficking victims , especially women and children , the latter of whom are often betrayed by adults that they trust . The film also focuses on the people and organizations engaged in working against human trafficking , including members of the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , Free the Slaves , Girls Educational and Mentoring Services ( GEMS ) , International Justice Mission ( IJM ) , the Somaly Mam Foundation , Terre des hommes , Tostan , UNICEF , United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime ( UNODC ) , and the United States Department of State ( US DoS ) . Not My Life has been called " a cautionary tale " . It depicts the commodification of millions of people and identifies the practices of traffickers as undermining international economics , security , sustainability and health .
Not My Life calls attention to the fact that , in the United States , the sentencing for human trafficking is less severe than for drug trafficking . The film indicates a relationship between contemporary slavery and globalization . It asserts that most human trafficking victims are children , although the filmmakers have recognized the fact that millions of adults are also trafficked . The film depicts human trafficking as a matter of good and evil , provides interviews with survivors of human trafficking , and presents analysis from anti @-@ trafficking advocates . Throughout the film , Robert Bilheimer encourages viewers to personally combat human trafficking . Bilheimer was sparing in his use of statistics in the film , feeling that overloading viewers with figures might numb them to the issues .
According to Nancy Keefe Rhodes of Stone Canoe , a U.S. literary journal , the film 's audiences are likely to have the preconception that human trafficking is not slavery in the same sense that the Atlantic slave trade was , and many people believe that slavery was abolished a long time ago with such instruments as the U.S. Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment . Rhodes writes that society now uses the word " slavery " in modern contexts only as a metaphor , so that references to actual contemporary slavery can be dismissed as hyperbole , and she describes the film 's goal as to " reclaim the original term [ slavery ] and convince us that what is happening now is what happened then : highly organized and pervasive , intentional , highly profitable and ... fully as coercive and wantonly cruel . " Rhodes says that the word " slavery " has started to be used in its original sense again in recent years , but that audiences ' views on contemporary slavery are nonetheless influenced by the slave @-@ like imagery in such films as Hustle & Flow ( 2005 ) and Black Snake Moan ( 2007 ) . The Academy Award @-@ winning Hustle & Flow portrays a pimp as the hero , while Black Snake Moan features Christina Ricci as a young nymphomaniac ; the marketing for Black Snake Moan centered on evocative , sexualized slave imagery , including a scantily @-@ clad Ricci in chains . According to Rhodes , Bilheimer " rescue [ s ] modern slaves from representation as exotic creatures , to restore their humanity " and allow audiences to relate to them . For this purpose , Bilheimer tells stories of individuals in the context of their communities and families . While Bilheimer had previously done extensive social justice work with religious organizations , he did not proselytize in the film , despite the many opportunities the film afforded him to do so .
= = Contents = =
Fifty people are interviewed in Not My Life , including Katherine Chon of the Polaris Project , investigative journalist Paul Radu of Bucharest , Vincent Tournecuillert of Terre des hommes , Iana Matei of Reaching Out Romania , UNICEF Director of Programmes Nicholas Alipui , Susan Bissell of UNICEF 's Child Protection Section , Antonio Maria Costa of UNODC , Somaly Mam of the Somaly Mam Foundation , Molly Melching of Tostan in Senegal , and Suzanne Mubarak , who was First Lady of Egypt at the time . The sex trafficking victims shown in the film include children as young as five and six years old .
Not My Life begins with a black screen on which the words " Human trafficking is slavery " appear in white . A sequence filmed in Ghana follows , showing children who are forced to fish in Lake Volta for 14 hours a day . Many of the children die as a result of the working conditions . A 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy swims through the murky water towards the camera , looking into it , and holds his breath underwater while trying to unsnarl a fishing net . Next , Senegalese talibes , Muslim boys who attend Quranic schools , appear . There are approximately 50 @,@ 000 talibes in Senegal who are forced to beg on the streets to make money for their teachers ; children who do not meet their quotas are beaten . Many of these children suffer from skin and stomach diseases because of their diet of spoiled food — one demonstrates his diseased hands to the camera , only for an adult to pull him away by the ear . The film then moves to India and depicts children , mostly wearing flip @-@ flops , illegally sorting through hazardous waste in Ghazipur and New Delhi landfills . Romani families are shown in Central and Eastern Europe , and the narration indicates that Romani boys are often trafficked for the purpose of forced child begging , and that Romani girls are regularly trafficked as child prostitutes . The narrator says that the profits of human trafficking " are built on the backs and in the beds of our planet 's youth . "
In Zoha Prison in Romania , there are interviews with traffickers serving prison sentences that the film suggested were too short in light of the severity of the crime of human trafficking . The typical sentence for this crime is six or seven years , while the sentence for trafficking in drugs is normally twenty years . Two Romanian traffickers , Traian and Ovidiu , attest to having starved , punched , and kicked the girls they trafficked . Ovidiu recounts a story , in an interview filmed in February 2007 , about kidnapping a prostitute and selling her for sex when he was 14 . He expresses no remorse for these actions . The sentences served by Traian and Ovidiu were short enough that , by the time the film was released , they were no longer in prison . Ana , a girl they trafficked , is also interviewed in the film , saying that she lost a tooth in one of her beatings . She describes being pregnant at the time , but not telling this to her captors because of fears for the unborn child 's safety .
Radu is interviewed in this portion of the film , as is Tournecuillert , who speaks about his experiences in Albania , where he heard about the sex trafficking of girls and how some of the girls would be shot or burned to death as a warning to the other girls . He describes how Albanian girls are often rounded up to be sexually trafficked in Italy . He further explains that , normally , before they leave Albania , the traffickers kill one of the girls in front of the others — usually by burning or shooting — to demonstrate what will happen to others who try to escape . Matei adds that , for the sake of amusement , some of the girls would be buried alive with only their heads remaining above ground . Eugenia Bonetti , a nun , speaks about her work helping girls escape from slavery in Italy .
Another interview is with a Wichita , Kansas woman named Angie who was prostituted with another girl , Melissa , in the American Midwest when they were teenagers . Angie recounts how they were expected to have sex with truck drivers and steal their money . She describes an incident when , after Melissa found pictures of a man 's grandchildren in his wallet , they realized he was old enough to be their own grandfather . " I wanted to die , " she says , close to tears . Outside the film , Bilheimer said that Angie 's trafficker expected her to engage in forty sex acts a night , and threatened to kill her if she refused . " It 's not just truck drivers , " FBI agent Mike Beaver says . " We 're seeing them purchased and abused by both white collar and blue collar individuals . " This statement segues into a Washington , D.C. , scene wherein two girls in their early teens are shown by a curb on K Street , changing into prostitutes ' attire .
Angie was rescued during Operation Stormy Nights , an anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking operation carried out by the FBI , in 2004 . Bilheimer said that , while there is no way of being certain how many girls like Angie are being sexually trafficked in the U.S. , " diligent people out there have arrived at a bare minimum figure of ... one hundred thousand girls , eight to fifteen [ performing ] ten sex acts a day " adding up to " a billion unpunished crimes of sexual violence on an annual basis . "
Another American victim of sexual trafficking , Sheila White , describes an incident in 2003 when she was beaten up next to the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . She says that nobody even asked her if she needed help . White eventually escaped from being trafficked and went on to work with GEMS to raise awareness on the issue in New York . In 2012 , after the film was released , Barack Obama , President of the United States , recognized White 's work and told her story during a speech to the Clinton Global Initiative .
The next scenes in the film depict child labour in Nepal , and indicate that child workers in the textile industry are commonly targeted by sex traffickers . A brothel raid in India , led by Balkrishna Acharya of the Rescue Foundation in Mumbai , is then shown . Ten young girls are rescued from a four @-@ by @-@ three @-@ foot closet and a crawl space . The madam reacts furiously , perceiving the raid as taking away her livelihood . Then , the trafficking of children into the sex industry is depicted in Cambodia . Some scenes take place in Svay Pak , Phnom Penh , one of the cheapest sex tourism destinations in the Mekong Delta . Women of the Somaly Mam Foundation are depicted working with girls who have been sexually trafficked . A large number of these girls are pictured one by one , each child fading into the next against the backdrop of a doorway . An interview with one of the Somaly Mam Foundation workers , Sophea Chhun , reveals that her daughter , Sokny , was kidnapped in 2008 at age 23 . " Most likely Sokny too was sold , " Chhun says , claiming that " the police treated it like she wasn 't important " — perhaps , she suggests , because Sokny was an adopted child . Don Brewster of Agape International Missions is interviewed , and says that all of the girls they have rescued from child sex tourism in Cambodia identify Americans as the clients who were the most abusive to them . Bilheimer agreed with this assertion in an interview outside the film .
In Guatemala City , Guatemalan trafficker Efrain Ortiz is shown being arrested , and the film indicates that he was later given a prison sentence of 95 years . Ortiz had two sons he had been using for waste collection and five daughters he had been committing incest with . Bilheimer accompanies IJM representatives Pablo Villeda , Amy Roth , and Gary Haugen as they and the local police arrest Ortiz ; he is charged with exploitation of children and violence against women . Ortiz looks surprised as he is handcuffed . Haugen , President of IJM , went on to be named a Trafficking in Persons ( TIP ) Hero in the 2012 US DoS TIP Report .
Grace Akallo , a Ugandan woman who was once abducted by Joseph Kony to be used as a child soldier in the Lord 's Resistance Army ( LRA ) , is interviewed , saying that " this kind of evil must be stopped . " She was forced to kill another girl as part of her initiation into the LRA , a very common practice among armies that employ child soldiers . The film states that she was ultimately rehabilitated and became a mother .
Bishop Desmond Tutu , who Bilheimer had previously interviewed for The Cry of Reason , appears towards the end of the film , saying , " Each of us has the capacity to be a saint . " Bilheimer included Tutu in Not My Life because he felt that audiences might be in need of pastoral counseling after watching the film . The final scene of Not My Life returns to the boy holding his breath underwater in Ghana . His name is revealed to be Etse , and it is stated that he and six other trafficking victims shown in the film have been rescued . Some of the last words in the film are spoken by Brazilian human rights advocate Leo Sakomoto : " I can 't see a good life while there are people living like animals . Not because I 'm a good person , not because it 's my duty , but because they are human — like me . "
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
The project that became Not My Life was initiated by the executive director of the UNODC , Antonio Maria Costa , who wanted to commission a film that would " bring the issue of modern slavery to the attention of public opinion , globally — especially the well @-@ meaning , law @-@ abiding and God @-@ fearing people who do not believe something so horrible is happening in their own neighborhood . " With this goal in mind , Costa approached Worldwide Documentaries , an East Bloomfield , New York @-@ based organization that had produced two films with which he was familiar : The Cry of Reason , which documents internal resistance to South African apartheid by way of Beyers Naudé 's story ; and A Closer Walk , which is about the epidemiology of HIV / AIDS . Costa e @-@ mailed Bilheimer , Director of Worldwide Documentaries , asking him to create the film he envisioned . Costa said that he choose Bilheimer because the director had developed a " solid reputation [ for ] addressing difficult topics ... combining artistic talent , a philosophical view about development and a humanitarian sentiment about what to do about the issues . "
Bilheimer accepted Costa 's proposition , and subsequently wrote , produced , and directed Not My Life as an independent film . Bilheimer , who had received an Academy Award nomination for The Cry of Reason , said that " the unrelenting , unpunished , and craven exploitation of millions of human beings for labor , sex , and hundreds of sub @-@ categories thereof is simply the most appalling and damaging expression of so @-@ called human civilization we have ever seen . " Bilheimer 's wife , Heidi Ostertag , is Worldwide Documentaries ' Senior Producer , and she co @-@ produced Not My Life with him . She said that she found making a film about human trafficking difficult because " people do not want to talk about this issue . " Bilheimer found that the connections he had made during the production of A Closer Walk were also useful when producing Not My Life because the poor and the outcast are at the greatest risk of both HIV / AIDS and human trafficking ; there is , for this reason , much overlap between the groups victimized by these two afflictions . Bilheimer attempted to fashion the film in such a way that every part of it would illustrate a statement made by Abraham Lincoln : " If slavery is not wrong , nothing is wrong . "
When making this film , Bilheimer held that a contemporary abolitionist movement did not yet exist . He described his purpose in creating the film as to raise awareness and initiate such a movement . He also wished to communicate to his audiences that not all human trafficking is sexual . Traffickers " commit unspeakable , wanton acts of violence against their fellow human beings , " he said , " and are rarely punished for their crimes . " Production of Not My Life was supported by the United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking ( UN.GIFT ) , UNICEF , and UNODC , providing Worldwide Documentaries with $ 1 million in funding secured by Costa .
= = = Filming = = =
Bilheimer said that the level of cruelty he saw in shooting Not My Life was greater than anything he had seen when documenting apartheid in South Africa for The Cry of Reason . Bilheimer attested to becoming more aware of the global extent of human trafficking as he went about making Not My Life . The film 's title came from a June 2009 interview with Molly Melching , founder of Tostan , an organization dedicated to human rights education operating in ten African countries . As Bilheimer and Melching spoke in Thiès , Senegal , discussing how people often deny the reality of contemporary slavery because it is an uncomfortable truth , Melching said , " People can say , ' No , this is not my life . ' But my life can change . Let 's change together . "
Filming of Not My Life took place over four years in Africa , Asia , Europe , and North and South America documenting human trafficking in thirteen countries : Albania , Brazil , Cambodia , Egypt , Ghana , Guatemala , India , Italy , Nepal , Romania , Senegal , Uganda , and the United States . Shooting in Ghana took place over four 18 @-@ hour days , during which the film crew had to travel over washboard roads in Land Rovers and did not sleep . Filming in Svay Pak took place in March 2010 , and shooting in Abusir , Egypt took place the following month .
In Guatemala , Bilheimer facilitated the arrest of trafficker Ortiz by renting a car for the police to use , in order to film the arrest as part of Not My Life . Bilheimer said that , during the making of the film , he and his crew were surprised to discover that traffickers employ similar methods of intimidation across the globe , " almost as if there were ... unwritten bylaws and tactics ... The lies are the same . "
= = = Editing = = =
Susan Tedeschi , Derek Trucks , and Dave Brubeck performed the theme song for Not My Life , Bob Dylan 's " Lord Protect My Child " , which was produced by Chris Brubeck . After the initial screenings in early 2011 , the film went through a series of revisions , taking into account information gathered from more than thirty screenings for focus groups . Later that year , the narration was completely rerecorded ; Bilheimer replaced Ashley Judd 's voice with that of Glenn Close , who had previously worked with him on A Closer Walk . The version of the film that was aired by CNN International was shorter than the version shown at the premiere . An even shorter version , only 30 minutes long , was created with school audiences in mind .
Content relating to the Egyptian mixed @-@ sex schools instituted by Suzanne Mubarak was gathered , but Bilheimer eventually removed much of this content from the film because the Arab Spring made the information in this portion of the film outdated , despite the continued existence of most of these schools . Much of the interview with Molly Melching was removed as well . During the editing of Not My Life , Bilheimer cut the interview with Tutu , but later re @-@ added a single quotation . In this interview , Bilheimer told Tutu about meeting normally reasonable , compassionate women who , when speaking about human traffickers , say things like " Hang him up by his balls and then cut ' em off ! " Tutu , head of the truth and reconciliation commission , surprised Bilheimer with his response , saying that " these people have committed monstrous acts , " but that , according to Christianity , traffickers can still be redeemed and become saints .
As had occurred with Bilheimer 's previous film , A Closer Walk , Not My Life had several preview screenings before its official release . The United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) hosted a preview screening at the Willard InterContinental Washington in September 2009 as part of a day @-@ long symposium on human trafficking . A preview screening in Egypt , including the material shot in that country that was later removed , took place in December 2010 at the International Forum against Human Trafficking in Luxor .
Later that month , on December 15 , the film 's cinematographer and co @-@ director Richard Young died . Not My Life was subsequently dedicated to him . Bilheimer said that Young had believed in the film far more than he himself had .
= = Release = =
The film had its official premiere in Alice Tully Hall at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in New York City on January 19 , 2011 . Melanne Verveer , United States Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large for Global Women 's Issues , gave a speech , saying , " Each and every one of us is called to act . I hope that tonight each of us will make their own commitment . " Additional screenings were held in Los Angeles and Chicago later that month . That October , Not My Life had its international premiere in London . CNN International aired the film in two parts a few days later as part of the CNN Freedom Project . The Swedish premiere was attended by Crown Princess Victoria . Bilheimer recognized that people combatting human trafficking are in need of resources , so he considered various options with respect to the intellectual property of Not My Life , ultimately deciding to release the film at charge in addition to selling licenses for unlimited private screenings . On November 1 , an 83 @-@ minute version of the film was released on DVD by Worldwide Documentaries , which also began digitally distributing the film and selling the unlimited licenses . LexisNexis , the governments of Arizona and Minnesota , and the U.S. Fund for UNICEF all purchased licenses . The latter organization planned to use the film as part of an anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking campaign .
Not My Life was screened at the 2012 UNIS @-@ UN Conference in New York City , the theme of which was human exploitation . Segments from the film were included in " Can You Walk Away ? " , a 2012 exhibition on contemporary slavery at President Lincoln 's Cottage at the Soldiers ' Home in Washington , DC . A hotel chain presented the film to its staff in London in preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics to raise awareness about the types of human trafficking that might take place in conjunction with the events . Bilheimer initiated an Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign in 2012 to allow local organizations opposing human trafficking to screen the film . That same year , he expressed a willingness to release fifteen @-@ minute excerpts from the film to help its message reach more people .
In a 2012 interview , Bilheimer said that he considered A Closer Walk and Not My Life to be the first two installments in a trilogy ; he intended to make an environmental film called Take Me Home as the third installment . As of 2013 , however , the Worldwide Documentaries website stated that Bilheimer was considering different subjects for his next film , including poverty in the United States , the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake , and posttraumatic stress disorder among U.S. Army veterans of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan . Bilheimer said in 2013 that Not My Life " is not a perfect film by any means , but it is having an impact . " He said that he would like to be moving on to a new film project , but that he would continue promoting Not My Life because he thought it could help combat human trafficking .
Throughout 2013 , the World Affairs Councils of America hosted Not My Life screenings in a variety of cities across the United States , funded by the Carlson Family Foundation . That same year , the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency gave Worldwide Documentaries a grant to do anti @-@ human trafficking work over a three @-@ year period . Not My Life was screened at the Mexican film festival Oaxaca FilmFest in November 2012 ; BORDEReview in Warsaw , Poland , in May 2013 ; and the Pasadena International Film & New Media Festival in February 2014 .
In May 2014 , the Somaly Mam Foundation released a statement that Somaly had resigned from her leadership of the organization as a result of investigations regarding allegations about her personal history . The following month , Bilheimer released a statement in response , saying that he had re @-@ edited the film in order to remove the scenes depicting Somaly and that the new version would be available shortly . Bilheimer wrote that " the storytelling in the Cambodia segment of Not My Life remains intact and is still very moving , with an even sharper focus , now , on the girls themselves . " In this statement , Bilheimer requested that people screening previous versions of the film tell their audiences that the presence of Somaly in the film is understandably a distraction , that the film is not primarily about Somaly but rather about the millions of children in slavery in the world , and that this focus is what is most important about the film .
For the 2014 re @-@ release of the film , Bilheimer added new content relating to India , including an interview with Kailash Satyarthi , founder of the non @-@ governmental organization Bachpan Bachao Andolan which opposes child labor . This content emphasizes that there are more human trafficking victims in India than in any other country in the world . The new version of the film , which was co @-@ produced with the Delhi @-@ based Riverbank Studios , was 56 minutes long and premiered at the India International Centre in New Delhi on June 26 . Satyarthi was one of the panelists in a panel discussion accompanying the screening , as was Indian filmmaker Mike Pandey , who had managed Riverbank Studios ' side of the co @-@ production . The film was scheduled to air on Doordarshan ( DD ) in Hindi three days later . In July , Bilheimer called his continued work on the film " a labor of love " and said that " far too much silence still surrounds the issue " of human trafficking .
= = Reception = =
At the USAID preview screening , actress Lucy Liu , who has worked with MTV EXIT and produced the documentary film Redlight , said that people who watch Not My Life " will be shocked to find [ human trafficking ] is happening in America " ; she said that there were 80 @,@ 000 women being sexually assaulted daily and she called human trafficking the " cannibalization of the planet 's youth . " According to UN.GIFT , before Not My Life , there was " no single communication tool that effectively depict [ ed ] the problem as a whole for a mass audience . " Susan Bissell , UNICEF 's Child Protection Section chief , agreed with this assertion , and said that the film " takes a close look at the underlying causality that so many other filmmakers have missed [ and ] it will change the way we see our lives , in some very fundamental ways . " She also said that Not My Life is an important documentary because it brings attention to underreported forms of abuse . A reviewer from Medical News Today praised the film for " raising awareness and speaking about taboo subjects , " arguing that these activities " are critical to empower families , communities , and governments to speak out honestly and take action against abuses . "
Lucy Popescu of CineVue called the film " a powerful indictment of the global trade in human beings and the abuse of vulnerable people , " but criticized the film for focusing on human trafficking victims , arguing that the perpetrators should have been dealt with more prominently . She commended Bilheimer on the few interviews with traffickers that he did include , but she condemned as inadequate the " only passing reference to the thousands of men who engage in sexual tourism , like those who travel to Cambodia to ' buy ' traumatized children who they can then abuse for weeks at a time . " Popescu also called the film " simplistic " , arguing that it should have more clearly expressed that sex trafficking victims are not able to provide legitimate consent for sexual activity because they are afraid that their lives might be in danger if they do not comply . John Rash of the Star Tribune called the film " a cacophony of concerned voices speaking about a modern @-@ day scourge . " Rash praised the film for its global scope , but suggested that this geographical breadth allows American audiences to ignore the fact that the trafficking of children is prevalent in the United States and not just in other countries .
Not My Life was named Best World Documentary at the Harlem International Film Festival in September 2012 . Nancy Keefe Rhodes of Stone Canoe called it a " highly @-@ distilled ... remarkable film , " describing Bilheimer as " committed to strong story @-@ telling and film @-@ as @-@ craft . " She commends Bilheimer on alternating between American sequences and scenes in other countries , allowing " the experiences of young women with whom an American audience may more readily identify [ to ] become one among many woven into the fabric of global trafficking . " Tripurari Sharan , Director General of DD , said that his organization was pleased to air the film and hoped that doing so would bring about greater awareness across India about human trafficking in the country . He called the film " both an eye @-@ opener and a profoundly moving call to action " .
= Ike Altgens =
James William " Ike " Altgens ( / ˈɑːlt.ɡənz / ; April 28 , 1919 – December 12 , 1995 ) was an American photojournalist and field reporter for the Associated Press ( AP ) based in Dallas , Texas . Altgens began his career with the AP as a teenager and , following a stint with the United States Coast Guard , worked his way into a senior position with the AP Dallas bureau .
While on assignment for the AP on November 22 , 1963 , Altgens made two historic photographs during the assassination of President John F. Kennedy , including the image of Jacqueline Kennedy and Secret Service agent Clint Hill on the presidential limousine that would be reproduced on the front pages of newspapers around the world . Seconds earlier , Altgens made a photograph that became controversial , leading people in the United States and elsewhere to question whether accused assassin Lee Harvey Oswald was visible in the doorway of the Texas School Book Depository as the gunshots were fired .
Altgens worked briefly as a film actor and model during his 40 @-@ year career with the AP , then did advertising work until he retired altogether . Both Altgens and his wife were in their seventies when they died in 1995 , at about the same time , in their Dallas home .
= = Early life and career = =
Dallas native Ike Altgens was orphaned as a child and raised by a widowed aunt . In 1938 , shortly after graduating from North Dallas High School , he was hired by the Associated Press . Altgens began his career at age 19 by doing odd jobs and writing the occasional sports story ; by 1940 , he had demonstrated an aptitude for photography and was assigned to work in the wirephoto office .
His career was interrupted when he served in the United States Coast Guard during World War II , though he was able to moonlight as a radio broadcaster . Following his return to Dallas , he married Clara B. Halliburton in July 1944 , and went back to work with the AP the following year . He also attended night classes at Southern Methodist University , earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in speech with a minor in journalism .
By 1959 , Altgens had found additional work as an actor and model in motion pictures , television and print advertising . Credited as James Altgens , he portrayed Secretary Lloyd Patterson in the low @-@ budget science fiction thriller Beyond the Time Barrier ( 1960 ) ; his role included the film 's final line of dialogue : " Gentlemen , we have got a lot to think about . " Altgens ' brief acting career also included a role as a witness in Free , White and 21 ( 1963 ) , and as a witness ( though not portraying himself ) in The Trial of Lee Harvey Oswald ( 1964 ) .
Altgens photographed President Kennedy for the AP in 1961 at Perrin Air Force Base . Kennedy and former President Dwight D. Eisenhower were traveling to Bonham , Texas , in November to attend the funeral of Sam Rayburn , three @-@ time Speaker of the United States House of Representatives . Earlier that day , Altgens was the only photojournalist to climb up to the 29th floor of the Mercantile National Bank Building to report on the rescue of a young girl from a burning elevator .
= = Assassination of President Kennedy = =
= = = Photojournalist = = =
On November 22 , 1963 , Altgens was assigned to work in the Associated Press offices in Dallas as the photo editor . He asked instead to go to the railroad overcrossing where Elm , Main and Commerce Streets converge to photograph the motorcade that would take President Kennedy from Love Field to the Dallas Trade Mart , where Kennedy was to deliver an address . Since that was not originally his assignment , Altgens took his personal camera , a 35mm Nikkorex @-@ F single lens reflex camera with a 105mm telephoto lens , rather than the motor @-@ driven camera usually used for news events . " This meant that what I took , I had to make sure it was good — I didn 't have time for second chances . "
Altgens tried to find a good camera angle on the overcrossing , but was turned away by uniformed officers who said it was private property ; he moved to a location within Dealey Plaza instead . He made photographs of the motorcade on Main Street as it approached Houston Street , then got a close @-@ up as the presidential limousine turned right onto Houston . Afterwards , he ran across the grass toward the south curb along Elm Street , and stopped across from the Plaza 's north colonnade . As he snapped his first photograph from that spot , simultaneous to Zapruder film frame 255 , he heard a " burst of noise " , but did not recall having any reaction at that point since he thought the sound came from a firecracker .
= = = Witness to history = = =
Moments later , as Altgens prepared for a second photograph along Elm Street , he heard a blast that he recognized as gunfire and saw the President had been struck in the head . Altgens would later write that his camera was focused and ready , " but when JFK 's head exploded , sending substance in my direction , I virtually became paralyzed " and failed to press the trigger . " To have a President shot to death right in front of you and keep your cool and do what you 're supposed to do — I 'm not real sure that the most seasoned photographers would be able to do it . ... [ But ] there is no excuse for this . I should have made the picture that I was set up to make . And I didn 't do it . "
Altgens ' next photograph showed the First Lady with her hand on the vehicle 's trunk lid and Secret Service agent Clint Hill standing on the bumper behind her as the driver had begun to accelerate . Mrs. Kennedy testified the following June that " there were pictures later on of me climbing out the back . But I don 't remember that at all . " It was this photograph , reproduced on the front pages of newspapers around the world , that would lead Hill to write in his 2013 book that he " would forever be known as the Secret Service agent who jumped on the back of the car . "
After the gunshots ended , Altgens saw what he would later describe as " Secret Service men , uniformed policemen with drawn guns racing up this little incline " between Elm Street and the railroad tracks , and he crossed the street into the " utter confusion " to see if he could get a picture of someone in custody . When they came back without a suspect , Altgens hurried back to the AP offices in the Dallas Morning News building on Houston Street to file his report and have the film developed . His first phone call , from the AP wirephoto office to the news office , led to one of the first bulletins sent to the world :
DALLAS , NOV . 22 ( AP ) – PRESIDENT KENNEDY WAS SHOT TODAY JUST AS HIS MOTORCADE LEFT DOWNTOWN DALLAS . MRS. KENNEDY JUMPED UP AND GRABBED MR. KENNEDY . SHE CRIED , " OH , NO ! " THE MOTORCADE SPED ON .
Once his pictures had been distributed via the wirephoto network , Altgens was sent to Parkland Memorial Hospital along with a second photographer . Both stayed at Parkland until Kennedy 's body was taken by hearse to Air Force One at Love Field .
Altgens returned to Dealey Plaza to make photographs for diagramming the assassination site , then was sent to Dallas City Hall to retrieve some photos made by another AP photographer of Oswald in custody . This was " the first and only time " he would see the suspect , and Altgens thought Oswald looked like " they had put him through the interrogation wringer . "
= = = The man resembling Lee Harvey Oswald = = =
Ten days after Kennedy was assassinated , the Associated Press in Dallas reported that Altgens ' first photograph along Elm Street had captured the attention of people " here and abroad " who noticed that one of the men standing in the main doorway to the book depository looked like Lee Harvey Oswald . If true , " it would seem to prove that he was not the Kennedy assassin " because he would not have had time to get there from the sixth floor . The AP report quoted depository superintendent Roy Truly , who identified another employee , Billy Lovelady , as the man in the image . The report also noted that the FBI had already investigated the photograph and had also identified Lovelady .
On May 24 , 1964 , six months after the shooting , the New York Herald Tribune reported that Altgens — the man responsible for " probably the most controversial photograph of the decade " and one of a handful of people standing near the motorcade when Kennedy was shot — had not been questioned either by the FBI or by the Warren Commission . The next day , a column appearing in Chicago 's American made the same observation . FBI investigators interviewed Altgens eight days later , on June 2 , 1964 . By the time his testimony for the Warren Commission was taken on July 22 , Altgens was aware of the individual who resembled Oswald ; Lovelady had been interviewed for the Herald Tribune article , and Altgens testified that he too had been contacted but , because he had had no assignments involving any depository employees either before or since the assassination , " naturally I had no information " to share .
Several depository employees were interviewed for the Commission in an effort to determine the identity of the man in the depository doorway ; hearings included testimony from five people who said Lovelady was either sitting or standing on the entrance steps , and from three others ( including Lovelady ) who identified him in Altgens ' photograph . His supervisor signed an affidavit stating that Lovelady was sitting on the steps as the motorcade passed by . Ultimately , the Commission decided that Oswald was not in the doorway .
In 1978 , the House Select Committee on Assassinations studied several still and motion images , including an enhanced version of the Altgens photograph , in the scope of its investigation . The Committee also concluded that Lovelady was the man pictured in the depository doorway .
Fifty years after the photo was first published , the official conclusions were still being argued by academics and conspiracy theorists . Texas journalist Jim Marrs , who had previously noted that most researchers were " ready to concede that the man may have been Lovelady " , wrote in 2013 that there was a " growing resistance to this admission . "
= = = Recollections of a witness = = =
Two AP dispatches featuring Altgens were issued on November 22 , 1963 . He initially reported hearing two shots , but thought someone had been " shooting fireworks " . Altgens himself wrote , " At first I thought the shots came from the opposite side of the street . ... I did not know until later where the shots came from . I was on the opposite side of the President 's car from the gunman . He might have hit me . " Altgens said he was told by the AP 's Los Angeles photo editor that , had the shot gone " just a bit to the left ... you would have been the victim . "
In 1964 , testifying for the Warren Commission , Altgens was asked about the gunfire and whether he knew its source . He answered that he had not been keeping track of the number of gunshots fired in Dealey Plaza . " I mean , who counts fireworks explosions ? ... I could vouch for number one , and I can vouch for the last shot , but I cannot tell you how many shots were in between . " Kennedy 's wounds suggested to Altgens that the final shot " came from the opposite side , meaning in the direction of this depository building , but at no time did I know for certain where the shot came from . "
When CBS television interviewed him in 1967 , Altgens said it was obvious to him that the head shot came from behind Kennedy 's limousine " because it caused him to bolt forward , dislodging him from this depression in the seat cushion " . He added that the commotion across the street after the shooting " seemed rather strange ... because knowing that the shot came from behind , this fellow had to really move in order to get over into the knoll area . "
= = = Trial of Clay Shaw = = =
District Attorney Jim Garrison subpoenaed Altgens to appear in New Orleans , Louisiana , for the 1969 trial of businessman Clay Shaw on charges of conspiring to kill Kennedy . A check for US $ 300 was sent to cover the airfare , but Altgens did not want to go ; he thought Garrison 's actions were " self @-@ aggrandizement . "
Altgens and former Texas Governor John Connally met by chance in Houston a short time later . Connally told Altgens that he too had been called to testify and sent money for airfare , but he decided to cash the check and spend the money . Connally suggested that Altgens do the same . Altgens later learned that neither he nor Connally would be called after all .
= = Later life = =
= = = Pictures of the Pain = = =
Starting in 1984 , Altgens shared personal details and reminiscences in letters and telephone conversations for the book Pictures of the Pain : Photography and the Assassination of President Kennedy ( 1994 ) . Altgens had retired from the AP in 1979 after more than 40 years , rather than accept a transfer to a different bureau . He spent his later years working on display advertising for the Ford Motor Company and answering repeated requests for interviews made by assassination researchers . Though these researchers failed to convince him that the Warren Commission 's conclusion — that Oswald , acting alone , killed Kennedy — was wrong , he conceded that " there will always be some controversy about details surrounding the site and shooting of the president . "
= = = " Reporters Remember 11 @-@ 22 @-@ 63 " = = =
In November 1993 , Altgens took part in " Reporters Remember 11 @-@ 22 @-@ 63 " at Southern Methodist University in Dallas . Broadcast on C @-@ SPAN as Journalists Remember the JFK Assassination , the panel discussion featured members of the press who spoke of their experiences on the day 30 years earlier that JFK was killed . As he introduced Altgens , moderator Hugh Aynesworth recalled the picture that " became very controversial " because of the man " that looked like Oswald " .
Among his reminiscences , Altgens recalled having seen " no blood on the right @-@ hand side of [ Kennedy 's ] face ; there was no blood on the front of his face . But there was a tremendous amount of blood on the left @-@ hand side and at the back of the head . " That suggested to him , he continued , that if there was gunfire from any direction other than the rear , " there would be evidence in that particular area " . He also remembered , when seeing Jackie Kennedy on the trunk of the limousine , thinking that she " was scared out of her mind and she was looking for a way to escape . "
= = = No More Silence = = =
Altgens was one of 49 eyewitnesses interviewed for the 1998 book No More Silence : An Oral History of the Assassination of President Kennedy . He recalled having been contacted by Billy Lovelady , who wanted a copy of Altgens ' first photograph along Elm Street . Altgens was met by Lovelady 's wife , who told him her husband would never agree to be interviewed . The couple had moved several times , she explained , but still suffered break @-@ ins by people who wanted the shirt Lovelady wore when Kennedy was shot .
Altgens also recalled having told FBI agents that , had he been left alone on the overpass , he might have had better pictures for investigators . " By being up there , I would have been able to show the sniper . "
= = Death = =
On December 12 , 1995 , Ike and Clara Altgens were found dead in separate rooms in their home in Dallas . A Houston Chronicle article quoted a nephew , Dallas attorney Ron Grant , as saying his Aunt Clara " had been very ill for some time with heart trouble and many other problems . Both of them had had the flu for some time . " In addition , the Dallas Morning News said police were looking into the possibility that carbon monoxide poisoning from a faulty furnace played a role in their deaths . Altgens was survived by three nephews ; his wife by two sisters .
= Wind power =
Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electricity . Wind power , as an alternative to burning fossil fuels , is plentiful , renewable , widely distributed , clean , produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation , uses no water , and uses little land . The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable power sources .
Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network . Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electricity , competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants . Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land , and offshore farms have less visual impact , but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher . Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electricity to isolated off @-@ grid locations .
Wind power gives variable power which is very consistent from year to year but which has significant variation over shorter time scales . It is therefore used in conjunction with other electric power sources to give a reliable supply . As the proportion of wind power in a region increases , a need to upgrade the grid , and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur . Power management techniques such as having excess capacity , geographically distributed turbines , dispatchable backing sources , sufficient hydroelectric power , exporting and importing power to neighboring areas , using vehicle @-@ to @-@ grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low , can in many cases overcome these problems . In addition , weather forecasting permits the electricity network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur .
As of 2015 , Denmark generates 40 % of its electricity from wind , and at least 83 other countries around the world are using wind power to supply their electricity grids . In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16 % to 369 @,@ 553 MW . Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4 % of worldwide electricity usage , 11 @.@ 4 % in the EU .
= = History = =
Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind . For more than two millennia wind @-@ powered machines have ground grain and pumped water . Wind power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast @-@ flowing streams , or later , requiring sources of fuel . Wind @-@ powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands , and in arid regions such as the American mid @-@ west or the Australian outback , wind pumps provided water for live stock and steam engines .
The first windmill used for the production of electricity was built in Scotland in July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Anderson 's College , Glasgow ( the precursor of Strathclyde University ) . Blyth 's 10 m high , cloth @-@ sailed wind turbine was installed in the garden of his holiday cottage at Marykirk in Kincardineshire and was used to charge accumulators developed by the Frenchman Camille Alphonse Faure , to power the lighting in the cottage , thus making it the first house in the world to have its electricity supplied by wind power . Blyth offered the surplus electricity to the people of Marykirk for lighting the main street , however , they turned down the offer as they thought electricity was " the work of the devil . " Although he later built a wind turbine to supply emergency power to the local Lunatic Asylum , Infirmary and Dispensary of Montrose the invention never really caught on as the technology was not considered to be economically viable .
Across the Atlantic , in Cleveland , Ohio a larger and heavily engineered machine was designed and constructed in the winter of 1887 – 1888 by Charles F. Brush , this was built by his engineering company at his home and operated from 1886 until 1900 . The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 17 m ( 56 foot ) in diameter and was mounted on an 18 m ( 60 foot ) tower . Although large by today 's standards , the machine was only rated at 12 kW . The connected dynamo was used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs , three arc lamps , and various motors in Brush 's laboratory .
With the development of electric power , wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally @-@ generated power . Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small wind stations suitable for farms or residences , and larger utility @-@ scale wind generators that could be connected to electricity grids for remote use of power . Today wind powered generators operate in every size range between tiny stations for battery charging at isolated residences , up to near @-@ gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide electricity to national electrical networks .
= = Wind farms = =
A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electricity . A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines distributed over an extended area , but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes . For example , Gansu Wind Farm , the largest wind farm in the world , has several thousand turbines . A wind farm may also be located offshore .
Almost all large wind turbines have the same design — a horizontal axis wind turbine having an upwind rotor with three blades , attached to a nacelle on top of a tall tubular tower .
In a wind farm , individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage ( often 34 @.@ 5 kV ) , power collection system and communications network . In general , a distance of 7D ( 7 × Rotor Diameter of the Wind Turbine ) is set between each turbine in a fully developed wind farm . At a substation , this medium @-@ voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system .
= = = Generator characteristics and stability = = =
Induction generators , which were often used for wind power projects in the 1980s and 1990s , require reactive power for excitation so substations used in wind @-@ power collection systems include substantial capacitor banks for power factor correction . Different types of wind turbine generators behave differently during transmission grid disturbances , so extensive modelling of the dynamic electromechanical characteristics of a new wind farm is required by transmission system operators to ensure predictable stable behaviour during system faults . In particular , induction generators cannot support the system voltage during faults , unlike steam or hydro turbine @-@ driven synchronous generators .
Today these generators aren 't used any more in modern turbines . Instead today most turbines use variable speed generators combined with partial- or full @-@ scale power converter between the turbine generator and the collector system , which generally have more desirable properties for grid interconnection and have Low voltage ride through @-@ capabilities . Modern concepts use either doubly fed machines with partial @-@ scale converters or squirrel @-@ cage induction generators or synchronous generators ( both permanently and electrically excited ) with full scale converters .
Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to specify the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid . This will include power factor , constancy of frequency and dynamic behaviour of the wind farm turbines during a system fault .
= = = Offshore wind power = = =
Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in large bodies of water to generate electricity . These installations can utilize the more frequent and powerful winds that are available in these locations and have less aesthetic impact on the landscape than land based projects . However , the construction and the maintenance costs are considerably higher .
Siemens and Vestas are the leading turbine suppliers for offshore wind power . DONG Energy , Vattenfall and E.ON are the leading offshore operators . As of October 2010 , 3 @.@ 16 GW of offshore wind power capacity was operational , mainly in Northern Europe . According to BTM Consult , more than 16 GW of additional capacity will be installed before the end of 2014 and the UK and Germany will become the two leading markets . Offshore wind power capacity is expected to reach a total of 75 GW worldwide by 2020 , with significant contributions from China and the US .
In 2012 , 1 @,@ 662 turbines at 55 offshore wind farms in 10 European countries produced 18 TWh , enough to power almost five million households . As of August 2013 the London Array in the United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 630 MW . This is followed by Gwynt y Môr ( 576 MW ) , also in the UK .
= = = Collection and transmission network = = =
In a wind farm , individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage ( usually 34 @.@ 5 kV ) power collection system and communications network . At a substation , this medium @-@ voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system .
A transmission line is required to bring the generated power to ( often remote ) markets . For an off @-@ shore station this may require a submarine cable . Construction of a new high @-@ voltage line may be too costly for the wind resource alone , but wind sites may take advantage of lines installed for conventionally fueled generation .
One of the biggest current challenges to wind power grid integration in the United States is the necessity of developing new transmission lines to carry power from wind farms , usually in remote lowly populated states in the middle of the country due to availability of wind , to high load locations , usually on the coasts where population density is higher . The current transmission lines in remote locations were not designed for the transport of large amounts of energy . As transmission lines become longer the losses associated with power transmission increase , as modes of losses at lower lengths are exacerbated and new modes of losses are no longer negligible as the length is increased , making it harder to transport large loads over large distances . However , resistance from state and local governments makes it difficult to construct new transmission lines . Multi state power transmission projects are discouraged by states with cheap electricity rates for fear that exporting their cheap power will lead to increased rates . A 2005 energy law gave the Energy Department authority to approve transmission projects states refused to act on , but after an attempt to use this authority , the Senate declared the department was being overly aggressive in doing so . Another problem is that wind companies find out after the fact that the transmission capacity of a new farm is below the generation capacity , largely because federal utility rules to encourage renewable energy installation allow feeder lines to meet only minimum standards . These are important issues that need to be solved , as when the transmission capacity does not meet the generation capacity , wind farms are forced to produce below their full potential or stop running all together , in a process known as curtailment . While this leads to potential renewable generation left untapped , it prevents possible grid overload or risk to reliable service .
= = Wind power capacity and production = =
Worldwide there are now over two hundred thousand wind turbines operating , with a total nameplate capacity of 432 @,@ 000 MW as of end 2015 . The European Union alone passed some 100 @,@ 000 MW nameplate capacity in September 2012 , while the United States surpassed 75 @,@ 000 MW in 2015 and China 's grid connected capacity passed 145 @,@ 000 MW in 2015 .
World wind generation capacity more than quadrupled between 2000 and 2006 , doubling about every three years . The United States pioneered wind farms and led the world in installed capacity in the 1980s and into the 1990s . In 1997 installed capacity in Germany surpassed the U.S. and led until once again overtaken by the U.S. in 2008 . China has been rapidly expanding its wind installations in the late 2000s and passed the U.S. in 2010 to become the world leader . As of 2011 , 83 countries around the world were using wind power on a commercial basis .
Wind power capacity has expanded rapidly to 336 GW in June 2014 , and wind energy production was around 4 % of total worldwide electricity usage , and growing rapidly . The actual amount of electricity that wind is able to generate is calculated by multiplying the nameplate capacity by the capacity factor , which varies according to equipment and location . Estimates of the capacity factors for wind installations are in the range of 35 % to 44 % .
Europe accounted for 48 % of the world total wind power generation capacity in 2009 . In 2010 , Spain became Europe 's leading producer of wind energy , achieving 42 @,@ 976 GWh . Germany held the top spot in Europe in terms of installed capacity , with a total of 27 @,@ 215 MW as of 31 December 2010 . In 2015 wind power constituted 15 @.@ 6 % of all installed power generation capacity in the EU and it generates around 11 @.@ 4 % of its power .
= = = Growth trends = = =
After setting new records in 2014 , the wind power industry surprised many observers with another record breaking year in 2015 , chalking up 22 % annual market growth and passing the 60 GW mark for the first time in a single year ; and this after having broken the 50 GW mark for the first time in 2014 . In 2015 , close to half of all new wind power was added outside of the traditional markets in Europe and North America . This was largely from new construction in China and India . Global Wind Energy Council ( GWEC ) figures show that 2015 recorded an increase of installed capacity of more than 63 GW , taking the total installed wind energy capacity to 432 @.@ 9 GW , up from 74 GW in 2006 . In terms of economic value , the wind energy sector has become one of the important players in the energy markets , with the total investments reaching US $ 329bn ( € 296.6bn ) , an increase of 4 % over 2014 .
Although the wind power industry was affected by the global financial crisis in 2009 and 2010 , GWEC predicts that the installed capacity of wind power will be 792 @.@ 1 GW by the end of 2020 and 4 @,@ 042 GW by end of 2050 . The increased commissioning of wind power is being accompanied by record low prices for forthcoming renewable electricity . In some cases , wind onshore is already the cheapest electricity generation option and costs are continuing to decline . The contracted prices for wind onshore for the next few years are now as low as 30 USD / MWh .
In the EU in 2015 , 44 % of all new generating capacity was wind power ; while in the same period net fossil fuel power capacity decreased .
= = = Capacity factor = = =
Since wind speed is not constant , a wind farm 's annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year . The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor . Typical capacity factors are 15 – 50 % ; values at the upper end of the range are achieved in favourable sites and are due to wind turbine design improvements .
Online data is available for some locations , and the capacity factor can be calculated from the yearly output . For example , the German nationwide average wind power capacity factor over all of 2012 was just under 17 @.@ 5 % ( 45867 GW · h / yr / ( 29 @.@ 9 GW × 24 × 366 ) = 0 @.@ 1746 ) , and the capacity factor for Scottish wind farms averaged 24 % between 2008 and 2010 .
Unlike fueled generating plants , the capacity factor is affected by several parameters , including the variability of the wind at the site and the size of the generator relative to the turbine 's swept area . A small generator would be cheaper and achieve a higher capacity factor but would produce less electricity ( and thus less profit ) in high winds . Conversely , a large generator would cost more but generate little extra power and , depending on the type , may stall out at low wind speed . Thus an optimum capacity factor of around 40 – 50 % would be aimed for .
A 2008 study released by the U.S. Department of Energy noted that the capacity factor of new wind installations was increasing as the technology improves , and projected further improvements for future capacity factors . In 2010 , the department estimated the capacity factor of new wind turbines in 2010 to be 45 % . The annual average capacity factor for wind generation in the US has varied between 29 @.@ 8 % and 34 @.@ 0 % during the period 2010 – 2015 .
= = = Penetration = = =
Wind energy penetration is the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with the total generation . There is no generally accepted maximum level of wind penetration . The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants , pricing mechanisms , capacity for energy storage , demand management and other factors . An interconnected electricity grid will already include reserve generating and transmission capacity to allow for equipment failures . This reserve capacity can also serve to compensate for the varying power generation produced by wind stations . Studies have indicated that 20 % of the total annual electrical energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal difficulty . These studies have been for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms , some degree of dispatchable energy or hydropower with storage capacity , demand management , and interconnected to a large grid area enabling the export of electricity when needed . Beyond the 20 % level , there are few technical limits , but the economic implications become more significant . Electrical utilities continue to study the effects of large scale penetration of wind generation on system stability and economics .
A wind energy penetration figure can be specified for different durations of time , but is often quoted annually . To obtain 100 % from wind annually requires substantial long term storage or substantial interconnection to other systems which may already have substantial storage . On a monthly , weekly , daily , or hourly basis — or less — wind might supply as much as or more than 100 % of current use , with the rest stored or exported . Seasonal industry might then take advantage of high wind and low usage times such as at night when wind output can exceed normal demand . Such industry might include production of silicon , aluminum , steel , or of natural gas , and hydrogen , and using future long term storage to facilitate 100 % energy from variable renewable energy . Homes can also be programmed to accept extra electricity on demand , for example by remotely turning up water heater thermostats .
In Australia , the state of South Australia generates around half of the nation 's wind power capacity . By the end of 2011 wind power in South Australia , championed by Premier ( and Climate Change Minister ) Mike Rann , reached 26 % of the State 's electricity generation , edging out coal for the first time . At this stage South Australia , with only 7 @.@ 2 % of Australia 's population , had 54 % of Australia 's installed capacity .
= = = Variability = = =
Electricity generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales : hourly , daily , or seasonally . Annual variation also exists , but is not as significant . Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to maintain grid stability , this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of wind power into a grid system . Intermittency and the non @-@ dispatchable nature of wind energy production can raise costs for regulation , incremental operating reserve , and ( at high penetration levels ) could require an increase in the already existing energy demand management , load shedding , storage solutions or system interconnection with HVDC cables .
Fluctuations in load and allowance for failure of large fossil @-@ fuel generating units require reserve capacity that can also compensate for variability of wind generation .
Wind power is variable , and during low wind periods it must be replaced by other power sources . Transmission networks presently cope with outages of other generation plants and daily changes in electrical demand , but the variability of intermittent power sources such as wind power , are unlike those of conventional power generation plants which , when scheduled to be operating , may be able to deliver their nameplate capacity around 95 % of the time .
Presently , grid systems with large wind penetration require a small increase in the frequency of usage of natural gas spinning reserve power plants to prevent a loss of electricity in the event that conditions are not favorable for power production from the wind . At lower wind power grid penetration , this is less of an issue .
GE has installed a prototype wind turbine with onboard battery similar to that of an electric car , equivalent of 1 minute of production . Despite the small capacity , it is enough to guarantee that power output complies with forecast for 15 minutes , as the battery is used to eliminate the difference rather than provide full output . The increased predictability can be used to take wind power penetration from 20 to 30 or 40 per cent . The battery cost can be retrieved by selling burst power on demand and reducing backup needs from gas plants .
A report on Denmark 's wind power noted that their wind power network provided less than 1 % of average demand on 54 days during the year 2002 . Wind power advocates argue that these periods of low wind can be dealt with by simply restarting existing power stations that have been held in readiness , or interlinking with HVDC . Electrical grids with slow @-@ responding thermal power plants and without ties to networks with hydroelectric generation may have to limit the use of wind power . According to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology , interconnecting ten or more wind farms can allow an average of 33 % of the total energy produced ( i.e. about 8 % of total nameplate capacity ) to be used as reliable , baseload electric power which can be relied on to handle peak loads , as long as minimum criteria are met for wind speed and turbine height .
Conversely , on particularly windy days , even with penetration levels of 16 % , wind power generation can surpass all other electricity sources in a country . In Spain , in the early hours of 16 April 2012 wind power production reached the highest percentage of electricity production till then , at 60 @.@ 46 % of the total demand . In Denmark , which had power market penetration of 30 % in 2013 , over 90 hours , wind power generated 100 % of the country 's power , peaking at 122 % of the country 's demand at 2 am on 28 October .
A 2006 International Energy Agency forum presented costs for managing intermittency as a function of wind @-@ energy 's share of total capacity for several countries , as shown in the table on the right . Three reports on the wind variability in the UK issued in 2009 , generally agree that variability of wind needs to be taken into account , but it does not make the grid unmanageable . The additional costs , which are modest , can be quantified .
The combination of diversifying variable renewables by type and location , forecasting their variation , and integrating them with dispatchable renewables , flexible fueled generators , and demand response can create a power system that has the potential to meet power supply needs reliably . Integrating ever @-@ higher levels of renewables is being successfully demonstrated in the real world :
In 2009 , eight American and three European authorities , writing in the leading electrical engineers ' professional journal , didn 't find " a credible and firm technical limit to the amount of wind energy that can be accommodated by electricity grids " . In fact , not one of more than 200 international studies , nor official studies for the eastern and western U.S. regions , nor the International Energy Agency , has found major costs or technical barriers to reliably integrating up to 30 % variable renewable supplies into the grid , and in some studies much more . – Reinventing Fire
Solar power tends to be complementary to wind . On daily to weekly timescales , high pressure areas tend to bring clear skies and low surface winds , whereas low pressure areas tend to be windier and cloudier . On seasonal timescales , solar energy peaks in summer , whereas in many areas wind energy is lower in summer and higher in winter . Thus the intermittencies of wind and solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat . In 2007 the Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot @-@ tested a combined power plant linking solar , wind , biogas and hydrostorage to provide load @-@ following power around the clock and throughout the year , entirely from renewable sources .
= = = Predictability = = =
Wind power forecasting methods are used , but predictability of any particular wind farm is low for short @-@ term operation . For any particular generator there is an 80 % chance that wind output will change less than 10 % in an hour and a 40 % chance that it will change 10 % or more in 5 hours .
However , studies by Graham Sinden ( 2009 ) suggest that , in practice , the variations in thousands of wind turbines , spread out over several different sites and wind regimes , are smoothed . As the distance between sites increases , the correlation between wind speeds measured at those sites , decreases .
Thus , while the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary , as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable and more predictable .
Wind power hardly ever suffers major technical failures , since failures of individual wind turbines have hardly any effect on overall power , so that the distributed wind power is reliable and predictable , whereas conventional generators , while far less variable , can suffer major unpredictable outages .
= = = Energy storage = = =
Main article : Grid energy storage . See also : List of energy storage projects .
Typically , conventional hydroelectricity complements wind power very well . When the wind is blowing strongly , nearby hydroelectric stations can temporarily hold back their water . When the wind drops they can , provided they have the generation capacity , rapidly increase production to compensate . This gives a very even overall power supply and virtually no loss of energy and uses no more water .
Alternatively , where a suitable head of water is not available , pumped @-@ storage hydroelectricity or other forms of grid energy storage such as compressed air energy storage and thermal energy storage can store energy developed by high @-@ wind periods and release it when needed . The type of storage needed depends on the wind penetration level – low penetration requires daily storage , and high penetration requires both short and long term storage – as long as a month or more . Stored energy increases the economic value of wind energy since it can be shifted to displace higher cost generation during peak demand periods . The potential revenue from this arbitrage can offset the cost and losses of storage ; the cost of storage may add 25 % to the cost of any wind energy stored but it is not envisaged that this would apply to a large proportion of wind energy generated . For example , in the UK , the 1 @.@ 7 GW Dinorwig pumped @-@ storage plant evens out electrical demand peaks , and allows base @-@ load suppliers to run their plants more efficiently . Although pumped @-@ storage power systems are only about 75 % efficient , and have high installation costs , their low running costs and ability to reduce the required electrical base @-@ load can save both fuel and total electrical generation costs .
In particular geographic regions , peak wind speeds may not coincide with peak demand for electrical power . In the U.S. states of California and Texas , for example , hot days in summer may have low wind speed and high electrical demand due to the use of air conditioning . Some utilities subsidize the purchase of geothermal heat pumps by their customers , to reduce electricity demand during the summer months by making air conditioning up to 70 % more efficient ; widespread adoption of this technology would better match electricity demand to wind availability in areas with hot summers and low summer winds . A possible future option may be to interconnect widely dispersed geographic areas with an HVDC " super grid " . In the U.S. it is estimated that to upgrade the transmission system to take in planned or potential renewables would cost at least $ 60 billion , while the society value of added windpower would be more than that cost .
Germany has an installed capacity of wind and solar that can exceed daily demand , and has been exporting peak power to neighboring countries , with exports which amounted to some 14 @.@ 7 billion kilowatt hours in 2012 . A more practical solution is the installation of thirty days storage capacity able to supply 80 % of demand , which will become necessary when most of Europe 's energy is obtained from wind power and solar power . Just as the EU requires member countries to maintain 90 days strategic reserves of oil it can be expected that countries will provide electricity storage , instead of expecting to use their neighbors for net metering .
= = = Capacity credit , fuel savings and energy payback = = =
The capacity credit of wind is estimated by determining the capacity of conventional plants displaced by wind power , whilst maintaining the same degree of system security . According to the American Wind Energy Association , production of wind power in the United States in 2015 avoided consumption of 73 billion gallons of water and reduced CO2 emissions by 132 million metric tons , while providing $ 7 @.@ 3 billion in public health savings .
The energy needed to build a wind farm divided into the total output over its life , Energy Return on Energy Invested , of wind power varies but averages about 20 – 25 . Thus , the energy payback time is typically around one year .
= = Economics = =
Wind turbines reached grid parity ( the point at which the cost of wind power matches traditional sources ) in some areas of Europe in the mid @-@ 2000s , and in the US around the same time . Falling prices continue to drive the levelized cost down and it has been suggested that it has reached general grid parity in Europe in 2010 , and will reach the same point in the US around 2016 due to an expected reduction in capital costs of about 12 % .
= = = Electricity cost and trends = = =
Wind power is capital intensive , but has no fuel costs . The price of wind power is therefore much more stable than the volatile prices of fossil fuel sources . The marginal cost of wind energy once a station is constructed is usually less than 1 @-@ cent per kW · h .
However , the estimated average cost per unit of electricity must incorporate the cost of construction of the turbine and transmission facilities , borrowed funds , return to investors ( including cost of risk ) , estimated annual production , and other components , averaged over the projected useful life of the equipment , which may be in excess of twenty years . Energy cost estimates are highly dependent on these assumptions so published cost figures can differ substantially . In 2004 , wind energy cost a fifth of what it did in the 1980s , and some expected that downward trend to continue as larger multi @-@ megawatt turbines were mass @-@ produced . In 2012 capital costs for wind turbines were substantially lower than 2008 – 2010 but still above 2002 levels . A 2011 report from the American Wind Energy Association stated , " Wind 's costs have dropped over the past two years , in the range of 5 to 6 cents per kilowatt @-@ hour recently .... about 2 cents cheaper than coal @-@ fired electricity , and more projects were financed through debt arrangements than tax equity structures last year .... winning more mainstream acceptance from Wall Street 's banks .... Equipment makers can also deliver products in the same year that they are ordered instead of waiting up to three years as was the case in previous cycles .... 5 @,@ 600 MW of new installed capacity is under construction in the United States , more than double the number at this point in 2010 . Thirty @-@ five percent of all new power generation built in the United States since 2005 has come from wind , more than new gas and coal plants combined , as power providers are increasingly enticed to wind as a convenient hedge against unpredictable commodity price moves . "
A British Wind Energy Association report gives an average generation cost of onshore wind power of around 3 @.@ 2 pence ( between US 5 and 6 cents ) per kW · h ( 2005 ) . Cost per unit of energy produced was estimated in 2006 to be 5 to 6 percent above the cost of new generating capacity in the US for coal and natural gas : wind cost was estimated at $ 55 @.@ 80 per MW · h , coal at $ 53 @.@ 10 / MW · h and natural gas at $ 52 @.@ 50 . Similar comparative results with natural gas were obtained in a governmental study in the UK in 2011 . In 2011 power from wind turbines could be already cheaper than fossil or nuclear plants ; it is also expected that wind power will be the cheapest form of energy generation in the future . The presence of wind energy , even when subsidised , can reduce costs for consumers ( € 5 billion / yr in Germany ) by reducing the marginal price , by minimising the use of expensive peaking power plants .
An 2012 EU study shows base cost of onshore wind power similar to coal , when subsidies and externalities are disregarded . Wind power has some of the lowest external costs .
In February 2013 Bloomberg New Energy Finance ( BNEF ) reported that the cost of generating electricity from new wind farms is cheaper than new coal or new baseload gas plants . When including the current Australian federal government carbon pricing scheme their modeling gives costs ( in Australian dollars ) of $ 80 / MWh for new wind farms , $ 143 / MWh for new coal plants and $ 116 / MWh for new baseload gas plants . The modeling also shows that " even without a carbon price ( the most efficient way to reduce economy @-@ wide emissions ) wind energy is 14 % cheaper than new coal and 18 % cheaper than new gas . " Part of the higher costs for new coal plants is due to high financial lending costs because of " the reputational damage of emissions @-@ intensive investments " . The expense of gas fired plants is partly due to " export market " effects on local prices . Costs of production from coal fired plants built in " the 1970s and 1980s " are cheaper than renewable energy sources because of depreciation . In 2015 BNEF calculated LCOE prices per MWh energy in new powerplants ( excluding carbon costs ) : $ 85 for onshore wind ( $ 175 for offshore ) , $ 66 – 75 for coal in the Americas ( $ 82 – 105 in Europe ) , gas $ 80 – 100 . A 2014 study showed unsubsidized LCOE costs between $ 37 – 81 , depending on region . A 2014 US DOE report showed that in some cases power purchase agreement prices for wind power had dropped to record lows of $ 23 @.@ 5 / MWh .
The cost has reduced as wind turbine technology has improved . There are now longer and lighter wind turbine blades , improvements in turbine performance and increased power generation efficiency . Also , wind project capital and maintenance costs have continued to decline . For example , the wind industry in the USA in early 2014 were able to produce more power at lower cost by using taller wind turbines with longer blades , capturing the faster winds at higher elevations . This has opened up new opportunities and in Indiana , Michigan , and Ohio , the price of power from wind turbines built 300 feet to 400 feet above the ground can now compete with conventional fossil fuels like coal . Prices have fallen to about 4 cents per kilowatt @-@ hour in some cases and utilities have been increasing the amount of wind energy in their portfolio , saying it is their cheapest option .
A number of initiatives are working to reduce costs of electricity from offshore wind . One example is the Carbon Trust Offshore Wind Accelerator , a joint industry project , involving nine offshore wind developers , which aims to reduce the cost of offshore wind by 10 % by 2015 . It has been suggested that innovation at scale could deliver 25 % cost reduction in offshore wind by 2020 . Henrik Stiesdal , former Chief Technical Officer at Siemens Wind Power , has stated that by 2025 energy from offshore wind will be one of the cheapest , scalable solutions in the UK , compared to other renewables and fossil fuel energy sources , if the true cost to society is factored into the cost of energy equation . He calculates the cost at that time to be 43 EUR / MWh for onshore , and 72 EUR / MWh for offshore wind .
= = = Incentives and community benefits = = =
The U.S. wind industry generates tens of thousands of jobs and billions of dollars of economic activity . Wind projects provide local taxes , or payments in lieu of taxes and strengthen the economy of rural communities by providing income to farmers with wind turbines on their land . Wind energy in many jurisdictions receives financial or other support to encourage its development . Wind energy benefits from subsidies in many jurisdictions , either to increase its attractiveness , or to compensate for subsidies received by other forms of production which have significant negative externalities .
In the US , wind power receives a production tax credit ( PTC ) of 1 @.@ 5 ¢ / kWh in 1993 dollars for each kW · h produced , for the first ten years ; at 2 @.@ 2 cents per kW · h in 2012 , the credit was renewed on 2 January 2012 , to include construction begun in 2013 . A 30 % tax credit can be applied instead of receiving the PTC . Another tax benefit is accelerated depreciation . Many American states also provide incentives , such as exemption from property tax , mandated purchases , and additional markets for " green credits " . The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 contains extensions of credits for wind , including microturbines . Countries such as Canada and Germany also provide incentives for wind turbine construction , such as tax credits or minimum purchase prices for wind generation , with assured grid access ( sometimes referred to as feed @-@ in tariffs ) . These feed @-@ in tariffs are typically set well above average electricity prices . In December 2013 U.S. Senator Lamar Alexander and other Republican senators argued that the " wind energy production tax credit should be allowed to expire at the end of 2013 " and it expired 1 January 2014 for new installations .
Secondary market forces also provide incentives for businesses to use wind @-@ generated power , even if there is a premium price for the electricity . For example , socially responsible manufacturers pay utility companies a premium that goes to subsidize and build new wind power infrastructure . Companies use wind @-@ generated power , and in return they can claim that they are undertaking strong " green " efforts . In the US the organization Green @-@ e monitors business compliance with these renewable energy credits .
= = Small @-@ scale wind power = =
Small @-@ scale wind power is the name given to wind generation systems with the capacity to produce up to 50 kW of electrical power . Isolated communities , that may otherwise rely on diesel generators , may use wind turbines as an alternative . Individuals may purchase these systems to reduce or eliminate their dependence on grid electricity for economic reasons , or to reduce their carbon footprint . Wind turbines have been used for household electricity generation in conjunction with battery storage over many decades in remote areas .
Recent examples of small @-@ scale wind power projects in an urban setting can be found in New York City , where , since 2009 , a number of building projects have capped their roofs with Gorlov @-@ type helical wind turbines . Although the energy they generate is small compared to the buildings ' overall consumption , they help to reinforce the building 's ' green ' credentials in ways that " showing people your high @-@ tech boiler " can not , with some of the projects also receiving the direct support of the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority .
Grid @-@ connected domestic wind turbines may use grid energy storage , thus replacing purchased electricity with locally produced power when available . The surplus power produced by domestic microgenerators can , in some jurisdictions , be fed into the network and sold to the utility company , producing a retail credit for the microgenerators ' owners to offset their energy costs .
Off @-@ grid system users can either adapt to intermittent power or use batteries , photovoltaic or diesel systems to supplement the wind turbine . Equipment such as parking meters , traffic warning signs , street lighting , or wireless Internet gateways may be powered by a small wind turbine , possibly combined with a photovoltaic system , that charges a small battery replacing the need for a connection to the power grid .
A Carbon Trust study into the potential of small @-@ scale wind energy in the UK , published in 2010 , found that small wind turbines could provide up to 1 @.@ 5 terawatt hours ( TW · h ) per year of electricity ( 0 @.@ 4 % of total UK electricity consumption ) , saving 0 @.@ 6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide ( Mt CO2 ) emission savings . This is based on the assumption that 10 % of households would install turbines at costs competitive with grid electricity , around 12 pence ( US 19 cents ) a kW · h . A report prepared for the UK 's government @-@ sponsored Energy Saving Trust in 2006 , found that home power generators of various kinds could provide 30 to 40 % of the country 's electricity needs by 2050 .
Distributed generation from renewable resources is increasing as a consequence of the increased awareness of climate change . The electronic interfaces required to connect renewable generation units with the utility system can include additional functions , such as the active filtering to enhance the power quality .
= = Environmental effects = =
The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels , is relatively minor . According to the IPCC , in assessments of the life @-@ cycle global warming potential of energy sources , wind turbines have a median value of between 12 and 11 ( gCO2eq / kWh ) depending on whether off- or onshore turbines are being assessed . Compared with other low carbon power sources , wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated .
While a wind farm may cover a large area of land , many land uses such as agriculture are compatible with it , as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made unavailable for use .
There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures . The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant , depending on specific circumstances . Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities , and protection of peat bogs , affect the siting and operation of wind turbines .
Wind turbines generate some noise . At a residential distance of 300 metres ( 980 ft ) this may be around 45 dB , which is slightly louder than a refrigerator . At 1 @.@ 5 km ( 1 mi ) distance they become inaudible . There are anecdotal reports of negative health effects from noise on people who live very close to wind turbines . Peer @-@ reviewed research has generally not supported these claims .
Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape are significant . Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes .
= = Politics = =
= = = Central government = = =
Nuclear power and fossil fuels are subsidized by many governments , and wind power and other forms of renewable energy are also often subsidized . For example , a 2009 study by the Environmental Law Institute assessed the size and structure of U.S. energy subsidies over the 2002 – 2008 period . The study estimated that subsidies to fossil @-@ fuel based sources amounted to approximately $ 72 billion over this period and subsidies to renewable fuel sources totalled $ 29 billion . In the United States , the federal government has paid US $ 74 billion for energy subsidies to support R & D for nuclear power ( $ 50 billion ) and fossil fuels ( $ 24 billion ) from 1973 to 2003 . During this same time frame , renewable energy technologies and energy efficiency received a total of US $ 26 billion . It has been suggested that a subsidy shift would help to level the playing field and support growing energy sectors , namely solar power , wind power , and biofuels . History shows that no energy sector was developed without subsidies .
According to the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) ( 2011 ) , energy subsidies artificially lower the price of energy paid by consumers , raise the price received by producers or lower the cost of production . " Fossil fuels subsidies costs generally outweigh the benefits . Subsidies to renewables and low @-@ carbon energy technologies can bring long @-@ term economic and environmental benefits " . In November 2011 , an IEA report entitled Deploying Renewables 2011 said " subsidies in green energy technologies that were not yet competitive are justified in order to give an incentive to investing into technologies with clear environmental and energy security benefits " . The IEA 's report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand .
In the U.S. , the wind power industry has recently increased its lobbying efforts considerably , spending about $ 5 million in 2009 after years of relative obscurity in Washington . By comparison , the U.S. nuclear industry alone spent over $ 650 million on its lobbying efforts and campaign contributions during a single ten @-@ year period ending in 2008 .
Following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents , Germany 's federal government is working on a new plan for increasing energy efficiency and renewable energy commercialization , with a particular focus on offshore wind farms . Under the plan , large wind turbines will be erected far away from the coastlines , where the wind blows more consistently than it does on land , and where the
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her debut solo album Embers . The single peaked at No. 4 on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Play Chart . Embers was released in September 2009 . Co @-@ produced by Sultan & Ned Shepard , Alex Sayz and Scott Fritz , Ali self @-@ released the album on her own label , Smile in Bed Records . Embers generally received positive reviews , Chase Gran from About.com called it a " well rounded , gourmet album with impressive songs " . Gail Navarro from Racket magazine complimented Ali on her songwriting saying , " It wasn ’ t just her sultry sound mixed in together with that enchanting singing voice ; her songwriting got me hook , line and sinker " . Speaking about the self @-@ release of the album , she has cited her creative independence and the pressure of deadlines as the main reasons why she created her own record label .
Ali released two collaborations in 2009 , the first " Better Run " with Tocadisco was released on his album TOCA 128 @.@ 0 FM and " 12 Wives In Tehran " with Serge Devant was released on his album Wanderer .
= = = 2010 – 11 : Queen of Clubs Trilogy = = =
Ali 's first release in 2010 was the track " Try " , a collaboration with German producer Schiller , chosen as the lead single from his album Atemlos , the music video premiered on YouTube in February 2010 . In April 2010 , Ali released " Fantasy " , the fourth single from Embers . The track was chosen as a single by her fans after a poll conducted by Ali on her Facebook page . The music video for " Fantasy " was set to the Morgan Page remix , which served as a prologue to Ali 's next project ; Queen of Clubs Trilogy : The Best of Nadia Ali Remixed . The package was broken into three releases : Ruby Edition ( August 2010 ) , Onyx Edition ( October 2010 ) and Diamond Edition ( December 2010 ) . It featured collaborations with , and remixes by , Armin van Buuren , Gareth Emery and Avicii amongst several other prominent DJs and producers .
I think the fact that it ( electronic dance music ) is mostly male dominated makes females stand out that much more if they are driven enough . I believe anything is possible with hard work .
– Nadia Ali
With a decade @-@ long career , MTV described Ali as one of the " enduring empresses " of electronic dance music and the Queen of Clubs Trilogy as " aptly titled " . Noted for being the " definitive " and " unmistakable " voice of dance music , she is said to have " enriched " and " invigorated " the genre . Ali has gone on to become an oft @-@ requested collaborator by DJs and producers . She was praised for acquiring notability in a male and DJ @-@ dominated genre where vocalists serve as supporting acts . She said this was a double @-@ edged sword as she was also treated as competition by DJs . In December 2010 , she received her first Grammy nomination when the Morgan Page remix of " Fantasy " was nominated in the Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical category .
Her first track with iiO , " Rapture " was re @-@ released as a single from Queen of Clubs Trilogy with remixes by Tristan Garner , Gareth Emery and Avicii . A new music video for the track was shot based on the " Queen of Clubs " theme and released on 24 January 2011 . The song peaked at No. 3 on the Romanian Top 100 chart , while charting in other European countries .
Throughout 2010 , Ali 's collaborations with DJs and producers were released . These included remixes of her upcoming collaboration " That Day " with Dresden and Johnston , which were released on compilation albums . The next , " The Notice " with Swiss duo Chris Reece was released on 13 July . Ali was featured on the track " Feels So Good " on Armin van Buuren 's fourth album Mirage . Released as the fifth single from the album , the song was voted as the Best Trance Track at the 27th International Dance Music Awards .
During 2011 , Ali announced the release of collaborations with several DJs and producers . The first of these was " Call My Name " with the duo Sultan & Ned Shepard , released by Harem Records on 9 February . " Call My Name " was a club success , charting at No. 5 on Billboard Hot Dance Club Play Chart . The second track " Pressure " , a collaboration with Starkillers and Alex Kenji was released on 15 February by Spinnin ' Records . The Alesso remix of " Pressure " became a club and festival anthem and received support from notable DJs such as Armin van Buuren , Tiesto , Swedish House Mafia and Calvin Harris and was voted the Best Progressive House Track at the 27th International Dance Music Awards .
In April , iiO released the studio album Exit 110 , which featured Ali on vocals . On 23 May , her next collaboration , " Free To Go " with Alex Sayz was released by Zouk Recordings . She was featured on Sander van Doorn 's second studio album Eleve11 on the track " Rolling the Dice " , a collaboration between van Doorn , Sidney Samson and her . Her next release was the single " Believe It " with the German duo Spencer & Hill , which was released on 3 October by Wall Recordings . She collaborated once again with Starkillers on the single " Keep It Coming " , which was released on 26 December by Spinnin ' Records .
= = = 2012 – 15 = = =
As of February 2010 , Ali had begun working on her second studio album . A music video for the lead single from the album , " When It Rains " , was released on her YouTube channel in August 2011 .
In May 2012 , Ali announced her move to Los Angeles citing the need for a change after spending 26 years in New York City .
Her first release in 2012 was " This Is Your Life " , the fourth single from Swiss DJ EDX 's album On the Edge . That was followed by " Carry Me " , a collaboration with Morgan Page , the fourth single from his third studio album , In the Air . Her next release was " Must Be the Love " , the lead single from BT 's ninth studio album A Song Across Wires , which was a collaboration between him , Arty and Ali . In 2012 , she also pre @-@ announced her album " Phoenix " , which , as of September 2015 , had not shipped .
In December 2012 , Ali announced her engagement to her fiancé , whom she married in October 2013 .
In January 2014 , Ali released an acoustic cover of The Police song " Roxanne " as a free download . In September 2015 , Ali released the single " All In My Head " , a collaboration with PANG ! . The release was her first single as a lead artist since 2011 .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Ali is perhaps best known for her characteristic voice and vocal abilities . Reema Kumari Jadeja from MOBO described her work as " masterfully encapsulating euphoric and melancholic , Ali ’ s signature music style sees Eastern mystique caressed with intelligent electronica and fortified with soul " . The songs on Embers were likened to Madonna 's work in her prime and a " modern re @-@ interpretation " of Stevie Nicks . Billboard praised her voice for having " too much life on its own " . Ali has been influenced by an eclectic mix of artists , which she credits to her Eastern background and upbringing in Queens . She listed alternative , folk , and Pakistani music as her biggest influences . Some of her vocal and songwriting influences , she said , were Stevie Nicks , Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan , Madonna , Sade and Bono .
Her debut album was noted for a blend of electronica , acoustic and Middle Eastern melodies . She has been praised for her songwriting , describing personal experiences with people , which " hit a powerful and striking chord " with the listener .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Embers ( 2009 )
Compilations
Queen of Clubs Trilogy : Ruby Edition ( 2010 )
Queen of Clubs Trilogy : Onyx Edition ( 2010 )
Queen of Clubs Trilogy : Diamond Edition ( 2010 )
= = Awards = =
= SMS Lübeck =
SMS Lübeck ( " His Majesty 's Ship Lübeck " ) was the fourth of seven Bremen @-@ class cruisers of the Imperial German Navy , named after the city of Lübeck . She was begun by AG Vulcan Stettin in Stettin in 1903 , launched in March 1904 and commissioned in April 1905 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Lübeck was capable of a top speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) .
Lübeck served with the High Seas Fleet for the first decade of her career , and after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was transferred to the Baltic Sea to defend Germany 's coast from potential Russian attacks . She saw extensive service in the first three years of the war , during which time she participated in the seizure of Libau and was attacked by Allied submarines on two occasions . She struck a mine in 1916 but was repaired ; in 1917 , she was withdrawn for secondary duties . She survived the war , and was ceded to the British as a war prize in 1920 , and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Construction = =
Lübeck was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Mercur and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1903 and launched on 26 March 1904 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 26 April 1905 . The ship was 111 @.@ 1 meters ( 365 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 4 m ( 18 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 661 t ( 3 @,@ 603 long tons ; 4 @,@ 036 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two Parsons steam turbines , designed to give 11 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 8 @,@ 600 kW ) for a top speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) . She was the first warship in the German Navy to be equipped with turbine propulsion . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Lübeck carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 3 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 000 km ; 4 @,@ 400 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , a shorter range than her sisters , due to her less efficient turbines . She had a crew of 14 officers and 274 – 287 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with four torpedoes , mounted on the deck . She was also fitted to carry fifty naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Lübeck was assigned to the High Seas Fleet . She served with the fleet until 1914 and the outbreak of World War I. She was then relegated to service as a coastal defense vessel in the Baltic . As the Central Powers prepared to launch the Gorlice – Tarnów Offensive in early May 1915 , the extreme left flank of the German Army was ordered to launch a diversionary attack on 27 April . Lübeck was assigned to the naval support for the attack ; on the first day of the attack , she and the cruiser Thetis shelled the port of Libau . Ten days later , the Army was poised to seize Libau , and so requested naval support for the attack . Lübeck and several other cruisers and torpedo boats covered the assault on the city and patrolled to ensure no Russian naval forces attempted to intervene .
Rear Admiral Hopman , the commander of the reconnaissance forces in the Baltic , conducted a major assault on Libau , in conjunction with an attempt by the German Army to seize the city . The attack took place on 7 May . Lübeck joined the armored cruisers Prinz Heinrich , Roon , and Prinz Adalbert , the elderly coast defense ship Beowulf , and the light cruisers Augsburg and Thetis . They were escorted by a number of destroyers , torpedo boats , and minesweepers . The IV Scouting Group of the High Seas Fleet was detached from the North Sea to provide cover for the operation . The bombardment went as planned , though the destroyer V107 struck a mine in Libau 's harbor , which blew off her bow and destroyed the ship . German ground forces were successful in their assault however , and took the city . A week later , on 14 May , Lübeck was to lay a minefield off the Gulf of Finland with Augsburg , but Russian submarines in the area convinced the Germans to cancel the operation .
On 1 July , the minelayer SMS Albatross , escorted by the cruisers Lübeck , Roon , and Augsburg and seven destroyers , laid a minefield north of Bogskär . While returning to port , the flotilla separated into two sections ; Augsburg , Albatross , and three destroyers made for Rixhöft while the remainder of the unit went to Libau . Augsburg and Albatross were intercepted by a powerful Russian squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Bakhirev , consisting of three armored and two light cruisers . Commodore Johannes von Karpf , the flotilla commander , ordered the slower Albatross to steam for neutral Swedish waters and recalled Roon and Lübeck . Albatross was grounded off Gotland and Augsburg escaped , and the Russian squadron briefly engaged Roon before both sides broke contact . Upon being informed of the situation , Hopman sortied with Prinz Heinrich and Prinz Adalbert to support von Karpf . While en route , the cruisers encountered the British submarine E9 , which scored a hit on Prinz Adalbert . Hopman broke off the operation and returned to port with the damaged cruiser .
On 9 August , Lübeck was attacked by the Russian submarine Gepard outside the Irben Strait at the entrance to the Gulf of Riga . Gepard fired a spread of five torpedoes at a range of 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) , but Lübeck successfully evaded them . On 6 November , Lübeck again came under attack from an Allied submarine ; on this occasion , it was the British HMS E8 . Again , Lübeck managed to evade the torpedoes and escape undamaged . The Allies finally had success against the ship on 13 January 1916 , when a Russian mine damaged Lübeck ; she nevertheless returned to port and was repaired . At the same time , she and her sister Bremen were rearmed with two 15 cm SK L / 45 and six 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns . A new bow was fitted and her funnels were replaced with new models .
In 1917 , she was withdrawn from front @-@ line service and employed as a training ship , as well as a target ship . Lübeck served in this capacity until the end of the war in November 1918 . Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , the ship was surrendered to the British as a war prize . She was formally ceded on 3 September 1920 under the name P ; the British in turn sold her for scrapping in 1922 , and she was dismantled in Germany over the following year .
= Naem =
Naem ( Thai : แหนม , pronounced [ nɛ ̌ ːm ] , also referred to as nham , naem moo , naem maw , and chin som ) is a pork sausage in Thai cuisine . It is a fermented food that has a sour flavor . It typically has a short shelf life , and is often eaten in raw form after the fermentation process has occurred . It is a popular food in Thai cuisine , and different regions of Thailand have various preferred flavors , including variations of sour and spicy . Naem is used as an ingredient in various dishes and is also served as a side dish .
Naem contains 185 kilocalories per a serving size of 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) and contains a significant amount of protein , has a moderate amount of fat and minor carbohydrate content . Parasites and enteropathogenic bacteria have been found in samples of naem , and lactic acid formed during its fermentation inhibits the growth of Salmonella . Lactobacillus curvatus use in the product has been proven to prevent the growth of pathogenic bacteria in naem . It is sometimes treated with irradiation . The bacterial content in Thai sour pork products is regulated .
= = Overview = =
Naem is a red @-@ colored , semi @-@ dry lactic @-@ fermented pork sausage in Thai cuisine prepared using minced raw pork and pork skin , significant amounts of cooked sticky rice , chili peppers , garlic , sugar , salt and potassium nitrate . Minced beef is sometimes used in its preparation . After the mix is prepared , it is encased in banana leaves , synthetic sausage casings or tubular plastic bags and left to ferment for three to five days . Naem has a sour quality to it due to the fermentation , in which lactic acid bacteria and yeasts grow within the sausage . The lactic acid bacteria and yeasts expand by feeding upon the rice and sugar , and the use of salt prevents the meat from rotting .
Naem typically has a short shelf life , which can be extended through refrigeration . The sausage can be time @-@ consuming and labor @-@ intensive to prepare . In Thailand , it is typically stored at room temperature , which gives it a shelf life of around one week . It is also produced in areas of Southeast Asia that are near Thailand .
Naem is often consumed raw , ( after fermentation has occurred ) , and is often accompanied with shallot , ginger , bird ’ s eye chili peppers and spring onions . It is used as an ingredient in various dishes such as naem fried with eggs , Naem khao and Naem phat wun sen sai khai , and is also consumed as a side dish and as a condiment . The cooking of naem significantly changes its flavor .
= = Prominence = =
Naem has been described as " one of the popular meat products of the country prepared from ground pork " and as " one of the most popular traditional Thai fermented meat products " .
= = Varieties = =
Naem mo in northern Thailand may be fermented in a clay pot . Different regions of Thailand have different preferred flavors : northern and northeastern pork is a little bit sour , central is sour and southern is spicy .
= = Use in dishes = =
Dishes prepared with naem include naem fried with eggs , and naem fried rice . Naem phat wun sen sai khai is a dish prepared with naem , glass noodles and eggs , among other ingredients such as spring onions and red pepper . Naem khao is a salad dish in Lao cuisine prepared using Lao fermented pork sausage , rice , coconut , peanuts , mint , cilantro , fish sauce and lemon juice . The naem and rice are formed into balls , deep @-@ fried , and then served broken atop the various ingredients . A restaurant named " Serenade " in Bangkok , Thailand purveys a dish called the " McNaem " , which consists of a duck egg wrapped in naem that is fried and then plated atop a dish with risotto , slaw , shiitake mushrooms , herbs and cooked sea scallops atop crushed garlic .
There are many applications of sour pork with different flavors such as phat phet naem ( Thai : ผัดเผ ็ ดแหนม ) , tom kha naem ( Thai : ต ้ มข ่ าแหนม ) , ho mok naem ( Thai : ห ่ อหมกแหนม ) , and naem priao wan ( Thai : แหนมเปรี ้ ยวหวาน ) .
Dishes prepared with naem
= = Nutritional content = =
Per a serving size of 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) , Naem has 185 kilocalories , 20 @.@ 2 grams ( 0 @.@ 71 oz ) protein , 9 @.@ 9 grams ( 0 @.@ 35 oz ) fat and 3 @.@ 6 grams ( 0 @.@ 13 oz ) carbohydrate . Per the work " Industrialization of Thai Nham " by Warawut Krusong of the King Mongkut 's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang in Bangkok , Thailand , vitamins B1 and B2 , ferric iron and phosphorus were present in naem , but the quantities were unspecified .
= = Microbiology = =
Naem has on occasion been contaminated with parasites such as Taenia solium and Trichinella spiralis and enteropathogenic bacteria such as coliform bacteria and Salmonella . It has been demonstrated that Salmonella growth is inhibited by the formation of lactic acid during the fermentation process . Use of the starter culture Lactobacillus curvatus has been demonstrated to prevent " the outgrowth of pathogenic bacteria " in naem . Naem is sometimes treated with irradiation .
= = = Regulations on bacterial content = = =
The bacterial content in Thai sour pork products is regulated . There should not be more than 0 @.@ 1 grams ( 0 @.@ 0035 oz ) of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 , Staphylococcus aureus not more than 0 @.@ 1 grams ( 0 @.@ 0035 oz ) , Yersinia enterocolitica not more than 0 @.@ 1 grams ( 0 @.@ 0035 oz ) , Listeria monocytogenes not more than 0 @.@ 1 grams ( 0 @.@ 0035 oz ) , Clostridium perfringens not more than 0 @.@ 1 grams ( 0 @.@ 0035 oz ) , Fungi less than 10colony per gram , Trichinellaspiralis less than 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) . If any of these bacteria exist at higher levels than described above it may cause sickness .
= Typhoon Helen ( 1972 ) =
Typhoon Helen was the most destructive tropical cyclone to strike Japan during the 1972 Pacific typhoon season . Originating from a tropical disturbance on September 11 near the Northern Mariana Islands , Helen gradually intensified as it moved northwestward . By September 14 , it reached typhoon strength and soon turned northeast towards Japan . Accelerating due to a trough over the East China Sea , Helen rapidly approached the country and made landfall near Cape Kushimoto as a Category 3 equivalent typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Later that day , a weakened Helen emerged into the Sea of Japan . After merging with an upper @-@ level low , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 19 and was last noted two days later after moving through southern Hokkaido .
In Japan , Typhoon Helen produced torrential rain , peaking at 790 mm ( 31 in ) in Hokkaido , and damaging winds that caused widespread damage . A total of 4 @,@ 213 homes were destroyed and another 146 @,@ 547 were damaged as a result of flash flooding and landslides . Numerous vessels ran aground due to rough seas associated with the storm , including several thousand ton cargo freighters . In all , 87 fatalities and $ 102 million in damage was attributed to Typhoon Helen .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early September 1972 , a tropical disturbance developed within a near @-@ equatorial trough near the Northern Mariana Islands . On September 11 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring this system as a tropical depression shortly after moving through the island chain . Initially , the system tracked southwestward before turning northwestward along the edge of a ridge . On September 13 , a United States Air Force reconnaissance plane flew into the system and found that it had intensified into a tropical storm . At this time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring the newly named Tropical Storm Helen . Additionally , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration began warning on the system , assigning it the local name Paring . The following day , Helen attained typhoon status as it turned northward . Subsequently , a deepening trough over the East China Sea caused the typhoon to turn north @-@ northeastward and accelerate .
During the afternoon of September 16 , a reconnaissance plane recorded flight @-@ level winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Around this time , surface winds were estimated to be the same , making Helen a Category 3 equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Later that day , the storm made landfall near Cape Kushimoto . In Shionomisaki Lighthouse , just west of where the center of Helen passed , a barometric pressure of 955 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) was recorded , the lowest in relation to the storm . As the system neared Hokkaido , it slowed down and began a multi @-@ day anticyclonic loop . During this period , it merged with an upper @-@ level low and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 19 . The remnants of Helen then tracked across southern Hokkaido before dissipating just east of the island on September 21 .
= = Impact = =
Prior to the typhoon 's arrival , officials in Japan warned residents of heavy rains . The Japanese National Railways network suspended service to areas threatened by the storm , stranding numerous people . By September 18 , approximately one sixth of the railway service was canceled or delayed .
Throughout the main island of Honshu , areas within 110 km ( 70 mi ) of the storm 's center experienced winds in excess of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , leading to considerable disruptions to air , sea , and land travel . The highest gust was measured at 181 km / h ( 112 mph ) in Sumoto . These winds caused a city @-@ wide power outage in Tsu , Mie and scattered outages in Nagoya . Over a substantial portion of the country , the storm produced torrential rains that triggered deadly flash floods . Peak rainfall in Honshu and Hokkaido reached 580 mm ( 23 in ) and 790 mm ( 31 in ) , respectively . In Shikoku , ten people died after a landslide destroyed nine homes in Kōchi City . Across Japan , a total of 4 @,@ 213 homes were destroyed and another 146 @,@ 547 were damaged , leaving at least 3 @,@ 000 people homeless . Roads and bridges sustained extensive damage , with large stretches being washed out . According to police in Tokyo , 140 bridges sustained damage . In Higashimatsuyama , a tornado spawned by Helen destroyed eight homes .
Large swells from the storm caused large vessels to wash ashore , including a 9 @,@ 000 ton freighter in Ise Bay . Twenty @-@ four fishermen drowned off the coast of Hachijō @-@ jima after two vessels sank . Throughout Japan , 322 ships were either damaged or ran aground due to the storm . Including offshore , Helen killed 85 people in Japan . Along the east coast of South Korea , these swells resulted in two fatalities .
On September 17 , the Japanese military was mobilized to assist in relief efforts . In all , 87 fatalities , 158 injuries and $ 102 million in damage was attributed to Typhoon Helen , making it the most destructive tropical cyclone to strike Japan in 1972 .
= Kenji Ito =
Kenji Ito ( 伊藤 賢治 , Itō Kenji , born July 5 , 1968 ) , also known by the nickname Itoken ( イトケン ) , is a Japanese video game composer and musician . He is best known for his work on the Mana and SaGa series , though he has worked on over 30 video games throughout his career as well as composed or arranged music for over 15 other albums , concerts , and plays . He learned to play several instruments at a young age , and joined Square directly out of college as a composer in 1990 at the advice of a professor . He worked there for over a decade , composing many of his best @-@ known scores . In 2001 , he left Square to become a freelance composer , but has since continued to collaborate with the company .
Since leaving Square , Ito has composed soundtracks to over a dozen games , and has branched out into composition and production of music for plays and albums for other performers . Ito 's work has been performed in a concert dedicated to his pieces as well as general video game music events , and he has played the piano in additional concerts . Pieces of his from the SaGa and Mana series have been arranged as piano solos and published in sheet music books .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Born in Tokyo , Japan , on July 5 , 1968 , Ito became interested in music at the age of four . He began to learn to play the piano , becoming interested in it after hearing piano music coming from a classroom he passed by daily with his mother . He was also interested in Electone music , but was discouraged from learning it by a piano teacher . By the time he began composing at the age of ten , he had learned to play alto saxophone , clarinet , and piano , and was interested in becoming a singer / songwriter . When he was close to graduating from college , he decided to pursue a career in composing music ; when he asked a professor for advice , the professor recommended becoming a video game music composer , given the recent success in Japan of Dragon Quest III . During March 1990 , after applying to several video game companies including HAL Laboratory , Ito began working at Square .
= = = Career = = =
His first project was a co @-@ effort that same year between himself and Nobuo Uematsu for the Game Boy title Final Fantasy Legend II ( SaGa 2 ) . It led the following year to the first album release of his music , All Sounds of SaGa , which was a combination album of The Final Fantasy Legend , Final Fantasy Legend II , and Final Fantasy Legend III ; all of Ito 's work on Legend II appeared on the album . Shortly after in 1991 , he composed his first solo work , the soundtrack for Final Fantasy Adventure ( Seiken Densetsu ) , another Game Boy title . He then returned to the SaGa series for the next few years , composing the soundtracks to the Super Famicom 's Romancing SaGa , Romancing SaGa 2 , and Romancing SaGa 3 . These soundtracks sparked Ito 's first arranged albums ; the first game was arranged in a French musical style by Masaaki Mizuguchi , while the other two were arranged by Ryou Fukui and Taro Iwashiro , respectively , into orchestral pieces . Ito was originally scheduled to continue on with the Mana series and compose the soundtrack to Seiken Densetsu 2 ( Secret of Mana ) , but was forced to hand the project off to Hiroki Kikuta as his first score due to the demand on his time for scoring Romancing SaGa .
1995 marked the first time since he started composing that he worked on a title outside of the Mana or SaGa series ; he composed the music for Koi wa Balance and was a member of an eight @-@ person team for Tobal No. 1 . He returned to the SaGa series in 1997 with SaGa Frontier , and finished out the decade with Chocobo Racing and Chocobo 's Dungeon 2 ; for Chocobo Racing he only arranged previous works from the Chocobo and Final Fantasy series , and contributed only a few tracks to Chocobo 's Dungeon 2 . He left Square in 2001 to become a freelance composer . He has said that this move was in order to give him the flexibility to work on more than just video game music .
The first work that Ito composed after leaving Square was the soundtrack to Culdcept II , which he regards as his best work . He attributes this feeling both to the fact that it was his first freelance piece and that he handled all aspects of the music production , from composition through arrangement and sound production . From there he returned to working with Square and the Mana series with the remake of his second soundtrack , Final Fantasy Adventure , into the soundtrack of Sword of Mana . It was an act he would repeat two years later for Square , now Square Enix , with the remake of Romancing SaGa , Romancing SaGa : Minstrel Song . He has since returned to the Mana series twice , with the soundtracks to Children of Mana and Dawn of Mana . All of the video game soundtracks that he has composed since the third expansion pack for Cross Gate in 2004 have been with the assistance of other composers except for 2007 's Hero Must Die , though during those years he has branched out from video games into composing and producing albums and singles for performers as well as composing music for plays and concerts . He has also released an album of piano pieces that he has composed ; only two of the eight tracks are from his video game works .
= = Legacy = =
Ito performed piano live during the September 22 , 2006 Press Start 2006 -Symphony of Games- live concert , at which several of his pieces were performed by an orchestra . This concert followed an August 26 , 2006 concert Manami Kiyota x Kenji Ito Collaboration Live in which he played the piano for songs composed by him for the event and sung by Manami Kiyota ; he has also played the piano at concerts given by The Black Mages , a band composed of current or former Square musicians , before they expanded to include a full @-@ time pianist . Music composed by Ito has also been performed at the Extra -Hyper Game Music Event 2007 and Christmas Live 2008 " gentleecho -prelude- " concerts .
Music composed by Ito was performed at a concert devoted to his music on February 21 , 2009 titled " gentle echo meeting " at the Uchisaiwaicho Hall in Chiyoda , Tokyo . A group of five musicians performed eight of his songs , interspersed with performances by Ito and discussions about his music between himself and Masahiro Sakurai . The event began as a concert due to Ito 's wish to host one based on his music , but after the space the organizing company , Harmonics International , rented turned out to be run by a high school classmate of Ito , at the classmate 's insistence the discussions of Ito 's music were added to the program .
Music from the original soundtracks of Dawn of Mana and Sword of Mana has been arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing . Two compilation books of music from the series as a whole have also been published as Seiken Densetsu Best Collection Piano Solo Sheet Music first and second editions , with the first edition including tracks by Ito from Final Fantasy Adventure while the second added tracks he composed from Dawn of Mana . All songs in each book have been rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible . Additionally , KMP Music Publishing has published a book of the piano music included in the Sword of Mana soundtrack album , which Ito arranged from his original compositions . DOREMI Music Publishing also published music from the original soundtracks of some of the SaGa games that Ito composed as piano sheet music book ; music from Romancing SaGa 3 , Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song , and SaGa Frontier were written by Asako Niwa for piano solos of beginning to intermediate difficulty .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Ito 's music is mainly inspired by images from the game rather than outside influences ; however , he never played the games themselves . The only video games that he plays are sports games ; he has only seen up to the introductory movie for most of the role @-@ playing games that he has written music for . While many of his pieces are orchestral , he enjoys working in a recording studio and enjoys composing " normal songs " as much as his orchestral works . His favorite video game music from other composers include the music from Star Fox , Dragon Quest , Final Fantasy , Wizardry and Nobunaga 's Ambition . Non @-@ video game music that has inspired him includes Japanese popular music and soundtracks to anime works , as well as easy listening music such as Paul Mauriat or Richard Clayderman , especially string music . These influences have led him to wish to create music " that you can listen to while you relax " . He also wishes to expand his compositions outside of video game music and into ballads .
= = Works = =
= = = Video games = = =
Composition
Arrangement
Mabinogi ( 2008 )
Super Smash Bros. Brawl ( 2008 ) – with many others
SaGa 2 : Hihou Densetsu ( 2009 )
Ar tonelico 3 Hymmnos Concert album ( 2010 ) – with many others
Deathsmiles Arranged Album ( 2010 ) – with many others
Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U ( 2014 ) – with many others
= = = Other = = =
Composition
Arrangement
" Ai no Sumika " ~ " Hyouhaku no Toki / Komoro Nikki -Touson no Fuyuko " Stage Music Collection ~ ( 1999 ) – album by Kyoko Fujimoto
Hyouhaku no Toki / Touson to Fuyuko ( 2001 ) – concert
Katakoi ( 2002 ) – single by Muneyuki Satoh
Soredemo Kisetsu wa ( 2002 ) – single by Muneyuki Satoh
Tougenkyo -Masashi Sada Chromatic Harmonica Music Collection- ( 2002 ) – album by Etsuko Kitani
Mirai ( 2003 ) – album by Yusuke Matsumoto
= Timbaland =
Timothy Zachery " Timbaland " Mosley ( born March 10 , 1972 ) is an American record producer , singer , songwriter , rapper and DJ . Timbaland 's first full credit production work was in 1996 on Ginuwine ... the Bachelor for R & B singer Ginuwine . After further work on Aaliyah 's 1996 album One in a Million and Missy Elliott 's 1997 album Supa Dupa Fly , Timbaland became a prominent producer for R & B and hip hop artists . As a rapper he initially released several albums with fellow rapper Magoo , followed by his debut solo album Tim 's Bio in 1998 .
In 2002 , Timbaland produced the hit single " Cry Me a River " for Justin Timberlake , going on to produce most of Timberlake 's subsequent LPs such as FutureSex / LoveSounds and The 20 / 20 Experience and their respective hit singles . A Timbaland @-@ owned imprint label , Mosley Music Group , featured artists such as Nelly Furtado , whose Timbaland @-@ produced album Loose ( 2006 ) was a commercial and critical success . In 2007 , Timbaland released a solo album , Shock Value , which was followed by Shock Value II in 2009 .
Aside from the aforementioned artists , Timbaland 's production credits from the 2000s forward include work with Jay Z , Nas , Ludacris , Bubba Sparxxx , Madonna , Rihanna , OneRepublic , Brandy , Drake , Rick Ross and others . As a songwriter he has written as of 2014 , 85 UK hits and 99 hits Stateside .
= = Early life = =
Timothy Zachery Mosley was born on March 10 , 1972 in Norfolk , Virginia , the son of Latrice , who ran a homeless shelter , and Garland Mosley , an Amtrak employee . He graduated from Salem High School of Virginia Beach , Virginia . During his time as a DJ , he was known as " DJ Tim " or " DJ Timmy Tim " . His brother , Sebastian , is reportedly around nine years younger . His sister Courtney Rashon is a makeup artist and author from New Jersey . While attending high school , Timbaland began a long @-@ term collaboration with rapper Melvin Barcliff , who performed under the name of Magoo . The teenage Mosley also joined the production ensemble S.B.I. ( which stood for ' Surrounded By Idiots ' ) which also featured Neptunes producer Pharrell . Mosley was also high school friends with Terrence and Gene Thorton , who would go on to be known as Pusha T and Malice of the rap group Clipse . In 1986 , when Timbaland was 14 years old , he was accidentally shot by a co @-@ worker at the local Red Lobster restaurant and was partially paralyzed for nine months . During this time , he began to learn how to DJ using his left hand .
Singer and rapper Missy Elliott heard his material and began working with him . She and her R & B group Sista auditioned for DeVante Swing , a producer and member of the successful R & B act Jodeci . DeVante signed Sista to his Swing Mob record label and Elliott brought Mosley and Barcliff along with her to New York , where Swing Mob was based . It was DeVante who renamed the young producer Timbaland , after the Timberland brand of construction boots . He and Magoo became part of SCI Zakys School stable of Swing Mob signees known as " Da Bassment " crew , joining artists such as R & B singer Ginuwine , male vocal group Playa ( Smoke E. Digglera , Static Major and Digital Black ) , and the girl group Sugah . Timbaland did production work on a number of projects with DeVante , including the 1995 Jodeci LP The Show , The After @-@ Party , The Hotel , and Sista ’ s ( unreleased ) début LP 4 All the Sistas Around da World . Elliott began receiving recognition as a songwriter for artists such as R & B girl group 702 and MC Lyte . Due to Timbaland 's connection with her , he was often contacted to produce remixes of her songs .
= = Career = =
= = = 1994 – 2002 : Focus on production work and Tim 's Bio : Life from da Bassment = = =
Timbaland began his producing career for R & B acts . In the mid @-@ 1990s , he produced a few songs for R & B acts such as Jodeci and Sista . In 1996 , he made his mainstream breakthrough by producing the majority of both Aaliyah 's second album One in a Million and Ginuwine 's debut album Ginuwine ... the Bachelor . This included the major hit singles " If Your Girl Only Knew " by Aaliyah and " Pony " by Ginuwine . While Timbaland was initially producing for R & B artists , his trademark sound was very much rooted in hip @-@ hop with its fast @-@ paced nature and clear drum breaks . He was taking a hip @-@ hop sound and applying it to R & B , and in this way his sound was instrumental in blurring the distinction between hip @-@ hop and R & B production . In 1997 , he fully produced Supa Dupa Fly , the debut album of Missy Elliott , who had been a childhood friend of Mosley . In this album Timbaland continued with his now trademark electronic production style , but since Missy frequently rapped the music was considered hip @-@ hop . Also in 1997 , he released his first album with his partner Magoo , Welcome to Our World , also a hip @-@ hop album . In the late 1990s , his hip @-@ hop production sound would become very influential and common as he produced for many high profile hip @-@ hop artists including Jay @-@ Z , Nas , and The LOX . In 1999 , he scored a major hit with Jay Z and rap group UGK with the hit " Big Pimpin ' " . He also fully produced Missy 's second album in 1999 , Da Real World . Still Timbaland in this period produced primarily for R & B artists . He continued to produce for Ginuwine and Aaliyah , as well as contributing significantly to albums by Xscape , Nicole , Playa , and Total . He remixed Usher 's major hit " You Make Me Wanna " . In the early 2000s Timbaland produced songs including Ludacris ' " Roll Out ( My Business ) " , Jay @-@ Z 's " Hola ' Hovito " , Petey Pablo 's " Raise Up " , and Beck 's cover of David Bowie 's " Diamond Dogs " during this period . He also contributed three songs , all eventually released as singles , to Aaliyah ’ s self @-@ titled third album , the exotic lead single " We Need a Resolution " ( featuring himself rapping a verse ) , " More than a Woman " , and the ballad " I Care 4 U " . He also makes an appearance in Aaliyah 's single " Try Again " , which he also produced and co @-@ wrote .
Timbaland & Magoo ’ s second album together was slated for release in November 2000 . Indecent Proposal was to feature appearances by Beck , Aaliyah , as well as new Timbaland protégés — some from his new Beat Club Records imprint--Ms . Jade , Kiley Dean , Sebastian ( Timbaland 's brother ) , Petey Pablo , and Tweet ( who was a member of Sugah during the Swing Mob days ) . The album was delayed for an entire year , finally released in November 2001 . It was a commercial disappointment . Beck ’ s vocals for the track " I Am Music " were not included on the last version , which instead featured Timbaland singing along Steve " Static " Garrett of Playa and Aaliyah . The first release on Beat Club was the début album by Bubba Sparxxx in September 2001 , Dark Days , Bright Nights . The loss of Aaliyah deeply affected Timbaland . In a phone call to the MTV show Total Request Live , Timbaland said :
She was like blood , and I lost blood . Me and her together had this chemistry . I kinda lost half of my creativity to her . It 's hard for me to talk to the fans now . Beyond the music , she was a brilliant person , the [ most special ] person I ever met .
= = = 2003 – 05 : Production work for pop recording artists = = =
Timbaland contributed three tracks to Tweet 's debut album , Southern Hummingbird , and produced most of Missy Elliott 's fourth and fifth LPs , Under Construction and This Is Not A Test ! . He also produced tracks for artists such as Lil ' Kim ( " The Jump Off " ) and southern rapper Pastor Troy during this period . Collaborating with fellow producer Scott Storch , Timbaland also worked on a number of tracks on former * NSYNC lead singer Justin Timberlake ’ s solo debut , Justified , including the song " Cry Me a River " .
Late in 2003 , Timbaland delivered the second Bubba Sparxxx album , Deliverance , and the third Timbaland & Magoo album , Under Construction , Part II Both albums were released to little fanfare or acclaim even though Deliverance was praised by reviews and embraced by the internet community . In 2004 Timbaland produced singles for LL Cool J , Xzibit , Fatman Scoop , and Jay Z , and he produced the bulk of Brandy ’ s fourth album , Afrodisiac . Timbaland co @-@ wrote two tracks ( Exodus ' 04 and Let Me Give You My Love ) and produced three tracks of the American @-@ Japanese Pop star Hikaru Utada ’ s debut English album , Exodus . He continued working on tracks for Tweet and for Elliott ’ s sixth album , The Cookbook : " Joy ( feat . Mike Jones ) " , and " Partytime " and continued to expand his reach with production for The Game and Jennifer Lopez ( " He 'll Be Back " from her fourth studio album , Rebirth ) .
= = = 2006 – 07 : Loose , Future / Sounds and Shock Value = = =
Timbaland started a new label , Mosley Music Group along with old friend and legendary Australian music producer John Servedio , also known as his stage name ' ServidSounds ' who helped Timbaland bring in some talent from his former Beat Club Records label . On the new label were Nelly Furtado , Keri Hilson , and rapper D.O.E .. In 2006 he produced Justin Timberlake 's second solo studio album FutureSex / LoveSounds . His vocals feature on the songs " SexyBack " , " Sexy Ladies " , " Chop Me Up " , " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " and on the prelude to " My Love " entitled " Let Me Talk to You . " Timbaland provided vocals on several singles : The Pussycat Dolls 's " Wait a Minute " , Nelly Furtado 's " Promiscuous " , " Ice Box " by Omarion and Justin Timberlake 's " SexyBack " . In an interview published in August 2006 in the UK Timbaland revealed he was working on a new LP by Jay Z and that he had worked on tracks with Coldplay ’ s Chris Martin .
Timbaland worked on seven songs for Björk ’ s 2007 album , Volta , including " Earth Intruders " , " Hope " , and " Innocence " and he later worked on tracks for the new Duran Duran album , Red Carpet Massacre , including one featuring his frequent collaborator Justin Timberlake . Later in the year , Timbaland produced songs for Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony 's LP , Strength & Loyalty and the song " Ayo Technology " on 50 Cent ’ s album Curtis . Timbaland also produced most of the tracks on Ashlee Simpson 's third CD , Bittersweet World , including the song " Outta My Head ( Ay Ya Ya ) " . On April 3 , 2007 , Timbaland released a collaboration album featuring artists including 50 Cent , Dr. Dre , Elton John , Fall Out Boy , Nelly Furtado , Missy Elliott , and others called Timbaland Presents Shock Value . A rivalry flared up between Timbaland and record producer Scott Storch in early 2007 . The tension initially started on the single " Give It to Me " , when Timbaland anonymously backlashed Storch : " I 'm a real producer and you [ ' re ] just the piano man " . In an interview , Timbaland confirmed that he was talking about Storch . The dispute partly stemmed from controversy regarding writing credits for Timberlake 's " Cry Me a River " .
= = = 2008 : Focus on other projects = = =
Timbaland helped produce many albums for various artists in 2008 , including Madonna 's Hard Candy , Ashlee Simpson 's Bittersweet World , Keri Hilson 's In A Perfect World , Flo Rida 's Mail On Sunday , Letoya Luckett 's Lady Love , Lindsay Lohan 's Spirit in the Dark , Chris Cornell 's Scream , JoJo 's All I Want Is Everything , Nicole Scherzinger 's Her Name is Nicole , Missy Elliott 's Block Party , Matt Pokora 's MP3 , Keithian 's Dirrty Pop , The Pussycat Dolls 's Doll Domination , Busta Rhymes 's B.O.M.B , Lisa Maffia 's Miss Boss , Teairra Mari 's Pressed For Time , Jennifer Hudson 's début album , Dima Bilan 's Believe , Samantha Jade 's My Name Is Samantha Jade , New Kids on the Block 's The Block , and Keshia Chanté 's Night & Day . Timbaland produced the Russian entry the Eurovision Song Contest 2008 , Believe by Dima Bilan , which was co @-@ written by Bilan and Jim Beanz . The song then won the contest when it was held in Belgrade , Serbia in May 2008 . In February 2008 the first ' Fashion against AIDS ' collection -an initiative of ' Designers against AIDS ' and sold in H & M stores in 28 countries- was launched , for which Timbaland designed a T @-@ shirt print , posed for the campaign and spoke out in a video , to help raise HIV / AIDS awareness among urban youth and to advocate safe sex . On February 8 , 2008 , it was announced that Timbaland would be releasing an album exclusively for Verizon Wireless 's V CAST cell phone service and was designated its very first " Mobile Producer in Residence . " Timbaland was to be joined by Mosley Music Group / Zone 4 singer / songwriter Keri Hilson to begin work on the mobile album ’ s first track aboard the fully equipped Mobile Recording Studio . The only track to surface so far is Garry Barry Larry Harry " Get It Girl " . In Timbaland 's first effort within the video game industry , he worked with Rockstar Games to produce Beaterator , a music mixing game for the PlayStation Portable , PlayStation Network , and iOS released in the September 2009 .
= = = 2009 – 10 : Shock Value II and burglary case = = =
Timbaland spoke to MTV 's Shaheem Reid back in July 2008 to confirm that he was working on the follow @-@ up to his platinum selling Shock Value . At the time he confirmed that he had one track with Madonna which although recorded for her album Hard Candy it had not been used and could end up on this album instead . He was insistent that he would also collaborate with Jordin Sparks , Beyoncé , Rihanna , Jonas Brothers , Miley Cyrus and T.I. However , none of these collaborations ( except Miley Cyrus ) made it to the final tracklist . He also said that alongside T @-@ Pain who would definitely appear , he hoped to get Jay @-@ Z on board , although he ultimately failed to do so . Timbaland began working on the sequel to Shock Value in July 2008 . In March 2009 , he filed a lawsuit against his label , Blackground Records , alleging that they attempted to blackball him after he decided to move from music performance into production .
In September 2009 , Timbaland announced that Shock Value II will be released on November 23 , in Europe and November 24 , in North America . However , it was pushed back to December 8 , preceded by the first single which features a new recording artist named SoShy entitled " Morning After Dark " . New featured guest appearances on the album include DJ Felli Fel , Justin Timberlake , JoJo , Bran 'Nu , Drake , Chad Kroeger , Sebastian , Miley Cyrus , Nelly Furtado , Katy Perry , Esthero , The Fray , Jet , Daughtry , OneRepublic , Keri Hilson , Attitude and D.O.E .. Ultimately Madonna , Jonas Brothers , Rihanna , Usher , Jay Z , Beyoncé , Kanye West , Linkin Park , The All @-@ American Rejects , Paramore , Gucci Mane , T @-@ Pain , T.I. and Akon never appeared on Shock Value II . Shock Value II is infamous for its use of over @-@ the @-@ top vocal effects . Despite charting low , Timbaland has had three top forty singles to date .
" Morning After Dark " featuring SoShy and Nelly Furtado is the lead single from Timbaland 's third studio album . The song was written by Tim Mosley , Jerome Harmon , Deborah Epstein , Michelle Bell , Keri Hilson , Nelly Furtado , James Washington , John Maultsby and produced by Timbaland and Jroc . The single premiered on October 16 , 2009 , on Ryan Seacrest 's KIIS @-@ FM radio show , On @-@ Air with Ryan Seacrest with Timbaland describing it as the kick @-@ off song from the project . Following her performance , the song was sent for radio adds on May 25 . The song peaked in the top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 . With this success , the song became Sparks ' fifth consecutive top 20 hit and third nonconsecutive top 10 hit . On May 24 , Sparks headed to Europe to begin promotion for the single . " Say Something " featuring Canadian rapper Drake was released to US iTunes on November 3 , 2009 . It was officially sent to U.S. radio on 5 January 2010 . It is the album 's second single and reached number 23 on the Hot 100 , making it the second most successful single on the album . " Carry Out " featuring Justin Timberlake is the third single from the album but was initially only released in the U.S. It was sent to US radio on December 1 , 2009 . It is the most successful single on the album , peaking at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The music video premiered on February 18 , 2010 . It was released as the third UK single on 26 April 2010 . " If We Ever Meet Again " featuring Katy Perry is the album 's fourth single . The music video premiered on January 18 , 2010 . In the UK , it was released February 15 , 2010 .
Timbaland produced Chris Cornell 's 2009 album Scream . Shakira was asked to record vocals on the song " Give It Up to Me " to be included on Timbaland 's forthcoming album but it was placed on her third studio album She Wolf and released as the second US single instead . One of the songs Timbaland had produced for Beyoncé 's 2008 album I Am ... Sasha Fierce was reworked by Keri Hilson and Jay Z for Shock Value II but not included . He was a guest host of WWE 's Raw on December 28 , 2009 . Timbaland appeared on the 25 March 2010 episode ( titled " Blowback " ) of FlashForward as an evidence agent . His songs " Morning After Dark " and " Symphony " appear on the video game Def Jam : Underground .
In April 2010 , a feud arose between the producer and R & B singer Ginuwine , after Timbaland failed to make an appearance at the singer 's music video shoot of " Get Involved " . Later in April , Timbaland released a new single featuring T @-@ Pain and Billy Blue titled " Talk That " . In June 2010 , when questioned by RWD magazine about the UK music scene he made the bold claim to be the inspiration for the dub @-@ step music scene . “ The UK scene ... they ’ re always telling me that I started it . You have Dub @-@ bass ... ” . When questioned further about it he went on to say : " It ’ s funny cos they went back to some of my old music that really created that sound and just , instead of going fast , they went slow with more bass . " In August 2010 , a " possible suicide attempt " APB was put out for Timbaland after his home was burgled . When his family were unable to contact him , they called 911 and a manhunt began . Police eventually found his car and brought him back home , where paramedics examined him , before declaring he was not a threat to himself . When questioned , Timbaland said he only took a drive to think about the burglary , as he thought the possible thief could have been someone close whom he trusted .
= = = 2010 – present : Textbook Timbo and recent activities = = =
In 2010 , Timbaland split with longtime label Blackground Records , but stayed with Interscope Records . Later in the year , Timbaland was featured on the deluxe edition of Chris Brown 's album , F.A.M.E. , producing the songs " Paper , Scissors , Rock " ( feat . Big Sean ) and the Japan @-@ only bonus track , " Talk Ya Ear Off " . Timbaland was also featured on David Guetta 's LP , Nothing But the Beat , on " I Just Wanna F. " with Dev and Afrojack . Timbaland also worked with teen star Demi Lovato ; he produced and had a small feature in her song " All Night Long " on Lovato 's Unbroken album . In November 2010 , Timbaland announced that he would be releasing a new song every Thursday , called Timbo Thursdays ; a copy of the initiative shown by artists such as Kanye West ( via G.O.O.D. Fridays ) , and Swizz Beatz ( via Monster Mondays ) . In an interview with Rap @-@ Up.com Timbaland stated , “ So , my brother told me Kanye is puttin ' out a new song every Friday called G.O.O.D. Fridays , Swizz got Mondays , I don 't know if they are on Twitter but can you hit them up , and tell them reserve that Thursday for Timbo the king baby . We ’ ll call it Timbo Thursday , cool ? ”
On January 13 , 2011 , Timbaland began his Timbaland Thursdays free music initiative , with the first song released being " Take Ur Clothes Off " , featuring Missy Elliott . Keri Hilson revealed that the songs that Timbaland was releasing through the initiative come deep from within his vast back catalogue , so there was a good chance that she would be featured on at least one of the records . In early 2011 , he stopped the weekly free music as he spent time in South Africa , and wanted to help produce tracks for his brother , Sebastian . The first official single from Shock Value III , " Pass at Me " featuring Cuban rapper Pitbull , with uncredited production by French DJ David Guetta , was released on September 13 , 2011 , after having been previously used to promote a book titled Culo . The album 's second single , " Break Ya Back " featuring American singer Dev , was released on April 17 , 2012 . For the fourth installment in the Step Up franchise , Step Up Revolution , Timbaland released a track called " Hands In the Air " , which features American singer Ne @-@ Yo .
On January 30 , 2013 , Timbaland signed to Jay @-@ Z 's label Roc Nation . Later that year , Timbaland would serve as the main producer of Justin Timberlake 's recent LP , The 20 / 20 Experience , including the album 's singles : " Suit & Tie " and " Mirrors " . Timbaland also produced Beyoncé 's song " Grown Woman " which was featured in her Pepsi commercial and 2013 tour , The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour , and the song " I Don 't Have To Sleep to Dream " on Cher 's 2013 album Closer to the Truth .
In August 2013 , Timbaland revealed that he was working on a project featuring unreleased material by Michael Jackson , with a lead single called " Love Never Felt So Good " .
On September 24 , 2013 , Timbaland collaborated with T.I. for his new co @-@ produced Indonesian artist , AGNEZ MO , in her song titled Coke Bottle . The premiere launch event of the single became a worldwide trending topic on Twitter .
On November 15 , 2013 , Timbaland revealed his new single for his fourth album , Opera Noir , called " Know Bout Me " featuring Drake , Jay @-@ Z , and James Fauntleroy . By 2014 , it was originally announced that both Timbaland and Missy Elliott would be an essential component per production of Kat Dahlia 's debut album , My Garden , however neither of the duo 's contributions saw the light of day . On January 7 , 2015 , Timbaland received production credit for his involvement with the musical score of Lee Daniels and Danny Strong 's television project Empire , which premiered on FOX . Constructively , Timbaland and his team , including Jim Beanz , Raphael Saadiq , and others , compose the series ' songs based on material given to them by the show 's writing team per each episode .
In February 2016 , Timbaland regrouped with Missy Elliott once more to produce the track " Somebody Else Will " for longtime associate Tweet , taken from her third studio album Charlene .
In June 2016 , Timbaland and Andy Rubinhas teamed up with SubPac , a Los Angeles @-@ based startup that has created a wearable device set to redefine entertainment through new immersive physical @-@ sound technology .
= = Plagiarism accusations = =
In January 2007 , several news sources reported that Timbaland was alleged to have plagiarized several elements ( both motifs and samples ) in the song " Do It " on the 2006 album Loose by Nelly Furtado without giving credit or compensation . The song itself was released as the fifth North American single from Loose in July 2007 .
Timbaland 's legal troubles continued . In lieu of a copyright lawsuit over the song " Throw It on Me " from his Shock Value album , Timbaland and David Cortopassi , the composer of " Spazz " , a song originally recorded by The Elastik Band and released by ATCO / Atlantic and EMI , reached a settlement agreement in July 2009 . The terms of the settlement remained undisclosed at the time . " Spazz " , noted as being " one of the most tasteless records ever made " , was initially banned by radio stations and even pulled mid @-@ stream while on air when first released in 1967 , with the DJ even apologizing to his listeners for playing the record .
In January 2014 , the Swiss newspaper Basler Zeitung revealed another plagiarism case concerning the track " Versus " by Jay @-@ Z , which was produced by Timbaland . The track 's instrumental is very similar to , if not directly sampled from " On the Way " by Swiss musician Bruno Spoerri . According to Swiss newspaper Tages Anzeiger , the plagiarism case was settled by March 2015 . Jay Z and Timbaland were to pay 50 % from the song 's revenue to Spoerri as royalties for the music , with Jay @-@ Z retaining 50 % for the lyrics .
= = Discography = =
Solo albums
Tim 's Bio : Life from da Bassment ( 1998 )
Shock Value ( 2007 )
Shock Value II ( 2009 )
Opera Noir ( 2016 )
Timbaland & Magoo albums
Welcome to Our World ( 1997 )
Indecent Proposal ( 2001 )
Under Construction , Part II ( 2003 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Cornwallis in India =
British General Charles Cornwallis , the 2nd Earl Cornwallis , was appointed in February 1786 to serve as both Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of British India and Governor of the Presidency of Fort William , also known as the Bengal Presidency . Based in Calcutta , he oversaw the consolidation of British control over much of peninsular India , setting the stage for the British Raj . He was also instrumental in enacting administrative and legal reforms that fundamentally altered civil administration and land management practices in India . According to historian Jerry Dupont , Cornwallis was responsible for " laying the foundation for British rule throughout India and setting standards for the services , courts , and revenue collection that remained remarkably unaltered almost to the end of the British era . "
He was raised to the title of Marquess Cornwallis in 1792 as recognition for his performance in the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War , in which he extracted significant concessions from the Mysorean ruler , Tipu Sultan . He returned to England in 1793 , and was subsequently engaged in a variety of administrative and diplomatic postings until 1798 , when he was posted to the Kingdom of Ireland as Lord Lieutenant and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , similar to his leadership posts in India . After returning from Ireland in 1801 , he was again posted to India . He arrived in July 1805 , and died the same October in Ghazipur . Cornwallis was buried at Ghazipur , and is memorialised throughout India .
= = Background = =
Lord Charles Cornwallis was a British army officer , civil administrator , and diplomat . His career was primarily military in nature , including a series of well @-@ known campaigns during the War of American Independence from 1776 to 1781 that culminated in his surrender at Yorktown . Following his return to England in 1782 he was prevented by his parole from further participation in the war , and financial demands eventually caused him to seek a position of greater pay than the half @-@ pay that military officers received when not in service .
= = = India in the 1780s = = =
The area encompassed by modern India was significantly fractured following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the first half of the 18th century . European colonial outposts , from countries including Denmark , Portugal , France , and the Dutch Republic , dotted both the Coromandel ( east ) and Malabar ( west ) coasts of the subcontinent , although many of these had been established with the formal permission of a local ruler ( which was sometimes secured by force of arms ) . The Kingdom of Travancore dominated the southern tip , the Kingdom of Mysore held sway over the centre of the peninsula , and the Maratha Empire , a confederation of loosely allied principalities , dominated the northern reaches from Calcutta to Bombay . Although there were significant British presences at Bombay and Madras , each governed by a separate presidency , the Bengal region , including Calcutta , had come under the direct rule of the British East India Company in 1757 , with authority to levy taxes , and its presidency dominated the others . Its civil head , the Governor @-@ General of Fort William , ranked ahead of those of Madras and Bombay . Cornwallis quickly established himself as a transformational leader .
British colonial administration was dominated in the 1760s and 1770s by Warren Hastings , the first man to hold the title of Governor @-@ General . The military arm of the East India Company was directed during the Seven Years ' War and the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War by General Eyre Coote , who died in 1783 during the later stages of the war with Mysore . Company policy , as implemented by Hastings , had involved the company in intrigues and shifting alliances involving France , Mysore , the Marathas , and factions within those and other local territories .
= = Appointment = =
Cornwallis was first considered for a posting to India during the ministry of the Earl of Shelburne in the spring of 1782 . Shelburne asked Cornwallis if he wanted to go to India as governor general , an idea Cornwallis viewed with favour , as it provided employment without risking his parole status . However , Shelburne was a weak leader , and was turned out of power in early 1783 , replaced by a coalition government dominated by men Cornwallis ( and King George ) disliked , Charles James Fox and Lord North . Cornwallis , who normally avoided politics ( in spite of holding a seat in the House of Lords ) , became more vocal in opposition to the Fox @-@ North ministry , hoping his support would be repaid by the next government .
With the ascendancy of William Pitt the Younger to power in December 1783 , doors to new positions were opened to the earl . Pitt first offered him the Lord Lieutenancy of Ireland , which he politely refused . He also made it clear that , were he posted to India , he would want the supreme military command in addition to civil control . When informed that Pitt was agreeable to this demand , he went through a period of soul @-@ searching , torn between the conflicting demands of family and country . This , however , was not the only troubling issue . When Parliament took up consideration of assignments in India in August 1784 , it was only prepared to offer one of the two posts , which he again refused to consider . Passed over for other military postings , Pitt placated him with the post of Constable of the Tower .
After refusing another inadequate entreaty from Pitt to take a post in India in February 1785 , Cornwallis 's demand for both posts were finally met a year later , on 23 February 1786 . Departing London in May , he arrived at Madras on 22 August 1786 , after " a most prosperous and expeditious passage " , and at Calcutta on 12 September . Although he was accorded a welcome suitable to his rank , the acting governor @-@ general , John Macpherson , was unhappy at being replaced . He attempted to reserve for his own use the Government House , which was normally reserved for the governor @-@ general . Cornwallis , after having his oaths of office administered , immediately announced his intention to occupy the residence .
= = Administrative reforms = =
Cornwallis was charged by the directors of the British East India Company to overhaul and reform its administration in India . The company had historically paid its functionaries ( revenue collectors , traders , and administrators ) in India relatively little , but allowed them to engage in trade for themselves , including the use of company shipping for the purpose . As long as the company was profitable , this open door to corruption and graft at the company 's expense was overlooked . However , the rise of manufacturing in Britain led to a collapse of prices for textiles and other goods from India , and the company 's involvement in wars on the subcontinent had also been expensive . By the time Cornwallis arrived the company was losing money . Its employees , however , continued to profit personally , without caring whether or not the company made money . Cornwallis sought to change this practice , first by refusing to engage in such dealing himself , and second , by securing pay increases for the company 's functionaries while denying them their personal trading privileges .
Another area of reform that Cornwallis implemented was the reduction of nepotism and political favouritism as means for advancement and positions within the company . Seeking instead to advance the company 's interests , he sought out and promoted individuals on the basis of merit , even refusing requests by the Prince of Wales to assist individuals in the latter 's good graces .
= = Judicial reforms = =
Prior to the earl 's arrival , judicial and police powers in territories controlled by the company were a confusion of differing standards that were also either inconsistently or arbitrarily applied . Part of Cornwallis 's work was the introduction of criminal and judicial regulations that to a significant degree still underpin the Indian judicial system .
Indian cities , much like British cities of the time , were poorly policed , and crime was widespread . Different penal and civil codes were applied to Hindus and Muslims , and the codification of these codes in different languages meant that it was virtually impossible for justice to be properly and consistently applied . Much of the criminal justice system in Bengal remained in the hands of the nawab , the nominal local ruler of the company 's territory . Furthermore , individuals with powerful political connections in their community often were able to act with impunity , since no one suffering at their hands was likely to press charges for fear of retribution . Hastings had several times made changes to policing and the administration of justice , but none of these had had a significant impact on the problem .
Cornwallis received critical assistance from others in his effort to introduce legal reforms . William Jones , an expert on languages , translated existing Hindu and Muslim penal codes into English so that they could be evaluated and applied by English @-@ speaking judges . Cornwallis began in 1787 by giving limited criminal judicial powers to the company 's revenue collectors , who already also served as civil magistrates . He also required them to report regularly on detention times and sentences given . In 1790 the company took over the administration of justice from the nawab , and Cornwallis introduced a system of circuit courts with a superior court that met in Calcutta and had the power of review over circuit court decisions . Judges were drawn from the company 's European employees . These reforms also included changes to the penal codes to begin harmonising the different codes then in use . By the time of his departure in 1793 his work on the penal code , known in India as the Cornwallis Code , was substantially complete .
One consequence of the Cornwallis Code was that it , in effect , institutionalised racism in the legal system . Cornwallis , in a manner not uncommon at the time , believed that well @-@ bred gentlemen of European extraction were superior to others , including those that were the product of mixed relationships in India . Of the latter , he wrote " as on account of their colour & extraction they are considered in this country as inferior to Europeans , I am of opinion that those of them who possess the best abilities could not command that authority and respect which is necessary in the due discharge of the duty of an officer . " In 1791 he issued an order that " No person , the son of a Native Indian , shall henceforward be appointed by this Court to Employment in the Civil , Military , or Marine Service of the Company . " Cornwallis 's biographers , the Wickwires , also observe that this institutionalisation of the British as an elite class simply added another layer on top of the complex status hierarchy of caste and religion that existed in India at the time . Cornwallis could not have formalised these policies without the ( tacit or explicit ) agreement of the company 's directors and employees .
Cornwallis 's attituted toward the lower classes did , however , include a benevolent and somewhat paternalistic desire to improve their condition . He introduced legislation to protect native weavers who were sometimes forced into working at starvation wages by unscrupulous company employees , outlawed child slavery , and established in 1791 a Sanskrit college for Hindus that is now the Government Sanskrit College in Benares . He also established a mint in Calcutta that , in addition to benefiting the poor by providing a reliable standard currency , was a forerunner India 's modern currency .
= = The Permanent Settlement = =
The Company 's acquisition of the territories of Bengal in the 1760s led to its decisions to collect taxes as high as 89 % of land produce in the area as a means of reducing investment capital directed toward India . A variety of taxation schemes were implemented in the following years , none of which produced satisfactory results , and many of which left too much power over the natives in the hands of the tax collectors , or zamindars . The company 's directors gave Cornwallis the task of coming up with a taxation scheme that would meet the company 's objectives without being an undue burden on the working men of its territories .
John Shore ( who went on to succeed Cornwallis as Governor @-@ General ) and Charles Grant , two men he came to trust implicitly , were the most important contributors to what is now called the Permanent Settlement . The essence of the arrangement they came up with in the summer of 1789 was that the zamindars would effectively become hereditary landholders , paying the company tax based on the value of the land . Shore and Cornwallis disagreed on the term of the scheme , with Shore arguing for a ten @-@ year time limit on the arrangement , while Cornwallis argued for a truly permanent scheme . Cornwallis prevailed , noting that many of the company 's English revenue collectors , as well as others knowledgeable of company finance and taxation , supported permanency . In 1790 the proposal was sent to London , where the company directors approved the plan in 1792 . Cornwallis began implementing the regulations in 1793 .
Critics of the Permanent Settlement objected to its permanency , claimed that the company was forgoing revenue , and that Cornwallis and others advocating it misunderstood the historic nature of the zamindars . The Wickwires note that Cornwallis relied extensively on advice not only from John Shore , who had extensive experience in India prior to Cornwallis 's arrival , but also from the revenue collectors in the various districts , who were almost uniformly in favour of a permanent settlement with the zamindars . He was also clear on the need to protect the ryots ( land tenants ) from the excesses of the zamindars , writing , " It is immaterial to government what individual possessed the land , provided he cultivates it , protects the ryots , and pays the public revenue . "
= = Penang and Nepal = =
Cornwallis 's predecessor , John Macpherson , had authorised negotiations with the sultan of Kedah for the establishment of a company trading post on the island of Penang . Captain Francis Light , a trader familiar with the East Indies , negotiated an agreement in which the sultan , who was surrounded by powerful adversaries , received a share of the trade profits and a defensive military alliance in exchange for Penang . Captain Light made representations to the sultan that the company had agreed to these terms , and occupied the island in August 1786 . Cornwallis , concerned that the military aspects of the agreement might draw the company into conflicts with the sultan 's adversaries or the Dutch , withheld approval of the agreement and requested the company 's directors to decide the issue . When the company refused the military alliance , the sultan began blockading the island , renamed Prince of Wales Island by Light , and started in 1790 to accumulate troops with the view toward forcibly evicting the British . Cornwallis 's brother William , then with the Royal Navy in the area , sailed from Penang to pick up troops in India for its defence . Captain Light , however , routed the sultan 's forces in April 1791 before those reinforcements arrived . An agreement was then signed in which the company paid the sultan an annual stipend for the use of Penang . The fort that Captain Light constructed to protect Penang 's principal town , George Town , became known as Fort Cornwallis in the earl 's honour .
In 1792 , King Rana Bahadur Shah of Nepal , with whom the company had established trade relations , requested military assistance . Shah had been expanding his territory militarily by taking over smaller adjacent principalities , but a 1791 invasion of Tibet was met with a stiff Chinese response . Cornwallis declined the king 's request , sending instead Colonel William Kirkpatrick to mediate the dispute . Kirkpatrick was the first Englishman to see Nepal ; by the time he reached Kathmandu in 1793 , the parties had already resolved their dispute .
= = War with Mysore = =
Immediately after the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784 , ending the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War , Tipu Sultan , the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore , restated his hatred for the British , declaring that he would seek to renew conflict with them . Cornwallis , upon his arrival in India , took steps to modify or abrogate agreements with the Maratha Empire and with the Nizam of Hyderabad ( both of whom had territories on Mysore 's northern border ) that he saw as problematic with respect to the provisions of the 1784 treaty . He did assure them that if France became involved in conflict against their territories that the company would assist them . Pursuant to this policy , he refused to send company troops to assist the Marathas and the Nizam in their war with Mysore to recover previously lost territories .
= = = Early campaigns = = =
Tensions between Tipu and the Nizam and the British were raised when , in 1788 , the East India Company gained control over the Circar of Guntur , the southernmost of the Northern Circars , pursuant to an earlier agreement with the Nizam . In exchange , the company agreed to station some of its troops with the Hyderabadi army . By 1789 , tensions between Tipu and his neighbors and vassals to Mysore 's west , including the Kingdom of Travancore , also rose noticeably . Travancore , listed in the 1784 treaty as a British ally , acquired from the Dutch East India Company two forts located within the territory of Cochin , a Mysorean vassal state . The Dutch had never paid tribute to anyone for these forts since gaining control of them , but the fact that they were within Cochin 's bounds was sufficient for Tipu to dispute Travancore 's claim . He began massing troops at Coimbatore and making threatening gestures toward Dharma Raja of Travancore . British authorities in Madras warned Tipu that acts of aggression against Travancore would be met with a British response , and Cornwallis began urging John Holland , the governor of Madras , to begin military preparations . On December 29 , 1789 , Tipu attacked Travancore 's defenses . Hollond , however , was not a military man , and rather than acting with vigour , he temporised and attempted negotiation with Tipu . He was replaced in early 1790 by General William Medows , to whom Cornwallis gave the authority for a military campaign against Mysore . Cornwallis began negotiating with the Marathas and the Nizam for their support , since the British forces in India were significantly lacking in cavalry , one of Tipu 's strengths . The Marathas and the Nizam both had significant cavalry forces , and they were interested in recovering territories lost to Mysore in earlier conflicts . However , they were too weak to attack Mysore individually , and did not trust each other , so they preferred to wait until it was clear the British were committed to act against Mysore .
Medows ' campaign in 1790 was a limited success . He occupied the Coimbatore district against minimal opposition , but a forceful counterattack by Tipu reduced the British holdings to Coimbatore itself and a few other outposts . Tipu had also descended to the coastal plain , where he plowed through the Carnatic and even met with the French at Pondicherry in a fruitless attempt to draw them into the conflict . By September 1790 the British allies were taking the field , but still did not want to face Tipu 's strong force without significant British support . Consequently , Cornwallis decided to personally take control of the main British force from Medows . In early February 1791 he began a campaign that was squarely targeted at Mysore 's capital , Seringapatam .
= = = First campaign against Seringapatam = = =
One of the largest issues confronting Cornwallis in managing the army was its diversity . In addition to British Army and East India Company European forces , there were German troops from Hanover , and a large number of native sepoys from a diversity of cultural backgrounds , speaking different languages and having varied religious and dietary requirements . In order to meet the needs of this patchwork of forces , the army was followed by a number of camp followers that was unusually large by comparison to typical European or North American armies , further increasing the need for reliable supply . The army he took over from General Medows had 15 @,@ 000 troops and 60 @,@ 000 camp followers . He permitted the artist Robert Home to accompany the army on its campaign ; the resulting artwork is one of the legacies of the campaign .
Cornwallis was sensitive to the fact that Tipu was likely to deny the invading army access to local forage and provisions , and made arrangements for a large supply of provisions , and arranged for the use of elephants to assist in the movement of the army 's siege equipment . He also encouraged the Marathas and the Nizam to step up their advances to join his army as quickly as possible , so that he could take advantage of their cavalry .
Cornwallis departed Velhout , near Madras , on 5 February , reaching Vellore on 11 February . After several days of rest , the army set out with the apparent intention of crossing the Eastern Ghats directly west of Vellore . However , this was a feint , and Cornwallis turned the army north , and instead crossed the mountains at Muglee . Tipu , who had taken steps to defend the more southerly passes , had not defended this one , and the army met no resistance . In fact , it met no significant resistance until it neared Bangalore , one of the strongest fortresses in eastern Mysore . On 5 March , Colonel John Floyd , leader of the British cavalry , was lured into a trap set by Tipu that cost the army 70 men and 250 valuable horses . Cornwallis brushed off the loss , and proceeded to besiege Bangalore . On 7 March the city 's walls were breached , and the city was stormed through the opening , sending its defenders scurrying . Cornwallis gained control of the whole city except its fortress , which was stormed on the night of 21 March after its walls were breached . Tipu , from his camps outside the city , offered only weak resistance , ineffectually attempting to impede the siege works and assist the besieged fortress during the final assault .
After securing Bangalore , Cornwallis began to move against Tipu , who retreated toward Seringapatam . The lack of cavalry , however , hampered the British effort , so Cornwallis ordered the army north to make junction with the nizam 's troops . When they finally met about 60 miles ( 97 km ) from Bangalore , Cornwallis described Teige Wunt 's cavalry as " extremely defective in almost every point of military discipline " , and their presence in the army ultimately presented more difficulties than assistance . Instead of acting as flanking companies and foraging on their own , they preferred to remain with the main army and consume its provisions . This forced Cornwallis to alter the army 's route again to join with a supply train carrying additional provisions . The army returned to Bangalore on 28 April , and then set out for Seringapatam .
The march was significantly slowed by early monsoon rains that turned the march into a muddy mess . In spite of appeals by Cornwallis to Teige Wunt , the nizam 's men continued to consume provisions , and the army 's provisions began to run short . Tipu retreated before the army , employing scorched earth tactics to deny his enemy provisions . Baggage was left behind as draft animals died , and the army , including its officers , were on half rations . The rains flooded the Kaveri River , which was difficult to cross even under favourable conditions , and which separated the army from a British force under Robert Abercromby that was waiting on the far side of Seringapatam for Cornwallis 's arrival .
On 13 May , near the village of Arakere , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) below Seringapatam , Tipu decided to offer battle from a position on nearby heights . In the ensuing battle , complicated by the rains , Cornwallis prevailed , routing Tipu 's forces , which retreated into Seringapatam . Following the battle , Cornwallis made the difficult decision to retreat , as the army 's supply situation had become so desperate that a siege would have been impossible , even if he could have joined with Abercromby 's troops . A hoped @-@ for junction with Marathan troops also seemed unlikely , as Tipu had successfully prevented communication and intelligence of their position from reaching Cornwallis , and the most recent reports placed them some distance off . After ordering Abercromby to retreat on 21 May , Cornwallis ordered his siege train destroyed , and began to retreat toward Bangalore on 26 May . That very day , he was met by an advance company of the Marathan army . The next day that army , totalling some 40 @,@ 000 cavalry , joined with his . The Marathan army was well @-@ provisioned , so they were able to relieve some of the British army 's stresses , although the prices they charged for their provisions were exorbitant . The combined army reached Bangalore on 11 July . Tipu took advantage of the retreat to make a concerted attack on Coimbatore , which fell after a lengthy siege in November .
= = = Second campaign against Seringapatam = = =
The armies of Purseram Bhow and Teige Wunt then left the grand army to pursue territorial gains in Mysore 's northern territories . Whereas the earl 's younger brother , Commodore William Cornwallis , was engaged in the naval Battle of Tellicherry , Cornwallis spent the remainder of 1791 securing his supply lines to Madras , and clearing the way to Seringapatam . To this end he laid siege to Nundydroog in November and Savendroog in December , both of which fell after unexpectedly modest efforts . He also ordered a massive supply operation to ensure that adequate supplies and pay for his army and those of the allies would be available . Spies were sent to infiltrate Tipu 's camps , and he began to receive more reliable reports of the latter 's troop strengths and disposition .
The relations between Cornwallis and the allies were difficult . The Mahrattan military leaders , Purseram Bhow and Hurry Punt , had to be bribed to stay with the army , and Cornwallis reported the Hyderabadi forces to be more of a hindrance than a help ; one British observer wrote that they were a " disorderly rabble " and " not very creditable to the state of military discipline at Hyderabad . "
On 25 January , Cornwallis moved from Savendroog toward Seringapatam , while Abercromby again advanced from the Malabar coast . Although Tipu 's men harassed the column , they did not impede its progress , and it reached the Mysorean capital on 5 February . Cornwallis established a chain of outposts to protect the supply line from Bangalore , and planned an attack for that night , even though Abercromby had not yet arrived . Cornwallis responded with a night @-@ time attack to dislodge Tipu from his lines . After a somewhat confused battle , Tipu 's forces were flanked , he retreated into the city , and Cornwallis began siege operations . On 12 February Abercromby arrived with the Bombay army , and the noose began to tighten around Tipu . By 23 February , Tipu began making overtures for peace talks , and hostilities were suspended the next day when he agreed to preliminary terms .
Among the preliminary terms that Cornwallis insisted on was the Tipu surrender two of his sons as hostages as a guarantee for his execution of the agreed terms . On 26 February his two young sons were formally delivered to Cornwallis amid great ceremony and gun salutes by both sides . Cornwallis , who was not interested in significantly extending the company 's territory , or in turning most of Mysore over to the Mahrattas and Hyderabad , negotiated a division of one half of Mysorean territory , to be divided by the allies , in which the company 's acquisition would improve its defenses . He later wrote , " If we had taken Seringapatam and killed Tippoo , [ ... ] we must either have given that capital to the Marattas ( a dangerous boon ) or have set up some miserable pageant of our own , to be supported by the Company 's troops and treasures , and to be plundered by its servants . " The territories taken deprived Mysore of much of its coastline ; Mysore was also obligated to pay some of the allied war costs . On 18 March 1792 Tipu agreed to the terms and signed the Treaty of Seringapatam , ending hostilities .
= = Departure = =
The difficulties of the military campaigns took a great physical toll on Cornwallis , and he sought to return to England . John Shore , his replacement , did not arrive until March 1793 , and Cornwallis remained until August to assist in the transition . He also oversaw the capture of the French outpost at Pondicherry following the arrival of news that war had again broken out in Europe . On 14 August 1793 , without ceremony , he quietly sailed from Calcutta for Madras , and on 10 October he finally sailed for England on board the Swallow .
= = After India = =
Scholar P.J. Marshall explains that the British public were able to follow the Third Mysore War in newspapers " in much greater detail than would have been the case for any previous war in India . " Thus , when Cornwallis returned victorious from India , he was celebrated well beyond Parliamentary and Company circles . He was raised to Marquess , but was also celebrated publicly through commissioned portraits and statues ; published books , songs and poems ; and even purchasable medallions and tea trays . This was the first time a military victory in India at the expense of a non @-@ European enemy garnered such public praise . While there would be many more bumps along the way , such widespread enthusiasm marked a turning point towards British acceptance of an overseas empire of conquest .
Cornwallis was immediately asked to return to India . One reform that Cornwallis had been unable to achieve was the harmonisation of pay and rank between the military forces of the company and those of the Crown . Company officers of a given rank were generally paid better than those of a comparable rank in the Crown forces , and proposals to merge their pay scales were met with resistance that bordered on mutiny . The company directors asked Cornwallis to deal with this ; he refused .
After serving for several years as the Master of the Ordnance , he was asked by Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger to serve as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland as well as its Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief after the Irish Rebellion of 1798 broke out . While the rebellion was mostly put down before his arrival , he oversaw the mopping of the remaining pockets of rebellion , and successfully defeated a French invasion intended to foment further rebellious activity . He then worked to secure the passage by the Irish Parliament of the 1800 Act of Union , which joined the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . He resigned his posts when the king refused to support Catholic emancipation , which he viewed as a key element for securing an enduring peace in Ireland .
He was then engaged by the king in diplomatic efforts in Europe . Cornwallis led the British diplomatic team whose negotiations with Napoleon resulted in the 1802 Treaty of Amiens , with Cornwallis signing the treaty on behalf of King George .
= = Return to India = =
In the years since he left India , the company 's reach and control over the country had increased significantly , mainly under the governorship of Lord Mornington . Wellesley had decisively defeated Tipu in 1799 , and gained control , direct and indirect , over most of southern India . In 1803 the company came into conflict with the Marathas , and Mornington began extending the company 's reach further into the northern territories . His liberal spending and aggressive methods for dealing with the Marathas were not appreciated by the company 's directors , and following military setbacks in 1804 and allegations of improprieties , the directors decided to replace him .
On 7 January 1805 Cornwallis was again appointed to the positions of Governor General and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of India ; he described that after a difficult passage , he reached Madras on 19 July , and on 30 July he resumed his duties . William Hickey wrote that Cornwallis had become " a wreck of what he had been when formerly in Bengal " , and another aide noted that " his constitution was less equal to contend against the effects of this climate " . In spite of declining health and mental faculties , Cornwallis began a trip by boat to visit army outposts northwest of Calcutta . On the journey he wrote to General Gerard Lake , then commanding the forces in the war with the Marathas , insisting that peace be made . However , he never received Lake 's answer . When Cornwallis reached Ghazipur on 27 September , he was too ill to proceed further , and he died there a week later , on 5 October 1805 .
= = Legacy = =
Biographers Franklin and Mary Wickwire note that Cornwallis 's attitudes towards governance presaged the idea of responsible government that took hold in the United Kingdom in the 19th century . Later British administrators and the Indian Civil Service adopted his ideas of service by example , and service for the overall benefit of the population . Historian Marguerite Wilbur called the era of Cornwallis and Mornington the Golden Age of British rule in India .
Cornwallis 's grave at Ghazipur is marked by a mausoleum whose construction was begun in 1809 . Memorials were also erected in his honour in Bombay , Madras , and in Saint Paul 's Cathedral in London . In Calcutta , when Mornington greatly expanded the government facilities , the Town Hall included a statuary hall . In 1803 , a sculpture begun by John Bacon and finished by his son John Bacon , Jr. was erected there in Cornwallis 's honour . The sculpture now stands in the Victoria Memorial .
= SMS Prinzess Wilhelm =
SMS Prinzess Wilhelm ( " His Majesty 's Ship Princess Wilhelm " ) was a protected cruiser of the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) . She was the second Irene @-@ class cruiser ; her only sister ship was SMS Irene . Prinzess Wilhelm was laid down in 1886 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , launched in September 1887 , and commissioned into the fleet in November 1889 . As built , the ship was armed with a main battery of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns and had a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
In 1895 , Prinzess Wilhelm was deployed to East Asian waters , where she frequently served as the flagship of the East Asia Cruiser Division . She was one of the three ships that participated in the seizure of Kiaochou Bay under the command of Rear Admiral Otto von Diederichs . She subsequently was present in the Philippines in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of Manila Bay between American and Spanish squadrons during the Spanish – American War in 1898 . Prinzess Wilhelm returned to Germany in 1899 and was modernized in 1899 – 1903 . She was reduced to a mine hulk in February 1914 and ultimately broken up for scrap in 1922 .
= = Design = =
Prinzess Wilhelm was the second protected cruiser built by the German navy . She was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Ariadne " and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in 1886 . She was launched on 22 September 1887 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the German navy on 13 November 1889 . The ship was 103 @.@ 7 meters ( 340 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 74 m ( 22 @.@ 1 ft ) forward . She displaced 5 @,@ 027 t ( 4 @,@ 948 long tons ; 5 @,@ 541 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal AG Germania 2 @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical double @-@ boilers . These provided a top speed of 18 kn ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 490 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 610 km ; 2 @,@ 870 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She had a crew of 28 officers and 337 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with four 15 cm K L / 30 guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 400 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 8 @,@ 500 m ( 27 @,@ 900 ft ) . Prinzess Wilhelm also carried ten shorter @-@ barreled 15 cm K L / 22 guns in single mounts . These guns had a much shorter range , at 5 @,@ 400 m ( 17 @,@ 700 ft ) . The gun armament was rounded out by six 3 @.@ 7 cm revolver cannon . She was also equipped with three 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two launchers were mounted on the deck and the third was in the bow , below the waterline . In 1893 , the ship was modernized in Wilhelmshaven in 1903 ; work lasted until 1905 . The ship 's armament was significantly improved ; the four L / 30 guns were replaced with a new model with an increased range of 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) . Eight 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns were installed in place of the L / 22 guns , and six 5 cm SK L / 10 QF guns were added .
= = Service history = =
In the first maneuvers of 1890 , the newly commissioned Prinzess Wilhelm operated as the opposing force with several old corvettes . In September 1892 , the ship was sent to Genoa to represent Germany in the 400th anniversary of the voyage of Christopher Columbus . She was the only German ship sent to the ceremonies , a result of cooling relations between Germany and Italy at the time . In the 1894 autumn maneuvers , Prinzess Wilhelm served as the flagship of a reconnaissance flotilla . In January 1895 , Prinzess Wilhelm was dispatched to Asian to reinforce the Cruiser Division stationed there . After she joined her sister Irene in East Asian waters , the Division was reinforced with the rebuilt old ironclad Kaiser , the light cruiser Cormoran , the corvette Arcona , and the gunboat Iltis . In June 1896 , Alfred von Tirpitz took command of the Cruiser Division . By November , Prinzess Wilhelm was in bad need of maintenance , as engine problems limited her to half @-@ speed .
In June 1897 , Rear Admiral Otto von Diederichs arrived in Asia to take command of the Cruiser Division ; Prinzess Wilhelm , Irene , and Arcona were in Chefoo conducting gunnery training . Diederichs , aboard Kaiser , joined the rest of the Division in Chefoo at the end of the month . There , he held a series of ceremonial visits with the captains of each of his ships . On 1 July , Diederichs boarded Prinzess Wilhelm to make a visit to the Chinese capital at Peking . There , he attempted to negotiate with the Chinese government to acquire a permanent naval base for the Cruiser Division . Diederichs , who sought the port of Kiaochou , was unsuccessful in his attempt , and so he returned to Prinzess Wilhelm on 11 July . While leaving Peking , he examined the Taku Forts that guarded the entrance to Peking . Diederichs returned to the Division on 16 July , after which he conducted a tour of Asian ports with the entire Division .
= = = Seizure of Kiaochou = = =
In October , Diederichs planned to rotate his ships through repair facilities in the region for periodic maintenance ; Prinzess Wilhelm was scheduled to dock in Shanghai . He requested permission to take Prinzess Wilhelm and Kaiser to Kiaochou for autumn gunnery training and to leave Prinzess Wilhelm stationed there during the winter , which was denied . Diederichs was able to make use of the murder of a pair of German priests on 6 November in Shangtung , however , to justify his move against Kiaochou . At the time , the only ships available for the attack were Prinzess Wilhelm and Kaiser . Cormoran joined the two ships after a few days , and by 10 November , the ships were ready . Prinzess Wilhelm left port on the 11th , to rendezvous with Kaiser and Cormoran at sea .
On the night 12 November , the three ships met and formed into line ; the attack was scheduled to begin on the morning of 14 November with a bombardment from the warships . The crews of Prinzess Wilhelm and Kaiser were to form a landing party to seize the harbor . The flotilla arrived on the morning of the 13th . The following morning , the landing party of some 700 officers and men was landed on the main pier in the harbor . The Chinese were caught completely by surprise , and the Germans secured their objectives within two hours ; Diederichs convinced the Chinese commander , General Chang , to withdraw from Kiaochou . The Imperial flag was raised in the town and Prinzess Wilhelm fired a 21 @-@ gun salute . The landing party remained in Kiaochou to garrison the port , and several 3 @.@ 7 cm guns were removed from the ships to provide artillery to the force .
Diederichs requested reinforcements from Germany , and the Kaiser authorized a second Division to deploy to the East Asia station . The unit was therefore reorganized as the East Asia Squadron ; Prinzess Wilhelm was assigned to the I Division of the Squadron . On 27 November , Diederichs was promoted to Vice Admiral for his success in seizing Kiaochou , and given command of the new Squadron . Chinese forces converged on the port by the end of the month . Prinzess Wilhelm and Kaiser moved into the harbor to provide artillery support . General Chang , who had been placed under house arrest , was discovered to have been attempting to subvert the German occupation ; Dierderichs therefore placed him under arrest aboard Prinzess Wilhelm . A brief skirmish ensued , which quickly resulted in a Chinese rout . On 8 January , a force of 50 men from Prinzess Wilhelm 's crew was sent to Chi @-@ mo to defend against Chinese raids in the area .
= = = The Philippines during the Spanish – American War = = =
In the Spring of 1898 , Prince Heinrich arrived in Asia . While awaiting his arrival , Diederichs planned to rotate his ships through dockyards for periodic maintenance . On 4 May , Diederichs made Prinzess Wilhelm his flagship and sent Kaiser to Nagasaki and followed the next day , after Prince Heinrich reached Kiaochou . The Spanish – American War had broken out on 25 April and Commodore George Dewey had defeated the Spanish squadron at the Battle of Manila Bay on 1 May . Diederichs planned to use the crisis as an opportunity to seize another base for the Squadron in Asia . Upon arriving in Nagasaki , Diederichs learned the shipyard had not yet completed repairs to Kaiser , and so was unable to refit Prinzess Wilhelm for some time . He therefore ordered Kaiserin Augusta to meet him in Nagasaki , which he would use as his temporary flagship . Prinzess Wilhelm and Kaiser were to rejoin Diederichs once their repairs were completed .
On 20 June , Prinzess Wilhelm arrived in the Philippines ; Diederichs now had a force of five warships : Prinzess Wilhelm , Kaiser , Irene , Kaiserin Augusta , and Cormoran . After her arrival , Prinzess Wilhelm proceeded to Mariveles to replenish her coal supplies and receive new crewmen from the transport Darmstadt . On 9 August , the American squadron in the Bay ordered the neutral warships in the harbor to leave the bombardment zone , and so Prinzess Wilhelm and the other German ships went to Mariveles . Following the fall of the city , most of the German ships departed the Philippines ; only Prinzess Wilhelm remained on station to protect German nationals in the islands . She was replaced by Arcona in October . In mid @-@ November , Kaiser ran aground and had to go into drydock for repairs ; Diederichs therefore made Prinzess Wilhelm his flagship . The ship remained in Asia for only a few more months , returning to European waters in 1899 .
= = = Fate = = =
After returning to Germany in 1899 , she went into drydock at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven for modernization ; work lasted until 1902 . She was stricken from the naval register on 17 February 1914 and used as a mine hulk . She was initially based in Danzig , but later moved to Kiel and Wilhelmshaven . On 26 November 1921 , Prinzess Wilhelm was sold for 909 @,@ 000 Marks . She was broken up the following year in Wilhelmshaven .
= Ratchet & Clank ( 2002 video game ) =
Ratchet & Clank is a 2002 3D platform video game developed by Insomniac Games and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 2 . Ratchet & Clank is the first game in the Ratchet & Clank series and precedes Ratchet & Clank : Going Commando .
The game follows the anthropomorphic character Ratchet meeting the robot Clank on his home planet . Clank discovers that the villainous Chairman Drek of the Blarg race plans to create a new planet for his species , destroying other planets in the process . Clank convinces Ratchet to help him in his mission to gain the help of the famous superhero Captain Qwark .
The game offers a wide range of weapons and gadgets that the player must use to defeat numerous enemies and solve puzzles on a variety of different planets in the fictional " Solana " galaxy . The game also includes several mini @-@ games , such as racing or hacking , which the player must complete to proceed . The game was positively received by critics , who praised the graphics and variety of gameplay , along with the comic and humorous style to the sci @-@ fi story .
= = Gameplay = =
In Ratchet & Clank , the main playable character is Ratchet , whom the player controls from a third @-@ person perspective , though a first person mode to view the player 's surroundings is available . The player traverses diverse environments with a large collection of unusual gadgets and weapons , using them to defeat enemies and pass obstacles . Up to 36 weapons and gadgets can be bought or found in the game .
The player begins the game with only two weapons : the " OmniWrench 8000 " , a standard melee weapon with a variety of uses such as interacting with puzzles in the environment , and the Bomb Glove , a short @-@ range grenade thrower . As missions are completed across the game 's various planets , more weapons and gadgets become available , including the Blaster , an automatic pistol ; the Pyrocitor , a flamethrower ; and the Suck Cannon , a vacuum gun , which sucks up smaller enemies and converts them into projectiles . Weapons are either found , or can be bought with bolts , the game 's form of currency . The OmniWrench remains the standard melee weapon for close combat , with its own button , as all other weapons assume the role of secondary weaponry and can only be equipped one at a time , though all weapons can be carried in the player 's inventory .
Bolts can be found in crates , along with ammo , or dropped from defeated enemies . The player also needs to buy ammo for most weapons , but a small number can function without the need for ammo . Vendors , which sell weapons and ammo , are situated at strategic points throughout levels . After completing the game , the player may choose to enter " challenge mode " , in which the game 's difficulty level rises considerably , but all bolts and weapons acquired the first time are carried through . There is also the option to buy " gold weapons " , more powerful versions of existing weapons . The game 's health system , Nanotech , starts at four health bubbles equivalent to be able to take four hits , but upgrades can be purchased , giving the player a total of eight hit points .
Normally , Clank rides on Ratchet 's back , acting as a jet @-@ pack or similar device . Occasionally , however , Clank becomes a playable character when Ratchet is unable to explore certain areas . Clank can control " Gadgebots " , smaller robots similar to Clank , who perform certain actions for him . Racing , in the form of hoverboard races , appears in the game . Some racing missions are necessary to progress in the game , while others are optional . One level of space combat and a level of flying through the air shooting tankers is also present . Mini @-@ games to unlock doors , extend bridges , or elevate platforms appear in most levels .
= = Plot = =
On the desolate planet of Quartu , a mysterious factory is busy churning out mechanical soldiers . A flaw in the manufacturing instructions produces XJ @-@ 0461 , a small , self @-@ aware robot who quickly discovers the factory 's true purpose . He steals a ship and tries to escape , but is soon shot down over the desert planet of Veldin . Ratchet , a young Lombax ( a cat @-@ like alien ) who lives alone , investigates the crash site and rescues XJ @-@ 0461 , whom he nicknames " Clank " . Clank reveals that he was created by the Blarg , an alien race led by the corrupt Chairman Drek . Having ruined their home planet of Orxon through uncontrolled industrialization , the Blarg intend to create a new homeworld by systematically harvesting large portions of other planets , killing their inhabitants . Ratchet offers to help him as long as Clank agrees to serve as the ignition system for his ship , which Clank accepts .
Shortly after takeoff , the duo is shot down over Novalis , which has already fallen to the Blarg . After getting another ship from the Novalian chairman , they travel to several different planets looking for information on the whereabouts of legendary space ranger Captain Qwark , who Clank believes is their only hope to stop Drek . They trace him to a racetrack on Rilgar , where Qwark offers to train them as rangers at his private compound on Umbris . After surviving a deadly obstacle course , Qwark reveals that he works for Drek , and leaves them to die in a pit holding a deadly Blargian Sn
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Hot Latin Songs chart , while the single fell to number four on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart . In its fifth week , the song reclaimed the second position on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart , while remaining at number two for a third consecutive week on the Hot Latin Songs chart . Staying at number two for its fourth consecutive week on the Hot Latin Songs chart , " Fotos y Recuerdos " fell to number three on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart . The song fell to number three on the Hot Latin Songs chart , while it remained at number three on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart on March 18 , 1995 .
Selena was shot and killed by Yolanda Saldívar , her friend and former manager of the singer 's Selena Etc. clothing boutiques , on March 31 , 1995 . At the time of her death , " Fotos y Recuerdos " was positioned at number four on the Hot Latin Songs chart . In the week following the singer 's death , " Fotos y Recuerdos " peaked at number one on the Hot Latin Songs ( her fourth consecutive ) and Regional Mexican Airplay chart , her second consecutive . According to disc jockeys , " Fotos y Recuerdos " was the most requested song in South Texas throughout April of that year . In its second week atop the Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts , " Fotos y Recuerdos " debuted at number twelve on the U.S. Latin Pop Airplay chart . After two consecutive weeks at number one , " Fotos y Recuerdos " was dethrowned on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart by La Mafia 's " Toma Mi Amor " . After spending seven consecutive weeks atop the Hot Latin Songs chart , " Fotos y Recuerdos " was displaced by Mexican group Los Bukis ' single " Te Amo Mama " . " Fotos y Recuerdos " ended 1995 as the second most successful Latin single . Billboard magazine began monitoring digital downloads of Latin songs beginning with the week ending January 23 , 2010 . " Fotos y Recuerdos " made its debut on the Latin Pop Digital Songs chart following the twentieth anniversary of the singer 's death ; positioned at number 19 . Over at the Regional Mexican Digital Songs chart , the song debuted and peaked at number 14 .
= = Cover versions = =
Dominican salsa singer Jose Alberto " El Canario " covered the song for the tribute album Familia RMM Recordando a Selena ( 1996 ) . Mexican mariachi group Banda El Grullo recorded the track for their album 30 Números 1 en Banda . Mexican group Liberación recorded the song for the tribute album Mexico Recuerda a Selena ( 2005 ) . Mexican singer Gerardo Williams covered the song for his album Nuevas Voces de América . Mexican pop singer Paulina Rubio performed and recorded " Fotos y Recuerdos " for the live televised tribute concert Selena ¡ VIVE ! in April 2005 . Michael Clark of the Houston Chronicle wrote that Rubio used her " sex appeal " while performing the song . Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express @-@ News called Rubio 's version a " techno / hip @-@ hop number " . Rubio performed " Fotos y Recuerdos " once more during her tour in Texas that same year .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Amor Prohibido liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Rose ( Doctor Who ) =
" Rose " is the opening episode of the first series of the revived British science fiction television programme Doctor Who . The episode was directed by Keith Boak and written by Russell T Davies who was also one of the three executive producers . It was first broadcast in the UK on BBC One on 26 March 2005 . " Rose " was the first Doctor Who episode to air since the Doctor Who television film in 1996 .
The plot involves Rose Tyler meeting the Doctor , a time @-@ travelling alien Time Lord . She first encounters him in the department store where she works , while being attacked by Autons – living plastic in the guise of shop window mannequins . Rose and the Doctor uncover and defeat a plot by the alien Nestene Consciousness , which aimed to take over the Earth using the living plastic , after which she accepts the Doctor 's offer to travel through time and space with him in his time machine , the TARDIS .
The episode marked the debut of Christopher Eccleston , the ninth actor to play the Doctor since the programme started in 1963 , and Billie Piper as Rose Tyler , the Doctor 's companion . Being the first episode of the revived series , several lead characters were introduced ; Camille Coduri as Jackie Tyler , and Noel Clarke as Mickey Smith . Viewers did not see the Doctor character regenerate from a previous incarnation ; regeneration being a plot device in which the character of the Doctor changes body and identity . Russell T Davies felt it would be clearer for the viewer to begin the series with the new actor in place rather than show the previous actor regenerating . " Rose " began filming in Cardiff , the headquarters of BBC Wales , in July 2004 , with some location scenes shot in London . " Rose " was viewed by 10 @.@ 81 million viewers in the UK , the most viewed Doctor Who episode since The Creature from the Pit in 1979 ( making it the first episode in over 25 years ) ; and received positive reviews from critics , though there were some criticisms of its use of humour .
= = Plot = =
Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old shop assistant is being chased by mannequins in the basement of Henrik 's , the department store where she works . She is rescued by the Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) who destroys the building with an explosion . The next day , the Doctor visits Rose at her home where he is attacked by a plastic mannequin arm which he and Rose subdue . Rose investigates the Doctor and meets Clive ( Mark Benton ) , who has been tracking the Doctor 's appearances throughout history . Clive tells Rose the Doctor is dangerous , and that if he 's there , something bad is about to happen . While Rose is talking to Clive , her boyfriend Mickey Smith ( Noel Clarke ) is kidnapped by a wheelie bin and replaced with a plastic doppelgänger .
The fake Mickey takes Rose to lunch and attempts to question her about the Doctor , but the Doctor shows up and beheads the doppelgänger . The Doctor takes Rose and the plastic head to the TARDIS and attempts to use the head to locate the controlling signal . With the head connected , the TARDIS takes them to the London Eye . The Doctor explains to Rose that the fake Mickey was an Auton , controlled by a signal from the Nestene Consciousness . He has a vial of anti @-@ plastic that can be used to destroy the Nestene if necessary . Realising that the transmitter is the London Eye itself , Rose and the Doctor descend underneath it to stop the Nestene Consciousness . They find Mickey , tied up but alive , and the Doctor speaks to the Nestene Consciousness . He tries to negotiate with it , but the Consciousness blames the Doctor for the destruction of its planet during the Time War . The Consciousness activates all the Autons at a shopping arcade , where several shoppers are shot and killed , including Clive . The Doctor is also held down by a pair of Autons , but Rose rescues him and the anti @-@ plastic drops into the vat where the Nestene Consciousness resides , killing it . With the Consciousness dead , the Autons all collapse . The Doctor uses the TARDIS to take Mickey and Rose home , then persuades Rose to join him as his new companion .
= = = Continuity = = =
Both the Autons and the Nestene Consciousness first appeared in the serial Spearhead from Space ( 1970 ) , and then reappeared in Terror of the Autons . This story introduces The Shadow Proclamation , an intergalactic police force mentioned several times in the revived series and eventually seen in " The Stolen Earth " . This is the first mention of the Time War , which would be one of the running threads throughout the series .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and casting = = =
Doctor Who originally ran from 1963 to 1989 , when it was cancelled after its twenty @-@ sixth season . Television producer Russell T Davies had been lobbying the BBC in an attempt to revive the show from the late 1990s , and reached the discussion phase in 2002 . It was announced in September 2003 that Doctor Who was returning and would be produced by BBC Wales via a BBC press release . The format of the programme was changed to 45 @-@ minute episodes , lightening the pace . Davies was inspired by American series such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Smallville , in particular by using Buffy 's structure of season @-@ long story arcs around a " Big Bad " villain .
It was announced in March 2004 that Christopher Eccleston would be playing the Doctor . Jane Tranter , BBC Controller of Drama Commissioning , stated that casting an actor of Eccleston 's reputation signaled " our intention to take Doctor Who into the 21st century , as well as retaining its core traditional values — to be surprising , edgy and eccentric . " Eccleston is the ninth actor to play the Doctor since the programme started in 1963 . New actors are able to take over the role through a plot device of regeneration , in which the character of the Doctor changes body and identity ; this having been introduced in 1966 . Russell T Davies decided to begin the revived series with a new Doctor rather than show the regeneration , as he believed it was " madness " to start with someone and then change him before the audience could build a relationship with him . Davies wanted to initially approach the revival as a " new programme " . Eccleston 's character is more " down @-@ to @-@ earth " than previous Doctors ; Davies referred to him as " stripped down " , while still having " fun and humour " . Eccleston 's costume of a battered leather jacket was in Davies ' original pitch , but the clothing also went with Eccleston 's desire not to have clothes dominating his time on the show . The Ninth Doctor 's clothes do not dominate him , but rather create a simple silhouette and an " action man " vibe .
Billie Piper 's casting as Rose Tyler was announced in May 2004 . According to executive producer Julie Gardner , former pop star Piper " fits the bill perfectly " as a " unique , dynamic partner for Christopher Eccleston " . Davies described Rose as " the ordinary person who stumbles into something extraordinary and finds herself their equal . " Camille Coduri and Noel Clarke were also cast to play Rose 's mother and boyfriend respectively ; Davies wanted to include these characters to " make her real " and to " give her a life " . Rose 's family is also working @-@ class , which had rarely been seen in companions on the show prior to " Rose " .
= = = Writing and filming = = =
The episode name had gradually been shortened ; in Davies 's pitch it had been called Rose meets the Doctor , and the journey begins , on his contract as Rose Meets The Doctor , but finally shortened to Rose . Also changed from Davies 's original pitch were the names of the supporting characters : Judy Tyler became Jackie Tyler , and Muggsy Smith became Mickey Smith . Davies had trouble coming up with how Mickey was supposed to be captured by the Nestene while waiting for Rose in the car , and finally realised he could be lured by a plastic wheelie bin . He commented that such instances of the ordinary being made scary made Doctor Who unique . Davies had to take out " oblique " references to the Autons being like terrorists , as the Eye was once a target of a terrorist attack . The entrance of the Doctor was something much debated ; Tranter and other members of the production team wanted it to be more dramatic , but the scene was never reshot . Davies remarked that it reflects Rose 's point of view , whereas a more dramatic entrance would reflect the audience 's excitement at the Doctor coming back . The scene in which the Auton arm attacks in the Tyler 's flat was originally much longer , but was revised . The episode originally underran by several minutes , and a scene with the Doctor and Rose walking was added a month or so later .
Davies wanted the Doctor to realise that Rose has something to offer to his cause . Their holding hands while running was meant to signify that they were a team , despite him not asking her yet , and they were not to question their relationship . The episode was intended to be presented from Rose 's point @-@ of @-@ view . For audience identification purposes , Davies wanted the alien menace to be easily mistaken as human , so that it was possible for Rose to mistake the aliens for humans . Davies felt that there was no need to create a new monster , as the Autons met these criteria . The Auton sequences were difficult to film because the costumes were uncomfortable for the actors ; which meant that frequent breaks from filming were needed . Computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) was used in post @-@ production to cover up the zipper on the back of the necks of the Auton costumes . Davies wanted to recreate the scene of the Autons breaking out of shop windows from their first appearance in Spearhead from Space , although he had the budget to actually smash the glass instead of just cutting around it like in Spearhead .
The episode was storyboarded by artist Anthony Williams . Davies offered Edgar Wright the opportunity to direct the episode , but Wright was forced to decline , as he was still working on Shaun of the Dead . Instead , the episode was directed by Keith Boak . " Rose " began filming in July 2004 , as part of the first production block alongside episodes four and five . The first five days were spent filming in London , while the rest was filmed in Cardiff . The production team was given permission to add more lights to the London Eye . For the scene in which the Doctor and Rose are running through London , careful timing was undertaken by the production team because they wanted a London bus to travel behind them , but this had to be accomplished by waiting for a bus to come . In other scenes filmed in Cardiff , a London bus and a van of the London Evening Standard drove by to give the illusion of London . The exterior of Rose 's council estate was filmed at a London estate as well as a Cardiff one in other scenes . Mickey 's flat is the same set as the Tyler 's , just redecorated . The production team sought to film the Cardiff scenes in secrecy , but the day before they began the Cardiff Council issued a press release naming the streets where they would be filming . The Autons ' attack during the climax was filmed on Working Street , Cardiff from 20 to 22 July 2004 @.@ with scenes set around major London landmarks like the London Eye being the exception . Henrik 's , where Rose works , is actually the department store Howells , and the pizza restaurant is La Fosse . It took the production team a while to find a restaurant that would require minimal set dressing but would be willing to close for a day . The street where Rose joins the Doctor is St David 's Market , while service tunnels in the basement of a hospital in Cardiff were used for the basement of Henrik 's where Rose is menaced by Autons . Studio filming mainly took place from August to October 2004 .
The area underneath the London Eye where the Doctor and Rose confront the Nestene Consciousness was filmed in an unused paper mill in Grangetown , Cardiff . It underwent steam cleaning because there were such high health and safety concerns . They were only permitted to film for three days , which required that some of the sequence be cut : originally , there was to be another Auton Mickey involved . Special effects producer Mike Tucker was reminded of the James Bond film The Man with the Golden Gun when reading the scene in which the Nestene 's lair is blown up , and sought to display it as a major effect . The production team built a one @-@ sixth scale model of the warehouse where the explosions were filmed . Tucker did a model explosion for the destruction of Henrik 's as well , although that was only for the roof ; the rest was done by CGI . The production team considered doing the explosion practically , but that would have been too expensive . In the original script , Rose 's first experience of seeing the TARDIS interior was shared with the audience . Director Keith Boak , however , wanted her to exit and run around the TARDIS before entering again , at which point the interior would be revealed to the audience . This change was eventually embraced by the executive producers . Davies remarked that he originally wanted to take Rose and the audience inside the TARDIS in all one shot , but this was not a feasible with the budget . This effect would later be accomplished in the 2012 Christmas special , " The Snowmen " .
= = Broadcast = =
= = = Pre @-@ broadcast leak = = =
On 8 March 2005 , Reuters reported that a copy of the episode had been leaked onto the Internet , and was being widely traded via the BitTorrent file sharing protocol . The leaked episode did not contain the new arrangement of the theme tune by Murray Gold . The leak was ultimately traced to a third party company in Canada which had a legitimate preview copy . The employee responsible was fired by the company and the BBC considered further legal action .
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
" Rose " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 26 March 2005 on BBC One , and was the first Doctor Who episode to air since the Doctor Who television film in 1996 . Unofficial overnight viewing figures from the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board showed that the episode attracted an average of 9 @.@ 9 million viewers — 43 @.@ 2 % of the available television audience — over the course of the evening . At its peak , it had 10 @.@ 5 million viewers , a 44 @.@ 3 % share . The final figure for the episode , including video recordings watched within a week of transmission , was 10 @.@ 81 million , third for BBC One that week and seventh across all channels . In some regions , the first few minutes of the original BBC broadcast of this episode on 26 March were marred by the accidental mixing of a few seconds of sound from Graham Norton hosting Strictly Dance Fever .
Internationally , " Rose " was first transmitted on CBC in Canada on 5 April 2005 , debuting to strong ratings of 986 @,@ 000 viewers . In Australia , it was broadcast on 21 May 2005 on ABC to 1 @.@ 11 million viewers . " Rose " was first broadcast in the United States on the Sci @-@ Fi Channel on 17 March 2006 . It was aired back @-@ to @-@ back with the following episode " The End of the World " ; Davies had originally wanted to air the first two episodes together in the UK , but the request was given to the BBC too close to transmission . The US premiere was watched by 1 @.@ 58 million viewers .
On 30 March , four days after the episode was originally broadcast in the UK , the BBC announced that another full series had been commissioned . On the same day , the BBC released a statement , apparently from Eccleston , saying that he would be leaving the role at Christmas , for fear of being typecast . The BBC later revealed this was not an official statement from Eccleston , whom they had failed to contact before responding to press questions after the story broke ; the mis @-@ quote was re @-@ used in other media . Eccleston later said , " They handled it very badly , but they issued an apology and I dropped it " in an 2010 interview . David Tennant was called a " hot favourite " to replace Eccleston , when it was announced that Eccleston was leaving , BBC said that they were in talks with Tennant ; the bookmakers ' odds were at 1 / 10 , with William Hill refusing to take any bets on who would act a new Doctor . A BBC spokesman said that they had " hoped , rather than expected " that Eccleston would continue in the role .
= = = Reception = = =
" Rose " received positive reviews and was seen as a successful relaunch to the programme . Harry Venning of The Stage praised Davies ' script , particularly for taking it seriously and making it scary . He was pleased with Piper 's acting and Rose , who proved to be more independent than her predecessors . However , he felt that Eccleston was " the show 's biggest disappointment " as he seemed unsuited to a fantasy role . Digital Spy 's Dek Hogan stated that production values had increased from the classic series , and praised the acting and characters of Eccleston , Piper , and Clarke . However , he felt that some of the humour — such as the wheelie bin burping after it consumes Mickey — was not as enjoyable as an adult . The Sydney Morning Herald reviewer Robin Oliver praised Davies for " [ taking ] an adult approach to one of television 's most famous characters " and " [ overriding ] the cash @-@ strapped production values of the past to make his new doctor competitive in a high @-@ tech market " . Kay McFadden of The Seattle Times described the revival as " superb " and " intelligent and well @-@ done " . Daily Mail writer Michael Hanlon said that " As a fan I really hope this new series succeeds . It 's lively , well filmed and the special effects are up to scratch . There is humour , a vital ingredient if the new series is to be a success . " He also felt that everything necessary for Doctor Who was present in " Rose " . However , Stephen Brook of The Guardian said that it was " pitched at its youngest ever audience " , and also felt that the episode had an " overdose on humour " .
Retrospective reviews have also been positive . Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times gave " Rose " four out of five stars in 2013 , particularly praising Rose 's fleshed @-@ out life and how it welcomed in new viewers . While he noted " minor gripes " and felt the Autons ' destruction was toned @-@ down , he praised the direction and the performances and called it " a blinding success " . The A.V. Club reviewer Alasdair Wilkins gave the episode a grade of a B , also noting how important it was that Rose 's world was shown first . He felt that some effects already seemed dated in 2013 and Jackie and Mickey were one @-@ dimensional , but the episode succeeded above all else , especially in developing Rose and the Doctor 's relationship and pointing out that Doctor Who is dangerous . In 2013 , Ben Lawrence of The Daily Telegraph named " Rose " as one of the top ten Doctor Who stories set in the contemporary time .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Rose " reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
" Rose " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Chester Cathedral =
Chester Cathedral is a Church of England cathedral and the mother church of the Diocese of Chester . It is located in the city of Chester , Cheshire , England . The cathedral ( formerly the abbey church of a Benedictine monastery , dedicated to Saint Werburgh ) is dedicated to Christ and the Blessed Virgin Mary . Since 1541 it has been the seat of the Bishop of Chester .
The cathedral is a Grade I listed building , and part of a heritage site that also includes the former monastic buildings to the north , which are also listed Grade I. The cathedral , typical of English cathedrals in having been modified many times , dates from between 1093 and the early 16th century , although the site itself may have been used for Christian worship since Roman times . All the major styles of English medieval architecture , from Norman to Perpendicular , are represented in the present building .
The cathedral and former monastic buildings were extensively restored during the 19th century ( amidst some controversy ) , and a free @-@ standing bell @-@ tower was added in the 20th century . The buildings are a major tourist attraction in Chester . In addition to holding services for Christian worship , the cathedral is used as a venue for concerts and exhibitions .
= = History = =
The city of Chester was an important Roman stronghold . There may have been a Christian basilica on the site of the present cathedral in the late Roman era , while Chester was controlled by Legio XX Valeria Victrix . Legend holds that the basilica was dedicated to St Paul and Saint Peter . This is supported by evidence that in Saxon times the dedication of an early chapel on this site was changed from Saint Peter to Saint Werburgh .
During the Dark Ages Barloc of Norbury , a Catholic Celtic saint and hermit , was venerated at Chester Cathedral with a feast day on 10 September . He is known to history mainly through the hagiography of the Secgan Manuscript ; he also occurs in a litany in the Tanner of the Bodleian Library , Oxford .
In the 10th century , St Werburgh 's remains were brought to Chester , and 907 AD her shrine was placed in the church . It is thought that Æthelfleda turned the church into a college of secular canons , and that it was given a charter by King Edgar in 968 . The collegiate church , as it was then , was restored in 1057 by Leofric , Earl of Mercia and Lady Godiva . This church was razed to the ground around 1090 , with the secular canons evicted , and no known trace of it remains .
In 1093 a Benedictine abbey was established on the site by Hugh Lupus , Earl of Chester , with the assistance of St Anselm and other monks from Bec in Normandy . The earliest surviving parts of the structure date from that time . The abbey church was not at that time the cathedral of Chester ; from 1075 to 1082 the cathedral of the diocese was the nearby church of St John the Baptist , after which the see was transferred to Coventry . In 1538 , during the dissolution of the monasteries , the monastery was disbanded and the shrine of Saint Werburgh was desecrated . In 1541 St Werburgh 's abbey became a cathedral of the Church of England , by order of Henry VIII . At the same time , the dedication was changed to Christ and the Blessed Virgin . The last abbot of St Werburgh ’ s Abbey , Thomas Clarke , became the first dean of the new cathedral , at the head of a secular chapter .
Although little trace of the 10th @-@ century church has been discovered , save possibly some Saxon masonry found during a 1997 excavation of the nave , there is much evidence of the monastery of 1093 . This work in the Norman style may be seen in the northwest tower , the north transept and in remaining parts of the monastic buildings . The abbey church , beginning with the Lady Chapel at the eastern end , was extensively rebuilt in Gothic style during the 13th and 14th centuries . At the time of the dissolution of the monasteries , the cloister , the central tower , a new south transept , the large west window and a new entrance porch to the south had just been built in the Perpendicular style , and the southwest tower of the façade had been begun . The west front was given a Tudor entrance , but the tower was never completed .
In 1636 the space beneath the south west tower became a bishop 's consistory court . It was furnished as such at that time , and is now a unique survival in England , hearing its last case , that of an attempted suicide of a priest , in the 1930s . Until 1881 , the south transept , which is unusually large , also took on a separate function as an independent ecclesiastical entity : the parish church of St Oswald . Although the 17th century saw additions to the furnishings and fittings , there was no further building work for several centuries . By the 19th century , the building was badly in need of restoration . The present homogeneous appearance that the cathedral presents from many exterior angles is largely the work of Victorian restorers , particularly George Gilbert Scott .
The 20th century has seen continued maintenance and restoration . In 1922 , the Chester War Memorial was installed in the cathedral grounds and dedicated to the fallen soldiers of the First World War and later the Second World War . In 1973 – 75 a detached belfry , designed by George Pace , was erected in the grounds of the cathedral . In 2005 a new Song School was added to the cathedral . During the 2000s , the cathedral library was refurbished and relocated . It was officially reopened in September 2007 . The cathedral and the former monastic buildings were designated as Grade I listed buildings on 28 July 1955 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Cathedral = = =
= = = = Plan = = = =
Chester Cathedral has an east @-@ west axis , common to many cathedrals , with the chancel at the eastern end , and the façade to the west . The plan is cruciform , with a central tower ( as is usual in English monastic churches ) , but is asymmetrical , having a small transept on the north side remaining from an earlier building , and an unusually large south transept . As the plan shows , the asymmetry extends to the west front , where the north tower remains from the Norman building , and the south tower is of the early 16th century . At the eastern end , the symmetrical arrangement of the aisles was lost when the end of the south aisle was demolished and rebuilt in an apsidal shape . The nave , choir and south transept have wide aisles on either side , and are lit by clerestory windows and large multi @-@ light windows in each of the three cliff @-@ like ends . To the north of the cathedral are monastic buildings , including the cloister , refectory and a rectangular chapter house . The façade of the building is abutted on the north by later buildings .
= = = = External appearance = = = =
LIke the cathedrals of Carlisle , Lichfield and Worcester , Chester Cathedral is built of New Red Sandstone , in this case Keuper Sandstone from the Cheshire Basin . The stone lends itself to detailed carving , but is also friable , easily eroded by rain and wind , and is badly affected by pollution . With the other red sandstone buildings , Chester is one of the most heavily restored of England 's cathedrals . The restoration , which included much refacing and many new details , took place mainly in the 19th century .
Because the south transept is similar in dimension to the nave and choir , views of the building from the south @-@ east and south @-@ west give the impression of a building balanced around a central axis , with its tower as the hub . The tower is of the late 15th century Perpendicular style , but its four large battlemented turrets are the work of the restoration architect George Gilbert Scott . With its rhythmic arrangement of large , traceried windows , pinnacles , battlements and buttresses , the exterior of Chester Cathedral from the south presents a fairly homogeneous character , which is an unusual feature as England 's cathedrals are in general noted for their stylistic diversity . Close examination reveals window tracery of several building stages from the 13th to the early 16th century . The richness of the 13th @-@ century tracery is accentuated by the presence of ornate , crocketted drip @-@ mouldings around the windows ; those around the perpendicular windows are of simpler form .
The façade of the cathedral is dominated by a large deeply recessed eight @-@ light window in the Perpendicular style , above a recessed doorway set in a screen @-@ like porch designed , probably by Seth and George Derwall , in the early 1500s . This porch formed part of the same late 15th @-@ century building programme as the south transept , central and southwest towers , and cloister . Neither of the west towers was completed . To the north is the lower stage of a Norman tower , while to the south is the lower stage of a tower designed and begun , probably by Seth and George Derwall , in 1508 , but left incomplete following the dissolution of the monastery in 1538 . The cathedral 's façade is abutted on the north by a Victorian building housing the education centre and largely obscured from view by the building previously used as the King 's School , which is now a branch of Barclays Bank . The door of the west front is not used as the normal entrance to the cathedral , which is through the southwest porch which is in an ornate Tudor style .
= = = = Interior = = = =
The interior of Chester Cathedral gives a warm and mellow appearance because of the pinkish colour of the sandstone . The proportions appear spacious because the view from the west end of the nave to the east end is unimpeded by a pulpitum and the nave , although not long , is both wide and high compared with many of England 's cathedrals . The piers of the nave and choir are widely spaced , those of the nave carrying only the clerestory of large windows with no triforium gallery . The proportions are made possible partly because the ornate stellar vault , like that at York Minster , is of wood , not stone .
= = = = Norman remnants = = = =
The present building , dating from around 1283 to 1537 , mostly replaced the earlier monastic church founded in 1093 which was built in the Norman style . It is believed that the newer church was built around the older one . That the few remaining parts of the Norman church are of small proportions , while the height and width of the Gothic church are generous would seem to confirm this belief . Aspects of the design of the Norman interior are still visible in the north transept , which retains wall arcading and a broadly moulded arch leading to the sacristy , which was formerly a chapel . The transept has retained an early 16th @-@ century coffered ceiling with decorated bosses , two of which are carved with the arms of Henry VIII and Cardinal Wolsey .
The north west tower is also of Norman construction . It serves as the baptistry and houses a black marble font , consisting of a bowl on a large baluster dating from 1697 . The lower part of the north wall of the nave is also from the Norman building , but can only be viewed from the cloister because the interior has been decorated with mosaic .
= = = = Early English = = = =
The Early English Gothic chapter house , built between 1230 and 1265 , is rectangular and opens off a " charming " vestibule leading from the north transept . The chapter house has grouped windows of simple untraceried form . Alec Clifton @-@ Taylor describes the exterior of this building as a " modest but rather elegant example of composition in lancets " while Nikolaus Pevsner says of the interior " It is a wonderfully noble room " which is the " aesthetic climax of the cathedral " . To the north of the chapter house is the slype , also Early English in style , and the warming room , which contains two large former fireplaces . The monastic refectory to the north of the cloister is of about the same date as the chapter house .
The Lady Chapel to the eastern end of the choir dates from between 1265 and 1290 . It is of three bays , and contains the Shrine of St Werburgh , dating from the 14th century . The vault of the Lady Chapel is the only one in the cathedral that is of stone . It is decorated with carved roof bosses representing the Trinity , the Madonna and Child , and the murder of Thomas Becket . The chapel also has a sedilia and a piscina .
= = = = Decorated Gothic = = = =
The choir , of five bays , was built between 1283 and 1315 to the design of Richard Lenginour , and is an early example of Decorated Gothic architecture . The piers have strongly modelled attached shafts , supporting deeply moulded arches . There is a triforium gallery with four cusped arches to each bay . The sexpartite vault , which is a 19th @-@ century restoration , is supported by clusters of three shafts which spring from energetic figurative corbels . The overall effect is robust , and contrasts with the delicacy of the pinnacled choir stalls , the tracery of the windows and the rich decoration of the vault which was carried out by the ecclesiastical designers , Clayton and Bell . The choir stalls , dating from about 1380 , are one of the glories of the cathedral .
The aisles of the choir previously both extended on either side of the Lady Chapel . The south aisle was shortened in about 1870 by George Gilbert Scott , and given an apsidal east end , becoming the chapel of St Erasmus . The eastern end of the north aisle contains the chapel of St Werburgh .
The nave of six bays , and the large , aisled south transept were begun in about 1323 , probably to the design of Nicholas de Derneford . There are a number of windows containing fine Flowing Decorated tracery of this period . The work ceased in 1375 , in which year there was a severe outbreak of plague in England . The building of the nave was recommenced in 1485 , more than 150 years after it was begun . The architect was probably William Rediche . Remarkably , for an English medieval architect , he maintained the original form , changing only the details . The nave was roofed with a stellar vault rather like that of the Lady Chapel at Ely and the choir at York Minster , both of which date from the 1370s . Like that at York , the vault is of wood , imitating stone .
= = = = Perpendicular Gothic = = = =
From about 1493 until 1525 the architect appears to have been Seth Derwall , succeeded by George Derwall until 1537 . Seth Derwall completed the south transept to a Perpendicular Gothic design , as seen in the transomed windows of the clerestory . He also built the central tower , southwest porch and cloisters . Work commenced on the south west tower in 1508 , but it had not risen above the roofline at the time of the dissolution of the monasteries , and has never been completed . The central tower , rising to 127 feet ( 39 m ) , is a “ lantern tower ” with large windows letting light into the crossing . Its external appearance has been altered by the addition of four battlemented turrets by George Gilbert Scott in the 19th century .
= = = Former monastic buildings = = =
The Perpendicular Gothic cloister is entered from the cathedral through a Norman doorway in the north aisle . The cloister is part of the building programme that commenced in the 1490s and is probably the work of Seth Derwall . The south wall of the cloister , dating from the later part of the Norman period , forms the north wall of the nave of the cathedral , and includes blind arcading . Among the earliest remaining structures on the site is an undercroft off the west range of the cloisters , which dates from the early 12th century , and which was originally used by the monks for storing food . It consists of two naves with groin vaults and short round piers with round scalloped capitals .
Leading from the south of the undercroft is the abbot 's passage which dates from around 1150 and consists of two bays with rib @-@ vaulting . Above the abbot 's passage , approached by a stairway from the west cloister , is St Anselm 's Chapel which also dates from the 12th century . It is in three bays and has a 19th century Gothic @-@ style plaster vault . The chancel is in one bay and was remodelled in the early 17th century . The screen , altar rails , holy table and plaster ceiling of the chancel date from the 17th century . The north range of the cloister gives access to a refectory , built by Simon de Whitchurch in the 13th century . It contains an Early English pulpit , approached by a staircase with an ascending arcade . The only other similar pulpit in England is in Beaulieu Abbey .
= = = Restoration = = =
By the 19th century the fabric of the building had become badly weathered , with Charles Hiatt writing that " the surface rot of the very perishable red sandstone , of which the cathedral was built , was positively unsightly " and that the " whole place previous to restoration struck one as woebegone and neglected ; it perpetually seemed to hover on the verge of collapse , and yet was without a trace of the romance of the average ruin " . Between 1818 and 1820 the architect Thomas Harrison restored the south transept , adding corner turrets . This part of the building served until 1881 as the parish church of St Oswald , and it was ecclesiastically separate . From 1844 R. C. Hussey carried out a limited restoration including work on the south side of the nave .
The most extensive restoration was carried out by the Gothic Revival architect , George Gilbert Scott , who between 1868 and 1876 " almost entirely re @-@ cased " the cathedral . The current building is acknowledged to be mainly the product of this Victorian restoration commissioned by the Dean , John Saul Howson . In addition to extensive additions and alterations to the body of the church , Scott remodelled the tower , adding turrets and crenellations . Scott chose sandstone from the quarries at Runcorn for his restoration work . In addition to the restoration of the fabric of the building , Scott designed internal fittings such as the choir screen to replace those destroyed during the Civil War . He built the fan vault of the south porch , renewed the wooden vault of the choir and added a great many decorative features to the interior .
Scott 's restorations were not without their critics and caused much debate in architectural circles . Scott claimed to have archaeological evidence for his work , but the Liverpool architect , Samuel Huggins argued in an 1868 address to the Liverpool Architectural Society , that the alterations were less like restoration and more like rebuilding . One of the larger changes was to shorten the south aisle and restyle it as an apse . The changes also proposed the addition of a spire above the existing tower , but this proposal was later rejected . Samuel 's further paper of 1871 entitled On so @-@ called restorations of our cathedral and abbey churches compelled the Dean to attempt to answer the criticism . The debate contributed to the establishment of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings .
Later in the century , from 1882 , Arthur Blomfield and his son Charles made further additions and modifications , including restoring and reinstating the Shrine of St Werburgh . More work was carried out in the 20th century by Giles Gilbert Scott between 1891 and 1913 , and by F. H. Crossley in 1939 .
= = = Bell tower = = =
Towards the end of 1963 the cathedral bells , which were housed in the central tower , were in need of an overhaul and ringing was suspended . In 1965 the Dean asked George Pace , architect to York Minster , to prepare specifications for a new bell frame and for electrification of the clock and tolling mechanism . Due to structural difficulties and the cost of replacing the bells in the central tower it was advised that consideration should be given to building a detached bell and clock tower in the southeast corner of the churchyard . It was decided to proceed with that plan , and in 1969 an announcement was made that the first detached cathedral bell tower was to be erected since the building of the campanile at Chichester Cathedral in the 15th century . In February 1969 , nine of the ten bells in the central tower were removed to be recast by John Taylor & Co as a ring of twelve bells with a flat sixth . The new bells were cast in 1973 . Work on the new bell @-@ tower began in February 1973 . Two old bells dating from 1606 and 1626 were left in the tower . On 26 February 1975 the bells were rung for the first time to celebrate the wedding of a member of the Grosvenor family . The official opening on 25 June 1975 was performed by the Duke of Gloucester . The belfry is known as the Dean Addleshaw Tower , after the dean of the cathedral responsible for its construction . The tower is built in concrete , faced with sandstone at its base . It is the first detached bell tower to be built for a cathedral in this country since the Reformation . Between the bell tower and the south transept is a garden in remembrance of the Cheshire Regiment ( originally the 22nd Regiment of Foot ) .
= = Fittings and glass = =
The treasures of Chester Cathedral are its rare fittings , specifically its choir stalls and the 17th @-@ century furnishing of the bishop ’ s consistory court in the south tower , which is a unique survival .
= = = Choir stalls = = =
The choir stalls date from about 1380 . They have high , spiky , closely set canopies , with crocketed arches and spirelets . The stall ends have poppyheads and are rich with figurative carving . The stalls include 48 misericords , all but five of which are original , depicting a variety of subjects , some humorous and some grotesque . Pevsner states that they are " one of the finest sets in the country " , while Alec Clifton @-@ Taylor calls them “ exquisite ” and says of the misericords that “ for delicacy and grace they surpass even those at Lincoln and Beverley ” .
= = = Organ = = =
In 1844 , an organ by Gray & Davison of London was installed in the cathedral , replacing an instrument with parts dating back to 1626 . The organ was rebuilt and enlarged by Whiteley Bros of Chester in 1876 , to include harmonic flutes and reeds by Cavaillé @-@ Coll . It was later moved to its present position at the front of the north transept . In 1910 William Hill and Son of London extensively rebuilt and revoiced the organ , replacing the Cavaillé @-@ Coll reeds with new pipes of their own . The choir division of the organ was enlarged and moved behind the choirstalls on the south side . The instrument was again overhauled by Rushworth and Dreaper of Liverpool in 1969 , when a new mechanism and some new pipework made to a design by the organist , Roger Fisher , was installed . Since 1991 the organ has been in the care of David Wells of Liverpool .
= = = Stained glass = = =
See Gallery below
Chester suffered badly at the hands of the Parliamentary troops . As a consequence , its stained glass dates mainly from the 19th and 20th centuries and has representative examples the significant trends in stained glass design from the 1850s onwards . Of the earlier Victorian firms , William Wailes is the best represented , in the south aisle ( 1862 ) , as well as Hardman & Co. and Michael Connor . Glass from the High Victorian period is well represented by two leading London firms , Clayton and Bell and Heaton , Butler and Bayne . The Aesthetic style is represented by Charles Eamer Kempe . Early 20th century windows include several commemorating those who died in World War I.
There are also several notable modern windows , the most recent being the refectory window of 2001 by Ros Grimshaw which depicts the Creation . The eight @-@ light Perpendicular window of the west end contains mid @-@ 20th century glass representing the Holy Family and Saints , by W. T. Carter Shapland . Three modern windows in the south aisle , designed and made by Alan Younger to replace windows damaged in the Second World War . They were donated by the 6th Duke of Westminster to celebrate the 900th anniversary of the cathedral and contain the dates 1092 and 1992 to reflect the theme of " continuity and change " .
= = Tour of features = =
= = = Nave = = =
The west end of the nave is dominated by an eight @-@ light window in the Perpendicular Gothic style which almost fills the upper part of the west wall . It contains stained glass designed by W. T. Carter Shapland dating from 1961 and depicts the Holy Family in the middle two lights , flanked by the northern saints Werburgh , Oswald , Aidan , Chad and Wilfrid , and Queen Ethelfleda .
The stone nave pulpit was designed by the restorer R. C. Hussey and the lectern , dated 1876 , is by Skidmore . The mosaic floor of the tower bay was designed by Dean Howson and executed by Burke and Co . The same firm installed the mosaics which decorate the wall of the north aisle , depicting the patriarchs and prophets Abraham , Moses , David and Elijah . They were designed by J. R. Clayton of Clayton and Bell , and date from 1883 to 86 .
Monuments in the nave include those to Roger Barnston , dated 1838 , by John Blayney , to Bishop Stratford , dated 1708 , to Bishop Hall who died in 1668 , to Edmund Entwistle , dated 1712 , to John and Thomas Wainwright who died respectively in 1686 and 1720 , to Robert Bickerstaff who died in 1841 by Blayney , to Dean Smith who died in 1787 by Thomas Banks , and to Sir William Mainwaring , dated 1671 .
= = = Choir = = =
The most famous feature of the choir is the set of choir stalls , dating from about 1380 , and described above . The lectern , in the form of a wooden eagle , symbol of John the Evangelist , dates from the first half of the 17th century . The candlesticks also date from the 17th century and are by Censore of Bologna who died in 1662 .
With these exceptions , most of the decoration and the fittings of the choir date from the 19th century and are in keeping with the Gothic Revival promoted by the Oxford Movement and Augustus Welby Pugin . The restored vault of the choir is typical of the period , having been designed by Scott and decorated and gilded by Clayton and Bell .
The choir is entered through a screen designed by George Gilbert Scott , with gates made by Skidmore . The rood was designed by Scott , and was made by F. Stuflesser . The bishop ’ s throne or “ cathedra ” was designed by Scott to complement the choir stalls . It was constructed by Farmer and Brindley in 1876 . The reredos and the floor mosaic date from 1876 , and were designed by J. R. Clayton . The east window has tracery of an elegant Decorated Gothic design which is filled with stained glass of 1884 by Heaton , Butler and Bayne .
= = = Lady Chapel = = =
The 13th @-@ century Lady Chapel contains the stone shrine of Saint Werburgh which dates from the 14th century and which used to contain her relics . The shrine , of similar red sandstone as the cathedral , has a base pierced with deep niches . The upper part takes the form of a miniature chapel containing statuettes . During the dissolution of the monasteries it was dismantled . Some of the parts were found during the 1873 restoration of the cathedral and the shrine was reassembled in 1888 by Blomfield . A carving of St Werburgh by Joseph Pyrz was added in 1993 . Also in the chapel are a sedilia and a piscina . The stained glass of 1859 , is by William Wailes . The chapel contains a monument to Archdeacon Francis Wrangham , made by Hardman & Co. and dating from 1846 . In 1555 , George Marsh , Martyr stood trial here accused of heresy .
= = = North choir aisle = = =
The north choir aisle has a stone screen by R. C. Hussey and an iron gate dated 1558 that came from Guadalajara . At the east end of the aisle is the chapel of St Werburgh which has a vault of two bays , and an east window depicting the Nativity by Michael O 'Connor , dated 1857 . Other stained glass windows in the north aisle are by William Wailes , by Heaton , Butler and Bayne , and by Clayton and Bell . The chapel contains a piscina dating from the 14th century , and monuments to Bishop Graham dated 1867 , and to William Bispham who died in 1685 , Other monuments in the north aisle include a tablet to Bishop Jacobson , dated 1887 , by Boehm to a design by Blomfield .
= = = North transept , sacristy and chapter house = = =
The small Norman transept has clerestory windows containing stained glass by William Wailes , installed in 1853 . The sacristy , of 1200 , has an east window depicting St Anselm , and designed by A. K. Nicholson . In the north transept is a freestanding tombchest monument to Bishop Pearson who died in 1686 , designed by Arthur Blomfield and carved by Nicholas Earp , with a recumbent effigy by Matthew Noble . Other monuments in the transept include one to Samuel Peploe , dating from about 1784 , by Joseph Nollekens . The wall monuments include cenotaphs to members of the Cheshire ( Earl of Chester 's ) Yeomanry killed in the Boer War and in the First and Second World Wars . At the corner of the transept with the north aisle is a 17th @-@ century Tree of Jesse carved in whale ivory . A niche contains a rare example of a " cobweb picture " , painted on the web of a caterpillar . Originating in the Austrian Tyrol , it depicts Mary and the Christ @-@ Child , and is based on a painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder .
The chapter house has stained glass in its east window by Heaton , Butler and Bayne and grisaille windows in the north and south walls , dated 1882 – 83 , by Blomfield . It contains an oak cope cupboard from the late 13th century . The front of the chapter house was rebuilt to a design by Hussey .
= = = South choir aisle = = =
The south aisle was shortened in about 1870 by Scott , and given an apsidal east end , becoming the chapel of St Erasmus . The stained glass in the apse window is dated 1872 and is by Clayton and Bell . Below this is a mosaic designed by J. R. Clayton and made by Salviati , and a fresco painting by Clayton and Bell , dated 1874 . Elsewhere the stained glass in the aisle is by Wailes , and by Hardman & Co. to a design by Pugin . The aisle contains the tomb of Ranulf Higdon , a monk at St Werburgh 's Abbey in the 12th century who wrote a major work of history entitled Polychronicon , a monument to Thomas Brassey ( a civil engineering contractor who died in 1870 ) , designed by Blomfield and made by Wagmuller , a monument to Bishop Peploe who died in 1752 , and three painted monuments by a member of the Randle Holme family .
= = = South transept = = =
The south transept , formerly the parish church of St Oswald contains a piscina and sedilia in the south wall . On the east wall are four chapels , each with a reredos , two of which were designed by Giles Gilbert Scott , one by Kempe and the other by his successor , W. E. Tower . The south window is dated 1887 and was made by Heaton , Butler and Bayne to a design by R. C. Hussey . Other stained glass in the transept is by Clayton and Bell , by C. E. Kempe and by Powell .
The monuments include those to George Ogden who died in 1781 , by Hayward , to Anne Matthews who died in 1793 , by Thomas Banks , to John Philips Buchanan who died at Waterloo in 1815 , to the first Duke of Westminster , designed by C. J. Blomfield , and two memorial plaques to members of the Egerton family . On the wall of the southwest crossing pier are monuments which include a cenotaph to the casualties in HMS Chester in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 who included the 16 @-@ year @-@ old John Cornwell VC . The west wall of the south transept has many memorials , including cenotaphs to the Cheshire Regiment , the Royal Air Force and the Free Czech Forces .
= = = Cloisters and refectory = = =
The cloisters were restored in the 20th century , and the stained glass windows contain the images of some 130 saints . The cloister garth contains a modern sculpture entitled The water of life by Stephen Broadbent . The refectory roof is dated 1939 and was designed by F. H. Crossley . The east window with reticulated tracery was designed by Giles Gilbert Scott and is dated 1913 . The stained glass in the west window , depicting the Creation , was designed by Ros Grimshaw and installed in 2001 to celebrate the Millennium . On the refectory 's west wall there is a tapestry depicting Elymas being struck with blindness which was woven at Mortlake in the 17th century from a cartoon by Raphael . The heraldic paintings on the north wall represent the arms of the Earls of Chester .
= = = Library = = =
A library has been present since the time of St Werburgh 's Abbey , and following the dissolution of the monasteries it became the cathedral library . It continued to grow over the centuries , but by the 19th century it had become neglected . Between 1867 and 1885 it was enlarged and in the 1890s new bookcases were added . A further reorganisation took place in the 1920s but by the 1980s the contents were contained in five separate sites around the cathedral . A programme of repair and re @-@ cataloguing of the contents was instituted . During the 2000s more work was carried out and the refurbished library , housed in three rooms , opened in 2007 . The library is available for research and for organised visits by groups .
= = Ministry = =
= = = Chapter = = =
Dean – The Very Revd Dr Gordon McPhate ( since 7 September 2002 installation )
Vice @-@ Dean – The Revd Canon Peter Howell @-@ Jones ( since 25 September 2011 installation )
Canon Precentor & Sacrist – The Revd Canon Jeremy Dussek ( since 13 September 2014 installation )
Canon Chancellor & Canon Librarian – The Revd Canon Jane Brooke ( since 11 September 2010 installation )
Residentiary Canon ( part @-@ time ) – The Revd Canon Dr Peter Jenner ( since 2012 )
= = = = Services = = = =
The cathedral is a place of Christian worship , with two services held daily , and four or five each Sunday . There is Holy Communion each day , and Choral Evensong each day except Wednesday .
= = = Music = = =
The Director of Music is Philip Rushforth and the Assistant Director of Music is Benjamin Chewter ; they are assisted by an Assistant Organist , Geoffrey Woollatt . There are lunchtime organ recitals weekly on Thursday . The monthly program of music is available on the cathedral 's website .
The hymn @-@ writer William Cooke ( 1821 – 1894 ) was a canon of Chester .
= = = = Organists = = = =
The earliest recorded appointment of an organist is of John Brycheley in 1541 . Notable organists include the composers Robert White and John Sanders , conductor George Guest and the recording artist Roger Fisher .
= = = = Choirs = = = =
The choral tradition at Chester is 900 years old , dating from the foundation of the Bendedictine monastery . In 1741 Handel heard the first recital of his Messiah at Chester . There are usually eight choral services in the cathedral each week . Chester has a cathedral choir of male lay clerks , choral scholars , and boy and girl choristers . They rehearse in the Song School , built on the site of the former Monks ' Dormitory . In addition to singing at services , the choir perform in concerts , tour abroad , and make recording on CDs . There is no choir school at Chester , so the choristers come from local schools . There is also a mixed choir of adults , the Nave Choir , which sings Compline on Sunday evenings and in other services . This choir also takes part in concerts , and undertakes tours . Having been founded during the 1860s , it is the longest @-@ running voluntary cathedral choir in Britain .
= = = Activities = = =
Apart from services , a variety of events such as concerts , recitals , exhibitions and tours are held at the cathedral . There are weekly lunchtime organ recitals each Thursday , and concerts by the Chester Cathedral Nave Choir .
The cathedral and precinct are open to visits both by individuals and by groups . The former Refectory of the abbey is used as a café . The Refectory , the Cloister Room , the Chapter House , and the Vestibule can be hired for meetings , receptions and other purposes .
= = Burials = =
Hugh d 'Avranches , 1st Earl of Chester ( c . 1047 - 27 July 1101 ) , first in the cemetery of Saint Werberg , reburied in the Chapter House
Ranulf le Meschin , 3rd Earl of Chester ( 1070 − 1129 )
Ranulf de Blondeville , 6th Earl of Chester ( 1170 – 1232 )
Ranulf Higden Chronicler ( c . 1280 – 1364 )
John Pearson ( bishop ) , Bishop of Chester ( 1673 – 1686 )
Samuel Peploe ( bishop ) , Bishop of Chester ( 1725 – 1752 )
John Graham ( bishop ) , Bishop of Chester ( 1845 – 1865 ) – in the cemetery
George Clarke of Hyde , Former Colonial Governor of New York , America between 1736 and 1743
Frederick Phillips , A wealthy landowner from New York , America , who was loyal to the British Colonial Government and forced to quit his estates .
= = Gallery = =
= Screams of Silence : The Story of Brenda Q =
" Screams of Silence : The Story of Brenda Q " is the third episode of the tenth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on October 30 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . The episode follows Griffin family neighbor Glenn Quagmire 's sister , Brenda , as she struggles with physical and mental abuse at the hands of her boyfriend , and eventual fiancé , Jeff . Quagmire , along with his neighbors , Peter and Joe , seek to relieve Brenda from her anguish , and soon decide to murder him , in order to prevent her from being harmed any further .
The episode was written by Alec Sulkin and directed by Dominic Bianchi . This episode generated significant controversy from various media organizations and critics for its portrayal of domestic violence , which , unusually for Family Guy , is portrayed in a serious manner , and received mixed critical reviews . An estimated 5 @.@ 97 million homes viewed the episode in its original airing according to Nielsen ratings . The episode featured a guest performance by Kaitlin Olson along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
Peter decides to go fishing with Quagmire and Joe , but when Quagmire fails to show up , they decide to try to find him at his house . After entering his home , they discover that he has hanged himself in a fit of autoerotic asphyxiation . Attempting to save his life , they take him to the hospital , where they discover that he is in a coma . Peter invites Quagmire 's sister , Brenda , to visit him at the hospital , and she manages to wake up her brother . Brenda also brings along Jeff Fecalman , her loud , thuggish and abusive boyfriend , who terrorizes her throughout the night to the dismay of Quagmire and his neighbors .
After a horrible night , Quagmire approaches Lois about talking to Brenda about leaving Jeff . At lunch , Lois and Brenda begin talking about the situation , and requests that Brenda remove her sunglasses , revealing a bruise over her eye . Upon seeing this , Lois tries to convince Brenda to leave Jeff , but Brenda only tries to justify Jeff 's treatment of her , much to Lois ' disgust . Later , at the bar , Peter , Quagmire and Joe discuss the matter , asking if the police can solve the situation . Joe then suggests that the group have an intervention with Brenda , where Quagmire confesses that the sister he knew growing up no longer exists , and he wants her back . The two then embrace each other by hugging , until Jeff enters the intervention , causing Quagmire to tell him that Brenda has agreed to leave him . Frightened by Jeff , Brenda reveals that the two are engaged , and that she is pregnant .
Later that evening , Peter , Quagmire and Joe begin discussing possibly killing Jeff , with Joe ( as a police officer ) , against the idea saying that it doesn 't matter , while Quagmire says that it does and explains that people like Jeff never change . Joe explains to Quagmire that he could get sent to jail if he killed Jeff and is still against the idea but when the trio see Jeff beat Brenda for simply changing the channel on Quagmire 's TV , he renounces his reluctance and agrees to murder him . The three decide to talk Jeff into a hunting trip in an attempt to kill him , and make it look like an accident . Having expected it , however , Jeff reveals his own gun , and knocks Peter and Joe out so that he can kill Quagmire in another part of the woods . Once there , Quagmire talks Jeff into fighting him instead , during which Quagmire is seemingly strangled to death . Jeff then goes to dig a grave to put Quagmire 's body in , until he sees Quagmire , alive and well , behind the wheel of Peter 's car . Quagmire reveals that he chokes himself everyday and kills Jeff by running him over , smashing his head into a tree with Peter 's car . Peter , Joe and Quagmire return home the next day , and present Brenda with a forged note from Jeff stating that he has decided to leave her . As Brenda breaks down in tears over Jeff , Peter notes that he wishes he could kill someone else and gets an idea about Mort before the episode ends .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was written by series regular , and executive producer , Alec Sulkin , who previously wrote the Family Guy , Star Wars parody " Blue Harvest " , as well as " Stew @-@ Roids " , and the final installment of the Stewie Griffin : The Untold Story series . The episode was directed by series regular Dominic Bianchi , who previously directed the series 's landmark 150th episode " Brian & Stewie " . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising director , with Andrew Goldberg , Alex Carter , Spencer Porter , and Elaine Ko serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Walter Murphy , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Screams of Silence : The Story of Brenda Q " .
In addition to the regular cast , actress Kaitlin Olson guest starred in the episode as Brenda Quagmire , making her the second cast member from It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia to appear on a Seth MacFarlane show , after Glenn Howerton on The Cleveland Show , a spinoff of Family Guy . Recurring guest voice actress Alexandra Breckenridge , writers Gary Janetti and Alec Sulkin , actress Jennifer Tilly , actor Patrick Warburton , and writer John Viener made minor appearances throughout the episode . Recurring guest voice actor Ralph Garman provided the voice of Jeff , Brenda 's abusive boyfriend .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Screams of Silence : The Story of Brenda Q " was broadcast on October 30 , 2011 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by The Simpsons and the series premiere of the animated series Allen Gregory , and followed by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's spin @-@ off , The Cleveland Show . It was watched by 5 @.@ 97 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on ABC , The Amazing Race on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 2 / 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic group , beating Allen Gregory and The Cleveland Show in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings decreased significantly from the previous episode , " Seahorse Seashell Party " .
In the UK , the episode achieved 1 @.@ 26 million views during its debut on BBC Three .
= = = Critical reception and controversy = = =
This episode received negative reviews . Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club wrote of the episode , " A serious episode of Family Guy cripples the show ’ s strengths . " McFarland also wrote , " while other shows , even the procedurals with grisly murders , are playing around in Halloween specials , Family Guy went for an episode about domestic abuse that wrote off any chance that comedy could save it if things took a wrong turn . " He went on to criticize it for its tone , noting " An episode like this only works if the bits of comedy surrounding the serious plot create contrast to the darker main story , but they weren 't here . "
McFarland praised Kaitlin Olson 's portrayal of Brenda , however , stating " Olson got some laughs out of just how deep Brenda ’ s denial went , finding every possible excuse to blame herself and exonerate Jeff . It made her endearing and easily likeable , every bit the opposite from Olson 's place in the rogue ’ s gallery of misanthropy on It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia . " He ended his review by comparing it to the fellow Fox animation series The Simpsons , noting , " The Simpsons managed to find the right blend with Sideshow Bob episodes , or in the aching sadness of Homer and Marge 's marriage , but as has been said ad infinitum , Family Guy hasn 't mastered that combination in the same way as the original . " He graded the episode as C + .
Terron R. Moore of Ology gave the episode a slightly more positive review , writing , " " The Story Of Brenda Q " , judging by only the title , could have been a Lifetime movie in the Seth MacFarlane fashion or anything else than a typical episode of the show , but it was pretty much a typical episode of the show . " He continued , " it 's pretty much an episode where someone on the Family Guy writing staff needed a new way to get out a bunch of pent @-@ up misogyny and anger . " He gave the episode a grade of seven out of ten .
Reaction to the episode by news media organizations was extremely negative and caused controversy , criticizing the episode for its portrayal of domestic violence . A. J. Hammer of Showbiz Tonight said of the episode , " Like so many other people , I was just shocked by what I saw on Family Guy last night , " and continued , " It was really just a depressing half hour of television . " In the same interview , Hammer asked television host Wendy Walsh of The Doctors about the storyline , to which she responded , " The main theme of the show was about this poor ' stupid ' woman who was too dumb to leave her relationship . And domestic violence is far more complicated than that . We 're watching someone rationalize a domestic violence relationship and this is the kind of thought process that actually goes on in real life . It ’ s not satire anymore . "
Nando Di Fino of Mediaite also complained that the episode may have gone too far , and compared it to previous episodes in the series that had been banned from airing on television , noting , " The show has dipped into sensitive material before , and Fox has actually refused to air two episodes — one dealing with abortion , the other with heavy Jewish themes . Sunday night 's episode , if reaction to it can be used as a good measure , may have been better joining those two episodes in exile . " Whitney Jefferson of Jezebel , a website centered on women 's issues , also strongly criticized the episode for its storyline involving Brenda and her boyfriend , Jeff : " Personally , I 'm way beyond being offended by the show — I 've long been numbed to shock @-@ value offensiveness — and had stopped watching years ago anyhow . But being a sucker for a Halloween @-@ themed episodes , I tuned in to Fox 's " Animation Domination " comedy block last night . What I saw was seriously awful . " Jefferson ended her review of the episode by stating that the show was " Definitely the scariest Halloween special we 've ever seen . "
= Richard Swinefield =
Richard Swinefield ( or Richard de Swinfield ; died 15 March 1317 ) was a medieval Bishop of Hereford , England . He earned a doctor of divinity degree as well as holding a number of ecclesiastical offices , including Archdeacon of London , before being named bishop . While bishop , he worked to secure the canonisation of Thomas de Cantilupe , his predecessor , whom he had worked for previously . Although he was active in his diocese , he spent little time in politics . He died in 1317 , and was buried in Hereford Cathedral where a memorial to his memory still stands .
= = Rise in the Church = =
Swinefield 's last name may come from Swingfield located near Folkestone , Kent . His father was Stephen of Swinfield , who died in 1282 , and his brother Stephen remained a layman . Other information about his family and upbringing is unknown , nor is his day or year of birth . He earned a doctor of divinity degree , but the location of his university studies is unknown .
By 1264 Swinefield was a member of the household of Thomas de Cantilupe , who went on to become Bishop of Hereford in 1275 . Swinefield held the prebend of Hampton in the diocese of Hereford , before 1279 and held that prebend until his election as bishop . Shortly after 17 April 1280 he was named Archdeacon of London , having previously held an unknown prebend in the diocese of London .
= = Episcopate = =
Swinefield was elected to the see of Hereford , or bishopric , on 1 October 1282 . The election was confirmed by John Peckham , the Archbishop of Canterbury on 31 December 1282 , and Swinefield was given custody of the spiritualities and temporalities , or the ecclesiastical and lay income producing properties , of the see by 8 January 1293 . He was consecrated on 7 March 1283 .
During Swinefield 's time as bishop , he was not involved in politics , and spent most of his time in his diocese . He rarely attended Parliament , usually excusing himself on the grounds of urgent diocesan business or his own bad health . He inherited a number of lawsuits from his predecessor , which he managed to settle . Swinefield also resolved a dispute over the boundary between the diocese of Hereford and the diocese of St Asaph , a Welsh bishopric , with the settlement being not entirely to the Welsh bishop 's liking . The town of Hereford also had disagreements with Swinefield , and on one occasion the bishop threatened excommunication against the town unless they submitted .
Swinefield was concerned to ensure that his clergy were well treated . He worked to ensure that churches within his diocese were not misappropriated through the granting of custody to unworthy candidates , as well as trying to keep order in the monasteries . His main efforts though went toward securing the canonisation of his predecessor Thomas de Cantilupe . This did not however take place until 1320 , after Swinefield 's death .
= = Death and legacy = =
Swinefield died on 15 March 1317 , and was buried in Hereford Cathedral , where a memorial in the transept 's north wall shows Swinefield dressed as a bishop and holding a building . Two of his nephews were given offices within the diocese , with John given the precentorship in Hereford Cathedral , and Gilbert made the chancellor there . Another possible relative was Richard Swinfield , who also held a prebend in the diocese .
A record of Swinefield 's expenses as bishop has survived for the years 1289 and 1290 . The accounts offer a rare glimpse of the organisation and expenses of a major household in the time period . During the 296 days covered by the record , his household moved 81 times , with 38 of these stops associated with him visiting his diocese during April through June . The record also shows that he supported two scholars at Oxford University . The record has been printed a number of times , including by the Camden Society in 1853 though 1855 .
= Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor ( 806 ) =
The Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor in 806 was the largest operation ever launched by the Abbasid Caliphate against the Byzantine Empire . The expedition was commanded in person by the Abbasid Caliph Harun al @-@ Rashid ( reigned 786 – 809 ) , who wished to retaliate for the Byzantine successes in the Caliphate 's frontier region in the previous year and impress Abbasid might upon the Byzantine emperor , Nikephoros I ( r . 802 – 811 ) . The huge Abbasid army , according to Arab sources numbering more than 135 @,@ 000 men , raided across Cappadocia unopposed , capturing several towns and fortresses , most notably Herakleia , and forcing Nikephoros to seek peace in exchange for tribute . Following Harun 's departure , however , Nikephoros violated the terms of the treaty and reoccupied the frontier forts he had been forced to abandon . Harun 's preoccupation with a rebellion in Khurasan , and his death three years later , prohibited a reprisal on a similar scale . Moreover , the Abbasid civil war that began after 809 and the Byzantine preoccupation with the Bulgars contributed to a cessation of large @-@ scale Arab – Byzantine conflict for two decades .
= = Background = =
Following the deposition of Byzantine empress Irene of Athens in October 802 and the accession of Nikephoros I in her place , a more violent phase in the long history of the Arab – Byzantine Wars began . Following a series of destructive annual raids across Asia Minor by the Abbasid Caliphate , Irene seems to have secured a truce with the Caliph Harun al @-@ Rashid in 798 in exchange for the annual payment of tribute , repeating the terms agreed for a three @-@ year truce after Harun 's first large @-@ scale campaign in 782 . Nikephoros , on the other hand , was more warlike — a Syriac source records that when he learned of Nikephoros 's accession , a Byzantine renegade warned the Arab governor of Upper Mesopotamia to " throw away his silk and put on his armour " . In addition , he was determined to refill the imperial treasury by , among other measures , ceasing the tribute . Harun retaliated at once , launching a raid under his son al @-@ Qasim in spring 803 . Nikephoros could not respond to this , as he faced a large @-@ scale revolt of the Byzantine army of Asia Minor under its commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Bardanes Tourkos . After disposing of Bardanes , Nikephoros assembled his army and marched out to meet a second , larger invasion under the Caliph himself . After Harun raided the frontier region , the two armies confronted one another for two months in central Asia Minor , but it did not come to a battle ; Nikephoros and Harun exchanged letters , until the Emperor arranged for a withdrawal and a truce for the remainder of the year in exchange for a one @-@ off payment of tribute .
In the next year , 804 , an Abbasid force under Ibrahim ibn Jibril crossed the Taurus Mountains into Asia Minor . Nikephoros set out to confront the Arabs , but was surprised and heavily defeated at the Battle of Krasos , where he barely escaped with his own life . Preoccupied with trouble in Khurasan , Harun once more accepted tribute and made peace . An exchange of prisoners was also arranged and took place during the winter at the border of the two empires on the Lamos river in Cilicia : some 3 @,@ 700 Muslims were exchanged for the Byzantines taken captive in the previous years . Harun then departed for Khurasan , leaving al @-@ Qasim to watch over the Byzantine frontier . Nikephoros used the opportunity in the spring to rebuild the destroyed walls of the towns of Safsaf , Thebasa , and Ancyra , and that summer , he launched the first Byzantine raid in two decades against the Arab frontier districts ( thughur ) in Cilicia . The Byzantine army raided the territory surrounding the fortresses of Mopsuestia and Anazarbus and took prisoners as it went . The garrison of Mopsuestia attacked the Byzantine force and recovered most of the prisoners and spoils , but the Byzantines marched on to Tarsus , which had been refortified and repopulated on Harun 's orders in 786 to strengthen the Muslim hold on Cilicia . The city fell and the entire garrison was taken captive . At the same time , another Byzantine force raided the Upper Mesopotamian thughur and unsuccessfully besieged the fortress of Melitene , while a Byzantine @-@ instigated rebellion against the local Arab garrison began in Cyprus .
This sudden resumption of Byzantine offensive activity greatly alarmed Harun . In addition , he received reports that Nikephoros was planning similar attacks for the next year , which this time would aim at the full reoccupation of these frontier territories . As the historian Warren Treadgold writes , if the Byzantines had been successful in this endeavour , " garrisoning Tarsus and Melitene would have partly blocked the main Arab invasion routes across the Taurus into the Byzantine heartland , to the Byzantines ' great benefit " . On the other hand , Nikephoros was certainly aware of the huge superiority of the Caliphate in men and resources , and it is more likely that he intended this campaign simply as a show of strength and a test of his enemy 's resolve .
= = The campaign = =
Having settled matters in Khurasan , Harun returned to the west in November 805 and prepared a huge retaliatory expedition for 806 , drawing men from Syria , Palestine , Persia , and Egypt . According to al @-@ Tabari , his army numbered 135 @,@ 000 regular troops and additional volunteers and freebooters . These numbers — and the even more fantastic claims of the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor of 300 @,@ 000 men — are easily the largest ever recorded for the entire Abbasid era and far more than the estimated strength of the entire Byzantine army . Although they are certainly exaggerated , they are nevertheless indicative of the size of the Abbasid force . At the same time , a naval force under his admiral Humayd ibn Ma 'yuf al @-@ Hajuri was prepared to raid Cyprus .
The huge invasion army departed Harun 's residence of Raqqa in northern Syria on 11 June 806 , with the Caliph at its head , allegedly wearing a cap with the inscription " Warrior for the Faith and Pilgrim " ( in Arabic , " ghazi , hajj " ) . The Abbasids crossed Cilicia , where Harun ordered Tarsus to be rebuilt , and entered Byzantine Cappadocia through the Cilician Gates . Harun marched to Tyana , which at the time seems to have been abandoned . There , he began to establish his base of operations , ordering ' Uqbah ibn Ja 'far al @-@ Khuza 'i to refortify the town and erect a mosque . Harun 's lieutenant Abdallah ibn Malik al @-@ Khuza 'i took Sideropalos , from where Harun 's cousin Dawud ibn ' Isa ibn Musa with half the Abbasid army , some 70 @,@ 000 men according to al @-@ Tabari , was sent to devastate Cappadocia . Another of Harun 's generals , Sharahil ibn Ma 'n ibn Za 'ida captured the so @-@ called " Fortress of the Slavs " ( Hisn al @-@ Saqalibah ) and the recently rebuilt town of Thebasa , while Yazid ibn Makhlad captured the " Fort of the Willow " ( al @-@ Safsaf ) and Malakopea . Andrasos was captured and Kyzistra was placed under siege , while raiders reached as far as Ancyra , which they did not capture . Harun himself with the other half of his forces went west and captured Herakleia after a month @-@ long siege in August or September . The city was plundered and razed , and its inhabitants enslaved and deported to the Caliphate . At the same time , on Cyprus , Humayd ravaged the island and took some 16 @,@ 000 Cypriots , including the archbishop , captive to Syria , where they were sold as slaves .
Nikephoros , outnumbered and threatened by the Bulgars in his rear , could not resist the Abbasid onslaught . He campaigned himself at the head of his army and seemingly won a few minor engagements against isolated detachments , but stayed well clear of the main Abbasid forces . In the end , with the harrowing possibility of the Arabs wintering on Byzantine soil in Tyana , he sent three clerics as ambassadors : Michael , the bishop of Synnada , Peter the abbot of the monastery of Goulaion , and Gregory , the steward of the metropolis of Amastris . Harun agreed to terms , which included an annual tribute ( 30 @,@ 000 gold nomismata , according to Theophanes , 50 @,@ 000 according to al @-@ Tabari ) , but in addition , the Emperor and his son and heir , Staurakios , were to pay a humiliating personal poll @-@ tax ( jizya ) of three gold coins each to the Caliph ( four and two respectively , in Tabari 's version ) , thereby acknowledging themselves as the Caliph 's subjects . In addition , Nikephoros promised not to rebuild the dismantled forts . Rashid then recalled his forces from their various sieges and evacuated Byzantine territory .
= = Aftermath = =
The agreement of peace terms was followed by a surprisingly friendly exchange between the two rulers , related by al @-@ Tabari : Nikephoros asked Harun to send him a girl from Herakleia , one of the candidate brides for his son Staurakios , and for some perfume . According to Tabari , Harun " ordered the slave girl to be sought out ; she was brought back , adorned with finery and installed on a seat in the tent in which he himself was lodging . The slave girl and the tent , together with its contents , vessels and fittings , were handed over to Nikephoros 's envoy . He also sent to Nikephoros the perfume which he had requested , and he further sent to him dates , dishes of jellied sweets , raisins and healing drugs . " Nikephoros returned the favour by dispatching a horse laden with 50 @,@ 000 silver coins , 100 satin garments , 200 garments of fine brocade , 12 falcons , four hunting dogs , and three more horses . But as soon as the Arabs had withdrawn , the Emperor again restored the frontier forts and thereafter ceased the payment of tribute . Theophanes records that Harun unexpectedly returned and seized Thebasa in retaliation , but this is not corroborated elsewhere .
The Arabs did launch a series of retaliatory raids in the next year , but the spring raid under Yazid ibn Makhlad al @-@ Hubayri al @-@ Fazari was heavily defeated , with Yazid himself falling in the field . The larger summer raid under Harthama ibn A 'yan was met by Nikephoros in person , and after an indecisive battle both sides retreated . The Byzantines raided the region of Marash in return , while in late summer Humayd launched a major naval raid , which pillaged Rhodes and reached as far as the Peloponnese , where it fomented a rebellion among the local Slavs . On his return , however , Humayd lost several ships to a storm , and on the Peloponnese , the Slavic revolt was put down after failing to capture Patras . The failure of the year 's Abbasid efforts was compounded by another revolt in Khurasan , which forced Harun to depart again for the East . The Caliph concluded a new truce , and another prisoner exchange was held at the Lamos in 808 . Nikephoros was thus left with his gains , both the restored frontier fortifications and the cessation of tribute , intact .
= = Impact = =
Harun 's massive expedition achieved remarkably little in material terms . Despite the sack of Herakleia , which is given prominent treatment in Arab sources , no permanent result was achieved , as Nikephoros was quick to violate the terms of the truce . If Harun had taken the advice offered by some of his lieutenants and proceeded further west to sack major cities , he could have inflicted long @-@ lasting damage on Byzantium . As it was , the Caliph was content with a show of force that would intimidate Nikephoros and prevent him from repeating the offensive of 805 . In this regard , the Abbasid campaign was certainly a success : after 806 , the Byzantine ruler abandoned whatever expansionist plans he may have had for the eastern border and focused his energy on his fiscal reforms , the recovery of the Balkans , and his wars there against the Bulgars . Nikephoros 's efforts would end tragically in the disastrous Battle of Pliska in 811 , but following Harun 's death on 24 March 809 , the Caliphate was riven by a civil war between his sons al @-@ Amin ( r . 809 – 813 ) and al @-@ Ma 'mun ( r . 813 – 833 ) , and was not able to exploit the Byzantine reversals . Indeed , the 806 campaign and the ineffectual raids of 807 mark the last major , centrally organized , Abbasid expeditions against Byzantium for over twenty years . Only after the accession of Theophilos ( r . 829 – 842 ) and his confrontations with al @-@ Ma 'mun and al @-@ Mu 'tasim ( r . 833 – 842 ) would large @-@ scale cross @-@ border operations between the two empires resume .
The longest @-@ lasting impact of Harun 's campaign is found in literature . Among the Arabs , several legends , related by al @-@ Masudi , were associated with it . The Ottoman Turks also placed great importance on Harun 's battles with the Byzantines . Influenced by the events of Harun 's 782 campaign , Evliya Çelebi has the Caliph besieging Constantinople twice : the first time Harun withdrew , after securing as much land as an oxhide could cover and building a fortress there ( an imitation of the tale of Queen Dido ) and in the second Harun had Nikephoros hanged from the Hagia Sophia . To commemorate his successful campaign , Harun also built a victory monument about 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) west of Raqqa , his principal residence . Known as Hiraqla in local tradition , apparently after Herakleia , it comprises a square structure with sides 100 metres ( 330 ft ) long , surrounded by a circular wall of some 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) in diameter , pierced by four gates in the cardinal directions . The main structure , built from stone taken from churches demolished on Harun 's orders in 806 – 807 , has four vaulted halls on the ground floor , and ramps leading to an upper storey , which was left incomplete due to Harun 's departure for Khurasan and subsequent death .
= The Little Shop of Horrors =
The Little Shop of Horrors is a 1960 American black comedy horror film directed by Roger Corman . Written by Charles B. Griffith , the film is a farce about an inadequate florist 's assistant who cultivates a plant that feeds on human flesh and blood . The film 's concept is thought to be based on a 1932 story called " Green Thoughts " , by John Collier , about a man @-@ eating plant . However , Dennis McDougal in Jack Nicholson 's biography suggests that Charles B. Griffith may have been influenced by Arthur C. Clarke 's sci @-@ fi short story ' The Reluctant Orchid ' . The film stars Jonathan Haze , Jackie Joseph , Mel Welles and Dick Miller , all of whom had worked for Corman on previous films . Produced under the title The Passionate People Eater , the film employs an original style of humor , combining black comedy with farce and incorporating Jewish humor and elements of spoof . The Little Shop of Horrors was shot on a budget of $ 30 @,@ 000 in two days utilizing sets that had been left standing from A Bucket of Blood .
The film slowly gained a cult following through word of mouth when it was distributed as the B movie in a double feature with Mario Bava 's Black Sunday and eventually with The Last Woman on Earth . The film 's popularity increased with local television broadcasts , in addition to the presence of a young Jack Nicholson , whose small role in the film has been prominently promoted on home video releases of the film . The movie was the basis for an Off Broadway musical , Little Shop of Horrors , which was made into a 1986 feature film and enjoyed a Broadway revival , all of which have attracted attention to the 1960 film .
= = Plot = =
On Los Angeles 's skid row , penny @-@ pinching Gravis Mushnick ( Mel Welles ) owns a florist shop which is staffed by him and his two employees , the sweet but simple Audrey Fulquard ( Jackie Joseph ) and clumsy Seymour Krelboyne ( Jonathan Haze ) . Although the rundown shop gets little business , there are some repeat customers ; for instance , Mrs. Siddie Shiva ( Leola Wendorff ) shops almost daily for flower arrangements for her many relatives ' funerals . Another regular customer is Burson Fouch ( Dick Miller ) , who eats the plants he buys for lunch . When Seymour fouls up the arrangement of Dr. Farb ( John Shaner ) , a sadistic dentist , Mushnick fires him . Hoping Mushnick will change his mind , Seymour tells him about a special plant that he crossbred from a butterwort and a Venus flytrap . Bashfully , Seymour admits that he named the plant " Audrey Jr . " , a revelation that delights the real Audrey .
From the apartment he shares with his hypochondriac mother , Winifred ( Myrtle Vail ) , Seymour fetches his odd @-@ looking , potted plant , but Mushnick is unimpressed by its sickly , drooping look . However , when Fouch suggests that Audrey Jr . ' s uniqueness might attract people from all over the world to see it , Mushnick gives Seymour one week to revive it . Seymour has already discovered that the usual kinds of plant food do not nourish his strange hybrid and that every night at sunset the plant 's leaves open up . When Seymour accidentally pricks his finger on another thorny plant , Audrey Jr. opens wider , eventually causing Seymour to discover that the plant craves blood . After that , each night Seymour nurses his creation with blood from his fingers . Although he feels increasingly listless , Audrey Jr. begins to grow and the shop 's revenues increase due to the curious customers who are lured in to see the plant .
The plant ( voiced by writer Charles B. Griffith ) develops the ability to speak and demands that Seymour feed him . Now anemic and not knowing what to feed the plant , Seymour takes a walk along a railroad track . When he carelessly throws a rock to vent his frustration , he inadvertently knocks out a man who falls on the track and is run over by a train . Miserably guilt @-@ ridden but resourceful , Seymour collects the body parts and feeds them to Audrey Jr . Meanwhile , at a restaurant , Mushnick discovers he has no money with him , and when he returns to the shop to get some cash , he secretly observes Seymour feeding the plant . Although Mushnick intends to tell the police , he procrastinates by the next day when he sees the line of people waiting to spend money at his shop .
When Seymour later arrives that morning suffering a toothache , Mushnick sends Seymour to Dr. Farb , who tries to remove several of his teeth without anesthetic to get even with Seymour for ruining Farb 's flowers . Grabbing a sharp tool , Seymour fights back and accidentally stabs and kills Farb . Seymour is horrified that he has now murdered twice and after posing as a dentist to avoid the suspicion of Farb 's masochistic patient Wilbur Force ( Jack Nicholson ) , Seymour feeds Farb 's body to Audrey Jr . The unexplained disappearance of the two men attract the attention of the police and Mushnick finds himself questioned by Det . Joe Fink ( Wally Campo ) and his assistant Sgt. Frank Stoolie ( Jack Warford ) ( take @-@ offs of Dragnet characters Joe Friday and Frank Smith , ) . Although Mushnick acts suspiciously nervous , Fink and Stoolie conclude that he knows nothing . Audrey Jr . , which has grown several feet tall , is beginning to bud , as is the relationship between Seymour and Audrey ( whom Seymour invites on a date ) .
When a representative of the Society of Silent Flower Observers of Southern California comes to the shop to check out the plant , she announces that Seymour will soon receive a trophy from them and that she will return when the plant 's buds open . While Seymour is on a date with Audrey , Mushnick stays at the shop to see that Audrey Jr. eats no one else . After trading barbs with the plant when Audrey awakens and requests to be fed , Mushnick finds himself at the mercy of a robber ( Charles B. Griffith ) who believes that the huge crowd he had observed attending the shop indicated the presence of a large amount of money . To save his own life , Mushnick tricks the robber into thinking that the money is at the bottom of the plant who then eats him . Not only does the monstrous plant 's growth increase with this latest meal , but its intelligence and abilities do as well . It intimidates Mr. Mushnick , who is now more terrified than ever , but not so much that he will pass up on the money the plant is bringing in as an attraction . After he is forced to damage his relationship with Audrey to keep her from discovering the plant 's nature , an angry Seymour confronts the plant asserting he will no longer do its bidding just because it orders him . The plant then employs hypnosis on the feckless lad and commands him to bring it more food . He wanders the night streets aimlessly until pursued by a rather aggressively persistent high @-@ end call girl , Leonora Clyde ( Meri Welles ) , intent on making a score . Believing him harmless , she flirts with him to no avail until he inadvertently knocks her out with a rock and carries her back to feed Audrey Jr .
Still lacking clues about the mysterious disappearances of the two men , Fink and Stoolie attend a special sunset celebration at the shop during which Seymour is to be presented with the trophy and Audrey Jr . ' s buds are expected to open . As the attendees look on , four buds open and inside each flower is the face of one of the plant 's victims . As the crowd breaks out in shock and fright , Fink and Stoolie realize Seymour is their culprit who flees from the shop with the police and Mushnick in hot pursuit . Managing to lose them in a junk yard filled with sinks and toilets , Seymour eventually makes his way back to Mushnick 's shop . Audrey Jr. screams , " Feed me ! " Seymour curses the plant for ruining his life . He grabs a kitchen knife and climbs into Audrey Jr . ' s maw , saying , " I 'll feed you like you never been fed before ! "
Later that evening , Audrey , Winifred , Mushnick , Fink , and Stoolie return to the shop where they discover that Audrey Jr. has begun to wither and die . As Winifred laments over how her son used to be such a good boy , one final bud opens to reveal the face of Seymour , which pitifully moans , " I didn 't mean it ! " before drooping over — apparently ending the life of Audrey , Jr .
= = Cast = =
Jonathan Haze as Seymour Krelboyne
Jackie Joseph as Audrey Fulquard
Mel Welles as Gravis Mushnick
Dick Miller as Burson Fouch
Myrtle Vail as Winifred Krelboyne
Tammy Windsor as Shirley
Toby Michaels as Shirley 's friend
Leola Wendorff as Mrs. Siddie Shiva
Lynn Storey as Mrs. Hortense Fishtwanger
Wally Campo as Detective Sergeant Joe Fink / Narrator
Jack Warford as Detective Frank Stoolie
Meri Welles as Leonora Clyde ( credited as Merri Welles )
John Shaner as Dr. Phoebus Farb
Jack Nicholson as Wilbur Force
Dodie Drake as Waitress
Charles B. Griffith as Voice of Audrey Junior , Kloy , drunk dental patient , screaming patient , flower shop robber
= = Development = =
The Little Shop of Horrors was developed when director Roger Corman was given temporary access to sets that had been left standing from a previous film . Corman decided to use the sets in a film made in the last two days before the sets were torn down .
Corman initially planned to develop a story involving a private investigator . In the initial version of the story , the character that eventually became Audrey would have been referred to as " Oriole Plove " . Actress Nancy Kulp was a leading candidate for the part . The characters that eventually became Seymour and Winifred Krelboyne were named " Irish Eye " and " Iris Eye . " Actor Mel Welles was scheduled to play a character named " Draco Cardala " , Jonathan Haze was scheduled to play " Archie Aroma , " and Jack Nicholson would have played a character named " Jocko " .
Charles B. Griffith wanted to write a horror @-@ themed comedy film . According to Mel Welles , Corman was not impressed by the box office performance of A Bucket of Blood , and had to be persuaded to direct another comedy .
Corman later claimed he was interested because of A Bucket of Blood and said the development process was similar to that of the earlier film , when he and Griffith were inspired by visiting various coffee houses . Corman :
We tried a similar approach for The Little Shop of Horrors , dropping in and out of various downtown dives . We ended up at a place where Sally Kellerman ( before she became a star ) was working as a waitress , and as Chuck and I vied with each other , trying to top each other ’ s sardonic or subversive ideas , appealing to Sally as a referee , she sat down at the table with us , and the three of us worked out the rest of the story together .
The first screenplay Griffith wrote was Cardula , a Dracula @-@ themed story involving a vampire music critic . After Corman rejected the idea , Griffith says he wrote a screenplay titled Gluttony , in which the protagonist was " a salad chef in a restaurant who would wind up cooking customers and stuff like that , you know ? We couldn ’ t do that though because of the code at the time . So I said , “ How about a man @-@ eating plant ? ” , and Roger said , “ Okay . ” By that time , we were both drunk . "
Jackie Joseph later recalled " at first they told me it was a detective movie ; then , while I was flying back [ to make the movie ] , I think they wrote a whole new movie , more in the horror genre . I think over a weekend they rewrote it . "
The screenplay was written under the title The Passionate People Eater . Welles stated , " The reason that The Little Shop of Horrors worked is because it was a love project . It was our love project . "
= = Production = =
The film was partially cast with stock actors that Corman had used in previous films . Writer Charles B. Griffith portrays several small roles . Griffith 's father appeared as a dental patient , and his grandmother , Myrtle Vail appeared as Seymour 's hypochondriac mother . Dick Miller , who had starred as the protagonist of A Bucket of Blood was offered the role of Seymour , but turned it down , instead taking the smaller role of Burson Fouch . The cast rehearsed for three weeks before filming began . Principal photography of The Little Shop of Horrors was shot in two days and one night .
It had been rumored that the film 's shooting schedule was based on a bet that Corman could not complete a film within that time . However , this claim has been denied by Mel Welles . According to Joseph , Corman shot the film quickly in order to beat changing industry rules that would have prevented producers from " buying out " an actor 's performance in perpetuity . On January 1 , 1960 , new rules were to go into effect requiring producers to pay all actors residuals for all future releases of their work . This meant that Corman 's B @-@ movie business model would be permanently changed and he would not be able to produce low @-@ budget movies in the same way . Before these rules went into effect , Corman decided to shoot one last film and scheduled it to happen the last week in December 1959 .
Interiors were shot with three cameras in wide , lingering master shots in single takes . Welles states that Corman " had two camera crews on the set — that 's why the picture , from a cinematic standpoint , is really not very well done . The two camera crews were pointed in opposite directions so that we got both angles , and then other shots were ' picked up ' to use in between , to make it flow . It was a pretty fixed set and it was done sort of like a sitcom is done today , so it wasn 't very difficult . "
At the time of shooting , Jack Nicholson had appeared in two films , and had worked with Roger Corman as the lead in The Cry Baby Killer . According to Nicholson , " I went in to the shoot knowing I had to be very quirky because Roger originally hadn 't wanted me . In other words , I couldn 't play it straight . So I just did a lot of weird shit that I thought would make it funny . " According to Dick Miller , all of the dialogue between his character and Mel Welles was ad @-@ libbed . During a scene in which writer Charles B. Griffith played a robber , Griffith remembers that " When [ Welles ] and I forgot my lines , I improvised a little , but then I was the writer . I was allowed to . " However , Welles states that " Absolutely none of it was ad @-@ libbed [ ... ] every word in Little Shop was written by Chuck Griffith , and I did ninety @-@ eight pages of dialogue in two days . "
According to Nicholson , " we never did shoot the end of the scene . This movie was pre @-@ lit . You 'd go in , plug in the lights , roll the camera , and shoot . We did the take outside the office and went inside the office , plugged in , lit and rolled . Jonathan Haze was up on my chest pulling my teeth out . And in the take , he leaned back and hit the rented dental machinery with the back of his leg and it started to tip over . Roger didn 't even call cut . He leapt onto the set , grabbed the tilting machine , and said ' Next set , that 's a wrap . ' " By 9 am of the first day , Corman was informed by the production manager that he was behind schedule .
Exteriors were shot by Griffith and Welles over two successive weekends with $ 279 worth of rented equipment . Griffith and Welles paid a group of children five cents apiece to run out of a subway tunnel . They were also able to persuade winos to appear as extras for ten cents apiece . " The winos would get together , two or three of them , and buy pints of wine for themselves ! We also had a couple of the winos act as ramrods — sort of like production assistants — and put them in charge of the other wino extras . " Griffith and Welles also persuaded a funeral home to donate a hearse and coffin — with a real corpse inside — for the film shoot . Griffith and Welles were able to use the nearby Southern Pacific Transportation Company yard for an entire evening using two bottles of scotch as persuasion . The scene in which a character portrayed by Robert Coogan is run over by a train was accomplished by persuading the railroad crew to back the locomotive away from the actor . The shot was later printed in reverse . Griffith and Welles spent a total of $ 1 @,@ 100 on fifteen minutes worth of exteriors .
The film 's musical score , written by cellist Fred Katz , was originally written for A Bucket of Blood . According to Mark Thomas McGee , author of Roger Corman : The Best of the Cheap Acts , each time Katz was called upon to write music for Corman , Katz sold the same score as if it were new music . The score was used in a total of seven films , including The Wasp Woman and Creature from the Haunted Sea . Katz explained that his music for the film was created by a music editor piecing together selections from other soundtracks that he had produced for Corman .
Howard R. Cohen learned from Charles B. Griffith that when the film was being edited , " there was a point where two scenes would not cut together . It was just a visual jolt , and it didn 't work . And they needed something to bridge that moment . They found in the editing room a nice shot of the moon , and they cut it in , and it worked . Twenty years go by . I 'm at the studio one day . Chuck comes running up to me , says , ' You 've got to see this ! ' It was a magazine article — eight pages on the symbolism of the moon in Little Shop of Horrors . " According to Corman , the total budget for the production was $ 30 @,@ 000 . Other sources estimate the budget to be between $ 22 @,@ 000 and $ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Release history = = =
Corman had initial trouble finding distribution for the film , as some distributors , including American International Pictures , felt that the film would be interpreted as anti @-@ Semitic , citing the characters of Gravis Mushnick and Siddie Shiva . Welles , who is Jewish , stated that he gave his character a Turkish Jewish accent and mannerisms , and that he saw the humor of the film as playful , and felt there was no intent to defame any ethnic group . The film was finally released by Corman 's own production company , The Filmgroup Inc . , nine months after it had been completed .
The film was screened out of competition at the 1960 Cannes Film Festival . Positive word @-@ of @-@ mouth for the film was spread when it was released as part of a double feature preceded by Mario Bava 's Black Sunday . Little Shop of Horrors was re @-@ released the following year in a double feature with The Last Woman on Earth .
Because Corman did not believe that The Little Shop of Horrors had much financial prospect after its initial theatrical run , he did not bother to copyright it , resulting in the film falling into the public domain . Because of this , the film is widely available in copies of varying quality . The film was originally screened theatrically in the widescreen aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 85 : 1 , but has largely only been seen in open matte at an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 since its original theatrical release .
= = = Critical and audience reception = = =
The film 's critical reception was largely favorable , with modern review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes giving the film a " Tomatometer " score of 91 % . Variety wrote , " The acting is pleasantly preposterous . [ ... ] Horticulturalists and vegetarians will love it . "
Jack Nicholson , recounting the reaction to a screening of the film , states that the audience " laughed so hard I could barely hear the dialogue . I didn 't quite register it right . It was as if I had forgotten it was a comedy since the shoot . I got all embarrassed because I 'd never really had such a positive response before . "
= = = Legacy = = =
The film 's popularity slowly grew with local television broadcasts throughout the 1960s and 1970s .
Interest in the film was rekindled when a stage musical called Little Shop of Horrors was produced in 1982 . It was based on the original film and was itself adapted to cinema as Little Shop of Horrors , in 1986 . A short @-@ lived animated television series inspired by the musical film , Little Shop , premiered in 1991 .
The film was colorized twice , the first time in 1987 . This version was poorly received . The film was colorized again by Legend Films , who released their color version as well as a restored black @-@ and @-@ white version of the film on DVD in 2006 . Legend Films ' colorized version was well received , and was also given a theatrical premiere at the Coney Island Museum on May 27 , 2006 . The DVD included an audio commentary track by comedian Michael J. Nelson of Mystery Science Theater 3000 fame . A DivX file of Legend 's colorized version with the commentary embedded is also available as part of Nelson 's RiffTrax On Demand service . On January 28 , 2009 , a newly recorded commentary by Nelson , Kevin Murphy and Bill Corbett was released by RiffTrax in MP3 and Div
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X formats . Legend 's colorized version is also available from Amazon Video on Demand , without Nelson 's commentary .
In November 2006 , the film was issued by Buena Vista Home Entertainment in a double feature with The Cry Baby Killer ( billed as a Jack Nicholson double feature ) as part of the Roger Corman Classics series . However , the DVD contained only the 1987 colorized version of The Little Shop of Horrors , and not the original black @-@ and @-@ white version .
It was announced on April 15 , 2009 that Declan O 'Brien would helm a studio remake of the film . " It won 't be a musical " he told Bloody Disgusting in reference to the Frank Oz film from 1986 . " I don 't want to reveal too much , but it 's me . It 'll be dark . " When speaking with Shock ' Till You Drop , he revealed " I have a take on it you 're not going to expect . I 'm taking it in a different direction , let 's put it that way . "
= The Big Lebowski =
The Big Lebowski is a 1998 American crime comedy film written , produced , and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen . It stars Jeff Bridges as Jeffrey " The Dude " Lebowski , a Los Angeles slacker and avid bowler . He is assaulted as a result of mistaken identity , after which The Dude learns that a millionaire also named Jeffrey Lebowski was the intended victim . The millionaire Lebowski 's trophy wife is kidnapped , and he commissions The Dude to deliver the ransom to secure her release ; but the plan goes awry when the Dude 's friend Walter Sobchak ( John Goodman ) schemes to keep the ransom money . Julianne Moore and Steve Buscemi also star , with David Huddleston , John Turturro , Philip Seymour Hoffman , Sam Elliott , and Tara Reid appearing in supporting roles .
The film is loosely inspired by the work of Raymond Chandler . Joel Coen stated : " We wanted to do a Chandler kind of story – how it moves episodically , and deals with the characters trying to unravel a mystery , as well as having a hopelessly complex plot that 's ultimately unimportant . " The original score was composed by Carter Burwell , a longtime collaborator of the Coen Brothers .
The Big Lebowski was a disappointment at the U.S. box office and received mixed reviews at the time of its release . Over time , however , reviews have tended towards the positive , and the film has become a cult favorite , noted for its idiosyncratic characters , dream sequences , unconventional dialogue , and eclectic soundtrack . In 2014 , the Library of Congress added The Big Lebowski to the National Film Registry of films deemed to be of " cultural , historical , or aesthetic significance " .
= = Plot = =
In 1991 Los Angeles , slacker Jeff " the Dude " Lebowski ( Jeff Bridges ) is assaulted in his home by two hired goons ( Mark Pellegrino and Philip Moon ) who demand money that the wife of a Jeffrey Lebowski owes to a man named Jackie Treehorn ( Ben Gazzara ) . The two soon realize they have attacked the wrong Jeffrey Lebowski and leave , but not before one of them urinates on the Dude 's rug .
The Dude meets his bowling friends , the timid Donny ( Steve Buscemi ) and the temperamental Vietnam veteran Walter Sobchak ( John Goodman ) . Encouraged by Walter , the Dude approaches the other Jeffrey Lebowski ( David Huddleston ) , the eponymous " Big Lebowski " , a cantankerous elderly wheelchair @-@ bound millionaire , to seek compensation for his ruined rug . Though his request is promptly refused , he craftily steals one of Lebowski 's rugs by telling Brandt ( Philip Seymour Hoffman ) , Lebowski 's sycophantic assistant , that his boss told him to take any rug in the house . The Dude subsequently meets Bunny ( Tara Reid ) , Lebowski 's young nymphomaniacal trophy wife .
Days later , Lebowski contacts the Dude stating that Bunny has been kidnapped . Lebowski wants the Dude to deliver a briefcase containing a million dollar ransom and see if he can recognize the culprits . Later , a different pair of thugs appear in the Dude 's apartment , knock him unconscious , and take Lebowski 's rug . When Bunny 's kidnappers call to arrange delivery of the ransom , Walter suggests they give the kidnappers a ringer instead , namely a briefcase filled with dirty underwear laundry . The kidnappers grab the ringer and leave . Later that night , the Dude 's car is stolen , with the real ransom briefcase still inside .
Jeffrey Lebowski 's daughter Maude ( Julianne Moore ) contacts the Dude and reveals she took the rug , explaining that Bunny is one of Jackie Treehorn 's porn stars . She reckons that Bunny " kidnapped " herself and asks the Dude to recover the ransom which Lebowski illegally withdrew from the family 's foundation . Lebowski is angry that the Dude failed to deliver the ransom and shows him a severed green @-@ painted toe , allegedly belonging to Bunny , delivered by the kidnappers . Later , a gang of German nihilists ( Peter Stormare , Torsten Voges , and Flea ) invade the Dude 's apartment and threaten him , identifying themselves as the kidnappers . Maude says the German nihilists are actually Bunny 's friends .
The Dude is forcibly brought before Treehorn , who asks about the whereabouts of Bunny and says he wants the money she owes him . He drugs the Dude 's White Russian cocktail , leading to an unconscious dream sequence involving Maude and bowling . The Dude comes to in police custody , where he is verbally and physically assaulted by the Malibu police chief . During the cab ride home , the Dude gets thrown out after he asks the cab driver to simply change the radio station . A red sports car zooms past and the viewer sees that Bunny is driving , with all her toes intact .
The Dude finds his bungalow completely trashed and is greeted by Maude , who seduces him . He figures that Treehorn drugged him so that his goons could look for the ransom money at the Dude 's home . After Maude has sex with him , she says she hopes to conceive a child ; the Dude is about to protest the idea of being a father but Maude tells him that he doesn 't have to have a hand in the child 's upbringing . Maude also explains that her father has no money : her mother was the wealthy one and she left her money exclusively to the family charity . The Dude later tells Walter that he now understands the whole story : when Lebowski — who apparently hated his wife — heard that Bunny was kidnapped , he withdrew money from the foundation , kept it for himself , and gave the Dude a briefcase without any money in it , saying that it contained a million dollar ransom . The kidnapping was also a ruse : when Bunny took an unannounced trip , her friends — the nihilists — purported a kidnapping to be able to extort money from Lebowski . They confront the Big Lebowski , who refuses to admit responsibility , but is thrown out of his wheelchair by Walter , who believes that he 's faking his paralyses .
The affair apparently over , the Dude and his bowling teammates return to the bowling alley . When they leave , they are confronted in the parking lot by the nihilists who have set the Dude 's car on fire . They once again demand the ransom money . After hearing what the Dude and Walter know , the nihilists try to mug them anyway . Walter violently overcomes all three , biting the ear off one of them . However , in the excitement , Donny suffers a fatal heart attack .
Walter and the Dude go to the beach to scatter Donny 's ashes . Walter turns an informal eulogy into a tribute to the Vietnam War . After accidentally covering the Dude with Donny 's ashes , and after a brief argument , Walter hugs him and says , " Come on , Dude . Fuck it , man . Let 's go bowling . " At the bowling alley , the story 's narrator ( Sam Elliott ) tells the viewer that Maude is pregnant with a " little Lebowski " and expresses his hope that the Dude and Walter will win the bowling tournament .
= = Cast = =
Jeff Bridges as Jeffrey " The Dude " Lebowski , a bachelor slacker living in Venice , a beach neighborhood of Los Angeles . The film 's protagonist , he enjoys his living room rug , marijuana , White Russians , and bowling . His favorite band is Creedence Clearwater Revival and he dislikes The Eagles . Bridges had heard or was told by the Coen brothers that they had written a screenplay for him .
John Goodman as Walter Sobchak , a Vietnam veteran , the Dude 's best friend , and bowling teammate . Walter places the rules of bowling second in reverence only to the rules of his adopted religion , Judaism , as evidenced by his strict stance against " rolling " on Shabbos . He has a violent temper , and is given to pulling out a handgun ( or crowbar ) in order to settle disputes . He is a conspiracy theorist , stating that the Gulf War was all about oil and claims to have " dabbled " in pacifism . He constantly references Vietnam in conversations , much to the annoyance of the Dude . Walter was based , in part , on screenwriter and director John Milius .
Steve Buscemi as Theodore Donald " Donny " Kerabatsos , a member of Walter and the Dude 's bowling team . Naïve and good @-@ natured , Donny is an avid bowler and frequently interrupts Walter 's diatribes to inquire about the parts of the story he missed or did not understand , provoking Walter 's frequently repeated response , " Shut the fuck up , Donny ! " This line is also a reference to Fargo , the Coen brothers ' previous film , in which Buscemi 's character was constantly talking .
David Huddleston as Jeffrey Lebowski , the " Big " Lebowski of the movie 's title , is a wheelchair @-@ bound ( he lost the use of his legs in the Korean War ) apparent multi @-@ millionaire who is married to Bunny and is Maude 's father by his late wife . The film 's primary antagonist , he refers to the Dude dismissively as " a bum " and a " deadbeat " in the perspective of referencing the hippie lifestyle , and is obsessed with " achievement " . Although he characterizes himself as highly successful and accomplished , it is revealed by Maude that he is simply " allowed " to run some of the philanthropic efforts of her mother ’ s estate , and that he actually does not have money of his own .
Julianne Moore as Maude Lebowski , an avant @-@ garde artist and feminist , whose work " has been commended as being strongly vaginal " . Though fond of her mother — she took back the Dude 's replacement rug due to it being a maternal family heirloom — her pursuits and lifestyle lead to a falling out with her conservative father . She may have introduced Bunny to Uli Kunkel . She helps the Dude along with his quest of finding Big Lebowski 's missing money for the sake of her mother 's estate , and in the end , beds the Dude solely to conceive a child , and wants nothing else to do with him . She is straightforward in manner , and has a very precise style of speaking .
Tara Reid as Bunny Lebowski , the Big Lebowski 's young gold digging " trophy wife " . Born Fawn Knutson ( correctly pronounced " Kuh @-@ nootson " ) , she started as an attractive high school cheerleader and ran away from the family farm outside Moorhead , Minnesota to find stardom and riches in Los Angeles . She soon found herself making pornographic videos under the name " Bunny La Joya " , and eventually led to her marriage with the Big Lebowski . According to Reid , Charlize Theron tried out for the role .
Philip Seymour Hoffman as Brandt , the Big Lebowski 's personal assistant , who plays mediator between the two Lebowskis .
Sam Elliott as The Stranger , an old @-@ time cowboy , who is also the narrator , and who sees the story unfold from a third @-@ party perspective . He has a thick , laid @-@ back Texas accent . Towards the end of the film he is seen in the bar of the bowling alley , enjoys " a good sarsaparilla , " and converses directly with the Dude on two occasions . He expresses disapproval of The Dude 's use of profanity and his laziness , and adds the qualifier " parts of it anyway " when speaking to the camera commenting that he enjoyed the story .
Ben Gazzara as Jackie Treehorn , a wealthy pornographer and loan shark , who lives in Malibu , and employs the two thugs who assault the Dude at the beginning of the film . Bunny owes him a large sum of money . He states his disappointment of how the nature of the porno enterprise market has fallen from erotic romantic buildups and " the brain " to purely raunchy sexual material . The Dude describes him as a man who treats objects like women .
Peter Stormare , Torsten Voges , and Flea play a group of nihilists ( Uli Kunkel , Franz , and Kieffer , respectively ) . They are German musicians ( Kunkel , as " Karl Hungus " , appeared in a porn film with Bunny ) , who , along with Kunkel 's girlfriend ( Aimee Mann ) , pretend to be the ones who kidnapped Bunny . The character of Uli originated on the set of Fargo between Ethan Coen and Stormare , who often spoke in a mock German accent .
John Turturro as Jesus Quintana , an opponent of the Dude 's team in the bowling league semifinals . A Latin American North Hollywood resident who speaks with a thick Cuban American accent , and often refers to himself in the third person as " the Jesus " , using the English pronunciation of the name rather than the Spanish . According to Walter , he is a " pederast " who did six months in Chino for exposing himself to an 8 @-@ year @-@ old . Turturro originally thought he was going to have a bigger role in the film ; when he read the script , he realized the part was quite small . However , the Coen brothers let him come up with a lot of his own ideas for the character , like shining the bowling ball and the scene where he dances backwards , which he says was inspired by Muhammad Ali .
= = = Minor characters = = =
Jon Polito as Da Fino , a private investigator hired by Bunny 's parents , the Knutsons , to entice their daughter back home . He mistakes the Dude for a " brother Shamus " .
David Thewlis as Knox Harrington , the video artist
Mark Pellegrino as Treehorn 's blond thug
Philip Moon as Woo , the rug @-@ peeing " Chinaman "
Jimmie Dale Gilmore as Smokey
Jack Kehler as Marty , the Dude 's landlord
Leon Russom as Kohl , Malibu police chief
Dom Irrera as Tony the chauffeur
Asia Carrera ( uncredited ) as the actress who co @-@ starred with Bunny in the pornographic film Logjammin
Barry Asher ( uncredited ) as the bowler in the final scene . ( He was also the bowling consultant for the film . )
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The Dude is mostly inspired by Jeff Dowd , a man the Coen brothers met while they were trying to find distribution for their first feature , Blood Simple . Dowd had been a member of the Seattle Seven , liked to drink White Russians , and was known as " The Dude " . The Dude was also partly based on a friend of the Coen brothers , Peter Exline ( now a member of the faculty at USC 's School of Cinematic Arts ) , a Vietnam War veteran who reportedly lived in a dump of an apartment and was proud of a little rug that " tied the room together " . Exline knew Barry Sonnenfeld from New York University and Sonnenfeld introduced Exline to the Coen brothers while they were trying to raise money for Blood Simple . Exline became friends with the Coens and in 1989 , told them all kinds of stories from his own life , including ones about his actor @-@ writer friend Lewis Abernathy ( one of the inspirations for Walter ) , a fellow Vietnam vet who later became a private investigator and helped him track down and confront a high school kid who stole his car . As in the film , Exline 's car was impounded by the Los Angeles Police Department and Abernathy found an 8th grader 's homework under the passenger seat . Exline also belonged to an amateur softball league but the Coens changed it to bowling in the film , because " it 's a very social sport where you can sit around and drink and smoke while engaging in inane conversation " . The Coens met filmmaker John Milius , when they were in Los Angeles making Barton Fink and incorporated his love of guns and the military into the character of Walter . John Milius introduced the Coen Brothers to one of his best friends , Jim Ganzer , who would have been another source of inferences to create Jeff Bridges ' character . Also known as the Dude , Ganzer and his gang , typical Malibu surfers , served as inspiration as well for Milius 's film The Big Wednesday .
According to Julianne Moore , the character of Maude was based on artist Carolee Schneemann " who worked naked from a swing " and on Yoko Ono . The character of Jesus Quintana was inspired , in part , by a performance the Coens had seen John Turturro give in 1988 , at the Public Theater in a play called Mi Puta Vida in which he played a pederast @-@ type character , " so we thought , let 's make Turturro a pederast . It 'll be something he can really run with , " Joel said in an interview .
The film 's overall structure was influenced by the detective fiction of Raymond Chandler . Ethan said , " We wanted something that would generate a certain narrative feeling – like a modern Raymond Chandler story , and that 's why it had to be set in Los Angeles ... We wanted to have a narrative flow , a story that moves like a Chandler book through different parts of town and different social classes " . The use of the Stranger 's voice @-@ over also came from Chandler as Joel remarked , " He is a little bit of an audience substitute . In the movie adaptation of Chandler it 's the main character that speaks off @-@ screen , but we didn 't want to reproduce that though it obviously has echoes . It 's as if someone was commenting on the plot from an all @-@ seeing point of view . And at the same time rediscovering the old earthiness of a Mark Twain . "
The significance of the bowling culture was , according to Joel , " important in reflecting that period at the end of the fifties and the beginning of the sixties . That suited the retro side of the movie , slightly anachronistic , which sent us back to a not @-@ so @-@ far @-@ away era , but one that was well and truly gone nevertheless . "
= = = Screenplay = = =
The Big Lebowski was written around the same time as Barton Fink . When the Coen brothers wanted to make it , John Goodman was filming episodes for the Roseanne television program and Jeff Bridges was making the Walter Hill film Wild Bill . The Coens decided to make Fargo in the meantime . According to Ethan , " the movie was conceived as pivoting around that relationship between the Dude and Walter " , which sprang from the scenes between Barton Fink and Charlie Meadows in Barton Fink . They also came up with the idea of setting the film in contemporary L.A. , because the people who inspired the story lived in the area . When Pete Exline told them about the homework in a baggie incident , the Coens thought that that was very Raymond Chandler and decided to integrate elements of the author 's fiction into their script . Joel Coen cites Robert Altman 's The Long Goodbye as a primary influence on their film , in the sense that The Big Lebowski " is just kind of informed by Chandler around the edges " . When they started writing the script , the Coens wrote only 40 pages and then let it sit for a while before finishing it . This is a normal writing process for them , because they often " encounter a problem at a certain stage , we pass to another project , then we come back to the first script . That way we 've already accumulated pieces for several future movies . " In order to liven up a scene that they thought was too heavy on exposition , they added an " effete art @-@ world hanger @-@ on " , known as Knox Harrington , late in the screenwriting process . In the original script , the Dude 's car was a Chrysler LeBaron , as Dowd had once owned , but that car was not big enough to fit John Goodman so the Coens changed it to a Ford Torino .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
PolyGram and Working Title Films , who had funded Fargo , backed The Big Lebowski with a budget of $ 15 million . In casting the film , Joel remarked , " we tend to write both for people we know and have worked with , and some parts without knowing who 's going to play the role . In The Big Lebowski we did write for John [ Goodman ] and Steve [ Buscemi ] , but we didn 't know who was getting the Jeff Bridges role . " In preparation for his role , Bridges met Dowd but actually " drew on myself a lot from back in the Sixties and Seventies . I lived in a little place like that and did drugs , although I think I was a little more creative than the Dude . " The actor went into his own closet with the film 's wardrobe person and picked out clothes that he had thought the Dude might wear . He wore his character 's clothes home because most of them were his own . The actor also adopted the same physicality as Dowd , including the slouching and his ample belly . Originally , Goodman wanted a different kind of beard for Walter but the Coen brothers insisted on the " Gladiator " or what they called the " Chin Strap " and he thought it would go well with his flattop haircut .
For the film 's look , the Coens wanted to avoid the usual retro 1960s clichés like lava lamps , Day @-@ Glo posters , and Grateful Dead music and for it to be " consistent with the whole bowling thing , we wanted to keep the movie pretty bright and poppy " , Joel said in an interview . For example , the star motif featured predominantly throughout the film , started with the film 's production designer Richard Heinrichs ' design for the bowling alley . According to Joel , he " came up with the idea of just laying free @-@ form neon stars on top of it and doing a similar free @-@ form star thing on the interior " . This carried over to the film 's dream sequences . " Both dream sequences involve star patterns and are about lines radiating to a point . In the first dream sequence , the Dude gets knocked out and you see stars and they all coalesce into the overhead nightscape of L.A. The second dream sequence is an astral environment with a backdrop of stars " , remembers Heinrichs . For Jackie Treehorn 's Malibu beach house , he was inspired by late 1950s and early 1960s bachelor pad furniture . The Coen brothers told Heinrichs that they wanted Treehorn 's beach party to be Inca @-@ themed , with a " very Hollywood @-@ looking party in which young , oiled @-@ down , fairly aggressive men walk around with appetizers and drinks . So there 's a very sacrificial quality to it . "
Cinematographer Roger Deakins discussed the look of the film with the Coens during pre @-@ production . They told him that they wanted some parts of the film to have a real and contemporary feeling and other parts , like the dream sequences , to have a very stylized look . Bill and Jacqui Landrum did all of the choreography for the film . For his dance sequence , Jack Kehler went through three three @-@ hour rehearsals . The Coen brothers offered him three to four choices of classical music for him to pick from and he chose Modest Mussorgsky 's Pictures at an Exhibition . At each rehearsal , he went through each phase of the piece .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Actual filming took place over an eleven @-@ week period with location shooting in and around Los Angeles , including all of the bowling sequences at the Hollywood Star Lanes ( for three weeks ) and the Dude 's Busby Berkeley dream sequences in a converted airplane hangar . According to Joel , the only time they ever directed Bridges " was when he would come over at the beginning of each scene and ask , ' Do you think the Dude burned one on the way over ? ' I 'd reply ' Yes ' usually , so Jeff would go over in the corner and start rubbing his eyes to get them bloodshot . " Julianne Moore was sent the script while working on The Lost World : Jurassic Park . She worked only two weeks on the film , early and late during the production that went from January to April 1997 while Sam Elliott was only on set for two days and did many takes of his final speech .
= = = Architecture = = =
The scenes in Jackie Treehorn 's house were shot in the Sheats Goldstein Residence , designed by John Lautner and built in 1963 in the Hollywood Hills .
Deakins described the look of the fantasy scenes as being very crisp , monochromatic , and highly lit in order to afford greater depth of focus . However , with the Dude 's apartment , Deakins said , " it 's kind of seedy and the light 's pretty nasty " with a grittier look . The visual bridge between these two different looks was how he photographed the night scenes . Instead of adopting the usual blue moonlight or blue street lamp look , he used an orange sodium @-@ light effect . The Coen brothers shot a lot of the film with wide @-@ angle lens because , according to Joel , it made it easier to hold focus for a greater depth and it made camera movements more dynamic .
To achieve the point @-@ of @-@ view of a rolling bowling ball the Coen brothers mounted a camera " on something like a barbecue spit " , according to Ethan , and then dollied it along the lane . The challenge for them was figuring out the relative speeds of the forward motion and the rotating motion . CGI was used to create the vantage point of the thumb hole in the bowling ball .
= = Soundtrack = =
The original score was composed by Carter Burwell , a veteran of all the Coen Brothers ' films . While the Coens were writing the screenplay they had Kenny Rogers ' " Just Dropped In ( to See What Condition My Condition Was in ) " , the Gipsy Kings ' cover of " Hotel California " , and several Creedence Clearwater Revival songs in mind . They asked T @-@ Bone Burnett ( who would later work with the Coens on O Brother , Where Art Thou ? and Inside Llewyn Davis ) to pick songs for the soundtrack of the film . They knew that they wanted different genres of music from different times but , as Joel remembers , " T @-@ Bone even came up with some far @-@ out Henry Mancini and Yma Sumac . " Burnett was able to secure the rights to the songs by Kenny Rogers and the Gipsy Kings and also added tracks by Captain Beefheart , Moondog and the rights to a relatively obscure Bob Dylan song called " The Man in Me " . However , he had a tough time securing the rights to Townes Van Zandt 's cover of the Rolling Stones ' " Dead Flowers " , which plays over the film 's closing credits . Former Stones manager Allen Klein owned the rights to the song and wanted $ 150 @,@ 000 for it . Burnett convinced Klein to watch an early cut of the film and remembers , " It got to the part where the Dude says , ' I hate the fuckin ' Eagles , man ! ' Klein stands up and says , ' That 's it , you can have the song ! ' That was beautiful . " Burnett was going to be credited on the film as " Music Supervisor " , but asked his credit to be " Music Archivist " because he " hated the notion of being a supervisor ; I wouldn 't want anyone to think of me as management " .
For Joel , " the original music , as with other elements of the movie , had to echo the retro sounds of the Sixties and early Seventies " . Music defines each character . For example , " Tumbling Tumbleweeds " by Bob Nolan was chosen for the Stranger at the time the Coens wrote the screenplay , as was " Lujon " by Henry Mancini for Jackie Treehorn . " The German nihilists are accompanied by techno @-@ pop and Jeff Bridges by Creedence . So there 's a musical signature for each of them " , remarked Ethan in an interview . The character Uli Kunkel was in the German electronic band Autobahn , a homage to the band Kraftwerk . The album cover of their record Nagelbett ( bed of nails ) is a parody of the Kraftwerk album cover for The Man @-@ Machine and the group name Autobahn shares the name of a Kraftwerk song and album . In the lyrics the phrase " We believe in nothing " is repeated with electronic distortion . This is a reference to Autobahn 's nihilism in the film .
= = Reception = =
The Big Lebowski received its world premiere at the 1998 Sundance Film Festival on January 18 , 1998 at the 1 @,@ 300 @-@ capacity Eccles Theater . It was also screened at the 48th Berlin International Film Festival before opening in North America on March 6 , 1998 in 1 @,@ 207 theaters . It grossed USD $ 5 @.@ 5 million on its opening weekend , grossing US $ 17 million in the United States , just above its US $ 15 million budget . The film 's worldwide gross outside of the US was $ 28 million , bringing its worldwide gross to $ 46 @,@ 189 @,@ 568 .
Many critics and audiences have likened the film to a modern Western , while many others dispute this , or liken it to a crime novel that revolves around mistaken identity plot devices . Peter Howell , in his review for the Toronto Star , wrote : " It 's hard to believe that this is the work of a team that won an Oscar last year for the original screenplay of Fargo . There 's a large amount of profanity in the movie , which seems a weak attempt to paper over dialogue gaps . " Howell revised his opinion in a later review , and more recently stated that " it may just be my favourite Coen Bros. film . "
Todd McCarthy in Variety magazine wrote : " One of the film 's indisputable triumphs is its soundtrack , which mixes Carter Burwell 's original score with classic pop tunes and some fabulous covers . " USA Today gave the film three out of four stars and felt that the Dude was " too passive a hero to sustain interest " , but that there was " enough startling brilliance here to suggest that , just like the Dude , those smarty @-@ pants Coens will abide " .
In his review for the Washington Post , Desson Howe praised the Coens and " their inspired , absurdist taste for weird , peculiar Americana – but a sort of neo @-@ Americana that is entirely invented – the Coens have defined and mastered their own bizarre subgenre . No one does it like them and , it almost goes without saying , no one does it better . "
Janet Maslin praised Bridges ' performance in her review for The New York Times : " Mr. Bridges finds a role so right for him that he seems never to have been anywhere else . Watch this performance to see shambling executed with nonchalant grace and a seemingly out @-@ to @-@ lunch character played with fine comic flair . " Andrew Sarris , in his review for the New York Observer , wrote : " The result is a lot of laughs and a feeling of awe toward the craftsmanship involved . I doubt that there 'll be anything else like it the rest of this year . " In a five star review for Empire Magazine , Ian Nathan wrote : " For those who delight in the Coens ' divinely abstract take on reality , this is pure nirvana " and " In a perfect world all movies would be made by the Coen brothers . " Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four , describing it as " weirdly engaging " . In a 2010 review , Ebert gave The Big Lebowski four stars out of four and added the film to his " Great Movies " list .
However , Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote in the Chicago Reader : " To be sure , The Big Lebowski is packed with show @-@ offy filmmaking and as a result is pretty entertaining . But insofar as it represents a moral position – and the Coens ' relative styling of their figures invariably does – it 's an elitist one , elevating salt @-@ of @-@ the @-@ earth types like Bridges and Goodman ... over everyone else in the movie . " Dave Kehr , in his review for the Daily News , criticized the film 's premise as a " tired idea , and it produces an episodic , unstrung film " . The Guardian criticized the film as " a bunch of ideas shoveled into a bag and allowed to spill out at random . The film is infuriating , and will win no prizes . But it does have some terrific jokes . "
The Big Lebowski currently holds an approval rating of 81 % on Rotten Tomatoes , based on 88 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Typically stunning visuals and sharp dialogue from the Coen Brothers , brought to life with strong performances from Goodman and Bridges . "
= = Legacy = =
Since its original release , The Big Lebowski has become a cult classic . Ardent fans of the film call themselves " achievers " . Steve Palopoli wrote about the film 's emerging cult status in July 2002 . He first realized that the film had a cult following when he attended a midnight screening in 2000 at the New Beverly Cinema in Los Angeles and witnessed people quoting dialogue from the film to each other . Soon after the article appeared , the programmer for a local midnight film series in Santa Cruz decided to screen The Big Lebowski and on the first weekend they had to turn away several hundred people . The theater held the film over for six weeks , which had never happened before .
An annual festival , Lebowski Fest , began in Louisville , Kentucky , United States in 2002 with 150 fans showing up , and has since expanded to several other cities . The festival 's main event each year is a night of unlimited bowling with various contests including costume , trivia , hardest- and farthest @-@ traveled contests . Held over a weekend , events typically include a pre @-@ fest party with bands the night before the bowling event as well as a day @-@ long outdoor party with bands , vendor booths and games . Various celebrities from the film have even attended some of the events , including Jeff Bridges who attended the Los Angeles event . The British equivalent , inspired by Lebowski Fest , is known as The Dude Abides and is held in London .
Dudeism , a religion devoted largely to spreading the philosophy and lifestyle of the film 's main character , was founded in 2005 . Also known as The Church of the Latter @-@ Day Dude , the organization has ordained over 220 @,@ 000 " Dudeist Priests " all over the world via its website .
Two species of African spider are named after the film and main character : Anelosimus biglebowski and Anelosimus dude , both described in 2006 . Additionally , an extinct Permian conifer genus is named after the film in honor of its creators . The first species described within this genus in 2007 is based on 270 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old plant fossils from Texas , and is called Lebowskia grandifolia .
Entertainment Weekly ranked it 8th on their Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years list . The film was also ranked No. 34 on their list of " The Top 50 Cult Films " and ranked No. 15 on the magazine 's " The Cult 25 : The Essential Left @-@ Field Movie Hits Since ' 83 " list . In addition , the magazine also ranked The Dude No. 14 in their " The 100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years " poll . The film was also nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Film Critics Association . The Big Lebowski was voted as the 10th best film set in Los Angeles in the last 25 years by a group of Los Angeles Times writers and editors with two criteria : " The movie had to communicate some inherent truth about the L.A. experience , and only one film per director was allowed on the list . " Empire magazine ranked Walter Sobchak No. 49 and the Dude No. 7 in their " The 100 Greatest Movie Characters " poll . Roger Ebert added The Big Lebowski to his list of " Great Movies " in March 2010 .
John Turturro has suggested a number of times that he would be interested in doing a spin @-@ off film using his character Jesus Quintana . If the project got off the ground , the Coens would not direct it but may have a part in writing it .
= = = Use as social and political analysis = = =
The film has been used as a tool for analysis on a number of issues . In September 2008 , Slate published an article which interpreted The Big Lebowski as a political critique . The center piece of this viewpoint was that Walter Sobchak is " a neocon " , citing the film 's references to then President George H. W. Bush and the first Gulf War .
A journal article by Brian Wall , published in the feminist journal Camera Obscura uses the film to explain Karl Marx 's commodity fetishism and the feminist consequences of sexual fetishism .
It has been used as a Carnivalesque critique of society , as an analysis on war and ethics , as a narrative on mass communication and US militarism and other issues .
= = Home media = =
Universal Studios Home Entertainment released a " Collector 's Edition " DVD on October 18 , 2005 with extra features that included an " introduction by Mortimer Young " , " Jeff Bridges ' Photography " , " Making of The Big Lebowski " , and " Production Notes " . In addition , a limited @-@ edition " Achiever 's Edition Gift Set " also included The Big Lebowski Bowling Shammy Towel , four Collectible Coasters that included photographs and quotable lines from the film , and eight Exclusive Photo Cards from Jeff Bridges ' personal collection .
A " 10th Anniversary Edition " was released on September 9 , 2008 and features all of the extras from the " Collector 's Edition " and " The Dude 's Life : Strikes and Gutters ... Ups and Downs ... The Dude Abides " theatrical trailer ( from the first DVD release ) , " The Lebowski Fest : An Achiever 's Story " , " Flying Carpets and Bowling Pin Dreams : The Dream Sequences of the Dude " , " Interactive Map " , " Jeff Bridges Photo Book " , and a " Photo Gallery " . There are both a standard release and a Limited Edition which features " Bowling Ball Packaging " and is individually numbered .
A high @-@ definition version of The Big Lebowski was released by Universal on HD DVD format on June 26 , 2007 . The film was released in Blu @-@ ray format in Italy by Cecchi Gori .
On August 16 , 2011 , Universal Pictures released The Big Lebowski on Blu @-@ ray . The limited @-@ edition package includes a Jeff Bridges photo book , a ten @-@ years @-@ on retrospective , and an in @-@ depth look at the annual Lebowski Fest . The film is also available in the Blu @-@ ray Coen Brothers box set released in the UK , however this version is region free and will work in any Blu @-@ ray player .
= Natchez revolt =
The Natchez revolt , or the Natchez Massacre , was an attack by the Natchez people on French colonists near present @-@ day Natchez , Mississippi , on November 29 , 1729 . The Natchez and French had lived alongside each other in the Louisiana colony for more than a decade prior to the incident , mostly conducting peaceful trade and occasionally intermarrying . After a period of deteriorating relations , however , Natchez leaders were provoked to revolt when the French colonial commandant , Sieur de Chépart , demanded land from a Natchez village for his own plantation near Fort Rosalie . They plotted their attack over several days and managed to conceal their plans from most of the French ; those who overheard and warned Chépart of an attack were considered untruthful and were punished . In a coordinated attack on the fort and the homesteads , the Natchez killed almost all of the Frenchmen , while sparing most of the women and African slaves . Approximately 230 colonists were killed overall , and the fort and homes were burned to the ground .
When the French in New Orleans , the colonial capital , heard the news of the massacre , they feared a general Indian uprising and were concerned that the Natchez might have conspired with other tribes . They first responded by ordering a massacre of the Chaouacha people , who had no relation to the Natchez revolt , wiping out their entire village . The French and their Choctaw allies then retaliated against the Natchez villages , capturing hundreds of Natchez and selling them into slavery , although many managed to escape to the north and take refuge among the Chickasaw people . The Natchez waged low @-@ intensity warfare against the French over the following years , but retaliatory expeditions against Natchez refugees among the Chickasaw in 1730 and 1731 forced them to move on and live as refugees among the Creek and Cherokee tribes . By 1736 the Natchez had ceased to exist as an independent people .
The attack on Fort Rosalie destroyed some of the Louisiana colony 's most productive farms and endangered shipments of food and trade goods on the Mississippi River . As a result , the French state returned control of Louisiana from the French West India Company to the crown in 1731 , as the company had been having trouble running the colony . Louisiana governor Étienne Périer was held responsible for the massacre and its aftermath , and he was recalled to France in 1732 .
= = Background = =
While descending the Mississippi River in 1682 , Robert de La Salle became the first Frenchman to encounter the Natchez and declared them an ally . The Natchez were sedentary and lived in nine semi @-@ autonomous villages ; the French considered them the most civilized tribe of the region . By 1700 the Natchez ' numbers had been reduced to about 3 @,@ 500 by the diseases that ravaged indigenous populations in the wake of contact with Europeans , and by 1720 further epidemics had halved that population . Their society was strictly divided into a noble class called " the Suns " ( Natchez : ʔuwahʃiːɫ ) and a commoner class called in French " the Stinkards " ( Natchez : miʃmiʃkipih ) . Between 1699 and 1702 , the Natchez received the explorer Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville in peace and allowed a French missionary to settle among them . At this time , the Natchez were at war with the Chickasaw people , who had received guns from their English allies , and the Natchez expected to benefit similarly from their relation with the French . Nonetheless , the British presence in the territory led the Natchez to split into pro @-@ British and pro @-@ French factions . The central village , called Natchez or the Grand Village , was led by the paramount chief Great Sun ( Natchez : ʔuwahʃiːɫ liːkip ) and the war chief Tattooed Serpent ( Serpent Piqué in the French sources , Natchez obalalkabiche ) , both of whom were interested in pursuing an alliance with the French .
= = = First , Second and Third Natchez Wars = = =
The first conflict between the French and the Natchez took place in 1716 , when the Governor of Louisiana , Antoine Laumet de La Mothe , sieur de Cadillac , passed through Natchez territory and neglected to renew the alliance with the Natchez by smoking the peace calumet . The Natchez reacted to this slight by killing four French traders . Cadillac sent his lieutenant Jean @-@ Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to punish the Natchez . He deceived the Natchez leaders by inviting them to attend a parley , where he ambushed and captured them , and forced the Natchez to exchange their leaders for the culprits who had attacked the French . A number of random Natchez from the pro @-@ British villages were executed . This caused French – Natchez relations to further deteriorate . As part of the terms of the peace accord following this First Natchez War , the Natchez promised to supply labor and materials for the construction of a fort for the French . The fort was named Fort Rosalie , and it was aimed at protecting the French trade monopoly in the region from British incursions .
By 1717 , French colonists had established the fort and a trading post at Natchez , Mississippi . They also granted numerous concessions for large plantations , as well as smaller farms , on land acquired from the Natchez . Relations between Natchez and colonists were generally friendly — some Frenchmen even married and had children with Natchez women — but there were tensions . There were reports of colonists abusing Natchez , forcing them to provide labor or goods , and as more colonists arrived , their concessions gradually encroached on Natchez lands .
From 1722 to 1724 , brief armed conflicts between the Natchez and French were settled through negotiations between Louisiana governor Bienville and Natchez war chief Tattooed Serpent . In 1723 , Bienville had been informed that some Natchez had harassed villagers , and he razed the Natchez village of White Apple and enslaved several villagers , only to discover that the alleged harassment had been faked by the colonists to frame the Natchez . One of the later skirmishes in 1724 consisted of the murder of a Natchez chief 's son by a colonist , to which the Natchez responded by killing another Frenchman named Guenot . Bienville then sent French soldiers from New Orleans to attack the Natchez at their fields and settlements , and the Natchez surrendered . Their plea for peace was met following the execution of one of their chiefs by the French .
Chronicler Le Page du Pratz , who lived among the Natchez and was a close friend of Tattooed Serpent , records that he once asked his friend why the Natchez were resentful towards the French . Tattooed Serpent answered that the French seemed to have " two hearts , a good one today , and tomorrow a bad one " , and proceeded to tell how Natchez life had been better before the French arrived . He finished by saying , " Before the arrival of the French we lived like men who can be satisfied with what they have , whereas today we live like slaves , who are not suffered to do as they please . " The most faithful ally of the French , Tattooed Serpent died in 1725 , another blow to the relations between the Natchez and the colonists .
According to archaeologist Karl Lorenz , who excavated several Natchez settlements , another factor that complicated relations between the Natchez and the colonists was the fact that the French did not well understand the Natchez political structure . The French assumed that the Great Sun , the chief of the Grand Village , also held sway over all the other Natchez villages . In truth , each village was semi @-@ autonomous , and the Great Sun 's power only extended to the villages of Flour and Tioux ( with which the Grand Village was allied ) and not to the three pro @-@ British villages of White Apple , Jenzenaque and Grigra . When the Great Sun died in 1728 and was succeeded by his inexperienced nephew , the pro @-@ British villages became more powerful than the pro @-@ French villages centered at Natchez .
= = = Commandant Chépart = = =
In 1728 , Sieur de Chépart ( also known as Etcheparre and Chopart ) , whom Governor Étienne Périer had recently appointed as commandant of Fort Rosalie , was brought to New Orleans and put on trial before the governor for abuse of power , specifically behavior toward the Natchez that was unpopular among the French . Chépart was saved from punishment , however , by " the interference of influential friends " , and upon returning to the fort , he continued to administer it as he had before . Chépart told the Natchez that November that he wished to seize land for a plantation in the center of White Apple , where the Natchez had a temple of their people 's graves . Governor Périer sided with Chépart and planted a cross on the land he sought . By this point , most of the colonists disapproved of Chépart 's actions , including Jean @-@ François @-@ Benjamin Dumont de Montigny , a French historian who wrote that Chépart 's demand marked the first time that a French colonial leader had simply claimed Natchez land as his own , without prior negotiations .
When the Natchez began to protest the seizure of their land for the plantation , Chépart said he would burn down the temple that contained their ancestors ' graves . In response to this threat , the Natchez seemed to promise to cede the land , wrote Dumont de Montigny , but only if they were given two months to relocate their temple and graves . Chépart agreed to give them the time in exchange for pelts , oil , poultry , and grain — a request the Natchez promised to fulfill later .
= = Attack = =
The Natchez then began to prepare for a strike on the French at Fort Rosalie , borrowing firearms from some French colonists with promises to go hunting and to share the game with the guns ' owners . Some French men and women overheard the Natchez planning such an attack . According to Le Page du Pratz , it was the Natchez female chief Tattooed Arm who attempted to alert the French of an upcoming attack led by her rivals at White Apple . When colonists told Chépart , he disregarded them and placed some in irons on the night before the massacre , when he was drunk .
On the morning of November 29 , 1729 , the Natchez came to Chépart with corn , poultry , and deerskins , also carrying with them a calumet — well known as a peace symbol . The commandant , still somewhat intoxicated from drinking the night before , was certain that the Natchez had no violent intentions , and he challenged those who had warned of an attack to prove that the rumors were accurate .
While Chépart was accepting the goods , the Natchez started firing , giving the signal for a coordinated attack on Fort Rosalie and on the outlying farms and concessions in the area now covered by the city of Natchez . Chépart ran to call his soldiers to arms , but they had already been killed . The details of the attack are mostly unknown , as chroniclers such as Le Page du Pratz , who talked with several eyewitnesses , stated that the events were " simply too horrific " to recount .
The Natchez had prepared by seizing the galley of the West India Company anchored on the river , so that no Frenchmen could board it and attempt to escape . They had also stationed warriors on the other side of the river to intercept those who might flee in that direction . The commandant at the Yazoo trading post of Fort St. Pierre , Monsieur du Codère , was visiting Fort Rosalie with a Jesuit priest when they heard gunshots . They turned around to return to their ship , but warriors caught up with them , killing and scalping them .
The Natchez killed almost all of the 150 Frenchmen at Fort Rosalie , and only about 20 managed to escape . Most of the dead were unarmed . Women , children , and African slaves were mostly spared ; many were locked inside a house on the bluff , guarded by several warriors , from where they could see the events . According to Dumont de Montigny 's account of the attack , women seen defending their husbands from the violence , or trying to avenge them , were taken captive or killed . One woman 's unborn baby was reportedly torn from her before she herself was killed . A year after the event , the tally of dead was put at 138 men , 35 women and 56 children , or approximately 230 overall . Some scholars argue that the Natchez spared the African slaves due to a general sense of affinity between the Natchez and the Africans ; some slaves even joined the Natchez against their masters , while others took the chance to escape to freedom . A group of Yazoo people who were accompanying Commandant du Codère remained neutral during the conflict but were inspired by the Natchez revolt . When they returned to Fort St. Pierre , they destroyed the fort , killing the Jesuit priest and 17 French soldiers .
The Natchez lost only about 12 warriors during the attack . Eight warriors died attacking the homestead of the La Loire des Ursins family , where the men had been able to prepare a defense against the intruding Natchez .
Chépart himself was taken captive by the Natchez , who were at first unsure what to do with him , but finally decided that he should be killed by a stinkard — a member of the lowest caste in the tribe 's hierarchy . The Natchez kept two Frenchmen alive , a carter named Mayeux who was made to carry all the goods of the French to the Great Village , and a tailor named Le Beau who was employed by the Natchez to refit the colonists ' clothing to new owners . They set fire to the fort , the store , and all the homesteads , burning them to the ground . Just as Governor Bienville had done with the executed Indians in 1717 and 1723 , the Natchez beheaded the dead Frenchmen and brought the severed heads for the Great Sun to view .
= = French response = =
News of the Fort Rosalie attack reached New Orleans in early December , and the colonists there began to panic . The city depended upon grain and other supplies from the Illinois settlement , and shipments up and down the Mississippi River would be threatened by the loss of Fort Rosalie . Governor Périer reacted to the massacre by forbidding the entry of a delegation of Choctaw people into the city , for fear that they were using the pretext of a friendly visit to launch an attack . He then ordered slaves and French troops to march downstream and massacre a small village of Chaouacha people who had played no part in the uprising in Natchez . His superiors in Paris reprimanded the leader for this act , which may have been intended to prevent any alliance between slaves and Native Americans against the French colonists . Many Louisiana colonists — Dumont de Montigny in particular — blamed Chépart ( who was killed by the Natchez ) and Périer for the massacre ; Louis XV , the French king , ordered Périer back to France in 1732 . Périer 's replacement was his predecessor , Jean @-@ Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville , whom the French state thought to be more experienced at dealing with the Native Americans of the region . A year earlier , the French West India Company had given up control of the colony to Louis XV because it had been costly and difficult to manage even before the rebellion .
More serious retaliation against the Natchez began late in December and in January 1730 , with expeditions led by Jean @-@ Paul Le Sueur and Henri de Louboëy . The two commanders besieged the Natchez in forts built near the site of the Grand Village of the Natchez , a mile or so east of Fort Rosalie , which had been rebuilt . They killed about 80 men and captured 18 women , and released some French women who had been captured during the massacre of Fort Rosalie . The French relied on allied support from Tunica and Choctaw warriors . The Choctaw attacked the Natchez without the French , killing 100 and capturing women and children . This ruined the element of surprise for the French as the Natchez had already scattered . At first , the Natchez were well prepared for French retaliatory strikes , having stocked up several cannons as well as the firearms that they had used in the massacre two months earlier . The Natchez captured by the Choctaw and Tunica allies of the French were given over to the governor and sold into slavery , and some were publicly tortured to death in New Orleans .
In late February 1730 , with Louboëy seeking to catch the Natchez by surprise , the Natchez negotiated a peace treaty and freed French captives , but the French planned an attack on the Natchez fort the following day . The Natchez then brought gifts to Louboëy , but left their fort that night and escaped across the Mississippi River , taking African slaves with them . The next day , Louboëy and his men burned down the abandoned Grand Village fort as the Natchez hid in the bayous along the Black River . A subsequent expedition led by Périer in 1731 to dislodge the Natchez captured many of them and their leaders , including Saint Cosme , who was the new Great Sun , and his mother — the Female Sun , Tattooed Arm . The 387 captives , most of whom had belonged to the pro @-@ French faction of the Natchez , were sold into slavery in Saint @-@ Domingue . Many other Natchez escaped again , now taking refuge with the Chickasaw . Over the next decade the few hundred remaining Natchez lived a life on the run , waging a low @-@ intensity guerrilla campaign against the French . French historian Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix wrote in his history , " We were not slow in perceiving that the Natchez could still render themselves formidable , and that the step of sending the Sun and all who had been taken with him to be sold as slaves in Saint @-@ Domingue , had rather exasperated than intimidated the remnant of that nation , in whom hatred and despair had transformed their natural pride and ferocity into a valor of which they were never deemed capable . "
The French continued to press for the destruction of the Natchez who now lived among the Chickasaw , traditional allies of the British — this sparked the Chickasaw Wars . The Chickasaw at first agreed to drive out the Natchez from among them , but they did not keep good on the promise . In the Chickasaw Campaign of 1736 , the French , under Governor Bienville , attacked the Chickasaw villages of Apeony and Ackia , and then retreated , suffering significant casualties , but inflicting few . In the Chickasaw Campaign of 1739 , Bienville summoned more than 1 @,@ 000 troops to be sent over from France . Bienville 's army ascended the Mississippi River to the site of present @-@ day Memphis , Tennessee , and attempted to build a military road westward toward Chickasaw villages . After waiting for months in the winter of 1739 – 40 , the French never mounted an attack and retreated back to New Orleans . After having suffered the attacks against the Chickasaw , the remaining Natchez moved on to live among the Cherokee and Creek people . By that time the Natchez , reduced to scattered refugees , had ceased to exist as a political entity .
= = Historical interpretations = =
The Natchez revolt figured as an event of monumental significance in French historiography and literature of the 18th and 19th centuries . In France , the massacre and its aftermath was described in numerous historical works and inspired several works of fiction . Eighteenth @-@ century historians generally attributed the Natchez uprising to oppression by Commandant Chépart .
In the French sources , one important discussion has centered on the question of whether the Natchez planned a simultaneous attack on the French with the other major tribes of the region . French colonial governor Étienne Périer , in a report to superiors in France written one week after the revolt , claimed that many of the Indian nations in the lower Mississippi Valley had plotted with the Natchez to attack the French on the same day and that even the Choctaw , who had been close allies of the French , were part of the plot . Périer then cancelled a meeting with the Choctaw planned for the first two days of December in New Orleans , contending that it was to be the occasion for an attack . Périer in this way defended his actions as governor by insinuating that the results of the massacre could have been worse if not for his prompt action . However , historians Gordon Sayre and Arnaud Balvay have pointed out that Jean @-@ Baptiste Delaye , a militia commander in the French retaliations following the massacre , wrote in a 1730 unpublished narrative that Périer 's claims were groundless , and that the Tioux , Yazoo , and other nations were not complicit and had no foreknowledge of the attack . Another document in French , of anonymous authorship , asserted that the Natchez revolt was a British plan to destroy a new French tobacco business in Louisiana .
To describe the details of the attack and its background , Dumont de Montigny and Antoine @-@ Simon Le Page du Pratz , the leading 18th @-@ century historians of Louisiana , drew on information collected from French women taken captive during the massacre . They explained that the Natchez had conspired with other nations but had attacked a few days earlier than the date agreed upon and that they had used a system of bundles of sticks held by each of the conspiring tribes in order to count down the number of days remaining until the strike . The undetected destruction of a couple of the sticks in the Natchez Grand Village derailed the count , although the reason for the lost sticks differed in each historian 's account . The other nations called off their participation in the plot because of the Natchez ' premature attack , and therefore the very existence of the conspiracy remained conjectural .
François @-@ René de Chateaubriand depicted the massacre in his 1827 epic Les Natchez , incorporating his earlier best @-@ selling novellas Atala and René into a longer narrative that greatly embellished the history of the French and the Natchez in Louisiana . In Chateaubriand 's work , the grand conspiracy behind the massacre implausibly included native tribes from all across North America . Chateaubriand saw the Natchez Massacre as the defining moment in the history of the Louisiana colony , a position consistent with the views of other 18th @-@ century historians , such as Le Page du Pratz and Dumont de Montigny .
The 19th @-@ century Louisiana historian Charles Gayarré also embellished the story of a conspiracy behind the Natchez revolt , composing in his book a lengthy speech by the Great Sun in which the leader exhorted his warriors to invite the Choctaw , Chickasaw , and Yazoo to join in the attack on the French . In his 2008 book on the Natchez revolt , Arnaud Balvay wrote that more likely than not , the conspiracy claim was false because of incoherence in primary sources .
In contrast to the French tradition , the Natchez and their conflicts with the French have been mostly forgotten in contemporary American historiography . Historian Gordon Sayre attributes this to the fact that both the French and the Natchez were defeated in colonial wars before the birth of the United States .
= Flag of Hong Kong =
The flag of Hong Kong features a white , stylised , five @-@ petal Hong Kong orchid tree ( Bauhinia blakeana ) flower in the centre of a red field . Its design was adopted on 4 April 1990 at the Third Session of the Seventh National People 's Congress . The precise use of the flag is regulated by laws passed by the 58th executive meeting of the State Council held in Beijing . The design of the flag is enshrined in Hong Kong 's Basic Law , the territory 's constitutional document , and regulations regarding the use , prohibition of use , desecration , and manufacture of the flag are stated in the Regional Flag and Regional Emblem Ordinance . The flag of Hong Kong was first officially hoisted on 1 July 1997 , in the handover ceremony marking the transfer of sovereignty .
= = Design = =
= = = Symbolism = = =
The design of the flag comes with cultural , political , and regional meanings . The colour itself is significant ; red is a festive colour for the Chinese people , used to convey a sense of celebration and nationalism . Moreover , the red colour is identical to that used in the national PRC flag , chosen to signify the link re @-@ established between post @-@ colonial Hong Kong and China . The position of red and white on the flag symbolises the " one country two systems " political principle applied to the region . The stylised rendering of the Bauhinia blakeana flower , a flower discovered in Hong Kong , is meant to serve as a harmonising symbol for this dichotomy . The five stars of the Chinese national flag , representing the Communist Party and Mao Zedong 's four classes ( proletarian workers , agricultural peasants , petty bourgeoisie and capitalists ) , are replicated on the petals of the flower .
Before the adoption of the flag , the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Basic Law explained the significance of the flag 's design to the National People 's Congress :
= = = Construction = = =
The Hong Kong government has specified sizes , colours , and manufacturing parameters in which the flag is to be made . The background of the rectangular flag is red , the same shade of red as that used for the national PRC flag . The ratio of its length to breadth is 1 @.@ 5 . In its centre is a five @-@ petal stylised rendering of a white Bauhinia blakeana flower . If a circle circumscribes the flower , it should have a diameter 0 @.@ 6 times the entire height of the flag . The petals are uniformly spread around the centre point of the flag , radiating outward and pointing in a clockwise direction . Each of the flower 's petals bears a five @-@ pointed red star , a communist and socialist symbolism , with a red trace , suggestive of a flower stamen . The red trace makes each petal look as if it is being divided in half . The heading that is used to allow a flag to be slid or raised onto a pole is white .
= = = Size specifications = = =
This table lists all the official sizes for the flag . Sizes deviating from this list are considered non @-@ standard . If a flag is not of official size , it must be a scaled @-@ down or scaled @-@ up version of one of the official sizes .
= = = Colour specifications = = =
The following are the approximate colours of the Hong Kong flag in different colour models . It is listed by web colours in hexadecimal notation , CMYK equivalents * , dye colours , HSL equivalents , and Pantone equivalents .
* CMYK equivalents based on official downloadable files from Hong Kong 's Protocol website ( see 2nd external link ) .
= = = Manufacture regulated = = =
The Regional Flag and Regional Emblem Ordinance stipulates that the Hong Kong flag must be manufactured according to specifications laid out in the ordinance . If flags are not produced in design according to the ordinance , the Secretary for Justice may petition the District Court for an injunction to prohibit the person or company from manufacturing the flags . If the District Court agrees that the flags are not in compliance , it may issue an injunction and order that the flags and the materials that were used to make the flags to be seized by the government .
= = Proper flag protocol = =
The Hong Kong flag is flown daily from the Chief Executive 's official residence , the Government House , the Hong Kong International Airport , and at all border crossings and points of entry into Hong Kong . At major government offices and buildings , such as the Office of the Chief Executive , the Executive Council , the Court of Final Appeal , the High Court , the Legislative Council , and the Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices overseas , the flag is displayed during days when these offices are working . Other government offices and buildings , such as hospitals , schools , departmental headquarters , sports grounds , and cultural venues should fly the flag on occasions such as the National Day of the PRC ( 1 October ) , the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Establishment Day ( 1 July ) , and New Year 's Day . The flag should be raised at 8 : 00 a.m. and lowered at 6 : 00 p.m. The raising and lowering of the flag should be done slowly ; it must reach the peak of the flag staff when it is raised , and it may not touch the ground when it is lowered . The flag may not be raised in severe weather conditions . A Hong Kong flag that is either damaged , defaced , faded or substandard must not be displayed or used .
= = = Displayed together with the national flag = = =
Whenever the PRC national flag is flown together with the regional Hong Kong flag , the national flag must be flown at the centre , above the regional flag , or otherwise in a more prominent position than that of the regional flag . The regional flag must be smaller in size than the national flag , and it must be displayed to the left of the national flag . When the flags are displayed inside a building , the left and right sides of a person looking at the flags , and with his or her back toward the wall , are used as reference points for the left and right sides of a flag . When the flags are displayed outside a building , the left and right sides of a person standing in front of the building and looking towards the front entrance are used as reference points for the left and right sides of a flag . The national flag should be raised before the regional flag is raised , and it should be lowered after the regional flag is lowered .
An exception to this rule occurs during medal presentation ceremonies at multi @-@ sport events such as the Olympics and Asian Games . As Hong Kong competes separately from mainland China , should an athlete from Hong Kong win the gold medal , and an athlete from mainland China win the silver and / or bronze medal ( s ) in the same event , the regional flag of Hong Kong would be raised in the centre above the national flag ( s ) during the medal presentation ceremony .
= = = Half @-@ mast = = =
The Hong Kong flag must be lowered to half @-@ mast as a token of mourning when any of the following people die :
President of the People 's Republic of China
Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress
Premier of the State Council
Chairman of the Central Military Commission
Chairman of the National Committee of the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference
Persons who have made outstanding contributions to the People 's Republic of China as the Central People 's Government advises the Chief Executive .
Persons who have made outstanding contributions to world peace or the cause of human progress as the Central People 's Government advises the Chief Executive .
Persons whom the Chief Executive considers to have made outstanding contributions to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region or for whom he considers it appropriate to fly the flag at half @-@ mast .
The flag may also be flown at half @-@ mast when the Central People 's Government advises the Chief Executive to do so , or when the Chief Executive considers it appropriate to do so , on occurrences of unfortunate events causing especially serious casualties , or when serious natural calamities have caused heavy casualties . When raising a flag to be flown at half @-@ mast , it should first be raised to the top of the pole and then lowered to a point where the distance between the top of the flag and the top of the pole is one third of the length of the pole . When lowering the flag from half @-@ mast , it should first be raised to the peak of the pole before it is lowered .
= = = Prohibition of use and desecration = = =
The Regional Flag and Regional Emblem Ordinance states what manner of use of the Hong Kong flag is prohibited and that desecration of the flag is prohibited ; it also states that it is a punishable offence for a person to use the flag in a prohibited manner or desecrate the flag . According to the ordinance , a flag may not be used in advertisements or trademarks , and that " publicly and wilfully burning , mutilating , scrawling on , defiling or trampling " the flag is considered flag desecration . Similarly , the National Flag and National Emblem Ordinance extends the same prohibition toward the national PRC flag . The ordinances also allow for the Chief Executive to make stipulations regarding the use of the flag . In stipulations made in 1997 , the Chief Executive further specified that the use of the flag in " any trade , calling or profession , or the logo , seal or badge of any non @-@ governmental organisation " is also prohibited unless prior permission was obtained .
The first conviction of flag desecration occurred in 1999 . Protesters Ng Kung Siu and Lee Kin Yun wrote the word " Shame " on both the national PRC flag and the Hong Kong flag , and were convicted of violating the National Flag and National Emblem Ordinance and the Regional Flag and Regional Emblem Ordinance . The Court of Appeal overturned the verdict , ruling that the ordinances were unnecessary restrictions on the freedom of expression and in violation of both the Basic Law and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights . Upon further appeal , however , the Court of Final Appeal maintained the original guilty verdict , holding that this restriction on the freedom of expression was justifiable in that the protection of the flags played a role in national unity and territorial integrity and constituted a restriction on the mode of expressing one 's message but did not interfere with one 's freedom to express the same message in other ways .
Leung Kwok @-@ hung , a member of the Legislative Council and a political activist in Hong Kong , was penalised in February 2001 , before he became a member of the Legislative Council , for defiling the flag . He was convicted of three counts of desecrating the flag — for two incidents on 1 July 2000 during the third anniversary of Hong Kong 's handover to China and for one incident on 9 July of the same year during a protest against elections to choose the Election Committee , the electoral college which chooses the Chief Executive of Hong Kong . Leung was placed on a good @-@ behaviour bond for 12 months in the sum of HK $ 3 @,@ 000 .
Zhu Rongchang , a mainland Chinese farmer has been jailed for three weeks after setting fire to a Chinese flag in Hong Kong . Zhu was charged for " publicly and wilfully " burning the Chinese flag at Golden Bauhinia Square in central Hong Kong . The 74 @-@ year @-@ old man is reportedly the third person charged for desecrating the Chinese national flag , but he is first to be jailed under the law .
In early 2013 , protestors went to the streets flying the old colonial flag demanding more democracy and resignation of Chief Executive Leung Chun Ying . The use of the flag has created concerns from Chinese authorities and request from Leung to stop flying the flag . Despite the calls from Leung the old flags are not subject to use restrictions beyond not being allowed to be placed on flagpoles and are freely sold and manufactured in the territory .
= = History = =
= = = Historical flags = = =
Prior to Hong Kong 's transfer of sovereignty , the flag of Hong Kong was a colonial Blue Ensign flag . The flag of colonial Hong Kong underwent several changes in the last one and a half centuries .
In 1843 , a seal representing Hong Kong was instituted . The design was based on a local waterfront scene ; three local merchants with their commercial goods can be found on the foreground , a square @-@ rigged ship and a junk occupy the middle ground , while the background consists of conical hills and clouds . In 1868 , a Hong Kong flag was produced , a Blue Ensign flag with a badge based on this " local scene " , but the design was rejected by Hong Kong Governor Richard Graves MacDonnell .
In 1870 , a " white crown over HK " badge for the Blue Ensign flag was proposed by the Colonial Secretary . The letters " HK " were omitted and the crown became full @-@ colour three years later . It is unclear exactly what the badge looked like during that period of time , but it was unlikely to be the " local scene " . It should have been a crown of some sort , which may , or may not , have had the letters " HK " below it . In 1876 , the " local scene " badge ( Chinese : " Ar Kwan " Guiding the British soldier picture ) was re @-@ adopted to the Blue Ensign flag with the Admiralty 's approval .
A coat of arms for Hong Kong was granted on 21 January 1959 by the College of Arms in London . The Hong Kong flag was revised in the same year to feature the coat of arms in the Blue Ensign flag . This design was used officially from 1959 until Hong Kong 's transfer of sovereignty in 1997 . Since then , the colonial flag has been appropriated by protestors , such as on the annual 1 July marches for universal suffrage , as a " symbol of antagonism towards the mainland " , along with a blue flag featuring the coat of arms , used by those advocating independence .
= = = Current design = = =
Before Hong Kong 's transfer of sovereignty , between 20 May 1987 and 31 March 1988 , a contest was held amongst Hong Kong residents to help choose a flag for post @-@ colonial Hong Kong , with 7 @,@ 147 design submissions , in which 4 @,@ 489 submissions were about flag designs . Architect Tao Ho was chosen as one of the panel judges to pick Hong Kong 's new flag . He recalled that some of the designs had been rather funny and with political twists : " One had a hammer and sickle on one side and a dollar sign on the other . " Some designs were rejected because they contained copyrighted materials , for example , the emblem of Urban Council , Hong Kong Arts Festival and Hong Kong Tourism Board . Six designs were chosen as finalists by the judges , but were all later rejected by the PRC . Ho and two others were then asked by the PRC to submit new proposals .
Looking for inspiration , Ho wandered into a garden and picked up a Bauhinia blakeana flower . He observed the symmetry of the five petals , and how their winding pattern conveyed to him a dynamic feeling . This led him to incorporate the flower into the flag to represent Hong Kong . The design was adopted on 4 April 1990 at the Third Session of the Seventh National People 's Congress , and the flag was first officially hoisted seconds after midnight on 1 July 1997 in the handover ceremony marking the transfer of sovereignty . It was hoisted together with the national PRC flag , while the Chinese national anthem , " March of the Volunteers " was played . The Union Flag and the colonial Hong Kong flag were lowered seconds before midnight .
A selection of proposals during the 1987 – 1988 contest is shown below :
= Mike Heath ( swimmer ) =
Michael Steward Heath ( born April 9 , 1964 ) is an American former competition swimmer who specialized in freestyle events . He is a three @-@ time Olympic gold medalist , and a former world record @-@ holder in two relay swimming events . A native of Texas , he won two national collegiate championship competing for the University of Florida . During his elite swimming career , Heath won ten medals in major international championships , including seven golds , two silvers and a bronze , spanning the Olympic Games , FINA World Championships , and Pan Pacific Championships .
= = Early years = =
Heath was born in McAllen , Texas . He attended Highland Park High School in University Park , Texas ( a Dallas suburb ) , and competed for the Highland Park High School swim team . In 1980 , he set a new Texas state high school record in the boys ' 200 @-@ yard freestyle ( 1 : 37 @.@ 88 ) ; he set a second state record in the event in 1982 ( 1 : 37 @.@ 53 ) , breaking his own previous record in the process .
= = College swimming career = =
Heath accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , where he swam for coach Randy Reese 's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) competition from 1983 to 1986 . He was a member of the Gators ' 1983 and 1984 NCAA men 's championship teams , as well as four consecutive SEC championships teams . As a Gator swimmer , he won NCAA national titles in the 400 @-@ yard freestyle relay ( 1983 ) , 800 @-@ yard freestyle relay ( 1983 , 1984 ) , and 200 @-@ yard freestyle ( 1984 ) , and received nineteen All @-@ American honors . His strong finish swimming the anchor leg for the Gators in the 4 × 100 @-@ yard freestyle relay provided the Gators ' winning points in their first NCAA national team championship in 1983 . He also won seven SEC titles , and was recognized as the SEC male swimmer of the year in 1983 and 1985 . Heath graduated from the University of Florida with a bachelor 's degree in exercise and sports science in 1988 , and was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a " Gator Great " in 1996 .
= = International swimming career = =
Heath , who had not previously been a member of the U.S. national team , won the 100- and 200 @-@ meter freestyle events at the 1984 U.S. Olympic trials , and thereby qualified to compete in the two Olympic individual events and for the U.S. relay teams . As a newcomer to the U.S. trials , he made a dramatic statement by setting a new American record in the preliminary heats of the 200 @-@ meter freestyle . At the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , he won three gold medals and a silver .
He won his first Olympic gold medal by swimming the lead @-@ off leg in the men 's 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , and Heath and his American teammates David Larson , Jeff Float and Bruce Hayes set a new world record of 7 : 15 @.@ 69 , edging the Michael Gross @-@ led West Germans by four one @-@ hundredths ( 0 @.@ 04 ) of a second . He won his second gold medal by helping set another world record of 3 : 19 @.@ 03 in the men 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , together with fellow Americans Chris Cavanaugh , Matt Biondi and Rowdy Gaines , finishing sixty @-@ five one @-@ hundredths ( 0 @.@ 65 ) of a second ahead of the second @-@ place Australians . He then earned a third gold medal by swimming for the winning U.S. team in the preliminary heats of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . In a word play on the title of the popular 1984 movie Ghostbusters , American media dubbed Heath and his 4 × 200 @-@ meter relay teammates the " Gross Busters . "
In individual Olympic competition , Heath won a silver medal in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle ( 1 : 49 @.@ 10 ) behind Gross 's world record @-@ setting performance ( 1 : 47 @.@ 44 ) . He also placed fourth in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle event final ( 50 @.@ 41 ) ; the outcome was controversial , however , because of a premature starter gun and a quick start by Gaines , the winner . Gaines ' coach , Richard Quick , knew of starter Frank Silvestri 's propensity to fire the starter gun almost immediately when the swimmers mounted the blocks . Gaines gained about a meter 's head start on the competition ; video of the event later confirmed that one or more of the swimmers had not been set when the starter gun fired .
After the 1984 Olympics , Heath continued to swim for the U.S. national team , and remained a fixture on the freestyle relay teams . At the 1985 Pan Pacific Championships in Tokyo , gold medalists Scott McCadam , Heath , Paul Wallace and Biondi set a new world record of 3 : 17 @.@ 08 in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . Together with Biondi , Duffy Dillon and Craig Oppel , he won another gold medal in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay ( 7 : 17 @.@ 63 ) . Individually , Heath won a Pan Pacific Championships gold medal in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle ( 1 : 49 @.@ 29 ) by beating Biondi ( 1 : 50 @.@ 19 ) and Canadian Sandy Goss ( 1 : 50 @.@ 56 ) . He also won a Pan Pacific silver medal in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle ( 50 @.@ 78 ) , finishing a fraction of a second behind Biondi ( 50 @.@ 44 ) . Heath again swam for the U.S. relay teams at the 1986 World Aquatics Championships in Madrid ; Tom Jager , Heath , Paul Wallace and Biondi won the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle ( 3 : 19 @.@ 89 ) ; and Eric Boyer , Heath , Dan Jorgensen and Biondi placed third in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle ( 7 : 18 @.@ 29 ) .
= = Life after competition swimming = =
Heath was an assistant coach for the Florida Gators swim team from 1988 to 1989 . After graduating from the University of Florida , Heath first worked as a salesman , before he coached swimming at Fletcher High School in Neptune Beach , Florida , for six years , and thereafter at Episcopal High School in Jacksonville , Florida . He is married to Sherri @-@ Lee Schricker , who was a member of the Florida Gators swim team at the University of Florida from 1984 to 1987 , and they have two children . Their son Grady will swim for the Florida Gators beginning in 2015 – 16 .
= = World records = =
Men 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay
Men 's 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay
= Not Afraid =
" Not Afraid " is a song by American rapper Eminem from his seventh studio album Recovery ( 2010 ) . It was released as the album 's lead single on April 29 , 2010 , by Interscope Records . " Not Afraid " was first revealed as a single by Eminem via Twitter , after which the song debuted on radio . To promote the single 's release , a freestyle rap , " Despicable " , was released on the Internet and received attention for its tone and lyrical content . " Not Afraid " was written and produced by Eminem , Boi @-@ 1da , Jordan Evans and Matthew Burnett ; keyboardist Luis Resto was also attributed with songwriting credit . According to Eminem 's manager Paul Rosenberg and music critics , " Not Afraid " carries a positive message and depicts Eminem 's change in direction from drugs and violence . The hip hop song features a choir that assists Eminem in a heavily layered chorus and vocals are sung over a guitar , synthesizer and piano ; no Auto @-@ Tune was used on the sung vocals , but many reverberation tools were .
" Not Afraid " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics , who praised the song for being anthemic in nature and carrying a positive message . The song did , however , face criticism for its sudden change in theme from previous singles , and was considered to be less affecting than some of his other songs . Despite mixed reception , " Not Afraid " became the 16th song in Billboard history to debut on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number one ; it also debuted as a chart @-@ topper in Canada . In June 2014 the song was certified 10 × Platinum by RIAA , making Eminem the first artist with digital diamond awards for two songs . " Not Afraid " has earned Eminem MTV Video Music Awards , MTV Video Music Awards Japan , Grammy Awards , Billboard Music Awards and Detroit Music Awards .
The song was accompanied by a music video , which Rich Lee directed in May 2010 . New York City and Newark , New Jersey were chosen as settings to shoot the video . Reviewers praised the video as it followed the lyrics and praised the video for such depictions . However , the product placement in the video by Nike shoes and Beats by Dr. Dre headphones was criticized . In 2010 , Eminem performed " Not Afraid " at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 ( E3 2010 ) , Oxegen 2010 , T in the Park 2010 and the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . He has also performed the song at the Bonnaroo Music Festival , Lollapalooza and the V Festival . Rolling Stone ranked it the 24th best song of 2010 .
= = Writing and recording = =
In 2009 , Eminem planned to release a sequel of his sixth studio album Relapse titled Relapse 2 , but cancelled the project and released a completely different studio release titled Recovery . He said , " as I kept recording and working with new producers , the idea of a sequel to Relapse started to make less and less sense to me , and I wanted to make a completely new album . " " Not Afraid " was primarily produced by the Canadian hip hop musician Boi @-@ 1da . According to Mike Strange , who recorded " Not Afraid " , he wanted to work with Boi @-@ 1da after listening to his " Forever " , which he had produced for the rapper Drake . Boi @-@ 1da sent Strange many tracks , to some of which Eminem wrote lyrics . These tracks were opened in Pro Tools , as Strange proceeded to record Eminem 's vocals . Recording sessions took place at Effigy Studios , in Ferndale , Michigan but Boi @-@ 1da was absent during the sessions .
The original tracks sent to Strange included mostly drums and keyboard pads ; they were placed under an inactive track titled " Orig beatz " . The instrumentation included a Roland TR @-@ 808 kick , a regular live kick , a hi @-@ hat , a ride cymbal and a snare drum . Underneath the track , there were horn , orchestra hit and pads , including a Mellotron sound that plays the chord progression . Strange told Sound on Sound magazine , " I like to have the vocal tracks at the top of the Session , because in hip @-@ hop they are the most important element . " Two of Eminem 's were placed underneath his main vocal track , as one of them featured his introductory words . Each play of the chorus was an overdub and not copies of a sample ; the only exception was the intro . The vocals for the bridge were overdubbed six times ; Auto @-@ Tune was not used at all in the song . The Detroit musician Luis Resto provided keyboard tracks on the bridge , including piano and guitar sound effects . Resto also added orchestration in the chorus and bridge of the song .
Strange arranged the Pro Tools session in a more traditional manner by laying out the drums , bass instruments , guitars , keyboards , main vocals and overdubs from left to right . While mixing , he began with drums , then the main vocals . He added the chorus and bridge , followed by other instrumentation . Strange mixed the track to satisfy Eminem , who , after entering the studio , made his own adjustments , providing additional production ; by then , Resto 's tracks were added . Strange made adjustments to Boi @-@ 1da 's tracks , using SSL equalization ( EQ ) and some compression . To keep the track in tune from pitch fluctuation , Strange used Trim and Auto @-@ Tune on Resto 's TR @-@ 808 kick . Strange arranged reverberation tools , including the Bricasti , Eventide 2016 , the Lexicon 480 , Lexicon PMC70 , and the Yamaha SPX90 .
The two rap tracks in the session used the Massenburg EQ plug @-@ in , " the ' 9' send goes to the eighth @-@ note delay track immediately above the two rap tracks " and Digidesign Extra Long Delay . Strange also used compressors , including the Alta Moda Unicomp , which he felt works well on vocals , as well as the kick and snare drums . Boi @-@ 1da 's track mostly used SSL and compression , but the bass used an API 550a . A Digidesign compressor limiter was set up on one of the horn sounds while the Massenburg EQ was used on an OB8 sound . Answering Eminem 's request , string overdubs were arranged and recorded by Jordan Evans and Matthew Burnett — providing additional production — and Robert Reyes recorded the choir 's vocals .
= = Composition = =
" Not Afraid " is a hip hop song written and produced by Boi @-@ 1da , Eminem , Evans and Burnett ; Resto did additional writing . Boi @-@ 1da provided drums ; Evans and Burnett provided string sounds . The lyrics focus on a positive change from Eminem 's past experiences , including an end to drug abuse , feuds and violence . The Los Angeles Times noted that a person hearing this song for the first time may identify it as Christian hip hop . MTV News writer Shaheem Reid noted that " There are no jabs at pop @-@ culture icons , no jovial goofballing . " Led by a guitar , synthesizer and piano , " Not Afraid " is published in the key of C minor and has a moderate tempo of 86 beats per minute , according to the sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing . A writer for MuchMusic website noted that Eminem chose to use his Marshall Mathers ego for the song , rather than Slim Shady . He follows a chord progression of Cm – A ♭ ( maj7 ) – E ♭ – B ♭ in the chorus .
The song begins with a brief introduction in which Eminem says while the chorus plays underneath , " Yeh , it 's been a ride . I guess I had to go to that place to get to this one . " When he begins the first verse , his lyrics threaten people who have looked down on him : " You can try to read my lyrics off of this paper before I lay ' em / But you won 't take the sting out these words before I say ' em . " On the second verse , Eminem says that he has indeed made mistakes , commenting on his Relapse album : " That last Relapse CD was ehh / Perhaps I ran them accents into the ground / Relax , I ain 't going to do that now . " When he says " All I 'm trying to say is get back , click clack , pow " , a gunshot is heard . Approaching the end of the second verse , Eminem raps about his personal experiences : " But I think I 'm still trying to figure this crap out / Thought I had it mapped out , but I guess I didn 't / It 's time to exorcise these demons / These motherfuckers are doing jumping jacks now . " After the chorus , Eminem sings a bridge and focuses on a positive change , as he says " I just can 't keep living this way , so starting today I 'm breaking out of this cage . " Before the final chorus , he says that he " shoots for the moon " . The song features a choir composed of Kip Blackshire , Christal Garrick II , Terry Dexter , Rich King , Kristen Ashley Cole and Sly Jordan .
= = Release and reception = =
On April 26 , 2010 , Eminem posted a message through his Twitter account that read , " I 'm ' Not Afraid ' " , without any elaboration . Fans and news organizations were able to interpret the message and announced that Eminem 's first single from his seventh studio album , Recovery would be titled " Not Afraid " . Radio personality Angela Yee , from radio station WWPR @-@ FM , confirmed that the new single would debut on Eminem 's uncensored radio station , Shade 45 . The singer 's manager , Paul Rosenberg , told Billboard that " It 's not a dark song , it 's an uplifting song . "
The new single was initially slated to impact radio on April 30 , 2010 ; however , the date was changed to one day earlier and the song eventually aired at 10 am ET , on Shade 45 's show The Morning After with Angela Yee . On May 5 , 2010 , the single was made available for digital download at online retailers through Aftermath Entertainment and Interscope Records . In the song , Eminem makes a reference to Relapse and spoke at Friday Night with Jonathan Ross about it : " ... looking back on it now in retrospect , I feel like there was a lot of stuff on there that was humorous and shock value and I had to go back and listen to my older material and figure out why ... Relapse didn 't make me feel like [ what ] used to and kind of put the feeling back into what I do . "
The song was featured in a trailer for the war film Act of Valor and is played during the ending credits to the film .
= = = Pre @-@ release promotion = = =
Two days before " Not Afraid " ' s slated release , Eminem released a freestyle rap video to promote the release of the album 's lead single . Titled " Despicable " , the vocals in the video are played over the instrumental versions of " Over " by Canadian rapper Drake and " Beamer , Benz or Bentley " by G @-@ Unit member Lloyd Banks ; the verse switches to the latter well into the two @-@ minute song . Lyrics make a reference to football quarterback Ben Roethlisberger in the line " I ’ d rather turn this club into a bar room brawl / Get as rowdy as Roethlisberger in a bathroom stall . " These lyrics refers to sexual assault allegations in March 2011 at a nightclub in Milledgeville , Georgia , causing controversy . Other references include those to fictional comic book character Superman : " I give as much of a flying fuck as that Superman dude " and to general popular culture : " Like a leaf suck in a vacuum , y ’ all / there ain ’ t nothing but a whole lotta sucking going on in rap . " Eminem 's final lyric makes a reference to Looney Tunes character Daffy Duck .
Music critics commented on the freestyle rap . Ray Roa of music website Consequence of Sound noted Eminem 's obvious frustration in the song , saying that he " sounds pissed off as ever on a new freestyle " . He also added , " The first minute and a half of the track is mellow by his standards , but when the beat switches to Banks ’ track , Eminem goes apeshit . " Melinda Newman of HitFix gave a positive review and wrote that the freestyle sounds like a " blast that sucks all the air out of room . It 's better than anything on Relapse , and the sheer dexterity of his rhyming skills is awe @-@ inspiring . " Thaindian News 's Madhuri Dey felt that " Eminem takes his usual route of taking a hit at some personality " . Adam Downer of Sputnikmusic wrote positively : " Eminem spits with the crazed desperation we remember from the albums . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
Not Afraid is considered his most critically acclaimed song after Lose Yourself and Stan . Reception of " Not Afraid " was mixed to positive . Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone praised the song 's tone : " Over a dark , operatic beat . Eminem delivers rhymes that are typically acrobatic — and typically heavy @-@ handed . But the anger has a gathering quality . " Dolan also praised the song 's inspirational theme . Henry Adaso of About.com gave a positive review on the song , noting " Boi @-@ 1da 's bouncy charm " and " heartwrenching lyrics from a master poet " as good aspects of the song and noted no negative aspects . In Adaso 's guide review , he praised Boi @-@ 1da 's production and Eminem 's affecting lyrics ; he considered the former 's work " shimmering " and Eminem 's " sensitive lyrics entwine on this knocker " ; overall , he gave the song four and a half stars out of a possible five . After the song 's release , AllHipHop called it " an anthem in nature and rebellious to the core . " In her review of the Recovery , Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone noted that even if Eminem — reaching his late 30s — is becoming " a grumpy middle @-@ aged man , at least he 's owning it " . Winston Robbins of music website Consequence of Sound called " Not Afraid " one of the songs on Recovery " with catchy hooks , choruses , and beats multiplied by the endless pool of wit and anger that Eminem possesses " . In his album review , Thomas Nassiff wrote on behalf of AbsolutePunk ; he noted the song for being radio @-@ friendly and that it " doesn 't sacrifice anything to be friendly to the masses . " Andy Gill of The Independent said that this is where " the only completely commendable sentiment on the entire album comes " and called it a " proud rehab anthem " . In his review for Recovery , Benjamin Meadows @-@ Ingram of Spin magazine called " Not Afraid " a " stadium @-@ ready lead single " ; he went on to say , " Finally , Eminem addresses his personal and professional failings head @-@ on , rather than hiding behind a joke or inside a nightmare . It 's a necessary first step in moving on . "
The song also faced mixed and negative reviews . After " Not Afraid " leaked onto the Internet on April 29 , 2010 , Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly magazine commented on the song , noting both positive and negative characteristics ; he first complimented Eminem 's change of lyrical theme , calling it anthemic in nature and noting its inspirational and powerful message . He compared the song 's theme to Eminem 's 2002 single " Sing for the Moment " and his 2009 single , " Beautiful " . Vozick @-@ Levinson called Eminem 's rapping " wild " but was dismissive of the production , saying , " The track behind ' Not Afraid ' has the same tinny , repetitive , wannabe @-@ epic quality that 's annoyed me on Boi @-@ 1da productions like ' Forever . ' " Mayer Nissem of British site Digital Spy gave the song three stars out of a possible five , and wrote a mixed review ; the reviewer first commented , " Thank heavens ! – Marshall Mathers III has opted against his usual trick of cobbling together a hook and some ' satire ' via two @-@ year @-@ old back issues of the Inquirer to trail it . " However , Nissem criticized other aspects of the song , saying that Eminem 's " decision to chronicle ... feels a little worthy and more than a touch dull . " He felt that Eminem 's previous songs never bored the listener , unlike " Not Afraid " . Jeff Weiss of the Los Angeles Times commented that " Not Afraid " was an improvement from the lead singles of Encore ( 2004 ) and Relapse , " Just Lose It " and " We Made You " , respectively , giving for a more serious and inspirational theme . However , Weiss misses the comic nature of Eminem 's classic singles , such as " My Name Is " ; instead , he felt that the song was composed of " vague self @-@ help bromides and a bombastic but nondescript beat from ... Boi @-@ 1da . " When discussing the chorus , Weiss commented that it " doesn ’ t make for very engaging listening . " Finally , he discussed possible influences by American rapper T.I. , but overall , he named it a disappointing lead single .
John Ulmer of website One Thirty BPM gave the song seven points out of a possible ten , and published a mixed review ; he praised it for being a more serious track compared to previous lead singles " Just Lose It " ( 2004 ) and " We Made You " ( 2009 ) but criticized it for being less powerful compared to his 2002 hit single , " Lose Yourself " , and " Beautiful " . According to Ulmer , " Upon first listen it 's a bit corny , but it 's appropriately anthemic , and not bad enough to deter from the strength of the overall track . " He noted that although Eminem does not have as much of a frustrated voice as he does in " Despicable " , he admits that Relapse was a silly album . Pitchfork Media 's Jayson Greene wrote a rather negative review on Recovery and was very dismissive on the song : " Eminem spends nearly half of Recovery insisting he 's the best rapper alive , but for the first time in his career , he actually sounds clumsy . " Kitty Empire of newspaper The Guardian also wrote negatively on the song in her album review , criticizing the song 's lyrics : " Rhyming ' through a storm ' with ' whatever weather / cold or warm ' in the chorus is unforgivable for a master rhymer . " As part of his album review , Greg Kot of daily newspaper Chicago Tribune criticized Eminem 's lyrics and rhymes in " Not Afraid " , comparing them to his rhyming skills back when his 2002 hip hop drama film , 8 Mile , premiered : " Doesn 't he realize that 's the kind of cheese that the battle @-@ rhyming Eminem of 8 Mile would 've mercilessly mocked ? "
= = = Chart performance = = =
According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Not Afraid " sold 380 @,@ 000 digital copies in its first week , giving Eminem the biggest sales week for a digital single between the beginning of 2010 and the date of the song 's release . Three songs received higher sales during their first week : Flo Rida 's " Right Round " , The Black Eyed Peas ' " Boom Boom Pow " and Eminem 's " Crack a Bottle " , which were all 2009 singles . " Not Afraid " proved to be successful when it debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number one , a feat only 15 songs had accomplished previously . The song was Eminem 's third number @-@ one single on the Hot 100 , coming after " Lose Yourself " and " Crack a Bottle " . " Not Afraid " was also the first to debut at number one since October 17 , 2009 , when American recording artist Britney Spears 's " 3 " debuted atop the chart . It is the first hip hop single by a male to debut at number one since American rapper Sean Combs ( known then as " Puff Daddy " ) topped the chart in 1997 , with " I 'll Be Missing You " , which features Faith Evans and band 112 .
After entering the Digital Songs chart at number one , the song fell down to number four the next week , and to number six on the Hot 100 , with sales of 202 @,@ 000 digital copies . On June 14 , 2010 , " Not Afraid " rose to number five again with sales of 157 @,@ 000 copies . On July 14 , 2010 , it rose from 22 to 24 on the Hot 100 ; by then , the song was downloaded a total of 1 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 times . On July 25 , 2010 , the song crossed the two million mark , based on total sales . As of August 2013 , the song has sold 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital copies . In June 2014 the song was certified 10 × Platinum by RIAA .
" Not Afraid " debuted at number one on the Canadian Hot 100 , remaining on the chart for 20 weeks . On the UK Singles Chart , the song debuted on June 5 , 2010 at number five , its highest position . It dropped to number six the following week , to number ten on July 10 , 2010 , and to number 14 the week after . On August 7 , 2010 , the song dropped to number 23 and its last UK Singles Chart appearance would be on September 4 , giving the song a total of 14 weeks on the chart . " Not Afraid " entered New Zealand 's Top 40 Singles chart on May 10 , 2010 at number eight , its peak position . Lasting on the chart for a total of 23 weeks , the song would not make its last chart appearance in New Zealand until September 9 , 2010 , at number 34 . On the ARIA Top 50 Singles , the song entered at number 16 in its first week and reached its peak at number four , the following week ; its lowest and final chart position occurred during the song 's 27th week on the chart , at number 48 .
On the Ö3 Austria Top 40 , Austria 's official singles chart , May 21 , 2010 marked the song 's chart debut , at number 22 . It reached its peak on August 13 , at number five and would stay at that position for another week . Before re @-@ entering on January 14 , 2011 at number 72 , the song made a last consecutive chart appearance on November 19 , 2011 at number 52 . The song dropped to the bottom of the chart ( number 75 ) on January 21 , 2011 , before exiting it . In Italy , the song only charted for one week , at number three ; the same occurred in France , on February 19 , 2011 , at number 97 . " Not Afraid " lasted 19 weeks on the Irish Singles Chart and made a final chart appearance on September 30 , 2010 , at number 36 . Flanders ' chart , Ultratop 50 , gave the song a debut position at number 13 on May 15 , 2010 ; the song would not reach a higher position and would drop to number 49 in its 16th and final week . On Wallonia 's chart , Ultratop 50 , the song debuted at number 14 and would not chart again until July 3 , 2010 , at number 40 . Longer than on any other chart , " Not Afraid " charted in Sweden for 43 consecutive weeks , debuting at number five and charting at number 49 in its final week .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
Before filming began , Eminem spoke to Paul Rosenberg on the telephone about his ideas for a music video of " Not Afraid " ; the two shared thoughts and started collaborating in May 2010 . American director Richard " Rich " Lee was hired to direct the video , which was shot on Market Street , in Newark , New Jersey as well as New York City . On the first day , Eminem filmed the opening scene on the rooftop of the Manhattan Municipal Building . Lee called the moment " sort of like a very internal feeling kind of video " . In an interview , while the video was being shot , Eminem spoke about working with Lee " as pretty anti @-@ climactic , for the most part , you know what I mean ... It 's good working with him , you know , he 's about his business " . The scene in which Eminem
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jumps from a cliff and dives , was done at Greenpoint Warehouse , in Brooklyn with Lee and video producer Justin Diener . Also working with Eminem on the video included Dennis Dennehy and Chris Clancy for marketing . The final scene filmed on the first day was where Eminem would try to escape from a dark basement ; shooting in Newark also continued .
The second day of shooting focused on Eminem as he walked through Market Street in Newark . Eminem 's final shoot before wrapping up was a mirror scene , which included many glass mirrors , and a fake one among them , through which he would have to break through . On May 30 , 2010 , Eminem confirmed the video 's release date in a Twitter message : " For those ' patiently waiting , ' the NOT AFRAID video will premier Saturday 6 / 5 . Details later ... " The day before the video 's premiere , a teaser trailer was uploaded onto video sharing site YouTube , which combines many clips from the full video . The music video was uploaded on video website VEVO on June 5 , 2010 at 11 : 30 am ET . VEVO stylized their logo with the E reversed , similar to Eminem 's logo . On June 7 , the television premiere took place on MTV and VH1 , and the former featured a primetime encore the day after .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video opens with a scene in which Eminem stands on the rooftop of the Manhattan Municipal Building in New York , saying the introductory lyrics . The video cuts between scenes where he raps on the rooftop and another scene where Eminem is trapped inside a dark basement . Eminem moves closer towards the edge of the building until he leaves to go downstairs as the chorus begins . He starts walking down Market Street in Newark and jaywalks across the street , avoiding vehicles that pass by . Eminem sees distorted reflections of himself on the window of a car ; he continues on , only to be surrounded by a series of mirrors . Confused , Eminem tries to escape , and towards the end of the second chorus , he breaks through a mirror to find himself in the middle of the street . Interspersing scenes show Eminem as he tries to break out of the basement . As the camera zooms out , the viewers see him on the edge of a destroyed street while a subway tunnel can be seen below the road .
Eminem then jumps off the edge and makes a steep dive , but flies straight up again ; his speedy flight down Market Street causes sonic booms on vehicles nearby . Eventually , Eminem flies up , back to the rooftop of the Manhattan Municipal Building , in New York City , where the video began .
= = = Reception = = =
The video was received with generally positive reviews . Following the video 's VEVO release , Monica Herrera of Billboard named Eminem 's jumping sequence " a moment of triumph " and compared his flying scene to Superman . She also noted similarities of the video 's events and the song 's lyrics , deeming them a powerful word to Eminem 's haters , where Eminem raps about destroying one 's balcony . Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone felt that Eminem " similarly puts his redemption in the spotlight " and notices courage . Kreps went on to compare Eminem 's flying scene to Canadian actor Keanu Reeves from the 1999 science fiction film The Matrix . In his review for Entertainment Weekly , Vozick @-@ Levinson wrote : " We are to understand that he is once again at wit 's end with the world , full of barely contained energy that he 's not yet sure how to direct . " Although he didn 't feel that the video was Eminem 's best , Vozick @-@ Levinson praised the video for its message in relation to the song 's vibe ; he also made a comparison to Eminem 's music video for " The Way I Am " , as both videos involve Eminem as he jumps from a great height . Patrick D 'Arcy of Spin thought that Eminem is " an satria unlikely motivational speaker , but an effective one . "
= = Live performances = =
On June 5 , 2010 , Eminem performed " Not Afraid " on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross . In celebration of the then @-@ upcoming release of Treyarch @-@ developed shooter game Call of Duty : Black Ops , video game publisher Activision organized many artists to perform at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 ( E3 2010 ) — which took place at the Staples Center in Los Angeles — including Eminem . Joined by Blink @-@ 182 drummer Travis Barker , Eminem performed songs from his album , including " Not Afraid " , " Love the Way You Lie " and " Won 't Back Down " . At E3 2011 , a choir , as well as hypeman Mr. Porter sung with Eminem during the chorus of " Not Afraid " , while his band played with an orchestra . The audience presumed the performance was over ; however , Eminem shortly returned to the stage to end with " Lose Yourself " . News distributor PR Newswire wrote , " Eminem ignited the crowd as he closed the all @-@ star event " . Matt Elias of MTV News also praised the show , and said that " Eminem performed an electrifying set ... , crushing any doubts that he is truly back in the game " . Antony Bruno of Billboard called the performance " a literal bang " while Seve Appleford of Rolling Stone wrote , " The rapper marched along the catwalk with his usual intensity , previewing new songs from next week 's release Recovery . " Activision reportedly spent six million dollars on party costs .
" Not Afraid " was included on Eminem 's set list as the final song before Eminem 's " Lose Yourself " encore in his performance at the T in the Park festival , which took place on July 10 , 2010 . This would be his first European concert in five years . Eminem wore black shorts and a hoodie . He commented on the weather , saying , " I know it 's muddy and sloppy and shit but this is fun " , and also thanked the crowd for supporting him . " Everybody who 's an Eminem fan , I just wanna say thank you so much for the support you 've shown over the years , for not giving up on me , " he said , " I hope you enjoyed the show as much as we did tonight . Peace . " At the end of the performance , Eminem said , " Edin @-@ borg , did you enjoy yourself tonight ? " That evening , members of the audience accused Eminem of lip syncing , but others defended him of such accusations . The T in the Park performance of " Not Afraid " is included as the second track on the " Love the Way You Lie " CD single . Eminem performed " Not Afraid " for a small audience in a small room at the beginning of the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards ; he performed the song once again at the Los Angeles Nokia Theatre , the main site of the ceremony , and performed " Love the Way You Lie " with Barbadian singer Rihanna . The audience voted his performance the best with 34 percent of all votes .
Eminem performed " Not Afraid " alongside Porter at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music Festival . He arrived in a Bad Meets Evil T @-@ shirt , camouflage shorts , a black hoodie and a black hat . His set list included other hits from previous years , including " Cleanin ' Out My Closet " , " The Real Slim Shady " , " Without Me " and " Like Toy Soldiers " ; he also performed with Bad Meets Evil partner Royce da 5 ' 9 " for " Fast Lane " and " Lighters " . Almost 80 @,@ 000 members of the audience chanted " Shady ! " for five minutes until Eminem returned to perform an encore with " Lose Yourself " . Before performing " Not Afraid " , Eminem told the audience , " All jokes aside ... Thank you for sticking by me and not giving up on me . " At one point during the show , he told them , " Everybody here tonight , I just wanna say thank you for sticking by me and not giving up on me . " News sources praised the performance ; James Montgomery of MTV News wrote , " what stood out the most about Em 's performance was the sheer tenacity with which he attacked it . " News agency Associated Press said that " Bonnaroo 's crowd may be a hippie enclave , but you wouldn 't have known it Saturday night " . HitFix blog 's Katie Hasty considered the " Not Afraid " performance " triumphant , perhaps due to crowd buzz " . Patrick Doyle of Rolling Stone wrote , " Eminem 's hour @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half set was a triumph , with the rapper constantly bouncing across the stage , performing hit after hit with the energy of a prizefighter . "
Eminem performed the song as part of a set list on the second day of Chicago 's Lollapalooza festival with Porter , in front of an audience of 90 @,@ 000 people . The Hollywood Reporter 's Steve Baltin wrote , " given the infrequency with which he tours , it 's sometimes easy to forget just how dynamic a performer he is , but after a spectacular 90 @-@ minute show , there was no denying the rapper 's power . " Adam Graham of The Detroit News said that " Eminem delivered the goods to the huge throng of people " . Gil Kaufman of MTV News felt that " Eminem came , saw and conquered his Lollapalooza debut . " Eminem performed a 28 @-@ song set list at Virgin Group 's V Festival ( V2011 ) on August 20 , 2011 and the following day , which included " Not Afraid " as the final song before the encore of " Lose Yourself " . The first day took place in Chelmsford , Essex and the second day took place in Staffordshire . Eminem reportedly earned a total of £ 2 million for his two performances . Chris Salmon of The Guardian called Eminem 's performance of " Not Afraid " " majestic " ; he went on to writing that " It 's a set fit to close any festival , pop @-@ centred or otherwise . " BBC 's Chi Chi Izundu noted that Eminem 's performance was " fast @-@ paced " .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Track listings and formats = =
Digital download
" Not Afraid " – 4 : 10
CD single
" Not Afraid " – 4 : 10
" Not Afraid " ( Instrumental ) – 4 : 10
= = Credits and personnel = =
The credits for " Not Afraid " are adapted from the liner notes of Recovery .
Recording
Recorded at : Effigy Studios in Ferndale , Michigan , Encore Studios in Burbank , California and Ajax , Ontario .
Personnel
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release and radio add history = =
= Kalimpong =
Kalimpong ( Bengali : কালিম ্ পং , Nepali : कालेबुङ ) is a hill station in the Indian state of West Bengal . It is located at an average elevation of 1 @,@ 250 metres ( 4 @,@ 101 ft ) . The town is set to be the headquarters of the announced district of Kalimpong . The Indian Army 's 27 Mountain Division is located on the outskirts of the town .
The Kalimpong is known for its educational institutions , many of which were established during the British colonial period . It used to be a gateway in the trade between Tibet and India before China 's annexation of Tibet and the Sino @-@ Indian War . Kalimpong and neighbouring Darjeeling were major centres calling for a separate Gorkhaland state in the 1980s , and more recently in 2010 .
The municipality sits on a ridge overlooking the Teesta River and is a tourist destination owing to its temperate climate , magnificent Himalayan beauty and proximity to popular tourist locations in the region . Horticulture is important to Kalimpong : It has a flower market notable for its wide array of orchids ; nurseries , which export Himalayan grown flower bulbs , tubers and rhizomes , contribute to the economy of Kalimpong . Home to ethnic Nepalis , indigenous Lepchas , other ethnic groups and non @-@ native migrants from other parts of India , the town is a religious centre of Buddhism . The Buddhist monastery Zang Dhok Palri Phodang holds a number of rare Tibetan Buddhist scriptures .
The Kalimpong Science Centre , established under the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council ( DGHC ) in 2008 is a recent addition to its many tourist attractions . The Science Centre , which provides for scientific awareness among the students of the town and the locals sits atop the Deolo Hill .
= = Name origin = =
The precise etymology of the name Kalimpong remains unclear . There are many theories on the origin of the name . One widely accepted theory claims that the name " Kalimpong " means " Assembly ( or Stockade ) of the King 's Ministers " in Tibetan , derived from kalon ( " King 's ministers " ) and pong ( " stockade " ) . It may be derived from the translation " ridge where we play " from Lepcha , as it was known to be the place for traditional tribal gatherings for summer sporting events . People from the hills call the area Kalempung ( " the black spurs " ) .
According to K.P. Tamsang , author of The Untold and Unknown Reality about the Lepchas , the term Kalimpong is deduced from the name Kalenpung , which in Lepcha means " Hillock of Assemblage " ; in time , the name was distorted to Kalebung , and later further contorted to Kalimpong . Another possible derivation points to Kaulim , a fibrous plant found in abundance in the region .
= = History = =
Until the mid @-@ 19th century , the area around Kalimpong was ruled in succession by the Sikkimese and Bhutanese kingdoms . Under Sikkimese rule , the area was known as Dalingkot . In 1706 , the king of Bhutan won this territory from the Sikkimese monarch and renamed it Kalimpong . Overlooking the Teesta Valley , Kalimpong is believed to have once been the forward position of the Bhutanese in the 18th century . The area was sparsely populated by the indigenous Lepcha community and migrant Bhutia and Limbu tribes . Later in 1780 , the Gurkhas invaded and conquered Kalimpong . After the Anglo @-@ Bhutan War in 1864 , the Treaty of Sinchula ( 1865 ) was signed , in which Bhutanese held territory east of the Teesta River was ceded to the British East India Company . At that time , Kalimpong was a hamlet , with only two or three families known to reside there . The first recorded mention of the town was a fleeting reference made that year by Ashley Eden , a government official with the Bengal Civil Service . Kalimpong was added to district of Darjeeling in 1866 . In 1866 – 1867 an Anglo @-@ Bhutanese commission demarcated the common boundaries between the two , thereby giving shape to the Kalimpong subdivision and the Darjeeling district .
After the war , the region became a subdivision of the Western Duars district , and the following year it was merged with the district of Darjeeling . The temperate climate prompted the British to develop the town as an alternative hill station to Darjeeling , to escape the scorching summer heat in the plains . Kalimpong 's proximity to the Nathu La and Jelep La passes ( La means " pass " ) , offshoots of the ancient Silk Road , was an added advantage . It soon became an important trading outpost in the trade of furs , wools and food grains between India and Tibet . The increase in commerce attracted large numbers of migrants from Nepal , leading to an increase in population and economic prosperity . Britain assigned a plot within Kalimpong to the influential Bhutanese Dorji family , through which trade and relations with Bhutan flowed . This later became Bhutan House , a Bhutanese administrative and cultural center .
The arrival of Scottish missionaries saw the construction of schools and welfare centres for the British . Rev. W. Macfarlane in the early 1870s established the first schools in the area . The Scottish University Mission Institution was opened in 1886 , followed by the Kalimpong Girls High School . In 1900 , Reverend J.A. Graham founded the Dr. Graham 's Homes for destitute Anglo @-@ Indian students . By 1907 , most schools in Kalimpong started offering education to Indian students . By 1911 , the population had swollen to 7 @,@ 880 .
Following Indian independence in 1947 , Kalimpong became part of the state of West Bengal , after Bengal was partitioned between India and Pakistan . With China 's annexation of Tibet in 1959 , many Buddhist monks fled Tibet and established monasteries in Kalimpong . These monks brought many rare Buddhist scriptures with them . In 1962 , the permanent closure of the Jelep Pass after the Sino @-@ Indian War disrupted trade between Tibet and India , and led to a slowdown in Kalimpong 's economy . In 1976 , the visiting Dalai Lama consecrated the Zang Dhok Palri Phodang monastery , which houses many of the scriptures .
Between 1986 and 1988 , the demand for a separate state of Gorkhaland and Kamtapur based on ethnic lines grew strong . Riots between the Gorkha National Liberation Front ( GNLF ) and the West Bengal government reached a stand @-@ off after a forty @-@ day strike . The town was virtually under siege , and the state government called in the Indian army to maintain law and order . This led to the formation of the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council , a body that was given semi @-@ autonomous powers to govern the Darjeeling district , except the area under the Siliguri subdivision . Since 2007 , the demand for a separate Gorkhaland state has been revived by the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha and its supporters in the Darjeeling hills . The Kamtapur People 's Party and its supporters ' movement for a separate Kamtapur state covering North Bengal have gained momentum .
= = Geography = =
The town centre is on a ridge connecting two hills , Deolo Hill and Durpin Hill , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 247 m ( 4 @,@ 091 ft ) . Deolo , the highest point in Kalimpong , has an altitude of 1 @,@ 704 m ( 5 @,@ 591 ft ) and Durpin Hill is at an elevation of 1 @,@ 372 m ( 4 @,@ 501 ft ) . The River Teesta flows in the valley below and separates Kalimpong from the state of Sikkim . The soil in the Kalimpong area is typically reddish in color . Occasional dark soils are found due to extensive existence of phyllite and schists . The Shiwalik Hills , like most of the Himalayan foothills , have steep slopes and soft , loose topsoil , leading to frequent landslides in the monsoon season . The hills are nestled within higher peaks and the snow @-@ clad Himalayan ranges tower over the town in the distance . Mount Kanchenjunga at 8 @,@ 586 m ( 28 @,@ 169 ft ) the world 's third tallest peak , is clearly visible from Kalimpong .
Kalimpong has five distinct seasons : spring , summer , autumn , winter and the monsoons . The annual temperature ranges from a high of 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) to a low of 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) . Summers are mild , with an average maximum temperature of 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in August . Summers are followed by the monsoon rains which lash the town between June and September . The monsoons are severe , often causing landslides which sequester the town from the rest of India . Winter lasts from December to February , with the maximum temperature being around 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . During the monsoon and winter seasons , Kalimpong is often enveloped by fog .
= = Economy = =
Tourism is the most significant contributor to Kalimpong 's economy . The summer and spring seasons are the most popular with tourists , keeping many of town 's residents employed directly and indirectly . The town — earlier an important trade post between India and Tibet — hopes to boost its economy after the reopening of the Nathu La ( pass ) in April 2006 . Though this has resumed Indo – China border trades , it is expected that Kalimpong will have a better chance of revival as a hub for Indo – China trades if the demand of local leaders for reopening of Jelep La pass also is met .
Kalimpong is a major ginger growing area of India . Kalimpong and the state of Sikkim together contribute 15 percent of ginger produced in India . The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region is internationally famous for its tea industry . However , most of the tea gardens are on the western side of Teesta river ( towards the town of Darjeeling ) and so tea gardens near Kalimpong contribute only 4 percent of total tea production of the region . In Kalimpong division , 90 percent of land is cultivable but only 10 percent is used for tea production . Kalimpong is well known for its flower export industry — especially for its wide array of indigenous orchids and gladioli .
A significant contributor to the town 's economy is education sector . The schools of Kalimpong , besides imparting education to the locals , attract a significant number of students from the plains , the neighbouring state of Sikkim and countries such as Bhutan , Bangladesh , Nepal and Thailand .
Many establishments cater to the Indian army bases near the town , providing it with essential supplies . Small contributions to the economy come by the way of the sale of traditional arts and crafts of Sikkim and Tibet . Government efforts related to sericulture , seismology , and fisheries provide a steady source of employment to many of its residents .
Kalimpong is well renowned for its cheese , noodles and lollipops . Kalimpong exports a wide range of traditional handicrafts , wood @-@ carvings , embroidered items , bags and purses with tapestry work , copper ware , scrolls , Tibetan jewellery and artifacts .
= = Transport = =
Kalimpong is located off the National Highway 31A ( NH31A ) , which links Sevok to Gangtok . The NH31A is an offshoot of the NH 31 , which connects Sevok to Siliguri . These two National Highways together , via Sevok , links Kalimpong to the plains . Regular bus services and hired vehicles connect Kalimpong with Siliguri and the neighbouring towns of Kurseong , Darjeeling and Gangtok . Four wheel drives are popular means of transport , as they can easily navigate the steep slopes in the region . However , road communication often get disrupted in the monsoons due to landslides . In the town , people usually travel by foot . Residents also use bicycle , two @-@ wheelers and hired taxis for short distances .
The nearest airport is in Bagdogra near Siliguri , about 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) from Kalimpong . Air India , Jet Airways and Druk Air ( Bhutan ) are the four major carriers that connect the airport to Delhi , Calcutta , Paro ( Bhutan ) , Guwahati and Bangkok ( Thailand ) . The closest major railway station is New Jalpaiguri , on the outskirts of Siliguri , which is connected with almost all major cities of the country .
= = Demographics = =
At the 2011 India census , Kalimpong town area had a population of 42 @,@ 988 , of which 52 % were male and 48 % female .
At the 2001 census , Kalimpong had an average literacy rate of 79 % , higher than the national average of 59 @.@ 5 % : male literacy was 84 % , and female literacy was 73 % . In Kalimpong , 8 % of the population was under 6 years of age . The Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes population for Kalimpong was 5 @,@ 100 and 5 @,@ 121 respectively .
= = Civic administration = =
Kalimpong is the headquarters of the Kalimpong subdivision of the Darjeeling district . The semi @-@ autonomous Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council ( DGHC ) , set up by the West Bengal government in 1988 , administers this subdivision as well as the Darjeeling Sadar and Kurseong subdivisions . Kalimpong elects eight councillors to the DGHC , who manages the departments of Public Health , Education , Public Works , Transport , Tourism , Market , Small scale industries , Agriculture , Agricultural waterways , Forest ( except reserved forests ) , Water , Livestock , Vocational Training and Sports and Youth services . The district administration of Darjeeling , which is the authoritative body for the departments of election , panchayat , law and order , revenue etc . , also acts as an interface of communication between the Council and the State Government . The rural area in the subdivision covers three community development blocks Kalimpong I , Kalimpong II and Gorubathan consisting of forty @-@ two gram panchayats . A Sub @-@ Divisional Officer ( SDO ) presides over the Kalimpong subdivision . Kalimpong has a police station that serves the municipality and 18 gram panchayats of Kalimpong – I CD block .
The Kalimpong municipality , which was established in 1945 , is in charge of the infrastructure of the town such as potable water and roads . The municipal area is divided into twenty @-@ three wards . Kalimpong municipality is constructing additional water storage tanks to meet the requirement of potable water , and it needs an increase of water supply from the ' Neora Khola Water Supply Scheme ' for this purpose . Often , landslides occurring in monsoon season cause havoc to the roads in and around Kalimpong . The West Bengal State Electricity Distribution Corporation Limited ( WBSEDCL ) that provides electricity here , needs to resolve issues like voltage fluctuations , unstable electrical supply and faulty electrical meters etc. faced by people of Kalimpong . Renewable Energy Development Agency of the state has plans to promote usage of solar street lights in Kalimpong and proposed an energy park here to sell renewable energy gadgets . The Public Works Department is responsible for the road connecting the town to the National Highway – NH @-@ 31A . The Kalimpong municipality has a total of 10 health care units , with a total of 433 bed capacity .
The Kalimpong assembly constituency , which is an assembly segment of the Darjeeling parliamentary constituency , elects one member of the Vidhan Sabha of West Bengal .
= = People , culture , and cuisine = =
The original settlers of Kalimpong are the Lepchas although the majority of the populace are ethnic Nepali , having migrated from Nepal to Kalimpong in search of jobs while it was under British rule .
Indigenous ethnic groups include the Newars , Bhutia , Sherpas , Limbus , Rais , Magars , Chettris , Bahuns , Thakuris , Gurungs , Tamangs , Yolmos , Bhujels , Sunuwars , Sarkis , Damais and the Kamis . The other non @-@ native communities are the Bengalis , Marwaris , Anglo @-@ Indian , Chinese , Biharis and Tibetans who escaped to Kalimpong after fleeing the Communist Chinese invasion of Tibet . Kalimpong is home to Trinley Thaye Dorje — one of the 17th Karmapa incarnations . Kalimpong is the closest Indian town to Bhutan 's western border , and has a small number of Bhutanese nationals residing here . Hinduism is the largest religion followed by Buddhism and Christianity . Islam has a minuscule presence in this region , mostly Tibetan Muslims who fled in 1959 after Chinese invasion of Tibet . The Buddhist monastery Zang Dhok Palri Phodang holds a number of rare Tibetan Buddhist scriptures . There is a mosque in the bazaar area of Kalimpong .
Popular Hindu festivals include Dashain , Tihar and the Buddhist festival of Losar . Languages spoken in Kalimpong include Nepali , which is the predominant language ; Lepcha , Limbu , Tamang , Kirat , Hindi , English and Bengali . Though there is a growing interest in cricket as a winter sport in Darjeeling Hills , football still remains the most popular sport in Kalimpong . Every year since 1947 , the Independence Shield Football Tournament is organized here as part of the two @-@ day @-@ long Independence Day celebrations . Former captain of India national football team , Pem Dorjee hails from Kalimpong . A popular snack in Kalimpong is the momo , steamed dumplings made up of pork , beef or vegetable cooked in a wrapping of flour and served with watery soup . Wai @-@ Wai is a packaged Nepalese snack made of noodles which are eaten either dry or in soup form . Churpee , a kind of hard cheese made from yak 's or chauri 's ( a hybrid of yak and cattle ) milk , is sometimes chewed . A form of noodle called Thukpa , served in soup form is popular in Kalimpong . There are a large number of restaurants which offer a wide variety of cuisines , ranging from Indian to continental , to cater to the tourists . Tea is the most popular beverage in Kalimpong , procured from the famed Darjeeling tea gardens . Kalimpong has a golf course besides Kalimpong Circuit House .
The cultural centres in Kalimpong include , the Lepcha Museum and the Zang Dhok Palri Phodang monastery . The Lepcha Museum , a kilometre away from the town centre , showcases the culture of the Lepcha community , the indigenous peoples of Sikkim . The Zang Dhok Palri Phodong monastery has 108 volumes of the Kangyur , and belongs to the Gelug of Buddhism .
= = Media = =
Kalimpong has access to most of the television channels aired in the rest of India . Cable Television still provides service to many homes in the town and it 's outskirts , while DTH connections are now practically mandatory throughout the country . Besides mainstream Indian channels , many Nepali @-@ language channels such as Dainandini DD , Kalimpong Television KTv , Haal Khabar ( an association of the Hill Channel Network ) , Jan Sarokar , Himalayan People 's Channel ( HPC ) , and Kalimpong Times are broadcast in Kalimpong . These channels , which mainly broadcast locally relevant news , are produced by regional media houses and news networks , and are broadcast through the local cable network , which is now slowly becoming defunct due to the Indian government 's ruling on mandatory digitization of TV channels .
Newspapers in Kalimpong include English language dailies The Statesman and The Telegraph , which are printed in Siliguri , and The Economic Times and the Hindustan Times , which are printed in Kolkata ( Calcutta ) .
Among other languages , Nepali , Hindi and Bengali are prominent vernacular languages used in this region . Newspapers in all these four languages are available in the Darjeeling Hills region . Of the largely circulated Nepali newspapers Himalay Darpan , Swarnabhumi and some Sikkim @-@ based Nepali newspapers like Hamro Prajashakti and Samay Dainik are read most . The Tibet Mirror was the first Tibetan @-@ language newspaper published in Kalimpong in 1925 @.@ while Himalayan Times was the first English to have come out from Kalimpong in the year 1947 , it was closed down in the year 1962 after the Chinese aggression but was started once again and is now in regular print . It is known for its bold and aggressive stand on all local issues . Internet service and Internet cafés are well established ; these are mostly served through broadband , data card of different mobile services , WLL , dialup lines , Kalimpong News ( http : / / kalimpongnews.net ) , Kalimpong Online News ( http : / / kalimpongonlinenews.blogspot.com ) , Kalimpong Times ( http : / / www.kalimpongtimes.com / ) and KTV ( http : / / www.kalimpongtv.com / ) are the main online news sites that collect and present local and North Bengal & Sikkim news from its own agencies like KalimNews and other newspapers . Besides this there are others like kalimpong.info , kalimpongexpress.blogspot.com and several others . All India Radio and several other National and Private Channels including FM Radio are received in Kalimpong .
The area is serviced by major telecommunication companies of India with most types of cellular services in most areas .
= = Education = =
There are fifteen major schools in Kalimpong , the most notable ones being Scottish Universities Mission Institution , Dr. Graham 's Homes , St Joseph 's Convent , St. Augustine 's School , Rockvale Academy , Saptashri Gyanpeeth , Springdale Academy , St. Philomenas School , Kalimpong Girls ' High School , Kumdini Homes and Gandhi Ashram School . The Scottish Universities Mission Institution was the first school that was opened in 1886 . Schools offer education up to class high secondary , following which students may choose to join a Junior College or carry on with an additional two years of schooling .
Kalimpong College , Cluny Women 's College and Rockvale Management College are the main colleges in the town . Former two are affiliated to the North Bengal University and the later affiliated to West Bengal University of Technology apart from these Good Shepherd IHM ( Hotel management Institution ) offer courses on hospitality sectors . Most students however , choose to further their studies in Siliguri , Calcutta , and other colleges in the Indian metropolis . The Tharpa Choling Monastery , at Tirpai Hill near Kalimpong , is managed by Yellow Hat sect and has a library of Tibetan manuscripts and thankas .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The area around Kalimpong lies in the Eastern Himalayas , which is classified as an ecological hotspot , one of only three among the ecoregions of India . Neora Valley National Park that lies within the Kalimpong subdivision and is home to tigers . Acacia is the most commonly found species at lower altitudes , while cinnamon , ficus , bamboo , cacti and cardamom , are found in the hillsides around Kalimpong . The forests found at higher altitudes are made up of pine trees and other evergreen alpine vegetation . Seven species of rhododendrons are found in the region east of Kalimpong . The temperate deciduous forests include oak , birch , maple and alder . Three hundred species of orchid are found around Kalimpong , and Poinsettia and sunflower are some of the wild species that line the roads of Kalimpong .
The Red panda , Clouded leopard , Siberian weasel , Asiatic black bear , barking deer , Himalayan tahr , goral , gaur and pangolin are some of the fauna found near Kalimpong . Avifauna of the region include the pheasants , cuckoos , minivets , flycatchers , bulbuls , orioles , owls , partridges , sunbirds , warblers , swallows , swifts and woodpeckers .
Kalimpong is a major production centre of gladioli in India , and orchids , which are exported to many parts of the world . The Rishi Bankim Chandra Park is an ecological museums within Kalimpong . Citrus Dieback Research Station at Kalimpong works towards control of diseases , plant protection and production of disease free orange seedlings .
Kalimpong is also famous for their rich practice of cactus cultivation . Its nurseries attract people from far and wide for the absolutely stunning collection of cacti which they host . The strains of cacti , though not indigenous to the locale , has been carefully cultivated over the years , and now town boasts one of the most fascinating and exhaustive collection of the Cactaceae family . The plants have adapted well to the altitude and environment , and now proves to be one of the chief proponents of tourism to the township .
= Air @-@ tractor sledge =
Sir Douglas Mawson 's air @-@ tractor sledge was a converted fixed @-@ wing aircraft taken on the 1911 – 14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition , the first plane to be taken to the Antarctic . Expedition leader Douglas Mawson had planned to use the Vickers R.E.P. Type Monoplane as a reconnaissance and search and rescue tool , and to assist in publicity , but the aircraft crashed heavily during a test flight in Adelaide , Australia , only two months before Mawson 's scheduled departure date . The plane was nevertheless sent south with the expedition , after having been stripped of its wings and metal sheathing from the fuselage . Engineer Frank Bickerton spent most of the 1912 winter working to convert it to a sledge , fashioning brakes from a pair of geological drills and a steering system from the plane 's landing gear . It was first tested on 15 November 1912 and subsequently assisted in laying depots for the summer sledging parties , but its use during the expedition was minimal .
Towing a train of four sledges , the air @-@ tractor accompanied a party led by Bickerton to explore the area to the west of the expedition 's base at Cape Denison . The freezing conditions resulted in the jamming of the engine 's pistons after just 10 miles ( 16 km ) , and the air @-@ tractor was left behind . Some time later it was dragged back to Cape Denison , and its frame was left on the ice when the expedition returned home in 1913 . In 2008 a team from the Mawson 's Huts Foundation began searching for the remains of the air @-@ tractor sledge ; a seat was found in 2009 , and fragments of the tail assembly a year later .
The Mawson 's Huts Foundation has undertaken extensive investigation using sophisticated equipment in 2009 and 2010 . Results indicate that the air tractor , or parts of it , is still buried under 3m of ice where it was abandoned at Cape Denison .
= = Background = =
Douglas Mawson had accompanied Ernest Shackleton 's 1907 – 09 British Antarctic Expedition . Along with Edgeworth David and Alistair Mackay , he had been part of a man @-@ hauled sledging expedition , the first to reach the area of the South Magnetic Pole . Upon his return from Antarctica , he recommenced to his post as geology lecturer at the University of Adelaide . Despite an offer from Robert Falcon Scott to join his Terra Nova Expedition to reach the Geographic South Pole , Mawson began planning his own Antarctic expedition . Mawson 's plan , which led to the Australasian Antarctic Expedition , envisaged three bases on the Antarctic continent , collectively surveying much of the coast directly south of Australia . He approached Shackleton , who not only approved of his plan but was prepared to lead the expedition himself . Although Shackleton withdrew from the expedition in December 1910 , he continued to assist Mawson with publicity and fund @-@ raising .
= = = Purchase = = =
Mawson travelled to Britain in early 1911 to raise funds , hire crew , and purchase equipment . He considered taking a plane to the Antarctic , which could work as a reconnaissance tool , transport cargo , and assist with search and rescue . Crucially , as no plane had yet been taken to the continent , it could also be used to generate publicity . Unsure of the type of plane he should take , but considering a Blériot , Mawson mentioned his plans to Scott 's wife Kathleen Scott , an aircraft enthusiast . She recommended he take a monoplane , and conveyed his interest to Lieutenant Hugh Evelyn Watkins of the Essex Regiment . Watkins had connections with the ship and aircraft manufacturer Vickers Limited , which had recently entered into a licence agreement to build and sell aircraft in Britain designed by the Frenchman Robert Esnault @-@ Pelterie . In a letter to Mawson on 18 May , Kathleen wrote :
I believe I can help you about aeroplanes . I think you can do far better than a Bleriot ... There is a machine that the Vickers people have bought which is infinitely more stable , heavier and more solid and will carry more weight . Its cost is £ 1000 , but I think it could be worked to get it for £ 700 or even less ... A man I know who had only before driven biplanes , drove it and it stayed up half an hour , which speaks very well for its stability ... If you think it 's worth considering , I can let you meet the man concerned early next week and he can show you the machine and take you up in it .
On Kathleen Scott 's advice , Mawson purchased a Vickers R.E.P. Type Monoplane , one of only eight built . It was fitted with a five @-@ cylinder R.E.P. engine developing 60 horsepower ( 45 kW ) , and had a maximum range of 300 miles ( 480 km ) at a cruising speed of 48 knots ( 89 km / h ; 55 mph ) . Its wingspan was 47 feet ( 14 m ) , and its length 36 feet ( 11 m ) . The pilot used a joystick for pitch and roll , with lateral control by wing warping . Mawson opted for a two @-@ seater version , in a tandem arrangement , with a spare ski undercarriage . The total bill , dated 17 August 1911 , came to £ 955 4s 8d . Mawson hired Watkins to fly the plane , and Frank Bickerton to accompany as engineer . After Vickers tested the aircraft at Dartford and Brooklands , P & O shipped the plane to Adelaide aboard the steamship Macedonia , at half the usual rate of freight .
= = = Crash = = =
A series of public demonstrations were planned in Australia to assist in fund @-@ raising , the first of which was scheduled for 5 October 1911 at the Cheltenham Racecourse in Adelaide . During a test flight the day before , excessive pressure in the fuel tank caused it to rupture , almost blinding Watkins . That problem resolved , Watkins took Frank Wild , whom Mawson had hired to command a support base during the expedition , on another test flight the morning of the demonstration . In Watkins ' account , which he addressed to Vickers ' Aviation Department , he wrote : " [ we were ] about 200 ft. up . I got into a fierce tremor , and then into an air pocket , and was brought down about 100 ft . , got straight , and dropped into another , almost a vacuum . That finished it . We hit the ground with an awful crash , both wings damaged , one cylinder broken , and the Nose bent up , the tail in half , etc . "
Although the two men were only slightly injured , the plane was damaged beyond repair . Mawson decided to salvage the plane by converting it into a motorised sledge . He fitted the skis , and removed the wings and most of the sheathing to save weight . In his official account of the expedition , The Home of the Blizzard , Mawson wrote that the advantages of this " air @-@ tractor sledge " were expected to be " speed , steering control , and comparative safety from crevasses owing to the great length of the runners " . No longer needing a pilot , and believing him to be responsible for the crash , Mawson dismissed Watkins .
The air @-@ tractor sledge was taken to Hobart , where the expedition ship SY Aurora was being loaded . It was secured on board in a crate lined with tin , which weighed far more than the sledge itself , on top of the ship 's forecastle and two boat @-@ skids . To fuel the sledge , along with the motor launch and the wireless equipment , the Aurora also carried 4 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 18 @,@ 000 L ) of benzine and 1 @,@ 300 imperial gallons ( 5 @,@ 900 L ) of kerosene . Fully loaded , the ship left Hobart on 2 December 1911 .
= = In Antarctica = =
The Aurora reached the Antarctic mainland on 8 January 1912 , after a two @-@ week stop on Macquarie Island to establish a wireless relay station and research base . The expedition 's main base was established in Adélie Land , at Cape Denison in Commonwealth Bay . While the Aurora was unloading , a violent whirlwind lifted the 300 @-@ pound ( 140 kg ) lid off the air @-@ tractor 's crate , throwing it 50 yards ( 46 m ) . The main hut was erected immediately , but the strong winds meant that work on the air @-@ tractor 's hangar was delayed until March . When the winds abated , a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) by 35 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) hangar was constructed next to the main hut , from empty packing cases .
Bickerton began work on the air @-@ tractor sledge on 14 April 1912 . His first job was to repair the sledge , which had been damaged in transit when a violent storm hit the Aurora . A giant wave had slammed into the crate containing the sledge , driving the fuselage 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) through its side . With the repair completed , Bickerton began the serious work of converting the plane into a sledge . He constructed brakes from a pair of geological drills , and a steering system from the landing gear . Bickerton painted the engine and fuel tank black to absorb heat better and protect them from freezing . By June he had the engine running properly , and during a lull in the winds in early September he fitted the skis . Finally , he raised the fuselage 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) off the ground to allow the propeller free movement .
On 27 October 1912 , Mawson outlined the summer sledging program . Seven sledging parties would depart from Cape Denison , surveying the coast and interior of Adélie Land and neighbouring King George V Land . They were required to return to the base by 15 January , when the Aurora was due to depart ; any later , it was feared , and she would be trapped by ice . Bickerton was to lead one of the parties , which would use the air @-@ tractor to haul four sledges and explore the coast to the west of the hut . Most of the parties left in early November , but Bickerton 's Western party delayed until December , in the hope of avoiding the ferocious winter winds . Work on the air @-@ tractor sledge was delayed by the fierce winds , and the first trial took place on 15 November , between the main base and Aladdin 's Cave — a depot which had been established on the plateau above Cape Denison . The air @-@ tractor reached a speed of 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) , covering the 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , expedition member Charles Laseron recorded , " in great style " . Soon , the sledge began hauling cargo up the slope , laying depots for the summer sledging parties .
= = = Broken = = =
The Western party left Cape Denison on 3 December 1912 . Accompanying Bickerton and the air @-@ tractor were cartographer Alfred Hodgeman and surgeon Leslie Whetter . The air @-@ tractor made slow progress hauling its train of sledges , and about 10 miles ( 16 km ) out from the base its engine began experiencing difficulty . Bickerton shut it down and the three set up camp . At 4 am the next morning the party set off again , but the engine continued to struggle ; oil ejected from an idle cylinder and the cylinder 's lack of compression led Bickerton to suspect broken piston rings to be the root of the problem . This would take only a matter of hours to fix . As he later recorded , " These thoughts were brought to a sudden close by the engine , without any warning , pulling up with such a jerk that the propeller was smashed . On moving the latter , something fell into the oil in the crank @-@ case and fizzled , while the propeller could only be swung through an angle of about 30 [ degrees ] . "
The party continued without the air @-@ tractor , man @-@ hauling the sledges to a point 158 miles ( 254 km ) west of Cape Denison , and returned to base on 18 January 1913 . Mawson 's Far Eastern Party failed to return , and six men , including Bickerton , remained for an extra winter . On 8 February , just hours after Aurora left Commonwealth Bay after waiting for three weeks , Mawson staggered alone into base , his colleagues Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis and Xavier Mertz dead . As Mawson was being nursed back to health , Bickerton dragged the air @-@ tractor sledge back to base to diagnose the reason for its failure . He found that the freezing conditions had caused the engine oil to congeal , jamming the pistons . He abandoned the sledge at Boat Harbour , next to the base . When Aurora returned to Cape Denison for the final time on 13 December 1913 , only the engine and propeller were taken back to Australia .
= = Recovery efforts = =
The bill for the plane remained unpaid . In 1914 Vickers reminded Mawson , who had apparently forgotten the outstanding debt . Mawson wrote to Vickers director Sir Trevor Dawson in November 1916 , requesting the company write off the bill as a donation . His company buoyed by armaments contracts , Dawson agreed . The next expedition to take a plane to the Antarctic was Shackleton 's 1921 – 22 Quest Expedition , but the Avro Baby remained grounded owing to missing parts . Not until 16 November 1928 — when Hubert Wilkins and Carl Ben Eielson flew for 20 minutes around Deception Island , just over a year before Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd 's first flight over the South Pole — was a plane airborne in the Antarctic .
The frame of the air @-@ tractor sledge remained on the ice at Boat Harbour where Bickerton had left it . The last expedition to Cape Denison to see the frame was in 1976 ; the next expedition , in 1981 , could find no trace of it . The ice in that location does not move , and the implication is that the frame sank through the ice . It is therefore possible the frame is still there .
In 2007 @-@ 8 a team from the Mawson 's Huts Foundation began to search for the remnants of the plane . Using photographs from 1913 , 1931 and 1976 it was possible to derive transits between the frame and distant objects which located the frame to a small area of ice about 50 m from the hut . Comparison with a 1931 photograph by Frank Hurley confirmed this location .
The following summer ( 2008 – 9 ) , the team extensively surveyed the area where they believed the air @-@ tractor to be , using ground @-@ penetrating radar . A 3 metre deep trench was dug in a promising area , but nothing was found except fragments of seaweed indicating the overlying ice must have melted sometime in the past . Temperature records from the nearby Dumont d 'Urville Station showed that there had been extended periods ( each of about six weeks ) of above average temperatures in 1976 and 1981 , suggesting the ice around the harbour could have melted . Dr Chris Henderson , the leader of the team , believes " the frame sank in situ to the rock surface , three metres below the present ice surface " .
Next year ( the 2009 – 10 season ) further search was undertaken using differential GPS , bathymetry equipment , ice augers , a magnetometer and a metal detector ( whose sensor was placed down the ice auger holes after drilling ) . The ice showed signs of having extensively melted in the past , was about 3 metres thick and covering smooth rock which extended Northwards to become the harbour bottom . Visual examination of the harbour bottom during the bathymetry survey did not reveal any fragments of the frame in the first 30 metres of the harbour .
The most significant findings from the ice survey were a positive reading from the metal detector , coupled with a significant echo from the Ground Penetrating Radar , both from the small area where the frame is assumed to have sunk .
Parts of the Air Tractor are already known to exist : The Australian Antarctic Division has one wheel from the frame , and its ice @-@ rudder – both of which were found in the harbour . In January 2009 the remains of a seat from the air @-@ tractor were found in rocks near the hut , about 200 metres ( 660 ft ) from where the team believes the frame to be buried . On 1 January 2010 , a day of unusually low tide , 4 small capping pieces from the end section of the tail were found by the edge of the harbour . The tail and a section of fuselage had been removed from the rest of the air @-@ tractor before it was abandoned in 1913 , therefore this discovery did not shed much light on the location of the rest of the frame , but it suggests that " the frame , or parts of it , can survive for nearly 100 years in this environment " .
The team returned to Cape Denison over the 2010 – 11 summer , but the crash of a French helicopter near Dumont d 'Urville Station in October 2010 forced deployment of a much reduced team with no resources to continue the search .
The findings to date ( 2011 ) suggest that metal object ( s ) exist at a depth of 3 metres , on rock , in the location where the frame was last known to have been seen in 1976 . This is likely to be the remains of Mawson 's Air Tractor , but confirmation awaits a future opportunity .
= X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine =
X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine is a 2009 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics fictional character Wolverine , distributed by 20th Century Fox . It is the fourth installment and the first spinoff in the X @-@ Men film series . The film was directed by Gavin Hood , written by David Benioff and Skip Woods , and produced by and starring Hugh Jackman . It co @-@ stars Liev Schreiber , Danny Huston , Dominic Monaghan and Ryan Reynolds . The film is a prequel / spin @-@ off focusing on the violent past of the mutant Wolverine and his relationship with his half @-@ brother Victor Creed . The plot details Wolverine 's childhood as James Howlett ( Troye Sivan ) , his early encounters with Major William Stryker , his time with Team X , and the bonding of Wolverine 's skeleton with the indestructible metal adamantium during the Weapon X program .
The film was mostly shot in Australia and New Zealand , with Canada also serving as a location . Production and post @-@ production were troubled , with delays due to the weather and Jackman 's other commitments , an incomplete screenplay that was still being written in Los Angeles while principal photography rolled in Australia , conflicts arising between director Hood and Fox 's executives , and an unfinished workprint being leaked on the Internet one month before the film 's debut .
X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine was released worldwide on May 1 , 2009 , the film was a financial success , opening at the top of the box office and grossing $ 179 million in the United States and Canada and over $ 373 million worldwide . The movie received mixed to negative reviews , with critics considering the film uninspired , criticizing its screenplay and poorly @-@ produced CGI , though praising Jackman 's performance . Jackman himself was unhappy with the film . Another Wolverine film titled The Wolverine was released in 2013 to positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
In 1845 , James Howlett , a boy living in Canada , witnesses his father being killed by groundskeeper Thomas Logan . The trauma activates the boy 's mutation : bone claws protrude from his knuckles , and he kills Thomas , who reveals that he is James 's real father . James flees along with Thomas 's son Victor Creed , who is thus James 's half @-@ brother . They spend the next century as soldiers , fighting in the American Civil War , both World Wars , and the Vietnam War . In Vietnam , Victor attempts to rape a Vietnamese woman , and kills a senior officer who tries to stop him . James defends Victor and the two are sentenced to execution by firing squad , which they survive . Major William Stryker approaches them in military custody , and offers them membership in Team X , a group of mutants including Agent Zero , Wade Wilson , John Wraith , Fred Dukes , and Chris Bradley . They join the team for a few years , with James now using the alias Logan , but the group 's ( especially Victor 's ) disregard for human life causes James to leave .
Six years later , James ( now using the name Logan ) is working as a lumberjack in Canada , where he lives with his girlfriend Kayla Silverfox . Stryker and Zero approach Logan at work . Stryker reports that Wade and Bradley have been killed , and he thinks someone is targeting the team 's members . Logan refuses to rejoin Stryker , but after finding Kayla 's bloodied body in the woods , Logan realizes Victor is responsible . He finds him at a local bar , but Logan loses the subsequent fight . Afterward , Stryker explains that Victor has gone rogue , and offers Logan a way to become strong enough to get his revenge . Logan undergoes a painful operation to reinforce his skeleton with adamantium , a virtually indestructible metal . Once the procedure is complete , Stryker attempts to betray Logan by ordering that his memory be erased , but Logan overhears this and escapes to a nearby farm , where an elderly couple take him in . Zero kills them the following morning and tries to kill Logan . Logan takes down Zero 's helicopter , killing him , and swears to kill both Stryker and Victor .
Logan locates John and Fred at a boxing club . Fred explains that Victor is still working for Stryker , hunting down mutants for Stryker to experiment on at his new laboratory , located at a place called " The Island " . Fred mentions Remy " Gambit " LeBeau , is the only one who escaped from the island and therefore knows its location . John and Logan find LeBeau in New Orleans , then both fight Victor , who kills John and extracts his DNA . Agreeing to help release mutants that Stryker has captured , Gambit takes Logan to Stryker 's facility on Three Mile Island . Logan learns that Kayla is alive , having been coerced by Stryker into keeping tabs on him in exchange for her sister 's safety . However , Stryker refuses to release her sister and denies Victor the adamantium bonding promised for his service , claiming that test results revealed Victor would not survive the operation . Stryker activates Wade , now known as Weapon XI , a " mutant killer " with the powers of multiple mutants , who he refers to as the " Deadpool " .
While Logan and Victor join forces to fight Weapon XI , Kayla is mortally wounded leading the Island 's captive mutants – including a teenager named Scott Summers – to safety . The mutants are subsequently rescued by Professor Charles Xavier . Logan decapitates Weapon XI , destroying one of the cooling towers in the process . Stryker arrives and shoots Logan in the head with adamantium bullets , rendering him unconscious . Before Stryker can shoot Kayla , she grabs him and uses her mutant power to persuade him to turn around and walk away until his feet bleed . Logan regains consciousness but has lost his memory . He sees Kayla 's body , but does not recognize her , and leaves the island .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Stryker is detained for questioning by some MPs in connection with the death of his superior , General Munson , whom Stryker did in fact kill after Munson declared his intention to shut down Stryker 's project . In a post @-@ credits scene , Logan tells a Japanese barmaid he 's " drinking to remember " . In another , Deadpool is shown to still be alive .
= = Cast = =
Hugh Jackman as James " Logan " Howlett / Wolverine :
A Canadian mutant and future X @-@ Men member and often referred as Jimmy by Victor Creed . Jackman , who played Wolverine in the previous films , has also become producer of the film via his company Seed Productions , and earned $ 25 million for the film . Jackman underwent a high intensity weight training regimen to improve his physique for the role . He altered the program to shock his body into change and also performed cardiovascular workouts . Jackman noted no digital touches were applied to his physique in a shot of him rising from the tank within which Wolverine has his bones infused with adamantium.Troye Sivan as young James Howlett :
Casting directors cast Sivan as the young Wolverine after seeing him sing at the Channel Seven Perth Telethon , and he was accepted after sending in an audition tape . Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee was originally cast in the role , when filming was originally beginning in December 2007 , but he opted out to film The Road . Smit @-@ McPhee was later cast as Kurt Wagner / Nightcrawler in the 2016 film X @-@ Men : Apocalypse .
Liev Schreiber as Victor Creed :
Logan 's mutant half @-@ brother and fellow soldier , who would later become his nemesis Sabretooth . Jackman and Hood compared Wolverine and Sabretooth 's relationship to the Borg – McEnroe rivalry in the world of tennis : they are enemies but they can 't live without each other . Sabretooth represents the pure animal and embodies the darker side of Wolverine 's character , the aspect Wolverine hates about himself . These characters are two sides to the same coin . Tyler Mane , who played him in X @-@ Men , had hoped to reprise the role . Jackman worked with Schreiber before , in the 2001 romantic comedy Kate & Leopold and described him as having a competitive streak necessary to portray Sabretooth . They egged each other on on set to perform more and more stunts . Schreiber put on 40 lb ( 18 kg ) of muscle for the part , and described Sabretooth as the most monstrous role he ever played . As a child , he loved the Wolverine comics because of their unique " urban sensibility " . Schreiber had studied to be a fight choreographer and wanted to be a dancer like Jackman , so he enjoyed working out their fight scenes.Michael James Olsen as young Victor Creed
Danny Huston as Major William Stryker :
Huston was originally in negotiations for the part , while Brian Cox , who played the character in X2 , wanted to reprise the role . He believed computer @-@ generated imagery , similar to the program applied to Patrick Stewart and Ian McKellen in the opening flashback of X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , would allow him to appear as the younger Stryker . Huston liked the complex Stryker , who " both loves and hates mutants because his son was a mutant and drove his wife to suicide . So he understands what they 're going through , but despises their destructive force . " He compared the character to a racehorse breeder , who rears his mutant experiments like children but abandons them when something goes wrong . His son is shown to be frozen at the Weapon X facility and the reason Stryker starts the Weapon XI program .
will.i.am as John Wraith :
A teleporting mutant . It is will.i.am 's major live @-@ action film debut . Although he initially did not get on with the casting director , he got the role because he wanted to play a mutant with the same power as Nightcrawler . He enrolled in boot camp to get into shape for the part . When filming a fight , he scarred his knuckles after accidentally punching and breaking the camera .
Lynn Collins as Kayla Silverfox :
Wolverine 's native @-@ American ( Blackfoot / Niitsítapi ) mutant love interest and pawn of Stryker . She has the powers of tactile telepathy and hypnosis , and has the ability to control or convince others to do the things she wants them to . However , Victor is immune to telepathy . Describing her role , Collins said " I had to play off all the guys and their testosterone @-@ heavy abilities . But I learned that the female powers of persuasion easily trump fangs and knives and guns . " Michelle Monaghan turned down the role because of scheduling conflicts , despite her enthusiasm to work with Jackman .
Kevin Durand as Fred J. Dukes / The Blob :
A mutant with a nearly indestructible layer of skin . In the film 's early sequences , he is a formidable fighting man , but years later , due to a poor diet , has gained an enormous amount of weight . A fan of the X @-@ Men movies , Durand contacted the producers for a role as soon as news of a new film came out . The suit went through six months of modifications , and had a tubing system inside to cool Durand down with ice water .
Dominic Monaghan as Chris Bradley :
A mutant who can manipulate electricity and electronic objects . It was originally reported that Monaghan was going to play Barnell Bohusk / Beak .
Taylor Kitsch as Remy LeBeau / Gambit :
A Cajun mutant thief who has the ability to convert the potential energy of any object he touches into kinetic energy , forcing it to explode . The size of the object determines the magnitude of the resulting explosion . He is also skilled in the use of a staff , and happens to be very agile . Due to the nature of his power , he displays supernatural durability , being able to take Wolverine 's elbow to his face and return to fight moments later . When asked about his thoughts on the character , Kitsch had said , " I knew of him , but I didn 't know the following he had . I 'm sure I 'm still going to be exposed to that . I love the character , I love the powers , and I love what they did with him . I didn 't know that much , but in my experience , it was a blessing to go in and create my take on him . I 'm excited for it , to say the least . "
Daniel Henney as Agent Zero :
A mutant member of the Weapon X program and a superhumanly accurate mercenary with expert tracking abilities and lethal sniper skills . An X @-@ Men fan , Henney liked the role of a villain because " there are no restrictions playing it , allowing you freely to express it , so you can act how you want to " . He described the film as more realistic and cruder than the X @-@ Men trilogy .
Ryan Reynolds as Wade Wilson :
A wisecracking mercenary with lethal swordsmanship skill and athleticism , who later becomes Deadpool . Reynolds had been interested in playing the character in his own film since 2003 . Originally , Reynolds was only going to cameo as Wilson but the role grew after he was cast . Reynolds did sword @-@ training for the character , and also worked out to get his physique comparable to Jackman 's.Scott Adkins as Weapon XI / Deadpool :
Weapon XI is a genetically altered mutant killer . He has powers taken from other mutants killed or kidnapped in the film , as well as retractable blades in his arms . He is referred to by Stryker as " the Deadpool " because the compatible powers of the other mutants have been ' pooled ' together into one being . Ryan Reynolds portrays Weapon XI for close @-@ ups , standing shots , and simple stunts while Scott Adkins is used for the more complicated and dangerous stunt work .
Additionally , Tim Pocock portrays a young Scott Summers / Cyclops . Max Cullen and Julia Blake portrayed Travis and Heather Hudson , an elderly couple who take care of Wolverine after his adamantium bonding . The Hudsons are heavily adapted from the comics ' James MacDonald and Heather Hudson . Tahyna Tozzi portrays Emma , a mutant with the power to turn her skin into diamond , who in the film is Silverfox 's sister . The film depiction of Emma was originally assumed to be Emma Frost . However it was noted that she does not exhibit the character 's traditional telepathic abilities . It is later revealed by Bryan Singer that is character is actually not Emma Frost , but instead a mutant with similar abilities . Wolverine 's parents also appeared in the film ; Aaron Jeffery portrayed Thomas Logan while Alice Parkinson portrayed Elizabeth Howlett . Peter O 'Brien appeared as John Howlett , James ' alleged father . The film includes numerous cameo appearances of younger versions of characters from the previous films , including Jason Stryker ( William Stryker 's lobotomized telepathic son whom he keeps in cryogenic suspension ) . There was a cameo for a young Storm , which can be seen in the trailer , but it was removed from the released film . A digitally rejuvenated Patrick Stewart also makes an uncredited cameo as a younger Charles Xavier who appeared to not yet lose the use of his legs . However , with timeline and story inconsistencies within the film series , Singer developed an idea to tie all the films together and fix the continuity . In X @-@ Men : First Class Xavier loses the use of his legs at a much younger age , than he appears in Origins . As an explanation , Xavier can be seen walking in X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past ( which chronologically takes place prior to the events of this film ) , by creating the illusion that he is standing in various scenes , when in reality the character is only present by telepathic projection . Asher Keddie played Dr. Carol Frost . Poker player Daniel Negreanu has a cameo . Phil Hellmuth wanted to join him but was unable because he committed to an event in Toronto . X @-@ Men co @-@ creator Stan Lee said he would cameo , but Lee ended up not appearing in the film as he could not attend filming in Australia .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
David Benioff , a comic book fan , pursued the project for almost three years before he was hired to write the script in October 2004 . In preparing to write the script , he reread Barry Windsor @-@ Smith 's " Weapon X " story , as well as Chris Claremont and Frank Miller 's 1982 limited series on the character ( his favorite storyline ) . Also serving as inspiration was the 2001 limited series Origin , which reveals Wolverine 's life before Weapon X. Jackman collaborated on the script , which he wanted to be more of a character piece compared with the previous X @-@ Men films . Skip Woods , who had written Hitman for Fox , was later hired to revise and rewrite Benioff 's script . Benioff had aimed for a " darker and a bit more brutal " story , writing it with an R rating in mind , although he acknowledged the film 's final tone would rest with the producers and director .
Deadpool had been developed for his own film by Reynolds and David S. Goyer at New Line Cinema in 2003 , but the project fell apart as they focused on Blade : Trinity and an aborted spin @-@ off . Benioff wrote the character into the script in a manner Jackman described as fun , but would also deviate from some of his traits . Similarly , Gambit was a character who the filmmakers had tried to put in the previous X @-@ Men films . Jackman liked Gambit because he is a " loose cannon " like Wolverine , stating their relationship echoes that of Wolverine and Pyro in the original trilogy . David Ayer contributed to the script . Benioff finished his draft in October 2006 , and Jackman stated there would be a year before shooting , as he was scheduled to start filming Australia during 2007 . Before the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike began , James Vanderbilt and Scott Silver were hired for a last @-@ minute rewrite .
Gavin Hood was announced as director of the project in July 2007 for a 2008 release . Previously , X @-@ Men and X2 director Bryan Singer and X @-@ Men : The Last Stand director Brett Ratner were interested in returning to the franchise , while Alexandre Aja and Len Wiseman also wanted the job . Zack Snyder , who was approached for The Last Stand , turned down this film because he was directing Watchmen . Jackman saw parallels between Logan and the main character in Hood 's previous film Tsotsi . Hood explained that while he was not a comic book fan , he " realized that the character of Wolverine , I think his great appeal lies in the fact that he 's someone who in some ways , is filled with a great deal of self @-@ loathing by his own nature and he 's constantly at war with his own nature " . The director described the film 's themes as focusing on Wolverine 's inner struggle between his animalistic savagery and noble human qualities . Hood enjoyed the previous films , but set out to give the spin @-@ off a different feel . Hood also suggested to make the implied blood relation of Wolverine and Sabretooth into them explicitly being half brothers , as it would help " build up the emotional power of the film " . In October , Fox announced a May 1 , 2009 , release date and the X @-@ Men Origins prefix .
= = = Filming = = =
Preliminary shooting took place at the Fox Studios Australia in Sydney , during late 2007 . Principal photography began on January 2008 in New Zealand . One of the filming locations that was selected was Dunedin . Controversy arose as the Queenstown Lakes District Council disputed the Department of Labour 's decision to allow Fox to store explosives in the local ice skating rink . Fox moved some of the explosives to another area . The explosives were used for a shot of the exploding Hudson Farm , a scene which required thirteen cameras . Jackman and Palermo 's Woz Productions reached an agreement with the council to allow recycling specialists on set to advise the production on being environmentally friendly . According to Hood , the screenplay was still incomplete as filming begun , with the production in Australia receiving regularly new script pages from Los Angeles , at times in the night before shooting .
Filming continued at Fox ( where most of the shooting was done ) and New Orleans , Louisiana . Cockatoo Island was used for Stryker 's facility ; the enormous buildings there saved money on digitally expanding a set . Production of the film was predicted to generate A $ 60 million for Sydney 's economy . Principal photography ended by May 23 . The second unit continued filming in New Zealand until March 23 , and were scheduled to continue filming for two weeks following the first unit 's wrap . This included a flashback to Logan during the Normandy Landings , which was shot at Blacksmiths , New South Wales .
Hood and Fox were in dispute on the film 's direction . One of the disputes involved the depiction of Wolverine as an Army veteran with post @-@ traumatic stress disorder , with the executives arguing that audiences would not be interested in such heavy themes . The studio had two replacements lined up before Richard Donner , husband of producer Lauren Shuler Donner , flew to Australia to ease on @-@ set tensions . Hood remarked , " Out of healthy and sometimes very rigorous debate , things get better . [ ... ] I hope the film 's better because of the debates . If nobody were talking about us , we 'd be in trouble ! " Hood added he and Thomas Rothman were both " forceful " personalities in creative meetings but they had never had a " stand @-@ up " argument . In January 2009 , after delays due to weather and scheduling conflicts , such as Hugh Jackman 's publicity commitments for Australia , production moved to Vancouver , mostly at Lord Byng Secondary School and in University of British Columbia . Work there included finishing scenes with Ryan Reynolds , who had been working on two other films during principal photography .
Gavin Hood has announced that multiple " secret endings " exist for the film and that the endings will differ from print to print of the film . One version shows Wolverine drinking in a Japanese bar . The bartender asked if he is drinking to forget , Logan replies that he is drinking to remember . The other shows Weapon XI on the rubble of the destroyed tower , trying to touch his severed head .
= = = Effects = = =
More than 1 @,@ 000 shots of Wolverine have visual effects in them , which required three effects supervisors and seventeen different companies to work on the film . The most prominent was Hydraulx , who had also worked in the X @-@ Men trilogy and was responsible for the battle in Three Mile Island and Gambit 's powers . Many elements were totally generated through computer @-@ generated imagery , such as the adamantium injection machine , the scene with Gambit 's plane and Wolverine tearing through a door with his newly enhanced claws . CG bone claws were also created for some scenes because the props did not look good in close @-@ ups . Extensive usage of matte paintings was also made , with Matte World Digital creating five different mattes for the final scene of the film — a pullback depicting the destroyed Three Mile Island — and Gavin Hood handing company Hatch Productions pictures of favelas as reference for the Africa scenes .
= = Music = =
Composed by Harry Gregson @-@ Williams , the score for X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine was mixed by Malcolm Luker , engineered by Costa Kotselas , and featured Martin Tillman on the electric cello .
In a 2008 interview with Christopher Coleman of Tracksounds.com , Gregson @-@ Williams said that Hood
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scopic characteristics = = =
The spores are broadly ellipsoid , smooth , colorless , amyloid ( staining bluish to blue @-@ black when treated with Melzer 's reagent ) , thin @-@ walled , and measure 8 – 9 by 5 – 6 µm . The basidia are 40 – 60 by 10 – 12 µm , club @-@ shaped , and four @-@ spored . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are abundant , club @-@ shaped , and measure 30 – 45 by 10 – 17 µm . Their tips are covered with one or more , knob @-@ like short excrescences that are colorless and thin @-@ walled . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are absent . The hymenophoral tissue ( tissue of the hymenium @-@ bearing structure ) is made of thin @-@ walled hyphae that are 12 – 21 µm wide , cylindrical ( but often somewhat inflated ) , smooth , and contain cytoplasmic brownish pigment . These hyphae are dextrinoid , meaning that they stain reddish to reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent . The cap cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 2 – 7 µm wide , and cylindrical . These hyphae are smooth , or can be covered with scattered , warty or finger @-@ like thin @-@ walled diverticulae that are colorless or pale brownish , and dextrinoid . The layer of hyphae underlying the cap cuticle is parallel , cylindrical , hyaline or brownish , and dextrinoid ; it has short and inflated cells that are up to 48 µm wide . The stem cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 3 – 8 µm wide , and similar to the hyphae of the cap cuticle . The caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) are 45 – 88 by 5 – 8 µm , cylindrical , diverticulate , colorless or brownish , and thin @-@ walled . The flesh of the stem is composed of longitudinally running , cylindrical hyphae that are 8 – 25 µm wide , smooth , colorless , and dextrinoid . Clamp connections are present in the cap cuticle , the stem cuticle , the gill flesh , and at the basal septa of the basidia .
= = = Similar species = = =
Mycena clariviolacea is similar to the Brazilian species M. cerasina and the European M. diosma . Mycena cerasina , which belongs in the section Cerasinae of the genus Mycena , differs in having a grayish @-@ purple cap and stem , and forming somewhat utriform ( wineskin @-@ shaped ) to lageniform ( flask @-@ shaped ) , smooth cheilocystidia . Mycena diosma , classified in the section Calodontes , subsection Purae , may be distinguished microscopically from M. clariviolacea by its smooth , spindle @-@ shaped cheilocystidia and pleurocystidia , and nondiverticulate hyphae in the cortical layer of cap and stem .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mycena clariviolacea is known only from Kanagawa , Japan . Fruit bodies are found growing solitary or scattered , on dead fallen twigs in forests that are dominated by oak and chinquapin trees . The mushroom fruits from June to September .
= Bionicle : Mask of Light =
Bionicle : Mask of Light , stylized as BIONICLE : Mask of Light — The Movie , is a 2003 direct @-@ to @-@ video science fantasy action film based on the Bionicle toy series created by Lego . Set in a universe filled with bio @-@ mechanical beings allied with classical element @-@ themed tribes , the story follows two friends from the fire @-@ based village of Ta @-@ Koro on a quest to find the owner of the Mask of Light , a mystical artifact that can potentially defeat Makuta , an evil entity threatening the island . The story is based on the latter half of the toyline 's 2002 – 2003 narrative .
The project was first proposed in 2001 , during the original run of the Bionicle toyline . Lego contacted multiple writers for the project , including original Bionicle contributors Bob Thompson and Alastair Swinnerton , and Hollywood writers Henry Gilroy and Greg Weisman . Production began in 2002 , taking approximately a year to complete . A major part of the graphical design was adjusting the characters so they could work in human @-@ like ways while still resembling the original toys . The music was composed by Nathan Furst , who used orchestral and tribal elements to create the score . Voice casting was handled by Kris Zimmerman , and the voicework was done with the setting and mythos of Bionicle in mind .
Multiple studios were involved in the development and distribution of Mask of Light : it was co @-@ produced by Lego and Create TV & Film , developed by Creative Capers Entertainment and CGCG , and post @-@ production was handled 310 Studios and Hacienda Post . It was released in September 2003 on home video and DVD , distributed by Miramax Films and Buena Vista Home Entertainment . Upon release , the film reached high positions in VHS and DVD charts , and received generally positive reviews from journalists . Following Mask of Light , further films based on Bionicle have been released .
= = Plot = =
The Mask of Light takes place on a tropical island in the Bionicle universe . According to legend , the Great Spirit Mata Nui created the island 's masked Matoran inhabitants . Mata Nui was sent into a coma by his envious spirit brother Matuka , who began a reign of terror on the island until six guardians known as Toa freed the island from his regime . The Matoran , alongside the Toa and Turaga leaders , live in Element @-@ themed regions of the island . The events of The Mask of Light takes place during the latter half of the toyline 's 2002 – 2003 narrative .
The film starts when two Matoran from the fire village of Ta @-@ Koro called Jaller and Takua discover a Great Kanohi , a Toa mask imbued with Elemental power . The two Matoran then participate in a multi @-@ tribal game of Kohlii , the island 's national sport : the match reveals developing tensions between the Fire Toa Tahu and the Water Toa Gali . At the end of the match , the Mask is accidentally revealed and the Turaga recognize its powers . They announce that it heralds the arrival of a seventh Toa destined to defeat Makuta and awaken Mata Nui . Jaller and Takua are sent on a quest to find the Seventh Toa , guided by the Mask . In the meantime , Makuta sends three of his Rahkshi " sons " to retrieve the Mask . During an attack on Ta @-@ Koro which destroys the village , Tahu is poisoned , causing him to become increasingly erratic and worsening his already @-@ strained relationship with Gali .
During their journey together , Jaller and Takua receive aid from the Air Toa Lewa , and the Ice Toa Kopaka , the latter of whom temporarily immobilizes the Rakhshi by trapping them in a frozen lake . After this , Takua is threatened by Makuta , and abandons Jaller in an attempt to shield him . Makuta then releases three more Rakhashi , who attack the Earth village of Onu @-@ Koro as Takua arrives . Tahu , Kopaka , Lewa and Gali arrive to help the Earth Toa Onua and the Stone Toa Pohatu : during the battle , Tahu is further corrupted and goes insane , forcing the Toa to capture him and flee . Takua decides to rejoin Jaller , while Gali and the other Toa purge the Rakhshi poison from Tahu , resulting in his reconciliation with Gali .
Arriving at Kini Nui , a great temple at the island 's centre , Jaller and Takua are confronted by all six Rahkshi . The six Toa mount a united offensive and defeat five of them , but a surviving Rahkshi attacks Takua . Jaller sacrifices himself to protect Takua , and Jaller 's final words prompt Takua to don the Mask of Light : the Mask transforms him into Takanuva , the Toa of Light . Defeating the final Rakhshi , he constructs a craft powered by the worm @-@ like creatures inside the Rahkshi to guide him to Makuta . Traveling to his lair beneath Mata Nui , the two hold a Kohlii contest for the island 's fate . At Takanuva 's bidding , the Toa , Turaga and Matoran gather together in the chamber , and witness Takanuva merging with Makuta to form a single powerful being . With Takanuva 's willpower dominant , the being raises a gate leading deeper beneath the island , through which the gathered people flee . The being also revives Jaller before the gate collapses on top of it . The Turaga proceed to awaken Mata Nui using the Mask of Light , which in turn revives Takanuva . The film ends with Takanuva discovering the long @-@ dormant city of Metru Nui , the Matoran 's original home .
= = Characters = =
Jason Michas as Takua / Takanuva . Portrayed as an inquisitive Ta @-@ Matoran , he is a disguised Av @-@ Matoran ( Matoran of Light ) destined to become the Toa of Light .
Andrew Francis as Jaller , the Captain of Ta @-@ Koro 's Guard , who is designated as the Herald of the Seventh Toa .
Scott McNeil as Tahu , the headstrong Toa of Fire ; Onua , the wise Toa of Earth ; and Graalok the Ash Bear , a beast from Lewa 's domain .
Dale Wilson as Lewa Nuva , the Toa of Air ; and Turaga Onewa , leader of the Po @-@ Matoran .
Kathleen Barr as Gali Nuva , the Toa of Water .
Lee Tockar as the Makuta , the main antagonist ; Takutanuva , a being created from the merging of Takanuva and Makuta ; and Pewku , Takua 's pet racing crab .
Christopher Gaze as Turaga Vakama , the leader of the Ta @-@ Matoran .
Lesley Ewen as Turaga Nokama , the leader of the Ga @-@ Matoran .
Michael Dobson as Kopaka Nuva , the Toa of Ice ; Hewkii , a Po @-@ Matoran Kohlii player .
Trevor Devall as Pohatu Nuva , the friendly Toa of Stone .
Chiara Zanni as Hahli , a Ga @-@ Matoran and close friend of Jaller .
Julian B. Wilson as the Ta @-@ Matoran Guard , and the Rahkshi ( vocal effects ) , mechanical " sons " of Makuta driven by fragments of his being .
Doc Harris as Kolhii announcer .
= = Production = =
The concept for a movie based on the Bionicle toyline was proposed as early as 2001 , when Bionicle became an unexpected commercial success for Lego : this idea was originally inspired by the fact that Lego advertised Bionicle as if it were a movie , and they had received inquiry emails and licensing requests from multiple film studios . Deciding to make the movie while retaining full creative control , Lego began discussing with potential partners , knowing that the film needed to come out while Bionicle was still looming large in the public consciousness . Lego 's eventual partner was production entity Create TV & Film . With the initial partnership set up , Lego created some development assets and went round various animation studios to find one that would develop the film . They narrowed it down to two studios , one of which was Creative Capers Entertainment . Creative Capers convinced Lego to employ them after producing a well @-@ received short animated segment featuring Lewa . Creative Caper 's three principles , directors Terry Shakespeare and David Molina , and producer Sue Shakespear , all took up their respective roles for the film 's production . The deal was reportedly worth $ 5 million . In a later interview , Shakespeare referred to the film 's aesthetic as " primary colors that were coded to the areas " , saying it had a " younger feel " when compared to its sequel . He also referred to the film as " very intimate , very organic " .
The film began full production in 2002 . While most projects of its type took 18 – 24 months to complete , the development team completed the film in 13 months . The project 's budget was later estimated as being between $ 3 @.@ 5 to $ 5 million . In addition to Creative Capers , Taiwanese studio CGCG created most of the animation : at the time , overseas outsourcing was a rarity for CGI movies . By the end of production , the film ran to 77 minutes of raw footage . At this stage , 310 Studios was brought in to handle post production , which mostly entailed cutting the film 's length down by 7 minutes . According to 310 Studios president Billy Jones , the hardest part of this was deciding which pieces needed to be cut , as they were impressed with everything that had been produced . 310 Studios also created the opening title and ending credit sequences . Lego also partnered with Miramax to distribute the film , along with developing a future full feature @-@ length theatrical film .
Five different people were involved in the creation of the film 's story and script : executive producer Bob Thompson , original Bionicle co @-@ creators and writers Alastair Swinnerton and Martin Riber Andersen , and Hollywood writers Henry Gilroy and Greg Weisman . The script @-@ writing process began in 2002 . Gilroy became involved after a meeting with Thompson , and enjoyed working on the script as he greatly admired the Bionicle mythos . Two draft scripts were originally created to see who would write the better script : one by Swinnerton , and one from Gilroy . Due to time constraints , the Gilroy script was accepted with some of Swinnerton 's ideas included . Gilroy 's most difficult task was creating the dialogue for the Toa : he needed to take into account Thompson 's own interpretations , and what the majority of fans thought they should sounds like . In the end , he attempted to stay true to original portrayals while giving the voice actors something unique to work with . He also needed to balance their portrayals and screentime , as each of the six needed a chance to shine . The script when through eight different drafts before the final version , although this was far less than Gilroy was used to seeing on other projects . During planning stages , a lot of time was devoted to how characters interacted with each other : cited example were Lewa 's style of speaking , and Kopaka 's stoic behaviour . These traits were accentuated for the film to give the characters more distinction and depth . He also needed to avoid putting in out @-@ of @-@ context pop culture references , which would not fit into the setting of Bionicle . As part of the world and character development , expressions and exclamations unique to the world were created : a cited example is Jaller saying " You could have been Lava @-@ Bones " when Takua narrowly escapes being killed by a flood of lava .
= = = Design = = =
The characters of Bionicle had been portrayed in various ways across multiple media , including the official comics , Flash animations used for online videos , and CGI commercials for the sets . The team decided to use the models from the CGI commercials as their working base for the film models . Before commencing with designing the characters , the team went to Lego 's Denmark headquarters and received lessons in the Bionicle design process . The team were originally not going to alter the characters that much , but they needed them to be emotive , which necessitated a redesign . The first step in creating the character models was redrawing the skeleton , then adding muscle pods that would interweave with the skeleton : the muscle gave the characters a more textured appearance , and were added to the shoulders , calves , abdomen and chest cavity . Each character was given a " heart light " , a pulsating light in their chest which would fluctuate even when the character was stationary in @-@ shot . They also adjusted the eyes , making the sockets shallower than on the sets and giving them a glow . While redesigning the Toa , the team consulted with the original Lego staff to determine what materials the characters were made of : the muscles were compared to rubber , the bones described as a mesh of titanium alloy and carbon fibre , while the armour was made of Kevlar . In general , the outer shells remained mostly unchanged from the sets , although the visible gears were removed and armour was fitted to their backs . The Toa were also bulked up a little when compared to their sets so their feats would be believable for viewers .
Several external features were redesigned for the movie , including the introduction of a movable mouth to allow for a more human character , and a four @-@ pronged mechanical tongue to make them look less like dolls . Other characters used lights behind their masks to form mouth movement . Particular emphasis was placed on the eyebrows and lips of characters . The main change from the original models was the inclusion of hands , which was a necessity if the character performances were to be made realistic . Each character also had Custom texture maps were created for each character so they would appear unique . In addition to reinventing old characters , the team created original character designs with Lego staff . Makuta , who had only been briefly glimpsed in the comics and web animations , was created through a " Frankenstein principle " , taking parts and pieces from multiple Bionicle sets to create the ultimate Bionicle villain . Other original creations included Takua 's pet crab Pewku , and a Gukko Bird designed to transport two Matoran . The Rahkshi are described by Bob Thompson as " like hounds hunting down the [ Mask of Light ] " . They were created by Swinnerton , and comic writer Alan Grant helped develop their characters . They were designed to appear more machine @-@ like than the rest of the cast , and their design were strongly inspired by the bio @-@ mechanical artworks of H. R. Giger .
= = = Audio = = =
The music was composed by Nathan Furst , whose preferred composition style of grand orchestra and electronica was what the film 's producers were looking for . Initially ignorant of the Bionicle universe , he explored the official website after getting the job as composer to get better context for his music . This and discussions he had with staff helped in the creation of eight or nine specific themes . The overall style is grand orchestral , but includes elements of electronic and tribal music . Furst used elements of African , Polynesian , and Eastern European music to communicate the fact that Mata Nui was an island , and when he could he incorporated his music into the action rather than leaving it as a standalone element within scenes .
Voice casting was managed by Kris Zimmerman , who chose voice actors that seemed to suit certain roles : the Matoran were voiced by young adults , while the Turaga were voiced by older actors . The voice actors and their performances were chosen so they would not sound like they came from a specific area of the world , instead sound like they came from and belonged in the Bionicle universe . A notable event during recording was a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes incident between Michas and Francis : originally cast in the respective roles of Jaller and Takua , Michas came into a recording session in a muddled state and began reading Takua 's lines by mistake . When Francis came in , he read Jaller 's lines : when the staff heard them and were favourably impressed , the actors permanently switched roles . Voice acting for the project was mostly done in 2002 , but dialogue was re @-@ recorded during Additional Dialogue Recording ( ADR ) into 2003 : approximately 30 % of the final film 's dialogue was done during ADR . Audio and music post @-@ production was handled by Hacienda Post . The company 's president Tim Borquez served as sound supervisor . Mask of Light was the first time in any media that Bionicle characters spoke .
= = Release = =
Mask of Light was first announced in April 2002 for release in September the following year . It was Lego Media 's ( later becoming Create TV & Film in early 2003 ) first project based on original characters and storylines , and their first direct @-@ to @-@ video production . It initially released on 16 September 2003 for home video and DVD . It went on to release in 27 different countries over the next eight weeks . It was released under the Miramax Home Entertainment label through Buena Vista Home Entertainment . Prior to its release , the film received a world premiere at Legoland in Carlsbad , California on 13 September : the premiere featured a huge mosaic built of Lego and a special effects show , in addition to special guests and costumed characters . The following year , the film received its television premiere on Cartoon Network 's Toonami program block .
At release , the film ranked high in multiple sales charts . In the " Top Kid Video " complied by Billboard , it came close to the top of the charts upon release . Upon release , the film ranked at # 2 on Amazon.com 's VHS best seller list , coming in behind the VHS release of Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers . According to Lego 's 2003 financial report , the game was top @-@ selling VHS release in the United States in its first week , and ranked at # 4 in a similar list compiled by The Hollywood Reporter . It was also among the top premiere DVDs of the year . The game 's rental sales were also high , being placed at # 8 in the animated direct @-@ to @-@ video charts and totalling $ 4 @.@ 24 million revenue by October 2004 . According to Animation Magazine , the film is considered to be a commercial success .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Entertainment Weekly gave the film a favourable ranking of " B + " , calling it a " well @-@ constructed CGI adventure " and saying that those who did not understand the story would enjoy the effects and action sequences . DVDTalk 's Don Houston was generally positive about both the film and its additional content : he called the visuals " exceptionally crisp and clear " when compared to other films of its type , and gave high praise to the voice acting and noting darker themes within the film . His main criticism was that it relied heavily on foreknowledge of earlier Bionicle storylines . Sci Film.org praised the film 's design and visuals , but felt that the film was too short , echoed Houston 's criticism of a need for foreknowledge , and said that it was " too politically correct " when compared to other films like Transformers : The Movie . Jules Faber of Digital Views Daily said the story had been designed with children in mind , and again praised the visuals despite seeing some stilted animations and poorly @-@ done environmental effects . He was generally positive about the DVD 's audio and visual quality . Both Houston and Faber noted homages to other well @-@ known films , including The Lord of the Rings , Raiders of the Lost Ark , and the works of Ray Harryhausen .
= = Legacy = =
Mask of Light won a Golden Reel Award for Best Visual Effects in a DVD Premiere Movie in December 2003 . In addition , it won the Best DVD release award at the 2004 Saturn Awards . In 2014 , Vulture.com made mention of the movie in a 2014 retrospective on Lego 's history in the movie industry . That same year , Radio Times ranked it as among the best movies based on toys , say that the developers " did a better @-@ than @-@ average job of translating the appeal of the toys to screen " .
Mask of Light was promoted by Lego with new toys based on the film 's characters , a video game based on its story that released in 2003 , and a novelisation of the film . Two further Bionicle movies were confirmed prior to the release of Mask of Light , with the second being another direct @-@ to @-@ video feature and a third for theatrical release . The second movie , Bionicle 2 : Legends of Metru Nui , released in 2004 . The third movie , Bionicle 3 : Web of Shadows , was released as a direct @-@ to @-@ DVD feature in 2005 . Both films were produced by the same creative team behind Mask of Light . A fourth film by a different studio , Bionicle : The Legend Reborn , was released in 2009 through Universal Pictures Home Entertainment . A four @-@ episode television series based on the rebooted Bionicle toyline is set to begin airing in the first quarter of 2016 on Netflix .
= Luigi 's Mansion =
Luigi 's Mansion ( ルイージマンション , Ruīji Manshon , " Luigi Mansion " ) is an action @-@ adventure game published by Nintendo for the GameCube . It was the first game in the Mario franchise to be released for GameCube . It was released in Japan on September 14 , 2001 , in North America on November 18 , 2001 , and in Europe on May 3 , 2002 . The game was a launch title for the GameCube , and the second title in the Mario franchise where Luigi is the main character , instead of Mario , the first , third , fourth and fifth being Mario is Missing ! , Luigi 's Mansion : Dark Moon , New Super Luigi U and Dr. Luigi , respectively .
The game takes place in a haunted mansion when Luigi wins a contest that he never entered . Mario , who investigates the mansion earlier , goes missing , and it is up to Luigi to find him . To help Luigi on his quest , an old scientist named Elvin Gadd ( or E. Gadd for short ) has equipped him with the " Poltergust 3000 " , a vacuum cleaner used for capturing ghosts , and a " Game Boy Horror " , a device used for communicating with E. Gadd . He also uses it as a map and to examine ghosts .
The ghosts have escaped from Professor E. Gadd 's paintings ( with the help of King Boo ) and it is up to the player to capture every one of them . Every ghost is different and is to be captured in different ways .
Luigi 's Mansion was relatively well received by reviewers , despite being criticized for its short length . The game has sold over 2 @.@ 5 million copies , and is the fifth best @-@ selling Nintendo GameCube game in the United States . It was one of the first games to be re @-@ released as a Player 's Choice title on the system . The game was later followed by a sequel entitled Luigi 's Mansion : Dark Moon , released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2013 .
= = Gameplay = =
Luigi 's Mansion is set in a haunted mansion next to a laboratory outside . The mansion consists of five floors , including a basement and a roof . Luigi starts out in a foyer , the hub area of the mansion .
In Luigi 's Mansion , Professor E. Gadd arms Luigi with two of his inventions : the Poltergust 3000 and the Game Boy Horror , which resembles another Nintendo product , the Atomic Purple model of the Game Boy Color . The Poltergust 3000 is a high @-@ powered vacuum cleaner designed for capturing ghosts and gathering treasure . To capture ghosts , Luigi must first shine his flashlight on them to stun them . This reveals the ghost 's heart , giving Luigi a chance to suck it into the Poltergust 3000 , steadily reducing the ghost 's hit points to zero , at which point they can be captured . The ghosts remain in the Poltergust 3000 , although certain more advanced ghosts named Portrait Ghosts are extracted and put back into their portraits after a process at the end of the game 's four areas . When these paintings are made , they are stored in the gallery in Professor Elvin Gadd 's laboratory . Luigi must also locate three medallions , which allow him to expel fire , water , or ice from the Poltergust 3000 . These elements are needed to capture certain ghosts .
The Game Boy Horror allows Luigi to examine items in the mansion , detect a Boo 's presence in the room , and indicates its proximity to Luigi . It also contains a map of the mansion and lets Luigi and Professor E. Gadd communicate . Spread throughout the mansion are dark rooms containing ghosts , and when Luigi clears a room of all its ghosts , the lights come on and a chest usually appears . The blue chests contain a key or the water element , red chests contain three of the five items that Mario dropped and the fire element , green chests contain treasure , the only white chest ( in the tea room ) contains the ice element , and the gold chests ( appearing upon the defeat of the area boss ) contain special keys that unlock the door to the next area and King Boo 's crown . Whenever Luigi finds a key , his Game Boy Horror automatically indicates which door it unlocks .
Once King Boo , the final boss of Luigi 's Mansion , is defeated , the player is given a rating ( A to H ) based on the amount of treasure Luigi has found . A second version of the mansion also becomes playable , called the " Hidden Mansion " . In the European version , the entire mansion appears as a reflection of the previous version , bosses are different and possibly move faster , ghosts and Portrait Ghosts may be captured faster , and there are sometimes more ghosts in a room .
= = Plot = =
The game begins with Luigi having won a mansion in a contest . Despite not having entered any contest , he promptly told Mario about the mansion , and the two agreed to meet up outside it that evening . Luigi takes a flashlight with him and he follows the map to the mansion . Upon finally arriving at his new mansion , which looks much more sinister than the supplied photo , Mario is nowhere to be found . Luigi proceeds inside the mansion , entering the Parlor after he gains the key from a strange ghost @-@ like shape . Upon entry , he is soon assaulted by a Gold Ghost , only to be saved by a little old man wielding a vacuum cleaner . The old man , however , is unable to reel the ghost in , and is soon overpowered . After being helped to his feet by Luigi , the old man introduces himself as Professor Elvin Gadd . The two retreat from the mansion when more of the Gold Ghosts appear .
In E. Gadd 's laboratory , he explains how Luigi 's newly won mansion is obviously the work of something not of this world , as it only appeared a few nights ago . As Luigi further explores the mansion , he discovers that it was built by King Boo to shelter the now @-@ freed portrait ghosts , ghosts whom E. Gadd had previously captured and contained in paintings . They sent Luigi the supplied photo to lure him into a trap . Gadd also tells Luigi that he saw someone wearing a red cap go into the mansion some time ago , but has not seen him since . Upon learning that the red capped man ( Mario ) was Luigi 's brother , E. Gadd allows Luigi to take over his duties of ghost @-@ catching and entrusts him with his vacuum cleaner , the " Poltergust 3000 , " and another invention called the GameBoy Horror that allows him to communicate with Luigi .
After numerous confrontations and challenges with many ghosts , portrait ghosts , boss ghosts , Boos , puzzles , and locked doors , Luigi confronts King Boo , who has trapped Mario inside a painting like the portrait ghosts . King Boo pulls Luigi into a painting for their final battle , puppeteering a Bowser suit from the inside to aid him . Eventually , King Boo is beaten down and sucked into the Poltergust 3000 while " Bowser " collapses . Luigi returns to E. Gadd with Mario 's painting and successfully extracts him from within it using the Ghost Portrificationizer in reverse . King Boo is turned into a painting along with the other portrait ghosts . The ending also sees the haunted mansion disappear , after which Luigi builds a normal house on the site using the treasure he accumulated . The size of the house depends on how much treasure the player was able to obtain before the end of the game .
= = Development = =
The game was first revealed at Nintendo Space World 2000 as a technological demo designed to show off the graphical capabilities of the GameCube . The full motion video footage had scenes seen in later trailers and commercials for the game , but were never used in the final release . This footage includes Luigi running from an unknown ghost in the Foyer , ghosts playing cards in the Parlor , and ghosts circling around Luigi . Soon after its creation , Nintendo decided to make the demo into a full @-@ fledged video game . A year later , Luigi 's Mansion was later shown at the Electronic Entertainment Expo alongside the GameCube console . A newer version of the game , more closely related to the final version , was later revealed at Nintendo Space World 2001 .
The original plan for Luigi 's Mansion involved a game where the levels revolved around a large mansion or complex . Tests were later done with Mario characters in dollhouses and such . Once it was transitioned into a GameCube project , Luigi was selected as the main character in order to keep the game original and new . The other gameplay ideas , such as ghosts and the ghost @-@ sucking vacuum cleaner , were added later . Older concepts , such as a role @-@ playing game @-@ like system which made real @-@ time changes to rooms , as well as an underground cave area located under the mansion , were also scrapped due to the inclusion of the new ideas .
Luigi 's Mansion 's music was composed by Shinobu Tanaka and Kazumi Totaka , and as such contains " Totaka 's Song " , a song featured in almost every game that Totaka has composed . It is found by waiting on the controller configuration screen at the Training Room for about three and a half minutes . The main theme of Luigi 's Mansion is orchestrated and arranged by Shogo Sakai for Super Smash Bros. Brawl . The game featured voice actors Charles Martinet as the voice of Mario and Luigi , and Jen Taylor as the voice of Toad . Luigi 's Mansion received an award for its audio by BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Awards in 2002 .
All GameCube systems support the display of stereoscopic 3D , and Luigi 's Mansion was developed to utilize this feature . However , 3D televisions were not widespread at the time , and it was deemed that compatible displays would be too cost @-@ prohibitive for the consumer . As a result , the feature was never enabled outside of development .
= = Reception = =
Commercially , Luigi 's Mansion is the most successful GameCube launch title and the best @-@ selling game of November 2001 . Despite meager sales in Japan at around 348 @,@ 000 units in total , it became the fifth best @-@ selling Nintendo GameCube game in the United States , with sales of roughly 2 @.@ 19 million units . It was also one of the first Player 's Choice titles on the console , along with Super Smash Bros. Melee and Pikmin .
Critically , Luigi 's Mansion received generally positive reviews , and reviewers praised the game 's graphics , design , and gameplay . GameSpot stated that Luigi 's Mansion " features some refreshing ideas " and " flashes of brilliance . " The gaming magazine Nintendo Power praised the game for being " very enjoyable while it lasts , with its clever puzzles and innovative game play . " GameSpy said that the game features " great visuals , imaginative game design and some classic Nintendo magic . " The game was referred to as " a masterful example of game design " by GamePro . Game Revolution stated that " the graphics are quite beautiful and the interesting game mechanics are enjoyable . " The American @-@ based publication Game Informer praised the gameplay , and referred to it as " brilliant and up to par with Miyamoto 's best . " The audio was praised by IGN , who considered Luigi 's voice acting as " cute , humorous and satisfying " , and GameSpy , who declared that the soundtrack remains " subtle , amusing and totally suitable throughout the game " . The Japanese video game publication Famitsu awarded the game with a gold rating , and noted that the control system , while tricky at first , works well .
The game has also received criticism , mainly because of its length . GameSpot said that Luigi 's Mansion " fails to match the classic status of Mario 's adventures " and that the " short amount of time it takes to complete it makes it a hard recommendation . " The review , however , also considered that the short length prevents the gameplay and audio from getting tiresome . GameSpy also criticized the game 's length , saying that it could be beaten in about six hours . Allgame declared that Luigi 's Mansion " ultimately fails to deliver a cohesive gameplay experience over the long @-@ term . " Fran Mirabella III of IGN felt that the game was sub @-@ par , due to its " predictable , formulaic gameplay . " G4 's TV show X @-@ Play criticized Luigi 's Mansion in their special on Mario games and media , calling the game a letdown for players waiting for the first Mario game on the GameCube . Luigi 's Mansion was awarded the 2002 BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for audio . The game placed 99th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time .
= = Legacy = =
Luigi 's Mansion introduced two new characters , Professor Elvin Gadd ( or simply E. Gadd for short ) and King Boo . E. Gadd has reappeared in other Mario games , such as Mario Party 6 and Mario & Luigi : Partners in Time . E. Gadd is referenced in Super Mario Sunshine as the creator of Mario 's F.L.U.D.D. device and Bowser Jr . ' s paintbrush . He also appears as a playable character skin in Super Mario Maker . King Boo has also reappeared in other games , either as a boss ( including Super Mario 64 DS and Super Princess Peach ) or a playable character ( including Mario Kart : Double Dash ! ! and Mario Super Sluggers ) . Although King Boo does not appear in Super Mario Sunshine , his name is used in the Western version of the game for a noticeably different Boo , who appears as a boss . The ghosts in Luigi 's Mansion have made appearances in other Nintendo games , such as Mario Party 8 and Wii Party .
The mansion in the game has reappeared in other Mario games , usually acting as Luigi 's home stage . It appeared in Mario Kart : Double Dash ! ! , Mario Kart 7 , Mario Power Tennis , Mario Kart DS , Mario Hoops 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 , Mario Super Sluggers and Mario Sports Mix . In Super Smash Bros. Brawl , a Luigi 's Mansion stage is unlockable . It can be destroyed when characters hit a set of pillars , but it can rebuild itself later on . There are also some stickers and trophies based on the game . The stage reappears in Super Smash Bros. for Wii U.
A sequel was revealed at E3 2011 for the Nintendo 3DS , and demonstrated as Luigi 's Mansion : Dark Moon at E3 2012 . After a delay , the sequel was released in March 2013 to celebrate the Year of Luigi .
At E3 2012 , Nintendo introduced the Wii U launch title Nintendo Land , which hosts Luigi 's Ghost Mansion , a multiplayer minigame based on Luigi 's Mansion . In this minigame , four players controlling Miis dressed up as Mario , Luigi , Wario and Waluigi have to drain the energy of a ghost , while the GamePad player , controlling the ghost , must make all the other players faint before time runs out .
= The Lord of the Rings ( film series ) =
The Lord of the Rings ( also promoted as The Lord of the Rings : The Motion Picture Trilogy ) is a film series consisting of three high fantasy adventure films directed by Peter Jackson . They are based on the novel The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien . The films are subtitled The Fellowship of the Ring ( 2001 ) , The Two Towers ( 2002 ) and The Return of the King ( 2003 ) . They were distributed by New Line Cinema .
Considered to be one of the biggest and most ambitious film projects ever undertaken , with an overall budget of $ 281 million ( some sources say $ 310- $ 330 million ) , the entire project took eight years , with the filming for all three films done simultaneously and entirely in New Zealand , Jackson 's native country . Each film in the series also had special extended editions released on DVD a year after their respective theatrical releases . While the films follow the book 's general storyline , they do omit some of the novel 's plot elements and include some additions to and deviations from the source material .
Set in the fictional world of Middle @-@ earth , the films follow the hobbit Frodo Baggins ( Elijah Wood ) as he and a Fellowship embark on a quest to destroy the One Ring , and thus ensure the destruction of its maker , the Dark Lord Sauron ( Sala Baker ) . The Fellowship becomes divided and Frodo continues the quest together with his loyal companion Sam ( Sean Astin ) and the treacherous Gollum ( Andy Serkis ) . Meanwhile , Aragorn ( Viggo Mortensen ) , heir in exile to the throne of Gondor , and the wizard Gandalf ( Ian McKellen ) unite and rally the Free Peoples of Middle @-@ earth in the War of the Ring .
The series was a major financial success , with the films collectively being among the highest @-@ grossing film series of all time . The films were critically acclaimed and heavily awarded , winning 17 out of 30 total Academy Award nominations . The final film in the series , The Return of the King , won all of its 11 Academy Award nominations including Best Picture , which also tied it with Ben @-@ Hur and Titanic for most Academy Awards received for a film . The series received wide praise for its innovative special and visual effects .
= = Development = =
Director Peter Jackson first came into contact with The Lord of the Rings when he saw Ralph Bakshi 's 1978 animated film The Lord of the Rings . Jackson " enjoyed the film and wanted to know more . " Afterwards , he read a tie @-@ in edition of the book during a twelve @-@ hour train journey from Wellington to Auckland when he was seventeen .
In 1995 , Jackson was finishing The Frighteners and considered The Lord of the Rings as a new project , wondering " why nobody else seemed to be doing anything about it " . With the new developments in computer @-@ generated imagery following Jurassic Park , Jackson set about planning a fantasy film that would be relatively serious and feel real . By October , he and his partner Fran Walsh teamed up with Miramax Films boss Harvey Weinstein to negotiate with Saul Zaentz who had held the rights to the book since the early 1970s , pitching an adaptation of The Hobbit and two films based on The Lord of the Rings . Negotiations then stalled when Universal Studios offered Jackson a remake of King Kong . Weinstein was furious , and further problems arose when it turned out Zaentz did not have distribution rights to The Hobbit ; United Artists , which was in the market , did . By April 1996 , the rights question was still not resolved .
Jackson decided to move ahead with King Kong before filming The Lord of the Rings , prompting Universal to enter a deal with Miramax to receive foreign earnings from The Lord of the Rings while Miramax received foreign earnings from King Kong . It was also revealed that Jackson originally wanted to finish King Kong before The Lord of the Rings began . But due to location problems , he decided to start with The Lord of the Rings franchise instead .
When Universal cancelled King Kong in 1997 , Jackson and Walsh immediately received support from Weinstein and began a six @-@ week process of sorting out the rights . Jackson and Walsh asked Costa Botes to write a synopsis of the book and they began to re @-@ read the book . Two to three months later , they had written their treatment . The first film would have dealt with what would become The Fellowship of the Ring , The Two Towers , and the beginning of The Return of the King , ending with Saruman 's death , and Gandalf and Pippin going to Minas Tirith . In this treatment , Gwaihir and Gandalf visit Edoras after escaping Saruman , Gollum attacks Frodo when the Fellowship is still united , and Farmer Maggot , Glorfindel , Radagast , Elladan and Elrohir are present . Bilbo attends the Council of Elrond , Sam looks into Galadriel 's mirror , Saruman is redeemed before he dies and the Nazgûl just make it into Mount Doom before they fall . They presented their treatment to Harvey and Bob Weinstein , the latter of whom they focused on impressing with their screenwriting as he had not read the book . They agreed upon two films and a total budget of $ 75 million .
During mid @-@ 1997 , Jackson and Walsh began writing with Stephen Sinclair . Sinclair 's partner , Philippa Boyens , was a major fan of the book and joined the writing team after reading their treatment . It took 13 – 14 months to write the two film scripts , which were 147 and 144 pages respectively . Sinclair left the project due to theatrical obligations . Amongst their revisions , Sam is caught eavesdropping and forced to go along with Frodo , instead of Sam , Merry , and Pippin figuring out about the One Ring themselves and voluntarily going along after confronting Frodo about it , as occurs in the original novel . Gandalf 's account of his time at Orthanc was pulled out of flashback and Lothlórien was cut , with Galadriel doing what she does in the story at Rivendell . Denethor attends the Council with his son . Other changes included having Arwen rescue Frodo , and the action sequence involving the cave troll . The writers also considered having Arwen absorb Éowyn 's role entirely by having her kill the Witch @-@ king .
Trouble struck when Marty Katz was sent to New Zealand . Spending four months there , he told Miramax that the films were more likely to cost $ 150 million , and with Miramax unable to finance this , and with $ 15 million already spent , they decided to merge the two films into one . On 17 June 1998 , Bob Weinstein presented a treatment of a single two @-@ hour film version of the book . He suggested cutting Bree and the Battle of Helm 's Deep , " losing or using " Saruman , merging Rohan and Gondor with Éowyn as Boromir 's sister , shortening Rivendell and Moria as well as having Ents prevent the Uruk @-@ hai from kidnapping Merry and Pippin . Upset by the idea of " cutting out half the good stuff " Jackson balked , and Miramax declared that any script or work completed by Weta Workshop was theirs . Jackson went around Hollywood for four weeks , showing a thirty @-@ five @-@ minute video of their work , before meeting with New Line Cinema 's Mark Ordesky . At New Line Cinema , Robert Shaye viewed the video , and then asked why they were making two films when the book was published as three volumes ( this was later corrected : New Line only made this choice out of economical reasons ) ; he wanted to make a film trilogy . Now Jackson , Walsh , and Boyens had to write three new scripts .
The expansion to three films allowed much more creative freedom , although Jackson , Walsh , and Boyens had to restructure their script accordingly . The three films do not correspond exactly to the trilogy 's three volumes , but rather represent a three @-@ part adaptation . Jackson takes a more chronological approach to the story than did Tolkien . Frodo 's quest is the main focus , and Aragorn is the main sub @-@ plot , and many sequences ( such as Tom Bombadil ) that do not contribute directly to those two plots were left out . Much effort was put into creating satisfactory conclusions and making sure exposition did not bog down the pacing . Amongst new sequences , there are also expansions on elements Tolkien kept ambiguous , such as the battles and the creatures . During shooting , the screenplays continued to evolve , in part due to contributions from cast members looking to further explore their characters . Most notable amongst these rewrites was the character Arwen , who was originally planned as a warrior princess , but reverted to her book counterpart , who remains physically inactive in the story ( though she sends moral and military support ) .
To develop fight and sword choreography for the series , the filmmakers employed Hollywood sword @-@ master Bob Anderson . Anderson worked directly with the talent including Viggo Mortensen and Karl Urban to develop the film 's many sword fights and stunts . Bob Anderson 's role in The Lord of the Rings series was highlighted in the film Reclaiming the Blade . This documentary on sword martial arts also featured Weta Workshop and Richard Taylor , The Lord of the Rings illustrator John Howe and actors Viggo Mortensen and Karl Urban . All discussed their roles and work on the series as related to the sword .
= = Production design = =
Jackson began storyboarding the series with Christian Rivers in August 1997 and assigned his crew to begin designing Middle @-@ earth at the same time . Jackson hired long @-@ time collaborator Richard Taylor to lead Weta Workshop on five major design elements : armour , weapons , prosthetics / make @-@ up , creatures , and miniatures . In November 1997 , famed Tolkien illustrators Alan Lee and John Howe joined the project . Most of the imagery in the films is based on their various illustrations . Production designer Grant Major was charged with the task of converting Lee and Howe 's designs into architecture , creating models of the sets , while Dan Hennah worked as art director , scouting locations and organising the building of sets .
Jackson 's vision of Middle @-@ earth was described as being " Ray Harryhausen meets David Lean " by Randy Cook . Jackson wanted a gritty realism and historical regard for the fantasy , and attempted to make the world rational and believable . For example , the New Zealand Army helped build Hobbiton months before filming began so the plants could really grow . Creatures were designed to be biologically believable , such as the enormous wings of the fell beast to help it fly . In total , 48 @,@ 000 pieces of armour , 500 bows , and 10 @,@ 000 arrows were created by Weta Workshop . They also created many prosthetics , such as 1 @,@ 800 pairs of Hobbit feet for the lead actors , as well as many ears , noses , and heads for the cast , and around 19 @,@ 000 costumes were woven and aged . Every prop was specially designed by the Art Department , taking the different scales into account .
= = Filming = =
Principal photography for all three films was conducted concurrently in many locations within New Zealand 's conservation areas and national parks between 11 October 1999 , and 22 December 2000 , a period of 438 days . Pick @-@ up shoots were conducted annually from 2001 to 2004 . The series was shot at over 150 different locations , with seven different units shooting , as well as soundstages around Wellington and Queenstown . Along with Jackson directing the whole production , other unit directors included John Mahaffie , Geoff Murphy , Fran Walsh , Barrie Osbourne , Rick Porras , and any other assistant director , producer , or writer available . Jackson monitored these units with live satellite feeds , and with the added pressure of constant script re @-@ writes and the multiple units interpreting his envisioned result , he only got around four hours of sleep a night . Due to the remoteness of some of the locations , the crew would also bring survival kits in case helicopters could not reach the location to bring them home in time . The New Zealand Department of Conservation was criticised for approving the filming within national parks without adequate consideration of the adverse environmental effects and without public notification . The adverse effects of filming battle scenes in Tongariro National Park meant that the park later required restoration work .
= = Cast = =
The following is a list of cast members who voiced or portrayed characters appearing in the extended version of The Lord of the Rings film series .
= = Post @-@ production = =
Each film had the benefit of a full year of post @-@ production time before its respective December release , often finishing in October – November , with the crew immediately going to work on the next film . In this period 's later part , Jackson would move to London to supervise the scoring and continue editing , while having a computer feed for discussions to The Dorchester Hotel , and a " fat pipe " of Internet connections from Pinewood Studios to look at the special effects . He had a Polycom video link and 5 @.@ 1 surround sound to organise meetings , and listen to new music and sound effects generally wherever he was . The extended editions also had a tight schedule at the start of each year to complete special effects and music .
= = = Editing = = =
To avoid pressure , Jackson hired a different editor for each film . John Gilbert worked on the first film , Mike Horton and Jabez Olssen on the second and longtime Jackson collaborator Jamie Selkirk and Annie Collins on the third . Daily rushes would often last up to four hours , with scenes being done throughout 1999 – 2002 for the rough ( 4 ½ hours ) assemblies of the films . In total , 1828 km ( six million feet ) of film was edited down to the 11 hours and 23 minutes ( 683 minutes ) of Extended running time . This was the final area of shaping of the films , when Jackson realised that sometimes the best scripting could be redundant on screen , as he picked apart scenes every day from multiple takes .
The first film 's editing was relatively easygoing , with Jackson coming up with the concept of an Extended Edition later on , although after a screening to New Line they had to re @-@ edit the beginning for a prologue . The Two Towers was always acknowledged by the crew as the most difficult film to make , as " it had no beginning or end " , and had the additional problem of inter @-@ cutting storylines appropriately . Jackson even continued editing the film when that part of the schedule officially ended , resulting in some scenes , including the reforging of Andúril , Gollum 's back @-@ story , and Saruman 's demise , being moved to The Return of the King . Later , Saruman 's demise was cut from the theatrical edition ( but included in the Extended edition ) when Jackson felt it was not starting the third film effectively enough . As with all parts of the third film 's post @-@ production , editing was very chaotic . The first time Jackson actually saw the completed film was at the Wellington premiere .
Many filmed scenes remain unused , even in the Extended Editions . Promotional material for The Fellowship of the Ring contained an attack by Orcs from Moria on Lothlórien after the Fellowship leaves Moria , replaced with a more suspenseful entrance for the Fellowship . Also cut were scenes from the book , including Frodo seeing more of Middle @-@ earth at Parth Galen and an extended Council of Elrond , and new scenes with an attack upon Frodo and Sam at the river Anduin by an Uruk @-@ hai . The major cut to The Two Towers featured Arwen and Elrond visiting Galadriel at Lothlórien , with Arwen then leading the Elven reinforcements to Helm 's Deep . This scene , and a flashback to Arwen and Aragorn 's first meeting , was cut during a revision of the film 's plot ; the Elves ' appearance was explained with a telepathic communication between Elrond and Galadriel .
Éowyn was to have a greater role in defending the refugees in the Glittering Caves from Uruk @-@ hai intruders , while in Osgiliath , Faramir was to have a vision of Frodo becoming like Gollum , with Frodo and Sam having an extended fight sequence . Filmed for The Return of the King were two scenes present in the book ; Sam using the Phial of Galadriel to pass the Watchers at Cirith Ungol , and further epilogue footage , with endings for Legolas and Gimli , Éowyn and Faramir 's wedding and Aragorn 's death and funeral . Sauron was to fight Aragorn at the Black Gate , but with Jackson deciding the scene was inappropriate , a computer @-@ generated Troll was used instead . To give context for Wormtongue killing Saruman , and Legolas in turn killing Wormtongue , it was to be revealed Wormtongue poisoned Théodred . The final scene cut was Aragorn having his armour fitted for the Battle of the Black Gate by the trilogy 's armourers , which was the final scene filmed during principal photography . Peter Jackson has stated that he would like to include some of these unused scenes in a future " Ultimate Edition " home video release , also including out @-@ takes .
= = = Music = = =
Howard Shore composed , orchestrated , conducted , and produced the trilogy 's music . He was hired in August 2000 and visited the set , and watched the assembly cuts of The Fellowship of the Ring and The Return of the King . In the music , Shore included many leitmotifs to represent various characters , cultures , and places . For example , there are leitmotifs for the hobbits as well as the Shire . Although the first film had some of its score recorded in Wellington , virtually all of the trilogy 's score was recorded in Watford Town Hall and mixed at Abbey Road Studios . Jackson planned to advise the score for six weeks each year in London , though for The Two Towers he stayed for twelve . As a Beatles fan , Jackson had a photo tribute done there on the zebra crossing .
The score is primarily played by the London Philharmonic Orchestra , and many artists such as Ben Del Maestro , Enya , Renée Fleming , James Galway , Annie Lennox and Emilíana Torrini contributed . Even actors Billy Boyd , Viggo Mortensen , Liv Tyler , Miranda Otto ( extended cuts only for the latter two ) , and Peter Jackson ( for a single gong sound in the second film ) contributed to the score . Fran Walsh and Philippa Boyens also wrote the lyrics to various music and songs , which David Salo translated into Tolkien 's languages . The third film 's end song , " Into the West " , was a tribute to a young filmmaker Jackson and Walsh befriended named Cameron Duncan , who died of cancer in 2003 .
Shore composed a main theme for The Fellowship rather than many different character themes , and its strength and weaknesses in volume are depicted at different points in the series . On top of that , individual themes were composed to represent different cultures . Infamously , the amount of music Shore had to write every day for the third film increased dramatically to around seven minutes . The music for the series turned out to be a success and has been voted best movie soundtrack of all time for the six years running , passing up Schindler 's list , Gladiator , Star Wars ( 1977 ) , and Out of Africa respectively .
= = = Sound = = =
Sound technicians spent the early part of the year trying to find the right sounds . Some , such as animal sounds like those of tigers and walruses , were bought . Human voices were also used . Fran Walsh contributed to the Nazgûl scream and David Farmer the Warg howls . Other sounds were unexpected : the fell beast 's screech is taken from that of a donkey , and the mûmakil 's bellow comes from the beginning and end of a lion 's roar . In addition , ADR was used for most of the dialogue .
The technicians worked with New Zealand locals to get many of the sounds . They re @-@ recorded sounds in abandoned tunnels for an echo @-@ like effect in the Moria sequence . 20 @,@ 000 New Zealand cricket fans provided the sound of the Uruk @-@ hai army in The Two Towers , with Jackson acting as conductor during the innings break of a one @-@ day international cricket match between England and New Zealand at Westpac Stadium . They spent time recording sounds in a graveyard at night , and also had construction workers drop stone blocks for the sounds of boulders firing and landing in The Return of the King . Mixing took place between August and November at " The Film Mix " , before Jackson commissioned the building of a new studio in 2003 . The building , however , had not yet been fully completed when they started mixing for The Return of the King .
= = = Special effects = = =
The first film has around 540 effect shots , the second 799 , and the third 1 @,@ 488 ( 2 @,@ 730 in total ) . The total increases to 3 @,@ 420 with the extended editions . 260 visual effect artists began work on the series , and the number doubled by The Two Towers . The crew , led by Jim Rygiel and Randy Cook , worked long hours , often overnight , to produce special effects within a short space of time . Jackson 's active imagination was a driving force . For example , several major shots of Helm 's Deep were produced within the last six weeks of post @-@ production of The Two Towers , and the same happened again within the last six weeks on The Return of the King .
= = Releases = =
= = = Theatrical = = =
The trilogy 's online promotional trailer was first released on 27 April 2000 , and set a new record for download hits , registering 1 @.@ 7 million hits in the first 24 hours of its release . The trailer used a selection from the soundtrack for Braveheart and The Shawshank Redemption among other cuts . In 2001 , 24 minutes of footage from the series , primarily the Moria sequence , was shown at the Cannes Film Festival , and was very well received . The showing also included an area designed to look like Middle @-@ earth .
The Fellowship of the Ring was released 19 December 2001 . It grossed $ 47 million in its U.S. opening weekend and made around $ 871 million worldwide . A preview of The Two Towers was inserted just before the end credits near the end of the film 's theatrical run . A promotional trailer was later released , containing music re @-@ scored from the film Requiem for a Dream . The Two Towers was released 18 December 2002 . It grossed $ 62 million in its first U.S. weekend and out @-@ grossed its predecessor with $ 926 million worldwide . The promotional trailer for The Return of the King was debuted exclusively before the New Line Cinema film Secondhand Lions on 23 September 2003 . Released 17 December 2003 , its first U.S. weekend gross was $ 72 million , and became the second film ( after Titanic ) to gross over $ 1 billion worldwide .
= = = Home media = = =
Each film was released on standard two @-@ disc edition DVDs containing previews of the next film . The success of the theatrical cuts brought about four @-@ disc Extended Editions , with new editing , added special effects and music . The extended cuts of the films and the included special features were spread over two discs , and a limited collector 's edition was also released . The Fellowship of the Ring was released on 12 November 2002 , containing 30 minutes more footage , an Alan Lee painting of the Fellowship entering Moria , and the Moria Gate on the back of the sleeve ; an Argonath @-@ styled bookend was included with the Collector 's Edition . The Two Towers , released on 18 November 2003 , contained 44 minutes extra footage and a Lee painting of Gandalf the White 's entrance ; the Collector 's Edition contained a Sméagol statue , with a crueller @-@ looking statue of his Gollum persona available by order for a limited time .
The Return of the King was released on 14 December 2004 , having 51 minutes more footage , a Lee painting of the Grey Havens and a model of Minas Tirith for the Collector 's Edition , with Minas Morgul available by order for a limited time . The Special Extended DVD Editions also had in @-@ sleeve maps of the Fellowship 's travels . They have also played at cinemas , most notably for a 16 December 2003 marathon screening ( dubbed " Trilogy Tuesday " ) culminating in a late afternoon screening of the third film . Attendees of " Trilogy Tuesday " were given a limited edition keepsake from Sideshow Collectibles containing one random frame of film from each of the three movies . Both versions were put together in a Limited Edition " branching " version , plus a new feature @-@ length documentary by Costa Botes . The complete series was released in a six @-@ disc set on 14 November 2006 .
Warner Bros. released the trilogy 's theatrical versions on Blu @-@ ray Disc in a boxed set on 6 April 2010 . An extended edition Blu @-@ ray box set was made available for pre @-@ order from Amazon.com in March 2011 and was released on 28 June 2011 . Each film 's extended Blu @-@ ray version is identical to the extended DVD version ; the running time includes an added credit sequence listing the names of " Lord of the Rings fan @-@ club members " who contributed to the project .
In 2014 , brand new Blu @-@ ray steelbook editions of the five @-@ disc Extended Editions were released . The first , The Fellowship of the Ring , was released on 12 May 2014 . The discs are identical to those found in the previous five @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office performance = = =
= = = Public and critical response = = =
Unadjusted for inflation , The Lord of the Rings film series is the highest grossing film trilogy worldwide of all time , higher even than other film franchises such as the original Star Wars trilogy and The Godfather trilogy . The film series grossed a total of $ 2 @.@ 92 billion and also tied a record with Ben @-@ Hur and Titanic for the total number of Academy Awards won for a single film , with The Return of the King receiving eleven Oscars .
The majority of critics have also praised the series , with Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times writing that " the trilogy will not soon , if ever , find its equal " . Some were critical of the films ' pacing and length : " It 's a collection of spectacular set pieces without any sense of momentum driving them into one another " according to Philadelphia Weekly .
On Rotten Tomatoes , the films received approval ratings of 91 % , 96 % , and 95 % respectively . Metacritic , based on its ratings for each film ( 92 , 88 , and 94 respectively ) , lists the series as one of the two most critically acclaimed trilogies of all time . Every film is placed in the top 100 of the ' Metacritic Best @-@ Reviewed Movies ' list . In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend , cinema audiences gave the films an average grade of A- , A , and A + respectively on an A + to F scale .
The series appears in the Dallas @-@ Fort Worth Film Critics Association 's Top 10 Films , Time magazine 's All @-@ Time 100 Movies , and James Berardinelli 's Top 100 . In 2007 , USA Today named the series as the most important films of the past 25 years . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " Bringing a cherished book to the big screen ? No sweat . Peter Jackson 's trilogy — or , as we like to call it , our preciousssss — exerted its irresistible pull , on advanced Elvish speakers and neophytes alike . " Paste Magazine named it one of the 50 Best Movies of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) , ranking it at No. 4 . In another Time magazine list , the series ranks second in " Best Movies of the Decade " . Empire magazine voted the films at # 1 on the ' 32 Greatest Film Trilogies ' . In addition , six characters and their respective actors made the list of ' The 100 Greatest Movie Characters ' , also compiled by Empire , with Viggo Mortensen 's portrayal of Aragorn ranking No. 15 , Ian McKellen 's portrayal of Gandalf ranking No. 30 , Ian Holm 's portrayal of Bilbo Baggins ( shared with Martin Freeman for his portrayal of the same character in The Hobbit films ) ranking No. 61 , Andy Serkis ' portrayal of Gollum ranking No. 66 , Sean Astin 's portrayal of Samwise Gamgee ranking No. 77 , and Orlando Bloom 's portrayal of Legolas ranking No. 94 .
= = = Academy Awards = = =
The three films together were nominated for a total of 30 Academy Awards , of which they won 17 , a record for any movie trilogy ( the three nominations for The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey and The Hobbit : The Desolation of Smaug along with the single nomination for The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies brings the series ' total to 37 nominations ) . The Fellowship of the Ring earned thirteen nominations , the most of any film at the 74th Academy Awards , winning four . The Return of the King won in every category in which it was nominated , setting the current Oscar record for the highest clean sweep , and its 11 Academy Awards wins ties the record held by Ben @-@ Hur and Titanic ( though both of those films had additional nominations that they ultimately lost ) . The Return of the King became only the second sequel to win the Oscar for Best Picture ( after The Godfather Part II ) and the first and only fantasy film to receive this honor , though this has been widely perceived as an award by proxy for the entire series ( the first two films were also nominated for Best Picture ) . No actors in any of the three films won Oscars , and Ian McKellen was the only actor in the trilogy to receive a nomination , for his work in The Fellowship of the Ring .
The Fellowship of the Ring – Nominations : 13 , Wins : 4
The Two Towers — Nominations : 6 , Wins : 2
The Return of the King — Nominations : 11 , Wins : 11
As well as Academy Awards , each film in the series won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , the MTV Movie Award for Best Movie , and the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film . The first and third films also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film . The soundtrack for The Two Towers did not receive a nomination because of a rule prohibiting a soundtrack including music from a previous soundtrack to be eligible for nomination . This rule was changed in time for The Return of the King to receive the Oscar for Best Music Score . The New York Film Critics Circle awarded The Return of the King its Best Picture Award at the 2003 Awards Ceremony , hosted by Andrew Johnston , chair of the organization at that time , who called it " a masterful piece of filmmaking . "
= = = Reactions to changes in the films from the books = = =
The film series provoked both positive and negative reaction from fans and scholars of the novels , and was sometimes seen as changing parts Tolkien felt thematically necessary in terms of characters , themes , events and subtlety . Some fans of the book who disagreed with such changes have released fan edits of the films such as The Lord of the Rings : The Purist Edition , which removed many of the changes to bring them closer to the original .
Various changes to characters such as Gandalf , Aragorn , Arwen , Denethor , Faramir , Gimli , and Frodo , when considered together , were seen by some to alter the tone and themes found in the books . Several critics contend that the portrayal of women , especially Arwen , in the films is thematically faithful to ( or compatible with ) Tolkien 's writings despite some differences . Wayne G. Hammond , a Tolkien scholar , said of the first two films that he found them to be " travesties as adaptations ... faithful only on a basic level of plot " and that many characters had not been depicted faithfully to their appearance in the novel . Other critics have argued that Tolkien 's characters were weakened and misinterpreted by their portrayal in the films .
Changes to events ( such as the Elves participating at the Battle of Helm 's Deep , Faramir taking the hobbits to Osgiliath , and the deletion of the chapter " The Scouring of the Shire " ) are also seen as changing Tolkien 's themes .
Janet Brennan Croft criticized the films using Tolkien 's own terms " anticipation " and " flattening " , which she used in critiquing a proposed film script . She contrasts Tolkien 's subtlety with Jackson 's tendency to show " too much too soon " .
Supporters of the series assert that it is a worthy interpretation of the book and that most of the changes were necessary . Many who worked on the series are fans of the book , including Christopher Lee , who ( alone among the cast ) had actually met Tolkien in person , and Boyens once noted that no matter what , it is simply their interpretation of the book . Jackson once said that to simply summarize the story on screen would be a mess , and in his own words , " Sure , it 's not really The Lord of the Rings ... but it could still be a pretty damn cool movie . " Other fans also claim that , despite any changes , the films serve as a tribute to the book , appealing to those who have not yet read it , and even leading some to do so . The Movie Guide for The Encyclopedia of Arda ( an online Tolkien encyclopedia ) states that Jackson 's films were exceptional since filming the whole story of The Lord of the Rings was probably impossible . This notion is partially supported by a review published in 2005 that otherwise criticized a lack of " faithfulness to Tolkien 's spirit and tone . " Douglas Kellner argues that the conservative community spirit of Tolkien 's Shire is reflected in Jackson 's films as well as the division of the Fellowship into " squabbling races " .
= = = Legacy = = =
The release of the films saw a surge of interest in The Lord of the Rings and Tolkien 's other works , vastly increasing his impact on popular culture . It was rumored that the Tolkien family became split on the series , with Christopher Tolkien and his son Simon Tolkien feuding over whether or not it was a good idea to adapt . Christopher has since denied these claims , saying , " My own position is that The Lord of the Rings is peculiarly unsuitable to transformation into visual dramatic form . The suggestions that have been made that I ' disapprove ' of the films , even to the extent of thinking ill of those with whom I may differ , are wholly without foundation . " He added that he had never " expressed any such feeling " . In 2012 , however , he described the films as having " eviscerated " the book , and criticized the resulting " commercialisation " of his father 's work .
As a result of the series ' success , Peter Jackson has become a major player in the film business ( sometimes called a mogul ) in the mold of Steven Spielberg and George Lucas , in the process befriending some industry heavyweights like Bryan Singer and Frank Darabont . Jackson has since founded his own film production company , Wingnut Films , as well as Wingnut Interactive , a video game company . He was also finally given a chance to remake King Kong in 2005 . The film was a critical and box office success , although not as successful as The Lord of the Rings series . Jackson has been called a " favourite son " of New Zealand . In 2004 , Howard Shore toured with The Lord of the Rings Symphony , playing two hours of the score . Along with the Harry Potter films , the series has renewed interest in the fantasy film genre . Tourism for New Zealand is up , possibly due to its exposure in the series , with the country 's tourism industry waking up to an audience 's familiarity .
In December 2002 , The Lord of the Rings Motion Picture Trilogy : The Exhibition opened at the Te Papa museum in Wellington , New Zealand . As of 2007 , the exhibition has traveled to seven other cities around the world . A musical adaptation of the book was launched in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , in 2006 , but it closed after mostly poor reviews . A shortened version opened in London , United Kingdom , in the summer of 2007 . The success of the films has also spawned numerous video games and many other kinds of merchandise .
The legacy of The Lord of the Rings is also that of court cases over profits from the trilogy . Sixteen cast members ( Noel Appleby , Jed Brophy , Mark Ferguson , Ray Henwood , Bruce Hopkins , William Johnson , Nathaniel Lees , Sarah McLeod , Ian Mune , Paul Norell , Craig Parker , Robert Pollock , Martyn Sanderson , Peter Tait and Stephan Ure ) sued over the lack of revenue from merchandise bearing their appearance . The case was resolved out of court in 2008 . The settlement came too late for Appleby , who died of cancer in 2007 . Saul Zaentz also filed a lawsuit in 2004 claiming he had not been paid all of his royalties . The next year , Jackson himself sued the studio over profits from the first film , slowing development of the prequels until late 2007 . The Tolkien Trust filed a lawsuit in February 2008 , for violating Tolkien 's original deal over the rights that they would earn 7 @.@ 5 % of the gross from any films based on his works . The Trust sought compensation of $ 150 million . A judge denied them this option , but allowed them to win compensation from the act of the studio ignoring the contract itself . On 8 September 2009 , a settlement of this dispute between the Trust and New Line was announced , clearing a potential obstacle to the making of a new film based on The Hobbit .
= = Video games = =
Numerous video games have been released to supplement the film series . The releases include : The Two Towers , Pinball , The Return of the King , The Third Age , The Third Age ( GBA ) , Tactics , The Battle for Middle @-@ earth , The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II , The Battle for Middle @-@ earth II : The Rise of the Witch @-@ king , Conquest , Aragorn 's Quest , War in the North , Lego The Lord of the Rings , Guardians of Middle @-@ earth and Middle @-@ earth : Shadow of Mordor .
= = The Hobbit = =
Peter Jackson also directed three films based on Tolkien 's 1937 novel The Hobbit , a prequel to the Lord of the Rings novels . The first film , The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey , was released on 12 December 2012 , the second film , The Hobbit : The Desolation of Smaug , was released on 13 December 2013 , and the third film , The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies , was released on 17 December 2014 . Several actors from The Lord of the Rings , including Ian McKellen , Andy Serkis , Hugo Weaving , Elijah Wood , Ian Holm ( as older Bilbo ) , Christopher Lee , Cate Blanchett and Orlando Bloom reprised their roles .
= Laurie Nash =
Laurence John " Laurie " Nash ( 2 May 1910 – 24 July 1986 ) was a Test cricketer and Australian rules footballer . An inductee into the Australian Football Hall of Fame , Nash was a member of South Melbourne 's 1933 premiership team , captained South Melbourne in 1937 and was the team 's leading goal kicker in 1937 and 1945 . In cricket , Nash was a fast bowler and hard hitting lower order batsman who played two Test matches for Australia , taking 10 wickets at 12 @.@ 80 runs per wicket , and scoring 30 runs at a batting average of 15 .
The son of a leading Australian rules footballer of the early twentieth century who had also played cricket against the touring Marylebone Cricket Club in 1921 , Nash was a star sportsman as a boy . Following the family 's relocation from Victoria to Tasmania , he began to make a name for himself as both a footballer and a cricketer , and became both one of the earliest professional club cricketers in Australia and one of the first fully professional Australian rules footballers . Nash made his Test cricket debut in 1932 , against South Africa and his Victorian Football League ( VFL ) debut in 1933 .
While Nash had great success in football , he faced opposition from the cricket establishment for his supposedly poor attitude towards authority . This led fellow cricketer Keith Miller to write that his non @-@ selection as a regular Test player was " the greatest waste of talent in Australian cricket history " .
During World War II Nash rejected offers of a home posting and instead served as a trooper in New Guinea , stating that he wished to be treated no differently from any other soldier . Following the end of the war , Nash returned to South Melbourne and won the team goal kicking award , although his age and injuries inhibited any return of his previous successes . Nash retired from VFL football at the end of the 1945 season to play and coach in the country before returning to coach South Melbourne in 1953 . After retiring , Nash wrote columns for newspapers , was a panellist on football television shows and was a publican before his death in Melbourne , aged 76 .
= = Early life = =
Nash was born in Fitzroy , Victoria on 2 May 1910 , the youngest of three children of Irish Catholics Robert and Mary Nash . He had a brother , Robert Junior , and one sister , Mary , known as Maizie .
Nash belonged to a sporting family ; his grandfather Michael Nash and great @-@ uncle Thomas Nash were leading players for Carlton Football Club in the 1880s , his father Robert captained Collingwood Football Club and coached Footscray Football Club , and played cricket , opening the bowling for Hamilton in a match against the 1920 – 1921 touring English side , while Robert Junior also became a leading footballer in Tasmania and country Victoria . Nash 's mother was an orphan who was probably adopted several times , allowing historians no opportunity to determine any sporting links on her side of the family . Nash 's biographer also claims that former Prime Minister of New Zealand Sir Walter Nash and pianist Eileen Joyce were related to the family .
Nash 's father , who had initially worked as a gas stoker , joined the police force in 1913 and served in a number of postings , including Hamilton in western Victoria , taking his family with him . In Hamilton , Nash attended Loreto Convent and began his interest in sport , practising kicking a football made of newspapers and tied together with string .
When Nash Senior was transferred back to Melbourne in 1922 , the Nash brothers attended St Ignatius School in the Melbourne working @-@ class suburb of Richmond , where Nash became best friends with fellow student Tommy Lahiff , who would also become a leading Australian rules footballer .
Although short and stocky , Nash and his brother Robert Junior developed into star junior sportsmen , excelling at football and cricket , although Nash Senior preferred Laurie to become a cricketer , considering it a better and longer career option and forbade his sons from playing senior football until age 20 .
Nash 's performance in junior cricket led Victorian district cricket club Fitzroy to sign him for the 1927 / 28 season . Nash made his first grade debut for Fitzroy as a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old and spent two and a half seasons at Fitzroy , earning plaudits for his performances and , until he broke his wrist in a fielding mishap , there were suggestions that he was close to Victorian selection .
Nash Senior was a member of a group of 600 police who went on strike in 1923 for better wages but was dismissed from the force and required to find another livelihood . Nash Senior went into the hotel business , firstly in Melbourne before eventually moving his family to Tasmania in 1929 to run the hotel at Parattah .
= = Tasmania = =
In Tasmania , Nash gained work in a Launceston sport store and made his Tasmanian district cricket debut for the Tamar Cricket Club on 7 December 1929 , taking 7 wickets for 29 ( 7 / 29 ) and 1 / 16 . After one more match for Tamar , in which he took 5 / 41 , Nash was chosen in the Northern Tasmania side in the annual match against Southern Tasmania , where he took match figures of 7 / 40 and top scored in both innings .
These performances led Nash to make his first @-@ class cricket debut for Tasmania against Victoria in Launceston on 31 December 1929 , taking 2 / 97 , with future Test player Leo O 'Brien his maiden first @-@ class wicket , and scoring 1 and 48 ( Tasmania 's top score in their second innings ) .
Four months later , he made his senior football debut for the Roy Cazaly coached City side in the Northern Tasmanian Football Association ( NTFA ) , immediately standing out on account of his skills , blond hair and confidence in his abilities . Nash made the Tasmanian side for the national carnival in Adelaide where he won the medal for the most outstanding Tasmanian player of the carnival . Nash played in defence for City while Robert Junior played in the forward line and both were considered sensational .
Between 1930 and 1932 Nash played 45 games for City ( including premierships in 1930 and 1932 ) , kicking 14 goals , and winning the Tasman Shields Trophy , awarded to the Best and Fairest player in the NTFA , in 1931 and 1932 . Additionally , Nash played 10 games for Northern Tasmania ( 12 goals ) and 5 games for Tasmania at the national carnival .
Nash played for Tasmania against the touring West Indian cricket team in December 1930 . Batting at number three , Nash made 41 and 0 and took 2 / 87 , including bowling Learie Constantine , who had scored 100 in 65 minutes . Journalists noted that during Constantine 's innings , Nash was the only Tasmanian bowler to watch the West Indian closely and take note of his strengths and weaknesses , which led to his eventual success against the batsman .
In September 1932 Nash married Irene Roles in Launceston , with City and Tasmania team mate Ted Pickett acting as best man . Due to the strict sectarianism of the 1930s , there was some controversy as Irene was a Protestant from one of Launceston 's establishment families , and the wedding was held in a Protestant church . For years afterwards , Nash was subjected to a campaign by Catholic clergy to hold a Catholic wedding ceremony to legitimise his marriage but refused .
Laurie and Irene had one child , Noelene , in January 1940 . Wallish states that it was thought that Laurie sought to have additional children but Irene was opposed .
= = = Called for throwing = = =
On 26 January 1931 Nash was called for throwing in a match for Tasmania against Victoria at Launceston . He later claimed that the throw was deliberate and came out of frustration with his fielders . The call for throwing was early in the innings but Nash was able to recover from the incident to take 5 / 76 out of Victoria 's total of 524 . Earlier in the same match Nash opened the batting and made 110 , his highest first @-@ class score . It has been speculated by cricket historian Bernard Whimpress that Nash 's decision to throw the ball may have been regarded by selectors as " part of a parcel of anti @-@ social behaviours which told against regular selection " for either Australia or Victoria .
= = Test debut = =
Nash was picked for Tasmania in two matches against the touring South Africans in January 1932 . He failed to perform in the first match in Launceston , taking 1 / 68 and 2 / 45 and scoring 17 and 9 . However , Nash had a lively bowling performance in the Hobart match , making the ball come off the wicket at a great pace and gaining match figures of 9 / 137 , including two wickets in consecutive balls and breaking batsman Eric Dalton 's jaw with a vicious bouncer on the hat @-@ trick ball . South African captain Jock Cameron praised Nash for his performance as his bowling in the match was thought to be as quick and dangerous as any bowler in the world .
Following the Hobart match Nash was included in the Australian side to make his Test debut , aged 21 years and 286 days , against South Africa at the Melbourne Cricket Ground beginning 12 February 1932 . Nash was the first Tasmanian based player chosen to play for Australia since Charles Eady in 1902 and would be the last until Roger Woolley debuted in 1983 . Also making his Test debut for Australia was batsman Jack Fingleton while spin bowler Bert Ironmonger was recalled to the side .
Nash 's inclusion raised eyebrows , as The Argus wrote " The inclusion of Nash will occasion most surprise " , particularly as Nash was the only fast bowler chosen in the Australian team . However Nash soon silenced any critics with a dangerous opening spell , capturing three of the first four South African wickets to fall and 4 in the first innings for just 18 runs , followed by 1 / 4 in the second as South Africa were routed for 36 and 45 . The match was the first to finish in under six hours ' play .
Following the match , The Times commented favourably on Nash , reporting " Nash is a short , powerfully built man , … made the ball kick awkwardly , several balls getting up head @-@ high , and in one spell before luncheon took three wickets for four runs . Nash has plenty of stamina for a fast bowler and is considered by some to be the man for whom the selectors are searching to fill the place of Gregory . "
Nash 's performance also drew the interest of VFL clubs , as he was " said to be a better footballer than he is a cricketer . " Victorian Football League clubs Richmond and Footscray sought to recruit Nash but the VFL considered Nash a Fitzroy player due to his time at Fitzroy Cricket Club .
= = Bodyline = =
The 1932 – 1933 cricket season saw the Douglas Jardine @-@ led England side tour Australia , with Nash expected to open the bowling . English newspaper the News Chronicle stated that the emergence of Nash was " a grim prospect for England in its attempts to recover the Ashes . " Despite this , he was left out of what became known as the Bodyline series .
In the wake of England 's tactics of sustained fast short pitched bowling at the body of the Australian batsman , Australian vice @-@ captain Vic Richardson urged that Nash be brought into the Test team to " give the Poms back some of their own medicine . " Another Australian cricketer , Jack Fingleton , later wrote that the Australian selectors erred in not playing Nash , believing he was to be the best exponent in Australia of intimidatory fast bowling . However , the Australian Board of Control for International Cricket , which had been protesting to the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) about the Bodyline tactics of Jardine , believed that the inclusion of Nash would only aggravate an already tense situation , and Australian captain Bill Woodfull thought Bodyline bowling to be unsportsmanlike and refused to use the tactic .
Nash himself claimed that he could have ended Bodyline in two overs without needing to resort to a leg field , as he believed that the English batsman could not hook and a few overs of sustained , fast short pitched bowling would have caused England to abandon their Bodyline tactics .
As it was , Nash only played one first @-@ class game during the 1932 – 1933 season — for an Australian XI side against MCC at the MCG . Opening the bowling , Nash took 3 / 39 in the first innings and 0 / 18 in the second , with reporters noting that he occasionally got a lot of bounce out of the wicket . By this point Nash had played 17 matches for Tasmania , scoring 857 runs at 29 @.@ 55 and taking 51 wickets at 31 @.@ 96 . There was also talk , which proved unfounded , that Nash would be invited to join the touring team to Canada that Arthur Mailey was compiling .
= = Move to Victoria = =
= = = 1933 = = =
Nash 's football career continued to soar as several Victorian Football League clubs sought to recruit Laurie and Robert Junior . South Melbourne , partly through its connection to Roy Cazaly and partly through its offer to Nash of an unprecedented £ 3 per match , accommodation and a job in a sports store , eventually won the battle for the Nash brothers ' signatures for the 1933 VFL season . Such was the interest in Melbourne in where Nash would play , when South Melbourne committee member Joe Scanlan travelled to Tasmania to sign Nash , he was smuggled aboard the steamer to avoid media attention .
Nash moved to Melbourne in late 1932 and began playing cricket for South Melbourne Cricket Club while waiting for his transfer to South Melbourne Football Club to be processed .
Laurie starred in practice matches for South Melbourne but Robert Junior struggled and left the club prior to the start of the season to successfully play firstly for VFA club Coburg and then play and coach in country Victoria , Wearing guernsey number 25 , Nash made his VFL debut for South Melbourne against Carlton Football Club at Princes Park on 29 April 1933 , aged 22 years and 362 days . A near @-@ record crowd of 37 @,@ 000 attended the match and Nash immediately became one of the League 's top players , dominating matches from centre half @-@ back . Due in large part to Nash 's performance , South Melbourne finished the 1933 Home and Away season in second .
Nash caused the South Melbourne coaching staff concern when he fractured two fingers in a match against Hawthorn two weeks before the final series . Normally this type of injury would require a player to miss six weeks of football but Nash , who kicked six goals in the match , missed just one week , returned for South 's Semi @-@ Final win against Richmond and was considered Best on Ground in South Melbourne 's 1933 premiership win . In the Grand Final Nash played at centre @-@ half @-@ back , took thirteen marks and had twenty @-@ nine kicks and dominated play .
Nash was adjudged the finest defender since World War I by The Sporting Globe and was runner @-@ up in the Best and Fairest at South Melbourne .
A week after the Grand Final and still on a high from the premiership win , Nash opened the bowling for his district club South Melbourne against Australian captain Bill Woodfull 's team , Carlton . Mindful of the upcoming Test tour
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of England , Nash thought he could impress Woodfull by bowling him a series of short pitched deliveries , eventually hitting him over the heart ( Woodfull had been hit just under the heart by Harold Larwood during the Bodyline series ) . Nash dismissed Woodfull caught and bowled later that over for 15 but did not realise that " there was no way in the world Woodfull would take this wild and slightly uncouth cricketer with him to England in the current political climate ( or perhaps any other ) " and was not chosen for the subsequent tour of England .
= = = 1934 = = =
Nash continued to play district cricket and was considered a strong possibility for the 1934 tour of England . He was chosen to play in the Bert Ironmonger / Don Blackie benefit match , which was also a Test trial , but was forced to withdraw after contracting rheumatism in his shoulder . Nash 's replacement , Hans Ebeling , bowled well enough to secure a place in the tour squad instead .
Following the 1933 Premiership success , hopes were high for the 1934 VFL season , which was known as the Centenary Premiership year , in recognition of one hundred years since the European settlement of Victoria . Nash continued to move between centre half @-@ back and centre half @-@ forward , kicking 53 goals for the year ( 47 of which from 9 games ) as well as playing a significant role in South Melbourne full @-@ forward Bob Pratt reaching a record 150 goals ( although later in life Pratt would joke that Nash only kicked to him once " but that was a mistake . " )
In August 1934 , Nash was chosen to play for Victoria in an interstate match against South Australia at the MCG , replacing the injured Pratt . Initially selected at centre half @-@ forward , Nash had kicked 2 goals by the start of the second quarter when he was moved to full @-@ forward to replace the injured Bill Mohr and proceeded to kick a further 16 goals to finish with 18 goals , a record for a Victorian player in an interstate match and for the MCG as Victoria defeated South Australia 30 @.@ 19 ( 199 ) to 14 @.@ 10 ( 94 ) . Brownlow Medallist Ivor Warne @-@ Smith wrote of Nash 's performance ; " his was a great achievement . He showed superb marking , good ground play , and accurate kicking . Some of his shots from left @-@ foot snaps were gems … His performance has never been equalled . " He later claimed he would have kicked 27 goals that day but for the selfishness of the rovers who refused to kick to him . Following the match , Dr B. Crellin , who attended the birth of Nash , publicly apologised to the South Australian side , claiming part responsibility for the mayhem inflicted by Nash .
South Melbourne finished the home and away series in third position , defeated Collingwood by three points in the first Semi @-@ Final and Geelong by 60 points in the Preliminary Final , with Nash in brilliant form in the drizzling rain , kicking four goals .
Going into the 1934 Grand Final , South Melbourne were favourites to retain the premiership but while Nash kicked six goals and was adjudged one of the best players of the match , South Melbourne were defeated by Richmond by 39 points . Such was the surprise around South Melbourne 's loss , there were post @-@ match rumours of South players being offered and accepting bribes to play poorly and Bob Pratt and Peter Reville angrily confronted team mates who underperformed .
= = = 1935 = = =
Nash resigned his position at the sports store and followed in his father 's footsteps by joining the Victorian police force on 14 January 1935 , and at 5 ' 9 " only just reached the minimum height requirement . Constable Nash served in the South Melbourne area for two years before resigning , having made no arrests in that time .
Nash continued to cement his reputation as one of the top footballers in the country , being called " the most versatile player in Australia " , as , in addition to playing at centre half @-@ back and centre half @-@ forward , he successfully played in the ruck .
Named at centre half @-@ back for Victoria in the game against Western Australia , Nash arrived in Perth with such a severe cold he was unable to train in the lead up to match . Nash injured his knee and ankle in Victoria 's win over Western Australia in Perth in early July and was unable to train for a week . While Nash did not miss any matches due to the injuries , they bothered him throughout the season and he was forced to miss South Melbourne Footballers ' weekly dance at the Lake Oval Social Hall . Although carrying injuries , Nash continued to show his versatility , playing around the ground and led South Melbourne to the Grand Final , their third in a row , only to be defeated by Collingwood .
At the end of the 1935 season , Nash was adjudged the Best Player in the VFL by the Sporting Globe , yet only came runner @-@ up to Ron Hillis in South Melbourne 's Best and Fairest .
= = = 1936 = = =
Appointed vice @-@ captain of South Melbourne , Nash had his best Brownlow Medal result in 1936 , receiving ten votes and finishing equal sixteenth behind winner Denis Ryan , while at South Melbourne , Nash was voted runner @-@ up in the Best and Fairest and was runner @-@ up in the Leading Goalkicker award . Nash however was considered by many judges as the best footballer in Australia , being adjudged " VFL Best Player " by the Sporting Globe , " VFL Footballer of the Year " by the Melbourne Herald and " VFL Best Player of the Year " by The Australian , while newspapers reported that crowds " gasped " at the remarkable things he was able achieve with the ball .
South Melbourne finished the year as Minor Premier but lost to Collingwood in the Second Semi @-@ Final , although Nash , at centre @-@ half @-@ back , was listed as one of South 's best players in the match . South then won the Preliminary Final against Melbourne , with the dominance of Nash , again at centre @-@ half @-@ back , over his opponent Jack Mueller , himself one of the VFL 's leading players , deciding the result of the final .
For the fourth season in a row , South Melbourne reached the Grand Final , only to lose , for the third season in a row , to Collingwood for the second time in a row . Nash kicked one goal in the Grand Final and was adjudged one of South 's best players but Collingwood 's Jack Ross 's dogged tagging of Nash throughout the match was considered the decisive factor in Collingwood 's win .
= = = 1937 = = =
Nash was selected as captain of South Melbourne for the 1937 season to replace the retiring Jack Bisset , becoming part of the first father and son team to captain a VFL / AFL side . It is thought that South Melbourne 's newly appointed coach Roy Cazaly influenced the selection of Nash as captain , as Cazaly , Nash 's coach in Tasmania , believed Nash to be the best footballer ever . There was some controversy over Nash 's selection as captain , as it had been expected that vice @-@ captain Brighton Diggins would be named captain . In response , Diggins quit South .
South Melbourne did not enjoy the same level of success it had in the past four seasons , dropping to ninth position as retirements of some its key players from the previous four seasons , as well as injuries meant Nash was forced to play a lone hand for much of the year . Nash won the club goal kicking award with 37 goals .
= = Test comeback = =
Nash spent five years out of the cricketing spotlight ( although he dominated Melbourne district cricket , the Victorian selectors refused to select him and he never played a Sheffield Shield match ) . In 1936 – 1937 he topped the district cricket bowling averages .
Nash was chosen for Victoria against the touring English cricket team and responded with figures of 2 / 21 and 2 / 16 and had the tourists ducking and weaving with " several head and rib @-@ hunting deliveries an over " . By playing for Victoria in this match , Nash became the first person to represent two different states in cricket and Australian rules football . He remains one of only three players to do so ( the others being Keith Miller and Neil Hawke ) .
In response to his bowling performance , Nash was picked for the deciding Fifth Test of the 1936 – 1937 Ashes series at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , with the sides locked at 2 – 2 in the series . His selection invoked complaints from the touring English side , where it was reported that a " feeling bordering on panic " had arisen at the thought of facing Nash during the Test . England captain Gubby Allen pressed for Nash 's banishment from the Australian team , organising a private lunch with Bradman , then Australian captain . Bradman refused to omit Nash , believing " his presence in the team would be a psychological threat to England whether he bowled bouncers or underarm grubbers " . Allen then approached the Australian Board of Control . It has been suggested that the Board of Control wanted to accede to Allen 's demand and veto Nash 's selection but were forced to relent when the selectors threatened to resign if Nash was not included . Finally , Allen informed the umpires that if Nash was to bowl one ball aimed at the body , he would immediately bring his batsmen off the ground .
Nash claimed 4 / 70 and 1 / 34 and scored a sedate 17 in seventy @-@ five minutes ( disappointing the crowd which " was expecting fireworks from him " ) as Australia clinched the series . Nash also took a number of catches , including Wally Hammond off Bill O 'Reilly and a spectacular catch to dismiss Ken Farnes , the last England batsman , pocketing the ball and a stump as souvenirs . When later asked about his inclusion , Nash replied " They knew where to come when they stood 2 @-@ all in the rubber . "
The media was full of praise for Nash 's performance in the Test , claiming that Nash was a much more reliable fast bowler than his " erratic " opening partner Ernie McCormick . Nash was praised for his stamina , his ability to keep his footing and his direction during long bowling stints and his vicious yorker , which he used to dismiss Leslie Ames in the first innings and Joe Hardstaff junior in the second .
Bradman later wrote that Nash 's bowling was scrupulously fair and that any bouncers were few and adhered to the spirit of cricket .
= = Cricket wilderness = =
Following the Test , Nash was selected for Victoria for their match against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval in what would have been his first Sheffield Shield match . However , Nash was forced to withdraw and fly to Tasmania following his wife Irene 's sudden collapse in Hobart with peritonitis .
At the start of the 1937 – 1938 cricket season , it was expected that Nash would be chosen for the 1938 Ashes Tour , with one journalist stating that if he was not selected , the team " would not be truly representative of our nation 's real cricketing strength . " Nash continued to terrorise batsmen in district cricket , including the rare occurrence of taking all 10 wickets in an innings ( for 35 runs ) for South Melbourne against Prahran in 1937 @-@ 38 , but was not selected for Victoria throughout the season . Nash 's non @-@ selection for Victoria led some Victorian Cricket Association delegates to publicly question why " the best fast bowler in Australia , and probably the world , is not chosen to represent Victoria " and demand that the Victorian selectors explain their non @-@ selection of Nash .
Nash 's first @-@ class career ended at the age of 26 . His career Test figures 10 wickets at 12 @.@ 60 places him fourth on the list of averages for bowlers to have taken 10 or more Test wickets ( and the best by an Australian ) . His 22 first @-@ class matches reaped 69 wickets at 28 @.@ 33 and 953 runs at 28 @.@ 02 . His district cricket career of 63 matches netted 174 wickets at 14 @.@ 95 .
A young Keith Miller also played for the South Melbourne Cricket Club and gained his first wicket in district cricket from a catch by Nash . Miller later declared that the non @-@ selection of Nash as a regular Test player was " the greatest waste of talent in Australian cricket history " , adding that Australian captain Don Bradman wanted Nash in the side to tour England in 1938 but that Nash " suffered injustices at the hands of high @-@ level cricket administration " , who refused to consider his selection .
The reasons given for the administrators ' disinclination towards Nash include his reputation for blunt speech , his abrasive personality , which included sledging and even the fact that he wore cut off sleeves , which was considered a serious faux pas in the 1930s . Nash himself believed it was due to his working @-@ class background , saying " I didn 't wear the old school tie . I was a working man 's son . I didn 't fit in " .
= = Transfer to Camberwell = =
Prior to the 1938 season , the Victorian Football Association ( VFA ) , the second @-@ tier senior football competition in the state , made an ambitious break from tradition in what was ultimately a successful ploy to improve its popularity : it legalised throwing the ball in general play and made a few other rule changes to create a distinct and faster variation of Australian rules football , and ended the legal framework which required players to obtain a clearance when switching from the VFL to the VFA ( or vice versa ) . On March 31 , Nash caused a sensation when he became the first VFL player to defect under this schism , transferring from South Melbourne to Camberwell without a clearance . Nash was already one of the highest paid players in the VFL , but accepted an offer of £ 8 / week to captain @-@ coach the Camberwell Football Club , £ 3 / week to captain @-@ coach the sub @-@ district Camberwell Cricket Club and a job as a Camberwell Council official .
South Melbourne and the VFL objected to the transfer and South Melbourne sent out a public appeal for a job for Nash that would match that offered by Camberwell but nothing suitable was forthcoming . There were also threats of legal action against Nash and Camberwell , which did not eventuate , although for playing in another competition without a clearance , Nash was banned from playing in the VFL competition for three years – a suspension which meant he would have to sit out of all football ( both VFA and VFL ) for three years if he wished to return from the VFA to the VFL .
Nash was immediately appointed captain of Camberwell and quickly became one of the most popular figures in the VFA , drawing large crowds to even practice matches . Playing mainly at centre @-@ half @-@ back in his first season but later in the forward @-@ line , Nash was runner @-@ up in the 1938 Camberwell Best and Fairest and won the 1939 Best and Fairest ; and in 1939 , he finished second in both of the VFA 's Best and Fairest awards : the Recorder Cup and VFA Medal . Nash spent four seasons at Camberwell , where he played 74 games and kicked 418 goals , including 100 in 1939 and 141 in 1941 . At the start of the 1940 season Nash was still considered amongst the best footballers in the country and , with the transfer of former South Melbourne team mate Bob Pratt and Collingwood full @-@ forward Ron Todd to rival VFA sides Coburg and Williamstown respectively , there was talk that the VFA would now match the VFL for crowds .
Nash was officially appointed Captain / Coach of Camberwell Cricket Club on 19 September 1938 and his debut for the club in the summer of 1938 – 1939 meant that he was the first person to be paid for playing grade cricket in Australia .
= = War service = =
Nash did not rush to enlist in the Australian armed forces on the outbreak of war in 1939 . While there was no public statement from Nash , it is thought that with a family to support and an Irish Catholic anti @-@ pathy to the British , Nash did not feel an urgency to fight . However , following the commencement of the war against Japan , Nash enlisted on 2 February 1942 .
Realising the potential public relations coup in having a star sportsman enlist , officers recommended that Nash be seconded to the Army School of Physical Training ( where Don Bradman had been given a commission ) , which offered greater pay and rank and ensured that Nash would not be posted overseas , away from family . Additionally , a medical examination detected osteoarthritis in both his knees , derived from the number of injuries he sustained throughout his footballing career . Nash refused , stating that he did not wish to be treated differently from ordinary recruits , and enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force , gaining the rank of Trooper .
Nash was posted to the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion , which had seen action in the Syria @-@ Lebanon and the Netherlands East Indies campaigns . The 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion was sent to the South West Pacific theatre , supporting the 7th Division in the New Guinea campaign and fought in the Finisterre Range campaign in the advance to Lae .
Throughout his tour of duty Nash had been wary of preferential treatment towards him due to his fame and opposed any attempts to promote him , which he believed he did not deserve . However , a jeep crash resulted in further injury to Nash 's knees and ultimately led to a medical discharge from the Army on 18 February 1944 . Following his return to Australia , Nash sold War Bonds and appeared at war @-@ related charity functions , including one where he raised an additional £ 100 by singing to the large crowd .
Although Nash would claim that he was never prouder than when he was a soldier , always wore his Returned Services League ( RSL ) badge and eagerly attended reunions of the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion , he never marched on Anzac Day or applied for the campaign medals for which he was eligible .
= = Postwar sport = =
Although out of shape and with arthritic knees , Nash announced that he was making a football comeback in 1945 . He sought to return to South Melbourne , rather than Camberwell , but Camberwell declined Nash 's transfer application and both clubs stated that they would be naming Nash in their respective sides for Round 1 . An impediment to Nash 's return to South Melbourne arose as a result of Nash having played two games for his old boy scout troop , the 6th Melbourne Scouts , while on leave in mid @-@ 1942 ; these games were considered competitive , and playing in them meant that Nash had not sat out of football for the three years required to serve the suspension he had received for crossing to Camberwell without a clearance . After an appeal by South Melbourne , a special meeting of the VFL was held to amend the rules so ex @-@ servicemen would not be penalised for playing in minor matches . The amendment was made the day before the commencement of the 1945 season , allowing Nash to take his place for South Melbourne in their Round 1 .
Nash was slower and more portly than he was in the 1930s , short of match practice and forced to spend most Sundays in hospital having fluid drained from his injured knees swollen from the exertions of the day before , forcing South Melbourne coach Bull Adams to nurse Nash through the season . Additionally , in the Round 5 match against Footscray , he tore the webbing between his fingers which later became infected , causing him to miss the Round 6 match against North Melbourne and although Nash wore a special leather glove to protect his hand , the injury would trouble him for the rest of the season . Despite these setbacks , Nash could still be a match winner and many opposition players saw him as the key player for South Melbourne . Nash 's best return for the year was seven goals against St Kilda in Round 12 and he twice kicked six goals in a match ; against Geelong in Round 15 and Fitzroy in Round 18 . When an opposition player did well against Nash , it was something to savour ; years later leading Richmond player Don " Mopsy " Fraser wrote " Trouncing Nash does a lot for your confidence , even an ageing Nash . "
South Melbourne won the minor premiership in 1945 and reached the 1945 VFL Grand Final , where it lost to Carlton . Named at full @-@ forward , Nash was the oldest player in the Grand Final at 35 years and 150 days . The match , known as ' the Bloodbath ' , was notorious for its onfield violence . For his part , Nash king @-@ hit Carlton captain Bob Chitty in the final quarter with what he later described as the sweetest punch he had ever thrown , knocking Chitty out , breaking his jaw and leaving a large wound over his left eye which required several stitches ; as the umpire was unsighted , Nash went unreported over this incident . Nash was generally ineffective on the day , and his opponent Vin Brown was a consensus pick for best player on ground . Nash was described as a " sad figure … age and injury had reduced him to almost a caricature , a lion in winter simply going through the motions . His body was no longer capable of performing the feats that a decade earlier had seen him feted as the finest footballer to ever play the game . "
Nash played 17 games for South in 1945 , kicking 56 goals . This left him with 99 VFL matches and 246 goals in his career . Nash also played three matches for Victoria , kicking 19 goals .
On 18 February 1944 , the day he was discharged from the Army , Nash played an internal trial cricket match for South Melbourne , although he had not played competitive cricket for four years . However , he did not play another first XI district match for South Melbourne after the war .
= = Post @-@ VFL footballing career = =
Nash trained with South Melbourne during the 1946 pre @-@ season but ultimately retired from VFL football to accept a position as captain @-@ coach of the Ovens and Murray Football League side Wangaratta for a salary of £ 12 per week , four times the wage he would have received playing for South Melbourne . The high wage also meant that Nash was not required to find additional employment to cover his family 's expenses , and in so doing , became one of the first fully professional Australian rules football players .
Nash not only led Wangaratta to a premiership but , as a favour to a friend , also coached another country side , Greta in 1946 , leading them to a premiership in the Ovens and King Football League , becoming one of the few people to have coached two different teams to a premiership in the same season . Nash is still remembered in Greta for placing a football in a cowpat and placekicking it over a tall gum tree .
In 1947 , Nash was appointed captain @-@ coach of Casterton , in western Victoria , once again at a wage of £ 12 per week . He took Casterton to a grand final that season , losing by a point . The grand final would be Nash 's final official game as a player , although he did play in charity matches for some years .
= = = South Melbourne coach = = =
Nash 's success as a coach in country football lead South Melbourne to appoint him as coach for the 1953 VFL season . Following his appointment , Nash confidently predicted that he would coach South Melbourne to a premiership that year and at the halfway point of the season South were tipped to play in the finals but injuries to key players led to five consecutive losses and at the end of the season South Melbourne had won nine games and lost nine games to finish eighth in the twelve team competition .
There was some criticism of Nash as a coach as he apparently could not understand how players were unable to do things on the football field that came to him naturally . Nash had signed a two @-@ year contract , yet the South Melbourne committee re @-@ advertised the position of coach following the end of the 1953 season and while Nash applied , he was not reappointed . Fellow South Melbourne champion Bob Skilton claimed that had Nash been given time , he " would have become one of the all @-@ time great coaches " .
= = Post @-@ sporting career = =
Following his retirement from coaching , Nash became involved in the sporting media . He wrote a column for the Sporting Globe newspaper , spoke at sportsmans ' nights and made regular television appearances , including on World of Sport , to comment on Australian rules football and point out that there had not been a player of his ability in the VFL since his retirement .
In his newspaper column , Nash did not shy away from controversy , claiming on one occasion that Sir Donald Bradman had openly " roasted " a number of leading Australian cricketers for their performance during a Test . The claim sparked an angry response from Bradman , who claimed " everything in the article as attributed to me is completely without foundation in every particular . "
In addition to his positions in the media , Nash was also a publican , which proved so financially successfully he was able to pay cash for a house in the upmarket Melbourne suburb of South Yarra . An altercation with a drunken patron resulted in a broken left hip and forced Nash to sell his hotel , the Prince Alfred in Port Melbourne and gain employment as a clerk in the Melbourne Magistrates Court , a position he held until his mandatory retirement at 65 .
Along with fellow former Test cricketer Lindsay Hassett , Nash voluntarily served on the executive committee of the Anti @-@ Cancer Council of Victoria and worked closely with the Aboriginal community of Melbourne , partly in recognition of his old friend Doug Nicholls , a former VFL footballer and leading figure in the Indigenous community . He also turned his interest to fishing , stating that he felt " edgy " if he did not go fishing a couple of times a week .
Nash strongly opposed the relocation of South Melbourne Football Club to Sydney ( renamed the Sydney Swans ) in 1981 , considering it a repudiation of the proud South Melbourne he had helped create . Nash stated that he had given fifty years to South Melbourne but due to the relocation they had now lost him forever and refused to attend Swans matches for many years , relenting only shortly before his death to attend a match between Sydney and Footscray .
Nash was forced to have a pin and plate inserted in his broken left hip and as a result walked with a profound limp . He also began to drink and eat more and stopped his exercise routine , leading him to become bloated , " like an old , red balloon that had been slightly let down " .
Nash 's father Bob Senior collapsed and died in 1958 while at the MCG watching Collingwood win the 1958 VFL Grand Final . Laurie Nash later said that it would have been the perfect way for his father to die . Nash 's brother Bob Junior died of emphysema in the early 1970s , while in 1975 Irene Nash , who had been in poor health for some time , died , leaving Nash heartbroken . Every day for five years he visited the cemetery where her remains were scattered .
In 1980 Nash met twice widowed Doreen Hutchison and eventually moved in with her . While they never married , Doreen answered to the name " Mrs Nash " . When Doreen died suddenly from a heart attack in 1985 , Nash 's health quickly deteriorated and he suffered a stroke in early 1986 . Visitors to Nash 's bedside remarked that Nash could not believe his own mortality .
Following a succession of strokes , Nash died in the Repatriation Hospital in Heidelberg , Victoria on 24 July 1986 , aged 76 . Survived by his daughter Noelene and grandsons Anthony and Simon , a service for Nash was held at a Catholic church in Melbourne and his cremated remains were scattered at Fawkner Memorial Park , near that of his wife Irene .
= = Style = =
Nash 's great sporting success can be partly attributed to his self @-@ confidence . Once , when asked who was the greatest footballer he had ever seen , Nash replied " I see him in the mirror every morning when I shave " .
[ The conversation then turned ] to former South Melbourne great ( and Test cricketer ) Laurie Nash , who was renowned , besides for his prodigious talent , for being on fairly good terms with himself . [ Bob ] Davis : " We were at the Lake Oval one day , and a kid , I think it might have been Billy Gunn , took a mark about 30 yards out straight out in front , and I said to Laurie , who was long retired — I was standing with him — I said : ' Will he kick this goal ? ' And he said : ' I don 't know if he will , but I would , in my pyjamas , dressing gown and carpet slippers , left or right foot . And I mean now ! ' " The Age , Saturday , 28 June 2008 .
Yet , whilst Nash tended to sound arrogant in public , he was very modest about his success in private ; in fact , his daughter Noelene was not aware of her father 's sporting success until aged 12 when a friend 's father told her .
= = = Footballing style = = =
Nash was a superbly fit athlete who never smoked , drank rarely , and dedicated himself to a punishing exercise regime ; something rare in 1930s sports circles .
Legendary Richmond Football Club player and coach Jack Dyer asserted that Nash was " Inch for inch , pound for pound , the greatest player in the history of Australian Rules " , adding " He was the only man I knew who could bite off more than he could chew and chew it . "
In the view of champion Collingwood full @-@ forward Gordon Coventry , whose record of 1299 VFL career goals between 1920 and 1937 would not be surpassed for 62 years , if Nash had played at full @-@ forward for his entire career , he would have kicked more goals than anyone , Coventry included . In 1936 Coventry stated that Nash was the best player he had seen ; " No player is more versatile , for he can play anywhere . He is fast , has great control of the ball , kicks with either foot and has that little bit of " devil " so essential in the makeup of a champion of to @-@ day . "
Fellow footballer Vic Richardson wrote in 1968 that Nash " was faster than any player I have seen in getting the ball moving to players running on . Add his high marking ability and speed to his quick thinking and you had a player who practically originated today 's style of play and one who would be unbeatable at it . "
In retirement , Nash was asked why he never won a Brownlow Medal ( the award for the Best and Fairest player in the VFL ) . He replied , " I was never the best and fairest but I reckon I might have been the worst and dirtiest . I played it hard and tough . "
= = = Cricketing style = = =
Nash 's bowling action has been described as letting " the ball go with a furious arm action , as if a fortune depended on every ball " , making " the ball fizz as he charged through the crease at a speed that always appeared likely to topple him over . " Another witness added " there was little beauty in his bowling . He sprinted to the wicket faster than most bowlers but had an almost round @-@ arm flipping delivery " which made him the most dangerous bowler in Australia on lively pitches . In 1990 , famed Australian historian Manning Clark recalled Nash 's bowling when he wrote of the period in the 1930s when he was an opening batsman for the University of Melbourne in Victorian district cricket and had to draw on his mother 's strength to help him " face Laurie Nash at the South Melbourne ground without flinching . "
Nash was also complimented on his control , stamina and " an ever present confidence in his ability " , which , combined with his speed , made him a formidable bowler . Additionally , Nash was also praised for his fielding in almost any position , with one scribe referring to his " amazingly athletic ability " .
Nash 's batting stance was described as " peculiar " .
His bat touches the turf in line with the off @-@ stump , but his feet are well clear of the leg stump . He grips the bat near the tip of the handle , and it gives an impression that the bat is inordinately long .
After making a duck in the first innings of the match between Tasmania and the touring Australian side in March 1930 , members of the Australian side advised Nash to change his stance , stating that it was too unorthodox to be successful . Nash ignored this advice and promptly scored 93 in the second innings of the match .
= = = Other sports = = =
Nash also excelled in other sports , winning awards in golf , tennis and quoits , including the Australian cricket team 's 1932 deck quoits championship at the Oriental Hotel in Melbourne , defeating Clarrie Grimmett in the final . Nash 's natural skills in any sport he tried led former first @-@ class cricketer Johnnie Moyes to call Nash " one of the finest all @-@ round athletes of the century " .
= = Honours and legacy = =
In addition to the awards he received during his playing career , Nash was awarded accolades for his sporting prowess after his retirement .
Nash was made a life member of South Melbourne Football Club in 1960 and following his death , the Sydney Swans wore black armbands in their match against Carlton , named their Best and Fairest Award the " Laurie Nash Medal " , in 2003 named him at centre @-@ half @-@ forward in their " Team of the Century " and in 2009 named him as an inaugural member of their Hall of Fame . The central place Nash held at the Swans was illustrated in 2005 , when following Sydney 's grand final win , a cartoon appeared in the Melbourne Herald Sun , featuring Swans players surrounding Nash , who was wearing his South Melbourne guernsey and was drinking from the premiership cup . In 1987 Nash was made a foundation member of the Tasmanian Sporting Hall of Fame and named at centre @-@ half @-@ back in the Tasmanian Australian rules " Team of the Century " . When he was selected for the Australian Football Hall of Fame in 1996 , the summary commented " One of the most gifted players ever , his career was half as long as many but it shone twice as brightly as most . Considered by many judges ( himself included ) the best player in the land … " . In 2003 , he was named at centre half forward in the Camberwell Team of the Century .
Test batsman Merv Harvey once claimed that his greatest achievement was scoring runs off Nash 's bowling , which he classed as the fastest he had ever faced , in a club match . Author Ian Shaw called Nash " perhaps the greatest all @-@ round sportsman Australia has ever produced " , while some fans old enough to remember Nash at his peak list him as the greatest player they ever saw and a football journalist who failed to include Nash in a " Best Ever " list was the target of a letter writing campaign from elderly fans .
Additionally , by way of a folk memorial , he is recalled in the Australian vernacular term " Laurie Nash " , rhyming slang for " cash " and is mentioned in the 1993 novel Going Away by award winning journalist Martin Flanagan .
= She Stoops to Conquer ( 1910 film ) =
She Stoops to Conquer is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film is an adaptation of Oliver Goldsmith 's She Stoops to Conquer , possibly adapted by Lloyd Lonergan . The scenario removes a subplot in favor of following Marlow who is sent by his father to court the daughter of an old friend of his . He encounters Tony Lumpkin , who directs him to the Hardcastle mansion , claiming it to be an inn . Hardcastle welcomes Marlow , but Marlow treats his host rudely , unaware of Hardcastle 's identity . When the misunderstanding is rectified Marlow refuses to marry Hardcastle 's daughter , for he has taken a liking to the maid servant . Caught in the act of making love to the maid by his father , the woman is revealed to be Hardcastle 's daughter and all ends well . The film was released on August 19 , 1910 , but it received mix reviews by critics . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 20 , 1910 . It states : " The play deals with the love affair of two young people , both of whose parents are anxious that they should wed . Young Marlow sent by his father to court the daughter of an old friend , Mr. Hardcastle . Marlow has spent very little time in the company of the fairer sex , and as a consequence thereof is always shy and nervous in their presence . He , therefore , accepts his father 's orders unwillingly and , accompanied by his friend , young Hastings , rides out to meet his future bride . On the road the travelers encounter Hardcastle 's stepson , Tony Lumpkin , who in revenge for punishment his stepfather has inflicted , directs Marlow and his friend to the Hardcastle mansion , claiming that it is an inn where they will be well treated . In the meantime , great preparations are being made at the Hardcastle home for the reception of Hardcastle 's old friend , and when Tony ushers in young Marlow , thinking Hardcastle merely the proprietor of an inn , he treats him with scant courtesy and orders him about , much to the older man 's chagrin . Hardcastle is subjected to his daughter 's extravagant costumes , and she appears on this memorable evening dressed in a simple dress and wearing the cap and apron that housewives in the neighborhood assume . This costume greatly pleases her father , but leads young Marlow further astray . He immediately jumps to the conclusion that she is a most attractive barmaid and loses his heart to her in short order . Upon the arrival of his father , Marlow learns his mistake as regards the inn question , but flatly refuses to marry Hardcastle 's daughter , claiming that she is too grand for him , and citing his preference for the maid servant . While in the act of making love to the supposed barmaid he is discovered by his father , and , when told that this is the young lady his father had intended him to marry , he is overjoyed , as he feels sure that his bashful disposition would never have allowed him to woo and win her had he known her to be a lady of fashion . "
= = Cast = =
Anna Rosemond in an unknown role .
Frank H. Crane in an unknown role .
According to Hervé Dumont 's Encyclopédie du film historique the role of Kate Hardcastle was played by Rosemond and the role of George Marlow was played by Crane . This information may have come from a surviving film still . One surviving film still was used in an advertisement by the Thanhouser Company .
= = Production = =
The scenario is an adaptation of Oliver Goldsmith 's She Stoops to Conquer and was not , by that time , not familiar to most theatergoers . The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The impetus to adapt the play for the film may have been inspired by a recent Broadway production as noted in one Thanhouser advertisement , " So revered is She Stoops to Conquer in the hearts of the American public that recently they saw it as an all @-@ star Broadway production with Eleanor Robson as Kate and Kyrle Bellew as Marlow , and it scored an epoch @-@ making success . The present producers don 't claim it to be a Broadway production but they [ do ] know it 's the best picture thing of its kind that has been released this far in the game . " The advertisement also claims to be the first film adaptation of the play , which according to The Complete Index to Literary Sources in Film it is . She Stoops to Conquer would seen numerous adaptations over the following decades , but the Thanhouser Company would also draw from Goldsmith 's work with their first adaptation of The Vicar of Wakefield in 1910 .
The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Though the roles of the actors are unknown , leading actress Anna Rosemond is credited with a role . One of the more prominent leading male actors was Frank H. Crane in another unknown role . It is likely that numerous other character roles and persons appeared in the film . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . One of these uncredited roles could have been played by the other leading lady of the company , Violet Heming .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel comedy @-@ drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on August 19 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release with known advertisements in Missouri , Texas , Minnesota , Washington D.C. , and Kansas . The film was also show by the Province Theatre of Vancouver , Canada .
The film received mixed reviews in trade publications . The Moving Picture World remarked that the play itself was not well @-@ known , but that the plot was depicted adequately enough that it may encourage a re @-@ perusal of the play . There was no fault found by the reviewer who stated , " The characters of Hardcastle , Kate and Marlow are admirably done and seem to correctly interpret the original . The staging and costuming are in harmony with the play and reproduce the scenery of the time depicted with accuracy . The usefulness of a work of this sort does not end with the presentation of the play itself . There is an educational value which includes the costuming and reproduction of the surroundings of the time . These are so unfamiliar now that they afford not a little addition to the interest and pleasure of such a film . The work has been done so well that the company deserves commendation for undertaking the task . It is not an easy manner to reproduce a play of this character , and when it is well done the company performing it deserves praise . " The New York Dramatic Mirror disagreed on almost all points , " In numerous details the illusion is dispelled , for the scenery is manifestly not of the eighteenth century . No contemporary of Goldsmith ever rode in such a barouche as appears in this film , nor lived in such a house as Mr. Hardcastle . The final tableau is as artificial as set pieces which have gone out of style at funerals . With all of its imperfections there is considerable of virile comedy in the film . " Though the Mirror reviewer stated that despite the elimination of the Hastings and Constance Neville subplot , the acting is clear enough that audiences do not need prior knowledge of the play to appreciate the film .
= HMS Ivanhoe ( D16 ) =
HMS Ivanhoe was an I @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 , the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides as part of the Mediterranean Fleet . Before the start of World War II , the ship was modified so that she could be used to lay mines by removing some of her armament . Ivanhoe was transferred to Western Approaches Command shortly after the war began and helped to sink one German submarine in October 1939 . She was converted to a minelayer while undergoing a refit in November – December and laid minefields in German coastal waters as well as anti @-@ submarine minefields off the British coast until she was reconverted back to her destroyer configuration in February 1940 . Ivanhoe reverted to her minelaying role during the Norwegian Campaign in April 1940 and then laid a number of minefields off the Dutch coast during the Battle of the Netherlands in May . The ship participated in the Dunkirk evacuation until she was badly damaged by German aircraft on 1 June . On her first minelaying mission after her repairs were completed , she struck a German mine and had to be scuttled on 1 September 1940 during the Texel Disaster .
= = Description = =
The I @-@ class ships were improved versions of the preceding H @-@ class . They displaced 1 @,@ 370 long tons ( 1 @,@ 390 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 888 long tons ( 1 @,@ 918 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Ivanhoe carried a maximum of 455 long tons ( 462 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The I class was fitted with two above @-@ water quintuple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted ; 16 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . She was one of the four I @-@ class destroyers fitted with minelaying equipment in late 1938 – January 1939 at Malta . This consisted of mounts for rails on the deck on which to carry the mines and an electric winch to move the mines down the rails . A pair of sponsons were added to the stern to allow the mines to clear the propellers when dropped into the sea . ' A ' and ' Y ' guns and both sets of torpedo tubes were modified to allow them to be removed to compensate for the weight of the mines . The ship could carry a maximum of 72 mines . Ivanhoe was fitted with the ASDIC sound detection system to locate submarines underwater .
= = Construction and career = =
The ship was ordered from Yarrow Shipbuilders at Scotstoun on 30 October 1935 under the 1935 Naval Programme . The ship was laid down on 12 February 1936 and launched on 11 February 1937 as the second Royal Navy warship to carry the name . Ivanhoe was completed on 24 August 1937 and cost £ 259 @,@ 371 excluding items supplied by Admiralty such as guns and communications equipment . She was assigned to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning and participated in training exercises with the French Navy in December through January 1938 . The ship was forced to leave these exercises prematurely as she had problems with the tubes in her superheaters . These were replaced at Malta from 15 January – 19 March . Afterwards , Ivanhoe was transferred to Gibraltar where she patrolled Spanish waters enforcing the policies of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee until the end of the war . She was in Cartagena in February – March 1939 to protect British citizens and interests as foreigners , Republican troops and their supporters evacuated the city .
Ivanhoe was in transit between Alexandria and Malta when World War II began in September 1939 , but she was in Plymouth on 14 September as the entire 3rd Destroyer Flotilla had been transferred to the Western Approaches Command for escort duties . Together with her sisters , Inglefield , Intrepid , and Icarus , the ship sank the German submarine U @-@ 45 on 14 October . She was refitted at Sheerness Dockyard and converted to a minelayer from 14 November – 13 December . Ivanhoe was transferred to the specialist minelaying 20th Destroyer Flotilla on 12 December and laid her first minefield , along with the other three ships of the flotilla , at the mouth of the Ems estuary on the night of 17 / 18 December . Another minefield was laid on the night of 2 / 3 January 1940 by Ivanhoe and Intrepid and they then laid a series of anti @-@ submarine minefields later in the month . The ship replaced her guns and torpedo tubes at Portland from 27 January – 3 February and resumed her former duties .
In early April , Ivanhoe and three other destroyer minelayers were escorted by the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla as they laid mines as part of Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the shipment of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany . The mines were laid on the early morning of 8 April , before the Germans began their invasion , and the destroyers joined the battlecruiser HMS Renown and her escorts after they each successfully laid their 60 mines . The ship was present during , but played no significant part in , Renown 's brief engagement off Lofoten with the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau on 9 April . Later in the month , the ship carried troops of the 15th Infantry Brigade to Åndalsnes . Ivanhoe then loaded mines and laid a minefield in the approaches to Trondheim , together with Icarus and Impulsive , on the night of 29 / 30 April .
After a boiler cleaning from 7 – 15 May , Ivanhoe , Esk , and Express , laid 164 mines off the Hook of Holland on the night of 15 / 16 May . Three German minesweepers were later sunk by this minefield on 26 July . Three nights later , the same three ships , reinforced by Intrepid , Impulsive , and the auxiliary minelayer Princess Victoria laid a minefield off the Dutch coast . Princess Victoria struck a German mine on the voyage home and was sunk ; the destroyers rescued the ship 's survivors . They laid five more minefields off the Dutch coast before the end of the month . On 29 May , the ship was transferred to the Dunkirk evacuation effort and ferried 930 troops to Dover that day . She also took aboard the crew of the badly damaged destroyer Grafton and then scuttled Grafton . She was withdrawn from the evacuation on 30 May as too valuable to risk , but this decision was reversed the following day and Ivanhoe evacuated 1 @,@ 290 men to Dover . On the morning of 1 June , already having loaded troops , the ship was attacked off Dunkirk harbour by German aircraft . Two bombs missed to port and starboard , but the third detonated above the upper deck and flooded the two forward boiler rooms . The bomb killed 26 , including five soldiers , and wounded many others . Most of the troops and wounded were taken off by the minesweeper Speedwell and the destroyer Havant . No. 3 boiler room was still operable and the ship reached Dover under her own power .
Repairs at Sheerness lasted until 28 August and she was converted back into a minelayer at Immingham from 28 – 31 August as she was transferred back to the 20th Destroyer Flotilla . That night , she sailed with Intrepid , Icarus , Esk and Express to lay a minefield off the Dutch coast , north of Texel . Express hit a mine in a newly @-@ laid German field that night and had her bow blown off . Ivanhoe closed to assist her and struck another mine shortly afterwards . The explosion knocked out her power for several hours , but the ship was able to raise steam by 01 : 45 on 1 September . She reached a speed of 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) while steaming backwards to lessen the stress on her damaged bow . However , about 04 : 00 , either her propellers fell off or her propeller shafts fractured , and she lost all speed . Around 08 : 00 , four motor torpedo boats arrived ; three of these loaded all but 37 men of the ship 's crew while the fourth stayed with the destroyer to recover the remaining crewmen . Ivanhoe continued to take on water and started to list . Early in the afternoon , she lost all power to her pumps and the captain ordered the ship abandoned after opening her valves to speed her sinking . Shortly afterwards , Ivanhoe was discovered and damaged by a German aircraft , but still did not sink . She had to be scuttled by a torpedo fired by the destroyer Kelvin later in the afternoon . The ship quickly sank afterwards at position 53 ° 26 ′ 42 ″ N 03 ° 45 ′ 24 ″ E.
= Battle of Dun Nechtain =
The Battle of Dun Nechtain or Battle of Nechtansmere ( Scottish Gaelic : Blàr Dhùn Neachdain , Old Irish : Dún Nechtain , Old Welsh : Linn Garan , Old English : Nechtansmere ) was fought between the Picts , led by King Bridei Mac Bili , and the Northumbrians , led by King Ecgfrith on 20 May 685 .
The Northumbrian hegemony over Northern Britain , won by Ecgfrith 's predecessors , had begun to disintegrate . Several of Northumbria 's subject nations had rebelled in recent years , leading to a number of large @-@ scale battles against the Picts , Mercians , and Irish , with varied success . Following sieges on neighbouring territories carried out by the Picts , Ecgfrith led his forces against them , despite advice to the contrary , in an effort to reassert his suzerainty over the Pictish nations .
A feigned retreat by the Picts drew the Northumbrians into an ambush at Dun Nechtain near the lake of Linn Garan . The battle site has long been thought to have been near the present @-@ day village of Dunnichen in Angus . Recent research , however , has suggested a more northerly location near Dunachton , on the shores of Loch Insh in Badenoch and Strathspey .
The battle ended with a decisive Pictish victory which severely weakened Northumbria 's power in northern Britain . Ecgfrith was killed in battle , along with the greater part of his army . The Pictish victory marked their independence from Northumbria , who never regained their dominance in the north .
= = Background = =
During the seventh century , the Northumbrians gradually extended their territory to the north . The Annals of Tigernach record a siege of " Etain " in 638 , which has been interpreted as Northumbria 's conquest of Din Eidyn ( Edinburgh ) during the reign of Oswald , marking the annexation of Gododdin territories to the south of the River Forth .
To the north of the Forth , the Pictish nations consisted at this time of the kingdom of Fortriu to the north of the Mounth , and a " Southern Pictish Zone " between there and the Forth . Evidence from the eighth century Anglo @-@ Saxon historian , Bede points to the Picts also being subjugated by the Northumbrians during Oswald 's reign , and that this subjugation continued into the reign of his successor , Oswiu .
Ecgfrith succeeded Oswiu as king of Northumbria in 670 . Soon after , the Picts rose in rebellion against Northumbrian subjugation at the Battle of Two Rivers , recorded in the 8th century by Stephen of Ripon , hagiographer of Wilfrid . Ecgfrith was aided by a sub @-@ king , Beornhæth , who may have been a leader of the Southern Picts , and the rebellion ended in disaster for the Northern Picts of Fortriu . Their king , Drest mac Donuel , was deposed and was replaced by Bridei mac Bili .
By 679 , the Northumbrian hegemony was beginning to fall apart . The Irish annals record a Mercian victory over Ecgfrith at which Ecgfrith 's brother , Ælfwine of Deira was killed . Sieges were recorded at Dunnottar , in the northern @-@ most region of the " Southern Pictish Zone " near Stonehaven in 680 and at Dundurn in Strathearn in 682 . The antagonists in these sieges are not recorded , but the most reasonable interpretation is thought to be that Bridei 's forces were the assailants .
Bridei is also recorded as having " destroyed " the Orkney Islands in 681 , at a time when the Northumbrian church was undergoing major religious reform . It had followed the traditions of the Columban church of Iona until the Synod of Whitby in 664 at which it pledged loyalty to the Roman Church . The Northumbrian diocese was divided and a number of new episcopal sees created . One of these was founded at Abercorn on the south coast of the Firth of Forth , and Trumwine was consecrated as Bishop of the Picts . Bridei , who was enthusiastiacally involved with the church of Iona , is unlikely to have viewed an encroachment of the Northumbrian @-@ sponsored Roman church favourably .
The attacks on the Southern Pictish Zone at Dunnottar and Dundurn represented a major threat to Ecgfrith 's suzerainty . Ecgfrith was contending with other challenges to his overlordship . In June 684 , countering a Gaelic @-@ Briton alliance , he sent his armies , led by Berhtred , son of Beornhæth , to Brega in Ireland . Ecgfrith 's force decimated the local population and destroyed many churches , actions which are treated with scorn by Bede .
= = Account of the battle = =
While none of the historical sources explicitly state Ecgfrith 's reason for attacking Fortriu in 685 , the consensus is that it was to reassert Northumbria 's eroded hegemony over the Picts . The most thorough description of the battle is given by Bede in his 8th century work Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ( The Ecclesiastical History of the English People ) ( completed c731 ) , but this is still brief . Additional detail is given in the Irish annals of Ulster and Tigernach , and by the early Welsh historian Nennius in his Historia Brittonum ( written c830 ) .
Ecgfrith 's attack on Fortriu was made against the counsel of his advisors , including Cuthbert , who had recently been made Bishop of Lindisfarne . The Picts under leadership of Bridei , feigned retreat and drew Ecgfrith 's Northumbrian force into an ambush on Saturday 20 May 685 at a lake in mountains near Duin Nechtain . The Northumbrian army was defeated and Ecgfrith slain .
= = Location = =
The site of the battle is uncertain . Until relatively recently the battle was most commonly known by its Northumbrian name , the Battle of Nechtansmere , from the Old English for ' Nechtan 's lake ' , following 12th @-@ century English historian Symeon of Durham . The location of the battle near a lake is reinforced by Nennius ' record of the conflict as Gueith Linn Garan , Old Welsh for ' Battle of Crane Lake ' . It is likely that Linn Garan was the original Pictish name for the lake .
The most complete narrative of the battle itself is given by Bede , who nevertheless fails to inform us of the location other than his mention that it took place ' in straits of inaccessible mountains ' .
The Irish Annals have provided perhaps the most useful resource for identifying the battle site , giving the location as Dún Nechtain , ' Nechtan 's Fort ' , a name that has survived into modern usage in two separate instances .
= = = Dunnichen = = =
Dunnichen in Angus was first identified as a possible location for the battle by antiquarian George Chalmers in the early 19th century . Chalmers notes that the name ' Dunnichen ' can be found in early charters of Arbroath Abbey as ' Dun Nechtan ' . He further suggests a site , ' Dunnichen Moss ' ( grid reference NO516489 ) , to the east of the village , which he informs us had recently been drained but can be seen in old maps as a small lake . Earlier local tradition , related by Headrick in the Second Statistical Account , claimed that the site was the location of the Battle of Camlann , where King Arthur fought Mordred .
More recent suggestions for the battle site include the valley to the north of Dunnichen Hill , centering on Rescobie Loch ( grid reference NO512518 ) and Restenneth Loch ( grid reference NO483518 ) , which is now much reduced following drainage in the 18th century .
The battle scene inscribed on the Aberlemno kirk yard stone is often cited as evidence for the battle site . This interpretation was made based on the stone 's proximity to Dunnichen , only 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the north , but while the short distance seems compelling , the stone is unlikely to be any earlier than mid @-@ 8th century , and the ornamentation of the stone , including the animal forms used and the style of weaponry depicted , suggests it may be as late as the mid @-@ 9th century . Prior to being linked with the Battle of Nechtansmere , the Aberlemno stone had been cited as evidence for the Battle of Barry ( now known to be historically inauthentic ) , and there are a number of other possible interpretations for the carving .
= = = Dunachton = = =
In a recently published paper , historian Alex Woolf gives a number of reasons for doubting Dunnichen as the battle site , most notably the absence of " inaccessible mountains " in mid @-@ Angus . He makes a case for an alternative site at Dunachton in Badenoch ( grid reference NH820047 ) , on the north @-@ western shore of Loch Insh , which shares Dunnichen 's toponomical origin of Dún Nechtain . James Fraser of Edinburgh University suggests that , while it is too early to discount Dunnichen as a potential battle site , locating it there requires an amount of " special pleading " that Dunachton does not need .
= = Aftermath = =
Ecgfrith 's defeat at Dun Nechtain devastated Northumbria 's power and influence in the North of Britain . Bede recounts that the Picts recovered their lands that had been held by the Northumbrians and Dál Riatan Scots . He goes on to tell how the Northumbrians who did not flee the Pictish territory were killed or enslaved .
The Northumbrian / Roman diocese of the Picts was abandoned , with Trumwine and his monks fleeing to Whitby , stalling Roman Catholic expansion in Scotland .
While further battles between the Northumbrians and Picts are recorded , for example in 697 when Beornhæth 's son Berhtred was killed , the Battle of Dunnichen marks the point in which Pictish independence from Northumbria was permanently secured .
= Russian ironclad Pervenets =
The Russian ironclad Pervenets ( Russian : Первенец ) was a broadside ironclad built for the Imperial Russian Navy in Britain during the 1860s . The ship had to be built abroad as no Russian shipyard had mastered the techniques required to build iron @-@ hulled armored vessels . She was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and never left Russian waters . Pervenets served with the Gunnery Training Detachment for her entire career until she was reduced to reserve in 1904 . She was disarmed and stricken the following year and finally sold in 1908 . After the end of the Russian Civil War , the ship was reacquired by the Soviets in 1922 and used to transport and store coal , a role she performed until discarded in the late 1950s . However , she was apparently not scrapped until the early 1960s .
= = Design and description = =
The ship was designed as a coast defense vessel to protect the approaches to Saint Petersburg and was referred to as a " self @-@ propelled armored floating battery " . As such , a heavy armament and protection were the most important factors in the ship 's design . No Russian shipyard could build iron @-@ hulled , ironclad warships , therefore Pervenets was ordered from Great Britain . Her name means firstborn and refers to the Tsesarevich , heir to the Russian Empire .
Pervenets was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long overall , with a beam of 53 feet ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) and a designed draft of 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 277 long tons ( 3 @,@ 330 t ) and her iron hull had a pronounced tumblehome . Pervenets was fitted with large rams at bow and stern ; the stern ram also serving to protect her rudder and propeller . The ship did not steer well and had " an unpredictable habit of suddenly lurching to one side or another " , probably as a result of poor water flow to the rudder . She required six men to man her wheel and her total crew numbered 459 officers and men .
Originally intended to use a refurbished engine from the steam ship of the line Konstantin , Pervenets received a three @-@ cylinder horizontal return @-@ connecting @-@ rod steam engine built by the British firm of Maudslay , Sons and Field . Rated at 1 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 750 kW ) , it drove a single 10 @-@ foot @-@ 5 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) propeller . Steam was provided by four rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers . During sea trials on 28 July 1863 , the engine produced a total of 1 @,@ 067 indicated horsepower ( 796 kW ) and gave the ship a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . During later trials in the Baltic Sea , Pervenets reached 8 @.@ 5 knots ( 15 @.@ 7 km / h ; 9 @.@ 8 mph ) . The ship carried a maximum of 500 long tons ( 510 t ) of coal , but her endurance is unknown . She was schooner @-@ rigged with three masts ; the lower masts were iron and the topmasts and yards were made from pine .
Pervenets was completed with 26 of the most powerful guns available to the Russians , the 7 @.@ 72 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) 60 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun . Twenty @-@ four were mounted on the broadside and two guns were placed in pivot mounts on the upper deck to serve as chase guns . Unfortunately , it proved to be incapable of penetrating 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) of wrought iron armor at a distance of only 200 yards ( 183 m ) during trials in 1859 – 60 . The 60 @-@ pounders on the broadside were entirely replaced by a dozen 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled guns in 1874 , while the chase guns were replaced by two four @-@ barreled 3 @.@ 42 @-@ inch ( 87 mm ) 4 @-@ pounder guns .
The entire ship 's side was protected with wrought @-@ iron armor 4 @.@ 5 inches thick that reduced to 4 inches ( 102 mm ) beginning 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) from the ship 's ends . It was backed by 10 inches ( 254 mm ) of teak and extended 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) below the waterline . The ship 's hull was divided by six watertight transverse and two longitudinal bulkheads for protection against underwater damage . The hull had a tumblehome of 27 ° to help deflect shells . The open @-@ topped conning tower was also protected by 4 @.@ 5 inches of armor .
= = Service = =
Pervenets was ordered from the Thames Iron Works in Blackwall , London on 18 November 1861 because it was an experienced builder of iron @-@ hulled ships and had begun construction of the broadside ironclad HMS Minotaur a few months earlier . Russian naval architects and workmen were sent to London to learn the techniques used by the British shipyard . Construction of the ship actually began the following month and she was launched on 18 May 1863 . While running sea trials on 6 August 1863 at Woolwich , Pervenets accidentally rammed the training ship HMS Warspite , although little damage was inflicted . Escorted by the steam frigate General Admiral , she left for Russia two days later with a British crew . The ship reached Kronstadt on 17 August and was fitted out there . Pervenets entered service on 28 July 1864 and was assigned to the Baltic Fleet . Including delivery and fitting out costs , she cost a total of 917 @,@ 000 rubles .
The ship was assigned to the Gunnery Training Detachment for her entire career and was frequently rearmed to train officers and men on some of the latest guns to enter service . In 1881 she mounted ten 8 @-@ inch and two 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) rifled breech loaders on her gun deck and carried two more 6 @-@ inch rifles on the upper deck as chase guns . Also on her upper deck , sometimes mounted on platforms that extended over her bulwarks , were a 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) mortar , a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 64 mm ) Baranov gun , a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) Engstrem gun , two 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) Palmcrantz auto @-@ cannon , and a Hotchkiss gun of uncertain caliber , either 37 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) or 47 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) . The mortar was removed in 1881 as it strained the ship 's structure . By 1890 , these guns had been replaced by two 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , two 47 mm , and four 37 mm guns .
Pervenets rolled heavily in service , therefore bilge keels were fitted during the winter of 1864 – 65 , the first used on a Russian ship . To alleviate the cramped conditions of the steersmen , the ship 's wheel was transferred from the gun deck to a platform that spanned her bulwarks in front of the mizzenmast in 1871 . In 1872 she evaluated the Davydov fire @-@ control system that could fire all guns electrically and indicated to the gunners where their guns should be aimed . The conning tower was removed in 1876 – 77 and new boilers were installed . These increased the engine 's power to 1 @,@ 300 indicated horsepower ( 970 kW ) and Pervenets reached 8 @.@ 5 knots on sea trials . She was reclassified as a coast defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and was placed in reserve on 23 December 1904 . The ship was disarmed the following year and stricken from the Navy List on 15 September 1905 . Turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal , she was sold on 8 September 1908 and renamed Barge No. 1 ( Barzha No. 1 ) .
The Soviets acquired the ship on 30 June 1922 and she was used to transport coal to Kronstadt . Barha No. 1 was transferred to the Baltic Fleet on 7 August 1925 for use as a coal hulk . She was renamed KP @-@ 3 on 1 January 1932 , K @-@ 41999 on 12 July 1943 and VSN @-@ 491000 on 16 May 1949 . The ship was discarded in the late 1950s , but was apparently not scrapped until the early 1960s .
= Skeleton at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Women 's =
The women 's skeleton event at the 2010 Winter Olympics took place at the Whistler Sliding Centre on 18 – 19 February . The competition was won by British athlete Amy Williams , who set new course records for the track on her first and third runs . Williams , who had never before won a World Cup or World Championship event , became the first British athlete to win a solo Winter Olympic gold medal in 30 years . German sliders Kerstin Szymkowiak and Anja Huber won the silver and bronze medals respectively . Williams ' teammate Shelley Rudman , who had won the silver medal at the 2006 Winter Olympics , and Canadian Mellisa Hollingsworth , both of whom had been expected to be in medal contention , were disappointed .
Williams ' victory was not without controversy , as the United States and Canada filed complaints with the judges related to Williams ' helmet . However , judges ruled that ridges in her helmet did not violate International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation ( FIBT ) rules , and rejected the complaints .
= = Logistics = =
= = = Track = = =
The Whistler Sliding Centre in Whistler , British Columbia was the site of women 's skeleton at the 2010 Olympic Games in Vancouver , Canada . The track was constructed between 2005 and 2008 , and became only the 15th competition @-@ level track in the world . It was certified for competition in sliding sports by the International Luge Federation ( FIL ) and the International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation ( FIBT ) in March , 2008 in a process called homologation where hundreds of athletes ran the track . This was the first time many competitors at the 2010 Games were able to try the track and begin to develop strategies for it . Canadian athletes hoped that having it open two years before the Games , and having that amount of time to train on it , would give them an advantage in the Games . The Whistler Sliding Centre quickly gained a reputation as one of the fastest tracks in the world .
= = = Rules and description of competition = = =
Rules for the Olympic skeleton competitions were set by the FIBT and the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) . They entrusted four to seven officials with making decisions regarding competition rules : one or two technical delegates , a jury president , two jury members , and two optional jury assistants . These decisions were implemented and enforced by a race director , to whom the overall responsibility for running the competition was given . Under the rules , competitors were guaranteed a minimum of six official training runs in the days prior to the competition . The competition itself consisted of four heats , with the starting order of athletes determined by their FIBT rankings prior to the start of the Games . Athletes began their runs on their sleds at a starting block , ran briefly while holding their sleds , and then laid on their stomachs on the sleds through the remainder of the course . Athletes were ranked by the speed of their times between their start and when they crossed the finish line at the bottom of the track .
= = Preview = =
Much of the speculation about potential medal winners before the Games focused on athletes from Great Britain , the United States , and Canada . Athletes from German @-@ speaking countries had traditionally been dominant in the sliding sports , luge and bobsleigh , but following the re @-@ introduction of skeleton , they had not been as strongly competitive in the new sport . Mellisa Hollingsworth of Canada , the defending Olympic bronze medalist , won the 2009 @-@ 10 Skeleton World Cup , and was considered a strong contender if not the favorite to win . British athlete Shelley Rudman won the only British medal at the 2006 Winter Olympics with her silver in skeleton , and her bronze medal at the European Championships just prior to the Games kept her name in media previews of the Olympic event . Her countrywoman Amy Williams , however , finished outside of the medal places in both the World Cup , in which she placed fifth , and the European Championships , in which she placed sixth . American Noelle Pikus @-@ Pace had not been able to compete in the 2006 Games after a runaway bobsleigh had broken her leg .
A number of other athletes had the potential to win medals by virtue of previous strong finishes in international competition . Switzerland 's Maya Pedersen @-@ Bieri was the defending Olympic champion . The defending world champion was Germany 's Marion Trott , who also won the test event held at the venue . The last 2009 @-@ 10 Skeleton World Cup prior to the 2010 Games took place in Igls , Austria ( southeast of Innsbruck ) on 22 January 2010 and was won by Germany 's Anja Huber .
= = Standing records = =
While the IOC does not consider skeleton times eligible for Olympic records , the FIBT does maintain records for both the start and a complete run at each track it competes . These records were set during the test event for the 2010 Games on 5 February 2009 .
= = Qualifying athletes = =
On 20 January 2010 , the FIBT announced the teams which had qualified for the 2010 Games , the quotas being subsequently updated on 26 January 2010 . The athletes who qualified for the women 's event were :
= = Competition = =
The first run start order was released on the afternoon of 17 February 2010 . The first two runs took place on 18 February at 16 : 00 PST ( Pacific Standard Time ) and 17 : 00 PST . On 19 February , the final two runs took take place at 15 : 45 PST and 16 : 45 PST . During the first run , Amy Williams broke the previous course record by nearly a full second , finishing first with a time of 53 @.@ 83 seconds and reaching a top speed of 143 @.@ 3 km / h ( 89 @.@ 0 mph ) . She led the second run as well . German slider Kerstin Szymkowiak was in second place after two runs , nearly a third of a second behind Williams . Mellisa Hollingsworth , competing on home soil and called the favorite to win in a number of media accounts , was in third place , trailing Szymkowiak after two runs by 0 @.@ 09 seconds . Shelley Rudman trailed by nearly a full second , surprising many observers who had expected her to be in medal contention . Japanese athlete Nozomi Komuro was disqualified after the first heat because her sled did not have the required FIBT control sticker .
The United States , Canada and Germany , together with two unnamed teams , lodged a protest with officials following Williams ' successful first day of competition . The protest alleged that her helmet was illegal , as ridges in it might give her an unfair aerodynamic advantage . In accordance with competition rules , the jury of officials inspected the helmet , and rejected the protest . Their grounds for doing so were that the ridges in the helmet were not a separate piece affixed to the helmet , expressly banned by FIBT rules , but rather an integral part of the helmet , which made the helmet legal . A second protest , filed jointly by the US and Canada on the 19th , was also rejected .
The next day , in her third run , Williams again set a new course record , 53 @.@ 68 seconds , and won the final run as well to secure the gold medal . Williams became the first British sportsperson to win an individual Winter Olympic gold medal in thirty years . Prior to this win , Williams had never won a World Cup or World Championship event . German athletes , Kerstin Szymkowiak and Anja Huber , won the silver and bronze medals , the first Olympic medals for Germany in the sport . Williams ' teammate Shelley Rudman fought her way into the lead briefly after a fast final run , but was overtaken by a five other athletes and finished sixth . Canada 's Hollingsworth dropped from third place after the first two runs to fifth after the final run . American Noelle Pikus @-@ Pace , who was in sixth place after the third run , finished fourth in the overall standings .
= = Results = =
TR - Track Record . Top finish in each run is in boldface .
= Bart to the Future =
" Bart to the Future " is the seventeenth episode of the eleventh season of the American animated television sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 19 , 2000 . In the episode , after their picnic in the park is cut short due to a mosquito infestation , the Simpsons stop by at an Indian casino . There , Bart is prevented from entering because of his age . He manages to sneak in but is caught by the guards and sent to the casino manager 's office . This Native American manager shows Bart a vision of his future as a washed @-@ up , wannabe rock musician living with Ralph Wiggum , while Lisa has become the President of the United States and tries to get the country out of financial trouble . " Bart to the Future " was the second episode of The Simpsons after " Lisa 's Wedding " to be set in the future .
The episode was directed by Michael Marcantel and written by Dan Greaney , who wanted to explore what Bart 's life would end up like . Several designs were made by the animators for future Bart , but Greaney did not think they matched the personality of the character and had to give clearer instructions on how he wanted him to look . Reception of " Bart to the Future " by critics has been generally mixed to negative . In 2003 , it was named the worst episode of the series by Entertainment Weekly writers who felt the " looking @-@ into @-@ the @-@ future premise " was carried out better in " Lisa 's Wedding . " Around 8 @.@ 77 million American homes tuned in to watch the episode during its original airing . In 2008 , it was released on DVD along with the rest of the episodes of the eleventh season .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons drive to the park for a picnic but discover that it has been overrun by mosquitoes . While heading home , the family finds an Indian casino . Homer and Bart go inside , leaving Marge ( who is still recovering from her gambling addiction from " $ pringfield " ) and Lisa ( who is on the fence about her stance on the morals and ethics of Indian gambling ) in the car .
Bart is turned away because of his age but is able to sneak in by hiding in ventriloquist Arthur Crandall 's dummy case . During Crandall 's performance at the casino , Bart bursts out of the case and gets caught by casino guards . He is sent to the casino manager 's office , where the Native American manager shows him a vision of how his future will turn out if he does not change his ways .
Thirty years into the future , Bart is a 40 @-@ year @-@ old beer @-@ drinking slacker trying to launch his music career after dropping out of the DeVry Institute . The only gig Bart can get is at a beach bar owned by Nelson Muntz , and even then , Bart is only paid in popcorn shrimp . He survives by mooching off his parents and their neighbor Ned Flanders . Bart lives with Ralph Wiggum in a beach cottage by the shore , from which Bart finds out that he has been evicted after his disastrous concert at Nelson 's bar . Meanwhile , 38 @-@ year @-@ old Lisa is the first straight female President of the United States , trying to rebuild the country after the economic downfall during the rule of Donald Trump .
Bart disrupts one of Lisa 's addresses to the nation to promote his music career , which leads Lisa to be branded unpopular when Bart sings to the public on live television that Lisa will be imposing a tax to get the country out of debt .
Lisa later meets with the leaders of America 's creditor nations , who demand that America pay them back . Bart steps in and uses his skills at stalling debt collectors to save the day , pleasing Lisa who had previously been mad at her brother . As a thank @-@ you , Bart asks Lisa to " legalize it " , and Lisa says she will .
Meanwhile , Homer has heard about gold buried by Abraham Lincoln on the grounds of the White House and searches for it . When he finally locates the " gold " , it is in fact a chest with a scroll in it that Lincoln had written on explaining that his " gold " is " in the heart of every freedom @-@ loving American . " Homer does not appreciate the metaphor and angrily curses Lincoln . When Bart questions the casino manager about the point of Homer 's storyline , since the vision was supposed to be about Bart 's future , the manager responds , " I guess the spirits thought the main vision was a little thin . "
After the vision is over , Bart promises that he will change . Lisa finds Bart and tells him that the family has been kicked out of the casino after Homer pushed a waitress and Marge lost US $ 20 @,@ 000 . Bart tells Lisa about his vision of the future where he has a rock band and a moped , while downplaying Lisa 's future presidency as " some government job . "
= = Production = =
" Bart to the Future " was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Michael Marcantel as part of the eleventh season of The Simpsons ( 1999 – 2000 ) . It was the second episode of the series to show the Simpson family 's life in the future , following the season six episode " Lisa 's Wedding " that aired five years earlier in 1995 @.@ three more future @-@ set episodes have been released since " Bart to the Future " , the first being Future @-@ Drama ( season 16 , 2005 ) , second being " Holidays of Future Passed " ( season 23 , 2011 ) and third being Days of Future Future ( season 25 , 2014 ) . Greaney 's inspiration for " Bart to the Future " came from " Lisa 's Wedding " . He and The Simpsons writer Matt Selman were sitting in Greaney 's office one day , trying to come up with new episode stories , when they received the idea of making a companion piece to that episode . Greaney wanted to write an episode set in the future that focused on Bart instead of Lisa . He thought it would be interesting to explore how the future works out for " a guy like Bart , who doesn 't pay attention to school work and is all about being cool . "
Selman commented in an audio commentary for " Bart to the Future " that " the thing that really got the [ Simpsons ] writers excited about the episode was this very specific version of future Bart. " Greaney identified this version as " the guy who blames everyone else and tells everyone else that they used to be cool , that it 's everyone else 's fault that his life hasn 't gone the way he wants it to go . " The Simpsons showrunner Mike Scully also noted that future Bart is the kind of person who is " always waiting for some big sort of cash payoff that he feels he 's owed whether it be an insurance settlement , an inheritance , or something that 's gonna come sooner or later . " Greaney said that everyone in the writing room recognized these traits from people they knew and therefore everyone contributed to the episode by suggesting lines for Bart to say and things for him to do .
According to Greaney , the animators originally designed future Bart as " cool and fun " and made several designs where he was " slim , attractive , and hip . " Greaney did not think any of these designs went along with the personality he and the other the writers had assigned to future Bart , so he told the animators to draw the character with belly fat , a ponytail , sags under his eyes , and one earring . Scully said on the audio commentary that he thought the design of Bart looked " great " , though he added that it was " slightly disturbing " to see the older versions of Homer and Marge in the episode , and joked that it is " a little bit sad to watch cartoon characters age . "
Greaney needed a setpiece for the episode that enabled him to get into a vision of the characters in the future , and The Simpsons writer George Meyer came up with the idea of the Indian casino . When Homer and Bart first enter the casino , Homer tells Bart that " Although they seem strange to us , we must respect the ways of the Indian . " He proceeds to greet everyone in the casino by saying " Hi @-@ how @-@ are @-@ you ? " in the rhythm of a stereotypical Native American chant . This joke was pitched by Tom Gammill , and there was a debate among the staff of the show about whether or not to include it in the episode as Native Americans could find it offensive . However , according to Scully , Dan Castellaneta ( who voices Homer ) " did [ the joke ] so funny when we were at the table @-@ read so we decided to put it in and risk offending . "
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 19 , 2000 . It was viewed in approximately 8 @.@ 77 million households that night . With a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 , the episode finished 28th in the ratings for the week of March 13 – 19 , 2000 . It was the second highest @-@ rated broadcast on Fox that week , following an episode of Malcolm in the Middle ( which received a 10 @.@ 0 rating and was watched in 10 @.@ 1 million homes ) . On October 7 , 2008 , " Bart to the Future " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season . Staff members Mike Scully , Dan Greaney , Matt Selman , and George Meyer participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . Deleted scenes from the episode were also included on the box set .
" Bart to the Future " has received mixed to negative reviews from critics compared to " Lisa 's Wedding " which met with positive response . Nancy Basile of About.com listed it as one of the episodes she felt " shined in season eleven " . While reviewing the eleventh season of The Simpsons , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented on " Bart to the Future " , writing : " This kind of fantasy episode can be hit or miss , and that trend holds true here . However , more of ' Future ' succeeds than flops . Though a few gags bomb , most of them prove pretty good . At no point does this become a classic , but it amuses much of the time . " Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club wrote in 2011 that the episode " was not so good , although better than many of the real stinkers yet to come at that point . Still , it utterly failed to rise to the challenge of ' Lisa ’ s Wedding . ' "
In a 2003 article , writers of Entertainment Weekly listed " Bart to the Future " as the worst Simpsons episode of all time . They elaborated that " Choosing the lamest Simpsons episode is like picking the crowning installment of Shasta McNasty — it 's all relative . So while ' Bart to the Future ' was likely better than anything else on TV the week it first aired , even Mojo the monkey could 've banged out a more inventive script [ ... ] Plus , the whole looking @-@ into @-@ the @-@ future premise is merely reliving past glory , carried out far more successfully in 1995 's ' Lisa 's Wedding . ' " Also in 2003 , Ben Rayner of Toronto Star referred to " Bart to the Future " as " a lame 2000 outing " and noted that Entertainment Weekly " rightly dubbed [ it ] the ' worst episode ever ' " . Winnipeg Free Press columnist Randall King wrote in his review of season eleven that the episode " Alone Again , Natura @-@ Diddily " ( which features the death of the character Maude Flanders ) was " proof that the dependably brilliant series could – and did – go seriously wrong when it turned 11 . Killing off Maude was a sin compounded by the Bart to the Future episode [ ... ] " .
In his 2006 book Watching with The Simpsons : Television , Parody , and Intertextuality , Jonathan Gray analyzed the many advertisement parodies featured in The Simpsons . He commented on " Bart to the Future " , writing : " As if ads in children 's toys or in churches are not enough , in ' Bart to the Future , ' an episode in which an Indian shaman at a casino treats Bart to a vision of his future , even his vision is interrupted when future @-@ Bart says , ' I guess I am an embarrassment , ' and a ghost responds , ' You sure are . But , hey , there 's an embarrassment of riches at the Caesar 's Pow @-@ Wow Indian Casino . You can bet on it ! ' Here [ ... ] The Simpsons uses parody with great effect , not only to illustrate how annoyingly and disrespectfully ads infringe on any territory , but also to mock their logic and rhetoric . "
In 2015 , news media cited the episode as a foreshadowing of Trump 's future run for president . Dan Greaney told The Hollywood Reporter in a 2016 interview that the thought of a Trump presidency at the time " just seemed like the logical last stop before hitting bottom . It was pitched because it was consistent with the vision of America going insane . " In an interview with TMZ on May 2016 , Matt Groening thought that it was unlikely that Donald Trump will become the president of the United States . Meanwhile , scenes from 2015 short " Trumptastic Voyage " ( which references real @-@ life scenes of Donald Trump around that time ) have been mistakenly identified as those from " Bart to the Future " .
= HMS Flint Castle ( K383 ) =
HMS Flint Castle ( K383 ) was one of 44 Castle @-@ class corvettes built for the Royal Navy during World War II . Completed at the end of 1943 , the ship ran aground while training in January 1944 . After repairs were completed the following month , she was briefly assigned to the 39th Escort Group for convoy escort duties in the Atlantic Ocean . Flint Castle was transferred to Escort Group B2 in March and screened convoys to and from Gibraltar until September . That month , she joined Escort Group B3 to escort convoys between Canada and Britain and continued to do so until the end of the war in May 1945 . The ship then became an anti @-@ submarine training ship in Rosyth and Campbeltown , Scotland , before moving to Portland at the beginning of 1947 . Flint Castle remained there until she was taken out of service in March 1956 and broken up beginning in July 1958 .
= = Design and description = =
The Castle @-@ class corvette was a stretched version of the preceding Flower class , enlarged to improve seakeeping and to accommodate modern weapons . The ships displaced 1 @,@ 010 long tons ( 1 @,@ 030 t ) at standard
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" , with its " angular , descending line " , were written specifically for this album . On " Caravan " , Ellington plays the melody in low octaves , adding " Webern @-@ like notes on the top " , imitating an orchestral sound . " Warm Valley " and " Solitude " are ballads , the latter being a piano solo piece until Mingus and Roach enter in the final minute .
The CD releases feature four more compositions : " Switch Blade " , " Backward Country Boy Blues " , " REM Blues " , and " A Little Max ( Parfait ) " . The last of these is a Latin @-@ influenced track that features Roach . " Switch Blade " is " a slow blues that showcases Mingus ' virtuosity with a looseness that puts feeling before precision . [ ... He ] intersperses his basslines with countermelodies and answers to what Duke plays . " According to drummer Terri Lyne Carrington , " Backward Country Boy Blues " was probably given its title because part of the usual blues construction is reversed – the V chord precedes the IV chord .
There have been persistent rumors of clashes among the musicians during the session . Douglas ' version is that Mingus complained about Roach 's playing , then left the studio mid @-@ session , taking his bass with him . Ellington caught up with Mingus on the street outside and persuaded him to return . Ellington 's account was slightly different – the reason for Mingus leaving was the same , but he was persuaded to return at the elevator . Another version is that Mingus was upset because Ellington did not use any of Mingus ' compositions for the recording . Duke 's son , Mercer Ellington , stated that the trio had a contract with United Artists for two albums , but they could not be persuaded to record together again . Critic Thomas Cunniffe suggests that , listening to the tracks in the order in which they were recorded , " one can easily hear the tension building during the uptempo numbers " , and that Mingus ' temporary departure probably occurred after playing " Money Jungle " , which " represents the apex of the group 's inner tension , with Mingus plucking the strings with his fingernails , Roach firing up the music with polyrhythms and Ellington laying down highly dissonant chords " .
= = Release history = =
The original LP was released by United Artists Jazz in 1963 in mono and stereo versions . United Artists was bought by EMI in 1979 , and subsidiary Blue Note Records reissued the album on CD in 1987 . This contained more recordings from the same session : four previously unreleased works written for the session , plus two alternative takes . The order presented in this edition was that in which the songs were recorded . The sound quality of the original recording was improved for the 2002 Blue Note CD release by engineer Ron McMaster , using the original tapes and 24 @-@ bit remastering , adding clarity to the drums in particular . For this release , the first seven songs were arranged in their original order , with the other four songs and four alternative takes placed afterward , increasing the number of tracks to 15 .
= = Reception and influence = =
= = = Critics = = =
Contemporaneous reviews were favorable . The album was awarded the Grand Prix of the Jazz Magazine of France . In a five @-@ star review , Down Beat magazine 's Don DeMicheal called Money Jungle " astonishing " and described Roach and Mingus as " some of the fastest company around . " He repeatedly praised Mingus for pushing Ellington into new musical territory : " I 've never heard Ellington play as he does on this album ; Mingus and Roach , especially Mingus , push him so strongly that one can almost hear Ellington show them who 's boss – and he dominates both of them , which is no mean accomplishment . " Billboard was also positive , describing it as " memorable " for its content as well as " the historical importance of the three playing together " .
Much later reviews have been largely positive . Ken Dryden of Allmusic called it a " sensational recording session " and recommended it to " every jazz fan " . The Penguin Guide to Jazz claimed that Mingus " completely steals the show " , but suggested that the " long @-@ standing Ellington staples " " Caravan " and " Warm Valley " are relatively weak renditions , and that Mingus either did not know the changes or was disgruntled on the latter track . The Financial Times in 2013 described it as " an angular piano @-@ trio masterpiece that [ ... ] confirmed Ellington 's inherent modernism " . Jay Trachtenberg of The Austin Chronicle praised Ellington 's playing and " the modernity of his ideas " , and said that the album " stands , more than ever , as a masterful meeting of jazz royalty . " Writing of the record 's 1986 " remixed and reprogrammed " reissue , Village Voice critic Robert Christgau said " the angular chromaticism and modernist swing of this session relegate most piano @-@ trio records back to the supper clubs . "
The sound quality of the original recording has been described as " disappointingly woolly " , with " incidents of peaky distortion from the piano microphone " . The stereo recording has the piano " up front and center " , with the double bass " far to the right channel " and the drums " Strictly in the left channel and slightly behind the piano " .
= = = Musicians = = =
Hundreds of musicians have been inspired by the album . Pianist Lafayette Gilchrist states that Money Jungle was the first jazz album that he bought , and that it " sounds like an orchestra being played by a trio . I was inspired to make something [ ... ] big and grandiose just like that " . Drummer Jeff " Tain " Watts observed that the members of the trio were " doing their thing , but they ’ re together " , and compares this with later groups led by Keith Jarrett and Wayne Shorter , stating that the later groups " have a much freer way of doing it , but everybody 's kind of in their own zone and yet they ’ re definitely playing the composition in tune with each other , just like Duke and Max and Mingus were doing on Money Jungle . " Trumpeter Miles Davis had a different view of the session : in a 1964 Down Beat blind listening test , he criticised the record company for putting the three musicians together , saying that " Max and Mingus can play together , by themselves . Mingus is a hell of a bass player , and Max is a hell of a drummer . But Duke can 't play with them , and they can 't play with Duke . "
Pianists have been impressed by Ellington 's playing . Fred Hersch believes that it is one of Ellington 's best recordings on piano , as he was forced by the other musicians to improvise in ways beyond what he would normally have played . Matthew Shipp commented on the free elements in the playing , describing the album as " one of the greatest examples of piano playing I 've ever heard " . John Medeski remarked on the forceful , contrapuntal interaction , facilitated by space .
In 1999 , the band Rhythm and Brass included Money Jungle tracks on their album More Money Jungle ... Ellington Explorations . Drummer Terri Lyne Carrington led the 2013 release Money Jungle : Provocative in Blue , which includes cover versions of tracks from the original album . Of the compositions premiered on the album , " Fleurette Africaine " and " Wig Wise " are commonly recorded by others .
= = Track listing = =
All songs composed by Duke Ellington , except where stated .
= = = LP ( 1963 – UAJ ) = = =
= = = LP reissue ( 1986 – Blue Note ) = = =
= = = CD ( 1987 – Blue Note ) = = =
Composers are as above .
= = = CD ( 2002 – Blue Note ) = = =
Composers are as above .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Musicians = = =
Duke Ellington – piano
Charles Mingus – double bass
Max Roach – drums
= = = Production = = =
= Sheerness =
Sheerness / ʃɪərˈnɛs / is a town located beside the mouth of the River Medway on the north @-@ west corner of the Isle of Sheppey in north Kent , England . With a population of 13 @,@ 000 it is the largest town on the island .
Sheerness began as a fort built in the 16th century to protect the River Medway from naval invasion . In 1665 , plans were first laid by the Navy Board for a Royal Navy dockyard where warships might be provisioned and repaired , a site favoured by Samuel Pepys , then Clerk of the Acts of the navy , for shipbuilding over Chatham . After the raid on the Medway in 1667 , the older fortification was strengthened ; in 1669 a Royal Navy dockyard was established in the town , where warships were stocked and repaired until its closure in 1960 .
Beginning with the construction of a pier and a promenade in the 19th century , Sheerness acquired the added attractions of a seaside resort . Industry retains its important place in the town and the Port of Sheerness is one of the United Kingdom 's leading car and fresh produce importers . The town is the site of one of the UK 's first co @-@ operative societies and also of the world 's first multi @-@ storey building with a rigid metal frame .
= = History = =
The first structure in what is now Sheerness was a fort built by order of Henry VIII to prevent enemy ships from entering the River Medway and attacking the naval dockyard at Chatham . In 1666 work began to replace it with a stronger fort . However , before its completion , this second fort was destroyed during the 1667 Dutch raid on the Medway . The Secretary of the Admiralty , Samuel Pepys , subsequently ordered the construction of a naval dockyard at Sheerness as an extension to that at Chatham , where naval ships would be maintained and repaired . Low quality housing and the poor water supply near the dockyard led to a lack of workers and caused construction delays , and the first dry @-@ dock was not completed until 1708 . Using materials they were allowed to take from the yard , dockyard construction workers built the first houses in Sheerness . The grey @-@ blue naval paint they used on the exteriors led to their homes becoming known as the Blue Houses . This was eventually corrupted to Blue Town , the modern name of the north @-@ west area of Sheerness .
Following the Napoleonic Wars , an opportunity was taken to rebuild the Dockyard . The site was leveled in 1815 , and over the next 15 years the new Dockyard was laid out , according to meticulous plans drawn up by John Rennie . A full @-@ scale model created at the time , which still exists , shows how much of the original remains . The principal architects were Edward Holl and his successor George Taylor who was already an established architect with a practice in London and had been responsible for some of London 's most fashionable squares . In all the project cost £ 2 @,@ 586 @,@ 083 and was completed by 1830 , providing fine terraced houses for naval officers . Sheerness was unusual among Dockyards in the unity and clarity of its design , having been built in one phase of construction , of a single architectural style according to a unified plan ( rather than developing piecemeal over time ) .
From the completion of the dockyard until 1960 Sheerness was one of the bases of the Nore Command of the Royal Navy , which was responsible for protecting British waters in the North Sea . The command was named after the Nore sandbank in the Thames Estuary , about 3 miles ( 5 km ) east of Sheerness . In 1797 , discontented sailors in the Royal Navy mutinied just off the coast of Sheerness .
By 1801 the population of the Minster @-@ in @-@ Sheppey parish , which included both Sheerness and the neighbouring town of Minster , reached 5 @,@ 561 . In 1816 , one of the UK 's first co @-@ operative societies was started in Sheerness , chiefly to serve the dockyard workers and their families . The Sheerness Economical Society began as a co @-@ operative bakery but expanded to produce and sell a range of goods . By the middle of the 20th century , the society had spread across the Isle of Sheppey and had been renamed the Sheerness and District Cooperative Society .
In the early 1820s a fire destroyed many buildings at the dockyard , including all the Blue Houses . New houses and a major redevelopment of the dockyard followed . On 5 September 1823 , the rebuilt dockyard was formally opened by the Duke of Clarence ( later William IV ) . A high brick wall and a moat were constructed around the yard to serve as a defence measure and remained in place until the end of the 19th century . As the settlement expanded eastwards , away from the dockyard and the Blue Houses , the wider area became known as Sheerness , taking its new name from the brightness or clearness of the water at the mouth of the River Medway . Completed in 1860 and still standing today , the Sheerness Boat Store was the world 's first multi @-@ storey building with a rigid metal frame . In 1863 , mains water was installed in the town , and the Isle of Sheppey 's first railway station opened at the dockyard . Towards the end of the 19th century , Sheerness achieved official town status and formed its own civil parish , separate from Minster @-@ in @-@ Sheppey . The 1901 Census recorded the Sheerness parish as having 18 @,@ 179 residents and 2 @,@ 999 houses .
The town 's low rainfall and ample sunshine made it popular as a seaside resort , with tourists arriving by steamboat and train . The Sheppey Light Railway opened in 1901 , connecting the new Sheerness East station with the rest of the island . However , by 1950 , lack of demand led to the railway 's closure . The Sheerness and District Tramways , which opened in 1903 , only lasted until 1917 .
In 1944 the United States cargo ship SS Richard Montgomery ran aground and sank 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) off the coast of Sheerness , with large quantities of explosives on board . Due to the inherent danger and projected expense , the ship and its cargo have never been salvaged ; if the wreck were to explode , it would be one of the largest non @-@ nuclear explosions of all time . A 2004 report published in New Scientist warned that an explosion could occur if sea water penetrated the bombs .
In March 1960 the Royal Navy ceased operating the Sheerness dockyard and the Medway Port Authority took over the site for commercial use . The dockyard closure led to thousands of job losses , and most of the nearby houses and shops in the Bluetown area were eventually abandoned and demolished . By the 1961 census , the population of Sheerness had fallen to 13 @,@ 691 . The dockyard closure also led to the decline of the Sheerness and District Cooperative Society , as many of its members were dockyard workers . At the time , the society was the island 's main retailer , but it has since been reduced to a few shops and been merged with a larger society .
In 2003 , the Beachfields Park project was organised to publicise Beachfields ' heritage and to preserve it for future generations . Students of Cheyne Middle School and Minster College , with assistance from local organisations , researched the funfair , bandstands , Prisoner of the War hut , boating lake and bowling green . As part of the project , students wrote a book , Tales of Beachfields Park , which won the Historical Association Young Historian Primary School Award for Local History .
As of 2007 , Bluetown is an industrial area , and Sheerness has become the largest port in the UK for motor imports . Prior to the closure of the Dockyard , twenty @-@ five of its historic buildings were listed in recognition of their " architectural distinction and value " ; regardless of this , the majority were subsequently demolished ( including Admiralty House and the quadrangular Great Store ) and others were left to decay . In the early 21st century a concerted effort was made to save the remaining buildings and several have now been restored to residential use . In July 2013 Swale Borough Council announced that a deal had been reached to secure restoration of Rennie and Taylor 's Royal Dockyard Church ( which had been gutted by a fire in 2001 ) , with a view to it one day being used , among other things , for displaying the above @-@ mentioned model of the Dockyard .
Most notable former residents of Sheerness and Blue Town include Sir Stanley Hooker , inventor of the VTOL engine ; Dr Richard Beeching , reorganizer of the British rail network ; Michael Crawford , actor ; Rod Hull , entertainer .
= = Mills = =
Sheerness has had four windmills . They were the Little Mill , a smock mill that was standing before 1813 and burnt down on 7 February 1862 ; The Hundred Acre Mill , a small tower mill which was last worked in 1872 and demolished in 1878 leaving a base which remains today ; The Great Mill , a smock mill , the building of which was started in 1813 and completed in 1816 , which was demolished in 1924 leaving the base , upon which a replica mill body is being built to serve as flats . On 23 January 2008 a fire started in the mill tower . The fire was declared not to have been a case of arson ; Little is known of the fourth windmill , said to have been a vertical axle windmill designed by Stephen Hooper .
= = Governance = =
Sheerness is in the parliamentary constituency of Sittingbourne and Sheppey . Since the constituency 's creation in 1997 until 2010 the Member of Parliament was Derek Wyatt of the Labour Party . At the 2010 general election , Gordon Henderson of the Conservative Party won the seat . Before 1997 , Sheppey and Sittingbourne were part of the constituency of Faversham . Sheerness is in the local government district of Swale . The town is split between the two local government wards of Sheerness East and Sheerness West , which have four of the forty @-@ seven seats on the Swale Borough Council . At the 2007 local elections , three of those seats were held by the Labour Party and one by the Sheppey First party . Swale Borough Council is responsible for running local services , such as recreation , refuse collection and council housing ; Kent County Council is responsible for education , social services and trading standards . Both councils are involved in town planning and road maintenance . From 1894 to 1968 , Sheerness formed its own local government district , Sheerness Urban District , and lay within the administrative county of Kent . Over much of the past century , the Labour Party has received the most support in Sheerness , mainly due to the town 's industrial nature . As early as 1919 , the town had four Labour councillors ; Faversham elected its first only in 1948 .
= = Geography = =
Sheerness is located at 51 ° 26 ′ 28 ″ N 0 ° 45 ′ 39 ″ E ( 51 @.@ 441 , 0 @.@ 7605 ) , in the north @-@ west corner of the Isle of Sheppey in North Kent . To the north , sandy beaches run along the coast of the Thames Estuary . To the west , the outlet of the River Medway flows into the Estuary . An area of wetlands known as The Lappel lies between the river and the south @-@ western part of town . Marshland lies to the south and the east . The main rock type of the Isle of Sheppey is London Clay , which covers most of North Kent . Along with most of the Kent coast , the uninhabited coastal areas of the island have been designated Sites of Special Scientific Interest , due to their wildlife and geological features .
The nearest towns to Sheerness are Minster , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the east , and Queenborough , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the south . The villages of Minster @-@ on @-@ Sea and Halfway Houses are 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the south @-@ east , and the village of Grain is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the west , across the River Medway .
The main commercial and leisure areas of the town are located around the north coast , where there is easy access to the pleasure beach . The industrial areas are in the west , beside the wetlands and the River Medway . The Bluetown industrial area and the Port of Sheerness are in the north @-@ western part of the town . The residential districts of Mile Town and Marine Town are in the central and the eastern areas respectively .
The mean annual temperature in Sheerness is 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) . The average annual maximum temperature is 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) , and the average annual minimum temperature is 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) . The warmest time of the year is July and August , when maximum temperatures average 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . The coolest time of the year is January and February , when minimum temperatures average 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) .
The average annual rainfall in Sheerness is 28 inches ( 711 mm ) . The average annual duration of sunshine is 1 @,@ 700 hours ; the months May to August have the most hours of sunshine . On average , there are fewer than six days of lying snow per year , and 16 days with thunder per year .
= = Demography = =
At the 2001 UK census , Sheerness had a population of 11 @,@ 654 . The Office for National Statistics estimated the population in mid @-@ 2005 to be 11 @,@ 000 , a decrease of 5 @.@ 6 % since the 2001 census .
The population density at the 2001 census was 9 @.@ 8 persons per acre ( 24 @.@ 2 persons per hectare ) and for every 100 females , there were 96 @.@ 4 males . Residents of Sheerness had an average age of 34 @.@ 7 years , younger than the 38 @.@ 2 Swale average . Of all residents , 51 % were single ( never married ) and 24 % married ; in Swale , 42 % were single and 35 % were married . Of the 4 @,@ 870 households , 34 % were one @-@ person households , 15 % were married couples with dependent children , and 11 % were lone parents with dependent children . Of those aged 16 – 74 in Sheerness , 44 % had no academic qualifications , higher than the 34 % in all of Swale .
According to the 2001 data , Sheerness has a low proportion of foreign @-@ born residents compared to the rest of England , at 3 % . Ninety @-@ eight percent of residents were recorded as white ; the largest minority group was recorded as Asian , at 1 @.@ 1 % of the population . The 2000s saw a rise in the foreign @-@ born population , with the town now having a significant eastern European population . Data from the 2011 census is not yet available to give specific numbers .
= = Economy = =
The Port of Sheerness is a significant feature of the Isle of Sheppey 's economy . Covering more than 1 @.@ 5 million square metres , it is one of the largest foreign car importers in the UK , and it handles thousands of tonnes of fruits and meat products from all over the world . Inexpensive land and good infrastructure , including a rail network that branches off the main passenger line , have attracted industries to the port area , including producers of pharmaceuticals , steel , sausages and garden gnomes . The major employers are HBC Engineering Solutions , Sheerness Steel , Regis Furniture and The Bond Group - although HBC has closed and the Steel plant is currently closed but may reopen . The steel mill was established in 1972 , designed to recycle scrap steel into rods and coils . It survived a number of closure threats and changes of ownership ; from 2003 it was operated by Thamesteel . Thamesteel went into administration in January 2012 , with the loss of 350 jobs . Six months later , the plant was bought back by the former owners Al @-@ Tuwairqi Group . As of October 2014 there are plans to reopen the plant as a rolling mill . The port has a seafarers ' centre , which was refurbished in May 2015 , and is operated by Apostleship of the Sea a seafarers ' charity .
The seafront is popular with tourists , and in 2007 Sheerness ' recently refurbished town centre had more than 200 shops .
At the 2001 UK census , 35 @.@ 8 % of residents aged 16 – 74 were employed full @-@ time , 11 @.@ 6 % part @-@ time , 5 @.@ 8 % self @-@ employed and 6 @.@ 2 % unemployed , while 1 @.@ 5 % were students with jobs , 3 @.@ 4 % students without jobs , 11 @.@ 9 % retired , 10 @.@ 6 % looking after home or family , 8 @.@ 5 % permanently sick or disabled and 4 @.@ 8 % economically inactive for other reasons . The unemployment rate of 6 @.@ 2 % was high compared to the national rate of 3 @.@ 4 % and was the highest rate throughout the Swale district . Five percent of Sheerness residents aged 16 – 74 had a higher education qualification compared to 20 % nationally .
Employment by industry was 22 % manufacturing ; 18 % retail ; 10 % construction ; 10 % transport and communications ; 9 % real estate ; 8 % health and social work ; 6 % public administration ; 5 % education ; 5 % hotels and restaurants ; 1 % finance ; 1 % agriculture ; 1 % energy and water supply ; and 4 % other community , social or personal services . Compared to national figures , Sheerness had a relatively high percentage of workers in manufacturing , transport and communications , and a relatively low percentage in agriculture , hotels , restaurants , education , health , social work and finance .
At the 2001 UK census , 4 @,@ 292 of the town 's residents were employed and there were 5 @,@ 532 jobs within the town . According to Office for National Statistics estimates , the average gross weekly income of households in Sheerness from April 2001 to March 2002 was £ 385 ( £ 20 @,@ 075 per year ) .
= = Culture = =
Sheerness ' sand and shingle beach was awarded a European Blue Flag for cleanliness and safety . Flower gardens decorate the seafront , and a sea wall forms a promenade along the coast . The Sheppey Leisure Complex located near the beach contains a swimming pool and badminton , squash and tennis courts . Other sports clubs include Sheerness Town Bowls Club , Sheerness East Cricket Club , the Isle of Sheppey Sailing Club , Beachfields Skatepark , Sheerness East Table Tennis Club , Catamaran Yacht Club , and Sheerness Swimming Club and Lifeguard Corps . Sheerness Golf Club was founded in 1906 , and has an 18 @-@ hole course just to the south @-@ east of town . Sheerness East Football Club , established in 1932 , play in the Kent County League Premier Division . Sports can be played for free at the town 's recreation grounds at Beachfields Park , Festival Playing Field , and Seager Road Sports Ground . The annual arts and heritage Sheerness Promenade Festival opened in September 2011 with appearances by Michael Palin and Dan Cruickshank . It takes place in late July at the Sheppey Little Theatre , the Heritage Centre in Blue Town and various other venues in Sheerness .
Sheerness has a library and clubs for photography , music , singing , dancing and writing . The youth club in Meyrick Road , in East Sheerness has been operational for over 50 years and has played a vital role in the development of many young people .
Sheerness ' town centre is home to the largest freestanding cast iron clock tower in Kent . It is 36 feet ( 11 m ) tall and was built in 1902 at a cost of around £ 360 to commemorate the coronation of King Edward VII . In 2002 , the clock tower was restored to celebrate the Silver and Golden Jubilees of Queen Elizabeth II .
= = Media = =
The Sheerness Times Guardian is now the only newspaper serving the town and island at large , owned by the KM Group . The Sheppey Gazette recently closed after around 100 years of publication . It was owned by Northcliffe Media .
The Island has its own radio station , BRFM 95 @.@ 6 FM is Community Radio Station , which can also be heard online at www.brfm.net that broadcasts 24 hours a day , 7 days a Week from Minster @-@ on @-@ Sea . BRFM in October 2011 was granted a 5 @-@ year extension to its broadcast licence by regulator Ofcom and will remain broadcasting to Swale until 2016 . The station is run by a dedicated team of 20 volunteers . BRFM 95 @.@ 6 plays a wide range of music , with news , weather and local events being broadcast around the clock , the station also provides for specialist music during weekday evenings .
In July 2013 the island received some notoriety for an attack on a tour bus of Jewish boys by local youths who shouted epithets , and threw stones and eggs , telling the boys to " go back to where you came from ! "
= = Transport = =
Sheerness @-@ on @-@ Sea railway station is on the Sheerness Line , run by the Southeastern rail company . The line connects Sheerness with the town of Sittingbourne , 6 miles ( 10 km ) south on the mainland of Kent . Sittingbourne is on the Chatham Main Line , which connects London with Ramsgate and Dover in East Kent . Train journeys from Sheerness @-@ on @-@ Sea to London Victoria take 1 hour 45 minutes .
Arriva Southern Counties operate bus routes reaching most of the island , as well as Sittingbourne , Maidstone , and Canterbury Arriva Bus company use several routes , including 334 , 341 , 361 , 360 , 362 , 363 and special day trips to Bluewater Shopping Centre , Hempstead Valley , Pentagon in Chatham , Maidstone Market and Lakeside Shopping Centre . Chalkwell Coaches also serve Sheerness and the local area , going from Sheerness to Warden Bay via Minster @-@ On @-@ Sheppey . The A249 road terminates at Sheerness , running from Maidstone via Sittingbourne . The road crosses the M2 motorway near Sittingbourne , and the M20 motorway near Maidstone .
Coach Link ( part of The Kings Ferry ) also provide service from Sheerness , Minster , Halfway , Queenborough and part of the mainland to London Victoria Rail Station early in the morning and a return journey in the evening . Three school buses run from the Isle Of Sheppey to Sittingbourne school in the morning and after school finishes .
No passenger ferry services currently operate from Sheerness , although Olau Line used to run a ferry service to Vlissingen in the Netherlands from 1974 until 1994 .
= = Education = =
Until September 2009 , The Isle of Sheppey was the only area in Kent to still have a middle school system . On the island , primary schools taught pupils from ages 4 – 9 , middle schools from ages 9 – 13 and secondary schools from ages 13 – 18 . Minster College in the neighbouring town of Minster was the only secondary school on the island . Sheerness had one middle school , Isle of sheppey Academy , with 800 pupils , although Danley Middle School and St George 's Middle School were found in Halfway and Minster , respectively . In 2006 , the Cheyne Middle School 's Key Stage 2 performance ranked 322nd out of Kent 's 386 primary and middle schools . The town 's primary schools are Richmond First School , Rose Street Primary School , St Edward 's Roman Catholic Primary School and West Minster Primary School all of which cover ages 4 – 11 . Sheppey College , in Sheerness , is a branch of Canterbury College that provides a range of further education courses .
On 1 September 2009 , Cheyne Middle school and Minster College merged to become The Isle of Sheppey Academy ( now Oasis Academy Isle of Sheppey ) . Danley Middle school close and St George 's Middle School changed into a primary school with a £ 3m fund , and Richmond First School now houses an extra year of students . This change was to bring the Island up to date with the rest of the UK with the two @-@ tier system ( Primary school , and then secondary school ) . Respectively , The Isle of Sheppey Academy now ranges from students of year 6 - 11 , as well as housing the Island 's 6th form students .
For a while nobody was sure whether or not the plans for the Academy would go ahead , after the news that the current Government was scrapping Labour 's ' Building Schools for the Future ' scheme . For weeks Students , Teachers and Staff and Parents waited to hear whether or not the Academy would be built , and after much pressure on the Government from our local MP Gordon Henderson , it was announced that the Academy would receive the full £ 56 million funding and the go @-@ ahead for all building to take place . Building for the Isle of Sheppey Academy is now expected to start within the first few months of 2011 . Building was then completed in January 2013 .
At present there are currently 7 primary schools on the Isle of Sheppey : Queenborough First School ; Richmond Primary School , Rose Street Primary School and Westminster Primary School ( both part of the Sheerness West Federation ) , Minster Primary School , St George 's Primary School and Eastchurch Primary School ( Split over two sites , one in Eastchurch the other in Leysdown ) .
= Xenogears Original Soundtrack =
The Xenogears Original Soundtrack is the official soundtrack to Square 's role @-@ playing video game Xenogears . It was composed by Yasunori Mitsuda and contains 44 tracks , including a Bulgarian choral song and two pieces performed by the Irish singer Joanne Hogg . Though the game was released in both Japan and North America , the album was published in Japan exclusively as a 2 @-@ CD set on March 1 , 1998 .
The soundtrack was composed with strong traditional and Irish music influences , while the lyrics for the vocal tracks were written by the game 's director Tetsuya Takahashi and its scenario writer Masato Kato . The soundtrack reached # 55 in Japan and was generally well received by critics , though some disagreed on whether the album can be fully appreciated by non @-@ players .
Two arranged versions of the soundtrack , Creid ( 1998 ) and Myth : The Xenogears Orchestral Album ( 2011 ) , were also released by Mitsuda . The composer , along with Joanne Hogg , reprised their roles for the soundtrack to Xenogears 's spiritual prequel Xenosaga Episode I : Der Wille zur Macht in 2002 . Tribute albums were also produced by fans .
= = Creation = =
= = = Context = = =
Xenogears entered development in 1996 and was released in 1998 . The game 's soundtrack was Yasunori Mitsuda 's first major solo work , as his previous soundtracks were collaborations with other composers with the exception of the score to Radical Dreamers : Nusumenai Hōseki , which never saw an album release . Mitsuda worked closely with Masato Kato , the event planner and script writer of Xenogears , to compose the score . Mitsuda considered it hard at times to maintain his motivation throughout the whole two @-@ year period , especially since he had to wait for the end to see the most dramatic tracks implemented . The game 's director Tetsuya Takahashi did not initially think " music was all that important " compared to graphics , but eventually acknowledged its importance when he realized it could strongly enhance the expressivity of the images . Takahashi explained that without Mitsuda 's music , he would not have been able to achieve his goals for the project .
The development team wanted to have a Western singer contribute to the score . Mitsuda initially had difficulties finding an artist that matched his vision , but eventually chose Joanne Hogg from the Celtic band Iona after stumbling upon their album The Book of Kells in a CD store and listening to the song " Chi @-@ Rho " . Hogg was enthusiastic in contributing as it was her first video game @-@ related recording . She did not play the game for the project , however . Irish music was not well known in Japan at the time , but Mitsuda felt that a " Celtic boom " was about to hit the country . His prediction would later turn true with the popularity of the American film Titanic and the Irish stepdancing show Riverdance .
" Stars of Tears " , one of the songs included on the soundtrack album , did not appear in the final version of the game . It was originally intended to play in a cut scene at the start of the game along with the main staff credits . The scene , however , was removed for pacing issues , as it would have made the combined opening movie and introduction scenes last roughly ten minutes . Another song on the soundtrack , " Small Two of Pieces ~ Screeching Shards ~ " , was the first ending theme with sung lyrics to ever appear in a game developed by Square .
= = = Composition and writing = = =
The score contains 41 instrumental tracks , in addition to a choral track and two songs . According to Mitsuda , the music of Xenogears belongs to the traditional music genre . Though he first described it as stemming from " a world of [ his ] own imagining " rather than any specific country , he has also claimed a strong Irish or Celtic music influence . Mitsuda felt that composing for the game was very difficult due to the unfamiliarity of most Japanese with foreign traditionals , but expressed his wish for listeners of the soundtrack to open up to music from all over the world . His musical approach was to insert Celtic influences into " easy @-@ to @-@ listen @-@ to " pop tracks , rather than making either " dense " Celtic music or simple background music . Other influences on the soundtrack include Arabic music on the desert town theme " Dazil , Town of Scorching Sands " , and religious music , in keeping with the game 's storyline . Mitsuda explained that he wanted music that " felt religious , but from a different angle " .
The opening movie of the game was produced before the corresponding track " Dark Dawn " was , and Mitsuda had to rearrange his composition after realizing some parts were out of synch with the frames by about a minute and a half . The choral track , titled " The Beginning and the End " , was performed by a 41 @-@ voice choir named The Great Voices of Bulgaria and features lyrics written by Tetsuya Takahashi . His lyrics were translated from Japanese to English then to Bulgarian for the recording . Joanne Hogg sang in English on " Stars of Tears " and " Small Two of Pieces ~ Screeching Shards ~ " . The latter took Mitsuda " an awfully long amount of time " just to compose the demo version . Masato Kato wrote the original lyrics for the two songs , and Hogg arranged them so that they would fit the melodies better and sound more Celtic . As with most of his previous soundtracks , Mitsuda composed a musical box arrangement of one of the main themes ; in Xenogears ' case , the track " Distant Promise " is the musical box version of " Small Two of Pieces " .
= = = Recording = = =
The instrumental tracks of the score were programmed with the PlayStation sound module in Tokyo , Japan , while " The Beginning and the End " was recorded live in Sofia , Bulgaria . Hogg 's songs were recorded in two days in Dublin , Ireland in 1996 ; they featured the Riverdance musician Davy Spillane on low whistle . When Titanic premiered in November 1997 , Mitsuda noticed coincidental similarities between the film 's ending song , Celine Dion 's " My Heart Will Go On " , and the Irish @-@ themed music he was composing for Xenogears . He felt irritated and devoted himself to complete the soundtrack 's recording before Titanic came out .
As with some of his previous soundtracks , Mitsuda would stay in the Japanese studio for long amounts of time and regularly fall asleep from overwork , while some melodies would first come to him in his dreams , such as that of " Ties of Sea and Flames " . The composer collapsed during the soundtrack mastering process due to exhaustion , and had to be taken to the hospital by ambulance . The score involved in total nearly a hundred people . At one point , the music staff considered adding sound effects and voice narrations into the soundtrack album , but the idea was scrapped in favour of normal renditions of the game 's music .
= = Reception = =
The album reached # 55 on the Japan Oricon charts . Soundtrack Central felt that Mitsuda " created a masterpiece in Xenogears " , while RPGFan thought it was " most certainly his greatest achievement " . On the other hand , one reviewer on Square Enix Music Online ( unrelated to Square Enix ) felt it did not represent Mitsuda 's best album , saying that " what was an amazing soundtrack in its day ... has [ not ] stood the test of time very well . " Reviewers disagreed whether the album could only be enjoyed by Xenogears players , or if it could be appreciated by a wider audience .
Several reviewers noted the diversity of styles present in the score . Soundtrack Central thought it was a " superb mix of epic adventure and traditional themes " , while Square Enix Music Online appreciated the melding of futuristic , ethnic and religious themes , feeling that the recurring chanting sound effects made everything sound coherent . Critics also noticed similarities between some melodies and Mitsuda 's previous work Chrono Trigger , though reviewers felt that those of Xenogears were more " widely based " and had a distinctive Celtic sound . The reviewers also praised the sound system used for the instrumental tracks as being up to the highest standard for the PlayStation console .
The emotional tracks were considered the strongest part of the score , and were praised for their ability to musically reflect the various locales and characters seen in the game . The opening track " Dark Dawn " was similarly lauded for showcasing all the influences of the soundtrack in a single composition . The battle themes were described as a weaker area and were called either effective or repetitive , with Square Enix Music Online noting that " Mitsuda has never been very good at composing interesting battle tracks " . The final boss theme " The One Who Bares Fangs at God " received the most diverse comments , ranging from praises to criticism , due to its reliance on synth choral sound effects rather than a clear melody . The ending song " Small Two of Pieces " was received positively and , as Mitsuda predicted , compared to " My Heart Will Go On " .
= = Legacy = =
While in Ireland , Mitsuda also worked with Spillane and Maire Breatnach , another musician from Riverdance , to record an arranged album of Xenogears . Titled Creid and released in April 1998 , the arranged album features 10 instrumental and vocal tracks from the soundtrack arranged in a more dominant Celtic style . " Stars of Tears " and " Small Two of Pieces " appear on the album as " Two Wings " and " Möbius " respectively , and are sung in Japanese by Tetsuko " Techie " Honma . A second arranged album , titled Myth : The Xenogears Orchestral Album , was released on February 23 , 2011 . The original soundtrack versions of " Stars of Tears " and " Small Two of Pieces " were featured on the 2001 compilation Square Vocal Collection , and again in 2009 on the compilation Colours of Light . The Xenogears soundtrack remains one of Mitsuda 's favourite projects , and one of the works that he continues to feel a " special connection " to .
In 2002 , Mitsuda composed the score to Monolith Soft 's Xenosaga Episode I : Der Wille zur Macht , the spiritual prequel to Xenogears , also directed by Tetsuya Takahashi . Joanne Hogg returned to sing the soundtrack 's vocal themes , while the instrumental tracks were performed by the London Philharmonic Orchestra . Monolith Soft did not ask Mitsuda and Hogg to reprise their roles for Episode II and Episode III , however .
A tribute album titled Xenogears Light : An Arranged Album , was published in limited quantities by the fan group OneUp Studios in 2005 . The album features 20 tracks arranged from the Xenogears score and performed with acoustic instruments , such as piano , flute , guitar and violin . Another , unofficial album of remixes titled Humans + Gears was produced as a digital album by OverClocked Remix on October 19 , 2009 consisting of 33 tracks on two " discs " .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Disc one = = =
= = = Disc two = = =
= = Personnel = =
All information is taken from the Xenogears ending credits and the independent site Square Enix Music Online .
= = Release history = =
= Flag of Indiana =
The flag of Indiana was designed by Paul Hadley and officially adopted by the state of Indiana on May 31 , 1917 . It was the state 's first official flag and has remained unchanged since then except for the creation of a statute to standardize the production of the flag .
= = History = =
To commemorate the state ’ s 1916 centennial anniversary , the Indiana General Assembly issued a resolution to adopt a state flag . At the request of the General Assembly , a contest was sponsored by the Indiana Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution to design a flag to serve as the official state banner . As an incentive to increase the number of submissions , the contest offered the winner a one hundred dollar cash prize . More than two hundred submissions were received and examined by the Society before a winner was selected . The entry created by Paul Hadley of Mooresville , Indiana , was ultimately chosen as the winner of the contest and the cash prize .
On May 31 , 1917 , the flag was chosen as the state 's official banner . The General Assembly made only one change to Hadley 's original design : they added the word Indiana , in a crescent shape , over the top of the torch . The state banner was later renamed the state 's flag in a new statute passed in 1955 that also standardized the dimensions of the flag .
= = Iconography = =
The flag consists of a gold torch that represents liberty and enlightenment ; the rays around the torch represent their far @-@ reaching influence . The nineteen stars represent Indiana 's place as the nineteenth state to join the United States . The thirteen stars in the outer loop symbolize the original Thirteen Colonies , the five inner stars represent the next five states added to the Union , and the one large star above the torch represents Indiana .
In 2001 , a survey conducted by the North American Vexillological Association ( NAVA ) placed Indiana 's flag 32nd in design quality out of the 72 Canadian provincial , U.S. state and U.S. territorial flags ranked .
= = Statute = =
The current statute that governs the design of the state flag states :
The flag 's dimensions shall be three feet fly by two feet hoist ; or five feet fly by three feet hoist ; or any size proportionate to either of those dimensions . The field of the flag shall be blue with nineteen stars and a flaming torch in gold or buff . Thirteen stars shall be arranged in an outer circle , representing the original thirteen states ; five stars shall be arranged in a half circle below the torch and inside the outer circle of stars , representing the states admitted prior to Indiana ; and the nineteenth star , appreciably larger than the others and representing Indiana shall be placed above the flame of the torch . The outer circle of stars shall be so arranged that one star shall appear directly in the middle at the top of the circle , and the word " Indiana " shall be placed in a half circle over and above the star representing Indiana and midway between it and the star in the center above it . Rays shall be shown radiating from the torch to the three stars on each side of the star in the upper center of the circle .
= = Usage = =
Several other laws govern the use of the state flag . The flag is required to be flown by all state militias and the Indiana National Guard . It is to be on display at the Indiana Statehouse at all times . The flag must also be displayed at any agency that is funded in part or in full by the state government , including public schools , state universities , and state parks . In all other respects the flag should be treated with the same care and respect as the flag of the United States .
In late 2008 , Tribune Media station WTTV in Indianapolis began to use the flag 's design as part of their station 's logo until acquiring CBS affiliation in January 2015 .
A variation of the Indiana state flag was used as the Gotham flag in the 1989 movie Batman . The flag can be seen in the mayor 's office .
The logo of the BP @-@ acquired Amoco Corporation ( formerly Standard Oil of Indiana ) prominently features a torch to commemorate the company 's Indiana origins ; it remains in use at the few BP stations using Amoco and Standard trade dress to maintain trademark protection .
= Junkers Ju 87 =
The Junkers Ju 87 or Stuka ( from Sturzkampfflugzeug , " dive bomber " ) was a German dive bomber and ground @-@ attack aircraft designed by Hermann Pohlmann and first flew in 1935 . The Ju 87 made its combat debut in 1937 with the Luftwaffe 's Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War . It served the Axis forces in World War II .
The aircraft was easily recognisable by its inverted gull wings and fixed spatted undercarriage . Upon the leading edges of its faired main gear legs were mounted the Jericho @-@ Trompete ( " Jericho trumpet " ) wailing sirens , becoming the propaganda symbol of German air power and the blitzkrieg victories of 1939 – 1942 . The Stuka 's design included several innovative features , including automatic pull @-@ up dive brakes under both wings to ensure that the aircraft recovered from its attack dive even if the pilot blacked out from the high g @-@ forces .
The Ju 87 operated with considerable success in the close air support and anti @-@ shipping at the outbreak of World War II . It spearheaded the air assaults in the Invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the Norwegian Campaign the following year . In May 1940 the Ju 87s were crucial in the rapid conquest of the Netherlands , Belgium and France against all targets . Although sturdy , accurate , and very effective against ground targets , the Ju 87 , like many other dive bombers of the war , was vulnerable to modern fighter aircraft . During the Battle of Britain a lack of manoeuvrability , speed and defensive armament meant that the Stuka required a heavy fighter escort to operate effectively .
The Stuka operated with further success after the Battle of Britain , and its potency as a precision ground @-@ attack aircraft became valuable to German forces in the Balkans Campaign , the African and Mediterranean theaters and the early stages of the Eastern Front where it was used for general ground support , but also in the anti @-@ shipping role and as an effective specialised anti @-@ tank aircraft .
Once the Luftwaffe lost air superiority , on all fronts , the Ju 87 again became an easy target for enemy fighter aircraft . Despite these developments , because there was no better replacement , the type continued to be produced until 1944 . By the end of the conflict , the Stuka had been largely replaced by ground @-@ attack versions of the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 , but was still in use until the last days of the war . An estimated 6 @,@ 500 Ju 87s of all versions were built between 1936 and August 1944 .
Some notable airmen flew the Ju 87 . Oberst Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel was the most successful Stuka ace and the most highly decorated German serviceman of the Second World War . The vast majority of German ground attack aces flew this aircraft at some point in their careers .
= = Development = =
= = = Early design = = =
The Ju 87 's principal designer , Hermann Pohlmann , held the opinion that any dive @-@ bomber design needed to be simple and robust . This led to many technical innovations , such as the retractable undercarriage being discarded in favour of one of the Stuka 's distinctive features , its fixed and " spatted " undercarriage . Pohlmann continued to carry on developing and adding to his ideas and those of Dipl Ing Karl Plauth ( Plauth was killed in a flying accident in November 1927 ) , and produced the Ju A 48 which underwent testing on 29 September 1928 . The military version of the Ju A 48 was designated the Ju K 47 .
After the Nazis came to power , the design was given priority . Despite initial competition from the Henschel Hs 123 , the Reichsluftfahrtministerium ( RLM , the German aviation ministry ) turned to the designs of Herman Pohlmann of Junkers and co @-@ designer of the K 47 , Karl Plauth . During the trials with the K 47 in 1932 , the double vertical stabilisers were introduced to give the rear gunner a better field of fire . The main , and what was to be the most distinctive , feature of the Ju 87 was its double @-@ spar inverted gull wings . After Plauth 's death , Pohlmann continued the development of the Junkers dive bomber . The Ju A 48 registration D @-@ ITOR , was originally fitted with a BMW 132 engine , producing some 450 kW ( 600 hp ) . The machine was also fitted with dive brakes for dive testing . The aircraft was given a good evaluation and " exhibited very good flying characteristics " .
Ernst Udet took an immediate liking to the concept of dive @-@ bombing after flying the Curtiss Hawk II . When he invited Walther Wever and Robert Ritter von Greim to watch Udet perform a trial flight in May 1934 at the Jüterbog artillery range , it raised doubts about the capability of the dive bomber . Udet began his dive at 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) and released his 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) bombs at 100 m ( 330 ft ) , barely recovering and pulling out of the dive . The chief of the Luftwaffe Command Office , Walther Wever , and Secretary of State for Aviation Erhard Milch , feared that such high @-@ level nerves and skill could not be expected of " average pilots " in the Luftwaffe . Nevertheless , development continued at Junkers . Udet 's " growing love affair " with the dive bomber pushed it to the forefront of German aviation development . Udet went so far as to advocate that all medium bombers have dive @-@ bombing capabilities , which initially doomed the only dedicated , strategic heavy bomber design to enter German front @-@ line service during the war years — the 30 meter wingspan He 177A — into having an airframe design ( due to Udet examining its design details in November 1937 ) that could perform " medium angle " divebombing missions , until Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring exempted the He 177A , Germany 's only operational heavy bomber , in September 1942 from being tasked with such a mismatched mission profile for its 30 @-@ meter wingspan airframe .
= = = Evolution = = =
The design of the Ju 87 had begun in 1933 as part of the Sturzbomber @-@ Programm . The Ju 87 was to be powered by the British Rolls @-@ Royce Kestrel engine . Ten engines were ordered by Junkers on 19 April 1934 for £ 20 @,@ 514 , two shillings and sixpence . The first Ju 87 prototype was built by AB Flygindustri in Sweden and secretly brought to Germany in late 1934 . It was to have been completed in April 1935 , but , due to the inadequate strength of the airframe , construction was not completed until October 1935 . However , the mostly complete Ju 87 V1 W.Nr.c 4921 ( less non @-@ essential parts ) took off for its maiden flight on 17 September 1935 . The aircraft originally did not carry any registration , but later was given the registration D @-@ UBYR . The flight report , by Hauptmann Willy Neuenhofen , stated the only problem was with the small radiator , which caused the power plant to overheat .
The Ju 87 V1 , powered by a Rolls @-@ Royce Kestrel V12 cylinder liquid @-@ cooled engine , and with a twin tail , crashed on 24 January 1936 at Kleutsch near Dresden , killing Junkers ' chief test pilot , Willy Neuenhofen , and his engineer , Heinrich Kreft . The square twin fins and rudders proved too weak ; they collapsed and the aircraft crashed after it entered an inverted spin during the testing of the terminal dynamic pressure in a dive . The crash prompted a change to a single vertical stabiliser tail design . To withstand strong forces during a dive , heavy plating was fitted , along with brackets riveted to the frame and longeron , to the fuselage . Other early additions included the installation of hydraulic dive brakes that were fitted under the leading edge and could rotate 90 ° .
The RLM was still not interested in the Ju 87 and was not impressed that it relied on a British engine . In late 1935 , Junkers suggested fitting a DB 600 in @-@ line engine , with the final variant to be equipped with the Jumo 210 . This was accepted by the RLM as an interim solution . The reworking of the design began on 1 January 1936 . The test flight could not be carried out for over two months due to a lack of adequate aircraft . The 24 January crash had already destroyed one machine .
The second prototype was also beset by design problems . It had its twin stabilizers removed and a single tail fin installed due to fears over stability . Due to a shortage of power plants , instead of a DB 600 , a BMW " Hornet " engine was fitted . All these delays set back testing until 25 February 1936 . By March 1936 , the second prototype , the V2 , was finally fitted with the Jumo 210Aa power plant , which a year later was replaced by a Jumo 210 G ( W.Nr. 19310 ) . Although the testing went well , and the pilot , Flight Captain Hesselbach , praised its performance , Wolfram von Richthofen told the Junkers representative and Construction Office chief engineer Ernst Zindel that the Ju 87 stood little chance of becoming the Luftwaffe 's main dive bomber , as it was underpowered in his opinion . On 9 June 1936 , the RLM ordered cessation of development in favour of the Heinkel He 118 , a rival design . Udet cancelled the order the next day , and development continued .
On 27 July 1936 , Udet crashed the He 118 prototype , He 118 V1 D @-@ UKYM . That same day , Charles Lindbergh was visiting Ernst Heinkel , so Heinkel could only communicate with Udet by telephone . According to this version of the story , Heinkel warned Udet about the propeller 's fragility . Udet failed to consider this , so in a dive , the engine oversped and the propeller broke away . Immediately after this incident , Udet announced the Stuka the winner of the development contest .
= = = Honing the design = = =
Despite being chosen , the design was still lacking and drew frequent criticism from Wolfram von Richthofen . Testing of the V4 prototype ( A Ju 87 A @-@ 0 ) in early 1937 revealed several problems . The Ju 87 could take off in just 250 m ( 820 ft ) and climb to 1 @,@ 875 m ( 6 @,@ 152 ft ) in just eight minutes with a 250 kg ( 550 lb ) bomb load , and its cruising speed was 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) . However , Richthofen pushed for a more powerful engine . According to the test pilots , the Heinkel He 50 had a better acceleration rate , and could climb away from the target area much more quickly , avoiding enemy ground and air defences . Richthofen stated that any maximum speed below 350 km / h ( 220 mph ) was unacceptable for those reasons . Pilots also complained that navigation and powerplant instruments were mixed together , and were not easy to read , especially in combat . Despite this , pilots praised the aircraft 's handling qualities and strong airframe .
These problems were to be resolved by installing the Daimler @-@ Benz DB 600 engine , but delays in development forced the installation of the Jumo 210 Da in @-@ line engine . Flight testing began on 14 August 1936 . Subsequent testing and progress fell short of Richthofen 's hopes , although the machine 's speed was increased to 280 km / h ( 170 mph ) at ground level and 290 km / h ( 180 mph ) at 1 @,@ 250 m ( 4 @,@ 100 ft ) , while maintaining its good handling ability .
= = Design = =
= = = Basic design ( based on the B series ) = = =
The Ju 87 was a single @-@ engined all @-@ metal cantilever monoplane . It had a fixed undercarriage and could carry a two @-@ person crew . The main construction material was duralumin , and the external coverings were made of Duralumin sheeting . Parts that were required to be of strong construction , such as the wing flaps , were made of Pantal ( a German aluminum alloy containing titanium as a hardening element ) and its components made of Elektron . Bolts and parts that were required to take heavy stress were made of steel .
The Ju 87 was fitted with detachable hatches and removable coverings to aid and ease maintenance and overhaul . The designers avoided welding parts wherever possible , preferring moulded and cast parts instead . Large airframe segments were interchangeable as a complete unit , which increased speed of repair .
The airframe was also subdivided into sections to allow transport by road or rail . The wings were of standard Junkers double @-@ wing construction . This gave the Ju 87 considerable advantage on take @-@ off ; even at a shallow angle , large lift forces were created through the aerofoil , reducing take @-@ off and landing runs .
In accordance with the Aircraft Certification Center for " Stress Group 5 " , the Ju 87 had reached the acceptable structural strength requirements for a dive bomber . It was able to withstand diving speeds of 600 km / h ( 370 mph ) and a maximum level speed of 340 km / h ( 210 mph ) near ground level , and a flying weight of 4 @,@ 300 kg ( 9 @,@ 500 lb ) . Performance in the diving attack was enhanced by the introduction of dive brakes under each wing , which allowed the Ju 87 to maintain a constant speed and allow the pilot to steady his aim . It also prevented the crew from suffering extreme g forces and high acceleration during " pull @-@ out " from the dive .
The fuselage had an oval cross @-@ section and housed a water @-@ cooled inverted V @-@ 12 engine . The cockpit was protected from the engine by a firewall ahead of the wing center section where the fuel tanks were located . At the rear of the cockpit , the bulkhead was covered by a canvas cover which could be breached by the crew in an emergency , enabling them to escape into the main fuselage . The canopy was split into two sections and joined by a strong welded steel frame . The canopy itself was made of Plexiglas and each compartment had its own " sliding hood " for the two crew members .
The engine was mounted on two main support frames that were supported by two tubular struts . The frame structure was triangulated and emanated from the fuselage . The main frames were bolted onto the power plant in its top quarter . In turn , the frames were attached to the firewall by universal joints . The firewall itself was constructed from asbestos mesh with dural sheets on both sides . All conduits passing through had to be arranged so that no harmful gases could penetrate the cockpit .
The fuel system comprised two fuel tanks between the main ( forward ) and rear spars of the ( inner ) anhedral wing section of the port and starboard wings , each with 240 @-@ litre ( 63 US gal ) capacity . The tanks also had a predetermined limit which , if passed , would warn the pilot via a red warning light in the cockpit . The fuel was injected via a pump from the tanks to the power plant . Should this shut down , it could be pumped manually using a hand @-@ pump on the fuel cock Armature . The powerplant was cooled by a 10 @-@ litre ( 2 @.@ 6 US gal ) , ring @-@ shaped aluminium water container situated between the propeller and engine . A further container of 20 @-@ litre ( 5 @.@ 3 US gal ) was positioned under the engine .
The control surfaces operated in much the same way as other aircraft , with the exception of the innovative automatic pull @-@ out system . Releasing the bomb initiated the pull @-@ out , or automatic recovery and climb , upon the deflection of the dive brakes . The pilot could override the system by exerting significant force on the control column and taking manual control .
The wing was the most unusual feature . It consisted of a single center section and two outer sections installed using four universal joints . The center section had a large negative dihedral ( anhedral ) and the outer surfaces a positive dihedral . This created the inverted gull , or " cranked " , wing pattern along the Ju 87 's leading edge . The shape of the wing improved the pilot 's ground visibility and also allowed a shorter undercarriage height . The center section protruded by only 3 m ( 9 ft 10 in ) on either side .
The offensive armament was two 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 17 machine guns fitted one in each wing outboard of undercarriage , operated by a mechanical pneumatics system from the pilot 's control column . The rear gunner / radio operator operated one 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 15 machine gun for defensive purposes .
The engine and propeller had automatic controls , and an auto @-@ trimmer made the aircraft tail @-@ heavy as the pilot rolled over into his dive , lining up red lines at 60 ° , 75 ° or 80 ° on the cockpit side window with the horizon and aiming at the target with the sight of the fixed gun . The heavy bomb was swung down clear of the propeller on crutches prior to release .
= = = Diving procedure = = =
Flying at 4 @,@ 600 m ( 15 @,@ 100 ft ) , the pilot located his target through a bombsight window in the cockpit floor . The pilot moved the dive lever to the rear , limiting the " throw " of the control column . The dive brakes were activated automatically , the pilot set the trim tabs , retarded his throttle and closed the coolant flaps . The aircraft then rolled 180 ° , automatically nosing the aircraft into a dive . Red tabs protruded from the upper surfaces of the wing as a visual indicator to the pilot that , in case of a g @-@ induced black @-@ out , the automatic dive recovery system would be activated . The Stuka dived at a 60 @-@ 90 ° angle , holding a constant speed of 500 – 600 km / h ( 350 @-@ 370 mph ) due to dive @-@ brake deployment , which increased the accuracy of the Ju 87 's aim .
When the aircraft was reasonably close to the target , a light on the contact altimeter came on to indicate the bomb @-@ release point , usually at a minimum height of 450 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) . The pilot released the bomb and initiated the automatic pull @-@ out mechanism by depressing a knob on the control column . An elongated U @-@ shaped crutch located under the fuselage swung the bomb out of the way of the propeller , and the aircraft automatically began a 6 g pullout . Once the nose was above the horizon , dive brakes were retracted , the throttle was opened , and the propeller was set to climb . The pilot regained control and resumed normal flight . The coolant flaps had to be reopened quickly to prevent overheating . The automatic pull @-@ out was not liked by all pilots . Helmut Mahlke later said that he and his unit disconnected the system because it allowed the enemy to predict the Ju 87 's recovery pattern and height , making it easier for ground defences to hit an aircraft .
Physical stress on the crew was severe . Human beings subjected to more than 5 g forces in a seated position will suffer vision impairment in the form of a grey veil known to Stuka pilots as " seeing stars " . They lose vision while remaining conscious ; after five seconds , they black out . The Ju 87 pilots experienced the visual impairments most during " pull @-@ up " from a dive .
Eric " Winkle " Brown RN , a British test pilot and Commanding Officer of Captured Enemy Aircraft Flight section , tested the Ju 87 at RAE Farnborough . He said of the Stuka , " I had flown a lot of dive @-@ bombers and it ’ s the only one that you can dive truly vertically . Sometimes with the dive @-@ bombers ... maximum dive is usually in the order of 60 degrees .. When flying the Stuka , because it ’ s all automatic , you are really flying vertically ... The Stuka was in a class of its own . "
= = = G @-@ force test at Dessau = = =
Extensive tests were carried out by the Junkers works at their Dessau plant . It was discovered that the highest load a pilot could endure was 8 @.@ 5 g for three seconds , when the aircraft was pushed to its limit by the centrifugal forces . At less than 4 g , no visual problems or loss of consciousness were experienced . Above 6 g , 50 % of pilots suffered visual problems , or " grey " out . With 40 % , vision vanished altogether from 7 @.@ 5 g upwards and black @-@ out sometimes occurred . Despite this blindness , the pilot could maintain consciousness and was capable of " bodily reactions " . However , after more than three seconds , half the subjects passed out . The pilot would regain consciousness two or three seconds after the centrifugal forces had dropped below 3 g and had lasted no longer than three seconds . In a crouched position , pilots could withstand 7 @.@ 5 g and were able to remain functional for a short duration . In this position , Junkers concluded that ⅔ of pilots could withstand 8 g and perhaps 9 g for three to five seconds without vision defects which , under war conditions , was acceptable . During tests with the Ju 87 A @-@ 2 , new technologies were tried out to reduce the effects of g forces . The pressurised cabin was of great importance during this research . Testing revealed that at high altitude , even 2 g could cause death in an unpressurised cabin and without appropriate clothing . This new technology , along with special clothing and oxygen masks , was researched and tested . When the United States Army occupied the Junkers factory at Dessau on 21 April 1945 , they were both impressed at and interested in the medical flight tests with the Ju 87 .
= = = Other designs = = =
The concept of dive bombing became so popular among the leadership of the Luftwaffe that it became almost obligatory in new aircraft designs . Later bomber models like the Junkers Ju 88 and the Dornier Do 217 were equipped for dive bombing . The Heinkel He 177 strategic bomber was initially supposed to have dive bombing capabilities , a requirement that contributed to the failure of the design , with the requirement not rescinded until September 1942 by Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring .
Once the Stuka became too vulnerable to fighter opposition on all fronts , work was done to develop a replacement . None of the dedicated close @-@ support designs on the drawing board progressed far due to the impact of the war and technological difficulties . So the Luftwaffe settled on the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 fighter aircraft , with the Fw 190F becoming the ground @-@ attack version . The Fw 190F started to replace the Ju 87 for day missions in 1943 , but the Ju 87 continued to be used as a night nuisance @-@ raider until the end of the war .
= = Variants = =
= = = Ju 87A = = =
The second prototype had a redesigned single vertical stabiliser and a 610 PS ( 449 kW or 602 hp ) Junkers Jumo 210 A engine installed , and later the Jumo 210 Da . The first A series variant , the A @-@ 0 , was of all @-@ metal construction , with an enclosed cockpit under a " greenhouse " well @-@ framed canopy ; bearing twin radio masts on its aft sections , diagonally mounted to either side of the airframe 's planform centreline and unique to the -A version . To ease the difficulty of mass production , the leading edge of the wing was straightened out and the ailerons ' two aerofoil sections had smooth leading and trailing edges . The pilot could adjust the elevator and rudder trim tabs in flight , and the tail was connected to the landing flaps , which were positioned in two parts between the ailerons and fuselage . The A @-@ 0 also had a flatter engine cowling , which gave the pilot a much better field of vision . In order for the engine cowling to be flattened , the engine was set down nearly 0 @.@ 25 m ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) . The fuselage was also lowered along with the gunner 's position , allowing the gunner a better field of fire .
The RLM ordered seven A @-@ 0s initially , but then increased the order to 11 . Early in 1937 , the A @-@ 0 was tested with varied bomb loads . The underpowered Jumo 210A , as pointed out by von Richthofen , was insufficient , and was quickly replaced with the Jumo 210D power plant .
The A @-@ 1 differed from the A @-@ 0 only slightly . As well as the installation of the Jumo 210D , the A @-@ 1 had two 220 L ( 60 US gal ) fuel tanks built into the inner wing , but it was not armoured or protected . The A @-@ 1 was also intended to be fitted with a quartet of 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 17 machine guns in its wings , but two of these - one per side - were omitted due to weight concerns ; the pair that remained were fed a total of 500 rounds of ammunition , stored in the design 's characteristic transverse strut @-@ braced , large @-@ planform undercarriage " trousers " , not used on the Ju 87B versions and onward . The pilot relied on the Revi C 21C gun sight for the two MG 17s . The gunner had only a single 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 ) MG 15 , with 14 drums of ammunition , each containing 75 rounds . This represented a 150 @-@ round increase in this area over the Ju 87 A @-@ 0 . The A @-@ 1 was also fitted with a larger 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) propeller .
The Ju 87 was capable of carrying a 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bomb , but only if not carrying the rear gunner / radio operator as , even with the Jumo 210D power plant , the Ju 87 was still underpowered for operations with more than a 250 kg ( 550 lb ) bomb load . All Ju 87 As were restricted to 250 kg ( 550 lb ) weapons ( although during the Spanish Civil War missions were conducted without the gunner ) .
The Ju 87 A @-@ 2 was retrofitted with the Jumo 210Da fitted with a two @-@ stage supercharger . The only further significant difference between the A @-@ 1 and A @-@ 2 was the H @-@ PA @-@ III controllable @-@ pitch propeller . By mid @-@ 1938 , 262 Ju 87 As had been produced , 192 from the Junkers factory in Dessau , and a further 70 from Weser Flugzeugbau ( " Weserflug " - WFG ) in Lemwerder near Bremen . The new , more powerful , Ju 87B model started to replace the Ju 87A at this time .
Prototypes
Ju 87 V1 : W.Nr 4921 . Flown on 17 September 1935
Ju 87 V2 : W.Nr 4922 , registration D @-@ IDQR . Flown on 25 February 1936 . Flown again as registration D @-@ UHUH on 4 June 1937
Ju 87 V3 : W.Nr 4923 . Flown on 27 March 1936
Ju 87 V4 : W.Nr 4924 . Flown on 20 June 1936
Ju 87 V5 : W.Nr 4925 . Flown on 14 August 1936
Production variants
Ju 87 A @-@ 0 : Ten pre @-@ production aircraft , powered by a 640 PS ( 471 kW or 632 hp ) Jumo 210C engine .
Ju 87 A @-@ 1 : Initial production version .
Ju 87 A @-@ 2 : Production version fitted with an improved 680 PS ( 500 kW or 670 hp ) Jumo 210E engine .
= = = Ju 87B = = =
The Ju 87 B series was to be the first mass @-@ produced variant . A total of six pre @-@ production Ju 87 B @-@ 0 were produced , built from Ju 87 An airframes . The first production version was the Ju 87 B @-@ 1 , with a considerably larger engine , its Junkers Jumo 211D generating 1 @,@ 200 PS ( 883 kW or 1 @,@ 184 hp ) , and completely redesigned fuselage and landing gear , replacing the twin radio masts of the " A " version with a single mast mounted further forward on the " greenhouse " canopy , and much simpler , lighter @-@ weight wheel " spats " used from the -B version onwards , discarding the transverse strut bracing of the " A " version 's maingear design . This new design was again tested in Spain , and after proving its abilities there , production was ramped up to 60 per month . As a result , by the outbreak of World War II , the Luftwaffe had 336 Ju 87 B @-@ 1s on hand . The B @-@ 1 was also fitted with " Jericho trumpets " , essentially propeller @-@ driven sirens with a diameter of 0 @.@ 7 m ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) mounted on the wing 's leading edge directly forward of the landing gear , or on the front edge of the fixed main gear fairing . This was used to weaken enemy morale and enhance the intimidation of dive @-@ bombing . After the enemy became used to it , however , they were withdrawn . The devices caused a loss of some 20 – 25 km / h ( 10 @-@ 20 mph ) through drag . Instead , some bombs were fitted with whistles on the fin to produce the noise after release .
The trumpets were a suggestion from Generaloberst Ernst Udet ( but some authors say the idea originated from Adolf Hitler ) . The Ju 87 B @-@ 2s that followed had some improvements and were built in a number of variants that included ski @-@ equipped versions ( the B @-@ 1 also had this modification ) and at the other end , with a tropical operation kit called the Ju 87 B @-@ 2 trop . Italy 's Regia Aeronautica received a number of the B @-@ 2s and named them the " Picchiatello " , while others went to the other members of the Axis , including Hungary , Bulgaria and Romania . The B @-@ 2 also had an oil hydraulic system for closing the cowling flaps . This continued in all the later designs .
Production of the Ju 87 B started in 1937 . 89 B @-@ 1s were to be built at Junkers ' factory in Dessau and another 40 at the Weserflug plant in Lemwerder by July 1937 . Production would be carried out by the Weserflug company after April 1938 , but Junkers continued producing Ju 87 up until March 1940 .
= = = Ju 87R = = =
A long range version of the Ju 87B was also built , known as the Ju 87R , the letter allegedly being an abbreviation for Reichweite , " ( operational ) range " . They were primarily intended for anti @-@ shipping missions . The Ju 87R had a B @-@ series airframe with an additional oil tank and fuel lines to the outer wing stations to permit the use of two 300 L ( 79 @.@ 25 US gal ) standardised capacity under @-@ wing drop tanks , used by a wide variety of Luftwaffe aircraft through most of the war . This increased fuel capacity to 1 @,@ 080 litres ( 500 L in main fuel tank of which 480 L where usable + 600 L from drop tanks ) . To prevent overload conditions , bomb carrying ability was often restricted to a single 250 kg ( 550 lb ) bomb if the aircraft was fully loaded with fuel . The Ju 87 R @-@ 1 had a B @-@ 1 airframe with the exception of a modification in the fuselage which enabled an additional oil tank . This was installed to feed the engine due to the increase in range after the addition of the extra fuel tanks .
The Ju 87 R @-@ 2 had the same airframe as the B @-@ 2 , and strengthened to ensure it could withstand dives of 600 km / h ( 370 mph ) . The Jumo 211D in @-@ line engine was installed , replacing the R @-@ 1s Jumo 211A . Due to an increase in overall weight by some 700 kg ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) , the Ju 87 R @-@ 2 was 30 km / h ( 19 mph ) slower than the Ju 87 B @-@ 1 and had a lower service ceiling . The Ju 87 R @-@ 2 had an increased range advantage of 360 km ( 220 mi ) . The R @-@ 3 and R @-@ 4 were the last R variants developed . Only a few were built . The R @-@ 3 was an experimental tug for gliders and had an expanded radio system so the crew could communicate with the glider crew by way of the tow rope . The R @-@ 4 differed from the R @-@ 2 in the Jumo 211J powerplant .
Known prototypes
Ju 87 V6 : W.Nr 0870027 . Flown on 14 June 1937 ( A @-@ 0 to B @-@ 0 conversion )
Ju 87 V7 : W.Nr 0870028 . Prototype of the Ju 87B , powered by a 1 @,@ 000 PS ( 735 kW or 986 hp ) Jumo 211A . Flown on 23 August 1937 ( A @-@ 0 to B @-@ 0 conversion )
Ju 87 V8 : W.Nr 4926 . Flown on 11 November 1937
Ju 87 V9 : W.Nr 4927 . Flown on 16 February 1938 as D @-@ IELZ . Flown again as WL @-@ IELZ on 16 October 1939
Ju 87 V15 : W.Nr 0870321 . Registration D @-@ IGDK . Destroyed in a crash in 1942 .
Ju 87 V16 : W.Nr 0870279 . Stammkennzeichen code of GT + AX .
Ju 87 V17 and Ju 87 V18 may never have been built .
= = = Ju 87C = = =
On 18 August 1937 , the RLM decided to introduce the Ju 87 Tr ( C ) . The Ju 87 C was intended to be a dive and torpedo bomber for the Kriegsmarine . The type was ordered into prototype production and available for testing in January 1938 . Testing was given just two months and was to begin in February and end in April 1938 . The prototype V10 was to be a fixed wing test aircraft , while the following V11 would be modified with folding wings . The prototypes were Ju 87 B @-@ 0 airframes powered by Jumo 211 A engines . Owing to delays , the V10 was not completed until March 1938 . It first flew on 17 March and was designated Ju 87 C @-@ 1 . On 12 May , the V11 also flew for the first time . By 15 December 1939 , 915 arrested landings on dry land had been made . It was found the arresting gear winch was too weak and had to be replaced . Tests showed the average braking distance was 20 – 35 metres ( 66 – 115 ft ) . The Ju 87 V11 was designated C @-@ 0 on 8 October 1938 . It was fitted out with standard Ju 87 C @-@ 0 equipment and better wing @-@ folding mechanisms . The " carrier Stuka " was to be built at the Weserflug Company 's Lemwerder plant between April and July 1940 .
Among the " special " equipment of the Ju 87 C was a two @-@ seat rubber dinghy with signal ammunition and emergency ammunition . A quick fuel dump mechanism and two inflatable 750 L ( 200 US gal ) bags in each wing and a further two 500 L ( 130 US gal ) bags in the fuselage enabled the Ju 87 C to remain afloat for up to three days in calm seas . On 6 October 1939 , with the war already underway , 120 of the planned Ju 87 Tr ( C ) s on order at that point were cancelled . Despite the cancellation , the tests continued using catapults . The Ju 87 C had a takeoff weight of 5 @,@ 300 kg ( 11 @,@ 700 lb ) and a speed of 133 km / h ( 83 mph ) on departure . The Ju 87 could be launched with a SC 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bomb and four SC 50 kg ( 110 lb ) bombs under the fuselage . The C @-@ 1 was to have two MG 17s mounted in the wing with a MG 15 operated by the rear gunner . On 18 May 1940 , production of the C @-@ 1 was switched to the R @-@ 1 .
Known prototypes
Ju 87 V10 : Registration D @-@ IHFH ( changed to Stammkennzeichen of TK + HD ) . W.Nr 4928 . First flown 17 March 1938
Ju 87 V11 : Stammkennzeichen of TV + OV . W.Nr 4929 . First flown 12 May 1938
= = = Ju 87D = = =
Despite the Stuka 's vulnerability to enemy fighters having been exposed during the Battle of Britain , the Luftwaffe had no choice but to continue its development , as there was no replacement aircraft in sight . The result was the D @-@ series . In June 1941 , the RLM ordered five prototypes , the Ju 87 V21 – 25 . A Daimler @-@ Benz DB 603 powerplant was to be installed in the Ju 87 D @-@ 1 , but it did not have the power of the Jumo 211 and performed " poorly " during tests and was dropped . The Ju 87 D @-@ series featured two coolant radiators underneath the inboard sections of the wings , while the oil cooler was relocated to the position formerly occupied by the single , undernose " chin " coolant radiator . The D @-@ series also introduced an aerodynamically refined cockpit with better visibility and space . In addition , armour protection was increased and a new dual @-@ barrel 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 81Z machine gun with an extremely high rate of fire was installed in the rear defensive position . Engine power was increased again , the Jumo 211J now delivering 1 @,@ 420 PS ( 1 @,@ 044 kW or 1 @,@ 400 hp ) . Bomb carrying ability was nearly quadrupled from 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) in the B @-@ version to 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 4 @,@ 000 lb ) in the D @-@ version ( max. load for short ranges , overload condition ) , a typical bomb load ranged from 500 – 1 @,@ 200 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 – 2 @,@ 600 lb ) .
The internal fuel capacity of the Ju 87D was raised to 800 L ( of which 780 L were usable ) by adding additional wing tanks while retaining the option to carry two 300 L drop tanks . Tests at Rechlin @-@ Lärz Airfield revealed it made possible a flight duration of 2 hours and 15 minutes . With an extra two 300 L ( 80 US gal ) fuel tanks , it could achieve four hours flight time .
The D @-@ 2 was a variant used as a glider tug by converting older D @-@ series airframes . It was intended as the tropical version of the D @-@ 1 and had heavier armour to protect the crew from ground fire . The armour reduced its performance and caused the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe to " place no particular value on the production of the D @-@ 2 " . The D @-@ 3 was an improved D @-@ 1 with more armour for its ground @-@ attack role . A number of Ju 87 D @-@ 3s were designated D @-@ 3N or D @-@ 3 trop and fitted with night or tropical equipment . The D @-@ 4 designation applied to a prototype torpedo @-@ bomber version , which could carry a 750 – 905 kg ( 1 @,@ 653 – 1 @,@ 995 lb ) aerial torpedo on a PVC 1006 B rack . The D @-@ 4 was to be converted from D @-@ 3 airframes and operated from the aircraft carrier Graf Zeppelin . Other modifications included a flame eliminator and , unlike earlier D variants , two 20 mm MG 151 / 20 cannon , while the radio operator / rear gunner 's ammunition supply was increased by 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 rounds .
The Ju 87 D @-@ 5 was based on the D @-@ 3 design and was unique in the Ju 87 series as it had wings 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 @-@ feet ) longer than previous variants . The two 7 @.@ 92 mm MG 17 wing guns were exchanged for more powerful 20 mm MG 151 / 20s to better suit the aircraft 's ground @-@ attack role . The window in the floor of the cockpit was reinforced and four , rather than the previous three , aileron hinges were installed . Higher diving speeds were obtained of 650 km / h ( 400 mph ) up to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . The range was recorded as 715 km ( 444 mi ) at ground level and 835 km ( 519 mi ) at 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) .
The D @-@ 6 , according to " Operating instructions , works document 2097 " , was built in limited numbers to train pilots on " rationalised versions " . However , due to shortages in raw materials , it did not go into mass production . The D @-@ 7 was another ground attack aircraft based on D @-@ 1 airframes upgraded to D @-@ 5 standard ( armour , wing cannons , extended wing panels ) , while the D @-@ 8 was similar to the D @-@ 7 but based on D @-@ 3 airframes . The D @-@ 7 and D @-@ 8 were both were fitted with flame dampers , and could conduct night operations .
Production of the D @-@ 1 variant started in 1941 with 495 ordered . These aircraft were delivered between May 1941 and March 1942 . The RLM wanted 832 machines produced from February 1941 . The Weserflug company was tasked with their production . From June to September 1941 , 40 Ju 87 Ds were expected to be built , increasing to 90 thereafter . Various production problems were encountered . Just one of the planned 48 was produced in July . Of the 25 the RLM hoped for in August 1941 , none were delivered . Only in September 1941 did the first two of the planned 102 Ju 87s roll off the production lines . The shortfalls continued to the end of 1941 . During this time , the WFG plant in Lemwerder moved production to Berlin . Over 165 Ju 87s had not been delivered and production was only 23 Ju 87 Ds per month out of the 40 expected . By the spring of 1942 to the end of production in 1944 , 3 @,@ 300 Ju 87s , mostly D @-@ 1s , D @-@ 2s and D @-@ 5s had been manufactured .
In January 1943 , a variety of Ju 87 Ds became " test beds " for the Ju 87 G variants . At the start of 1943 , the coastal Luftwaffe Erprobungsstelle test centre at Tarnewitz tested this combination from a static position . Oberst G. Wolfgang Vorwald noted the experiments were not successful , and suggested the cannon be installed on the Messerschmitt Me 410 . However , testing continued , and on 31 January 1943 , Ju 87 D @-@ 1 W.Nr 2552 was tested by Hauptmann Hans @-@ Karl Stepp near the Briansk training area . Stepp noted the increase in drag , which reduced the aircraft 's speed to 259 km / h ( 161 mph ) . Stepp also noted that the aircraft was also less agile than the existing D variants . D @-@ 1 and D @-@ 3 variants operated in combat with the 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) BK 37 cannon in 1943 .
Known prototypes
Ju 87 V 21 . Registration D @-@ INRF . W.Nr 0870536 . Airframe conversion from B @-@ 1 to D @-@ 1 . First flown on 1 March 1941 .
Ju 87 V 22 Stammkennzeichen of SF + TY . W.Nr 0870540 . Also airframe conversion from B @-@ 1 to D @-@ 1 . First flown on 1 March 1941 .
Ju 87 V 23 Stammkennzeichen of PB + UB . W.Nr 0870542 . Also airframe conversion from B @-@ 1 to D @-@ 1 . First flown on 1 March 1941 .
Ju 87 V 24 Stammkennzeichen of BK + EE . W.Nr 0870544 . Also airframe conversion from B @-@ 1 to D @-@ 1 / D @-@ 4 . First flown on 1 March 1941 .
Ju 87 V 25 Stammkennzeichen of BK + EF . W.Nr 0870530 . Also airframe conversion from B @-@ 1 to D @-@ 4 trop . First flown on 1 March 1941 .
Ju 87 V 30 , the only known prototype of the Ju 87 D @-@ 5 . W.Nr 2296 . First flown on 20 June 1943 .
Ju 87 V 26 @-@ 28 , Ju 87 V 31 , and V 42 @-@ 47 were experiments of unknown variants .
= = = Ju 87G = = =
With the G variant , the ageing airframe of the Ju 87 found new life as an anti @-@ tank aircraft . This was the final operational version of the Stuka , and was deployed on the Eastern Front . The reverse in German military fortunes after 1943 and the appearance of huge numbers of well @-@ armoured Soviet tanks caused Junkers to adapt the existing design to combat this new threat . The Henschel Hs 129B had proved a potent ground attack weapon , but its large fuel tanks made it vulnerable to enemy fire , prompting the RLM to say " that in the shortest possible time a replacement of the Hs 129 type must take place . " With Soviet tanks the priority targets , the development of a further variant as a successor to the Ju 87D began in November 1942 . On 3 November , Erhard Milch raised the question of replacing the Ju 87 , or redesigning it altogether . It was decided to keep the design as it was , but the power @-@ plant was upgraded to a Junkers Jumo 211J , and two 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) cannons were added . The variant was also designed to carry a 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) free @-@ fall bomb load . Furthermore , the armoured protection of the Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 Sturmovik was copied - a feature pioneered by the 1916 @-@ 17 origin Junkers J.I of World War I Imperial Germany 's Luftstreitkräfte - to protect the crew from ground fire now that the Ju 87 would be required to conduct low level attacks .
Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel , a Stuka ace , had suggested using two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) Flak 18 guns , each one in a self @-@ contained under @-@ wing gun pod , as the Bordkanone BK 3 @,@ 7 , after achieving success against Soviet tanks with the 20 mm MG 151 / 20 cannon . These gun pods were fitted to a Ju 87 D @-@ 1 , W.Nr 2552 as " Gustav the tank killer " - the co @-@ incidence of " Gustav " being the standard word for " G " in the Germans ' own spelling alphabet of the time could have inspired the choice of letter for the subtype . The first flight of the machine took place on 31 January 1943 , piloted by Hauptmann Hans @-@ Karl Stepp . The continuing problems with about two dozens of the Ju 88P @-@ 1 , and slow development of the Henschel Hs 129B @-@ 3 , each of them equipped with a large , PaK 40 @-@ based , autoloading Bordkanone 7 @,@ 5 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) cannon in a conformal gun pod beneath the fuselage , meant the Ju 87G was put into production . In April 1943 , the first production Ju 87 G @-@ 1s were delivered to front line units . The two 37 mm (
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month . For most of its short operational life , 381 was used on the Kensington and Henley North lines ( which were through routed the same year 381 was built ) . 381 was also the last tram to operate over the Kensington line before closure in February 1957 . It was withdrawn from revenue service in December 1957 when it was stored at Hackney Depot / Workshops . In June 1958 , it was then moved to City Depot on Angas Street . In May 1959 , it was again moved for further storage , this time to the permanent way depot at Maylands where it remained until 1965 when it was donated to the St Kilda Tramway Museum . As a result , it has spent many more years in preservation then it did in revenue service .
= = = = Flexity Classic / Type 100 / Type I = = = =
Beginning in January 2006 , 30 metres ( 98 ft 5 in ) long , articulated , low @-@ floor Flexity Classic Light Rail vehicles , built by Bombardier in Germany , began operation . Eleven trams were ordered at a total cost of $ 58 million to replace most of the then seventy @-@ seven @-@ year @-@ old Type H trams on the Glenelg line . Bombardier won the supply tender against one other bidder , receiving an initial order for nine trams in September 2004 . , another two Flexity trams were ordered for use on the Victoria Square to City West extension , opened in October 2007 . Several of the earlier Flexity cars were unloaded at Outer Harbor in Adelaide while the later deliveries were shipped to Melbourne and offloaded there before being road hauled to Adelaide . Flexity 111 was noted running evaluation trips around parts of the Melbourne tram network before delivery to Adelaide . Station platforms were lowered to match the new trams lower floors , and some of the track and sleepers replaced to provide a smoother ride . There have been problems with the tram 's airconditioning systems , during Adelaide 's very hot summer weather , but these were rectified with engineering changes to the trams .
Classification terminologies have been varied . The trams are generally referred to as Flexities or Flexity type by TransAdelaide , although they are also referred to as Type 100 ( from their fleet numbers ) or the Type I , following on from the MTT classification system . Other classifications deriving from designations in use on other systems with Flexity Classic trams , including S Class ( VGF , Frankfurt ) , M06 ( Norrköping ) and NGT8 ( Dortmund ) , have also been used .
By 2008 the state government was considering lengthening the trams , instead of purchasing more , to accommodate increasing passenger numbers . In September 2008 , an order was placed with Bombardier for an additional 4 Flexity Classic trams to be used on the City West to Adelaide Entertainment Centre section . These have been numbered 112 – 115 . Despite being a fairly new tram , already there have been a couple of variations , most notably the constantly changing ' all @-@ over advertising ' that changes the appearance of the tram quite considerably . Vehicle 102 has also had traditional leather hand holds installed instead of rubber hand holds which are fitted to the rest of the fleet .
= = = = Citadis 302 / Type 200 = = = =
The newest trams in Adelaide are six Alstom Citadis model 302 trams which were purchased second hand from the Spanish city of Madrid . Compared to the Flexity Classic trams already in service , they have a higher ' crush loading ' ( 186 compared with 115 ) but 10 fewer seats . They are also 2 metres longer and are formed of five articulated sections rather than three .
Originally built as part of an order for seventy Alstom Citadis trams by Spanish operator MetroLigero for service in Madrid , six Citadis trams were acquired by TransAdelaide for service on the Glenelg line as well as to provide services for the new line to the Adelaide Entertainment Centre . Although originally planned to be used on the Madrid network , a subsequent scaling down of plans there resulted in a number of Citadis trams being placed into storage upon arrival in Madrid and never turned a wheel in service . The six trams bought by TransAdelaide came out of this stock . Five of the purchased trams had never run in Madrid and one ( MetroLigero 169 ) saw just a couple of weeks service as a demonstration tram in Stockholm ( demonstrated by the Manufacturer Alstom ) . The six trams purchased were modified at the Preston Tramway Workshops in Melbourne before arriving in Adelaide . They were renumbered from MetroLigero numbers 165 – 170 to the TransAdelaide 200 series with vehicle numbers 201 – 206 .
= = Trolleybuses = =
During the Great Depression the MTT needed to expand services but finances prevented laying new tracks . A decision was made to trial trolleybuses , and a converted petrol bus began running experimentally on the Payneham and Paradise lines in 1932 . A permanent trolleybus system opened in 1937 , and trolleybuses continued running until July 1963 .
= = Decline of the network = =
From 1915 onwards the MTT had to compete against unregulated private buses , often preceding the trams on the same route to steal fares , which the MTT countered by opening their own motor bus routes from 1925 . The South Australian government began regulating buses within the state in 1927 , although some private operators used a provision in the Australian constitution to their advantage . By notionally marking each ticket as a fare from the pickup point to Murrayville , Victoria ( but allowing passengers to board or alight sooner ) companies avoided having to abide by the regulation for some time . Up until the end of World War I , most Adelaideans were dependent on public transport for daily journeys . The introduction of private automobiles decreased passenger numbers until petrol rationing during World War II led to a resurgence in patronage ; patronage remained higher than before the war , until rationing was discontinued in 1951 .
From the start of the great depression until the closure of the network only one lot of trams was purchased by the MTT . Due to shortages there was minimal maintenance of the network during World War II and post @-@ war shortages prevented the purchase of new trams . In 1951 – 1952 the MTT lost £ 313 @,@ 320 and made the decision to convert the Erindale , Burnside and Linden park lines to electric trolleybuses . The last trams on these lines ran on 24 May 1952 with the lines lifted from 18 April 1953 . A 1953 royal commission was held to inquire into the financial affairs of the MTT resulting in a completely reconstituted board . Late the same year , with driver safety concerns about the conflict with increasing traffic on the road , the Glen Osmond line was temporarily converted to motor buses . The line was never converted back to trams and much comment was made about the continuing maintenance of unused overhead lines .
Trolley buses gradually made way for motor buses until the last electric tram or bus service ran on 12 July 1963 leaving only the Glenelg tramline as a remnant of a once extensive light rail network . Except for the Glenelg Type H , the trams were sold or scrapped . Some were used as shacks , playrooms or preserved by museums .
= = = Remaining line = = =
The Glenelg line , part of the integrated Adelaide Metro public transport network , is a 11 @.@ 9 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 4 mi ) route from the centre of Adelaide to the beachside suburb of Glenelg . Recently extended at its northern end , it is currently Adelaide 's only remaining tramway . Trams run at approximately twenty @-@ minute intervals , . Until January 2006 , Type H cars provided all services on the Glenelg line . In 2005 , the entire Glenelg line was upgraded with new track and improved tram stops , then in 2006 , eleven , thirty metre long articulated low @-@ floor Flexity Classic Light Rail vehicles , built by Bombardier in Germany , have since replaced the Type H trams in regular day @-@ to @-@ day service , although five refurbished Type H trams have been retained and operate a restricted ' heritage service ' timetable on Saturdays , Sundays and Public Holidays . They have been fitted with safety measures similar to those of the new trams , including vigilance control and electro @-@ magnetic track brakes .
A 1 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) extension from Victoria Square , along King William St and North Tce opened to the public on 14 October 2007 . Further extensions were the subject of public debate . Tourism minister , Jane Lomax @-@ Smith , in 2007 , expressed support for the line to be extended to North Adelaide and Prospect although the Transport minister stated that this was not a practical option , with his preferred option the creation of a fare free city loop .
In the 2008 state budget , the government announced that it would extend the tram line further . The first extension , completed in early 2010 , was from the existing North Terrace terminus to the Adelaide Entertainment Centre in the inner north @-@ west suburb of Hindmarsh , with a park and ride service set up on Port Road . Following the expected electrification of the Outer Harbour and Grange rail lines , new tram @-@ trains are to run to West Lakes , Port Adelaide and Semaphore by 2018 .
Travel on certain sections of the Glenelg line without a ticket is permitted ; the two sections being the last two stops in Glenelg and the stops from South Terrace till the Entertainment centre . Travelling outside these zones without tickets will be fined by Police or Inspectors .
= = = Adelaide trams in museums = = =
= Battle of Marion =
The Battle of Marion ( December 17 – 18 , 1864 ) was a military engagement fought between units of the Union Army and the Confederate Army during the American Civil War near the town of Marion , Virginia . The battle was part of Union Maj. Gen. George Stoneman 's attack upon southwest Virginia , aimed at destroying Confederate industrial infrastructure near Saltville and Marion . Union Cavalry and Infantry regiments — some 4 @,@ 500 soldiers in total — left Tennessee on December 17 for southwestern Virginia .
Through two days of fighting , a Confederate force under the command of John C. Breckinridge — totalling 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 500 infantry and cavalry — was successful in holding defensive positions in and around the town of Marion . On the first day , successive Union attacks were defeated by a well @-@ coordinated Confederate defenses near a covered bridge outside of Marion . By the end of the second day , dwindling ammunition supplies forced Confederate forces to withdraw from the area . With casualties for both sides approaching 300 , Union forces proceeded to destroy the salt mines , lead works , and other beneficial Confederate infrastructure in Marion and Saltville .
= = Background = =
By 1864 , the American Civil War was slowly drawing to a close . With Abraham Lincoln re @-@ elected as President of the Union , and Gen. Ulysses Grant made commander of the Union Army , the possibility of a Confederate victory was steadily lessened . Along the Eastern Seaboard , Union forces pushed the Confederate forces of Gen. Robert E. Lee steadily back in successive Union victories at Wilderness and Spotsylvania . In the Appalachian mountains , Phillip Sheridan had defeated Confederate armies in the Shenandoah valley . As Union forces pushed southward , they destroyed significant portions of the Confederate agriculture base . As Union forces defeated Confederate armies in the northern reaches of the CSA , Gen. William T. Sherman began his march to the sea , which would eventually succeed in destroying 20 % of the agricultural production in Georgia .
As Union forces advanced south , the infrastructure near the town of Marion — located in Southwest Virginia on the Middle Fork of the Holston River , between Saltville and Wytheville — became a major objective of Union forces . Marion itself was politically divided , with citizens fighting for the Union and the Confederacy . Until the winter of 1864 , the town 's location in a mountainous region had protected it from major fighting . In November 1864 , George Stoneman — deputy commander of the Department of the Ohio and in charge of all Union cavalry units in eastern Tennessee — proposed an expedition into southwest Virginia to disrupt the production of supplies and facilities beneficial to the Confederacy . This gained the approval of Maj. Gen. John Schofield on December 6 , 1864 .
= = Troops = =
The Union forces consisted of about 4 @,@ 500 men from a variety of different units , including several units which had participated in smaller @-@ scale raids into Southwest Virginia earlier in the conflict . The Union army was under the command of Maj. Gen. George Stoneman , Brig. Gen. Alvan Gillem , and Brig. Gen. Stephen Burbridge . The majority of the forces that would have been stationed at Marion had been transferred to the Army of Northern Virginia . The heavily scaled @-@ down Confederate forces consisted of approximately 1 @,@ 500 men , under the overall command of Maj. Gen. John C. Breckinridge and Brig. Gen. Basil Duke .
= = = Union Forces = = =
Stoneman used troops under Brig. Gens . Alvan Gillem and Stephen Burbridge , including the 5th and the 6th U.S. Colored Cavalry Regiments — both of which had participated in the previous attempt to destroy the salt works during the First Battle of Saltville . Stoneman ordered Burbridge to bring his division of 4 @,@ 200 cavalrymen through the Cumberland Gap to join Stoneman and Gillem at Knoxville , Tennessee , where Gillem was refitting his own command into a picked force of 1 @,@ 500 men . Stoneman did not reveal the objectives of the expedition to his subordinates until three days after they had departed Knoxville on December 10 . On December 12 , Stoneman 's force flanked and forced back Confederate Brig. Gen. Basil W. Duke 's cavalry at Rogersville , Tennessee . Union forces defeated and scattered Confederate troops the next day at Kingsport , Tennessee . There Gillem captured 84 prisoners , including Col. Richard C. Morgan and the brigade 's supply train .
On December 14 , the Union regiments began to push Duke 's cavalry back toward Abingdon , Virginia . The next day , Stoneman and his cavalry went into camp at Glade Spring , Virginia , which was approximately 13 miles ( 21 km ) west of Marion . On December 16 , Stoneman 's cavalry advanced towards Marion , destroying infrastructure and public buildings in their path .
= = = Confederate Forces = = =
The Confederate forces were under command of Maj. Gen. John C. Breckinridge — former Vice @-@ President of the United States , and also candidate for U.S. President in 1860 — the commander of the Department of Southwest Virginia . His command consisted of approximately 1 @,@ 000 regular troops with another 500 militia in reserve . Most of the companies had been transferred to the Army of Northern Virginia to help in the defense of Richmond . Breckinridge 's forces consisted of Colonel Henry Giltner 's brigade — formed from the soldiers of the 4th Kentucky Cavalry and the 10th Kentucky Cavalry Battalions — the 11th Kentucky Mounted Rifles — later renamed the 13th Kentucky Cavalry Battalion — and the 64th Virginia Mounted Infantry . It also included Basil Duke 's cavalry , Brig. Gen. George Cosby 's cavalry , and Col. Vincent Witcher 's 34th Battalion of Virginia Cavalry .
On the night of December 18 , Breckinridge and his troops moved out of Saltville , Virginia , in an effort to stem Stoneman 's advance . Taking the regular troops with him , Breckinridge left Col. Robert Preston in charge of the 500 militia men to defend the salt works . Breckinridge sent Witcher and his men of the 34th on ahead of the main force and ordered them to harass the Union forces . At about 3 a.m. , Breckinridge and his small company began to cross Walkers Mountain . In the last few days before the march , 4 inches ( 10 cm ) of rain had fallen , leaving the roads muddy and travel difficult . By about 4 a.m. , they reached the main road near Seven Mile Ford , Virginia where Breckinridge halted to wait for daylight before continuing .
= = Battle = =
= = = Advance = = =
Around noon of December 17 , 1864 , Breckinridge 's men mounted their horses and rode towards Marion . Meanwhile , Stoneman sent some of his Tennessee regiments to Wytheville to destroy anything that looked valuable . Stoneman also sent two regiments of cavalry to destroy the lead mines and smelting facilities that were located about 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Wytheville .
Stoneman and Burbridge continued on toward Marion where they encountered Witcher and his men . Burbridge 's front regiment easily pushed back Witcher 's small regiment , who stopped just so they could fire a volley into the Union cavalry . They then continued to retreat toward Marion . Witcher sent a courier to inform Breckinridge that they were coming to join them at Marion .
= = = First day = = =
Breckinridge 's front regiment was the 10th Kentucky Mounted Rifles , under the command of Col. Benjamin Caudill . Caudill 's men dismounted and fired into the Union cavalry , inflicting minor casualties . As the rest of Breckinridge 's troops began to arrive on the scene , Stoneman 's soldiers secured elevated positions overlooking the river . Breckinridge observed that these hills were the best defensive positions in the area , ordering his front regiments to eliminate Union resistance on the hills . The rest of Giltner 's Brigade also joined in the charge , routing the Union soldiers and allowing the Confederate forces to use the defensive positions themselves .
Upon losing the heightened positions , Burbridge ordered his own forces to counterattack the Confederate positions . When the Union regiments advanced on the hills , Confederate infantry and cavalry inflicted heavy casualties , slowing Burbridge 's progress . As Union forces continued to attack the hill , Maj. Richard Page — commander of the Confederate artillery squadrons at Marion — fired his battery of 10 @-@ pounder Parrott rifles , in an attempt to slow the Union charge . Taking heavy casualties , and facing heavy fire from all sides , Burbridge 's front regiments withdrew .
The Union officers , refusing to withdraw , reorganized their regiments and resumed the attack . As with the previous charge , the Confederate line held , repelling what remained of the Union regiments . After repelling a final charge , Confederate forces had succeeded in holding their elevated positions throughout the first day of combat . Throughout the night , Breckinridge ordered his forces to move forward and construct new barricades to receive the next day 's attacks . These new positions placed the opposing armies within 150 yards ( 140 m ) of one another . In the lull between the fighting , elements of the Union forces were ordered to take up positions at a covered bridge on the river . With 75 men advancing to positions near the bridge , both sides prepared to resume combat the following day .
= = = Second day = = =
At dawn , Union forces positioned at the covered bridge opened fire , harassing the Confederate forward positions . As the morning 's fog lifted , Brubridge 's regiments attacked . Columns of Union soldiers moved across the fields , subjected to heavy defensive fire from Breckinridge 's Confederate forces . As the day progressed , a combination of Union regiments succeeded in pushing back the 4th Kentucky Infantry Regiment . Confederate counterattacks , however , succeeded in recapturing the breastwork positions .
As the counterattack progressed , Union forces at the covered bridge took increasing pressure from the 4th Kentucky Regiment . Realizing that the location was unprotected , the remaining Union forces attempted to withdraw to the starting lines . Confederate forces — now stationed near the covered bridge — exacted heavy casualties on retreating forces . The few Union soldiers who remained at the bridge — now caught between multiple Confederate regiments — refrained from attacking . When Union forces attempted to break through to the bridge , Confederate forces inflicted further casualties , forcing the attack to withdraw .
On the far right , Duke was pressed hard by columns of attacking Union soldiers . Seeing this , Col. Giltner sent his regiment to reinforce Duke . Before Giltner 's reinforcements arrived , Duke and his men counterattacked the Union line — routing it and forcing a withdrawal . Duke and Witcher then combined forces and charged the Union 's extreme left flank , inflicting significant damage on a Union colored regiment .
Having taken heavy casualties and losing strategic superiority , Burbridge and his men conducted a disorganized withdrawal . The Confederates had succeeded in holding the rail breastworks , yet had expended most of their ammunition in doing so . Each Confederate infantryman had fired at least seventy @-@ five rounds , with some firing significantly more . The Union commanders then ordered another charge with a cavalry regiment that reinforced the Union infantry . The unexpected fighting capabilities of the small Confederate force had temporarily created a reprieve for the salt works .
= = Aftermath and significance = =
Breckinridge ordered his field officers to inspect the troops and to report back with the condition of his troops . The number of men wounded and killed had depleted his troops to a point that he judged that he could no longer hold back the Union forces at his front lines . Ammunition in the camp was also dwindling ; each man had no more than ten cartridges apiece . With their supplies destroyed by Stoneman 's troops at the towns of Wytheville and Abingdon , there was little hope of being resupplied or reinforced in the near future .
Although the vastly outnumbered Confederates had inflicted casualties and slowed the Union advance on Saltville , they were incapable of halting it . Finding their own path to Saltville 's defenses blocked , Breckinridge and his men retreated further south , while a Union company advanced . Saltville fell to a night attack on December 20 – 21 and the salt works were destroyed by the Union forces .
Salt had always been in short supply in Virginia and after the destruction of the salt @-@ mines became " practically nonexistent " , giving Lee 's sutlers " no means of preserving what little meat they could lay hands on ... for the hungry men in the trenches outside Petersburg and Richmond " . Additionally , damage to the lead mines near Wytheville would keep them from contributing fully to the war effort for three months . Many wells and water sources were also fouled , leading to the disruption of water supplies . Many of the railroad locomotives , cars , depots , and bridges in the vicinity were destroyed beyond repair during Stoneman 's campaign . In a memoir , Stoneman wrote that his troops captured 34 officers and 845 enlisted men during the attack into Marion , Virginia .
= Aquaria ( video game ) =
Aquaria is a 2D sidescrolling action @-@ adventure computer game designed by Alec Holowka and Derek Yu , who together form the independent game company Bit Blot , which developed and originally published the game . After more than two years of development , the game was released in 2007 for Windows . A Macintosh port was released in 2008 by Ambrosia Software , and an updated version of the game was released on Steam that same year . A Linux version of the game was released as part of the Humble Indie Bundle collection in 2010 , and a version for the iPad was released on November 2 , 2011 . More recently , an Android port of the game was released as part of the Humble Bundle with Android 6 collection in June 2013 . In 2009 , the Aquaria soundtrack album was made available for sale . It includes all of the music in the game as well as a new nine @-@ minute vocal track and a few remixes .
The game follows Naija , a mermaid @-@ like woman , as she explores the underwater world of Aquaria . Along her journey , she learns about both the history of the world and her own past . The gameplay focuses on a combination of swimming , singing and combat , through which Naija can interact with the world . Naija 's songs can move items , affect plants and animals , and change her physical appearance into other forms . These forms have different abilities , such as firing projectiles at hostile creatures or passing through barriers inaccessible to her in her natural form .
Reviews of the game were generally positive . Critics focused primarily on the visuals , music and atmosphere as particularly praiseworthy . Additional positive comments were made about the controls and gameplay , while critiques centered on the map system and a limited variety of objectives . The game won the Seumas McNally Grand Prize from the Independent Games Festival in March 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
Aquaria is a 2D sidescrolling action @-@ adventure game , heavily focused on exploration and puzzle @-@ solving , with non @-@ linear gameplay . The player controls Naija , a lone underwater dweller ; although similar to a human woman , Naija also has several fish @-@ like qualities , such as the ability to breathe underwater and propel herself quickly with webbed feet . The game , originally only available for personal computers , was designed to be primarily controlled solely through the mouse , though it can also be controlled with a keyboard or Xbox 360 controller . The player directs Naija through an underwater world composed of several distinct regions , ranging from caves to underwater ruins to sunlit oases . These areas are filled with plant and animal life , which can be hostile , friendly , or neutral towards her . Hostile plants and animals can hurt Naija , reducing her health meter , by touching her or firing projectiles at her .
In general , Naija cannot interact directly with objects in the world . Instead , the majority of actions are accomplished through singing short tunes . The player does this by selecting a series of notes displayed in a circle of eight choices in the correct order . Each note corresponds with a different color . Singing notes affects plants and objects of the same color as the note , while singing the tunes , once learned through the plot , can lift objects , create a shield around Naija , or change Naija into different " forms " which have different appearances and unique abilities critical to overcoming the various challenges and obstacles found in the game . The specific tones that are played when the player selects a note can subtly change in different regions , matching the background music . The default form , or " normal form " , is the only one in which Naija can sing , and is the only one where her appearance is modifiable by the player by having Naija wear costumes found throughout the game .
Other forms , which can only be used once found in @-@ game , are the " energy form " , in which Naija can shoot projectiles to attack enemy creatures , " beast form " , which allows Naija to swim faster through the water and eat small fish to restore health , and " nature form " , in which Naija can shoot seeds that produce flowers and spiky plants that can harm other creatures . In this form , Naija is not harmed by thorns on any plants . The player can also learn the " sun form " , which allows Naija to give off light in dark regions , " spirit form " , which allows the player to move to specific locations marked by blue crystals without time passing , " fish form " , where Naija turns into a small , fast fish , and " dual form " , found at the end of the game , which allows Naija and another character named Li who is met late in the game 's plot to merge , with actions taken by one affecting the other .
While exploring the world , Naija can collect various ingredients from interaction with plants and animals , mainly by combating her foes . These ingredients can be used to cook dishes , which have varying effects on Naija . The most common effects are healing and enhancing various characteristics such as speed and defense , but there are some more exotic dishes which grant her new abilities . The player can learn new recipes by collecting new dishes directly , but can also learn them by combining ingredients without first knowing the recipe .
= = Plot = =
As the game opens , Naija has lost almost all of her memories , and is unaware of the world outside of her home as she " lives as a simple creature " . The player is told this in voice @-@ over narrations in the form of a story told by a future Naija . These narrations serve as the primary source of information about Naija throughout the game , though there are occasional cutscenes . After being confronted by a shadowy figure and being shown a series of flashbacks she does not understand , Naija awakens . Feeling loneliness as the only member of her species , Naija decides to explore the world around her . As the player explores , Naija discovers more and more about the history of the world , " Aquaria " , and about her own past . The player is not forced to go through the plotline in a set sequence . The only limiting factor is physical barriers such as areas that can only be accessed by using a specific form . Combinations of these physical limitations place some plot elements later in the game . The narrative for the majority of the game is centered on Naija 's exploration of a series of ruined civilizations that she finds , each with a large monster in them . These civilizations make up the different regions of the game .
Towards the end of the game , Naija discovers that all of the ruined civilizations she has found throughout the game were destroyed by a god , " the Creator " , who was jealous of the rising power of that civilization or of their gods . The powerful monsters she has found and defeated in each region were once the gods of that civilization . Each of these civilizations had a unique power , symbolized by the form that Naija learns after defeating their former gods . Along with Li , a human diver from the land she meets at the top of the ocean , Naija then descends to the bottom of the sea to confront the god . There she discovers that the Creator fell into the ocean as a child , and bonded with an ancient spirit to gain god @-@ like powers . He then created Aquaria , threading a verse of a lullaby his mother had sung to him throughout , the only part of the song he remembers . The melody of this song , the " verse " , is what allows Naija to sing songs that affect the world around her ; parts of the melody can be heard in different forms in the songs within the game 's soundtrack .
The Creator , after creating Aquaria , created a series of civilizations , making a new one in turn when each one was destroyed . The Creator kidnaps Li , with whom Naija has fallen in love , and she attacks the Creator to get him back . The player defeats the god as the final boss of the game , and returns home with Li . In the epilogue , Naija is shown with Li and their child . If the player has found all of Naija 's memories by discovering places she remembers , they reveal that the shadowy figure at the beginning of the game was her mother , Mia . Mia was made by the Creator and had the ability , like Naija , to use the different powers of all of the civilizations . She fled the Creator , and hid herself and Naija among several communities in succession ; after the destruction of the last one she erased Naija 's memory so that she would find out the history of Aquaria on her own and defeat the Creator . In the extended epilogue shown if the player has found all of the memories , Mia appears , telling Naija that the two of them can conquer the civilisations above the water . After Naija refuses , Mia kidnaps her , and vanishes ; the extended epilogue ends with Lucien , Naija and Li 's son , leaving to find her . If the player has not found all of the memories , the epilogue instead ends with Naija asking the player to find out about her past , and revealing that the narration of the game was intended to be heard by her son .
= = Development = =
Aquaria was developed by Derek Yu and Alec Holowka over the course of two years , off of a concept that Holowka had thought of a year prior . Yu was the lead artist , and Holowka handled the programming and audio components . Both designers had previously worked in video games ; Yu had made several freeware games , including I 'm O.K with Holowka and others , while Holowka had worked for several video game start @-@ ups , none of which had ever gotten a game published . Some additional work on the game , including some level design and scripting for some enemies , was done by Brandon McCartin . Holowka and Yu officially formed the studio Bit Blot to back the game a week before submitting it to the 2007 Independent Games Festival . The name of the studio is intended to represent a fusion of art and technology . Aquaria is the studio 's only game . Both members of the team continue to make video games , but are not doing so as a partnership ; Holowka went on to form a separate team called Infinite Ammo , and Yu went back to working on freeware games and various ports of Spelunky .
The initial prototype of the game had styling similar to a text @-@ based role @-@ playing game , with a large open world and many sub @-@ quests . After moving towards " multiple @-@ choice text answers " and a complicated gameplay system , the team decided to simplify the game and set the 2007 Independent Games Festival as a deadline to complete everything . With this time pressure , they forced themselves to cut out a lot of what they felt was unneeded complexity , bringing the game to its core . After removing many of what they decided were extraneous elements they then added back in the cooking system , which they felt fit well with the rest of the game , as well as a map system . They then developed the game world and story in a roughly linear manner , creating basic designs of each region and then coming back to fill in details . They felt that this allowed them to create interesting ideas at the beginning of the game and then fill them out and resolve them at the end . One of these ideas was that of the " verse " ; Holowka realized partway through development that he had been using the same twelve @-@ note sequence transposed into different keys throughout the music , and realized that the idea of a pervasive musical theme to the world fit with the story . The game also includes a level and animation editor ; several mods have been made for the game .
The game was developed to be able to be controlled by the player with only the mouse , after it was suggested by Yu 's father . The developers felt that this control scheme forced them to make the gameplay fluid and easy to grasp , though they also added the option to control the game with a keyboard or Xbox 360 controller . Yu and Holowka considered the " hallmark " of exploratory games to be a sense of loneliness , which they made a part of the narrative , but also wanted the player to get a sense of Naija 's character . To that end , they used voice @-@ overs to demonstrate to the player what Naija was feeling during key points of the game . The voice of Naija was performed by Jenna Sharpe , who was chosen after auditioning several other voice actresses . She additionally sang the vocals for one song on the soundtrack , " Lost to the Waves " . She also sang a nine @-@ minute vocal piece , " Fear the Dark " , especially for the release of the Aquaria soundtrack album , which was published by Bit Blot on November 14 , 2009 . The album features 50 tracks on two discs , including all of the music in the game as well as the new vocal track and a few remixes .
The game was released for Windows computers on December 7 , 2007 . A patch was later released which added new functionality to the in @-@ game map , added widescreen support , and tweaked several game settings . A Macintosh port was released November 12 , 2008 , courtesy of Ambrosia Software . The game was released on Steam on December 15 , 2008 ; it included the addition of 27 Steam Achievements . A Linux version of the game was developed by Ryan C. Gordon in 2009 ; an open beta ran until February 6 , 2010 , and the Linux version of the game was released as part of the Humble Indie Bundle . The source code for the game 's engine was released under the GNU General Public License on June 3 , 2010 . A modified version was released on the iPad on November 2 , 2011 . This version , which includes touchscreen support and changes to the way the map works , was created by Andrew Church , who was approached to do the port by Holowka after he did an unofficial PlayStation Portable source port .
= = Reception = =
Aquaria was the Seumas McNally Grand Prize winner of the 2007 Independent Games Festival , and was also a finalist in the categories of Design Innovation , Excellence in Visual Art , and Excellence in Audio . The festival praised the game 's " fluid controls , unique , non @-@ linear gameplay , and vibrant hand @-@ drawn storybook @-@ style graphics " . The game received praise from many different reviewers ; Cam Shea of IGN called it " a stunning effort from such a small team " , Richard Naik of GameCritics called it " an extremely high @-@ quality product " and a fine example of the side @-@ scroller genre , while Chris Dahlen of The A.V. Club termed it " not so much a retro adventure as a fresh take on everything that made the old 2D adventures great " . Praise for the game was centered primarily on its visuals and atmosphere . Hyper 's Tim Henderson commended the game for " a rare and genuine sense of exploration , wonder and discovery " . A review by Scott Colbourne from The Globe and Mail termed Aquaria " drop @-@ dead beautiful " with a " deep and affecting story " and summarized it as " a game you can get comfortably lost in " .
Other reviewers , such as Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer and Chris Holt of Macworld echoed the praises for the graphics and atmosphere , while Craig Pearson of PC Gamer UK added praises for the music and voiceovers and Suzie Ochs of MacLife praised the music and story . Other praises for the game came for its control scheme and for the gameplay mechanics , with Holt calling out the cooking system as worthy of praise . Though noting that the visuals and presentation of the game would be the first thing that players noticed , Nathan Cocks of PC PowerPlay claimed that " from a design standpoint , Aquaria is a triumph , " with the right amount of complexity and level design that is " spot on " .
Several reviewers , such as Bramwell and Holt , criticized the map system present in the initial version of the game as being confusing and difficult . Other reviewers had different concerns , such as Henderson , who critiqued the initial release version for " lack of widescreen support and being occasionally fiddly " , or Naik , who felt that the control scheme was not as intuitive when using an Xbox 360 controller . Shea and Pearson felt that the game could have used more puzzles or a wider variety of quests and objectives to balance out the exploration and combat . They did not feel , though , that these downsides compared to the game 's positives , with Pearson stating that " the good far outweighs what are , essentially , niggles . "
= IWGP Heavyweight Championship ( IGF ) =
The IWGP Heavyweight Championship was a professional wrestling heavyweight championship owned by the Inoki Genome Federation ( IGF ) promotion . The title shares its name with New Japan Pro Wrestling 's ( NJPW ) IWGP Heavyweight Championship , from which it split due to a decision made by IGF and NJPW founder Antonio Inoki . " IWGP " is the abbreviation of NJPW 's fictional governing body , the International Wrestling Grand Prix .
During the title 's history , IGF recognized it as the official IWGP Heavyweight Championship , continuing the history of the title after an error made by NJPW in Inoki 's eyes . NJPW recognized the title as the IWGP 3rd Belt Championship , a championship that was merely represented by a previous version of the IWGP Heavyweight Championship 's title belt . The title was briefly used in the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , which recognized it as the IWGP Heavyweight Championship .
As a professional wrestling championship , the title was won via a scripted ending to a match or awarded to a wrestler because of a storyline . The inaugural champion was Brock Lesnar , who was the reigning IWGP Heavyweight Champion before being stripped of the title due to issues with NJPW . IGF recognized him as the official IWGP Heavyweight Champion afterwards . All title changes occurred at IGF or NJPW @-@ promoted events . There were a total of three reigns among three wrestlers during the title 's brief history before being unified with the IWGP Heavyweight Championship .
= = History = =
On October 8 , 2005 , at New Japan Pro Wrestling 's ( NJPW ) Toukon Souzou New Chapter event in Tokyo , Japan , Brock Lesnar defeated Kazuyuki Fujita and Masahiro Chono in a Three Way match for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship . He held the title for 280 days , having three successful defenses , until he failed to show up for a scheduled title defense . NJPW thus stripped Lesnar of the championship on July 15 , 2006 . Lesnar cited visa issues along with NJPW owing him compensation for his reasons at failing to appear at the planned title defense . After this series of events , NJPW founder Antonio Inoki left NJPW and created a new promotion , the Inoki Genome Federation ( IGF ) . Inoki then recognized Lesnar as the IWGP Heavyweight Champion due to Lesnar never having lost the championship in a match and Lesnar still maintaining physical possession of the title belt . NJPW recognized Lesnar as the IWGP 3rd Belt Champion and not the IWGP Heavyweight Champion , maintaining their stance on having stripped him of the title in 2006 .
On June 29 , 2007 , IGF held its debut show with Lesnar defending the IWGP Heavyweight Championship against Kurt Angle in the main event . Angle defeated Lesnar to win the championship at the show with Angle going on to appear in the American Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion with the physical title belt . TNA also referred to the title belt as the IWGP Heavyweight Championship in the same manner as the IGF , recognizing Angle as the official IWGP Heavyweight Champion . NJPW did not recognize Angle as the IWGP Heavyweight Champion , instead it viewed Angle as the second IWGP 3rd Belt Champion .
Angle went on to have two successful defenses as champion . His first defense came in TNA in a feud against Samoa Joe . Angle first appeared with the title belt in TNA on the July 5 , 2007 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! . The title belt became relevant to the storyline rivalry between Joe and Angle heading into TNA 's Hard Justice pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event . Leading up to TNA 's Victory Road PPV event on July 15 , 2007 , TNA X Division Champion Joe and TNA World Heavyweight Champion Angle teamed together to face TNA World Tag Team Champions Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) in a Tag Team match with the stipulation being whoever scored the pinfall or submission for their team won the championship of the person pinned or made to submit . Joe pinned Brother Ray in the bout , thus winning the World Tag Team Championship for himself and a partner of his choosing . Joe chose to hold the title alone and challenged Angle to a Winner Take All match at Hard Justice for the TNA World Heavyweight , TNA X Division , TNA World Tag Team , and the IWGP Heavyweight Championships on the July 19 2007 , episode of Impact ! . Angle accepted the match , with Joe and Angle facing at Hard Justice on August 12 , 2007 in Orlando , Florida for all of the titles . Angle defeated Joe at the event to win the TNA World Tag Team and TNA X Division Championships , while retaining the TNA World Heavyweight and IWGP Heavyweight Championships . Afterwards , TNA slowly faded out using the IWGP Heavyweight Championship with Angle going on to defend the title at IGF and NJPW promoted shows , with the title being referred to as both the IWGP Heavyweight Championship and the IWGP 3rd Belt Championship .
Angle 's second defense of the title was at NJPW 's Wrestle Kingdom II in Tokyo Dome event on January 4 , 2008 where he defeated former NJPW recognized IWGP Heavyweight Champion Yuji Nagata to retain the IWGP 3rd Belt Championship . Angle 's last defense was against then NJPW recognized IWGP Heavyweight Champion Shinsuke Nakamura in a unification match on February 17 , 2008 at NJPW 's Circuit 2008 New Japan ISM event where the winner would be the unified IWGP Heavyweight Champion . Angle lost the match , thus ending the existence of the IGF recognized IWGP Heavyweight Championship . IGF later introduced another title five years later with the IGF Championship on December 31 , 2013 .
= = Belt designs = =
The title design featured a black leather base with five gold plates spaced evenly apart , with the center plate being the largest . On the center plate the words " IWGP Heavyweight Champion " were featured alongside the caricature of an eagle or similar bird of prey .
= = Reigns = =
The inaugural champion was Brock Lesnar , as recognized by IGF as the official IWGP Heavyweight Champion . There were a total of three reigns among three wrestlers during the title 's brief history before being unified with the IWGP Heavyweight Championship .
= = = Title statistics = = =
= Reasonable Doubt ( album ) =
Reasonable Doubt is the debut studio album by American rapper Jay @-@ Z. It was released on June 25 , 1996 , by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records and Priority Records . The album features production provided by DJ Premier , Ski , Knobody and Clark Kent , and also it includes guest appearances from Memphis Bleek , Mary J. Blige and The Notorious B.I.G. , among others . The album features Mafioso rap themes and gritty lyrics about the " hustler " lifestyle and material obsessions .
Reasonable Doubt debuted at number 23 on the US Billboard 200 , on which it charted for 18 weeks . It was promoted with four singles ; including " Ain 't No Nigga " and " Can 't Knock the Hustle " . Reasonable Doubt was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and , as of 2006 , has sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States . A critical success , it has been ranked on several publications ' lists of the greatest rap albums ever , while many hip hop fans have viewed it as Jay @-@ Z 's best work .
= = Background = =
In 1989 , aspiring rapper Jay @-@ Z was recruited by mentor Jaz @-@ O to appear on his song " Hawaiian Sophie " . He appeared on two more Jaz @-@ O songs in the next year , but after Jaz @-@ O was dropped from his record label , Jay @-@ Z dealt drugs to support himself . He continued to pursue a rap career and appeared on two songs from Original Flavor 's 1993 album Beyond Flavor . Jay @-@ Z then caught Big Daddy Kane 's attention and toured with him ; they collaborated on Kane 's 1994 posse cut " Show & Prove " along with Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's Ol ' Dirty Bastard , Wu @-@ Tang affiliate Shyheim , Sauce Money , and Scoob Lover .
Despite the exposure he received from Kane , Jay @-@ Z was still without a record deal . He began selling tapes from his car with help from friend Damon Dash . The success of his street @-@ level marketing led to a deal with Payday Records , which released his first solo single , " In My Lifetime " and its B @-@ side " I Can 't Get wid Dat " . In an unconventional move , Jay @-@ Z then spurned the record contract he had long sought and left Payday Records to form his own label , Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records , with Damon Dash and Kareem " Biggs " Burke . Jay @-@ Z later explained that he thought he could do a better job of marketing his records on his own :
[ Payday ] eventually signed me to a deal , but were acting shady the whole time , like they didn 't know how to work a record or something , " says Jay . " The things that they were setting up for me I could have done myself . They had me traveling places to do instores , and my product wasn 't even available in the store . We shot one video , but when the time came for me to do the video for the second single , I had to be cut out . They gave me the money and I started my own company . There was a little arguing back and forth , but our conflict finally got resolved . The bottom line was they wasn 't doing their job , so I had to get out of there .
Jay @-@ Z rented a small , cheap office for Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records on John Street in one of the " dreariest parts of the busiest city in the world " . Jay @-@ Z and his compatriots thought of their low @-@ rent headquarters as a " starting point " that would eventually lead them to Manhattan . In 1995 and early 1996 , Jay @-@ Z appeared on records by Big L and Mic Geronimo , further raising his profile . At this point , he was still considered an " underground " rapper with a " new jack " style . Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella released Reasonable Doubt with Priority Records .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Reasonable Doubt was recorded at D & D Studios and mixed at Platinum Island , however , its beats were formed elsewhere . " Can 't Knock the Hustle " was produced by Knobody at his mother 's home in 1994 , while the vocals were recorded on tour at a studio in Tampa Florida named Progressive Music with Mary J Blige . Ski produced " Feelin ' It " and " Politics as Usual " while recording with Camp Lo . The recording sessions were often competitive ; Ski and Clark Kent created similar beats for " Politics as Usual " , but Ski submitted his to Jay @-@ Z first causing his to appear on the album . " Brooklyn 's Finest " was a competitive , though friendly battle between Jay @-@ Z and The Notorious B.I.G. in which Jay @-@ Z tried proving that he is of Biggie 's caliber , while Biggie tried brushing his rhymes off as insignificant . Although the rappers had already met on the set for the " Dead Presidents " music video , they discovered that neither wrote down their rhymes while recording . The recording of " Brooklyn 's Finest " spanned two months and moved from D & D Studios to Giant Studios where the Clark Kent @-@ sung chorus was recorded .
Reasonable Doubt has Mafioso rap themes . David Drake from Stylus Magazine said the lyrics were characterized by " gritty realism " . Dream Hampton believed that although rappers had alluded to hustling before , Jay @-@ Z " talks about what it can do to a person 's inner peace , and what it can do to their mind " . Jay @-@ Z later said , " the studio was like a psychiatrist 's couch for me " while recording Reasonable Doubt . AllMusic 's Steve Huey described him as " a street hustler from the projects who rapped about what he knew — and he was very , very good at it ... detailing his experiences on the streets with disarming honesty " . Huey summarizes the album 's subject matter saying :
He 's cocky bordering on arrogant , but playful and witty , and exudes an effortless , unaffected cool throughout . And even if he 's rapping about rising to the top instead of being there , his material obsessions are already apparent [ ... ] the album 's defining cut might [ ... ] be the brief " 22 Two 's , " which not only demonstrates Jay @-@ Z 's extraordinary talent as a pure freestyle rapper , but also preaches a subtle message through its club hostess : Bad behavior gets in the way of making money . Perhaps that 's why Jay @-@ Z waxes reflective , not enthusiastic , about the darker side of the streets .
AllMusic 's Jason Birchmeier writes that the album 's production exhibits characteristics of " the pre @-@ gangsta era , a foregone era when samples fueled the beats and turntablism supplied the hooks " , which " sets Reasonable Doubt apart from Jay @-@ Z 's later work " . " Can 't Knock the Hustle " features a smooth beat . " Politics as Usual " has an R & B sound and a sample of " Hurry Up This Way Again " by The Stylistics . " Dead Presidents " samples Nas ' voice from " The World Is Yours " in its chorus . According to IGN 's Spence D. , " Ski brings back the stripped down piano fill style lending the track a late night jazz vibe " on " Feelin ' It " , and " 22 Two 's " has a " mournful jazz inclined groove " that prominently features string instruments . " Coming of Age " contains a Clark Kent @-@ produced beat that samples the melody and drums from " Inside You " by Eddie Henderson .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Released on June 25 , 1996 , Reasonable Doubt peaked at number 23 on the Billboard 200 . It spent 18 weeks on the chart , and 55 weeks on the Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums , on which it reached number three . By the end of 1996 , it had sold 420 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . On February 7 , 2002 , Reasonable Doubt was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of one million copies in the US . It remains the lowest charting album of Jay @-@ Z 's career .
According to Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Schreiber , Reasonable Doubt has often been " considered one of hip @-@ hop 's landmark albums " . while Birchmeier said it was viewed like Nas ' Illmatic ( 1994 ) as a classic hip hop album by a young rapper about their street and criminal experiences . Reasonable Doubt helped transfigure gangsta rap into Mafioso rap , popularizing the subgenre and the imagery of high class , expensive lifestyles and tastes in hip hop , including drinking Cristal , driving Lexus automobiles , and living out the plots of films such as Scarface and Carlito 's Way . In the opinion of Miles Marshall Lewis , Reasonable Doubt was a " seminal " work that " shocked the world ... a personal touchstone for fans then Jay 's own age who were getting their own hustles on — hip hop 's young , gifted , and black " . Jay @-@ Z said that recreating Reasonable Doubt would be challenging , as he was living a different lifestyle with a completely different state of mind when he wrote the album .
Reasonable Doubt has often been considered by many fans to be Jay @-@ Z 's best record . He himself deemed it his best . According to Birchmeier , it differed from his subsequent albums by lacking " pop @-@ crossover " songs and hits . Shaheem Reid of MTV explained , " Reasonable Doubt might not have the radio hits or club bangers of many of his other albums , but it may be Jay at his most lyrical — and certainly at his most honest , according to him " . Huey said the lyrical appeal lied within Jay @-@ Z 's " effortless , unaffected cool " flow , " disarming honesty " , and knack for " writing some of the most acrobatic rhymes heard in quite some time " . According to Huey , this " helped Reasonable Doubt rank as one of the finest albums of New York 's hip @-@ hop renaissance of the ' 90s " . Birchmeier , on the other hand , believed the superior quality of producers was more responsible for the album 's reputation as a classic more so than Jay @-@ Z. In a retrospective review for MSN Music , Robert Christgau said the album was " designed for the hip @-@ hop cognoscenti and street aesthetes who still swear he never topped it , " finding it " richer than any outsider could have known , and benefiting from everything we 've since learned about the minor crack baron who put his money where his mouth was . You can hear him marshalling a discipline known to few rappers and many crack barons , and that asceticism undercuts the intrinsic delight of his rhymes " .
Reasonable Doubt was named one of the greatest hip hop albums of all time by The Source in 1998 , Vibe , who ranked it seventh on their 2002 list , MTV.com , who ranked it sixth on their 2005 list , and About.com 's Henry Adaso ; Adaso ranked it as the 14th greatest hip hop album , the second best rap record of 1996 , and the fifth most " essential " hip hop album ever . Blender included Reasonable Doubt on the magazine 's 2003 list of " 500 CDs You Must Own Before You Die " . That same year , Rolling Stone ranked it number 248 on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . The magazine also named it the 17th best album of the 1990s . It was included in Vibe 's " 51 Albums Representing a Generation , a Sound and a Movement " ( 2004 ) , and Hip Hop Connection 's " The 100 Greatest Rap Albums 1995 @-@ 2005 " .
In 2006 , Jay @-@ Z performed the songs from Reasonable Doubt at the Radio City Music Hall to celebrate its tenth anniversary . The concert 's band included The Roots ' drummer Questlove , the Illadelphonics , a 50 @-@ piece orchestra dubbed The Hustla 's Symphony and Just Blaze , the performance 's disc jockey . On " Can 't Knock the Hustle " , Beyoncé Knowles replaced Mary J. Blige , who was preparing for her Breakthrough Tour at the time . Jay @-@ Z rapped The Notorious B.I.G. ' s verses on " Brooklyn 's Finest " , and Jaz @-@ O 's verse was left out of " Bring It On " . Jay @-@ Z added a verse to " 22 Two 's " in which he says variations of the words " for / four " 44 times over the beat of " Can I Kick It ? " by A Tribe Called Quest . Other alterations include Jay @-@ Z changing a lyrical mention of Cristal to Dom Pérignon and Jay @-@ Z 's band " spruc [ ing ] up tracks like ' Regrets ' to add more energy " . Celebrities such as Alicia Keys , Young Jeezy , Jadakiss , Chris Tucker , LeBron James and Carmelo Anthony attended the concert . 3 @,@ 000 tickets were put on sale ; all were sold within two minutes according to Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records ' website .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" Can 't Knock the Hustle " contains additional vocals from Pain in Da Ass .
" Brooklyn 's Finest " contains additional vocals from Pain in Da Ass , and DJ Clark Kent .
" Feelin ' It " contains additional vocals from Mecca .
" 22 Two 's " contains dialogue from Mary Davis .
" Ain 't No Nigga " contains additional vocals from Khadijah Bass , and Big Jaz .
Sample credits
" Can 't Knock the Hustle " contains samples of " Much Too Much " by Marcus Miller , " I Know You Got Soul " by Eric B. & Rakim and interpolations of " Fool 's Paradise " by Meli 'sa Morgan , and dialogue from the film Scarface .
" Politics as Usual " contains a sample of " Hurry Up This Way Again " by The Stylistics .
" Brooklyn 's Finest " contains samples of " Ecstasy " by The Ohio Players , " Brooklyn Zoo " by Ol ' Dirty Bastard and interpolates dialogue from the film Carlito 's Way .
" Dead Presidents II " contains samples of " A Garden of Peace " by Lonnie Liston Smith , " The World Is Yours ( Tip Mix ) " by Nas . , and " Oh My God ( Remix ) " by A Tribe Called Quest .
" Feelin ' It " contains a sample of " Pastures " by Ahmad Jamal .
" D 'Evils " contains samples of " Go Back Home " by Allen Toussaint , " I Shot Ya ( Remix ) " by LL Cool J and " Murder Was the Case " by Snoop Dogg .
" 22 Two 's " contains an interpolation of " Can I Kick It ? " by A Tribe Called Quest .
" Can I Live " contains a sample of " The Look of Love " by Isaac Hayes .
" Ain 't No Nigga " contains a sample of " Seven Minutes of Funk " by The Whole Darn Family and an interpolation of " Ain 't No Woman ( Like the One I Got ) " by The Four Tops .
" Friend or Foe " contains a sample of " Hey What 's That You Say " by Brother to Brother .
" Coming of Age " contains a sample of " Inside You " by Eddie Henderson .
" Cashmere Thoughts " contains a sample of " Save Their Souls " by Bohannon .
" Bring It On " contains a sample of " 1 , 2 Pass It " by D & D All @-@ Stars .
" Regrets " contains a sample of " It 's So Easy Loving You " by Earl Klugh and Hubert Laws .
" Can I Live II " contains a sample of " Mother 's Day " by 24 Carat Black .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Os ( Fringe ) =
" Os " is the 16th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 59th episode overall . The episode centered on the Fringe team 's investigation into a series of robberies of the element osmium , which they connect to a scientist ( Alan Ruck ) who is able to defy the laws of physics .
" Os " was written by Josh Singer and Graham Roland , while Brad Anderson served as director . Along with Ruck , the episode also guest starred Jorge Garcia in a brief cameo as a security guard .
On its first broadcast in the United States on March 11 , 2011 , an estimated 3 @.@ 76 million viewers tuned in , giving it a 1 @.@ 5 / 5 ratings share for those between the ages 18 – 49 . Critical reception to the episode was generally positive , as multiple critics noted that Ruck was well @-@ cast as a scientist just trying to help his son .
= = Plot = =
The Fringe team is called to the scene of a robbery of a metal depository ; the body of one of the thieves , shot by a security guard , inexplicably floats off the ground , while a second culprit has gotten away . They find that the thief has taken off with a supply of osmium , one of the densest elements , and an autopsy later reveals that the dead thief 's body is filled with the metal . Tracking a security card on the body , they enter a warehouse where they find the second culprit , dead , along with the bodies of several more people , all of them paraplegic . Walter ( John Noble ) notes that the physical properties of osmium ( both gravitational and thermal ) have been reversed , and by melting the osmium collected from the first victim using liquid nitrogen , they detect the presence of the rarer element lutetium , typically only present in meteorites .
Recognizing that the local science museum has a display of meteorites , the Fringe team is able to secure Dr. Crick ( Alan Ruck ) , the man behind the osmium injections , and another paraplegic who has taken Dr. Crick 's injections as they attempt to steal the display . With Dr. Crick in custody , Walter learns that the man had worked in aerospace to find an alloy for fighter craft . He happened upon the combination of the osmium @-@ lutetium alloy that generated a material lighter than air , and sought to refine a permanent solution to give his own paraplegic son the ability to walk , having promised the same to those that had died from earlier , lethal doses of the alloy .
Walter , who has lamented to Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) his need to have William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) back to make himself whole , realizes that the only reason the osmium @-@ lutetium alloy became lighter than air was due to his own transgression into the parallel universe that has started to break down the laws of reality . To reverse those effects , Walter intends to use the idea of " soul magnets " , microscopic devices that can be ingested by a person to call forth the soul of another . Walter believes Bell had arranged for someone in the prime universe to be his vessel , and rings the bell that Bell had bequeathed to Nina , believing it to be the instrument that will activate the soul magnets and call forth Bell .
Simultaneously , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) has decided to open up to Olivia ( Anna Torv ) and shows her the five data discs from the shapeshifters he killed after the doomsday device weaponized him . As he discusses it with her , Olivia hears the sound of the bell . She turns to face Peter , revealing herself to now be possessed by Bell .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by co @-@ executive producer Josh Singer and executive story editor Graham Roland , while former Fringe producer Brad Anderson directed it .
The return of the William Bell character to the series was inspired by Leonard Nimoy from earlier seasons . In his first appearance on Fringe in the first season finale , " There 's More Than One of Everything " , Nimoy requested that a bell be placed on his desk so that his character would be able to ring it as a play on the character 's name . When the writers considered how to bring Bell back for the third season , they recalled this mannerism , and wrote it into the larger mythos , being the means by which Bell 's mind emerged from Olivia 's at the end of this episode .
On March 3 , Entertainment Weekly reported that actor Jorge Garcia would be making a cameo appearance in an upcoming Fringe episode . Garcia , who previously starred as Hugo " Hurley " Reyes from J.J. Abrams ' Lost , appears as a Massive Dynamic guard that is smoking a bong with Walter at the start of the episode . Alan Ruck guests as Dr. Crick , the person behind the floating bodies . Ruck was approached by the show 's producers having envisioned him for the role . Ruck described the character , " He is no dummy ... and he stumbled on to something and he is trying to figure out a way to use it . Ultimately he would like to use it for good , but in so doing he causes a lot of damage . So I guess you can say he 's obsessed . And this particular point in time where the episode of Fringe starts , time is fleeting and he 's just ... under the gun . " On his character 's possible reappearance , Ruck commented , " I think not ... Technically yes [ he could come back ] , but probably not . "
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Os " , with the intention of having " students learn about meteorites and ways of finding them . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its first broadcast , " Os " maintained a 1 @.@ 5 / 5 rating share for adults between the ages of 18 and 49 as with several previous episodes , with an estimated 3 @.@ 76 million viewers . In the 18 – 49 demographic , Fringe was the second most watched show in its time slot , after CSI : NY . Time shifted viewing increased the episode 's ratings among adults by 53 percent to a 2 @.@ 3 ratings share . This was the largest increase in time shifting viewing for the week among network shows .
= = = Reviews = = =
Reviews of the episode were generally positive . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly praised guest actor Alan Ruck 's " sustained , understated " performance , and also called Olivia being revealed as Bell 's vessel " a clever development , " especially praising actress Anna Torv 's imitation of Nimoy 's voice rather than " doing the obvious thing and hav [ ing ] her lip @-@ synch Nimoy reading the lines . " A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff graded the episode with a B- , explaining that unlike Tucker , he thought the idea of " soul magnets " was " just so goofy that it 's almost too much for me to handle " . VanDerWerff also felt there wasn 't much of a connection between the episode and the ongoing storyline " until the show tries to force one in a way that doesn 't feel as elegant as the show usually makes this stuff feel " . He did however praise Ruck as " well @-@ cast , " and wrote the episode " very nearly managed " to parallel Walter 's " desperate measures to the desperate measures of other men also trying to save themselves or their children through science , " which the reviewer considers the strongest asset of the show .
Writing for the Los Angeles Times , critic Andrew Hanson referred to audiences ' Friday night plans away from television when he commented the episode was " better than any movie you 're going to see in the theater right now " . Hanson thought the mystery produced " surprises around every corner " . IGN 's Ramsey Isler rated the episode 8 @.@ 0 / 10 , explaining he enjoyed the " classic Fringe " opening scene , the " decent [ acting ] job " by Ruck , and John Noble 's performance ; he also thought the script was " very clever [ as ] it reveals surprising story elements with innovative tricks " . Isler wasn 't sure what to make of the Bell @-@ Olivia plot twist however , commenting that " this new William Bell thing is either going to end up as the best plot device of the season , or the cheesiest thing in recent sci @-@ fi history " .
Billy Grifter from Den of Geek was slightly disappointed with the " mad scientist " storyline as he felt it had been done before , but found several redeeming qualities : Alan Ruck 's performance and the last five minutes featuring Noble and Blair Brown , and Torv with Joshua Jackson . Grifter thought the Noble @-@ Brown scene was " actually very funny , " praising the two actors ' performances , and added that this humor made the following Torv @-@ Jackson scene 's impact " even greater " . Referring to Torv 's " passable " Nimoy impression , Grifter concluded that " the strength of Fringe is that it can take a rather light and fluffy premise , like the one in " Os " , and embellish it with wonderful character moments and a genuine surprise or two " .
= James Whitcomb Riley =
James Whitcomb Riley ( October 7 , 1849 – July 22 , 1916 ) was an American writer , poet , and best @-@ selling author . During his lifetime he was known as the " Hoosier Poet " and " Children 's Poet " for his dialect works and his children 's poetry respectively . His poems tended to be humorous or sentimental , and of the approximately one thousand poems that Riley authored , the majority are in dialect . His famous works include " Little Orphant Annie " and " The Raggedy Man " .
Riley began his career writing verses as a sign maker and submitting poetry to newspapers . Thanks in part to an endorsement from poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , he eventually earned successive jobs at Indiana newspaper publishers during the latter 1870s . Riley gradually rose in prominence during the 1880s through his poetry reading tours . He traveled a touring circuit first in the Midwest , and then nationally , holding shows and making joint appearances on stage with other famous talents . Regularly struggling with his alcohol addiction , Riley never married or had children , and created a scandal in 1888 when he became too drunk to perform . He became more popular in spite of the bad press he received , and as a result extricated himself from poorly negotiated contracts that limited his earnings ; he quickly became very wealthy .
Riley became a bestselling author in the 1890s . His children 's poems were compiled into a book and illustrated by Howard Chandler Christy . Titled the Rhymes of Childhood , the book was his most popular and sold millions of copies . As a poet , Riley achieved an uncommon level of fame during his own lifetime . He was honored with annual Riley Day celebrations around the United States and was regularly called on to perform readings at national civic events . He continued to write and hold occasional poetry readings until a stroke paralyzed his right arm in 1910 .
Riley 's chief legacy was his influence in fostering the creation of a midwestern cultural identity and his contributions to the Golden Age of Indiana Literature . Along with other writers of his era , he helped create a caricature of midwesterners and formed a literary community that produced works rivaling the established eastern literati . There are many memorials dedicated to Riley , including the James Whitcomb Riley Hospital for Children .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and background = = =
James Whitcomb Riley was born on October 7 , 1849 , in the town of Greenfield , Indiana , the third of the six children of Reuben Andrew and Elizabeth Marine Riley . Riley 's father was an attorney , and in the year before Riley 's birth , he was elected a member of the Indiana House of Representatives as a Democrat . He developed a friendship with James Whitcomb , the governor of Indiana , after whom he named his son . Martin Riley , Riley 's uncle , was an amateur poet who occasionally wrote verses for local newspapers . Riley was fond of his uncle who helped influence his early interest in poetry .
Shortly after Riley 's birth , the family moved into a larger house in town . Riley was " a quiet boy , not talkative , who would often go about with one eye shut as he observed and speculated . " His mother taught him to read and write at home before sending him to the local community school in 1852 . He found school difficult and was frequently in trouble . Often punished , he had nothing kind to say of his teachers in his writings . His poem " The Educator " told of an intelligent but sinister teacher and may have been based on one of his instructors . Riley was most fond of his last teacher , Lee O. Harris . Harris noticed Riley 's interest in poetry and reading and encouraged him to pursue it further .
Riley 's school attendance was sporadic , and he graduated from grade eight at age twenty in 1869 . In an 1892 newspaper article , Riley confessed that he knew little of mathematics , geography , or science , and his understanding of proper grammar was poor . Later critics , like Henry Beers , pointed to his poor education as the reason for his success in writing ; his prose was written in the language of common people which spurred his popularity .
= = = Childhood influences = = =
Riley lived in his parents ' home until he was twenty @-@ one years old . At five years old he began spending time at the Brandywine Creek just outside Greenfield . His poems " The Barefoot Boy " and " The Old Swimmin ' Hole " referred back to his time at the creek . He was introduced in his childhood to many people who later influenced his poetry . His father regularly brought home a variety of clients and disadvantaged people to give them assistance . Riley 's poem " The Raggedy Man " was based on a German tramp his father hired to work at the family home . Riley picked up the cadence and character of the dialect of central Indiana from travelers along the old National Road . Their speech greatly influenced the hundreds of poems he wrote in nineteenth century Hoosier dialect .
Riley 's mother frequently told him stories of fairies , trolls , and giants , and read him children 's poems . She was very superstitious , and influenced Riley with many of her beliefs . They both placed " spirit rappings " in their homes on places like tables and bureaus to capture any spirits that may have been wandering about . This influence is recognized in many of his works , including " Flying Islands of the Night . "
As was common at that time , Riley and his friends had few toys and they amused themselves with activities . With his mother 's aid , Riley began creating plays and theatricals which he and his friends would practice and perform in the back of a local grocery store . As he grew older , the boys named their troupe the Adelphians and began to have their shows in barns where they could fit larger audiences . Riley wrote of these early performances in his poem " When We First Played ' Show ' , " where he referred to himself as " Jamesy . "
Many of Riley 's poems are filled with musical references . Riley had no musical education , and could not read sheet music , but learned from his father how to play guitar , and from a friend how to play violin . He performed in two different local bands , and became so proficient on the violin he was invited to play with a group of adult Freemasons at several events . A few of his later poems were set to music and song , one of the most well known being A Short 'nin ' Bread Song — Pieced Out .
When Riley was ten years old , the first library opened in his hometown . From an early age he developed a love of literature . He and his friends spent time at the library where the librarian read stories and poems to them . Charles Dickens became one Riley 's favorites , and helped inspire the poems " St. Lirriper , " " Christmas Season , " and " God Bless Us Every One . "
Riley 's father enlisted in the Union Army during the American Civil War , leaving his wife to manage the family home . While he was away , the family took in a twelve @-@ year @-@ old orphan named Mary Alice " Allie " Smith . Smith was the inspiration for Riley 's poem " Little Orphant Annie " . Riley intended to name the poem " Little Orphant Allie " , but a typesetter 's error changed the name of the poem during printing .
= = = Finding poetry = = =
Riley 's father returned from the war partially paralyzed . He was unable to continue working in his legal practice and the family soon fell into financial distress . The war had a negative physiological effect on him , and his relationship with his family quickly deteriorated . He opposed Riley 's interest in poetry and encouraged him to find a different career . The family finances finally disintegrated and they were forced to sell their town home in April 1870 and return to their country farm . Riley 's mother was able to keep peace in the family , but after her death in August from heart disease , Riley and his father had a final break . He blamed his mother 's death on his father 's failure to care for her in her final weeks . He continued to regret the loss of his childhood home and wrote frequently of how it was so cruelly snatched from him by the war , subsequent poverty , and his mother 's death . After the events of 1870 , he developed an addiction to alcohol which he struggled with for the remainder of his life .
Becoming increasingly belligerent toward his father , Riley moved out of the family home and briefly had a job painting houses before leaving Greenfield in November 1870 . He was recruited as a Bible salesman and began working in the nearby town of Rushville , Indiana . The job provided little income and he returned to Greenfield in March 1871 where he started an apprenticeship to a painter . He completed the study and opened a business in Greenfield creating and maintaining signs . His earliest known poems are verses he wrote as clever advertisements for his customers .
Riley began participating in local theater productions with the Adelphians to earn extra income , and during the winter months , when the demand for painting declined , Riley began writing poetry which he mailed to his brother living in Indianapolis . His brother acted as his agent and offered the poems to the newspaper Indianapolis Mirror for free . His first poem was featured on March 30 , 1872 under the pseudonym " Jay Whit . " Riley wrote more than twenty poems to the newspaper , including one that was featured on the front page .
In July 1872 , after becoming convinced sales would provide more income than sign painting , he joined the McCrillus Company based in Anderson , Indiana . The company sold patent medicines that they marketed in small traveling shows around Indiana . Riley joined the act as a huckster , calling himself the " Painter Poet " . He traveled with the act , composing poetry and performing at the shows . After his act he sold tonics to his audience , sometimes employing dishonesty . During one stop , Riley presented himself as a formerly blind painter who had been cured by a tonic , using himself as evidence to encourage the audience to purchase his product .
Riley began sending poems to his brother again in February 1873 . About the same time he and several friends began an advertisement company . The men traveled around Indiana creating large billboard @-@ like signs on the sides of buildings and barns and in high places that would be visible from
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8 September 1915 , while also commanding I ANZAC Corps on the Western Front .
Meanwhile , Colonel Godfrey Irving was appointed temporary CGS on 24 May 1915 , replacing Legge . His chief responsibility was overseeing the expansion of the training establishment in Australia to provide reinforcements for the AIF units overseas , and raising and training what would become the 2nd Division . Colonel Hubert Foster took over as CGS in January 1916 . However , following a period of ill @-@ health Legge had been relieved of command his division and returned to Australia . Resuming his post as CGS in October 1917 , he remained in the position until 1920 . In this position Legge 's role was primarily one of dealing with politicians in Australia , and providing reinforcements for the AIF overseas .
Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel , a regular officer who had commanded the 1st Light Horse Brigade upon its formation in 1914 and later the ANZAC Mounted Division , became the first Australian to command a corps , when he took command of the Desert Mounted Corps in 1917 . Birdwood was later given command of the Australian Corps on its formation in November 1917 . Another Australian , Monash , took over command of the corps on 31 May 1918 . Despite being promoted to command the British Fifth Army , Birdwood retained command of the AIF . By this time four of the five divisional commanders were Australian officers . The vast majority of brigade commands were also held by Australian officers . As a result of the policy of appointing officers exclusively from enlisted personnel that was later adopted in the AIF , by 1918 the majority of company and battalion commanders had risen from the ranks . A number of British staff officers were attached to the headquarters of the Australian Corps , and its predecessors , due to a shortage of suitably trained Australian officers .
= = Equipment = =
The weaponry and equipment of the Australian Army had mostly been standardised on that used by the British Army prior to the outbreak of World War I. Meanwhile , in the years prior to the war basic defence industries had been established in Australia for the production of uniforms , webbing , boots , small arms and explosives and ammunition . Despite this , the majority of the equipment initially issued came from British Army stocks until Australian production was able to be increased to meet the demand that resulted from rapid military expansion at the start of the war . These included such items as heliographs , water bottles , bits , stirrups , spurs and shovels , although saddlery and harnesses were provided by a local government manufacturer . Although Australia had a relatively limited industrial base during the war , it was ultimately able to supply the majority of the Army 's more simple requirements ; however , the remainder of the more complex equipment had to be purchased from suppliers in Britain .
During the war the equipment used changed as tactics evolved , and generally followed British developments . The standard issued rifle was the .303 @-@ inch Short Magazine Lee – Enfield Mark III ( SMLE ) , and while a factory had been constructed at Lithgow in New South Wales in 1912 , local production was at first limited to 15 @,@ 000 rifles a year , which proved insufficient . As a result , the AIF was initially equipped from stocks held by the Citizen Forces , until production was increased to 35 @,@ 000 rifles a year by the end of 1914 . A number of Lithgow @-@ made SMLEs were later also supplied to New Zealand forces . Ammunition was supplied from factories in Australia , New Zealand and Britain . Meanwhile , the speed with which the AIF was initially raised meant that it suffered from a range of equipment shortages , especially artillery . These were unable to be rectified prior to the landing at Gallipoli and later impacted on the conduct of the campaign . Artillery was unable to be manufactured in Australia , nor were additional weapons able to be obtained from Britain in the short term . In time though these shortfalls were overcome , and as additional AIF divisions were raised the Australian field artillery was also expanded and was equipped from British Army depots on their arrival in France in 1916 .
The pre @-@ war Australian Army uniform formed the basis of that worn by the AN & MEF and the AIF , which both adopted the broad @-@ brimmed slouch hat and rising sun badge . Infantrymen used 1908 @-@ pattern webbing , while light horsemen used leather bandoliers and load carriage equipment . A large pack was issued as part of marching order . In 1915 , infantrymen were issued with the SMLE and long sword bayonet , while periscope rifles were also used . From 1916 they also used manufactured hand grenades and rodded rifle grenades , both of which had been in short supply at Gallipoli ( necessitating the use of improvised " jam @-@ tin " grenades ) . A grenade discharge cup was issued for fitting to the muzzle of a rifle for the projection of the Mills bomb from 1917 . Machine @-@ guns initially included a small number of Maxim or Vickers medium machine @-@ guns , but subsequently also included the Lewis light machine @-@ gun , the latter two of which were issued in greater numbers as the war continued so as to increase the firepower available to the infantry in response to the tactical problems of trench warfare . Light horse units underwent a similar process , although were issued Hotchkiss guns to replace their Lewis guns in early 1917 .
From 1916 the Stokes light trench mortar was issued to infantry to replace a range of trench catapults and smaller trench mortars , whilst it was also used in a battery at brigade @-@ level to provide organic indirect fire support . In addition , individual soldiers often used a range of personnel weapons including knives , clubs , knuckle @-@ dusters , revolvers and pistols . Snipers on the Western Front used Pattern 1914 Enfield sniper rifles with telescopic sights . Light horsemen also carried bayonets ( as they were initially considered mounted infantry ) , although the Australian Mounted Division adopted cavalry swords in late 1917 . Artillery included 18 @-@ pounders which equipped the field batteries , 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzers used by the howitzer batteries , and 8 @-@ inch and 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch howitzers which equipped the heavy ( siege ) batteries . The 9 @.@ 45 @-@ inch heavy mortar equipped a heavy trench mortar battery , while medium trench mortar batteries were equipped with the 2 @-@ inch medium mortar , and later the 6 @-@ inch mortar . Light Horse units were supported by British and Indian artillery . The main mount used by the light horse was the Waler , while draught horses were used by the artillery and for wheeled transport . Camels were also used , both as mounts and transport , and donkeys and mules were used as pack animals .
= = Training and doctrine = =
In 1914 , the Australian Army mostly copied British Army doctrine , in as much as one existed semi @-@ officially in the form of the Field Service Regulations . Pre @-@ war planning had largely seen the Australian Army focus on defending the continent from invasion with a relatively small force , and as a result any future war was thought to likely be a highly mobile one . This was in contrast to the offensive focus of many British and European theorists of this time , despite their influence on local professional military debate . As a result , there was an emphasis on entrenchments , and whilst there was a recognition of the problems posed by increasing firepower as a result of the continued development of small arms and artillery technology , there was considered to be little requirement for the direct assault of static defensive positions given the room for manoeuvre afforded by the vastness of the Australian continent . Meanwhile , in order to be compatible with British forces , pre @-@ war agreements ensured that Australian Army units were mostly organised , trained and equipped in accordance with British Army doctrine and establishment tables .
Despite the efforts of the compulsory training scheme in the years before the war , very few of the men who served in the AN & MEF had had previous military experience . It had been hastily equipped and received only rudimentary training prior to its departure within days of its formation . During the stop over at Palm Island the men went ashore almost every day , and although the shingle beach , rocky ground and bush made the terrain unsuited to tactical manoeuvres , they were able to practice maintaining contact in dense jungle , a skill which later proved important during the fighting at Bita Paka . Yet , with the force remaining at Palm Island for only a week this training was limited and was unlikely to have adequately prepared the force if it were more seriously tested . Ultimately though this lack of training did not end up being costly as German resistance proved only limited , with the fighting over in less than a day and resulting in fewer than a dozen Australian casualties .
In the early stages of the AIF 's formation training was rudimentary and performed mainly at unit @-@ level . There were no formal schools and volunteers proceeded straight from recruiting stations to their assigned units , which were still in the process of being established . Upon arrival , in makeshift camps the recruits received basic training in drill and musketry from officers and non @-@ commissioned officers , who were not trained instructors and had been appointed mainly because they had previous service in the part @-@ time forces . In some units this training took place over a period of six to eight weeks , although others spent as little as one day on live firing before departing for overseas . Following the embarkation of the initial force to the Middle East , further training was undertaken in the desert . This was more organised than the training provided in Australia , but was still rushed . Individual training was consolidated but progressed quickly into collective training at battalion and brigade @-@ level . Training exercises , marches , drill and musketry practices followed but the standard of the exercises was limited and lacked realism , meaning that commanders did not benefit from handling their troops under battlefield conditions .
Some soldiers had received training through the compulsory training scheme , while others had served as volunteers in the part @-@ time forces before the war or as members of the British Army , but their numbers were limited . In contrast , the majority of officers initially appointed had previous military experience . This was largely through service in the pre @-@ war militia , though , where there had been little to no formal officer training . In addition , there was a small cadre of junior officers who had been trained for the permanent force at the Royal Military College , Duntroon , but their numbers were very small and at the outbreak of the war the first class had to be graduated early in order for them to join the AIF , being placed mainly in staff positions . Other than small numbers of Duntroon graduates , from January 1915 the only means to be commissioned into the AIF was from the ranks of enlisted personnel . While the AIF 's initial senior officers had been members of the pre @-@ war military , few had any substantial experience in managing brigade @-@ sized or larger units in the field as training exercises on this scale had been rarely conducted before the outbreak of hostilities . This inexperience contributed to tactical mistakes and avoidable casualties during the Gallipoli Campaign .
After the AIF was transferred to the European battlefield , the training system was greatly improved . Efforts were made at standardisation , with a formal training organisation and curriculum — consisting of 14 weeks basic training for infantrymen — being established . In Egypt , as the AIF was expanded in early 1916 , each brigade established a training battalion . These formations were later sent to the United Kingdom and were absorbed into a large system of depots that was established on Salisbury Plain by each branch of the AIF including infantry , engineers , artillery , signals , medical and logistics . After completing their initial instruction at depots in Australia and the United Kingdom , soldiers were posted to in @-@ theatre base depots where they received advanced training before being posted as reinforcements to operational units . Like the British Army , the AIF sought to rapidly pass on " lessons learned " as the war progressed , and these were widely transmitted through regularly updated training documents . The experience gained through combat also improved the skills of the surviving officers and men , and by 1918 the AIF was a very well trained and well led force . Indeed , after coming to terms with the conditions on the Western Front the Australians had played a part in the development of new combined arms tactics for offensive operations that occurred throughout the BEF , while in defence they employed patrolling , trench raids , and Peaceful Penetration tactics to dominate no man 's land . In this manner the AIF ultimately developed its own tactical doctrine .
Following the deployment of the AIF a reinforcement system was used to replace wastage . Reinforcements received training in Australia before sailing as drafts and joining their assigned units at the front . To provide officer reinforcements , a series of AIF officer schools , such as that at Broadmeadows , were established in Australia before officer training was eventually concentrated at a school near Duntroon . These schools produced a large number of officers , but they were eventually closed in 1917 due to concerns that their graduates were too inexperienced and after this most replacement officers were drawn from the ranks of the AIF 's deployed units , and candidates attended either British officer training units , or in @-@ theatre schools established in France . After February 1916 , the issue of NCO training was also taken more seriously , and several schools were established , with training initially being two weeks in duration before being increased to two months .
Meanwhile , the Citizen Forces deteriorated during the war as the AIF was given precedence for manpower and other resources . While the size of the force increased during 1915 , a high proportion volunteered for overseas service with the AIF . Many officers were used to train AIF recruits , and camp facilities and equipment were also assigned to the expeditionary force . This greatly disrupted the Citizen Forces training activities , with few units conducting camps during late 1915 or 1916 . While there were intakes of conscripts to the Citizen Forces during 1916 and 1917 , few were ever required to undertake periods of training or active service . In October 1916 approximately 37 @,@ 000 reservists were called up for a short period of compulsory training ahead of the first plebiscite on conscription . By 1918 the Citizen Forces were close to collapse as many of its best members had transferred to the AIF and the remaining personnel were largely untrained . Attempts were made to revive the Citizen Forces during the last months of the war . The initially successful German Spring Offensive , which began in March , led to concerns Japan could attack Australia . In response , regular training camps for militia units were reinstated . A scheme to set up a reserve force manned by returned AIF veterans attracted 17 @,@ 000 volunteers , yet they received no training .
= = Demobilisation = =
After the war , all AIF units went into camp and began the process of demobilisation . The AIF 's involvement in the occupation of former German or Turkish territory was limited as Prime Minister William Hughes requested their early repatriation . The exceptions were No. 4 Squadron , AFC and the 3rd Australian Casualty Clearing Station , which participated in the occupation of the Rhineland . The 7th Light Horse Regiment was also sent to occupy the Gallipoli peninsula for six weeks , along with a New Zealand regiment . At the time of the armistice , there were 95 @,@ 951 soldiers in France and a further 58 @,@ 365 in England , 17 @,@ 255 in the Middle East plus nurses in Salonika and India , all to be transported home . Around 120 Australians decided to delay their departure and instead joined the British Army , serving in Northern Russia during the Russian Civil War , although officially the Australian government refused to contribute forces to the campaign .
By May 1919 , the last troops were out of France , and 70 @,@ 000 were encamped on Salisbury Plain . The men returned home on a " first come , first go " basis , with the process overseen by Monash in Britain and Chauvel in Cairo . Many of the soldiers undertook government @-@ funded training in civilian occupations while awaiting repatriation to Australia . Only 10 @,@ 000 Australian soldiers remained in England by September . Monash , the senior Australian commander , was repatriated on 26 December 1919 . The last transport organised to repatriate troops was H.T. Naldera , which departed London on 13 April 1920 . The AIF officially ceased to exist on 1 April 1921 , and on 1 July 1921 the military hospitals in Australia passed into civilian hands . As a volunteer force , all units were demobilised at the end of the war . Australia 's part @-@ time military force , the Citizen Forces , was subsequently reorganised to replicate the AIF 's divisional structure and the numerical designations of many of its units to perpetuate their identities and battle honours . The AFC remained part of the Australian Army until 1919 , when it was disbanded ; later forming the basis of the Royal Australian Air Force .
Meanwhile , following the end of hostilities in November 1918 the role of the AN & MEF in the former German colonies in New Guinea had become primarily one of civil administration , although it continued to provide a garrison for the next two and a half years . The military government continued until 1921 when Australia received a mandate from the League of Nations to govern the territory . Despite the AN & MEF having seen no further action following the initial seizure of the colony , in the years that followed the climate and a range of tropical diseases , such as malaria , had resulted in dozens of fatalities before the deployment concluded . Although interrupted by Japanese occupation between 1942 – 45 , Australian administration lasted until 1975 when Papua New Guinea gained its independence .
The war exposed deficiencies in Australia 's pre @-@ war military system which had emphasised the creation of a large part @-@ time militia . Indeed , despite the considerable effort and resources expended raising it , the Citizen Forces had not been used during the war as no major threat to Australia had emerged , while an expeditionary force of volunteers had had to be raised from scratch in order to fight overseas . After the war senior military officers advised a range of legislative and organizational reforms ; however , the perceived success of the AIF , war @-@ wariness , a general community antipathy toward military matters and preparedness , distrust of militarism , and funding constraints in the inter @-@ war years meant that they were largely not adopted by the government when the Citizen Forces were re @-@ established . Instead , a similar system remained in place until World War II . This resulted in an inefficient " two army " system which would once again require the raising of a separate volunteer force to serve overseas on the outbreak of hostilities in 1939 .
= = Casualties = =
A total of 416 @,@ 809 men enlisted in the Army during the war and 331 @,@ 781 men were sent overseas to serve as part of the AIF . A further 3 @,@ 011 men served in the AN & MEF . The AIF sustained approximately 210 @,@ 000 casualties , of which 61 @,@ 519 were killed or died of wounds . This represented a total casualty rate of 64 @.@ 8 percent , which was among the highest of any belligerent for the war . About another 4 @,@ 000 men were captured . The majority of casualties occurred among the infantry ( which sustained a casualty rate of 79 percent ) ; however , the artillery ( 58 percent ) and light horse ( 32 percent ) also incurred significant losses .
= Puncheon Run Connector =
The Puncheon Run Connector is an unnumbered four @-@ lane freeway in Dover , Delaware . It is named after Puncheon Run , a stream it follows . It provides a connection between U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) and the northbound direction of the Delaware Route 1 ( DE 1 ) toll road , with an intermediate interchange at Bay Road . The road is part of the National Highway System and serves as part of a north @-@ south route for traffic crossing the Delmarva Peninsula . Planning for the Puncheon Run Connector began in the 1980s and originally included a freeway upgrade for US 13 south to Woodside . The connector was scaled back to its current routing in 1992 . The freeway was built between 1998 and 2000 at a cost of $ 25 million .
= = Route description = =
The Puncheon Run Connector begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with US 13 in Dover , heading to the northeast as a four @-@ lane freeway . After passing over State Street , the freeway curves to the east and passes between woods to the south and residential and commercial development to the north . The road crosses over the marshy St. Jones River and continues east @-@ northeast , passing between a residential neighborhood to the south and the Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) headquarters to the north before coming to an eastbound exit and westbound entrance at Bay Road . Immediately after the Bay Road interchange , the Puncheon Run Connector merges into northbound DE 1 a short distance to the north of Dover Air Force Base .
The Puncheon Run Connector has an annual average daily traffic count of 13 @,@ 406 vehicles . The entire length of the Puncheon Run Connector is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
Planning for the Puncheon Run Connector dates back to the 1980s , when a " Relief Route " was proposed for US 13 between Dover and Wilmington . In 1987 , plans called for the Puncheon Run Connector to be built along its current alignment between US 13 and DE 1 , with an intermediate interchange at US 113 ( Bay Road ) , in addition to US 13 being upgraded to a freeway south to Woodside , with interchanges at Webbs Lane in Dover and DE 10 in Camden . In 1992 , DelDOT held a meeting to discuss proposals for the road , including a possible Far West By @-@ Pass Connector through the western part of Dover . The city of Dover initially opposed the Puncheon Run Connector and favored the Far West By @-@ Pass Connector as the latter would ease traffic congestion caused by development in the western part of the city . Plans for the connector were modified in 1992 to not include the upgrade of US 13 to a freeway between Woodside and Dover . Prior to the construction of the Puncheon Run Connector , a site along Puncheon Run had to be excavated by DelDOT and Louis Berger & Associates as it consisted of Native American artifacts from prehistoric times . The excavation of the site lasted from October 1997 to September 1998 . Construction on the road began in October 1998 . The Puncheon Run Connector was completed and opened to traffic in a ribbon cutting ceremony on December 19 , 2000 . The road was constructed by David A. Bramble , Inc. and G.A. & F.C. Wagman , Inc. at a cost of $ 25 million .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Kent County .
= Robert White ( judge ) =
Robert White ( March 29 , 1759 – March 9 , 1831 ) was a distinguished early American military officer , lawyer , judge , and politician in the U.S. state of Virginia .
White represented Frederick County in the Virginia House of Delegates ( 1789 – 1792 ) and served as a judge of the General Court of Virginia ( 1793 – 1831 ) . Prior to his political and law careers , White served in the Virginia militia and Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War .
White was the grandson of Virginia pioneer settler and physician Dr. Robert White ( 1688 – 1752 ) and thus a member of the prominent White political family of Virginia and West Virginia . He was the nephew of United States House Representative Alexander White ( 1738 – 1804 ) and the brother of United States House Representative Francis White ( 1761 – 1826 ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Robert White was born on March 29 , 1759 , in Winchester , Virginia . He was a son of John White , one of the justices serving on the first Bench of Magistrates of the Frederick County court , and his wife , Ann Patton White . White was also a grandson of Dr. Robert White , an early physician and pioneer settler of Frederick County . White received his primary education at a grammar school near Marsh Creek in Pennsylvania under the direction of Reverend Craighead , a Presbyterian minister . At the age of 16 , White undertook a hiatus from his education to serve in the American Revolutionary War .
= = Military career = =
In 1775 , White enlisted as a private in the Virginia militia company under the command of Captain Hugh Stephenson ( or Stevenson ) , which had been organized in Berkeley County , Virginia ( present @-@ day Jefferson County , West Virginia ) . Stephenson 's company departed for the Boston campaign " a few days " before Daniel Morgan 's company departed from Winchester . White , along with Stephenson 's company , departed on June 20 , 1775 , from Morgan 's Spring near Shepherdstown and marched to Boston to reinforce commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Continental Army George Washington 's forces who had besieged the British Army forces there .
While in Boston , White 's " chivalric bearing " received the attention of Washington , who " saw in the boy the germ of that remarkable decision of character " . On March 17 , 1776 , British forces withdrew from Boston , thus ending the Boston campaign . In the summer of 1776 , White was elevated to the rank of ensign . White then fought as a lieutenant at the Battle of Germantown on October 4 , 1777 , under Major William Darke of Berkeley County . Throughout the spring of 1778 , White was engaged in attacking British Army detachments .
Later in 1778 at Short Hills , New Jersey , White suffered a fractured femur caused by a musket ball and received a wound to the head from the stock of a British Army grenadier 's musket . Following the engagement at Short Hills , White was taken as a prisoner of war by the British forces . White had fallen unconscious and was taken to the tent of " an amiable and accomplished " British officer who had rescued him from death . He was later exchanged , and in the autumn of 1778 White returned to Winchester " by slow and painful efforts , exceedingly lame , weak and emaciated by acute and protracted suffering " . His wounds had not yet healed by the time of his return to Winchester , but following the removal of bone fragments , the wound began to close . White remained permanently physically disabled as a result of his injuries .
While " not fully recovered from his wounds " , White received the commission of a captain of cavalry in 1779 . He commenced the recruitment and training of American troops in Philadelphia to fight in the war , but due to the severity of his injuries , he retired from military service at the age of 20 and returned to Winchester . White was inducted as an original member of the Society of the Cincinnati for his military service during the war .
= = Law and political careers = =
Following his military service and return to Winchester in 1779 , White studied jurisprudence under his uncle , Alexander White , one of the most preeminent lawyers practicing in the Shenandoah Valley . During the course of his four years of law studies , White read the legal treatises of William Blackstone and Edward Coke among others while lying on his back or propped up on a couch recovering from his injuries . White was admitted to practice law at Winchester in December 1782 , after which he engaged in the practice of law for eleven years .
White 's health continued to improve , and his law practice was " an extensive and profitable " one . In a May 1837 biographical sketch of White published in the Southern Literary Messenger , White was described as " an able lawyer , clear and cogent in argument , but not eloquent , his voice rather harsh and shrill , and in the impetuosity of debate his enunciation was sometimes affected even to stammering " . White maintained a " lofty eminence " within the Frederick County bar for over a decade . During this time , White served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from 1789 to 1793 representing the multi @-@ member district of Frederick County . White ran for election against Matthew Page and Joseph Holmes for the seat in 1791 , and won alongside Page with 310 votes to Page 's 335 votes . White ran for election to his seat in 1793 against Page , Thomas Buck , and James Singleton . White received the largest total of votes with a result of 388 .
= = Judicial career and later life = =
White was appointed as the first judge serving Virginia 's tenth judicial district , which was composed of five counties , including Hampshire County . Winchester was chosen by an act of the Virginia General Assembly as the " center point " of this judicial district , where all judicial records were kept . His appointment as a judge of the tenth judicial district paid a meager compensation of 1 @,@ 600 dollars per annum .
White was then appointed a judge of the General Court of Virginia on November 16 , 1793 , and he continued to hold that office until his death in 1831 . In that period , White served as the president of the General Court of Virginia for several years before his death . Serving on the General Court of Virginia required White to travel to Richmond in June and November of each year . Until 1825 , White served as both a judge on the General Court of Virginia and a judge of Virginia 's tenth judicial district .
During the War of 1812 , White took a dislike to the " encroachment of military power " as Winchester began to attract a sizable number of recruits going off to fight in the war . White refused to permit military officers to appear before him in his courtroom with their swords by their sides . Several of White 's judicial opinions became well known as " powerful specimens of sound learning and extensive research " including the Hyers case , in which the defendant was tried for murder , and the Preston case , in which there was a legal question regarding estoppel . From his office , White conducted the teaching of jurisprudence to John Buchanan , a notable Maryland jurist who later served in the Maryland House of Delegates and as an associate justice on the Maryland Court of Appeals .
In the spring of 1825 , White was en route to serve on the court of Loudoun County and stayed the night at a tavern along the Shenandoah River . He was discovered by the proprietor the following morning suffering with paralysis . White remained stricken with paralysis for several weeks and returned to his home in Winchester on a litter . His position as judge of the tenth judicial district was assumed by two judges : William Brockinbough and John Scott . White remained paralyzed for the remainder of his life . On July 1 , 1825 , White gave power of attorney to his son , John Baker White , for the management of his affairs . White later died at his residence in Winchester on March 9 , 1831 .
= = Personal life and family = =
White married Arabella Baker , the daughter of John Baker and his wife , Judith Wood Baker ( born February 15 , 1761 ) , of Shepherdstown , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) . White and his wife had three children together :
White and his family resided in Winchester on Washington Street south of Cecil Street " for many years " until White 's death in 1831 . White 's house , one of the " earliest built brick houses " in Winchester , was destroyed by fire , after which George H. Byrd built a residence on the same site . Byrd deeded the property to his brother , Colonel William Byrd ; henceforth that house has been known as the " Byrd House " .
= = Legacy = =
In the 1970s , three restored portraits painted in 1799 of White , his wife Arabella Baker White , and their son Robert Baker White and daughter Juliet White Opie , were donated to the Historical Society of Winchester by Baker Hall of Huntington , West Virginia , and Louisa Tabb Hall of Charles Town , West Virginia . All three portraits were painted by renowned painter Charles Peale Polk , a nephew of the well @-@ known painter Charles Willson Peale .
= Sooner or Later ( Madonna song ) =
" Sooner or Later " is a song recorded by the American singer Madonna from her soundtrack album I 'm Breathless . Written by American composer Stephen Sondheim and produced by Madonna and Bill Bottrell , the song was used in the parent film , Dick Tracy . " Sooner or Later " was composed to evoke the theatrical nature and style of the film . A 1930s jazz ballad with piano , drum , double bass , and horns , the track conjures up the atmosphere of a smoky nightclub . Madonna sings in her lowest register accompanied by a variable pitch .
Critical response to the track was positive , with reviewers deeming it as an important addition to Madonna 's music catalog . At the 63rd Academy Awards held on March 25 , 1991 , the song won an Oscar for Best Original Song , awarded to Sondheim . Madonna attended the ceremony along with singer Michael Jackson as her date , and performed " Sooner or Later " onstage , being inspired by the look of actress Marilyn Monroe . She later included it in the set list of her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , Madonna was part of the film Dick Tracy starring as Breathless Mahoney — a new role introduced for her — with Warren Beatty playing the title character . Madonna told Premiere magazine that initially she had waited for Beatty to call her for the film . When Beatty did not reciprocate , the singer decided to involve herself voluntarily . She pursued the part of Mahoney , but offered to work for minimum wages to avoid favoritism . Dick Tracy was the ninth @-@ highest grossing film in the US in 1990 , and number twelve globally . The film also received positive reviews from critics . Roger Ebert from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times praised the matte paintings , art direction and prosthetic makeup design , stating : " Dick Tracy is one of the most original and visionary fantasies I 've seen on a screen " .
By the 1980s record labels started to release albums that were closely associated with a film , thereby gaining double promotion . These were mostly termed as soundtracks although many of them were not related to the film . After the filming for Dick Tracy was over by May 1989 , Madonna started working on the soundtrack . She had begun recording three songs by Stephen Sondheim for the film — " Sooner or Later " , " More " and " What Can You Lose " — which would be part of the album , but also had to write and develop new songs comparable in style to the previous . She produced the entire album , including the Sondheim songs . " I want people to think of me as a musical comedy actress . That 's what this album is about for me . It 's a stretch . Not just pop music , but songs that have a different feel to them , a theatrical feel " , she said at the time .
= = Composition = =
According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , the harmonic and melodic styles of the songs she developed with Sondheim were more " complex " than her usual recordings , hence Madonna found it difficult and demanding . She spoke about the " wilderness " of the tunes , saying that she was not confident of doing justice to the songs , and neither was Sondheim . But he kept on encouraging the singer so that the recording sessions would not be affected . Madonna also recruited producer Patrick Leonard and engineer Bill Bottrell to help her with the project . She and Leonard toiled to create music that would fit the style and production of the film , set in the era of the Untouchables law enforcement .
" Sooner or Later " was composed as a 1930s jazz ballad with comping piano , brushed drum sounds , double bass and horns . Rooksby described the track as " conjuring the atmosphere of a smoky nightclub " . Madonna sings in her lowest range as the melody shifts continuously . It opens with a " lazy " clarinet solo and portrays the singer as a kind of sexual magnate . " I always get my man " , she sings " If you 're on my list it 's just a question of when " . The song is set in the time signature of common time with a moderate tempo of 75 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B ♭ major with Madonna 's voice spanning from F3 to B ♭ 4 . The song follows a basic sequence of B ♭ 9 – B ♭ 6 / F – B ♭ 9 – B ♭ 6 / F as its chord progression . In the film , " Sooner or Later " is the signature song of Breathless and was primarily performed during a montage just after Dick Tracy has placed a microphone in Alphonse " Big Boy " Caprice 's boardroom and operator .
= = Critical reception = =
Lucky Lara from Manila Standard Today listed the Sondheim songs as highlights from the album , commenting how they fit Madonna 's " nasal voice as a glove " , and their addition to Madonna 's catalogue of songs would give her " the edge in future career moves " . According to Lara , with " Sooner or Later " , Madonna " shows off a side to her singing that audiences haven 't heard yet , and what a side it is . She proves to her critics that she isn 't just the glitter and trash of the dance club scene , and that she can belt it out nearly as well as the best of them " . According to Ray Boren from Deseret News " is very much a period piece , with an intimate club feel " . Another positive review came from Mark Coleman from Rolling Stone , who described the song as Madonna 's " breathy emotionality " , observing that Madonna did not whisper the line " I always get my man " , rather sang it aloud , bringing " conviction to a somewhat generic line " . According to Jon Pareles of The New York Times , songs including " Sooner or Later " are " typical Sondheim , with agile wordplay and devious chromatic harmonies " .
At the 63rd Academy Awards held on March 25 , 1991 , the song won an Oscar for Best Original Song , awarded to Sondheim who did not attend the ceremony . In the award ceremony the song was listed as " Sooner or Later ( I Always Get My Man ) " .
= = Live performances = =
On the 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour , Madonna performed " Sooner or Later " atop of a piano , as a chanteuse with a piano player in a cabaret . The wardrobe for the performance consisted of a green and white couture corset , with conical bra cups , beaded fringing and striped sequined embroidery , designed by Jean Paul Gaultier , underneath a long black robe . On his review of the concert , Richard Harrington from The Washington Post , opined Madonna " acquitted herself quite well on ' Sooner or Later ' " . Two different performances were taped and released on video , the Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
At the 1991 Academy Awards , Madonna appeared with singer Michael Jackson as her date and performed " Sooner or Later " . According to journalist Liz Smith , Madonna had promised to perform at the award show if either " Sooner or Later " or " More " was nominated in the Best Original Song category . She wore a long , tight , white dress designed by Bob Mackie and covered in sequins and pearls . On her neck she wore $ 20 million worth of jewelry from Harry Winston . Taraborrelli recalled that Madonna had appropriated every move and mannerisms of Marilyn Monroe for the performance , making it a tribute to the actress . When she appeared onstage , there was technical difficulty resulting in the mike not appearing from below the ground , and a stage @-@ hand passing it to her . According to Madonna 's brother Christopher Ciccone , she was quite nervous during the performance ; " Had she been singing to an audience of screaming fans , she wouldn 't have been at all nervous . But this time she was performing in an auditorium full of established actors and actresses , a group of people to which she really didn 't belong , who didn 't respect her as an actress but whose respect she desperately wanted to win " .
Janet Maslin from The New York Times criticized Madonna 's performance , saying that the singer " vamped awkwardly through [ the song ] , managing to seem even waxier in action than she did seated beside Michael Jackson in the audience . " In retrospective reviews , Billboard ranked it as the seventh " most awesome " Oscar performance of all time , saying that " Madonna gave a performance that took us back to the glamorous days of old Hollywood . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from I 'm Breathless album liner notes , Sire Records and Warner Bros. Records .
= No. 82 Squadron RAAF =
No. 82 Squadron RAAF was a Royal Australian Air Force fighter squadron that operated during World War II and its immediate aftermath . It was formed in June 1943 , flying Curtiss P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks and , initially , Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobras from bases in Queensland and New Guinea . The squadron became operational in September 1944 , and undertook ground attack missions against Japanese targets in the Pacific theatre . Following the end of hostilities , No. 82 Squadron was re @-@ equipped with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs and deployed to Japan , where it formed part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . It remained there until October 1948 , when it was disbanded .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
During 1943 , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) received 399 Curtiss P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighter aircraft . Their arrival allowed the service to expand its combat force by forming five new Kittyhawk @-@ equipped squadrons to join the three squadrons that had operated the type in the South West Pacific area since 1942 . No. 82 Squadron was formed at Bankstown , New South Wales , on 18 June 1943 . It was the third of the new Kittyhawk squadrons to be established , following No. 84 Squadron in February and No. 86 Squadron in March ; No. 78 Squadron was formed in July and No. 80 Squadron in September . Commanded by Squadron Leader Stanley Galton , No. 82 Squadron 's original complement was 279 , including fifteen officers . It was to have been equipped wholly with P @-@ 40M Kittyhawks but initially included a flight of Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobras . No. 82 Squadron conducted training at Bankstown until April 1944 , when personnel briefly moved to Hughes Airfield in the Northern Territory , before being redeployed to Townsville , Queensland , for further training .
The squadron transferred to Port Moresby , New Guinea , at the end of August 1944 and then on to Noemfoor Island in mid @-@ September , where it joined Nos. 76 and 77 Squadrons as part of No. 81 Wing under No. 10 Operational Group ( later the Australian First Tactical Air Force ) . Three of No. 82 Squadron 's Kittyhawks crashed due to engine trouble while staging through Nadzab and Tadji . Operating from Kamiri strip , the squadron flew its first combat mission on 30 September , bombing Samate airstrip with aircraft from No. 77 Squadron . On 18 October , one aircraft was lost to ground fire during an attack on Kai Island , while another was reported missing . No. 82 Squadron found it difficult to remain operational as most of its ground crew remained in Townsville until moving forward the following month ; in the meantime , the pilots took responsibility for arming and refuelling their aircraft . On 23 November , they dive bombed Japanese airfields on Halmahera with aircraft of No. 76 Squadron .
No. 82 Squadron continued to conduct ground attack missions in New Guinea until March 1945 , when it relocated to Morotai Island in the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) . From Morotai , the squadron conducted ground attack missions in the NEI and escorted Allied convoys carrying troops bound for the liberation of Borneo . The relegation of First Tactical Air Force to areas of operation bypassed by the main Allied thrust towards the Philippines and Japan led to poor morale , culminating in the so @-@ called " Morotai Mutiny " of April 1945 . Squadron Leader Bert Grace , commanding officer of No. 82 Squadron , was among eight senior pilots who tended their resignations in protest at what they saw as the waste of resources on targets of dubious military value . The officers were persuaded to continue on operations , and Grace oversaw the squadron 's move to Labuan island in June as part of Operation Oboe Six , the invasion of North Borneo . The Kittyhawks flew in support of Australian Army units until the end of the war . On one such mission on 8 August 1945 , No. 82 Squadron made a 900 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) round trip to attack targets around Kuching in Sarawak . During the first strike two Japanese aircraft were destroyed as they were taking off from the airstrip , while a transport was also destroyed and two more were damaged . The fighters then attacked several barges near Kuching Town and on the Sarawak River . Fourteen members of the squadron were killed on operations during the war .
= = = Occupation of Japan = = =
Shortly after the end of the war , No. 82 Squadron was selected to join the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in Japan . It re @-@ equipped with North American P @-@ 51D Mustang fighters between 12 September and 11 January 1946 , losing two aircraft to accidents in the process . The squadron deployed to Bofu , a former kamikaze base , during 13 – 18 March 1946 , once again as part of No. 81 Wing with Nos. 76 and 77 Squadrons ; Nos. 381 and 481 Squadrons provided logistics and maintenance support , respectively . No. 82 Squadron lost three of its twenty @-@ eight Mustangs , along with an escorting de Havilland Mosquito , in bad weather en route to Bofu , killing all crew members . From April 1946 , the squadron conducted surveillance patrols over Japan as well as participating in routine exercises and flypasts . The Australians found that , far from offering resistance , the Japanese went out of their way to be accommodating . No. 82 Squadron 's commanding officer , Squadron Leader Graham Falconer , remarked following a dinner with Bofu 's mayor , " I felt that we were being treated more as visitors than as an occupying force ! "
No. 81 Wing transferred to Iwakuni in April 1948 , the same month that the Federal government determined to reduce Australia 's contribution to BCOF . As part of this reduction , Nos. 76 and 82 Squadrons were slated for disbandment , leaving No. 77 Squadron as the sole RAAF fighter unit in the country . No. 82 Squadron conducted further training and exercises until September , and was disbanded at Iwakuni on 29 October 1948 .
= Caribbean reef shark =
The Caribbean reef shark ( Carcharhinus perezii ) is a species of requiem shark , belonging to the family Carcharhinidae . It is found in the tropical waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Brazil , and is the most commonly encountered reef shark in the Caribbean Sea . With a robust , streamlined body typical of the requiem sharks , this species is difficult to tell apart from other large members of its family such as the dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) and the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) . Distinguishing characteristics include dusky @-@ colored fins without prominent markings , a short free rear tip on the second dorsal fin , and tooth shape and number .
Measuring up to 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long , the Caribbean reef shark is one of the largest apex predators in the reef ecosystem , feeding on a variety of fishes and cephalopods . They have been documented resting motionless on the sea bottom or inside caves , unusual behavior for an active @-@ swimming shark . If threatened , it may perform a threat display in which it frequently changes direction and dips its pectoral fins . Like other requiem sharks , it is viviparous with females giving birth to 4 – 6 young every other year . Caribbean reef sharks are of some importance to fisheries as a source of meat , leather , liver oil , and fishmeal , but recently they have become more valuable as an ecotourist attraction . In the Bahamas and elsewhere , bait is used to attract them to groups of divers in controversial " shark feedings " . This species is responsible for a small number of attacks on humans . The shark attacks only happen usually in the spring / summer part of the year .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Caribbean reef shark was originally described as Platypodon perezi by Felipe Poey in 1876 , in the scientific journal Anales de la Sociedad Española de Historia Natural . The type specimens were six individuals caught off the coast of Cuba . The genus Platypodon was synonymized with Carcharhinus by later authors .
Based on morphological similarities , Jack Garrick in 1982 grouped this species with the bignose shark ( C. altimus ) and the sandbar shark ( C. plumbeus ) , while Leonard Compagno in 1988 placed it as the sister species of the grey reef shark ( C. amblyrhynchos ) . A phylogenetic analysis based on allozyme data , published by Gavin Naylor in 1992 , indicated that the Caribbean reef shark is the sister taxon to a clade formed by the Galapagos shark ( C. galapagensis ) , dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) , oceanic whitetip shark ( C. longimanus ) , and the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) . However , more work is required to fully resolve the interrelationships within Carcharhinus .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Caribbean reef shark occurs throughout the tropical western Atlantic Ocean , from North Carolina in the north to Brazil in the south , including Bermuda , the northern Gulf of Mexico , and the Caribbean Sea . However , it is extremely rare north of the Florida Keys . It prefers shallow waters on or around coral reefs , and is commonly found near the drop @-@ offs at the reefs ' outer edges . This shark is most common in water shallower than 30 m ( 98 ft ) , but has been known to dive to 378 m ( 1 @,@ 240 ft ) .
= = Description = =
A heavy @-@ bodied shark with a " typical " streamlined shape , the Caribbean reef shark is difficult to distinguish from other large requiem shark species . It usually measures 2 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long ; the maximum recorded length is 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) and the maximum reported weight is 70 kg ( 150 lb ) . The coloration is dark gray or gray @-@ brown above and white or white @-@ yellow below , with an inconspicuous white band on the flanks . The fins are not prominently marked , and the undersides of the paired fins , the anal fin , and the lower lobe of the caudal fin are dusky .
The snout is rather short , broad , and rounded , without prominent flaps of skin beside the nostrils . The eyes are large and circular , with nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . There are 11 – 13 tooth rows in either half of both jaws . The teeth have broad bases , serrated edges , and narrow cusps ; the front 2 – 4 teeth on each side are erect and the others increasingly oblique . The five pairs of gill slits are moderately long , with the third gill slit over the origin of the pectoral fins . The first dorsal fin is high and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) . There is a low interdorsal ridge running behind it to the second dorsal fin , which is relatively large with a short free rear tip . The origin of the first dorsal fin lies over or slightly forward of the free rear tips of the pectoral fins , and that of the second dorsal fin lies over or slightly forward of the anal fin . The pectoral fins are long and narrow , tapering to a point . The dermal denticles are closely spaced and overlapping , each with five ( sometimes seven in large individuals ) horizontal low ridges leading to marginal teeth .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Despite its abundance in certain areas , the Caribbean reef shark is one of the least @-@ studied large requiem sharks . They are believed to play a major role in shaping Caribbean reef communities . These sharks are more active at night , with no evidence of seasonal changes in activity or migration . Juveniles tend to remain in a localized area throughout the year , while adults range over a wider area .
Caribbean reef sharks are sometimes seen resting motionless on the sea floor or inside caves ; it is the first active shark species in which such a behavior was reported . In 1975 , Eugenie Clark investigated the famed " sleeping sharks " inside the caves at Isla Mujeres off the Yucatan Peninsula , and determined that the sharks were not actually asleep as their eyes would follow divers . Clark speculated that freshwater upwellings inside the caves might loosen parasites on the sharks and produce an enjoyable " narcotic " effect . If threatened , Caribbean reef sharks sometimes perform a threat display , in which they swim in a short , jerky fashion with frequent changes in direction and repeated , brief ( 1 – 1 @.@ 2 second duration ) drops of the pectoral fins . This display is less pronounced than the better @-@ known display of the grey reef shark ( C. amblyrhynchos ) .
Juvenile Caribbean reef sharks are preyed upon by larger sharks such as the tiger shark ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) and the bull shark ( C. leucas ) . Few parasites are known for this species ; one is a dark variegated leech often seen trailing from its first dorsal fin . Off northern Brazil , juveniles seek out cleaning stations occupied by yellownose gobies ( Elacatinus randalli ) , which clean the sharks of parasites while they lie still on the bottom . Horse @-@ eye jacks ( Caranx latus ) and bar jacks ( Carangoides ruber ) routinely school around Caribbean reef sharks .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Caribbean reef shark feeds on a wide variety of reef @-@ dwelling bony fishes and cephalopods , as well as some elasmobranchs such as eagle rays ( Aetobatus narinari ) and yellow stingrays ( Urobatis jamaicensis ) . It is attracted to low @-@ frequency sounds , which are indicative of struggling fish . In one observation of a 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long male Caribbean reef shark hunting a yellowtail snapper ( Lutjanus crysurus ) , the shark languidly circled and made several seemingly " half @-@ hearted " turns towards its prey , before suddenly accelerating and swinging its head sideways to capture the snapper at the corner of its jaws . Young sharks feed on small fishes , shrimps , and crabs . Caribbean reef sharks are capable of everting their stomachs , which likely serves to cleanse indigestible particles , parasites , and mucus from the stomach lining .
= = = Life history = = =
Reproduction is viviparous ; once the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , the yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which they receive nourishment from their mother . Mating is apparently an aggressive affair , as females are often found with biting scars and wounds on their sides . At the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Atol das Rocas off Brazil , parturition takes place at the end of the dry season from February to April , while at other locations in the Southern Hemisphere , females give birth during the Amazon summer in November and December . The average litter size is four to six , with a gestation period of one year . Females become pregnant every other year . The newborns measure no more than 74 cm ( 29 in ) long ; males mature sexually at 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 7 m ( 59 – 67 in ) long and females at 2 – 3 m ( 79 – 118 in ) .
= = Human interactions = =
Normally shy or indifferent to the presence of divers , the Caribbean reef shark has been known to become aggressive in the presence of food and grows sufficiently large to be considered potentially dangerous . As of 2008 , the International Shark Attack File lists 27 attacks attributable to this species , 4 of them unprovoked , and none fatal .
This species is taken by commercial and artisanal longline and gillnet fisheries throughout its range . It is valued for meat , leather , liver oil , and fishmeal . The Caribbean reef shark is the most common shark landed in Colombia ( accounting for 39 % of the longline catch by occurrence ) , where it is utilized for its fins , oil , and jaws ( sold for ornamental purposes ) . In Belize , this species is mainly caught as bycatch on hook @-@ and @-@ line intended for groupers and snappers ; the fins are sold to the lucrative Asian market and the meat sold in Belize , Mexico , and Guatemala to make " panades " , a tortilla @-@ like confection . A dedicated shark fishery operated in Belize from the mid @-@ 1900s to the early 1990s , until catches of all species saw dramatic declines . The flesh of this species may contain high levels of methylmercury and other heavy metals .
= = = Shark feeding = = =
A profitable ecotourism industry has arisen around this species involving organized " shark feeds " , in which groups of reef sharks are attracted to divers using bait . Some US $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 is spent annually on shark viewing in the Bahamas , where at some sites a single living Caribbean reef shark has a value between US $ 13 @,@ 000 and US $ 40 @,@ 000 ( compared to a one @-@ time value of US $ 50 – 60 for a dead shark ) . This practice has drawn controversy , as opponents argue that the sharks may learn to associate humans with food , increasing the chances of a shark attack , and that the removal of reef fishes for bait may damage the local ecosystem . Conversely , proponents maintain that shark feeds contribute to conservation by incentivizing the protection of sharks and educating people about them . Thus far , there has been little evidence that shark feeds have increased the risk of attack in the surrounding area . Shark feeding has been outlawed off the coast of Florida , but continues at other locations in the Caribbean .
= = = Conservation = = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the Caribbean reef shark as Near Threatened ; its population has declined off Belize and Cuba from overfishing and exploitation continues in other regions . They are also threatened by the degradation and destruction of their coral reef habitat . Commercial fishing for this species is prohibited in United States waters . They are protected in the Bahamas due to their significance to ecotourism , as well as in a number of Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) off Brazil and elsewhere . However , enforcement against illegal fishing is lacking in some of these reserves , and many areas in which this species is abundant are not protected .
= Champagne ( wine region ) =
The Champagne wine region ( archaic English : Champany ) is a historic province within the administrative province of Champagne in the northeast of France . The area is best known for the production of the sparkling white wine that bears the region 's name . EU law and the laws of most countries reserve the term " Champagne " exclusively for wines that come from this region located about 100 miles ( 160 km ) east of Paris . The viticultural boundaries of Champagne are legally defined and split into five wine producing districts within the administrative province : Aube , Côte des Blancs , Côte de Sézanne , Montagne de Reims , and Vallée de la Marne . The towns of Reims and Épernay are the commercial centers of the area .
Located at the northern edges of France , the history of the Champagne wine region has had a significant role in the development of this unique terroir . The area 's proximity to Paris promoted the region 's economic success in its wine trade but also put the villages and vineyards in the path of marching armies on their way to the French capital . Despite the frequency of these military conflicts , the region developed a reputation for quality wine production in the early Middle Ages and was able to continue that reputation as the region 's producers began making sparkling wine with the advent of the great Champagne houses in the 17th and 18th centuries . The principal grapes grown in the region include Chardonnay , Pinot noir , and Pinot Meunier . Pinot noir is the most widely planted grape in the Aube region and grows very well in Montagne de Reims . Pinot Meunier is the dominant grape in the Vallée de la Marne region . The Côte des Blancs is dedicated almost exclusively to Chardonnay .
= = Geography and climate = =
The Champagne province is located near the northern limits of the wine world along the 49th parallel . The high altitude and mean annual temperature of 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) creates a difficult environment for wine grapes to fully ripen . Ripening is aided by the presence of forests which helps to stabilize temperatures and maintain moisture in the soil . The cool temperatures serve to produce high levels of acidity in the resulting grape which is ideal for sparkling wine .
During the growing season , the mean July temperature is 18 ° C ( 66 ° F ) . The average annual rainfall is 630 mm ( 25 inches ) , with 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 inches ) falling during the harvest month of September . Throughout the year , growers must be mindful of the hazards of fungal disease and early spring frost .
Ancient oceans left behind chalk subsoil deposits when they receded 70 million years ago . Earthquakes that rocked the region over 10 million years ago pushed the marine sediments of belemnite fossils up to the surface to create the belemnite chalk terrain . The belemnite in the soil allows it to absorb heat from the sun and gradually release it during the night as well as providing good drainage . This soil contributes to the lightness and finesse that is characteristic of Champagne wine . The Aube area is an exception with predominately clay based soil . The chalk is also used in the construction of underground cellars that can keep the wines cool through the bottle maturation process .
= = History = =
The Carolingian reign saw periods of prosperity for the Champagne region beginning with Charlemagne 's encouragement for the area to start planting vines and continuing with the coronation of his son Louis the Pious at Reims . The tradition of crowning kings at Reims contributed to the reputation of the wines that came from this area . The Counts of Champagne ruled the area as an independent county from 950 to 1316 . In 1314 , the last Count of Champagne assumed the throne as King Louis X of France and the region became part of the Crown territories .
= = = Military conflicts = = =
The location of Champagne played a large role in its historical prominence as it served as a " crossroads " for both military and trade routes . This also made the area open to devastation and destruction during military conflicts that were frequently waged in the area . In 451 A.D. near Châlons @-@ en @-@ Champagne Attila and the Huns were defeated by an alliance of Roman legions , Franks and Visigoths . This defeat was a turning point in the Huns ' invasion of Europe .
During the Hundred Years ' War , the land was repeatedly ravaged and devastated by battles . The Abbey of Hautvillers , including its vineyards , was destroyed in 1560 during the War of Religion between the Huguenots and Catholics . This was followed by conflicts during the Thirty Year War and the Fronde Civil War where soldiers and mercenaries held the area in occupation . It was not until the 1660s , during the reign of Louis XIV , that the region saw enough peace to allow advances in sparkling wine production to take place .
= = = History of wine production = = =
The region 's reputation for wine production dates back to the Middle Ages when Pope Urban II , a native Champenois , declared that the wine of Aÿ in the Marne département was the best wine produced in the world . For a time Aÿ was used as a shorthand designation for wines from the entire Champagne region , similar to the use of Beaune for the wines of Burgundy . The poet Henry d 'Andeli 's work La Bataille des Vins rated wines from the towns of Épernay , Hautvillers and Reims as some of the best in Europe . As the region 's reputation grew , popes and royalty sought to own pieces of the land with Pope Leo X , Francis I of France , Charles V of Spain , and Henry VIII of England all owning vineyard land in the region . A batch of wine from Aÿ received in 1518 by Henry VIII 's chancellor , Cardinal Thomas Wolsey , is the first recorded export of wine from the Champagne region to England .
The still wines of the area were highly prized in Paris under the designation of vins de la rivière and vins de la montagne- wines of the river and wines of the mountain in reference to the wooded terrain and the river Marne which carried the wines down to the Seine and into Paris . The region was in competition with Burgundy for the Flemish wine trade and tried to capitalize on Reims ' location along the trade route from Beaune . In the 15th century , Pinot noir became heavily planted in the area . The resulting red wine had difficulty comparing well to the richness and coloring of Burgundy wines , despite the addition of elderberries to deepen the color . This led to a greater focus on white wines .
The Champagne house of Gosset was founded as a still wine producer in 1584 and is the oldest Champagne house still in operation today . Ruinart was founded in 1729 and was soon followed by Chanoine Frères ( 1730 ) , Taittinger ( 1734 ) , Moët et Chandon ( 1743 ) and Veuve Clicquot ( 1772 ) .
The nineteenth century saw an explosive growth in Champagne production going from a regional production of 300 @,@ 000 bottles a year in 1800 to 20 million bottles in 1850 .
= = = = Rivalry with Burgundy = = = =
A strong influence on Champagne wine production was the centuries @-@ old rivalry between the region and Burgundy . From the key market of Paris to the palace of Louis XIV of France at Versailles , proponents of Champagne and Burgundy would compete for dominance . For most of his life , Louis XIV would drink only Champagne wine with the support of his doctor Antoine d 'Aquin who advocated the King drink Champagne with every meal for the benefit of his health . As the King aged and his ailments increased , competing doctors would propose alternative treatments with alternative wines , to sooth the King 's ills . One of these doctors , Guy @-@ Crescent Fagon conspired with the King 's mistress to oust d 'Aquin and have himself appointed as Royal Doctor . Fagon quickly attributed the King 's continuing ailments to Champagne and ordered that only Burgundy wine must be served at the royal table .
This development had a ripple effect throughout both regions and in the Paris markets . Both Champagne and Burgundy were deeply concerned with the " healthiness " reputation of their wines , even to the extent of paying medical students to write theses touting the health benefit of their wines . These theses were then used as advertising pamphlets that were sent to merchants and customers . The Faculty of Medicine in Reims published several papers to refute Fagon 's claim that Burgundy wine was healthier than Champagne . In response , Burgundian winemakers hired physician Jean @-@ Baptiste de Salins , dean of the medical school in Beaune , to speak to a packed auditorium at the Paris Faculty of Medicine . Salins spoke favorably of Burgundy wine 's deep color and robust nature and compared it to the pale red color of Champagne and the " instability " of the wine to travel long distances and the flaws of the bubbles from when secondary fermentation would take place . The text of his speech was published in newspapers and pamphlets throughout France and had a damaging effect on Champagne sales .
The war of words would continue for another 130 years with endless commentary from doctors , poets , playwrights and authors all arguing for their favorite region and their polemics being reproduced in advertisements for Burgundy and Champagne . On a few occasions , the two regions were on the brink of civil war . A turning point occurred when several Champagne wine makers abandoned efforts to produce red wine in favor of focusing on harnessing the effervescent nature of sparkling Champagne . As the bubbles became more popular , doctors throughout France and Europe commented on the health benefits of the sparkling bubbles which were said to cure malaria . As more Champenois winemakers embarked on this new and completely different wine style , the rivalry with Burgundy mellowed and eventually waned .
= = Classifications and vineyard regulations = =
In 1927 , viticultural boundaries of Champagne were legally defined and split into five wine producing districts- The Aube , Côte des Blancs , Côte de Sézanne , Montagne de Reims , and Vallée de la Marne . This area covers 33 @,@ 500 hectares ( 76 @,@ 000 acres ) of vineyards around 319 villages that are home to 5 @,@ 000 growers who make their own wine and 14 @,@ 000 growers who only sell grapes . The region is set to expand to include 359 villages in the near future .
The different districts produce grapes of varying characteristics that are blended by the Champagne houses to create their distinct house styles . The Pinots of the Montagne de Reims that are planted on northern facing slopes are known for their high levels of acid and the delicacy they add to the blend . The grapes on the southern facing slope add more power and character . Grapes across the district contribute to the bouquet and headiness . The abundance of southern facing slopes in the Vallée de la Marne produces the ripest wines with full aroma . The Côte des Blancs grapes are known for their finesse and the freshness they add to blends with the extension of the nearby Côte de Sézanne offering similar though slightly less distinguished traits .
In 1942 , the Comité Interprofessionnel du Vin de Champagne ( CIVC ) was formed with the purpose of protecting Champagne 's reputation and marketing forces as well as setting up and monitoring regulations for vineyard production and vinification methods . Champagne is the only region that is permitted to exclude AOC or Appellation d 'Origine Contrôlée from their labels .
For each vintage , the CIVC rated the villages of the area based on the quality of their grapes and vineyards . The rating was then used to determine the price and the percentage of the price that growers get . The Grand Cru rated vineyards received 100 percent rating which entitled the grower to 100 % of the price . Premier Crus were vineyards with 90 – 99 % ratings while Deuxième Crus received 80 – 89 % ratings . Under appellation rules , around 4 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 8 @,@ 800 pounds ) of grapes can be pressed to create up to 673 gallons ( either 2 @,@ 550 L or 3 @,@ 060 L ) of juice . The first 541 gallons ( either 2 @,@ 050 L or 2 @,@ 460 L ) are the cuvée and the next 132 gallons ( either 500 L or 600 L ) are the taille . Prior to 1992 , a second taille of 44 gallons ( either 167 L or 200 L ) was previously allowed . For vintage Champagne , 100 % of the grapes must come from that vintage year while non @-@ vintage wine is a blend of vintages . Vintage champagne must spend a minimum of three years of aging but only 9 months on its lees with some of premier Champagne houses keeping their wines on lees for upwards of five to ten years . Non @-@ vintage Champagne must spend a minimum of 15 months of aging but only a minimum of 9 months on the lees . Most of the Champagne houses keep their wines on the lees through the whole time of aging because it is more expense to bottle the wine then age it and finally shipped .
= = = Revision of the Champagne region = = =
The worldwide demand for Champagne has been continuously increasing throughout the 1990s and early 2000s . A record in worldwide shipping of Champagne ( including domestic French consumption ) of 327 million bottles was set in 1999 in anticipation of end of millennium celebrations , and a new record was set in 2007 at 338 @.@ 7 million bottles . Since the entire vineyard area authorized by the 1927 AOC regulations is now planted , various ways of expanding the production have been considered . The allowed yield was increased ( to a maximum of 15 @,@ 500 kg per hectare during an experimental period from 2007 to 2011 ) and the possibility of revising the production region was investigated .
After an extensive review of vineyard conditions in and around the existing Champagne region , INAO presented a proposal to revise the region on March 14 , 2008 . The proposal was prepared by a group of five experts in the subjects of history , geography , geology , phytosociology and agronomy , working from 2005 . The proposal means expanding the region to cover vineyards in 357 rather than 319 villages . This is to be achieved by adding vineyards in forty villages while simultaneously removing two villages in the Marne départment that were included in the 1927 regulations , Germaine and Orbais @-@ l 'Abbaye .
The proposed 40 new Champagne villages are located in four départments :
22 in Marne : Baslieux @-@ les @-@ Fismes , Blacy , Boissy @-@ le @-@ Repos , Bouvancourt , Breuil @-@ sur @-@ Vesle , Bussy @-@ le @-@ Repos , Champfleury , Courlandon , Courcy , Courdemanges , Fismes , Huiron , La Ville @-@ sous @-@ Orbais , Le Thoult @-@ Trosnay , Loivre , Montmirail , Mont @-@ sur @-@ Courville , Peas , Romain , Saint @-@ Loup , Soulanges , and Ventelay .
15 in Aube : Arrelles , Balnot @-@ la @-@ Grange , Bossancourt , Bouilly , Étourvy , Fontvannes , Javernant , Laines @-@ aux @-@ Bois , Macey , Messon , Prugny , Saint @-@ Germain @-@ l 'Épine , Souligny , Torvilliers and Villery .
Two in Haute @-@ Marne : Champcourt and Harricourt .
One , Marchais @-@ en @-@ Brie , in Aisne .
The INAO proposal was to be subject to review before being made into law and was immediately questioned in numerous public comments . The mayor of one the villages to be delisted , Germaine , immediately appealed against INAO 's proposal , with the possibility of additional appeals by vineyard owners . The initial review process is expected to be finished by early 2009 . This will be followed by another review of the specific parcels that will be added or deleted from the appellation . The earliest vineyard plantings are expected around 2015 , with their product being marketed from around 2021 . However , the price of land that are allowed to be used for Champagne production is expected to immediately rise from 5 @,@ 000 to one million euro per hectare .
While some critics have feared the revision of the Champagne region is about expanding production irrespective of quality , British wine writer and Champagne expert Tom Stevenson has pointed out that the proposed additions constitute a consolidation rather than expansion . The villages under discussion are situated in gaps inside the perimeter of the existing Champagne regions rather than outside it .
= = Production other than sparkling wine = =
While totally dominating the region 's production , sparkling Champagne is not the only product that is made from the region 's grapes . Non @-@ sparkling still wines , like those made around the village Bouzy , are sold under the appellation label Coteaux Champenois . There is also a rosé appellation in the region , Rosé des Riceys . The regional vin de liqueur is called Ratafia de Champagne . Since the profit of making sparkling Champagne from the region 's grape is now much higher , production of these non @-@ sparkling wines and fortified wines is very small .
The pomace from the grape pressing is used to make Marc de Champagne , and in this case the production does not compete with that of Champagne , since the pomace is a by @-@ product of wine production .
= Tropical Depression One @-@ E ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Depression One @-@ E was the earliest known tropical cyclone to impact the Mexican state of Sinaloa . The first system of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season , One @-@ E formed out of an area of disturbed weather on June 18 , 2009 , and initially tracked slowly northwards . Throughout the day , convection developed around the center of circulation and the system was anticipated to become a tropical storm . Late on June 18 , the National Hurricane Center noted that the system was on the verge of becoming a tropical storm ; it would have been named Andres had this occurred . However , the following day , strong wind shear caused the depression to rapidly degenerate into a trough of low pressure before dissipating off the coast of Sinaloa .
Although no longer a tropical cyclone , the remnants of the depression brought moderate rainfall to parts of Sinaloa , Nayarit and Jalisco . High winds accompanied the rainfall and left about 50 @,@ 000 residences without power . Several trees were downed and some structures sustained damage from fresh water flooding . Landslides occurred along major highways and significant structural damage was reported around Mazatlán . However , there was no loss of life or reports of injuries .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Depression One @-@ E originated from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on May 29 . Little convective activity was associated with the system as it traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . On June 10 , the wave crossed Central America and entered the northeastern Pacific basin . Over the following few days , the system gradually became better organized and on June 15 , an area of low pressure developed from the wave . The system continued to organize , and on June 17 the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted the likelihood for tropical cyclogenesis ; although , at the time , the circulation was not well @-@ defined . It organized further , and on June 18 , the NHC initiated advisories on the first tropical depression of the 2009 season about 350 miles ( 565 km ) south @-@ southwest of Mazatlán , Sinaloa . Deep convection persisted near the southern portion of the depression ; however , the northern portion of the depression was partially devoid of convective activity . The depression traveled northward along the periphery of a mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico and an unusually strong mid to upper @-@ level trough situated over the Baja California Peninsula .
Later on June 18 , forecast models indicated that the system might rapidly degenerate prior to landfall . However , the NHC continued to forecast that the depression would attain tropical storm @-@ status before landfall . Shortly after , the depression became increasingly disorganized as convection separated from the center of circulation due to increasing wind shear . Stable air ahead of the system inhibited the possibility of rapid development as warm waters supported intensification . By the morning of June 19 , the center of circulation was situated along the southern edge of deep convection , indicating that the depression was beginning to degenerate . Despite this , the NHC continued to anticipate intensification prior to landfall . Embedded within an easterly flow ahead of a mid @-@ level trough , the storm turned towards the north @-@ northeast and accelerated slightly . At 11 : 00 am PDT ( 1800 UTC ) , the depression reached its peak intensity with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1003 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 62 inHg ) . Operationally , the depression was considered to be slightly stronger , having a minimum pressure of 1001 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 56 inHg ) . Later that day , the depression began to degenerate into an open trough as it was situated underneath cirrus clouds instead of cumulonimbus clouds . Visible satellite imagery showed that the depression became increasingly ill @-@ defined and the
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Martha Plimpton . Pearl Jam musician Mike McCready helped write the music for the episode .
" Northwest Passage " first aired in the United States on May 6 , 2010 to an estimated 5 @.@ 82 million viewers . It received generally positive reviews , as many critics praised the writers ' decision to focus on Peter in a new location . Others noted references to the television series Twin Peaks .
= = Plot = =
After learning his true origins in " The Man from the Other Side " , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) leaves Boston and travels to a small town in the state of Washington . At a diner , Peter makes plans for a date with a local woman named Krista , but before they can meet she is kidnapped and murdered . Initially , the police suspects Peter is involved in the disappearance until told he was at his hotel all night . Peter decides to aid them in the investigation after catching a glimpse of Thomas Jerome Newton ( Sebastian Roché ) , believing the shapeshifters are responsible and are coming after him ; however , he does not wish Walter to be involved , asking Agent Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) to keep his location secret .
During the autopsy , Peter explains to Sheriff Mathis ( Martha Plimpton ) how removing a part of a brain could provide information to the killers . Mathis ' partner , deputy officer Bill Ferguson ( Patrick Gilmore ) , soon disappears . After they go to the scene of Krista 's murder , Peter encounters Newton , but he escapes . Peter becomes suspicious of Mathis when he sees blood on her jacket ; however , he believes her when she shows him her cut from a fall , which is bleeding normal blood , not the mercury typical of shapeshifters ; he then explains the concept of shapeshifters to her .
Peter begins to doubt the shapeshifters ' motives after another body is found , but eventually comes up with an idea to read and track the victims ' adrenaline spikes , which allows him to find where the murders took place : a dairy farm . They find the owner , who confesses to killing the women because they rejected him , and kidnapped and tortured Mathis 's partner when he discovered the culprit . Repeatedly at the hotel , Peter receives calls with static , strange noises , and clicks , which he suspects are coming from Newton . In the end , Peter decides and prepares to head back to Boston , but is approached by Newton , who has brought " Mr. Secretary " , the man from the Other Side , to see Peter . The man is revealed to be his actual father from the parallel universe , " Walternate " .
Meanwhile , back in Boston , a distraught Walter ( John Noble ) suffers a small mental breakdown at a supermarket . Olivia ( Anna Torv ) and Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) escort him home , discovering his house is in disarray . After they ask why he didn 't come to them for help , Walter replies he needs to learn to care for himself if Peter fails to return . He discovers a way to find Peter using his unique energy signature , but changes his mind after worrying that Peter will not forgive him . However , Olivia learns Peter 's whereabouts from Broyles ; they prepare to fly to Washington .
= = Production = =
" Northwest Passage " was co @-@ written by producers Ashley Edward Miller , Zack Stentz , staff writers Lilla Zuckerman and Nora Zuckerman . Co @-@ executive producer Joe Chappelle served as episode director .
Miller later noted that unlike other episode scenes such as in " Grey Matters " , Walter 's breakdown at the supermarket " came largely out of nowhere . It was a thought experiment that took on a life of its own . " Miller continued that at the time , he and Stentz thought they were writing Olivia @-@ focused episodes , but " In retrospect , we really wrote a four @-@ part story about Walter , his relationship to children , and the struggle between Walter @-@ who @-@ was and Walter @-@ who @-@ is . If you look at it that way , his decision at the end of ' Northwest Passage ' becomes the moment where he reconciles those things . He doesn 't resolve them , but he comes to grips with them . Once again in retrospect , I think that 's what the supermarket breakdown was really about . This happens — you think a scene is about one thing when you 're in the middle of it , and realize it 's something else entirely when you look back . Characters can be sneaky motherfuckers that way . "
A fan of Fringe , Pearl Jam musician Mike McCready talked with series composer Chris Tilton about writing some music for " Northwest Passage " . McCready said he started " throwing ideas back and forth . And I think they just wanted a northwest guy to do it , because they were shooting it in the northwest " . He elaborated that " My role was smaller than someone who wrote all the music for it , but I think I was none the less integral in there . I mean , it was fun . Chris sent me his cues , and I just kind of rearranged them into guitar ideas " .
The episode featured guest actress Martha Plimpton as Sheriff Tracy Mathis . On her role , she later commented " That episode turned out really well ; I was really pleased with it , and where else but on Fringe would I get to play the sheriff of a small town ? "
The crew shot an alternate ending in which Mathis questions Peter about his faith with the FBI . This was available on the DVD special features . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan for grade school children focusing on the science seen in " Northwest Passage " , with the intention of having " students learn about the scientific method and how it can be used to collect data through experimentation and observation in order to formulate and test a hypothesis . "
= = Cultural references = =
Many critics noted the similarities between the episode and the David Lynch television series Twin Peaks , with one reviewer writing there was a " definite Peaks @-@ y vibe to tonight 's episode , from the setting — Noyo County , Washington , home of a diner with " famous pies " — to the off @-@ kilter camera angles and hushed tone " . Twin Peaks was originally titled " Northwest Passage " before its pilot , and both focused on solving a murder mystery in Washington state . Other reviewers felt the " Mulder / Scully " -like investigation and the line " You want to believe " was a homage to The X @-@ Files .
A song by Leonard Cohen , " Anthem " is quoted in this episode . " Anthem " lyrics are : " There is a crack in everything / That 's how the light gets in . " The Sheriff played by Martha Plimpton has a pen with " find the crack " printed on it , she states to Peter Bishop " that 's how the light gets in . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The first airing of " Northwest Passage " was watched by an estimated 5 @.@ 82 million viewers in the United States . It earned a 3 @.@ 7 / 6 ratings share among all households and a 2 @.@ 2 / 6 share among viewers 18 – 49 . This was a ten percent jump from the previous week . SFScope writer Sarah Stegall speculated that the episode 's " standalone mystery " , combined with the recent Fringe season renewal , helped contribute to the ratings gain .
= = = Reviews = = =
A.V. Club writer Noel Murray graded the episode with a B + , explaining " It was the atmosphere that sold me on " Northwest Passage " , an episode with a fairly middling mystery and only minimal advancement of the master @-@ plot . ( Though the end @-@ point of that advancement was a doozy , and has me eating a little crow . ) At times tonight the show almost felt like a backdoor pilot for a new series , with Peter tooling around the Pacific Northwest meeting local law enforcement and cracking cases . And while that 's a show I 'd definitely watch , I confess I 'm anxious to jump ahead to next week , when there 'll be inter @-@ dimensional conflict and doppelgangers galore " . Murray considered the ending with the appearance of Walternate a " strong finish to a mostly strong episode " . IGN 's Ramsey Isler gave it 7 @.@ 8 / 10 , writing that " Fringe 's sophomore season is building up to an epic 2 @-@ part finale . This episode doesn 't reveal much in terms of overall Fringe mythology until the very awesome ending , and even then it just confirms what we already knew or suspected . Still , this installment deserves credit for using a different formula and giving Joshua Jackson some much @-@ deserved time in the spotlight all by himself " .
SFScope 's Sarah Stegall praised the writers for showcasing Peter , believing Jackson gave " a solid , convincing performance that teaches us more about Peter than we learned in the first half of this season " . She also was pleased with Peter 's reactions to the obstacles thrown in his path , but criticized the writing for having another man behind the murders ( ' Too much coincidence . Way too much coincidence . From a plotting standpoint , it was clumsy ' ) . Stegall concluded her review by praising all of the actors ' performances , explaining that other than the " clumsy " killer plot twist , " I had no complaints at all about this episode . The supporting cast was top notch " . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly enjoyed how the episode mystery was processed from Peter 's point of view , and loved the revelation at the end about Walternate . MTV columnist Josh Wigler praised the episode 's " pretty mature storytelling " for not making Peter " go on an angry rampage " or become " an angsty ball of self @-@ loathing " after the previous episode 's events . He continued , " You can see that he 's hurting , but he 's still not quite sure how to process everything . Excellent work from the writers and Joshua Jackson " .
After trying various science fiction shows after Lost , the Los Angeles Times ' Andrew Hanson felt the episode made " him feel like [ he ] picked a winner " . Like other critics , Hanson loved the twist ending , writing that " Fringe is making it more and more difficult for me to pick my favorite episode " . Television Without Pity called Walternate 's sudden appearance one of 2010 's " Most Memorable TV Moments " , explaining " We knew we 'd meet him eventually , but the way they surprised us with him at the end of a stand @-@ alone episode was a fitting introduction for such an ominous and shadowy character , and we knew even then that it marked a new and improved era for the show . " At the time , TV Fanatic called " Northwest Passage " the best Fringe episode to date , giving the series ' its first " five out of five stars " .
= Raccoon =
The raccoon ( / rəˈkuːn / or US / ræˈkuːn / , Procyon lotor ) , sometimes spelled racoon , also known as the common raccoon , North American raccoon , northern raccoon and colloquially as coon , is a medium @-@ sized mammal native to North America . The raccoon is the largest of the procyonid family , having a body length of 40 to 70 cm ( 16 to 28 in ) and a body weight of 3 @.@ 5 to 9 kg ( 8 to 20 lb ) . Its grayish coat mostly consists of dense underfur which insulates it against cold weather . Two of the raccoon 's most distinctive features are its extremely dexterous front paws and its facial mask , which are themes in the mythology of several Native American ethnic groups . Raccoons are noted for their intelligence , with studies showing that they are able to remember the solution to tasks for up to three years . The diet of the omnivorous raccoon , which is usually nocturnal , consists of about 40 % invertebrates , 33 % plant foods , and 27 % vertebrates .
The original habitats of the raccoon are deciduous and mixed forests , but due to their adaptability they have extended their range to mountainous areas , coastal marshes , and urban areas , where some homeowners consider them to be pests . As a result of escapes and deliberate introductions in the mid @-@ 20th century , raccoons are now also distributed across mainland Europe , Caucasia , and Japan .
Though previously thought to be solitary , there is now evidence that raccoons engage in gender @-@ specific social behavior . Related females often share a common area , while unrelated males live together in groups of up to four animals to maintain their positions against foreign males during the mating season , and other potential invaders . Home range sizes vary anywhere from 3 hectares ( 7 @.@ 4 acres ) for females in cities to 5 @,@ 000 hectares ( 12 @,@ 000 acres ) for males in prairies . After a gestation period of about 65 days , two to five young , known as " kits " , are born in spring . The kits are subsequently raised by their mother until dispersal in late fall . Although captive raccoons have been known to live over 20 years , their life expectancy in the wild is only 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 years . In many areas , hunting and vehicular injury are the two most common causes of death .
= = Etymology = =
The word " raccoon " was adopted into English from the native Powhatan term , as used in the Virginia Colony . It was recorded on Captain John Smith 's list of Powhatan words as aroughcun , and on that of William Strachey as arathkone . It has also been identified as a Proto @-@ Algonquian root * ahrah @-@ koon @-@ em , meaning " [ the ] one who rubs , scrubs and scratches with its hands " .
Similarly , Spanish colonists adopted the Spanish word mapache from the Nahuatl mapachitli of the Aztecs , meaning " [ the ] one who takes everything in its hands " . In many languages , the raccoon is named for its characteristic dousing behavior in conjunction with that language 's term for bear , for example Waschbär in German , orsetto lavatore in Italian , mosómedve in Hungarian and araiguma ( アライグマ ) in Japanese . In French and European Portuguese , the washing behavior is combined with these languages ' term for rat , yielding , respectively , raton laveur and ratão @-@ lavadeiro . The raccoon 's scientific name , Procyon lotor , is neo @-@ Latin , meaning " before @-@ dog washer " , with lotor Latin for " washer " and Procyon Latinized Greek from προ- , " before " and κύων , " dog " .
The colloquial abbreviation coon is used in words like coonskin for fur clothing and in phrases like old coon as a self @-@ designation of trappers . In the 1830s , the U.S. Whig Party used the raccoon as an emblem , causing them to be pejoratively known as ' coons ' by their political opponents , who saw them as too sympathetic to African @-@ Americans . Soon after that it became an ethnic slur , especially in use between 1880 and 1920 ( see coon song ) , and the term is still considered offensive .
= = Taxonomy = =
In the first decades after its discovery by the members of the expedition of Christopher Columbus , who was the first person to leave a written record about the species , taxonomists thought the raccoon was related to many different species , including dogs , cats , badgers and particularly bears . Carl Linnaeus , the father of modern taxonomy , placed the raccoon in the genus Ursus , first as Ursus cauda elongata ( " long @-@ tailed bear " ) in the second edition of his Systema Naturae ( 1740 ) , then as Ursus Lotor ( " washer bear " ) in the tenth edition ( 1758 – 59 ) . In 1780 , Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr placed the raccoon in its own genus Procyon , which can be translated as either " before the dog " or " doglike " . It is also possible that Storr had its nocturnal lifestyle in mind and chose the star Procyon as eponym for the species .
= = = Evolution = = =
Based on fossil evidence from France and Germany , the first known members of the family Procyonidae lived in Europe in the late Oligocene about 25 million years ago . Similar tooth and skull structures suggest procyonids and weasels share a common ancestor , but molecular analysis indicates a closer relationship between raccoons and bears . After the then @-@ existing species crossed the Bering Strait at least six million years later in the early Miocene , the center of its distribution was probably in Central America . Coatis ( Nasua and Nasuella ) and raccoons ( Procyon ) have been considered to share common descent from a species in the genus Paranasua present between 5 @.@ 2 and 6 @.@ 0 million years ago . This assumption , based on morphological comparisons of fossils , conflicts with a 2006 genetic analysis which indicates raccoons are more closely related to ringtails . Unlike other procyonids , such as the crab @-@ eating raccoon ( Procyon cancrivorus ) , the ancestors of the common raccoon left tropical and subtropical areas and migrated farther north about 2 @.@ 5 million years ago , in a migration that has been confirmed by the discovery of fossils in the Great Plains dating back to the middle of the Pliocene . Its most recent ancestor was likely Procyon rexroadensis , a large Blancan raccoon from the Rexroad Formation characterized by its narrow back teeth and large lower jaw .
= = = Subspecies = = =
As of 2005 , Mammal Species of the World recognizes 22 subspecies . Four of these subspecies found only on small Central American and Caribbean islands were often regarded as distinct species after their discovery . These are the Bahaman raccoon and Guadeloupe raccoon , which are very similar to each other ; the Tres Marias raccoon , which is larger than average and has an angular skull ; and the extinct Barbados raccoon . Studies of their morphological and genetic traits in 1999 , 2003 and 2005 led all these island raccoons to be listed as subspecies of the common raccoon in Mammal Species of the World 's third edition . A fifth island raccoon population , the Cozumel raccoon , which weighs only 3 to 4 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 to 8 @.@ 8 lb ) and has notably small teeth , is still regarded as a separate species .
The four smallest raccoon subspecies , with a typical weight of 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 7 kg ( 4 @.@ 0 to 6 @.@ 0 lb ) , are found along the southern coast of Florida and on the adjacent islands ; an example is the Ten Thousand Island raccoon ( Procyon lotor marinus ) . Most of the other 15 subspecies differ only slightly from each other in coat color , size and other physical characteristics . The two most widespread subspecies are the eastern raccoon ( Procyon lotor lotor ) and the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon ( Procyon lotor hirtus ) . Both share a comparatively dark coat with long hairs , but the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon is larger than the eastern raccoon . The eastern raccoon occurs in all U.S. states and Canadian provinces to the north of South Carolina and Tennessee . The adjacent range of the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon covers all U.S. states and Canadian provinces to the north of Louisiana , Texas and New Mexico .
The taxonomic identity of feral raccoons inhabiting Eurasia is unknown , as the founding populations consisted of uncategorized specimens from zoos and fur farms .
= = Description = =
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
Head to hindquarters , raccoons measure between 40 and 70 cm ( 16 and 28 in ) , not including the bushy tail which can measure between 20 and 40 cm ( 8 and 16 in ) , but is usually not much longer than 25 cm ( 10 in ) . The shoulder height is between 23 and 30 cm ( 9 and 12 in ) . The body weight of an adult raccoon varies considerably with habitat , making the raccoon one of the most variably sized mammals . It can range from 2 to 14 kilograms ( 4 to 30 lb ) , but is usually between 3 @.@ 5 and 9 kilograms ( 8 and 20 lb ) . The smallest specimens are found in southern Florida , while those near the northern limits of the raccoon 's range tend to be the largest ( see Bergmann 's rule ) . Males are usually 15 to 20 % heavier than females . At the beginning of winter , a raccoon can weigh twice as much as in spring because of fat storage . The largest recorded wild raccoon weighed 28 @.@ 4 kg ( 62 @.@ 6 lb ) and measured 140 cm ( 55 in ) in total length , by far the largest size recorded for a procyonid .
The most characteristic physical feature of the raccoon is the area of black fur around the eyes , which contrasts sharply with the surrounding white face coloring . This is reminiscent of a " bandit 's mask " and has thus enhanced the animal 's reputation for mischief . The slightly rounded ears are also bordered by white fur . Raccoons are assumed to recognize the facial expression and posture of other members of their species more quickly because of the conspicuous facial coloration and the alternating light and dark rings on the tail . The dark mask may also reduce glare and thus enhance night vision . On other parts of the body , the long and stiff guard hairs , which shed moisture , are usually colored in shades of gray and , to a lesser extent , brown . Raccoons with a very dark coat are more common in the German population because individuals with such coloring were among those initially released to the wild . The dense underfur , which accounts for almost 90 % of the coat , insulates against cold weather and is composed of 2 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) long hairs .
The raccoon , whose method of locomotion is usually considered to be plantigrade , can stand on its hind legs to examine objects with its front paws . As raccoons have short legs compared to their compact torso , they are usually not able either to run quickly or jump great distances . Their top speed over short distances is 16 to 24 km / h ( 10 to 15 mph ) . Raccoons can swim with an average speed of about 5 km / h ( 3 mph ) and can stay in the water for several hours . For climbing down a tree headfirst — an unusual ability for a mammal of its size — a raccoon rotates its hind feet so they are pointing backwards . Raccoons have a dual cooling system to regulate their temperature ; that is , they are able to both sweat and pant for heat dissipation .
Raccoon skulls have a short and wide facial region and a voluminous braincase . The facial length of the skull is less than the cranial , and their nasal bones are short and quite broad . The auditory bullae are inflated in form , and the sagittal crest is weakly developed . The dentition — 40 teeth with the dental formula : 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 23 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 2 — is adapted to their omnivorous diet : the carnassials are not as sharp and pointed as those of a full @-@ time carnivore , but the molars are not as wide as those of a herbivore . The penis bone of males is about 10 cm ( 4 in ) long and strongly bent at the front end . Juvenile males are distinguished from mature males by the shape and extrusibility of their penis bones . Seven of the thirteen identified vocal calls are used in communication between the mother and her kits , one of these being the birdlike twittering of newborns .
= = = Senses = = =
The most important sense for the raccoon is its sense of touch . The " hyper sensitive " front paws are protected by a thin horny layer which becomes pliable when wet . The five digits of the paws have no webbing between them , which is unusual for a carnivoran . Almost two @-@ thirds of the area responsible for sensory perception in the raccoon 's cerebral cortex is specialized for the interpretation of tactile impulses , more than in any other studied animal . They are able to identify objects before touching them with vibrissae located above their sharp , nonretractable claws . The raccoon 's paws lack an opposable thumb ; thus , it does not have the agility of the hands of primates . There is no observed negative effect on tactile perception when a raccoon stands in water below 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) for hours .
Raccoons are thought to be color blind or at least poorly able to distinguish color , though their eyes are well @-@ adapted for sensing green light . Although their accommodation of 11 dioptre is comparable to that of humans and they see well in twilight because of the tapetum lucidum behind the retina , visual perception is of subordinate importance to raccoons because of their poor long @-@ distance vision . In addition to being useful for orientation in the dark , their sense of smell is important for intraspecific communication . Glandular secretions ( usually from their anal glands ) , urine and feces are used for marking . With their broad auditory range , they can perceive tones up to 50 – 85 kHz as well as quiet noises , like those produced by earthworms underground .
= = = Intelligence = = =
Zoologist Clinton Hart Merriam described raccoons as " clever beasts " , and that " in certain directions their cunning surpasses that of the fox . " The animal 's intelligence gave rise to the epithet " sly coon " . Only a few studies have been undertaken to determine the mental abilities of raccoons , most of them based on the animal 's sense of touch . In a study by the ethologist H. B. Davis in 1908 , raccoons were able to open 11 of 13 complex locks in fewer than 10 tries and had no problems repeating the action when the locks were rearranged or turned upside down . Davis concluded they understood the abstract principles of the locking mechanisms and their learning speed was equivalent to that of rhesus macaques . Studies in 1963 , 1973 , 1975 and 1992 concentrated on raccoon memory showed they can remember the solutions to tasks for up to three years . In a study by B. Pohl in 1992 , raccoons were able to instantly differentiate between identical and different symbols three years after the short initial learning phase . Stanislas Dehaene reports in his book The Number Sense raccoons can distinguish boxes containing two or four grapes from those containing three .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social behavior = = =
Studies in the 1990s by the ethologists Stanley D. Gehrt and Ulf Hohmann suggest that raccoons engage in gender @-@ specific social behaviors and are not typically solitary , as was previously thought . Related females often live in a so @-@ called " fission @-@ fusion society " , that is , they share a common area and occasionally meet at feeding or resting grounds . Unrelated males often form loose male social groups to maintain their position against foreign males during the mating season — or against other potential invaders . Such a group does not usually consist of more than four individuals . Since some males show aggressive behavior towards unrelated kits , mothers will isolate themselves from other raccoons until their kits are big enough to defend themselves . With respect to these three different modes of life prevalent among raccoons , Hohmann called their social structure a " three class society " . Samuel I. Zeveloff , professor of zoology at Weber State University and author of the book Raccoons : A Natural History , is more cautious in his interpretation and concludes at least the females are solitary most of the time and , according to Erik K. Fritzell 's study in North Dakota in 1978 , males in areas with low population densities are solitary as well .
The shape and size of a raccoon 's home range varies depending on age , sex , and habitat , with adults claiming areas more than twice as large as juveniles . While the size of home ranges in the inhospitable habitat of North Dakota 's prairies lie between 7 and 50 km2 ( 3 and 20 sq mi ) for males and between 2 and 16 km2 ( 1 and 6 sq mi ) for females , the average size in a marsh at Lake Erie was 0 @.@ 5 km2 ( 0 @.@ 19 sq mi ) . Irrespective of whether the home ranges of adjacent groups overlap , they are most likely not actively defended outside the mating season if food supplies are sufficient . Odor marks on prominent spots are assumed to establish home ranges and identify individuals . Urine and feces left at shared raccoon latrines may provide additional information about feeding grounds , since raccoons were observed to meet there later for collective eating , sleeping and playing .
Concerning the general behavior patterns of raccoons , Gehrt points out that " typically you 'll find 10 to 15 percent that will do the opposite " of what is expected .
= = = Diet = = =
Though usually nocturnal , the raccoon is sometimes active in daylight to take advantage of available food sources . Its diet consists of about 40 % invertebrates , 33 % plant material and 27 % vertebrates . Since its diet consists of such a variety of different foods , Zeveloff argues the raccoon " may well be one of the world 's most omnivorous animals " . While its diet in spring and early summer consists mostly of insects , worms , and other animals already available early in the year , it prefers fruits and nuts , such as acorns and walnuts , which emerge in late summer and autumn , and represent a rich calorie source for building up fat needed for winter . Contrary to popular belief , raccoons only occasionally eat active or large prey , such as birds and mammals . They prefer prey that is easier to catch , specifically fish , amphibians and bird eggs . When food is plentiful , raccoons can develop strong individual preferences for specific foods . In the northern parts of their range , raccoons go into a winter rest , reducing their activity drastically as long as a permanent snow cover makes searching for food impossible .
= = = Dousing = = =
One aspect of raccoon behavior is so well known that it gives the animal part of its scientific name , Procyon lotor ; " lotor " is neo @-@ Latin for " washer " . In the wild , raccoons often dabble for underwater food near the shore @-@ line . They then often pick up the food item with their front paws to examine it and rub the item , sometimes to remove unwanted parts . This gives the appearance of the raccoon " washing " the food . The tactile sensitivity of raccoons ' paws is increased if this rubbing action is performed underwater , since the water softens the hard layer covering the paws . However , the behavior observed in captive raccoons in which they carry their food to water to " wash " or douse it before eating has not been observed in the wild . Naturalist Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon , believed that raccoons do not have adequate saliva production to moisten food thereby necessitating dousing , but this hypothesis is now considered to be incorrect . Captive raccoons douse their food more frequently when a watering hole with a layout similar to a stream is not farther away than 3 m ( 10 ft ) . The widely accepted theory is that dousing in captive raccoons is a fixed action pattern from the dabbling behavior performed when foraging at shores for aquatic foods . This is supported by the observation that aquatic foods are doused more frequently . Cleaning dirty food does not seem to be a reason for " washing " . Experts have cast doubt on the veracity of observations of wild raccoons dousing food .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Raccoons usually mate in a period triggered by increasing daylight between late January and mid @-@ March . However , there are large regional differences which are not completely explicable by solar conditions . For example , while raccoons in southern states typically mate later than average , the mating season in Manitoba also peaks later than usual in March and extends until June . During the mating season , males restlessly roam their home ranges in search of females in an attempt to court them during the three- to four @-@ day period when conception is possible . These encounters will often occur at central meeting places . Copulation , including foreplay , can last over an hour and is repeated over several nights . The weaker members of a male social group also are assumed to get the opportunity to mate , since the stronger ones cannot mate with all available females . In a study in southern Texas during the mating seasons from 1990 to 1992 , about one third of all females mated with more than one male . If a female does not become pregnant or if she loses her kits early , she will sometimes become fertile again 80 to 140 days later .
After usually 63 to 65 days of gestation ( although anywhere from 54 to 70 days is possible ) , a litter of typically two to five young is born . The average litter size varies widely with habitat , ranging from 2 @.@ 5 in Alabama to 4 @.@ 8 in North Dakota . Larger litters are more common in areas with a high mortality rate , due , for example , to hunting or severe winters . While male yearlings usually reach their sexual maturity only after the main mating season , female yearlings can compensate for high mortality rates and may be responsible for about 50 % of all young born in a year . Males have no part in raising young . The kits ( also called " cubs " ) are blind and deaf at birth , but their mask is already visible against their light fur . The birth weight of the about 10 cm ( 4 in ) -long kits is between 60 and 75 g ( 2 @.@ 1 and 2 @.@ 6 oz ) . Their ear canals open after around 18 to 23 days , a few days before their eyes open for the first time . Once the kits weigh about 1 kg ( 2 lb ) , they begin to explore outside the den , consuming solid food for the first time after six to nine weeks . After this point , their mother suckles them with decreasing frequency ; they are usually weaned by 16 weeks . In the fall , after their mother has shown them dens and feeding grounds , the juvenile group splits up . While many females will stay close to the home range of their mother , males can sometimes move more than 20 km ( 12 mi ) away . This is considered an instinctive behavior , preventing inbreeding . However , mother and offspring may share a den during the first winter in cold areas .
= = = Life expectancy = = =
Captive raccoons have been known to live for more than 20 years . However , the species ' life expectancy in the wild is only 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 years , depending on the local conditions in terms of traffic volume , hunting , and weather severity . It is not unusual for only half of the young born in one year to survive a full year . After this point , the annual mortality rate drops to between 10 % and 30 % . Young raccoons are vulnerable to losing their mother and to starvation , particularly in long and cold winters . The most frequent natural cause of death in the North American raccoon population is distemper , which can reach epidemic proportions and kill most of a local raccoon population . In areas with heavy vehicular traffic and extensive hunting , these factors can account for up to 90 % of all deaths of adult raccoons . Due to a broad range of range overlap with these predators , the most important natural predators of the raccoon are bobcats , coyotes , and great horned owls , the latter mainly preying on young raccoons but capable of killing adults in some cases . In Florida , they have been reported to fall victim to larger carnivores like American black bear and cougars and these species may also be a threat on occasion in other areas . Also in the southeast , they are among the favored prey for adult American alligators . On occasion , both bald and golden eagles will prey on raccoons . In rare cases of overlap , they may fall victim from carnivores ranging from species averaging smaller than themselves such as fishers to those as large and formidable as jaguars in Mexico . In their introduced range in the former Soviet Union , their main predators are wolves , lynxes and eagle owls . However , predation is not a significant cause of death , especially because larger predators have been exterminated in many areas inhabited by raccoons .
= = Range = =
= = = Habitat = = =
Although they have thrived in sparsely wooded areas in the last decades , raccoons depend on vertical structures to climb when they feel threatened . Therefore , they avoid open terrain and areas with high concentrations of beech trees , as beech bark is too smooth to climb . Tree hollows in old oaks or other trees and rock crevices are preferred by raccoons as sleeping , winter and litter dens . If such dens are unavailable or accessing them is inconvenient , raccoons use burrows dug by other mammals , dense undergrowth or tree crotches . In a study in the Solling range of hills in Germany , more than 60 % of all sleeping places were used only once , but those used at least ten times accounted for about 70 % of all uses . Since amphibians , crustaceans , and other animals found around the shore of lakes and rivers are an important part of the raccoon 's diet , lowland deciduous or mixed forests abundant with water and marshes sustain the highest population densities . While population densities range from 0 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 2 animals per square kilometer ( 1 @.@ 3 to 8 @.@ 3 animals per square mile ) in prairies and do not usually exceed 6 animals per square kilometer ( 15 @.@ 5 animals per square mile ) in upland hardwood forests , more than 20 raccoons per square kilometer ( 51 @.@ 8 animals per square mile ) can live in lowland forests and marshes .
= = = Distribution in North America = = =
Raccoons are common throughout North America from Canada to Panama , where the subspecies Procyon lotor pumilus coexists with the crab @-@ eating raccoon ( Procyon cancrivorus ) . The population on Hispaniola was exterminated as early as 1513 by Spanish colonists who hunted them for their meat . Raccoons were also exterminated in Cuba and Jamaica , where the last sightings were reported in 1687 . When they were still considered separate species , the Bahamas raccoon , Guadeloupe raccoon and Tres Marias raccoon were classified as endangered by the IUCN in 1996 .
There is evidence that in pre @-@ Columbian times raccoons were numerous only along rivers and in the woodlands of the Southeastern United States . As raccoons were not mentioned in earlier reports of pioneers exploring the central and north @-@ central parts of the United States , their initial spread may have begun a few decades before the 20th century . Since the 1950s , raccoons have expanded their range from Vancouver Island — formerly the northernmost limit of their range — far into the northern portions of the four south @-@ central Canadian provinces . New habitats which have recently been occupied by raccoons ( aside from urban areas ) include mountain ranges , such as the Western Rocky Mountains , prairies and coastal marshes . After a population explosion starting in the 1940s , the estimated number of raccoons in North America in the late 1980s was 15 to 20 times higher than in the 1930s , when raccoons were comparatively rare . Urbanization , the expansion of agriculture , deliberate introductions , and the extermination of natural predators of the raccoon have probably caused this increase in abundance and distribution .
= = = Distribution outside North America = = =
As a result of escapes and deliberate introductions in the mid @-@ 20th century , the raccoon is now distributed in several European and Asian countries . Sightings have occurred in all the countries bordering Germany , which hosts the largest population outside of North America . Another stable population exists in northern France , where several pet raccoons were released by members of the U.S. Air Force near the Laon @-@ Couvron Air Base in 1966 . Furthermore , raccoons have been known to be in the area around Madrid since the early 1970s . In 2013 the city authorized " the capture and death of any specimen " found . It is also present in Italy , with one reproductive population in Lombardy .
About 1 @,@ 240 animals were released in nine regions of the former Soviet Union between 1936 and 1958 for the purpose of establishing a population to be hunted for their fur . Two of these introductions were successful — one in the south of Belarus between 1954 and 1958 , and another in Azerbaijan between 1941 and 1957 . With a seasonal harvest of between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 500 animals , in 1974 the estimated size of the population distributed in the Caucasus region was around 20 @,@ 000 animals and the density was four animals per square kilometer ( 10 animals per square mile ) .
= = = = Distribution in Japan = = = =
In Japan , up to 1 @,@ 500 raccoons were imported as pets each year after the success of the anime series Rascal the Raccoon ( 1977 ) . In 2004 , the descendants of discarded or escaped animals lived in 42 of 47 prefectures . The population of raccoons in Japan grew from 17 prefectures in 2000 to all 47 prefectures in 2008 .
= = = = Distribution in Germany = = = =
In Germany — where the raccoon is called the Waschbär ( literally , " wash @-@ bear " or " washing bear " ) due to its habit of " dousing " food in water — two pairs of pet raccoons were released into the German countryside at the Edersee reservoir in the north of Hesse in April 1934 by a forester upon request of their owner , a poultry farmer . He released them two weeks before receiving permission from the Prussian hunting office to " enrich the fauna . " Several prior attempts to introduce raccoons in Germany were not successful . A second population was established in eastern Germany in 1945 when 25 raccoons escaped from a fur farm at Wolfshagen , east of Berlin , after an air strike . The two populations are parasitologically distinguishable : 70 % of the raccoons of the Hessian population are infected with the roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis , but none of the Brandenburgian population has the parasite . The estimated number of raccoons was 285 animals in the Hessian region in 1956 , over 20 @,@ 000 animals in the Hessian region in 1970 and between 200 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 animals in the whole of Germany in 2008 . By 2012 it was estimated that Germany now had more than a million raccoons .
The raccoon was a protected species in Germany , but has been declared a game animal in 14 states since 1954 . Hunters and environmentalists argue the raccoon spreads uncontrollably , threatens protected bird species and supersedes domestic carnivorans . This view is opposed by the zoologist Frank @-@ Uwe Michler , who finds no evidence a high population density of raccoons has negative effects on the biodiversity of an area . Hohmann holds that extensive hunting cannot be justified by the absence of natural predators , because predation is not a significant cause of death in the North American raccoon population .
= = = = Distribution in the former USSR = = = =
Experiments in acclimatising raccoons into the USSR began in 1936 , and were repeated a further 25 times until 1962 . Overall , 1 @,@ 222 individuals were released , 64 of which came from zoos and fur farms ( 38 of them having been imports from western Europe ) . The remainder originated from a population previously established in Transcaucasia . The range of Soviet raccoons was never single or continuous , as they were often introduced to different locations far from each other . All introductions into the Russian Far East failed ; melanistic raccoons were released on Petrov Island near Vladivostok and some areas of southern Primorsky Krai , but died . In Middle Asia , raccoons were released in Kyrgyzstan 's Jalal @-@ Abad Province , though they were later recorded as " practically absent " there in January 1963 . A large and stable raccoon population ( yielding 1000 – 1500 catches a year ) was established in Azerbaijan after an introduction to the area in 1937 . Raccoons apparently survived an introduction near Terek , along the Sulak River into the Dagestani lowlands . Attempts to settle raccoons on the Kuban River 's left tributary and Kabardino @-@ Balkaria were unsuccessful . A successful acclimatization occurred in Belarus , where three introductions ( consisting of 52 , 37 and 38 individuals in 1954 and 1958 ) took place . By January 1 , 1963 , 700 individuals were recorded in the country .
= = = Urban raccoons = = =
Due to its adaptability , the raccoon has been able to use urban areas as a habitat . The first sightings were recorded in a suburb of Cincinnati in the 1920s . Since the 1950s , raccoons have been present in metropolitan areas like Washington , DC , Chicago , and Toronto . Since the 2010s , a nuisance population of raccoons has been present in Albuquerque , New Mexico . Since the 1960s , Kassel has hosted Europe 's first and densest population in a large urban area , with about 50 to 150 animals per square kilometer ( 130 to 390 animals per square mile ) , a figure comparable to those of urban habitats in North America . Home range sizes of urban raccoons are only 3 to 40 hectares ( 7 @.@ 5 to 100 acres ) for females and 8 to 80 hectares ( 20 to 200 acres ) for males . In small towns and suburbs , many raccoons sleep in a nearby forest after foraging in the settlement area . Fruit and insects in gardens and leftovers in municipal waste are easily available food sources . Furthermore , a large number of additional sleeping areas exist in these areas , such as hollows in old garden trees , cottages , garages , abandoned houses , and attics . The percentage of urban raccoons sleeping in abandoned or occupied houses varies from 15 % in Washington , DC ( 1991 ) to 43 % in Kassel ( 2003 ) .
= = Health = =
Raccoons can carry rabies , a lethal disease caused by the neurotropic rabies virus carried in the saliva and transmitted by bites . Its spread began in Florida and Georgia in the 1950s and was facilitated by the introduction of infected individuals to Virginia and North Dakota in the late 1970s . Of the 6 @,@ 940 documented rabies cases reported in the United States in 2006 , 2 @,@ 615 ( 37 @.@ 7 % ) were in raccoons . The U.S. Department of Agriculture , as well as local authorities in several U.S. states and Canadian provinces , has developed oral vaccination programs to fight the spread of the disease in endangered populations . Only one human fatality has been reported after transmission of the rabies virus strain commonly known as " raccoon rabies " . Among the main symptoms for rabies in raccoons are a generally sickly appearance , impaired mobility , abnormal vocalization , and aggressiveness . There may be no visible signs at all , however , and most individuals do not show the aggressive behavior seen in infected canids ; rabid raccoons will often retire to their dens instead . Organizations like the U.S. Forest Service encourage people to stay away from animals with unusual behavior or appearance , and to notify the proper authorities , such as an animal control officer from the local health department . Since healthy animals , especially nursing mothers , will occasionally forage during the day , daylight activity is not a reliable indicator of illness in raccoons .
Unlike rabies and at least a dozen other pathogens carried by raccoons , distemper , an epizootic virus , does not affect humans . This disease is the most frequent natural cause of death in the North American raccoon population and affects individuals of all age groups . For example , 94 of 145 raccoons died during an outbreak in Clifton , Ohio , in 1968 . It may occur along with a following inflammation of the brain ( encephalitis ) , causing the animal to display rabies @-@ like symptoms . In Germany , the first eight cases of distemper were reported in 2007 .
Some of the most important bacterial diseases which affect raccoons are leptospirosis , listeriosis , tetanus , and tularemia . Although internal parasites weaken their immune systems , well @-@ fed individuals can carry a great many roundworms in their digestive tracts without showing symptoms . The larvae of the Baylisascaris procyonis roundworm , which can be contained in the feces and seldom causes a severe illness in humans , can be ingested when cleaning raccoon latrines without wearing breathing protection .
While not endemic , the Trichinella worm does infect raccoons , and undercooked raccoon meat has caused trichinosis in humans .
Trematode Metorchis conjunctus can also infect raccoons .
= = Raccoons and humans = =
= = = Conflicts = = =
The increasing number of raccoons in urban areas has resulted in diverse reactions in humans , ranging from outrage at their presence to deliberate feeding . Some wildlife experts and most public authorities caution against feeding wild animals because they might become increasingly obtrusive and dependent on humans as a food source . Other experts challenge such arguments and give advice on feeding raccoons and other wildlife in their books . Raccoons without a fear of humans are a concern to those who attribute this trait to rabies , but scientists point out this behavior is much more likely to be a behavioral adjustment to living in habitats with regular contact to humans for many generations . Raccoons usually do not prey on domestic cats and dogs , but individual cases of killings have been reported . Attacks on pets may also target their owners .
While overturned waste containers and raided fruit trees are just a nuisance to homeowners , it can cost several thousand dollars to repair damage caused by the use of attic space as dens . Relocating or killing raccoons without a permit is forbidden in many urban areas on grounds of animal welfare . These methods usually only solve problems with particularly wild or aggressive individuals , since adequate dens are either known to several raccoons or will quickly be rediscovered . Loud noises , flashing lights and unpleasant odors have proven particularly effective in driving away a mother and her kits before they would normally leave the nesting place ( when the kits are about eight weeks old ) . Typically , though , only precautionary measures to restrict access to food waste and den sites are effective in the long term .
Among all fruits and crops cultivated in agricultural areas , sweet corn in its milk stage is particularly popular among raccoons . In a two @-@ year study by Purdue University researchers , published in 2004 , raccoons were responsible for 87 % of the damage to corn plants . Like other predators , raccoons searching for food can break into poultry houses to feed on chickens , ducks , their eggs , or feed .
Since raccoons in high mortality areas have a higher rate of reproduction , extensive hunting may not solve problems with raccoon populations . Older males also claim larger home ranges than younger ones , resulting in a lower population density .
= = = Mythology , arts , and entertainment = = =
In the mythology of the indigenous peoples of the Americas , the raccoon is the subject of folk tales . Stories such as " How raccoons catch so many crayfish " from the Tuscarora centered on its skills at foraging . In other tales , the raccoon played the role of the trickster which outsmarts other animals , like coyotes and wolves . Among others , the Dakota Sioux believe the raccoon has natural spirit powers , since its mask resembled the facial paintings , two @-@ fingered swashes of black and white , used during rituals to connect to spirit beings . The Aztecs linked supernatural abilities especially to females , whose commitment to their young was associated with the role of wise women in their society .
The raccoon also appears in Native American art across a wide geographic range . Petroglyphs with engraved raccoon tracks were found in Lewis Canyon , Texas ; at the Crow Hollow petroglyph site in Grayson County , Kentucky ; and in river drainages near Tularosa , New Mexico and San Francisco , California . A true @-@ to @-@ detail figurine made of quartz , the Ohio Mound Builders ' Stone Pipe , was found near the Scioto River . The meaning and significance of the Raccoon Priests Gorget , which features a stylized carving of a raccoon and was found at the Spiro Mounds , Oklahoma , remains unknown .
In Western culture , several autobiographical novels about living with a raccoon have been written , mostly for children . The best @-@ known is Sterling North 's Rascal , which recounts how he raised a kit during World War I. In recent years , anthropomorphic raccoons played main roles in the animated television series The Raccoons , the computer @-@ animated film Over the Hedge , the live action film Guardians of the Galaxy and the video game series Sly Cooper .
= = = Hunting and fur trade = = =
The fur of raccoons is used for clothing , especially for coats and coonskin caps . At present , it is the material used for the inaccurately named " sealskin " cap worn by the Royal Fusiliers of Great Britain . Historically , Native American tribes not only used the fur for winter clothing , but also used the tails for ornament . The famous Sioux leader Spotted Tail took his name from a raccoon skin hat with the tail attached he acquired from a fur trader . Since the late 18th century , various types of scent hounds , called " coonhounds " , which are able to tree animals have been bred in the United States . In the 19th century , when coonskins occasionally even served as means of payment , several thousand raccoons were killed each year in the United States . This number rose quickly when automobile coats became popular after the turn of the 20th century . In the 1920s , wearing a raccoon coat was regarded as status symbol among college students . Attempts to breed raccoons in fur farms in the 1920s and 1930s in North America and Europe turned out not to be profitable , and farming was abandoned after prices for long @-@ haired pelts dropped in the 1940s . Although raccoons had become rare in the 1930s , at least 388 @,@ 000 were killed during the hunting season of 1934 / 35 .
After persistent population increases began in the 1940s , the seasonal hunt reached about one million animals in 1946 / 47 and two million in 1962 / 63 . The broadcast of three television episodes about the frontiersman Davy Crockett and the film Davy Crockett , King of the Wild Frontier in 1954 and 1955 led to a high demand for coonskin caps in the United States , although it is unlikely either Crockett or the actor who played him , Fess Parker , actually wore a cap made from raccoon fur . The seasonal hunt reached an all @-@ time high with 5 @.@ 2 million animals in 1976 / 77 and ranged between 3 @.@ 2 and 4 @.@ 7 million for most of the 1980s . In 1982 , the average pelt price was $ 20 . As of 1987 , the raccoon was identified as the most important wild furbearer in North America in terms of revenue . In the first half of the 1990s , the seasonal hunt dropped to 0 @.@ 9 from 1 @.@ 9 million due to decreasing pelt prices .
While primarily hunted for their fur , raccoons were also a source of food for Native Americans and early American settlers . According to Ernest Thompson Seton , young specimens killed without a fight are palatable , whereas old raccoons caught after a lengthy battle are inedible . Raccoon meat was extensively eaten during the early years of California , where it was sold in the San Francisco market for $ 1 – 3 apiece . American slaves occasionally ate raccoon at Christmas , but it was not necessarily a dish of the poor or rural . The first edition of The Joy of Cooking , released in 1931 , contained a recipe for preparing raccoon , and US President Calvin Coolidge 's pet raccoon Rebecca was originally sent to be served at the White House Thanksgiving Dinner . Although the idea of eating raccoons seems repulsive to most mainstream consumers since they see them as endearing , cute , and / or vermin , several thousand raccoons are still eaten each year in the United States .
= = = Pet raccoons = = =
Raccoons are sometimes kept as pets , which is discouraged by many experts because the raccoon is not a domesticated species . Raccoons may act unpredictably and aggressively and it is usually impossible to teach them to obey commands . In places where keeping raccoons as pets is not forbidden , such as in Wisconsin and other U.S. states , an exotic pet permit may be required .
Their propensity for unruly behavior exceeds that of captive skunks , and are even less trustworthy when allowed to roam freely . Because of their intelligence and nimble forelimbs , even inexperienced raccoons are easily capable of unscrewing jars , uncorking bottles and opening door latches , with more experienced specimens having been recorded to open door knobs . Sexually mature raccoons often show aggressive natural behaviors such as biting during the mating season . Neutering them at around five or six months of age decreases the chances of aggressive behavior developing . Raccoons can become obese and suffer from other disorders due to poor diet and lack of exercise . When fed with cat food over a long time period , raccoons can develop gout . With respect to the research results regarding their social behavior , it is now required by law in Austria and Germany to keep at least two individuals to prevent loneliness . Raccoons are usually kept in a pen ( indoor or outdoor ) , also a legal requirement in Austria and Germany , rather than in the apartment where their natural curiosity may result in damage to property .
When orphaned , it is possible for kits to be rehabilitated and reintroduced to the wild . However , it is uncertain whether they readapt well to life in the wild . Feeding unweaned kits with cow 's milk rather than a kitten replacement milk or a similar product can be dangerous to their health .
= = = Local and indigenous names = = =
= Vince 's Devils =
Vince 's Devils ( originally known as Ladies in Pink ) was a villainous alliance of female professional wrestlers in World Wrestling Entertainment on its Raw brand . It consisted of Divas Candice Michelle , Torrie Wilson , and Victoria . The women formed their alliance in August 2005 after Wilson and Michelle were traded to Raw from SmackDown ! . Vince 's Devils , named after WWE Chairman Vince McMahon , helped each other in their matches and rivalries until tension began growing between Wilson and Candice Michelle over the latter 's April 2006 Playboy pictorial . The group had officially split by March 2006 .
= = History = =
= = = Debut = = =
In August 2005 , in a trade un @-@ aired on television , SmackDown ! Divas Torrie Wilson and Candice Michelle were traded to Raw for Raw Divas Stacy Keibler and Christy Hemme , who were moved to SmackDown ! . During their debut , the duo of Torrie and Candice began a new storyline when they called Diva Search 2005 winner Ashley Massaro to ringside to congratulate her for winning the competition , but instead they taunted and attacked her , becoming villains in the process . The next week , Torrie and Candice recruited the evil Victoria to join them , and the three began harassing Massaro on a regular basis . They also taunted and embarrassed her during matches .
= = = Feuds = = =
When Trish Stratus made her return from a legitimate back injury on September 12 , she became a fan favorite by joining forces with Massaro . At Unforgiven , Victoria and Wilson lost a match against Stratus and Massaro . At WWE Homecoming , they lost again in a Bra and Panties Handicap match when they were stripped by their opponents .
For several weeks afterward , Wilson was absent from television due to personal issues she had to attend to off @-@ screen . On November 28 , Wilson returned to the group to participate in a six @-@ woman tag team match . Wilson 's dog Chloe became an official member of the group on December 26 when she interfered in one of Victoria 's matches and became the first dog to have her own WWE.com profile . At Taboo Tuesday in November , Candice Michelle was eliminated from the Fulfill Your Fantasy Battle Royal for the WWE Women 's Championship by former rival Ashley Massaro .
On the January 2 episode of Raw , the Ladies in Pink turned their attention to backstage announcer Maria Kanellis , blaming her for Victoria 's loss in a match . Victoria announced to Maria that they had a match scheduled that night and proceeded to attack her before the bell . Although Victoria seemed to have the advantage in the match , which included interference from Wilson and Chloe , Victoria was pinned after she attempted an offensive maneuver but missed and ran into the turnbuckle , allowing Maria to pin her . After the match , Candice Michelle , Wilson , and Victoria attacked Maria until Ashley Massaro ran down to the ring to assist Maria . The conflict between the Divas caused the Chairman , Vince McMahon , to make a Bra and Panties Gauntlet match at New Year 's Revolution , which Massaro won when she eliminated Victoria by removing her shorts . The next night on Raw , the Ladies in Pink announced that they had changed the name of their alliance to Vince 's Devils . The storyline rivalry with Massaro continued on the January 23 episode of Raw , when Victoria and Candice Michelle were defeated by Trish Stratus and Massaro in a tag team match . At the Royal Rumble on January 30 , the three women were shown in backstage segments flirting with McMahon .
= = = Split = = =
By February , Candice Michelle had announced that she was going to be on the cover of the April edition of Playboy magazine , and tension began to grow between Candice Michelle and Torrie Wilson . After winning a number one contender 's Diva battle royal on Raw in which she first eliminated Wilson and then Mickie James and Ashley at the same time , Candice Michelle received her first singles WWE Women 's Championship match , but she lost to champion Trish Stratus on February 27 . After the match , Candice Michelle slapped Wilson , blaming her , in storyline , for the loss . As a result of the tension between the women , Wilson became a fan favorite , while Candice Michelle and Victoria continued to act as villains on @-@ screen .
On March 13 , during Victoria 's Women 's Championship match , Wilson ran down and gave Victoria a facebuster costing her the victory . Later in the broadcast , it had appeared that Candice Michelle and Victoria may have gotten their revenge as Trish Stratus found an unconscious Wilson laid out in the Divas ' Locker room with Candice 's Playboy magazine lying across Wilson . At WrestleMania 22 , Wilson gained revenge by defeating the evil Candice Michelle in a Playboy Pillow Fight match . On the June 12 episode of Raw , Wilson defeated Candice Michelle in the first ever Wet and Wild match , a wrestling match involving water balloons and squirt guns , in which the winner of the match would be on the cover of the WWE 2006 Summer Special magazine . After the match , the feuds and alliances between the women ended , and they continued to appear together in television segments with no mention of their time as former allies and enemies . On the July 17 episode of Raw , Candice was the Special Guest Referee during a tag team match of Stratus and Wilson against Victoria and Mickie . James entered the match without being tagged in , so Candice threw her out of the ring . Afterwards , Victoria tried to clothesline Candice , but she ducked out of the way , allowing Stratus to perform a Stratusfaction for the victory . As a result of her participation in the match , Candice became a face . Their allies between Candice and Victoria came to an end .
= = In wrestling = =
Double team finishing moves
Wilson and Michelle
Double DDT – performed by Torrie Wilson and Candice Michelle
Wilson 's finishing moves
Nose Job ( Sitout facebuster )
Victoria 's finishing moves
Widow 's Peak ( Gory neckbreaker )
Michelle 's finishing moves
Forward Russian legsweep
Michelle 's signature moves
Candylicious ( Hanging figure four necklock ) – performed by Candice Michelle
Chloe 's signature moves
Chloe Tush Push ( Stinkface )
= John Berry ( administrator ) =
Morrell John Berry ( born February 10 , 1959 ) is the United States Ambassador to Australia . He used to be director of the United States Office of Personnel Management .
Berry was born in Montgomery County , Maryland , to parents who worked for the federal government . He completed degrees at the University of Maryland , College Park and Syracuse University and worked in local government and as a legislative aide in state government from 1982 to 1985 . From 1985 to 1994 , he worked as legislative director for U.S. Representative Steny Hoyer . He held posts in the U.S. Treasury Department , the Smithsonian Institution , and the U.S. Department of the Interior until 2000 , and worked as director of the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation and the National Zoological Park until 2009 , when he was nominated by President Barack Obama as director of the United States Office of Personnel Management . Berry took office after being confirmed by the United States Senate in April 2009 .
In June 2013 , President Obama nominated Berry to replace Jeff Bleich as US ambassador to Australia . He was confirmed by unanimous consent of the US Senate in August 2013 .
= = Early life and education = =
Berry was born February 10 , 1959 , in Rockville , Montgomery County , Maryland , United States . His father served in the U.S. Marine Corps , his mother worked for the U.S. Census Bureau , and he has a brother and a sister . Berry graduated from high school in 1977 and finished a Bachelor of Arts in government and politics from the University of Maryland , College Park in 1980 . In 1981 , Berry graduated from Syracuse University with a Master of Public Administration .
= = Career = =
Berry served in management for the Montgomery County government from 1982 to 1984 and as staff director of the Maryland Senate Finance Committee from 1984 to 1985 . From 1985 to 1994 , he was legislative director for U.S. Representative Steny Hoyer , and associate staffer on the House Appropriations Committee . Berry assisted Hoyer on employment issues of the federal government , and played a leading role in negotiations that led to the Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990 , which established the locality pay system . From 1994 to 1995 , Berry served as Deputy Assistant Secretary and acting Assistant Secretary for Law Enforcement in the U.S. Treasury Department . From 1995 to 1997 , Berry worked as director of government relations and as senior policy advisor at the Smithsonian Institution .
= = Department of the Interior = =
Berry was appointed Assistant Secretary for Policy , Management and Budget at the U.S. Department of the Interior during the Clinton administration , serving from 1997 to 2001 . At the Interior Department , Berry improved credit union and continuing education options , oversaw the expansion of department programs to improve employees ' work @-@ life balance , and held town hall meetings with Interior employees and used their suggestions to upgrade a cafeteria and health center . These changes were partly funded through partnerships with federal employees , unions and other agencies to reduce costs for the department . Berry worked to create a complaint procedure for employees who experience discrimination because of their sexual orientation , to expand relocation benefits and counseling services to domestic partners of employees , to establish a liaison to gay and lesbian workers , and to eliminate discriminatory provisions of the National Park Service 's law enforcement standards . He helped establish an office supply store for Interior employees , which he staffed with disabled workers . Berry oversaw one of the largest budgetary increases in the department 's history .
In 2000 , Berry became director of the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation , where he worked with Interior Inspector General Earl Devaney to reconcile twenty years of financial records , improve management , and conserve wildlife habitat through public @-@ private partnerships . Berry was appointed from October 1 , 2005 , to serve as director of the National Zoo , which had been found to have shortcomings in record keeping and maintenance . Berry created a strategic planning and modernization process for the zoo . This included a twenty @-@ year capital plan , securing $ 35 million in funding to provide for fire protection , and beginning renovations to animal houses .
The Berry Bastion , an Antarctic mountain , was named in his honor .
= = Office of Personnel Management = =
In 2008 , Berry was mentioned as a possible nominee for U.S. Secretary of the Interior , a position obtained by Ken Salazar . President Barack Obama announced his intention to nominate Berry as director of the Office of Personnel Management on March 3 , 2009 , and did so on March 4 . The nomination hearing before the Senate Homeland Security Committee on March 26 , 2009 , led to expectation of easy confirmation for Berry , despite opposition from conservative activists based on Berry 's homosexuality . In the hearing Berry stated he supported any effective employee compensation system , but that the federal government had the obligation to give employees with comparable job performances similar pay and treatment . He pledged to preserve veterans preference and supplement it with training programs to prepare veterans for federal jobs , and promised reviews of proposals to improve the security clearance and hiring processes . Berry emphasized the importance for agencies to use all recruitment tools , citing relocation benefits that could keep agencies competitive with the private sector , and stated he would create a strategic plan and set performance goals for the Office of Personnel Management . Berry had stated support for benefits for same @-@ sex partners of federal employees and a repeal of the Defense of Marriage Act .
The Senate confirmed Berry on April 3 , 2009 , and he was sworn in April 13 as the first agency director in the Obama administration with all senior staff in place . The ceremonial swearing in on April 23 was attended by First Lady Michelle Obama . Berry has been , according to the Human Rights Campaign , the highest @-@ ranking openly gay official to serve in the executive branch in any U.S. administration .
= = U.S. Ambassador to Australia = =
In June 2013 , President Obama nominated Berry to be the US ambassador to Australia , the first openly gay U.S. ambassador to a G @-@ 20 nation . On August 1 , 2013 , the United States Senate confirmed Berry by unanimous consent . Australian media coverage of Berry 's appointment has been overwhelmingly positive with a video he posted to the US Embassy website being described as the " friendliest introduction video in diplomatic history " while Berry himself was described as " modest " , with an " impressive record " . Federal News Radio , in the US , reported that , " more than 200 people had posted responses " to the video , " most of which were warm and cordial " .
= = Personal life = =
Before being appointed as ambassador to Australia Berry lived in Washington , D.C. Berry is openly gay . On August 10 , 2013 , he married Curtis Yee , his partner for 17 years , at St Margaret 's Episcopal Church in Washington .
= The Iron Giant =
The Iron Giant is a 1999 American animated science fiction comedy @-@ drama film using both traditional animation and computer animation , produced by Warner Bros. Feature Animation and directed by Brad Bird in his directorial debut . It is based on the 1968 novel The Iron Man by Ted Hughes ( which was published in the United States as The Iron Giant ) and is scripted by Tim McCanlies . The film stars Eli Marienthal , Christopher McDonald , Jennifer Aniston , Harry Connick , Jr . , John Mahoney , and Vin Diesel . Set during the Cold War in 1957 , the film is about a young boy named Hogarth Hughes who discovers a giant metallic robot who fell from space . With the help of a beatnik artist named Dean McCoppin , they have to stop the U.S. military and a paranoid federal agent named Kent Mansley from finding and destroying the Giant .
The film 's development phase began in 1994 as a musical with the involvement of The Who 's Pete Townshend , though the project took root once Bird signed on as director and hired McCanlies to write the screenplay in 1996 . The film was created traditionally , with computer @-@ generated imagery used to animate the title character and other effects . The understaffed crew of the film completed it with half of the time and budget of other animated features . Michael Kamen produced the film 's score , recorded with the Czech Philharmonic .
Upon its release , the film saw wide critical acclaim from critics and audiences . It was nominated for several awards , winning nine Annie Awards . Despite this acclaim , the film significantly under @-@ performed at the box office , making $ 31 @.@ 3 million worldwide against a budget of $ 70 – 80 million , which was blamed on an unusually poor marketing campaign . Through home video releases and television syndication , the film gathered a cult following and is now widely regarded as a modern animated classic . In 2015 , an extended , remastered version of the film was re @-@ released theatrically .
= = Plot = =
In October 1957 , shortly after the Russian satellite Sputnik is put into orbit , an enormous robot from outer space crashes into the ocean near Rockwell , Maine . The robot makes its way inland and wanders into the forest . Nine @-@ year @-@ old Hogarth Hughes discovers the robot one night as it begins eating the powerlines of an electrical substation and electrocutes itself . Hogarth shuts down the power , saving the robot , and returns home . Several days later , Hogarth makes it his mission to find the robot and take a picture . After hours of waiting , the robot surprises Hogarth , who soon befriends him . Suffering amnesia , the Iron Giant accompanies Hogarth wherever he goes . When they come across a railroad , the Giant starts eating the rails . Hearing an oncoming train , Hogarth tells the Giant to repair the tracks . As he does , the train collides , breaking him into pieces . The Giant 's parts start to reassemble , and Hogarth hides the damaged robot in his house 's barn , where the parts can repair themselves .
Later , after dinner with his widowed mother Annie , Hogarth reads comic books to the Giant . The Giant is impressed with Superman , but discovers the comic ' Atomo the Metal Menace . ' Hogarth reassures the Giant , " you are who you choose to be " . In the meantime , U.S. government agent Kent Mansley arrives , discovering possible evidence of the Giant . Finding Hogarth 's BB gun near the substation , Mansley takes a room for rent at Hogarth 's home and follows the boy around , hoping to learn more . Hogarth evades Mansley and takes the Giant to the junkyard of Dean McCoppin , a beatnik who had earlier befriended Hogarth , for shelter . Hogarth soon had to discuss " death " with the Giant after they witness hunters shoot a stag in the forest . Paranoid about alien invasion , Mansley alerts the U.S. Army to the presence of the Giant . When he and General Kenneth Rogard , backed by Army troops , force the investigation , Dean reveals the robot disguised as his scrap @-@ metal artwork . Rogard admonishes Mansley and leaves . Later , Hogarth plays with the Giant using a toy gun , which automatically activates the Giant 's weaponry . Dean saves Hogarth and demands the Giant to leave . Thinking the Giant never meant any harm , Hogarth runs after him . Dean finds the toy gun and realizes the Giant was only reacting defensively . He catches Hogarth with his motorbike as the Giant reaches town .
In Rockwell , the Giant saves two boys from falling to their death , to the amazement of witnesses . The Army troops see the Giant , return , and attack while requesting Navy and Air Force support . The Giant flies away with Hogarth and even though being attacked by a USAF F @-@ 86 , the Giant kept his original programming from taking over . However , after he was shot down , the Giant mistakenly believes the unconscious Hogarth is dead . The Giant becomes both saddened and enraged over Hogarth 's death . He activates his energy weapons and battles the completely outmatched Army . Mansley lies to Rogard that the Giant killed Hogarth and suggests he can be destroyed at sea with a nuclear missile from the USS Nautilus . Hogarth wakes up and calms the Giant , causing him to deactivate his weapons . As Mansley keeps telling Rogard to attack , Dean says the Giant never harmed anyone . Seeing Hogarth alive , Rogard has the Army stand down , but before he can tell the Nautilus the same thing , a panicked Mansley grabs the walkie talkie and orders the missile launch without thinking . Furious , Rogard reminds Mansley that the missile , currently targeted on the Giant , will also kill them and everyone in Rockwell . When Mansley cowardly attempts to flee , the Giant stops him and the Army forces Mansley to stay and die with them . Hogarth tells the Giant of Rockwell 's impending fate and the Giant makes the decision to fly off , smiling to himself that he chooses to be Superman . The Giant intercepts the missile , causing a massive explosion high in the atmosphere . The townspeople and soldiers are all very relieved to have survived , but are saddened by the Giant 's apparent selfless sacrifice .
Sometime later , Annie and Dean are dating and Dean has built a statue in the park to honor the Giant . Hogarth receives a package from Rogard , a small bolt , the only piece of the Giant ever found . That night , Hogarth hears a familiar beeping coming from the bolt , which is trying to get out of the window . He opens the window to let the bolt out . Somewhere on the Langjökull Glacier in Iceland , parts of the Giant approach where his head rests . The Giant wakes up and smiles .
= = Voice cast = =
Eli Marienthal as Hogarth Hughes , an energetic and curious boy with an active imagination . Marienthal 's performances were videotaped and given to animators to work with , which helped develop expressions and acting for the character .
Christopher McDonald as Kent Mansley , a government agent sent to investigate sightings of the Iron Giant . The logo on his official government car says he is from the " Bureau of Unexplained Phenomena " .
Harry Connick , Jr. as Dean McCoppin , a beatnik artist and junkyard owner . Bird felt it appropriate to make the character a member of the beat generation , as they were viewed as mildly threatening to small @-@ town values during that time . An outsider himself , he is among the first to recognize the Giant as no threat .
Jennifer Aniston as Annie Hughes , the widow of a military pilot and Hogarth 's widow mother .
Vin Diesel as The Iron Giant , a fifty @-@ foot , metal @-@ eating robot . Created for an unknown purpose , the Giant involuntarily reacts defensively if he recognizes anything as a weapon , immediately attempting to destroy it . The Giant 's voice was originally to be electronically modulated but the filmmakers decided they " needed a deep , resonant and expressive voice to start with , " and were about to hire Peter Cullen , due to his history with voice acting robot characters , but due to Cullen 's unavailability at the time , Vin Diesel was hired instead .
John Mahoney as General Kenneth Rogard , the military leader in Washington , D.C. who strongly dislikes Mansley .
M. Emmet Walsh as Earl Stutz , a sailor and the first man to see the robot .
James Gammon as Marv Loach , a foreman who follows the robot 's trail after it destroys the power station .
Cloris Leachman as Mrs. Tensedge , Hogarth 's schoolteacher .
Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas as the train engineers . Johnston and Thomas were animators and members of Disney 's Nine Old Men . Bird cited them as inspirations for his career and incorporated their voices and likenesses into the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The origins of the film lie in the book The Iron Man ( 1968 ) , by poet Ted Hughes , who wrote the novel for his children . In the 1980s , rock musician Pete Townshend chose to adopt the book for a concept album ; it was released as The Iron Man : A Musical in 1989 . In 1991 , Richard Bazley , who later became the film 's lead animator , pitched a version of The Iron Man to Don Bluth while working at his studio in Ireland . He created a story outline and character designs but Bluth passed on the project . After a stage musical was mounted in London , Des McAnuff , who had adapted Tommy with Townshend for the stage , believed that The Iron Man could translate to the screen , and the project was ultimately acquired by Warner Bros. Entertainment .
In late 1996 , while developing the project on its way through , the studio saw the film as a perfect vehicle for Brad Bird , who at the time was working for Turner Feature Animation developing Ray Gunn . Turner Entertainment had recently merged with Warner Bros. parent company Time Warner , and Bird was allowed to transfer to the Warner Bros. Animation studio to direct The Iron Giant . After reading the original Iron Man book by Hughes , Bird was impressed with the mythology of the story and in addition , was given an unusual amount of creative control by Warner Bros. This creative control involved introducing two new characters not present in the original book , Dean and Kent , setting the film in America , and discarding Townshend 's musical ambitions ( who did not care either way , reportedly remarking , " Well , whatever , I got paid " ) . Bird 's pitch to Warner Bros. was based around the idea " What if a gun had a soul ? " He expanded upon his desire to set the film in America in the 1950s in a later interview :
Ted Hughes , the original story 's author , died before the film 's release . His daughter , Frieda Hughes , did see the finished film on his behalf and loved it . Pete Townshend , who this project originally started with , enjoyed the final film as well .
= = = Writing and direction = = =
Tim McCanlies was hired to write the script , though Bird was somewhat displeased with having another writer on board , as he wanted to write the screenplay himself . He later changed his mind after reading McCanlies ' then @-@ unproduced screenplay for Secondhand Lions . In Bird 's original story treatment , America and the USSR were at war at the end , with the Giant dying . McCanlies decided to have a brief scene displaying his survival , stating , " You can 't kill E.T. and then not bring him back . " McCanlies finished the script within two months . McCanlies was given a three @-@ month schedule to complete a script , and it was by way of the film 's tight schedule that Warner Bros. " didn 't have time to mess with us " as McCanlies said . The question of the Giant 's backstory was purposefully ignored as to keep the story focused on his relationship with Hogarth . Bird considered the story difficult to develop due to its combination of unusual elements , such as " paranoid fifties sci @-@ fi movies with the innocence of something like The Yearling . " Hughes himself was sent a copy of McCanlies ' script and sent a letter back , saying how pleased he was with the version . In the letter , Hughes stated , " I want to tell you how much I like what Brad Bird has done . He ’ s made something all of a piece , with terrific sinister gathering momentum and the ending came to me as a glorious piece of amazement . He ’ s made a terrific dramatic situation out of the way he ’ s developed The Iron Giant . I can ’ t stop thinking about it . "
Bird combined his knowledge from his years in television to direct his first feature . He credited his time working on Family Dog as essential to team @-@ building , and his tenure on The Simpsons as an example of working under strict deadlines . He was open to others on his staff to help develop the film ; he would often ask crew members their opinions on scenes and change things accordingly . One of his priorities was to emphasize softer , character @-@ based moments , as opposed to more frenetic scenes — something Bird thought was a problem with modern filmmaking . " There has to be activity or sound effects or cuts or music blaring . It 's almost as if the audience has the remote and they 're going to change channels , " he commented at the time . Storyboard artist Teddy Newton played an important role in shaping the film 's story . Newton 's first assignment on staff involved being asked by Bird to create a film within a film to reflect the " hygiene @-@ type movies that everyone saw when the bomb scare was happening . " Newton came to the conclusion that a musical number would be the catchiest alternative , and the " Duck and Cover sequence " came to become one of the crew members ' favorites of the film . Nicknamed " The X @-@ Factor " by story department head Jeffery Lynch , the producers gave him artistic freedom on various pieces of the film 's script .
= = = Animation = = =
The financial failure of Warner 's previous animated effort , Quest for Camelot , which made the studio reconsider animated films , helped shape The Iron Giant 's production considerably . " Three @-@ quarters " of the animation team on that team helped craft The Iron Giant . By the time it entered production , Warner Bros. informed the staff that there would be a smaller budget as well as time @-@ frame to get the film completed . Although the production was watched closely , Bird commented " They did leave us alone if we kept it in control and showed them we were producing the film responsibly and getting it done on time and doing stuff that was good . " Bird regarded the trade @-@ off as having " one @-@ third of the money of a Disney or DreamWorks film , and half of the production schedule , " but the payoff as having more creative freedom , describing the film as " fully @-@ made by the animation team ; I don 't think any other studio can say that to the level that we can . " A small part of the team took a weeklong research trip to Maine , where they photographed and videotaped five small cities . They hoped to accurately reflect its culture down to the minutiae ; " we shot store fronts , barns , forests , homes , home interiors , diners , every detail we could , including the bark on trees , " said production designer Mark Whiting .
Bird stuck to elaborate scene planning , such as detailed animatics , to make sure there were no budgetary concerns . The team initially worked with Macromedia 's Director software , before switching to Adobe After Effects full @-@ time . Bird was eager to use the then @-@ nascent software , as it allowed for storyboard to contain indications of camera moves . The software became essential to that team — dubbed " Macro " early on — to help the studio grasp story reels for the film . These also allowed Bird to better understand what the film required from an editing perspective . In the end , he was proud of the way the film was developed , noting that " We could imagine the pace and the unfolding of our film accurately with a relatively small expenditure of resources . " The group would gather in a screening room to view completed sequences , with Bird offering suggestions by drawing onto the screen with a marker . Lead animator Bazley suggested this led to a sense of camaraderie among the crew , who were unified in their mission to create a good film . Bird cited his favorite moment of the film 's production as occurring in the editing room , when the crew gathered to test a sequence in which the Giant learns what a soul is . " People in the room were spontaneously crying . It was pivotal ; there was an undeniable feeling that we were really tapping into something , " he recalled .
He opted to give the film 's animators portions to animate entirely , rather than the standard process of animating one character , in a throwback to the way Disney 's first features were created . The exception were those responsible for creating the Giant himself , who was created using computer @-@ generated imagery due to the difficulty of creating a metal object " in a fluid @-@ like manner . " They had additional trouble with using the computer model to express emotion . The Giant was designed by filmmaker Joe Johnston ( best known for designing the Star Wars trilogy ) , which was refined by production designer Mark Whiting and Steve Markowski , head animator for the Giant . Using software , the team would animate the Giant " on twos " ( every other frame , or twelve frames per second ) when interacting with other characters , to make it less obvious it was a computer model . Bird brought in students from CalArts to assist in minor animation work due to the film 's busy schedule . He made sure to spread out the work on scenes between experienced and younger animators , noting , " You overburden your strongest people and underburden the others [ if you let your top talent monopolize the best assignments ] . " Hiroki Itokazu designed all of the film 's CGI props and vehicles , which were created in a variety of software , including Alias Systems Corporation 's Maya , Alias ' PowerAnimator , a modified version of Pixar 's RenderMan , Cambridge Animation 's Animo ( now part of Toon Boom Animation ) , Avid Elastic Reality , and Adobe Photoshop .
The art of Norman Rockwell , Edward Hopper and N.C. Wyeth inspired the design . Whiting strove for colors both evocative of the time period in which the film is set but also representative of its emotional tone ; for example , Hogarth 's room is designed to reflect his " youth and sense of wonder . " That was blended with a style reminiscent of 1950s illustration . Animators studied Chuck Jones , Hank Ketcham , Al Hirschfeld and Disney films from that era , such as 101 Dalmatians , for inspiration in the film 's animation .
= = = Music = = =
The score for the film was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen . Bird 's original temp score , " a collection of Bernard Hermann cues from 50 's and 60 's sci @-@ fi films , " initially scared Kamen . Believing the sound of the orchestra is important to the feeling of the film , Kamen " decided to comb eastern Europe for an " old @-@ fashioned " sounding orchestra and went to Prague to hear Vladimir Ashkenazy conduct the Czech Philharmonic in Strauss 's An Alpine Symphony . " Eventually , the Czech Philharmonic was the orchestra used for the film 's score , with Bird describing the symphony orchestra as " an amazing collection of musicians . " The score for The Iron Giant was recorded in a rather unconventional manner , compared to most films : recorded over one week at the Rudolfinum in Prague , the music was recorded without conventional uses of syncing the music , in a method Kamen described in a 1999 interview as " [ being able to ] play the music as if it were a piece of classical repertoire . " Kamen 's score for The Iron Giant won the Annie Award for Music in an Animated Feature Production on November 6 , 1999 .
= = = Editing = = =
Bird opted to produce The Iron Giant in widescreen — specifically the wide 2 @.@ 39 : 1 CinemaScope aspect ratio — but was warned against doing so by his advisers . He felt it was appropriate to use the format , as many films from the late 1950s were produced in such widescreen formats . He hoped to include the CinemaScope logo on a poster , partially as a joke , but 20th Century Fox , owner of the trademark , refused .
Bird later recalled that he clashed with executives who wished to add characters , such as a sidekick dog , set the film in the present day , and include a soundtrack of hip hop . This was due to concerns that the film was not merchandisable , to which Bird responded , " If they were interested in telling the story , they should let it be what it wants to be . " The film was also initially going to feature the Warner Bros. Family Entertainment logo at the beginning of the movie , featuring mascot Bugs Bunny in a tuxedo . Bird was against this for a multitude of reasons , and eventually got confirmation that executives Bob Daley and Terry Semel agreed . Instead , Bird and his team developed another version of the logo to resemble the classic studio logo in a circle , famously employed in Looney Tunes shorts . He credited executives Lorenzo di Bonaventura and Courtney Vallenti with helping him achieve his vision , noting that they were open to his opinion .
According to a report from the time of its release , The Iron Giant cost $ 50 million to produce with an additional $ 30 million going towards marketing , though Box Office Mojo later calculated its budget as $ 70 million . It was regarded as a lower @-@ budget film , in comparison to the films distributed by Walt Disney Pictures .
= = Themes = =
The film is set in 1957 during a period of the Cold War characterized by escalation in tension between the United States and the Soviet Union . In 1957 , Sputnik was launched , raising the possibility of nuclear attack from space . Anti @-@ communism and the potential threat of nuclear destruction cultivated an atmosphere of fear and paranoia which also led to a proliferation of films about alien invasion . In one scene , Hogarth 's class is seen watching an animated film named Atomic Holocaust , based on Duck and Cover , an actual film that offered advice on how to survive if the USSR bombed the USA .
The film also deals with the concepts of nonviolence and individualism . When the Iron Giant sees a deer get killed by hunters , the Iron Giant notices two rifles discarded by the deer 's body . The Iron Giant 's eyes turn red showing hostility to any gun . It is repeated throughout the film , " Guns kill . " and " You 're not a gun . " Despite the anti @-@ war and anti @-@ gun themes , the film avoids demonizing the military ( one scene depicts Hogarth next to a picture of his late father , a fighter pilot , while wearing his father 's flight helmet ) , and presents General Rogard as an essentially rational and sympathetic figure , in contrast to the power @-@ hungry civilian Mansley . Hogarth 's message to the giant , " You are who you choose to be " , played a pivotal role in the film . In a deleted scene , the robot dreams of seeing many robots like it marching through a war zone on an alien world , suggesting that the robot was created to be a weapon in a long @-@ ago war .
Writer McCanlies commented that " At a certain point , there are deciding moments when we pick who we want to be . And that plays out for the rest of your life . " McCanlies said that movies can provide viewers with a sense of right and wrong , and expressed a wish that the movie would " make us feel like we 're all part of humanity [ which ] is something we need to feel . " Some film critics compared the film to E.T. : The Extra @-@ Terrestrial ( 1982 ) , including Roger Ebert . In response to the E.T. parallels , Bird said , " E.T. doesn 't go kicking ass . He doesn 't make the Army pay . Certainly you risk having your hip credentials taken away if you want to evoke anything sad or genuinely heartfelt . "
= = Marketing = =
The Iron Giant was largely a theatrical failure due in part to poor promotion from Warner Bros. This was largely attributable to the reception of Quest for Camelot ; after its release , Warner would not give Bird and his team a release date for their film until April 1999 . After wildly successful test screenings , the studio were shocked by the response : the test scores were their highest for a film in 15 years , according to Bird . They had neglected to prepare a successful marketing strategy for the film — such as cereal and fast food tie @-@ ins — with little time left before its scheduled release . Bird remembered that the studio only produced one teaser poster for the film , which became its eventual poster . Brad Ball , who had been assigned the role of marketing the film , was candid after its release , noting that the studio did not commit to a planned Burger King toy plan . In an interview with IGN , Bird stated that it was " a mis @-@ marketing campaign of epic proportions at the hands of Warner Bros. , they simply didn 't realize what they had on their hands . "
The studio needed an $ 8 million opening to ensure success , but they were unable to properly promote it preceding the release . They nearly delayed the film by several months to better prepare . " They said , ' we should delay it and properly lead up to its release , ' and I said ' you guys have had two and a half years to get ready for this , ' " recalled Bird . Press outlets took note of its absence of marketing , with some reporting that the studio had spent more money on marketing intended summer blockbuster Wild , Wild West instead . To perhaps soften the potential blow , Warner Bros. scheduled Sunday sneak preview screenings for the film prior to its release , as well as a preview of the film on the online platform Webcastsneak .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Iron Giant premiered at Mann 's Chinese Theater in Los Angeles on July 31 , 1999 , with a special ceremony preceding the screening in which a concrete slab bearing the title character 's footprint was commemorated . The film opened in Los Angeles and New York on August 4 , 1999 , with a wider national release occurring on August 6 in the United States . It opened in 2 @,@ 179 theaters in the U.S. , ranking at number nine at the box office accumulating $ 5 @,@ 732 @,@ 614 over its opening weekend . It was quick to drop out of the top ten ; by its fourth week , it had only accumulated $ 18 @.@ 9 million — far under its reported $ 70 million budget . According to Dave McNary of the Los Angeles Daily News , " Its weekend per @-@ theater average was only $ 2 @,@ 631 , an average of $ 145 or perhaps 30 tickets per showing " — leading theater owners to quickly discard the film . At the time , Warner Bros. was shaken by the resignations of executives Bob Daly and Terry Semel , making the failure much worse . T.L. Stanley of Brandweek cited it as an example of how media tie @-@ ins were now essential to guaranteeing a film 's success .
The film went on to gross $ 23 @,@ 159 @,@ 305 domestically and $ 8 @,@ 174 @,@ 612 internationally for a total of $ 31 @,@ 333 @,@ 917 worldwide . Analysts deemed it a victim of poor timing and " a severe miscalculation of how to attract an audience . " Lorenzo di Bonaventura , president of Warner Bros. at the time , explained , " People always say to me , ' Why don 't you make smarter family movies ? ' The lesson is , Every time you do , you get slaughtered . "
= = = Critical response = = =
The Iron Giant received widespread critical acclaim from both critics and audiences . Based on 132 reviews collected by the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , The Iron Giant received an overall 96 % approval rating ; the average score is 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . The consensus reads : " Engaging , endearing , affecting and charmingly retro , The Iron Giant tackles touchy subjects and complex relationships with a steady hand and beautiful animation direction from Brad Bird . " On Metacritic , the film achieved an average score of 85 out of 100 based on 27 reviews , signifying " universal acclaim " . In addition to its response from film critics , CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an " A " grade . The Reel Source forecasting service calculated that " 96 – 97 % " of audiences that attended recommended the film . As of 2015 , Rotten Tomatoes ranks it the third most @-@ acclaimed animated film made in the 1990s .
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called it " straight @-@ arrow and subversive , [ and ] made with simplicity as well as sophistication , " writing , " it feels like a classic even though it 's just out of the box . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times compared it , both in story and animation , to the works of Japanese director Hayao Miyazaki , summarizing the film as " not just a cute romp but an involving story that has something to say . " The New Yorker reviewer Michael Sragow dubbed it a " modern fairy tale , " writing , " The movie provides a master class in the use of scale and perspective — and in its power to open up a viewer ’ s heart and mind . " Time 's Richard Schickel deemed it " a smart live @-@ and @-@ let @-@ live parable , full of glancing , acute observations on all kinds of big subjects — life , death , the military @-@ industrial complex . " Lawrence Van Gelder , writing for the New York Times , deemed it a " smooth , skilled example of animated filmmaking . " Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal felt it " beautiful , oh so beautiful , as a work of coherent art , " noting , " be assured that the film is , before anything else , deliciously funny and deeply affecting . "
Both Hollywood trade publications were positive : David Hunter of The Hollywood Reporter predicted it to be a sleeper hit and called it " outstanding , " while Lael Loewenstein of Variety called it " a visually appealing , well @-@ crafted film [ ... ] an unalloyed success . " Bruce Fretts of Entertainment Weekly commented , " I have long thought that I was born without the gene that would allow me to be emotionally drawn in by drawings . That is , until I saw The Iron Giant . " Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle agreed that the storytelling was far superior to other animated films , and cited the characters as plausible and noted the richness of moral themes . Jeff Millar of the Houston Chronicle agreed with the basic techniques as well , and concluded the voice cast excelled with a great script by Tim McCanlies . Amid the positive reviews , a negative review came from The Washington Post 's Stephen Hunter , who opined , " The movie — as beautifully drawn , as sleek and engaging as it is — has the annoyance of incredible smugness . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The Hugo Awards nominated The Iron Giant for Best Dramatic Presentation , while the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America honored Brad Bird and Tim McCanlies with the Nebula Award nomination . The British Academy of Film and Television Arts gave the film a Children 's Award as Best Feature Film . In addition The Iron Giant won nine Annie Awards and was nominated for another six categories , with another nomination for Best Home Video Release at The Saturn Awards . IGN ranked The Iron Giant as the fifth favorite animated film of all time in a list published in 2010 .
The American Film Institute nominated The Iron Giant for its Top 10 Animated Films list .
= = = Home media and television syndication = = =
Stung by criticism that it mounted an ineffective marketing campaign for its theatrical release , Warner Bros. revamped its advertising strategy for the video release of the film , including tie @-@ ins with Honey Nut Cheerios , AOL and General Motors and secured the backing of three U.S. congressmen ( Ed Markey , Mark Foley and Howard Berman ) . Awareness of the film was increased by its February 2000 release as a pay @-@ per @-@ view title , which also increased traffic to the film 's web site .
The Iron Giant was released on VHS and DVD on November 23 , 1999 , with a laserdisc release following on December 6 . The VHS edition came in three versions — pan and scan , pan and scan with an affixed Giant toy to the clamshell case , and a widescreen version . All of the initial widescreen home video releases were in 1 @.@ 85 : 1 , the incorrect aspect ratio for the film . In 2000 , television rights to the film were sold to Cartoon Network and TNT for three million dollars . The networks marketed the film as an overlooked but acclaimed film . Cartoon Network showed the film continuously for 24 consecutive hours in the early 2000s for such holidays as the Fourth of July and Thanksgiving .
The Special Edition DVD was released on November 16 , 2004 . In 2014 , Brad Bird went to Warner Bros. to talk about the possibility of releasing The Iron Giant on Blu @-@ ray . " WB & I have been talking . But they want a bare bones disc . I want better , " Bird said on his Twitter account . He also said that fans can log on to their Twitter accounts and post a tweet on the Twitter homepage of Warner Bros. Home Entertainment , demanding a Collector 's Edition Blu @-@ ray for the film .
= = Legacy = =
The film has since then gathered a cult following .
= = = Signature Edition = = =
A remastered and extended cut of the film , named the Signature Edition , was released for a limited time on September 30 , 2015 , and later October 4 , 2015 . The edition is approximately two minutes longer than the original cut , and features a brief scene with Annie and Dean and the sequence of the Giant 's dream . Aside from the additional scene , it also showcases other ideas that weren 't able to be used , like a nod to Disney via Tomorrowland commercial and a joke of the film being shot on CinemaScope cameras . Both scenes were storyboarded by Bird during the production on the original film but never finished due to time and budget constraints . Before they were fully completed for this new version , they were available as deleted storyboards on the 2004 DVD bonus features . They were animated in 2015 by Duncan Studio , which employed several animators that worked on the original film . The film 's Signature Edition was released on DVD and for digital download on February 16 , 2016 . An official Blu @-@ ray release will be available on September 6 , 2016 .
= Alto 's Adventure =
Alto 's Adventure is a 2015 endless runner snowboarding video game by Snowman . The player @-@ character automatically moves to the right of the screen through procedurally generated landscapes . The player taps the screen to jump and perform tricks , and works towards goals , competitive high scores , and upgrades . Snowman , a Toronto @-@ based , three @-@ person indie development team , previously worked on productivity apps before Alto 's Adventure . The game was made to emulate the ethereal atmosphere of snowboarding , and was inspired by Journey ( 2012 ) , Monument Valley ( 2014 ) , Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater 2 ( 2000 ) , and Windosill ( 2009 ) .
The game was released in February 19 , 2015 initially in iOS devices . In September that year , Snowman announced that Alto 's Adventure will be launched in Android and Kindle Fire . The game was finally released in Android on February 11 , 2016 . On July 8 , 2016 the game was also released for the Windows platform .
The game received what was described on review score aggregator Metacritic as universal acclaim . Reviewers praised its art style and sense of atmosphere , but criticized its gameplay as unoriginal . Pocket Gamer awarded the game their Gold Award .
= = Gameplay = =
Alto 's Adventure is a side @-@ scrolling endless runner snowboarding game . The player character moves automatically through procedurally generated landscapes towards the right side of the screen and the player can only control when to jump . The player taps the screen once to jump and holds the screen midair to perform tricks . While the character moves across the landscape , the player can complete some of the game 's 180 goals , though they are given only three at a time . Goals include such things as traveling a set distance , rescuing runaway llamas , crossing dangerous gaps , grinding across the rooftops of villages , and outsmarting the mountain elders . The player receives awards from completing goals , and can also collect coins , which can be used to purchase upgrades . Players perform tricks in quick succession , or combos , to earn points towards a competitive high score . The game also tracks distance traveled and trick combos . Later in the game , players can use a wingsuit , which changes some elements of the game . The environments of Alto 's Adventure change in lighting as time passes through the cycle of the day , and also incorporate weather effects . Player progress syncs between iPads and iPhones over iCloud , and the game uses Game Center leaderboards .
= = Development = =
Alto 's Adventure was built in collaboration between Snowman , an indie development studio based in Toronto , and lead artist and programmer Harry Nesbitt , based in Devon , England . The developers intended the game to " capture the flow and feeling of snowboarding " and the way " everything else sort of just disappears " when " in rhythm with the mountain " , unlike other snowboarding games . Snowman also sought to address how other mobile games emphasize video game console @-@ type elements with on @-@ screen controls , which co @-@ founder Ryan Cash felt were largely not designed with the mobile platform in mind .
Alto 's Adventure was inspired by Journey ( 2012 ) , Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater 2 ( 2000 ) , and Windosill ( 2009 ) . Snowman 's co @-@ founders , Ryan Cash and Jordan Rosenberg , wanted to bring the essence of the Tony Hawk games of their youth into Alto 's Adventure , including " fun , positive goals " and an " easy to learn , hard to master " trick system . They avoided goals from other endless runners that they considered negative , uninteresting , or repetitive . As inspired by Monument Valley ( 2014 ) , the developers chose to charge above average for the game as a trade @-@ off for not including offsets like in @-@ game advertisements or in @-@ app purchases . Snowman has said any new content would be as an expansion along the lines of Monument Valley 's " Forgotten Shores " . The game was released for iOS on February 19 , 2015 .
A port for Android and Kindle Fire was announced on September later that year . However , it was not until February the following year that a definite release date was announced , and the app was finally released for those platforms on February 11 . Snowman collaborated with Noodlecake Studios to make an Android port . Additionally , unlike the iOS version , which is launched as a " premium app " ( which requires user to pay $ 2 @.@ 99 to download ) , the Android version will be free to download . In an exclusive interview with The Verge , Ryan Cash of Snowman explained that their decision to make the Android Alto 's is due to iOS and Android being on a " completely different ecosystem " , and mainly because of the bigger piracy issues on Android apps . Additionally , he said that those using the Android port will have the same experience as those playing Alto 's in the iOS .
= = Reception = =
The game received " universal acclaim " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers had high praise for its art style and aesthetics but criticized its gameplay as unoriginal . Pocket Gamer awarded the game their Gold Award .
The Verge 's Andrew Webster wrote that the game was a " supremely laid back " and " incredibly relaxing experience " . He wrote that this " next great iPad game " was already one of his mobile favorites , and is set apart from others by its " style " and " achingly beautiful " mountain landscape . Webster found Alto 's Adventure to be part art game and part " fun little time waster " , and compared it to a combination of Sword & Sworcery and Tiny Wings . TouchArcade 's Jared Nelson likened its art style to Journey and its gameplay to Ski Safari . While he didn 't find the game challenging , he enjoyed the " incredible " visuals : " tons of tiny details " , like the character animations and changes in lighting and weather , contributed . Nelson also characterized TouchArcade readers ' impressions as " highly positive " .
Eric Ford , also of TouchArcade , found the gameplay " basic " as well — " not much here that truly innovates within the genre " — but felt that the game was worth experiencing for its " excellent visual style and soundtrack " . He also compared the gameplay to Ski Safari and additionally wrote that while the game 's power @-@ ups , quest objectives , currency , and score were " pretty standard " , the trick system was praiseworthy and gave even easy tricks a sense of " accomplishment " . Ford was not enticed by the available upgrades and wrote that he played not for the upgrades but for the game 's " whole look and feel " that was made to feel like more than a game with its " awesome " , " mellow " , and " soothing " soundtrack . Ford added that the game earned " its hype " from its " amazing art style and visual effects " rather than from its gameplay . He was impressed with how much the dynamic weather changed the feel of the game even while the gameplay went unchanged . Ford predicted that players would respond to Alto 's Adventure either in appreciation of its " sheer amount of artistic integrity and nuanced visuals " , or in disappointment by its similarity to previous endless runners .
Harry Slater of Pocket Gamer thought the game was " pretty special " and " among the best on the App Store " . He thought its " stunningly simple " gameplay to be a " compulsive and engaging experience " and " bloody good fun " , though he found its core mechanics unoriginal . Eli Cymet of GameZebo said he wanted to live in the game 's world and praised its " total , uncompromising dedication to atmosphere " and how every choice felt " made to preserve experiential authenticity " .
= Battle of Long Khanh =
The Battle of Long Khanh ( 6 – 7 June 1971 ) was fought during the Vietnam War between elements of 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) and the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army during Operation Overlord . The fighting saw Australian infantry from 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) attack a heavily fortified communist base camp in Long Khanh Province , while Centurion tanks providing close support crushed many bunkers and their occupants . Regardless , the Viet Cong fought hard to delay the Australian advance and although the bunker system was subsequently captured , along with a second system further south , the Australians suffered a number of casualties and the loss of a UH @-@ 1 Iroquois helicopter . With the Australians unable to concentrate sufficient combat power to achieve a decisive result , the bulk of the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese force successfully withdrew intact , although they likely sustained heavy casualties in the process .
= = Background = =
As a consequence of the overall allied strategy of Vietnamization and with the Australian government keen to reduce its own commitment to the war , 8 RAR was not replaced at the end of its tour of duty in December 1970 . 1 ATF was again reduced to just two infantry battalions , albeit with significant armour , artillery and aviation support remaining . The Australian area of operations ( AO ) remained the same however , with the reduction in forces only adding further to the burden on the remaining battalions . Regardless , following a sustained effort by 1 ATF in Phuoc Tuy Province between September 1969 and April 1970 , the bulk of communist forces had become inactive and had left the province to recuperate .
Accordingly , the Australians shifted focus , turning their attention to denying the Viet Cong the chance to resupply by close ambushing around villages and towns , such as Dat Do and Hoa Long . Although not always successful , such operations yielded significant results and by the end of 1970 South Vietnamese forces were increasingly responsible for the security of major population centres . Indeed , the major battles of earlier years were now seen as a thing of the past in Phuoc Tuy . However , in May 1971 , following a request from Brigadier Bruce McDonald — the task force commander — the Australian AO was extended a further 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) north across the border into Long Khanh Province . Several reconnaissance patrols from the Special Air Service Regiment ( SASR ) were subsequently inserted in the vicinity of the Courtenay rubber plantation , and later on the other side of Route 2 . These patrols were highly successful , detecting the presence of a substantial communist force , while a number of Viet Cong were also killed .
= = Prelude = =
Intelligence reports in June , in conjunction with the invaluable information gathered by the SASR , located D445 VC Battalion and 3 / 33 NVA Regiment east of Route 2 along the border between Phuoc Tuy and Long Khanh in an area 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of the Australian base at Nui Dat . These reports indicated that the communists were attempting to disrupt the continuing pacification program , and were also using the area to rest , retrain and refit . In response the 1 ATF commander , McDonald , launched a brigade @-@ sized ' search and clear ' operation , known as Operation Overlord . Named after the D @-@ Day landings during the Allied invasion of Normandy in 1944 , the operation was scheduled to begin on the same day , 27 years later . Notably , there was some trepidation among the Australian sub @-@ unit commanders with the use of this name for operational security reasons , as it was felt that it might telegraph their intentions .
The concept of operations called for a significant blocking force to be inserted , with 4 RAR / NZ ( ANZAC ) deployed along the line of Suoi Ran river , A Squadron , 3rd Cavalry Regiment to their west and 2 / 8th Battalion , 3rd US Cavalry Regiment to the north @-@ east . Meanwhile , 3 RAR — under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Peter Scott — and the Centurion tanks from C Squadron , 1st Armoured Regiment were tasked with driving the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese into these positions . A number of fire support bases would be established , with A Field Battery and 104 Field Battery , Royal Australian Artillery providing indirect fire support in conjunction with American gunners , while 3 RAR would search its AO — belatedly designated as AO Gwenda — with three rifle companies ( A , B , and C ) , while D Company would be held in reserve . The plan envisioned movement by road of both troops and equipment using Route 2 , as well as air insertion . The terrain in the new AO was thickly wooded with some areas of secondary growth beneath the 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) high canopy , as well as numerous water courses , spurs and re @-@ entrants .
= = Battle = =
The operation commenced on 5 June with the insertion of blocking forces consisting of Australian , New Zealand and US troops , followed by the aerial insertion of 3 RAR . The Landing Zone ( LZ ) was clear of large trees to about 200 metres ( 220 yd ) and was secured by the APCs from A Squadron . As A Company landed it was suddenly engaged by intense fire , which also targeted the unsecured B Company LZ 1 @,@ 300 metres ( 1 @,@ 400 yd ) to the south @-@ west . The firing eased after a few minutes however , thereby allowing the insertion of the remaining companies . The Australians subsequently began patrolling and it soon became apparent that they had been dropped within 500 metres ( 550 yd ) of an extensive bunker system .
Signs of a strong Viet Cong and North Vietnamese presence were detected almost as soon as 3 RAR began its sweep , while the blocking elements also had a number of sightings , and a few contacts with small parties moving north . Possibly alerted by allied air and road movements , the communists seemed to be avoiding open combat . Late on the afternoon of 6 June 5 Platoon , B Company located what was thought to be the main communist position , however with nightfall approaching , it was decided not to press the attack that night . During the evening a few shots were exchanged between the Australians and Viet Cong , and the Australian platoon subsequently withdrew into a night harbour .
At 06 : 00 artillery commenced bombarding the position , and following a half @-@ hour of preparation , 5 Platoon resumed its advance expecting the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese to have vacated the position during the night , as they had done numerous times in the past . However , after having proceeded only 90 metres ( 98 yd ) the Australians came under heavy fire from the front and both flanks , suffering several casualties in the initial volleys . It soon became apparent that the platoon was pinned down on the edge of a strongly defended and well @-@ concealed bunker system , with the platoon commander calling for assistance from helicopter gunships , as well as indirect mortar fire rather than risking further casualties by withdrawing .
Moving to support the platoon in contact , Scott ordered D Company to conduct an assault against the flank and rear of the bunker complex , mounted in APCs with tanks in support . Two troops of Centurions spearheaded the assault through the jungle from the north , and they soon began receiving heavy small arms fire and rocket @-@ propelled grenades , one of which subsequently suffered external damage . Realising that the bunker system was larger than previously estimated , the tanks were forced to halt while the infantry were brought up to begin the assault .
Meanwhile , 5 Platoon was in dire straits and was beginning to run low of ammunition , while a number of its M60 machine @-@ guns were also beginning to fail because of the prolonged firing . Moving to outflank the heavily outnumbered Australians , Viet Cong were observed emerging from their bunkers . Indeed , only heavy indirect fire and effective suppressing fire from helicopter gunships prevented them from being overrun . Attempting to gain a better position to direct the fire , the B Company Forward Observer , Lieutenant Ian Mathers , moved forward to 5 Platoon , and was killed almost immediately . However , by 09 : 15 the remainder of B Company was able to link up with the beleaguered platoon , and after an aerial resupply of ammunition , stabilised the situation temporarily .
At 11 : 00 , however , a second attempt to resupply B Company resulted in an Australian Iroquois helicopter being shot down by heavy ground fire , and exploding on impact . Two crew members were killed and another two injured , while another soldier was injured on the ground . With ammunition exploding among the burning wreckage a number of Australians rushed to aid the injured , scrambling through the debris and removing the unexploded ammunition and pulling the survivors to safety . Subsequently , another winch point was established to the rear of the Australian positions for casualty evacuation and resupply .
By mid @-@ afternoon , D Company had finally moved into position and commenced an assault , pushing through the bunker system from the north @-@ east with the Centurion tanks in close support crushing many bunkers and their occupants with their tracks . The progress of the Australian assault was slowed by thick vegetation and the size of the position , even as the resistance slackened and volume of fire diminished . Indeed , the bunker system was later found to cover nearly a square kilometre and was wider than the front of the assaulting company . Painstakingly the Australians searched each bunker systematically . With the action now over , D Company and the tanks subsequently linked up with B Company and established a night defensive position .
During the final assault , C Company , located to the south , had uncovered a second bunker system which was subsequently captured by the Australians after being hastily abandoned . More than 16 @,@ 000 rounds of M60 ammunition had been fired during the fighting , along with 6 @,@ 000 rounds of M16 ammunition . The artillery had fired over 1 @,@ 453 rounds of 105 mm and 200 rounds of 155 mm high explosive in support . Over the next six days Australian pioneer and engineer demolition teams proceeded to destroy the remaining bunkers .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite significantly underestimating the size of the position they faced , the Australians had succeeded in the pushing D445 VC Battalion and 3 / 33 NVA Regiment out of a valuable base area intended for long @-@ term use . Regardless , there were few other tangible results to show for the casualties they had incurred as , although numerous blood trails and body parts scattered around the battlefield indicated that communist casualties had been heavy , the majority of their dead had either been removed from the battlefield or were entombed in the bunkers that had been crushed by the Australian tanks . The battle had cost the Australians three killed and six wounded , while only five Viet Cong bodies were recovered .
The Viet Cong and North Vietnamese had defended strongly in order to allow an orderly evacuation of personnel and stores , and with the Australians unable to concentrate sufficient combat power rapidly enough to ensure a decisive result , they were largely able to achieve this objective . Unfazed by the loss of their base @-@ camps , the bulk of the communist force remained intact and later carried out a highly successful ambush by 274 VC Main Force Regiment on 12 June . Seven Australians were killed and three wounded from the HQ 1 ATF Defence and Employment Platoon in this subsequent action , with the bulk of the casualties occurring when an RPG @-@ 7 exploded on a box of M18A1 Claymores sitting atop an M113 Armoured Personnel Carrier , igniting them with catastrophic consequences . Operations in Long Khanh continued however , and the Australians established a number of ambushes on possible withdrawal routes , although little contact subsequently occurred .
Operation Overlord finally ended on 14 June and 1 ATF returned to Nui Dat . Overall , despite the heavy contact experienced early on , it had yielded little for the Australians although neither D445 or 33 NVA Regiment were encountered in Phuoc Tuy again . Overlord was one of the larger task force operations of the war , while it was also the last joint US @-@ Australian battalion @-@ sized operation . Indeed , although the fighting continued , Australian operations began to wind down . On 18 August 1971 , Prime Minister William McMahon announced that 1 ATF would cease operations in October , commencing a phased withdrawal . Ultimately , the last Australian forces were withdrawn from Vietnam by 1973 .
= Grand Guignol Orchestra =
Grand Guignol Orchestra ( Japanese : 人形宮廷楽団 , Hepburn : Guignol Kyūtei Gakudan ) is a gothic horror shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga series written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki . Appearing as a monthly serial in the Japanese manga magazine Bessatsu Hana to Yume from the August 2008 issue to the June 2010 issue , the eighteen chapters of Grand Guignol Orchestra were collected into five bound volumes by Hakusensha — together with Yuki 's romantic one @-@ shot manga " Camolet Garden " , which had appeared in the April 2008 issue — and published from February 2009 to August 2010 . Set in a world where a worldwide epidemic of a virus has turned part of the population into guignols ( zombies which resemble marionettes ) , Grand Guignol Orchestra focuses on singer Lucille and his orchestra , which destroys the guignols through music .
At the 2009 New York Anime Festival , Viz Media announced that it had licensed the series for an English @-@ language translation . It published the series under its Shojo Beat imprint , from October 2010 to December 2011 . The series has also been translated into other languages , such as German and Mandarin . Grand Guignol Orchestra has been positively received by English @-@ language readers , with three volumes placing on the list of the top 300 bestselling graphic novels . The series has received a range of reviews from English @-@ language critics . Yuki 's illustrations and premise were generally well @-@ received , with criticism of the series focused on the narrative and page layouts .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Manga artist Kaori Yuki has described the setting of Grand Guignol Orchestra as the
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the breast and the spot on the crown above the bill is more prominent and white rather than off @-@ white .
The flame robin 's calls are grouped into louder and quieter calls ; the former can be heard from 150 m ( 490 ft ) away , the latter , which are often briefer , from 30 m ( 98 ft ) . Loud songs make up almost 90 % of calls in spring , summer and autumn , but less than 50 % of calls from May to July . Males sing rarely during this time , although they do so to defend their territories . Their song is more varied and complex than that of the scarlet robin , and has been described as the most musical of the red robins . A series of descending notes in groups of three , the musical song has been likened to the phrases , " you @-@ may @-@ come , if @-@ you @-@ will , to @-@ the @-@ sea " or " you @-@ are @-@ not a @-@ pretty @-@ little @-@ bird like @-@ me " . Both males and females sing this song , often perched from a vantage point such as a stump or fence . This loud song is used to attract the attention of a potential mate , and to announce the bringing of food to its mate or young . The softer call has been described as a tlip , terp or pip and is used as a contact call in the vicinity of the nest . The female makes a hissing sound if approached while on the nest , and the male has been recorded making a wheezing call when displaying around the nest .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The flame robin is found in temperate regions of southeastern Australia and all over Tasmania , although it is less common in the southwest and west . In Victoria , it is more common in uplands than lower altitudes . It ranges from the Adelaide and Murray Plains around the mouth of the Murray River in southeastern South Australia , across Victoria and into the South West Slopes and southern regions of New South Wales . Further north , it is found along the Great Dividing Range and its western slopes , with a few records from southeast Queensland . Within its range , it is generally migratory , moving from alpine and subalpine regions to lowlands in winter , although the breeding and non @-@ breeding ranges overlap . There is some evidence that male birds migrate several days before females . It is unclear what proportion of Tasmanian birds cross Bass Strait to winter in Victoria . Birds which remain in Tasmania move away from breeding areas and are found in paddocks in loose flocks of up to fourteen birds . They have left these areas by August , and immature birds appear to disperse earlier . A field study in the outer Melbourne suburb of Langwarrin showed that climate did not influence peak abundance of Flame Robins there . The international organization BirdLife International has regraded it from Least Concern to Near Threatened in 2004 due to its population decline over the previous 25 years . The Australian Government had classified it as Least Concern , but noted evidence of decline at the edges of its non @-@ breeding range ; it has become rare in South Australia and Victoria . Flame robins are not rare in Victoria . They are frequently encountered at high elevations on the Great Dividing Range , especially in sparser snow gum woodland and similar habitat , and during the summer breeding season are one of the most reliably observed species around the summit of Mount Macedon , NW of Melbourne .
In spring and summer , the flame robin is more often found in wet eucalypt forest in hilly or mountainous areas , particularly the tops and slopes , to an elevation of 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) . It generally prefers areas with more clearings and less understory . In particular it prefers tall forests dominated by such trees as snow gum ( Eucalyptus pauciflora ) , mountain ash ( E. regnans ) , alpine ash ( E. delegatensis ) , manna gum ( E. viminalis ) , messmate stringybark ( E. obliqua ) , black gum ( E. aggregata ) , white mountain gum ( E. dalrympleana ) , brown barrel ( E. fastigata ) , narrow @-@ leaved peppermint ( E. radiata ) , and black peppermint ( E. amygdalina ) . It is occasionally encountered in temperate rainforest . In the autumn and winter , birds move to more open areas such as grasslands and open woodlands , such as those containing river red gum ( E. camaldulensis ) , Blakely 's red gum ( E. blakelyi ) , yellow box ( E. melliodora ) , grey box ( E. microcarpa ) , and mugga ironbark ( E. sideroxylon ) , at lower altitude .
Flame robins often become more abundant in areas recently burnt by bushfires , but move away once the undergrowth regrows . They may also move into logged or cleared areas in forests . However , a field study in the Boola Boola State Forest in central Gippsland revealed they are not found in areas where the regrowth after logging is dense .
= = Behaviour = =
The flame robin mostly breeds in and around the Great Dividing Range , the Tasmanian highlands and islands in Bass Strait . With the coming of cooler autumn weather , most birds disperse to lower and warmer areas , some travelling as far as eastern South Australia , southern Queensland , or ( in the case of some Tasmanian birds ) across Bass Strait to Victoria . Birds breeding in the warmer climates north of the Blue Mountains in New South Wales tend to retain their highland territories all year round . Outside the breeding season , birds may congregate in loose flocks , but they are most usually encountered throughout the year singly or in pairs , the latter more commonly in breeding season .
When perched or between bouts of foraging on the ground , the flame robin holds itself in a relatively upright pose , with its body angled at 45 ° or less from the vertical , and its wings held low below its tail . It impresses as nervous and twitchy , flicking its wings alternately when still . The flame robin 's flight is fast , with a markedly undulating character .
The flame robin is territorial , defending its territory against other members of its species and also scarlet robins where they co @-@ occur . In Nimmitabel in southern New South Wales , migratory flame robins invaded and eked out their territories from amid existing scarlet robin territories . Once settled , however , no species dominated over the other and stable boundaries emerged . The flame robin deploys a number of agonistic displays , including a breast @-@ puffing display where it puffs its breast feathers and a white spot display where it puffs its feathers to accentuate its frontal white crown , white wing markings or white outer tail feathers . They may also fly at intruders or sing to defend their territory .
= = = Feeding = = =
Like all Australasian robins , the flame robin is a perch and pounce hunter , mainly eating insects , and often returning to a favourite low perch several times to stand erect and motionless , scanning the leaf @-@ litter for more prey . They are typically seen in pairs ( during the spring and summer breeding season ) or in loose companies in more open country in winter , when they more commonly feed on the ground . A field study in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales found no significant difference in foraging behaviour between male and female flame robins . Birds have been recorded foraging for insects in furrows in freshly ploughed fields . In Deniliquin , a flame robin was observed holding one foot forward and pattering the ground repeatedly to disturb ground @-@ dwelling insects , and then watching and snapping up any which emerged ; this behaviour is otherwise seen in waders .
Compared with the scarlet robin , the flame robin eats a higher proportion of flying insects . Biologist Doug Robinson has proposed that scarcity of flying insects in winter is a reason why the flame robin migrates . They have been seen in mixed @-@ species flocks with other small insectivorous passerines , such as scarlet robins , hooded robins ( Melanodryas cucullata ) , white @-@ fronted chats ( Epthianura albifrons ) , and Australasian pipits ( Anthus novaeseelandiae ) .
Among the types of insects consumed are many families of beetles , wasps and ants , flies ( families Tabanidae and Asilidae ) , bugs , and caterpillars . Other invertebrates eaten include spiders , millipedes and earthworms . The flame robin consumes small prey items whole , and bashes larger victims against a hard surface repeatedly to break up before eating . The latter group constitute only 0 @.@ 5 % of prey over time — seasonally varying from a peak of 1 @.@ 8 % in autumn to a low of 0 @.@ 2 % of prey caught in winter .
= = = Courtship and breeding = = =
Several courtship behaviours have been recorded . Males have been recorded feeding females . A male flame robin either lands next to and moves a female off her perch , or flies in front of her . Courting males also run to and fro in front of a female , in a crouch with wings and head lowered and hiding their breast feathers . In both displays , the male proceeds to chase the female . Pairs are generally monogamous , and remain together unless one bird perishes , although " divorces " have been recorded .
The breeding season is August to January with one or two broods raised . The male proposes suitable nest sites to the female by hopping around the area . Unlike other robins , the female sometimes initiates the site selection . A pair spends anywhere from one to five days looking before finding a suitable site . The female constructs the nest alone . Eucalypts are generally chosen , but birds have been recorded nesting in Pinus radiata on Mount Wellington in Tasmania . The flame robin is more versatile in its selection of nesting sites than other robins , and has even been recorded nesting in sheds .
The nest is a neat deep cup made of soft dry grass , moss and bark . Spider webs , feathers and fur are used for binding / filling , generally in a tree fork or crevice , or cliff or riverbank ledge , typically within a few metres of the ground . The clutch generally numbers three or four dull white eggs , which are laid on consecutive days . They are tinted bluish , greyish or brownish and splotched with dark grey @-@ brown , and measure 18 mm x 14 mm . A field study in open eucalypt forest at Nimmitabel found that flame robins and scarlet robins chose different sites to breed , the former in tree hollows and bark crevices , most commonly of Eucalyptus viminalis around 4 m ( 13 ft ) off the ground , and the latter more commonly in forks or on branches of E. pauciflora around 7 m ( 23 ft ) above the ground . Flame robins , which were migratory at the site , were more successful in raising young , but the success rate of scarlet robins in the area appeared to be poor compared with other sites .
Incubation has been recorded as averaging around 17 days . Like all passerines , the chicks are altricial ; they are born blind and naked , and start to develop down on their heads on day two . Their eyes open around day six , and they begin developing their primary flight feathers around day nine or ten . For the first three days after hatching , the mother feeds the nestlings alone , with food brought to her by the father . The father feeds them directly from the fourth day onwards , with the mother brooding them afterwards until day seven . Flies , butterflies , moths , caterpillars and beetles predominate in the food fed to the young birds . Flame robins fed a higher proportion of flying insects to their young at Nimmitabel than did scarlet robins , which may have been due to their later start to breeding . Both parents participate in removing faecal sacs from the nest . Parents have been observed feeding young up to five weeks after leaving the nest .
The fan @-@ tailed cuckoo ( Cacomantis flabelliformis ) and pallid cuckoo ( C. pallidus ) have been recorded as brood parasites of the flame robin ; female cuckoos lay their eggs in robin nests , which are then raised by the robins as their own . One fan @-@ tailed cuckoo was recorded ejecting baby robins before being raised by its foster parents . Other nest predators recorded include the grey shrikethrush ( Colluricincla harmonica ) , pied currawong ( Strepera graculina ) , and eastern brown snake ( Pseudonaja textilis ) .
= Jill Biden =
Jill Tracy Biden ( née Jacobs , previously Stevenson ; born June 3 , 1951 ) is an American educator who is married to the 47th and current Vice President of the United States , Joe Biden , making her the Second Lady of the United States since 2009 .
She was born in Hammonton , New Jersey , and grew up in Willow Grove , Pennsylvania . She married Joe Biden in 1977 , and became stepmother to his two young sons from his first marriage , Beau and Hunter , whose mother and baby sister died in a car accident . Joe and Jill Biden have a daughter , Ashley , born in 1981 .
Jill Biden has a bachelor 's degree from the University of Delaware , master 's degrees from West Chester University and Villanova University , and a doctoral degree from the University of Delaware . She taught English and reading in high schools for 13 years , and also taught adolescents with emotional disabilities at a psychiatric hospital . From 1993 to 2008 , she was an English and writing instructor at Delaware Technical & Community College . Since 2009 , she has been a professor of English at Northern Virginia Community College and is thought to be the first Second Lady to hold a paying job while her husband is Vice President . She is the founder of the Biden Breast Health Initiative non @-@ profit organization , co @-@ founder of the Book Buddies program , is active in Delaware Boots on the Ground , and is co @-@ founder of Joining Forces with First Lady Michelle Obama .
= = Early life = =
Jill Tracy Jacobs was born on June 3 , 1951 in Hammonton , New Jersey . Moving several times while very young , she and her four younger sisters spent the majority of their childhood in Willow Grove , Pennsylvania . Her father , Donald C. Jacobs ( 1927 – 1999 ) , was a bank teller who became head of a savings and loan in the Chestnut Hill neighborhood of Philadelphia . His family name had originally been Giacoppa before her Italian grandfather anglicized it . Her mother , Bonny Jean ( Godfrey ) Jacobs ( 1930 – 2008 ) , was a homemaker . The family was not particularly religious , but in ninth grade , Jacobs independently took classes in order to join the Presbyterian church .
Jacobs always intended to have her own career . She began working at age 15 , which included waitressing at the Jersey Shore . She attended Upper Moreland High School , where she was somewhat rebellious and enjoyed her social life , but always liked English class . She graduated in 1969 .
= = Education and career , marriage and family = =
Jacobs enrolled in a junior college in Pennsylvania to study fashion merchandising , but soon found it unsatisfying . She married Bill Stevenson , a former college football player , in February 1970 . Within a couple of years he opened the Stone Balloon in Newark , Delaware , near the University of Delaware . It became one of the most successful college bars in the nation .
She enrolled at the University of Delaware , where she declared English as her major . She then took a year off from college and did some modelling work for a local agency in Wilmington . She and Stevenson drifted apart .
Subsequently , she returned to college and met Senator Joe Biden as a senior at Delaware in March 1975 . They met on a blind date set up by Joe 's brother , though Biden had seen her photograph in a local advertisement . She graduated with a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Delaware later in 1975 . She began her career teaching high school English . Meanwhile , she was going through turbulent divorce proceedings with Stevenson ; the court case ended in 1976 , with her not getting the half @-@ share in the Stone Balloon she had wanted .
She and Joe Biden were married by a Catholic priest on June 17 , 1977 , at the Chapel at the United Nations in New York City . This was four and a half years after his first wife and infant daughter died in a motor vehicle accident ; Joe had proposed several times before she accepted , hesitant to take on the commitment of raising his two young sons who had survived the accident . She continued to teach and then , while pregnant , received a Master of Education with a specialty in Reading from West Chester University in 1981 . The Bidens ' daughter Ashley Blazer was born on June 8 , 1981 , and Jill stopped working for two years while raising the three children .
She then returned to work , teaching English , acting as a reading specialist , and teaching history to emotionally disturbed students . She taught in the adolescent program at the Rockford Center psychiatric hospital for five years in the 1980s . In 1987 , Biden received a second Master of Arts degree , this one in English from Villanova University . During her husband 's 1988 bid for the Presidency , she said she would continue her job of teaching emotionally disturbed children even if she became First Lady . In all , she spent 13 years teaching in public high school , including 3 years at Claymont High School .
From 1993 through 2008 , Biden was an instructor at the Stanton / Wilmington campus of Delaware Technical & Community College , where she taught English composition and remedial writing , with an emphasis on instilling confidence in students . She has said of teaching at a community college , " I feel like I can make a greater difference in their lives . I just love that population . It just feels really comfortable to me . I love the women who are coming back to school and getting their degrees , because they 're so focused . "
Biden is president of the Biden Breast Health Initiative , a nonprofit organization begun in 1993 that provides educational breast health awareness programs free of charge to schools and other groups in the state of Delaware . In the following 15 years , the organization informed more than 7 @,@ 000 high school girls about proper breast health . In 2007 , Biden helped found Book Buddies , which provides books for low @-@ income children , and has been very active in Delaware Boots on the Ground , an organization that supports military families . She runs five miles , five times a week , and she has run in the Marine Corps Marathon .
Biden later returned to school for her doctoral degree , studying under her birth name , Jill Jacobs . In January 2007 , at age 55 , she received a Doctor of Education in educational leadership from the University of Delaware . Her dissertation , Student Retention at the Community College : Meeting Students ' Needs , was published under the name Jill Jacobs @-@ Biden .
= = Role in 2008 presidential campaign = =
Following George W. Bush 's reelection in 2004 , she urged her husband to run again for President , later saying : " I literally wore black for a week . I just could not believe that he won , because I felt that things were already so bad . I was so against the [ Iraq War ] . And I said to Joe , ' You 've got to change this , you have to change this . ' " During Joe Biden 's 2008 campaign to be the Democratic nominee , she continued to teach during the week and would join him for campaigning on weekends . She said that she would have taken an activist role in addressing education as her chief focus of concern as a potential First Lady . She also said that she was basically apolitical and would not seek inclusion in Cabinet meetings .
Once her husband was selected as the Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama 's running mate , she began campaigning again . She wore a Blue Star Mothers Club pin in recognition of Beau Biden 's deployment to Iraq . She was not a polished political speaker , but was able to establish a connection with the audience . She also made some joint appearances with Michelle Obama . Throughout the time her husband was running for vice president , Jill Biden continued to teach four days a week at Delaware Technical & Community College during the fall 2008 semester , and then campaigned over the long weekend , while grading class papers on the campaign bus .
= = Second Lady of the United States = =
= = = First term = = =
Despite moving to Number One Observatory Circle ( the vice presidential residence in Washington ) as Second Lady of the United States , Biden intended to keep teaching at a Washington @-@ area community college , and several of them recruited her . In January 2009 , she began teaching two English courses as an adjunct professor at the Alexandria campus of Northern Virginia Community College ( NOVA ) , the second largest community college in the nation . It has been rare for Second Ladies to work while their spouses serve as Vice President , and Biden is thought to be the first Second Lady to hold a paying job while her husband is Vice President . Biden planned to be a public advocate for the importance of community colleges and to advise the Obama administration on issues related to them . In White House announcements and by her preference , she is referred to as " Dr. Jill Biden " .
Catherine Russell , a former adviser to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , was named Biden 's chief of staff for her Second Lady role . Courtney O ’ Donnell , a former spokesperson for Howard Dean and Elizabeth Edwards , was named her communications director and Kirsten White , a lawyer at Morgan , Lewis & Bockius , her policy director . As Second Lady , Biden has a staff of eight overall and occupies a corner suite in the Eisenhower Executive Office Building .
On The Oprah Winfrey Show just before the inauguration , Jill Biden said that Barack Obama had offered her husband either the Vice @-@ Presidency or the position of U.S. Secretary of State . However , Joe Biden 's spokesperson stated that Biden had only been offered one job by Obama . In May 2009 , Obama announced that Biden would be in charge of an initiative to raise awareness about the value of community colleges .
In June 2009 , Biden gave the commencement address at Kingsborough Community College in Brooklyn , New York , and received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from the City University of New York . Biden continued teaching two English reading and writing classes at NOVA in fall 2009 . In January 2010 , she gave the commencement speech at the University of Delaware 's winter commencement , the first such address by her at a major university . In August 2010 , Biden appeared as herself in an episode of Lifetime 's Army Wives , making it part of her campaign to raise awareness of military families .
In April 2011 , she and Michelle Obama founded a national initiative , Joining Forces , to showcase the needs of U.S. military families . In September 2011 , Biden lent her support to USAID 's FWD campaign , a push for awareness surrounding the deadly famine , war , and drought affecting over 13 million people in the Horn of Africa . She continued to teach at NOVA , and by 2011 held a permanent position as an associate professor , teaching three English and writing composition courses two days per week . Her position there was as normal as she could make it , sharing a cubicle with another teacher , holding regular office hours for students , and trying to get her accompanying Secret Service agents to dress as unobtrusively as possible . Her life with her husband at Number One Observatory Circle tended towards the informal and was centered around family and their nearby grandchildren . In June 2012 , she published a children 's book , Don 't Forget , God Bless Our Troops , based around her son Beau 's deployment . The same month , the Bidens ' daughter Ashley , a social worker and staffer at the Delaware Department of Services for Children , Youth , and Their Families , was married .
= = = Role in 2012 presidential campaign = = =
In the 2012 U.S. presidential election , in which her husband was running for re @-@ election as vice president , Biden played a modest role . She did not cut back on her teaching schedule and made few solo campaign appearances . This reflected her continuing distaste for both politics and public speaking , even though the Obama campaign considered her valuable in connecting to military families , teachers , and women .
= = = Second term = = =
Following the re @-@ election of Obama and her husband on November 6 , 2012 , Biden began a second term as second lady . She wore a silk blue gown by Vera Wang when she appeared at the inaugural balls in January 2013 .
During her second term , Biden continued to be involved with supporting military personnel , including staging multiple visits to the Center for the Intrepid rehabilitation facility for amputees and attending the inaugural Invictus Games in London . During the 2014 U.S. midterm Congressional elections she campaigned for a number of Democrats , including some ones in high @-@ profile contests such as Mark Udall in Colorado and Michelle Nunn in Georgia .
In May 2015 she suffered the death of her stepson Beau Biden from brain cancer . She was present at her husband 's side in the Rose Garden on October 21 , 2015 , when he announced he would not run for the Democratic Party presidential nomination in the 2016 election . By her own account , Biden was disappointed by his decision , believing her husband was highly qualified for the position , and " would have been the best president . "
Biden continued to teach at NOVA , handling a full load of five classes during the Fall 2015 semester . During 2016 , she was present with her husband on a listening tour for Cancer Moonshot 2020 , an effort he was leading . In March 2016 she headed the official party that welcomed American astronaut Scott Kelly back to Earth from his almost full year in space .
= Justus =
Justus ( sometimes Iustus ; died on 10 November between 627 and 631 ) was the fourth Archbishop of Canterbury . He was sent from Italy to England by Pope Gregory the Great , on a mission to Christianize the Anglo @-@ Saxons from their native paganism , probably arriving with the second group of missionaries despatched in 601 . Justus became the first Bishop of Rochester in 604 , and attended a church council in Paris in 614 .
Following the death of King Æthelberht of Kent in 616 , Justus was forced to flee to Gaul , but was reinstated in his diocese the following year . In 624 Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury , overseeing the despatch of missionaries to Northumbria . After his death he was revered as a saint , and had a shrine in St Augustine 's Abbey , Canterbury .
= = Arrival in Britain = =
Justus was an Italian and a member of the Gregorian mission sent to England by Pope Gregory I. Almost everything known about Justus and his career is derived from the early 8th @-@ century Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum of Bede . As Bede does not describe Justus ' origins , nothing is known about him prior to his arrival in England . He probably arrived in England with the second group of missionaries , sent at the request of Augustine of Canterbury in 601 . Some modern writers describe Justus as one of the original missionaries who arrived with Augustine in 597 , but Bede believed that Justus came in the second group . The second group included Mellitus , who later became Bishop of London and Archbishop of Canterbury .
If Justus was a member of the second group of missionaries , then he arrived with a gift of books and " all things which were needed for worship and the ministry of the Church " . A 15th @-@ century Canterbury chronicler , Thomas of Elmham , claimed that there were a number of books brought to England by that second group still at Canterbury in his day , although he did not identify them . An investigation of extant Canterbury manuscripts shows that one possible survivor is the St. Augustine Gospels , now in Cambridge , Corpus Christi College , Manuscript ( MS ) 286 .
= = Bishop of Rochester = =
Augustine consecrated Justus as a bishop in 604 , over a province including the Kentish town of Rochester . The historian Nicholas Brooks argues that the choice of Rochester was probably not because it had been a Roman @-@ era bishopric , but rather because of its importance in the politics of the time . Although the town was small , with just one street , it was at the junction of Watling Street and the estuary of the Medway , and was thus a fortified town . Because Justus was probably not a monk ( he was not called that by Bede ) , his cathedral clergy was very likely non @-@ monastic too .
A charter purporting to be from King Æthelberht , dated 28 April 604 , survives in the Textus Roffensis , as well as a copy based on the Textus in the 14th @-@ century Liber Temporalium . Written mostly in Latin but using an Old English boundary clause , the charter records a grant of land near the city of Rochester to Justus ' church . Among the witnesses is Laurence , Augustine 's future successor , but not Augustine himself . The text turns to two different addressees . First , Æthelberht is made to admonish his son Eadbald , who had been established as a sub @-@ ruler in the region of Rochester . The grant itself is addressed directly to Saint Andrew , the patron saint of the church , a usage parallelled by other charters in the same archive .
Historian Wilhelm Levison , writing in 1946 , was sceptical about the authenticity of this charter . In particular , he felt that the two separate addresses were incongruous and suggested that the first address , occurring before the preamble , may have been inserted by someone familiar with Bede to echo Eadbald 's future conversion ( see below ) . A more recent and more positive appraisal by John Morris argues that the charter and its witness list are authentic because it incorporates titles and phraseology that had fallen out of use by 800 .
Æthelberht built Justus a cathedral church in Rochester ; the foundations of a nave and chancel partly underneath the present @-@ day Rochester Cathedral may date from that time . What remains of the foundations of an early rectangular building near the southern part of the current cathedral might also be contemporary with Justus or may be part of a Roman building .
Together with Mellitus , the Bishop of London , Justus signed a letter written by Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury to the Irish bishops urging the native church to adopt the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter . This letter also mentioned the fact that Irish missionaries , such as Dagan , had refused to share meals with the missionaries . Although the letter has not survived , Bede quoted from parts of it .
In 614 , Justus attended the Council of Paris , held by the Frankish king , Chlothar II . It is unclear why Justus and Peter , the abbot of Sts Peter and Paul in Canterbury , were present . It may have been just chance , but historian James Campbell has suggested that Chlothar summoned clergy from Britain to attend in an attempt to assert overlordship over Kent . The historian N. J. Higham offers another explanation for their attendance , arguing that Æthelberht sent the pair to the council because of shifts in Frankish policy towards the Kentish kingdom , which threatened Kentish independence , and that the two clergymen were sent to negotiate a compromise with Chlothar .
A pagan backlash against Christianity followed Æthelberht 's death in 616 , forcing Justus and Mellitus to flee to Gaul . The pair probably took refuge with Chlothar , hoping that the Frankish king would intervene and restore them to their sees , and by 617 Justus had been reinstalled in his bishopric by the new king . Mellitus also returned to England , but the prevailing pagan mood did not allow him to return to London ; after Laurence 's death , Mellitus became Archbishop of Canterbury . According to Bede , Justus received letters of encouragement from Pope Boniface V ( 619 – 625 ) , as did Mellitus , although Bede does not record the actual letters . The historian J. M. Wallace @-@ Hadrill assumes that both letters were general statements of encouragement to the missionaries .
= = Archbishop = =
Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury in 624 , receiving his pallium — the symbol of the jurisdiction entrusted to archbishops — from Pope Boniface V , following which Justus consecrated Romanus as his successor at Rochester . Boniface also gave Justus a letter congratulating him on the conversion of King " Aduluald " ( probably King Eadbald of Kent ) , a letter which is included in Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum . Bede 's account of Eadbald 's conversion states that it was Laurence , Justus ' predecessor at Canterbury , who converted the King to Christianity , but the historian D. P. Kirby argues that the letter 's reference to Eadbald makes it likely that it was Justus . Other historians , including Barbara Yorke and Henry Mayr @-@ Harting , conclude that Bede 's account is correct , and that Eadbald was converted by Laurence . Yorke argues that there were two kings of Kent during Eadbald 's reign , Eadbald and Æthelwald , and that Æthelwald was the " Aduluald " referred to by Boniface . Yorke argues that Justus converted Æthelwald back to Christianity after Æthelberht 's death .
Justus consecrated Paulinus as the first Bishop of York , before the latter accompanied Æthelburg of Kent to Northumbria for her marriage to King Edwin of Northumbria . Bede records Justus as having died on 10 November , but does not give a year , although it is likely to have between 627 and 631 . After his death , Justus was regarded as a saint , and was given a feast day of 10 November . The ninth century Stowe Missal commemorates his feast day , along with Mellitus and Laurence . In the 1090s , his remains were translated , or ritually moved , to a shrine beside the high altar of St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury . At about the same time , a Life was written about him by Goscelin of Saint @-@ Bertin , as well as a poem by Reginald of Canterbury . Other material from Thomas of Elmham , Gervase of Canterbury , and William of Malmesbury , later medieval chroniclers , adds little to Bede 's account of Justus ' life .
= The Legendary Axe =
The Legendary Axe ( Makyo Densetsu in Japan ) is a horizontal platform video game for the PC Engine and TurboGrafx @-@ 16 . It was developed by Victor Interactive Software and was published by Victor in Japan and by NEC in North America . It was released in Japan for the PC Engine on September 23 , 1988 ( 1988 @-@ 09 @-@ 23 ) and in North America alongside the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's launch on August 29 , 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 08 @-@ 29 ) . It is one of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's launch titles . In the game , the player controls Gogan , a barbarian whose girl , Flare , was kidnapped by the cult of Jagu . The player must navigate though six platforming levels , armed with a legendary axe named " Sting " to defeat Jagu and his minions and rescue Flare . The game features a rechargeable " strength meter " that determines how much damage is dealt from the axe to enemies .
The Legendary Axe received high praise and accolades among video game reviewers , and it received positive preview coverage in anticipation with the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's launch , showcasing the new console 's capabilities . Reviews from gaming magazines such as Electronic Gaming Monthly called it one of the best adventure games seen at the time . It was highly praised for its detailed graphics and animation , diverse music and gameplay , difficulty level , and execution . It won the " Best [ TurboGrafx @-@ 16 ] Game of the Year " and " Video Game of the Year " ( for all consoles ) awards from Electronic Gaming Monthly and VideoGames & Computer Entertainment respectively for 1989 . The game continued to receive praise from reviewers 20 years after its release for its simple gameplay and game design that showed the performance and capabilities of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 .
= = Plot = =
The Legendary Axe takes place in a faraway land , where its inhabitants have been under the control of the cult of Jagu . The cult , who has regularly pillaged the countryside , is led by a half @-@ man half @-@ beast named Jagu . The game 's protagonist , Gogan , lives in the village of Minofu , who must hand over one person as a human sacrifice to the Jagu every year . Gogan was away in a remote village studying warfare when he finds out that his childhood friend , Flare , has been selected by the Jagu as their annual sacrifice . Rushing back to Minofu , he finds that she has already been taken by the Jagu to the " Evil Place " located in the mountains . The village elders hand Gogan the Legendary Axe named " Sting " which gives him great strength to fight the evil cult . Armed with this axe , he sets off to the Evil Place to defeat Jagu and his cult and rescue Flare .
= = Gameplay = =
The Legendary Axe is a side @-@ scrolling action / platform video game in which the player assumes the role of Gogan , who sets out through six differently @-@ themed levels ( called " zones " ) including jungles , caves , and mountains ; the object is to defeat creatures such as " frog men " , bears , and giant spiders with his Legendary Axe " Sting " ; eliminate Jagu and his cult ; and rescue Flare . Players must also navigate obstacles and hazards by jumping . Gogan has a life meter that decreases every time he sustains damage from creatures , and the player loses a life when Gogan 's life meter runs out or if he falls off the screen . The game ends when players have lost all their lives , but they get four continues in which they can restart the game at the same section in which they have lost all their lives .
Gogan has a flashing " strength meter " on the top of the screen that determines how much damage he can inflict on enemies when he swings his axe . The strength meter empties after attacking and then slowly refills back to its maximum . The strength meter increases by 25 % whenever the player collects a " crystal container " . This incorporates an element of strategy in the game in which the player can either make a series of weak strikes with the axe or wait and build the strength meter for a single , more @-@ powerful strike . Scattered throughout the game to help Gogan are miniature statues called " Jagu idols " that reveal power @-@ ups when destroyed ; these power @-@ ups include " crystal containers " that increase Gogan 's attack strength , wings that increase the speed of Gogan 's attacks , power balls that help replenish Gogan 's life meter , crystals that award bonus points , and extra lives . Additional lives can also be obtained by earning certain amounts of points .
The zones in The Legendary Axe consist of different environments ; they range from dark forests to caverns to mountain plateaus to fortresses . Players will face many enemies along the way which they need to get through : " frog men " that leap from the water and spit fire ; jumping and rolling amoeba creatures in the caverns ; " rock men " that spring out and attack on the mountain plateaus ; and giant spiders that shoot webs at players . The bosses in the game are guardians of Jagu 's cult and are fought at the end of each zone . They include the following : at the end of Zone 1 , a pair of possessed grizzly bears ; of Zone 2 , a magical boulder ; of Zone 3 , a group of flying slinky @-@ type monsters called " Aqua Lungs " ; and of Zone 4 , a pair of creatures with shields and spears called " Punjabbis " . Zone 5 culminates with a maze of rooms called the " Pits of Madness " which feature every enemy encountered up to that point plus some new enemies ; at its end is a fire @-@ throwing cult demon . Zone 6 consists of the final battle with Jagu himself .
= = Development = =
The Legendary Axe was developed by Victor Interactive Software , and it was released under the title Makyo Densetsu in Japan for the PC Engine by the same company on September 23 , 1988 ( 1988 @-@ 09 @-@ 23 ) . Prior to its North American release , the game was retitled The Legendary Axe and was displayed with the other PC Engine games and the console itself at the 1989 International Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas , Nevada . Later in 1989 , NEC retooled Hudson Soft 's console and renamed it the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 for its imminent North American release . NEC sought third @-@ party support to develop for the console ; since they were purely a hardware developer , they lacked the ability to develop any software or games . This allowed NEC to publish games developed by those supporting third @-@ party companies in North America . The Legendary Axe was released in North America as a launch title for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 on August 29 , 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 08 @-@ 29 ) .
= = SEQUELS = =
This game did Not spawn a sequel .
In September 7th in 1990 a game was published , in Japan Titled LEGEND OF DARKNESS " Ankoku Densetsu " By Atlus Software using the already existing Rastan game matrix . Atlus had purchased the developing software usage rights , but not the " title " product label from Taito . When the game was Released in the United States it was quickly re @-@ titled to " the Legendary Axe II " in hopes of boosting sales by using the well known title as a publicity sales tactic . Reviews for the new title were not good , some reviewers gave overly supportive reviews , they may have possibly purchased those positive comments .
GAMEPRO ( November 1990 ) -Magazine Rated at 4 out of 5
" Legendary Axe II has the same magic as the first version , but with snazzier graphics . You get more power @-@ ups here so you can stay in the hunt longer , enhancing the game 's arcade feel There 's also a better variety of enemies . If you like thumb @-@ numbing , hack @-@ em , slash @-@ em action , give this sequel a try ! Remember , you axed for it ! " -David Winstead
RAZE # 2 -1991 Magazine 68 % out of 100 %
" Admittedly , the game does look remarkably like Rastan Saga II also released this month . Unfortunately the game has changed little from itsSadly [ sic ] , the graphics haven 't improved much , neither has the sound , in fact , there are far better games available for the Engine . "
ELECTRONIC GAMING MONTHLY -Magazine ( The 1991 Video Game Buyer 's Guide ) Rated at 6 out of 10
" This is not a sequel ! The character looks different , and fights differently . It 's not a bad game , there 's just nothing new or interesting ! More like Rastan than Axe , Axe 2 simply borrows their ideas . " -Sushi X
The Legendary Axe was previewed by various video gaming magazines before its release . A preview from Electronic Gaming Monthly called the game " a definite 10 " and " one of the best video games we 've ever played " . In an overview of the PC Engine , VideoGames & Computer Entertainment referred to the game as " characteristic of the PC Engine 's advanced sound , graphics and game play " . A later preview from the same magazine said that it was one of the console 's better games , and they applauded the arcade @-@ like graphics and gameplay . They said that everyone who owned the console should own the game and that it was an " excellent showcase of the game system 's capabilities " .
= = Reception = =
The Legendary Axe received positive coverage upon its release . It was reviewed in Electronic Gaming Monthly in September 1989 . In the review , Steve Harris said it was one of his favorite games , praising its theme , graphics , sound , and execution ; he added that its features were unsurpassed by any video game at the time . Ed Semrad used this game to criticize Rastan , saying The Legendary Axe " is how [ a platform game ] should have been done " . He added that it should be the first game TurboGrafx @-@ 16 owners should buy . Donn Nauert called the game one of the best adventure games seen at the time and echoed Harris ' praises . Jim Allee repeated Semrad 's observation that the game is Rastan but with better graphics ; he praised its detailed sprites , the diverse music and gameplay , and difficulty level and concluded that it " is everything you could want in a game " . Later in that issue Nauert presented a partial walkthrough of the game , where he further praised the game for breathing new life into the platformer genre . An abridged walkthough was published in VideoGames & Computer Entertainment in November 1989 .
The Legendary Axe received several awards and accolades . In Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Best and Worst of 1989 " , the game won " Best Game of the Year " honors for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 . The magazine cited a " perfect blend of action and adventure " and outstanding graphics and sound . It also received an award for " Coolest Boss Attackers " for its final boss Jagu – an award that was shared with 1989 Sega Genesis " Best Game of the Year " Ghouls ' n Ghosts for its final boss " Loki " . The game won " Video Game of the Year " ( for all consoles ) honors from VideoGames & Computer Entertainment in 1989 . They said that the game " has a little of everything : loads of axe @-@ swinging action , layer upon layer of high @-@ quality music and smooth , colorful animation . The combination of these elements brought this action adventure to the top of the video @-@ game heap like rising cream . "
The Legendary Axe continued to receive praise from reviewers almost 20 years after its release . In a brief overview of the game in his overview of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's history , IGN 's Levi Buchanan pointed out that the game made the console " an easy sell " for buyers and showed the superior performance of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 over the Nintendo Entertainment System . He said that The Legendary Axe " made the NES look downright ancient " . In a separate full review of the game , Buchanan noted that the game was an improvement over the console 's pack @-@ in game Keith Courage in Alpha Zones ; he said that The Legendary Axe was more fun and had good action compared to the former . He noted that the game remained enjoyable almost 20 years after its release because of its simple platforming gameplay compared to more complicated modern video games like Mass Effect . He praised the game 's smooth animation , innovative and detailed backgrounds , enemy designs , and soundtrack – saying that " any classic game tune nerd would enjoy having [ the music ] on their iPod " . Allgame noted a change in the gameplay near the end of the game ; after the fifth level , players must navigate a maze called the " Pits of Madness " which if they take the wrong path , they get sent back to its beginning .
The Legendary Axe has not been released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service , and IGN 's Lucas Thomas rated the game as the 3rd best in a list of " Top 10 unreleased TurboGrafx Titles " for the system . He said that he was shocked to find that this game was not on the Virtual Console , given that it was one of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's flagship titles that were heavily advertised when it was released . UK @-@ based magazine Retro Gamer , in a look back to video gaming in January 1989 , made a similar comparison of the game to Rastan , " with a lot of sword slashing and platform jumping " . The reviewer said that the popularity of The Legendary Axe in Japan was what caused it to be released as a TurboGrafx @-@ 16 launch title in North America .
= The Green Child =
The Green Child is the only completed novel by the English anarchist poet and critic Herbert Read . Written in 1934 and first published by Heinemann in 1935 , the story is based on the 12th @-@ century legend of two green children who mysteriously appeared in the English village of Woolpit , speaking an apparently unknown language . Read described the legend in his English Prose Style , published in 1931 , as " the norm to which all types of fantasy should conform " .
Each of the novel 's three parts ends with the apparent death of the story 's protagonist , President Olivero , dictator of the fictional South American Republic of Roncador . In each case Olivero 's death is an allegory for his translation to a " more profound level of existence " , reflecting the book 's overall theme of a search for the meaning of life . Read 's interest in psychoanalytic theory is evident throughout the novel , which is constructed as a " philosophic myth ... in the tradition of Plato " .
The story contains many autobiographical elements , and the character of Olivero owes much to Read 's experiences as an officer in the British Army during the First World War . The novel was positively received , although some commentators have considered it to be " inscrutable " , and one has suggested that it has been so differently and vaguely interpreted by those who have given it serious study that it may lack the form and content to justify the praise it has received .
= = Biographical background and publication = =
Primarily a literary critic , poet , and an advocate for modern art , Read wrote his only novel , The Green Child , in about eight weeks during 1934 , most of it in the summer house behind his home in Hampstead , London . Hampstead was then a " nest of gentle artists " who included Henry Moore , Paul Nash , Ben Nicholson , and Barbara Hepworth . Read was at that time interested in the idea of unconscious composition , and the first sixteen pages of the manuscript – written on different paper from the rest – are considered by some critics to look like the recollection of a dream . Read claimed in a letter written to psychoanalyst Carl Jung that the novel was a product of automatic writing . As of 2016 , the original manuscript is in the possession of the University of Leeds Library ; Read had been a student at the University .
Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 Read became a supporter of communism , believing it to offer " the social liberty of my ideals " , but by the 1930s his conviction had begun to waver . Increasingly his political ideology leaned towards anarchism , but it was not until the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 that Read became confirmed in his anarchist beliefs and stated them explicitly . The Green Child was therefore written at a time when Read 's political and philosophical ideas were in flux .
There have been six editions of the novel , the first from Heinemann in 1935 , priced at 7 shillings and sixpence , the equivalent of about £ 23 in 2016 . Ten years later a second edition was published by Grey Walls Press , with the addition of illustrations by Felix Kelly . A third edition , for which Graham Greene wrote an introduction focusing on the novel 's autobiographical elements , was published by Eyre and Spottiswoode in 1947 . The first American edition was published in New York by New Directions in 1948 , with an introduction by Kenneth Rexroth . Penguin Books published a fifth edition in 1979 , which included the 1947 introduction by Greene . A sixth edition , published by R. Clark , appeared in 1989 and was reprinted in 1995 , both containing Greene 's introduction .
= = Plot summary = =
The first and last parts of the story are told as a third @-@ person narrative , but the middle part is written in the first person . The story begins in 1861 with the faked death of President Olivero , dictator of the South American Republic of Roncador , who has staged his own assassination . He returns to his native England , to the village where he was born and raised . On the evening of his arrival Olivero notices that the stream running through the village appears to be flowing backwards , and he decides to follow the water upstream to discover the cause .
The stream 's course leads Olivero to a mill , where through a lighted window he sees a woman tied to a chair , forced by the miller to drink the blood of a freshly slaughtered lamb . Instinctively , Olivero hurls himself through the open window , his " leap into the world of fantasy " . The miller initially offers no resistance and allows Olivero to release the woman , whom he recognises by the colour of her skin to be Sally , one of the two green children who had mysteriously arrived in the village on the day he left , thirty years earlier ; Olivero also recognises the miller as Kneeshaw , an ex @-@ pupil at the village school where he had once taught . During a struggle between the two men Kneeshaw is accidentally drowned in the mill pond . The next morning Olivero and Sally continue on Olivero 's quest to find the stream 's destination , a pool in the moors high above the village . Paddling in its water , Sally begins to sink into the silvery sand covering its bed . Olivero rushes to her , and hand in hand they sink beneath the water of the pool .
The book 's second part recounts the events between Oliver leaving the village as its young schoolmaster and his return as ex @-@ President Olivero . He travels to London initially , hoping to find employment as a writer , but after three years spent working as a bookkeeper in a tailor 's shop he takes passage on a ship which lands him in Cádiz , Spain . Unable to speak the language , and in possession of a book by Voltaire , he is arrested as a suspected revolutionary . Held captive for two years , he learns Spanish from his fellow prisoners and determines to travel to one of the liberated American colonies he has learned of , where the possibility exists to establish a new world " free from the oppression and injustice of the old world " .
Freed in an amnesty following the death of King Ferdinand of Spain , Oliver makes his way to Buenos Aires . There he is mistaken for a revolutionary agent and taken to meet General Santos of the Roncador Army . Together they hatch a plot to seize the country 's capital city and assassinate its dictator . The plot is successful and " Don Olivero " finds himself leader of the Assembly , making him the country 's new dictator , a position he holds for 25 years . Eventually he realises that his style of government is leading the country into stagnation and " moral flaccidity " ; he begins to feel nostalgia for the English village where he was brought up , and resolves to escape . Wishing to avoid any suspicion that he is deserting Roncador , Olivero fakes his own assassination .
The final part of the book continues the story from when Olivero and Sally disappear under the water . A large bubble forms around them , transporting them to the centre of the pool and ascending into a large grotto , from where they proceed on foot through a series of adjoining caverns . Sally tells Olivero that this is the country she and her brother left 30 years ago . Soon they encounter her people , to whom Sally , or Siloēn as she is properly known , explains that many years ago she wandered off and became lost , but that she has now returned with one who " was lost too , and now wishes to dwell among us " . Olivero and Siloēn are welcomed into the community , where life is ordered around a progression from lower to upper ledges : the first ledge teaches the pleasures of youth ; on the second ledge the pleasure of manual work is learned ; on the third of opinion and argument ; and finally , on the upper ledge , the " highest pleasure " , of solitary thought .
Olivero soon tires of the first ledge , and leaving Siloēn behind he moves to the second , where he learns to cut and polish crystals , the most sacred of objects in this subterranean world . Eventually he is allowed to move to the highest ledge of all , " the final stage of life " . There he is taught the " basic principles of the universe " , that there is only Order and Disorder . " Order ... [ is ] the space @-@ filling Mass about them ... Disorder is empty space " . Disorder is caused by the senses , which , " being confined to the body ... create the illusion of self @-@ hood " . Olivero selects a grotto in which to spend what remains of his life alone , contemplating the " natural and absolute beauty " of the crystals he accepts from the crystal @-@ cutters . Food and water is brought regularly , and he settles to the task of preparing his body for " the perfection of death " , which when it comes he meets with a " peculiar joy " . Removing Olivero 's body from the grotto the attendants encounter another group carrying Siloēn , who died at the same time as Olivero . The pair are laid together in a petrifying trough , to " become part of the same crystal harmony " , as is customary when any of the Green people die .
= = Genre and style = =
Richard Wasson , professor of English , has said that The Green Child is " defiant of classification " , complicated by its division into " three arbitrarily related sections " . The first part of the novel adopts the style of a 19th @-@ century Gothic fairy tale . The " fluid , seemingly unbroken hand " in which it is written has encouraged the notion that it was produced in a single sitting , followed by a break before the second part was begun . Part two is written as a " conventional political adventure " , in which Olivero tells in flashback the story of his rise to power as the dictator of Roncador . The final part of the novel continues the narrative where the first left off , in the " fantastical , subterranean world of the Green people " . So different in style is the first part from what follows that some critics regard it as an entirely separate work , or " the ' true ' novel " .
Olivero 's quest in the underground world is written as a reversal of Plato 's allegory of the cave as described in his Republic . In Plato 's allegory , prisoners confined in a cave and condemned to stare at a blank wall , with only the light from a flickering fire behind them , see just the shadows of what is real ; the philosopher , on the other hand , is like someone released from the cave , able to see the true form of what is casting the shadows . Read turns the idea on its head ; when Siloēn left her subterranean world she left behind the Platonic " eternal forms " , and Olivero has to follow her back to her " cave " to discover the " divine essence of things " .
In the last few pages of the book , in which Olivero prepares for his death and petrification , Read describes Olivero 's final thoughts in a form adapted from Plato 's Phaedo , but in an almost mirror image . Socrates , whose thoughts on the afterlife Plato was describing , argued that death was the ideal home of the soul , but Olivero longs for his body to be free from the torments of the soul , to become part of the crystalline solidity of the universe . Olivero regards life , not death , as the destroyer , " for it [ life ] disrupts the harmony of inorganic matter " . Socrates ' suggestion , towards the end of the Phaedo , that our own world is but one of many , each a hollow in the earth connected by underground rivers , is a strikingly similar image to the subterranean land of the Green people that Read describes . Read however was " almost certainly " influenced in his depiction of the world of the Green people by W. H. Hudson 's 1887 utopian novel A Crystal Age , a story in which people strive to " live above their own mortality " .
= = Themes = =
The novel 's overarching theme is " a dialectical search for the meaning of life , a search which involves a return to life 's source " . The Green people 's emphasis on achieving " a literal oneness with the material universe " by petrifying the bodies of their dead , although it has " repulsed " some readers , is a vehicle that allows Read to parody the " traditional Western religious notion of the soul aspiring to rise through air to a vaporous paradise " .
The manuscript was originally entitled " Inland Far " , but at some point , perhaps during the gap between writing the first and subsequent parts , Read changed it to " The Green Child " , which suggests that the focus of the novel changed from Olivero 's quest for the source of the stream to the story of the green child herself . The original title was an allusion to William Wordsworth 's ode " Intimations of Immortality " , which describes the " ' bright landscape ' of childhood that casts its spell over later life " .
Read was interested in psychoanalysis , and employed psychoanalytic theory in his work , both Freudian and Jungian , although " more as machinery than as a key to meaning " . Olivero 's quest for the source of the stream has been described as " travelling allegorically across a landscape of the mind " , moving him " from the boundaries of the preconscious to the center of the id " . To Olivero , the miller Kneeshaw represents " the evil destructive instinct which lurks beneath the civilised conventions of society " , the Freudian id , whereas Olivero represents the ego . Thirty years earlier , Olivero had taught Kneeshaw at the local school , where he had seen the boy deliberately break a locomotive from a model railway that Olivero had brought into the school , by overwinding its clockwork mechanism . Unable to comprehend such wilful destruction , and already frustrated by the lack of opportunities offered by village life , Olivero left the next day . " When that spring snapped , something snapped in my mind . "
Olivero 's confrontation with Kneeshaw displays a Jungian psychoanalytic symbolism , as does the character of Siloēn , " the archetype of the anima , or Jungian ' soul ' , particularly in its function as intermediary between conscious and unconscious . " Kneeshaw represents " the shadow , the dark side of man 's nature , the primitive , animal part of the personality found in the personal unconscious " . Jung believed that the only way to face the shadow was to acknowledge it , not to repress it as Olivero had done 30 years earlier by leaving the village .
= = Autobiographical elements = =
During the First World War Read served with the Green Howards , fighting in the trenches of France . He was awarded the Military Cross , promoted to the rank of lieutenant , and became " obsessively determined not to betray his own men through cowardice " . The novel 's development of the " clearly autobiographical hero " of Olivero owes a great deal to Read 's wartime experiences and the " resolute self @-@ possession " they instilled in him . The irony of Olivero overthrowing a dictator only to become one himself is perhaps consistent with a view Read expressed in the mid @-@ 1930s : " From certain points of view , therefore , I can welcome the notion of the totalitarian state , whether in its Fascist or Communist form . I am not afraid of the totalitarian state as an economic fact , an economic machine to facilitate the complex business of living in a community . "
The son of a farmer , Read was born at Muscoates Grange , about four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the small North Yorkshire market town of Kirkbymoorside , to which he returned in 1949 . One of his favourite walks was along the course of Hodge Beck , the inspiration for the stream followed by Olivero . Hodge Beck led to a mill , which Read called his " spiritual hermitage " .
The crystals carved by the workmen on the second ledge of the Green people 's underground world , and contemplated by the sages on the highest ledge of all , symbolise Read 's ideas about the relationship of art to nature . He believed physical form to be the " underlying principle of the universe ... the ultimate reality in a completely material cosmos . Therefore it is the quality of recurring forms that makes possible all beauty and value " .
= = Critical reception = =
In the words of historian David Goodway , Read 's " remarkable career and formidable output have generated a surprisingly limited biographical and critical literature " . Richard Wasson has commented that The Green Child " though judged favorably by the few critics and scholars who give it serious study ... is so vaguely and variously interpreted that it would seem to lack both the form and the content which justify such praise " . The critic Richard E. Brown , writing in 1990 , considered the work to be " an important attempt by one of [ the 20th @-@ century 's ] most influential English critics to integrate his wide @-@ ranging thoughts into a complex interpretation of experience " , but added that it divided commentators , appearing to some to be " fascinating but inscrutable " . Reviewing the first American edition in 1948 , Professor of English Robert Gorham Davis commented that the novel " baffled some English critics when it arrived in 1935 " , but that it was " beautifully imagined and beautifully written " .
A review published in The Times shortly after the book 's publication described it as a " very charming philosophical tale " , and in his paper the historian and lecturer Bob Barker praised the novel for being " remarkable for its cool yet vivid style " . Critic Orville Prescott , writing in The New York Times , although admitting that the novel was " beautifully written " and " a triumph of delicate and suggestive mystification " , nevertheless concluded that the story was " ridiculous " and " vexatious " . He ended his review with the words : " One feels constantly that shining truths are about to be revealed ; that there is something important , something significant , hidden in these pages . But it is never made clear , while the ridiculous details remain all too conspicuously in view . " Prescott was just as critical of Rexroth 's preface to the first American edition , describing it as a " pretentious introduction of uncommon density " . Writing in The Independent in 1993 , shortly after the 100th anniversary of Read 's birth , critic Geoffrey Wheatcroft commented that Read may not have been a great novelist " but The Green Child is the kind of book to write if you are going to leave just the one novel behind : singular , odd , completely original " .
= Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area =
Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area is an Illinois state park on 1 @,@ 350 acres ( 550 ha ) in Kendall County , Illinois , United States . The park was established in the late 1960s and is named for the natural spring within its boundaries . The park has two artificial lakes and the Fox River flows through the northern end of the park . Silver Springs hosts a variety of activities including fishing , hunting , boating and hiking . The park has areas of native prairie restoration , a sledding hill and a seven mile ( 11 km ) equestrian trail . The prairie restoration areas hold many species of plants including lead plant , and purple coneflower .
= = Location = =
The Park is divided by the Fox River , with the northern area situated next to the Farnsworth House , designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe . The property that Mrs. Farnsworth bought frames part of the western side of the Park . One of the main access points to the park is a bridge that takes Fox River Drive ( Ben Street in Plano ) , over the river , and to an adjoining road ( Fox Road ) that runs past the entrance to the park . In the 1960s when the current bridge was being constructed , Mrs. Farnsworth appealed to the Kendall County Board , suggesting a block to the bridge , citing ecological concerns among other things .
= = History = =
There is evidence that the Fox River valley near Silver Springs was populated by indigenous people near the end of the last Ice Age , 10 – 14 @,@ 000 years ago . The original 1 @,@ 250 acres ( 510 ha ) tract of land that became Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area was purchased by the state of Illinois in 1969 , and has been open since January of that year . The park is located in Kendall County , Illinois , five miles ( 8 km ) west of the city of Yorkville . Since the original acquisition in 1969 , 100 acres ( 40 ha ) have been added to the park
Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area was one of five new state parks opened in northern Illinois from 1969 – 1971 . As part of more than 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 ha ) added to the Illinois state park system during this period , Silver Springs opened to alleviate traffic at other state parks in the area . At the time , the Illinois Department of Natural Resources ( IDNR ) , which oversees the state park system , was attempting to provide the Chicago area with the most state park facilities in Illinois .
The park had nine extant wells tapping the Galena – Platteville Aquifer when the state purchased the property . By 1973 a modern well was drilled , reaching a depth of 120 feet ( 37 m ) . The well , located near the park entrance , was drilled by K & K Well Drilling Co. of Mokena , Illinois through black dirt , gravel , clay , and limestone . Upon completion , the well produced about 500 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 900 l ) per day during the summer . The well provides the park with water , but the other nine wells remained in use following its completion .
A prairie restoration project began on 30 acres ( 12 ha ) within Silver Springs in 1980 ; 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) was added to the restoration project in 1991 . The IDNR undertook another prairie restoration in an area within the park , on the north side of the Fox River , in 2002 . For the 2002 project , the IDNR removed numerous invasive species from the area including : basswood , ash , maple , and exotic honeysuckle . The non @-@ native exotic honeysuckle species had thrived in the absence of fire through human intervention . These actions were meant to allow native burr and black oak , and shagbark hickory a chance to reproduce .
= = Bodies of water = =
Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area covers 1 @,@ 350 acres ( 550 ha ) and includes four distinct bodies of water , two artificial lakes , the Fox River , and Silver Springs . The larger of the two lakes , Loon Lake , covers 21 acres ( 8 @.@ 5 ha ) and has 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) of shoreline . Loon Lake 's maximum depth is 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) and it has an average depth of 11 @.@ 8 feet ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) . Loon Lake , sometimes known as Silver Spring Lake , was constructed in 1960 when a lowland area was excavated . The lake 's water level is maintained through a small 20 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) watershed and groundwater seepage . Water quality at Loon Lake was identified as " good " in 1996 by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency . Beaver Lake , north of Loon Lake , is smaller , covering 4 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 8 ha ) . It has almost a half mile ( 800 m ) of shoreline and a maximum depth of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) ; Beaver Lake 's average depth is 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) .
The park 's name comes from a natural spring located along a trail on the south end of the park . The spring 's name is derived from the effect of sunlight on its surface , which makes the pool appear to shimmer like silver . Even through the winter , the bubbling spring never freezes , and plants often poke through snow surrounding the watercress @-@ bordered pool in the coldest months . Three miles of the Fox River , which Silver Springs empties into , flows through the park 's north end .
= = Wildlife = =
Plant species native to Illinois prairies prior to European settlement are found within the park 's 45 @-@ acre ( 18 ha ) prairie restoration . While the plant life varies by season , species observed in the park include : lead plant , purple coneflower , wild bergamot , and purple prairie clover , black @-@ eyed susan , tall coreopsis , compass plant , wild quinine , rattlesnake master , New Jersey tea , big bluestem , switch grass , and Indian grass . Along the park 's four mile ( 6 km ) trail , several species of trees are found . Six species of oak , three species of ash , and basswood , cottonwood , pawpaw , Kentucky coffeetree and hackberry are among the tree species living within the boundaries of Silver Springs .
The Fox River at Silver Springs has numerous species of freshwater fish including , bluegill , crappie , channel catfish , bullhead , carp , muskie and northern pike . The Loon and Beaver Lake fish population is maintained through human stocking . Channel catfish , bass , bluegill and crappie are stocked in both lakes .
Besides its prairie restorations and bodies of water , Silver Springs has areas of deciduous forests , and wetlands , both of which are populated with species of mammals , birds and insects . Bird life observed in the park includes : osprey , great horned owl , eastern screech owl and long @-@ eared owl ; bald eagle have been sighted further upstream along the Fox . Reptiles and amphibians are present in the park but are more elusive than other types of animal life .
= = Activities = =
When in season , hunting and fishing are two of the park 's primary activities ; during the fall and winter over 1 @,@ 300 acres ( 530 ha ) are opened to the public for hunting . Pheasant hunting , through a park operated controlled hunting program , is popular at the park . Dove hunting , squirrel hunting , and bow hunting for deer are also permitted with some restrictions . The park has areas set aside for trap shooting , and archery , participants are required to bring their own equipment and restrictions apply . For anglers , Loon Lake is stocked in the spring and fall with rainbow trout and a small one @-@ half acre pond to the east of the lake is stocked annually for children during the National Hunting and Fishing Days , which is marked yearly by events at Silver Springs . The Fox River is open for fishing from both the bank and boats . There are no motor restrictions and a boat launch is available at the park . The Fox River is shallow near the park and boaters are advised to use caution .
Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area has trails for hiking and horseback riding . A short , half mile ( 800 m ) trail leads to Silver Springs near the park 's east entrance . A longer , four mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) trail follows the course of the Fox River through the park 's wooded areas . The equestrian trail is located in the wildlife management area of the park and stretches seven miles ( 11 km ) . A one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) path travels through the prairie restoration area as well . During the winter , much of the park 's trail system is open to cross @-@ country skiing , and a four mile ( 6 km ) trail is open to snowmobiling , weather permitting . When ice thickness permits , the lakes are opened to ice skating and ice fishing . Sledding is another popular activity ; Toboggan Hill is located inside the park 's east entrance .
= Refugee controversy in Sjöbo =
The refugee controversy in Sjöbo , Sweden , refers to the surrounding events of the 1988 referendum that banned Sjöbo Municipality from admitting foreign refugees . In 1987 , despite opposition and demonstrations , local Centre Party politician Sven @-@ Olle Olsson ( 1929 – 2005 ) , who was Sjöbo 's municipal commissioner at the time , was successful in gaining the support of the Sjöbo municipal assembly to hold a referendum to decide if Sjöbo should ban the acceptance of foreign refugees . The controversial referendum passed with a 67 @.@ 4 % majority for the ban in 1988 , gaining Olsson and Sjöbo much publicity in the Swedish media . The outcome was heavily criticized by Swedish media and politicians ( including then @-@ Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson ) .
Olsson was in turn expelled from the Centre Party following the referendum which led to the forming of the nationalist Sjöbo Party ( Swedish : Sjöbopartiet ) in March 1991 . In the municipal elections the same year , the party received 31 % of the votes . This led to Olsson once again becoming Municipal Commissioner , a position he held until 1998 , when his party 's support was reduced to 15 % in municipal elections . Following the Sjöbo party 's loss of support , the ban was overturned by Sjöbo 's municipal assembly , and Sjöbo accepted its first refugees for more than a decade in 2001 .
= = Background and motion = =
In 1977 , while a member of the Centre Party , Sven @-@ Olle Olsson , a former farmer , was elected as Sjöbo 's Municipal commissioner.The Centre Party in Sjöbo , led by Olsson , motioned before Sjöbo 's municipal assembly in June 1987 for a referendum on the acceptance of foreign refugees in the municipality . The motion came after a proposal that fifteen refugees be accepted into the municipality , an idea Olsson disliked . It has been speculated that the reason behind the motion was not these fifteen refugees , a small number for the municipality , but , instead , Olsson 's idea to create a protest against Sweden 's positive stance on refugees . Despite heavy protests from most of the country , Sjöbo 's municipal assembly decided in October 1987 to go through with the referendum in 1988 . If the referendum passed , it would completely ban Sjöbo from accepting foreign refugees .
= = Referendum = =
= = = Debate and media attention = = =
The municipality 's decision to go through with the referendum was met with even more criticism from the rest of the country . Immigration minister and Social Democrat Georg Andersson described the vote as a " macabre expression of egoism , and a violation of the refugees ' human dignity . " A majority of the population in Sjöbo , however , was in favor of the referendum . One citizen stated that " Foreigners just create problems . It 's only democratic to vote about this . I 'm all for it . "
It was , however , reported , that several of those who were in favor of accepting refugees , were afraid of expressing their opinion in public . On the day of the vote , 18 September 1988 , the Associated Press reported that the refugee issue had split families , friends and even the town 's only church . "
The referendum and the protests against it also drew attention abroad . On 12 September 1988 , The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote : " A referendum on accepting refugees in this quiet Swedish town has flared into an ugly battle watched closely by a country that prides itself on its tolerant attitudes and absence of racism . "
Madeleine Ramel , a baroness , and the head of the local Social Welfare Board that was planning on taking care of the refugees , said : " a lot of people are very ashamed . It 's terrible . The town has changed . " Ramel was Olsson 's strongest opposition in Sjöbo at the time . The Baroness became a symbol of the minority who supported the acceptance of refugees into the municipality . According to the local newspaper Skånska Dagbladet , " the Swedish media , especially the evening newspapers , loved the polarization between the simple farmer who did not want foreigners in the village and the baroness who wanted to take in the needy with open arms . "
Olsson 's main argument in the debate leading up to the day of the referendum was that foreigners would not be able to fit into a community such as Sjöbo . He repeatedly stated that these people come from " unknown cultures " and that it would be impossible for them to integrate into the Swedish society . Per @-@ Ingvar Magnusson , the then @-@ chairman of the Sjöbo branch of the Center Party , stated to the media that the referendum had nothing to do with racism ; he claimed that the reason for the vote was that Sjöbo lacked housing and jobs . He said in an interview that he was surprised by the attention the town had received in the media : " They make us out to be stupid , fools , farmers who live in isolation . The town simply wants to take care of its own first . "
= = = Result = = =
The referendum was held in Sjöbo on 18 September 1988 , the day of the Swedish general election , and passed with a 67 percent majority of the votes ( 6 @,@ 237 for and 3 @,@ 000 against ) , which led to even more criticism from the Swedish population . Then @-@ Prime Minister of Sweden Ingvar Carlsson said the results were " tragic " , and the then @-@ leader of the Centre Party , Olof Johansson , called the ban " improper " . The result of the referendum led to concerns from the Swedish government that other municipalities would follow in Sjöbo 's footsteps . The day after the vote , Madeleine Ramel commented : " This is a sad result . Everyone is a loser . It is unfortunate for Sjöbo . "
Heléne Lööw , a Swedish historian , stated that one of the likely reasons for the relatively large xenophobia in Skåne County at the time was the high unemployment numbers . The county had accepted a large amount of refugees compared to the rest of Sweden , and many saw this as the reason for the lack of jobs . Lööw also stated that the xenophobia could have been strengthened by local traditions . Nazi groups were " relatively strong " in Skåne in the 1930s .
= = Aftermath = =
The ban was heavily discussed in the Swedish media . Following the criticism , and after claims that Olsson was associated with the New Swedish Movement , the Centre Party decided in 1988 to exclude Olsson and his companions Börje Ohlsson and Per @-@ Ivar Magnusson from the party . They responded by forming the nationalist Sjöbo Party ( Swedish : Sjöbopartiet ) in March 1991 . In the municipal elections the same year , the party received 31 percent of the votes . This led to Olsson once again becoming Municipal Commissioner , a position he held until 1998 , when the party 's support was reduced to 15 % in the municipal elections . Following Sjöbo party 's loss of support , the referendum was overturned by Sjöbo 's municipal assembly , and Sjöbo accepted its first refugees since more than a decade in 2001 . Although Olsson died in 2005 , the party is still active , and in the 2010 municipal election the party received 11 @.@ 4 % of the votes , making it the third largest party in Sjöbo .
= Convention of 1833 =
The Convention of 1833 ( April 1 – 13 , 1833 ) , a political gathering of settlers in Mexican Texas , was a successor to the Convention of 1832 , whose requests had not been addressed by the Mexican government . Despite the political uncertainty resulting from a recently concluded civil war , 56 delegates met in San Felipe de Austin to draft a series of petitions to the Mexican government .
The volatile William H. Wharton presided over the meeting . Although the convention 's agenda largely mirrored that of the Convention of 1832 , delegates also agreed to pursue independent statehood for the province , which was at the time part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas . Under the guidance of Sam Houston , former governor of the US state of Tennessee , a committee drafted a state constitution to submit to the Mexican Congress . The proposed constitution was largely patterned on US political principles , yet retained several Spanish customs . Delegates also requested customs exemptions and asked that a ban on immigration into Texas be lifted .
Some residents complained that this convention , like its predecessor , was illegal . Nevertheless , Stephen F. Austin journeyed to Mexico City to present the petitions to the government . Frustrated with the lack of progress , in October Austin wrote a letter encouraging Texans to form their own state government . This letter was forwarded to the Mexican government and Austin was imprisoned in early 1834 . During his imprisonment , the federal and state legislatures later passed a series of measures to placate the colonists , including the introduction of trial by jury . Austin acknowledged that " [ e ] very evil complained of has been remedied . "
= = Background = =
Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821 . After the new country 's monarchy was overthrown , the Constitution of 1824 established a federalist republic composed of multiple states . Sparsely populated provinces were denied independent statehood and instead merged with neighboring areas . Mexican Texas , which marked the country 's eastern border with the United States , was combined with Coahuila to form the new state Coahuila y Tejas . To facilitate government of the large area , the state was subdivided into several departments ; all of Texas was included in the Department of Béxar .
Texas was part of the Mexican frontier , and settlers faced frequent raids by native tribes . Bankrupt and unable to provide much military assistance , in 1824 the federal government legalized immigration from the United States and Europe , hoping that an influx of settlers would discourage raiding . As the number of American living in Texas increased , Mexican authorities became apprehensive that the United States intended to annex the area , possibly by force . To curb the perceived threat , the Mexican government passed the Law of April 6 , 1830 , which restricted immigration from the United States into Texas and called for the first enforcement of customs duties . The new laws were unpopular with both native Mexicans in Texas ( Tejanos ) and recent immigrants ( Texians ) .
In 1832 , General Antonio López de Santa Anna led a revolt against President Anastasio Bustamante 's centralist government . Under the pretext that they supported Santa Anna , a small group of Texians armed themselves and overthrew the commander of the garrison that was enforcing the new customs duties . Other settlers followed their example , and within weeks all Mexican soldiers in eastern Texas had been forced to leave .
Buoyed by their military success , Texians organized a political convention to persuade Mexican authorities to weaken the Laws of April 6 , 1830 . Although the two municipalities with the largest Tejano populations , San Antonio de Béxar and Victoria , refused to participate , 55 delegates met in October for the Convention of 1832 . They adopted a series of resolutions that requested changes in the governance of Texas . The most controversial item was for Texas to become an independent state , separate from Coahuila . After approving the list of resolutions , delegates created a seven @-@ member central committee to convene future meetings .
Before the list of concerns could be presented to the state and federal governments , Ramón Músquiz , the political chief of the Department of Béxar , ruled that the convention was illegal . The law directed that citizens should protest to their local ayuntamiento ( similar to a city council ) , which would forward their concerns to the political chief . The political chief could then escalate the concerns to the appropriate governmental authority . Because this process had not been followed , Músquiz annulled the resolutions .
= = Preparation = =
The previous convention 's lack of Tejano representation fostered a perception that only newcomers to Texas were dissatisfied . The president of the Convention of 1832 , Stephen F. Austin , traveled to San Antonio de Béxar to garner support for the changes the convention had requested . Austin found that the Tejano leaders largely agreed with the result of the convention but opposed the methods by which the resolutions had been proposed . They urged patience ; Bustamante was still president and would not look favorably on a petition from settlers who had recently sided with his rival , Santa Anna .
As a compromise , the ayuntamiento of San Antonio de Béxar drafted a petition containing similar language to the convention 's resolutions . Following legal norms , they submitted this to Músquiz , who forwarded it to the Mexican Congress in early 1833 . At this time , the federal and state governments were in flux . Bustamante had resigned the presidency in late December 1832 as part of a treaty to end the civil war . There was no effective state government . The governor of Coahuila y Tejas had died in September 1832 , and his replacement , federalist Juan Martín de Veramendi , immediately dissolved the state legislature , which had centralist leanings . Veramendi called elections to seat a new government in early 1833 . Due to the political uncertainty , Austin urged that the federal government be given several months to address the petition . If no action was eventually taken , he advised that Texas residents would form their own state government , essentially declaring independence from Coahuila , if not from Mexico .
Austin 's timeframe was endorsed by Tejano leaders , but it did not pacify the Texian settlers . Towards the end of December , the central committee called for a new convention to meet in San Felipe de Austin in April 1833 . Elections were scheduled for March . This action disturbed the Tejano leaders , who saw it as a violation of their agreement with Austin .
Communities in Texas elected 56 delegates for the new convention . In a departure from the previous election , San Antonio de Béxar also sent delegates , including James Bowie , the son @-@ in @-@ law of Governor Veramendi . Bowie , like many of his fellow delegates , was known as an agitator who wanted immediate change . The majority of the delegates to the previous convention had been more cautious .
= = Proceedings = =
The Convention of 1833 was called to order on April 1 , 1833 , in San Felipe de Austin . By coincidence , on that day Santa Anna was inaugurated as the new President of Mexico . Delegates elected William H. Wharton , a " known hothead " , as president of the convention . Wharton had lost his bid to be president of the previous convention . Historian William C. Davis describes Wharton 's election as " a public declaration that while Austin was still respected , his moderate course would no longer be followed " .
On the first day , several delegates addressed the convention to justify the recent Texian actions . Many argued that the expulsion of most garrisons in the region was not an act of disloyalty to Mexico , but instead resistance to a particular form of governance . Sam Houston , who represented Nacogdoches , commented that " Santa Anna was only a name used as an excuse for resistance to oppression " . Several delegates argued that the recently concluded civil war had left Mexico in too much turmoil to provide effective rule for Texas . Echoing the American Revolution slogan " no taxation without representation " , one delegate insisted that Texas was not bound by Mexican laws since its settlers had no representation . This delegate overlooked the fact that Texas had been granted two representatives to the Coahuila y Tejas legislature .
Austin presented an overview of the events that had occurred in Texas and in the rest of Mexico over the previous year . He enumerated several grievances against the political and judicial systems and concluded that Texas needed to become an independent state . This could be justified , in his opinion , by language in the Constitution of 1824 .
= = = State constitution = = =
By the second day of the convention , delegates were in agreement to pursue separate statehood . Austin wrote to a friend , " We are now able to sustain A State Govt. and no country ever required one more than this " . Houston was named chairman of a committee to draft a new state constitution . Although Houston had not lived in Texas for very long , he was well @-@ known , having served as governor of Tennessee and as a member of the United States Congress .
The new constitution was based on a copy of the 1780 Massachusetts Constitution provided by one of the committee members . The proposed document also drew from the constitutions of other states in the United States , including Louisiana , Missouri , and Tennessee . It provided " meticulous detail " for the new system of government . The executive branch structure , proposed by Austin , called for a governor who would serve two @-@ year terms . The state would have a bicameral legislature and a three @-@ tier judiciary system , with local and district courts ultimately kept in check by a state supreme court .
A 27 @-@ article bill of rights , containing , according to historian Howard Miller , an " impressive list " of protected rights , was included . This document aligned closely with contemporary American political ideals , especially the notion that all men had a right to liberty . Much of the language and concepts were drawn from the first eight amendments to the United States Constitution . The document called for trial by jury , a distinct departure from Mexican law , which required that trials be heard by the local alcalde . Defendants would be granted counsel and would have the right to examine any evidence against them . They would be protected from excessive bail or cruel and unusual punishments . Civil authorities would take priority over military authorities . Delegates also agreed to protect " free communication of thoughts and opinions " , a phrase carefully drafted to imply freedom of speech , of assembly , and of the press . Although it could also be interpreted to imply freedom of religion , delegates were unwilling to explicitly grant that right , knowing that it would cause an uproar in Catholic Mexico .
A few of the rights were drawn from Spanish practices . The proposed constitution forbade the English practices of primogeniture and entailment , following a change made to Spanish law in 1821 . Delegates retained the traditional Spanish prohibition against seizing a debtor 's physical property and extended it to forbid imprisonment as a punishment for debt . This was a novel idea . In the United States , nine states had enumerated certain conditions under which a debtor could not be imprisoned , but no state had an unqualified prohibition on the practice .
Borrowing from the resolutions of the Convention of 1832 , delegates wrote into the constitution a guarantee of free public education . They further banned unsecured paper currency and insisted the state economy should be based solely on hard currency . When the constitution was completed , David G. Burnet headed a subcommittee to craft a letter to Mexican authorities to explain the merits of the proposal .
= = = Resolutions = = =
In addition to the development of a state constitution , delegates passed a series of resolutions that asked Mexican authorities for reforms . Several of these echoed resolutions passed at the previous year 's convention . Delegates again insisted that the ban on immigration should be repealed and that customs duties be lifted . Resolutions also requested additional protection from raids by native tribes , and that the government implement a more efficient mail delivery system .
One of the resolutions would have been more suited for passage by a state legislature than a group of concerned citizens . Perhaps to atone for some of the more revolutionary items they had requested , as one of their final acts delegates passed a resolution that condemned the slave trade within Texas . The Constitution of 1824 had already abolished the slave trade , and the constitution of Coahuila y Tejas had forbidden the importation of slaves into the state . Most settlers in Texas ignored the restrictions and instead converted their slaves to servants indentured for 99 years . African slaves were still imported into Texas occasionally , and a ship carrying slaves docked in Galveston Bay as the convention met . This ship , like most others used to import slaves , came from Cuba , which was a possession of Spain . Because Spain did not officially recognize Mexican independence , delegates considered this trade treasonous to Mexico .
Delegates ordered that the resolution be printed in newspapers in the Mexican interior and in New Orleans . It was not printed in Texas , clearly indicating that it was intended to influence public opinion in the Mexican interior rather than in Texas . The resolution was not binding , and slaves continued to be imported to Texas through Cuba .
Despite a vocal minority advocating for the unilateral implementation of the proposals , delegates agreed to present the requests to the Mexican Congress for approval . They did agree to take action if it appeared their demands would be ignored . As their last act , delegates elected Austin , James Miller , and Erasmo Seguín to deliver their petitions to Mexico City . Seguin , a prominent citizen of San Antonio de Béxar , had not attended the convention . Delegates hoped Austin could persuade Seguin to accompany him , thus implying that Tejanos supported the resolutions .
= = Preparations for delivery = =
When the convention adjourned on April 13 , Austin went directly to San Antonio de Béxar to meet with Seguin . Seguin called a series of meetings , held from May 3 to 5 , for prominent locals to discuss the convention proceedings . He was the only Béxar resident to fully support separate statehood . Other residents suggested that the capital of Coahuila y Tejas should be moved to San Antonio de Béxar , giving Texas more power . There was precedent for this ; under Veramendi , the capital had just been moved from Saltillo to Monclova . If the legislature rejected the move , these residents vowed to support separate statehood .
A third group of residents believed that the convention , like its predecessor , was illegal . Under their interpretation of the laws , only the state legislature would be able to petition the Mexican Congress for such a drastic change . Austin argued that the laws really meant that no one could petition on behalf of the people unless the people had been consulted , and the convention served as that consultation . The meetings ended with no agreement on how to proceed . Austin wrote that " the people here agree in substance with the rest of Texas , but differ as to the manner , and will express no opinion for , nor against " .
Seguin declined to accompany Austin . Miller also withdrew . Texas was in the throes of a cholera epidemic , and Miller , a physician , felt it his duty to stay and tend the sick . Austin then visited Goliad but was unable to attract any more Tejano support . He chose to go to Mexico City alone ; he had visited several times and had established a good reputation among government officials . Although he was warned that his reception would likely be poor , he ignored suggestions to delay his journey .
= = Reception = =
Within the Mexican interior , rumors abounded that Texas was on the verge of revolution . Many citizens in Matamoros believed Texians had already declared independence and were raising an army . Santa Anna was infuriated , especially at the involvement of Houston , a former officer in the United States military .
Immediately after Santa Anna had taken office in April , he had handed over all decision @-@ making authority to his vice president , Valentín Gómez Farías , and retired to the countryside . Farías enacted many federalist reforms , which angered citizens and army leaders . Much of the country was clamoring for a return to centralism , yet Texians wanted to take further steps toward self @-@ rule . By the time Austin arrived in Mexico City on July 18 , several Mexican states had engaged in minor revolts against Farías 's reforms . Although Texians had expelled troops within their province before Santa Anna and Farías took office , many officials identified the province with the other rebellious states and were suspicious of Austin 's intentions .
The cholera epidemic reached Mexico City within days of Austin 's arrival , prompting Congress to adjourn before Austin could present the convention 's resolutions . As he waited for the legislature to reconvene , Austin heard rumors that Texians were planning a third convention to unilaterally declare themselves a separate state . Although Austin was also frustrated at the lack of progress , he disapproved of this drastic proposal . In an attempt to quell the more radical groups in Texas , in October Austin sent a letter to the ayuntamiento in San Antonio de Béxar in which he proposed that all of the ayuntamientos should jointly form a new state government . In what could be interpreted as an inflammatory gesture , Austin signed his letter " dios y Tejas " ( " God and Texas " ) rather than the traditional Mexican closing " dios y libertad " ( " God and liberty " ) . A few days after he had posted the letter , the immigration ban was repealed , assuaging one of the major Texian concerns .
Austin had expected the letter to reach his friend Músquiz , who could be trusted to determine when or if it was appropriate to publicly disclose its contents . The letter arrived while Músquiz was out of town and was read by an unsympathetic ayuntamiento member . At this member 's request , the ayuntamiento of San Antonio de Béxar forwarded the letter to state officials in Coahuila . The new governor , Francisco Vidaurri y Villaseñor , ordered Austin 's arrest . Austin was arrested in December on suspicion of treason . He was imprisoned through all of 1834 and remained in Mexico City on bond until July 1835 .
During Austin 's imprisonment , the government addressed several more of the convention 's proposals . At Santa Anna 's urging , the Coahuila y Tejas legislature enacted several measures to placate the Texians . In early 1834 , Texas gained an additional seat in the state legislature . An American immigrant was named state Attorney General , and , for the first time , foreigners were granted explicit permission to participate in retail trade . Several American legal concepts , including trial by jury , were introduced to Texas , and English was authorized as a second language . Finally , the state created four new municipalities in Texas : Matagorda , San Augustine , Bastrop , and San Patricio . In a letter to a friend , Austin wrote " Every evil complained of has been remedied . This fully compensates me for all I have suffered . "
= Annika Zeyen =
Annika Zeyen ( born 17 February 1985 ) is a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ point wheelchair basketball player , who has played for ASV Bonn and RSV Lahn @-@ Dill in the German wheelchair basketball league , and for the University of Alabama in the United States . She has also played for the national team , with which she won three European titles , was the runner @-@ up at 2010 World Championships , won silver at the 2008 Summer Paralympic Games in Beijing , and won a gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , for which President Joachim Gauck awarded the team Germany 's highest sporting honour , the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) .
= = Biography = =
Zeyen was born on 17 February 1985 . She is nicknamed " Anni " . At the age of 14 , she was involved in a serious horse riding accident that left her paralysed . During rehab , she was introduced to the sport of wheelchair basketball . She left the hospital and started looking for a club where she could play .
Zeyen joined ASV Bonn , initially playing with the youth team , then with the seconds , and finally with the firsts . In 2001 , she played in the German Championships for Women , and was named most valuable young player . In 2004 , she switched to RSV Lahn @-@ Dill , with which she won several German championships . She was invited to try out for the national team , and joined its development squad . She competed in her first paralympic games , the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens . She subsequently played for the national team that won the European championships in 2005 , 2007 , 2009 and 2011 .
In September 2008 , Zeyen participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , but Germany was beaten in the gold medal match by the United States team , which contained three of her former team mates from the University of Alabama , Stephanie Wheeler , Mary Allison Milford and Alana Nichols . The German team took home Paralympic silver medals instead . After the Paralympics , the team 's performance was considered impressive enough for it to be named the national " Team of the Year " , and it received the Silver Laurel Leaf , Germany 's highest sporting honour , from German President Horst Koehler .
Zeyen took up a scholarship to the University of Alabama in 2009 , majoring in advertising and minoring in graphic design . She maintained a 4 @.@ 0 grade point average . Her team at the University of Alabama won three titles in five years , narrowly missing out in March 2013 to the University of Wisconsin – Whitewater , which won the championship game 55 – 41 , a game in which Zeyen scored 11 points . Zeyen was named an Academic All @-@ American in 2012 and 2013 .
In June 2012 , Zeyen was named as one of the team that competed at the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London . In the Gold Medal match , her team faced Australia , a team that had defeated them 48 – 46 in Sydney just a few months before . They defeated the Australians 58 – 44 in front of a crowd of over 12 @,@ 000 at the North Greenwich Arena to win the gold medal , the first that Germany had won in women 's wheelchair basketball in 28 years . They were awarded a Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 , and were again named Team of the Year for 2012 .
The German team lost the European Championship to the Netherlands before a home town crowd of 2 @,@ 300 in Frankfurt in July 2013 by a point , 56 @-@ 57 . The game was televised live in Germany , and cameras lingered on a tearful Zeyen , who could have tied the game and sent it into extra time with a free throw in its dying moments .
In April 2014 , Zeyen was part of the BG Baskets Hamburg team that won the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation Euro League Challenge Cup , its first International title , with a 62 – 54 over the Frankfurt Mainhatten Skywheelers . The team also won the Fair Play Award of the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation Europe , and Zeyen was elected to its All Star team .
= = Achievements = =
2005 : Gold at European championships ( Villeneuve d 'Ascq , France )
2006 : Bronze at World Championships ( Amsterdam , Netherlands )
2007 : Gold at European championships ( Wetzlar , Germany )
2008 : Silver at the Paralympic Games ( Beijing , China )
2009 : Gold at the European Championships ( Stoke Mandeville , England )
2010 : Silver at the World Championships
2011 : Gold at the European Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )
2012 : Gold at the Paralympic Games ( London , England )
2013 : Silver at the European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )
2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )
2015 : Gold at the European Championships ( Worcester , England )
= = Awards = =
2008 : Team of the Year
2008 : Silver Laurel Leaf
2012 : Team of the Year
2012 : Silver Laurel Leaf
= Limnoperdon =
Limnoperdon is a fungal genus in the monotypic family Limnoperdaceae . The genus is also monotypic , as it contains a single species , the aquatic fungus Limnoperdon incarnatum . The species , described as new to science in 1976 , produces fruit bodies that lack specialized structures such as a stem , cap and gills common in mushrooms . Rather , the fruit bodies — described as aquatic or floating puffballs — are small balls ( 0 @.@ 5 – 1 mm diameter ) of loosely interwoven hyphae . The balls float on the surface of the water above submerged twigs . Experimental observations on the development of the fruit body , based on the growth on the fungus in pure culture , suggest that a thin strand of mycelium tethers the ball above water while it matures . Fruit bodies start out as a tuft of hyphae , then become cup @-@ shaped , and eventually enclose around a single chamber that contains reddish spores . Initially discovered in a marsh in the state of Washington , the fungus has since been collected in Japan , South Africa , and Canada .
= = Taxonomy , classification and phylogeny = =
The family , genus and species were first described in a 1976 publication by graduate students Gustavo Escobar and Dennis McCabe , and undergraduate Craig Harpel who , in the fall of 1974 , found the fungus as part of " a class project to find and isolate phycomycetes " . The holotype is located in the University of Washington Mycological Herbarium . An isotype ( duplicate of the holotype specimen ) is located in the Herbarium of the University of El Salvador in San Salvador .
Limnoperdon incarnatum was originally thought to be associated with the Gasteromycetes , an artificial assemblage of species united by the fact that their spores mature inside the fruit bodies and are not forcibly discharged from the basidia . Other morphologically similar genera include the Gasterella of the family Gasterellaceae , and the Protogaster of the family Protogastraceae ; however , it was excluded from these genera because of significant differences in spore color and structure , presence of clamp connections , and structure of the basidia . For these reasons the new family Limnoperdaceae was described to contain the new species , and it was classified along the Protogastraceae in the ( now defunct ) order Protogastrales . More recently , molecular phylogenetics has been used to clarify the relationship Limnoperdon with other fungi . In 2001 , David Hibbett and Manfred Binder established the membership of Limnoperdon incarnatum in the euagarics clade , a phylogenetically related group of species traditionally forming the order Agaricales . Additional molecular studies have placed Limnoperdaceae in the pluteoid clade of the Agaricales , a grouping that includes the families Pluteaceae , Amanitaceae , and Pleurotaceae ; other studies that used comparisons of ribosomal DNA sequences placed Limnoperdon near the gilled genera Melanoleuca or Resupinatus , of the Tricholomataceae family .
A 2007 field study that used molecular techniques to survey aquatic fungal taxa in a small springbrook in Valley Spring , Southern Ontario , Canada discovered many fungal taxa with high genetic affinity to Limnoperdon incarnatum , which suggests that a closely related species may also be common in streams .
= = Description = =
The genus description is similar to the family description , but further specifies that the fruit bodies float , are sometimes embedded in a loose subiculum ( a woolly or net @-@ like growth of hyphae ) , and that the spores are reddish . The fungus has been described as an " aquatic puffball " , although a later review considered " floating puffball " to be a more apt descriptor .
The fruit bodies of L. incarnatum are tiny , oval to roughly spherical , and measure 35 – 1250 by 200 – 450 μm . The floating balls are sometimes enclosed in a loose subiculum , with a whitish surface that is byssoid ( consisting of fine threads ) . The peridium ( the outer protective tissue layer ) is 18 – 30 μm thick , byssoid , and made of clamped hyphae typically 2 @.@ 5 – 4 μm in diameter intertwined with dendrophyses ( irregularly branched cystidia ) 1 μm in diameter . The surface of the peridium is hydrophobic , a feature that helps keep water off the growing hymenium during its development , and gives the fruit body buoyancy .
The gleba is a single chamber , reddish in color , with a cavity that has an oblate spheroid shape . Initially empty , in maturity it is filled with spores that measure 330 – 1220 by 180 – 420 μm . The smooth inner surface of the chamber comprises the fertile spore @-@ bearing tissue ( the hymenium ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) — conspicuous when viewed under the microscope — are hyaline ( translucent ) , more or less club @-@ shaped , and usually have basal and apical swellings separated by a narrow strip of variable length . The basidia are four @-@ spored , and have inflated sterigmata with a central constriction . The basidia measure 20 – 90 ( typically 25 – 55 ) μm long by 8 – 10 μm thick . Reddish in mass , the spores are obovate ( egg @-@ shaped , with the broad extremity located away from the base ) , smooth , thick @-@ walled , and measure 11 – 16 ( typically 12 – 15 ) by 7 – 10 μm . They have a beaked pedicel that is 2 – 4 by 2 – 5 μm , and a basal germ pore .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The species was originally discovered floating in petri dishes that contained submerged hardwood twigs previously collected from a marsh next to a playground on the south shore of Lake Union in Seattle , Washington . After the initial 1976 publication , L. incarnatum was reported the following year when Keisuke Tubaki recovered it from wood blocks submerged in brackish water in Japan ; scientists Seiya Ito and T. Yokoyama later reported collecting it in Japanese rice paddy fields . Later surveys uncovered the fungus in several localities in South Africa and in freshwater ponds in Canada .
= = Development = =
Escobar grew cultures of the fungus by placing fresh fruit bodies on agar containing growth medium with an extract of horse dung . The tips of the hyphae were used to obtain axenic cultures ; the fungus can grow on a variety of media commonly used to grow fungi in the laboratory . Depending on the composition of the growth media , fruit bodies were formed as early as eight days after initiating , when grown at 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) and under dim light . When minute agar blocks containing mycelium were submerged in distilled water , mycelial strands grew towards the water surface and eventually gave rise to floating fruit bodies connected to the parent agar block by strands of hyphae .
Mycologist Dennis McCabe studied the development of the fruit body using specimens grown in pure culture . Starting out as a hyphal tuft , the fungus grows into a cup shape before eventually closing in completely to create the spherical structure of the mature fruit body . When the fungus is in the cup stage , the exposed hymenium is immature ; typically , spores develop after the fruit body is fully closed . In some cases , the fruit body stops developing at the cup stage while the hymenium continues to mature . This results in a cup @-@ shaped fungus with an exposed layer of basidia bearing normal and mature spores . Limnoperdon incarnatum is a structurally simple fungus , and relatively easy to grow in culture , suggesting it may have potential as a model organism for fruit body development in general . Under the experimental conditions used , fruit bodies matured to produce spores about 72 hours after the fungus started growing . The aborted cups resemble the sporocarps of the cyphelloid fungi , but can be distinguished by their orthotrophic spore attachment and the lack of ballistospory ( forceful spore discharge ) . McCabe and Escobar later suggested that the fungus may have evolved the loss of ballistospory by being compensated with the cup @-@ shaped fruit body closing at maturity . Halocyphina villosa is another small cup @-@ shaped Basidiomycete fungus that has adapted to a marine environment ; in contrast to L. incarnatum , however , it starts out with a closed fruit body that later opens up to become cup @-@ shaped .
Although it is not known with certainty how the spores are dispersed , they may disperse passively in the water , or a mature spore @-@ containing fruit body may float on the water surface for dispersal . L. incarnatum is homothallic , a mode of reproduction commonly employed by marine fungi that may confer a competitive advantage in marine environments .
= Nevada State Route 564 =
State Route 564 ( SR 564 ) is an east – west highway in Clark County , Nevada , in the southeast portion of the Las Vegas Valley . The route travels through the city of Henderson , connecting Interstate 215 ( I @-@ 215 ) and I @-@ 515 / U.S. Route 93 ( US 93 ) / US 95 to Lake Mead . The route was designated in 2002 , replacing a portion of SR 146 .
= = Route description = =
State Route 564 begins as a continuation of the Las Vegas Beltway , starting where I @-@ 215 ends at its junction with I @-@ 515 / US 93 / US 95 . From there , the route travels east along Lake Mead Parkway , a major arterial roadway , towards downtown Henderson to cross Boulder Highway ( SR 582 ) . After entering the center of Henderson , SR 564 turns northeast near residential areas . The route then turns east just west of Lake Mead National Recreation Area . The road enters the park , near by Lake Las Vegas . State maintenance ends , and the road continues east . Around 52 @,@ 500 vehicles travel on the highway near its western terminus on average each day .
= = History = =
In the late 1970s , the highways in the state highway system were renumbered . SR 41 was split into two state routes . SR 146 is a started from I @-@ 15 to US 93 / US 95 in Henderson . SR 147 started from US 93 / US 95 to North Las Vegas . A limited access highway alignment from US 93 / US 85 started construction in 1985 – 86 . An interchange was built for SR 146 in 1989 – 90 , and the highway was completed by 1995 – 96 . The designation I @-@ 515 was added to the highway . In the same period , SR 147 's designation was removed from eastern section of Lake Mead Drive , and replaced by SR 146 . As the Las Vegas Beltway ( I @-@ 215 ) was being constructed in the late 1990s , the last five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) between Saint Rose Parkway and Interstate 515 were constructed on the SR 146 alignment . This left SR 146 in two separate segments . The eastern segment of SR 146 was reassigned to SR 564 by 2002 . I @-@ 215 from SR 146 to SR 564 's western terminus was completed in October 2005 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Henderson , Clark County .
= Sotra Bridge =
The Sotra Bridge ( Norwegian : Sotrabrua ) is a suspension bridge which crosses Knarreviksundet between Knarrevik in Fjell and Drotningsvik on the mainland of Bergen in Hordaland , Norway . It carries two road lanes and two narrow pedestrian paths of National Road 555 , providing a fixed link for the archipelago of Sotra . The bridge is 1 @,@ 236 metres ( 4 @,@ 055 ft ) long , has a main span of 468 metres ( 1 @,@ 535 ft ) and a clearance of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . In 2007 , it had an average 25 @,@ 494 vehicles per day .
The bridge was brought into use on 11 December 1971 , although not officially opened until 1972 . It cost 40 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) to build , of which NOK 23 @.@ 5 million was paid for with tolls , which were collected until 1983 . When it opened , it was the longest suspension bridge in Norway , but is now the seventh longest . There exist plans to build a second bridge to either expand the road to four lanes , or carry a proposed extension of the Bergen Light Rail . Alternatively , a subsea tunnel could be built to carry a motorway .
= = Specifications = =
The concrete bridge crosses Knarreviksundet , which separates the island of Litlesotra , part of the Sotra archipelago , from the mainland and Bergen . The western part of the bridge , on Sotra , lies in Knarrevik in Fjell , while the eastern part lies in Drotningsvik in Bergen . The bridge is 1 @,@ 236 metres ( 4 @,@ 055 ft ) long with a main span of 468 metres ( 1 @,@ 535 ft ) . It carries two lanes of National Road 555 , with a combined width of 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) . In addition , it has a 0 @.@ 8 @-@ meter ( 2 ft 7 in ) wide sidewalk on each side . In 2009 , it had an annual average daily traffic of 25 @,@ 494 vehicles . Because it is located across the sound , the bridge is vulnerable to winds from the north and south . It is closed whenever the wind speed exceeds 30 metres per second ( 98 ft / s ) .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
The first discussion of a bridge in a public forum was in 1954 , when Anton P. Torsvik proposed a bridge to the major and municipal engineer of Fjell . Torsvik lived in Oslo and had worked with public relations for various other bridge projects . The issue was discussed in the municipal councils of Fjell and Sund , but they both concluded that there were more pressing needs on the islands ' road network , so they did not want to prioritize a bridge . National Road 555 was completed in 1957 , and the following years various road projects were completed .
Another person who took up the initiative in the late 1950s was Rangvald Iversen , who was plant manager at Norwegian Talc at Knarrevik . The plant had large costs freighting their products across the sound on the Alvøy – Brattholmen Ferry . In 1958 , he took the initiative to conduct a traffic count , which along with estimates of increased traffic from other places that had replaced a ferry with a bridge , would give estimates for the revenue from tolls . Norwegian Talc also paid for a draft plan for a bridge . In 1959 , Iversen presented an estimate that a bridge would cost NOK 15 @.@ 5 million , and on 19 December 1959 , the council voted unanimously to recommend that a committee be established to continue work on the bridge plans . In 1960 , the bridge was included in the road plan for Hordaland .
There were also some plans for the future which would remove the last ferries within the Sotra and Øygarden archipelagos , meaning that the entire twin archipelago would have ferry @-@ free access to the mainland , should the Sotra Bridge be built . The plans had been spurred by a large decrease in fishing during the late 1950s , and the need for increased tax revenue from new industries . The framework for the plan started in 1961 with the creation of an inter @-@ municipal cooperation , which in 1964 resulted in the merger of the municipalities of Hjelme and Herdla to create Øygarden . On 8 May 1962 , an inter @-@ municipal road committee was established , which recommended that a limited company be established to finance the bridge . In Bergen , Bro og Tunnelselskapet had similarly built the Puddefjord Bridge and Eidsvåg Tunnel , and the inter @-@ municipal council recommended a similar model . However , they wanted a separate company for Sotra and Øygarden , so extra tolls could be used to help finance road projects on the archipelago .
On 29 June 1962 , Fjell Municipality sent an official application to the County Governor to start planning , and this was sent onwards to the Directorate for Public Roads . They concluded that it would be possible to finance the bridge with tolls collected over 13 to 14 years , with the state paying for one @-@ third of the bridge . The plans called for the bridge to run south of Norwegian Talc , but it was later routed slightly north , so that the span could be reduced from 520 to 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 710 to 1 @,@ 640 ft ) . The optimal location would be within the Norwegian Talc plant , and by placing the western pylon on a skerry , it was possible to reduce the span to 468 metres ( 1 @,@ 535 ft ) .
The plans from 1959 called for a height of 60 meters ( 200 ft ) , but the Public Roads Administration stated that a height of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) would be sufficient , and also help to reduce the construction costs . In 1962 , the extra costs for the higher height were estimated at NOK 4 million . Bergen Port Authority stated in 1963 that they required a height of 66 metres ( 217 ft ) , while the local newspapers felt that 50 metres ( 160 ft ) was sufficient . Bergen City Council voted in favor of the shortest proposal . The Royal Norwegian Navy supported a taller bridge , but were more willing to reduce the height than the port authority . The port authority reduced its preferred height to 62 metres ( 203 ft ) , with the road authority responding that such a clearance only existed in a very few places in the world , and that the extra costs could result in the whole project being abandoned .
It was the Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs who had the final word in the matter . A national committee was established in 1963 to make guidelines for clearances , and it recommended that 60 meters ( 200 ft ) be used in fjords and sounds where very large ships , in particular cruise ships , would pass , while 50 meters ( 160 ft ) would permissible for minor and inner parts of fjords , as well as passages where alternatives were available . The clearance of the Sotra Bridge would only be applicable for ships coming from the south , and even these had the option of sailing around Øygarden , a increased distance of 83 kilometres ( 52 mi ) . For ships from the east , the distance would be the same , while from the north they would not pass through the sound . The port authority stated on 11 November 1963 that they were willing to allow a smaller clearance , which was back up by Bergen City Council on 27 November . The ministry finalized the decision on 16 December , supporting a height of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) .
= = = Financing and construction = = =
On 2 January 1965 , the bridge committee recommended that a limited company be established to finance the bridge . The three archipelago municipalities , Fjell , Sund and Øygarden , would purchase shares for NOK 500 @,@ 000 , while another NOK 200 @,@ 000 would be purchased from the mainland municipalities and Hordaland County Municipality . The company was established as A / S Sotrabrua on 16 October 1965 , with the head office located in Fjell . The company was given authority by its owners to apply for a 20 @-@ year concession to collect tolls on a new bridge ; if the tolls gave a profit beyond covering the debt of the bridge , it was to be used for further construction of roads on Sotra and Øygarden . The company was formally registered on 12 January 1966 .
To get satisfactory conditions for the loan , the company was recommended by banks to increase the ownership equity to 10 % of the loan . The share capital was insufficient , so the company started issuing preferred shares to individuals and the companies , and managed to secure NOK 1 @.@ 7 million . An exception to the rules was made , and the company was allowed to start detailed planning before the loans had been finalized . An estimate from 1966 showed that the bridge itself would cost NOK 27 million , while the auxiliary roads would cost NOK 4 million , excluding inflation and interest during construction . On 23 November 1966 , the county council supported a proposal that one third of the construction costs be covered by national road funds . On 10 August 1967 , the Ministry of Finance and the Bank of Norway gave permission that the company could borrow up to NOK 25 million . The loan was a bond sold by Bergens Privatbank and Samvirke Forsikring , consisting of one series valued at NOK 15 million issued in 1968 , and one valued at NOK 10 million issued in 1970 , with an interest of 5 @.@ 5 % and 6 @.@ 0 % , respectively . There was a five years interest @-@ only period , followed by ten years of repayment . The mortgage deed was secured in the right to collect tolls , supported by guarantees from the municipalities of Bergen , Fjell , Sund and Øygarden , and the county municipality . In addition , the company was granted loans from Bergens Privatbank , Bergens Sparebank and Vestlandsbanken for NOK 3 million , although these were never used . The state 's part of the financing was through a loan from the Regional Development Fund .
The bridge was approved by the Parliament of Norway on 5 June 1968 . An agreement regarding financing was made between A / S Sotrabrua and the Ministry of Transport and Communications on 1 July 1968 . The construction of the road would be done by Hordaland Public Road Administration , who would receive two @-@ thirds of the financing of costs up to NOK 34 million from the company . The company would also advance the state 's part of the costs , which would be repaid to the company as NOK 1 million per year , for an estimated advance of NOK 8 @.@ 3 million . The company would be responsible for any interest , including that which would be accumulated during construction , and would have the right to collect tolls on all traffic on the bridge .
The optimal crossing point ran over Norwegian Talc 's plant , and would involve placing the western pylon in the middle of their area . The company offered the authorities free land on the condition that they received a satisfactory intersection with the bridge . A formal agreement was reached in mid @-@ 1970 . On the eastern side , an area development plan had to be made , which was approved on 19 May 1967 . The necessary land not already owned by the municipalities was expropriated .
Initial plans had called for the bridge to be completed by October 1972 . On 28 December 1968 , the company asked the road administration if construction could be quickened . They estimated that the bridge could be completed by December 1971 for a price increase of NOK 750 @,@ 000 . This gave the company NOK 2 million more in profits , as it could more quickly start collecting toll revenue . The company chose to accept this extra cost . The start of construction was delayed , first by the parliamentary decision coming right before the holidays , followed immediately by a national strike by engineers . The contract for the foundation and concrete work was won by Selmer , who started work in March 1969 . The steel @-@ work contracts were issued to Høsveis , Bofa and Alfred Andersen ; despite them not having the lowest bid , the road administration chose to use the largest companies .
On 11 December 1971 , the bridge opened for traffic , and on the same day , the Alvøy – Brattholmen Ferry was terminated . In February 1972 , there were twice as many cars as there had been on the ferry in February 1971 . The official opening by King Olav V took place on 25 May 1972 . The bridge cost NOK 39 @.@ 8 million to construct . This included NOK 650 @,@ 000 for the county road between Knarrevik and Brattholmen , which had been paid for by the state . The cost the company had to pay was NOK 23 @.@ 45 million . The final estimates for the project were for NOK 34 million , and the whole cost above this was covered by the state . When it opened , the bridge was the longest in Norway .
= = = Tolls and auxiliary projects = = =
Since the bridge would be the only road from the mainland to the archipelago , tolls could be collected in only one direction . The tolls were set to NOK 40 for semitrailers , NOK 30 for buses , NOK 20 for trucks , NOK 12 for cars , NOK 5 for motorcycles , NOK 4 for bicycles , NOK 2 for adults and 1 for children . Discounts were available at the same rates as for ferries . The four people who had worked the longest on the ferry were offered the job as toll plaza employees . From 1972 , the bookkeeping of the company was transferred from the company 's secretary to Bergens Privatbank 's branch in Sotra , while the auditing was placed at Hordaland County Auditing .
In 1972 , the company collected NOK 3 @.@ 07 million in tolls , 21 % more than estimated . By 1977 , the annual income had reached NOK 5 @.@ 03 million , which was up 28 % from the estimates . From 1978 , the tolls for people were removed , resulting in about NOK 1 million less revenue per year . One of the reasons for the removal of passenger tolls was the extra time used to count passengers , which increased the queues at the toll plaza , and that the company 's debt would be covered anyway , even without the extra revenue . From 1 January 1981 , scheduled buses were also exempt from tolls , under the condition that the funds saved were used by the bus companies to strengthen public transport on Sotra . From 1980 , there was disagreement within the company as to whether the toll period should be extended to increase the subsidies to projects on Sotra and Øygarden , or if an as short as possible collection period was desirable . The board decided to terminate toll collections from 31 December 1983 . A minority of the owners wanted to extend the period for another two years , which would have given an estimated additional NOK 20 million .
The company collected NOK 73 @.@ 5 million in tolls , in addition to accumulating NOK 16 @.@ 3 million in interest . Costs , mostly for running of the toll plaza , were NOK 7 @.@ 6 million , in addition to financial costs of NOK 20 @.@ 0 million . This gave a profit of NOK 62 @.@ 4 million , including the necessary repayments of the initial loan . Because the debt had been financed with bonds , the company chose to place revenue in the bank with a higher interest instead of paying off the bonds faster . The preferred shares were repaid in 1980 , while all bonds had been repaid by 1985 . A / S Sotrabrua was formally liquidated on 9 February 1989 .
Among the company 's other goals was that of helping finance road projects on Øygarden . The most pressing issue was the section from Kolltveit on Store Sotra to
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singing due to his bad voice and says , " Don 't feel sorry for me , Rosa Lee , I 'm not dead yet . " In several lasting shots , the vast sky dwarfs Mac , Rosa Lee and Sonny , starkly symbolizing their isolation , as well as the fragility of human existence . The fact that Mac sustains his newfound life with Rosa Lee and Sonny after his daughter 's death , rather than reverting to his old pattern of alcoholism and abuse , is consistent with a recurring theme in Foote 's works of characters overcoming tragedy and finding in it an opportunity for growth and maturation .
= = Release = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Philip and Mary Ann Hobel spent a long time seeking a distributor for Tender Mercies without any success . Duvall , who began to doubt the film would be widely released , was unable to help the Hobels because he was busy trying to find a distributor for Angelo My Love , a film he had written , directed and produced . Eventually , Universal Pictures agreed to distribute Tender Mercies . Test screenings for the film were held , which Beresford described as the most unusual he had ever experienced . The director said that the preview audiences appeared to be very engaged with the picture , to the point the theaters were so silent , " if you flicked a piece of paper on the floor , you could hear it fall . " However , the post @-@ screening feedback was , in Beresford 's words , " absolutely disastrous . " As a result , Universal executives lost faith in the film and made little effort to promote it . Foote said of the studio , " I don 't know that they disliked the film , I just think they thought it was inconsequential and of no consequence at all . I guess they thought it would just get lost in the shuffle . " Others in the film industry were equally dismissive ; one Paramount Pictures representative described the picture as " like watching paint dry " .
= = = Festivals and theatrical run = = =
Tender Mercies was released on March 4 , 1983 , in only three theaters : one in New York City , one in Los Angeles , and one in Chicago . New York Times critic Vincent Canby observed that it was released during " the time of year when distributors usually get rid of all of those movies they don 't think are worth releasing in the prime moviegoing times of Christmas and the midsummer months " . The simultaneous release of Angelo My Love led to some more publicity for Duvall himself , but was of no help to Tender Mercies . Duvall also believed that Universal 's lack of familiarity and comfort with southern culture and the country music genre further reduced their faith in the film . When country star Willie Nelson offered to help publicize it , a studio executive told Duvall she did not understand how the singer could contribute to the promotion , which Duvall said was indicative of the studio 's failure to understand both the film and the country music genre .
Tender Mercies was shown in competition at the 1983 Cannes Film Festival , where it was described as a relatively optimistic alternative to darker , more violent entries like One Deadly Summer , Moon in the Gutter and Merry Christmas , Mr. Lawrence . It was also shown at the 1983 International Film Festival of India in New Delhi . A jury headed by director Lindsay Anderson determined that none of the films in contention , including Tender Mercies , were good enough to win the Golden Peacock , the festival 's top prize . Film critic Jugu Abraham said the jury 's standards were higher than those of the Academy Awards , and that Tender Mercies ' lack of success at the festival was a " clear example of what is good cinema for some , not being so good for others " .
= = = Home media = = =
Following its brief theatrical run , Universal Studios quickly sold the film 's rights to cable companies , allowing Tender Mercies to be shown on television . When the film unexpectedly received five Academy Award nominations nearly a year after its original release , the studio attempted to redistribute the film to theaters ; however , the cable companies began televising the film about a week before the Oscar ceremony , which essentially halted any attempts at a theatrical rerelease . When the film first played on HBO in March 1984 , it surpassed the three major networks in ratings for homes with cable televisions . Tender Mercies was released on VHS some time later , and was first released on DVD on June 22 , 1999 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Tender Mercies was not considered a box office success . In its first three days , March 4 – 6 , the film grossed $ 46 @,@ 977 from exclusive engagements at the Tower East Theater in New York ( $ 21 @,@ 183 ) , the Fine Arts Theater in Los Angeles ( $ 18 @,@ 254 ) and the Carnegie Theater in Chicago ( $ 7 @,@ 540 ) . Tender Mercies eventually played at a total of 37 theaters and grossed $ 8 @,@ 443 @,@ 124 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Tender Mercies received mostly positive reviews . Richard Corliss of Time declared it the " best American movie of the new year " . Carol Olten of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune declared Tender Mercies the best movie of 1983 , and " the most poignant , but forthright , film of the year , with a brilliant performance by Robert Duvall " . Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote , " This is a small , lovely and somewhat overloaded film about small @-@ town life , loneliness , country music , marriage , divorce and parental love , and it deals with all of these things in equal measure . Still , the absence of a single , sharply dramatic story line is a relatively small price to pay for the plainness and clarity with which these other issues are defined . " She also praised Beresford 's direction , which she said lent the movie a light touch . The Times ' Canby wrote , " In all respects Tender Mercies is so good that it has the effect of rediscovering a kind of film fiction that has been debased over the decades by hack moviemakers , working according to accepted formulas , frequently to the applause of the critics as well as the public . " Leonard Maltin gave it three out of four stars , applauding Duvall in particular and describing it as a " winning but extremely low @-@ key film " , though he characterized Foote 's screenplay as " not so much a story as a series of vignettes " . David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor praised the film for its values , for underscoring the good in people and for avoiding flashiness and quick cuts in favor of a subtle and deliberately paced story , while maintaining a PG rating and omitting sex , drugs and violence . He also felt , however , that it tended toward melodrama on a few occasions and that the soundtrack had " a bit of syrupy music ... especially at the end " .
Some reviews were less favorable . David Ansen of Newsweek said , " While one respects the filmmaker 's small @-@ is @-@ beautiful philosophy , this story may indeed be too small for its britches . ... Beresford 's nice little movie seems so afraid to make a false move that it runs the danger of not moving at all . " Linda Beath of The Globe and Mail said Duvall 's performance was " fabulous , " but that the film was " very slight " compared to Beresford 's Australian pictures . Gary Arnold of The Washington Post panned the film , criticizing its mood and tempo and describing Buckley as its only true asset : " Tender Mercies fails because of an apparent dimness of perception that frequently overcomes dramatists : they don 't always know when they 've got ahold of the wrong end of the story they want to tell . "
Many critics specifically praised Duvall 's performance . Sterritt called it " one of the most finely wrought achievements to reach the screen in recent memory . " In Corliss 's description , " Duvall 's aging face , a road map of dead ends and dry gulches , can accommodate rage or innocence or any ironic shade in between . As Mac he avoids both melodrama and condescension , finding climaxes in each small step toward rehabilitation , each new responsibility shouldered . " Ansen said , " Robert Duvall does another of his extraordinary disappearing acts . He vanishes totally inside the character of Mac Sledge . " Maslin said he " so thoroughly transformed into Mac that he even walks with a Texan 's rolling gait " ; she also complimented the performances of the supporting cast . According to a review in People , " Duvall gives it everything he has , which is saying a great deal . His beery singing voice is a revelation , and his unfussy , brightly burnished acting is the kind for which awards were invented . " The review also described Betty Buckley as " bitchy and brilliant " . Duvall was praised as well for pulling off his first true romantic role ; the actor said of the response , " This is the only film where I 've heard people say I 'm sexy . It 's real romantic . Rural romantic . I love that part almost more than anything . "
Reflecting on the film a decade after it came out , critic Danny Peary said he found Duvall 's restrained portrayal " extremely irritating " and criticized the entire cast , save for Buckley , for their " subdued , emotions @-@ in @-@ check , phony ' honest ' performances . You just wish the whole lot of them would start tickling each other . " In his book Alternate Oscars , listing his personal opinions of who should have won the Academy Awards each year , Peary excluded Tender Mercies from all the categories , and chose Michael Caine as deserving of the Best Actor honor for Educating Rita . In June 2009 , critic Roger Ebert included Tender Mercies in The Great Movies , his series of reviews celebrating what he considers the most important films of all time . He praised what he called one of Duvall 's most understated performances , as well as Foote 's minimalist storytelling and the restraint and patience of Beresford 's direction . Ebert said of Foote 's screenplay , " The down @-@ to @-@ earth quality of his characters drew attention away from his minimalist storytelling ; all the frills were stripped away . ... Rarely does a movie elaborate less and explain more than Tender Mercies . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The 56th Academy Award nominations were announced about ten months after Tender Mercies was released . Little had been done to promote its candidacy : only four Oscar campaign advertisements were purchased ; all of them appeared in the trade journal Variety , and Duvall had declined to campaign for himself or the film . Beresford and studio executives were surprised when the film was nominated for five Academy Awards , including Best Picture . Harper was believed by some to be a strong contender for either Best Actress or Best Supporting Actress , but ultimately she was nominated in neither category .
Duvall was the only American actor nominated for the Best Actor Oscar ; his competition were Britons Michael Caine ( who had co @-@ starred with Duvall in the 1976 The Eagle Has Landed ) , Tom Conti , Tom Courtenay and Albert Finney . During an interview before the Oscar ceremony , Duvall offended some Britons by complaining about " the Limey syndrome , " claiming " the attitude with a lot of people in Hollywood is that what they do in England is somehow better than what we do here . " Duvall , who was presented with the Oscar by country music star Dolly Parton , said of winning the award , " It was a nice feeling , knowing I was the home @-@ crowd favorite . " In a New York Times profile of Duvall that appeared six years after Tender Mercies ' release , Nan C. Robertson wrote that despite four previous Academy Award nominations , " it was not until he won as Best Actor in 1983 ... that moviegoers woke up in droves to this great natural resource . The reason was that they rarely recognized Mr. Duvall from one part to another , so effortlessly did he vanish into each celluloid persona . " Foote , who was so certain he would not win the Best Adapted Screenplay Oscar for To Kill a Mockingbird he had not attended the 1963 ceremony , made sure he was present to collect his award for Best Original Screenplay . The critical success of the film allowed Foote to exercise considerable control over his future film projects , including final veto power over major decisions ; when such power was denied , Foote would simply refuse to do the film .
= The Boat Race 2010 =
The 156th Boat Race took place on 3 April 2010 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race was won by Cambridge . Of the eighteen competitors in the race , six were British . Of the non @-@ British rowers , the Oxford crew featured the American Olympic finalists , the Winklevoss twins . It was the first time the race had a title sponsor ; it was also known as the " Xchanging Boat Race " , having been sponsored by Xchanging .
Oxford won the Women 's Boat Race by four lengths while Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis in the reserve race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2009 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Cambridge led overall with 79 victories to Oxford 's 75 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Xchanging for the sixth consecutive year , but it was the first time in the 180 @-@ year history of the Boat Race that the title had been given over to sponsorship ; as such it was referred to as the " Xchanging Boat Race " .
Prior to the race , Oxford University Boat Club president and Dutch international rower Sjoerd Hamburger claimed " Last year we had an exceptional crew , power @-@ wise , which we don 't have this year , but we 're starting to match the times we did last year , so I 'm very pleased " . His Cambridge counterpart , American Deaglan McEachern , responded : " we 're faster " . Umpire and former Cambridge Blue Simon Harris suggested that he did not anticipate any problems with the two coxes obeying his instructions : " I 've been impressed by the coxes , how they 've responded to the umpire 's calls " .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
Cambridge 's crew weighed an average of 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) per rower more than Oxford . The Dark Blues were coached by Sean Bowden for the 13th time while the Light Blues saw Chris Nilsson act as chief coach for the second time . Cambridge 's crew featured four Britons , three Americans and two Canadians , while Oxford 's consisted of three Americans , two Britons , and rowers from Ireland , The Netherlands , Canada ( dual nationality ) and Germany .
Oxford 's crew included the Winklevoss twins ( Cameron and Tyler ) , who rowed in the 2008 Olympic Games for the United States in the men 's coxless pair . Cambridge 's bowman , Canadian international rower Robert Weitemeyer , had won the gold in the men 's eight at the World Rowing Cup in 2007 .
= = Race = =
Oxford were pre @-@ race favourites , and won the toss , electing to start the race from the Surrey station . They took an early lead and were nearly half a length up on Cambridge by the time the crews passed the Harrods Furniture Depository . The boats closed in on one another and umpire Harris was forced to issue a number of warnings to both coxes as the crews came close to clashing oars . The Light Blues pulled themselves back into contention around the Chiswick Reach and took the lead into Corney Reach . Oxford attempted to find a quicker racing line and were still in touch , but Cambridge inched away from them , passing the finishing post one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ third lengths ahead in a time of 17 minutes 35 seconds .
Oxford won the 65th Women 's Boat Race by four lengths , their third consecutive victory . Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie in the reserve race by two lengths , their first win in three years .
= = Reaction = =
Cambridge cox Randolph exclaimed " The whole way through I was thinking : ' We could win it , we could win it , we could win it " . Race umpire Simon Harris declared " it was a fantastic race " . Olympic medallist Steve Redgrave remarked " All credit to Oxford ... but all the way from the bend on there was only going to be one winner . It just took Cambridge a little while before they believed it was going to happen . "
= Promiscuous ( song ) =
" Promiscuous " is a song by Canadian singer Nelly Furtado from her third studio album Loose ( 2006 ) , featuring Timbaland . The song was written by Anthony Motz , along with Tim " Timbaland " Mosley , Furtado and Nate " Danja " Hills . The song 's lyrics , which were penned by Furtado and Clayton , feature a conversation between a man and woman who call each other promiscuous . The overtly @-@ sexual song was released as the lead single from the album in North America in early 2006 , and as the second single elsewhere in mid @-@ 2006 except in Latin America , where the single was released as the third single in late 2006 .
The song was well received by music critics , with some critics calling it the highlight of the album . " Promiscuous " was an international success and it had become Furtado 's first number @-@ one single in the US . It is the first number one by a Canadian female artist since 1998 's " I 'm Your Angel " by R. Kelly and Céline Dion on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The song also topped the chart in New Zealand and peaked within the top ten on many charts across Europe .
The accompanying music video was directed by Little X , and features scenes of Furtado and Timbaland , in what Furtado describes as a " verbal Ping @-@ Pong game " . Cameo appearances are made by Keri Hilson , Justin Timberlake , and Bria Myles .
The song won the " Best Pop Single of the Year " at the 2006 Billboard Music Awards and received a nomination for the " Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals " at the 49th Grammy Awards , losing to Tony Bennett and Stevie Wonder 's " For Once in My Life " .
= = Background and writing = =
The lyrics of " Promiscuous " describe the two sides of the relationship that the song 's protagonist deals with . It was one of the first songs Furtado wrote with labelmate Timothy " Attitude " Clayton . Furtado called their teamwork something she " had never done before " because she saw the writing process as " extremely freeing " because of his different approach and style . Clayton helped Furtado experiment with interpreting the " promiscuous girl " character and the two @-@ sided relationship she is in . Furtado also described that in the process of writing lyrics " we were actually flirting , which is why the song is so playful " and that she and Clayton nicknamed the song ' The BlackBerry Song ' , because everything we say in the song you could text @-@ message to somebody " . Because of the preponderant musical influence of artists such as Talking Heads , Blondie , Madonna , The Police and Eurythmics , whom producers Timbaland and Danja listened to during the writing of the album , " Promiscuous " takes inspiration from pop music of the 1980s . The sexuality was based on the " strong women in control " of the 1990s , such as Queen Latifah , MC Lyte , Yo @-@ Yo , Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa and TLC .
The reference to basketball player Steve Nash in the song 's lyrics led to speculation that he and Furtado were romantically involved , but both deny the link with Nash commenting , " I 'm flattered that she put me in her song , but I 'm completely in love with my wife and two little baby girls " . Furtado decided to include him because she and Nash are both from Victoria , British Columbia , and due to frequent citations of basketballers in songs , she decided to " give him the props " . In one of the verses Timbaland introduces himself as Thomas Crown . The Thomas Crown Affair is a film about wealthy businessman who plays a cat @-@ and @-@ mouse / flirting game with an insurance investigator . Timbaland only performed the song live on special occasions , such as Furtado 's appearance on Saturday Night Live , and the 2006 MuchMusic Video Awards . Starting with Furtado 's show at the 94th Grey Cup on 19 November 2006 , and extending into the Get Loose Tour , Timbaland 's part is filled in by Canadian rapper Saukrates .
= = Critical reception = =
" Promiscuous " received positive reviews from music critics . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone considered it a highlight in Loose . Timbaland 's appearance received particular praise , which added Furtado 's " high @-@ school musical vocals " over his eighty beats according to Sheffield . The New Yorker considered it " a playful update " of Janet Jackson 's " Nasty " , using " a heavier and darker rhythmic bed . " AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine compared it to " vintage Prince " , citing " Promiscuous " as a highlight of Furtado 's makeover .
However , Erlewine believed that no matter how much Furtado sings about sex , she does not sound sexy and does not " generate much carnal heat " . IGN 's review considered the song " simultaneously annoying and yet catchy beyond belief " and listed as one of Loose 's " Definitely Downloads " , Pitchfork Media called it " one of the best vocal performances of [ Timbaland 's ] career " , and Billboard called the duo of Furtado and Timbaland " a surprisingly good match " . The song was also included in three lists of best songs of 2006 : fourth on Blender , sixth at The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop , 56th on Rolling Stone , and 80th on Pitchfork .
On 4 December 2006 , " Promiscuous " won " Best Pop Single of the Year " at the 2006 Billboard Music Awards , beating Daniel Powter 's " Bad Day " and Sean Paul 's " Temperature " . The song was nominated for the " Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals " at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards , losing to Tony Bennett & Stevie Wonder 's " For Once in My Life " .
= = Chart performance = =
In Canada , the single 's music video debuted on MuchMusic 's MuchOnDemand after an interview with Furtado on 8 May 2006 . On 4 May 2006 , " Promiscuous " debuted inside the top five on the Canadian Singles Chart , and on 1 June , it became Furtado 's first Canadian number @-@ one single . It spent twenty @-@ five weeks on the singles chart , and returned to number two after the commercial release of Loose , but was the year 's shortest @-@ running number @-@ one single . " Promiscuous " charted at number one on the Canadian Digital Chart and was the most successful single release in her home nation since " I 'm Like a Bird " ( 2000 ) . In April 2008 , the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) began certifying ringtone sales , and " Promiscuous " was included in its debut list , having sold 120 @,@ 000 copies in Canada . The single was also previously certified 3 Platinum in January 2007 for digital download sales , denoting sales of 60 @,@ 000 copies .
In United States , " Promiscuous " debuted at number sixty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of 20 May 2006 . On 8 July it topped the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming her first number @-@ one single . It spent six weeks at the top spot and was replaced by Fergie 's " London Bridge " . It reached the top position on Billboard Pop Songs and Hot Dance Club Play chart . " Promiscuous " reached number twenty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and number thirty @-@ six on Hot Latin Songs chart . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital copies . It also made number three on the Billboard Hot 100 year @-@ end chart and number forty @-@ four on the decade @-@ end chart . As of August 2009 , the song has so far sold over 2 @,@ 504 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States .
Outside North America , " Promicuous " performed well . The song debuted at number five on the Australian ARIA Charts and peaked at number two in its third week . It was her first top five hit since " I 'm Like a Bird " ( 2000 ) and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for the sales of 70 @,@ 000 digital copies .
" Promiscuous " debuted at number thirty @-@ three on the New Zealand Top 40 on 10 July 2006 . It topped the chart in its third week and became her second number @-@ one single after " Turn off the Light " ( 2001 ) . It remained the top spot for five weeks and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) .
In Europe , " Promiscuous " became a commercial success , peaking at number five on European Hot 100 Singles . The song debuted at number fifteen on the UK Singles Chart and peaked at number three the following week . It spent a total of fourteen weeks on the chart . On 31 December 2006 BBC Radio 1 reported that " Promiscuous " was the thirty @-@ eighth highest selling single in the UK in 2006 . The single re @-@ entered the UK Singles Chart at number sixty @-@ six in January 2007 due to the The Official UK Charts Company 's new rules . It performed moderately in others European countries , less than the next singles , it tooped the chart in Denmark and was within the top five in Finland , Hungary , Ireland , Norway and Slovakia . It missed to reach the top ten in Austria , France and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by Little X and features cameo appearances by Keri Hilson , Bria Myles , Sean Faris and Justin Timberlake . It does not follow a storyline and per Furtado 's request , focuses on scenes with dancing and flirting because she wanted to recreate the song 's indicative vibe , and took the opportunity to film a club video for the first time . Furtado said of the video , " It 's that whole dance that goes on . There 's that mystery there , the fun , playful sexiness , the verbal Ping @-@ Pong game " . Furtado and Timbaland cannot decide whether they want to begin dating or instead flirt with others on the dance floor . Their single performances are intercut with several scenes of a dancing crowd , and the lighting changes between blue , green , red , and yellow colors .
" Promiscuous " premiered on MTV 's Total Request Live on 3 May 2006 , where it reached number one after spending twenty @-@ one days on the countdown . After its debut on MuchMusic 's Countdown , it ascended to number one for the week of 28 July 2006 . At the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards , it was nominated for the Best Dance , Female and Pop Video Awards . The video was parodied by MADtv in a segment entitled " Syphilis Girl " ; in the video , Furtado ( Nicole Parker ) is comically portrayed as having given Timbaland ( Jordan Peele ) the sexually transmitted disease , as well as on YouTube by the comedic group Train of Thought Sketch Comedy , where the video is parodied by troupe member Kaci and features a puppet version of Timbaland .
= = Track listings = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the Loose liner notes .
Nelly Furtado – lyrics , lead vocals , background vocals
Timbaland – lyrics , lead vocals , producer , drums , keyboards
Nate " Danja " Hills – producer , drums , keyboards
Demacio " Demo " Castellón – engineering , mixing , recording , additional programming
Marcella " Ms. Lago " Araica – additional recording
Jim Beanz – additional background vocals , vocal production
James Roach – second engineering
Kobla Tetey – second engineering
Ben Jost – second engineering
Vadim Chislov – second engineering
Timothy " Attitude " Clayton – lyrics
Recorded at The Hit Factory , Miami , Florida
Mixed at Thomas Crown Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= The Lazy Song =
" The Lazy Song " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Bruno Mars for his debut studio album Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . It was serviced to contemporary hit radios in the United States on February 15 , 2011 as the album 's third single by Atlantic and Elektra . Development of " The Lazy Song " began while Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence and Ari Levine were hanging around the studio and didn ’ t feel like working . Mars wrote the song in collaboration with singer @-@ songwriter , K 'naan and his production team The Smeezingtons , who also produced the track . Musically , " The Lazy Song " has been described as borrowing " heavily from roots reggae " , while lyrically it is an anthem to laziness .
" The Lazy Song " reached number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 , while it topped the charts in Denmark and charted on most international markets within the top five . It topped the charts in Denmark and the United Kingdom . Cameron Duddy and Mars directed the accompanying music video , in which Mars hangs out with five dancers with monkey masks while jest around in his underwear . Worldwide , it was one of the best selling digital singles of 2011 with sales of 6 @.@ 5 million copies . Mars performed " The Lazy Song " on The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 – 12 ) , and occasionally on The Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 – 14 ) .
= = Development and production = =
" The Lazy Song " is one of the eleven songs composed and produced by The Smeezingtons for Mars ' debut studio album Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans . In an interview with Sound on Sound , fellow Smeezington Ari Levine explained how they came up with the song " [ It ] was a very tough song to write , even though it is so simple . That song began one day when we were hanging around the studio and hadn ’ t written a song for a few days and we were kind of burnt out and didn ’ t feel like working . We felt lazy . ' K ’ naan ' was in the studio with us , and the four of us suddenly came up with this idea . " He added , " After that we had a really hard time getting the groove and the drums to sit right . Once you have one piece of the puzzle , like when you realise that a drum track is good , you can add other things in after that . "
" The Lazy Song " was mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in Hollywood by Manny Marroquin , while Christian Plata and Erik Madrid served as the assistant for mix . Ari Levine and Bruno Mars played all the instruments on the track and recorded them . Ari was also responsible for engineering the song at Levcon Studios in California . Stephen Marcussen mastered the song at Marcussen Mastering in California , while Jash Negandhi ( DJ Dizzy ) was responsible for the scratching on the track .
= = Composition = =
" The Lazy Song " was described as borrowing " heavily from roots reggae " and having a moderate reggae groove . According to the digital sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song was written in the key of B major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 88 beats per minute . The vocal range spans from F ♯ 4 to B5 . " The Lazy Song " features an acoustic guitar , scratching , and a drum track on the instrumentation , being three minutes and fifteen seconds long . Lewis Corner , reviewer of Digital Spy wrote that " Bruno pulls a sickie in this reggae @-@ pop number about , well , absolutely nothing . " and noticed the " reggae @-@ pop production " while describing Mars as a " couch potato of the daytime TV variety " due to the lyrics of the song " I 'm gonna kick my feet up then stare at the fan / Turn the TV on , throw my hand in my pants " . Jim Farber of Daily News considered the song a " hymn to sloth " . The single version of the song features whistling , which is not present on the album version . Lyrically , the song makes reference to MTV , the P90X home fitness DVDs , and the Cali Swag District song " Teach Me How to Dougie " .
= = Release = =
" The Lazy Song " was the third single to be released from Mars ' debut studio album Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . Atlantic and Elektra released the song , initially for airplay on mainstream radio in the United States , on February 15 , 2011 . The single was released in the UK by the Warner Music Group on May 9 , 2011 , as a CD single containing both the single version and The Hooligans remix of " Grenade " . On February 18 , 2011 it was released as a digital download only in New Zealand , containing the single version of the song . On May 27 , 2011 , the CD single was then also released on Germany .
= = Critical reception = =
" The Lazy Song " has received generally favourable reviews from contemporary music critics . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine noted that in song Mars " paints a portrait of Al Bundy as a young man " and Andy Gill of The Independent classified the song as a " laidback acoustic groove " . Tim Sendra of AllMusic said it was one of the tracks from Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans that captured the laid @-@ back groove . Scott Mervis of Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette described the song as a " Jason Mraz / Sugar Ray @-@ style reggae . " Sean Fennessey , reviewer of The Washington Post felt the song was written in a " quality that is both endearing and damning " . A mixed review came from Digital Spy reviewer , Lewis Corner , commented on the song being a " summery ditty more head @-@ boppable than a Churchill nodding dog , which , given his current state of mind , is probably about all he could muster " , giving it three starts out of five . From Entertainment Weekly , Leah Greenblatt considered that " other modes suit him less well ; The Lazy Song is perhaps better left to Jason Mraz " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian , gave the song a negative review , writing that The Lazy Song " gets no further than the second verse before Mars – nothing if not keen to keep his fans abreast of his every activity in a world of 360 @-@ degree connectivity – announces that he 's planning on having a wank " .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2011 , the song received a nomination at the MP3Music Awards for " The BNC Award Best / New / Act " , but lost . It also received a nomination for the " Choice Summer Song " award at the 2011 Teen Choice Awards . In 2011 , the song was nominated at the NRJ Music Awards and ASCAP Pop Music Awards for , respectively , the International Song of the Year and Most Performed Song , having won the latter . It also was nominated for 2011 Billboard Music Awards , it the category of Top Streaming Song . At the RTHK International Pop Poll Awards the song won " Top 10 Gold International Gold Songs " . The song , according to Spotify and 300 @.@ 000 users , was considered a " Hangover Cure " .
= = Chart performance = =
" The Lazy Song " spent a total of 27 weeks on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and peaked at number 4 . It also peaked at number 3 on Billboard 's Pop Songs chart and at number 2 on the Adult Top 40 chart . The single sold over 1 million digital copies in the United States in May 2011 , becoming Mars ' fifth consecutive million @-@ selling single as a solo and featured artist combined . The song has sold 3 @,@ 262 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States by September 2012 . Only in August 16 , 2013 the song was certified Platinum , Double @-@ Platinum and consequently Triple @-@ Platinum at the same time . The song rose to number 5 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart , having started at number 85 on March 19 , 2011 . It entered the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number 10 on February 28 , 2011 and eventually reached number 6 . Worldwide , it was one of the best selling digital singles of 2011 with sales of 6 @.@ 5 million copies .
In New Zealand , it debuted at number eighteen on the New Zealand Singles Chart on February 28 , 2011 , and peaked at number three .
In the United Kingdom , " The Lazy Song " peaked at the top of the UK Singles Chart , becoming Mars 's third solo chart topper , and fourth in total , in Britain , as well as his third chart @-@ topping song there in under a year following " Just the Way You Are " and " Grenade " .
The single debuted at number 18 on the Denmark and peaked at number one , the only country in which it did . In Germany it reached number 9 . " The Lazy Song " started at number 26 in the Dutch Top 40 on April 2 , 2011 , and peaked at number 4 in its eighth week on the chart . The single debuted at number 10 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 and peaked at number 4 . In Switzerland it entered the singles chart at number 29 and climbed to number 9 . It peaked at number 11 on the French singles chart ( SNEP ) , and it peaked at number 10 in Italy .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The official video was directed by Mars and Cameron Duddy , produced by Nick Tabri and Dara Siegel , and features Poreotics wearing chimpanzee masks ; it was released on April 15 , 2011 . The whole video is presented in as a lone continuous and uninterrupted shot , it begins with Mars singing and hanging out in a bedroom with five dancers , they all wear monkey masks and Mars dresses in black sunglasses and a flannel shirt . While Mars sings what he feels to do on a day off , he and the monkeys perform dance moves typical of a boy @-@ band , fool around and mimicking the song 's lyrics . Philip Lawrence , a member of the Smeezingtons , makes an appearance , lip syncing the line , " Oh my God , this is great ! " before being driven off by the chimps ; the monkeys drop their pants when Mars sings , " I 'll just strut in my birthday suit / and let everything hang loose ! " The music video ends with Mars pouring yellow confetti all over his boxer @-@ clad pals , right before him , Poreotics and Philip Lawrence , who meanwhile reappeared , striking a pose for the camera .
An alternate video was directed by Nez , produced by Anne Johnson , and was released on May 27 , 2011 . The video features Leonard Nimoy , who " enjoys the lazy life " . During the music video Nimoy , who wears a robe and slippers all day , is seen " wandering around the neighborhood and scaring the local Ginger kids , he 's at home smoking weed and chilling out " . Besides this , one or two other famous Trek stars make a brief appearance , like William Shatner . Mars and Lawrence make a cameo in the video , walking out of the grocery store as Nimoy walks in .
= = = Reception = = =
" The Lazy Song " official video was nominated at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Choreography . It received a " Double Platinum " award for one of the most played music video on MTV channels around the world at the MTV Platinum Video Plays Awards ceremony . It was also nominated at the Myx Music Awards for " Favorite International Video " . The UK Music Video Awards also recognized the video in the category of " Best Pop Video @-@ UK " with a nomination . As of July 2016 , the music video has received over 930 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
Mars has performed the song in several shows . The song was first performed live on Kidd Kraddick , on October 19 , 2010 . On October 22 , 2010 , a " soulful " arrangement of the song was sung for a Billboard Tastemakers video session . On April 28 , 2011 he performed the song on the tenth season of American Idol . Mars also performed it at the NBA All @-@ Star Tip Off Pre @-@ Show in February 2011 . The song was also performed on NBC 's Today Show on June 24 , 2011 . On July 28 , of that year Bruno performed in the X @-@ Factor finale of France with the two finalists . On July 27 , 2011 he performed the song at KIIS FM for the program Jojoontheradio . It was the seventh song of his debut worldwide tour , The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 ) and was tenth on the European set list of his second worldwide tour , The Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" The Lazy Song " ( Single Version ) – 3 : 08
CD single
" The Lazy Song " ( Single Version ) – 3 : 08
" Grenade " ( The Hooligans Remix ) – 3 : 30
= = Credits and personnel = =
Mixing and mastering
Mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios , Hollywood , California ; mastered at Marcussen Mastering , Hollywood , California ; engineered at Levcon Studios , Hollywood , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans , Elektra Records
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Katie Hill =
Katie Hill ( born 17 February 1984 ) is an Australian 3 @.@ 0 point wheelchair basketball player . She participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where she won a bronze medal , and the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a silver medal . She has over 100 international caps playing for Australia .
Hill plays for the Sydney University Flames in the Australian Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) . As the Hills Hornets , her team won the league championship in 2007 , 2008 and 2009 . After changing their name to the Sydney University Flames , they again won the WNWBL championship in 2010 . She was named 4 point Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) and a member of the All Star Five in 2007 . In 2009 , she scored 21 points in the Hornets ' 66 @-@ 49 final win against the Perth Western Stars , and was named MVP of the finals series .
Hill made her national team debut in 2005 in Malaysia at the World Junior Wheelchair Basketball Championships , and has played for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , universally known as the Gliders , at the IWBF World Wheelchair Basketball Championships in Amsterdam in 2006 and Birmingham in 2010 , and at the 2007 , 2009 and 2010 Osaka Cups in Japan .
= = Personal = =
Katie Hill was born in Kogarah , New South Wales , on 17 February 1984 , the youngest of three children . She has spina bifida , a condition she has had since birth . As of 2013 , she lives in Panania , New South Wales , and works as a receptionist at Salesforce.com.
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
Hill is a 3 @.@ 0 point player , who started playing wheelchair basketball in 1996 . In financial year 2012 / 13 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her a A $ 20 @,@ 000 grant as part of their Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program . She received $ 11 @,@ 000 in 2011 / 12 , $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2010 / 11 , $ 5 @,@ 571 @.@ 42 in 2009 / 10 and $ 5 @,@ 200 in 2008 / 09 . In 2012 and 2013 , she had a scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport .
= = = Club = = =
Hill currently plays club wheelchair basketball for the Sydney University Flames in the Australian Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) , and the Sydney University Wheelkings in the mixed National Wheelchair basketball League . Playing with the Hills Hornets , who won the league championship , she was named 4 point Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) and part of the All Star Five in 2007 . In the 2009 finals series , she scored 20 points in the semi @-@ final to get the Hills Hornets into the final , and then 21 points and 7 assists in the Hornets won 66 @-@ 49 final win against the Perth Western Stars . She was named MVP of the finals series . In all , the Hornets won eight straight championships from 2002 to 2009 , before changing their name to the Sydney University Flames in 2010 , and claiming a ninth title that year .
= = = National team = = =
Hill made her national team debut in 2005 in Malaysia at the World Junior Wheelchair Basketball Championships . She played for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , universally known as the Gliders , at the IWBF World Wheelchair Basketball Championship in Amsterdam in the Netherlands in 2006 , where the Gliders came fourth , at the 2007 Asia Oceania Qualification tournament , and at the 2007 and 2009 Osaka Cup in Japan . She subsequently represented Australia at the 2010 World Championships in Birmingham , where the Gliders again finished fourth , and was a member of the 2010 team that played in the Osaka Cup . By August 2012 , she had played 110 international games .
= = = Paralympics = = =
Hill was part of the bronze medal winning team at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , and again at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . The Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins in the group stage against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to the Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal . Hill played in all seven games , for a total of 107 minutes , scoring 25 points , with six assists and eight rebounds .
= = Statistics = =
= Elizabeth of Bosnia =
Elizabeth of Bosnia ( c . 1339 – January 1387 ) was queen consort and later regent of Hungary and Croatia , as well as queen consort of Poland . Daughter of Ban Stephen II of Bosnia , Elizabeth married King Louis I of Hungary in 1353 . In 1370 , she gave birth to a long @-@ anticipated heir , Catherine , and became Queen of Poland when Louis succeeded his uncle , Casimir III . The royal couple had two more daughters , Mary and Hedwig , but Catherine died in 1378 . Initially a powerless consort with no substantial influence , Elizabeth then started surrounding herself with noblemen loyal to her , led by her favourite , Nicholas I Garai . When Louis died in 1382 , Mary ascended to the throne of Hungary with Elizabeth as regent . Unable to preserve the personal union of Hungary and Poland , the queen dowager secured the Polish throne for her youngest daughter , Hedwig .
During her regency in Hungary , Elizabeth faced several rebellions led by John Horvat and John of Palisna , who attempted to take advantage of Mary 's insecure reign . In 1385 , they invited King Charles III of Naples to depose Mary and assume the crown . Elizabeth responded by having Charles murdered two months after his coronation , in 1386 . She had the crown restored to her daughter and established herself as regent once more , only to be captured , imprisoned and ultimately strangled by her enemies .
= = Descent and early years = =
Born about 1339 , Elizabeth was the daughter of Ban Stephen II of Bosnia , the head of the House of Kotromanić . Her mother , Elizabeth of Kuyavia , was a member of the House of Piast and grandniece of King Władysław I of Poland . The Hungarian queen dowager Elizabeth of Poland was first cousin once removed of Elizabeth 's mother . After her daughter @-@ in @-@ law Margaret succumbed to the Black Death in 1349 , Queen Elizabeth expressed interest in her young kinswoman , having in mind a future match for her widowed and childless son , King Louis I of Hungary . She insisted on immediately bringing the girl to her court in Visegrád for fostering . Despite her father 's initial reluctance , Elizabeth was sent to the dowager 's court .
In 1350 , Tsar Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia attacked Bosnia in order to regain Zachlumia . The invasion was not successful , and the Tsar tried to negotiate peace , which would be sealed by arranging Elizabeth 's marriage to his son and heir apparent , Stephen Uroš V. Mavro Orbini , whose reliability in this regard " is a subject of controversy " , wrote that the Tsar expected Zachlumia to be ceded as Elizabeth 's dowry , which her father refused . Later that year she was formally betrothed to the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Louis , who hoped to counter Dušan 's expansionist policy either with her father 's help or " as his eventual successor " , according to historian Oscar Halecki .
= = Marriage = =
Elizabeth 's marriage to Louis was celebrated in Buda on 20 June 1353 . The couple were related within the prohibited degree of kinship , Duke Casimir I of Kuyavia being Elizabeth 's maternal great @-@ great @-@ grandfather and Louis ' maternal great @-@ grandfather . A papal dispensation was thus necessary , but it was only sought four months after the wedding took place . The historian Iván Bertényi suggests that the ceremony may have been hastened by an unintended pregnancy , as the couple had been in contact for years . If so , the pregnancy likely ended in a stillbirth . Elizabeth 's mother had apparently died by the time she was married . Louis was dismayed when , upon his father @-@ in @-@ law 's death later the same year , Elizabeth 's young and ambitious cousin Tvrtko ascended the Bosnian throne . In 1357 , Louis summoned the young Ban to Požega and compelled him to surrender most of western Zachlumia as Elizabeth 's dowry .
The new Queen of Hungary subjected herself entirely to her controlling mother @-@ in @-@ law , Elizabeth of Poland . The fact that the young queen 's retinue consisted of the same individuals who had served the queen mother indicates that Elizabeth of Bosnia may not even have had her own court . Her mother @-@ in @-@ law 's influence prevailed until 1370 , when Louis succeeded his maternal uncle , Casimir III , as King of Poland . Elizabeth 's maternal uncle , Vladislaus the White , had also been a candidate for the Polish throne . Following his coronation in Poland , Louis brought Casimir 's underage daughters , Anne and Hedwig , to be raised by Elizabeth . Elizabeth , though Queen of Poland , was never crowned as such .
The problem of the succession marked Louis ' reign . Elizabeth was long considered barren , and a succession crisis was expected after the childless king 's death . Her brother @-@ in @-@ law Stephen was heir presumptive until his death in 1354 , when his son John replaced him . However , John also died in 1360 . A daughter was born to the King and Queen in 1365 , but the child died the next year . For a few years , John 's sister , Elizabeth , was treated as heir presumptive and a suitable marriage for her was being negotiated . Things suddenly took a different course when the King 's wife had three daughters in quick succession ; Catherine was born in July 1370 , Mary in 1371 , and Hedwig in 1373 or 1374 . Elizabeth is known to have written a book for the education of her daughters , a copy of which was sent to France in 1374 . However , all copies have been lost .
On 17 September 1374 , Louis granted various concessions to the Polish nobility by the Privilege of Koszyce , in exchange for their promise that a daughter of his would succeed him and that he , Elizabeth or his mother could indicate which one . In Hungary , he focused on the centralization of power as means of ensuring that his daughters ' rights would be respected . Securing marriage to one of the princesses was a priority in European royal courts . Mary was scarcely one year old when she was promised to Sigismund of Luxembourg . In 1374 , Catherine was betrothed to Louis of France , but died towards the end of 1378 . The same year , Hedwig , promised to William of Austria in a sponsalia de futuro , left her mother 's court and moved to Vienna , where she spent the next two years . The Polish lords swore to uphold Mary 's rights in 1379 , while Sigismund received this recognition three years later . Elizabeth was present , along with her husband and mother @-@ in @-@ law , at a meeting in Zólyom on 12 February 1380 , whereby Hungarian lords confirmed Hedwig 's Austrian match ; this indicates that Louis may have intended to leave Hungary to Hedwig and William .
The King , weakened by illness , became progressively less active in the last years of his reign , devoting an increasing amount of time to prayer , as did his aging mother , who had returned from Poland in 1374 . These circumstances allowed Elizabeth to assume a more prominent role at court . Her influence had grown steadily since she had given her husband heirs . It appeared probable that the crowns would pass to one of Elizabeth 's underage daughters and by 1374 , their rights were confirmed . Behind the scenes , Elizabeth began ensuring that the succession would be as smooth as possible by encouraging a slow but decisive change in the personnel of the government . Warlike and illiterate barons were gradually replaced by a small group of noblemen who excelled in their professional skills but were not distinguished by birth or military ability . Palatine Nicholas I Garai led the movement and enjoyed the full support of the Queen , and their power eventually became virtually unrestricted .
= = Widowhood and regency = =
Louis died on 10 September 1382 , with Elizabeth and their daughters at his bedside . Elizabeth , now queen dowager , had Mary crowned " King " of Hungary only seven days later . Halecki believes that the reason behind Elizabeth 's haste and Mary 's masculine title was the dowager 's desire to exclude Sigismund , her prospective son @-@ in @-@ law , from the government . Acted as regent on behalf of the eleven @-@ year @-@ old sovereign , Elizabeth made Garai her chief adviser . Her rule was not to be peaceful . The royal court was pleased with the arrangement , but Hungarian noblemen were unwilling to defer to a woman and objected to Mary 's accession , maintaining that the lawful heir to the throne was King Charles III of Naples , the only remaining male Angevin . Charles was , at that time , unable to claim Mary 's throne because his own was threatened by Duke Louis I of Anjou .
The first to rise against Elizabeth , in 1383 , was John of Palisna , Prior of Vrana . Historian John V. A. Fine says that the Prior " seems to have been chiefly opposed " to the centralizing policy which her husband had enforced . Her cousin Tvrtko also decided to take advantage of Louis ' death and Elizabeth 's unpopularity by trying to recover the lands he had lost to the King in 1357 . Tvrtko and John formed an alliance against Elizabeth , but they were ultimately defeated by her army , with John being forced to flee to Bosnia .
= = = Polish succession = = =
Although Louis had designated Mary as his successor in both of his kingdoms , the Polish nobles , seeking an end to the personal union with Hungary , were not willing to recognize Mary and her fiancé Sigismund as their sovereigns . They would have accepted Mary if she had moved to Kraków and reigned over both kingdoms from there rather than from Hungary , ruling according to their advice rather than that of the Hungarian nobles and marrying a prince of their choosing . Their intentions , however , were not to Elizabeth 's taste . She too would have been required to move to Kraków , where a lack of men loyal to her would have rendered her unable to enforce her own will . Elizabeth was also aware of the difficulties her mother @-@ in @-@ law had faced during her regency in Poland , which had ended with the old queen fleeing her native kingdom in disgrace .
An agreement was reached between Elizabeth 's and Polish delegates in Sieradz on 26 February 1383 . The queen dowager thereby proposed her youngest daughter Hedwig as Louis ' successor in Poland , and absolved the Polish nobles from their 1382 oaths to Mary and Sigismund . She agreed to send Hedwig to be crowned in Kraków but requested that , in view of her age , she spend three more years in Buda following the ceremony . The Poles , entangled in a bloody civil war , initially conceded to the requirement , but soon found it unacceptable for their monarch to reside abroad for so long . At the second meeting in Sieradz , held on 28 March , they contemplated offering the crown to Hedwig 's distant relative , Duke Siemowit IV of Masovia . They eventually opted against it , but at the third Sieradz meeting , on 16 June , Siemowit himself decided to lay claim to the crown . Elizabeth reacted by having an army of 12 @,@ 000 men devastate Masovia in August , forcing him to drop his pretensions . Meanwhile , she realized that she could not expect the nobles to accept her request and instead resolved to delay Hedwig 's departure . Despite continuous Polish demands to expedite her arrival , Hedwig did not move to Kraków until the end of August 1384 . She was crowned on 16 October 1384 . No regent was appointed , and the 10 @-@ year @-@ old exercised her authority according to the advice of Kraków magnates . Elizabeth never saw her again .
In 1385 , Elizabeth received an official delegation from Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania , who wished to marry Hedwig . In the Act of Kreva , Jogaila promised to pay compensation to William of Austria on Elizabeth 's behalf and requested that Elizabeth , as widow of King Louis and heiress of Poland herself as great @-@ grandniece of King Władysław I ( whose name Jogaila had purposely assumed on his baptism ) , legally adopt him as her son in order to give him a claim to the Polish crown in the event of Hedwig 's death . The marriage was celebrated in 1386 .
= = = Mary 's marriage = = =
Mary 's fiancé Sigismund and his brother Wenceslaus , King of Germany and Bohemia , were also opposed to Elizabeth and Garai . The queen dowager and the Palatine , on the other hand , were not enthusiastic about Sigismund reigning together with Mary . Both Sigismund and Charles schemed to invade Hungary ; the former intended to marry Mary and become her co @-@ ruler , while the latter intended to depose her . Elizabeth was determined to allow neither and , in 1384 , started negotiating Mary 's marriage to Louis of France , notwithstanding her daughter 's engagement to Sigismund . Had this proposal been made after Catherine 's death in 1378 , the Western Schism would have represented a problem , with France recognising Clement VII as pope and Hungary accepting Urban VI . However , Elizabeth was desperate to avoid an invasion in 1384 and unwilling to let the schism stand in the way of the negotiations with the French . Clement VII issued a dispensation which annulled Mary 's betrothal to Sigismund , and her proxy marriage to Louis was celebrated in April 1385 , but it was not recognized by the Hungarian noblemen , who adhered to Urban VI .
Elizabeth 's plan to have Mary married to Louis of France divided the court . The Lackfis , the master of the treasury Nicholas Zámbó and the judge royal Nicholas Szécsi openly opposed it and renounced their allegiance to the queen dowager in August , which resulted in her depriving them of all their offices and replacing them with Garai 's partisans . The kingdom was on the verge of a civil war when Charles decided to invade , encouraged by John Horvat and his brother Paul , Bishop of Zagreb . Charles ' imminent arrival forced Elizabeth to yield and abandon the idea of French marriage . While her envoys in Paris were preparing for Louis 's journey , Elizabeth came to terms with her opponents and designated Szécsi as the new palatine .
Four months after her proxy marriage to Louis , Sigismund entered Hungary and married Mary , but the reconciliation between the fractions turned out to be too late to forestall Charles ' invasion . Sigismund fled to his brother 's court in Prague in the autumn of 1385 .
= = = Deposition and restoration = = =
Charles 's arrival was well @-@ prepared . He was accompanied by his Hungarian supporters and Elizabeth was unable to raise an army against him or prevent him from convoking a diet , in which he obtained an overwhelming support . Mary was forced to abdicate , opening the path for Charles to be crowned on 31 December 1385 . Elizabeth and Mary were compelled to attend the ceremony and swear allegiance to him .
Deprived of authority , Elizabeth feigned friendly feelings for Charles while his retinue was at the court , but after his supporters had returned to their homes , he was left defenseless . She acted quickly and invited him to visit Mary in Buda Castle . Upon his arrival there on 7 February 1386 , Elizabeth had Charles stabbed in her apartments and in her presence . He was taken to Visegrád , where he died on 24 February .
Having had the crown restored to her daughter , Elizabeth immediately proceeded to reward those who had helped her , giving a castle in Gimes to Blaise Forgách , the master of the cupbearers , who had mortally wounded Charles . In April , Sigismund was brought to Hungary by his brother Wenceslaus and the queens were pressured into accepting him as Mary 's future co @-@ ruler by the Treaty of Győr . Having Charles murdered did not help Elizabeth as much as she hoped it would , however , as Charles 's supporters immediately recognized his son Ladislaus as heir and fled to Zagreb . Bishop Paul pawned church estates in order to collect money for an army against the queens .
= = Death and aftermath = =
Elizabeth believed that her daughter 's mere presence would help calm the opposition . Accompanied by Garai and a modest following , she and Mary set out for Đakovo . However , Elizabeth had seriously misjudged the situation . On 25 July 1386 , they were ambushed en route and attacked by John Horvat in Gorjani . Their small entourage failed to fight off the attackers . Garai was killed by the rebels and his head was sent to Charles 's widow Margaret , while the queens were imprisoned in the bishop of Zagreb 's castle of Gomnec . Elizabeth took all blame for the rebellion and begged the attackers to spare her daughter 's life .
Elizabeth and Mary were soon sent to Novigrad Castle , with John of Palisna as their new jailer . Margaret insisted that Elizabeth be put to death . She was tried and , after the Christmas adjournment of the proceedings , found guilty of inciting Charles ' murder . Sigismund marched into Slavonia in January 1387 , with the intention to reach Novigrad and rescue the queens . Towards the middle of January , when news of Sigismund 's approach reached Novigrad , Elizabeth was strangled by guards before Mary 's eyes .
Mary was released from the captivity by Sigismund 's troops on 4 June . Having been secretly buried in St Chrysogonus 's Church in Zadar on 9 February 1387 , Elizabeth 's body was exhumed on 16 January 1390 , transferred by sea to Obrovac and then carried overland to Székesfehérvár Basilica .
= = Legacy = =
Elizabeth was regarded by her contemporaries as an efficient but ruthless politician who used political intrigues to protect and defend her daughters ' rights . She was a caring parent , but was neither politically talented nor competent to prepare Mary and Hedwig for their roles as monarchs . Elizabeth failed to set a good example for her daughters , and her unbalanced character and questionable methods in politics would serve more as a warning to the young sovereigns . Her procrastinations and inability to make clear decisions threatened Hedwig 's status , while her endless problems with Croatian nobles and failure to improve relations with her native Bosnia made Mary 's reign insecure and tumultuous .
Queen Elizabeth commissioned the creation of the Chest of Saint Simeon in 1381 . The chest , located in Zadar , is of great importance for the history of the city , as it depicts various historical events – such as the death of her father – and Elizabeth herself . According to legend , she stole the saint 's finger and paid for the creation of the casket in order to atone for her sin . The casket contains a scene which allegedly depicts the queen gone mad after stealing the relict .
= = Family tree = =
The following family tree illustrates Elizabeth 's kinship with her husband , as well as her and her daughters ' relationships with their adversaries .
= American Thermos Bottle Company Laurel Hill Plant =
The American Thermos Bottle Company Laurel Hill Plant , located in the Laurel Hill section of Norwich , Connecticut , in the United States , includes 11 contributing buildings and two other contributing structures . The original plant was built during 1912 – 13 and used a historic Italianate house as a company office building . The plant was the primary factory where Thermos bottles were manufactured from 1913 to 1984 . The plant is historically significant to its connection to the Thermos Company and the history of Norwich . The complex is architecturally significant because it displays the adaptive use of industrial mill design to new industry . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 .
Since its nomination , numerous changes and renovations have occurred . The surrounding area has seen the construction of condominiums and the large manufacturing building being renovated and re @-@ purposed for loft @-@ style apartments . Renovations on the northern end of the property would require the demolition of two buildings to construct the Integrated Day Charter School . Completed in 2008 , a new two @-@ story addition created an indoor gymnasium , kitchen , offices and a new lobby for the school .
= = Background = =
The citizens of Norwich , Connecticut , sought out the Thermos company to build and operate a plant on the banks of the Thames River . A group of citizens under the group " Norwich Boomers " rallied the community to purchase 27 acres ( 11 ha ) of land for $ 750 per acre ( $ 1 @,@ 900 / ha ) so that it could be used for the Thermos Plant . The house of Dr. William H. Mason was included in the purchase . The Italianate house was converted to be used as an office building . Together , the citizens and the city raised $ 78 @,@ 000 . A contract was signed on February 14 , 1912 , designating Norwich as the home of the Thermos Plant . In return , Thermos would include the city 's name in the company 's advertisements . Thermos would even mark the products produced in Norwich with " Made in Norwich " . Allyn L. Brown acted as attorney and provided counsel for the deal . The construction of the plant was a boon for Norwich , which helped the employment of the area after the decline of the textile industry . The operations expanded into nearby Taftville , operating until they were phased out and shut down in 1988 .
= = Plant overview = =
The plant was laid out roughly north to south orientation along the Thames River . The plant itself is a mixture of interconnected buildings and stand @-@ alone structures . The stand @-@ alone structures included three propane sheds ( Buildings 63 , 64 and 65 ) that were located near the Human Resources building ( Building 86 ) and its storage shed ( Building 30 ) . The main structure of the plant was a string of connecting buildings that were erected and integrated into the production and operation of the plant . At the north end of the plant was the Research and Development building ( Building 87 ) , it was located connected to two large storage buildings ( Building 1 and 2 ) . On the front of Building 2 was the main offices ( Building 85 ) . Building 2 is connected to the largest building , the Manufacturing Building ( Building 3 ) , which is connected to the Manufacturing Glass House ( Building 5 ) and Glass House 2 ( Building 32 ) . Building 32 also served as storage building . Connected to Building 5 is the Glass House Cullet & Mix House ( Number 7 ) and the Compressor & Auxiliary Generator building ( Number 9 ) at the southern end .
Originally , the plant consisted of the company offices and the large Manufacturing Building . The Mason house , which would become the company office was originally constructed in 1861 . It is a two @-@ story brick Italianate style house that was converted to be used as an office building and significantly modified throughout the years . The 1929 addition added a wing that connected it to the metal products building which was built that year . In 1942 , a two @-@ story front addition was added and another addition to the west was added around 1950 . These additions also resulted in the removal of the cupola , brick chimneys , front entry , and veranda . The Manufacturing building , constructed from 1912 to 1913 , is three stories high on the river side and two stories on the east . It is divided into 31 bays with pilasters . At each end of the building are stairs and elevator towers . The structural remains of the original glass house survive as a sub @-@ basement in a one @-@ story extension at the south end of the building .
The Human Resources and Research and Development buildings were originally constructed around 1912 by the MacKay Copper Process Company . The property was acquired in 1923 by the Thermos Company following the foreclosure of the MacKay company . The Human Resources building was used by the enameling department until its conversion in 1948 . The Research and Development building was previously the Engineering building . A one @-@ story hipped frame gatehouse was constructed in the 1920s . The Carpenter Shop ( Building 62 ) was constructed in 1926 . The Thermos factory completed construction of a storage building in 1929 ( Building 2 ) and another storage building in 1941 ( Building 1 ) . Glass House 1 ( Building 5 ) was constructed in 1939 and incorporates a warehouse dating from 1930 into its construction . Glass House 2 was constructed in 1951 and is connected to the Manufacturing Building by a conveyor .
= = Modern use and adaptation = =
The plant was a set in the 1990 movie Everybody Wins , afterwards the property was partially developed to condominiums . The project failed and resulted in the closure of the Brooklyn Savings Bank in 1990 . The Thermos on Thames condominium assets were acquired by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and was purchased by TOT Transfer for $ 420 @,@ 000 . An auction was held and around $ 1 @.@ 2 million was made for the purchase of 25 condominiums , but 55 unsold units were transferred to Real Estate Seizure Sales and 30 acres ( 12 ha ) to Thermos Norwich Developers LLC . The factory was also converted to loft @-@ style apartments .
In 1997 , the Integrated Day Charter School renovated a 16 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 500 m2 ) section of the factory for use as a school . This required the demolition of two buildings to serve as space for a playground and parking spaces . The total cost of the renovations were estimated at $ 750 @,@ 000 and would be partly paid by the State of Connecticut . The renovations were expected to be completed by August 27 , 1997 , in time for the school 's opening . Integrated Day Charter School has a maximum enrollment of 330 students across pre @-@ kindergarten to eighth grade with a majority of children residing in the Norwich area and 15 % in nearby towns . The charter school has an application wait list and holds a lottery for admittance of pre @-@ kindergarten students .
Since the time of its NRHP nomination , the plant and the surrounding area have undergone numerous changes which have impacted and removed buildings . The construction of the Integrated Day Charter School removed the Research and Development and Storage Building 1 . The " Colosseum " as it was termed , was an outdoor gym which retained sides of the former building . Completed in 2008 , the two @-@ story addition created an indoor gymnasium , kitchen , offices and a new lobby for the school at a cost of $ 2 million . The renovation of the large Manufacturing building included the installation of new windows and energy @-@ efficient roofing along with the installation of modern mechanical , electrical and plumbing systems .
= = Significance = =
The American Thermos Bottle Company Laurel Hill Plant is historically significant as the primary factory for the production of Thermos bottles that would allow the company to dominate in the world market . It is also historically significant as an example of the Norwich community coming together to attract the company and diversify the local industry . The plant was the primary factory where Thermos bottles were manufactured from raw materials between 1913 and 1984 . The complex is architecturally significant as an example of late @-@ 19th century and early 20th century industrial mill design being adapted for new industry . The American Thermos Bottle Company Laurel Hill Plant was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 .
= Grammy Award for Best Disco Recording =
The Grammy Award for Best Disco Recording was an award presented at the 22nd Grammy Awards in 1980 . The Grammy Awards , an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards , are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .
Gloria Gaynor and producers Dino Fekaris and Freddie Perren won the Best Disco Recording award for the song " I Will Survive " . However , because of a backlash against disco , the Academy discontinued the category before the 23rd Grammy Awards . In 1998 , a similar category , Best Dance Recording , began being awarded to honor vocal or instrumental dance tracks , though there were concerns that the genre would be short @-@ lived much like the disco category .
= = Background = =
Disco is a genre of dance music that emerged in the United States during the 1970s . The experimental mixing of records , combined with the newly acquired ability to play longer tracks , resulted in a genre well @-@ suited for dance parties . During 1973 – 74 , MFSB 's " Love Is the Message " displayed " early rumblings of the disco sound " , and shortly afterward the songs " Never Can Say Goodbye " by Gloria Gaynor , " The Hustle " by Van McCoy , and " Love to Love You Baby " by Donna Summer emerged . In 1977 , the opening of Studio 54 in Manhattan , and the success of the film Saturday Night Fever ( which featured John Travolta and music by the Bee Gees ) , added to the popularity of the disco genre . The following year , Paradise Garage opened in Manhattan 's West Village , the New York radio station WKTU became " all @-@ disco " , and the number of discothèques in the nation reached nearly 20 @,@ 000 . At the 21st Grammy Awards in 1979 , Saturday Night Fever : The Original Movie Sound Track , was named Album of the Year and the Bee Gees received the award for Best Pop Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group for their contributions to the soundtrack album . By the end of 1979 , the disco industry was estimated to be worth more than $ 4 billion , " more ... than the industries of movies , television or professional sport " .
However , the disco fad soon began to decline . On July 12 , 1979 , just a few months after Newsweek had reported on the " [ take ] over " of disco music , a " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " promotional event known as Disco Demolition Night was held at Chicago 's Comiskey Park . During a doubleheader intermission , disc jockey Steve Dahl set ablaze a bin full of disco records , causing a riot within the stadium and gaining international attention . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 disco records were destroyed , and around 50 @,@ 000 rioters participated in the event , staying on the field forcing the Chicago White Sox to forfeit the second game .
Nationally , a " backlash " took hold , as public support for disco music faded . According to author Craig Werner , as quoted in the British newspaper The Independent , the " anti @-@ disco movement represented an unholy alliance of funkateers and feminists , progressives and puritans , rockers and reactionaries . None the less , the attacks on disco gave respectable voice to the ugliest kinds of unacknowledged racism , sexism and homophobia . " By 1980 " mainstream disco " had ended , by 1985 WKTU had returned to playing rock music , and by the end of the decade the famous dance venues Studio 54 , Paradise Garage , and Clubhouse had all closed .
= = Award = =
In 1979 , the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences decided to add a Best Disco Recording category for the 22nd Grammy Awards , just as disco was " preparing to die " . Nominated works for the award included " Boogie Wonderland " by Earth , Wind & Fire , " I Will Survive " by Gloria Gaynor , " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " by Michael Jackson , " Da Ya Think I 'm Sexy ? " by Rod Stewart , and " Dim All the Lights " by Donna Summer . On February 27 , 1980 , during a live telecast from Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles , Gaynor was presented the award for Best Disco Recording . Dino Fekaris and Freddie Perren also received awards as the producers of the track .
However , because of the decreasing popularity of disco , the Academy eliminated the award category before the 1981 ceremony was to be held . According to the organization , disco was " no longer a readily definable separate music form " , although its influence had " permeated all types of pop music " . Despite the award 's short span , the award helped solidify Gaynor as one of the best @-@ known female disco artists from the 1970s and the song " I Will Survive " as one of the most recognized and top @-@ selling songs from the genre .
Another dance category did not emerge until 1998 when the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording began to honor vocal or instrumental dance tracks , though there were concerns that the award would be short @-@ lived much like the disco category . In 2003 , the Academy moved the category from the " Pop " field into a new " Dance " field , which currently contains the category Best Electronica / Dance Album as well .
= Constantin Al . Ionescu @-@ Caion =
Constantin Al . Ionescu @-@ Caion ( Romanian pronunciation : [ konstanˈtin al i.oˈnesku kaˈjon ] , born Constantin Alexandru Ionescu and commonly known as Caion ; 1882 – November or December 1918 ) was a Romanian journalist and poet , primarily remembered for his legal dispute with humorist Ion Luca Caragiale . He was a Symbolist , a disciple of Alexandru Macedonski , and a militant Francophile , as well as a leading opponent of literary tradition . His scattered work comprises essays , short stories and prose poetry , noted for their cultural references , but made little impact on Romanian literature . As a journalist , Caion prioritized scandals , accusing Caragiale of plagiarism and losing the subsequent celebrity trial of 1902 , before partly recanting and winning the retrial . Despite his own coquetries with nationalism , Caion focused his verve on Transylvania 's contemporary nationalist literary current .
Ionescu @-@ Caion was the founder of several magazines , most notably Românul Literar . Originally conceived as a literary supplement for the daily Românul , it became a tribune of Macedonski 's Romanian Symbolist movement , and helped discover George Bacovia , the celebrated modern poet . During World War I , when he oscillated between the two opposing camps , Caion put out the journal Cronicarul . This was his last known activity in the Romanian press .
A contradictory figure , Caion was equated with infamy and ridicule in the Romanian context , and his evidently unsubstantiated allegations against Caragiale have traditionally puzzled literary historians . In Transylvania , the word Caion was for a while synonymous with yellow journalist .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early career = = =
Little is recorded about Caion 's roots , other than that he was a devout Roman Catholic , and a regular presence at Saint Joseph Cathedral . He had a very early debut in cultural journalism . After 1897 , when he was 15 , his literary chroniclers saw print in several newspapers , under various pseudonyms such as C. A. I. Nică Burdușel , Ion Filionescu , Marin Gelea , Isac Șt . Micu , Roman Mușat , among others . In January 1898 , he was employed by Adevărul daily , covering the Romanian tour of Sâr Péladan . Péladan , a writer , mystic and self @-@ styled mage , failed to impress the young reporter , who reported on his various claims with a note of irony . Also then , he affiliated with Macedonski 's eclectic art magazine Literatorul ( known during the period as Revista Literară ) . Interested in the Roman Empire , he published with Literatorul a comparative biography of Julius Caesar and Augustus , republished as a book by Carol Göbl of Bucharest .
Also in 1898 , Ionescu @-@ Caion completed his adaptation of Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver , published by the Adevărul collection Biblioteca Enciclopedică as Trei ani de suferință : O călătorie curioasă ( " Three Years of Suffering : A Strange Voyage " ) . It came with Caion 's own critical study of Swift . According to Anglicist Mihaela Mudure , Caion , " a famous journalist and a minor writer " , was thus the first Romanian to publish an essay on Swift , albeit one that was " not very sophisticated " ; she also notes that the translation added a sexual twist to some of Gulliver 's adventures . Caion published other such translations with Biblioteca Enciclopedică , rendering works by Thomas Bailey Aldrich , Louis Henri Boussenard , Henry de Graffigny , Louis Jacolliot and others .
Under contract with Adevărul ( 1899 ) , Caion published his translation from Prosper Castanier novellas , dealing with " Roman decadence " . Writing in 2011 , critic Angelo Mitchievici suggested that Caion 's introduction to the volume exaggerated Castanier 's merits , but was still " interesting " for showing the popularity of " decadentism " in 1890s Romania : Caion 's argument was that Rome fell victim to " Asiatic luxury " and sophisticated sexuality ( " orgies " ) . Caion 's own texts on the subject of decadence were published as booklets by the French company Retaux Frères . His bibliography for 1899 includes the essay Coversații despre artă ( " Conversations on Art " ) , and , also with Adevărul , a selection of his own novellas .
Not much is known about Caion 's other involvements , other than that he attended the University of Bucharest Faculty of Letters , in the same year as fellow journalist Eugen Porn . Although living in the capital , he maintained links with the youth of Iași , and published alongside I. I. Mironescu in the high school magazine C. Negruzzi . His work included an essay about the works of the eponymous novelist . A " Constantin Ionescu " , whom literary historian Victor Durnea tentatively identifies as the future Caion , was arrested by Romanian Police on Calea Victoriei , Bucharest , during the breakup of a student nationalist rally ( September 13 , 1894 ) . He was still enlisted at the University in 1899 , when he organized a charity event to benefit the impoverished schoolchildren of Câmpina .
= = = Symbolist beginnings = = =
Despite his subsequent involvement in various scandals , Ionescu @-@ Caion was not universally perceived as a mediocre journalist . Historian Lucian Boia notes that he " was not without merit as a publicist . " Around the year 1900 , Caion became a sympathizer of the Romanian Symbolist movement , whose leader was the poet Macedonski . Attached by philologist Ștefan Cazimir to a " Secessionist " current in Romanian literature , Caion made himself noted for a prose poem entirely dedicated to his lover 's hair ( a recurring theme in Symbolist literature , taken to extremes by the Romanian author ) . A regular presence in Macedonski 's house , Caion mounted a campaign to promote minor Romanian Symbolist authors in France . As noted by critics , the French contacts were themselves fringe magazines , with Legitimist and Traditionalist Catholic agendas .
Caion had an enduring interest in history and , in 1900 , completed his monograph on Wallachian Prince Gheorghe Bibescu . Titled Asupra domniei lui Bibescu ( " On Bibescu 's Reign " ) , it was first published as an addendum to Georges Bibesco 's pamphlet , O execuție ( " An Execution " ) . Bibesco , the Prince 's destitute son , continued to employ Caion as his defender and co @-@ author : in 1901 , they published an ampler work on the subject of Bibescu family grievances against the modern Romanian establishment . In tandem , Caion publicized his comparison of historical and psychological determinism , with a topical booklet . His first synthesis , Studii istorice ( " Historical Studies " ) , was also available in 1901 .
Caion also affiliated with the eclectic journal Noua Revistă Română , where he published historical documents of dubious authenticity and , in 1902 , the essay Din umbră . Moravuri antice ( " From the Shadows . Antique Morals " ) . From 1900 to 1903 , he was employed by the Bucharest Conservatory , lecturing in " selective world history " , and publishing his conferences as a university textbook .
According to at least one account , Caion first encountered Caragiale 's irony when he sent him a couple of Symbolist poems . The senior writer picked up on their involuntary humor , and proceeded to ridicule Caion . Literary historian Tudor Vianu believes that Caion was especially infuriated when Caragiale 's magazine , Moftul Român , made a public mockery of his Secessionist prose poem . In his gibe , Caragiale feigned enthusiasm about the young writer 's debut . Parodying Caion , he suggested that the young poet carry on writing a " lyrical @-@ decadent @-@ symbolist @-@ mystical @-@ capillary @-@ secessionist " novel about a hairdressers ' art society , whose members glue strands of hair onto canvasses or carve soap into human figures .
= = = Caragiale scandal = = =
Caion followed an elaborate recipe for revenge , with exposes in the Symbolist Revista Literară review , of which he was by then the co @-@ editor . The owner , Th . M. Stoenescu , had been Caragiale 's adversary since the 1880s . Described by Vianu as " a real pathological character " , Caion claimed to expose Caragiale 's drama , Năpasta , as plagiarized . In his report , Caion suggested that the real author was a Hungarian , Kemény Istvan — who , in fact , never existed . In order to back his claim , Caion published quotes from Năpasta alongside a supposed translation from Kemény . Reading these fragments in good faith , Caragiale was astonished by what he took to be a bizarre coincidence .
Macedonski followed the developments with enthusiasm , granting further exposure to Caion 's claims . For Macedonski , the young accuser embodied " the aspiration for beauty " , " the new aesthetics " , " courage and selflessness " . As commentators have suggested , the poet responded to Caragiale 's satires of him and his Symbolist salon , and attacking , in Caragiale , the entire anti @-@ Symbolist club Junimea . At Revista Literară , Stoenescu began suspecting a canard , and asked Caion to present further proof for his accusations . The latter produced two sheets printed in Romanian Cyrillic , which reportedly included fragments from an 1884 Romanian translation . Unconvinced , the editor promptly suspended his collaboration with Caion . The latter soon changed his statements , arguing that " Kemény " was a pseudonym used by Leo Tolstoy , and that Caragiale was guilty of copying The Power of Darkness .
Although Stoenescu was a disciple of his , Macedonski favored Caion in this dispute , and employed him to write more denunciations of Caragiale in the magazine Forța Morală . Forța Morală expanded on the initial accusations , claiming to have discovered an entire history of plagiarism in Caragiale 's writings ( from Victorien Sardou to Alfred Duru ) . Following Macedonski 's intercession , Caion was also supported by the historian Grigore Tocilescu , who made Caragiale the sole topic of his Romanian Atheneum conference ( January 24 , 1902 ) .
Românul newspaper , put out by the entrepreneur Vintilă Rosetti as an anti @-@ Junimist outlet , also stood by Caion . Its columnist , N. Ținc , had prepared a piece describing Caragiale and his Junimist colleagues as obsessed with their own role in culture . Unpublished until 2006 , Ținc 's article noted that " the poor Caion " had unwittingly struck a blow against " the youngest , sickest and therefore
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most innocent of the [ Junimea ] megalomaniacs . " Rosetti 's paper was hosting its own campaign against Caragiale , headed by Caragiale 's former employer Frédéric Damé . Meanwhile , Caragiale found his core group of journalist sympathizers in the Junimist fief of Moldavia .
Caragiale had by then proceeded to research the matter on his own , and came to the independent conclusion that the accusations were entirely concocted . Late in 1901 , he opened a legal case against both Caion and Stoenescu , taken up by the Ilfov County court . On the first day , Caion excused himself as sick , while Stoenescu recused himself , taking the prosecution 's side . For these reasons , the trial was held without a jury .
Caragiale 's legal representative was the fellow writer Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea , who systematically disproved Caion 's allegations , and noted that the absentee defendant was guilty of numerous forgeries . He also convinced the judge that the similarities between Năpasta and The Power of Darkness were superficial . The court found Ionescu @-@ Caion guilty of slander . He was sentenced to a three @-@ month jail term , a 500 lei fine and 10 @,@ 000 lei in court costs . However , he appealed the tribunal 's decision . The jury selection was a laborious process : Caion 's lawyer Danielopol recused writers Nicolae Iorga and Ovid Densusianu , alleging that all Romanian literati had a vested interest to defend plagiarism . Iorga took offense , and reportedly challenged Danielopol to a duel . During the proceedings , Caion backed up on the original accusations , explaining that he had only invented a reason to bring Caragiale in for a trial . The court eventually acquitted Caion .
Caragiale showed little surprise at the news . In an interview with poet Alexandru Antemireanu , he explained his conflict with Caion in paternalistic terms : " They did well not to sentence the kid . Is he the guilty party ? No ! Caion is merely a victim . Say I were a juror : why would I be setting an example by punishing this unreasonable and irresponsible kid , for those who are more mature and better placed , and who employ the same means as he did ? " The general public was by then firmly on Caragiale 's side , and Macedonski 's reputation suffered greatly as a result , increasing his isolation on the literary scene .
= = = Românul Literar = = =
Caion was still carrying on as a publicist and historian , with a study about the ancient Bacchanalia . It was simultaneously published in Paris and Bucharest ( 1901 ) . That year , with Carol Göbl press , he also published a devotional text , Isus , fragment ( " Jesus , A Fragment " ) . The theme of decadence continued to fuel Caion 's essays : in Carmen magazine ( September 1902 ) , he covered Castanier 's Lotus du Gange , implicitly advertising the book 's lewd content and titillating illustrations . His take on the Caragiale affair was outlined in the Carol Göbl essay Moravuri literare în 1902 ( " Literary Morals as of 1902 " ) .
In 1903 , Caion himself began working at Românul , where he was an editor , corresponding with Vintilă Rosetti over the newspaper 's publicity deals . He returned to belles @-@ lettres with a 1903 short story , Korinna . His fiction reflected his growing interest in Early Christianity , illustrated by another story , itself published in 1903 : Pentru cruce ( " For the Cross " ) . This was followed in 1904 by a volume of " Christian short stories " , Triumful Crucei , which he submitted for consideration to the Romanian Academy awards committee . Christian subjects infused his parallel work for the stage , as well as his historical research . In 1904 , he published a Byzantine @-@ themed tragedy , Legionariĭ Cruceĭ ( " Legionaries of the Cross " ) , and an essay on " The Rivalry between Jesus and Saint John the Baptist " ( La rivalité de Jésus et de saint Jean @-@ Baptiste ) .
A split occurred at Românul in late 1904 : on January 10 , 1905 , Caion issued Românul Literar as a separate weekly , announcing to the world that all his links to Românul had been severed ( this even though Românul Literar 's first issue was introduced as " Issue 1 , Year 3 " ) . The director himself signed the column Note critice ( " Critical Notes " ) , and four others which reviewed books local and foreign ; they were collected in book form in 1905 . Caion 's sheet was irregularly published for the next three years , and , in December 1908 , became a tri @-@ monthly .
Românul Literar was a voice of anti @-@ nationalist and anti @-@ traditionalist sentiment , rejecting the school formed around Sămănătorul magazine , and promoting the Symbolists ; its agenda has been summarized as " anti @-@ Sămănătorist " , and in step with modern French literature . It played host to many Romanian writers , most of them Romanian Symbolists : Macedonski , Mihail Cruceanu , Mircea Demetriade , Al . Gherghel , Dumitru " Karr " Karnabatt , Eugeniu Sperantia , Caton Theodorian , alongside the epigrammatists Cincinat Pavelescu and I. C. Popescu @-@ Polyclet . Cruceanu , who joined the literary club while still a high school student , recalls being impressed by Caion 's status as " a literary historian and critic " , " his restrained demeanor and his intelligence , with its inscrutable pursuits . " However , Caion seemed " ill and troubled " , and had " an unnatural and mean passion for going after those people who had made a name for themselves in our cultural life " , with his " venomous weaponry " . Other Symbolists took distance : Moldavian poet and literary reviewer Ștefan Petică made a mockery of Caion , exposing him as a sciolistic amateur .
In addition to receiving contributions directly from France , Românul Literar published translations of poems by Frédéric Mistral ( translator : Elena Văcărescu ) , Jean Moréas ( Demetriade ) and Albert Samain ( Popescu @-@ Polyctet ) . Other than poetry and fiction , Românul Literar hosted literary and scientific essays , including ones by Caion , Ținc , Ioan Tanoviceanu , Orest Tafrali and others . The journal also enlisted contributions from poetess Cornelia " Riria " Gatovschi and her husband , the formerly Junimist historian A. D. Xenopol . Românul Literar 's founder was especially enthusiastic about Riria . Against mainstream critics , who derided her poetry as stale and ungrammatical , he proclaimed the dawn of a new era , with Mrs. Xenopol as its herald . Caion , Tocilescu and the Xenopols were members of a small professional association , called " Romanian Society for Arts and Literature " .
Around 1907 , Caion 's paper was hosting poems by the young Symbolist author George Bacovia ( including " Sonnet " and " Pulvis " ) and art chronicles by Theodor Cornel . Bacovia described their first encounter , in November 1903 , as follows : " Caion [ ... ] was very depressed after his recently completed trial with Caragiale . My solitary presence , without any sort of recommendation from another author , made him receive me with significant reserve . I then communicated the purpose of my arrival , asking for the address of his collaborator , the poet Macedonski . Nevertheless , he still asked me for a handful of poems , the ones later published by his magazine . "
= = = Caion and the Transylvanians = = =
Ionescu @-@ Caion was unrelenting in his accusations of plagiarism , and a section of the press , in both Romania and abroad , still credited him as a whistle @-@ blower . His Romanian supporters called him a David fending off Caragiale @-@ Goliath , while the Revue de Paris referred to his stances as " courageous " . By that time , the formerly nationalist journalist had made himself new enemies outside the Junimea circles . These were ethnic Romanian writers from Transylvania , region that was then still part of Austria @-@ Hungary , including many traditionalists published by Sămănătorul . Early signs of this conflict showed up during the Caragiale trials , when Caion and Macedonski nominated Sămănătorul founding figure George Coșbuc as another successful plagiarist . Around the same time , he reputedly stated that Transylvanian literature was " a monstrous apparition " .
Caion 's dispute with the Transylvanian poets covered several fronts . In 1905 , his newspaper joyfully announced that Ștefan Octavian Iosif ( whom he called by his Magyarized legal name , István Gábor József ) had been expelled from the Romanian academic scholarship program . According to Caion , Octavian Goga 's father @-@ in @-@ law , politician Partenie Cosma , was " the tyrant of Transylvania " , and Coșbuc 's ally , the literary chronicler Ilarie Chendi , was a " Romanianized " Hungarian , with little authority in local literature . These reactions did not prevent Caion from becoming a co @-@ author of the first Transylvanian ( and Romanian ) encyclopedic dictionary , put together by Cornelius Diaconovich . To the indignation of other Transylvanians , " Ionescu @-@ Caion , C. A. , publicist , Bucharest " is a contributor of historical entries in Diaconovich 's second tome .
The ideological conflict involved various aspects of literary theory and activism , including the differences of opinion about reforming the literary language . Transylvanian political leader Alexandru Vaida @-@ Voevod noted that the neologistic dialect favored in the Old Kingdom was symptomatic , since " Caion and the likes " were popularly identified as the literary professionals . Linguist Sextil Pușcariu also commended Transylvanian literati for standing up to the " unhealthy currents " promoted by Caion , Macedonski and Karnabatt .
Caion 's indignation reached a peak in September 1909 , when the Romanian Writers ' Society ( SSR ) was officially established as a compromise between the Symbolists and the Transylvanians , doing away with the Romanian Society for Arts and Literature . In Românul Literar , Caion described the club as a mass of " déclassés " , concluding : " With the likes of Herț , Kendich , Ivăciuk , Demetrius [ that is : A. de Herz , Chendi , I. Dragoslav and Vasile Demetrius ] , for sure the new society shall uproot the old one , where one comes across respectable people such as A. D. Xenopol , Riria , N. Petrașcu , Pompiliu Eliade , Gr [ igore ] Tocilescu etc . " Another controversy shook the literary community when the SSR decided to exclude those authors who could not prove their belonging to the Romanian ethnic group . Although Românul Literar was itself suspected of antisemitism , Caion decided to stand by the Jewish Romanians who were thus excluded . In a March 1910 article , he sided with the Noua Revistă Română owner Constantin Rădulescu @-@ Motru ( a critic of antisemitism ) and journalist Eugen Porn ( a Jew ) , noting that Porn 's acceptance into Romanian literature was at least as justified as Ilarie Chendi 's .
Românul Literar tried to keep up with the latest developments in literary form , and Caion was among the first Romanian reviewers of Futurism . However , the paper went out of print in January 1911 . It was reestablished as a bi @-@ monthly on November 1 , and again ceased publication in December . It was restored a third and final time in June 1912 , but went out of business soon after .
Meanwhile , Caion focused on his Francophile essays , writing about the French influence on Romania . The fragment Înrâuriri franceze mai vechi ( " Older French Influences " ) saw print in the " encyclopedic magazine " Ilustrația , whose director was Nicolae G. Rădulescu @-@ Niger , the comedic poet . With Riria and the Symbolists , Caion began putting out a French @-@ language literary journal , called La Revue Roumaine ( first issue : February 1912 ) . The Transylvanian rivals at Luceafărul were unimpressed . According to them , La Revue Roumaine was beneath all other Francophone periodicals , either Romanian or Hungarian , unwitting evidence of " the inferiority and impotence of our [ national ] literature " .
When , in 1912 , Macedonski made his publicized return to literary life , the Transylvanians reacted with astonishment . In Arad , the journalist Ovidiu Băsceanu covered the comeback of " an enemy " as " Caion 's triumph " . He believed that the Symbolist offensive was presided upon and propagated by Caion , under the slogan : " I cursed , I libeled , I vanquished . " Caion himself focused on his academic career , and , in 1913 , took his Ph.D. with the thesis Îndrumări nouă în viața politică și culturală a Franței contemporane și înrâurirea lor asupra noastră ( " New Directions in France 's Political and Cultural Life and their Influence on Us " ) . It was published , in 1914 , by Poporul Typographers .
= = = World War I and death = = =
By the start of World War I , while Romania was still neutral territory , Caion supported France and the other Entente Powers . He was " a Francophile to the uttermost " ( according to Boia ) , publishing the booklet Rolul Franței în istoria omenirii ( " France 's Role in World History " ) . Two other books on this subject saw print in 1915 : Gallia și înrâuririle ei ( " Gaul and Her Influences " ) , Sparte contre Athènes ( " Sparta against Athens " ) . As noted by a Universul Literar columnist , Caion did not glorify the French Republic , but was rather a fan of the Ancien Régime . Caion cited a wealth of French authors , even obscure ones ( " who would not be great were they not the intellectual friends of the author " ) , to prove that German culture was " anarchic and worthless " .
The Central Powers ' invasion of Romania surprised Caion and made him reconsider his options . He stayed behind in occupied Bucharest , and , as Germany 's victory seemed certain and Romania signed the Peace of Bucharest , timidly embraced the " Germanophile " cause . From August 17 , 1918 , Ionescu @-@ Caion put out the magazine Cronicarul ( " The Chronicler " ) , which enlisted contributions from noted Germanophile writers , such as Gala Galaction and Duiliu Zamfirescu . Its theater chronicler , Radu Pralea , was among the first to cover the Jignița Summer Theater of Isidor Goldenberg , a mainstay of Yiddish dramaturgy in Romania . Another Cronicarul employee was the female journalist Aida Vrioni , who became Caion 's friend and , in time , his apologist .
The magazine , noted by Boia for its " high literary standing " , publicized Caion 's reformed views about the course of the war . He wrote that the new Germanophile Prime Minister , Alexandru Marghiloman , embodied " Romania 's national energy " , much like the figures in Thomas Carlyle 's On Heroes . His stances , like those of Marghiloman , had their dose of ambiguity . As Marghiloman recounts , Caion circulated an anti @-@ German manifesto put out by the revolutionary Social Democrats and the " Socialist Women of Romania " . Moreover , Caion still revered the anti @-@ Germanophile Xenopol . In issue 27 of Cronicarul , he referred to Xenopol 's memoirs as a masterpiece of Romanian prose .
Caion died only a few months later , in liberated Romania . As Lucian Boia notes , he had lived long enough to see all prophecies about a German victory being nullified by the November 1918 Armistice . According to bibliographer and educator Tudor Opriș , his was a " heroic death " , which served to clear his tarnished reputation .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Ignominy = = =
The various scandals involving Constantin Al . Ionescu @-@ Caion have left distinct marks on Romania 's cultural life . Boia writes : " Caion [ ... ] secured himself an unwanted fame in the history of Romanian literature " . In early 20th @-@ century Transylvania , " Caion " was adapted into a common noun and a term of contempt . Listing its " Transylvanophobe " enemies , Luceafărul noted the existence of " all sorts of Caions , those little puppies raised by the obscure magazines . " Also in Luceafărul , priest @-@ publicist Alexandru Ciura stated : " We live in the epoch of the Caions , for whom all things are permitted " . Caion 's poor reputation also rubbed off on Macedonski : Caragiale 's disciple Alexandru Cazaban coined the word Macaionski , as a hybrid of both writers .
The scandal continued to reverberate , and Caion soon earned condemnation from critics not directly involved in the early 20th @-@ century disputes . A liberal and a modernist , Eugen Lovinescu , dismissed Caion 's entire career in letters as a footnote . It likened Caion to a " squid " that leaves behind " a long trail of ink " , and judged his brand of literary criticism to have been " one of the illnesses of that time . " In contrast , Cronicarul 's Vrioni spoke of her friend 's attack on Caragiale as a " mistake " , noting that his career from 1901 was of genuine importance . Caion , she writes , created " true works of art " , without sparing a thought for " glory or money . "
According to literary historian Alexandru Dobrescu , Caion is the prototype " detractor " in Romanian culture , " born of frustration " , the Zoilus to Caragiale 's Homer . Dobrescu writes : " In the common definition , the detractor is someone consciously working to debase ( or destroy ) one 's good standing . The cobbler envious of his neighbor , the cordwainer , who will go lengths to besmirch the latter in hopes of ' helping ' him lose his clientele , is a detractor . " His verdict about Caion 's unicity in a Romanian context is placed in doubt by another author , Constantin Coroiu , who finds it unrealistic .
Various commentators believe that Caragiale 's ultimate relocation to Germany was at least in part prompted by the Caion affair . This was notably suggested by Caragiale 's actor friend , Ion Brezeanu . Moreover , literary rivals as well as third parties have noted that Caion 's calumnies shed focus from his own dubious creative methods . In his speech of 1902 , Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea openly accused Caion of forging historical records during his stint at Noua Revistă Română . More than fifty years after the fact , Ștefan Cazimir discovered that the poems Caion claimed to have authored , and which Caragiale found especially entertaining , were in fact poor @-@ quality translations from Charles Baudelaire .
In 2007 Ionescu @-@ Caion 's name was returned to circulation , amidst allegations of plagiarism brought up against philosopher Gabriel Liiceanu . Writer Andrei Pleșu defended Liiceanu against his accusers at Ziua daily , and argued that Romania was still " Caion 's land " . Noting that Caion had entered press history with a mârlănie ( " yokel 's deed " ) , Pleșu described Ziua journalism as partisanship and " hysteria " , assessing that Romania was going through " an epileptic fit " . Liiceanu critic Gheorghe Grigurcu also took distance from the Ziua accusers , noting that their " libel " , " puerile " in content , made it hard to sustain a serious debate about Liiceanu 's faults .
= = = Other literary echoes = = =
Caion 's presence at the center of literary and political controversies was treated with much sarcasm by his various peers , even before the 1901 face @-@ off . In addition to the " lyrical @-@ decadent @-@ symbolist @-@ mystical @-@ capillary @-@ secessionist " parody , Caragiale may have attacked Caion in an 1899 Universul sketch , as Superintendent Lazăr Ionescu @-@ Lion . Both writers were satirized in a revue , officially written by restaurateur G. A. Mandy ( but probably authored by Rădulescu @-@ Niger ) . The work focuses on the 1901 stock market panic and its political consequences in Romania ; Caragiale ( as Gearacale ) and Caion ( Crayon ) appear alongside scheming politicians or journalists — Take Ionescu , George D. Pallade , Luigi Cazzavillan — and the runaway embezzler Andrei Vizanti .
The legal scandal between Caion and Caragiale is traditionally considered one of Romania 's most famous trials . The legal professionals ' magazine Curierul Judiciar and lawyer @-@ editor Octav Minar published the court records in its Biblioteca marilor procese ( " Great Trials Library " ) , May – June 1924 . Theater scholar Cristian Stamatoiu finds Delavrancea 's plea not just a " shattering " proof of erudition , but also a guide to understanding the issues of artistic personality and intellectual property . As a personal witness of the proceedings , Brezeanu noted that Delavrancea spoke like a modern Demosthenes .
" Caion " was a breakthrough role for Gheorghe Dinică , ensuring his move from stagehand to award @-@ winning thespian . This was in a 1962 stage reconstruction by David Esrig , with Jules Cazaban playing Caragiale and Mircea Șeptilici as Delavrancea . Among the many volumes dealing with the legal face @-@ off is a stageplay by dramaturge and critic Romulus Vulpescu , first published in 1972 .
= Bobo Holloman =
Alva Lee " Bobo " Holloman ( March 7 , 1923 – May 1 , 1987 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for one season in the American League with the St. Louis Browns in 1953 . In 22 career games , Holloman pitched 65 @.@ 1 innings and posted a win @-@ loss record of 3 – 7 and a 5 @.@ 23 earned run average ( ERA ) .
Born in Thomaston , Georgia , Holloman served in World War II before starting his professional baseball career . From 1946 to 1952 , he gradually rose up the minor leagues , and got a spring training invitation from the Chicago Cubs in 1950 . After the 1952 season , he was acquired by the St. Louis Browns , who placed him on the major league roster . He made his debut April 18 , and in his first start on May 6 , he threw a no @-@ hitter , one of three players to do so in his first start . Holloman pitched in 22 games that season for the Browns before being sold to a minor league team . He spent the rest of 1953 and 1954 in the minors before retiring from the game . After retiring , he ran an advertising agency and worked as a scout before his death in 1987 .
= = Early life = =
Holloman was born in Thomaston , Georgia , and moved to Athens , Georgia with his family when he was 17 . In Athens , he met Nan Stevens , the two were married on January 24 , 1942 , and they later had one son . He served as a Seabee for the United States Navy during World War II . After returning from the war , Holloman became an apprentice in a machine shop for the Georgia Railroad in Macon , Georgia . While working there , he played amateur baseball , and did well enough for his colleagues to convince him to try out for the Macon Peaches , the local baseball team . He did so , and he was assigned to the Class D Moultrie Packers , where he began his professional career .
= = Minor league career = =
Holloman began his professional baseball career by recording a 20 – 5 record and a 2 @.@ 33 ERA for the Packers as a rookie in the Class D Georgia – Florida League in 1946 . He played winter baseball in Cuba , then had a record of 18 – 17 for the Macon Peaches of the Sally League the next year . He started the 1948 season with Macon , then after winning eight games he was promoted to the Nashville Volunteers of the Class AA Southern Association , where he posted seven wins and two losses . While there , Volunteers owner Larry Gilbert gave him the nickname Bobo because the pitcher reminded him of Bobo Newsom ; the nickname stuck with him the rest of his career .
In 1949 , Holloman again spent the season with the Volunteers , posting a record of 17 – 10 with a 4 @.@ 46 ERA . After the season ended , the Chicago Cubs signed him and gave him an invitation to spring training . Holloman 's outgoing nature clashed with manager Frankie Frisch , who did not appreciate the pitcher 's attitude . It was , partially , for this reason that Holloman did not make the major league roster . Holloman split the 1950 season between Nashville and the Shreveport Sports of the Texas League . Combined , he had 13 wins and 13 losses on the year . In 1951 , he spent seven games with Nashville , but spent most of the season with the Augusta Tigers of the Sally League , where he posted an 11 – 9 record and a 3 @.@ 87 ERA .
The following season , Augusta sold his contract to the Syracuse Chiefs of the AAA International League , and he posted a 16 – 7 record and a 2 @.@ 51 ERA with the team . After the season ended , he played winter baseball in Puerto Rico for the Cangrejeros de Santurce . With Santurce , he had a 15 – 5 record during the regular season . After the season ended , he participated in the 1953 Caribbean Series , and won two of the six games Santurce played , allowing them to win the title .
= = Major Leagues and later life = =
In October 1952 , Holloman was signed by the St. Louis Browns after they traded Duke Markell and $ 35 @,@ 000 to acquire him . Heading into the season , manager Marty Marion was high on him , considering him to be a pitcher who could have won 20 games with Syracuse the year prior had he not missed time due to an appendectomy .
Holloman made his major league debut on April 14 in a relief appearance . He made in three additional relief appearances afterward , allowing five runs in 5 ⅓ innings through his first four games . As a result , Holloman asked Marion for a start , claiming he was better in that role , and if he was just going to be used as a relief pitcher , he should be sold to another team . Marion gave in , and put him in for a home game on May 6 against the Philadelphia Athletics . On a rainy night before a crowd of 2 @,@ 473 at Sportsman 's Park , Holloman threw a no @-@ hitter in his first major league start . He had two hits as a batter , and recorded three strikeouts en route to the 6 – 0 victory .
Holloman is one of three pitchers to throw a no @-@ hitter in their first major league start . The others were Ted Breitenstein , who accomplished the feat in 1891 , and Bumpus Jones , who did so in 1892 . However , Breitenstein and Jones threw their no @-@ hitters before the 1893 rule change that moved the pitcher 's delivery point back to 60 feet , 6 inches from home plate .
The no @-@ hitter cemented Holloman 's spot in the starting rotation for the next month . In his next start against the Athletics , he lasted barely an inning , allowing two runs and three walks before leaving the game due to a blistered finger . His next win came on May 28 against the Cleveland Indians , but his third win did not come until a month later against the Boston Red Sox , where he allowed two hits in eight innings of work . Outside of the three wins , however , Holloman was ineffective ; in 22 games , 10 of them starts , Holloman had a 3 – 7 record with a 5 @.@ 23 ERA , 25 strikeouts , and 50 walks . As a result , after his final appearance on July 19 , the Browns put him on waivers , and he was sold to the Toronto Maple Leafs .
Holloman finished the 1953 season with Toronto , and had a 4 – 3 record in 13 games . In 1954 , Holloman 's last professional season , he spent time on five different minor league squads , including former stops Toronto and Augusta , before retiring . The retirement was partially due to a sore arm , the result of pitching too frequently while playing winter ball . After retiring , Holloman became a truck driver and ran an advertising agency , and served as a scout for the Baltimore Orioles . He also turned to drinking for many years , but was able to overcome the addiction . He died on May 1 , 1987 at the age of 64 in Athens , Georgia of a heart attack .
= Davison House =
Davison House ( officially the Eliza Davison House ) is a five @-@ story dormitory on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . Designed by Boston architecture firm Allen & Vance and built 1902 , it was the fourth dorm built on Vassar 's residential quadrangle . It houses 191 students of any grade or gender and it became Vassar 's first disabled @-@ accessible dorm following a 2008 – 2009 renovation .
= = History = =
Davison House was the fourth residential quadrangle ( quad ) dormitory to be built on the campus Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . Construction of Davison came during a period of rapid dorm @-@ building spanning 1893 – 1902 during which the older seminary @-@ style model of housing — a single large hall in which all a college 's residents lived , in Vassar 's case Main Building — was quickly waning in popularity in favor of smaller individual houses . The project began with the opening of Strong House in 1893 and continued with Raymond House in 1897 , Lathrop House in 1901 , and finally Davison in 1902 .
Davison House was built with funds provided by magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller , then a trustee at the college . Named in honor of his mother as the Eliza Davison House , it was the third structure at Vassar that Rockefeller paid for , after Strong House and Rockefeller Hall .
Roofers replaced Davison 's roof in 1960 and new windows were installed in 1980 . A new staircase on the side of the dorm facing away from the quad was built in 2005 . The dorm underwent a major renovation during the 2008 – 2009 school year , reopening at the beginning of the 2009 – 2010 academic year . The renovation included plans for upgraded accessibility , including an elevator and disabled @-@ accessible bathrooms and doors , making it Vassar 's first dorm to offer those features .
= = Architecture and features = =
Davison was designed by the Boston architectural firm of Francis Richmond Allen and J. McArthur Vance who were also responsible for the design of its neighbor , Lathrop House , in 1901 . Formulating a design for these two buildings was not difficult as a template had already been set by way of the preexisting Strong and Raymond Houses . Frederick Law Olmsted , a consultant of design for the college , recommended that any new dorms in the area be built in an " echelon formation " in order to provide for a greater sense of openness . Allen disregarded this advice , instead opting to place the dorm , along with Lathrop , in " two long unbroken rows of buildings on the bias " . Davison was ultimately placed north of Raymond , across the quad to the west of Lathrop , and diagonally across from Strong .
Standing a total of five stories tall with an additional basement level , Davison is an Elizabethan brick building . It is capped with a pitched Pennsylvania slate roof and five chimneys , each multiple wythes thick . Several cupolas also jut from the roof , each fitted with louvers . The dorm features elements of brownstone trim and brownstone @-@ capped brick parapets . Inside the building , dorm room floors are made of wood paneling . Walls are painted cream and fifth floor rooms feature sloped ceilings and inlaid skylights . Bathrooms have tile floors and marble sinks , while communal spaces utilize motion @-@ sensing lighting technology .
The house is co @-@ ed and currently has a capacity of 191 students . Residents of Davison , which houses students of all grades , may live in either single rooms , one @-@ room doubles , or three @-@ room triples with bathrooms being shared by all members of a hall . The dorm has a kitchen , a parlor abutting the quad , and , as of 2011 , its basement was a frequent practice space for student bands . In a 2005 guide to the school published by College Prowler , Davison was named one of the three best dorms at Vassar , along with Main and Jewett .
= Blink @-@ 182 =
Blink @-@ 182 ( often stylized as blink @-@ 182 ) is an American rock band formed in Poway , California in 1992 . The band currently consists of bassist and vocalist Mark Hoppus , drummer Travis Barker , and guitarist and vocalist Matt Skiba . Founded by Hoppus , guitarist and vocalist Tom DeLonge , and drummer Scott Raynor , the band emerged from the Southern California punk scene of the early 1990s and first gained notoriety for high @-@ energy live shows and irreverent lyrical toilet humor . Blink @-@ 182 was initially known as Blink until an Irish band of the same name threatened legal action ; the band appended the meaningless number " -182 " .
In its early years , Blink @-@ 182 toured heavily behind the band 's debut , Cheshire Cat ( 1995 ) . The group signed with major label MCA Records to co @-@ distribute its second album , Dude Ranch ( 1997 ) . Raynor was fired midway through a 1998 tour and replaced by Barker . The group 's next two releases , Enema of the State ( 1999 ) and Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 ) , were enormous successes on the strength of radio and MTV airplay . The eponymously titled Blink @-@ 182 followed in 2003 and marked a stylistic shift for the group . DeLonge quit in 2005 , sending the band into what was termed an " indefinite hiatus " . They reunited in 2009 , producing the trio 's sixth album , Neighborhoods ( 2011 ) . In 2015 , DeLonge again exited and was replaced by Alkaline Trio guitarist and vocalist Matt Skiba . The band 's seventh studio album , California , was released on July 1 , 2016 .
Blink @-@ 182 is considered a key group in the development of pop punk ; the band 's combination of pop melodies with fast @-@ paced punk rock featured a more radio @-@ friendly accessibility than prior bands . The trio has sold over thirteen million albums in the United States , and over 35 million albums worldwide . In 2011 , The New York Times asserted , " no punk band of the 1990s has been more influential than Blink @-@ 182 , " and even as the band receded after its 2005 split , " its sound and style could be heard in the muscular pop punk of Fall Out Boy or in the current wave of high @-@ gloss Warped Tour punk bands , like All Time Low and The Maine . "
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years ( 1992 – 94 ) = = =
Blink @-@ 182 was formed in Poway , California , a suburb outside of San Diego , in August 1992 . Tom DeLonge was expelled from Poway High for attending a basketball game drunk and was forced to attend another local school for one semester . At Rancho Bernardo High School , DeLonge performed at a Battle of the Bands competition , where he was introduced to drummer Scott Raynor . He also befriended Kerry Key , who too was interested in punk music . Key 's girlfriend , Anne Hoppus , introduced her brother Mark Hoppus — who had recently moved from Ridgecrest to work at a record store and attend college — to DeLonge on August 1 , 1992 . The two clicked instantly and played for hours in DeLonge 's garage , exchanging lyrics and co @-@ writing songs — one of which became " Carousel " . One of the pair 's early meetings was at a local skate park where Hoppus , in trying to impress his new bandmate , managed to fall from a lamppost and crack his ankles , an injury that put him in crutches for three weeks .
The trio began to practice together in Raynor 's bedroom , spending hours together writing music , attending punk shows and movies , and playing practical jokes . Hoppus and DeLonge would alternate singing vocal parts . The trio first operated under a variety of names , including Duck Tape and Figure 8 , until DeLonge rechristened the band " Blink " . Hoppus ' girlfriend was angered by her boyfriend 's constant attention to the band , and demanded he make a choice between the band and her , which resulted in Hoppus leaving the band shortly after formation . Shortly thereafter , DeLonge and Raynor borrowed a four @-@ track recorder from friend and collaborator Cam Jones and were preparing to record a demo tape , with Jones on bass . Hoppus promptly broke up with his girlfriend and returned to the band . Flyswatter — a combination of original songs and punk covers — was recorded in Raynor 's bedroom in May 1993 . Southern California had a large punk population in the early 1990s , aided by an avid surfing , skating , and snowboarding scene . In contrast to East Coast punk music , the West Coast wave of groups , Blink included , typically introduced more melodic aspects to the group 's music .
" New York is gloomy , dark and cold . It makes different music . The Californian middle @-@ class suburbs have nothing to be that bummed about , " said DeLonge . San Diego at this time was " hardly a hotbed of [ musical ] activity " , but the band 's popularity grew as did California punk rock concurrently in the mainstream . DeLonge called clubs constantly in San Diego asking for a spot to play , as well as calling up local high schools , convincing them that Blink was a " motivational band with a strong antidrug message " in hopes to play at an assembly or lunch .
The band was on stage nearly every weekend , even at Elks Lodges and YMCA centers . The band soon became part of a circuit that also included the likes of Ten Foot Pole and Unwritten Law , and the band found its way onto the bill as the opening band for local acts at Soma , a local all @-@ ages venue located on Market Street which the band longed to headline . Big @-@ name acts such as NOFX and Green Day played on the main floor , while smaller acts were relegated to the basement , an area referred to as " the Dungeon " . The original location closed its doors and relocated before the band would be promoted to the main stage ( which required a 100 + crowd to attend ) . " Soma was like home away from home . All the punk kids who didn ’ t give a fuck about football games and proms or whatever came to hang out at Soma , " claimed Hoppus . The band 's first big show on the main floor took place on a Thursday , where the band opened for Face to Face . Hoppus ' manager at the record store , Patrick Secor , fronted him the money to properly record another demo at local studio Doubletime . The result was Buddha ( 1994 ) , which the members of the band viewed as the band 's first legitimate release . By this time , the group had branched out to venues such as the Soul Kitchen in El Cajon , but Raynor 's family relocated to Reno , Nevada , and he was briefly replaced by musician Mike Krull . The band saved money and began flying Raynor out to shows , but eventually Raynor moved in with Hoppus for a summer in which the band would record its first album and music video and gain even more exposure .
= = = Early releases and touring ( 1994 – 98 ) = = =
The heart of the local independent music scene was Cargo Records , which offered to sign the band on a " trial basis , " with help from O , guitarist for local punk band Fluf , and Brahm Goodis , friend of the band whose father was president of the label . Hoppus was the only member to sign the contract , as DeLonge was at work at the time and Raynor was still a minor . The band recorded its debut album in three days at Westbeach Recorders in Los Angeles , fueled by both new songs and re @-@ recordings of songs from previous demos . Although Cheshire Cat , released in February 1995 , made very little impact commercially , it is cited by fans and musicians as an iconic release . " M + M 's " , the band 's first single , garnered local radio airplay from 91X and Cargo offered the band a small budget to film a music video for it . Meanwhile , the record also drew the attention of Irish band Blink . Unwilling to engage in a legal battle , the band agreed to change its name . Cargo gave the band a week , but the trio put off the decision for more than two afterward . Eventually , Cargo called Blink @-@ 182 , demanding that the band " change the name or [ we 'll ] change it for you , " after which the band decided on a random number , 182 .
The band soon had a manager , Rick DeVoe , who associated with larger bands such as NOFX , Pennywise and The Offspring . In addition , the band crucially drew the attention of Rick and Jean Bonde of the Tahoe booking agency , who were responsible for " spreading the name of the band far and wide and getting the group as many gigs as humanly possible . " Surf film director Taylor Steele , friend of DeVoe , was preparing a national tour to promote his new surf video GoodTimes , and the band signed on for its first national tour , which extended as far as the East Coast . The band members purchased their own tour van and embarked on the GoodTimes tour with Unwritten Law , Sprung Monkey and 7 Seconds . The GoodTimes tour continued and the band was whisked away to Australia , with Pennywise paying for the band 's plane tickets . Fletcher Dragge , guitarist of Pennywise , believed in the band strongly . He demanded Kevin Lyman , founder of the Warped Tour , sign the band for the 1996 festival , telling him that " they 're gonna be gigantic . " Australia was very receptive to the band and its humorous stage shows and pranks gained them a reputation , but also made them ostracized and considered a joke .
By March 1996 , the trio began to accumulate a genuine buzz among major labels , resulting in a bidding war between Interscope , MCA and Epitaph . MCA promised the group complete artistic freedom and eventually signed the band , but Raynor held a great affinity for Epitaph and began to feel half @-@ invested in the band when it passed over the label . The group , who were wary of purists attempting to define " punk " and discouraged by Cargo 's lack of distribution and faith in the group , had no qualms about signing to a major label but were fiercely criticized in the punk community . After nonstop touring , the trio began recording their sophomore follow @-@ up , Dude Ranch , over the period of a month in late 1996 . The record hit stores the following summer and the band headed out on the 1997 Warped Tour . " Dammit " , the album 's lead single , received heavy airplay on modern rock stations . Dude Ranch shipped gold by 1998 , but an exhaustive touring schedule brought tensions among the trio . Raynor had been drinking heavily to offset personal issues , and he was fired by DeLonge and Hoppus in mid @-@ 1998 despite agreeing to attend rehab and quit drinking .
" I think Mark and Tom are better suited for what they are doing . It didn 't fit me . I was always fighting for a different direction and that conflict eventually led to a split . "
Travis Barker , drummer for tour @-@ mate The Aquabats , filled in for Raynor , learning the 20 @-@ song setlist in 45 minutes before the first show . He joined the band full @-@ time shortly thereafter and the band entered the studio with producer Jerry Finn later that year to begin work on its third album .
= = = Mainstream breakthrough and continued success ( 1999 – 2004 ) = = =
With the release of the group 's third album Enema of the State in June 1999 , Blink @-@ 182 was catapulted to stardom and became the biggest pop punk act of the era . Three singles were released from the record — " What 's My Age Again ? " , " All the Small Things " , and " Adam 's Song " — that became major radio hits and MTV staples . " All the Small Things " became a number @-@ one hit on the Modern Rock Tracks chart , but also became a crossover hit and peaked at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Its video parodied boy bands and pop music videos and won Best Group Video at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards . Although the band was criticized as synthesized , manufactured pop only remotely resembling punk and pigeonholed as a joke act due to the puerile slant of its singles and associating music videos , Enema of the State was an enormous commercial success . The album has sold over 15 million copies worldwide and had a considerable effect on pop punk music , inspiring a " second wave " of the genre and numerous acolytes .
After multi @-@ platinum success , arena tours , and cameo appearances ( American Pie ) , the band recorded Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 ) , which debuted at number one in the United States , Canada , and Germany . Hit singles " The Rock Show " , " Stay Together for the Kids " and " First Date " continued the band 's mainstream success worldwide , with MTV cementing its image as video stars . Finn returned to produce the record and was a key architect of the " polished " pop punk sound , and he served as an invaluable member of the band : part adviser , part impartial observer , he helped smooth out tensions and hone their sound . Recording sessions were sometimes contentious , as DeLonge strove for heavier and dirtier guitar @-@ driven rock . With time off from touring , he felt an " itch to do something where he didn 't feel locked in to what Blink was , " and channeled his chronic back pain and resulting frustration into Box Car Racer ( 2002 ) , a post @-@ hardcore disc that further explores his Fugazi and Refused inspiration . Refraining from paying for a studio drummer , he invited Barker to record drums on the project and Hoppus felt betrayed . The event caused great division within the trio for some time and was an unresolved tension at the forefront of the band 's later hiatus . Barker also explored hip @-@ hop influences and teamed up with Rancid 's Tim Armstrong to form the rap rock band Transplants .
The band regrouped in 2003 to record its fifth studio album , infusing experimentalist elements into its usual pop punk sound , inspired by lifestyle changes ( the band members all became fathers before the album was released ) and side projects . Blink 's eponymous fifth studio album was released in the fall of 2003 through Geffen Records , which absorbed sister label MCA earlier that year . The worldwide touring schedule , which saw the band travel to Japan and Australia , also found the three performing for troops stationed in the Middle East . Critics generally complimented the new , more " mature " direction taken for the release and lead singles " Feeling This " and " I Miss You " charted high , with the latter becoming the group 's second number one hit on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart . Fans , however , were split by the new direction , and tensions within the band — stemming from the grueling schedule and DeLonge 's desire to spend more time with his family — started to become evident .
= = = Indefinite hiatus , side projects , and Barker 's plane crash ( 2005 – 08 ) = = =
In February 2005 , Geffen issued a press statement announcing the band 's " indefinite hiatus . " The band had broken up after members ' arguments regarding their future and recording process . DeLonge felt increasingly conflicted both about his creative freedom within the group and the toll touring was taking on his family life . He eventually expressed his desire to take a half @-@ year respite from touring in order to spend more time with family . Hoppus and Barker were dismayed by his decision , which they felt was an overly long break . The band abruptly canceled a performance at a Music for Relief benefit show after rehearsals grew more contentious . Further arguments had ensued during rehearsals , rooted in the band members ' increasing paranoia and bitterness toward one another . DeLonge considered his bandmates ' priorities " mad , mad different , " coming to the conclusion that the trio had simply grown apart as they aged , had families , and reached fame . The breakdown in communication led to heated exchanges , resulting in his exit from the group .
In the interim , Hoppus and Barker continued playing music together in + 44 . The group first began to lay down electronic demos in Barker 's basement and Hoppus ' dining room shortly after the breakup . + 44 's debut , When Your Heart Stops Beating , was released the following year but stalled commercially and received mixed reviews . Barker starred in the MTV reality series Meet the Barkers with his then @-@ wife , former Miss USA Shanna Moakler . The group 's later split , reconciliation and subsequent breakup made them tabloid favorites . Meanwhile , DeLonge disappeared from public eye , making no appearances , granting no interviews and remaining silent until September 2005 , when he announced his new project , Angels & Airwaves , promising " the greatest rock and roll revolution for this generation . " He later revealed he was addicted to painkillers at the time , recalling " I was losing my mind , I was on thousands of painkillers , and I almost killed myself , " and did not realize that his promise of revolution sounded highly ambitious . The group released two albums in 2006 and 2007 : We Don 't Need to Whisper and I @-@ Empire . During the hiatus , Hoppus shifted his attention to producing albums ( most notably Commit This to Memory by former tour @-@ mate Motion City Soundtrack ) and hosting his podcast , HiMyNameisMark , while Barker launched a shoe line and worked on three other musical projects — the Transplants , + 44 , and TRV $ DJAM , a collaboration with friend Adam Goldstein ( DJ AM ) .
The band members did not speak from their breakup until 2008 . That August , Jerry Finn suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and was taken off life support . On September 19 , Barker and Goldstein were involved in a plane crash that killed four people , leaving the two the only survivors . Barker sustained second and third degree burns and developed posttraumatic stress disorder , and the accident resulted in sixteen surgeries and 4 @-@ 8 hour blood transfusions . Hoppus was alerted about Barker 's accident by a phone call in the middle of the night and jumped on the next flight to the burn center . DeLonge found out via the TV news at an airport while waiting to board a flight ; within minutes , he was crying in his seat . " I thought he was going to die , " says DeLonge , who quickly reached out to his former bandmate , mailing him a letter and photograph . " Instantly after the plane crash , I was like , ' Hey , I want to play music with him again . ' " The trio eventually met up in the hospital , laying the grounds for what was going to be the band 's reunion . Eventually , an arrangement was made for the trio to meet up at Hoppus and Barker 's Los Angeles studio in October 2008 . The three opened up , discussing the events of the hiatus and their break @-@ up , and DeLonge was the first to approach the subject of reuniting . " Tom had just kind of come out to Los Angeles for the day , " recalled Hoppus , " I remember he said , ' So , what do you guys think ? Where are your heads at ? ' And I said , ' I think we should continue with what we 've been doing for the past 17 years . I think we should get back on the road and back in the studio and do what we love doing . ' "
= = = Reformation , Neighborhoods , and Dogs Eating Dogs ( 2009 – 14 ) = = =
Eventually , the band appeared for the first time on stage together in nearly five years as presenters at the February 2009 Grammy Awards . The band 's official website was updated with a statement : " To put it simply , We 're back . We mean , really back . Picking up where we left off and then some . In the studio writing and recording a new album . Preparing to tour the world yet again . Friendships reformed . 17 years deep in our legacy . " Blink @-@ 182 embarked on a reunion tour of North America from July to October 2009 , supported by Weezer and Fall Out Boy . A European festival tour followed from August to September 2010 , and another spring European tour was scheduled for 2011 , but was cancelled in order to complete the band 's promised comeback album .
The recording process for Neighborhoods , the band 's sixth studio album , was stalled by its studio autonomy , tours , managers , and personal projects . The band members produced the record themselves following the death of Jerry Finn . DeLonge recorded at his studio in San Diego while Hoppus and Barker recorded in Los Angeles — an extension of their fractured relationships and inability to communicate . Completion was delayed several times , which Hoppus attributed to the band learning to work by themselves without Finn , and both DeLonge and Hoppus expressed frustration during the sessions at the band 's cabal of publicists , managers and attorneys ( which DeLonge described as " the absolute diarrhea of bureaucracy " ) . A result of the band 's split was each member hiring his own attorney , and during the sessions the band had four managers . In addition , Barker was releasing a solo record , DeLonge was involved in Angels & Airwaves , and Hoppus had to fly to New York City once a week to film his television show Hoppus on Music . DeLonge was also diagnosed with skin cancer in 2010 , which was cleared . The album was released in September 2011 and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 . Its singles — " Up All Night " and " After Midnight " — only attracted modest chart success , and label Interscope was reportedly disappointed with album sales .
" Despite growing evidence of remaining friction between the members , " Blink @-@ 182 headlined the 10th Annual Honda Civic Tour with My Chemical Romance , which ran from August to October 2011 . European tour dates rescheduled in order to complete Neighborhoods commenced in 2012 , and the band left Interscope Records that October , becoming an independent act . The band subsequently released Dogs Eating Dogs , an EP , in December 2012 . The band toured Australia in spring 2013 ; Brooks Wackerman replaced Barker on drums as Barker was unwilling to fly after his near death experience in his plane crash . The band followed these dates with a small North American tour in September 2013 , which was followed by a series of shows celebrating the tenth anniversary of the band 's self @-@ titled album that November . The band played a European tour in August 2014 , culminating in them headlining the Reading and Leeds Festivals ; it was the band 's fourth appearance at the festival and second headlining slot . In his autobiography , Can I Say , Barker claims DeLonge 's behavior on tour was " introverted " until " money started coming in , " after which " he 'd get excited about Blink again . " According to Barker , DeLonge abruptly quit sometime in mid @-@ 2014 , only to renege on that the following day , suggesting motivational speaker Tony Robbins hold group therapy with the three .
= = = DeLonge 's second exit , addition of Matt Skiba , and California ( 2015 – present ) = = =
The group planned to enter the studio to write and record its seventh studio album in January 2015 , due for release later that year . The album saw delays ( initially slated for 2013 ) , attributed to DeLonge 's schedule with Angels & Airwaves and other personal projects . According to Hoppus and Barker , a record deal was finalized and sessions were booked before DeLonge 's manager informed the band he intended to spend more time on " non @-@ musical activities " and indefinitely depart the group . In a Rolling Stone interview , Hoppus noted , " This is exactly the same sequence of events that happened when Blink broke up 10 years ago . " In the piece , he stated that DeLonge 's attitude toward new music was passive , while Barker asserted , " Why Blink even got back together in the first place is questionable . "
As a result , Blink @-@ 182 performed two club shows and a slot at the Musink festival in March 2015 with Alkaline Trio vocalist / guitarist Matt Skiba " filling in " for DeLonge . DeLonge argued he did not exit the band by choice , claimed that " self @-@ sabotage " had overtaken the band following Dogs Eating Dogs , and remarking that recent events " makes me really sad . [ ... ] Our relationship got poisoned yesterday . Never planned on quitting , just find it hard as hell to commit . " In response , Hoppus spoke on the band 's future : " I just wish Tom does whatever makes him happy and stops holding Blink @-@ 182 back from what we all agree that we 're going to do : play shows , record music , continue this legacy and have a good time doing it . " After legal battles with DeLonge were worked out , Skiba rejoined Blink @-@ 182 as an official member , and the trio began preparations for new music .
The resulting album , California ( 2016 ) , was produced by John Feldmann . He was the group 's first new producer since longtime collaborator Jerry Finn . Prior to his involvement , the trio began writing together at Barker 's studio and completed dozens of song demos . They decided to shelve them upon working with Feldmann to start fresh , and they proceeded to record another 28 songs . California was recorded between January and March 2016 . The band , as well as Feldmann , would regularly spend " 18 hours " in the studio a day , aiming to start and complete multiple songs in that timeframe . " We all wanted to write the best record that we could [ ... ] It does feel like a new beginning . It feels like when we used to tour and sleep in the van because that 's all we wanted to do is play rock music , " said Hoppus .
Upon its July 2016 release , California became the band 's second number @-@ one album on the Billboard 200 , and first in 15 years ; it also reached the top for the first time in the United Kingdom . Its lead single , " Bored to Death " , became the group 's first number one single in 12 years . The band will support the album with a large headlining tour across North America alongside A Day to Remember , the All @-@ American Rejects , and All Time Low ; the trek officially begins July 21 in San Diego and will conclude October 8 in Irvine , California .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Blink @-@ 182 's music is often described as pop punk , a fusion music genre that combines some light characteristics of punk rock with pop music , " combining frustration and fast , sunny hooks " . The New York Times writes that the band " [ took ] punk 's already playful core and [ gave ] it a shiny , accessible polish . " The band is also considered alternative rock . Blink @-@ 182 's early albums such as Cheshire Cat and Dude Ranch are considered skate punk and punk rock . Blink @-@ 182 emerged from a " nurturing , often slapstick " Southern California punk scene , playing with groups like Guttermouth , NOFX and The Vandals , but the band 's sound was criticized when it achieved mainstream popularity by several punk acts who wished to not be associated with the band 's music . The band 's sound evolved with its 2003 untitled effort , which incorporated post @-@ hardcore influences into deeper , darker pop territory . The band 's newest material , Neighborhoods ( 2011 ) , combines arena rock , hip hop and indie rock inspiration . The Sydney Morning Herald characterised the band 's sound as a " mildly tough approach to pop melodies with a decided adolescent spin " .
Common lyrical themes include love , family , friends , and relationships . In greater detail , this includes " adolescent aimlessness , broken hearts and general confusion over the care and feeding of girls . " Lyrics in singles such as " What 's My Age Again ? " reflect age and maturity , while more serious compositions such as " Stay Together for the Kids " touch on the subject of divorce . DeLonge said in a 1999 interview that the goal is to remain sincere and relatable , noting that the band takes its lyrics very seriously . Despite this , the band gained a reputation for occasional lyrical toilet humor ( Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ) . As the band members grew older , lyrical themes began to reflect the realities of adulthood , including relationship woes , daily pressures and unexpected hardships , most prominently explored on Blink @-@ 182 ( 2003 ) . On Neighborhoods , darker lyricism continues : themes concerning depression , addiction , loss and death were inspired by Barker 's plane crash and the death of producer Jerry Finn .
The band has cited The Cure , Descendents , Bad Religion , Screeching Weasel , All , Face to Face , Down by Law , Pennywise , Green Day , The Vandals , Operation Ivy , Generation X , the Ramones , Fugazi and Refused as influences . The members of the band were also inspired by several mid @-@ 1990s " emo " acts , most prominently Jimmy Eat World and The Get Up Kids .
= = Legacy = =
Blink @-@ 182 was one of the most popular bands at the turn of the millennium , and spearheaded the second wave of pop punk and its journey into the mainstream . The glossy production instantly set Blink @-@ 182 apart from the other crossover punk acts of the era , such as Green Day . Cheshire Cat is often cited by bands and fans as an iconic release and Dude Ranch has been called a " genuine modern punk classic . " Enema of the State catapulted the band to stardom , creating what New York described as a " blanket immersion among America 's twenty @-@ some million teenagers . " At the band 's commercial peak , albums such as Take Off Your Pants and Jacket and Enema of the State sold over 14 and 15 million copies worldwide , respectively . The band was featured alongside Green Day , Rancid , Bad Religion , NOFX , and The Offspring in One Nine Nine Four ( 2009 ) , a documentary examining punk rock in California .
The band never received particularly glowing reviews , with many reviewers dismissing them as a joke act based on the humorous slant of its music videos . British publication NME was particularly critical of the trio , begging them to " fuck right off , " and comparing them to " that sanitised , castrated , shrink @-@ wrapped ' new wave ' crap that the major US record companies pumped out circa 1981 in their belated attempt to jump on the ' punk ' bandwagon . " Nevertheless , subsequent reviews of the band 's discography have been more positive . Andy Greenwald of Blender wrote , " the quick transformation from nudists to near geniuses is down @-@ right astonishing . " James Montgomery of MTV called Blink @-@ 182 one of the " most influential bands of the past 20 years , " writing , " despite their maturation , Blink never took themselves particularly seriously , which was another reason they were so accessible . "
" When it comes to having inestimable influence , Blink @-@ 182 might well be contemporary punk 's version of the Beatles " , wrote Scott Heisel in a 2009 Alternative Press cover story on the band . The same magazine later ranked Blink the fourth of the " 30 Most Influential Bands of the Past 30 Years , " just behind Radiohead , Fugazi , and Nirvana . The new generation of pop punk and alternative rock fans found the Blink sound " hugely influential , " with Montgomery writing , " ... without them , there 'd be no Fall Out Boy , no Paramore , or no Fueled by Ramen Records . " In 2011 , The New York Times asserted that " no punk band of the 1990s has been more influential than Blink @-@ 182 , " stating that even as the band receded after its 2005 split , " its sound and style could be heard in the muscular pop punk of Fall Out Boy or in the current wave of high @-@ gloss Warped Tour punk bands , like All Time Low and The Maine . " Maria Sherman of The Village Voice took that sentiment a step further , writing " It 's pretty simple : Blink @-@ 182 is the most important band of the ' 90s , dick jokes and all . Apart from the sound , Blink 's ideology has been popularized [ … ] their presence is everywhere . " According to Kelefa Sanneh of The New Yorker , the group " emerged as a touchstone , spawning more imitators than any American rock band since Nirvana . " Bands such as Panic ! at the Disco and All Time Low originated covering Blink @-@ 182 songs . " Anyone in our genre would be lying if they said they weren 't influenced by Blink @-@ 182 , " said Joel Madden of Good Charlotte . Bands such as You Me at Six and 5 Seconds of Summer have also named the band as influences .
The band 's influence extends beyond pop punk groups , as well : Mumford & Sons , Owl City , FIDLAR , Best Coast , Wavves Male Bonding , Grimes Posture & the Grizzly , and DIIV have acknowledged the band 's influence , and critics have noted traits of the band 's sound in Japandroids .
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Cheshire Cat ( 1995 )
Dude Ranch ( 1997 )
Enema of the State ( 1999 )
Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 )
Blink @-@ 182 ( 2003 )
Neighborhoods ( 2011 )
California ( 2016 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Blink @-@ 182 has had the most success at the Teen Choice Awards , winning three awards : Choice Rock Group ( 2000 ) and Best Rock Group ( 2001 ) for the band , and Choice Love Song ( 2004 ) for the song " I Miss You " . " All the Small Things " , a single from the band 's Enema of the State album , received three nominations from the MTV Video Music Awards in 2000 : Video of the Year , Best Pop Video , and Best Group Video , which it won . Overall , Blink @-@ 182 has received seven awards from ten nominations .
Kerrang ! Awards
The Kerrang ! Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1993 by Kerrang ! . Blink @-@ 182 has received two awards .
MTV Europe Music Awards
The MTV Europe Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1994 by MTV Europe . Blink @-@ 182 has received two awards .
MTV Video Music Awards
The MTV Video Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1984 by MTV . Blink @-@ 182 has received one award from four nominations .
Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards
The Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards is an annual awards show organized by Nickelodeon . Blink @-@ 182 has received one award .
Teen Choice Awards
The Teen Choice Awards is an awards show presented annually by the Fox Broadcasting Company . Blink @-@ 182 has received three awards .
= Cædmon =
Cædmon ( / ˈkædmən / or / ˈkædmɒn / ) is the earliest English ( Northumbrian ) poet whose name is known . An Anglo @-@ Saxon who cared for the animals at the double monastery of Streonæshalch ( Whitby Abbey ) during the abbacy ( 657 – 680 ) of St. Hilda ( 614 – 680 ) , he was originally ignorant of " the art of song " but learned to compose one night in the course of a dream , according to the 8th @-@ century historian Bede . He later became a zealous monk and an accomplished and inspirational Christian poet .
Cædmon is one of twelve Anglo @-@ Saxon poets identified in medieval sources , and one of only three of these for whom both roughly contemporary biographical information and examples of literary output have survived . His story is related in the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ( " Ecclesiastical History of the English People " ) by Bede who wrote , " [ t ] here was in the Monastery of this Abbess a certain brother particularly remarkable for the Grace of God , who was wont to make religious verses , so that whatever was interpreted to him out of scripture , he soon after put the same into poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility in Old English , which was his native language . By his verse the minds of many were often excited to despise the world , and to aspire to heaven . "
Cædmon 's only known surviving work is Cædmon 's Hymn , the nine @-@ line alliterative vernacular praise poem in honour of God which he supposedly learned to sing in his initial dream . The poem is one of the earliest attested examples of Old English and is , with the runic Ruthwell Cross and Franks Casket inscriptions , one of three candidates for the earliest attested example of Old English poetry . It is also one of the earliest recorded examples of sustained poetry in a Germanic language . In 1898 , Cædmon 's Cross was erected in his honour in the graveyard of St. Mary 's Church in Whitby .
= = Life = =
= = = Bede 's account = = =
The sole source of original information about Cædmon 's life and work is Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica . According to Bede , Cædmon was a lay brother who cared for the animals at the monastery Streonæshalch ( now known as Whitby Abbey ) . One evening , while the monks were feasting , singing , and playing a harp , Cædmon left early to sleep with the animals because he knew no songs . The impression clearly given by St. Bede is that he lacked the knowledge of how to compose the lyrics to songs . While asleep , he had a dream in which " someone " ( quidam ) approached him and asked him to sing principium creaturarum , " the beginning of created things . " After first refusing to sing , Cædmon subsequently produced a short eulogistic poem praising God , the Creator of heaven and earth .
Upon awakening the next morning , Cædmon remembered everything he had sung and added additional lines to his poem . He told his foreman about his dream and gift and was taken immediately to see the abbess . The abbess and her counsellors asked Cædmon about his vision and , satisfied that it was a gift from God , gave him a new commission , this time for a poem based on " a passage of sacred history or doctrine " , by way of a test . When Cædmon returned the next morning with the requested poem , he was ordered to take monastic vows . The abbess ordered her scholars to teach Cædmon sacred history and doctrine , which after a night of thought , Bede records , Cædmon would turn into the most beautiful verse . According to Bede , Cædmon was responsible for a large number of splendid vernacular poetic texts on a variety of Christian topics .
After a long and zealously pious life , Cædmon died like a saint : receiving a premonition of death , he asked to be moved to the abbey 's hospice for the terminally ill where , having gathered his friends around him , he expired , after receiving the Holy Eucharist , just before nocturns . Although he is often listed as a saint , this is not confirmed by Bede and it has recently been argued that such assertions are incorrect .
The details of Bede 's story , and in particular of the miraculous nature of Cædmon 's poetic inspiration , are not generally accepted by scholars as being entirely accurate , but there seems no good reason to doubt the existence of a poet named Cædmon . Bede 's narrative has to be read in the context of the Christian belief in miracles , and it shows at the very least that Bede , an educated and intelligent man , believed Cædmon to be an important figure in the history of English intellectual and religious life .
= = = Dates = = =
Bede gives no specific dates in his story . Cædmon is said to have taken holy orders at an advanced age and it is implied that he lived at Streonæshalch at least in part during Hilda 's abbacy ( 657 – 680 ) . Book IV Chapter 25 of the Historia ecclesiastica appears to suggest that Cædmon 's death occurred at about the same time as the fire at Coldingham Abbey , an event dated in the E text of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle to 679 , but after 681 by Bede . The reference to his temporibus " at this time " in the opening lines of Chapter 25 may refer more generally to Cædmon 's career as a poet . However , the next datable event in the Historia ecclesiastica is King Ecgfrith 's raid on Ireland in 684 ( Book IV , Chapter 26 ) . Taken together , this evidence suggests an active period beginning between 657 and 680 and ending between 679 and 684 .
= = = Modern discoveries = = =
The only biographical or historical information that modern scholarship has been able to add to Bede 's account concerns the Brittonic origins of the poet 's name . Although Bede specifically notes that English was Cædmon 's " own " language , the poet 's name is of Celtic origin : from Proto @-@ Welsh * Cadṽan ( from Brythonic * Catumandos ) . Several scholars have suggested that Cædmon himself may have been bilingual on the basis of this etymology , Hilda 's close contact with Celtic political and religious hierarchies , and some ( not very close ) analogues to the Hymn in Old Irish poetry . Other scholars have noticed a possible onomastic allusion to ' Adam Kadmon ' in the poet 's name , perhaps suggesting that the entire story is allegorical .
= = = Other medieval sources = = =
No other independent accounts of Cædmon 's life and work are known to exist . The only other reference to Cædmon in English sources before the 12th century is found in the 10th century Old English translation of Bede 's Latin Historia . Otherwise , no mention of Cædmon is found in the corpus of surviving Old English . The Old English translation of the Historia ecclesiastica does contain several minor details not found in Bede 's Latin original account . Of these , the most significant is that Cædmon felt " shame " for his inability to sing vernacular songs before his vision , and the suggestion that Hilda 's scribes copied down his verse æt muðe " from his mouth " . These differences are in keeping with the Old English translator 's practice in reworking Bede 's Latin original , however , and need not , as Wrenn argues , suggest the existence of an independent English tradition of the Cædmon story .
= = = = Heliand = = = =
A second , possibly pre @-@ 12th century allusion to the Cædmon story is found in two Latin texts associated with the Old Saxon Heliand poem . These texts , the Praefatio ( Preface ) and Versus de Poeta ( Lines about the poet ) , explain the origins of an Old Saxon biblical translation ( for which the Heliand is the only known candidate ) in language strongly reminiscent of , and indeed at times identical to , Bede 's account of Cædmon 's career . According to the prose Praefatio , the Old Saxon poem was composed by a renowned vernacular poet at the command of the emperor Louis the Pious ; the text then adds that this poet had known nothing of vernacular composition until he was ordered to translate the precepts of sacred law into vernacular song in a dream . The Versus de Poeta contain an expanded account of the dream itself , adding that the poet had been a herdsman before his inspiration and that the inspiration itself had come through the medium of a heavenly voice when he fell asleep after pasturing his cattle . While our knowledge of these texts is based entirely on a 16th @-@ century edition by Flacius Illyricus , both are usually assumed on semantic and grammatical grounds to be of medieval composition . This apparent debt to the Cædmon story agrees with semantic evidence attested to by Green demonstrating the influence of Anglo Saxon biblical poetry and terminology on early continental Germanic literatures .
= = Work = =
= = = General corpus = = =
Bede 's account indicates that Cædmon was responsible for the composition of a large oeuvre of vernacular religious poetry . In contrast to Saints Aldhelm and Dunstan , Cædmon 's poetry is said to have been exclusively religious . Bede reports that Cædmon " could never compose any foolish or trivial poem , but only those which were concerned with devotion " , and his list of Cædmon 's output includes work on religious subjects only : accounts of creation , translations from the Old and New Testaments , and songs about the " terrors of future judgment , horrors of hell , ... joys of the heavenly kingdom , ... and divine mercies and judgments . " Of this corpus , only his first poem survives . While vernacular poems matching Bede 's description of several of Cædmon 's later works are found in London , British Library , Junius 11 ( traditionally referred to as the " Junius " or " Cædmon " manuscript ) , the older traditional attribution of these texts to Cædmon or Cædmon 's influence cannot stand . The poems show significant stylistic differences both internally and with Cædmon 's original Hymn , and there is nothing about their order or content to suggest that they could not have been composed and anthologised without any influence from Bede 's discussion of Cædmon 's oeuvre : the first three Junius poems are in their biblical order and , while Christ and Satan could be understood as partially fitting Bede 's description of Cædmon 's work on future judgment , pains of hell and joys of the heavenly kingdom , the match is not exact enough to preclude independent composition . As Fritz and Day have shown , indeed , Bede 's list itself may owe less to direct knowledge of Cædmon 's actual output than to traditional ideas about the subjects fit for Christian poetry or the order of the catechism . Similar influences may , of course , also have affected the makeup of the Junius volume .
= = = Cædmon 's Hymn = = =
The only known survivor from Cædmon 's oeuvre is his Hymn ( audio version ) . The poem is known from 21 manuscript copies , making it the best @-@ attested Old English poem after Bede 's Death Song ( with 35 witnesses ) and the best attested in the poetic corpus in manuscripts copied or owned in the British Isles during the Anglo @-@ Saxon period . The Hymn also has by far the most complicated known textual history of any surviving Anglo @-@ Saxon poem . It is found in two dialects and five distinct recensions ( Northumbrian aelda , Northumbrian eordu , West @-@ Saxon eorðan , West @-@ Saxon ylda , and West @-@ Saxon eorðe ) , all but one of which are known from three or more witnesses . It is one of the earliest attested examples of written Old English and one of the earliest recorded examples of sustained poetry in a Germanic language . Together with the runic Ruthwell Cross and Franks Casket inscriptions , Cædmon 's Hymn is one of three candidates for the earliest attested example of Old English poetry .
There is continuing critical debate about the status of the poem as it is now available to us . While some scholars accept the texts of the Hymn as more or less accurate transmissions of Cædmon 's original , others argue that they originated as a back @-@ translation from Bede 's Latin , and that there is no surviving witness to the original text .
= = = = Manuscript evidence = = = =
All copies of Hymn are found in manuscripts of the Historia ecclesiastica or its translation , where they serve as either a gloss to Bede 's Latin translation of the Old English poem , or , in the case of the Old English version , a replacement for Bede 's translation in the main text of the History . Despite this close connection with Bede 's work , the Hymn does not appear to have been transmitted with the Historia ecclesiastica regularly until relatively late in its textual history . Scribes other than those responsible for the main text often copy the vernacular text of the Hymn in manuscripts of the Latin Historia . In three cases , Oxford , Bodleian Library , Laud Misc . 243 , Oxford , Bodleian Library , Hatton 43 , and Winchester , Cathedral I , the poem is copied by scribes working a quarter @-@ century or more after the main text was first set down . Even when the poem is in the same hand as the manuscript 's main text , there is little evidence to suggest that it was copied from the same exemplar as the Latin Historia : nearly identical versions of the Old English poem are found in manuscripts belonging to different recensions of the Latin text ; closely related copies of the Latin Historia sometimes contain very different versions of the Old English poem . With the exception of the Old English translation , no single recension of the Historia ecclesiastica is characterised by the presence of a particular recension of the vernacular poem .
= = = = Earliest text = = = =
The oldest known version of the poem is the Northumbrian aelda recension . The surviving witnesses to this text , Cambridge , University Library , Kk . 5 . 16 ( M ) and St. Petersburg , National Library of Russia , lat . Q. v. I. 18 ( P ) , date to at least the mid @-@ 8th century . M in particular is traditionally ascribed to Bede 's own monastery and lifetime , though there is little evidence to suggest it was copied much before the mid @-@ 8th century .
The following text , first column on the left below , has been transcribed from M ( mid @-@ 8th century ; Northumbria ) . The text has been normalised to show a line @-@ break between each line and modern word @-@ division . A transcription of the likely pronunciation of the text in the early 8th @-@ century Northumbrian dialect in which the text is written is included , along with a modern English translation .
Bede 's Latin version runs as follows :
Nunc laudare debemus auctorem regni caelestis , potentiam creatoris , et consilium illius facta Patris gloriae : quomodo ille , cum sit aeternus Deus , omnium miraculorum auctor exstitit ; qui primo filiis hominum caelum pro culmine tecti dehinc terram custos humani generis omnipotens creavit .
" Now we must praise the author of the heavenly realm , the might of the creator , and his purpose , the work of the father of glory : as he , who , the almighty guardian of the human race , is the eternal God , is the author of all miracles ; who first created the heavens as highest roof for the children men , then the earth . "
= Italian cruiser Libia =
Libia was a protected cruiser built in Italy in the 1900s . The ship had originally been laid down in 1907 for the Ottoman Navy and was to have been named Drama , and was based on the Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye . She had not been completed by the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 and so she was seized by the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) and was completed in 1913 . The ship was armed with two 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) and eight 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , and was capable of a top speed of over 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
Libia had a relatively uneventful career . Before Italy 's entry into World War I , she was involved in the evacuation of Prince William , the ruler of Albania , from Durazzo in late 1914 . Following Italy 's declaration of war in May 1915 , Libia patrolled the Otranto Barrage but did not see action . In 1921 – 22 , she went on a world tour , during which she was featured in a short documentary produced by the then @-@ unknown Frank Capra . In 1925 she was deployed to China , where she remained for nearly a decade . In 1937 , the old cruiser was stricken from the naval register and sold for scrap .
= = Design = =
The design for the new cruiser was based on the British @-@ built Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye . The ship was 103 @.@ 6 meters ( 340 ft ) long at the waterline and 111 @.@ 8 m ( 367 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 14 @.@ 5 m ( 48 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 760 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 700 long tons ; 4 @,@ 140 short tons ) standard and up to 4 @,@ 466 t ( 4 @,@ 395 long tons ; 4 @,@ 923 short tons ) at full load . The ship was fitted with two pole masts . She had a crew of 14 officers and 300 enlisted men . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 100 mm ( 4 in ) thick , and the conning tower had the same thickness of armor plating on the sides . The main guns were protected by 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick gun shields .
Libia was powered by two @-@ shaft vertical triple @-@ expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by sixteen coal @-@ fired Niclausse water @-@ tube boilers that were trunked into three closely spaced funnels on the centerline . The engines were rated at 12 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 300 kW ) , though they only reached 11 @,@ 530 ihp ( 8 @,@ 600 kW ) in service . This was sufficient to propel the ship at a top speed of 22 @.@ 9 knots ( 42 @.@ 4 km / h ; 26 @.@ 4 mph ) . Libia had a cruising radius of 3 @,@ 150 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 830 km ; 3 @,@ 620 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of two 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) L / 50 quick @-@ firing guns , one forward and one astern . These guns were probably Pattern FF Armstrong guns , which fired a 20 @-@ kilogram ( 44 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 780 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . These were augmented by a battery of eight 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 45 guns , four mounted individually on each broadside . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of eight 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) L / 50 guns and six 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 20 guns . She was also equipped with four 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes .
= = Service history = =
The new cruiser was laid down in 1907 at the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa for the Ottoman Empire , under the name Drama . But following the rise of the Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire , the Ottoman government became unwilling to pay its foreign debts , which led Ansaldo to halt construction work . Work on the ship only resumed in late 1911 when Italy seized the ship following its declaration of war against the Ottoman Empire in the Italo @-@ Turkish War . The completed hull was launched on 11 November 1912 , and following the completion of fitting @-@ out work , the new ship was commissioned on 25 March 1913 . On 3 September 1914 , Libia was in the port of Durazzo , Albania when Prince William , the ruler of the country , departed following turmoil caused by an insurgency in the country , coupled with the outbreak of World War I. Libia had landed a contingent of marines to restore order in the city , where some 2 @,@ 000 refugees fleeing the insurgents attempted to board passenger ships bound for Italy . After the refugees were evacuated , Libia recalled her marines and departed as well .
Italy had declared neutrality at the start of World War I , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that the threat from Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and naval mines in the narrow waters of the Adriatic was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Libia spent much of the war patrolling the Otranto Barrage , along with the cruisers Piemonte and Agordat and several Italian and French destroyers . During the war , the ship had three 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 40 anti @-@ aircraft guns installed .
In 1921 the ship went on a world tour under the command of Admiral Ernesto Burzagli . During the cruise , she stopped in San Francisco , United States in November , where she stayed for a month . While there , she was filmed for a short documentary by the then @-@ unknown film director Frank Capra on 6 and 7 November — though it did not generate much attention , it was Capra 's first publicly screened film . The ship departed San Francisco on 4 December . In 1922 , Libia visited Australia while on her tour . In 1925 , her 150 mm guns were removed . That year , she was sent to China , where she joined the armored cruisers San Marco and San Giorgio and the river gunboats Caboto and Carlotto . These ships contributed men to form the Battaglione Italiano in China ( Italian Battalion in China ) ; the contingents from Libia were sent to guard the consulates in Beijing and Shanhaiguan . The ship remained in Chinese waters for nearly a decade ; in the early 1930s , she was replaced by the protected cruiser Quarto . In September 1935 she was drydocked to prepare for her disposal . She was stricken from the naval register on 11 March 1937 and was sold to ship breakers .
= Ratna Sarumpaet =
Ratna Sarumpaet ( born 16 July 1949 ) is an Indonesian human rights activist . She is also a theatrical producer , actress , film director , and writer .
Sarumpaet , born into a politically active Christian family in North Sumatra , initially studied architecture in Jakarta . After seeing a play by Willibrordus S. Rendra in 1969 , she dropped out and joined his troupe . Five years later , after marrying and converting to Islam , she founded the Satu Merah Panggung ; the troupe did mostly adaptations of foreign dramas . As she became increasingly concerned about her marriage and unhappy about the local theatre scene , two years later Sarumpaet left her troupe and began to work in television ; she only returned in 1989 , after divorcing her abusive husband .
The murder of Marsinah , a labour activist , in 1993 led Sarumpaet to become politically active . She wrote her first original stageplay , Marsinah : Nyanyian dari Bawah Tanah ( Marsinah : Song from the Underground ) , in 1994 after becoming obsessed with the case . This was followed by several other politically charged works , several of which were banned or restricted by the government . Increasingly disillusioned by the autocratic acts of Suharto 's New Order government , during the 1997 legislative elections Sarumpaet and her troupe led pro @-@ democracy protests . For one of these , in March 1998 , she was arrested and jailed for seventy days for spreading hatred and attending an " anti @-@ revolutionary " political gathering .
After her release , Sarumpaet continued to participate in pro @-@ democracy movements ; these actions led to her fleeing Indonesia after hearing rumours that she would be arrested for dissent . When she returned to Indonesia , Sarumpaet continued to write politically charged stageplays . She became head of the Jakarta Art Board in 2003 ; two years later she was approached by UNICEF and asked to write a drama to raise awareness of child trafficking in Southeast Asia . The resulting work served as the foundation for her 2009 feature film debut , Jamila dan Sang Presiden ( Jamila and the President ) . This film was submitted to the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film but not nominated . The following year , she released her first novel , Maluku , Kobaran Cintaku ( Maluku , Flame of My Love ) .
= = Background and early career = =
Sarumpaet was born on 16 July 1949 in Tarutung , North Tapanuli Regency , North Sumatra . She was the fifth of ten children born to Saladin Sarumpaet , Minister of Defence in the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia rebel government , and Julia Hutabarat , a women 's rights activist . Both were also prominent in the Christian community . Three of her siblings – Mutiara Sani , Riris Sarumpaet and Sam Sarumpaet – are members of the Indonesian art community . As a teenager she moved to Jakarta to study there , finishing her high school studies at PSKD Menteng . In his biography , her classmate Chrisye recalled that Sarumpaet was very confident ; he noted that she enjoyed writing poetry and then reading it in a loud voice while other students were engaging in other activities .
By 1969 she was studying architecture at the University of Indonesia . It was at this time that she saw a performance of Kasidah Berzanji ( The Berzanji Chant ) by a troupe led by Willibrordus S. Rendra , which convinced her to drop out of university and join the troupe . In 1974 she founded Satu Merah Panggung Theater , which performed adaptations of foreign works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet – in the latter , Sarumpaet played the titular role .
Sarumpaet became interested in Islam in her teenage years , but only converted around 1974 after marrying Achmad Fahmy Alhady , an Arab @-@ Indonesian . Together they had four children : Mohammad Iqbal Alhady , Fathom Saulina , Ibrahim Alhady , and Atiqah Hasiholan . Atiqah is also an actress and would later star in her mother 's film Jamila .
In 1976 , Sarumpaet , who was suffering domestic violence at home and discouraged by the market , left theatre and entered the film industry . After her divorce , which took several years and required records of her broken ribs to satisfy the religious courts , she returned to theatre in 1989 with a performance of Shakespeare 's Othello . Sarumpaet began working as a director in 1991 , with the television serial Rumah Untuk Mama ( House for Mother ) , which was broadcast on the state @-@ owned television station TVRI . That same year , she adapted Antigone , a tragedy by French writer Jean Anouilh , in a Batak setting .
= = Political theater = =
Sarumpaet 's first original stageplay , Marsinah : Nyanyian dari Bawah Tanah ( Marsinah : Song from the Underground ) , was performed in 1994 despite a sponsor abandoning the project near the showing date . The stageplay was based on the 1993 murder of Marsinah , a labour rights leader from East Java , and explored issues of political repression . The murder sparked a period of political activity for Sarumpaet . According to Barbara Hatley in Inside Indonesia , Sarumpaet was obsessed with the case , including seeing Marsinah 's face while writing . Sarumpaet later reported that the way the murder was conducted , with Marsinah raped and mutilated , then discarded in a forest , " symbolised the deep , trivialising contempt which men , especially powerful men , feel towards women who dare to speak out " .
After Marsinah , Sarumpaet and Satu Merah Panggung performed several other politically themed dramas , including Terpasung ( Chained ; 1995 ) , about male dominance and violence against women , and Pesta Terakhir ( The Last Party ; 1996 ) , about the funeral of a dictator without any mourners . In 1997 , after the Marsinah case was closed due to contaminated DNA evidence , Sarumpaet released Marsinah Menggugat ( Marsinah Revolts ; 1997 ) , a monologue in which Marsinah describes her murder . The play was banned in three cities . During the 1997 elections , Sarumpaet and her troupe performed with a coffin labeled " Democracy " . For their action , they were arrested and held for twenty @-@ four hours .
On 11 March 1998 , Sarumpaet and eight others were arrested during a gathering held in concurrence with a meeting of the People 's Consultative Assembly , in which she and the gathered persons sang the national anthem " Indonesia Raya " and " Padamu Negeri " ( " To You , My Country " ) in front of security forces . The government had banned political meetings of more than five people earlier that month . Six of those arrested were brought up on charges , including Sarumpaet , who was charged with spreading hatred and attending an " anti @-@ revolutionary " political gathering . Her pre @-@ trial motion complaining about irregularities in the arrest , including the lack of a warrant , was dismissed by the court ; a judge on the case commented that " singing ' Indonesia Raya ' and ' [ Padamu Negeri ] ' is proof of their political crime " . She was sentenced to 70 days in prison on 20 May – equal to her time served – then released . A day after her release , President Suharto resigned , bringing an end to the New Order .
= = Post @-@ Suharto work = =
After her release , Sarumpaet continued to be active in pro @-@ democracy groups ; she also wrote another play , Sang Raja ( The King ) . Towards the end of 1998 , with the political situation in Indonesia increasingly unstable and Sarumpaet rumoured to be wanted for stirring up dissent , she fled
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to Europe via Singapore . In December 1998 , the Tokyo @-@ based Asia Foundation for Human Rights awarded Sarumpaet the Female Human Rights Special Award .
By 2002 Sarumpaet had returned to Indonesia , where she debuted a stageplay entitled Alia , Luka Serambi Mekah ( Alia , Wound of Serambi Mekah ) at Ismail Marzuki Park in Jakarta ; it was her first stageplay since the fall of Suharto . Dealing with Indonesian military operations in Aceh , the play was later performed in five other cities . In December 2002 it was scheduled to be broadcast on TVRI in commemoration of Human Rights Day , but pulled at the last minute due to intervention from the military . In 2001 , she and her troupe put on Dalam Kegelapan Panjang ( In a Long Darkness ) , which dealt with the children of victims of the anti @-@ communist purges of 1965 – 1966 .
In 2003 , Sarumpaet was selected to head the Jakarta Art Board ( Dewan Kesenian Jakarta ) , a position which she held until 2006 . Two years after her selection , Sarumpaet was approached by UNICEF and asked to do a survey of child trafficking in Southeast Asia and promote awareness of the problem . After discovering the extent of the problem , she wrote Pelacur dan Sang Presiden ( The Prostitute and the President ) , spending six months interviewing prostitutes in Surabaya , Surakarta , Garut , and Borneo in preparation . The play was shown in five different cities in 2006 and received warmly . Also in 2006 , Sarumpaet organised the seventh triannual Women 's Playwright International Conference in Bali .
After Pelacur , Sarumpaet began working on a film adaptation entitled Jamila dan Sang Presiden ( Jamila and the President ) . The film 's production took three years , due in part to a lack of funding ; the total budget was Rp.6.5 billion ( US $ 800 @,@ 000 ) Released on 30 April 2009 , the film was well received both domestically and internationally . It was submitted to the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film , but not nominated .
On 23 July 2008 , while Jamila was in production , Sarumpaet nominated herself as an independent presidential candidate in the 2009 elections . She attempted to raise funding through selling " stocks " in her campaign through the Akar Indonesia , established especially for the campaign ; according to Sarumpaet , the technique was meant to show that people who were not wealthy could run for president . She did not make the ballot , after the Constitutional Court of Indonesia ruled that independent candidates would not be allowed to run .
Sarumpaet released her first written work of fiction on 10 December 2010 , in commemoration of Human Rights Day . Entitled Maluku , Kobaran Cintaku ( Maluku , Flame of My Love ) , the novel is about the love of a Christian woman and Muslim man set amidst the Maluku sectarian conflict ; it delves into the causes of the conflict , including poverty and provocation by the armed forces .
In June 2014 , Sarumpaet was upset by a Time magazine article that criticized a music video with Nazi overtones made by Indonesian rock singer Ahmad Dhani in support of 2014 presidential candidate Prabowo Subianto and his running mate Hatta Rajasa . The article , headlined " This Indonesian Nazi Video Is One of the Worst Pieces of Political Campaigning Ever " , was written by reporter Yenni Kwok . On Twitter , Sarumpaet accused Kwok of having embarrassed Indonesia by making a false report on a survey on CNN . She also mentioned Kwok 's Chinese ethnicity and her former address , and posted a photo of Kwok and her child . Kwok said Sarumpaet 's actions went " beyond bullying " and asked her to remove the photo or face legal action . Sarumpaet subsequently deleted the photo .
= June 2008 tornado outbreak sequence =
The June 2008 tornado outbreak sequence was a series of tornado outbreaks affecting most of central and eastern North America from June 3 – 11 , 2008 . 192 tornadoes were confirmed , along with widespread straight – line wind wind damage . Seven people were killed from a direct result of tornadoes ; four in Iowa , two in Kansas , and one in Indiana . Eleven additional people were killed across five states by other weather events including lightning , flash flooding , and straight @-@ line winds . Severe flooding was also reported in much of Indiana , Wisconsin , Minnesota and Iowa as a result of the same thunderstorms , while high heat and humidity affected much of eastern North America ; particularly along the eastern seaboard of the United States from New York City to the Carolinas .
= = Meteorological synopsis = =
= = = June 3 = = =
Several clusters of thunderstorms developed during the morning from eastern Nebraska across Iowa into Illinois , taking place along a warm front . The front remained over the same areas during the day , as daytime heating and southwesterly surface winds brought warm and unstable air northward , resulting in severe weather development . The presence of strong winds aloft aided in development of multiple clusters and lines of thunderstorms that produced damaging wind , hail and tornadoes across Missouri , Illinois and Indiana .
A moderate risk of severe weather was issued by the Storm Prediction Center for parts of Indiana , Kentucky , Illinois , Ohio and West Virginia on June 3 , Two particular tornadoes , rated EF2 and EF3 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale , caused extensive damage across portions of central Indiana . The EF3 tornado damaged 34 structures in Rush County , of which 27 of them were in Middletown . Eight people were injured in Rush County , including a 67 @-@ year @-@ old woman who was impaled in the chest by a large tree limb and later died as a result of her injury on August 17 . A 19th century landmark covered bridge in Moscow was destroyed , as well as severe damage to dozens of homes , including some that were swept completely off the foundation . The EF2 tornado damaged 20 to 30 homes in Brown County , 40 buildings at Camp Atterbury in Johnson County and 59 buildings in Edinburgh .
= = = June 4 = = =
A moderate risk of severe weather was issued for northern Kansas into southern Nebraska and from eastern West Virginia through Virginia , Maryland and Delaware . An ongoing line of thunderstorms moved east across West Virginia as the atmosphere began to destabilize . The thunderstorms resulted in a threat for isolated tornadoes in eastern sections of West Virginia , Virginia , Delaware and Maryland . In the central Great Plains region , a warm front extended northeast in northeastern Kansas from a surface low in central sections of Kansas . Strong instability occurred in the vicinity of the area as a result of surface heating . An intensifying low @-@ level jet stream broke the cap in the region and resulted in the development of thunderstorms . During the afternoon , numerous thunderstorms formed across the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . An EF0 tornado was produced from one of the thunderstorms that impacted portions of Chesapeake Beach , tearing off sections of roof and siding from 10 to 20 single family homes . EF1 tornadoes were produced in Culpeper , Clarke and Stafford counties in Virginia . Several other EF0 and EF1 tornadoes formed throughout the Great Plains region .
= = = June 5 = = =
A strong jet stream moved northeast across the Great Plains region and a strong surface low in western Kansas strengthened as it moved to the Nebraska @-@ South Dakota border . Ahead of the low , very warm and moist air spread throughout the South Central United States into Nebraska , eastern sections of South Dakota and the upper Mississippi Valley . The combination of strong winds and warm and moist air created conditions favorable for strong thunderstorms . On June 5 , a high risk of severe weather was issued for six different states in the Midwestern United States , with a moderate risk area surrounding the high risk area . Forecasters had warned of a potentially historic outbreak , as computer forecasting models for June 5 resembled those on June 8 , 1974 , when 39 tornadoes struck the southern Great Plains and killed 22 people . Wichita State University canceled evening classes because of the weather predictions . Severe weather began developing across eastern Colorado and northwestern Kansas during the morning and into the early afternoon , producing several weak tornadoes in the process . An EF1 tornado impacted a campground near Kellogg , Iowa and injured two people . Despite extremely favorable conditions , severe weather for the day was limited and the tornadoes generally caused minimal damage .
= = = June 6 = = =
During the morning hours of June 6 , two strong tornadoes caused damage throughout Wadena and Hubbard counties in Minnesota . The first tornado , rated EF2 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale , touched down south of Stocking Lake and downed several trees onto cabins , vehicles and storage sheds . It also toppled an irrigation system in a field north of the lake . The tornado moved to the north and expanded to its maximum width of 450 yards ( 410 m ) and reached estimated peak winds of 130 miles per hour ( 210 km / h ) . Eight turkey barns were destroyed , killing an estimated 15 to 20 thousand turkeys . The tornado swept a home north of the area in Hubbard County off its foundation , as well as causing damage to several homes along with hundreds of acres of forest . One man working at a turkey barn was injured . The storm then produced an EF3 tornado , which eventually grew to a width of 400 yards ( 370 m ) and reached wind speeds of 160 miles per hour ( 260 km / h ) . At Pickerel Lake , it nearly flattened every tree in the area , while destroying a trailer home , a camper , a garage and a house . At northern sections of Pickerel Lake , one home had its roof torn off and numerous trees were snapped onto other residences and farm buildings . The tornado began to lose its intensity but continued to topple trees , damage storage structures and toss debris before dissipating in Emmaville .
= = = June 7 – 8 = = =
A series of impulses moved from the central Rocky Mountains into the central Great Plains . Opulent moisture formed over the Missouri and Mississippi Valleys with dew points reaching near 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) . Strong low level winds over the area created favorable wind shear for supercells . During the afternoon , a supercell developed in western portions of Illinois and moved northeast reaching Lake Michigan around the Illinois @-@ Indiana border , during which it produced eight tornadoes along its path . At 4 : 21 pm ( 2121 UTC ) , an EF0 tornado occurred 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east of Cornell in Livingston County . The tornado occurred in an open field with no damage observed . At 4 : 31 pm CDT ( 2131 UTC ) , an EF1 tornado touched down southwest of Dwight in Livingston County , snapping power poles and damaging trees and roofs ; this tornado lifted at 4 : 45 pm CDT ( 2145 UTC ) . From 5 : 18 pm CDT ( 2218 UTC ) to 5 : 46 pm CDT ( 2246 UTC ) , an EF2 tornado traveled 13 @.@ 6 miles ( 21 @.@ 9 km ) across southwestern Will County and extreme northwestern Kankakee County , near Wilmington , uprooting trees , damaging homes and destroying sheds . At 5 : 51 pm CDT ( 2251 UTC ) , an EF2 tornado touched down for three minutes in central Will County near Wilton Center , destroying a garage and severely damaging a metal building . From 5 : 55 pm CDT ( 2255 UTC ) to 6 : 08 pm CDT ( 2308 UTC ) , an EF2 tornado occurred west of Monee , leveling barns , garages , and outbuildings and damaging homes . An EF2 tornado re @-@ formed at 6 : 13 pm CDT ( 2313 UTC ) , injuring six people as it crossed Interstate 57 .
As the tornado moved into more densely populated southern Cook County , it destroyed homes in Richton Park , before dissipating at 6 : 30 pm CDT ( 2330 UTC ) . At approximately 6 : 32 pm CDT ( 2332 UTC ) , an EF0 tornado hit South Chicago Heights , causing minor damage to several homes , with two homes sustaining significant damage . At 6 : 49 pm CDT ( 2349 UTC ) , an EF0 tornado touched down in Lansing , damaging tree limbs . In Wisconsin , five people suffered minor injuries after an EF2 tornado went through Columbia County . Further west , a new complex of storms produced two tornadoes inside the Omaha metropolitan area during the early hours of June 8 . A total of 539 homeowners reported damage from the tornadoes . Seven homes were destroyed and 21 others sustained major damage . The two tornadoes that hit the region were rated EF1 and EF2 . The EF2 tornado was the strongest to strike the Omaha metropolitan area since 1975 .
= = = June 11 = = =
A storm system moved to the northern and central Great Plains region during the day , as strong winds helped push a moist air mass northward ahead of the system . Thunderstorms developed during the afternoon ahead of a cold front from southeast South Dakota into central Kansas . Strong winds along with instability in the atmosphere created favorable conditions for supercell development with the potential to produce strong tornadoes . At approximately 6 : 35 pm CDT ( 2335 UTC ) a tornado hit the Little Sioux Scout Ranch in Little Sioux , Iowa , killing four Boy Scouts after a chimney collapsed on them and injuring 48 others . The camp received a tornado warning 12 minutes before it struck . There were 93 campers and 25 staff members at the camp . The campers were between 13 and 18 years old and were attending a leadership training camp . The tornado was rated EF3 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale .
Tornadoes also caused major damage in Kansas . In Chapman , one person was killed and three others were critically injured after an EF3 tornado struck the town . About 80 percent of Chapman suffered serious damage , with minor damage occurring to the downtown area . 70 homes in Chapman were destroyed with 215 receiving damage . Two churches were demolished and the town 's elementary , middle and high schools were severely damaged . Manhattan was also heavily impacted by a tornado that was rated EF4 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale . Forty @-@ five residences in Manhattan were destroyed , as well as two mobile homes and three businesses . An additional 67 residences , three multi @-@ family homes , one mobile home and 10 businesses suffered significant damage . Also , 75 single @-@ family residences , three multi @-@ family structures and 20 businesses sustained minor damage , and 637 residences , 93 multi @-@ family structures , 20 mobile homes and 10 businesses were partially affected . An elementary school was also heavily damaged in Manhattan . There was also damage to Kansas State University , where the Wind Erosion Lab was damaged . Also suffering severe damage was the engineering complex , the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity house , Waters , Call and Cardwell halls as well as Ward Hall , which houses the university 's nuclear reactor . One person was also killed near the town of Soldier in Jackson County from an EF2 tornado . 32 homes were damaged in Jackson County . The southern outskirts of Salina near the junction of Interstate 135 was also hard hit by an EF3 tornado . Several homes , outbuildings , trees and power lines were damaged in the area .
= = Confirmed tornadoes = =
Note : Four tornadoes in Canada were rated according to the Fujita scale , but are included in the table using their corresponding number rating .
= = Non – tornadic events = =
On June 3 , the communications tower at a courthouse in Shelbyville , Missouri was struck by lightning , damaging computers for the 911 system and the sheriff 's office , radio consoles , and various other electronic equipment . In Oklahoma , high winds in excess of 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) caused major damage to five to six barns in Cherokee and destroyed one barn in Ingersoll . Three people were injured in Frontenac , Kansas after a tree was blown down on a vehicle . The next day , the inclement weather moved into the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . A 57 @-@ year @-@ old man was killed in Annandale , Virginia after a large tree crushed his vehicle . More than 250 @,@ 000 customers lost power in Virginia . Washington Monument State Park suffered extensive damage after thunderstorms knocked out phone , electricity , and water service . Fallen trees and branches blocked the main road and the hiking trail to the monument in several places . The museum and water treatment buildings were severely damaged , and as a result , the park was closed for two weeks . A total 70 severe thunderstorm , marine , and tornado warnings were issued in the Baltimore / Washington region . In Bloomington , Indiana , two people had lightning strikes near them and were taken to the hospital for lighting related injuries . The cell phone of another individual was stuck while the person was talking on the phone and was also taken to the hospital for treatment .
On June 5 , a storm system caused damage throughout the Great Plains . The most substantial damage occurred in Altus , Oklahoma , where 179 homes sustained some form of damage , with two destroyed , five with major damage , 43 with minor damage and 129 affected . Seventeen businesses were damaged , with two destroyed , four with major damage and eight with minor damage . A school in Mulvane , Kansas had roof damage and there was significant roof damage to the terminal building at an airport near Winfield . In Lawrence , The Wakarusa Music and Camping Festival shut down while the storm passed through . On June 8 , thunderstorms affected areas across the Great Lakes region . Two people were killed in Ottawa County , Michigan due to the straight @-@ line winds that toppled trees ; one onto a pedestrian and another onto a car . In Eaton County , a woman was killed by winds which blew a large trailer on to her . Over 300 @,@ 000 people in Michigan were left without power due to the storm .
On June 10 , a powerful squall line of thunderstorms with embedded supercells developed across New York and moved northeast through parts of northern New England and Quebec . Particularly hard hit was the Montreal region and its southern suburbs including Longueuil , Châteauguay , Brossard and Saint @-@ Jean @-@ sur @-@ Richelieu . Barns were reported damaged and other structures sustained roof and siding damage ; particularly in the Saint @-@ Blaise @-@ sur @-@ Richelieu area where one home was pushed from its foundation . In Sainte @-@ Catherine , the roof of an office was blown into a nearby residence punching a large hole on the back wall . On Montreal 's Champlain Bridge , eight tractor trailers were overturned forcing the closure of the entire bridge in both directions . In addition , a window washing platform tumbled from a high rise building in downtown Montreal . The workers were able to get inside .
Severe thunderstorms also affected the Saint @-@ Hyacinthe , Sherbrooke , Trois @-@ Rivières and Quebec City where winds as strong as 68 miles per hour ( 109 km / h ) were reported with locally higher gusts while hail from golf ball to baseball size were reported in Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Hilaire and Belœil breaking windows from homes and vehicles . The roof of a 65 unit apartment complex in Sainte @-@ Foy was heavily damaged . The Quebec Bridge linking the city to the suburb of Levis was also temporarily shut down because of a collapsed scaffolding . About 300 @,@ 000 Hydro @-@ Québec customers across the province lost power , particularly in the Quebec City , Montérégie and Montreal regions with outages occurring in the Eastern Townships and Mauricie regions . Schools in some areas were closed on June 11 due to the power outages . The tractor trailer accidents resulted in two minor injuries during the storms . According to a report from the Insurance Bureau of Canada , insured damage amounts were estimated at $ 56 million ( 2008 CAD ) , and up to 16 @,@ 000 insurance claims were filed for damage to homes and automobiles .
The severe weather extended south into the Eastern Seaboard of the United States where it ended a prolonged period of intense heat . Temperatures had reached the mid to upper 90s ° F ( mid 30s ° C ) for several days in a row , with some areas exceeding 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . About 150 @,@ 000 customers in New Jersey , 140 @,@ 000 in Pennsylvania and 50 @,@ 000 in northern New York lost power . One person was killed in Lewis County , New York by fallen trees during the storm .
= = = Flooding = = =
The same series of systems contributed to a significant flooding event in many parts of the Midwest . Several counties in this region in Iowa , Illinois and Wisconsin were declared disaster areas . Over 10 inches ( 25 cm ) fell in areas over the course of a week , and in Indiana some rivers approached levels similar to flooding in 1913 which killed 200 people . In Franklin , Indiana , water at one point reached the first level of the area hospital , and buildings at Franklin College were damaged . Flooding was reported also in Columbus , Helmsburg and Terre Haute , Indiana . US Coast Guard units were deployed in assistance for rescue efforts . Parts of Interstate 65 and U.S. Route 31 were temporarily shut down . Thirty thousand people in Indiana lost power during the storms , and several counties filed disaster declarations .
Beginning on June 8 , flooding also started occurring across parts of Iowa following several round of thunderstorms and heavy rains . In Parkersburg , Iowa , a levee burst , flooding three nearby highways . In New Hartford , which was also hit by the same tornado , water gushed over a levee forcing the evacuation of 650 people . The flood waters also damaged a water treatment plant leaving Mason City without drinking water . Up to 5 inches ( 13 cm ) of rain fell in parts of the state . Mandatory evacuations were also made in Cedar Falls and Waterloo . Several entire blocks in Cedar Rapids were under water ( which was at times as high as stop signs ) after the Cedar River overflowed its banks . Flooding later affected the Iowa City area along the Iowa River where 20 buildings on the University of Iowa campus were affected . Many other towns across the state became flooded as well as the rising water levels slowly made their way into the Mississippi River across southeastern Iowa , western Illinois and northeastern Missouri .
Flooding was also reported north of Mason City in southeastern Minnesota , where several inches of rain closed roads and forced evacuations . Gays Mills , Wisconsin was evacuated for the second time in ten months when the Kickapoo River flooded the town . These same areas were also affected by the 2007 Midwest flooding . From June 3 to June 11 eight people were killed due to flooding ; three in Indiana , three in Michigan , and one in Illinois and Minnesota .
= Pax Mongolica =
The Pax Mongolica ( less often known as Pax Tatarica ) ( Latin for " Mongol Peace " ) is a historiographical term , modeled after the original phrase Pax Romana , which describes the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the Mongol Empire on the social , cultural , and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and 14th centuries . The term is used to describe the eased communication and commerce the unified administration helped to create , and the period of relative peace that followed the Mongols ' vast conquests .
The conquests of Genghis Khan ( r . 1206 – 1227 ) and his successors , spanning from Southeast Asia to Eastern Europe , effectively connected the Eastern world with the Western world . The Silk Road , connecting trade centers across Asia and Europe , came under the sole rule of the Mongol Empire . It was commonly said that " a maiden bearing a nugget of gold on her head could wander safely throughout the realm " . Despite the political fragmentation of the Mongol Empire into four khanates ( Yuan dynasty , Golden Horde , Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate ) , nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability in the early 14th century . The end of the Pax Mongolica was marked by the disintegration of the khanates and the outbreak of the Black Death in Asia which spread along trade routes to much of the world in the mid @-@ 14th century .
= = Foundations = =
The foundations of the Pax Mongolica lie in the Mongol Empire beginning with Genghis Khan in the early 13th century . In the process of conquering the various tribes in the region , Genghis Khan revolutionized the way Mongolian tribal society was structured . After each new victory , more and more people were incorporated under Genghis Khan 's rule , thus diversifying the societal balance of the tribe . In 1203 , Genghis Khan , in an effort to strengthen his army , ordered a reform that reorganized his army 's structure while breaking down the traditional clan- and kindred @-@ based divisions that had previously fragmented the society and military . He arranged his army into arbans ( inter @-@ ethnic groups of ten ) , and the members of an arban were commanded to be loyal to one another regardless of ethnic origin . Ten arbans made a zuun , or a company ; ten zuuns made a myangan , or a battalion ; and ten myangans formed a tumen , or an army of 10 @,@ 000 . This decimal system organization of Genghis Khan 's strong military would prove very effective in conquering , by persuasion or force , the many tribes of the central Asian steppe , but it would also strengthen Mongol society as a whole . By 1206 Genghis Khan 's military expansion had unified the tribes of Mongolia , and in the same year he was elected and acclaimed as the leader of Mongolia .
The new Mongol Nation quickly moved to annex more territory . The first Mongol conquests were campaigns against the Western Xia in northwestern China . In 1209 the Mongols conquered the Western Xia . Between 1213 and 1214 the Mongols conquered the Jin Empire , and by 1214 the Mongols had captured most of the land north of the Yellow River . In 1221 Mongol generals Jebe and Subodei began their expedition around the Caspian Sea and into Kievan Rus ' ; Genghis Khan defeated Turkic Jalal ad @-@ Din Mingburnu at the Battle of Indus and the war with the Khwarezmian Empire concluded the same year . In 1235 the Mongols invaded Korea . Two years later in 1237 Batu Khan and Subodei began their conquest of Rus ' ; they invaded Poland and Hungary in 1241 . In 1252 the Mongols began their invasion of Southern China ; they would seize the capital of Hangzhou in 1276 . In 1258 Hulagu Khan captured Baghdad .
Each new victory gave the Mongols the chance to incorporate new peoples , especially foreign engineers and laborers , into their society . Each new conquest also acquired new trade routes and the opportunity to control taxation and tribute . Thus , through territorial expansion , the Mongol Nation not only became an empire , but it also became more technologically and economically advanced .
= = Trade network = =
At its height , the Mongolian empire stretched from Shanhaiguan in the east to Budapest in the west , from Rus ' in the north to Tibet in the south . This meant that an extremely large part of the continent was united under one political authority . As a result , the trade routes used by merchants became safe for travel , resulting in an overall growth and expansion of trade from China in the east to Britain in the west . Thus , the Pax Mongolica greatly influenced many civilizations in Eurasia during the 13th and 14th centuries .
= = = World trade system = = =
Before the Mongols ' rise , the Old World system consisted of isolated imperial systems . The new Mongol empire amalgamated the once isolated civilizations into a new continental system , and re @-@ established the Silk Road as a dominant method of transportation . The unification of Eurasia under the Mongols greatly diminished the amount of competing tribute gatherers throughout the trade network and assured greater safety and security in travel . During the Pax Mongolica , European merchants like Marco Polo made their way from Europe to China on the well @-@ maintained and well @-@ traveled roads that linked Anatolia to China .
On the Silk Road caravans with Chinese silk ; pepper , ginger , cinnamon , and nutmeg came to the West from the Spice Islands via the transcontinental trade routes . Eastern diets were introduced to Europeans as well . Indian muslins , cottons , pearls , and precious stones were sold in Europe , as well as weapons , carpets , and leather goods from Iran . Gunpowder was also introduced to Europe from China . In the opposite direction , Europeans sent silver , fine cloth , horses , linen , and other goods to the near and far East . Increasing trade and commerce meant that the respective nations and societies increased their exposure to new goods and markets , thus increasing the GDP of each nation or society that was involved in the trade system . Μany of the cities participating in the 13th century world trade system grew rapidly in size .
Along with land trade routes , a Maritime Silk Road contributed to the flow of goods and establishment of a Pax Mongolica . This Maritime Silk Road started with short coastal routes in Southern China . As technology and navigation progressed these routes developed into a high @-@ seas route into the Indian Ocean . Eventually these routes further developed encompassing the Arabian Sea , Persian Gulf , Red Sea , and the sea off East Africa .
Along with tangible goods , people , techniques , information , and ideas moved lucidly across the Eurasian landmass for the first time . For example , John of Montecorvino , archbishop of Peking founded Roman Catholic missions in India and China and also translated the New Testament into the Mongolian language . Long @-@ distance trade brought new methods of doing business from the far East to Europe ; bills of exchange , deposit banking , and insurance were introduced to Europe during the Pax Mongolica . Bills of exchange made it significantly easier to travel long distances because a traveler would not be burdened by the weight of metal coins .
Islamic methods of mathematics , astronomy , and science made their way to Africa , East Asia and Europe during the Pax Mongolica . Methods of paper @-@ making and printing made their way from China to Europe . During the Pax Mongolica rudimentary banking systems were established , and money changing and credit extension were common , resulting in large amount of merchant wealth .
= = = Mongol administration = = =
Mongolia 's central geographical position on the Asian continent was an important reason why it was able to play such a large role in the trade system . The Mongol army was easily able to assert strong rule throughout most of the empire . The military ensured that supply lines and trade routes flowed smoothly ; permanent garrisons were established along trade routes to protect the travelers on these routes . Complex local systems of taxation and extortion that were prevalent before Mongol rule were abolished to ensure the smooth flow of merchants and trade through the empire . A system of weights @-@ and @-@ measures was also standardized . To make the voyage on the trade routes less harrowing , the Mongols went as far as to plant trees along the roads to shade the merchants and travelers in the summer months ; stone pillars were used to mark the roads where trees could not grow .
The Mongols sought alliances with other nations and societies to ensure the flow of trade through the empire . The Mongol army was also used to reshape and streamline the flow of trade through the continent by destroying cities on the less @-@ important or more inaccessible routes . The Mongol military was mostly made up of cavalrymen . This allowed the military to move swiftly and easily over large distances .
The code of Mongol law , known as the Yassa ( " Great Law " ) , decreed strict rules and punishments in many areas of the Mongolian Empire 's society , especially those areas concerning trade and commerce . The Yassa helped suppress the traditional causes of tribal feuding and war , thus helping to ensure a peaceful trading and traveling environment ; theft and animal rustling were outlawed , and the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan even established a massive lost @-@ and @-@ found system . Harsh penalties including a retribution of nine times the original value of stolen goods helped deter theft on Mongol roads . The Yassa also decreed complete religious freedom , ensuring that Buddhists , Muslims , Christians , etc . , were all allowed to travel freely throughout the empire ; religious leaders were also exempted from taxation , as were doctors , lawyers , undertakers , teachers , and scholars . The Yassa did allow for flexibility and it usually adapted , absorbed , or built upon legal systems in remote parts of the empire , thus maintaining a level of openness to various societies and ensuring peace and stability .
In order to ensure Mongol law was enforced , a hierarchy of legal administration was developed . This was headed by the Secretarial Council " chug @-@ shu @-@ sheng " of the central government which oversaw 10 provincial governments known as " Hsing @-@ sheng " . The Hsinsing @-@ sheng was further split into smaller districts which handled legal cases . A police commissioner known as " hsien wei " was entrusted with law enforcement and had the authority to arrest suspects . This method of federalizing the empire made it easier and more efficient for laws to be administered throughout the continent .
= = = Postal system = = =
The Mongols established the Yam ( Mongolian : Өртөө , Örtöö , checkpoint ) , the first system of communication that connected the Far East and the West . Relay stations were set up every 25 – 30 miles or an average day ’ s journey on horse . These stations were introduced by Ögedei Khan in 1234 and supplied fresh horses and fodder . His brothers Chagatai Khan and Tolui and his nephew Batu Khan further extended this network .
The Mongol army administered the Yam . The Yam stretched across Mongol territory from Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean . The routes were well organized , funded , maintained , and administrated by the Mongols . This highly sophisticated system of communication and travel made it relatively easy to send important messages and travel long distances in relatively short amounts of time . As a result of the relatively lucid communication and ease of movement , the Mongols were able to govern their vast empire effectively , thus ensuring political and economic stability .
= = Decline = =
The decline of the period of the Pax Mongolica was a result of a number of factors , these being incompetent and rivaling leaders , corruption , revolts , decadence , factional struggles , assassinations , external attacks , and disease . The decline of the Pax Mongolica resulted in a decline of eased trade between East and West .
= = = Decline of Mongol rule = = =
The Mongol Empire , near the time of its decline , consisted of many different territories that varied from one to another . Each territory was defined as a " khanate " . Due to the isolation of the Mongolian world , many rulers in the 14th century started to focus on their own khanates .
Religious intolerance was one particular factor in the decline of the Pax Mongolica . In Rus ' , the Mongols ( known as the Golden Horde ) , gradually lost power and territory due to intolerance specifically geared towards different religions . The Rus ' Mongols converted to Islam and joined the Egyptian Mamluks for political reasons . At one point in the war the Golden Horde even fought the Persian Mongols . However , the eastern part of the Golden Horde , White Horde , had friendly relations with the Ilkhanate and the Great Khan . The decentralization occurred because communication was so difficult due to the collapsing trade system and the rivalry between Mongol princes . Eventually , the Persian Mongol leader Ghazan converted to Islam in 1295 . This contributed to the growing power of Nawruz ; a Muslim Oirat general .
In China , descendants of Kublai Khan claimed the Mongols weakened their power by becoming " too Chinese " . This led to Yuan emperors separating themselves from their subjects in order to stress their Mongol identity and to reject their Chinese culture . Kublai Khan once promoted Chinese culture and the importance of its practice but under the Yuan emperors this was now prohibited . As the Chinese culture was changing , intolerance became more common . Some Chinese thought that they were planning to kill Chinese children and perform sexual rituals on them . This led many Chinese to become xenophobic towards the Mongols . This xenophobia led Chinese rulers to expel the Mongols from China and to isolate China from the rest of the world trade system .
= = = The Black Death = = =
The segregation and fragmentation of the respective khanates in the Mongol Empire were not the only factors in contributing to the decline of the Pax Mongolica . The outbreak of bubonic plague , or Black Death , also played a devastating role in the decline of the Pax Mongolica . Because the Mongol Empire bridged once isolated regions , it made it easy for the Black Death to spread rapidly . Historian William H. McNeill has noted that the plague was transferred from ground rodents living in southern Chinese and Burmese Himalayan foothills to Mongol soldiers when they invaded the area in 1252 . In 1331 the plague was noted in China , and from east Asia it was carried west along the trade routes by merchants and Mongol soldiers who were able to so freely and quickly travel across the continent during the Pax Mongolica . Plague @-@ infected fleas hitched rides in the manes of horses , on the hair of camels , or on black rats that nestled in cargoes or in saddlebags . The Black Death is estimated to have killed one @-@ third of China 's population and 25 to 50 percent of Europe 's population .
Demographically weakened , the Mongols were not able to exert their rule over remote domains in their empire , who began to revolt once the plague broke out . These revolts disrupted the production of goods and flow of trade , which ended the Pax Mongolica .
= = = Effects on trade = = =
Over the next 300 years China would become extremely isolated from foreign merchants ; China prohibited foreigners or foreign trade and languages other than Chinese . Confucianism and Taoism were reinstated as the national religion and the Chinese experienced cultural stagnation . During the early years of the Ming @-@ dynasty trade with the rest of the world declined . This is attributed to war , epidemics and widespread disruptions rather than " symbolic policy change " . Economic difficulties also contributed to the decline as an important world trade player . The Black Death quickly spread to the rest of the world trade system , and the long @-@ distance trading that was common and applauded during the Pax Mongolica almost entirely stopped .
= = Personnel exchanges = =
Under the Mongols new technologies and commodities were exchanged across the Old World , particularly Eurasia . Professor Thomas T.Allsen noted many personnel exchanges occurred during the Mongol period . There were many significant developments in economy ( especially trade and public finance ) , military , medicine , agriculture , cuisine , astronomy , printing , geography , and historiography , which were not limited to Eurasia but also included North Africa . The Mongolian Empire functioned as the principal cultural clearing house for the Old World until its downturn when it was gradually replaced by maritime Europe which in time came to perform similar offices for the Old World and the New .
= Mississippi Highway 311 =
Mississippi Highway 311 ( MS 311 ) is a state highway located in Marshall County , Mississippi . The route runs 12 @.@ 960 mi ( 20 @.@ 857 km ) from MS 7 in Holly Springs north to U.S. Route 72 ( US 72 ) in Mount Pleasant . The route is a two @-@ lane undivided road its entire length and passes through rural areas . MS 311 was designated onto its current alignment in 1957 , and was fully paved from a gravel road by the 1960s .
= = Route description = =
MS 311 begins at an intersection with MS 7 in the northern part of Holly Springs , heading northwest on two @-@ lane undivided Mount Pleasant Road . The route passes through wooded areas with some homes and businesses as it comes to an intersection with the Holly Springs Bypass and makes a left turn to continue to the northwest and leaves the city . Upon leaving Holly Springs , the road continues through forested areas with some farm fields and residences . Farther north , the highway reaches the community of Mount Pleasant . MS 311 passes a few homes and businesses within Mount Pleasant before reaching its northern terminus at the US 72 intersection . At this point , the road continues north as Rossville Road . MS 311 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 .
= = History = =
MS 311 was designated in 1957 for a gravel road connecting Holly Springs to Mt . Pleasant . By 1960 , the route was paved except for a small portion halfway between Holly Springs and Mt . Pleasant . In 1965 , the remaining portion of MS 311 was paved .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Marshall County .
= John MacBride ( Royal Navy officer ) =
John MacBride ( c . 1735 – 17 February 1800 ) was an officer of the Royal Navy and a politician who saw service during the Seven Years ' War , the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary Wars , eventually rising to the rank of Admiral of the Blue .
MacBride entered the navy after serving on merchant vessels and distinguished himself in a number of actions during the Seven Years ' War , including cutting out a privateer , which secured him the rank of post @-@ captain by the end of the conflict . He was instrumental in establishing and securing a British settlement on the Falkland Islands in the years of peace which followed , and also performed service to the Royal Family by transporting the King 's sister , Caroline Matilda . Still in active service by the outbreak of war with the American colonies , MacBride took command of a ship of the line and saw action in engagements under Keppel and Rodney . He was also active against privateers , capturing the Comte d 'Artois in a heated battle off the Irish coast . Further service followed with Parker 's fleet against the Dutch and with Barrington in the Channel .
MacBride ended the war serving ashore in Ireland , and in 1784 embarked on a political career , becoming MP for Plymouth . Promoted to flag rank with the outbreak of war with Revolutionary France , he commanded squadrons off the enemy coasts , and transported troops to support land operations on the continent . His last active service was in 1795 , though he was promoted to Admiral of the Blue shortly before his death in 1800 .
= = Family and early life = =
John MacBride was born in Scotland around 1735 , the second son of the Presbyterian minister Robert MacBride . The MacBrides moved to Ireland shortly after John 's birth , when Robert became minister of Ballymoney , in County Antrim . John 's brother , David MacBride , became a noted medical writer . John MacBride initially went to sea with the merchant service in 1751 , and joined the navy as an able seaman three years later , in 1754 . He served first aboard the 24 @-@ gun HMS Garland in the West Indies for a number of years , before returning to British wars and serving aboard HMS Norfolk , the flagship in the Downs for a few months .
MacBride passed his lieutenant 's examination on 6 October 1758 , and received his commission on 27 October . He was moved into the hired cutter Grace , and in August 1761 came across a French privateer anchored in the Dunkirk roadstead . MacBride made contact with the frigate HMS Maidstone and asked her captain for four armed and manned boats . Maidstone 's captain readily agreed , and at 10 o 'clock that night the boats left the British ships and approached the privateer with muffled oars . They came within pistol shot and hailed the French vessel , and on receiving no reply , boarded her . The British boarded on both sides of the vessel , and carried the ship with two men wounded . MacBride himself shot and killed the French lieutenant as he aimed a gun at the British boat . The total French losses were two dead and five wounded . Having secured the vessel , the British took her out to sea under the guns of a French battery .
MacBride 's good service brought him a promotion to master and commander on 7 April 1762 , and an appointment to command the fireship HMS Grampus . From there he moved to command the sloop HMS Cruizer on 27 May 1763 , still at the rank of commander . After some time spent on the Home station , MacBride received a promotion to post @-@ captain on 20 June 1765 , and took command of the 30 @-@ gun HMS Renown . This was followed in August 1765 with command of the 32 @-@ gun HMS Jason , and a mission to establish a colony on the Falkland Islands .
= = Falkland Islands = =
MacBride arrived with Jason , HMS Carcass and the storeship HMS Experiment , in January 1766 , with orders to secure a settlement and to inform any existing inhabitants that the islands were a British possession . The British consolidated Port Egmont , made several cruises in the surrounding waters , and in December came across the French settlement . In a cordial meeting MacBride informed the French governor M. de Neville of the British claim , which the French politely rejected . Unbeknownst to both de Neville and MacBride , Louis Antoine de Bougainville , who had established the French settlement , had agreed to sell the colony to Spain . The resulting tensions between the Spanish and British claims would nearly lead to war in 1770 , but in the meantime MacBride returned home , reporting the situation to the government . He later published a 13 @-@ page monograph , probably in 1770 , entitled A Journal of the Winds and Weather ... at Falkland Islands from 1 February 1766 to 19 January 1767 .
= = Interwar years = =
After his return to Britain MacBride was given command of the 22 @-@ gun HMS Seaford in August 1767 and employed to cruise in the English Channel . He spent several years aboard Seaford , before transferring to take command of the 32 @-@ gun HMS Arethusa in March 1771 , followed by the 32 @-@ gun HMS Southampton in August that year . He was in command of Southampton in May 1772 when he received orders to command a small squadron tasked with transporting Caroline Matilda , former Queen of Denmark and Norway and sister of King George III , from Elsinore to Stadt . The squadron consisted of Southampton , and two of MacBride 's former commands , Seaford , and Cruizer . In April 1773 he took command of HMS Orpheus .
= = American War of Independence = =
With the outbreak of war with the American colonies , MacBride was appointed to take command of the 64 @-@ gun HMS Bienfaisant on 6 November 1776 . He was present at the Battle of Ushant on 28 July 1778 , but did not become heavily engaged in the confused action . In the ensuing argument over the outcome of the battle , MacBride gave evidence in favour of Admiral Keppel that was an important factor in Keppel 's acquittal at his court @-@ martial . MacBride was less supportive of Sir Hugh Palliser . He remained in command of Bienfaisant , and in December joined Sir George Rodney 's fleet to relieve Gibraltar . During the voyage the British fleet came across a Spanish convoy transporting naval stores from San Sebastián to Cádiz , and engaged it . The British succeeded in capturing the convoy , while MacBride distinguished himself in engaging the Spanish flagship Guipuscoana , which surrendered to him .
On 16 January the fleet again encountered Spanish ships , this time off Cape St. Vincent . The Spanish fleet , under Admiral Juan de Lángara , were engaged in the Battle of Cape St. Vincent , and again MacBride was in the thick of the action . He took his ship in to engage the San Domingo , with the Bienfaisant narrowly escaping significant damage after her opponent blew up . He then went on to chase down and capture Lángara 's flagship , the 80 @-@ gun Fenix . MacBride sent Lieutenant Thomas Louis aboard to take possession , but as a smallpox outbreak was raging on the Bienfaisant , MacBride did not take the usual step of transferring some of the captured officers and men aboard his own ship . Instead he reached an agreement with de Lángara , that should the ships encounter a French or Spanish force , he would allow the Fenix to be defended against them . If the Bienfaisant escaped but the Fenix was retaken , de Lángara and his men would consider themselves to still be prisoners of war , but if Fenix escaped and Bienfaisant was taken , then de Lángara and his men would be freed . In any event both ships made it to Gibraltar without incident , after which MacBride was given the honour of taking Rodney 's despatches back to Britain . MacBride set off at once , but was delayed by adverse winds . Consequently , his despatches arrived several days after an identical set had reached London , delivered by Captain Edward Thomson , who had left Rodney later than MacBride , but who had had a faster voyage .
= = = MacBride and the Artois connection = = =
Rodney 's fleet returned to Britain in March , and MacBride rejoined the Bienfaisant . In early August a large French privateer , the 64 @-@ gun Comte d 'Artois , was reported to have sailed from Brest to cruise off the Irish south coast . MacBride was ordered to sail in company with the 44 @-@ gun HMS Charon and to capture the dangerous vessel . After several days in search of the vessel , a mysterious sail was finally sighted early on 13 August , chasing after some of the ships of a convoy departing from Cork . MacBride ranged up and fell in with the unidentified ship , which hoisted English colours . Both ships came within pistol shot , and it was not until there was some communication between the two ships , that MacBride could be satisfied of her identity . By now the two ships were so close , with Bienfaisant off the Comte de 'Artois 's bow , that neither ship could bring their main guns to bear . Instead both ships opened fire with muskets until MacBride could manoeuvre away and a general action ensued . After an hour and ten minutes the French vessel surrendered , having had 21 killed and 35 wounded , while Bienfaisant had three killed and 20 wounded . The Charon had only joined the action towards the end of the engagement and had a single man wounded . The capture had an unusual sequel , for just over a year later , and under a different captain , Bienfaisant captured another privateer , this time named Comtesse d 'Artois .
In a further coincidence MacBride was appointed in January 1781 to command the 40 @-@ gun HMS Artois , a former French ship captured in 1780 by HMS Romney . MacBride served in the North Sea with Sir Hyde Parker 's fleet , and fought against the Dutch at the Battle of Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781 . After the battle Parker temporarily moved MacBride into the 80 @-@ gun HMS Princess Amelia , whose captain , John MacCartney , had been killed during the battle . MacBride resumed command of Artois after the fleet 's return to port , and continued to cruise in the North Sea . On 3 December he engaged and captured two large 24 @-@ gun Dutch privateers , the Hercules and Mars . Nine men were killed and fifteen wounded on Mars , while 13 were killed and 20 wounded on Hercules . Artois had one man killed and six wounded .
By 1782 MacBride was operating in the Channel , and in April was sent out as a scout ahead of the main force under Admiral Samuel Barrington , which aimed to intercept a French squadron that had left Brest bound for the East Indies . He sighted the force on 20 April and alerted Barrington . The British moved in and that day and the following captured over half of the French force . After this success MacBride was appointed to the Irish station in June , where he worked in the impress service while Artois cruised under her first lieutenant .
= = Years of peace = =
At the end of the war with America , MacBride left the Artois , but in June was able to obtain command of the 32 @-@ gun HMS Druid . He commanded her until the end of the year , after which he was temporarily unemployed at sea . MacBride took this opportunity to enter politics , and in 1784 he was elected as MP for Plymouth , holding the seat until 1790 . He gave several speeches on naval matters , and sat on the Duke of Richmond 's commission into the defences of Portsmouth and Plymouth between 1785 and 1786 . He opposed a plan for fortifying the naval dockyards , both on the commission and in parliament . In 1788 he returned to an active , though not a seagoing command , when he took over the Plymouth guardship , the 74 @-@ gun HMS Cumberland . By 1790 , with the threat of the Spanish Armament looming , MacBride took Cumberland to Torbay to join the fleet assembling there under Lord Howe .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
MacBride was promoted to rear @-@ admiral on 1 February 1793 , as part of the general promotion following the outbreak of war . He became commander @-@ in @-@ chief on the Downs station , commanding a frigate squadron with his flag in Cumberland , later transferring his flag to the 32 @-@ gun HMS Quebec . He took possession of Ostend after the French retreat in early 1793 , and in October transported reinforcements under General Sir Charles Grey to assist in the defence of Dunkirk . He took command of the 36 @-@ gun HMS Flora at the end of the year and sailed from Portsmouth on 1 December carrying an army under the Earl of Moira to support French royalists in Brittany and Normandy .
Following this service he took command of a small squadron in the Western Approaches , flying his flag in a number of different vessels , including the sloop HMS Echo , the 74 @-@ gun HMS Minotaur and the 64 @-@ gun HMS Sceptre . The squadron did not achieve any significant successes , and MacBride had the misfortune to break his leg while mounting his horse , forcing him to temporarily relinquish his duties . He was promoted to rear @-@ admiral of the red on 11 April , and on 4 July to vice @-@ admiral of the blue . Promoted to vice @-@ admiral of the white on 1 June 1795 , MacBride became commander of the squadron in the North Sea assigned to watch the Dutch fleet in the Texel , flying his flag in the 74 @-@ gun HMS Russell . He stepped down from the post in late 1795 , and was not actively employed at sea again . He was promoted to admiral of the blue on 14 February 1799 . Admiral John MacBride died of a paralytic seizure at the Spring Garden Coffee House , London on 17 February 1800 .
= = Family and issue = =
MacBride married early in his career , but no details are known , other than that his wife was the daughter of a naval officer . She is presumed to have died , for MacBride married Ursula Folkes , eldest daughter of William Folkes of Hillington Hall , Norfolk on 14 July 1774 . Their son , John David MacBride , became principal of Magdalen Hall , Oxford . MacBride 's daughter , Charlotte , married Admiral Willoughby Lake in 1795 .
= WWV ( radio station ) =
WWV is the call sign of the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology 's ( NIST ) HF ( " shortwave " ) radio station near Fort Collins , Colorado . WWV continuously transmits official U.S. Government frequency and time signals on 2 @.@ 5 , 5 , 10 , 15 and 20 MHz . These carrier frequencies and time signals are controlled by local atomic clocks traceable to NIST 's primary standard in Boulder , Colorado by GPS common view observations and other time transfer methods . NIST also operates the very similar radio station WWVH in Kauai , Hawaii . WWV and WWVH make recorded announcements ; since they share frequencies , WWV uses a male voice to distinguish itself from WWVH , which uses a female voice . They also make other recorded announcements of general interest , e.g. , the GPS satellite constellation status and severe oceanic weather warnings . WWV shares its site near Fort Collins with radio station WWVB that transmits carrier and time code ( no voice ) on 60 kHz in the LF ( " longwave " ) band .
= = History = =
= = = Launch = = =
WWV is the oldest continuously @-@ operating radio station in the United States , first going on the air from Washington , D.C. in May 1920 , approximately six months before the launch of KDKA . The station first broadcast Friday evening concerts on 600 kHz , and its signal could be heard 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) from Washington . On December 15 , 1920 , WWV began broadcasting on 750 kHz , distributing Morse code news reports from the Department of Agriculture . This signal could be heard up to 300 kilometers ( 190 mi ) from Washington . These news broadcasts ended on April 15 , 1921 .
= = = Standard frequency signals = = =
At the end of 1922 , WWV 's purpose shifted to broadcasting standard frequency signals . These signals were desperately needed by other broadcasters , because equipment limitations at the time meant that the broadcasters could not stay on their assigned frequencies . Testing began on January 29 , 1923 , and frequencies from 200 to 545 kHz were broadcast . Frequency broadcasts officially began on March 6 , 1923 . The frequencies were accurate to " better than three @-@ tenths of one percent . " At first , the transmitter had to be manually switched from one frequency to the next , using a wavemeter . The first quartz oscillators were invented in the mid @-@ 1920s , and they greatly improved the accuracy of WWV 's frequency broadcasts .
In 1926 , WWV was nearly shut down . Its signal could only cover the eastern half of the United States , and other stations located in Minneapolis and at Stanford University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology were slowly making WWV redundant . The station 's impending shutdown was announced in 1926 , but it was saved by a flood of protests from citizens who relied on the service . Later , in 1931 , WWV underwent an upgrade . Its transmitter , now directly controlled by a quartz oscillator , was moved to College Park , Maryland . Broadcasts began on 5 MHz . A year later , the station was moved again , to Department of Agriculture land in Beltsville , Maryland . Broadcasts were added on 10 and 15 MHz , power was increased , and time signals , an A440 tone , and ionosphere reports were all added to the broadcast in June 1937 .
WWV was nearly destroyed by a fire on November 6 , 1940 . The frequency and transmitting equipment was recovered , and the station was back on the air ( with reduced power ) on November 11 . Congress funded a new station in July 1941 , and it was built 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south of the former location , still referred to as Beltsville ( although in 1961 the name used for the transmitter location would be changed to Greenbelt , Maryland ) . WWV resumed normal broadcasts on 2 @.@ 5 , 5 , 10 , and 15 MHz on August 1 , 1943 .
= = = Time signals = = =
WWV 's primary purpose today ( and for most of its existence ) is to disseminate the " official U.S. time " ( provided by government entities such as NIST and USNO ) to ensure that uniform time is maintained throughout the United States and around the world . The time signals generated by WWV allow time @-@ keeping devices such as radio @-@ controlled clocks to automatically maintain accurate time without the need for manual adjustment . These time signals are used by commercial and institutional interests where accuracy is essential and time plays a vital role in daily operations - these include shipping , transport , technology , research , education , military , public safety and telecommunications . It is of particular importance in broadcasting , whether it be commercial , public , or private interests such as amateur radio operators . WWV provides a public service by making time information readily available at all hours and at no monetary charge ( other than the cost of the receiving equipment itself ) .
WWV had been broadcasting second pulses since 1937 , but these pulses were not tied to actual time . In June 1944 , the United States Naval Observatory allowed WWV to use the USNO 's clock as a source for its time signals . Over a year later , in October 1945 , WWV broadcast Morse code time announcements every five minutes . Voice announcements started on January 1 , 1950 , and were broadcast every five minutes . Frequencies of 600 Hz and 440 Hz were broadcast during alternating minutes . By this time , WWV was broadcasting on 2 @.@ 5 , 5 , 10 , 15 , 20 , 25 , 30 , and 35 MHz . The 30 and 35 MHz broadcasts were ended in 1953 .
A binary @-@ coded decimal time code began testing in 1960 , and became permanent in 1961 . This " NASA time code " was modulated onto a 1000 Hz audio tone at 100 Hz , sounding somewhat like a monotonous repeated " baaga @-@ bong " . The code was also described as sounding like a " buzz @-@ saw " . On July 1 , 1971 , the time code 's broadcast was changed to the present 100 Hz subcarrier , which is inaudible when using a normal radio ( but can be heard using headphones or recorded using a chart recorder ) .
WWV moved to its present location near Fort Collins on December 1 , 1966 , enabling better reception of its signal throughout the continental United States . WWVB signed on in that location three years earlier . In April 1967 , WWV stopped using the local time of the transmitter site ( Eastern Time until 1966 , and Mountain Time afterwards ) and switched to broadcasting Greenwich Mean Time or GMT . The station switched again , to Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) , in 1974 .
The 20 and 25 MHz broadcasts were discontinued in 1977 , but the 20 MHz broadcast was reinstated the next year . As of April 4 , 2014 , the 25 MHz signal has been back on the air in an ' experimental ' mode . The voice used on WWV was that of Don Elliott Heald until August 13 , 1991 , when equipment changes required rerecording the announcer 's voice . The one used at that time was that of John Doyle , but was soon switched to the voice of KSFO morning host Lee Rodgers .
The radio signals of WWV , WWVB and WWVH , along with the atomic clocks that their time signals derive from , are maintained by NIST 's Time and Frequency Division , which is based in nearby Boulder , Colorado . The Time and Frequency Division is part of the NIST 's Physics Laboratory , based in Gaithersburg , Maryland . NIST 's predecessor , the National Bureau of Standards , previously maintained WWV as a part of the Department of Agriculture ; NIST is currently part of the Department of Commerce .
= = = WWV and Sputnik = = =
WWV 's 20 MHz signal was used for a unique purpose in 1958 : to track the disintegration of Russian satellite Sputnik I after the craft 's onboard electronics failed . Dr. John D. Kraus , a professor at Ohio State University , knew that a meteor entering the upper atmosphere leaves in its wake a small amount of ionized air . This air reflects a stray radio signal back to Earth , strengthening the signal at the surface for a few seconds . This effect is known as meteor scatter . Dr. Kraus figured that what was left of Sputnik would exhibit the same effect , but on a larger scale . His prediction was correct ; WWV 's signal was noticeably strengthened for durations lasting over a minute . In addition , the strengthening came from a direction and at a time of day that agreed with predictions of the paths of Sputnik 's last orbits . Using this information , Dr. Kraus was able to draw up a complete timeline of Sputnik 's disintegration . In particular , he observed that satellites do not fall as one unit ; instead , the spacecraft broke up into its component parts as it moved closer to Earth .
= = = Call Sign = = =
WWV is one of a small number of radio stations west of the Mississippi River with a call sign beginning with W. The W call sign stems from the station 's early locations in D.C. and Maryland — the call sign was maintained when the federal government moved the station to Colorado — and the fact that WWV , being a government station , does not fall within the FCC 's jurisdiction with respect to call signs . How and why the call sign WWV was assigned to the time signal station are not known . However FCC regulations do dictate that time stations are to be issued call signs beginning with " WWV " .
= = Broadcast format = =
On top of the standard carrier frequencies , WWV carries additional information using standard double @-@ sideband amplitude modulation . WWV 's transmissions follow a regular pattern repeating each minute . They are coordinated with its sister station WWVH to limit interference between them . Because they are so similar , both are described here .
= = = Date and time = = =
WWV transmits the date and exact time as follows :
English @-@ language voice announcements of time .
Binary @-@ coded decimal time code of date and time , transmitted as varying length pulses of 100 Hz tone , one bit per second .
In both cases the transmitted time is given in Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) .
= = = Per @-@ second ticks and minute markers = = =
WWV transmits audio " ticks " once per second , to allow for accurate manual clock synchronization . These ticks are always transmitted , even during voice announcements and silent periods . Each tick begins on the second , lasts 5 ms and consists of 5 cycles of a 1000 Hz sine wave . To make the tick stand out more , all other signals are suppressed for 40 ms , from 10 ms before the second until 30 ms after ( 25 ms after the tick ) . As an exception , no tick ( and no silent interval ) is transmitted at 29 or 59 seconds past the minute . In the event of a leap second , no tick is transmitted during second 60 of the minute , either .
On the minute , the tick is extended to a 0 @.@ 8 second long beep , followed by 0 @.@ 2 s of silence . On the hour , this minute pulse is transmitted at 1500 Hz rather than 1000 . The beginning of the tone corresponds to the start of the minute .
Between seconds one and sixteen inclusive past the minute , the current difference between UTC and UT1 is transmitted by doubling some of the once @-@ per @-@ second ticks , transmitting a second tick 100 ms after the first . ( The second tick preempts other transmissions , but does not get a silent zone . ) The absolute value of this difference , in tenths of a second , is determined by the number of doubled ticks . The sign is determined by the position : If the doubled ticks begin at second one , UT1 is ahead of UTC ; if they begin at second nine , UT1 is behind UTC .
WWVH transmits similar 5 ms ticks , but they are sent as 6 cycles of 1200 Hz . The minute beep is also 1200 Hz , except on the hour when it is 1500 Hz .
The ticks and minute tones are transmitted at 100 % modulation ( 0 dBFS ) .
= = = Voice time announcements = = =
Voice announcements of time of day are made at the end of every minute , giving the time of the following minute beep . The format for the voice announcement is , " At the tone , X hours , Y minute ( s ) , Coordinated Universal Time . " The announcement is in a male voice and begins 7 @.@ 5 seconds before the minute tone .
WWVH makes an identical time announcement , starting 15 seconds before the minute tone , in a female voice .
When voice announcements were first instituted , they were phrased as follows : " National Bureau of Standards , WWV ; when the tone returns , [ time ] Eastern Standard Time . " After the 1967 switch to UTC , the announcement changed to " National Bureau of Standards , WWV , Fort Collins , Colorado ; next tone begins at X hours , Y minute ( s ) , Greenwich Mean Time . " However , this format would be short @-@ lived . The announcement was changed again to the current format in 1971 .
Voice time announcements are sent at 75 % modulation , i.e. the carrier varies between 25 % and 175 % of nominal power .
= = = Standard frequencies = = =
WWV and WWVH transmit 44 seconds of audio tone in most minutes . It begins after the 1 @-@ second minute mark and continues until the beginning of the WWVH time announcement 45 seconds after the minute .
Even minutes ( except for minute 2 ) transmit 500 Hz , while 600 Hz is heard during odd minutes . The tone is interrupted for 40 ms each second by the second ticks . WWVH is similar , but exchanges the two tones : 600 Hz during even minutes and 500 Hz during odd .
WWV also transmits a 440 Hz tone , a pitch commonly used in music ( A440 , the note A above middle C ) during minute : 02 of each hour , except for the first hour of the UTC day . Since the 440 Hz tone is only transmitted once per hour , many chart recorders may use this tone to mark off each hour of the day , and likewise , the omission of the 440 Hz tone once per day can be used to mark off each twenty @-@ four @-@ hour period . WWVH transmits the same tone during minute : 01 of each hour .
No tone is transmitted during voice announcements from either WWV or WWVH ; the latter causes WWV to transmit no tone during minutes : 43 – : 51 ( inclusive ) and minutes : 29 and : 59 of each hour . Likewise , WWVH transmits no tone during minutes : 00 , : 30 , : 08 – : 10 and : 14 – : 19 .
Audio tones and other voice announcements are sent at 50 % modulation .
= = = Other voice announcements = = =
WWV transmits the following 44 @-@ second voice announcements ( in lieu of the standard frequency tones ) on an hourly schedule :
A station identification at : 00 and : 30 past each hour ;
marine storm warnings , provided by the National Weather Service , for the Atlantic Ocean at : 08 and : 09 minutes past , and for the Pacific Ocean at : 10 past ;
at : 14 and : 15 past , GPS satellite health reports from the Coast Guard Navigation Center ;
at : 18 past , a special " geophysical alert " report from NOAA is transmitted , containing information on solar activity and shortwave radio propagation conditions . These particular alerts were to be discontinued on September 6 , 2011 . However , as of June 17 , 2011 , WWV is announcing at : 18 past that the decision has been retracted and that the geophysical alert reports " will continue for the foreseeable future " .
Additional time slots are normally transmitted as a standard frequency tone , but can be preempted by voice messages if necessary :
At : 04 and : 16 past the hour , NIST broadcasts any announcements regarding a manual change in the operation of WWV and WWVH , such as leap second announcements . These minutes are marked in the broadcast schedule as " NIST Reserved " . When not used , a 500 Hz tone is broadcast .
Minute 11 is used for additional storm warnings if necessary . If not , a 600 Hz tone is transmitted .
WWVH transmits the same information on a different schedule . WWV and WWVH 's voice announcements are timed to avoid crosstalk ; WWV airs dead air when WWVH airs voice announcements , and vice versa . WWVH 's storm warnings cover the area around the Hawaiian islands and the Far East rather than North America .
= = = = Digital time code = = = =
Time of day is also continuously transmitted using a digital time code , interpretable by radio @-@ controlled clocks . The time code uses a 100 Hz subcarrier of the main signal . That is , it is an additional low @-@ level 100 Hz tone added to the other AM audio signals .
This code is similar to , and has the same framework as , the IRIG H time code and the time code that WWVB transmits , except the individual fields of the code are rearranged and are transmitted with the least significant bit sent first . Like the IRIG timecode , the time transmitted is the time of the start of the minute . Also like the IRIG timecode , numeric data ( minute , hour , day of year , and last two digits of year ) are sent in binary @-@ coded decimal ( BCD ) format rather than as simple binary integers : Each decimal digit is sent as two , three , or four bits ( depending on its possible range of values ) .
= = = = = Bit encoding = = = = =
The 100 Hz subcarrier is transmitted at − 15 dBFS ( 18 % modulation ) beginning at 30 ms from the start of the second ( the first 30 ms are reserved for the seconds tick ) , and then reduced by 15 dB ( to − 30 dBFS , 3 % modulation ) at one of three times within the second . The duration of the high amplitude 100 Hz subcarrier encodes a data bit of 0 , a data bit of 1 , or a " marker " , as follows :
If the subcarrier is reduced 800 ms past the second , this indicates a " marker . "
If the subcarrier is reduced 500 ms past the second , this indicates a data bit with value one .
If the subcarrier is reduced 200 ms past the second , this indicates a data bit with value zero .
A single bit or marker is sent in this way in every second of each minute except the first ( second : 00 ) . The first second of each minute is reserved for the minute marker , previously described .
In the diagram above , the red and yellow bars indicate the presence of the 100 Hz subcarrier , with yellow representing the higher strength subcarrier ( − 15 dB referenced to 100 % modulation ) and red the lower strength subcarrier ( − 30 dB referenced to 100 % modulation ) . The widest yellow bars represent the markers , the narrowest represent data bits with value 0 , and those of intermediate width represent data bits with value 1 .
= = = = = Interpretation = = = = =
It takes one minute to transmit a complete time code . Most of the bits encode UTC time , day of year , year of century , and UT1 correction up to ± 0 @.@ 7 s .
Like the WWVB time code , only the tens and units digits of the year are transmitted ; unlike the WWVB time code , there is no direct indication for leap year . Thus , receivers assuming that year 00 is a leap year ( correct for year 2000 ) will be incorrect in the year 2100 . On the other hand , receivers that assume year 00 is not a leap year will be correct for 2001 through 2399 .
The table below shows the interpretation of each bit , with the " Ex " column being the values from the example above .
The example shown encodes day 86 ( March 27 ) of 2009 , at 21 : 30 : 00 UTC . DUT1 is + 0 @.@ 3 , so UT1 is 21 : 30 : 00 @.@ 3 . Daylight Saving Time was not in effect at the previous 00 : 00 UTC ( DST1 = 0 ) , and will not be in effect at the next 00 : 00 UTC ( DST2 = 0 ) . There is no leap second scheduled ( LSW = 0 ) . The day of year normally runs from 1 ( January 1 ) through 365 ( December 31 ) , but in leap years , December 31 would be day 366 , and day 86 would be March 26 instead of March 27 .
= = = = = Daylight saving time and leap seconds = = = = =
The time code contains three bits announcing daylight saving time ( DST ) changes and imminent leap seconds .
Bit : 03 is set near the beginning of the month which is scheduled to end in a leap second . It is cleared when the leap second occurs .
Bit : 55 ( DST2 ) is set at UTC midnight just before DST comes into effect . It is cleared at UTC midnight just before standard time resumes .
Bit : 02 ( DST1 ) is set at UTC midnight just after DST comes into effect , and cleared at UTC midnight just after standard time resumes .
If the DST1 and DST2 bits differ , DST is changing during the current UTC day , at the next 02 : 00 local time . Before the next 02 : 00 local time after that , the bits will be the same . Each change in the DST bits happens at 00 : 00 UTC and so will first be received in the mainland United States between 16 : 00 ( PST ) and 20 : 00 ( EDT ) , depending on local time zone and on whether DST is about to begin or end . A receiver in the Eastern time zone ( UTC − 5 ) must therefore correctly receive the " DST is changing " indication within the seven hours before DST begins , and six hours before DST ends , if it is to change the local time display at the correct time . Receivers in the Central , Mountain , and Pacific time zones have one , two , and three more hours of advance notice , respectively .
During a leap second , a binary zero is transmitted in the time code ; in this case , the minute will not be preceded by a marker .
= = = Levels of modulation = = =
The once @-@ per @-@ second " ticks " and minute and hour tones are modulated onto the carrier signal at 100 percent , or 0 dBc . The time code and audio tones are modulated at 50 percent , or approximately − 3 dBc , and the maximum modulation level for the voice recordings is 75 percent , or approximately − 1 @.@ 25 dBc .
= = Transmission system = =
WWV broadcasts its signal on five transmitters , one per frequency . The transmitters for 2 @.@ 5 MHz and 20 MHz put out an ERP of 2 @.@ 5 kW , while those for the other three frequencies use 10 kW of ERP . The experimental 25 MHz signal uses a sixth transmitter , with 2 @.@ 5 kW of radiated power .
Each transmitter is connected to a dedicated antenna , which has a height corresponding to approximately one @-@ half of its signal 's wavelength , and the signal radiation patterns from each antenna are omnidirectional . The top half of each antenna tower contains a quarter @-@ wavelength radiating element , and the bottom half uses nine guy wires , connected to the midpoint of the tower and sloped at one @-@ to @-@ one from the ground — with a length of <formula> — as additional radiating elements .
= = Half @-@ hourly station identification announcement = =
WWV identifies itself twice each hour , at 0 and 30 minutes past the hour . The text of the identification is as follows :
WWV accepts reception reports sent to the address mentioned in the station ID , and responds with QSL cards .
= = Telephone service = =
WWV 's time signal can also be accessed by telephone by calling + 1 ( 303 ) 499 @-@ 7111 ( Boulder , Colorado ) . An equivalent time service operated by the U.S. Naval Observatory can be accessed by calling + 1 ( 202 ) 762 @-@ 1401 ( Washington , D.C. ) . Telephone calls are limited to two minutes in length , and the signal is delayed by an average of 30 milliseconds .
= Ba Cụt =
Lê Quang Vinh ( 1923 – 13 July 1956 ) , popularly known as Ba Cụt ( " Cụt " in Vietnamese is " severed " which refers to the finger he had partially severed and ' Ba ' , the number three in Vietnamese , refers to his being the family 's second born child ) was a military commander of the Hòa Hảo religious sect , which operated from the Mekong Delta and controlled various parts of southern Vietnam during the 1940s and early 1950s .
Ba Cụt and his forces fought the Vietnamese National Army ( VNA ) , the Việt Minh , and the Cao Đài religious movement from 1943 until his capture in 1956 . Known for his idiosyncrasies , he was regarded as an erratic and cruel leader who fought with little ideological purpose . His sobriquet came from the self @-@ amputation of his left index finger ( although it was erroneously reported that it was his middle or " third cut finger " ) . He later swore not to cut his hair until the communist Việt Minh were defeated . Ba Cụt frequently made alliances with various Vietnamese factions and the French . He invariably accepted the material support offered in return for his cooperation , and then broke the agreement — nevertheless , the French made deals with him on five occasions . The French position was weak because their military forces had been depleted by World War II , and they had great difficulty in re @-@ establishing control over French Indochina , which had been left with a power vacuum after the defeat of Japan .
In mid @-@ 1955 , the tide turned against the various sects , as Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm of the State of Vietnam and his VNA began to consolidate their grip on the south . Ba Cụt and his allies were driven into the jungle , and their position was threatened by government offensives . After almost a year of fighting , Ba Cụt was captured . He was sentenced to death and publicly beheaded in Cần Thơ .
= = Early life and background = =
Ba Cụt was born circa 1923 in Long Xuyên , a regional town in the Mekong Delta , in the far south of Vietnam . He was orphaned at an early age and adopted by a local peasant family . Ba Cụt was illiterate and was known from childhood as a temperamental and fiery person . The family 's rice paddies were confiscated by a prominent landlord , the father of Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ . Ba Cụt 's bitter personal experience imbued him with a permanent and fanatical hatred towards landowners . Thơ rose to become a leading politician in the 1950s and played a key role in Ba Cụt 's eventual capture and execution . An aura of mystery surrounded Ba Cụt during his life , and foreign journalists incorrectly reported that he had severed his finger as part of a vow to defeat the French . As Ba Cụt became more fanatical in his religious beliefs and spent increasing time with local religious men , Ba Cụt 's father demanded that he work more in the family 's rice fields . A defiant Ba Cụt severed his index finger , which was necessary for work in the rice paddies .
Vietnam was a tumultuous place during Ba Cụt 's youth , particularly in the Mekong Delta . In 1939 , Huỳnh Phú Sổ founded the Hòa Hảo religious movement , and within a year had gained more than 100 @,@ 000 followers . He drew adherents for two reasons : the prophecies he made about the outbreak of World War II and the conquest of South @-@ East Asia by Japan , which proved to be correct ; and his work as a mystical healer — his patients claimed to have been miraculously cured from all manner of serious illnesses after seeing him , when Western medicine had failed . Sổ 's cult @-@ like appeal greatly alarmed the French colonial authorities . During World War II , Imperial Japan invaded and seized control of Vietnam from France ; its defeat and withdrawal at the end of the war in 1945 left a power vacuum in the country .
The Hòa Hảo formed their own army and administration during the war , and started a de facto state in their Mekong Delta stronghold . They came into conflict with the Cao Đài , another new religious movement , which also boasted a private army and controlled a nearby region of southern Vietnam around Tây Ninh . Meanwhile , in Saigon , the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate ruled much of the city through its gangster militia . These three southern forces vied for control of southern Vietnam with the main protagonists : the French , who were attempting to re @-@ establish colonial control across the entire nation ; and the communist @-@ dominated Việt Minh , who sought Vietnamese independence .
At the time , the many groups vying for power — including their respective factions — engaged in alliances of convenience that were frequently broken . Historian David Elliott wrote : " [ T ] he most important eventual cause of the French decline was the inherently unstable nature of the political alliances they had devised ... [ T ] he history of the French relations with the Hoa Hao sect is a telling illustration of the pitfalls of short @-@ term political deals between forces whose long @-@ term interests conflict . "
The Hòa Hảo initially engaged in large @-@ scale clashes with the Việt Minh in 1945 , but by mid @-@ 1946 the two groups had agreed to stop fighting each other and fight the French instead . However , in June 1946 , Sổ became estranged from his military leaders and started the Dân Xã ( Social Democratic Party ) . Because of his charisma , the Việt Minh saw Sổ as a threat and assassinated him , leaving the Hòa Hảo leaderless and causing Sổ 's military leaders to go their separate ways . The split caused an increase in violence as the various Hòa Hảo factions engaged in conflicts among themselves .
= = Career = =
Ba Cụt joined the Hòa Hảo militia when it was formed in 1943 – 44 , and became a commander within a year . He was feared by his enemies , and was described as " a sort of lean Rasputin " who claimed to be immortal . According to historian and writer Bernard Fall , " The hapless farmers who were under the rule of the maniacal Ba Cut fared worse [ than those under other military leaders ] , for the latter [ Ba Cụt ] was given to fits of incredible cruelty and had no sense of public duty . " American journalist Joseph Alsop described Ba Cụt as " war @-@ drunk " . Ba Cụt was famous for inventing a torture contraption that drilled a steel nail through the victim 's ear , a device he used to extort villagers and wealthy landlords to fund his forces . He was said to have " arranged temporary marriages between his troops and village girls " . He raised a large amount of funds for the Hòa Hảo and himself personally by charging traders and landlords high prices to stop pirates in the local area . The severed heads of the pirates were subsequently impaled on stakes and put on public display .
In 1947 , he led his own faction of
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that half of the country should not have been yielded to the communists .
In mid @-@ 1954 , General Nguyễn Văn Hinh , the head of the State of Vietnam 's VNA , announced that he did not respect the leadership of Prime Minister Diệm , and vowed to overthrow him . The coup never materialised and Hinh was forced into exile , but not before appointing Ba Cụt to the rank of colonel in the VNA in an attempt to undermine Diệm , as the Hòa Hảo warlord was openly contemptuous of the prime minister . In August , Ba Cụt and his 3 @,@ 000 men broke from the VNA and left their Thốt Nốt base for the jungle , and fought against those who had briefly been their comrades ; this put him at odds with most Hòa Hảo leaders , who accepted government payments to integrate their forces into the VNA . Operation Ecaille , the initial military offensive by the VNA against Ba Cụt was a failure , possibly because the details of the planned attack on his forces were leaked to him by Soái , a Hòa Hảo member of the National Defence Committee .
During the transition period between the signing of the Geneva Accords and the planned reunification elections , South Vietnam remained in chaos as the VNA tried to subdue the remaining autonomous factions of the Hòa Hảo , Cao Đài , and Bình Xuyên militias . In early 1955 , during a battle with the Cao Đài forces of Trình Minh Thế , after a dispute over control of the That Son region , Ba Cụt was wounded in a disputed incident . Thế claimed to have tried initiating peace talks with Ba Cụt , but received no reply , so he decided to try to capture his rival . He sent some of his militant disciples to infiltrate Ba Cụt 's forces and try to capture the Hòa Hảo leader . When they located Ba Cụt and surrounded him , he refused to surrender but instead tried to shoot his way out . Ba Cụt was severely wounded by a bullet that penetrated his chest . It seemed that he would die , but a French Air Force helicopter flew in and airlifted him to a colonial hospital . He recovered but in the interim the fighting stopped . Another account claims the two military leaders had been on good terms and exchanging diplomatic missions , but that the skirmish was caused by one of Ba Cụt 's aides addressing the envoy in an abrasive and rude manner , and that the injuries were minor . Yet another account holds that the reaction by Thế 's envoy was premeditated and that the claim the firing was in response to rudeness was merely a cover for an assassination attempt . According to this theory , Thế , whose units were then being integrated into Diệm 's VNA , had given orders to target Ba Cụt . This was allegedly done on the orders of CIA agent Edward Lansdale , who was trying to help secure Diệm in power at the time . Lansdale has been accused of failing in an earlier attempt to bribe Ba Cụt to cease his activities .
By this time , with France preparing to withdraw from Indochina , senior French officers had begun to undermine Diệm 's leadership and his attempts to stabilise South Vietnam . The VNA later implicated the French in the organisation of weapons air drops to Ba Cụt , prompting a protest from Diệm 's government . Diệm complained to a French general , alleging that Ba Cụt 's men were using French equipment that was of higher quality than that given to the VNA . The Hòa Hảo accused Diệm of treachery in his negotiations with various groups . They charged the prime minister with integrating Thế 's forces into the VNA in return for them being allowed to attack Ba Cụt with the aid of the VNA , and that this part of the deal had been kept secret . They warned that other Hòa Hảo leaders who had stopped fighting could join Ba Cụt , and appealed to Diệm 's U.S. sponsors . In response , Ba Cụt ambushed a VNA unit in Long Mỹ , killing three officers and injuring some thirty men .
= = Last stand against Diệm = =
In 1955 , Diệm tried to integrate the remaining Hòa Hảo armies into the VNA . Ba Cụt was one of four Hòa Hảo military leaders who refused the government offer on 23 April , and continued to operate autonomously . At one stage , the Cao Đài , Hòa Hảo and Bình Xuyên formed an alliance called the United Front , in an attempt to pressure Diệm into handing over power ; Ba Cụt was named senior military commander . However , this had little meaning as the various units were still autonomous of each other , and the United Front was more a showpiece than a means of facilitating coordinated action , and did not in any way strengthen any military threat to Diệm . The leaders were suspicious of one another and often sent subordinates to meetings . Initially , American and French representatives in Vietnam hoped that Diệm would take up a ceremonial role and allow the sect leaders — including Ba Cụt — to hold government positions . However , Diệm refused to share power and launched a sudden offensive against Ba Cụt in Thốt Nốt on 12 March , shelling the area heavily . The battle was inconclusive and both sides blamed the other for causing instability and disrupting the situation . Diệm then attacked the Bình Xuyên 's Saigon headquarters in late April , quickly crushing them .
During the fighting , the Hòa Hảo attempted to help the Bình Xuyên by attacking towns and government forces in their Mekong Delta heartland . Ba Cụt 's men , who had also been angered by the recent arrest of some colleagues , blockaded the Mekong and Bassac rivers and laid siege to various towns , including Sa Đéc , Long Xuyên and Châu Đốc , stifling the regional economy . The Hòa Hảo shut down several important regional roads and stopped the flow of agricultural produce from the nation 's most fertile region into the capital , causing food prices to rise by 50 % , as meat and vegetables became scarce . Ba Cụt then attacked a battalion of VNA troops south of Sa Đéc . Soon after , they retreated to a Hòa Hảo citadel on the banks of the Bassac . After reinforcing their base , the Hòa Hảo proceeded to fire mortars across the water into the city of Cần Thơ , which stood on the opposite side of the river . During this period , the United Front publicly accused Diệm of trying to bribe Ba Cụt with 100 million piasters .
With the Bình Xuyên vanquished , Diệm turned his attention to conquering the Hòa Hảo . As a result , a battle between government troops led by General Dương Văn Minh and Ba Cụt 's men commenced in Cần Thơ on 5 June . Five Hòa Hảo battalions surrendered immediately ; Ba Cụt and three remaining leaders had fled to the Cambodian border by the end of the month . The soldiers of the three other leaders eventually surrendered , but Ba Cụt 's men continued to the end , claiming loyalty to the Emperor Bảo Đại . Diệm responded by replacing the officers of Bảo Đại 's personal regiments with his own men and used the royal units to attack Ba Cụt 's rebels near Hà Tiên and Rạch Giá , outnumbering the Hòa Hảo by at least a factor of five . Knowing that they could not defeat the government in open conventional warfare , Ba Cụt 's forces destroyed their own bases so that the VNA could not use their abandoned resources , and retreated into the jungle . Ba Cụt 's 3 @,@ 000 men spent the rest of 1955 evading 20 @,@ 000 VNA troops who had been deployed to quell them . A bounty of one million piasters was put on the head of Ba Cụt , who scattered trails of money in the jungle , hoping to distract his pursuers , but to no avail . The communists claimed in a history written decades later that Ba Cụt had tried to forge an alliance with them , but that talks broke down a few months later .
Despite his weak military situation , Ba Cụt sought to disrupt the staging of a fraudulent referendum that Diệm had scheduled to depose Bảo Đại as head of state . Ba Cụt distributed a pamphlet condemning Diệm as an American puppet , asserting that the prime minister was going to " Catholicize " the country ; the referendum was partly funded by the U.S. government and various Roman Catholic organisations . Diệm had strong support from American Roman Catholic politicians and the powerful Cardinal Francis Spellman and his elder brother , Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục , was Archbishop of Huế . Ba Cụt presciently noted that the referendum was a means " for Diem to gather the people from all towns and force them to demonstrate one goal : to depose Bao Dai and proclaim the puppet Diem as the chief @-@ of @-@ state of Vietnam . " On the day of the poll , Ba Cụt 's men prevented voting in the border regions which they controlled , and ventured out of the jungles to attack polling stations in Cần Thơ . Despite that disruption , Diệm was fraudulently credited with more than 90 % of support in Hòa Hảo @-@ controlled territory , and a near unanimous turnout was recorded in the area . These results were replicated across the nation , and Diệm deposed Bảo Đại .
Eventually , Ba Cụt was surrounded , and sought to make a peace deal with the Diệm government to avoid being taken prisoner . Ba Cụt sent a message to Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ , the public official who oversaw the civilian side of the campaign against the Hòa Hảo , asking for negotiations so that his men could be integrated into mainstream society and the nation 's armed forces . Thơ agreed to meet Ba Cụt alone in the jungle , and despite fears that the meeting was a Hòa Hảo trap , he was not ambushed . However , Ba Cụt began asking for additional concessions and the meeting ended in a stalemate . According to historian Hue @-@ Tam Ho Tai , Ba Cụt 's lifelong antipathy towards Thơ 's family influenced his behaviour during his last stand . Ba Cụt was arrested by a patrol on 13 April 1956 , and his remaining forces were defeated in battle .
= = Trial and execution = =
Diệm 's government put Ba Cụt on trial . During the proceedings , Ba Cụt theatrically removed his shirt so that the public gallery could see how many scars he had suffered while fighting the communists . This , according to him , demonstrated his devotion to Vietnamese nationalism . He challenged any other man to show as many scars . However , the Diệmist judge was unimpressed . Ba Cụt was found guilty of multiple murders and sentenced to death . Diệm 's adviser , Colonel Edward Lansdale from the CIA , was one of many who protested against the decision . Lansdale felt that the execution would tarnish Diệm — who had proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam ( commonly known as South Vietnam ) and declared himself President — and antagonise Ba Cụt 's followers . Ngô Đình Nhu , Diệm 's younger brother and chief adviser , denied a reprieve as the army , particularly Minh , opposed any clemency . Some sections of the southern public , however , were sympathetic to Ba Cụt .
Ba Cụt was publicly guillotined on 13 July 1956 , in Cần Thơ . His body was later diced into small pieces , which were then buried separately . Some followers , led by a deputy named Bảy Đớm , retreated to a small area beside the Cambodian border , where they vowed not to rest until Ba Cụt was avenged . Many of his followers later joined the Việt Cộng — the movement that succeeded the Việt Minh their leader had fought — and took up arms against Diệm .
= Shore Line East =
Shore Line East ( SLE ) is a commuter rail service which operates along the Northeast Corridor through southern Connecticut , US . A fully owned subsidiary of the Connecticut Department of Transportation ( ConnDOT ) , SLE provides service seven days a week along the Northeast Corridor from New London west to New Haven , with limited through service to Bridgeport and Stamford . Connecting service west of New Haven to New York City is available via Metro @-@ North Railroad 's New Haven Line .
The service was introduced in 1990 as a temporary measure to reduce congestion during construction work on I @-@ 95 . However , it proved more popular than expected , and service was continued after construction ended despite criticisms that the line was too expensive to operate . The service has been continually upgraded since its inception with rebuilt stations and new rolling stock as well as extensions to New London in 1996 and to Stamford in 2001 . Around 1 @,@ 900 to 2 @,@ 100 riders use the service every weekday depending on the season .
= = Current service = =
Most weekday SLE trains run local westbound from New London or Old Saybrook to New Haven in the morning , with some nonstop eastbound service . This traffic pattern is reversed in the afternoon and evening rush . A handful operate through New Haven as far as Stamford .
Most weekend SLE trains also run local westbound in the morning , then express in the afternoon , stopping only at Guilford and Westbrook between Old Saybrook and State Street . Eastbound service is reversed . This is because Branford , Madison , and Clinton only have platforms on the eastbound track , and thus switching is needed to platform a westbound train .
Around half of SLE trains operate to and from New London Station . New London SLE multi @-@ ride pass holders are also allowed to board selected Northeast Regional trains , or Acela Express train # 2151 . There are plans to increase the service to New London , which is limited by U.S. Coast Guard requirements regarding the bridge crossing the Connecticut River . After years with just one or two trains to New London , additional New London round trips were added in 2010 and 2013 , and weekend service began in June 2013 .
All trains that do not operate west of New Haven make a connection to a Metro @-@ North Railroad train at New Haven , for service to and from points in Connecticut , Westchester County , New York , and New York City .
Although SLE service is funded by ConnDOT , it is operated under contract by Amtrak . Amtrak owns and controls the Northeast Corridor east of New Haven . West of New Haven , the New Haven Line is owned by ConnDOT and trains are dispatched by Metro @-@ North .
During the OpSail and SailFest tall ship festivals at New London , extra Friday and weekend Shore Line East service is operated from New Haven to New London . During OpSail 2000 , through service operated from New Haven to Mystic – the only time Shore Line East service has run east of New London .
= = Service history = =
= = = Previous service = = =
The section of the Northeast Corridor that Shore Line East operates on was once the New York @-@ Boston mainline of the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad . The section from New Haven to New London was built as the New Haven & New London Railroad . It was charted in 1848 , began construction in 1850 , and opened for service in July 1852 . The line was owned by the New York , Providence and Boston Railroad ( the " Stonington Road " ) from 1858 to 1862 , and by the Shore Line Railway from 1864 until it was acquired by the New York , New Haven , and Hartford Railroad ( the " New Haven " ) in 1870 . Crossing the Connecticut River required a ferry transfer until a drawbridge was built in 1870 .
The line was referred to by the New Haven Railroad as the Shore Line , to distinguish it from the railroad 's Main Line from New Haven to Springfield , Massachusetts . In recognition of the large role played by the New Haven in the history and heritage of the state of Connecticut , ConnDOT paints SLE 's diesel @-@ powered locomotives in the New Haven 's orange and black style . New Haven Railroad colors and emblems have also been placed at several stations , particularly New Haven Union Station .
The New Haven Railroad operated local service on the Shore Line up until its merger with Penn Central on January 1 , 1969 , when most commuter service east of New Haven was abandoned . Intercity service continued , but generally only stopped at New Haven , Old Saybrook , and New London . Penn Central continued to operate the Clamdigger , a single daily New London @-@ New Haven round trip with local stops , as well as a New London @-@ Boston round trip . Amtrak took over the Clamdigger along with most intercity passenger service , in May 1971 . In January 1972 , Amtrak discontinued the Clamdigger and Penn Central cut the New London @-@ Boston trip .
In 1976 and 1977 , Amtrak operated the Clamdigger as a Providence @-@ New Haven round trip with limited local stops ; for three months in 1978 , it was revived with additional commuter @-@ based stops . It was replaced in April 1978 by the Beacon Hill , which stopped at New Haven , Branford , Madison , Old Saybrook , Niantic , New London , and Mystic en route to Providence and Boston . The Beacon Hill ( which served the Providence and Boston commuting markets rather than New Haven ) was discontinued in 1981 due to funding cuts , ending commuter rail service in Connecticut east of New Haven .
= = = Initial service = = =
In 1981 and 1986 , legislation was proposed to restore commuter service between New Haven and New London , as well as between New Haven and Hartford . A 1986 ConnDOT study analyzed congestion on Interstate 95 , which runs parallel to the line . The study showed that Old Saybrook was a better terminus for initial service , with an expected ridership of 420 riders in each direction daily .
Based on the study , Governor O 'Neill ordered ConnDOT in October 1986 to initiate rail service on the corridor . It was established as a temporary service to newly reopened local stations between Union Station in New Haven and Old Saybrook , to alleviate traffic congestion that arose from scheduled construction work on I @-@ 95 . O 'Neill introduced a $ 50 million transportation program that included $ 900 @,@ 000 ( later reduced to $ 500 @,@ 000 ) for basic stations and $ 4 million to refurbish 12 Budd Rail Diesel Cars for rolling stock . The RDCs were found to be insufficient and two diesel trainsets were purchased from the defunct PATrain service in 1989 instead .
A second study in 1989 indicated higher potential ridership of 700 to 1350 daily riders . The state bought Amtrak 's New Haven maintenance facility in May 1989 and signed a service contract with Amtrak in November . ( Metro @-@ North Railroad was not considered for several reasons , largely because Amtrak already owned the rail line east of New Haven ) . Construction of 5 intermediate stations was completed in April 1990 .
Shore Line East service began on May 29 , 1990 , with four trains each direction during the morning and evening . The service carried the Clamdigger name during planning ; " Shore Line East " did not appear until shortly before service began . Shore Line East was threatened to be cut in 1991 by newly elected Governor Lowell Weicker , but it proved more popular than expected , and was effectively made permanent . A 1996 study found that Shore Line East captured 8 % of regional commuter trips and attracted a loyal ridership base .
In 1995 and 1997 , then Gov. John Rowland proposed to replace Shore Line East and the Waterbury Branch with bus service , citing a high subsidy of $ 18 @.@ 70 per rider per trip , in order to decrease the unpopular gas tax . Lawmakers from the region called the proposals political and defended the line 's ability to reduce congestion and pollution , while opponents of the line called it an example of government waste . The Shore Line East Rider 's Association and other groups lobbied to save both services each time , and after public hearings a small fare increase was enacted in late 1997 instead .
= = = Early expansions and criticisms = = =
In July 1995 , Governor Rowland signed a bill ordering various studies , including one that analyzed extending service to New London as had been originally planned . Before the study was completed , ConnDOT unilaterally decided to implement New London service , which the report commended . On February 1 , 1996 , two round trips per weekday were extended to New London . At that point , ridership was up 18 % over 1991 numbers .
In January 2001 , because of to changes in Amtrak rules , passengers were no longer allowed to cross tracks to access trains . New platforms were opened on the south side of the tracks at Branford and Westbrook at approximately the same locations .
In December 2001 , a single morning rush @-@ hour round trip branded SLExpress was extended to Stamford , with a stop at Bridgeport plus eastbound @-@ only stops at Stratford and Milford . An evening eastbound trip was also extended to Stamford with only the Bridgeport intermediate stop . This trip was intended to allow commuters to reach employment centers in Bridgeport and Stamford without having to make a transfer at New Haven . On June 24 , 2002 , additional Stamford trains were added , for a total of two westbound and three eastbound trains . When West Haven opened in August 2013 , it was added to these trips as well .
In 2003 , in order to add four additional Amtrak trips along the corridor , four of the then six round trips to New London were cut back to Old Saybrook . An agreement with the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection limits service over the Old Saybrook @-@ Old Lyme bridge in order to avoid inconveniencing recreational boaters . ConnDOT 's agreement with Amtrak allowed commuters with monthly passes to ride certain Amtrak trains instead . After criticism over the service cuts , in April 2008 ConnDOT began allowing commuters with multi @-@ ride passes to board the selected Amtrak trains as well .
= = = Improved and increased service = = =
When started in 1990 , Shore Line East was intended to be a temporary service . Except at Old Saybrook and New Haven , which were already served by Amtrak , the state constructed new stations – consisting of little more than bare wooden decks – for minimal cost . Since the service was started two months before the Americans with Disabilities Act was signed , the platforms were not built to be handicapped accessible . After a decade of service , with Shore Line East established as part of Connecticut 's transportation system , the state began to upgrade the service . The basic stations have been rebuilt with high @-@ level platforms to provide handicapped access and level boarding , parking lots have been expanded , and more trains have been added to the schedule .
A completely new station was also added to the line for traffic mitigation as part of the reconstruction of the Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge . On June 7 , 2002 , State Street Station was opened in New Haven to provide better access to the downtown area than Union Station , which is half a mile away from the business district .
The first station to be rebuilt was Old Saybrook , the busy eastern terminus of the line . The new high @-@ level island platform and pedestrian bridge opened on November 1 , 2002 . Old Saybrook had previous had only a single side platform serving a relatively small number of Amtrak trains ; the rebuilt has two platforms serving three tracks , to allow Amtrak trains in both directions to stop or pass even while a SLE train is at the station .
Beginning on May 24 , 2004 , construction of new platforms began at Clinton , Guilford , and Branford . The rebuilt Clinton station opened on July 25 , 2005 , and the rebuilt Branford station opened on August 8 , 2005 ; both consist of a single high @-@ level platform on the south side of the tracks . The new Guilford station , which has platforms on both sides of the tracks ( connected by a pedestrian bridge ) to allow for greater operational flexibility , opened on November 28 , 2005 . Construction at Madison started on September 24 , 2007 , and finished with the opening of the rebuilt station platform on July 28 , 2008 .
On October 8 , 2007 , reverse @-@ peak and more midday service were introduced , which officials hailed as the beginning of Shore Line East as a true bidirectional system . Several existing express trains also began to stop at Guilford . Since at least 2006 , advocates had been calling for the establishment of weekend Shore Line East service . A pilot of weekend service was run from November 17 , 2007 , to December 30 , 2007 , with six " Shopper 's Special " round trips from Old Saybrook to New Haven . The trains were scheduled to connect with similar Metro @-@ North specials at New Haven . Year @-@ round weekend service began on July 4 , 2008 , with 9 daily Old Saybrook – New Haven round trips on weekends . No weekend service was run to New London , but weekday service was increased as cross @-@ honoring of multiple @-@ ride and monthly tickets was added on two Amtrak trains .
The major obstacle preventing full New London service is the bridge over the Connecticut River between Old Saybrook and Old Lyme . The drawbridge section is closed for a certain period of time to allow trains to pass , which prevents large boats from passing under . The Marine Trades Association opposes additional service , which would mandate more bridge closings . The 2003 agreement with Amtrak limited weekday traffic over the bridge to 2 SLE and 39 Amtrak trains until 2018 , although it was revised in 2010 and 2013 . Since 2003 , New London had been served by cross @-@ honored Amtrak trains plus one or two dedicated SLE roundtrips .
On February 16 , 2010 , an additional round trip was extended to New London . Three more were extended on May 10 , 2010 . However , advocates for full service to New London said that Governor Rell failed to deliver on promises to New London , with one newspaper columnist writing that " she seems incapable of standing up to the marine trades lobby " regarding the bridge openings .
In July 2012 , Governor Malloy announced that 5 weekend round trips would be extended to New London beginning in April 2013 . However , the extension was dependent on ongoing negotiations with the marine industry over mandated closings of the Old Saybrook – Old Lyme bridge . Two weekday midday trips were added in May 2013 , while weekend service began on June 1 , 2013 , after the application for additional bridge closings was approved by the state Department of Energy and Environmental Protection . By July , New London represented 26 % of weekend ridership . In December 2013 , the state announced that ridership was up 35 % for the year as a result of the increased service . From 2009 to 2014 , monthly New London ridership increased from less than 1 @,@ 000 monthly passengers to approximately 5 @,@ 000 , accounting for a significant fraction of ridership increases on Shore Line East during that period .
Four of the five intermediate stations between Old Saybrook and New Haven were rebuilt with accessible platforms between 2004 and 2008 , but rebuilding at Westbrook was delayed due to environmental and cost issues . No site was available until Westbrook and ConnDOT traded the new station site on Norris Avenue for a highway garage site off Route 145 . The controversial land swap was begun in 2004 but was not finalized until 2006 , and town operations were not moved to the Route 145 site until September 2011 . Site clearing began in November 2011 , and ground was broken for the $ 14 @.@ 4 million station in January 2012 . A new station with a larger 210 @-@ space lot and platforms on both tracks opened on March 25 , 2014 , with full bidirectional service to the station beginning on May 11 .
= = = Future = = =
In a 2007 report , ConnDOT outlined plans to turn SLE into a full @-@ service bidirectional regional rail line , with full @-@ day service and all trains extended to New London . This involves incremental improvements , similar to those that have already been put into place . One of the first priorities is to add a second platform at all stations , which is mandated by the 2003 agreement with Amtrak . New London , Old Saybrook , Guilford , Westbrook , and stops from New Haven Union Station west all have multiple platforms , while State Street has an island platform serving two tracks with plans for a second platform .
Branford is the first previously rebuilt station to be further renovated with a second platform . A $ 60 million bond in February 2011 included $ 16 @.@ 5 million for a second platform and pedestrian bridge at Branford , $ 7 @.@ 3 million for platform extensions at Guilford , and $ 11 million to add catenary wires to currently unwired sidings along the line . Construction on the new platform at Branford began in September 2013 , and the Guilford work is under way as well . As of September 2015 , the new platform and pedestrian bridge at Branford were officially scheduled to open on December 18 , 2015 , but have been delayed into 2016 as a result of the previous harsh winter and other issues . Bidding on a second platform and three @-@ level parking garage at Madison , planned since 2009 , was scheduled to begin in 2013 but did not occur . Per the agreement with Amtrak , a second platform is planned to be added to Clinton station . The project was originally planned to start in early 2012 , but has since been indefinitely delayed .
Expansion of the original parking facilities is also necessary to meet demand at many stations , since many started with small lots suitable for just a few dozen cars . The rebuilt stations at Branford , Guilford , Madison , Clinton , and Westbrook have larger lots than the 1990 stations , and a second lot with 272 spaces opened at Branford in June 2011 . A 585 @-@ space , three @-@ level parking garage is eventually planned for Madison station .
Although the route east of New Haven is electrified under Amtrak 's 60 Hz traction power system , Shore Line East currently operates entirely with diesel locomotives . Once the full order of M8 railcars are in service , and Amtrak tests and approves the M8s for usage east of New Haven , ConnDOT plans to use 24 to 32 cars for electric SLE service to reduce diesel emissions . The diesel trainsets will be moved to service on the Danbury or Waterbury branches , or to the planned Hartford Line from New Haven to Springfield .
In April 2012 , state officials released a report detailing possible sites for an infill station in East Lyme . Four sites were analyzed – two near downtown Niantic and two at Rocky Neck State Park . Niantic had previously been a stop on the Clamdigger . As part of a bonding proposal made by Governor Malloy , $ 750 @,@ 000 would be allocated for a new station at Niantic .
The possibility of extending service eastward has also been considered . Several special trains operated to Mystic during the 2000 OpSail festival , the only such service to date . In a 2001 report examining commuter rail for Rhode Island , RIDOT considered an extension of Shore Line East to Providence via Westerly ( effectively restoring the Clamdigger service ) . Ultimately , MBTA Commuter Rail service , which already ran to Providence as part of the Providence / Stoughton Line , was extended southward instead ( although only to Wickford Junction ) . However , both RIDOT and SLE have long @-@ term plans to extend their services to meet at Westerly . Extending SLE service would require negotiations with the US Coast Guard , the Marine Trades Association , and other stakeholders for increased use of the Thames River Bridge and the Mystic River bridge . As part of Governor Malloy 's thirty year transit plan , Shore Line East would be extended to Westerly at a cost of $ 200 million . On February 1 , 2016 , the Connecticut Public Transportation Commission issued a report recommending extension of Shore Line East rail service to Mystic and Westerly as soon as possible .
= = Rolling stock = =
In contrast to the electric multiple units used on Metro @-@ North 's New Haven Line , which are also purchased in part by the state of Connecticut , all SLE trains are diesel push @-@ pull trains .
SLE runs diesel service because Amtrak had not yet electrified the Northeast Corridor between New Haven and Boston at the time service began . The original SLE service operated with 2 F @-@ 7s and 10 Pullman @-@ Standard coaches purchased from Pittsburgh 's PATrain for $ 1 @.@ 7 million .
In 1991 , ConnDOT purchased 10 Bombardier Shoreliner III coaches , similar to ones already used on the Danbury Branch and Waterbury Branch , and leased three additional diesel locomotives : two EMD GP38s and one EMD GP9 . In 1994 Amtrak rebuilt 11 of ConnDOT 's surplus SPV @-@ 2000 diesel railcars into coaches , dubbed " Constitution Liners . " In 1996 , SLE took delivery of six refmanufactured GP40 @-@ 2H diesels to replace the entire motive power fleet . These were supplemented in 2005 with 8 GE P40DC Genesis diesels leased from Amtrak . ConnDOT purchased the P40DCs in 2008 . To augment capacity ConnDOT acquired 33 Mafersa coaches from the Virginia Railway Express in 2004 . These began entering service in 2006 , displacing the Shoreliners and Constitution Liners .
ConnDOT plans call for the Kawasaki M8 to replace most or all of the locomotives and coaches currently in service on Shore Line East in 2018 . ConnDOT has proposed to use up to 32 M8 's in SLE service as far as Old Saybrook ; the diesel equipment will then be used on the Hartford Line and for New London service . Limited direct service from Grand Central Terminal to Old Saybrook may be added once the M8s are in service .
ConnDOT acquired an additional four GE P40DC locomotives from New Jersey Transit in 2015 . Originally built for Amtrak , NJ Transit employed the locomotives on the short @-@ lived Atlantic City Express Service .
= = = Roster = = =
= = Station stops = =
= National Football League Players Association =
The National Football League Players Association , or NFLPA , is the labor organization representing the professional American football players in the National Football League ( NFL ) . The NFLPA , which has headquarters in Washington , D.C. , is led by president Eric Winston and executive director DeMaurice Smith . Founded in 1956 , the NFLPA was established to provide players with formal representation to negotiate compensation and the terms of a collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) . The NFLPA is a member of the AFL – CIO , the largest federation of unions in the United States .
In the early years of the NFL , contractual negotiations took place between individual players and management ; team owners were reluctant to engage in collective bargaining . A series of strikes and lockouts have occurred throughout the union 's existence largely due to monetary and benefit disputes between the players and the owners . League rules that punished players for playing in rival football leagues resulted in litigation ; the success of such lawsuits impelled the NFL to negotiate some work rules and minimum payments with the NFLPA . However , the organization was not recognized by the NFL as the official bargaining agent for the players until 1968 , when a CBA was signed . The most recent CBA negotiations took place in 2011 .
In addition to conducting labor negotiations , the NFLPA represents and protects the rights of the players ; the organization 's actions include filing grievances against player discipline that it deems too severe . The union also ensures that the terms of the collective bargaining agreement are adhered to by the league and the teams . It negotiates and monitors retirement and insurance benefits and enhances and defends the image of players and their profession .
= = Early history = =
The establishment of the National Football League in 1920 featured early franchises haphazardly formed and often saddled with financial difficulties , poor player talent and attendance rates . As the league expanded through the years , players were provided with no formal representation and received few , if any , benefits . In 1943 , Roy Zimmerman 's refusal to play an exhibition game without compensation resulted in his trade from the Washington Redskins to the Philadelphia Eagles . With the formation of the competing All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) in 1946 , NFL owners instituted a rule which banned a player for five years from NFL @-@ associated employment if he left the league to join the AAFC .
Bill Radovich , an offensive lineman , was one player who " jumped " leagues ; he played for the Detroit Lions in 1945 and then joined the Los Angeles Dons of the AAFC after the team offered him a greater salary . Subsequently , Radovich was blacklisted by the NFL and was denied a tryout with the NFL @-@ affiliated San Francisco Seals baseball team of the Pacific Coast League . Unable to attain a job in either league , Radovich filed a lawsuit against the NFL in 1957 . In 1964 , Green Bay Packers Pro Bowl and All @-@ Pro center Jim Ringo approached head coach Vince Lombardi to negotiate a raise . Lombardi was angered by the presence of Ringo 's agent , and excused himself ; five minutes later he returned to inform the two that Ringo had been traded to the Philadelphia Eagles . The players grew tired of incidents such as these and complained to one another . One sore point was playing in training camp and preseason exhibition games without pay ; no contract payment was made until a player made a regular season roster .
The NFLPA began when two players from the Cleveland Browns , Abe Gibron and Dante Lavelli , approached a lawyer and former Notre Dame football player , Creighton Miller , to help form an association to advocate for the players . Miller was initially reluctant but accepted in 1956 . He contacted Don Shula ( a Baltimore Colts player at the time ) , John Gordy of the Detroit Lions , Frank Gifford and Sam Huff of the New York Giants , and Norm Van Brocklin of the Los Angeles Rams to aid in the development of the association . Representatives of 11 of the 12 teams in the league at the time joined the association ; the Chicago Bears were the sole dissenter ; by November 1956 a majority of the players signed cards allowing the NFLPA to represent them . The first meeting took place at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in November where players decided on demands to be submitted to league commissioner Bert Bell . The new association 's initial agenda included a league @-@ wide minimum salary , plus a per diem when teams were on the road , that uniforms and equipment be paid for and maintained at the clubs ' expense , and continued payment of salaries when players were injured . The NFLPA hoped to meet with Bell during the owners ' meeting in January 1957 to discuss the demands ; however , no meeting took place . The owners , for their part , were not enthused by the concept of a player 's union and this sentiment was reflected when Miller , who served as an assistant coach with the Cleveland Browns , was removed from the team photo at the request of Paul Brown . Gibron , Lavelli , and Miller were instrumental in the founding of the union as they had become chagrined by Paul Brown 's staunch view that " it was both just and necessary that management could cut , trade , bench , blackball and own in perpetuity anyone and everyone that it wanted " .
Miller continued to represent the NFLPA in their early days . Unable to win the owners ' attention by forming the union , the NFLPA threatened to bring an antitrust lawsuit against the league . The antitrust laws are meant to protect " free and fair competition in the marketplace " and prohibit practices that may give industries or businesses an unfair advantage over their competitors . That threat became much more credible when the United States Supreme Court ruled in Radovich v. National Football League , 352 U.S. 445 ( 1957 ) , that the NFL did not enjoy the same antitrust immunity that Major League Baseball did , meaning that players like Radovich had been wrongfully barred from finding new employment . Jarett Bell of USA Today noted in 2011 , the Radovich ruling " set the foundation for a series of court battles that have continued to present times " largely over disagreements in compensation . Rather than face another lawsuit , the owners agreed to a league minimum salary of $ 5 @,@ 000 , $ 50 for each exhibition game played , and medical and hospital coverage . Although most of the NFLPA 's requests were met , the owners did not enter into a collective bargaining agreement with the association or formally recognize it as the players ' exclusive bargaining representative , instead agreeing to change the standard player contract and alter governing documents to reflect the deal .
From the inception of the NFLPA , its members were divided over whether it should act as a professional association or a union . Against the wishes of NFLPA presidents Pete Retzlaff and Bernie Parrish , Miller ran the association as a " ' grievance committee ' " rather than engaging in collective bargaining . The standard collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) is a contract between organized workers and management that determines the wages and hours worked by employees and can also determine the scope of one 's work and what benefits employees receive . The association continued to use the threat of antitrust litigation over the next few years as a lever to gain better benefits , including a pension plan and health insurance . In the 1960s the NFL also faced competition from the new American Football League ( AFL ) . NFL players viewed the new league as potential leverage for them to improve their contracts . The NFL tried to discourage this idea by changing the owner @-@ controlled pension plan to add a provision saying that a player would lose his pension if he went to another league .
On January 14 , 1964 , players in the newer league formed the AFL Players Association , and elected linebacker Tom Addison of the Boston Patriots as president . Rather than working with the AFLPA , the NFLPA chose to remain apart and tried to block the merger between the two leagues in 1966 , though lack of funding prevented it from mounting a formal challenge . With the merger complete , the players could no longer use the leverage of being able to sign with an AFL team to attain more money .
Parrish , upset with the ineffectiveness of the association , proposed forming a players ' union , that would be independent of the NFLPA , with the assistance of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters ( IBT ) . The IBT pushed for the NFLPA to join the trucking union . In early November 1967 , Parrish , with support from former Cleveland Browns player Jim Brown , began distributing union cards to form a Teamsters affiliate known as the American Federation of Pro Athletes . The NFLPA rejected the overture at its meeting in Hollywood , Florida , during the first week of January 1968 and declared itself an independent union . Although Parrish 's proposal was defeated , Miller left his position as counsel to the union . He was later replaced by two Chicago labor lawyers , Dan Schulman and Bernie Baum .
= = Recognition and certification ( 1968 – 1983 ) = =
Six months after the NFLPA declared itself an independent union , many players were dissatisfied with the lack of compensation teams provided and voted to strike on July 3 , 1968 after official discussions with the owners stalled . The owners countered by declaring a lockout . By July 14 , 1968 , the brief work stoppage came to an end . Although a CBA resulted , many players felt that the agreement did not net them as many benefits as they had hoped . The owners agreed to contribute about $ 1 @.@ 5 million to the pension fund with minimum salaries of $ 9 @,@ 000 for rookies , $ 10 @,@ 000 for veterans and $ 50 per exhibition game ; there was at yet no neutral arbitration for disputes .
As the merger of the AFL and NFL became effective in 1970 , the unions agreed to meet for the first time in January of that year . The NFL players wanted Ed Meador — who was the president @-@ elect of the NFLPA prior to the merger — to become president of the newly combined association while the AFL players wanted Jack Kemp . The compromise was John Mackey of the Baltimore Colts , an NFL team before the merger , which was grouped with former AFL teams in the American Football Conference . The AFL players agreed to Mackey 's election on the condition that former AFL player Alan Miller would become general counsel . Though the NFL owners were open to recognizing the union , their representatives requested lawyers not be present during negotiations , something the players were unwilling to agree to . This prompted the players to petition the National Labor Relations Board ( NLRB ) for union certification .
The players went on strike in July 1970 after the owners locked them out for a brief period . The strike lasted for two days ending with a new four year CBA which was reached after the owners threatened to cancel the season . Due to the new agreement , the union won the right for players to bargain through their own agents with the clubs , and minimum salaries were increased to $ 12 @,@ 500 for rookies and $ 13 @,@ 000 for veterans . Also , players ' pensions were improved and dental care was added to the players ' insurance plans . Players also gained the right to select representation on the league 's retirement board and the right to impartial arbitration for injury grievances . Following the 1970 agreement , many union representatives were released by their teams . Unfazed , the players were determined to create a stronger union through better communication . Attorney Ed Garvey was hired by the NFLPA in 1971 to act as their first executive director , and the NFLPA became officially certified as a union by the NLRB the same year . Headquarters were established in Washington , D.C. and a campaign was launched to help inform players of their rights .
= = = 1974 strike = = =
The NFLPA challenged the so @-@ called " Rozelle Rule " as a violation of federal antitrust laws in a lawsuit filed by president John Mackey and allied union leaders in 1971 . The rule , named after commissioner Pete Rozelle , allowed the commissioner to award compensation , which included players , to a team losing a free agent if both the signing team and the team the player was departing could not come to an agreement on compensation . This rule limited player movement , as few teams were willing to sign high @-@ profile free agents only to risk having their rosters raided . With the 1970 CBA agreement set to expire , the players went on strike on July 1 , 1974 . In addition to the " Rozelle Rule " , the players demanded the elimination of the option clause , impartial arbitration of disputes , elimination of the draft and waiver system and individual , rather than uniform contracts .
The strike lasted until August 10 , 1974 when the players returned to training camp without a new CBA , instead choosing to pursue free agency through the Mackey lawsuit filed three years before . While the courts ruled in favor of the players in 1976 , the union found that making progress in bargaining was more difficult to achieve . The Rozelle Rule was invalidated by the court which found it constituted a refusal to deal and was therefore in violation of the Sherman Act as it deterred franchises from signing free agents . However , the change did not achieve true free agency as compensation remained tied to draft picks that were awarded based on the salary of the departing free agent and teams still maintained a right of first refusal . The NFL and NFLPA agreed to a new collective bargaining agreement in March 1977 that ran until 1982 .
= = = 1982 strike = = =
The 1982 NFL strike began on September 21 , 1982 , and lasted 57 days , ending on November 16 , 1982 . During this time , no NFL games were played . The strike occurred because the union demanded that a wage scale based on percentage of gross revenues be implemented . The NFLPA wanted the percentage to be 55 percent , and according to the Los Angeles Times , this demand " dominated the negotiations . "
During the strike , the NFLPA promoted two " AFC @-@ NFC ' all @-@ star ' games . " One was held at RFK Stadium in Washington D.C. on October 17 , 1982 , and the second was held at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum a day later . One of the few stars who did play , future Hall of Fame running back John Riggins , explained " I guess I 'll do just about anything for money . " Despite a local TV blackout and ticket prices starting at six dollars , neither game drew well ; only 8 @,@ 760 fans attended in Washington , D.C. , and just 5 @,@ 331 attended in Los Angeles . With no NFL games to air , CBS replayed the previous Super Bowl and aired Division III football ; Pat Summerall and John Madden , for example , covered a game between Baldwin Wallace and Wittenberg . NBC acquired the rights to Canadian Football League games from ESPN , and aired them with NFL @-@ like production values ; the first four games it showed were all blowouts , however , with poor ratings , and the network gave up .
The 1982 strike ended with a players ' revolt against their own union , as some members suggested that Garvey step down as executive director . As a result of the strike , the season schedule was reduced from 16 games to 9 and the playoffs expanded to 16 teams ( eight from each conference ) for a " Super Bowl tournament . " A new five @-@ year agreement was ratified , providing severance packages to players upon retirement , an increase in salaries and post @-@ season pay , and bonuses based on the number of years of experience in the league . Additionally , the NFLPA was allowed to receive copies of all player contracts .
= = Gene Upshaw era ( 1983 – 2008 ) = =
In 1983 , former Oakland Raider Gene Upshaw became the executive director of the NFLPA . During his tenure , he oversaw a player strike , several antitrust lawsuits , and the collective bargaining agreement of 1993 .
The NFLPA went on strike for a month in 1987 upon the expiration of the 1982 CBA ; the league 's free @-@ agent policy was the major matter in dispute . This time , however , the strike only canceled one week of the season . For three weeks , the NFL staged games with hastily assembled replacement teams , made up principally of players cut during training camp and players left out of work from the closure of the United States Football League two years prior ( along with , to a lesser extent , the Montreal Alouettes , who had folded just three months prior to the strike ) . They were joined by a few veterans who crossed the picket lines , including New York Jets defensive end Mark Gastineau , Dallas Cowboys defensive tackle Randy White , San Francisco 49ers quarterback Joe Montana , New England Patriots quarterback Doug Flutie , and Seattle Seahawks wide receiver Steve Largent .
Given the willingness of the players to cross the picket lines and networks to broadcast the replacement games , despite a 20 % drop in television viewership and even steeper drops in attendance , the union failed to achieve their demands . The strike ended on October 15 , 1987 , without a collective bargaining agreement in place . The union filed a new antitrust lawsuit on December 30 asking federal judge David Doty to overturn the league 's restricting free agent policies .
On November 1 , 1989 , the Court of Appeals rejected the suit on the grounds that the owners were covered by the labor exemption from antitrust law . The union 's next tactic , in November 1989 , was to disclaim any interest in representing NFL players in collective bargaining and to reform itself as a professional organization . Having done that , individual players , led by Freeman McNeil of the New York Jets , brought a new antitrust action , challenging the NFL 's so @-@ called " Plan B " free agency , which gave teams a right of first refusal to sign a player , as an unlawful practice under the antitrust acts .
The players ultimately prevailed after a jury trial on their claims . That verdict , the pendency of other antitrust cases and the threat of a class action lawsuit filed by Reggie White , then with the Philadelphia Eagles , on behalf of all NFL players caused the parties to settle the antitrust cases and to agree on a formula that permitted free agency . In return , the owners received a salary cap , albeit one tied to a formula based on the players ' share of total league revenues . The agreement also established a salary floor — minimum payrolls all teams were obliged to pay . The settlement was presented to and approved by Judge Doty , who had also heard the McNeil antitrust case in 1993 . Once the agreement was approved , the NFLPA reconstituted itself as a labor union and entered into a new collective bargaining agreement with the league . The NFLPA and the league extended the 1993 agreement five times . The final extension came in March 2006 when it was extended through the 2010 season after the NFL owners voted 30 – 2 to accept the NFLPA 's final proposal .
= = DeMaurice Smith era ( 2009 – present ) = =
Following the death of Gene Upshaw in 2008 , Richard Berthelsen was named interim executive director , serving from August 2008 until March 2009 . The NFLPA Board of Representatives elected DeMaurice Smith for a three @-@ year term as the executive director on March 16 , 2009 . Smith has been largely praised for his work ethic by the media , current and former players and colleagues as director and for making the union more professional despite the resentment of some players who found his leadership style to be too controlling . Smith 's contract was renewed for an additional three years in March 2012 . He was elected for a third term in March 2015 . The major issue of Smith 's tenure has been the 2011 lockout ; former offensive lineman Chester Pitts praised Smith for fiercely fighting for the players ' rights during negotiations .
= = = 2011 lockout = = =
In May 2008 , the owners decided to opt out of the 1993 arrangement , per the agreement with the players , with the termination to follow a year with no salary cap in 2010 . By the CBA 's expiration in March 2011 , the NFLPA and the NFL had not yet come to terms on a new agreement . The owners were expected to lock out the players upon termination of the agreement . However , the NFLPA filed papers to decertify as a union on March 11 , 2011 , and filed an antitrust suit to enjoin the lockout with lead plaintiffs quarterbacks Tom Brady , Peyton Manning , and Drew Brees . U.S. District Court judge Susan Richard Nelson granted the players ' request to end the owners ' lockout on April 25 . The league asked Nelson to stay the order while they appealed to the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals ; Nelson refused . On April 29 , the Eighth Circuit granted the league a temporary stay of Nelson 's ruling ; the league reinstated the lockout the same day . The Eighth Circuit vacated Nelson 's ruling on July 8 , affirming the legitimacy of the lockout . During the lockout , players were barred from using team facilities and contacting team coaches ; many organized their own workout regimens .
The parties settled the lawsuit on July 25 , 2011 , and a majority of players signed union authorization cards . The NFL officially recognized the NFLPA 's status as the players ' collective bargaining representative on July 30 , 2011 . The NFL and NFLPA proceeded to negotiate terms for a new collective bargaining agreement , and the agreement became effective after ratification by the players August 4 , 2011 . Under the agreement , which runs through 2021 , revenue sharing , the most contentious issue during the lockout , was re @-@ designed so that the players must receive at least 47 % of all revenue in salary for the term of the agreement . Additionally , a limit was placed on the amount of money given to rookies . Fifty million dollars was set aside annually for medical research and approximately $ 1 billion would be set aside for retired player benefits over the life of the agreement .
= = = Bountygate = = =
The NFLPA , on behalf of Will Smith , Scott Fujita and Anthony Hargrove , three players suspended due to the Bountygate investigation by the NFL , filed a lawsuit against the league . The investigation found that New Orleans Saints players were allegedly paid bonuses for hits that injured opposing players . The players ' lawsuit claimed NFL commissioner Roger Goodell " had violated the league 's labor agreement by showing he had pre @-@ determined the guilt of the players punished in the bounty probe before serving as the arbitrator for their June 18 appeal hearing " . The suspensions were unanimously overturned by a three @-@ member appeals panel ; however , the ruling did not permanently void their suspensions . The NFL appointed former commissioner Paul Tagliabue to review the NFL 's sanctions against the players , which he overturned .
= = = Activate = = =
In April 2014 , the NFLPA partnered with opendorse to launch Activate , the first professional sports micro @-@ endorsement marketplace . The Activate platform allows for marketers to quickly find and contact athletes that best fit their endorsement campaigns . For athletes , Activate provides a monetary valuation of each player 's social media accounts that leads to an easier and more efficient negotiation process .
= = = New drug policy = = =
The league and the NFLPA approved updated substance abuse and performance @-@ enhancing substance policies in September 2014 . The regulations include human growth hormone testing and amended rules on DUIs and marijuana . Third @-@ party arbitration will handle appeals . The deal lifted suspensions for some players the week it was approved . The NFL began testing players for HGH the next month .
= = Composition = =
According to NFLPA 's Department of Labor records since 2006 , when membership classifications were first reported , around 60 % , or almost two thirds , of the union 's membership are classified as " former players , " and not eligible to vote in the union , " because , as a matter of federal law , they cannot be members of the collective bargaining unit . " The other , voting eligible , classifications are " active players " and " associates . " As of 2014 this accounts for 3 @,@ 130 " former player " members ( 59 % of total ) , 1 @,@ 959 " active players " ( 37 % ) , and 207 " associate " members ( 4 % ) .
= = Leadership = =
The current president of the NFLPA is Eric Winston and the executive director is DeMaurice Smith . As of 2014 , the executive committee consists of the following current and retired NFL players : Adam Vinatieri , Benjamin Watson , Brian Waters , Jay Feely , Lorenzo Alexander , Mark Herzlich , Matt Hasselbeck , Ryan Clark , Scott Wells and Zak DeOssie . Each NFL team also has a player representative , along with two to three alternate representatives .
= Whinchat =
The whinchat ( Saxicola rubetra ) is a small migratory passerine bird breeding in Europe and western Asia and wintering in central Africa . At one time considered to be in thrush family , Turdidae , it is now placed in the Old World flycatcher family , Muscicapidae . Both sexes have a strong supercilium , brownish upper parts mottled darker , a pale throat and breast , a pale buff to whitish belly , and a blackish tail with white bases to the outer tail feathers , but in the breeding season , the male has an orange @-@ buff throat and breast .
The whinchat is a solitary species , favouring open grassy country with rough vegetation and scattered small shrubs . It perches in elevated locations ready to pounce on the insects and other small invertebrates that form its diet . The nest is built by the female on the ground in coarse vegetation , with a clutch of four to seven eggs being laid . The hen incubates the eggs for about thirteen days and then both parents feed the nestlings . Fledging takes place about eighteen days after hatching and the parents continue to feed the young for another fortnight . Moulting takes place in late summer before the migration southwards , and again on the wintering grounds in Africa before the migration northwards in spring . The whinchat is a common species with a wide range and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has classified it as being of " least concern " .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
This species represents a fairly basal divergence of the genus Saxicola . It retains the supercilium found in many Muscicapidae but lost in the more derived Saxicola species such as the European stonechat or African stonechat ( S. torquatus ) .
As with other species of Saxicola , it was formerly considered a member of the thrush family ( Turdidae ) , but is now placed in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae . It , and similar thrush @-@ like Muscicapidae species , are often called chats . Its scientific name means " small rock @-@ dweller " , in reference to its habitat . Saxicola derives from Latin saxum ( " rock " ) + incola ( " dwelling " ) ; rubetra is a Latin term for a small bird . No subspecies are recognised .
Very rarely , hybridisation occurs between the whinchat and the Siberian stonechat ( Saxicola maurus ) , with a case being reported in Finland in 1997 . It has also been reported to hybridise with the European stonechat in western and southern Europe .
= = Description = =
The whinchat is a short @-@ tailed bird , moving on the ground with small , rapid hops and frequently bobbing and flicking its wings and tail . It is similar in size to its relative the European robin ( Erithacus rubecula ) , being 12 to 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 5 in ) long and weighing 13 to 26 g ( 0 @.@ 46 to 0 @.@ 92 oz ) . Both sexes have brownish upperparts mottled darker , a buff throat and breast , a pale buff to whitish belly , and a blackish tail with white bases to the outer tail feathers .
The male in breeding plumage has a blackish face mask almost encircled by a strong white supercilium and malar stripe , a bright orange @-@ buff throat and breast , and small white wing patches on the greater coverts and inner median coverts . The female is duller overall , in particular having browner face mask , pale buffy @-@ brown breast , and a buff supercilium and malar stripe , and smaller or no white wing patches . Males in immature and winter plumage are similar to females , except that adult males retain the white wing patches all year round .
Though fairly similar to females and immatures of the European stonechat ( S. rubicola ) , the whinchat can readily be distinguished by its conspicuous supercilium and whiter belly , and also in western Europe , by being paler overall than the western European stonechat subspecies S. rubicola hibernans . It also differs structurally in being slightly slimmer and less ' dumpy ' , and having longer wingtips ( an adaptation to its long @-@ distance migration ) . It is more easily confused with female or immature Siberian stonechat ( S. maura ) , which ( also being a long @-@ distance migrant ) shares the longer wingtips ; however , Siberian stonechat can be distinguished by its conspicuous unmarked pale orange @-@ buff rump ( in whinchat , the rump is the same mottled brown colour as the back ) .
Its main call is described as a hue @-@ tac @-@ tac , the ' tac ' softer and less grating than that of the European stonechat ; the call is used both for contact between birds and predator alarms . The male has a whistling , crackly but soft song used during the breeding season , consisting of a mixture of soft whistles , tacs and more grating sounds ; it is often mimetic , including phrases from the songs of at least 12 other assorted bird species . It sings from a fence , bush , tree or wire , or occasionally from the ground or in flight , between about April and July . On the wintering grounds , it often gives alarm calls but only occasionally sings , being most likely to do so at the end of winter , when starting spring migration .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The whinchat is a migratory species breeding in Europe and western Asia from Ireland and northern Portugal east to the Ob River basin near Novosibirsk , and from northern Norway south to central Spain , central Italy , northern Greece , and the Caucasus Mountains .
Birds arrive on the breeding grounds between the end of April and mid May , and depart between mid August and mid September ( odd birds lingering to October ) . They winter primarily in tropical sub @-@ Saharan Africa from Senegal east to Kenya and south to Zambia , arriving in western Africa at the start of the dry season in late September to November , and leaving between February and March . Small numbers also winter in northwestern Africa in Morocco , northern Algeria and Tunisia . Vagrants have reached northwest of the breeding range to Iceland , west on migration to the Canary Islands and Cape Verde , and south of the wintering range to northern South Africa .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The whinchat is a largely solitary bird though it may form small family groups in autumn . It favours rough low vegetation habitats such as open rough pasture or similar minimally cultivated grassland with scattered small shrubs such as hawthorn ( Crataegus monogyna ) , and bracken ( Pteridium aquilinum ) or heather ( Calluna vulgaris ) stands on rock @-@ strewn ground . It also commonly inhabits new and clear @-@ felled conifer plantations until the new tree crop is about five to six years old and a metre or two tall . It always needs at least a few perching points ( shrubs , tall weeds , or fence posts ) to scan from for food and for use as song posts .
Breeding takes place in late April and May . The nest is built solely by the female , and is made of dried grasses and moss , and lined with hairs and fine bents . It is built on the ground , hidden in dense low vegetation , often at the foot of a bush . The female lays and incubates a clutch of four to seven eggs which hatch after eleven to fourteen days . Both parents bring food to the young which leave the nest ten to fourteen days later , while still too young to fly . The chicks fledge at seventeen to nineteen days after hatching and remain largely dependent on the parents for a further two weeks . Whinchats are short @-@ lived , typically only surviving two years , to a maximum recorded of just over five years in the wild ; breeding starts when birds are a year old . Predators include weasels , stoats , and small raptors such as the merlin and nest predators such as crows and magpies . Nests are also lost due to agricultural operations such as silage cutting ( the main factor in the species ' decline in western Europe ) or trampling by livestock , and are sometimes parasitised by the common cuckoo .
Whinchats are insectivorous , feeding largely ( about 80 – 90 % ) on insects , but also consume a wide range of other invertebrates including spiders , small snails and worms . They also eat small amounts of fruit such as blackberries , primarily in autumn . The birds like to perch on elevated spots such as shrubs , from where they make sallies to catch insects , mostly taken off the ground , but also flying insects . While so perched , males in particular frequently flick their tail and sometimes their wings to show the white tail and wing flashes , for display or territorial communication signals to other whinchats .
Adult whinchats have a single complex complete moult in late summer ( late July onward ) after breeding and mainly completed before southbound migration . Juveniles have a partial moult at the same time , growing new body feathering but retaining the flight feathers . All ages also have a partial moult in early spring on the wintering grounds before northbound migration .
= = Status and conservation = =
Fairly common across its wide range , the whinchat is classified as a species of " least concern " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Some populations are however in serious decline , particularly in the west of its range in Britain , Ireland , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Denmark , and Germany , primarily due to agricultural intensification . In Britain it is amber @-@ listed with an unfavourable conservation status ; it had all but disappeared from former lowland breeding areas in the south and east between surveys in 1968 – 72 and 1988 – 91 , remaining common only in upland areas of the north and west where low @-@ intensity livestock rearing is the main land use . There has been a similar decline in Ireland , where it is now classified as " rare " .
= Thrud the Barbarian =
Thrud the Barbarian is a comics character created by Carl Critchlow in 1981 . Although Thrud himself is a parody of Conan the Barbarian , particularly as depicted in the Arnold Schwarzenegger films , inspiration for the character 's adventures and adversaries has been drawn from several fantasy sources .
During the 1980s , a Thrud comic strip was a regular and popular feature in the roleplay and wargame magazine White Dwarf with Thrud 's grotesque and comic antics forming a memorable part of the magazine 's golden age . In 2002 , continued interest in the character from role @-@ playing enthusiasts and a desire to be free to experiment with a new artistic style prompted Critchlow to self @-@ publish a series of award @-@ winning full @-@ length Thrud the Barbarian comics .
Since October 2002 , Critchlow has continued to develop his new artistic style in several different 2000 AD stories , contributing to the success of Lobster Random in particular . While Critchlow 's use of muted palettes has been criticised , his style has received praise for being highly recognisable and unique .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Initial publications = = =
The character of Thrud was created by the then 18 @-@ year @-@ old Critchlow in 1981 while he was at foundation art college . His graphic design tutor , Bryan Talbot , gave him the project of producing a comic strip . At the time , Critchlow was reading the Conan books by Robert E. Howard , and this inspired him to produce Thrud . The initial five @-@ page strip was published in comics fanzine Arken Sword . When Critchlow moved on to art college in Liverpool , Thrud made a further appearance in the comic Dead ' Ard , which Critchlow co @-@ authored with artist Euan Smith . Dead ' Ard also featured a strip titled The Black Currant , subsequently re @-@ published in the 26th and final issue of the Warrior comic anthology . The Black Currant would later appear as one of Thrud 's many enemies .
= = = White Dwarf = = =
On seeing an advertisement in White Dwarf magazine asking for cartoonists , Critchlow submitted some of his Thrud strips and was hired . Thrud the Barbarian became a monthly feature in White Dwarf between issue 45 in September 1983 and issue 105 in September 1988 . During this time , the black @-@ and @-@ white single @-@ page strip was voted " Most popular feature " for three consecutive years .
In 1987 , a collection of Thrud strips was published in a Thrud the Barbarian Graffik Novel by Games Workshop . In addition to strips that had been printed in White Dwarf , this anthology included a re @-@ drawn version of the original Arken Sword strip and an origin story for Thrud .
= = = Full @-@ length comic = = =
Once the Thrud strip had run its course in White Dwarf , Critchlow worked on other comics including the Judge Dredd / Batman crossover story The Ultimate Riddle , first published in 1995 . His work on this story was fully painted , and while considered impressive was also criticised as being forced , confused and muddy . Critchlow was developing a new style based on line @-@ drawings with computer colouring , but having been pigeon @-@ holed as a painter did not believe that he would be able to interest anyone in this very different style .
When attending gaming conventions , Critchlow found that he was often remembered for his work on Thrud and recognised that there was still an interest in the character . He therefore decided to create and self @-@ publish a full @-@ length Thrud the Barbarian comic as a way to get his new style noticed . A total of five Thrud the Barbarian comics were published :
Carborundum Capers – June 2002
Ice ' n ' a Slice – January 2003
Lava Louts – June 2004
Thrud Rex ! – June 2005
Bungle in the Jungle – January 2007
Critchlow found that , by organising distribution through comic shops and a devoted Thrud website , he was able to break even financially . His new style was also noticed and received positive comments .
The cover images for each of the first four comics were hand @-@ painted in contrast to the computer @-@ coloured line art used in the comic itself . For issue 5 , Critchlow also used his new style for the cover image .
= = Fictional character biography = =
An origin story for Thrud was printed in the Thrud the Barbarian Graffik Novel . The story tells of a group of mercenaries who , lost and searching for a pub , stumble across an abandoned baby in a deserted village . The mercenaries decide to raise the baby as one of their own , teaching him how to fight and drink beer .
At the age of five , Thrud is sent to Crom the Destroyer Orthodox Pagan Infants School , where he towers above the teachers and his fellow students . When one of the children shoots him with a pea shooter , Thrud 's reaction is to kill and maim twenty @-@ seven pupils and three teachers , leading to his expulsion from the school . Choosing to return to the wilderness rather than his adoptive parents , Thrud lives alone until , one day , he stumbles across a hidden burial chamber . Finding a small helmet and a large axe , Thrud arms himself . Finding gold and gems , he decides to return to civilisation with his newfound wealth , quickly establishing himself a reputation as a violent warrior .
Many years later , Thrud the Barbarian becomes Thrud the King , but finds the mundane duties of kingship tiresome without opportunities to fight . To put a halt to Thrud 's constant mutterings of , " Kill ! Death ! Maim ! Mutilate ! Destroy ! " , the wise men of his kingdom collect stories of heroism from around the land and read them to him long into the night .
= = Characterisation = =
Endowed with the strength of a rhinoceros , the speed of a jungle cat and the intelligence of a garden snail , Thrud is a one @-@ dimensional character who engages in mindless slaughter and strikes Frank Frazetta @-@ style poses while remaining ignorant of plot points . Depicted as an 8 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) barbarian with a hugely exaggerated , muscular physique and a very small head , and dressed in large furry boots and a loincloth , Thrud is a caricature of Arnold Schwarzenegger 's Conan the Barbarian .
Thrud is also a heavy drinker , frequenting the The Hobbit 's Armpit tavern and regularly causing mayhem when he is unable to have his desired flavour of crisps . These and other annoyances often cause Thrud to invoke the author of the Conan the Barbarian books with the battle cry , " By the sacred jockstrap of Robert E. Howard you 'll pay for this , Hellspawn ! "
= = Supporting characters = =
= = = The Black Currant = = =
First appearing in Dead ' Ard and Warrior , The Black Currant returned in a series of White Dwarf Thrud strips titled Thrud the Destroyer . In this story , The Black Currant is the leader of a horde of warriors who attack a small village , looting the homes , burning the women , raping the livestock and eating the babies . The Black Currant returned again in issue 3 of Critchlow 's self @-@ published Thrud the Barbarian comic as the leader of a group of bandits laying siege to a small town . The Black Currant is depicted in heavy black armour , wearing a helmet provided with a pair of exceedingly long , horizontally extending horns .
= = = Carl Critchlow = = =
Critchlow himself appears in a number of Thrud strips , occasionally as a narrator although more often as a drinking companion for Thrud . Critchlow depicts himself with lank hair and a large cap pulled down low over his eyes .
= = = Croneman the Cimpletan = = =
Croneman claims to be the mightiest barbarian of the northern tribes and honorary chief of the savage bezerkers of Nid . Known also as Amoron , the Wombat , he is a slayer , a reaver , a corsair , a usurper , and a conqueror . Depicted as resembling Schwarzenegger , he is also a bodybuilder with a very silly accent . On first meeting Croneman , Thrud slices him in half with a sword . When Croneman returns to join a group of mercenaries fighting The Black Currant in Thrud the Destroyer , he is depicted with a line of sutures running down the middle of his face and chest .
= = = Lymara , the She Wildebeeste = = =
Thrud first encounters Lymara when he sees her chasing away a wasp by waving a small cloth from her tower bedroom . Thinking her to be a damsel in distress , Thrud storms the tower , killing Lymara 's father , five brothers , two uncles , ten cousins and fiance in the process . Seeking revenge , Lymara attempts to poison Thrud with a bottle of Acme " Mammoth Poison " , but succeeds only in putting him to sleep as part of the The Three Tasks of Thrud series of strips . Subsequently , Lymara joins Thrud as one of the group of mercenaries brought in to fight The Black Currant in Thrud the Destroyer . In this latter series of strips , Lymara is depicted with oversized breasts barely covered by an off @-@ the @-@ shoulder leather bra .
= = = To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa = = =
To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa ( a name phonetically similar to that of British comedian Tommy Cooper ) is an evil necromancer who regularly crosses paths with Thrud and is depicted as a bald man wearing a large cloak . Thrud first encounters To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa in an early White Dwarf strip and is turned into a frog . Subsequently , in The Three Tasks of Thrud , To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa takes advantage of Thrud 's drugged state , following Lymara 's failed assassination attempt , to hypnotise him and force him to obtain three items necessary for a spell .
In Thrud the Destroyer , To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa is revealed as being in service to The Black Currant and is providing him with an army of warriors drawn from throughout time , including daleks and Imperial stormtroopers . To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa also appears as the villain in issue 1 of the full @-@ length Thrud the Barbarian comic .
= = Merchandise = =
A range of Thrud merchandise has been produced since the character 's inception , including a Thrud t @-@ shirt and badge as well as a series of miniatures . Citadel Miniatures produced five different metal miniatures of Thrud , starting in 1984 with a " White Dwarf Personality " miniature . Three numbered limited edition miniatures followed consisting of " LE12 , Thrud the Barbarian " , in 1986 , " LE19 , Thrud and Female Admirer " in 1987 , and " LE104 , Thrud scratching head " . Thrud was also introduced as a Blood Bowl player and Jervis Johnson commissioned an appropriate miniature . Heresy Miniatures has also produced three Thrud miniatures , including a limited edition " Strolling Thrud " that sold out within three weeks of release . On 29 March 2007 , another limited edition of 1000 resin miniatures was released .
= = Reception and awards = =
Thrud the Barbarian was one of the best loved pieces in White Dwarf over the five years that the strip ran , being voted " Most popular feature " for three consecutive years during the magazine 's golden age . Long @-@ term fans of Thrud were excited and nostalgic to see him return in his own full @-@ length comic , but were concerned that the idea would not stretch to 24 pages . In reviewing issue 1 , Jez Higgins , writing on TRS2 , and Robert Clark of Strike to Stun , considered the comic a success that was more than one joke spread thin and which was not limited by the single page brevity of the original strip . Steven Maxwell of Bulletproof Comics , however , found that what worked well within the constraints of a single page seemed stretched when spun out over 24 . Issue 2 received similarly mixed reviews , with Clark criticising the comic for being much the same , with the same themes and joke as issue 1 while Glenn Carter of Comics Bulletin found it to be well written light reading with quite a few elements of humour . Overall , the comic was deemed a success , with even the more negative reviewers awarding it 6 out of 10 and looking forward to more issues .
Although the writing received mixed reviews , the reception of the artwork was almost entirely positive . Higgins , recalling the heavy blacks and bold outlines of the original strip , found Critchlow 's new style to be much more open and expressive . Maxwell also praised Critchlow 's development as an artist , judging the comic to be beautifully drawn and coloured with a clear line style . Carter thought that the art was a little flat in places , but nevertheless praised it for being unique with a lot of character .
Critchlow was also commended for the risky decision to write , draw and publish the comic himself . The comic was compared favourably with professional quality comics , with its lack of adverts viewed as an advantage over those offerings . The high production values were also praised , with the glossy cover and high quality paper used for the inner pages .
In 2004 , Thrud the Barbarian won the Eagle Award for " Favourite British Small Press Title " . In 2006 Thrud was nominated for the " Favourite Colour Comicbook – British " Eagle Award , but lost out to 2000 AD .
= = Legacy = =
In October 2002 , four months after Thrud issue 1 was published , Critchlow returned to 2000AD using his new computer @-@ drawn style . His first story was the Judge Dredd , Out of the Undercity story written by John Wagner . The new style was initially well received by 2000AD Review and seen as a marked improvement over his previous fully painted style with clearer figures and atmospheric colouring . As the Undercity story developed , however , Critchlow was criticised for using too narrow a palette , with too many greys and blues , although this might have been as a result of the story being set underground .
2000AD Review 's criticism of Critchlow 's subdued colouring continued with the 2003 Lobster Random story , No Gain , No Pain . By the conclusion , however , Critchlow 's style was recognised as being truly unique and even the previously criticised blues and greys were seen to work well when used with other coloured elements . The artwork in two further Lobster Random stories , Tooth & Claw in October 2004 and The Agony & the Ecstasy in April 2006 was again very well received . Tooth & Claw was praised for its character designs while Critchlow 's style in The Agony & the Ecstasy was said to be easily recognisable , having " volume , colour and verve " .
= Barry ( dog ) =
Barry der Menschenretter ( 1800 – 1814 ) , also known as Barry , was a dog of a breed which was later called the St. Bernard that worked as a mountain rescue dog in Switzerland for the Great St Bernard Hospice . He predates the modern St. Bernard , and was lighter built than the modern breed . He has been described as the most famous St. Bernard , as he was credited with saving more than 40 lives during his lifetime , hence his byname " Menschenretter " meaning people rescuer in German .
The legend surrounding him was that he was killed while attempting a rescue ; however , this is untrue . Barry retired to Bern , Switzerland and after his death his body was passed into the care of the Natural History Museum of Bern . His skin has been preserved through taxidermy although his skull was modified in 1923 to match the Saint Bernard of that time period . His story and name have been used in literary works , and a monument to him stands in the Cimetière des Chiens near Paris . At the hospice one dog has always been named Barry in his honor and since 2004 the Foundation Barry du Grand Saint Bernard has been set up to take over the responsibility for breeding dogs from the hospice .
= = History = =
The first mention in the Great St Bernard Hospice archives of a dog was in 1707 which simply said " A dog was buried by us . " The dogs are thought to have been introduced to the monastery as watchdogs at some point between 1660 and 1670 . Old skulls from the collection of the Natural History Museum of Bern show that at least two types of dog lived at the hospice . By 1800 , the year that Barry was born , it was known that a special kind of dog was being used for rescue work in the pass . This general variety of dog was known as a Küherhund , or cowherd 's dog .
Measurements of his preserved body show that Barry was smaller than the modern Saint Bernard , weighing between 40 and 45 kilograms ( 88 and 99 lb ) whereas modern Bernards weigh between 80 and 130 kilograms ( 180 and 290 lb ) . His current mounted height is approximately 64 centimetres ( 25 in ) , but the living Barry would have been slightly smaller .
During Barry 's career , he was credited with saving the lives of more than forty people , although this number has sometimes varied over the years . Barry 's most famous rescue was that of a young boy . He found the child asleep in a cavern of ice . After warming up the boy 's body sufficiently by licking him , he moved the boy about and onto his back and carried the child back to the hospice . The child survived and was returned to his parents , although other sources say that the boy 's mother died in the avalanche that trapped the boy . The Museum of Natural History in Bern disputes the legend , attributing it to Peter Scheitlin , an animal psychologist .
The best of dogs , the best of animals is Barry . You used to leave the convent with a basket round your neck , into the storm , in the most insidious snow . Each and every day you examined the mountain searching for unfortunates buried under avalanches . You dug them out and brought them back to life by yourself and , when you couldn 't , you rushed back to the convent signalling the monks for help . You resurrected people . Your tenderness was so easy to communicate , that the boy you dug out had no fear to let you bring him , holding on to your back , to the Hospice .
= = = Death = = =
There is a plaque on a monument in the Cimetière des Chiens pet cemetery which states , " Il sauva la vie à 40 personnes . Il fut tué par le 41ème " : Barry saved the lives of forty people , but died while attempting to save his forty @-@ first . The story goes that news had come that a Swiss soldier was lost in the mountains . Barry was searching for the soldier and had picked up the scent , some forty @-@ eight hours old , and finally stopped before a large bank of ice . He dug until he reached the soldier , and then licked him as he was trained . The Swiss soldier awoke startled and mistook Barry for a wolf and fatally stabbed him with his bayonet . James Watson in his 1906 work The Dog Book attributed the rumour to fellow author Idstone , also known as Reverend Thomas Pearce .
However , the legend of his death is untrue . After twelve years of service at the monastery , Barry was brought by a monk to Bern , Switzerland so that he could live out the rest of his life . He died at the age of 14 . His body passed into the hands of the Natural History Museum of Bern . A special exhibit was held in his honor at the museum to commemorate his 200th Anniversary .
= = Legacy = =
The Hospice has always maintained one St. Bernard named Barry in the original 's honor . During Barry 's lifetime , his breed did not have one specific name . By 1820 , six years after his death , Barry was specifically referred to as being an Alpine Mastiff , while there was also a breed called the Alpine Spaniel which was recorded around the same time period . The English called the breed " sacred dogs " , while the German Kynology proposed the name " Alpendog " in 1828 . Following his death and up until 1860 , the entire stock were called " Barry hounds " in the Canton of Bern after Barry himself . It was not until 1865 when the term " St. Bernard " was first used primarily for the breed . Under this name , the St. Bernard has been recognised since 1880 by the Swiss Kennel Club .
Barry is described as the most famous St. Bernard by the Natural History Museum of Bern . Following his death , his skin was preserved by a taxidermist for the museum , while the rest of his body was buried . He was originally given a humble and meek pose , as the taxidermist felt that this would serve as a reminder of servitude to future generations . In 1923 , his body was refurbished by Georg Ruprecht , as his coat had become brittle and had broken into more than 20 pieces . During the restoration , his body was re @-@ posed and his skull shape was modified to match the shape of the St. Bernard of that time , in a compromise between Ruprecht and the Museum 's director . His original head shape was rather flat with a moderate stop , with the modification resulting in a larger head with a more pronounced stop . A barrel was added hanging from his collar , following the popularization of the myth of the monastery 's dogs using these during the rescues , which was originally introduced by Edwin Landseer 's work Alpine Mastiffs Reanimating a Distressed Traveller . The barrel was removed in 1978 by Professor Walter Huber , the director of the museum , although it has since been replaced . A monument to Barry is located opposite the entrance to the Cimetière des Chiens in Paris .
In literary works , Samuel Rogers ' poem The Great Saint Bernard is sometimes referred to as Barry , The Great St. Bernard . Henry Bordeaux praised Barry 's work in his 1911 novel La Neige sur les pas . Walt Disney Productions made a telemovie entitled Barry of the Great St. Bernard in 1977 , and Barry 's story has been featured in children 's books such as Barry : The Bravest Saint Bernard published by Random House Books for Young Readers .
Until September 2004 , 18 dogs still belonged to the hospice at any one time . The Foundation Barry du Grand Saint Bernard was established to create kennels in Martigny , a village further down the pass , to take over the breeding of St. Bernard puppies from the friars at Hospice . Around 20 puppies per year are born at the foundation . In 2009 , the St. Bernard Dog Museum was opened at the Foundation in Martigny and , to commemorate the occasion , Barry 's remains were lent from the museum in Bern . Each summer , the foundation leads dogs up the pass when it is open to the hospice , mainly for tourists , with rescue efforts on the pass now conducted by helicopters .
= = = Specific = = =
= = = General = = =
= Smoke Gets in Your Eyes ( Mad Men ) =
" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " is the first episode of the first season of the American period drama television series Mad Men . It first aired on July 19 , 2007 , in the United States on AMC , and was written by creator Matthew Weiner and directed by Alan Taylor . " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was budgeted at US $ 3 million . Production for the episode took place in New York City and Los Angeles .
Weiner conceived of the script in 2000 while working as a writer for the television sitcom Becker . Before writing the pilot episode , Weiner studied American literature and cinema of the 1950s and 1960s to get a perspective on American culture during that period . Weiner sent the script to The Sopranos creator David Chase , who recruited Weiner to work with him on The Sopranos . Weiner shelved the project for seven years to focus on Chase 's program ; interest for Mad Men did not surface until the conclusion of The Sopranos ' final season .
According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode attained a rating of 1 @.@ 4 ( 1 @.@ 2 million households ) upon initial airing .
= = Plot = =
In 1960 New York City , Don Draper ( Jon Hamm ) , creative director for advertising agency Sterling Cooper , is facing a professional dilemma : how to sell cigarettes in spite of increased public awareness of their health risks . He seeks input from customers and his girlfriend Midge Daniels ( Rosemarie DeWitt ) , but is unable to find a solution . He rejects company research which suggests that some customers will be drawn to smoke despite the health risks because of a collective " death wish . "
Meanwhile , Peggy Olson ( Elisabeth Moss ) begins a new career at Sterling Cooper as Don 's secretary . She finds herself overwhelmed by her new surroundings , and advice from office manager Joan Holloway ( Christina Hendricks ) proves more intimidating than helpful . A junior account executive named Pete Campbell ( Vincent Kartheiser ) makes crude comments about her appearance and clothing , causing Don to rebuke him . On her break , Peggy goes to a doctor 's office , where she gets a prescription for the pill . At the end of the day , she attempts to make a move on Don , but he rejects her advances .
Don and Roger Sterling ( John Slattery ) meet with Rachel Menken ( Maggie Siff ) , owner of a large department store . Rachel , looking to attract wealthier customers , is disappointed by the agency 's suggestions of coupons to attract frugal housewives . The meeting becomes heated and both Rachel and Don leave angry with each other . A later meeting with executives from Lucky Strike tobacco company also appears to go badly , as Don still struggles to find a new approach to cigarette advertising . Pete suggests the " death wish " idea put forth by the company 's research , but the executives reject his idea . Just when it seems that the meeting is over , Don comes up with a new tagline — " It 's toasted ! " — and a strategy of ignoring the question of health risks while claiming that Lucky Strikes are uniquely prepared . The client is impressed , but Don rebukes Pete for using the rejected research .
Don meets Rachel for dinner to make amends for the meeting . The two of them begin to bond , and she agrees to give Sterling Cooper another shot . Meanwhile , Pete and some of his co @-@ workers go to a gentlemen 's club to celebrate Pete 's impending wedding . There , a waitress rejects Pete 's advances . Dejected from this rejection and his professional problems , Pete arrives drunk at Peggy 's apartment , and she invites him in . Don takes a train to a large house in the suburbs , where he is greeted by his loving wife Betty ( January Jones ) , who he has made no mention of thus far in the episode . He checks on their two sleeping children as she watches admiringly from the doorway .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Creator Matthew Weiner conceived the script for " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " in 2000 , while he was working as a writer for the sitcom Becker . The first draft of the episode was written as a spec script and was titled The Division . Two years later , Weiner sent the script to David Chase , the creator of The Sopranos , although Weiner 's agents insisted that he not proceed with his plans . Chase later recruited him upon first glance . " It was what you ’ re always hoping to see , " he recalled . " It was lively and it had something new to say . Here was someone who had written a story about advertising in the 1960s , and was looking at recent American history through that prism . " Weiner set the pilot script aside for the next seven years to focus on The Sopranos . Neither HBO nor Showtime expressed interest in the project until the commencement of The Sopranos ' final season . During that time , AMC began looking into the television market for new programming . " The network was looking for distinction in launching its first original series , " according to AMC Networks president Ed Carroll , " and we took a bet that quality would win out over formulaic mass appeal . "
Prior to writing the pilot episode , Weiner studied American culture during the 1950s and 1960s , analyzing literary works such as The Feminine Mystique ( 1963 ) and Sex and the Single Girl ( 1962 ) while viewing such films as The Apartment ( 1960 ) and A Guide for the Married Man ( 1967 ) . He continued his endeavors when the series ' concept began to materialize , as he received a copy of the Richard Yates novel Revolutionary Road ( 1962 ) from the executives of AMC . Weiner discussed the look of Mad Men with production designer Bob Shaw and cinematographer Phil Abraham , whom Weiner had previously collaborated with in The Sopranos . Abraham wanted to establish a more genuine approach to portraying society in the 1960s , rather than " simply referencing the period as seen in movies of that time . We wanted to be more genuine than that . Movies were an influence . " In evoking historical accuracy of elements such as architecture and graphic design , Abraham sought inspiration from the buildings designed by the architecture firm Skidmore , Owings and Merrill . He said , " We noticed that in all the Skidmore , Owings & Merrill designs of contemporary buildings , the ceiling — the overhead grid of lights — was a strong graphic element in all the office spaces . In one design we loved , the whole ceiling was like a lightbox . It was a time of high modernism , and we embraced the notion of presenting the world in that way . These were new work spaces — sleek , not stuffy . "
= = = Casting = = =
Jon Hamm was cast as Don Draper , the central character of the series . Hamm , who was relatively unknown at the time , competed with 80 other actors in the auditioning process . Weiner proclaimed that Hamm accurately portrayed the character , saying that he was " the only person who really had this great mix of empathy and masculinity and intelligence . Both Don and Jon have an inner life . So long as you have that kind of depth in a human being , people will root for him [ ... ] Jon walked out of the room and I said , ' That guy has lived . ' " Hamm admitted that he felt that he had a considerable disadvantage compared to his peers , and initially believed Thomas Jane would acquire the role . " I started , literally , on the very , very bottom , " he iterated . " I couldn 't have had less heat on me . Nobody knew who I was . The casting directors didn 't know who I was . I wasn 't on anybody 's lists . The funny thing was , I think they went to Thomas Jane for it , and they were told that Thomas Jane does not do television . " Hamm went through seven auditions ; his last one took place at the Hotel Gansevoort in the Meatpacking District of New York City . " When we were riding down on the elevator , the woman in charge of whatever the decision @-@ making process was told me , ' You got the job . ' "
John Slattery , who was later cast as Roger Sterling , originally auditioned to portray Don Draper . Slattery felt Don was the show 's biggest draw , and was disappointed upon hearing of his character 's sparse screen time . He recalled , " I really did prepare the thing and went in and I worked hard on it and then read for Don and they actually gave me adjustments and I went and I did it again . And then they sort of said , ' Well , look , here ’ s the deal . We have a guy . The reason we asked you to come in and read for Draper is because we didn 't think that you ’ d come in a read for Roger because there wasn ’ t that much Roger in the script . ' " During production of " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes , " Slattery admitted he was unsure of whether to continue working on Mad Men . " I was on the fence a little bit , even while shooting it . And I think Matt finally was like , ' Look man , we ’ re not jerking you around here . We ’ re serious about this and I ’ ve really thought this out . I promise you this will be a great character and it will be a big part of the show . ' "
Producers of Mad Men approached January Jones to portray Betty Draper , Don 's wife and mother of their two children . Jones avouched that portraying the character would give the audience an opportunity to see a dark side of her nature . She initially auditioned for the role of Peggy Olson , which was later given to fellow cast member Elisabeth Moss . " It got down between Elisabeth Moss and myself , and it was obviously more suited to her ,
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year , contested by both club and school crews .
= Alan Julian =
Alan John Julian ( born 11 March 1983 ) is a semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for National League club Bromley .
Julian started his career at Brentford , progressing through the youth side and making his first @-@ team debut in 2002 . After failing to cement a place as Brentford 's number one goalkeeper , he left to join Stevenage Borough in February 2005 . Julian was a regular fixture in the side , helping the club win the FA Trophy in May 2007 . He left Stevenage to join Gillingham on a free transfer in May 2008 . Julian was released by Gillingham in May 2011 , having played 80 games for the club during his three @-@ year tenure . He spent a season at his former club , now called simply Stevenage , before being released in May 2012 , and subsequently joined Newport County a month later . He was released by the club in May 2013 , and subsequently joined Dartford on a free transfer .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Julian joined Brentford aged nine , following a successful trial . He progressed through the various youth ranks and eventually signed his first professional contract in 2002 . He made his debut for the club in the Brentford 's 1 – 0 victory over Plymouth Argyle in the Football League Trophy on 12 November 2002 . During the match , Julian was " forced into numerous good saves . His best stop came in the 21st minute when he managed to claw away a stinging drive from Hasney Aljofree , and moments later he also denied Blair Sturrock with a low block " . He made a further three appearances during the 2002 – 03 season , keeping a clean sheet in a 1 – 0 win over Mansfield Town . At the end of the season , Julian signed a new contract with Brentford , keeping him contracted to the club until 2005 . Julian remained at Brentford during the club 's 2003 – 04 campaign , playing his first match of the season in a 4 – 0 away defeat to West Bromwich Albion . He made a total of 14 appearances for Brentford during the season . Julian left Brentford in February 2005 , claiming " the time had come " for him to experience first @-@ team football on a regular basis .
= = = Stevenage Borough = = =
He signed for Stevenage Borough on a free transfer on 4 February 2005 , making his debut in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 win over Scarborough . Julian kept seven clean sheets for Stevenage in 17 appearances during the second half of the club 's 2004 – 05 campaign , including in a 1 – 0 victory against Hereford United at Edgar Street in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final second leg – a win that meant Stevenage were one game away from reaching the Football League for the first time in their history . He played in the play @-@ off final against Carlisle United at the Britannia Stadium , which Stevenage lost 1 – 0 . He remained at Stevenage during the 2005 – 06 season , " attracting interest from scouts " as a result of Stevenage 's strong start to the season . Stevenage kept 12 clean sheets during the season , although failed to make the play @-@ offs following a 2 – 0 defeat at Forest Green Rovers , finishing sixth . Julian made 45 appearances for Stevenage during the campaign and was voted ' Supporters Association Player of the Year ' .
At the end of the 2005 – 06 season , Graham Westley , the man that had brought Julian to Stevenage , left the club and was replaced by Mark Stimson . Stimson signed goalkeeper Danny Potter and stated that Potter would be the club 's first choice goalkeeper . Julian was subsequently an unused substitute for Stevenage 's first two games of the season . However , after Potter was sent @-@ off in Stevenage 's home game against Crawley Town , Julian made his first appearance of the season , coming on as a 63rd @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 2 defeat . Julian remained first choice goalkeeper from then onwards , making 53 appearances for the club during the 2006 – 07 season as Stevenage finished eighth in the Conference National . Eight of Julian 's appearances during the season came in the club 's successful FA Trophy campaign , keeping four clean sheets in the process . He also made a number vital saves in the club 's semi @-@ final second leg against Grays Athletic , which Stevenage went on to win by a 3 – 1 aggregate scoreline . Julian started in the Final , which Stevenage won 3 – 2 against Kidderminster Harriers at Wembley Stadium in front of a crowd of 53 @,@ 262 . The win meant that Julian was part of the first team to win a competitive final at the new stadium .
Julian remained at Stevenage for a fourth consecutive season , starting in the club 's first game of the 2007 – 08 season , a 2 – 1 defeat at Crawley Town . He kept his first clean sheet of the season in Stevenage 's 3 – 0 home win against Weymouth . This served as the catalyst for a run of eight games without conceding a goal , equalling a Conference National record when they beat Farsley Celtic 4 – 0 at Broadhall Way . Julian went a total of 778 minutes without conceding a goal . After manager Mark Stimson left Stevenage to join Gillingham , Julian refused to sign a new contract , stating he wanted to " keep his options open for the summer " . As a result , he was transfer @-@ listed in January 2008 . Despite being on the transfer @-@ list , Julian remained first choice goalkeeper under new manager Peter Taylor until Stevenage 's 3 – 1 home defeat to Torquay United on 12 April 2008 , his final appearance of the season . He made 44 appearances during the 2007 – 08 season . During his three and a half @-@ year tenure at Stevenage , Julian made a total of 159 appearances in all competitions .
= = = Gillingham = = =
Julian joined Gillingham on a free transfer on 21 May 2008 , joining up with former Stevenage manager Mark Stimson . He made his debut for Gillingham in the club 's League Cup first round 1 – 0 home defeat against Colchester United on 12 August 2008 . Four days later , Julian made his first league start for Gillingham , playing the whole match in a 1 – 0 home loss to Luton Town . He did not make another first @-@ team appearance until November 2008 , when he kept a clean sheet in a 1 – 0 away win at Macclesfield Town . A week later , he kept another clean sheet as Gillingham beat Bury 1 – 0 at Gigg Lane in the FA Cup . After six weeks without a first @-@ team appearance , Julian played in Gillingham 's 2 – 0 away loss at Dagenham & Redbridge . His next first @-@ team appearance was five months later , playing in a 1 – 0 away victory at Rochdale , with Gillingham having already secured a play @-@ off place . It was Julian 's last appearance of the 2008 – 09 campaign as Gillingham secured promotion back to League One after a 1 – 0 play @-@ off Final win against Shrewsbury Town . He made six appearances during his first season with the club , keeping three clean sheets .
Ahead of the 2009 – 10 campaign , manager Mark Stimson admitted he was undecided as to whether Julian or Simon Royce would start in the club 's opening fixture of the season . Julian ultimately started in the club 's 5 – 0 home win against Swindon Town on the first day of the season . After three straight defeats in the space of a week with Gillingham conceding seven goals , Julian was replaced by Royce ahead of the club 's League Cup game against Blackburn Rovers . After the game , Julian only featured twice in the space of four months , both appearances coming in Football League Trophy fixtures . Julian handed in a transfer request in November 2009 as a result of a lack of first @-@ team appearances . However , Gillingham received no offers for the player , with manager Mark Stimson saying " I haven 't had a phone call . He 's been on the loan circuit for four to six weeks and I haven 't had a call . You don 't just say I 'm on the transfer list and six teams come in for you " . He remained at Gillingham , and after appearing in Gillingham 's 2 – 1 away loss at Huddersfield Town in December 2009 , Julian remained as a first choice goalkeeper until the end of the season . The club went the whole season without an away victory , and were relegated back to League Two on the final day of the season following a 3 – 0 defeat to Wycombe Wanderers . Julian made 33 appearances during the 2009 – 10 season , keeping eight clean sheets .
Under the new management of Andy Hessenthaler , Julian started the 2010 – 11 season as first choice goalkeeper , starting in the club 's first game of the season , a 1 – 1 draw with Cheltenham Town on 7 August 2010 . However , similarly to the 2009 – 10 season , Julian lost his first @-@ team place after a winless run at the start of the campaign . New signing Lance Cronin impressed in an away draw against Morecambe , and kept Julian out of the first @-@ team for five weeks . After Gillingham 's 7 – 4 away loss at Accrington Stanley , Julian regained his first @-@ team place , playing in a 2 – 1 home win against Stockport County on 9 October 2010 . Julian was part of the side that ended Gillingham 's 35 game winless away streak when they won 1 – 0 against Oxford United at the Kassam Stadium on 20 November 2010 , making a number of key saves during the game . He remained as first choice goalkeeper throughout the season as Gillingham finished in eighth position in League Two , narrowly missing out on a play @-@ off place after losing three out of their last four games . Julian made 41 appearances for Gillingham in all competitions during the 2010 – 11 season , keeping 12 clean sheets . Despite being the club 's first choice goalkeeper during the campaign , Julian was told that he no longer featured in the club 's plans , and was subsequently released on 11 May 2011 . He made 80 appearances in all competitions for Gillingham during the three years he spent at the club .
= = = Return to Stevenage = = =
In June 2011 , Julian re @-@ joined his former club , now renamed simply Stevenage , on a free transfer , three years after leaving the club . The move meant that Julian would be playing under the management of Graham Westley once more , who first brought Julian to Stevenage in 2005 – Westley said " Alan sees the opportunity in the long term and we all know how much quality he will bring into the squad . He is a different type of character but another man that you would happily go into the trenches with " . On signing for Stevenage , Julian said " I had a great time at Stevenage before and coming back now and we are in League One , it is a dream come true " . As a result of Chris Day dislocating his finger , Julian started in the club 's first game of the 2011 – 12 campaign , keeping a clean sheet in Stevenage 's 0 – 0 home draw against Exeter City . He played the first three games of the season , before first choice goalkeeper Chris Day returned from injury . Julian made just two further appearances during the campaign ; in a 2 – 2 draw with AFC Wimbledon in the Football League Trophy , and an appearance as a second @-@ half substitute in Stevenage 's 2 – 2 home draw against Huddersfield Town . He was released by Stevenage when his contract expired in May 2012 .
= = = Newport County = = =
In June 2012 , Julian joined Conference National side Newport County on a free transfer . In Newport 's first pre @-@ season game ahead of the 2012 – 13 season , away to Caldicot Town , Julian suffered a knee ligament injury . He subsequently missed the first three months of the season , before eventually making his first @-@ team debut for Newport on 17 November 2012 , in a 3 – 1 home defeat to Hyde . Julian went on to make eleven appearances during a campaign in which Newport would return to the Football League after a 25 @-@ year absence following the club 's 2 – 0 play @-@ off final victory over Wrexham in May 2013 .
= = = Dartford = = =
He was released by Newport at the end of the season , and subsequently signed for Dartford . On securing the signing of Julian , Dartford manager Tony Burman stated — " After meeting Alan a couple of times , I was impressed with his professionalism and I am looking forward to having someone of his experience here at Dartford " . Julian was voted Dartford 's player of the season for the 2013 – 14 season .
= = = Sutton United = = =
Following his departure from Dartford , Julian signed for Sutton United . However , following an injury in pre @-@ season , Julian found opportunities limited , before eventually making 14 league appearances . He eventually left the club along with fellow goalkeeper Tom Lovelock in January 2015 .
= = = Bromley = = =
Soon after , he joined Sutton 's league rivals Bromley . He made his debut for the club in a 2 – 1 away win over Basingstoke Town .
= = International career = =
Julian has played once for the Northern Ireland U21 side , playing in a 0 – 0 draw against Switzerland U21 in August 2004 .
= = Honours = =
Stevenage
FA Trophy ( 1 ) : 2006 – 07
Newport County
Conference National play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13
Individual
Stevenage Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06
Dartford Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
= = Career statistics = =
As of 9th May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
= Raoul Wallenberg =
Raoul Gustaf Wallenberg ( 4 August 1912 – disappeared 17 January 1945 ) was a Swedish architect , businessman , diplomat and humanitarian . He is widely celebrated for saving tens of thousands of Jews in Nazi @-@ occupied Hungary during the Holocaust from German Nazis and Hungarian Fascists during the later stages of World War II . While serving as Sweden 's special envoy in Budapest between July and December 1944 , Wallenberg issued protective passports and sheltered Jews in buildings designated as Swedish territory .
On 17 January 1945 , during the Siege of Budapest by the Red Army , Wallenberg was detained by SMERSH on suspicion of espionage and subsequently disappeared . He was later reported to have died on 17 July 1947 while imprisoned by communist authorities and KGB secret police in the Lubyanka , the KGB headquarters and affiliated prison in Moscow . The motives behind Wallenberg 's arrest and imprisonment by the Soviet government , along with questions surrounding the circumstances of his death and his possible ties to US intelligence , remain mysterious and are the subject of continued speculation .
Due to his courageous actions on behalf of the Hungarian Jews , Raoul Wallenberg has been the subject of numerous humanitarian honors in the decades following his presumed death . In 1981 , U.S. Congressman Tom Lantos , himself one of those saved by Wallenberg , sponsored a bill making Wallenberg an Honorary Citizen of the United States . He was the second person ever to receive this honor , after Winston Churchill ( and unlike Churchill , neither of his parents had been born in the United States ) . Wallenberg is also an honorary citizen of Canada , Hungary , Australia and Israel . Israel has also designated Wallenberg one of the Righteous Among the Nations . Monuments have been dedicated to him , and streets have been named after him throughout the world . A Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States was created in 1981 to " perpetuate the humanitarian ideals and the nonviolent courage of Raoul Wallenberg . " It gives the Raoul Wallenberg Award annually to recognize persons who carry out those goals . Postage stamps have been issued in his honour by Australia , Hungary , Sweden , Canada and the United States . On 26 July 2012 , he was awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress " in recognition of his achievements and heroic actions during the Holocaust . "
= = Early life = =
Wallenberg was born in 1912 in Lidingö , near Stockholm , where his maternal grandparents , professor Per Johan Wising and his wife Sophie Wising , had built a summer house in 1882 . His paternal grandfather , Gustaf Wallenberg , was a diplomat and envoy to Tokyo , Istanbul and Sofia .
His parents , who married in 1911 , were Raoul Oscar Wallenberg ( 1888 – 1912 ) , a Swedish naval officer , and Maria " Maj " Sofia Wising ( 1891 – 1979 ) . His father died of cancer three months before he was born , and his maternal grandfather died of pneumonia three months after his birth . His mother and grandmother , now both suddenly widows , raised him together . In 1918 , his mother married Fredrik von Dardel ; they had a son , Guy von Dardel , and a daughter , Nina Lagergren .
After high school and his compulsory eight months in the Swedish military , Wallenberg 's paternal grandfather sent him to study in Paris . He spent one year there , and then , in 1931 , he matriculated at the University of Michigan in the United States to study architecture . Although the Wallenberg family was rich , he worked at odd jobs in his free time and joined other young male students as a passenger rickshaw handler at Chicago 's Century of Progress . He used his vacations to explore the United States , with hitchhiking being his preferred method of travel . About his experiences , he wrote to his grandfather saying , " When you travel like a hobo , everything ’ s different . You have to be on the alert the whole time . You ’ re in close contact with new people every day . Hitchhiking gives you training in diplomacy and tact . "
Wallenberg was aware of his one @-@ sixteenth Jewish ancestry , and proud of it . It came from his great @-@ great @-@ grandfather ( his maternal grandmother 's grandfather ) Michael Benedicks , who immigrated to Stockholm in 1780 . Professor Ingemar Hedenius ( one of the leading Swedish philosophers ) recalls a conversation with Raoul dating back to 1930 , when they were together in an army hospital during military service :
We had many long and intimate conversations . He was full of ideas and plans for the future . Although I was a good deal older - you could choose when to do your service - I was enormously impressed by him . He was proud of his partial Jewish ancestry and , as I recall , must have exaggerated it somewhat . I remember him saying , ' A person like me , who is both a Wallenberg and half @-@ Jewish , can never be defeated ' .
He graduated from university in 1935 , but upon his return to Sweden , he found his American degree did not qualify him to practice as an architect . Later that year , his grandfather arranged a job for him in Cape Town , South Africa , in the office of a Swedish company that sold construction material . After six months in South Africa , he took a new job at a branch office of the Holland Bank in Haifa . He returned to Sweden in 1936 and obtained a job in Stockholm with the help of his uncle and godfather , Jacob Wallenberg , at the Central European Trading Company , an export @-@ import company trading between Stockholm and central Europe , owned by Kálmán Lauer , a Hungarian Jew .
= = World War II = =
Beginning in 1938 , the Kingdom of Hungary , under the regency of Miklós Horthy , passed a series of anti @-@ Jewish measures modeled on the so @-@ called Nuremberg Race Laws enacted in Germany by the Nazis in 1935 . Like their German counterparts , the Hungarian laws focused heavily on restricting Jews from certain professions , reducing the number of Jews in government and public service jobs , and prohibiting intermarriage . Because of this , Wallenberg 's business associate , Kalman Lauer , found it increasingly difficult to travel to his native Hungary , which was moving still deeper into the German orbit , becoming a member of the Axis powers in November 1940 and later joining the German @-@ led invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 . Out of necessity Wallenberg became Lauer 's personal representative , traveling to Hungary to conduct business on Lauer 's behalf and also to look in on members of Lauer 's extended family who remained in Budapest . He soon learned to speak Hungarian , and from 1941 made increasingly frequent travels to Budapest . Within a year , Wallenberg was a joint owner and the International Director of the company . In this capacity Wallenberg also made several business trips to Germany and Occupied @-@ France during the early years of World War II . It was during these trips that Wallenberg was able to closely observe the Nazis ' bureaucratic and administrative methods , knowledge which would prove quite valuable to him later .
Meanwhile , the situation in Hungary had begun to deteriorate as the tide of the war began to turn decisively against Germany and its allies . Following the catastrophic Axis defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad ( in which Hungarian troops fighting alongside German forces suffered a staggering 84 % casualty rate ) the regime of Miklos Horthy began secretly pursuing peace talks with the United States and the United Kingdom . Upon learning of Horthy 's duplicity , Adolf Hitler ordered the occupation of Hungary by German troops in March 1944 . The Wehrmacht quickly took control of the country and placed Horthy under house arrest . A pro @-@ German puppet government was installed in Budapest , with actual power resting with the German military governor , SS @-@ Brigadeführer Edmund Veesenmayer . With the Nazis now in control , the relative security from the Holocaust enjoyed by the Jews of Hungary came to an end . In April and May 1944 the Nazi regime and its accomplices began the mass deportation of Hungary 's Jews to extermination camps in Nazi @-@ occupied Poland . Under the personal leadership of SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann , who would later be tried and hanged in Israel for his major role in the implementation of the Nazis ' Final Solution , deportations took place at a rate of 12 @,@ 000 individuals per day .
= = = Recruitment by the War Refugee Board = = =
The persecution of the Jews in Hungary soon became well known abroad , unlike the full extent of the Holocaust . At the end of May 1944 , George Mantello publicized two important reports . One of the reports was probably Rabbi Chaim Michael Dov Weissmandl 's five @-@ page abridged version of the 33 @-@ page Auschwitz Protocols : both the Vrba – Wetzler report and Rosin @-@ Mordowicz report . The reports described in detail the operations of the Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau extermination camp . The second was a 6 @-@ page Hungarian report , that detailed the Ghettoization and deportation of 435 @,@ 000 already deported Hungarian Jews , updated to 19 June 1944 , town by town , to Auschwitz . The report 's publication resulted in Winston Churchill 's letter : " There is no doubt that this persecution of Jews in Hungary and their expulsion from enemy territory is probably the greatest and most horrible crime ever committed in the whole history of the world .... "
Following the report 's publication , the administration of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt turned to the newly created War Refugee Board ( WRB ) established as a result of activism by the " Bergson Group " led by Hillel Kook and later by Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau , Jr and team in search of a solution to the humanitarian crisis in Hungary . In spring 1944 , President Roosevelt dispatched US Treasury Department official Iver C. Olsen to Stockholm as a representative of the WRB . Olsen was tasked specifically by the President with finding a way to aid the Hungarian Jews . This , however , was not the sole reason for Olsen being posted to Sweden . In addition to his duties with the WRB , Olsen was also secretly functioning as the chief of currency operations for the Stockholm branch of the Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) , the United States ' wartime espionage service .
In search of someone willing and able to go to Budapest to organize a rescue program for the nation 's Jews , Olsen established contact with a relief committee composed of many prominent Swedish Jews led by the Swedish Chief Rabbi Marcus Ehrenpreis to locate an appropriate person to travel to Budapest under diplomatic cover and lead the rescue operation . One member of the committee was Wallenberg 's business associate Kalman Lauer .
The committee 's first choice to lead the mission was Count Folke Bernadotte , the vice @-@ chairman of the Swedish Red Cross and a member of the Swedish Royal Family . When Bernadotte 's proposed appointment was rejected by the Hungarians , Lauer suggested Wallenberg as a potential replacement . Olsen was introduced to Wallenberg by Lauer in June 1944 and came away from the meeting impressed and , shortly thereafter , appointed Wallenberg to lead the mission . Olsen 's selection of Wallenberg was initially met with objections from some US officials who doubted his reliability , in light of existing commercial relationships between businesses owned by the Wallenberg family and the German government . These differences were eventually overcome and the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs agreed to the American request to assign Wallenberg to its legation in Budapest as part of an arrangement in which Wallenberg 's appointment was granted in exchange for a lessening of American diplomatic pressure on neutral Sweden to curtail their nation 's free @-@ trade policies toward Germany .
= = Mission to Budapest = =
When Wallenberg reached the Swedish legation in Budapest in July 1944 , the campaign against the Jews of Hungary had already been underway for several months . Between May and July 1944 , Eichmann and his associates had successfully deported over 400 @,@ 000 Jews by freight train . Of those deported all but 15 @,@ 000 were sent directly to the German Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau concentration camp in southern Poland . By the time of Wallenberg 's arrival there were only 230 @,@ 000 Jews remaining in Hungary . Together with fellow Swedish diplomat Per Anger , he issued " protective passports " ( German : Schutz @-@ Pass ) , which identified the bearers as Swedish subjects awaiting repatriation and thus prevented their deportation . Although not legal , these documents looked official and were generally accepted by German and Hungarian authorities , who sometimes were also bribed . The Swedish legation in Budapest also succeeded in negotiating with the German authorities so that the bearers of the protective passes would be treated as Swedish citizens and be exempt from having to wear the yellow badge required for Jews .
With the money raised by the board , Wallenberg rented 32 buildings in Budapest and declared them to be extraterritorial , protected by diplomatic immunity . He put up signs such as " The Swedish Library " and " The Swedish Research Institute " on their doors and hung oversized Swedish flags on the front of the buildings to bolster the deception . The buildings eventually housed almost 10 @,@ 000 people .
Sandor Ardai , one of the drivers working for Wallenberg , recounted what Wallenberg did when he intercepted a trainload of Jews about to leave for Auschwitz :
.. he climbed up on the roof of the train and began handing in protective passes through the doors which were not yet sealed . He ignored orders from the Germans for him to get down , then the Arrow Cross men began shooting and shouting at him to go away . He ignored them and calmly continued handing out passports to the hands that were reaching out for them . I believe the Arrow Cross men deliberately aimed over his head , as not one shot hit him , which would have been impossible otherwise . I think this is what they did because they were so impressed by his courage . After Wallenberg had handed over the last of the passports he ordered all those who had one to leave the train and walk to the caravan of cars parked nearby , all marked in Swedish colours . I don 't remember exactly how many , but he saved dozens off that train , and the Germans and Arrow Cross were so dumbfounded they let him get away with it .
At the height of the program , over 350 people were involved in the rescue of Jews . Sister Sára Salkaházi was caught sheltering Jewish women and was killed by members of the Arrow Cross Party . Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz also issued protective passports from the Swiss embassy in the spring of 1944 ; and Italian businessman Giorgio Perlasca posed as a Spanish diplomat and issued forged visas . Portuguese diplomats Sampaio Garrido and Carlos de Liz @-@ Texeira Branquinho rented houses and apartments to shelter and protect refugees from deportation and murder and issued safe conducts to approximately 1 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews . Berber Smit ( Barbara Hogg ) , the daughter of Lolle Smit ( 1892 – 1961 ) , director of N.V. Philips Budapest and a Dutch spy working for the British MI6 , also assisted Wallenberg . According to her son , she had a romance with him . Smit 's other daughter , Reinderdina Petronella ( 1922 – 1945 ) , died on 18 August 1945 in Bucharest .
Wallenberg started sleeping in a different house each night , to guard against being captured or killed by Arrow Cross Party members or by Adolf Eichmann 's men . Two days before the Soviet Army occupied Budapest , Wallenberg negotiated with both Eichmann and Major @-@ General Gerhard Schmidthuber , the supreme commander of German forces in Hungary . Wallenberg bribed Arrow Cross Party member Pál Szalai to deliver a note in which Wallenberg persuaded the occupying Germans to prevent a Fascist plan to blow up the Budapest ghetto and kill an estimated 70 @,@ 000 Jews and cancel a final effort to organize a death march of the remaining Jews in Budapest by threatening to have them prosecuted for war crimes once the war was over .
People saved by Wallenberg include biochemist Lars Ernster , who was housed in the Swedish embassy , and Tom Lantos , later a member of the United States House of Representatives , who lived in one of the Swedish protective houses .
= = Disappearance = =
On 29 October 1944 , elements of the 2nd Ukrainian Front under Marshal Rodion Malinovsky launched an offensive against Budapest and by late December the city had been successfully encircled by Soviet forces . Despite this the German commander of Budapest , SS Lieutenant General Karl Pfeffer @-@ Wildenbruch , refused all offers to surrender , setting in motion a protracted and bloody siege of Budapest . At the height of the fighting , on 17 January 1945 , Wallenberg was called to General Malinovsky 's headquarters in Debrecen to answer allegations that he was engaged in espionage . Wallenberg 's last recorded words were , " I 'm going to Malinovsky 's ... whether as a guest or prisoner I do not know yet . " Documents recovered in 1993 from previously secret Soviet military archives and published in the Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet show that an order for Wallenberg 's arrest was issued by Deputy Commissar for Defence ( and future Soviet Premier ) Nikolai Bulganin and transmitted to Malinovsky 's headquarters on the day of Wallenberg 's disappearance . In 2003 , a review of Soviet wartime correspondences indicated that Vilmos Böhm , a Hungarian politician who was also a Soviet intelligence agent , may have provided Wallenberg 's name to the SMERSH as a person to detain for possible involvement in espionage .
Information about Wallenberg after his detention is mostly speculative ; there were many witnesses who claim to have met him during his imprisonment . Wallenberg was transported by train from Debrecen , through Romania , to Moscow . The Soviet authorities may have moved him to Moscow in the hope of exchanging him for defectors in Sweden . Vladimir Dekanozov notified the Swedish government on 16 January 1945 that Wallenberg was under the protection of Soviet authorities . On 21 January 1945 , Wallenberg was transferred to Lubyanka prison and held in cell 123 with fellow prisoner Gustav Richter , formerly a police attaché at the German embassy in Romania . Richter testified in Sweden in 1955 that Wallenberg was interrogated once for about an hour and a half , in early February 1945 . On 1 March 1945 , Richter was moved from his cell and never saw Wallenberg again .
On 8 March 1945 , Soviet @-@ controlled Hungarian radio announced that Wallenberg and his driver had been murdered on their way to Debrecen , suggesting that they had been killed by the Arrow Cross Party or the Gestapo . Sweden 's foreign minister , Östen Undén , and its ambassador to the Soviet Union , Staffan Söderblom , wrongly assumed that they were dead . In April 1945 , W. Averell Harriman then of the U.S. State Department offered the Swedish government help in inquiring about Wallenberg ’ s fate , but the offer was declined . Söderblom met with Vyacheslav Molotov and Stalin in Moscow on 15 June 1946 . Söderblom , still believing Wallenberg to be dead , ignored talk of an exchange for Russian defectors in Sweden .
= = = Death = = =
On 6 February 1957 , the Soviet government released a document dated 17 July 1947 , which stated " I report that the prisoner Wallenberg who is well @-@ known to you , died suddenly in his cell this night , probably as a result of a heart attack or heart failure . Pursuant to the instructions given by you that I personally have Wallenberg under my care , I request approval to make an autopsy with a view to establishing cause of death ... I have personally notified the minister and it has been ordered that the body be cremated without autopsy . " The document was signed by Smoltsov , then the head of the Lubyanka prison infirmary , and addressed to Viktor Abakumov , the Soviet minister of state security . In 1989 , Wallenberg 's personal belongings were returned to his family , including his passport and cigarette case . Soviet officials said they found the materials when they were upgrading the shelves in a store room .
In 1991 , Vyacheslav Nikonov was charged by the Russian government to investigate Wallenberg 's fate . He concluded that Wallenberg died in 1947 , executed while a prisoner in Lubyanka . He may have been a victim of the C @-@ 2 poison ( carbylamine @-@ choline @-@ chloride ) tested at the poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services .
In Moscow in 2000 , Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev announced that Wallenberg had been executed in 1947 in Lubyanka prison . He claimed that Vladimir Kryuchkov , the former Soviet secret police chief , told him about the shooting in a private conversation . The statement did not explain why Wallenberg was killed or why the government had lied about it . General Pavel Sudoplatov claimed that Raoul Wallenberg died after being poisoned by Grigory Mairanovsky , a notorious NKVD assassin . In 2000 , Russian prosecutor Vladimir Ustinov signed a verdict posthumously rehabilitating Wallenberg and his driver , Langfelder , as " victims of political repression " . A number of files pertinent to Wallenberg were turned over to the chief rabbi of Russia by the Russian government in September 2007 . The items were slated to be housed at the Jewish Museum and Tolerance Center in Moscow , which opened in 2012 .
= = = Disputes regarding his death = = =
Several former prisoners have claimed to have seen Wallenberg after his reported death in 1947 . In February 1949 , former German Colonel Theodor von Dufving , a prisoner of war , provided evidentiary statements concerning Wallenberg . While in the transit camp in Kirov , en route to Vorkuta , Dufving encountered a prisoner with his own special guard and dressed in civilian clothes . The prisoner claimed that he was a Swedish diplomat and that he was there " through a great error " .
Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal searched for Wallenberg and collected several testimonies . For example , British businessman Greville Wynne , who was imprisoned in the Lubyanka prison in 1962 for his connection to KGB defector Oleg Penkovsky , stated he talked to , but could not see the face of , a man who claimed to be a Swedish diplomat . Efim ( or Yefim ) Moshinsky claims to have seen Wallenberg on Wrangel Island in 1962 . An eyewitness asserted that she had seen Wallenberg in the 1960s in a Soviet prison .
During a private conversation about the conditions of detention in Soviet prisons at a party reception in the mid @-@ 1970s , a KGB general is reported to have said that " conditions could not be that harsh , given that in Lubyanka prison there is some foreign prisoner who had been there now for almost three decades . "
The last reported sightings of Wallenberg were by two independent witnesses who said they had evidence that he was in a prison in November 1987 . John Farkas was a resistance fighter during World War II and was the last man claiming to have seen Wallenberg alive . Farkas ' son has stated that there have been sightings of Wallenberg " up into the 1980s in Russian prisons and psychiatric hospitals . "
Raoul Wallenberg 's half @-@ brother , Professor Guy von Dardel , a well @-@ known physicist , retired from CERN , was dedicated to finding out his half @-@ brother 's fate . He traveled to the Soviet Union about fifty times for discussions and research , including an examination of the Vladimir prison records . Over the years , Professor von Dardel had compiled a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ page archive of interviews , journal articles , letters , and other documents related to his quest . In 1991 , he initiated a Swedish @-@ Russian working group to search eleven separate military and government archives from the former Soviet Union for information about Wallenberg 's fate , but the group was not able to find conclusive information . Many , including Professor von Dardel and his daughters Louise and Marie , do not accept the various versions of Wallenberg 's death . They continue to request that the archives in Russia , Sweden and Hungary be opened to impartial researchers .
In 2012 Russian lieutenant @-@ general Vasily Khristoforov , head of the registration branch of the Russian Federal Security Service said that the Wallenberg case is still open . He dismissed allegations of a continuing coverup ; referring to the legacy Soviet agency from which his department sprang , Khristoforov said : " This is another state and a different special service . "
= = = Declared death in absentia = = =
On 29 March 2016 , an announcement was made by the Swedish Tax Agency that a petition to have Wallenberg declared dead in absentia had been submitted . It stated that if he does not report to the Tax Agency before 14 October 2016 , he will be declared dead legally : " Raoul Wallenberg kallas jämlikt 7 § ( 2005 : 130 ) om dödförklaring att senast den 14 oktober 2016 anmäla sig hos Skatteverket . "
= = Connection to US intelligence = =
In May 1996 the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) released thousands of previously classified documents regarding Raoul Wallenberg , in response to requests filed under the Freedom of Information Act . The documents , along with an investigation conducted by the newsmagazine US News and World Report , appeared to confirm the long @-@ held suspicion that Wallenberg was an American intelligence asset during his time in Hungary . In addition to Wallenberg 's name appearing on a roster found in the National Archives which listed the names of operatives associated with the CIA 's wartime predecessor , the Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) , the documents also included a 1954 memo from an anonymous CIA source that identified a Hungarian @-@ exile living in Stockholm who , according to the author : " assisted … in inserting Roul [ sic ] Wallenberg into Hungary during WWII as an agent of OSS . " Another declassified memorandum written in 1990 by the curator of the CIA 's Historical Intelligence Collection William Henhoeffer , characterized the conclusion that Wallenberg was working for the OSS while in Budapest as being " essentially correct " .
More telling was a communique sent on 7 November 1944 by the OSS , Secret Intelligence Branch in Bari , Italy which apparently acknowledged that Wallenberg was acting as an unofficial liaison between the OSS and the Hungarian Independence Movement ( MFM ) , an underground anti @-@ Nazi resistance organization . The OSS message notes Wallenberg 's contacts with Geza Soos , a high @-@ ranking MFM leader and further explains that Soos " may only be contacted " through the Swedish legation in Budapest , which was Wallenberg 's workplace and also served as the operational center for his attempts to aid the Hungarian Jews . The same message 's assertion that Wallenberg " will know if he ( Soos ) is not in Budapest " is also curious , in that by November 1944 Soos was in hiding and knowledge of his whereabouts would only have been available to individuals closely involved with the MFM . This conclusion is given further weight by additional evidence suggesting that communications from the MFM to US intelligence were transmitted first to Stockholm and then relayed to Washington via Iver C. Olsen , the American OSS operative who initially recruited Wallenberg to go to Budapest in June 1944 .
This particular disclosure has given rise to speculation as to whether , in addition to his efforts to rescue the Hungarian Jews , Wallenberg may have also been pursuing a parallel clandestine mission aimed at politically destabilizing Hungary ’ s pro @-@ Nazi government on behalf of the OSS . This would also seem to add some credence to the potential explanation that it was his association with US intelligence that led to Wallenberg being targeted by Soviet authorities in January 1945 . Several other humanitarians who had helped refugees during World War II disappeared behind the Iron Curtain in the period 1949 / 50 , several years after Wallenberg ’ s disappearance . OSS ties may have been of interest to the Soviets , but are not a complete explanation because some of those detained , i.e. Hermann Field and Herta Field , had not worked for the OSS . All of these humanitarians , however , like Wallenberg , had interacted with a large number of anti @-@ fascist and socialist refugees during the War , and this experience was used in the Stalin regime ’ s factional politics and show trials .
= = Family = =
In 2009 , reporter Joshua Prager wrote an article in the Wall Street Journal profiling the long @-@ term toll that Raoul Wallenberg 's disappearance had on his family . His mother Maj and his stepfather Fredrik von Dardel spent the rest of their lives searching for their son . They both committed suicide by overdosing on pills two days apart in 1979 . Their daughter Nina Lagergren , Raoul 's half @-@ sister , attributed their suicide to their despair about never finding their son . Lagergren and Raoul 's half @-@ brother Guy von Dardel established organizations and worked to find their brother or confirmation of his death . At the request of their parents , they were to assume he was alive until the year 2000 .
Nina 's daughter , Nane Maria Lagergren , married Kofi Annan , former secretary general of the United Nations , and is active in many humanitarian efforts . Another of Wallenberg 's nieces , Louise von Dardel , is the main activist in the family and dedicates much of her time to speaking about Wallenberg and lobbying various countries to help uncover information about her uncle . The extended Wallenberg family remains an influential part of Swedish society as major shareholders in banks and corporations including Saab and Scandinavian Airlines .
= = Honours = =
Wallenberg was nominated twice for the Nobel Peace Prize , in 1948 by more than 50 qualified nominators and in 1949 by a single nominator At the time , the prize could be awarded posthumously , but the concept of such awards was controversial .
= = = Argentina = = =
In Buenos Aires , there is a monument in honour of Wallenberg at a park . It is a replica of the London monument by Philip Jackson , was unveiled in 1998 and can be seen from the Figueroa Alcorta Avenue , in Recoleta neighbourhood .
= = = Australia = = =
In Melbourne , a small memorial in honour of Wallenberg stands at the Jewish Holocaust Museum and Research Centre ; a monument by the sculptor Karl Duldig dedicated to him is at Kew Junction on the corner of Princess Street and High Street , Kew ; and a tree and memorial seat are in Carlisle St at St Kilda Town Hall . The Australian Centre for Clinical Neuropharmacology in Melbourne adopted the name ' The Raoul Wallenberg Centre ' on the occasion of Raoul Wallenberg 's 89th birthday . In Sydney are a Raoul Wallenberg garden and sculpture in Woollahra , and a statue inside the Jewish Museum of Australia . Commemorative trees have been planted in front of the federal Parliament and in many other locations .
Established in 1985 , Raoul Wallenberg Unit of B 'nai B 'rith in Melbourne , Australia , together with Max Stern & Co , a leading stamp dealer in Melbourne , and Australia Post , released a limited edition Raoul Wallenberg Stamp Sheet and Envelope Set to mark the Unit 's 25th anniversary in 2010 . The Stamp Sheet shows a photo of Raoul Wallenberg together with a brief outline of his life , a monument in honour of Raoul Wallenberg by artist , Karl Duldig , in the Raoul Wallenberg Garden at Kew Junction , Melbourne , and ten 60 cent Australia Post stamps with tabs of Raoul Wallenberg from early childhood to adult soldier . The Envelope has a transparent front to show the Stamp Sheet ; a Schutzpass is shown on the back accompanied by an explanation .
To commemorate the Centenary Year , a limited number of the Raoul Wallenberg Stamp Sheet were stamped with a special Centenary cancellation . These are available from Raoul Wallenberg Unit of B 'nai B 'rith in Melbourne .
Raoul Wallenberg Unit requested clergy around the world to speak about Raoul Wallenberg and his heroic deeds - ' One Person can Make a Difference ' - from their pulpits over the weekend 3 – 5 August 2012 which coincided with the date of his 100th birthday , 4 August 2012 .
Raoul Wallenberg Reserve in the neighbourhood of Yokine in Perth was dedicated in honour of Raoul Wallenberg . The small park is located in close proximity to many of Perth 's Jewish institutions including a Jewish Day School , aged care facility , community centre , sports club and orthodox synagogue .
Wallenberg was named Australia 's first honorary citizen in April 2013 , during his centenary year . Frank Vajda AM was saved by Wallenberg in 1944 from the pro @-@ Nazi Arrow Cross Party and campaigned for decades for him to be recognised with the award . A ceremony at Government House , Canberra , to mark the occasion was held on 6 May 2013 , and was attended by Governor @-@ General Quentin Bryce AC CVO , Prime Minister Julia Gillard , and Opposition Leader Tony Abbott . Vajda also attended the ceremony , as did the son of World War II resistance fighter John Farkas , who was the last person known to have seen Wallenberg alive . George Farkas described the award as " recognition that some people can do unbelievable good in the face of reprehensible evil " .
A 70 cent Raoul Wallenberg postage stamp and associated philatelic items were released by Australia Post on 5 October 2015 , one of three to by honoured in this manner by Australia ; the other two are Mother Teresa and Nelson Mandela .
= = = Austria = = =
In the 22nd district of Vienna a street was named " Raoul @-@ Wallenberg @-@ Gasse " .
= = = Canada = = =
Wallenberg was made the first Honorary Citizen of Canada in 1985 ; and the government declared 17 January , the day he disappeared , as " Raoul Wallenberg Day " in Canada .
Numerous memorials , parks , and monuments honouring Wallenberg can be found across Canada , including the Raoul Wallenberg Memorial in Queen Elizabeth Park in Vancouver , Raoul Wallenberg Corner in Calgary , Raoul Wallenberg Park in Saskatoon , Parc Raoul Wallenberg in Ottawa , Ontario , and a memorial behind Christ Church Cathedral in downtown Montreal , where a bust of Wallenberg and a caged metal box , styled as a barbed @-@ wire gate , stand beside each other . The main entrance to Earl Bales Park in Toronto , Ontario is named Raoul Wallenberg Road .
On 17 January 2013 , which marked the 68th anniversary of Wallenberg 's arrest by Soviet troops , Canada released a postage stamp in honour of Wallenberg .
In 2008 , the Tanenbaum Community Hebrew Academy of Toronto added " Wallenberg " to the name of the school , thus spawning the moniker , Tanebaum CHAT Wallenberg Campus .
= = = Georgia = = =
In the center of Batumi a street was named " Raoul Wallenberg street " .
= = = Germany = = =
Streets were named after Wallenberg in both East and West Germany .
= = = Hungary = = =
Budapest named Wallenberg as an honorary citizen in 2003 . Several sites honor him , including Raoul Wallenberg Memorial Park , which commemorates those who saved many of the city 's Jews from deportation to extermination camps , and the building that housed the Swedish Embassy in 1945 .
In July 2012 , Hungary paid tribute to Raoul Wallenberg in a ceremony at Budapest 's Holocaust museum , marking 100 years since his birth . Zoltan Balog , minister for human resources and social affairs , said that " evil must be rejected " .
= = = Israel = = =
Israel granted Wallenberg honorary citizenship in 1986 and honored him at the Yad Vashem memorial as one of the Righteous Among the Nations . Other tributes to Wallenberg in Israel include at least five streets named after him . On Raoul Wallenberg Street in Tel Aviv , a statue identical to one in Budapest was installed in 2002 ( see below ) , made by the sculptor Imre Varga .
= = = Peru = = =
A memorial to his name was made in 2013 in the capital city of Lima . Taking the form of a park , it is situated on the coast of the San Miguel District .
= = = Russia = = =
A memorial to him stands in the courtyard of the Russian Rudomino Library of Foreign Languages in Moscow . In Saint Petersburg , the Institute of Special Pedagogy and Psychology bears Wallenberg 's name .
= = = Sweden = = =
In 2001 , a memorial was created in Stockholm to honor Wallenberg . It was unveiled by King Carl XVI Gustaf , at a ceremony attended by then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan and his wife Nane Maria Annan , Wallenberg 's niece At the unveiling , King Carl XVI Gustaf said Wallenberg is " a great example to those of us who want to live as fellow humans " . Kofi Annan praised him as " an inspiration for all of us to act when we can and to have the courage to help those who are suffering and in need of help " . The memorial 's design ( see photo ) has been considered inappropriate by some critics .
A memorial to Wallenberg was installed in Gothenburg , near Hagakyrkan ( Haga Church ) . Kofi Annan attended the unveiling ceremony .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
A monument to Raoul Wallenberg by Scottish sculptor Philip Jackson is located at Great Cumberland Place in London 's Marble Arch district , outside the Western Marble Arch Synagogue . It was unveiled by Queen Elizabeth II in 1997 , in the presence of the President of Israel , Ezer Weizman , the Secretary General of the United Nations , Kofi Annan , and survivors of the Holocaust . A separate monument stands near the Welsh National War Memorial in Cathays Park , Cardiff . A bronze briefcase monument by Gustav Kraitz with the initials RW is located in the garden of the Beth Shalom Holocaust Centre near Laxton in Nottinghamshire .
= = = United States = = =
The US Congress made Wallenberg an Honorary Citizen of the United States in 1981 , the second person to be so honored , after Winston Churchill . In 1985 , the portion of 15th Street , SW in Washington , D.C. on which the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is located , was renamed Raoul Wallenberg Place by Act of Congress .
In 1997 , the United States Postal Service issued a stamp in his honor . Representative Tom Lantos , one of those saved by Wallenberg 's actions , said : " It is most appropriate that we honor [ him ] with a U.S. stamp . In this age devoid of heroes , Wallenberg is the archetype of a hero – one who risked his life day in and day out , to save the lives of tens of thousands of people he did not know whose religion he did not share . "
In Manhattan , a monument honoring him was installed on Raoul Wallenberg Walk , named in his honor , across from the headquarters of the United Nations . The Swedish consulate commissioned the piece , created by Swedish sculptor Gustav Kraitz . The sculpture , Hope , is a replica of Wallenberg ’ s briefcase , a sphere , five pillars of black granite , and paving stones ( setts ) which were formerly used on the streets of the Budapest ghetto . There is also Wallenberg Forest in Riverdale , Bronx , established in 1990 and named Wallenberg Forest in 1996 .
Another memorial stands in front of the Art and Architecture building at the University of Michigan , where he received his architecture degree in 1935 .
Places named after Wallenberg include Raoul Wallenberg Traditional High School in San Francisco , the PS 194 Raoul Wallenberg School in Brooklyn , New York , Raoul Wallenberg Avenue in Trenton , New Jersey , and Raoul Wallenberg Blvd in Charleston , South Carolina .
Since 2005 , the International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation has campaigned to establish 5 October as Raoul Wallenberg Day throughout the United States , as this was the day Wallenberg was awarded Honorary U.S. Citizenship . By 2010 , Raoul Wallenberg Day was being observed by the states of Colorado , Connecticut , Illinois , Iowa , Maine , Maryland , Michigan , Nebraska , Nevada , New Jersey , New Mexico , West Virginia , and Wyoming .
Wallenberg was posthumously awarded the Train Foundation 's Civil Courage Prize , which recognizes " extraordinary heroes of conscience " .
On 26 July 2012 , Wallenberg was posthumously awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress " in recognition of his achievements and heroic actions during the Holocaust " .
= = Awards in his name = =
The Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States bestows the Raoul Wallenberg Award " on individuals , organizations and communities that reflect Raoul Wallenberg 's humanitarian spirit , personal courage and nonviolent action in the face of enormous odds " .
The University of Michigan awards the Wallenberg Medal annually to outstanding humanitarians who embody the humanitarian values and commitment of its distinguished alumnus . The first Wallenberg Medal was presented in 1990 to Elie Wiesel . The twentieth Wallenberg Medal was awarded in October 2010 to Dr. Denis Mukwege . Recently , the University also established the " Wallenberg Fellowship " , which grants students $ 25 @,@ 000 to pursue humanitarian projects to better humanity . The University 's Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning also awards Wallenberg Scholarships to exceptional undergraduate students in their final Senior @-@ Year studio class , which is given to enable students to broaden their study of architecture to include work in distant locations , following Wallenberg 's Grandfather 's wish for him to be a " citizen of the world " . The projects which won the scholarship in recent years addressed Chinese relations , nuclear accident cleanup , and the recent thaw of US @-@ Cuban relations . The Scholarship gives out on average anywhere between $ 10 @,@ 000 to $ 20 @,@ 000 for travel @-@ related expenses .
The Raoul Wallenberg Academy has created the Raoul Wallenberg Prize , financed by Sweden 's Ministry of Employment . In 2013 , the jury was chaired by Olle Wästberg , and the award was presented by Minister for Integration Erik Ullenhag . The winner of the 2013 Raoul Wallenberg Award was Siavosh Derakhti , who founded ' Young People against Antisemitism and Xenophobia ' , an organization dedicated to promoting collaboration and respect for all .
= = Schools named after him = =
= = = Argentina = = =
Raoul Wallenberg Educational Center
= = = Brazil = = =
The Raoul Wallenberg Integral High School
= = = Canada = = =
The Anne & Max Tanenbaum Community Hebrew Academy of Toronto Wallenberg Campus
Wallenberg Academy ( formerly Wagar High School ) , Montreal , Quebec .
= = = Ecuador = = =
Raoul Wallenberg Kindergarten & Primary School
= = = Germany = = =
Raoul @-@ Wallenberg Schule , Dorsten
Raoul @-@ Wallenberg @-@ Oberschule , Berlin
= = = Hungary = = =
Raoul Wallenberg Humán Szakközépiskola és Gimnázium
= = = Sweden = = =
Raoul Wallenberg School Bromma
Raoul Wallenberg Preschool Bromma
Raoul Wallenberg Preschool Skövde
Raoul Wallenberg School Uppsala
Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law ( Lund University )
= = = Uruguay = = =
Raoul Wallenberg Lyceum
= = = United States = = =
P.S. 194 Raoul Wallenberg School in Brooklyn , New York
Raoul Wallenberg Traditional High School in San Francisco
Raoul Wallenberg Avenue , Trenton , New Jersey .
Raoul Wallenberg Playground , Washington Heights NYC
= = = Venezuela = = =
Raoul Wallenberg Pre @-@ School Educational Unit
= = Films = =
A number of films have been made of Wallenberg 's life , including the 1985 made @-@ for @-@ television movie Wallenberg : A Hero 's Story ( 1985 ) , starring Richard Chamberlain , the 1990 Swedish production Good Evening , Mr. Wallenberg , featuring Stellan Skarsgård , and various documentaries , such as Raoul Wallenberg : Buried Alive ( 1984 ) , the AFI Award winning Raoul Wallenberg , Between The Lines ( 1985 ) and Searching for Wallenberg ( 2003 ) . He also appears in the Spanish television series El ángel de Budapest and is played by Iván Fenyő . In 2006 , the film " Raoul Wallenberg @-@ l 'ange de Budapest " ( translated by Nigel Spencer as " Raoul Wallenberg : the Angel of Budapest " ) , featuring relatives and the Winnipeg lawyer still piloting inquiries into his case , was released in Canada and broadcast on the Bravo ! network .
= = Art = =
He is featured prominently in the work of esteemed painter and Holocaust survivor Alice Lok Cahana . Her father was saved by Wallenberg .
= = Operas = =
Wallenberg . Opera premiered at the Opernhaus Dortmund on 5 May 2001.Composer Erkki @-@ Sven Tüür , Libretto of Lutz Hübner
Raoul . Opera premiered at the Theater Bremen on 21 February 2008.Composer Gershon Kingsley , Libretto of Michael Kunze
= = Song = =
Irish musician Andy Irvine wrote the song " Raoul Wallenberg " which features on his album Rude Awakening .
= The Time Traveler 's Wife =
The Time Traveler 's Wife is the debut novel of American author Audrey Niffenegger , published in 2003 . It is a love story about a man with a genetic disorder that causes him to time travel unpredictably , and about his wife , an artist , who has to cope with his frequent absences and dangerous experiences . Niffenegger , frustrated in love when she began the work , wrote the story as a metaphor for her failed relationships . The tale 's central relationship came to her suddenly and subsequently supplied the novel 's title . The novel , which has been classified as both science fiction and romance , examines issues of love , loss , and free will . In particular , it uses time travel to explore miscommunication and distance in relationships , while also investigating deeper existential questions .
As a first @-@ time novelist , Niffenegger had trouble finding a literary agent . She eventually sent the novel to MacAdam / Cage unsolicited and , after an auction took place for the rights , Niffenegger selected them as her publishers . The book became a bestseller after an endorsement from author and family friend Scott Turow on The Today Show , and as of March 2009 had sold nearly 2 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States and the United Kingdom . Many reviewers were impressed with Niffenegger 's unique perspectives on time travel . Some praised her characterization of the couple , applauding their emotional depth ; others criticized her writing style as melodramatic and the plot as emotionally trite . The novel won the Exclusive Books Boeke Prize and a British Book Award . A film version was released in August 2009 .
= = Plot summary = =
Using alternating first @-@ person perspectives , the novel tells the stories of Henry DeTamble ( born 1963 ) , a librarian at the Newberry Library in Chicago , and his wife , Clare Anne Abshire ( born 1971 ) , an artist who makes paper sculptures . Henry has a rare genetic disorder , which comes to be known as Chrono @-@ Impairment , that causes him to involuntarily travel through time . When 20 @-@ year @-@ old Clare meets 28 @-@ year @-@ old Henry at the Newberry Library in 1991 at the opening of the novel , he has never seen her before , although she has known him most of her life .
Henry begins time traveling at the age of five , jumping forward and backward relative to his own timeline . When he leaves , where he goes , or how long his trips will last are all beyond his control . His destinations are tied to his subconscious — he most often travels to places and times related to his own history . Certain stimuli such as stress can trigger Henry 's time traveling ; he often goes jogging to keep calm and remain in the present . He also searches out pharmaceuticals in the future that may be able to help control his time traveling . He also seeks the advice of a geneticist , Dr. Kendrick . Henry cannot take anything with him into the future or the past ; he always arrives naked and then struggles to find clothing , shelter , and food . He amasses a number of survival skills including lock @-@ picking , self @-@ defense , and pickpocketing . Much of this he learns from older versions of himself .
Once their timelines converge " naturally " at the library — their first meeting in his chronology — Henry starts to travel to Clare 's childhood and adolescence in South Haven , Michigan , beginning in 1977 when she is six years old . On one of his early visits ( from her perspective ) , Henry gives her a list of the dates he will appear and she writes them in a diary so she will remember to provide him with clothes and food when he arrives . During another visit , he inadvertently reveals that they will be married in the future . Over time they develop a close relationship . At one point , Henry helps Clare frighten and humiliate a boy who abused her . Clare is last visited in her youth by Henry in 1989 , on her eighteenth birthday , during which they make love for the first time . They are then separated for two years until their meeting at the library .
Clare and Henry marry , but Clare has trouble bringing a pregnancy to term because of the genetic anomaly Henry may presumably be passing on to the fetus . After six miscarriages , Henry wishes to save Clare further pain and has a vasectomy . However a version of Henry from the past visits Clare one night and they make love ; she subsequently gives birth to a daughter , Alba . Alba is diagnosed with Chrono @-@ Impairment as well but , unlike Henry , she has some control over her destinations when she time travels . Before she is born , Henry travels to the future and meets his ten @-@ year @-@ old daughter on a school field trip and learns that he dies when she is five years old .
When he is 43 , during what is to be his last year of life , Henry time travels to a Chicago parking garage on a frigid winter night where he is unable to find shelter . As a result of the hypothermia and frostbite he suffers , his feet are amputated when he returns to the present . Henry and Clare both know that without the ability to escape when he time travels , Henry will certainly die within his next few jumps . On New Year 's Eve 2006 Henry time travels into the middle of the Michigan woods in 1984 and is accidentally shot by Clare 's brother , a scene foreshadowed earlier in the novel . Henry returns to the present and dies in Clare 's arms .
Clare is devastated by Henry 's death . She later finds a letter from Henry asking her to " stop waiting " for him , but which describes a moment in her future when she will see him again . The last scene in the book takes place when Clare is 82 years old and Henry is 43 . She is waiting for Henry , as she has done most of her life .
= = Composition and publication = =
Niffenegger is an artist who teaches at the Center for Book and Paper Arts at Columbia College Chicago , where she prepares editions of handpainted books . She produced some of her earlier works in editions of ten copies , which were sold in art galleries . However , she decided that The Time Traveler 's Wife would have to be a novel : " I got the idea for the title , and when I draw I have this big drawing table covered with brown paper , and I write ideas down on the paper . So I wrote down this title and after a while I started to think about it . I couldn 't think of a way to make it a picture book because still pictures don 't represent time very well , so I decided to write a novel . " She was intrigued by the title because " it immediately defined two people and their relationship to each other " . Niffenegger said that its source was an epigraph to J. B. Priestley 's 1964 novel Man and Time : " Clock time is our bank manager , tax collector , police inspector ; this inner time is our wife . " Drawing her central theme from this image , she says , " Henry is not only married to Clare ; he 's also married to time . " Other authors whom Niffenegger has cited as influencing the book include Richard Powers , David Foster Wallace , Henry James , and Dorothy Sayers .
She has said the story is a metaphor for her own failed love affairs and that " I had kind of got the idea that there 's not going to be some fabulous perfect soulmate out there for me , so I 'll just make him up . " She also drew on her parents ' marriage for inspiration — her father spent the bulk of each week traveling . Despite the story 's analogies to her own life , Niffenegger has forcefully stated that Clare is not a self @-@ portrait ; " She 's radically different . I am much more willful and headstrong . ... I don 't think I could go through a lifetime waiting for someone to appear , no matter how fascinating he was . "
Niffenegger began writing the novel in 1997 ; the last scene , in which an aged Clare is waiting for Henry , was written first , because it is the story 's focal point . The narrative was originally structured thematically . Responding to comments from readers of early drafts of the manuscript , Niffenegger reorganized the narrative so that it largely followed Clare 's timeline . The work was finished in 2001 . With no history of commercial publication , Niffenegger had trouble finding interested literary agents — 25 rejected the manuscript . In 2002 , she sent it unsolicited to the small , San Francisco @-@ based publisher MacAdam / Cage , where it reached Anika Streitfeld . Streitfeld , who became Niffenegger 's editor , " thought it was incredible . Right from the very beginning you feel like you are in capable hands , that this is someone who has a story to tell and who knows how to tell it . " She gave it to David Poindexter , the founder of the publishing firm , " who read it overnight and decided to buy the book " . However , Niffenegger had acquired an agent by this time , and several publishing houses in New York City were interested in the novel . The manuscript was put up for auction and MacAdam / Cage bid US $ 100 @,@ 000 , by far the largest sum it had ever offered for a book . Although another publisher outbid them , Niffenegger selected MacAdam / Cage because they were so dedicated to her work . Also , Niffenegger explains that her " own natural inclination is to go small . My background is in punk music — I 'd always pick the indie company over the giant corporation . "
= = Genre = =
Reviewers have found The Time Traveler 's Wife difficult to classify generically : some categorize it as science fiction , others as a romance . Niffenegger herself is reluctant to label the novel , saying she " never thought of it as science fiction , even though it has a science @-@ fiction premise " . In Niffenegger 's view , the story is primarily about Henry and Clare 's relationship and the struggles they endure . She has said that she based Clare and Henry 's romance on the " cerebral coupling " of Dorothy Sayers 's characters Lord Peter Wimsey and Harriet Vane .
Time travel stories to which the novel has been compared include Jack Finney 's Time and Again ( 1970 ) F.M. Busby 's short story " If This Is Winnetka , You Must Be Judy " and the film Somewhere in Time ( 1980 ) . Henry has been compared to Billy Pilgrim of Kurt Vonnegut 's Slaughterhouse @-@ Five ( 1969 ) . Science fiction writer Terence M. Green calls the novel a " timeslip romance " . The Time Traveler 's Wife is not as concerned with the paradoxes of time travel as is traditional science fiction . Instead , as critic Marc Mohan describes , the novel " uses time travel as a metaphor to explain how two people can feel as if they 've known each other their entire lives " . Robert Nathan 's Portrait of Jennie , as novel , or film , is another obvious comparison , although Jennie , as a ghost , travels time in one direction , not randomly .
= = Themes = =
Niffenegger identifies the themes of the novel as " mutants , love , death , amputation , sex , and time " . Reviewers have focused on love , loss , and time . As Charlie Lee @-@ Potter writes in The Independent , the novel is " an elegy to love and loss " . The love between Henry and Clare is expressed in a variety of ways , including through an analysis and history of the couple 's sex life .
While much of the novel shows Henry and Clare falling in love , the end is darker and " time travel becomes a means for representing arbitrariness , transience , [ and ] plain bad luck " , according to The Boston Globe 's Judith Maas . As Andrew Billen argues in The Times , " The book may even serve as a feminist analysis of marriage as a partnership in which only the male is conceded the privilege of absence . " Several reviewers noted that time travel represents relationships in which couples cannot quite communicate with each other . Natasha Walter of The Guardian describes the story 's attention to " the sense of slippage that you get in any relationship — that you could be living through a slightly different love story from the one your partner is experiencing . " She points , for example , to the section of the book which describes the first time Clare and Henry make love . She is 18 and he is 41 , already married to her in his present . After this interlude , he returns to his own time and his own Clare , who says ,
Henry 's been gone for almost twenty @-@ four hours now , and as usual I 'm torn between thinking obsessively about when and where he might be and being pissed at him for not being here ... I hear Henry whistling as he comes up the path through the garden , into the studio . He stomps the snow off his boots and shrugs off his coat . He 's looking marvelous , really happy . My heart is racing and I take a wild guess : " May 24 , 1989 ? " " Yes , oh , yes ! " Henry scoops me up ... and swings me around . Now I 'm laughing , we 're both laughing .
The novel raises questions about determinism and free will . For example , critic Dan Falk asks , " Given that [ Henry 's ] journey has ' already happened , ' should he not simply be compelled to act precisely as he remembers seeing himself act ? ( Or perhaps he is compelled , and merely feels he has a choice ... ? ) . " Although Henry seemingly cannot alter the future , the characters do not become " cynical " and , according to Lee @-@ Potter , the novel demonstrates that people can be changed through love . Walter notes that there is a " quasi @-@ religious sense " to the inevitability of Henry 's and Clare 's lives and deaths . Niffenegger , however , believes that the novel does not depict destiny but rather " randomness and meaninglessness " .
= = Reception = =
The hardback edition of The Time Traveler 's Wife was published in the United States in September 2003 by MacAdam / Cage and in the United Kingdom by Random House on 1 January 2004 . MacAdam / Cage initiated an " extensive marketing drive " , including advertising in The New York Times and The New Yorker and a promotional book tour by Niffenegger . As a result , the novel debuted at number nine on the New York Times bestseller list . After popular crime writer Scott Turow , whose wife is a friend of Niffenegger , endorsed it on The Today Show , the first print run of 15 @,@ 000 sold out and 100 @,@ 000 more copies were printed . In Britain , the book received a boost from its choice as a Richard & Judy book club recommendation — nearly 45 @,@ 000 copies were sold in one week . It was named the 2003 Amazon.com Book of the Year . A December 2003 article in The Observer reported that although " a tiny minority of American reviewers " felt that the novel was " gimmicky " , it was still " a publishing sensation " . At that point , the novel had been sold to publishers in 15 countries . As of March 2009 , it had sold almost 1 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States and 1 million in the United Kingdom . The success of The Time Traveler 's Wife prompted almost every major publishing firm to attempt to acquire Niffenegger 's second novel , Her Fearful Symmetry , which has been called " one of the most eagerly sought @-@ after works in recent publishing history " . It garnered her an advance of US $ 5 million from Scribner 's .
Reviewers praised Niffenegger 's characterization of Henry and Clare , particularly their emotional depth . Michelle Griffin of The Age noted that although Henry " is custom @-@ designed for the fantasy lives of bookish ladies " , his flaws , particularly his " violent , argumentative , depressive " nature , make him a strong , well @-@ rounded character . Charles DeLint wrote in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction that one of Niffenegger 's " greatest accomplishments " in the novel was her ability to convey the emotional growth of Clare and Henry in character arcs while at the same time alternating their perspectives . Stephen Amidon of The Times , however , questioned the selfishness of the central characters .
Most reviewers were impressed with the premise of the novel , but critical of its melodramatic style . While Griffin praised the plot and concept as " clever " , she complained that Niffenegger 's writing is usually " pedestrian " and the story at times contrived . Heidi Darroch of the National Post agreed , contending that the story has an excess of overwrought emotional moments " which never quite add up to a fully developed plot " . Writing in The Chicago Tribune , Carey Harrison praised the originality of the novel , specifically the intersection of child @-@ bearing and time travel . Despite appreciating the novel 's premise , Amidon complained that the implications of Henry 's time @-@ traveling were poorly thought out . For example , Henry has foreknowledge of the September 11 attacks but does nothing to try to prevent them . Instead , on 11 September 2001 , he gets up early " to listen to the world being normal for a little while longer " . Amidon also criticized the novel 's " overall clumsiness " , writing that Niffenegger is " a ham @-@ fisted stylist , long @-@ winded and given to sudden eruptions of cliche " . Miriam Shaviv agreed to an extent , writing in The Jerusalem Post , " There are no original or even non @-@ cliched messages here . True love , Niffenegger seems to be telling us , is timeless , and can survive even the worst circumstances . ... And yet , the book is a page @-@ turner , delicately crafted and psychologically sound . " The Library Journal described the novel as " skillfully written with a blend of distinct characters and heartfelt emotions " ; it recommended that public libraries purchase multiple copies of the book .
= = Sequel = =
On September 23 , 2013 it was announced that a sequel to the novel is in the works . The sequel will focus on Henry and Clare 's daughter Alba as an adult . She finds herself in love with two different men : Zach , a normal man , and Oliver , a musician and fellow time @-@ traveler . The first 25 pages are currently available with the purchase of The Time Traveler 's Wife eBook . In February 2014 , Niffenegger estimated that the book " should be ready in 2018 or so " .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Audio book = = =
BBC Audio published an audio book of The Time Traveler 's Wife that was narrated by William Hope and Laurel Lefkow , described as " feisty readers " in one review .
HighBridge also produced an unabridged version in 2003 , which is twelve hours long and narrated by Maggi @-@ Meg Reed and Christopher Burns ; their performance has been described as " sincere and passionate " .
The 2006 Audible / HighBridge version is narrated by Fred Berman and Phoebe Strole and is 17 : 43 in length .
Audible.co.uk produced an unabridged version in 2008 , also narrated by Hope and Lefkow .
= = = Film = = =
The film rights for The Time Traveler 's Wife were optioned by Brad Pitt 's production company Plan B Entertainment , in association with New Line Cinema , before the novel was even published . The adaptation was written by Bruce Joel Rubin and directed by Robert Schwentke , and stars Rachel McAdams and Eric Bana . Filming began in September 2007 and the movie was released by Warner Bros. on 14 August 2009 . When asked about the prospect of her novel being turned into a film , Niffenegger said , " I 've got my little movie that runs in my head . And I 'm kind of afraid that will be changed or wiped out by what somebody else might do with it . And it is sort of thrilling and creepy , because now the characters have an existence apart from me . " In general , the film received mixed @-@ to @-@ negative reviews . For example , The New York Times wrote that the film was an " often ridiculous , awkward , unsatisfying and dour melodramatic adaptation " .
= Silba @-@ class landing ship @-@ minelayer =
The Silba class ( sometimes the Cetina class ) is a class of three landing ships , also used as minelayers , built for the Yugoslav ( JRM ) and Croatian Navy ( HRM ) during the 1980s and 1990s . The ships were built at the Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata shipyard in Split with slight differences in armament configuration between the last two ships . By the time the Croatian War of Independence started , one ship was in service with the JRM while another was being completed .
The one in JRM service was relocated to Montenegro where it would be commissioned with the Navy of the new FR Yugoslavia . The second ship that was captured unfinished was completed by Croatian forces and entered service with the HRM , followed by a third that was laid down by Croatia in 1993 . The two ships commissioned with the HRM remain in active service , providing assistance to civilian institutions aside from their regular military tasks . The fate of the first ship in the class remains unknown .
= = Development and building = =
The Silba class was developed by the Brodarski institut ( BI ) from Zagreb as a replacement for a large number of aging barge @-@ like landing craft based on German World War II designs ( Marinefährprahm and Siebel ) . All three ships were completed at the Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata ( BSO ) in Split , Croatia . The first one , Krk ( DBM @-@ 241 ) , was commissioned with the JRM sometime between 1986 and 1990 . The keel for the second ship that was to be named Rab ( DBM @-@ 242 ) was laid down in 1990 . As the Croatian War of Independence started , unfinished Rab was captured by Croatian forces . It was completed and launched as Cetina ( DBM @-@ 81 ) on 18 July 1992 . A third and final ship was launched on 17 September 1994 as Krka ( DBM @-@ 82 ) .
= = Description = =
These ferry @-@ like ships feature a roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off design with two loading ramps located on the bow and the stern . Measuring 49 @.@ 69 m ( 163 ft 0 in ) in length , they have a 10 @.@ 2 m ( 33 ft 6 in ) beam with a 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 ft 6 in ) draft . Propulsion consists of two 1 @,@ 140 kW ( 1 @,@ 530 hp ) Burmeister & Wain Alpha Diesel 10V 23L VO engines mounted on two shafts , enabling them a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 5 knots ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ; 14 @.@ 4 mph ) and a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Traveling at their cruise speed they have a range of 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 – 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 400 – 1 @,@ 600 mi ) with a 12 @-@ day endurance . The ships are manned by a crew of 32 .
The Armament configuration differs between the first two ships and the last one ; DBM @-@ 241 and DBM @-@ 81 are armed with two AK @-@ 230 CIWS mounted on the sides , a single quadruple 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) M @-@ 75 gun on the stern and a single quadruple MTU @-@ 4 9K32M Strela @-@ 2M ( SA @-@ 7b " Grail " ) anti @-@ aircraft missile launcher . The interior , which features two mine rails , can be used to carry up to 152 different naval mines , six medium tanks or 300 troops with equipment , a total cargo capacity of 460 t ( 450 long tons ) . DBM @-@ 82 was completed with a different gun armament ; in place of the AK @-@ 230 , DBM @-@ 82 has two 20 mm M @-@ 71 guns on the sides and a single Bofors D70 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) gun on the bow . The ship was also completed as an auxiliary water carrier with a capacity of around 230 t ( 230 long tons ) of fresh water . The number of mines that DBM @-@ 82 can carry is a maximum of 114 .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
At the start of the Croatian War of Independence DBM @-@ 241 was relocated to Montenegro where it later entered service with the SR Yugoslav Navy . DBM @-@ 242 , now redesignated as DBM @-@ 81 was launched as Cetina and entered service with the Croatian Navy 19 February 1992 with Ivo Raffanelli in command . For the remainder of the war , Cetina was engaged in transporting troops and equipment along the coast , including supply runs for Croatian forces during Operation Maslenica in 1993 . The same year the ship participated in testing of the new MNS @-@ M90 naval mine . DBM @-@ 82 , the third and final ship of the class , was commissioned with the Croatian Navy on 9 March 1995 with Jerko Bošnjak in command .
According to publications and news reports , DBM @-@ 241 was reported operational as late as 2005 . An article published in October 2012 reported that the Egyptian Navy bought DBM @-@ 241 a year earlier . Although the advance was paid , the official handover of the ship has not happened by the time the article was published . As of March 2014 , the official website of the Armed Forces of Montenegro does not list DBM @-@ 241 among its fleet and the ships status remains unknown . The two Silba @-@ class in Croatian hands continue to see service the Navy Flotilla performing traditional naval tasks as well as support missions for civilian institutions such water supply and transporting firefighters .
In July 2006 Krka was damaged during an overhaul at the Šibenik Shipyard . While being lowered to the sea , the winch of the syncrolift pulled out of the concrete causing the ship to fall down , creating a hole in the hull and sinking the stern . Early reports of significant damage proved to be false and the ship was repaired soon after . Out of ten crew members that were on board at the time , only one sustained minor injuries .
In 2015 , Krka and Cetina were tasked with transporting Croatian Army vehicles and personnel to Spain for the NATO " Trident Juncture " exercise . The ships departed the Lora Naval Base on 11 October 2015 , loaded with four Patria AMVs , two trucks , one motor vehicle and 14 soldiers scheduled to take part in the exercise . On 13 October they arrived in Catania where they rendezvoused with Andrija Mohorovičić deployed in support of Operation Triton . The two ships made another stop at Cagliari before continuing to Spain , arriving in Sagunto on 18 October after spending seven days at sea . The ships returned to the Lora Naval Base on 13 November , concluding their month long deployment during which they traversed a total of 2 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 000 kilometres ; 3 @,@ 100 miles ) .
= Arthur Gould ( rugby union ) =
Arthur Joseph " Monkey " Gould ( 10 October 1864 – 2 January 1919 ) was a Welsh international rugby union centre and fullback who was most associated as a club player with Newport Rugby Football Club . He won 27 caps for Wales , 18 as captain , and critics consider him the first superstar of Welsh rugby . A talented all @-@ round player and champion sprinter , Gould could side @-@ step and kick expertly with either foot . He never ceased practising to develop his fitness and skills , and on his death was described as " the most accomplished player of his generation " .
Following the withdrawal of their regular fullback , Newport RFC first selected Gould in 1882 , when he was 18 . He was never dropped from the side thereafter and played regularly until he retired in 1898 . Gould played for Newport during their " invincible " season of 1891 – 92 , when they did not lose a match , and scored a record 37 tries in Newport 's 24 @-@ game 1893 – 94 season , a club record that still stands . Gould frequently travelled due to his job as a public contractor , and consequently turned out for a number of other sides during his career , including the clubs Richmond and London Welsh , and the county side Middlesex .
Gould was first selected for Wales in 1885 when he played at fullback
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Captain ( United States ) on September 19 , 1864 for Winchester , Virginia .
Major ( United States ) on March 13 , 1865 for gallantry .
Lieutenant colonel ( United States ) on March 13 , 1865 for meritorious service during the Civil War .
Colonel ( United States ) on October 18 , 1868 for Beaver Creek , Kansas during the Indian Wars .
= = = = U.S. Volunteers = = = =
Lieutenant colonel on October 1 , 1864 , 5th US Colored Cavalry ( USCC )
Colonel on November 2 , 1865 , 5th USCC
Brigadier general on May 4 , 1898 , 1st Corps , 3rd Division
= = = Known commands = = =
Commanded the 5th US Colored Cavalry Regiment 1865 – 1866
Commanded Fort Davis in West Texas 1878 – 1879 .
Fort Robinson , Nebraska 1887
Fort Myer , Virginia 1887 – 1891
Director of Cavalry School Application , Fort Riley , Kansas 1892
Appointed to revise cavalry tactics 1896
Commanded Fort Sam Houston , Texas 1897 – 1898
Command of 1st Corps and 3rd Division , then 4th Corps in the Spanish – American War 1898
Military Governor of the Province of Puerto Principe , now Camagüey Province , Cuba 1898 – 1899 .
= = = Memberships and clubs = = =
Member of the Loyal Legion
Veteran of Foreign Wars
Society , American Numismatic ( 1897 ) . The Society of the Army of the Potomac . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 .
Society , American Numismatic ( 1897 ) . The Cavalry Society of the Armies of the United States . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 .
Historical Society of Pennsylvania
Academy of Natural Sciences
" Army and Navy Club ( Washington D.C. ) " . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 .
" Rittenhouse Club ( Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) " . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 .
Union League of Philadelphia
= Hurricane Erick ( 2013 ) =
Hurricane Erick brought minor impact to the western coastline of Mexico in July 2013 . The fifth tropical cyclone and named storm , as well as the fourth hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Erick originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on June 18 . The wave tracked swiftly westward with little development , emerging into the eastern Pacific on July 1 . As a result of favorable environmental conditions , the wave developed into a tropical depression on July 4 , and further into Tropical Storm Erick at 0000 UTC on July 5 . Steered generally west @-@ northwest , Erick intensified into a Category 1 hurricane and reached its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) on July 6 . Its proximity to land and track over increasingly cooler waters caused the storm to deteriorate into a tropical storm the following day , though it remained at such intensity until degenerating into a remnant low early on July 9 . The remnant circulation dissipated a few hours later , southwest of Baja California Sur .
In preparation for the cyclone , numerous tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued for various portions of the coastline of Mexico . Ports were closed and residents in low @-@ lying areas were asked to evacuate to higher grounds . In addition , shipping by means of boat was suspended . Though the center of Erick remained offshore , the outer bands of the system brought gusty winds and isolated heavy rainfall to Western Mexico . In Guerrero , minor flooding was reported in the cities of Acapulco and Puerto Marques . A river overflowed its banks in Nayarit , flooding several cities in the state . Numerous cars , streets , and homes were damaged by flooding . A woman died as she attempted to flee her house , while a man was killed after being swept away by the river . Hundreds of people were rescued by the Mexican military and Nayarit officials . Across Baja California Sur , the storm produced widespread precipitation , leading to flooding .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 18 , a tropical wave emerged off the western coastline of Africa and into the eastern Atlantic . Tracking steadily westward , it maintained a small but organized area of convection — shower and thunderstorm activity — along its axis for the next several days . The wave crossed the Lesser Antilles on June 24 and Central America on June 29 , emerging into the eastern Pacific shortly thereafter . During the evening of July 1 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the system , noting that environmental conditions were expected to become favorable for slow development . The wave interacted with a larger area of low pressure on July 2 , leading to an increase in convective coverage and the formation of a broad low @-@ pressure area . Continuing slowly westward , the system acquired enough organization to be declared a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on July 4 , while centered 205 mi ( 330 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . Despite the initially exposed center of circulation , a byproduct of moderate wind shear , the depression soon began to organize as convective banding increased and gained more curvature . This led to the classification of Tropical Storm Erick at 0000 UTC on July 5 .
Under the influence of a mid @-@ level ridge over the northwestern Caribbean Sea and an upper @-@ level ridge over the southwestern United States , the newly upgraded Erick tracked west @-@ northwest parallel to the coastline of Mexico . A central dense overcast formed by the daylight hours of July 5 , with tight banding noted on satellite . In addition , microwave imagery indicated the formative stages of an eyewall . Initially vertically decoupled , the storm became more vertically aligned throughout the following hours . A ragged eye became intermittently visible on satellite , and Erick was upgraded to Category 1 hurricane status at 0600 UTC , located approximately 105 mi ( 170 km ) west @-@ southwest of Lázaro Cárdenas , Mexico . In conjunction with satellite intensity estimates , it is estimated that Erick attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 983 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 03 inHg ) at 1200 UTC . Shortly thereafter , its proximity to the coastline of Mexico and track over increasingly cooler waters caused the storm to begin a weakening trend . At 1800 UTC on July 7 , Erick weakened to a tropical storm as its associated convective mass warmed and the eye deteriorated . Wind shear caused the center of circulation to become exposed on July 9 as the system passed just south of Baja California Sur , leading to degeneration into a remnant low @-@ pressure area at 0600 UTC . The remnant vortex persisted for a few more hours , before dissipating over cold sea surface temperatures at 0000 UTC on July 10 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Following the system 's designation , a tropical storm watch was issued for the southwestern coastline of Mexico stretching from Acapulco to La Fortuna . By 0300 UTC on July 5 , the watch was extended from Acapulco to Manzanillo , while a tropical storm warning was issued from Lázaro Cárdenas to Manzanillo . Several hours later , the watch was discontinued for the coastline stretching from Acapulco to Lázaro Cárdenas and issued from La Fortuna to Cabo Corrientes . Meanwhile , the warning from Lázaro Cárdenas to Manzanillo was discontinued , with a new warning issued from Zihuatanejo to La Fortuna . All tropical storm watches in effect were discontinued by 0300 UTC the following morning , with the warning being extended from Zihuatanejo to Cabo Corrientes . After being upgraded to a hurricane , Erick prompted the issuance of hurricane watches stretching from Punta San Telmo to Cabo Corrientes . At 1500 UTC on July 6 , a tropical storm watch was issued from Santa Fe to La Paz , though this was upgraded to a warning several hours later . Following many other revisions , all tropical cyclone watches and warnings were discontinued after Erick degenerated into a remnant low early on July 9 .
In preparation for the tropical cyclone , an " orange " alert was issued for southern Michoacán , southern Jalisco , and the entire state of Colima , while a " yellow " alert was posted for the rest of the Jalisco coastline . The ports of Acapulco , Zihuatanejo , and Manzanillio were closed . In fear of flash flooding , residents along low @-@ lying areas of Acapulco were urged to evacuate . Meanwhile , the government of Michoacán ordered the suspension of shipping by boat .
Despite remaining offshore , the outer rainbands of the storm affected the southwestern coastline with gusty winds and heavy rainfall , with similar effects farther northwest . In Acapulco and Puerto Marques , the storm was responsible for minor flooding . Elsewhere across the state , damage was minor and mostly due to landslides . Along the coast of Colima , waves up to 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) were recorded . Although some flooding was reported across the state , damage was considered minor .
Further north , Erick brought extensive flood damage to Nayarit . A 74 @-@ year @-@ old woman died while trying to escape her flooded house , while dozens of vehicles were damaged and several other streets and homes were flooded . One river overflowed its banks , affecting numerous cities . Officials in Nayarit attempted to rescue hundreds of people affected by Hurricane Erick , many of whom waited on streets to be rescued . Dozens of families were directly affected by the storm . Substantial amounts of debris piled up on streets . Residents reported severe economical losses , especially in Xalisco , where a disaster declaration was necessary . Offshore , a waterspout was reported . In Tepic , Governor Roberto Sandoval ordered a state of emergency . Although the core of the system remained offshore , a " yellow " alert was issued for Baja California Sur . Heavy rain was recorded over much of the peninsula , resulting in flooding . The ports of La Paz , Cabo San Lucas , and San Jose del Cabo were closed due to high waves . Additionally , a " green " alert was issued for Baja California . In all , two people were killed while two others were missing . About 5 @,@ 500 people were homeless in Xalisco .
= Mesa Verde National Park =
Mesa Verde National Park is a National Park and World Heritage Site located in Montezuma County , Colorado . It protects some of the best preserved Ancestral Puebloan archeological sites in the United States .
Created by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 , it occupies 52 @,@ 485 acres ( 21 @,@ 240 ha ) near the Four Corners region of the American Southwest , and with more than 4 @,@ 300 sites , including 600 cliff dwellings , it is the largest archeological preserve in the US . Mesa Verde ( Spanish for " green table " ) is best known for structures such as Cliff Palace , thought to be the largest cliff dwelling in North America .
Starting c . 7500 BCE , Mesa Verde was seasonally inhabited by a group of nomadic Paleo @-@ Indians known as the Foothills Mountain Complex . The variety of projectile points found in the region indicates they were influenced by surrounding areas , including the Great Basin , the San Juan Basin , and the Rio Grande Valley . Later , Archaic people established semi @-@ permanent rockshelters in and around the mesa . By 1000 BCE , the Basketmaker culture emerged from the local Archaic population , and by 750 CE the Ancestral Puebloans had developed from the Basketmaker culture .
The Mesa Verdeans survived using a combination of hunting , gathering , and subsistence farming of crops such as corn , beans , and squash . They built the mesa 's first pueblos sometime after 650 , and by the end of the 12th century , they began to construct the massive cliff dwellings for which the park is best known . By 1285 , following a period of social and environmental instability driven by a series of severe and prolonged droughts , they abandoned the area and moved south to locations in Arizona and New Mexico , including Rio Chama , Pajarito Plateau , and Santa Fe .
= = Inhabitants = =
= = = Paleo @-@ Indians = = =
The first occupants of the Mesa Verde region , which spans from southeastern Utah to northwestern New Mexico , were nomadic Paleo @-@ Indians who arrived in the area c . 9500 BCE . They followed herds of big game and camped near rivers and streams , many of which dried up as the glaciers that once covered parts of the San Juan Mountains receded . The earliest Paleo @-@ Indians were the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition , defined largely by the way in which they fashioned projectile points . Although they left evidence of their presence throughout the region , there is little indication that they lived in central Mesa Verde during this time .
After 9600 BCE , the area 's environment grew warmer and drier , a change that brought to central Mesa Verde pine forests and the animals that thrive in them . Paleo @-@ Indians began inhabiting the mesa in increasing numbers c . 7500 , though it is unclear whether they were seasonal occupants or year @-@ round residents . Development of the atlatl during this period made it easier for them to hunt smaller game , a crucial advance at a time when most of the region 's big game had disappeared from the landscape .
= = = Archaic = = =
6000 BCE marks the beginning of the Archaic period in North America . Archeologists differ as to the origin of the Mesa Verde Archaic population ; some believe they developed exclusively from local Paleo @-@ Indians , called the Foothills Mountain Complex , but others suggest that the variety of projectile points found in Mesa Verde indicates influence from surrounding areas , including the Great Basin , the San Juan Basin , and the Rio Grande Valley . The Archaic people probably developed locally , but were also influenced by contact , trade , and intermarriage with immigrants from these outlying areas .
The early Archaic people living near Mesa Verde utilized the atlatl and harvested a wider variety of plants and animals than the Paleo @-@ Indians had , while retaining their primarily nomadic lifestyle . They inhabited the outlying areas of the Mesa Verde region , but also the mountains , mesa tops , and canyons , where they created rockshelters and rock art , and left evidence of animal processing and chert knapping . Environmental stability during the period drove population expansion and migration . Major warming and drying from 5000 to 2500 might have led middle Archaic people to seek the cooler climate of Mesa Verde , whose higher elevation brought increased snowpack that , when coupled with spring rains , provided relatively plentiful amounts of water .
By the late Archaic , more people were living in semi @-@ permanent rockshelters that preserved perishable goods such as baskets , sandals , and mats . They started to make a variety of twig figurines that usually resembled sheep or deer . The late Archaic is marked by increased trade in exotic materials such as obsidian and turquoise . Marine shells and abalone from the Pacific coast made their way to Mesa Verde from Arizona , and the Archaic people worked them into necklaces and pendants . Rock art flourished , and people lived in rudimentary houses made of mud and wood . Their early attempts at plant domestication eventually developed into the sustained agriculture that marked the end of the Archaic period , c . 1000 .
= = = Basketmaker culture = = =
With the introduction of corn to the Mesa Verde region c . 1000 BCE and the trend away from nomadism toward permanent pithouse settlements , the Archaic Mesa Verdeans transitioned into what archeologists call the Basketmaker culture . Basketmaker II people are characterized by their combination of foraging and farming skills , use of the atlatl , and creation of finely woven baskets in the absence of earthen pottery . By 300 , corn had become the preeminent staple of the Basketmaker II people 's diet , which relied less and less on wild food sources and more on domesticated crops .
In addition to the fine basketry for which they were named , Basketmaker II people fashioned a variety of household items from plant and animal materials , including sandals , robes , pouches , mats , and blankets . They also made clay pipes and gaming pieces . Basketmaker men were relatively short and muscular , averaging less than 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) tall . Their skeletal remains reveal signs of hard labor and extensive travel , including degenerative joint disease , healed fractures , and moderate anemia associated with iron deficiency . They buried their dead near or amongst their settlements , and often included luxury items as gifts , which might indicate differences in relative social status . Basketmaker II people are also known for their distinctive rock art , which can be found throughout Mesa Verde . They depicted animals and people , in both abstract and realistic forms , in single works and more elaborate panels . A common subject was the hunchbacked flute player that the Hopi call Kokopelli .
By 500 , CE atlatls were being supplanted by the bow and arrow and baskets by pottery , marking the end of the Basketmaker II Era and the beginning of the Basketmaker III Era . Ceramic vessels were a major improvement over pitch @-@ lined baskets , gourds , and animal hide containers , which had been the primary water storage containers in the region . Pottery also protected seeds against mold , insects , and rodents . By 600 , Mesa Verdeans were using clay pots to cook soups and stews . Year @-@ round settlements first appear around this time . The population of the San Juan Basin increased markedly after 575 , when there were very few Basketmaker III sites in Mesa Verde ; by the early 7th century , there were many such sites in the mesa . For the next 150 years , villages typically consisted of small groups of one to three residences . The population of Mesa Verde c . 675 was approximately 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 people .
Beans and new varieties of corn were introduced to the region c . 700 . By 775 , some settlements had grown to accommodate more than one hundred people ; the construction of large , above @-@ ground storage buildings began around this time . Basketmakers endeavored to store enough food for their family for one year , but also retained residential mobility so they could quickly relocate their dwellings in the event of resource depletion or consistently inadequate crop yields . By the end of the 8th century , the smaller hamlets , which were typically occupied for ten to forty years , had been supplanted by larger ones that saw continuous occupation for as many as two generations . Basketmaker III people established a tradition of holding large ceremonial gatherings near community pit structures .
= = = Ancestral Puebloans = = =
= = = = Pueblo I : 750 to 900 = = = =
750 marks the end of the Basketmaker III Era and the beginning of the Pueblo I period . The transition is characterized by major changes in the design and construction of buildings and the organization of household activities . Pueblo I people doubled their capacity for food storage from one year to two and built interconnected , year @-@ round residences called pueblos . Many household activities that had previously been reserved for subterranean pithouses were moved to these above @-@ ground dwellings . This altered the function of pithouses from all @-@ purpose spaces to ones used primarily for community ceremonies , although they continued to house large extended families , particularly during winter months . During the late 8th century , Mesa Verdeans began building square pit structures that archeologists call protokivas . They were typically 3 or 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 or 1 @.@ 22 m ) deep and 12 to 20 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide .
The first pueblos appeared at Mesa Verde sometime after 650 ; by 850 more than half of Mesa Verdeans lived in them . As local populations grew , Puebloans found it difficult to survive on hunting , foraging , and gardening , which made them increasingly reliant on domesticated corn . This shift from semi @-@ nomadism to a " sedentary and communal way of life changed ancestral Pueblo society forever " . Within a generation the average number of households in these settlements grew from one to three to fifteen to twenty , with average populations of two hundred people . Population density increased dramatically , with as many as a dozen families occupying roughly the same space that had formerly housed two . This brought increased security against raids and encouraged greater cooperation amongst residents . It also facilitated trade and intermarriage between clans , and by the late 8th century , as Mesa Verde 's population was being augmented by settlers from the south , four distinct cultural groups occupied the same villages .
Large Pueblo I settlements laid claim to the resources found within 15 to 30 square miles ( 39 to 78 km2 ) . They were typically organized in groups of at least three and spaced about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) apart . By 860 , there were approximately 8 @,@ 000 people living in Mesa Verde . Within the plazas of larger villages , the Pueblo I people dug massive pit structures of 800 square feet ( 74 m2 ) that became central gathering places . These structures represent early architectural expressions of what would eventually develop into the Pueblo II Era great houses of Chaco Canyon . Despite robust growth during the early and mid @-@ 9th century , unpredictable rainfall and periodic drought led to a dramatic reversal of settlement trends in the area . Many late Pueblo I villages were abandoned after less than forty years of occupation , and by 880 Mesa Verde 's population was in steady decline . The beginning of the 10th century saw widespread depopulation of the region , as people emigrated south of the San Juan River to Chaco Canyon in search of reliable rains for farming . As Mesa Verdeans migrated south , to where many of their ancestors had emigrated two hundred years before , the influence of Chaco Canyon grew , and by 950 Chaco had supplanted Mesa Verde as the region 's cultural center .
= = = = Pueblo II : 900 to 1150 = = = =
The Pueblo II Period is marked by the growth and outreach of communities centered around the great houses of Chaco Canyon . Despite their participation in the vast Chacoan system , Mesa Verdeans retained a distinct cultural identity while melding regional innovation with ancient tradition , inspiring further architectural advancements ; the 9th century Mesa Verdean pueblos influenced two hundred years of Chacoan great house construction . Droughts during the late 9th century rendered Mesa Verdean dry land farming unreliable , which led to their growing crops only near drainages for the next 150 years . Crop yields returned to healthy levels by the early 11th century . By 1050 the population of the area began to rebound ; as agricultural prosperity increased , people immigrated to Mesa Verde from the south .
Mesa Verdean farmers increasingly relied on masonry reservoirs during the Pueblo II Era . During the 11th century , they built check dams and terraces near drainages and slopes in an effort to conserve soil and runoff . These fields offset the danger of crop failures in the larger dry land fields . By the mid @-@ 10th and early 11th centuries , protokivas had evolved into smaller circular structures called kivas , which were usually 12 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) across . These Mesa Verde @-@ style kivas included a feature from earlier times called a sipapu , which is a hole dug in the north of the chamber and symbolizes the Ancestral Puebloan 's place of emergence from the underworld . At this time , Mesa Verdeans began to move away from the post and mud jacal @-@ style buildings that marked the Pueblo I Period toward masonry construction , which had been utilized in the region as early as 700 , but was not widespread until the 11th and 12th centuries .
The expansion of Chacoan influence in the Mesa Verde area left its most visible mark in the form of Chaco @-@ style masonry great houses that became the focal point of many Mesa Verdean villages after 1075 . Far View House , the largest of these , is considered a classic Chaco " outlier , " on which construction likely began between 1075 and 1125 , although some archaeologists argue that it was begun as early as 1020 . The era 's timber and earth unit pueblos were typically inhabited for about twenty years . During the early 12th century , the locus of regional control shifted away from Chaco to Aztec , New Mexico , in the southern Mesa Verde region . By 1150 , drought had once again stressed the region 's inhabitants , leading to a temporary cessation of great house construction at Mesa Verde .
= = = = Pueblo III : 1150 to 1300 = = = =
A severe drought from 1130 to 1180 led to rapid depopulation in many parts of the San Juan Basin , particularly at Chaco Canyon . As the extensive Chacoan system collapsed , people increasingly migrated to Mesa Verde , causing major population growth in the area . This led to much larger settlements of six to eight hundred people , which reduced mobility for Mesa Verdeans , who had in the past frequently relocated their dwellings and fields as part of their agriculture strategy . In order to sustain these larger populations , they dedicated more and more of their labor to farming . Population increases also led to expanded tree felling that reduced habitat for many wild plant and animal species that the Mesa Verdeans had relied on , further deepening their dependency on domesticated crops that were susceptible to drought @-@ related failure .
The Chacoan system brought large quantities of imported goods to Mesa Verde during the late 11th and early 12th centuries , including pottery , shells , and turquoise , but by the late 12th century , as the system collapsed , the amount of goods imported by the mesa quickly declined , and Mesa Verde became isolated from the surrounding region . For approximately six hundred years , most Mesa Verdean farmers had lived in small , mesa @-@ top homesteads of one or two families . They were typically located near their fields and walking distance to sources of water . This practice continued into the mid- to late 12th century , but by the start of the 13th century they began living in canyon locations that were close to water sources and within walking distance of their fields .
Mesa Verdean villages thrived during the mid @-@ Pueblo III Era , when architects constructed massive , multi @-@ story buildings , and artisans adorned pottery with increasingly elaborate designs . Structures built during this period have been described as " among the world 's greatest archaeological treasures " . Pueblo III masonry buildings were typically occupied for approximately fifty years , more than double the usable lifespan of the Pueblo II jacal structures . Others were continuously inhabited for two hundred years or more . Architectural innovations such as towers and multi @-@ walled structures also appear during the Pueblo III Era . Mesa Verde 's population remained fairly stable during the 12th century drought . At the start of the 13th century , approximately 22 @,@ 000 people lived there . The area saw moderate population increases during the following decades , and dramatic ones from 1225 to 1260 . Most of the people in the region lived in the plains west of the mesa at locations such as Yellow Jacket Pueblo , near Cortez , Colorado . Others colonized canyon rims and slopes in multi @-@ family structures that grew to unprecedented size as populations swelled . By 1260 , the majority of Mesa Verdeans lived in large pueblos that housed several families and more than one hundred people .
The 13th century saw 69 years of below average rainfall in the Mesa Verde region , and after 1270 the area suffered from especially cold temperatures . Dendrochronology indicates that the last tree felled for construction on the mesa was cut in 1281 . There was a major decline in ceramic imports to the region during this time , but local production remained steady . Despite challenging conditions , the Puebloans continued to farm the area until a severely dry period from 1276 to 1299 ended seven hundred years of continuous human occupation at Mesa Verde . Archeologists refer to this period as the " Great Drought " . The last inhabitants of the mesa left the area c . 1285 .
= = = = Warfare = = = =
During the Pueblo III period ( 1150 to 1300 ) , Mesa Verdeans built numerous stone masonry towers that likely served as defensive structures . They often incorporated hidden tunnels connecting the towers to associated kivas . Warfare was conducted using the same tools the Mesa Verdeans used for hunting game , including bows and arrows , stone axes , and wooden clubs and spears . They also crafted hide and basket shields that were used only during battles . Periodic warfare occurred on the mesa throughout the 13th century . Civic leaders in the region likely attained power and prestige by distributing food during times of drought . This system probably broke down during the " Great Drought " , leading to intense warfare between competing clans . Increasing economic and social uncertainty during the century 's final decades led to widespread conflict . Evidence of partly burned villages and post @-@ mortem trauma has been uncovered , and the residents of one village appear to have been the victims of a site @-@ wide massacre .
Evidence of violence and cannibalism has been documented in the central Mesa Verde region . While most of the violence , which peaked between 1275 and 1285 , is generally ascribed to in @-@ fighting amongst Mesa Verdeans , archeological evidence found at Sand Canyon Pueblo , in Canyons of the Ancients National Monument , suggests that violent interactions also occurred between Mesa Verdeans and people from outside the region . Evidence of the attacks was discovered by members of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center during the 1990s . The assaults , which also occurred at the national monument 's Castle Rock Pueblo , were dated to c . 1280 , and are considered to have effectively ended several centuries of Puebloan occupation at those sites . Many of the victims showed signs of skull fractures , and the uniformity of the injuries suggest that most were inflicted with a small stone axe . Others were scalped , dismembered , and cannibalized . The anthropophagy ( cannibalism ) might have been undertaken as a survival strategy during times of starvation . The archeological record indicates that , rather than being isolated to the Mesa Verde region , violent conflict was widespread in North America during the late 13th and early 14th centuries , and was likely exacerbated by global climate changes that negatively affected food supplies throughout the continent .
= = = = Migration = = = =
The Mesa Verde region saw unusually cold and dry conditions during the beginning of the 13th century . This might have driven emigration to Mesa Verde from less hospitable locations . The added population stressed the mesa 's environment , further straining an agricultural society that was suffering from drought . The region 's bimodal precipitation pattern , which brought rainfall during spring and summer and snowfall during autumn and winter , began to fail post @-@ 1250 . After 1260 , there was a rapid depopulation of Mesa Verde , as " tens of thousands of people " emigrated or died from starvation . Many smaller communities in the Four Corners region were also abandoned during this period . The Ancestral Puebloans had a long history of migration in the face of environmental instability , but the depopulation of Mesa Verde at the end of the 13th century was different in that the region was almost completely emptied , and no descendants returned to build permanent settlements . While drought , resource depletion , and overpopulation all contributed to instability during the last two centuries of Ancestral Puebloan occupation , their overdependence on maize crops is considered the " fatal flaw " of their subsistence strategy .
The vacating Mesa Verdeans left almost no direct evidence of their migration , but they left behind household goods , including cooking utensils , tools , and clothing , which gave archeologists the impression that the emigration was haphazard or hurried . An estimated 20 @,@ 000 people lived in the region during the 13th century , but by the start of the 14th century the area was nearly uninhabited . Many emigrants relocated to southern Arizona and New Mexico . Although the rate of settlement is unclear , increases in sparsely populated areas , such as Rio Chama , Pajarito Plateau , and Santa Fe , correspond directly with the period of migration from Mesa Verde . Archeologists believe the Mesa Verdeans who settled in the areas near the Rio Grande , where Mesa Verde black @-@ on @-@ white pottery became widespread during the 14th century , were likely related to the households they joined and not unwelcome intruders . Archeologists view this migration as a continuation , versus a dissolution , of Ancestral Puebloan society and culture . Many others relocated to the banks of the Little Colorado River , in western New Mexico and eastern Arizona . While archeologists tend to focus on the " push " factors that drove the Mesa Verdeans away from the region , there were also several environmental " pull factors " , such as warmer temperatures , better farming conditions , plentiful timber , and bison herds , which incentivized relocation to the area near the Rio Grande . In addition to numerous settlements along the Rio Grande , contemporary descendants of the Mesa Verdeans live in pueblos at Acomo , Zuni , Jemez , and Laguna .
= = = = Organization = = = =
Although Chaco Canyon might have exerted regional control over Mesa Verde during the late 11th and early 12th centuries , most archeologists view the Mesa Verde region as a collection of smaller communities based on central sites and related outliers that were never fully integrated into a larger civic structure . Several ancient roads , averaging 15 to 45 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 7 m ) wide and lined with earthen berms , have been identified in the region . Most appear to connect communities and shrines ; others encircle great house sites . The extent of the network is unclear , but no roads have been discovered leading to the Chacoan Great North Road , or directly connecting Mesa Verde and Chacoan sites .
Ancestral Puebloan shrines , called herraduras , have been identified near road segments in the region . Their purpose is unclear , but several C @-@ shaped herraduras have been excavated , and they are thought to have been " directional shrines " used to indicate the location of great houses .
= = = = Architecture = = = =
Mesa Verde is best known for a large number of well @-@ preserved cliff dwellings , houses built in alcoves , or rock overhangs along the canyon walls . The structures contained within these alcoves were mostly blocks of hard sandstone , held together and plastered with adobe mortar . Specific constructions had many similarities but were generally unique in form due to the individual topography of different alcoves along the canyon walls . In marked contrast to earlier constructions and villages on top of the mesas , the cliff dwellings of Mesa Verde reflected a region @-@ wide trend towards the aggregation of growing regional populations into close , highly defensible quarters during the 13th century .
Pueblo buildings were built with stone , windows facing south , and in U , E and L shapes . The buildings were located more closely together and reflected deepening religious celebration . Towers were built near kivas and likely used for lookouts . Pottery became more versatile , including pitchers , ladles , bowls , jars and dishware for food and drink . White pottery with black designs emerged , the pigments coming from plants . Water management and conservation techniques , including the use of reservoirs and silt @-@ retaining dams , also emerged during this period . Styles for these sandstone / mortar constructions , both surface and cliff dwellings , included T @-@ shaped windows and doors . This has been taken by some archaeologists , including Stephen H. Lekson , as evidence of the continuing reach of the Chacoan system . Other researchers see these elements as part of a more generalized Puebloan style and / or spiritual significance , rather than evidence of a continuing specific elite socioeconomic system .
While much of the construction in these sites is consistent with common Pueblo architectural forms , including kivas , towers , and pit @-@ houses , the space constrictions of these alcoves necessitated what seems to have been a far denser concentration of their populations . Mug House , a typical cliff dwelling of the period , was home to around 100 people who shared 94 small rooms and eight kivas built against each other and sharing many of their walls ; builders in these areas maximized space in any way they could , with no areas considered off @-@ limits to construction .
= = = = Astronomy = = = =
Mesa Verdeans used astronomical observations to plan their farming and religious ceremonies , drawing on both natural features in the landscape and masonry structures built for this purpose . Several great houses in the region were aligned to the cardinal directions , which positioned windows , doors , and walls along the path of the sun , whose rays would indicate the passing of seasons . Mesa Verde 's Sun Temple is thought to have been an astronomical observatory .
The temple is D @-@ shaped , and its alignment is 10 @.@ 7 degrees off true east @-@ west . Its location and orientation indicate that its builders understood the cycles of both the sun and the moon . It is aligned to the major lunar standstill , which occurs once every 18 @.@ 6 years , and the sunset during the winter solstice , which can be viewed setting over the temple from a platform at the south end of Cliff Palace , across Fewkes Canyon . At the bottom of the canyon is the Sun Temple fire pit , which is illuminated by the first rays of the rising sun during the winter solstice . Sun Temple is one of the largest exclusively ceremonial structures ever built by the Ancestral Puebloans .
= = = = Agriculture and water @-@ control systems = = = =
Starting in the 6th century , the farmers living in central Mesa Verde cultivated corn , beans , squash , and gourds . The combination of corn and beans provided the Mesa Verdeans with the amino acids of a complete protein . When conditions were good , 3 or 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 or 1 @.@ 6 ha ) of land would provide enough food for a family of three or four individuals for one year , providing they supplemented with game and wild plants . As Mesa Verdeans increasingly relied on corn as a dietary staple , the success or failure of crop yields factored heavily into their lives . The mesa tilts slightly to the south , which increased its exposure to the sun . Before the introduction of pottery , foods were baked , roasted , and parched . Hot rocks dropped into containers could bring water to a brief boil , but because beans must be boiled for an hour or more their use was not widespread until after pottery had disseminated throughout the region . With the increased availability of ceramics after 600 , beans became much easier to cook . This provided a high quality protein that reduced reliance on hunting . It also aided corn cultivation , as legumes add much needed nutrients to soils they are grown in , which likely increased corn yields .
The most Mesa Verdeans practiced dry farming , which relied on rain to water their crops , but others utilized runoff , springs , seeps , and natural collection pools . Starting in the 9th century , they dug and maintained reservoirs that caught runoff from summer showers and spring snowmelt ; some crops were watered by hand . Archeologists believe that prior to the 13th century , springs and other sources of water were considered shared public resources , but as Mesa Verdeans moved into increasingly larger pueblos built near or around water supplies control was privatized and limited to members of the surrounding community .
Between 750 and 800 , Mesa Verdeans began constructing two large water containment structures in canyon bottoms – the Morefield and Box Elder reservoirs . Soon afterward , work began on two more : the Far View and Sagebrush reservoirs , which were approximately 90 feet ( 27 m ) across and constructed on the mesa top . The reservoirs lie on an east @-@ west line that runs for approximately 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , which suggests builders followed a centralized plan for the system . In 2004 , the American Society of Civil Engineers designated these four structures as National Civil Engineering Historic Landmarks . A 2014 geospatial analyses suggested that neither collection nor retention of water was possible in the Far View Reservoir . This interpretation views the structure as a ceremonial space with procession roads in an adaptation of Chacoan culture .
= = = = Hunting and foraging = = = =
Mesa Verdeans typically harvested local small game , but sometimes organized hunting parties that traveled long distances . Their main sources of animal protein came from mule deer and rabbits , but they occasionally hunted Bighorn sheep , antelope , and elk . They began to domesticate turkeys starting around 1000 , and by the 13th century consumption of the animal peaked , supplanting deer as the primary protein source at many sites . These domesticated turkeys consumed large amounts of corn , which further deepened reliance on the staple crop . Puebloans wove blankets from turkey feathers and rabbit fur , and made implements such as awls and needles from turkey and deer bones . Despite the availability of fish in the area 's rivers and streams , archeological evidence suggests that they were rarely eaten .
Mesa Verdeans supplemented their diet by gathering the seeds and fruits of wild plants , searching large expanses of land while procuring these resources . Depending on the season , they collected piñon nuts and juniper berries , weedy goosefoot , pigweed , purslane , tomatillo , tansy mustard , globe mallow , sunflower seeds , and yucca , as well as various species of grass and cacti . Prickly pear fruits provided a rare source of natural sugar . Wild seeds were cooked and ground up into porridge . They used sagebrush and mountain mahogany , along with piñon and juniper , for firewood . They also smoked wild tobacco . Because the Ancestral Puebloans considered all material consumed and discarded by their communities as sacred , their midden piles were viewed with reverence . Starting during the Basketmaker III period , c . 700 , Mesa Verdeans often buried their dead in these mounds .
= = = = Pottery = = = =
Scholars are divided as to whether pottery was invented in the Four Corners region or introduced from the south . Specimens of shallow , unfired clay bowls found at Canyon de Chelly indicate the innovation might have been derived from using clay bowls to parch seeds . Repeated uses rendered these bowls hard and impervious to water , which might represent the first fired pottery in the region . An alternate theory suggests that pottery originated in the Mogollon Rim area to the south , where brown @-@ paste bowls were used during the first few centuries of the common era . Others believe pottery was introduced to Mesa Verde from Mexico , c . 300 CE . There is no evidence of ancient pottery markets in the region , but archeologists believe that local potters exchanged decorative wares between families . Cooking pots made with crushed igneous rock tempers from places like Ute Mountain were more resilient and desirable , and Puebloans from throughout the region traded for them .
Neutron activation analysis indicates that much of the black @-@ on @-@ white pottery found at Mesa Verde was produced locally . Cretaceous clays from both the Dakota and Menefee Formations were used in black @-@ on @-@ white wares , and Mancos Formation clays for corrugated jars . Evidence that pottery of both types moved between several locations around the region suggests interaction between groups of ancient potters , or they might have shared a common source of raw materials . The Mesa Verde black @-@ on @-@ white pottery was produced at three locations : Sand Canyon , Castle Rock , and Mesa Verde . Archeological evidence indicates that nearly every household had at least one member who worked as a potter . Trench kilns were constructed away from pueblos and closer to sources of firewood . Their sizes vary , but the larger ones were up to 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long and thought to have been shared kilns that served several families . Designs were added to ceramic vessels with a Yucca @-@ leaf brush and paints made from iron , manganese , beeplant , and tansy mustard .
Most of the pottery found in 9th century pueblos was sized for individuals or small families , but as communal ceremonialism expanded during the 13th century , many larger , feast – sized vessels were produced . Corrugated decorations appear on Mesa Verde grey wares after 700 , and by 1000 entire vessels were crafted in this way . The technique created a rough exterior surface that was easier to hold on to than regular grey wares , which were smooth . By the 11th century these corrugated vessels , which dissipated heat more efficiently than smoother ones , had largely replaced the older style , whose tendency to retain heat made them prone to boiling over . Corrugation likely developed as ancient potters attempted to mimic the visual properties of coiled basketry . Corrugated wares were made using clay from formations other than Menefee , which suggests that ancient potters selected different clays for different styles . Potters also selected clays and altered firing conditions to achieve specific colors . Under normal conditions , pots made of Mancos shale turned grey when fired , and those made of Morrison Formation clay turned white . Clays from southeastern Utah turned red when fired in a high @-@ oxygen environment .
= = = = Rock art and murals = = = =
Rock art is found throughout the Mesa Verde region , but its dispersion is uneven and periodic . Some locations have numerous examples ; others have none , and some periods saw prolific creation , while others saw little . Styles also vary over time . Examples are relatively rare on Mesa Verde proper , but abundant in the middle San Juan River area , which might indicate the river 's importance as a travel route and key source of water . Common motifs in the rock art of the region include , anthropomorphic figures in procession and during copulation or childbirth , handprints , animal and people tracks , wavy lines , spirals , concentric circles , animals , and hunting scenes . As the region 's population plummeted during the late 13th century , the subject of Mesa Verdean rock art increasingly shifted to depictions of shields , warriors , and battle scenes . Modern Hopi have interpreted the petroglyphs at Mesa Verde 's Petroglyph Point as depictions of various clans of people .
Starting during the late Pueblo II period ( 1020 ) and continuing through Pueblo III ( 1300 ) , the Ancestral Puebloans of the Mesa Verde region created plaster murals in their great houses , particularly in their kivas . The murals contained both painted and inscribed images depicting animals , people , and designs used in textiles and pottery dating back as far as Basketmaker III , c . 500 . Others depict triangles and mounds thought to represent mountains and hills in the surrounding landscape . The murals were typically located on the face of the kiva bench and usually encircled the room . Geometric patterns that resemble symbols used in pottery and zigzag that represent stitches used in basket making are common motifs . The painted murals include the colors red , green , yellow , white , brown , and blue . The designs were still in use by the Hopi during the 15th and 16th centuries .
= = Anthropogenic ecology , geography , and climate = =
Anthropogenic ecology refers to the human impact on animals and plants in an ecosystem . A shift from medium and large game animals , such as deer , bighorn sheep , and antelope , to smaller ones like rabbits and turkey during the mid @-@ 10th to mid @-@ 13th centuries might indicate that Mesa Verdean subsistence hunting had dramatically altered faunal populations on the mesa . Analysis of pack rat midden indicates that , with the exception of invasive species such as tumbleweed and clover , the flora and fauna in the area have remained relatively consistent for the past 4 @,@ 000 years .
Mesa Verde 's canyons were created by streams that eroded the hard sandstone that covers the area . This resulted in Mesa Verde National Park elevations ranging from about 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 572 feet ( 1 @,@ 829 to 2 @,@ 613 m ) , the highest elevation at Park Point . The terrain in the park is now a transition zone between the low desert plateaus and the Rocky Mountains .
The region 's precipitation pattern is bimodal , meaning agriculture is sustained through snowfall during winter and autumn and rainfall during spring and summer . The climate is semi @-@ arid . Water for farming and consumption was provided by summer rains , winter snowfall , and seeps and springs in and near the Mesa Verde villages . At 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) , the middle mesa areas were typically ten degrees cooler than the mesa top , which reduced the amount of water needed for farming . The cliff dwellings were built to take advantage of solar energy . The angle of the sun in winter warmed the masonry of the cliff dwellings , warm breezes blew from the valley , and the air was ten to twenty degrees warmer in the canyon alcoves than on the top of the mesa . In the summer , with the sun high overhead , much of the village was protected from direct sunlight in the high cliff dwellings .
= = Geology = =
Although the area 's first Spanish explorers named the feature Mesa Verde , the term is a misnomer , as true mesas are almost perfectly flat . Because Mesa Verde is slanted to the south , the proper geological term is cuesta , not mesa . The park is made up of several smaller cuestas located between canyons . Mesa Verde 's slant contributed to the formation of the alcoves that have preserved the area 's cliff dwellings .
In the late Cretaceous Period , the Mancos Shale was deposited on top of the Dakota Sandstone , which is the rock formation that can be found under much of Colorado . The beds of the Mancos Shale are " fine @-@ grained sand @-@ stones , mudstones , and shales " which accumulated in the deep water of the Cretaceous Sea . It has a high clay content which causes it to expand when wet leading to sliding of the terrain . On top of this shale , there are three formations in the Mesaverde group which reflect the changes in depositional environment in the area over time . The first is the Point Lookout Sandstone , which is named for the Point Lookout feature in the park ( elevation 8427 feet ) . This sandstone , which formed in the marine environment of shallow water when the Cretaceous sea was receding , is " massive , fine @-@ grained , cross @-@ bedded , and very resistant " , in its layers reflecting waves and currents that were present during the time of its formation . Its sediments are approximately 400 feet thick , and its upper layers feature fossiliferous invertebrates .
Next is the Menefee Formation , the middle formation whose content features interbedded carbonaceous shales , siltstones , and sandstones . These were deposited in semi @-@ marine environments of brackish water , such as swamps and lagoons . Due to its depositional environment and the organic material in its composition , there are thin coal seams running through the Menefee Formation . At the top , this formation is intruded upon by the Cliff House Sandstone .
The Cliff House Sandstone is the area 's youngest rock layer . It was formed after the Cretaceous sea had completely receded and as a result has a high sand content from beaches , dunes , etc. and from this receives its characteristic yellow tint to its canyon faces . Like the Point Lookout Sandstone , it is about 400 feet thick . It contains numerous fossil beds of different types of shells , fish teeth , and other invertebrate leftovers from the receded sea . The shale zones in this feature determine where alcoves formed where the Ancestral Puebloans constructed their dwellings .
Continuing through the Cretaceous period and into the early Tertiary , there was uplifting in the area of the Colorado Plateau , the San Juan Mountains , and the La Plata Mountains , which led to the formation of the Mesa Verde pediment with the help of erosion . Small channels of water ran across this formation depositing gravel . Later in the tertiary , the last period of uplift and rock tilting towards the south caused these streams to cut rapidly into the rock removing loose sediment and forming the vast canyons seen today . This caused the isolation of the Mesa Verde pediment from surrounding rock . Today , since the climate is more arid , these erosional processes are slowed .
= = Rediscovery = =
Mexican @-@ Spanish missionaries and explorers Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante , seeking a route from Santa Fe to California , faithfully recorded their travels in 1776 . They reached Mesa Verde ( green plateau ) region , which they named after its high , tree @-@ covered plateaus , but they never got close enough , or into the needed angle , to see the ancient stone villages . They were the first white men to travel the route through much of the Colorado Plateau into Utah and back through Arizona to New Mexico .
The Mesa Verde region has long been occupied by the Utes , and an 1868 treaty between them and the United States government recognized Ute ownership of all Colorado land west of the Continental Divide . After there had become an interest in land in western Colorado , a new treaty in 1873 left the Ute with a strip of land in southwestern Colorado between the border with New Mexico and 15 miles north . Most of Mesa Verde lies within this strip of land . The Ute wintered in the warm , deep canyons and found sanctuary there and the high plateaus of Mesa Verde . Believing the cliff dwellings to be sacred ancestral sites , they did not live in the ancient dwellings .
Occasional trappers and prospectors visited , with one prospector , John Moss , making his observations known in 1873 . The following year , Moss led eminent photographer William Henry Jackson through Mancos Canyon , at the base of Mesa Verde . There , Jackson both photographed and publicized a typical stone cliff dwelling . Geologist William H. Holmes retraced Jackson 's route in 1875 . Reports by both Jackson and Holmes were included in the 1876 report of the Hayden Survey , one of the four federally financed efforts to explore the American West . These and other publications led to proposals to systematically study Southwestern archeological sites .
In her quest to find Ancestral Puebloan settlements , Virginia McClurg , a journalist for the New York Daily Graphic , visited Mesa Verde in 1882 and 1885 . Her party rediscovered Echo Cliff House , Three Tier House , and Balcony House in 1885 ; these discoveries inspired her to protect the dwellings and artifacts .
= = = The Wetherills = = =
A family of cattle ranchers , the Wetherills , befriended members of the Ute tribe near their ranch southwest of Mancos , Colorado . With the Ute tribe 's approval , the Wetherills were allowed to bring cattle into the lower , warmer plateaus of the present Ute reservation during winter . Word of the Ancestral Puebloan great houses had spread , and Acowitz , a member of the Ute tribe , told the Wetherills of a special cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde : " Deep in that canyon and near its head are many houses of the old people – the Ancient Ones . One of those houses , high , high in the rocks , is bigger than all the others . Utes never go there , it is a sacred place . " On December 18 , 1888 , Richard Wetherill and cowboy Charlie Mason rediscovered Cliff Palace after spotting the ruins from the top of Mesa Verde . Wetherill gave the ruin its present @-@ day name . Richard Wetherill , family and friends explored the ruins and gathered artifacts , some of which they sold to the Historical Society of Colorado and much of which they kept . Among the people who stayed with the Wetherills and explored the cliff dwellings was mountaineer , photographer , and author Frederick H. Chapin , who visited the region during 1889 and 1890 . He described the landscape and ruins in an 1890 article and later in an 1892 book , The Land of the Cliff @-@ Dwellers , which he illustrated with hand @-@ drawn maps and personal photographs .
= = = Gustaf Nordenskiöld = = =
The Wetherills also hosted Gustaf Nordenskiöld , the son of polar explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld , in 1891 . Nordenskiöld was a trained mineralogist who introduced scientific methods to artifact collection , recorded locations , photographed extensively , diagrammed sites , and correlated what he observed with existing archeological literature as well as the home @-@ grown expertise of the Wetherills . He removed a lot of artifacts and sent them to Sweden , where they eventually went to the National Museum of Finland . Nordenskiöld published , in 1893 , The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde . When Nordenskiöld shipped the collection that he made of Mesa Verde artifacts , the event initiated concerns about the need to protect Mesa Verde land and its resources .
= = National Park = =
In 1889 , Goodman Point Pueblo became the first pre @-@ Columbian archeological site in the Mesa Verde region to gain federal protection . It was the first such site to be protected in the US . Virginia McClurg was diligent in her efforts between 1887 and 1906 to inform the United States and European community of the importance of protecting the important historical material and dwellings in Mesa Verde . Her efforts included enlisting support from 250 @,@ 000 women through the Federation of Women 's Clubs , writing and having published poems in popular magazines , giving speeches domestically and internationally , and forming the Colorado Cliff Dwellers Association . The Colorado Cliff Dwellers ' purpose was to protect the resources of Colorado cliff dwellings , reclaiming as much of the original artifacts as possible and sharing information about the people who dwelt there . A fellow activist for protection of Mesa Verde and prehistoric archeological sites included Lucy Peabody , who , located in Washington , D.C. , met with members of Congress to further the cause . Former Mesa Verde National Park superintendent Robert Heyder communicated his belief that the park might have been far more significant with the hundreds of artifacts taken by Nordenskiöld .
By the end of the 19th century , it was clear that Mesa Verde needed protection from people in general who came to Mesa Verde and created or sold their own collection of artifacts . In a report to the Secretary of the Interior , Smithsonian Institution Ethnologist Jesse Walter Fewkes described vandalism at Mesa Verde 's Cliff Palace :
Parties of " curio seekers " camped on the ruin for several winters , and it is reported that many hundred specimens there have been carried down the mesa and sold to private individuals . Some of these objects are now in museums , but many are forever lost to science . In order to secure this valuable archeological material , walls were broken down ... often simply to let light into the darker rooms ; floors were invariably opened and buried kivas mutilated . To facilitate this work and get rid of the dust , great openings were broken through the five walls which form the front of the ruin . Beams were used for firewood to so great an extent that not a single roof now remains . This work of destruction , added to that resulting from erosion due to rain , left Cliff Palace in a sad condition .
Many artifacts from Mesa Verde are now located in museums and private collections in the USA and across the world . A representative selection of pottery vessels and other objects , for example , is now in the British Museum in London . In 1906 , President Theodore Roosevelt approved creation of the Mesa Verde National Park and the Federal Antiquities Act of 1906 . The park was an effort to " preserve the works of man " and was the first of its kind . The park was named with the Spanish term for green table because of its forests of juniper and piñon trees .
= = = Excavation and protection = = =
From 1908 to 1922 , Spruce Tree House , Cliff Palace , and Sun Temple ruins were stabilized . Most of the early efforts were led by Jesse Walter Fewkes . During the 1930s and 40s , Civilian Conservation Corps workers , starting in 1932 , played key roles in excavation efforts , building trails and roads , creating museum exhibits and constructing buildings at Mesa Verde . From 1958 to 1965 , Wetherill Mesa Archeological Project included archeological excavations , stabilization of sites , and surveys . With excavation and study of eleven Wetherill Mesa sites , it is considered the largest archeological effort in the US . The project oversaw the excavation of Long House and Mug House .
In 1966 , as with all historical areas administered by the National Park Service , Mesa Verde was listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and in 1987 , the Mesa Verde Administrative District was listed on the register . It was designated a World Heritage Site in 1978 . In its 2015 travel awards , Sunset magazine named Mesa Verde National Park " the best cultural attraction " in the Western United States .
= = = Services = = =
The entrance to Mesa Verde National Park is on U.S. Route 160 , approximately 9 miles ( 14 km ) east of the community of Cortez and 7 miles ( 11 km ) west of Mancos , Colorado . The park covers 52 @,@ 485 acres ( 21 @,@ 240 ha ) It contains 4 @,@ 372 documented sites , including more than 600 cliff dwellings . It is the largest archeological preserve in the US . It protects some of the most important and best preserved archeological sites in the country . The park initiated the Archeological Site Conservation Program in 1995 . It analyses data pertaining to how sites are constructed and utilized .
The Mesa Verde Visitor and Research Center is located just off of Highway 160 and is before the park entrance booths . The Visitor and Research Center opened in December 2012 . Chapin Mesa ( the most popular area ) is 20 miles ( 32 km ) beyond the visitor center . Mesa Verde National Park is an area of federal exclusive jurisdiction . Because of this all law enforcement , emergency medical service , and wildland / structural fire duties are conducted by federal National Park Service Law Enforcement Rangers . The Mesa Verde National Park Post Office has the ZIP code 81330 . Access to park facilities vary by season . Three of the cliff dwellings on Chapin Mesa are open to the public . The Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum is open all year . Spruce Tree House is also open all year , weather permitting . Balcony House , Long House and Cliff Palace require tour tickets for ranger @-@ guided tours . Many other dwellings are visible from the road but not open to tourists . The park offers hiking trails , a campground , and , during peak season , facilities for food , fuel , and lodging ; these are unavailable in the winter .
= = = Wildfires and culturally modified trees = = =
During the years 1996 to 2003 , the park suffered from several wildfires . The fires , many of which were started by lightning during times of drought , burned 28 @,@ 340 acres ( 11 @,@ 470 ha ) of forest , more than half the park . The fires also damaged many archeological sites and park buildings . They were named : Chapin V ( 1996 ) , Bircher and Pony ( 2000 ) , Long Mesa ( 2002 ) , and the Balcony House Complex fires ( 2003 ) , which were five fires that began on the same day . The Chapin V and Pony fires destroyed two rock art sites , and the Long Mesa fire nearly destroyed the museum – the first one ever built in the National Park System – and Spruce Tree House , the third largest cliff dwelling in the park .
Prior to the fires of 1996 to 2003 , archeologists had surveyed approximately ninety percent of the park . Dense undergrowth and tree cover kept many ancient sites hidden from view , but after the Chapin V , Bircher and Pony fires , 593 previously undiscovered sites were revealed – most of them date to the Basketmaker III and Pueblo I periods . Also uncovered during the fires were extensive water containment features , including 1 @,@ 189 check dams , 344 terraces , and five reservoirs that date to the Pueblo II and III periods . In February 2008 , the Colorado Historical Society decided to invest a part of its $ 7 million budget into a culturally modified trees project in the National Park .
= = = Ute Mountain Tribal Park = = =
The Ute Mountain Tribal Park , adjoining Mesa Verde National Park to the east of the mountains , is approximately 125 @,@ 000 acres ( 51 @,@ 000 ha ) along the Mancos River . Hundreds of surface sites , cliff dwellings , petroglyphs , and wall paintings of Ancestral Puebloan and Ute cultures are preserved in the park . Native American Ute tour guides provide background information about the people , culture , and history of the park lands . National Geographic Traveler chose it as one of " 80 World Destinations for Travel in the 21st Century " , one of only nine places selected in the US .
= = Key sites = =
In addition to the cliff dwellings , Mesa Verde boasts a number of mesa @-@ top ruins . Examples open to public access include the Far View Complex and Cedar Tree Tower on Chapin Mesa , and Badger House Community , on Wetherill Mesa .
= = = Balcony House = = =
Balcony House is set on a high ledge facing east . Its 45 rooms and 2 kivas would have been cold during the winter . Visitors on ranger @-@ guided tours enter by climbing a 32 @-@ foot ladder and a crawling through a 12 @-@ foot tunnel . The exit , a series of toe @-@ holds in a cleft of the cliff , was believed to be the only entry and exit route for the cliff dwellers , which made the small village easy to defend and secure . One log was dated at 1278 , so it was likely built not long before the Mesa Verde people migrated out of the area . It was officially excavated in 1910 by Jesse Nusbaum , one of the first Superintendents of Mesa Verde National Park . Visitors can enter Balcony House through ranger @-@ guided tours .
= = = Cliff Palace = = =
This multi @-@ storied ruin , the best @-@ known cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde , is located in the largest alcove in the center of the Great Mesa . It was south- and southwest @-@ facing , providing greater warmth from the sun in the winter . Dating back more than 700 years , the dwelling is constructed of sandstone , wooden beams , and mortar . Many of the rooms were brightly painted . Cliff Palace was home to approximately 125 people , but was likely an important part of a larger community of sixty nearby pueblos , which housed a combined six hundred or more people . With 23 kivas and 150 rooms , Cliff Palace is the largest cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde National Park .
= = = Long House = = =
Located on the Wetherill Mesa , Long House is the second @-@ largest Mesa Verdean village ; approximately 150 people lived there . The location was excavated from 1959 through 1961 , as part of the Wetherhill Mesa Archeological Project . Long House was built c . 1200 ; it was occupied until 1280 . The cliff dwelling features 150 rooms , a kiva , a tower , and a central plaza . Its rooms are not clustered like typical cliff dwellings . Stones were used without shaping for fit and stability . Two overhead ledges contain storage space for grain . One ledge seems to include an overlook with small holes in the wall to see the rest of the village below . A spring is accessible within several hundred feet , and seeps are located in the rear of the village .
= = = Mug , Oak Tree , Spruce Tree , and Square Tower houses = = =
Mug House is located on Wetherill Mesa ; it contains 94 rooms , a large kiva , and a nearby reservoir . It received its name from four mugs the Charles Mason and the Wetherill brothers found strung together at the site . Oak Tree House and neighboring Fire Temple can be visited via a 2 @-@ hour ranger @-@ guided hike . Spruce Tree House is the third @-@ largest village , within several hundred feet of a spring , and had 130 rooms and eight kivas . It was constructed sometime between 1211 and 1278 . It is believed anywhere from 60 to 80 people lived there at one time . Because of its protective location , it is well preserved . The short trail to Spruce Tree House begins at the Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum . The Square Tower House is one of the stops on the Mesa Top Loop Road driving tour . The tower is the tallest structure in Mesa Verde .
= Soedjatmoko =
Soedjatmoko ( born Soedjatmoko Mangoendiningrat ; 10 January 1922 – 21 December 1989 ) , familiarly called Bung Koko , was an Indonesian intellectual and diplomat . Born to a noble father and mother in Sawahlunto , West Sumatra , after finishing his primary education , he went to Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) to study medicine ; in the city 's slums , he saw much poverty , which became an academic interest later in life . After being expelled from medical school by the Japanese in 1943 for his political activities , Soedjatmoko moved to Surakarta and practised medicine with his father . In 1947 , after Indonesia proclaimed its independence , Soedjatmoko and two other youths were deployed to Lake Success , New York , to represent Indonesia at the United Nations ( UN ) . They helped secure international recognition of the country 's sovereignty .
After his work at the UN , Soedjatmoko attempted to study at Harvard 's Littauer Center for Public Administration ( now the John F. Kennedy School of Government ) ; however , he was forced to resign due to pressure from other work , including serving as Indonesia 's first chargé d 'affaires in London for three months as well as establishing the political desk at the Embassy of Indonesia in Washington , D.C. By 1952 he had returned to Indonesia , where he became involved in the socialist press and joined the Socialist Party of Indonesia . He was elected as a member of the Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia in 1955 , serving until 1959 ; he married Ratmini Gandasubrata in 1958 . However , as President Sukarno 's government became more authoritarian Soedjatmoko began to criticise the government . To avoid censorship , he spent two years as a guest lecturer at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York , and another three in self @-@ imposed unemployment in Indonesia .
After Sukarno was replaced by Suharto , Soedjatmoko returned to public service . In 1966 he was sent as one of Indonesia 's representatives at the UN , and in 1968 he became Indonesia 's ambassador to the US ; during this time he received several honorary doctoral degrees . He also advised foreign minister Adam Malik . After returning to Indonesia in 1971 , Soedjatmoko held a position in several think tanks . After the Malari incident in January 1974 , Soedjatmoko was held for interrogation for two and a half weeks and accused of masterminding the event . Although eventually released , he could not leave Indonesia for two and a half years . In 1978 Soedjatmoko received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding , and in 1980 he was chosen as rector of the United Nations University in Tokyo . Two years after returning from Japan , Soedjatmoko died of cardiac arrest while teaching in Yogyakarta .
= = Early life = =
Soedjatmoko was born on 10 January 1922 in Sawahlunto , West Sumatra , with the name Soedjatmoko Mangoendiningrat . He was the eldest son of Saleh Mangoendiningrat , a Javanese physician of noble descent from Madiun , and Isnadikin , a Javanese housewife from Ponorogo ; the couple had three other children , as well as two adopted children . Soedjatmoko 's younger brother , Nugroho Wisnumurti , went on to work at the United Nations . When he was two years old , he and his family moved to the Netherlands after his father received a five @-@ year scholarship . After returning to Indonesia , Soedjatmoko continued his studies at an elementary school for European called ELS in Manado , North Sulawesi .
Soedjatmoko later attended the Surabaya HBS ( secondary school ) and graduated in 1940 . The school introduced him to Latin and Greek , and one of his teachers introduced him to European art ; he later recalled that this introduction had allowed him to see Europeans as more than colonists . He then continued to medical school in Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) . Upon seeing the slums of Jakarta , he was drawn to the issue of poverty ; this later became an academic interest of his . However , during the Japanese occupation , in 1943 , he was expelled from the city due to his relationship with Sutan Sjahrir – who had married Soedjatmoko 's sister Siti Wahyunah – and participation in protests against the occupation .
After his expulsion , Soedjatmoko moved to Surakarta and studied Western history and political literature , which led to an interest in socialism . Some figure that affected him besides Karl Marx were Ortega y Gasset and Jan Romein . While in Surakarta he also worked at his father 's hospital . After Indonesia proclaimed its independence , Soedjatmoko was asked to become Deputy Head of the Foreign Press Department in the Ministry of Information . In 1946 , at the request of Prime Minister Sjahrir , he and two friends established a Dutch @-@ language weekly , Het Inzicht ( Inside ) , as a counter to the Dutch @-@ sponsored Het Uίtzicht ( Outlook ) . The next year , they launched a socialist @-@ oriented journal , Siasat ( Tactics ) , which was published weekly . During this period Soedjatmoko dropped the name Mangoendiningrat , as it reminded him of the feudal aspects of Indonesian culture .
= = Work in the US = =
In 1947 , Sjahrir sent Soedjatmoko to New York as a member of the Indonesian Republic 's " observer " delegation to the United Nations ( UN ) . The delegation travelled to the United States via the Philippines after a two @-@ month stay in Singapore ; while in the Philippines , President Manuel Roxas guaranteed support of the nascent nation 's case at the United Nations . Soedjatmoko stayed in Lake Success , New York , the temporary location of the UN , and participated in debates over international recognition of the new country . Towards the end of his stay in New York , Soedjatmoko enrolled at Harvard 's Littauer Center ; as , at the time , he was still part of the UN delegation , he commuted between New York and Boston for seven months . After being released from the delegation , he spent most of a year at the Center ; for a period of three months , however , he was chargé d 'affaires – the nation 's first – at the Dutch East Indies desk of the Dutch embassy in London , serving in a temporary capacity while the Indonesian embassy was being established .
In 1951 , Soedjatmoko moved to Washington D.C. to establish the political desk at the Indonesian embassy there ; he also became Alternate Permanent Representative of Indonesia at the UN . This busy schedule , demanding a commute between three cities , proved to be too much for him and he dropped out of the Littauer Center . In late 1951 , he resigned from his positions and went to Europe for nine months , seeking political inspiration . In Yugoslavia , he met Milovan Djilas , who impressed him greatly .
= = Return to Indonesia = =
Upon returning to Indonesia , Soedjatmoko once again became an editor of Siasat . In 1952 , he was one of the founders of Socialist Party daily Pedoman ( Guidance ) ; this was followed by a political journal , Konfrontasi ( Confrontation ) . He also helped to establish the Pembangunan publishing house , which he directed until 1961 . Soedjatmoko joined the Indonesian Socialist Party ( Partai Sosialis Indonesia , or PSI ) in 1955 , and was elected as a member of Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia in the 1955 elections until the dissolution of the assembly in 1959 . He served with the Indonesian delegation at the Bandung Conference in 1955 . Later the same year , he founded the Indonesian Institute of World Affairs and became its Secretary General for four years . Soedjatmoko married Ratmini Gandasubrata in 1958 . Together they had three daughters .
Towards the end of the 1950s , Soedjatmoko and President Sukarno , with whom he had had a warm working relationship , had a falling out over the president 's increasingly authoritarian policies . In 1960 Soedjatmoko co @-@ founded and headed the Democratic League , which attempted to promote democracy in the country ; he also opposed Sukarno 's Guided Democracy policy . When the effort failed , Soedjatmoko went to the US and took a position as guest lecturer at Cornell University . When he returned to Indonesia in 1962 , he discovered that key members of the PSI had been arrested and the party banned ; both Siasat and Pedoman were closed . To avoid trouble with the government , Soedjatmoko voluntarily left himself unemployed until 1965 , when he became co @-@ editor of An Introduction to Indonesian Historiography .
= = Ambassadorship and academic activities = =
After the failed coup d 'état in 1965 and the replacement of Sukarno by Suharto , Soedjatmoko returned to public service . He served as vice @-@ chairman of the Indonesian delegation at the UN in 1966 , becoming the delegation 's adviser in 1967 . Also in 1967 , Soedjatmoko became adviser to foreign minister Adam Malik , as well as a member of the International Institute for Strategic Studies , a London @-@ based think tank ; the following year he became Indonesian ambassador to the United States , a position which he held until 1971 . During his time as ambassador , Soedjatmoko received honorary doctorates from several American universities , including Cedar Crest College in 1969 and Yale in 1970 . He also published another book , Southeast Asia Today and Tomorrow ( 1969 ) .
Soedjatmoko returned to Indonesia in 1971 ; upon his return he became Special Adviser on Social and Cultural Affairs to the Chairman of the National Development Planning Agency . That same year , he became a board member of the London @-@ based International Institute for Environment and Development , a position which he held until 1976 ; he also joined the Club of Rome . In 1972 Soedjatmoko was selected to the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation , in which position he served 12 years ; also in 1972 he became a governor of the Asian Institute of Management , a position which he held for two years . The following year he became a governor of the International Development Research Center . In 1974 , based on falsified documents , he was accused of planning the Malari incident of January 1974 , in which students protested and eventually rioted during a state visit by Prime Minister of Japan Kakuei Tanaka . Held for interrogation for two and a half weeks , Soedjatmoko was not allowed to leave Indonesia for two and a half years for his suspected involvement .
In 1978 Soedjatmoko received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding , often called Asia 's Nobel Prize . The citation read , in part :
Encouraging both Asians and outsiders to look more carefully at the village folkways they would modernize , [ Sodjatmoko ] is fostering awareness of the human dimension essential to all development . [ ... ] [ H ] is writings have added consequentially to the body of international thinking on what can be done to meet one of the greatest challenges of our time ; how to make life more decent and satisfying for the poorest 40 percent in Southeastern and southern Asia .
In response , Soedjatmoko said he felt " humbled , because of [ his ] awareness that whatever small contribution [ he ] may have made is dwarfed by the magnitude of the problem of persistent poverty and human suffering in Asia , and by the realization of how much still remains to be done . "
= = Later life and death = =
In 1980 Soedjatmoko moved to Tokyo , Japan . In September of that year he began service as the rector of the United Nations University , replacing James M. Hester ; he remained in that position until 1987 . In Japan he published two further books , The Primacy of Freedom in Development and Development and Freedom . He received the Asia Society Award in 1985 , and the Universities Field Staff International Award for Distinguished Service to the Advancement of International Understanding the following year . Soedjatmoko died of cardiac arrest on 21 December 1989 when he was lecturing at Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta .
= Instinct ( Orphan Black ) =
" Instinct " is the second episode of the first season of the Canadian science fiction television series Orphan Black . It first aired in Canada on Space and the United States on BBC America on 6 April 2013 . The episode was written by Graeme Manson and directed by John Fawcett .
The plot follows Sarah Manning ( played by Tatiana Maslany ) as she continues to impersonate Beth Childs , a woman who looks identical to Sarah , in order to take Beth 's money after seeing her commit suicide . In the episode , Sarah deals with the aftermath of the death of another identical woman , Katja Obinger , and begins to discover more lookalikes . Maslany plays each of the identical women ; " Instinct " marked the first episode in which more than one of Maslany 's characters was present in a single shot , which necessitated specific planning and technology to film and edit these scenes . The episode received positive reviews from critics , who praised the episode 's plot development and Maslany 's performance .
= = Plot = =
After Katja is shot , Sarah flees in Beth 's car and receives a call from a woman on Beth 's phone . The woman , after hearing that Katja is dead , instructs Sarah to dispose of the body and retrieve Katja 's briefcase . While burying Katja 's body , Sarah finds a hotel key in her pocket and keeps it . She visits her foster brother Felix 's apartment and discovers that the $ 75 @,@ 000 she stole from Beth 's bank account has been taken by Beth 's detective partner Art . When she returns to Beth 's apartment she is surprised to find Beth 's boyfriend , Paul , who seems confused by Sarah 's demeanour but does not realise that she is not Beth . The next day , Sarah prepares to meet Art , and lies that the $ 75 @,@ 000 belongs to Paul , but Art says he will return the money only after the hearing Beth must attend about a suspicious shooting in which she was involved .
Sarah disguises herself as Katja and gains entrance to her hotel room in order to find Katja 's briefcase . The room has been ransacked by the time she arrives but a hotel employee gives her the briefcase , which had been left with security . Inside the briefcase Sarah finds medical images , vials of blood , and evidence of more lookalikes , including a woman named Alison Hendrix , whose address is written on a note . Believing Alison to be the woman on the phone , Sarah drives to her address and follows her van to a soccer field , where she discovers that Alison is another of her lookalikes . Alison confronts Sarah , assuming that she is Beth , and refuses to believe Sarah when she explains that Beth killed herself , telling her to leave and wait for another call .
At the police station , pretending to be Beth , Sarah manipulates the resident psychiatrist into approving her return to duty , but Art refuses to give Sarah the money until she is fully reinstated . She receives a call from Alison , who tells her to bring the briefcase to her house that night . When Sarah and Felix arrive at Alison 's house , Alison threatens them with a gun before relenting and introducing Sarah to another lookalike named Cosima .
= = Production = =
" Instinct " was filmed in a block with the series ' first episode , " Natural Selection " , under the direction of Orphan Black co @-@ creator John Fawcett . It was filmed in Canada , although it is never made clear where in North America the show takes place . The episode refers to the fictional suburb of Bailey Downs , where Alison is said to live , which is a homage to the setting of the 2000 Canadian horror film Ginger Snaps , which was directed by Fawcett . One of the filming locations used for the episode was the office used by the show 's writers , which served as Beth 's psychiatrist 's office .
The episode featured one of the first scenes in which Maslany plays multiple characters interacting in the same shot . To construct the scene in which Sarah and Alison meet in the soccer field shed , Maslany and her stunt double Kathryn Alexandre first shot a master version of the scene using a Technodolly , a programmable camera crane that can memorise camera movements . Two versions of the scene were then re @-@ filmed without Alexandre , with Maslany playing each of the characters . To simulate Alison placing her hand on Sarah 's shoulder , a grip stand was used in the place of Sarah 's shoulder for Maslany to hold when playing Alison , and to simulate Sarah slapping Alison 's arm away , Maslany slapped the air when playing Sarah and reacted as if she had been hit when playing Alison . The final scene was created through digital compositing , whereby both versions of the scene — with Maslany playing both characters separately — are combined to produce a single shot . Maslany felt that , as one of her early attempts at sharing a scene with herself , she over @-@ thought the process : " I think I was trying too hard to get it right . Nobody 's there when you 're shooting these things , so you overcompensate . "
= = Reception = =
Overall , " Instinct " was well received by critics . Caroline Framke of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A – grade , writing that the series " continues to walk a fine line with extraordinary subtlety and confidence " . She gave particular praise to Maslany 's acting , saying that she " handles every curveball , new character , and impersonation upon impersonation with extraordinary deftness " . Tor.com 's Robert H. Bedford commended the way the different storylines were integrated and particularly enjoyed the interactions between Art and Sarah . Den of Geek critic Rob Kemp thought that the episode was well developed and felt that it stood out from " the current crop of TV science fiction " . He praised the serious nature of the episode as well as " the effort that has gone into grounding the show into reality " . Simon Cocks of CultBox gave " Instinct " 4 out of 5 stars , describing it as " riveting television " . He found Maslany 's performance " incredible " and " effortless " , and felt that her scenes with Art at the police station provided the strongest material . In a more mixed review for Twitch Film , Todd Brown opined that " Instinct " sometimes crossed " the line between camp and believability " . He praised the development of the story and the characters but felt that while Maslany 's acting was " remarkably strong as both Sarah and Sarah @-@ Being @-@ Beth her performance as Alison ... feels a bit shrill " .
= Pilot ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode aired on September 10 , 1993 on the Fox network in the United States and Canada , and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Robert Mandel . As the pilot , it would set up the mythology storyline for the series . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 and was viewed by 7 @.@ 4 million households and 12 @.@ 0 million viewers . The episode itself was generally well received by fans and critics alike , which led to a growing cult following for the series before it hit the mainstream .
The pilot introduced the two main characters , Fox Mulder and Dana Scully who were portrayed by David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson respectively . The episode also featured William B. Davis , Charles Cioffi and Zachary Ansley as the recurring characters of the Smoking Man , Scott Blevins and Billy Miles . The Smoking Man would go on to become the series ' signature antagonist , appearing in every season except the eighth . The episode follows FBI Special Agents Mulder and Scully on their first X @-@ File case together , investigating a string of deaths which Mulder believes to be alien experiments .
Inspired by Kolchak : The Night Stalker , the series was conceived by Chris Carter in an attempt to " scare people 's pants off " . When creating the characters of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , Carter decided to play against established stereotypes , making the male character a believer and the female a skeptic , as the latter role had traditionally been a male one on television . Principal photography for " Pilot " took place over fourteen days during March 1993 ; using a budget of $ 2 million , the scenes were filmed in and around the Vancouver area . Vancouver would remain the area for production for the next five years , although production would move to Los Angeles from the beginning of the sixth season at the behest of David Duchovny .
= = Plot = =
In Bellefleur , Oregon , teenager Karen Swenson is seen fleeing through the forest . When she falls , a dark figure approaches , and they both become enveloped in light . Swenson 's body is later found by Bellefleur detectives , with two small marks on her back .
Later , in Washington , D.C. , FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is summoned to a meeting with Division Chief Scott Blevins ( Charles Cioffi ) and a seemingly anonymous government official , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) . Scully is assigned to work with Special Agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) on the X @-@ Files , an obscure FBI section covering purportedly paranormal cases . Blevins has assigned Scully for the implicit purpose of using her scientific knowledge to discredit Mulder 's work , although Blevins never directly tells Scully this and is evasive when she asks if such is his intent .
Scully introduces herself to her new partner , who shows her evidence from the Swenson case . He notes that she was the fourth member of her high school class to die under mysterious circumstances . Mulder also notes an unknown chemical compound found on Swenson 's body , as well as similarities between her death and others from across the country . Mulder believes that Swenson 's death is due to extraterrestrial activity . However , the skeptical Scully expresses disbelief in Mulder 's theory .
When Mulder and Scully 's plane flies over Bellefleur , it encounters unexplained turbulence . As they drive in the woods near the town , the agents ' car radio malfunctions ; Mulder marks the spot of this event by spray @-@ painting an " X " onto the road . Mulder arranges for the exhumation of the third victim , Ray Soames , despite the protests of Dr. Jay Nemman , the county medical examiner . When Soames ' coffin is opened , a deformed body is found inside , which Scully concludes is not Soames , but an orangutan . However , she finds a metal implant in the body 's nasal cavity .
Mulder and Scully visit the psychiatric hospital where Soames was committed before his death and meet two of Soames ' former classmates — the comatose Billy Miles ( Zachary Ansley ) ; and the wheelchair @-@ using Peggy O 'Dell . O 'Dell suffers from a nosebleed during the agents ' visit , and is seen to bear marks similar to Swenson 's . Outside the hospital , Mulder explains to Scully that he believes Miles , O 'Dell , and the victims to be alien abductees .
That night , the agents investigate the forest ; Scully discovers strange ash on the ground , leading her to suspect cult activity . However , a local detective arrives and orders them to leave . Driving back to their motel , Mulder and Scully encounter a flash of light at the spot their car had malfunctioned earlier . When the car loses power , Mulder realizes that nine minutes disappeared after the flash , a phenomenon reported by alien abductees .
At the motel , Mulder tells Scully that his sister Samantha vanished when he was twelve , which has driven his work in the paranormal . The agents receive an anonymous call telling them that O 'Dell was killed in traffic while on foot . They visit the scene , finding O 'Dell 's body and no wheelchair . They return to find the motel on fire and their evidence destroyed . Nemman 's daughter Theresa contacts the agents for help . She tells them that she has awakened in the middle of the woods several times , though her father and Detective Miles arrive and take her away .
Mulder and Scully return to the cemetery to exhume the other victims only to find the graves already dug up and the coffins missing . Mulder realizes that Billy Miles is responsible for bringing the victims to the woods . Returning to the woods , they again encounter Detective Miles , but hear a scream and find Billy nearby with Theresa in his arms . There is a flash of light , and Billy and Theresa are recovered unharmed .
Several months later , Miles is put under hypnosis . He recalls how he and his classmates were abducted in the forest as they celebrated their graduation ; they were subjected to tests by the aliens , and killed when the tests failed . Scully provides Blevins with the metal implant , the only remaining piece of evidence . However , she later learns from Mulder that Miles ' case files are missing . Meanwhile , The Smoking Man stores the implant away in a vast evidence room within the Pentagon .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
When conceiving the episode , Chris Carter wanted to " scare people 's pants off " . A noted influence on the episode 's conception was Kolchak : The Night Stalker , a series from the 1970s . This led to an idea of two agents investigating paranormal events . When creating the characters of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , Carter decided to play against established stereotypes , making the male character a believer and the female a skeptic , as the latter role had traditionally been a male one on television .
When casting the actors for the two main parts , Carter had difficulties finding an actor for Scully . When he cast Gillian Anderson for the part , the network wanted to replace her . Carter believed they responded negatively towards the casting because " she didn 't have the obvious qualities that network executives have come to associate with hit shows " . Calling her a " terrific actress " , Carter reacted overall positively towards Anderson 's audition saying " she came in and read the part with a seriousness and intensity that I knew the Scully character had to have and I knew [ ... ] she was the right person for the part " . David Duchovny on the other hand , was met with more positive response from the network , Carter even saying he was an " early favorite " . William B. Davis , who made his first appearance as the recurring villain The Smoking Man in this episode , had originally auditioned for a larger part in the episode , saying " I auditioned for the senior FBI agent who had three lines . I didn 't get that part — I got the part with no lines " .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for " Pilot " took place over fourteen days during March 1993 ; using a budget of $ 2 million . Filming of the episode took place in and around Vancouver , British Columbia . The series would use the area for production for the next five years , although production would move to Los Angeles from the beginning of the sixth season at the behest of David Duchovny .
The scene set in the town 's graveyard was shot in Queen Elizabeth Park , marking the first time the location had been used to represent a graveyard ; the location would later be used for the same purpose in the fourth season episode " Kaddish " . The interior shots of the psychiatric hospital were filmed in a disused building owned by Riverview Hospital in Coquitlam , and marked the first time that the crew met with producer R. W. Goodwin . The episode 's final warehouse scene was filmed in a document warehouse belonging to the headquarters of the Canadian television network Knowledge . An office in the same building was also used for the boardroom meeting at the beginning of the episode . The scenes involving the Smoking Man required special permission to be filmed , in order to allow for actor William B. Davis to smoke in a public building . All of the interior shots of the FBI headquarters were filmed in the main newsroom of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , as the production crew found that the open plan offices they wished to represent no longer existed , having typically been converted into cubicles . However , it was found that working around the CBC 's broadcast schedule was too unwieldy , and later episodes of the series replicated the location on a sound stage . The forest scenes were shot on location in Lynn Valley , in the Lower Seymour Conservation Reserve — formerly known as the Seymour Demonstration Forest . The crew spent $ 9 @,@ 000 building wooden pathways for equipment , cast and crew to move easily through the area . Additional scenes were filmed at the headquarters for BC Hydro ; whilst Scully 's apartment was represented by a location used only in this episode and the third episode , " Squeeze " — use of this location was discontinued once it became apparent that most reverse angles would show a large car park across the street .
Make @-@ up effects artist Toby Lindala was tasked with creating a prop which would allow actress Sarah Koskoff to simulate a nosebleed on @-@ camera , rather than through the use of off @-@ screen make @-@ up and editing tricks . However , during test shots , the prop 's tubing burst , causing the stage blood to begin dripping down Koskoff 's forehead , rather than from her nose . Gillian Anderson has expressed displeasure over the scene in which her character , Dana Scully , visits Fox Mulder in his motel room in her underwear to have him examine a suspicious wound which turns out to be insect bites . The actress felt that the scene was too gratuitous , saying " there really wasn 't a reason for it . The bites could have been on my shoulder or something . " However , Carter has explained that the scene was simply intended to highlight the platonic relationship between the two lead roles .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Post @-@ production work on the episode was finished by May 1993 , with the final version of the episode being assembled only three hours before its preview screening for the network 's executives . Stock footage of the exterior of the J. Edgar Hoover Building was added to the episode , although later episodes would film new exterior shots using Simon Fraser University as a stand @-@ in location . The climactic abduction scene featuring Billy Miles in a forest clearing featured a swirling vortex of leaves created using computer imagery by the series ' visual designer Mat Beck ; which Carter has described as being more complicated to achieve than the Normandy landings .
= = = Deleted scenes = = =
The original script gives more insight into Scully 's visit to Scott Blevins ' office . The scene that introduces Scully in the script is set just before her visit and takes place at the FBI Academy in Quantico , Virginia , where she teaches a small group of trainees about the physiology of homicide , specifically electrocution and death by cattle prod . Her attention is distracted by an agent who enters the room and hands her a note that reads , " Your attendance is required in Washington at 1600 hrs. sharp " . Scully checks her digital watch , which reads 1 : 03 . The majority , at the least , of this scene was actually filmed but the scene was omitted from the final version of the episode . The next scene is that in which Scully reports to the receptionist at FBI headquarters ; the script includes Scully showing her badge to the receptionist and dialogue for the role of the receptionist as she tells Scully , " See Section Chief Blevins . Third floor , violent crime division . " In the final version of the episode , Scully 's badge does not appear in any of the scenes and the receptionist does not speak .
Two filmed scenes were cut from the final version of the episode . Both featured Tim Ransom as Scully 's boyfriend Ethan Minette . In the first , Minette and Scully meet , with Scully cancelling plans for a holiday the two had arranged , due to her assignment to the Oregon case . The second scene briefly shows Scully answering a telephone call from Mulder whilst asleep in bed with Minette , though the latter has no dialogue . The addition of Scully 's boyfriend was an attempt by the Fox executives to create the romantic interest that they felt was not there between Mulder and Scully . Chris Carter ultimately found that it was " very easy " to remove the character from the episode , both because his appearances seemed to slow down the scenes in which Mulder and Scully are together and due to the fact that Carter found Scully 's relationship with her FBI partner to actually be more interesting and exciting than her relationship with her boyfriend .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Pilot " premiered on the Fox network on September 10 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on September 19 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 9 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 7 @.@ 4 million households and 12 @.@ 0 million viewers .
" Pilot " was well received by several of the series ' future crew members . Producer and writer Glen Morgan felt that the episode 's " merging of Silence of the Lambs and Close Encounters of the Third Kind " was impressive ; he also felt that it was the only truly scary series on television at the time . Writer Howard Gordon stated that " the pilot set the tone of the show really successfully " , noting the difficulty inherent in introducing both a series ' premise and its main cast in " forty @-@ eight minutes " and finding that the episode had achieved both , being " a tremendous synthesis of all the parts " . Chris Carter also recounted that the episode 's test screening for Rupert Murdoch and other Fox executives was met with " spontaneous applause " .
The episode was generally well received by fans and critics alike . Variety magazine criticized the episode for " using reworked concepts " , but praised the production and noted its potential . Of the acting , Variety stated , " Duchovny 's delineation of a serious scientist with a sense of humor should win him partisans , and Anderson 's wavering doubter connects well . They 're a solid team ... " . Variety also praised the writing and direction : " Mandel 's cool direction of Carter 's ingenious script and the artful presentation itself give TV sci @-@ fi a boost . " The magazine concluded , " Carter 's dialogue is fresh without being self @-@ conscious , and the characters are involving . Series kicks off with drive and imagination , both innovative in recent TV . " Entertainment Weekly noted that Scully " was set up as a scoffing skeptic " in the pilot but progressed toward belief throughout the season . After the airing of just four episodes , the magazine called The X @-@ Files " the most paranoid , subversive show on TV " , noting the " marvelous tension between Anderson — who is dubious about these events — and Duchovny , who has the haunted , imploring look of a true believer " . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , praised the episode , rating it an A – . He felt that the episode 's premise worked well to " set a template " for future episodes , and noted that the chemistry between Duchovny and Anderson was " already there " from the outset . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , reviewed the episode positively , praising the chemistry between the lead roles and the quality of the script . In 2012 , SFX named it the tenth best TV pilot in the science fiction and fantasy genre , saying that it " brought us everything we came to expect from the show " . The plot for " Pilot " was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 1995 by Les Martin , under the title X Marks the Spot .
= ODB + + =
ODB + + is a proprietary CAD @-@ to @-@ CAM data exchange format used in the design and manufacture of electronic devices . Its purpose is to exchange printed circuit board design information between design and manufacturing and between design tools from different EDA / ECAD vendors . It was originally developed by Valor Computerized Systems , Ltd . ( acquired in 2010 by Mentor Graphics ) as the job description format for their CAM system .
ODB stands for open database , but its openness is disputed , as discussed below . The ' + + ' suffix , evocative of C + + , was added in 1997 with the addition of component descriptions . There are two versions of ODB + + : the original ( now controlled by Mentor ) and an XML version called ODB + + ( X ) that Valor developed and donated to the IPC organization in an attempt to merge GenCAM ( IPC @-@ 2511 ) and ODB + + into Offspring ( IPC @-@ 2581 ) .
= = Introduction = =
Inside almost every electronic device is a PCB onto which the semiconductor and other components are mechanically and electrically connected by soldering . These PCBs are designed using a computer @-@ aided design ( CAD ) system . To physically realize the design , the computerized design information must be transferred to a photolithographic computer @-@ aided manufacturing ( CAM ) system . Since the CAD and CAM systems are generally produced by different companies , they have to agree on a CAD @-@ to @-@ CAM data exchange format to transfer the data . ODB + + is one such file format for performing this transfer . Other formats are compared and contrasted below . After the bare board is manufactured , the electronic components are placed and soldered , for example by SMT placement equipment and wave or reflow soldering .
= = File structure = =
When in use , ODB + + data is stored in a hierarchy of files and file folders . However , for transmission it is convenient to use common operating system commands that create a single , compressed file that preserves the hierarchy information . For example , on Unix tar and gzip commands can be used . In ODB + + ( X ) , the database is contained in a single XML file by default .
ODB + + covers the specification of not only conductor layer artwork and drill data , but also material stack up , netlist with test points , component bill of materials , component placement , fabrication data , and dimension data .
= = History = =
Valor was founded in 1992 and it released ODB in 1995 . It added the + + suffix when component names were added in 1997 . The XML version was developed beginning 2000 , and ended in 2008 with the donation to IPC . Valor was acquired by Mentor in 2010 .
= = Adoption = =
In the late 1990s it became clear to industry participants that a second @-@ generation data transfer format would be more efficient than the prevalent , first @-@ generation Gerber format . However , it was very difficult to reach a consensus over which of two candidates should be selected :
ODB + + : proven but proprietary
IPC @-@ 2511 GenCAM : not widely used but open
In 2002 , a compromise format , ODB + + ( X ) , was recommended by National Electronics Manufacturing Initiative ( NEMI ; an industry body , subsequently renamed International Electronics Manufacturing Initiative , iNEMI ) after a two @-@ year mediation effort between the GenCAM and ODB + + camps . Companies that supported the recommendation at the time included Cadence , Hewlett @-@ Packard , Lucent , Easylogix , Mentor ( which acquired Valor some eight years later ) , Nokia and Xerox . But in fact adoption to date has been minimal . As a result , and as detailed below , the industry is still divided .
= = = Advocacy = = =
Lists of EDA tools that support import and / or export of ODB + + have been compiled by Artwork Conversion Software , Mentor itself , and on the Comparison of EDA packages table . Some companies that have adopted the ODB + + format are advocates for its use . Streamline Circuits reports that ODB + + provides much greater efficiency than the competing Gerber format , stating that " an 8 @-@ layer printed circuit board can take up to 5 hours to plan and tool using Gerber and only 1 hour when using ODB + + . " According to Streamline , manufacturers are adopting it to overcome the limitations of the simpler Gerber format . DownStream Technologies calls ODB + + " the defacto standard for intelligent data exchange in EDA " In 2002 , Dana Korf of Sanmina / SCI called ODB + + " the prevalent non @-@ Gerber format . " Kent Balius of Viasystems , states of ODB + + " ... really we don ’ t need anything else . "
= = = Opposition = = =
= = = = Lack of need = = = =
Ucamco , the developers of the Gerber format , argue that the prevalent Gerber @-@ based flow ( with some additions ) can be as complete and efficient as ODB + + .
= = = = Concerns = = = =
ODB + + is a proprietary format controlled by Valor and now Mentor , and so , like all proprietary standards , it comes with the risk of vendor lock @-@ in . CAD companies had some concerns about this when ODB + + was controlled by Valor , a CAM company , but these concerns were magnified when a rival CAD company , Mentor , acquired Valor . Although Mentor claims that it " ... openly supports inclusion of ODB + + and updates for other EDA tool vendors , " it used to restrict access to the specification and required a non @-@ disclosure agreement . The application form used to include a requirement to : " ... Demonstrate a customer need for this integration through references from mutual customers . Provide a recommendation from a Mentor Graphics product division or demonstrate the incremental value of this integration to both Mentor Graphics and the partner company . " Some direct competitors inferred this meant restricted access . This was a source of frustration not only for competitors but also for the Mentor user community .
In 2012 , Julian Coates , director of business development at Mentor 's Valor division claimed that , so far , all ODB + + partners , including competitors to Mentor , who have applied for assistance to build and maintain ODB + + interfaces via the ODB + + Solutions Alliance have been accepted without reservation or cost . In addition , the format specification is now openly available via the ODB + + Solutions Alliance without the need for NDA . Membership of the ODB + + Solutions Alliance is free of charge and open to anybody who registers . A no @-@ charge ODB + + Viewer and other software utilities are available to registrants .
= = = = Potential resolution = = = =
Critics of the proprietary nature of ODB + + point to several more open formats as models for a future consensus format :
RS @-@ 274X ( " extended Gerber format " ) : Although it is nominally proprietary to Ucamco , the specification can be downloaded freely making it de facto an open standard .
IPC @-@ 2511 ( " GenCAM " ) which resulted from a donation of certain technologies by Teradyne / GenRAD to IPC .
IPC @-@ 2581 ( " Offspring " ) an attempt to merge GenCAM with ODB + + ( X ) . The specification can be downloaded freely . In 2011 , an industry consortium was created to support it , motivated in part by frustration with the proprietary nature of ODB + + . Cadence Design Systems , Zuken , Artwork Conversion Software and the owners of Gerber format , Ucamco , joined it , but , initially , not Mentor . However , in 2012 , Mentor did join . This , combined with the 2012 announcement by Zuken that it would join the ODB + + Solutions Alliance , creates the possibility that PCB designers will have a choice of format no matter which EDA tool they choose .
OpenAccess , which resulted from a transfer of certain technologies by Cadence to the Si2 organization . Although it was originally designed for integrated circuits , it is now finding application for IC package and PCB design also .
JPCA @-@ EB02 ( " Fujiko " ) based on work by Prof. Tomokage of Fukuoka University .
EDIF - Electronic Design Interchange Format
= 2009 Sony Ericsson Open =
The 2009 Sony Ericsson Open ( also known as 2009 Miami Masters ) was a men 's and women 's tennis tournament held from March 23 to April 5 , 2009 . It was the 25th edition of the Miami Masters event and was played on outdoor hard courts at the Tennis Center at Crandon Park in Key Biscayne , Florida , located near Miami . The tournament was part of 2009 ATP World Tour and 2009 WTA Tour , classified as ATP World Tour Masters 1000 and Premier Mandatory event respectively .
The men 's singles event was won by British player Andy Murray , who defeated Novak Djokovic in the final . Victoria Azarenka of Belarus won the women 's singles event by defeating defending champion Serena Williams . Both Murray and Azarenka were first @-@ time winners at the tournament and also the first to win from their respective countries . In the doubles events , Max Mirnyi and Andy Ram won the men 's title by defeating the team of Ashley Fisher and Stephen Huss . The women 's doubles title was won by Svetlana Kuznetsova and Amélie Mauresmo who overcame Květa Peschke and Lisa Raymond in the final match .
= = Tournament = =
The 2009 Sony Ericsson Open was the 25th edition of the Miami Masters tournament and was held at Tennis Center at Crandon Park , Key Biscayne near Miami , Florida . The tournament was a joint event between the Association of Tennis Professionals ( ATP ) and the Women 's Tennis Association ( WTA ) and was part of the 2009 ATP World Tour and the 2009 WTA Tour calendars . The tournament consisted of both men 's and women 's singles and doubles events which were played on 12 Laykold Cushion Plus hard courts . The total prize money for the tournament was US $ 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with $ 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 assigned equally to ATP and WTA events . Singles winners received $ 605 @,@ 500 each and doubles winning teams received $ 225 @,@ 000 each .
The tournament was conducted from March 23 to April 5 , with qualifying draws played on March 23 – 24 and main draws from March 25 to April 5 . Both the men 's and women 's singles draws consisted of 96 players and the doubles draws consisted of 32 teams . The qualifying draw consisted of 43 men and 42 women who competed for 12 positions each in the men 's and women 's final draw .
= = Players = =
47 of the top 50 players in the ATP rankings entered the men 's singles event at the tournament with Rafael Nadal seeded first , followed by Roger Federer , Novak Djokovic and Andy Murray . Defending champion Nikolay Davydenko withdrew ahead of the tournament due to a foot injury . Richard Gasquet , who was initially going to play , withdrew prior to his first match after suffering from right shoulder injury . Gasquet was replaced by lucky loser Björn Phau . 12 players progressed from the qualifying draws to the main draw and six players , including Lleyton Hewitt and Marcos Baghdatis , were given wildcard entries .
In the women 's singles field , defending champion Serena Williams was top seeded , with number two Dinara Safina only 311 points behind her in the WTA rankings at the start of the tournament . Maria Sharapova was expected to return to singles tennis at this tournament after playing doubles matches in the previous tournament , the 2009 BNP Paribas Open . Sharapova , who had not played singles matches since August 2008 , withdrew due to a continued lack of fitness . Jelena Dokić , Sania Mirza and Alexa Glatch were among the eight players who received wildcard entries . 12 players progressed from qualifying draws to main draw .
The doubles draws were led by defending champions Bob and Mike Bryan on the men 's side and Cara Black and Liezel Huber on the women 's side . Katarina Srebotnik , one of the women 's doubles defending champions , had not recovered from an injury picked up in December 2008 and did not participate . Her partner from the previous year , Ai Sugiyama partnered with Russian Daniela Hantuchová . Marina Erakovic – Sun Tiantian and Francesca Schiavone – Chan Yung @-@ jan withdrew from the tournament due to respective injuries to Erakovic and Chan . The doubles draws included five wildcard entries in total .
= = Events = =
= = = Men 's singles = = =
All the seeded players received a bye into the second round . Wildcards Marcos Baghdatis and Lleyton Hewitt were among the players progressing into the second round , while Germans Philipp Kohlschreiber and former World no . 2 Tommy Haas were the major upsets . Most seeded players continued their progress into the third round with eighth seed Fernando Verdasco winning his 200th ATP tour match in his career . Ivo Karlović and David Nalbandian were among the seeded players defeated in second round . Lucky loser Björn Phau was promoted into the third round after his opponent Albert Montañés suffered a hamstring injury during the second set of the match and was forced to withdraw . Frenchman Gaël Monfils took a hard @-@ fought win over 22nd seed and former world number 1 Marat Safin in a third round match played for nearly three hours . Qualifier Taylor Dent continued his successful run by defeating Tommy Robredo in the third round . Czechs Tomáš Berdych and Radek Štěpánek overcame higher seeded players James Blake and Fernando González en route to the fourth round .
Top seed Rafael Nadal faced an uphill battle against Stanislas Wawrinka in the fourth round match , facing a tiebreak in each set and eventually defeating him . Second seed Roger Federer defeated Dent in the fourth round to set up a quarterfinal match with longtime rival Andy Roddick , who overcame Gaël Monfils in a two @-@ set match . Novak Djokovic , Andy Murray , Juan Martín del Potro , Verdasco and Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga made it into the quarterfinals . Del Potro defeated Nadal in the three @-@ set quarterfinal match to reach the first ATP Masters semifinal of his career . Del Potro took the final set on a tiebreak after losing the second set . Murray faced Verdasco in the second quarterfinal in a rematch of 2009 Australian Open fourth round . Verdasco suffered an injury in the second game of the match and had to be seen by his physio . He was not in good enough shape to compete with Murray and eventually lost . Federer defeated Roddick while Djokovic moved past Tsonga to advance to the semifinals . Djokovic rallied back to defeat Federer in the first semifinal after losing the first set . The third seed however kept his consistency in the next two sets and won them . Murray edged past del Potro in the second semifinal to enter his second straight Masters final . Murray faltered in the second set of the match conceding two service breaks . However he recovered in the final set , gaining an early break of serve , to win the match .
Djokovic and Murray appeared in their seventh and fourth Masters final and 19th and 17th career finals respectively . Djokovic led the head @-@ to @-@ head tally against Murray , but Murray had won the last two encounters between them . In the match , Murray moved into a 4 – 0 lead in the first set . Djokovic improved his serve from that point but lost the set . A role reversal in the second set saw Djokovic move into a 4 – 1 lead . Murray fought back , however , to level the score to 5 – 5 and won the set to secure the victory . This was Murray 's third title win of the season and eleventh of his career . It was also his third Masters win of the career . Murray credited his improved fitness for his win . Djokovic , who had struggled with excessive heat in the past , struggled once again to assimilate with the temperature . He admitted that he was impatient early in the match , which resulted in him making too many unforced errors .
Final score
Andy Murray defeated Novak Djokovic , 6 – 2 , 7 – 5 .
= = = Women 's singles = = =
All the seeded players received a bye into the second round . Seven seeded players were ousted from the second round including third seed Jelena Janković , who was defeated by Gisela Dulko , and eighth seed Marion Bartoli , who lost to qualifier Anastasiya Yakimova . Second seed Dinara Safina , Vera Zvonareva and Ana Ivanovic were among the nine seeded players who were eliminated in the third round . Three times former champion and fifth seed Venus Williams faced stiff competition from Agnieszka Radwańska in fourth round . Williams lost the first set but prevailed in later sets to win the match . Li Na and Ekaterina Makarova also fought hard for a place in the quarterfinals , with Li coming out strong in the three set match , winning .
Svetlana Kuznetsova beat Caroline Wozniacki in the first of the quarterfinals . Kuznetsova looked good to win the match in straight sets after building a big lead , however Wozniacki fought back to win the second set on a tiebreak . Kuznetsova ultimately won . Victoria Azarenka defeated Samantha Stosur in the second quarterfinal . Williams sisters Serena and Venus set up the second semifinal after defeating Li Na and Iveta Benešová respectively . The Williams sisters had met 19 times before their semifinal meeting , Venus leading the head @-@ to @-@ head tally 10 – 9 . Serena won this time in a closely fought match . Azarenka came on top in the second semifinal defeating Kuznetsova .
Serena and Azarenka met in their careers ' 46th and seventh career finals respectively , with Serena appearing in her third consecutive final at the event , having won on the last two occasions . Azarenka dominated the final match , as Serena was playing while nursing a leg injury . Azarenka won the match , securing third title of her career . Azarenka stated that she was very nervous in the final game of the match and described her win as " the biggest moment in [ her ] career " . Serena mentioned that it was difficult for her to move to the left , but she still played with maximum effort .
Final score
Victoria Azarenka defeated Serena Williams , 6 – 3 , 6 – 1 .
= = = Men 's doubles = = =
Four seeded teams were eliminated in the first round of the event . Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić were the highest ranked team to lose , falling to Nicolás Almagro and David Ferrer , along with third seeds Mahesh Bhupathi and Mark Knowles , who lost to French duo Julien Benneteau and Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . Bennetau and Tsonga continued their progress into the third round defeating Rik de Voest and Bobby Reynolds . They were joined by Julian Knowle and Jürgen Melzer , who triumphed over Almagro and Ferrer . Only two seeded teams , those of Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan and of Bruno Soares and Kevin Ullyett , made it into the quarterfinals , and faced each other in that round . The Bryan brothers , who were the defending champions , overcame Soares and Ullyett in a two @-@ set match . Ashley Fisher and Stephen Huss , Knowle and Melzer and Max Mirnyi and Andy Ram were the other teams who made it into the semifinals .
The Bryan brothers faced Fisher and Huss in the first semifinal and lost , ending their streak of winning 13 consecutive matches . Mirnyi and Ram encountered much harder competition against Knowle and Melzer and saved five match points before winning . In the final , there were no service breaks in the first set , with Fisher and Huss winning it in the tiebreak . Mirnyi and Ram came back strong to win the second set . The match @-@ tiebreak decided the outcome of the final , with Mirnyi and Ram winning the tiebreak and the match . It was Mirnyi 's 36th and Ram 's 16th men 's doubles title of the career and their second title as a team .
Final score
Max Mirnyi / Andy Ram defeated Ashley Fisher / Stephen Huss , 6 – 7 ( 4 – 7 ) , 6 – 2 , [ 10 – 7 ] .
= = = Women 's doubles = = =
Daniela Hantuchová and Ai Sugiyama , who lost to wildcard entrants Petra Martić and Coco Vandeweghe , were the only seeded pair to drop out in the first round . Another wildcard team of Svetlana Kuznetsova and Amélie Mauresmo defeated the top seeds Cara Black and Liezel Huber in
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the second round . Eighth seeds Maria Kirilenko and Flavia Pennetta were also eliminated in second round , losing to Chuang Chia @-@ jung and Sania Mirza . Chuang and Mirza continued their march into the semifinal defeating second seeds Anabel Medina Garrigues and Virginia Ruano Pascual . They were joined by Kuznetsova and Mauresmo , Anna @-@ Lena Grönefeld and Patty Schnyder , and Květa Peschke and Lisa Raymond , the only seeded team left in the draw .
Kuznetsova and Mauresmo defeated Grönefeld and Schnyder to enter their third final as a team . Peschke and Raymond overcame Chuang and Mirza to secure the second spot in the final . Kuznetsova and Mauresmo continued their winning streak in the final , defeating Peschke and Raymond . The title was Kuznetsova 's 14th , Mauresmo 's third and their second as a team .
Final score
Svetlana Kuznetsova / Amélie Mauresmo defeated Květa Peschke / Lisa Raymond , 4 – 6 , 6 – 3 , [ 10 – 3 ] .
= = Viewership = =
= = = Broadcasting = = =
The tournament was broadcast on television channels worldwide . The British television station Sky Sports held rights to broadcast the tournament from the first round through to the final . Both the men 's and women 's finals were shown on CBS in the United States . The tournament also had around 44 hours of live coverage in the United States . The tournament was broadcast for more than 2000 hours and seen by over 153 million people worldwide .
= = = Attendance = = =
According to the event organisers , 293 @,@ 228 people attended the 22 sessions across the 12 days of the tournament . This was the second highest attendance in the tournament 's history and four sessions were sellouts .
= Thomas Trueblood =
Thomas Clarkson Trueblood ( April 6 , 1856 – June 5 , 1951 ) was an American professor of elocution and oratory and the first coach of the University of Michigan golf and debate teams . He was affiliated with the University of Michigan for 67 years from 1884 to 1951 , and was a nationally known writer and speaker on oratory and debate . He founded UM 's Department of Elocution and Oratory as well as the campus debate program . He became the subject of national media attention in 1903 when the Chicago Tribune ran an article stating that he was offering a new " course in love making . " His golf teams won two NCAA National Championships and five Big Ten Conference championships . He was posthumously inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981 .
= = Professor of Elocution and Oratory = =
Trueblood was a native of Salem , Indiana . He attended Earlham College in Richmond , Indiana and received an A.M. degree . In 1878 , Trueblood and Robert I. Fulton established the Fulton and Trueblood School of Oratory in Kansas City , Missouri , which became " one of the largest and best known institutions of its kind in the United States . " In 1884 , Trueblood came to Ann Arbor as a lecturer on public speaking , intending to give a six @-@ week course . The next year he was invited back . At the time he also was lecturing at Missouri , Kentucky and Ohio Wesleyan , and working out of Fulton and Trueblood School . Michigan asked him to join the faculty , and he stayed for 67 years . In 1892 , he founded the Department of Elocution and Oratory and became its first chairman . Michigan 's Oratory and Elocution Department was the first such unit in any major university or college in the country . He also established the first credit course in speech at any American university . At the turn of the century , speech and oratory played an important role in American society and academia , so much so that Trueblood was the highest paid professor on the University of Michigan faculty , and students were required to take Trueblood 's courses .
In addition , Trueblood organized and coached the competitive debate and oratory contests at Michigan . He established the Northern Oratorical League , and later the Central Debating League , for the purpose of conducting competitive debates among Midwestern Universities , including Michigan , the University of Chicago , Northwestern , Oberlin College , Iowa , and Minnesota . In 1903 , an Iowa newspaper noted : " It was due to his zeal in organization , his success in persuading students to enter the competitive contests , and his skill in drilling them , that has enabled Michigan to take so high a rank in oratory in these league contests , with seven first honors to her credit in ten years , and nine of the twelve victories in debate . "
Trueblood also delivered speeches and gave dramatic readings on tours all over the world . One newspaper noted : " As a reader Prof. Trueblood is well known throughout the west . His readings are taken from the best literature , with special attention to Shakespearean work . It is his plan to give the principal scenes of the play , narrating the unimportant parts , thus providing an entertainment acceptable to those who do not attend the theater . " After a performance of Hamlet in 1908 , an Iowa newspaper wrote : " Prof. Trueblood is a man of remarkable personality . His cuttings of the play were taken from the most dramatic parts , giving a wide range of understanding of all the characters . Not only were the different parts interpreted with extremely keen judgment of the most real kind , but the speaker introduced each division with a brief description and delineation of the men and women who appeared . Prof. Trueblood 's manner of speaking and his diction are acquirements of a very high character and he held the interest of his hearers from beginning to end . "
Trueblood was president of the National Association of Elocutionists when they met in June 1899 for their annual convention at Chautauqua Institute , New York . He brought with him Charles Casper Simons , a law student who coached the debate team for Trueblood . Simons had won first honors in a speech contest with his oration on abolitionist John Brown . Knowing that Southern elocutionists would be in attendance , Trueblood asked Simons to deliver his tribute to Brown at the conference . One account of the conference states : " The introduction was delivered without much reaction ; but when Simons intoned , ' The South had slain the man , but the spirit which animated him was beyond the reach of earthly power , ' the Southerners were distressed . Simons went on to proclaim that John Brown ' taught the South that a new era had begun , that not by persuasion , threat or rant , but by force was slavery to be exterminated . ' The Southern members of the association walked out of the amphitheater in angry protest . "
= = Michigan 's first African @-@ American debate champion = =
In the early 1900s , Michigan 's athletic teams ( and those throughout the country ) were re @-@ segregated . While George Jewett had played for the Michigan football team in 1890 and 1892 , the next African @-@ American to play on the football team was Willis Ward , forty years later in 1932 . During this period of athletic segregation , an African @-@ American , Eugene Joseph Marshall , was permitted to compete in Trueblood 's debate competitions and won the university debate championship in 1903 . The Ann Arbor Argus reported : " For the first time in the history of American universities , a colored man has won his highest honors in oratory in fair and free competition with all comers . The announcement of his victory will be read with pleasure by all who are working for the betterment of the colored race . " Trueblood entertained Marshall at his home and presented him with the Chicago Alumni Medal . Marshall subsequently placed second in the Midwest regional collegiate competition .
= = The Jam Handy incident = =
In May 1903 , Trueblood became the subject of national media attention as a result of a newspaper article written by a 17 @-@ year @-@ old freshman student claiming Trueblood was teaching a new " course in lovemaking . " The student , Jam Handy , was a campus correspondent for the Chicago Tribune . In the class , Trueblood taught " the delivery of short extracts from masterpieces of oratory . " One such extract involved a scene from a play in which a man kneels in front of a woman pleading for her hand . In his 1893 textbook Practical Elements of Elocution , Trueblood used the scene to illustrate the " aspirate explosive " form of speech .
After watching Trueblood act out the kneeling scene , Handy wrote an article that was published on the front page of the Chicago Tribune on May 8 , 1903 , with a headline stating : " Learn Sly Cupid 's Tricks ; Students at Ann Arbor Take Lessons in Love Making . " The article suggested that Trueblood was instructing his male students on romance rather than oratory technique . The next day , the Chicago Record @-@ Herald published a three @-@ panel cartoon of " Professor Foxy Truesport " dreaming up ways to " teach his class how to properly make love . " Newspapers across the country picked up the story . The Daily Northwestern wrote : " Professor Trueblood of Michigan University has inaugurated a course in love making , his motive being to stimulate interest in his classes . The oratorical students are compelled to kneel and make fervid declarations to lady students . " The Newark Advocate 's headline read : " Lovemaking Lessons : Novel Course In the University of Michigan ; Sly Cupid 's Tricks Taught . " The Salt Lake Tribune reported :
" Lessons in Lovemaking . The University of Michigan has added a new course to the curriculum , one that may best be styled a course in love making . Prof. Trueblood is the inventor of the novel scheme , and his course , which has been hitherto shunned as one of the toughest at the university , now seems likely to become the most popular on campus ... Early this week he hit upon the successful plan , and now the many visitors who attend his classes are spectators of thrilling love scenes . Fifty times a day Prof. Trueblood is forced to kneel to some maiden and show his pupils the right way to declare their devotion to their sweethearts ... Each budding orator takes his place before a blushing maid , and no matter how smoothly the pair may have progressed in private the professor finds some fault with the public demonstration . ' No , kneel on both knees — now hold her hand , it impresses her more @-@ so , ' and the old professor again kneels and goes through it all over again . "
On May 12 , the Chicago Tribune ran a photograph of Trueblood with the caption : " Trueblood has nearly worn out his trousers at the knees , showing young men how to kneel , and has strained his voice and eyes in efforts to show his pupils how to throw fire and passion into their appeals . "
The story was an embarrassment for Trueblood and the university . In his memoirs , Handy recalled being summoned to Trueblood 's office : " His desk was piled high with letters ... and clippings ... from around the country ... and he also had a copy of the McCutcheon cartoon . ( He ) was taking all of this as ridicule , although I had publicized the story with sincere enthusiasm for a new advance in education of which I felt the University of Michigan should be proud . " The faculty voted unanimously to suspend Handy for a year for " publishing false and injurious statements affecting the character of the work of one of the Professors . " In addition to the suspension , Handy was charged as a " faker " in the press :
Henry J. Handy , the student @-@ correspondent at the University of Michigan who sent a sensational story to the Chicago newspapers , relating how Professor Thomas C. Trueblood had a class in love @-@ making , has been suspended for one year and the story has been branded as a ' fake . ' Handy based the story on an incident that occurred during the rehearsal of a drama , when Professor Trueblood showed one of the students how to kneel to propose .
Shortly after the incident , Trueblood left for a trip giving dramatic readings on the West Coast . Handy went on to become a successful public relations man .
= = Golf coach = =
Trueblood was the faculty tennis champion , but at age 40 his doctor told him to give up the game because it was too strenuous . He took up golf , and enjoyed success in that sport , too . " I took it up in August and in October I won the Ann Arbor Golf Club championship , " he said . In 1901 , Trueblood organized the first Michigan golf team . On October 24 – 25 , 1902 , Michigan defeated the University of Chicago 16 @-@ 12 in " the first intercollegiate golf match held in the West . "
In 1921 , golf became a varsity sport , and Trueblood was the school 's first official coach . In 1926 , Trueblood retired as a professor emeritus at age 70 . At that time , he turned his attention full @-@ time to coaching . His coaching record at Michigan was 71 @-@ 9 @-@ 2 . During his 15 official seasons as golf coach , his teams won two NCAA National Championships ( 1934 @-@ 1935 ) and five Big Ten Conference championships ( 1932 @-@ 1936 ) , and were Big Ten runners @-@ up eight times . He coached two NCAA individual champions , John Fischer ( 1932 ) and Chuck Kocsis ( 1936 ) . Trueblood continued as golf coach until he was 80 , when athletic director Fielding H. Yost named him emeritus coach .
In 1932 , Chuck Kocsis ( the first golfer inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor ) , enrolled at the university . When a promised alumni pledge to pay his expenses fell through , Trueblood agreed to make a loan ( at five percent interest ) so Kocsis could pay his tuition . The Wolverines with Kocsis won the NCAA championship twice . Kocsis recalled that the team often traveled to tournaments in Trueblood 's car . " Professor Trueblood had a seven @-@ passenger Buick , " Kocsis said . " He designated me as the chauffeur . So if we had a golf match , we 'd all get into the car and go to Chicago , or go to Ohio , wherever we were going to play . " Another teammate recalled the trips in Trueblood 's car : " It wasn 't a very big Buick , as I recall . We rode with six guys . Chuck used to do most of the driving . I remember that trip down to Washington ( for the 1935 national championship at Congressional , which Michigan won ) . We started in the morning and drove all the way down there . Professor Trueblood was a big guy , too . " Trueblood took the team on a side trip to Mount Vernon , where one of the players accidentally bumped the shifter into gear and hit the accelerator as he exited Trueblood 's car . The car lurched forward ; the open door hit something and was torn off its hinges .
Ralph M. Cole , a member of the golf team of 1926 @-@ 1928 , later wrote of a humorous incident involving the septuagenarian Coach Trueblood . Cole recalled : " As golf coach he could add very little about the mechanics of the game . But he added one piece of advice which was very helpful when followed , and which he drilled into us at every practice session . It was : ' Up and out in two , boys . ' As any golfer would know , it meant , when hitting a short approach shot , get it close enough to the pin to make the next putt . Now for the humorous part of that admonition . We had played Purdue in Lafayette on a Thursday and were to play Illinois on Friday . The Professor was to call us at 4 : 30 a.m. to catch a 5 : 30 train for Urbana . Well , he got confused on our room number and awakened a man who called the front desk and told the night clerk that there must be some nut calling at 4 : 30 a.m. and shouting , ' Up and out in two boys ! ' We did make the train , anyway . "
A.H. Jolly , Jr . , captain of the 1933 golf team , noted : " Truby , as he was referred to when out of earshot , was still a most active and attentive coach . But the only club or clubs I recall seeing him handle in those days , was a Left @-@ Handed Putter ! "
= = Death and honors = =
Trueblood died in Bradenton , Florida in 1951 at age 95 . At the time , the Associated Press noted : " He pioneered the teaching of speech in the nation 's colleges during his 42 years on the University of Michigan faculty . " His brother , Professor Edwin P. Trueblood , also a speech professor at Earlham College , died earlier the same year . Thomas Trueblood 's obituary reported that he " devised the famous college cheer ' The Locomotive . ' " He devised the University 's famous " locomotive " cheer in 1903 while returning to Ann Arbor on a train from a Big Ten football game . However , other sources indicate that the locomotive cheer began at Princeton in the 1890s .
Trueblood 's papers are at the Bentley Historical Library in Ann Arbor . Trueblood has been the subject of two articles by Linda Robinson Walker in the University of Michigan alumni publication Michigan Today . Much of the factual information in this article is distilled from Walker 's articles .
In 1921 , students of Professor Trueblood honored him by establishing the Trueblood Fund . Today , the Trueblood Fellowship is open to students majoring in Screen Arts & Cultures . In 1981 , Trueblood was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor as part of the fourth induction class . The Trueblood Theater was located in the Henry S. Frieze Building at the University of Michigan School of Music , Theater and Dance and named in Trueblood 's honor . The Trueblood Theater closed its doors in 2006 when the Frieze Building was razed to make room for the North Quad Residential and Academic Complex .
A portrait of Trueblood painted in 1920 by Merton Grenhagen was originally hung first in Alumni Hall ( now the Museum of Art ) and then in the Theater Library in the Frieze Building . In 1998 , the Trueblood portrait was hung at the University of Michigan Golf Course . At the time of the installation , the University Record noted : " Known as ' Chief ' to his teaching associates and ' Trueby ' to his students , Thomas C. Trueblood now resides among U @-@ M 's golf history . "
= = Books by Trueblood = =
Robert I. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood , " Choice Readings From Standard and Popular Authors " ( Ginn and Company 1890 )
Thomas C. Trueblood and Robert I. Fulton , " Practical Elements of Elocution : Designed as a Text @-@ Book for the Guidance of Teachers and Students of Expression " ( Ginn & Company Publishers / The Anthenaeum Press 1893 )
Robert I. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood , " Patriotic Eloquence Relating to the Spanish @-@ American War and Its Issues " ( Charles Scribner 's Sons 1900 )
Robert I. Fulton , Thomas C. Trueblood , and Edwin P. Trueblood , " Standard Selections " ( Ginn & Company 1907 )
Thomas C. Trueblood , William G. Caskey , and Henry E. Gordon , " Winning Speeches in the Contests of the Northern Oratorical League " ( American Book Company 1909 )
Robert I. Fulton , Thomas C. Trueblood , " Essentials of Public Speaking for Secondary Schools " ( Ginn & Company 1910 )
Robert Irving Fulton and Thomas Clarkson Trueblood , " British and American Eloquence " ( Ginn and Company 1912 )
Robert I. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood , " Choice Readings from Standard and Popular Authors Embracing a Complete Classification of Selections , a Comprehensive Diagram of the Principles of Vocal Expression , and Indexes to the Choicest Readings from Shakespeare , The Bible , and Hymn @-@ Books " ( Ginn & Company 1912 )
= The Red and the Black ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Red and the Black " is the fourteenth episode of the fifth season of American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by series creator Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz , directed by Carter and aired in the United States on March 8 , 1998 on the Fox network . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 0 , being watched by 19 @.@ 98 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received moderately positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder has Scully put under hypnosis to learn the truth about her abduction after Cassandra Spender ( Veronica Cartwright ) goes missing and her son Jeffrey ( Chris Owens ) angrily attempts to push his way up in the FBI . The Syndicate , meanwhile , quicken their tests for the black oil vaccine , sacrificing their own to do so .
" The Red and the Black " continues from the previous episode , " Patient X " and features the return of Mulder 's belief in extraterrestrials , a belief he initially lost in the season opener " Redux " . Director Rob Bowman was originally slated to direct the episode , but filming issues resulted in Carter directing it . Carter later described the episode , along with " Patient X " , as being " the most challenging and logically complex projects of the season . "
= = Plot = =
In the mountain wilderness of Canada , someone in a cabin writes a letter , addressed to " Son " and expresses hopes that they may reconcile . The envelope is addressed to the FBI , and is given to a boy courier for mailing .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) arrives at the Ruskin Dam and finds a number of burned corpses , including those belonging to Quiet Willy and Dmitri . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is found with only minor burns , one of approximately fifty survivors who were found nearby in the woods . Jeffrey Spender arrives looking for his mother , Cassandra ( Veronica Cartwright ) , who is missing . Mulder meets with Scully about the incident , but she does not remember anything . Jeffrey sees Mulder and warns him not to get involved with his mother , who remains missing .
The Well @-@ Manicured Man ( John Neville ) and other Syndicate Elders watch as their black oil vaccine is administered to Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) , which has yet to work . Later , The Well @-@ Manicured Man meets with Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , who is being held captive aboard a Russian freighter . The Well @-@ Manicured Man believes that the Russians possess a functional vaccine to the black oil , or else Krycek would not have infected the boy . With a working vaccine , resistance to the alien Colonists is possible .
A spacecraft crashes at Wiekamp Air Force base in West Virginia , and the surviving Rebel passenger is captured by the military . Mulder shows Scully more photos of the victims and , having found more implants in them , believes the implant in Scully may be able to answer all of their questions . The Syndicate meets over the capture of the Rebel . The Well @-@ Manicured Man wants to align with the Rebels , but the other Syndicate members are reluctant and want to make sure the Russian vaccine from Krycek works .
Under hypnosis , Scully recalls the Rebels burning her fellow abductees , and recalls a Colonist spacecraft killing the Rebels and abducting Cassandra . During a meeting with Walter Skinner , Mulder continues to insist that the events have been orchestrated by the military and not by aliens . Meanwhile , the Russian vaccine seems to have no effect on Marita . The First Elder tells the Well @-@ Manicured Man that they have already decided to turn the Rebel over to the Colonists . Jeffrey shows Scully a video of him talking about aliens while under hypnosis while he was a child , claiming his mother had forced him to make those statements .
Krycek is released and attacks Mulder in his apartment . He claims that a war is raging between the aliens and that the Rebel immolations are meant to halt the impending colonization of Earth . He also claims that the captured Rebel is critical to their plans and must not die . Mulder and Scully head to Wiekamp Air Force Base , where the Alien Bounty Hunter — who is disguised as Quiet Willy — has come to kill the Rebel . However , Mulder witnesses a second Rebel arriving to seemingly kill the Bounty Hunter and rescue the captured Rebel . The Well @-@ Manicured Man watches as the Russian vaccine is revealed to have been successful on Marita . Mulder is released by the military but is confused by what he saw . At FBI Headquarters , Spender receives the letter from Canada . In Canada we see the boy return the unopened letter to the cabin and the sender is revealed to be The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting and filming = = =
Series creator Chris Carter explained that the cast listing for the episode , along with " Patient X " was " longer than most cast lists you 'll ever see on a TV series " . In order to allow for the increased expenses of hiring additional actors , Carter and the producers of the series talked Fox into allowing the episodes to be slightly more expensive because they would lead into the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released X @-@ Files movie . Carter explained , " we convinced them to spend the extra money to do this extra special work because it was all leading up to [ ... ] when the X @-@ Files movie would be released . " In addition , the child he gave the message to was a young boy and the son of production manager J.P. Finn . Rob Bowman originally intended to direct the episode but , due to reshoots , he was unable to do it , resulting in Carter directing . Bowman later recounted , " I was supposed to direct ' The Red and the Black ' [ … ] but we were prepping for the reshoots [ of The X @-@ Files movie ] so I couldn 't do it . [ … ] Chris had to direct this episode . He was so mad at me . " When filming the scene where Mulder and Scully go to a medic station , Carter made homage to the medical drama ER , filming it entirely with a Steadicam .
The opening scene was filmed at Grouse Mountain , above the city of Vancouver , Canada . Most of the scenes at the Ruskin Dam were shot approximately 50 miles east of Vancouver , while the abduction sequence involved a full @-@ scale replica of the dam . The various scenes with the Syndicate testing the black oil vaccine on Marita Covarrubias were filmed at an abandoned hospital in Vancouver . Carter commented that they chose it because it had " an interesting observation space above it that we used " , which was difficult to shoot in .
= = = Effects = = =
" The Red and the Black " was a technically difficult episode , which Carter later described , along with " Patient X " , as " the most challenging and logically complex projects of the season . " The scene where Cassandra Spender was elevated into the colonist craft was shot by having a stuntwoman sit in Cassandra 's wheelchair and be lifted upward via a crane , which was removed from the shot during post @-@ production . The lights of the alien spacecraft were shot using a lighting rig combined with computer effects by Special Effects Supervisor Laurie Kalisen @-@ George . The crashed alien spacecraft was sixty feet in diameter , twice the length of any other spaceship seen before on the show , and dragged along the ground to create a skidmark . Twenty @-@ five explosions were set off to simulate the saucer crash ; the remains of the wreckage were then burned to create the rest of the footage . The scene took an entire night to film .
The opening scene featuring the alien rebels incinerating a group of Russian alien abductees was filmed without actual Russian cars . Picture car coordination Bigel Habgood noted , " I couldn 't get real Russian cars , so I decided to get creative and go seriously European . We burned a couple Saabs , and a BMW 2002 . I 'm sorry we couldn 't get any Yugos . " For the scene after the intro wherein Mulder discovers the charred remains of abductees , the prop and the production design departments had to create specialized fake bodies . Carter later noted that it 's " harder than it looks to create a charred , dead body . " The stage for the alien abduction scene was built from scratch : construction supervisor Rob Maier was tasked with creating a full @-@ scale replica of the Ruskin Dam bridge in order to ease up the shots . The tagline for this episode is " Resist or Serve " . The tagline was later used for The X @-@ Files game , The X @-@ Files : Resist or Serve as well as the official book covering the fifth season of the show . The list of victims viewed by Scully in her hospital room was made up of X @-@ Files staffers .
= = Reception = =
" The Red and the Black " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 8 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 0 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 0 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 19 @.@ 98 million viewers . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
Critical reception to the episode was largely positive . The A.V. Club reviewer Zack Handlen gave " The Red and the Black " an A – , and wrote positively of the " galactic war " between the colonists and the rebels that is referenced in the episode , noting that it marked the point where " shit is about to get real " . Despite this , Handlen criticized the series for not following through on its tale of alien war , noting that the premise " never really [ took off ] --at least [ … ] I 've never heard anyone refer to [ the last seasons of the show ] as ' the seasons when the The X @-@ Files mythology finally paid off . ' " Handlen , however noted that " The Red and the Black " worked because " the performances are great as always , and because the second part of this two parter rarely feels bogged down or draggy . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two called the episode a " typical mythology runaround " and noted that the plot was " complicated but the simpler scenes of confrontation are very well handled . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . Vitaris praised the episode 's premise and wrote that it represented " a second half of a two @-@ parter that is as strong as the first half . "
A variety of critics praised the hypnotism scene . Robert Shearman called the scene " gorgeous " and praised Gillian Anderson 's acting abilities . Paula Vitaris was extremely impressed with the scene 's blocking , calling the rendition " virtually orgasmic in intensity " and concluded that " Anderson is marvelous " .
= Port Authority of New York and New Jersey =
The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey ( PANYNJ ) is a joint venture between the U.S. states of New York and New Jersey , established in 1921 through an interstate compact authorized by the United States Congress . The Port Authority oversees much of the regional transportation infrastructure , including bridges , tunnels , airports , and seaports , within the geographical jurisdiction of the Port of New York and New Jersey . This 1 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 900 km ² ) port district is generally encompassed within a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) radius of the Statue of Liberty National Monument . The Port Authority is headquartered at 4 World Trade Center .
The Port Authority operates the Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal , which handled the third @-@ largest volume of shipping among all ports in the United States in 2004 and the largest on the Eastern Seaboard . The Port Authority also operates Hudson River crossings , including the Holland Tunnel , Lincoln Tunnel , and George Washington Bridge connecting New Jersey with Manhattan , and three crossings that connect New Jersey with Staten Island . The Port Authority Bus Terminal and the PATH rail system are also run by the Port Authority , as well as LaGuardia Airport , John F. Kennedy International Airport , Newark Liberty International Airport , Teterboro Airport , Stewart International Airport and Atlantic City International Airport . The agency has its own 1 @,@ 600 @-@ member Port Authority Police Department .
Although the Port Authority manages much of the transportation infrastructure in the area , most bridges , tunnels , and other transportation facilities are not included . The New York City Department of Transportation is responsible for the Staten Island Ferry and for the majority of bridges in the city . The Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority is responsible for other bridges and tunnels in the area . New York City Transit Authority buses and subways , Metro North and Long Island Rail Road ( all four are divisions of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority ) , and buses , commuter rail , and light rail operated by NJ Transit are also independent of PANYNJ .
It is a member of REBNY .
= = History = =
The Port of New York and New Jersey comprised the main point of embarkation for U.S. troops and supplies sent to Europe during World War I , via the New York Port of Embarkation . The congestion at the port led experts to realize the need for a port authority to supervise the extremely complex system of bridges , highways , subways , and port facilities in the New York @-@ New Jersey area . The solution was the 1921 creation of the Port Authority under the supervision of the governors of the two states . By issuing its own bonds , it was financially independent of either state ; the bonds were paid off from tolls and fees , not from taxes . It became one of the major agencies of the metropolitan area for large @-@ scale projects .
= = = Previous disputes = = =
In the early years of the 20th century , there were disputes between the states of New Jersey and New York over rail freights and boundaries . At the time , rail lines terminated on the New Jersey side of the harbor , while ocean shipping was centered on Manhattan and Brooklyn . Freight had to be shipped across the Hudson River in barges . In 1916 , New Jersey launched a lawsuit against New York over issues of rail freight , with the Interstate Commerce Commission ( ICC ) issuing an order that the two states work together , subordinating their own interests to the public interest . The Harbor Development Commission , a joint advisory board set @-@ up in 1917 , recommended that a bi @-@ state authority be established to oversee efficient economic development of the port district . The Port of New York Authority was established on April 30 , 1921 , through an interstate compact between the states of New Jersey and New York . This was the first such agency in the United States , created under a provision in the Constitution of the United States permitting interstate compacts . The idea for the Port Authority was conceived during the Progressive Era , which aimed at the reduction of political corruption and at increasing the efficiency of government . With the Port Authority at a distance from political pressures , it was able to carry longer @-@ term infrastructure projects irrespective of the election cycles and in a more efficient manner . In 1972 it was renamed the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to better reflect its status as a partnership between the two states .
Throughout its history , there have been concerns about democratic accountability , or lack thereof at the Port Authority . The Port District is irregularly shaped but comprises a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) area roughly within a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) radius of the Statue of Liberty .
= = = Interstate crossings = = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , there were no road bridge or tunnel crossings between the two states . The initial tunnel crossings were completed privately by the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad in 1908 and 1909 ( " Hudson Tubes " ) , followed by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1910 ( " North River Tunnels " ) . Under an independent agency , the Holland Tunnel was opened in 1927 , with some planning and construction pre @-@ dating the Port Authority . With the rise in automobile traffic , there was demand for more Hudson River crossings . Using its ability to issue bonds and collect revenue , the Port Authority has built and managed major infrastructure projects . Early projects included bridges across the Arthur Kill , which separates Staten Island from New Jersey . The Goethals Bridge , named after chief engineer of the Panama Canal Commission General George Washington Goethals , connected Elizabeth , New Jersey and Howland Hook , Staten Island . At the south end of Arthur Kill , the Outerbridge Crossing was built and named after the Port Authority 's first chairman , Eugenius Harvey Outerbridge . Construction of both bridges was completed in 1928 . The Bayonne Bridge , opened in 1931 , was built across the Kill van Kull , connecting Staten Island with Bayonne , New Jersey .
Construction began in 1927 on the George Washington Bridge , linking the northern part of Manhattan with Fort Lee , New Jersey , with Port Authority chief engineer , Othmar Ammann , overseeing the project . The bridge was completed in October 1931 , ahead of schedule and well under the estimated costs . This efficiency exhibited by the Port Authority impressed President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who used this as a model in creating the Tennessee Valley Authority and other such entities .
In 1930 , the Holland Tunnel was placed under control of the Port Authority , providing significant toll revenues . During the late 1930s and early 1940s , the Lincoln Tunnel was built , connecting New Jersey and Midtown Manhattan .
In 1962 , the bankrupt Hudson & Manhattan Railroad was absorbed by the Port Authority , the Hudson Tubes restyled PATH ( Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson ) and Hudson & Manhattan Railroad ( Hudson Terminal ) razed for the future World Trade Center .
= = = Austin J. Tobin era = = =
= = = = Airports = = = =
In 1942 , Austin J. Tobin became the Executive Director of the Port Authority . In the post @-@ World War II period , the Port Authority expanded its operations to include airports , and marine terminals , with projects including Newark Liberty International Airport and Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminals . Meanwhile , the city @-@ owned La Guardia Field was nearing capacity in 1939 , and needed expensive upgrades and expansion . At the time , airports were operated as loss leaders , and the city was having difficulties maintaining the status quo , losing money and unable to undertake needed expansions . The city was looking to hand the airports over to a public authority , possibly to Robert Moses ' Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority . After long negotiations with the City of New York , a 50 @-@ year lease , commencing on May 31 , 1947 , went to the Port Authority of New York to rehabilitate , develop , and operate La Guardia Airport ( La Guardia Field ) , John F. Kennedy International Airport ( Idlewild Airport ) , and Floyd Bennett Field . The Port Authority transformed the airports into fee @-@ generating facilities , adding stores and restaurants .
= = = = World Trade Center = = = =
David Rockefeller , president of Chase Manhattan Bank , who envisioned a World Trade Center for lower Manhattan , realizing he needed public funding in order to construct the massive project , approached Tobin . Although many questioned the Port Authority 's entry into the real estate market , Tobin saw the project as a way to enhance the agency 's power and prestige , and agreed to the project . The Port Authority was the overseer of the World Trade Center , hiring the architect Minoru Yamasaki and engineer Leslie Robertson .
Yamasaki ultimately settled on the idea of twin towers . To meet the Port Authority 's requirement to build 10 million square feet ( 930 @,@ 000 m ² ) of office space , the towers would each be 110 @-@ stories tall . The size of the project raised ire from the owner of the Empire State Building , which would lose its title of tallest building in the world . Other critics objected to the idea of this much " subsidized " office space going on the open market , competing with the private sector . Others questioned the cost of the project , which in 1966 had risen to $ 575 million . Final negotiations between The City of New York and the Port Authority centered on tax issues . A final agreement was made that the Port Authority would make annual payments in lieu of taxes , for the 40 % of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants . The remaining space was to be occupied by state and federal government agencies . In 1962 , the Port Authority signed the United States Customs Service as a tenant , and in 1964 they inked a deal with the State of New York to locate government offices at the World Trade Center .
In August 1968 , construction on the World Trade Center 's north tower started , with construction on the south tower beginning in January 1969 . When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed , the total cost to the Port Authority had reached $ 900 million . The buildings were dedicated on April 4 , 1973 , with Tobin , who had retired the year before , absent from the ceremonies .
In 1986 , Port Authority sold rights to the World Trade Center name for $ 10 to an organization run by an outgoing executive , Guy F. Tozzoli . He in turn made millions of dollars selling the use of the name in up to 28 different states .
= = = September 11 attacks = = =
The terrorist attacks of September 11 , 2001 , and the subsequent collapse of the World Trade Center buildings impacted the Port Authority . With the Port Authority 's headquarters located in 1 World Trade Center , it became deprived of a base of operations and sustained a great number of casualties . An estimated 1 @,@ 400 Port Authority employees worked in the World Trade Center . Eighty @-@ four employees , including 37 Port Authority police officers , its Executive Director , Neil D. Levin , and police superintendent , Fred V. Morrone , died . In rescue efforts following the collapse , two Port Authority police officers , John McLoughlin and Will Jimeno , were pulled out alive after spending nearly 24 hours beneath 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) of rubble . Their rescue was later portrayed in the Oliver Stone film World Trade Center .
= = = Fort Lee lane closure scandal = = =
The Fort Lee lane closure scandal was a U.S. political scandal that concerns New Jersey Governor Chris Christie 's staff and his Port Authority political appointees conspiring to create a traffic jam in Fort Lee , New Jersey as political retribution , and their attempts to cover up these actions and suppress internal and public disclosures . Dedicated toll lanes for one of the Fort Lee entrances ( used by local traffic from Fort Lee and surrounding communities ) to the upper level on the George Washington Bridge , which connects to Manhattan , were reduced from three to one from September 9 – 13 , 2013 . The toll lane closures caused massive Fort Lee traffic back @-@ ups , which affected public safety due to extensive delays by police and emergency service providers and disrupted schools due to the delayed arrivals of students and teachers . Two Port Authority officials ( who were appointed by Christie and would later resign ) claimed that reallocating two of the toll lanes from the local Fort Lee entrance to the major highways was due to a traffic study evaluating " traffic safety patterns " at the bridge , but the Executive Director of the Port Authority was unaware of a traffic study .
As of March 2014 , the repercussions and controversy surrounding these actions continue to be under investigation by the Port Authority , federal prosecutors , and a New Jersey legislature committee . The Port Authority 's chairman , David Samson , who was appointed by Governor Christie , resigned on March 28 , 2014 amid allegations of his involvement in the scandal and other controversies .
= = Governance = =
The Port Authority is jointly controlled by the governors of New York and New Jersey , who appoint the members of the agency 's Board of Commissioners and retain the right to veto the actions of the Commissioners from his or her own state . Each governor appoints six members to the Board of Commissioners , who are subject to state senate confirmation and serve overlapping six @-@ year terms without pay . An Executive Director is appointed by the Board of Commissioners to deal with day @-@ to @-@ day operations and to execute the Port Authority 's policies . Under an informal power @-@ sharing agreement , the Governor of New Jersey chooses the chairman of the board and the deputy executive director , while the Governor of New York selects the vice @-@ chairman and Executive Director .
As of March 2014 , the appointed commissioners are as follows :
Meetings of the Board of Commissioners are public . Members of the public may address the Board at these meetings , subject to a prior registration process via email . Public records of the Port Authority may be requested via the Office of the Secretary according to an internal Freedom of Information policy which is intended to be consistent with and similar to the state Freedom of Information policies of both New York and New Jersey .
Members of the Board of Commissioners are typically business titans and political power brokers who maintain close relationships with their respective Governors . On February 3 , 2011 , Former New Jersey Attorney General David Samson was named new chairman of the Port Authority .
Financially , the Port Authority has no power to tax and does not receive tax money from any local or state governments . Instead , it operates on the revenues it makes from its rents , tolls , fees , and facilities .
Patrick J. Foye became Executive Director on November 1 , 2011 . Prior to joining the Port Authority , he served as Deputy Secretary for Economic Development for Governor Andrew M. Cuomo .
= = = List of Executive Directors = = =
John E. Ramsey ( CEO 1926 – 1930 , General Manager 1930 – 1942 )
Austin J. Tobin ( 1942 – 1972 )
Matthias Lukens ( acting , 1972 – 1973 )
A. Gerdes Kuhbach ( 1973 – 1977 ; acting 1973 – August 1974 )
Peter C. Goldmark , Jr . ( 1977 – 1985 )
Patrick J. Falvey ( acting , 1985 )
Stephen Berger ( 1986 – 1990 )
Stanley Brezenoff ( 1990 – 1995 )
George Marlin ( 1995 – 1997 )
Robert E. Boyle ( 1997 – 2001 )
Neil D. Levin ( March 2001 – Sep 11 , 2001 )
Joseph J. Seymour ( 2002 – 2004 )
Kenneth J. Ringler , Jr . ( 2004 – 2006 )
Anthony Shorris ( 2006 – 2008 )
Christopher O. Ward ( 2008 – 2011 )
Patrick J. Foye ( 2011 – Present )
= = Facilities = =
The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey manages and maintains infrastructure critical to the New York / New Jersey region ’ s trade and transportation network — five of the region ’ s airports , the New York / New Jersey seaport , the PATH rail transit system , six tunnels and bridges between New York and New Jersey , the Port Authority Bus Terminal and George Washington Bridge Bus Station in Manhattan and The World Trade Center site .
= = = Seaports = = =
The Port of New York and New Jersey is the largest port complex on the East Coast of North America and is located at the hub of the most concentrated and affluent consumer market in the world , with immediate access to the most extensive interstate highway and rail networks in the region . In addition , The Port Authority directly oversees the operation of seven cargo terminals in the New York – New Jersey region . Each terminal offers comprehensive shipping services , rail and trucking services .
The Port Authority operates the following seaports :
Port Jersey Marine Terminal in Bayonne and Jersey City
Brooklyn Port Authority Marine Terminal comprising the Brooklyn Piers and Red Hook Container Terminal in Red Hook , Brooklyn
Howland Hook Marine Terminal on Staten Island .
Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal in Newark and Elizabeth .
The Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the first in the nation to containerize , As of 2004 , Port Authority seaports handle the third largest amount of shipping of all U.S. ports , as measured in tonnage .
ExpressRail is a rail network supporting intermodal freight transport at the major container terminals including dockside trackage and railyards for transloading . Various switching and terminal railroads , including the Conrail Shared Assets Operations ( CRCX ) on the Chemical Coast Secondary , connect to the East Coast rail freight network carriers Norfolk Southern ( NS ) , CSX Transportation ( CSX ) , and Canadian Pacific ( CP ) . From January through October 2014 the system handled 391 @,@ 596 rail lifts . As of 2014 , three ExpressRail systems ( Elizabeth , Newark , Staten Island ) were in operation with the construction of a fourth at Port Jersey underway .
New York New Jersey Rail , LLC ( NYNJ ) is a switching and terminal railroad operates a car float operation across Upper New York Bay between the Greenville Yard in Jersey City and Brooklyn .
= = = Airports = = =
The Port Authority operates the following airports :
Atlantic City International Airport , ( Egg Harbor Township , New Jersey ) ( performs select management duties )
John F. Kennedy International Airport ( Queens , New York )
LaGuardia Airport ( Queens , New York )
Newark Liberty International Airport ( Newark and Elizabeth , New Jersey )
Stewart International Airport , ( Newburgh , New York )
Teterboro Airport ( Teterboro , New Jersey )
Both Kennedy and LaGuardia airports are owned by the City of New York and leased to the Port Authority for operating purposes . Newark Liberty is owned by the City of Newark and also leased to the Authority . In 2007 , Stewart International Airport , owned by the State of New York , was leased to the Port Authority . The Port Authority officially took over select management functions of the Atlantic City International Airport on July 1 , 2013 , in conjunction with the South Jersey Transportation Authority , which leases the airport site from the FAA .
JFK , LaGuardia , and Newark Liberty as a whole form the largest airport system in the United States , second in the world in terms of passenger traffic , and first in the world by total flight operations , with JFK being the 19th busiest in the world and the 6th busiest in the US . Unfortunately , the three airports also share the dubious distinction of being consistently rated as some of the worst in the US and even the world . Frommer 's recently picked JFK 's Terminal 3 as the worst airport terminal in the world .
= = = Heliports = = =
The Authority operates the Downtown Manhattan Heliport ( Manhattan , New York ) .
= = = Bridges and tunnels = = =
Other facilities managed by the Port Authority include the George Washington Bridge , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the Holland Tunnel , which all connect Manhattan and Northern New Jersey ; the Goethals Bridge , the Bayonne Bridge , and the Outerbridge Crossing which connect Staten Island and New Jersey .
= = = Bus and rail transit = = =
The Port Authority operates the PATH rapid transit system linking lower and midtown Manhattan with New Jersey , the AirTrain Newark system linking Newark International Airport with NJ Transit and Amtrak via a station on the Northeast Corridor rail line , and the AirTrain JFK system linking JFK with Howard Beach ( subway ) and Jamaica ( subway and Long Island Rail Road ) .
Major bus depots include the Port Authority Bus Terminal at 42nd Street , the George Washington Bridge Bus Station , and the Journal Square Transportation Center in Jersey City .
= = = Real estate = = =
The Port Authority also participates in joint development ventures around the region , including the Teleport business park on Staten Island , Bathgate Industrial Park in the Bronx , the Essex County Resource Recovery Facility , Newark Legal Center , Queens West in Queens , and the South Waterfront in Hoboken . However , by April 2015 , the agency was considering divesting itself of the properties to raise run and return to core mission of supporting transportation infrastructure .
= = = Current and future projects = = =
Major projects by the Port Authority include the One World Trade Center and other construction at the World Trade Center site . Other projects include a new passenger terminal at JFK International Airport , and redevelopment of Newark Liberty International Airport 's Terminal B , and replacement of the Goethals Bridge . The Port Authority also has plans to buy 340 new PATH cars and begin major expansion of Stewart International Airport .
As owner of the World Trade Center site , the Port Authority has worked since 2001 on plans for reconstruction of the site , along with Silverstein Properties , and the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation . In 2006 , the Port Authority reached a deal with Larry Silverstein , which ceded control of One World Trade Center to the Port Authority . The deal gave Silverstein rights to build three towers along the eastern side of the site , including 150 Greenwich Street , 175 Greenwich Street , and 200 Greenwich Street . Also part of the plans is the World Trade Center Transportation Hub , which will replace the temporary PATH station that opened in November 2003 .
= = Law enforcement = =
The Port Authority has its own police department . The department currently employs approximately 1 @,@ 700 police officers and supervisors who have full police status in New York and New Jersey .
= Flesh and Stone =
" Flesh and Stone " is the fifth episode of the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who . Written by showrunner Steven Moffat and directed by Adam Smith , the episode was first broadcast on 1 May 2010 on BBC One . It is the conclusion of a two @-@ episode story that began with " The Time of Angels " that features the Weeping Angels as primary villains and sees the return of the character River Song ( Alex Kingston ) .
Following the cliffhanger of the previous episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) , his companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) , River Song , and Father Octavian ( Iain Glen ) and his militarised clerics have escaped entrapment by the Weeping Angels , creatures who only move when unobserved by others . They take refuge inside the crashed starship Byzantium , but the Angels pursue them and Amy is on the brink of dying from the imprint of an Angel in her eye . Both the Angels and the Doctor 's team face danger from a widening crack in space and time which has the power to erase persons from history .
Moffat wrote the two @-@ part story as a more action @-@ packed sequel to his 2007 episode " Blink " , inspired by the relationship between the film Alien and its sequel , Aliens . The episode contains vital information concerning the main story arc of the cracks in time , and contains many instances which are character @-@ motivated . " The Time of Angels " and " Flesh and Stone " were the first two episodes to be filmed ; filming for " Flesh and Stone " took place in late July , with location filming in Puzzlewood and Southerndown beach . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 495 million viewers in the United Kingdom and received mostly positive reviews from critics , though many commented that it did not live up to the quality to the first part and disagreed about the decision to show the Angels moving . Additionally , a scene in which Amy attempts to seduce the Doctor generated some complaints to the BBC .
= = Plot = =
Continuing from the cliffhanger of the previous episode , the destruction of the gravity globe allows the Doctor , Amy , Dr. River Song , and Father Octavian and his clerics to jump into the localised gravity well of the starship Byzantium and escape the horde of approaching Weeping Angels . The Angels follow them into the ship and the Doctor directs everyone into the ship 's oxygen factory , a forest contained within the starship . While in the secondary control room , the Doctor observes a familiar crack in the wall and realizes that it is the same one from Amy 's bedroom ( " The Eleventh Hour " ) . He determines that it is leaking time energy from which the Angels are attempting to feed .
In the forest , the Doctor and River find Amy struggling with an image of an Angel imprinted in her brain . Amy has been counting down backwards and is close to being killed by the Angel when The Doctor instructs her to keep her eyes closed to starve the angel . With Amy unable to move , The Doctor , River and Octavian attempt to reach the primary control room on the other side of the forest . River and Octavian reveal to the Doctor that she is a prisoner in Octavian 's custody , with a pardon promised should she help them complete their mission . Octavian is captured and killed by an Angel as the Doctor and River enter the control room . As Amy and the clerics wait for rescue , the crack in the secondary control room opens further and the Angels move away from it . When some of the clerics approach it to investigate , they disappear completely ; while Amy remembers them , the remaining clerics have no knowledge of their existence . Amy is soon left alone as the remaining clerics also disappear investigating the crack . The Doctor instructs Amy to begin moving towards the primary control room , keeping her eyes closed but acting as if she is still able to see in order to fool the Angels . Amy trips and reveals her blindness to the Angels , but before they can kill her River teleports her to the control room .
The Doctor reveals that the crack is due to an explosion somewhere in time , a date that he and River are able to determine . The Doctor warns that anything that falls into it is erased from time ; this is why the Angels fear the crack . The only way of temporarily closing the crack is to send a " complicated space @-@ time event " such as the Doctor himself or the whole of the Angels into the crack . The Angels continue to drain power from the Byzantium until they cause the artificial gravity to fail , dropping the Angels into the crack and sealing it while the Doctor , Amy , and River hang on to the controls . With the Angels gone , the Angel in Amy 's mind never existed , and she is able to recover . River is teleported away by the clerics ; she tells the Doctor that they will meet again soon when the " Pandorica " opens , which is dismissed by the Doctor as a fairy tale .
Aboard the TARDIS , Amy asks the Doctor to return her to Earth on the night they left because she wants to show him something . In her room , she shows the Doctor her engagement ring and wedding dress and tells him that she is to wed Rory the next day . Amy then attempts to seduce the Doctor . Alarmed by this , the Doctor tries to deter her by pointing out that kind of relationship she is suggesting will not work between them , and that she is engaged . He then realises that Amy 's wedding the next day , 26 June 2010 , happens on the same day as the time explosion epicenter and he takes Amy away so that he can figure out what is going on .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Writer Steven Moffat came up with the concept for " The Time of Angels " and " Flesh and Stone " when he was thinking of the worst possible situations to be in with the Weeping Angels and thought of the inability to see . His first idea was blindness , though this developed into the situation that Amy ends up in . Moffat designed the two @-@ part story to be a more action @-@ oriented sequel to " Blink " , an episode he wrote for the third series that introduced the Weeping Angels . He was inspired by the relationship between the film Alien and its sequel , Aliens , which he referred to as " the best conceived movie sequel ever " , describing it as being more " highly coloured " as opposed to Alien 's more low @-@ key tone . He also intended for the Angels to have a plan that could become " almost like a war " , in contrast to the way they were struggling to survive in " Blink " . The title " Flesh and Stone " was suggested by Moffat 's son .
The episode is also important in the main story arc concerning the cracks in time and space . The idea of the crack was inspired by a similar crack in the wall of Moffat 's son . As the crack reappears , several facts about it are revealed . In the episode , the Doctor speculates that they are connected to the fact that Amy could not remember the events of several previous episodes , as well as events in history that had occurred in " The Next Doctor " . He also discovers that the time explosion that caused the crack is 26 June 2010 , which is also the original airdate of the final episode of the series , " The Big Bang " . Before the Doctor , River , and Octavian leave Amy and the other clerics , the Doctor briefly returns to console Amy and to ask her to trust him and remember what he told her when she was younger ; however , the Doctor in this scene is shown wearing his jacket , which he had lost to the Angels earlier in the episode , as well as a different wristwatch . It is revealed in " The Big Bang " that this was in fact the Doctor from later in his timeline , setting up events in Amy 's past to try to help her remember him after he has rebooted the universe . River Song tells the Doctor she will see him again when the Pandorica opens ; the Pandorica was previously referred to by Prisoner Zero in " The Eleventh Hour " and is revealed in " The Pandorica Opens " , which also sees the return of River Song .
Many instances in the episode were character @-@ driven . The action of the Angel to torture Amy " for fun " was met with anger from the Doctor but also gave him courage to defeat the Angels and save Amy . Moffat stated that in the scene in which the Doctor must figure out how to save Amy in a matter of seconds he was " very basic ... very pure , simple Doctor " and did not have time to comfort Amy because his compassion would get in the way of his thinking process . River was also meant to understand this and explain to Amy that he needed to think . Moffat believed that Amy was " passionate and a fighter and ... also really smart " which he showcased in the scene where Amy could not open her eyes for more than a second but was determined to do it for less than one . Moffat also believed that Amy 's decision to attempt to seduce the Doctor was consistent with the character he had built up from her first episode . It was also a reflection of how the two had just escaped from death and shared a hard time together , and Amy 's tendency to do things " in the heat of the moment " . The Doctor 's reaction was intended to be a reflection of how he often acted embarrassed and flustered when women behaved that way .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
" The Time of Angels " and " Flesh and Stone " were the first two episodes to be produced in the series . The read @-@ through for " Flesh and Stone " took place on 15 July 2009 following the read @-@ through of " The Time of Angels " . The forest scenes in the Byzantium were filmed at Puzzlewood , in the Forest of Dean over nine nights in July 2009 . The final scenes on a beach were shot at Southerndown , Vale of Glamorgan in Wales during 20 – 21 July 2009 , the first filming done for the new series .
Most of the Weeping Angels are not statue props but young women wearing masks , costumes , and paint that took two to three hours to apply . Director Adam Smith called them " an absolute nightmare to film with " because it took a long time for them to get ready and they had to stand still for long periods of time . In the climactic scene Gillan had to walk with her eyes closed , which she said was difficult and challenging as the ground was uneven and muddy . She stated that " it was the most scary thing " when she had to trip over a step and fall , even though she was aware of the crash mat . As she was not able to express herself through her eyes , Gillan had to make herself more animated to convey emotion . The scene in which the Doctor , Amy and River are horizontal in mid @-@ air when the gravity field fails on the Byzantium was achieved by using wires and powerful wind machines . The blue in Amy 's bedroom was an idea of Adam Smith to show that it was inspired by the TARDIS from Amy 's encounter with the Doctor when she was young .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Flesh and Stone " was first broadcast on BBC One and simulcast on BBC HD on 1 May 2010 . Overnight figures showed that " Flesh and Stone " was watched by 6 @.@ 87 million viewers ; 6 @.@ 53 million watched on BBC One , with a further 0 @.@ 34 on BBC HD . This was a slight increase from the previous episode , but " Flesh and Stone " was still second for the night behind Britain 's Got Talent . Final consolidated ratings showed that 8 @.@ 495 million viewers had watched the episode , with 8 @.@ 019 on BBC One and 476 @,@ 000 on BBC HD , the fifth and first most @-@ watched programme on each channel respectively . It achieved an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
A Region 2 DVD and Blu @-@ ray containing " Flesh and Stone " together with the episodes " The Time of Angels " and " The Vampires of Venice " was released on 5 July 2010 . It was re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Flesh and Stone " has received mostly positive reviews . Daniel Martin gave the episode a positive review on The Guardian 's guardian.co.uk , saying that it " can lay credible claim to being the greatest episode of Doctor Who there has ever been " . He went on to declare : " It 's just ridiculously good — so much that there 's scarcely any point in picking out moments because there was an iconic sequence every couple of seconds . " In particular he praised Father Octavian 's death scene , noting how " despair creeps over Matt Smith 's face as he realises he is going to have to leave him to die ; Octavian 's final speech weeps with honour and elegance " . IGN 's Matt Wales gave the episode a 10 out of 10 rating , saying it was " packed with huge , iconic moments " and stated , " by the end of it , we were left with more questions than answers and a far better sense of Moffat 's meticulous planning " .
Gavin Fuller , writing for The Daily Telegraph 's website , described the episode as " a rollercoaster ride of thrills and spills " . He praised the forest scenes , saying they were " easily the highlight of the episode , taking in a whole range of emotions as the nature and scale of the threat facing the Doctor , Amy , River and the clerics shifted as the episode progressed . " However he expressed uncertainty over Amy 's " attempted seduction of the Doctor " , claiming that it " did seem out of keeping with the usual tone of the series " , and that " Given the number of young children who watch , it may not have been the most appropriate of scenes to screen " . Patrick Mulkern , writing for the Radio Times , gave the episode a positive review , describing it and its predecessor " The Time of Angels " as " two episodes of Who that deserve 10 out of 10 in anybody 's scorebook " , although he felt that of the two " The Time of Angels " was " marginally more dazzling " , as he found the Angels in that episode more " macabre " , but he still thought that " Flesh and Stone " " bombards us with shudders and tension " . He also stated that he was " much amused by Amy 's amorous antics at the end " .
Steven Cooper of Slant Magazine called it " an exciting , action @-@ packed roller coaster " and praised director Adam Smith 's " top @-@ notch visuals " as well of the performances of Smith , Gillan , and Kingston . He noted the difference between Moffat 's more obvious story arc as opposed to others in the revived series , believing it to be possibly a " long @-@ overdue innovation " for the show . Though he praised the final defeat of the Angels for making use of what the viewer had forgotten , he thought that being able to see the Angels moving was " creepy and well @-@ done " , but made them " much less original and interesting " and the reason behind it weak , considering that the scene had " no significance at all " and was just to fill up time . SFX Magazine 's Dave Golder agreed , calling the scene " very creepy " and the Angels moving " effective " , but feeling that " these once great monsters come across a bit wussy and stupid " . He also thought that it did not live up the " brilliant first part " , feeling " a bit one @-@ note " and lacking " a really good jawdropping revelation " . However , he thought it was " a solid , exciting , pulse @-@ pounding 45 minutes " that was " tense , action @-@ packed , and stuffed with memorable one @-@ liners and touching character moments " , particularly praising Amy 's countdown and Octavian 's death , and gave the episode four out of five stars .
The Daily Mail claimed that the seduction scene led to complaints from some viewers who accused the BBC of trying to " ' sex up ' the show to attract more adult viewers . " The article quotes a representative from pressure group Mediawatch @-@ uk and an anonymous contributor to an internet message board . A BBC spokesman confirmed they had received 43 complaints of the scene out of the millions who watched the episode .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Time of Angels " / " Flesh and Stone " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= HD 217107 b =
HD 217107 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 64 light @-@ years away from Earth in the constellation of Pisces ( the Fish ) . The planet was discovered orbiting the star HD 217107 approximately every seven days , classifying the planet as a hot Jupiter . Because of the planet 's somewhat eccentric orbit , scientists were able to confirm another planet within the system ( HD 217107 c ) .
= = Discovery = =
As with the majority of extrasolar planet discoveries so far , it was found by detecting small variations in the radial velocity of the star it orbits , caused by the tug of its gravity . A study of the radial velocity of HD 217107 carried out in 1998 revealed that its motion along the line of sight varied over a 7 @.@ 1 day cycle . The period and amplitude of this variation indicated that it was caused by a planetary companion in orbit around the star , with a minimum mass slightly greater than that of Jupiter . The planet 's mean distance from the star is less than one fifth of Mercury 's distance from the Sun .
= = = Indication of second planet = = =
While most planets with orbital periods of less than 10 days have almost circular orbits , HD 217107 b has a somewhat eccentric orbit , and its discoverers hypothesized that this could be due to the gravitational influence of a second planet in the system at a distance of several astronomical units ( AU ) . Confirmation of the existence of a second planet , HD 217107 c , followed in 2005 .
= Stephen Colbert at the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner =
On April 29 , 2006 , American comedian Stephen Colbert appeared as the featured entertainer at the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner , which was held in Washington , D.C. , at the Hilton Washington hotel . Colbert 's performance , consisting of a 16 @-@ minute podium speech and a 7 @-@ minute video presentation , was broadcast live across the United States on the cable television networks C @-@ SPAN and MSNBC . Standing a few feet from U.S. President George W. Bush , in front of an audience of celebrities , politicians , and members of the White House Press Corps , Colbert delivered a controversial , searing routine targeting the president and the media . He spoke in the persona of the character he played on Comedy Central 's The Colbert Report , a parody of conservative pundits such as Bill O 'Reilly and Sean Hannity .
Colbert 's performance quickly became an Internet and media sensation . Commentators remarked on the humor of Colbert 's performance , the political nature of his remarks , and speculated as to whether there was a cover @-@ up by the media in the way the event was reported . James Poniewozik of Time noted that whether or not one liked the speech , it had become a " political @-@ cultural touchstone issue of 2006 — like whether you drive a hybrid or use the term ' freedom fries ' " .
= = Performance at the dinner = =
American comedian Stephen Colbert was the featured entertainer at the White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner , held at the Hilton Washington hotel in Washington , D.C. on April 29 , 2006 . He was invited to speak by Mark Smith , the outgoing president of the White House Press Corps Association . Smith later told reporters that he had not seen much of Colbert 's work . Since 1983 , the event has featured well @-@ known stand @-@ up comics . Previous performances included President Gerald Ford and Chevy Chase making fun of Ford 's alleged clumsiness in 1975 , and Ronald Reagan and Rich Little performing together in 1981 .
Colbert gave his after @-@ dinner remarks in front of an audience described by the Associated Press as a " Who 's Who of power and celebrity " . More than 2 @,@ 500 guests attended the event , including First Lady Laura Bush , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Peter Pace , U.S. Attorney General Alberto Gonzales , China 's Ambassador Zhou Wenzhong , AOL co @-@ founder Steve Case , model and tennis player Anna Kournikova , and actor George Clooney . Colbert spoke directly to President Bush several times , satirically praising his foreign policy , lifestyle , and beliefs , and referring to his declining approval rating and popular reputation .
Colbert spoke in the persona of the character he played on Comedy Central 's The Colbert Report , a parody of a conservative pundit in the fashion of Bill O 'Reilly and Sean Hannity . He began by satirizing mass surveillance , joking " If anybody needs anything else at their tables , just speak slowly and clearly into your table numbers . Someone from the NSA will be right over with a cocktail . " While many of his jokes were directed at President Bush , he also lampooned the journalists and other figures present at the dinner . Most of the speech was prepared specifically for the event , but several segments were lifted — largely unchanged — from The Colbert Report , including parts of the " truthiness " monologue from the first episode of the show , where Colbert advocated speaking from " the gut " rather than the brain and denounced books as " all fact , no heart " . Colbert framed this part of the speech as though he were agreeing with Bush 's philosophies , saying that he and Bush are " not brainiacs on the nerd patrol " , implicitly criticizing the way Bush positioned himself as an anti @-@ intellectual .
Following this introduction to his style and philosophy , Colbert listed a series of absurd " beliefs that I live by " , such as " I believe in America . I believe it exists . " He alluded to outsourcing to China and satirized the traditional Republican opposition to " big government " by referencing the Iraq War . " I believe the government that governs best is the government that governs least . And by these standards , we have set up a fabulous government in Iraq . "
Colbert then mocked Bush 's sinking approval ratings :
Now , I know there are some polls out there saying this man has a 32 percent approval rating . But guys like us , we don 't pay attention to the polls . We know that polls are just a collection of statistics that reflect what people are thinking in reality . And reality has a well @-@ known liberal bias ... Sir , pay no attention to the people who say the glass is half empty , [ ... ] because 32 percent means it 's two @-@ thirds empty . There 's still some liquid in that glass , is my point . But I wouldn 't drink it . The last third is usually backwash .
He continued his mock defense of Bush by satirizing Bush 's appearances aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln , at the site of the collapsed World Trade Center , and in cities devastated by Hurricane Katrina :
I stand by this man . I stand by this man because he stands for things . Not only for things , he stands on things . Things like aircraft carriers , and rubble , and recently flooded city squares . And that sends a strong message : that no matter what happens to America , she will always rebound — with the most powerfully staged photo ops in the world .
Colbert ended the monologue specifically directed at Bush by parodying his energy policy . He then used Laura Bush 's reading initiative as a springboard to mock @-@ criticize books for being " elitist " , and harshly criticized the White House Press Corps — hosts of the event — and the media in general . Addressing the audience , he remarked :
Over the last five years , you people were so good — over tax cuts , WMD intelligence , the effect of global warming . We Americans didn 't want to know , and you had the courtesy not to try to find out , [ ... ] And then you write , [ ... ] " Oh , they 're just rearranging the deck chairs on the Titanic . " First of all , that is a terrible metaphor . This administration is not sinking . This administration is soaring . If anything , they are rearranging the deck chairs on the Hindenburg !
Colbert also criticized the White House Press Corps for what was widely perceived as its reluctance to question the administration 's policies , particularly in regards to the lead up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , saying :
But , listen , let 's review the rules . Here 's how it works . The President makes decisions . He 's the decider . The press secretary announces those decisions , and you people of the press type those decisions down . Make , announce , type . Just put ' em through a spell check and go home . Get to know your family again . Make love to your wife . Write that novel you got kicking around in your head . You know , the one about the intrepid Washington reporter with the courage to stand up to the administration ? You know , fiction !
For the remainder of his speech , Colbert joked about other people in the audience , including Peter Pace , Antonin Scalia , John McCain , and Joe Wilson . During this section , he made another reference to global warming while talking about interviewing Jesse Jackson : " You can ask him anything , but he 's going to say what he wants , at the pace that he wants . It 's like boxing a glacier . Enjoy that metaphor , by the way , because your grandchildren will have no idea what a glacier is . "
Colbert received a chilly reception from the audience . His jokes were often met with silence and muttering , although some in the audience , such as Scalia , laughed heartily as Colbert teased them . This was in stark contrast to the warm reception accorded to a skit featuring Bush and his look @-@ alike , Steve Bridges , which immediately preceded Colbert 's monologue .
At the end of his monologue , Colbert introduced what he characterized as an " audition " video to become the new White House Press Secretary — Scott McClellan had recently left the position . The video spliced clips of difficult questions from the White House press corps with responses from Colbert as Press Secretary . Colbert 's podium included controls marked " eject " , " Gannon " ( a reference to erstwhile White House reporter Jeff Gannon , who was suspected of asking planted questions ) , and " volume " , which he used to silence a critical question from journalist David Gregory . The video continued with Colbert fleeing the briefing room and the White House , only to be pursued by White House correspondent Helen Thomas , who had been a vocal critic of the Bush administration . At one point , Colbert picks up an emergency phone and explains that Thomas " won 't stop asking why we invaded Iraq " . The dispatcher responds with , " Hey , why did we invade Iraq ? " The entire second half of the video is a spoof of horror film clichés , particularly the film Westworld , with melodramatic music accompanying Thomas 's slow , unwavering pursuit of Colbert , and Colbert loudly screaming " No ! " at intervals . Widely available online , a portion of the mock audition tape aired on The Colbert Report on May 2 , 2006 .
Although President Bush shook Colbert 's hand after his presentation , several of Bush 's aides and supporters walked out during Colbert 's speech , and one former aide commented that the President had " that look that he 's ready to blow " . Colbert recalled that " not a lot of people laughed in the front row " during the speech , and that " when it was over , no one was even making eye contact with me ... no one is talking to me in the whole damn room " ; only Scalia came to him afterward , praising Colbert 's imitation of a gesture the justice had recently been photographed doing .
= = Early press coverage and allegations of a media blackout = =
Cable channel C @-@ SPAN broadcast the White House Correspondents ' Dinner live , and rebroadcast the event several times in the next 24 hours , but aired a segment that excluded Colbert 's speech . The trade journal Editor & Publisher was the first news outlet to report in detail on Colbert 's performance , calling it a " blistering comedy ' tribute ' " that did not make the Bushes laugh . The reviewer noted that others on the podium were uncomfortable during the speech , " perhaps feeling the material was a little too biting — or too much speaking ' truthiness ' to power " .
The New York Times and the Chicago Tribune covered the dinner , but not Colbert 's remarks . The wire services Reuters and the Associated Press each devoted three paragraphs to discuss Colbert 's routine in their coverage of the event , and The Washington Post mentioned Colbert several times throughout its article . The most extensive print coverage came from USA Today , which dedicated more space to Colbert 's performance than to President Bush 's skit . The day after the dinner , Howard Kurtz played clips of Colbert 's performance on his CNN show Reliable Sources . On the Fox News show Fox & Friends , the hosts mentioned Colbert 's performance , criticizing him for going " over the line " . Tucker Carlson , a frequent target of The Colbert Report before and after the event , criticized Colbert as being " unfunny " on his MSNBC show Tucker .
Much of the initial coverage of the event highlighted the difference between the reaction to Bush and Bridges ( very positive ) and that for Colbert ( far more muted ) . " The president killed . He 's a tough act to follow — at all times , " said Colbert . On his show , Colbert joked that the unenthusiastic reception was actually " very respectful silence " and added that the crowd " practically carried me out on their shoulders " even though he was not ready to leave . On the May 1 , 2006 , episode of The Daily Show , on which Colbert had formerly been a correspondent , host Jon Stewart called Colbert 's performance " balls @-@ alicious " and stated , " We 've never been prouder of our Mr. Colbert , and , ah — holy shit ! "
Lloyd Grove , gossip columnist for the New York Daily News , said that Colbert " bombed badly " , and BET founder Bob Johnson remarked , " It was an insider crowd , as insider a crowd as you 'll ever have , and [ Colbert ] didn 't do the insider jokes " . Congressional Quarterly columnist and CBS commentator Craig Crawford found Colbert 's performance hilarious , but observed that most other people at the dinner did not find the speech amusing . Time magazine TV critic James Poniewozik thought that Colbert 's critics missed the point : " Colbert wasn 't playing to the room , I suspect , but to the wide audience of people who would later watch on the Internet . If anything , he was playing against the room . " Poniewozik called the pained , uncomfortable reactions to Colbert 's jokes " the money shots . They were the whole point . "
Some commentators , while noting the popularity of Colbert 's dinner speech , were critical of the perceived snubbing he was receiving from the press corps , even though he was the featured entertainer for the evening . The Washington Post columnist Dan Froomkin , calling it " The Colbert Blackout " , lambasted the traditional media for ignoring Colbert while focusing on the " much safer " topic of President Bush 's routine with Bridges . Amy Goodman of Democracy Now noted that initial coverage ignored Colbert entirely . Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism professor Todd Gitlin remarked , " It 's too hot to handle . [ Colbert ] was scathing toward Bush and it was absolutely devastating . [ The mainstream media doesn 't ] know how to handle such a pointed and aggressive criticism . "
Others saw no intentional snub of Colbert by the press . Responding to a question about why The Washington Post 's article about the dinner did not go into any detail about Colbert 's speech , Media Backtalk writer Howard Kurtz responded , " The problem in part is one of deadline . The presses were already rolling by the time Colbert came on at 10 : 30 , so the story had to be largely written by then . " Asked why television news favored Bush 's performance over Colbert 's , Elizabeth Fishman , an assistant dean at the Columbia School of Journalism and a former 60 Minutes producer , told MTV that the " quick hit " for television news shows would have been to use footage of Bush standing beside his impersonator . " It 's an easier set up for visual effect " , she noted . Steve Scully , president of the White House Correspondents ' Association ( which hosted the dinner ) and political editor of C @-@ SPAN ( which broadcast the dinner ) , scoffed at the whole idea of the press intentionally ignoring Colbert : " Bush hit such a home run with Steve Bridges that he got all of the coverage . I think that exceeded expectations . There was no right @-@ wing conspiracy or left @-@ wing conspiracy . " Time columnist Ana Marie Cox dismissed allegations of a deliberate media blackout , because Colbert 's performance received coverage in The New York Times , The Washington Post , and the major wire services . Fellow commentator Kurtz concurred , noting that the video was carried on C @-@ SPAN and was freely available online ; he also played two clips on his own show . " Apparently I didn 't get the memo , " he said .
In an article published on May 3 , 2006 , The New York Times addressed the controversy . The paper acknowledged that the mainstream media — itself included — had been criticized for focusing on Bush 's act with Bridges while ignoring Colbert 's speech . The paper then quoted several passages of Colbert 's more substantial criticism of the president and discussed various reactions to the event . On May 15 , The New York Times ' public editor , Byron Calame , wrote on his blog that more than two hundred readers had written to complain about the exclusion of any mention of Colbert from the paper 's initial lengthy article covering the dinner . Calame quoted his deputy bureau chief in Washington , who said that a mention of Colbert in the first article could not have been long enough to do his routine justice . But he also noted that the paper should have printed an in @-@ depth article specifically covering Colbert 's speech in the same issue , rather than waiting until days after the fact .
= = Internet popularity = =
Even though Colbert 's performance " landed with a thud " among the live audience , clips of Colbert at the dinner were an overnight sensation , becoming viral videos that appeared on numerous web sites in several forms . Sites offering the video experienced massive increases in traffic . According to CNET 's News.com site , Colbert 's speech was " one of the Internet 's hottest acts " . Searches for Colbert on Yahoo ! were up 5 @,@ 625 percent . During the days after the speech , there were twice as many Google searches for " C @-@ SPAN " as for " Jennifer Aniston " — an uncommon occurrence — as well as a surge in Colbert @-@ related searches . Nielsen BuzzMetrics ranked the post of the video clip as the second most popular blog post for all of 2006 . Clips of Colbert 's comic tribute climbed to the number 1 , 2 , and 3 spots atop YouTube 's " Most Viewed " video list . The various clips of Colbert 's speech had been viewed 2 @.@ 7 million times in less than 48 hours . In an unprecedented move for the network , C @-@ SPAN demanded that YouTube and iFilm remove unauthorized copies of the video from their sites . Google Video subsequently purchased the exclusive rights to retransmit the video , and it remained at or near the top of Google 's most popular videos for the next two weeks .
Both Editor and Publisher and Salon , which published extensive and early coverage of the Colbert speech , drew record and near @-@ record numbers of viewers to their web sites . 70 @,@ 000 articles were posted to blogs about Colbert 's roast of Bush on the Thursday after the event , the most of any topic , and " Colbert " remained the top search term at Technorati for days . Chicago Sun @-@ Times TV critic Doug Elfman credited the Internet with promoting an event that would have otherwise been overlooked , stating that " Internet stables for liberals , like the behemoth dailykos.com , began rumbling as soon as the correspondents ' dinner was reported in the mainstream press , with scant word of Colbert 's combustive address " . Three weeks after the dinner , audio of Colbert 's performance went on sale at the iTunes Music Store and became the No. 1 album purchased , outselling new releases by the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Pearl Jam , and Paul Simon . The CEO of Audible.com , which provided the recording sold at iTunes , explained its success by saying , " you had to not be there to get it " . It continued to be a top download at iTunes for the next five months .
= = Response = =
Colbert 's performance received a variety of reactions from the media . In Washington , the response from both politicians and the press corps was negative — both groups having been targets of Colbert 's satire . The Washington press corps felt that Colbert had bombed . The Washington Post columnist Richard Cohen found that Colbert 's jokes were " lame and insulting " and wrote that Colbert was " rude " and a " bully " . Politician Steny Hoyer felt that Colbert had gone too far , telling the newspaper The Hill that " [ Bush ] is the President of the United States , and he deserves some respect " . Conservative pundit Mary Matalin called Colbert 's performance a " predictable , Bush @-@ bashing kind of humor " . Columnist Ana Marie Cox chastised those who praised Colbert as a hero : " I somehow doubt that Bush has never heard these criticisms before " . She added , " Comedy can have a political point but it is not political action " .
On The Daily Show , Jon Stewart remarked , tongue in cheek , " apparently [ Colbert ] was under the impression that they 'd hired him to do what he does every night on television " . While comics were expected to tell jokes about the administration , the 2006 dinner was held at a time when the relationship between the administration and the media was under great strain , and the administration was sensitive to criticism . Attorney and columnist Julie Hilden concluded that Colbert 's " vituperative parody " might have been unfair under different circumstances , but noted that Bush 's record of controlling bad press created a heightened justification for people to criticize him when they got the chance . Media Matters and Editor & Publisher came to Colbert 's defense , calling his detractors hypocrites . They contrasted the critical reaction to Colbert to the praise that many in the press had for a controversial routine that Bush performed at a similar media dinner in 2004 , where Bush was shown looking for WMDs in the Oval Office and joking , " Those weapons of mass destruction must be somewhere ! " and " Nope , no weapons over there ! "
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation News Online columnist Heather Mallick wrote , " Colbert had the wit and raw courage to do to Bush what Mark Antony did to Brutus , murderer of Caesar . As the American media has self @-@ destructed , it takes Colbert to damn Bush with devastatingly ironic praise . " Comedian and eventual Democratic U.S. Senator Al Franken , who performed at similar dinners twice during the Bill Clinton administration , admired what Colbert had done . In its year @-@ end issue , New York magazine described Colbert 's performance as one of the most " brilliant " moments of 2006 . Time 's James Poniewozik noted that in the " days after Stephen Colbert performed at the White House Correspondents ' Dinner , this has become the political @-@ cultural touchstone issue of 2006 — like whether you drive a hybrid or use the term ' freedom fries ' " .
For the 2007 dinner , the White House Correspondents ' Association brought back the less controversial Rich Little . Arianna Huffington reported that Colbert told her he had specifically avoided reading any reviews of his performance , and remained unaware of the public 's reaction . On June 13 , 2007 , he was presented with a Spike TV Guys ' Choice Award for " Gutsiest Move " . He accepted the award via video conference . Six months later , New York Times columnist Frank Rich called Colbert 's after @-@ dinner speech a " cultural primary " , christening it the " defining moment " of the United States ' 2006 midterm elections . Three and a half years after the speech , Frank Rich referenced it again , calling it " brilliant " and " good for the country " , while columnist Dan Savage referred to it as " one of the things that kept people like me sane during the darkest days of the Bush years " . The editor of the The Realist , Paul Krassner , later put Colbert 's performance in historical context , saying that it stands out among contemporary US satire as the only example of the spirit of the satire by Lenny Bruce , George Carlin , and Richard Pryor , which took risks and broke barriers to free speech , " rather than just proudly exercising it as comedians do now . "
= Chrono Trigger =
Chrono Trigger ( Japanese : クロノ ・ トリガー , Hepburn : Kurono Torigā ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1995 . Chrono Trigger 's development team included three designers that Square dubbed the " Dream Team " : Hironobu Sakaguchi , the creator of Square 's Final Fantasy series ; Yuji Horii , a freelance designer and creator of Enix 's popular Dragon Quest series ; and Akira Toriyama , a freelance manga artist famed for his work with Dragon Quest and Dragon Ball . Kazuhiko Aoki produced the game , Masato Kato wrote most of the plot , while composer Yasunori Mitsuda scored most of the game before falling ill and deferring the remaining tracks to Final Fantasy series composer Nobuo Uematsu . The game 's story follows a group of adventurers who travel through time to prevent a global catastrophe .
Square re @-@ released a ported version by Tose in Japan for the PlayStation in 1999 , later repackaged with a Final Fantasy IV port as Final Fantasy Chronicles in 2001 for the North American market . A slightly enhanced Chrono Trigger , again ported by Tose , was released for the Nintendo DS on November 25 , 2008 , in North America and Japan , and went on sale in Australia on February 3 , 2009 , and in Europe on February 6 , 2009 . The game was never released in PAL territories before the Nintendo DS version .
Chrono Trigger was a critical and commercial success upon release and is frequently cited as one of the best video games of all time . Nintendo Power magazine described aspects of Chrono Trigger as revolutionary , including its multiple endings , plot @-@ related sidequests focusing on character development , unique battle system , and detailed graphics . Chrono Trigger was the third best @-@ selling game of 1995 , and the game 's SNES and PlayStation iterations have shipped 2 @.@ 65 million copies as of March 2003 . The version for the Nintendo DS sold 790 @,@ 000 copies as of March 2009 . Chrono Trigger was also ported to mobile phones , Virtual Console , the PlayStation Network , iOS devices , and Android devices .
= = Gameplay = =
Chrono Trigger features standard role @-@ playing video game gameplay . The player controls the protagonist and his companions in the game 's two @-@ dimensional fictional world , consisting of various forests , cities , and dungeons . Navigation occurs via an overworld map , depicting the landscape from a scaled @-@ down overhead view . Areas such as forests , cities , and similar places are depicted as more realistic scaled @-@ down maps , in which players can converse with locals to procure items and services , solve puzzles and challenges , or encounter enemies . Chrono Trigger 's gameplay deviates from that of traditional Japanese RPGs in that , rather than appearing in random encounters , many enemies are openly visible on field maps or lie in wait to ambush the party . Contact with enemies on a field map initiates a battle that occurs directly on the map rather than on a separate battle screen .
Players and enemies may use physical or magical attacks to wound targets during battle , and players may use items to heal or protect themselves . Each character and enemy has a certain number of hit points ; successful attacks reduce that character 's hit points , which can be restored with potions and spells . When a playable character loses all hit points , he or she faints ; if all the player 's characters fall in battle , the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved chapter , except in specific storyline @-@ related battles that allow or force the player to lose . Between battles , the player can equip his / her characters with weapons , armor , helmets , and accessories that provide special effects ( such as increased attack power or defense against magic ) , and various consumable items can be used both in and out of battles . Items and equipment can be purchased in shops or found on field maps , often in treasure chests . By exploring new areas and fighting enemies , players progress through Chrono Trigger 's story .
Chrono Trigger uses an Active Time Battle system — a staple of Square 's Final Fantasy game series designed by Hiroyuki Ito for Final Fantasy IV — named " Active Time Battle 2 @.@ 0 . " Each character can take action in battle once a personal timer dependent on the character 's speed statistic counts to zero . Magic and special physical techniques are handled through a system called " Techs . " Techs deplete a character 's magic points ( a numerical meter like hit points ) , and often have special areas of effect ; some spells damage huddled monsters , while others can harm enemies spread in a line . Enemies often change positions during battle , creating opportunities for tactical Tech use . A unique feature of Chrono Trigger 's Tech system is that numerous cooperative techniques exist . Each character receives eight personal Techs which can be used in conjunction with others ' to create Double and Triple Techs for greater effect . For instance , Crono 's sword @-@ spinning Cyclone Tech can be combined with Lucca 's Flame Toss to create Flame Whirl . When characters with compatible Techs have enough magic points available to perform their techniques , the game automatically displays the combo as an option .
Chrono Trigger features several other unique gameplay traits , including time travel . Players have access to seven eras of the game world 's history , and past actions affect future events . Throughout history , players find new allies , complete side quests , and search for keynote villains . Time travel is accomplished via portals and pillars of light called " time gates " , as well as a time machine named Epoch . The game contains thirteen unique endings ; the ending the player receives depends on when and how he or she reaches and completes the game 's final battle . Chrono Trigger DS features a new ending that can be accessed from the End of Time upon completion of the final extra dungeon and optional final boss . Chrono Trigger also introduces a New Game + option ; after completing the game , the player may begin a new game with the same character levels , techniques , and equipment , excluding money , with which he or she ended the previous play through . However , certain items central to the storyline are removed and must be found again , such as the sword Masamune . Square has since employed the New Game + concept in later titles , including Chrono Cross , Parasite Eve , Vagrant Story , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , and Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Chrono Trigger takes place in a world familiar to Earth , with eras such as the prehistoric age , in which primitive humans and dinosaurs share the earth ; the Middle Ages , replete with knights , monsters , and magic ; and the post @-@ apocalyptic future , where destitute humans and sentient robots struggle to survive . The characters frequently travel through time to obtain allies , gather equipment , and learn information to help them in their quest . The party also gains access to the End of Time ( represented as year ∞ ) , which serves as a hub to travel back to other time periods . The party eventually acquires a time @-@ machine vehicle known as the Wings of Time , nicknamed the Epoch . The vehicle is capable of time travel between any time period without first having to travel to the End of Time .
= = = Characters = = =
Chrono Trigger 's six playable characters ( plus one optional character ) come from different eras of history . Chrono Trigger begins in AD 1000 with Crono , Marle and Lucca . Crono is the silent protagonist , characterized as a fearless young man who wields a katana in battle . Marle ( Princess Nadia ) lives in Guardia Castle ; though sheltered , at heart she 's a princess who enjoys hiding her royal identity . Lucca is a friend of Crono 's and a mechanical genius ; her home is filled with laboratory equipment and machinery . From the era of AD 2300 comes Robo , or Prometheus ( designation R @-@ 66Y ) , a robot with near @-@ human personality created to assist humans . Lying dormant in the future , Robo is found and repaired by Lucca , and joins the group out of gratitude . The fiercely confident Ayla dwells in 65 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 BC . Unmatched in raw strength , Ayla is the chief of Ioka Village and leads her people in war against a species of humanoid reptiles known as Reptites .
The last two playable characters are Frog and Magus . Frog originated in AD 600 . He is a former squire once named Glenn , who was turned into an anthropomorphic frog by Magus , who also killed his friend Cyrus . Chivalrous but mired in regret , Frog dedicates his life to protecting Leene , the queen of Guardia , and avenging Cyrus . Meanwhile , Guardia in AD 600 is in a state of conflict against the Mystics ( known as Fiends in the US / DS port ) , a race of demons and intelligent animals who wage war against humanity under the leadership of Magus , a powerful sorcerer . Magus 's seclusion conceals a long @-@ lost past ; he was formerly known as Janus , the young prince of the Kingdom of Zeal , which was destroyed by Lavos in 12 @,@ 000 BC . The incident sent him forward through time , and as he ages , he plots revenge against Lavos and broods over the fate of his sister , Schala . Lavos , the game 's main antagonist who awakens and ravages the world in AD 1999 , is an extraterrestrial , parasitic creature that harvests DNA and the Earth 's energy for its own growth .
= = = Story = = =
In AD 1000 , Crono and Marle watch Lucca and her father demonstrate her new teleporter at the Millennial Fair . When Marle volunteers to be teleported , her pendant interferes with the device and creates a time portal into which she is drawn . After Crono and Lucca separately recreate the portal and find themselves in AD 600 , they find Marle only to see her vanish before their eyes . Lucca realizes that this time period 's kingdom has mistaken Marle for an ancestor of hers who had been kidnapped , thus putting off the recovery effort for her ancestor and creating a grandfather paradox . Crono and Lucca , with the help of Frog , restore history to normal by recovering the kidnapped queen . After the three part ways with Frog and return to the present , Crono is arrested on charges of kidnapping the princess and sentenced to death by the current chancellor of Guardia . Lucca and Marle help Crono to flee , haphazardly using another time portal to escape their pursuers . This portal lands them in AD 2300 , where they learn that an advanced civilization has been wiped out by a giant creature known as Lavos that appeared in 1999 . The three vow to find a way to prevent the future destruction of their world . After meeting and repairing Robo , Crono and his friends find Gaspar , an old sage at the End of Time , who helps them acquire magical powers and travel through time by way of several pillars of light .
Their party expands to include Ayla and Frog after they visit the prehistoric era to repair Frog 's sword . They return to AD 600 to challenge Magus , believing him to be the source of Lavos ; after the battle , a summoning spell causes a time gate that throws Crono and his friends to the past . In prehistory , the group battle the Reptites and witness the origin of Lavos . They learn that Lavos was an alien being that arrived on the planet millions of years in the past , and began to absorb DNA and energy from every living creature before arising and razing the planet 's surface in 1999 so that it could spawn a new generation . In 12 @,@ 000 BC , Crono and friends find that the Kingdom of Zeal recently discovered Lavos and seeks to drain its power to achieve immortality through the Mammon Machine . However Zeal 's leader , Queen Zeal imprisons Crono and friends . Though Zeal 's daughter Schala frees them , the Prophet , a mysterious figure who has recently begun advising the queen , forces her to banish them from the realm and seal the time gate they used to travel to the Dark Ages . They return next to AD 2300 to find a time machine called the Wings of Time ( or Epoch ) , which can access any time period without using a time gate . They travel back to Zeal for the Mammon Machine 's activation at the Ocean Palace . Lavos awakens , disturbed by the Mammon Machine , and the Prophet reveals himself to be Magus and tries to kill the creature . Crono stands up to Lavos but is vaporized by a powerful blast , after which Lavos destroys the Kingdom of Zeal .
Crono 's friends awake in a village and find Magus , who confesses that he used to be prince Janus of Zeal . In his memories , it is revealed that the disaster at the Ocean Palace scattered the Gurus of Zeal across time and sent him to the Middle Ages . Janus took the alias of Magus and gained a cult of followers while plotting to summon and kill Lavos in revenge for the death of his sister , Schala , but when Lavos appeared after his battle with Crono and his allies he was cast back to the time of Zeal and presented himself to them as a prophet . As Crono 's friends depart , the Ocean Palace rises into the air as the Black Omen . The group turns to Gaspar for help , and he gives them a " Chrono Trigger , " an egg @-@ shaped device that allows the group to replace Crono just before the moment of death with a Dopple Doll . Crono and his friends then gather power by helping people across time with Gaspar 's instructions . Their journeys involve defeating the remnants of the Mystics , stopping Robo 's maniacal AI creator , addressing Frog 's feelings towards Cyrus , locating and charging up the mythical Sun Stone , retrieving the Rainbow Shell , and helping restore a forest destroyed by a desert monster . The group enters the Black Omen and defeats Queen Zeal , then successfully battles Lavos , saving the future of their world .
If Magus joined the party , he departs to search for Schala . Crono 's mother accidentally enters the time gate at the fair before it closes , prompting Crono , Marle , and Lucca to set out in the Epoch to find her while fireworks light up the night sky . Alternatively , if the party used the Epoch to break Lavos 's outer shell , Marle will help her father hang Nadia 's bell at the festival and accidentally get carried away by several balloons . Crono jumps on to help her , but cannot bring them down to earth . Hanging on in each other 's arms , the pair travel through the cloudy , moonlit sky .
Chrono Trigger DS added two new scenarios to the game . In the first , Crono and his friends can help a " lost sanctum " of Reptites , who reward powerful items and armor . The second scenario adds ties to Trigger 's sequel , Chrono Cross . In a New Game + , the group can explore several temporal distortions to combat shadow versions of Crono , Marle , and Lucca , and to fight Dalton , who promises in defeat to raise an army in the town of Porre to destroy the Kingdom of Guardia . The group can then fight the Dream Devourer , a prototypical form of the Time Devourer — a fusion of Schala and Lavos seen in Chrono Cross . A version of Magus pleads with Schala to resist ; though she recognizes him as her brother , she refuses to be helped and sends him away . Schala subsequently erases his memories and Magus awakens in a forest , determined to find what he had lost .
= = Development = =
Chrono Trigger was conceived in 1992 by Hironobu Sakaguchi , producer and creator of the Final Fantasy series ; Yuji Horii , director and creator of the Dragon Quest series ; and Akira Toriyama , creator of the Dragon Ball comics series . Traveling to the United States to research computer graphics , the three decided to create something that " no one had done before " . After spending over a year considering the difficulties of developing a new game , they received a call from Kazuhiko Aoki , who offered to produce . The four met and spent four days brainstorming ideas for the game . Square convened 50 – 60 developers , including scenario writer Masato Kato , whom Square designated story planner . Development started in early 1993 . An uncredited Square employee suggested that the team develop a time travel @-@ themed game , which Kato initially opposed , fearing repetitive , dull gameplay . Kato and Horii then met several hours per day during the first year of development to write the game 's plot . Square intended to license the work under the Seiken Densetsu franchise and gave it the working title of " Maru Island " ; Hiromichi Tanaka ( the future director of Chrono Cross ) monitored Toriyama 's early designs . The team hoped to release it on Nintendo 's planned Super Famicom Disk Drive ; when Nintendo canceled the project , Square reoriented the game for release on a Super Famicom cartridge and rebranded it as Chrono Trigger . Tanaka credited the ROM catridge platform for enabling seamless transition to battles on the field map .
Aoki ultimately produced Chrono Trigger , while director credits were attributed to Akihiko Matsui , Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita . Toriyama designed the game 's aesthetic , including characters , monsters , vehicles , and the look of each era . Masato Kato also contributed character ideas and designs . Kato planned to feature Gaspar as a playable character and Toriyama sketched him , but he was cut early in development . The development staff studied the drawings of Toriyama to approximate his style . Sakaguchi and Horii supervised ; Sakaguchi was responsible for the game 's overall system and contributed several monster ideas . Other notable designers include Tetsuya Takahashi , the graphic director , and Yasuyuki Honne , Tetsuya Nomura , and Yusuke Naora , who worked as field graphic artists . Yasuhika Kamata programmed graphics , and cited Ridley Scott 's visual work in the film Alien as an inspiration for the game 's lighting . Kamata made the game 's luminosity and color choice lay between that of Secret of Mana and the Final Fantasy series . Features originally intended to be used in Secret of Mana or Final Fantasy IV , also under development at the same time , were appropriated by the Chrono Trigger team .
Yuji Horii , a fan of time travel fiction ( such as the TV series The Time Tunnel ) , fostered a theme of time travel in his general story outline of Chrono Trigger with input from Akira Toriyama . Horii liked the scenario of the grandfather paradox surrounding Marle . Concerning story planning , Horii commented , " If there 's a fairground , I just write that there 's a fairground ; I don 't write down any of the details . Then the staff brainstorm and come up with a variety of attractions to put in . " Sakaguchi contributed some minor elements , including the character Gato ; he liked Marle 's drama and reconciliation with her father . Masato Kato subsequently edited and completed the outline by writing the majority of the game 's story , including all the events of the 12 @,@ 000 BC era . He took pains to avoid what he described as " a long string of errands ... [ such as ] ' do this ' , ' take this ' , ' defeat these monsters ' , or ' plant this flag ' . " Kato and other developers held a series of meetings to ensure continuity , usually attended by around 30 personnel . Kato and Horii initially proposed Crono 's death , though they intended he stay dead ; the party would have retrieved an earlier , living version of him to complete the quest . Square deemed the scenario too depressing and asked that Crono be brought back to life later in the story . Kato also devised the system of multiple endings because he could not branch the story out to different paths . Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita then wrote various subplots . Kato became friends with composer Yasunori Mitsuda during development , and they would collaborate on several future projects . Katsuhisa Higuchi programmed the battle system , which hosted combat on the map without transition to a special battleground as most previous Square games had done . Higuchi noted extreme difficulty in loading battles properly without slow @-@ downs or a brief , black loading screen . The game 's use of animated monster sprites consumed much more memory than previous Final Fantasy games , which used static enemy graphics .
Hironobu Sakaguchi likened the development of Chrono Trigger to " play [ ing ] around with Toriyama 's universe , " citing the inclusion of humorous sequences in the game that would have been " impossible with something like Final Fantasy . " When Square Co. suggested a non @-@ human player character , developers created Frog by adapting one of Toriyama 's sketches . The team created the End of Time to help players with hints , worrying that they might become stuck and need to consult a walkthrough . The game 's testers had previously complained that Chrono Trigger was too difficult ; as Horii explained , " It 's because we know too much . The developers think the game 's just right ; that they 're being too soft . They 're thinking from their own experience . The puzzles were the same . Lots of players didn 't figure out things we thought they 'd get easily . " Sakaguchi later cited the unusual desire of beta testers to play the game a second time or " travel through time again " as an affirmation of the New Game + feature : " Wherever we could , we tried to make it so that a slight change in your behavior caused subtle differences in people 's reactions , even down to the smallest details ... I think the second playthrough will hold a whole new interest . " The game 's reuse of locations due to time traveling made bug @-@ fixing difficult , as corrections would cause unintended consequences in other eras .
= = = Music = = =
Chrono Trigger was scored primarily by Yasunori Mitsuda , with contributions from veteran Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu , and one track composed by Noriko Matsueda . A sound programmer at the time , Mitsuda was unhappy with his pay and threatened to leave Square if he could not compose music . Hironobu Sakaguchi suggested he score Chrono Trigger , remarking , " maybe your salary will go up . " Mitsuda composed new music and drew on a personal collection of pieces composed over the previous two years . He reflected , " I wanted to create music that wouldn 't fit into any established genre ... music of an imaginary world . The game 's director , Masato Kato , was my close friend , and so I 'd always talk with him about the setting and the scene before going into writing . " Mitsuda slept in his studio several nights , and attributed certain pieces — such as the game 's ending theme , To Far Away Times — to inspiring dreams . He later attributed this song to an idea he was developing before Chrono Trigger , reflecting that the tune was made in dedication to " a certain person with whom [ he ] wanted to share a generation " . He also tried to use leitmotifs of the Chrono Trigger main theme to create a sense of consistency in the soundtrack . Mitsuda wrote each tune to be around two minutes long before repeating , unusual for Square 's games at the time . Mitsuda suffered a hard drive crash that lost around forty in @-@ progress tracks . After Mitsuda contracted stomach ulcers , Uematsu joined the project to compose ten pieces and finish the score . Mitsuda returned to watch the ending with the staff before the game 's release , crying upon seeing the finished scene .
At the time of the game 's release , the number of tracks and sound effects was unprecedented — the soundtrack spanned three discs in its 1995 commercial pressing . Square also released a one @-@ disc acid jazz arrangement called " The Brink of Time " by Guido that year . The Brink of Time came about
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